A CYCLOPEDIA OF EDUCATION
 
 THE MACMiLLAN COMPANY 
 
 NEW YORK • BOSTON - CHICAGO 
 ATLANTA ■ SAN FRANCISCO 
 
 MACMILLAN & CO., Limited 
 
 LONDON - BOMBAY - CALCUTTA 
 MELBOURNE 
 
 THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, Ltd. 
 
 TORONTO
 
 A 
 
 CYCLOPEDIA OF EDUCATION 
 
 EDITED BY 
 
 PAUL MONROE, Ph.D. 
 
 PROFESSOR OF THE HISTORY OF EDUCATION, TEACHERS COLLEGE 
 COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY 
 
 WITH THE ASSISTANCE OF DEPARTMENTAL EDITORS 
 
 AND 
 
 MORE THAN ONE THOUSAND INDIVIDUAL CONTRIBUTORS 
 
 VOLUME ONE 
 
 Nrto gorfe 
 
 THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 
 
 1911 
 
 AH rights ref^crved
 
 Copyright, 1911, 
 By the MACMILL/VN COMPANY. 
 
 Set up and elcctrotypcd. Pviblished January, 1911. 
 
 J. 8. Gushing Co. — Iier»ick & Smith Co. 
 Norwood, Mass., U.S.A.
 
 16 
 
 V.I 
 
 C.3 
 
 SANTA BARBARA COLLEGE LIBRARY 
 
 65289 
 
 A CYCLOPAEDIA OF EDUCATION 
 
 EDITED BY 
 
 PAUL MONROE, Ph.D. 
 
 PR0PES80R OF THE HISTORY OF EDUCATION, TEACHERS COLLEGE 
 COLU.MIUA UNIVEHSITV 
 
 DEPARTMENTAL EDITORS 
 
 Higher axd 
 
 Elmer E. Brown, Ph.D., LL.D. . Commissioner of Eduoation of the Secondary 
 
 United States, Washington, D.C. Education 
 
 Edward F. Buchner, Ph.D. . . Professor of Education and Philoso- Biography, 
 
 phy, Johns Hopkins University, Philosophy 
 Baltimore, Md. 
 
 William H. Bukxham, Ph.D. . Professor of Pedagogy and School Hygiene 
 
 Hygiene, Clark Uuiversitj-, Worces- 
 ter, Mass. 
 
 Gabriel Compayrk Inspector General of Public Instruc- Education in 
 
 tion, Paris ; Member of the Insti- France 
 tute of France. 
 
 Ellwood p. Cubberley, Ph.D. . Head of Department of Education, Educational 
 
 Leland Stanford Junior University, Administration 
 Stanford University, Cal. 
 
 John Dewey, Ph.D., LL.D. . . Professor of Philosophy, Columbia Philosophy of 
 
 University, New York City. Education 
 
 Charles H. Judd, Ph.D., LL.D. . Director of the School of Education, Psychology 
 
 University of Chicago, Chicago, 111. 
 
 Arthur F. Leach Charity Commissioner for England and Middle Ages, 
 
 Wales, St. James, London. Reformation 
 
 Will S. Monroe, A.B Professor of Psychology and the His- Biography, 
 
 tory of Education, Montclair State American 
 
 Normal School, Montclair, N.J. ^ 
 
 J. E. G. DE Montmorency, M.A., LL.B. Barrister-at-Law, London ; As- History of 
 
 sistant Editor, the Contemporary Educational 
 
 Review. Admini.stration 
 
 WiLHELM MtJNCH, Ph.D. . . . Profcssor of Pedagogy, U^niversity of Education in 
 
 Berlin, Berlin, Germany. Germany 
 
 Anna Tolman Smith .... Specialist, Bureau of Education, Wash- National 
 
 ington, D.C. Systems 
 
 David Snedden, Ph.D Commissioner of Education for the Educational 
 
 State of Massachusetts, Boston, Administration 
 
 Mass. 
 
 Henry Suzzallo, Ph.D. . . . Professor of the Philosophy of Educa- Educative 
 
 tion, Teachers College, Columbia Methods 
 University, New York City. 
 
 Foster Watson, A.M Professor of Education, University English 
 
 College of Wales, Aberystwyth, Educational 
 
 Wales. History 
 
 V 
 
 THIS BOOK IS NOT ^O 8k 
 ^AKCM FROM THE LIBRARy
 
 CONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME I 
 
 James R. Angell, A.M., Professor and Head 
 of the Department of Psychology, Uni- 
 versity of Chicago. (Psychology.) 
 
 Roswell P. Angier, Ph.D., Assistant Pro- 
 fessor of Psychology and Acting Director 
 of the Psychological Laboratory, Yale 
 University. (Psychology.) 
 
 L. D. Arnett, Ph.D., Specialist in the U. S. 
 Bureau of Education, Washington, 
 D.C. (National Sy.stems of Education.) 
 
 Joseph CuUen Ayer, Jr., Rev., Ph.D., 
 Professor of Ecclesiastical History, Di- 
 vinity School, Protestant Episcopal 
 Church, Philadelphia, Pa. (Early 
 Christian and Medieval Education; 
 Canon Law; etc.) 
 
 Henry Turner Bailey, Editor School Arts 
 Book. (Drawing.) 
 
 Liberty H. Bailey, LL.D., Director of New- 
 York State College of Agriculture, 
 Cornell University. (Agricultural Edu- 
 cation.) 
 
 Franz Boas, Ph.D., LL.D., Professor and 
 Head of Department of Anthropology, 
 Columbia University. (Anthropology.) 
 
 John G. Bowman, A.M., Secretary of the 
 Carnegie Foundation for the Advance- 
 ment of Teaching. (Colleges and Uni- 
 versities.) 
 
 Elmer E. Brown, Ph.D., LL.D., United 
 States Commissioner of Education, 
 Washington, D.C. (Academies.) 
 
 Samuel W. Brown, A.B., IDean of the Profes- 
 sional School, State Normal School, 
 Le-\viston, Idaho. (Bible in the Schools.) 
 
 Edward F. Buchner, Ph.D., Professor of 
 Education and Philosophy, Johns Hop- 
 kins University. (Educational Philoso- 
 phers.) 
 
 Leo Burgerstein, Ph.D., k.k. Professor, 
 Privatdozent in the University of 
 Vienna, Vienna, Austria. (Hygiene of 
 Coeducation; Air of the Schoolrooin; 
 etc.) 
 
 John Burnet, M.A., Professor of Greek, 
 University of St. Andrews, Scotland. 
 (Aristotle.) 
 
 William H. Burnham, Ph.D., Professor of 
 Pedagogy and School Hygiene, Clark 
 University. (School Hygiene.) 
 
 Otis W. Caldwell, Ph.D., Associate Professor 
 of Botany, University of Chicago. 
 (Botany in the Schools; etc.) 
 
 Edward H. Cameron, Ph.D., Associate Pro- 
 fessor of Psychology, Yale University. 
 (Psychology.) 
 
 Paul Carus, Ph.D., Editor, The Monist; 
 Editor, The Open Court. (Buddhism 
 and Education, etc.) 
 
 Morris Raphael Cohen, Ph.D., Instructor 
 in Mathematics, College of the City 
 of New York. (Davidson.) 
 
 Percival R. Cole, Ph.D., Vice-Principal of 
 the Training College, Sydney, Aus- 
 tralia. (Australia; Topics in the His- 
 tory of Education.) 
 
 Brother Constantius, Professor of Philos- 
 ophy, Christian Brothers College, St. 
 Louis, Mo. (Christian Brothers, Schools 
 of.) 
 
 John M. Coulter, Ph.D., Professor and Head 
 of Department of Botany, University 
 of Chicago. (Botany.) 
 
 Ellwood P. Cubberley, Ph.D., Professor of 
 Education, Leland Stanford Jr. Univer- 
 sity. (Educational Administration; State 
 Systems of Education; etc.) 
 
 Alexander Darroch, M.A., Professor of 
 Education, L^niversity of Edin- 
 burgh. (Scotch Universities ; and Biog- 
 raphies.) 
 
 Eugene Davenport, M.Agrl., LL.D., Dean 
 of College of Agriculture, LTniversity of 
 Illinois. (Agricultural Colleges.) 
 
 Henry Davies, Rev., Ph.D., Rector, Easton, 
 Md. (Church Fathers.) 
 
 John Dewey, Ph.D., LL.D., Professor of 
 Philosophy, Columbia University. (Phi- 
 losophy of Education.) 
 
 Raymond Dodge, Ph.D., Professor of Psy- 
 chology, Wesleyan LTniversity. (Psy- 
 chology.) 
 
 Arthur W. Dow, Professor of Fine Arts, 
 Teachers College, Columbia University. 
 (Methods of Teaching Art.) 
 
 Fletcher B. Dresslar, Ph.D., Professor of 
 Education, University of Alabama. 
 (School Architecture; etc.) 
 
 Knight Dunlap, Ph.D., Associate in Psy- 
 chology, Johns Hopkins LTniversity. 
 (Psychology.) 
 
 Edward C. Elliott, Ph.D., Professor of 
 Education; Director, Course for the 
 Training of Teachers, University of 
 Wisconsin. (City School Administra- 
 tion; etc.)
 
 CONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME I 
 
 Frederic E. Farrington, Ph.D., A.'ssociate 
 Prufossor of iMlucatioual Adniinistra- 
 tion, Teachers (.^ollege, Columbia Uni- 
 versity. (French Ediicalors; etc.) 
 
 Jefferson B. Fletcher, A.M., Professor of 
 Com]5arative Literature, Columbia Uni- 
 versity. {Casliglione.) 
 
 Herbert D. Foster, Litt.D., Professor of 
 History, Dartmouth College. {Calvin; 
 Calrini.sin and Education.) 
 
 William T. Foster, A.M., Ph.D., President of 
 Reed College. {American College.) 
 
 Shepherd L Franz, Ph.D., Scientific Director 
 and Psychologist, Government Hospital 
 for the Insane; Professor of Ex]5erimental 
 P.sychology and of Philosophy, George 
 AVashington University. {Psychology.) 
 
 Charles Galwey, A.B., Tutor of English, 
 College of the City of New York. 
 {Colleges and Universities.) 
 
 Charles J. B. Gaskoin, Rev., M.A., Scholar 
 of Jesus College, Cambridge University, 
 Cambridge, England. {Alcuin; etc.) 
 
 Henry H. Goddard, A.M., Ph.D., Director 
 Department of Psychological Research, 
 New Jersey Training School for Feeble- 
 Minded, Vineland, N. J. {Schools for 
 Dcffctires.) 
 
 Louis H. Gray, A.M., Ph.D., Assistant Editor 
 on Hastings, Encyclopedia of Religion 
 and Ethics. {Alphabet.) 
 
 G. Stanley Hall, Ph.D., LL.D., President of 
 Clark University. (Adolescence.) 
 
 Alfred D. F. Hamlin, A.M., Professor of the 
 History of Architecture, Columbia L^ni- 
 versity. (Architecture.) 
 
 James P. Haney, B.S., M.D., Director of 
 Art, High Schools, New York City. {Art 
 in the Schools.) 
 
 Lee F. Hanmer, Associate Director, Depart- 
 ment of Child Hygiene, Russell Sage 
 Foundation. (Athletics in Secondary 
 and Elementary Schools.) 
 
 Isaac T. Headland, D.D., Professor in the 
 Imperial University, Peking, China. 
 (Chinese Education; Confucius; etc.) 
 
 Ernest N. Henderson, Ph.D., Professor of 
 Philosophy and Education, Adelphi 
 College. (Philosophical and psychologi- 
 cal topics.) 
 
 Clark W. Hetherington, A.B., Professor of 
 Physical Education, and Director of 
 Athletics, University of Missouri. 
 {Athletics.) 
 
 Herman H. Home, Ph.D., Professor of the 
 History of Education, and of the His- 
 tory of Philosophy, New York Univer- 
 sity. (Francis Bacon; etc.) 
 
 William DeWitt Hyde, D.D., LL.D., Presi- 
 dent of liowdoin College. {The Amer- 
 ican College.) 
 
 Harold Jacoby, Ph.D., Rutherfurd Pro- 
 fessor of Astronomy, Columbia Uni- 
 versity. {Astronomy.) 
 
 Joseph Jastrow, Ph.D., Professor of Psy- 
 chology, University of Wisconsin. 
 (Topics in Psychology.) 
 
 Jeremiah W. Jenks, Ph.D., LL.D., Professor 
 of Political Economy and Politics, 
 Cornell University. (Education for Cit- 
 izenship.) 
 
 Joseph F. Johnson, A.B., D.C.S., Dean of 
 School of Conmierce, New York Uni- 
 versity. (Commercial Education; Ac- 
 cnuntancy Education.) 
 
 Wm. Dawson Johnston, A.M., Librarian of 
 Columbia University. {Bibliographical 
 Education.) 
 
 Adam Leroy Jones, Ph.D., Assistant Pro- 
 fessor of Philosophy, Columbia Uni- 
 versity. {.Esthetics.) 
 
 Richard Jones, A.B., Ph.D., Professor and 
 Head of Department of English Litera- 
 ture, Tufts College. (Carlyle.) 
 
 Whitman H. Jordan, Sc.D., LL.D., Director 
 of Agricultural Experiment Station, Ge- 
 neva, N. Y. {Agricultural Experiment 
 Stations.) 
 
 Charles H. Judd, Ph.D., LL.D., Professor 
 and Director of the School of Educa- 
 tion, University of Chicago. (Educa- 
 tional Psychology.) 
 
 Isaac L. Kandel, M.A., Ph.D., Teaching 
 Fellow in Teachers College, Columbia 
 University. {Historical and Admin- 
 istrative Topics.) 
 
 Helen Keller. (Education of the Blind.) 
 
 D. J. Kennedy, Rev., O.P., Profes.sor of 
 Sacramental Theology, Catholic Univer- 
 sit.y. (Dominicans.) 
 
 Frederick P. Keppel, A.B., Dean of Colum- 
 bia College. (Columbia Lhiiversity ; etc.) 
 
 William H. Kilpatrick, A.M., Lecturer in 
 Education, Teachers College, Columbia 
 University. (Colonial Period in Amer- 
 ican Education.) 
 
 Edwin A. Kirkpatrick, Ph.M., Head of De- 
 partment of Psychology and Child 
 Study, State Normal School, Fitch- 
 burg, Mass. (Child Study.) 
 
 George P. Krapp, Ph.D., Professor of Eng- 
 lish, Columbia University. (Anglo-Sax- 
 on; etc.) 
 
 Arthur F. Leach, Charity Commissioner for 
 England and Wales, London. (Topics 
 in English Educational History.)
 
 CONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME I 
 
 Gardner C. Leonard, A.B., Director Inter- 
 collegiate Bureau of Academic Cos- 
 tume. {Academic Costume.) 
 
 Florence N. Levy, Editor, American Art 
 Annual. {Art Schools in America.) 
 
 Gonzalez Lodge, Ph.D., LL.D., Professor of 
 Latin and Greek, Teachers College, Co- 
 lumbia University. {Ccesar ; Cicero ; etc.) 
 
 Donald Macmillan, Rev., M.A., Kelvinside, 
 Glasgow, Scotland. {Buchanan.) 
 
 Joseph McCabe, formerly Rector of Buck- 
 ingham College. {St. Augustine.) 
 
 Frank Morton McMurry, Ph.D., Professor 
 of Elementary Education, Teachers 
 College, Columbia University. {Biog- 
 raphy in Education; etc.) 
 
 Anne Sullivan Macy, Teacher of Helen 
 Keller. {Education of the Deaf-Blind.) 
 
 Frank A. Manny, A.M., Professor of Edu- 
 cation, State Normal School, Kalama- 
 zoo, Mich. {Boarding Schools; etc.) 
 
 George L. Meylan, M.D., Assistant Professor 
 of Physical Education and Medical 
 Director of the Gymnasium, Columbia 
 University. {Educational Athletics; 
 etc.) 
 
 Paul Monroe, Ph.D., Professor of the History 
 of Education, Teachers College, Colmn- 
 bia University. {History of Educa- 
 tion.) 
 
 Wilis. Monroe, A. B., Professor of Psychology 
 and Education, State Normal School, 
 Montclair, N.J. {A merican Biography; 
 etc.) 
 
 Frederick Monteser, Ph.D., Head of German 
 Department De Witt Clinton High 
 School, New York city ; formerly Lec- 
 turer on Education, New York LTniver- 
 sity. {German Educational Biography.) 
 
 J. E. G. de Montmorency, B.A., LL.B. Lit- 
 erary Editor of The Contemporary 
 Review; Barrister, London, England. 
 {English Educational History.) 
 
 James Bass Mullinger, M.A., late Librarian 
 and University Lecturer in History, 
 St. John's College, Cambridge. {His- 
 tory of Cambridge Univers-ity.) 
 
 James Phinney Munroe, B.S., Secretary of 
 the Corporation, Mass. Institute of 
 Technology, Boston, Mass. {Appren- 
 tice Education.) 
 
 Naomi Norsworthy, Ph.D., Assistant Pro- 
 fessor of Educational Psychology. 
 Teachers College, Columbia University. 
 {Psychology.) 
 
 Robert L. Packard, A.M., Specialist in the 
 U. S. Bureau of Education, Washington, 
 D.C. {Spanish American Education.) 
 
 Erastus Palmer, A.M., Professor and Head 
 of Department of Public Speaking, Col- 
 lege of the City of New York. {Decla- 
 mation; Debating.) 
 
 Walter B. PiUsbury, Ph.D., Professor of 
 Psychology, University of Michigan. 
 {Psychology.) 
 
 F. M. Powicke, M.A., Professor of Eco- 
 nomics, LTniversity of Belfast, Ireland. 
 ( K ing A If red ; etc . ) 
 
 John Dyneley Prince, Ph.D., Professor of 
 Semitic Languages, Columbia Univer- 
 sity. {Assijrian and Babylonian Edu- 
 cation.) 
 
 Wyllys Rede, Rev., Ph.D., D.D., Fellow 
 Johns Hopkins University. (Church 
 Fathers.) 
 
 Charles R. Richards, B.S., Director, Cooper 
 Union, New York City. {Topics in 
 Industrial Education.) 
 
 James H. Robinson, Ph.D., Professor of 
 History, Columbia University. {Alche- 
 my; Astrology; etc.) 
 
 Julius Sachs, A.M., Ph.D., Professor of 
 Secondary Education, Teachers College, 
 Columbia University. {Topics in 
 Secondary Education.) 
 
 Michael E. Sadler, LL.D., Litt.D., Professor 
 of Education, University of Manches- 
 ter. {English Educational Biographies.) 
 
 Irene Sargent, Professor of the History of 
 Fine Arts, Syracuse LTniversity. {Art 
 Schools of Europe.) 
 
 Walter Sargent, Professor of Fine and In- 
 dustrial Arts, University of Chicago. 
 {Design.) 
 
 Douglas G. Schulze, B.A., Assistant Master, 
 LTppingham School. {Athletics in Eng- 
 lish Schools.) 
 
 Izora Scott, Ph.D., Instructor in Latin, Eras- 
 mus Hall High School, Brooklyn, N.Y. 
 ( Ciceron ia nism .) 
 
 Carl E. Seashore, Ph.D., Professor of Psy- 
 chology and Dean of the Graduate Col- 
 lege, State LTniversity of Iowa. {Psy- 
 chology.) 
 
 Joseph Sexton, Liverpool, England. {Ap- 
 prcnticcsh ip Education.) 
 
 T. Leslie Shear, Ph.D., fonnerly Instructor 
 in Classical Philology, Barnard College, 
 Columbia University. {Archceology .) 
 
 Stuart P. Sherman, Ph.D., Associate Pro- 
 fessor of English, Universitv of Illinois. 
 {Chesterfield.) 
 
 Thomas E. Shields, Rev., Ph.D., Professor 
 of Education, Catholic University of 
 America, Washington, D.C. {Convent 
 Schools; etc.) 
 
 Ix
 
 CONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME I 
 
 Alexander Smith, Ph.D., Professor of Clicin- 
 istry, University of Cliicago. {('Ihiii- 
 /.x/;-//.) 
 
 Anna Tolman Smith, Specialist in Education, 
 United States Bureau of Education, 
 Washington, D.C. {National Systems 
 of Education.) 
 
 David Eugene Smith, Ph.D., LL.D., Pro- 
 fessor of Mathematics, Teachers Col- 
 lege, Columbia University. (Mathe- 
 matics.) 
 
 David Snedden, Ph.D., Commissioner of 
 Education, State of Ma.ssachusetts. 
 (Topics in Educational Ad mini strati on.) 
 
 J. E. Spingarn, Ph.D., Professor of Com- 
 parative Literature, Columbia Univer- 
 sity. {Comparative Literature.) 
 
 George M. Stratton, Ph.D., Professor of Psy- 
 chology, University of California. (Psy- 
 chology.) 
 
 James Sullivan, Ph.D., Princijial of Boys' 
 High School, Brooklyn, N.Y. (Civics; 
 Current Events; etc.) 
 
 Henry Suzzallo, Ph.D., Professor of the Phi- 
 losophy of Education, Teachers College, 
 Columbia LTniversity. (Educative Meth- 
 ods.) 
 
 Amy E. Tanner, Ph.D., Department of Ex- 
 perimental Pedagogy, Children's Insti- 
 tute, Clark University. (Adolescence.) 
 
 Rudolf Tombo, Jr., A.M., Ph.D., Adjunct 
 Professor of the Germanic Languages 
 and Literatures, Columbia L^niversity. 
 ( Universities.) 
 
 William P. Trent, LL.D., D.C.L., Professor 
 of English Literature, Columbia Uni- 
 versity. (Aistell; etc.) 
 
 A. C. True, Sc.D., Director of Office of Ex- 
 periment Stations, United States De- 
 partment of Agriculture, Washington, 
 D.C. (Agricultural Education.) 
 
 WUliam Turner, Rev., A.B., S.T.D., Pro- 
 fessor of Philosophy, Catholic University 
 of America, Washington, D.C. (Aqui- 
 nas; Benedictines; etc.) 
 
 Harlan Updegraff, Ph.D., Specialist, United 
 States Bureau of Education, Washing- 
 ton, D.C. (Alaska; etc.) 
 
 George E. Vincent, Ph.D., Professor of 
 Sociology, University of Chicago. 
 (Chautauqua; University of Chicago; 
 etc.) 
 
 J. W. H. Walden, Ph.D., formerly Instructor 
 in Latin, Harvard University. ( Univer- 
 sity of Athen.'i; etc.) 
 
 Monsignor B. N. Ward, Rt. Rev., President 
 St. Edmund's College, Old Hall, Ware, 
 England. (Wm. Allen; etc.) 
 
 Margaret F. Washburn, Ph.D., Professor of 
 Psyc^hology, Vassar College. (Psychol- 
 ogy.) 
 
 Foster Watson, M.A., Professor of Educa- 
 tion, University College of Wales, 
 Aberystwj-th, Wales. (English Edu- 
 cational History.) 
 
 John B. Watson, Ph.D., Professor of Experi- 
 mental and Comparative Psychology, 
 Johns Hopkins University. (Darwin.) 
 
 Samuel Weir, Ph.D., Dean of the School of 
 Education, Dakota Wesleyan Univer- 
 sity. (Bioyraphy and Philosophy.) 
 
 Guy Montrose Whipple, Ph.D., Assistant 
 Professor of Eilucation, Cornell Univer- 
 sitv. (Psychology.) 
 
 Edmund B. Wilson, Ph.D., LL.D., Profes- 
 sor of Zoology, Columbia University. 
 (Biohxpi.) 
 
 Harry L. Wilson, Ph.D., LL.D., Profes.sor of 
 Roman Archaeology and Epigraphy, 
 Johns Hopkins University. (Archaeol- 
 ogy.) 
 
 Mary Schenck Woolman, B.S., Professor of 
 Domestic Art, Teachers College, Colum- 
 bia University. (Domestic Art.) 
 
 James L Wyer, Jr., Director, New York 
 State Library, Albany, N.Y. (Bibliog- 
 raphies of Education.) 
 
 Robert M. Yerkes, Ph.D., Assistant Pro- 
 fessor of Comparative Psychology, 
 Harvard University. (Psychology.)
 
 PREFACE 
 
 A Gydopedin of Edtication: The present work is the result of the cooperative effort of 
 several hundred specialists, who have here contributed the results of their study to the system- 
 atizing of educational ideas and practices. A spirit of loyalty to their chosen profession and 
 a scholarly interest in the attempt to give a more definite scientific basis to the work of the 
 teacher have been the dominant motives. That no such cyclopedia has ever appeared in 
 English, although similar ones have existed in other languages, is the justification for such 
 an undertaking. The resulting work represents the product of long investigation on the part 
 of most of the contributors, and is the immediate outcome of several years of special effort on 
 the part of the editors. 
 
 The Need for such a Work: Three conditions indicate clearly the need of such a work for 
 English-speaking j)eople : First. The vast and varied character of educational literature, in- 
 dicative of a corresponding variety in educational ideas and practices. Second. The growing 
 importance of education as a social process, of the school as a social institution, and of the 
 teacher as a social functionary. Third. The great numerical strength of the teaching pro- 
 fession and its rapidly changing personnel. 
 
 The last annual bibliography of education published by the United States Bureau of 
 Education contained more than twelve hundred titles. The publishers' announcement of the 
 past year gives the titles of 348 new works on education out of a total of 8745 new books 
 issued in the United States. For several years previously the ratio was even larger. In 
 England, the ratio was 578 to 8446 ; in Germany, for the preceding year, the ratio was 4203 
 to 30,317 ; in France, 1005 to 8805. This summary does not include the very numerous vol- 
 umes, classified under history, philosoxshy, sociology, religion, and related subjects, which have 
 immediate educational significance. During the same time educational periodicals were 
 issued in the United States to the number of 150 ; in Germany the number is even in excess 
 of this total. This vast and growing literature indicates not only a vigorous interest in educa- 
 tional problems and practices, but it is evidence also of an equally great diversity in views 
 and in practices. It is clearly evident that the rank and file of the teaching profession, as 
 well as the casual social observer, would be hopelessly lost in this maze of material, and that 
 some guidance is necessary even to those most thoroughly prepared to seek for the sanest 
 ideas and the soundest practice. But no attempt has previously been made in English to 
 systematize the extensive body of knowledge found in this rapidly expanding literature. 
 
 The need for such a work is further emphasized by the growing imiaortance of the teach- 
 ing profession. It is now the largest in point of numbers of all the professions. Its standards, 
 while vague, are gradually being raised and harmonized, its aims broadened and made more 
 definite. In fact, one of the most significant of recent social changes is the tendency to throw 
 upon the school various social and ethical responsibilities hitherto assumed by other professions 
 or by other institutions. The school is, in the broadest way, being made responsible for the 
 morals of the growing generation. The family no longer performs its earlier function of train- 
 ing in practical activities and homely duties ; and the school must take its place. The play- 
 ground, with its development of sound physique, of skill, of the sense of fair dealing, ol 
 interest in group activities, must be incorporated in the school. Even the opportunities for 
 social amusements, with the resulting attainment of social graces, are now coming to be offered, 
 both in urban and rural communities, through the school. Devotion to private morality and
 
 PREFACE 
 
 to jdiblic duty are now expected to result from the work of tlie teacher rather than from tliat 
 of the parent or other professional guides. The school is expected to lessen, if not to obviate, 
 the work of the court, especially for juvenile offenders; to furnish the services of the physi- 
 cian and dentist; to serve in place of .tlie minister ; to surpass, both in scientific cliaracter and 
 in practical value, the work of the farm, the shop, and the home. The overburdened teacher 
 needs a guide in the maze of his new duties and multiplied activities ; the public needs a source 
 of information as to what the school is trying to do and is actually accomplishing, and why it 
 is making such efforts. 
 
 Even these hints of the enlarged scope of the teacher's work do not fully present the 
 situation. Society is laying all of these tremendous responsibilities on a profession for which 
 it makes no adequate provision, either in the way of remuneration or by other inducements, 
 to attract the best talent to the profession, to train such talent adequatel}-, or to retain it for 
 any length of time. The teaching profession is a rapidly changing one. Probably twenty-five 
 per cent of the entire profession in the United States is renewed each year. It seems almost 
 a travesty to call such an unstable body a profession ; and a blunder for society to bestow such 
 tremendous responsibilities, with so slight consideration of the conditions implied. The work 
 of the educational administrator is to replenish the rapidly depleted ranks with the best mate- 
 rial available; to raise the new recruits as quickly as possible to a standard of efficiency; 
 to improve them constantly while in service. 
 
 Tlie Scope of the Work : These volumes will include a concise discussion of all topics of 
 importance and interest to the teacher, and will give such information concerning every divi- 
 sion of educational practice as is essential to a book of reference. Completeness of treatment 
 is not designed. Completeness of scope is attempted. Every aspect of education as an art 
 and as a science will be treated. The main departments will be those of the Philosophy and 
 Science of Education ; History of Education ; Educational Biography ; Educational Institu- 
 tions, including Universities, Colleges, and special Institutions ; Secondary Education ; Ele- 
 mentary Education ; the Curriculum ; Educational Administration and Supervision ; School 
 Systems, home and foreign; Educational ]^Iethod, general and special; Educational Psy- 
 chology; School Hygiene and School Architecture. Every subject taught in the school will 
 be considered in detail, as to history, content, educational value, special methods, and bibli- 
 ography. Every important method or educational device that is advocated now or has found 
 a place in the past will be defined and evaluated. The department of Educational Adminis- 
 tration will include a treatment of the system of education in every country and in every com- 
 monwealth in the United States. Each of these articles will include an historical treatment 
 as well as an analysis of contemporary conditions. All institutions of higher education will 
 also be considered individually ; every phase of educational work in the various social ramifica- 
 tions of the present will be presented. Every important point in school administration, school 
 supervision, and classroom management will be treated by some specialist competent to deal 
 with the subject. 
 
 Slight attention has been given to matters of opinion only. The aim is to present authen- 
 tic information. With current problems the purpose has been to state the facts of the prob- 
 lem onlj', leaving inferences to the reader after consideration of the facts presented or after 
 reference to further discussions. 
 
 Tlie Aim of the Work: The making of a work of reference is only one, and that not 
 the most important, of the motives which have controlled the editors. In the first place it is 
 hoped that by standardizing and organizing in a succinct form the information essential for 
 an intelligent participation in educational activities, something will be contributed to the 
 solution of educational problems ; if in no other way, at least through its direct aid to those 
 engaged in practical work. 
 
 As a work of reference the pragmatic purpose is evident. The need for a comprehensive
 
 PREFACE 
 
 organization of information concerning education has been indicated. Not only does the 
 teacher need a source of information for all problems which come up in the schoolroom and 
 for all discussions of theory that grow out of these, but school administrators and local officials 
 require an accessible source of information that will give them the main points in regard to 
 any topic and put them immediately in touch with the best literature relating to any topic. 
 Professional men, editors, ministers, politicians, — whoever deals with questions of public 
 welfare intimately connected with education, — need a reference w^ork giving the outlines 
 of educational problems, the suggested solutions, the statistical information, and, in gen- 
 eral, the essential facts. IMuch of this information cannot now be obtained from existing 
 books of reference. Such assistance this Cyclopedia seeks to give. 
 
 The most practical and most immediate aim is to be of service to the rank and file of the 
 teaching profession. To accomplish this end, the entire work is organized not simply as a 
 book of reference, but also as a systematic treatise on each phase of the subject. To further 
 this design, each aspect of the subject which lends it.self to systematic scientific treatment is 
 under the charge of a departmental or associate editor who is an authority in the special field, 
 and who is responsible, not only for an adequate presentation of established facts, but for such 
 a systematic organization of the material that the combined articles will serve as a scientific 
 treatise on the subject. To this end the work includes a logical outline of the topics treated, 
 with paginal references. With such analyses the work will constitute an authoritative and 
 comprehensive yet condensed textbook on method, on educational psychology, on school 
 administration, on school hygiene, on the history of philosophy of education, etc. 
 
 Finally a deeper professional motive has actuated those who have contributed most to 
 the work. Out of such an organization of materials, so heterogeneous in character, it is 
 hoped that some greater unity may be given to our educational thought and a greater 
 uniformity may result in educational practice. The mere systematization of educational 
 ideas, with a greater degree of uniformity in use of terminology, should assist in unifying 
 educational thought. The bringing to light of divergent practices; the statement of the 
 results of the best conducted experiments ; the statement of theory underlying our practice ; 
 the effort involved in the application of the comparative method of investigation and study, 
 — all these should tend to a uniformly higher plane of educational practice. 
 
 The Editorial Staff: The first volume includes about a thousand title entries. The 
 articles are the contributions of more than one hundred specialists. Subsequent volumes 
 are now being prepared by contributors representing an equally wide range of interest. The 
 departmental editors, chosen chiefly from the American field, represent in every case the most 
 authoritative and sane specialization in their respective spheres. To a number of contributors 
 the editor is no less indebted than to the departmental editors. 
 
 The completed work will be the consummation of plans, developed through many years ; 
 the execution of these plans will be due to the cooperation of the numerous contributors, 
 whose assistance has been as generous and hearty as their scholarship is wide and thorough. 
 
 THE EDITOR.
 
 A CYCLOPEDIA OF EDUCATION^ 
 
 ABACUS. — A term used in education witli 
 several meanings. As a school instrument it 
 seems originally to have meant a sand table, or 
 board covered with fine dust, whence the Greek 
 ii/3a| from the Semitic abq, dust, — the most 
 commonly accepted of several etymologies. 
 Upon this dust-covered table figures were writ- 
 ten, to be erased by rubbing with the thumb. 
 This form of abacus seems to have been of 
 Semitic origin, and its use extended to the Far 
 East and to Europe, the name tabula geometri- 
 calis being often applied to it in the Middle 
 Ages. Upon this abacus the calculator or ge- 
 ometrician wrote with a stilus or radius geomet- 
 ricalis, very much as on the wax tablet of the 
 Greeks and Romans, which was itself a variant 
 of the sand board. Numerals taught in the 
 western Arab schools by the help of this dust 
 board were commonly known as gol)ar (dust) 
 numerals, and these are closely related to our 
 modern "Arabic " forms. The second and more 
 distinctive form of abacus was a ruled table 
 upon which sticks or disks were placed in such 
 a way as to represent numbers. The earliest 
 forms of counters were probably pebbles {calculi, 
 whence our word " calculate"). These were 
 thrown upon the ruled table, and hence were 
 caWed projectiles or jetons (hovnjacere, to throw), 
 and hence our expression " to cast an account." 
 They were also known as abaculi (counters or 
 reckoning pennies), in Latin denarii supputarii, 
 and in German Rechenpfennige, Zahlpfennige or 
 Raitpfennige. 
 
 There have been four leading variants of this 
 kind of abacus. In the first the counters were 
 loose disks placed in lines or spaces to indi- 
 cate numbers, a form that continued in Europe 
 until the eighteenth century, although not usu- 
 
 .,, ally described in text- 
 
 l)ooks after the latter half 
 
 of the sixteenth century. 
 
 Shakespeare speaks con- 
 temptuously of a shop- 
 keeper as a " counter 
 
 __^ caster," and Hartwell in 
 
 ~ his 1646 edition of Re- 
 
 eorde's Ground, of Aries, 
 
 * speaks of ignorant people 
 
 as " any that can but cast 
 
 with counters." Such an 
 
 - - abacus is here illustrated. 
 
 _. , , , The lines indicate, from 
 
 1 he abacus ruled on a ^i i ^.a •* x 
 
 j^ljlg_ the bottom, units, tens, 
 
 hundreds, and so on, a 
 
 cross being placed on the lines of thousands and 
 
 millions, and on every third line thereafter, this 
 
 VOL. I B 
 
 
 
 
 © 
 
 © 
 
 © 
 
 The arc abacus. 
 
 being the origin of our separatrix. The spaces 
 represent 5, 50, 500, and in general 5- 10", a relic 
 of the Roman notation which was originally 
 used in central Europe in connection with this 
 form. Thus in the above figure the number 
 represented is 70,952. It is evident that the 
 simple operations can be performed by manipu- 
 lating these counters, and so common was this 
 method that "to abacus" was a recognized 
 verb of the Middle Ages, and arithmeticians 
 were known as 
 ahacisti. A second 
 variant is the " arc 
 abacus," " column 
 abacus," or" arcus 
 Py th agoreus," 
 commonly attrib- 
 uted to Gerbert 
 (Pope Sylvester 
 II,c. IOOOa.d.). In 
 this form, which 
 was never exten- 
 sively used, the 
 lines were vertical and the threefold groups 
 (our " periods") were marked off by arcs. In- 
 stead of u.sing several counters to represent any 
 number of units, Gerbert used one upon which 
 the number was written, the zero having no 
 counter, as in the above representation of 70,952. 
 As soon as the zero became well understood, this 
 form of the abacus lost what little standing it 
 had. A third form of the counter abacus is the 
 one in which the calcuU are either strung on 
 wires or allowed to slide in grooves. This form 
 was used by the Romans, at least five early 
 specimens having been known in recent times. 
 The Roman abacus resembled somewhat the 
 late Japanese soroban, which is still used for 
 practical computation. The Japanese derived 
 this instrument from the Chinese in the seven- 
 teenth century, modifying it slightly, and the 
 Chinese seem not to have used their sivaji pan 
 before about the thirteenth century. The old 
 mathematical treatises of China represent num- 
 bers by rods Fig. 
 3, representing 
 537,063. This is 
 Chinese abacus. the foufth form 
 
 of this class of 
 abacus. In Japan, at least from about 600 a.d., 
 bamboo rods (chikusaku) were used, these being 
 later replaced by the sanchu or sangi, rectangular 
 sticks laid in squares on a ruled table. By the 
 sangi the number (Fig. 4), 527,068, would be 
 represented as here shown. In Persia the beads 
 are strung on wires, and this form is also found 
 
 -LO±
 
 ABANDONED CHILDREN 
 
 ABBEY SCHOOLS 
 
 among tlu- Arab traders to-day, and evidently 
 worked its way north into Russia, where it is 
 
 still almost uni- 
 versal. W i t h 
 the abacus reck- 
 oniiiK is closely 
 connected the 
 early Court of 
 
 X 
 
 Japanese abacus. 
 
 the Exchequer, the tally stick, the quipos of 
 Peru, the use of counters in panics (like poker 
 chip-sandthe bead counters used in billiards), the 
 conversation beads of the Mohainniedan, and 
 the prayer beads of certain relision.s (.such as the 
 rosary). Even to-day a great i)art of the world 
 does its computing on some form of the aba- 
 cus, and for the more enlightened part there 
 is a return to mechanical calculation by means 
 of the modern computing machines. 
 
 The term " abacus " came also to be used in 
 the Middle .A.ges to mean merely arithmetic, as in 
 Leonardo Fibonacci's Liber abbaci (tic) of 1202, 
 and in numerous other abacidi. Even as late 
 as the time of the early printed arithmetics, 
 Libro il'abaco was not an uncommon name 
 for a textbook on the subject. 
 
 In modern education there has been a return 
 to the use of counters or of similar devices in the 
 teaching of number to young children, a com- 
 mendable idea when not carried to an extreme. 
 
 D. E. S. 
 
 ABANDONED CHILDREN. — See Fouxd- 
 LixG Ho.MEs; Ori'h.ws, Edicwtiox of. 
 
 ABBEY SCHOOLS. — The importance of 
 aVibeys and monks in the advancement of edu- 
 cation has been much exaggerated. To these 
 alone has been imputed the preservation of 
 learning in the Dark .Vgos, which research has 
 been pushing further and further back till they 
 almost disappear in the light of the Roman 
 Empire, so much less dark are they found to 
 be than they were painted. Indeed it may al- 
 most be said that their darkness varies directly 
 with the darkness and the ignorance of those 
 who dub them dark. The abbeys at first 
 undoubtedly set themselves against learning. 
 Even Ilieronymus, commonly called St. Je- 
 rome, reputed the most learned man of his age, 
 with learning ac(iuired in the public schools 
 of the " heathen," in theory tried to put learning 
 behind him as an evil thing, when he became a 
 monk, and a legend tells how an angel came and 
 flogged him for reading Cicero. He repudiated 
 the l)ishops and priests who sent their sons to 
 secular schools and to read Vergil. It has been 
 acce])ted and repeatedly said that there were 
 schools in the abbey of Lerins founded by St. 
 Honorat c. 410, but it is mere assertion without 
 one single document adduced in its support. 
 There were learned men among its members, 
 no doubt, but they had got their learning before 
 going there. That bishops resorted to it as a re- 
 treat is true, but not for learning any more than 
 the schoolmasters who went into retreat at 
 
 Radley a few years ago went there for the good 
 of their minds. They went for the good of 
 their souls. Even Mal)illon. who has done more 
 than any one to color the history of abbeys with 
 a learned tinge, points out this error. The insti- 
 tutions of Cassian (q.r.). who founded the abbey 
 of St. Victor at ^Iarseilles c. 417, have been 
 cited as tending to encourage learning. Hut 
 he attacked it. He declares the syllogisms of 
 dialectic and the elo<iuenec of Cicero are un- 
 worthy of the faith. A monk is directed to 
 drive out all remembrance of secular learning 
 by incessant reading of the Scriptures. Even 
 learning in thiMilogy is discouraged. A monk 
 is not to study commentaries. " If he gives 
 himself to chastity, the understanding of the 
 Scriptures will come without any theological 
 studies." He forbids even the art of writing. 
 More than a century later Cassiodorus {(/.v.), one 
 of the most learned men of his age, founded two 
 abbeys in Calabria and wrote his Iiistitutinns 
 for them. He did enjoin the study of the 
 Fathers and Christian historians as well as of 
 the Scriptures; and he allows the study of 
 grammar so that the Scriptures may be copied 
 correctly. But it was not Cassiodorus. but 
 Benedict, who became the prophet of the monks. 
 The Benedictine Rule (see Be.vedk'tines), of 
 almost the same date as the Institutioiiy, set 
 apart only two hours out of each day for 
 reading, except in Lent ; when, lack of food 
 preventing hand labor, the monks were re- 
 quired to read through one hook during that 
 period, but the only books mentioned, or ap- 
 parently allowed, were the Bible and the 
 Psalters. Even this rule was remitted for 
 those who were too lazy to read. They might 
 commute it for work. Xot a word in the rule 
 refers to education. Boys were allowed to be 
 offered {oblati) to God and presumably to be 
 brought up in the monastery, and of course 
 they must have been taught. But even this is 
 not said, and no hint is given of education of 
 outsiders being a duty to monks. It is only 
 when we come to the Celtic monasteries of the 
 sixth and seventh centuries that there is any 
 identification of monasteries with education. 
 There is no authentic evidence of this before 
 St. Columban (q.v.), said to have been born 
 about the middle of the sixth century and by a 
 biographer rather more than a century later 
 to have studied grammar, rhetoric, and ge- 
 ometry. The number both of monks and 
 clerks seems to have been greatly exaggerated. 
 Apparently whole families and clans formed 
 monasteries. An obscure phrase in the Brehon 
 laws, " purity benefits the church in receiv- 
 ing every son for instruction," is interpreted to 
 mean that all were to be educated. What 
 appears to be certain is that some were educated 
 and that Irish monks conveyed learning to 
 England, and English clerics and monks went to 
 Ireland to learn. Clonfart, under St. Brendan, 
 is credited with 40,000 monks, but no doubt 
 through a misreading. Thrice fifty seems to be
 
 ABBEY SCHOOLS 
 
 ABBEY SCHOOLS 
 
 the normal number in the round figures of 
 Hibernian and monastic exaggeration. Eng- 
 lish monasteries founded on the Celtic model, 
 such as Jarrow and Wearmouth, contained six 
 hundred monks, and Bede {q.v.) the master, 
 as Alcuin {q.v.) calls him, was educated in the 
 monastery and spent his life in educating others, 
 and died about 735. It is to be observed that 
 no word is said as to his educating other than 
 the inmates of his monastery. Letters of Aid- 
 helm's are preserved of doubtful authenticity, 
 purporting to come from foreigners wishing to 
 be taught by him at Malmesbury. But they 
 seem to be monks. St. Columban carried the 
 same influence to France. There is great exag- 
 geration in the amount of learning and the 
 number of the learned. The Lives of Saints 
 repeat with unabashed plagiarism the very 
 same phrases one after another as a sort of 
 common form for the accounts of the successive 
 youthful prodigies of learning which those who 
 in after life developed into saints are all repre- 
 sented as being. Still at this epoch monasteries 
 in Ireland, in England, and in France do seem to 
 have become the centers of learning and schools. 
 Alcuin, however, who illuminates the Palace 
 Schools of Charlemagne from 780 onwards, was 
 not a monk, though often spoken of as if he was. 
 When he did enter the abbey of Tours as abbot 
 in 796, it is difficult to make out how far he 
 still kept an open school. He certainly re- 
 pudiated his own love for Vergil and the classics. 
 While under Alcuin's influence, Charlemagne 
 attempted to make the monasteries into abbeys. 
 The decree of the Council of Aachen or Aix-la- 
 Chapelle in 789 for the establishment of schools 
 where music, arithmetic, grammar, and writing 
 should be taught had extended to monasteries 
 as well as cathedrals. The famous plan of 
 St. Gall in Switzerland attributed to the in- 
 fluence of Eginhard, Charlemagne's son-in- 
 law, shows an outer school as well as an inner 
 cloister {q.v.), a novice's school; a boarding 
 school for gentle youths {piikra juventu.i) 
 with a master's house attached. But this plan 
 was never carried out, and it is probable that 
 none of the outer schools of monasteries were 
 ever established. At all events, by another 
 Council at Aachen under the reactionary Louis 
 the Pious in 817 the ascetic view again pre- 
 vailed, and outer schools were expressly pro- 
 hibited. " No school shall be kept in a monas- 
 tery, except for oblates." From this time there 
 is no evidence of abbey's doing anything through 
 their own members for the education of others. 
 The monastic or cloister schools {q.v.) were solely 
 for novices and oblates. In the eleventh and 
 twelfth centuries, when the secular canons were 
 turned out to make room for regulars, an at- 
 tem]>t was made to transfer to the ablieys, more 
 particularly to the new orders of Regular or 
 Augustinian canons, not to the old order of Bene- 
 dictines, the control of the schools. But the 
 schools were transferred as property, like the 
 churches and other possessions of the ex- 
 
 truded canons, and were not intended to be, and 
 were not, taught or governed internally by the 
 abbeys. Thus at Bury St. Edmunds "(c. 1020) 
 King Canute turned out the seculars for monks, 
 and we find the abbey afterwards governing the 
 school. At Dunwich, the school, founded in 
 631, the first in England of which the foundation 
 is recorded, was "with all the churches of Dun- 
 wich Ijuilt or to be built " given o^•er to the Priory 
 of Eye on its foundation in 1083. Thetford 
 school was granted to Thetford Cluniac Pri- 
 ory in 1107, but about 111-i recovered by the 
 Bishop of Norwich and granted back to the 
 Dean of Thetford. At Reading in 1125, Hun- 
 tingdon in 1427, Dunstable in 1131, Glouces- 
 ter in 1137, Christ Church, Hants, in 1147, 
 Derby about 1150, Bedford about 1153, 
 Bristol in 1171, documents recording the trans- 
 fer to or the assertion of the rights of the 
 abbey or priory in consequence of a tran,sfer 
 are preserved, chiefly in the chartularies of 
 the intruding monks or canons. But the in- 
 mates of the abbey did not teach the schools 
 themselves. They only appointed the mas- 
 ters, who were alwaj-s seculars, and asserted, 
 on occasion, the monopoly of the masters in 
 their jurisdiction. They did not even as a rule 
 pay the masters, who lived on tuition fees. In 
 the fourteenth century, however, the monas- 
 teries began to do something for the educa- 
 tion, not of outsiders, but at all events of 
 those who were not prospective monks, in the 
 almonry schools {q.v.), established for their 
 pages and choristers the charity boys then 
 first introduced into monastic churches, num- 
 bering from 12 or 13, at least in one place (St. 
 Mary's Abbey, York), to 50 (the round number). 
 Also the abbots used to receive young noble- 
 men, especially, we may suppose, the sons of 
 the abliey knights and other chief tenants, into 
 their houses as wards and pages. Thus, Abbot 
 John II of St. Albans, 1235-1260, is said to 
 have been known among all the prelates of the 
 realm as a mirror of religion and a wit, and very 
 liberal, and so many nobles of the realm com- 
 mitted their sons to his guardianshij) to be 
 brought up. But we find, as at Glastonbury 
 shortly before the dissolution of abbeys, that 
 they were very few in number and that a private 
 tutor, a secular, was employed to teach them. 
 In abbeys for women this process was more 
 common. Not only did they take in young 
 ladies, as in the celebrated return of them at St. 
 Mary's Abbey, Winchester, at the dissolution, 
 but they took in little boys as well, as we learn 
 from many fulminations at visitations against 
 their keeping boys too old, or at all, and in 
 the dormitories. The amount of education 
 given in them, however, was of the smallest, 
 for though in Saxon times there is plenty of 
 evidence of the high education of the nuns, in 
 post-Concjuest times, they were certainly not 
 learned. One proof is that they were always 
 addressed by the bishops in French as only 
 being acquainted with what was then the
 
 ABBOT 
 
 ABBOTSHOLME 
 
 vernacular, as in the celebratod letter of Arch- 
 bishop Peckham to the nuns of Godstow about 
 their too great familiarity with Oxford under- 
 graduates. Nor indeed were the abbeys for 
 men such houses of learning themselves as to be 
 capable of becoming so for otliers. The abbey 
 school taught the licnedi<-tine rule rather than 
 grammar. Episcopal visitations in all centuries 
 ring with complaints of their want of learning. 
 When Benedict XII in 1335 tried to make the 
 Benedictines and Augustinians learned, he 
 ordered them to provide a grammar master, 
 who, contrary to the rule, might be a secular. 
 The specimens of such appointments preserved 
 are secular. One of the latest, at Win- 
 chester, was the Usher or Second Master of 
 the college. Yet William of Wykeham had to 
 coni[)lain of the monks of the cathedral of 
 Winchester murdering the ([Uantities in reading 
 the lessons, and so did William Warham of the 
 monks of Canterbury a century and a half 
 later; while Bishop Xicke's visitations of Nor- 
 wich at the end of the fifteenth century are full 
 of complaints that no grammar schoolmaster is 
 kept at the monasteries and liiat the monks are 
 ignorant. The abbots ami friars had generally 
 been to Oxford or Cambridge under the statute 
 of 1335, which required five per cent of the 
 monks to go to the universities. Nothing like 
 that proportion went, in fact. Even at West- 
 minster Henry VII complained at the end of his 
 reign that the monks were sunk in ignorance, 
 and gave a new endowment to send three of 
 them to the university. Popular hterature 
 from the twelfth century downward, notably 
 the Canlcrhurji Talcs, testifies to the disregard 
 for learning in the abbeys. The cause of educa- 
 tion and schools suffered nothing by the dissolu- 
 tion of abbeys by Henry ^TII, except in those 
 cases where the schools and their endowments, 
 for which they had been trustees, were treated 
 as abbey property and confiscated to the Crown, 
 without refoundation. A. F. L. 
 
 ABBOT, GORHAM DUMMER. — School- 
 man born at New Brunswick, Ale., Sept. 3, 
 ISO" ; educated in private schools and at 
 Bowdoin College and Andover Theological Sem- 
 inary; teacher in the academy at Castine, Me., 
 princijjal of the academy at Amherst, ilass.; 
 instructor in the Mt. \'ernon School for Girls; 
 director of Society for the Diffusion of Useful 
 Knowledge 1S3G-1S43: principal of Spingler 
 Institute, afterwards Abbot Collegiate Institu- 
 tion, 1S43-1S71; author of aspelhng book, and, 
 with Joshua Leavitt (q.i'.), of a series of school 
 readers; died Aug. 3, 1874. W. S. M. 
 
 ABBOTSHOLME. — A school opened in 
 ISS!) by iJr. Cecil Reddie, who was i)rofoundly 
 impressed by the limitations of the English 
 Public Schools (?.t'.) and undertook "to pro- 
 vide for boys, between the ages of about ten 
 and nineteen, an all-round education of an 
 entirely modern and rational character, based 
 
 upon the principles of educational science, and 
 adapted to the needs of the English cultured 
 classes, which should direct the national life." 
 It is this api)eal to the needs of the directing 
 class, together with the recognition that these 
 needs include some phases of training usually 
 left to the lower clas.ses, that have been most 
 frecpiently noted by critics. Early in the his- 
 tory of the school Dr. Reddie came under 
 Herbartian influence, and reorganized his work, 
 which had leaned toward natural science, by 
 an arrangement of humanistic studies in 
 stages, grouping what seemed to be appropri- 
 ate material- for each year of age around a core 
 or center. Thus one year was predominantly 
 given to French interests and materials, an- 
 other to German, etc. The teachers trained 
 by association with Dr. Reddie have been con- 
 spicuous in their later work for pedagogical 
 techni(iue. 
 
 Few schools have been kept so definitely at 
 the focus of consciousness of a founder. A most 
 elaborate and extensive set of records and pho- 
 tographs has been made and preserved. The 
 book Abholxhuhne contains an extraordinary 
 amount of material showing the theories of the 
 author, and accounts of what has been at- 
 tempted. The building, located on an estate of 
 one hundred and fifty acres in Derbyshire near 
 Rocester, is a marvel of planning. The details 
 of school life are minutely prescribed. It 
 seemed significant of the extent to which Eng- 
 lish traditions of corporal punishment prevail 
 that this was almost the only activity about 
 which no records were made and the estimates 
 of the number of cases by head boy and pre- 
 fects (who are isemiitted to flog on agreement of 
 all the prefects with the consent of the head 
 master) differed considerably from those of the 
 masters. 
 
 The grades of society below the prefects arc 
 stars (who perform special service), mids, and 
 fags. There are two or three of these last as- 
 signed to each prefect. They are supposed 
 to perform any duties a.ssigncd to them, and in 
 turn the prefect is expected to look after his 
 fags, take walks with them, etc. 
 
 The formal aspects of religious services re- 
 ceive considerable attention. The emphasis 
 here upon form seems to be similar to that in all 
 other fields in the school; the intention is that 
 whatever can be systematized shall be put into 
 machine operation in order to free the higher 
 centers for work requiring originality and initia- 
 tive. Dr. Geddes" and Dr. Scott's criticisms of 
 tliis are suggestive (see bibliography). The 
 earlier emphasis upon the activities of outdoor 
 life, as haymaking, using these as an opjiortu- 
 nity for participation in productive labor and for 
 festival celebration, has been somewhat reduced. 
 The garden has on the whole yielded somewhat 
 to cricket, but the extensive records of the school 
 experiments will well repay the study of those 
 who are concerned with one of our most urgent 
 problems, — the balance of cultural and voca-
 
 ABBOTT 
 
 ABCDARIANS 
 
 tional interests and activities during the ado- 
 lescent period. 
 
 Tlie scliool has attracted wide attention and 
 has directly influenced schools in various coun- 
 tries more extensively than has perhaps any 
 other single school since Fellenberg founded 
 Hofwyl. For an account of this influence 
 and a list of references see article on The New 
 School. F. A. M. 
 
 References: — 
 The Ahhnlshnlme School Song — The Love of Comrades 
 (Whitman) and The Graces, before and after dinner. 
 (London.) 
 Carpenter, Edward. Affection in Education, hit 
 
 Jour. Ethics, IX, 482. 
 De I5rath, S., Foundations of Success. 
 Geddes, Patrick. The school at Abbotsholme, Elem. 
 
 Sch. Tr. V, 321, 396. 
 Jackman, W. S. Notes on Foreign Schools, Ed. Rev., 
 
 XXI, 2; XXII, 50. 
 Reddie, Cecil. Abbotsholme. (London, 1900.) (Re- 
 viewed in Educational Review (N.Y.), March. 
 1901, .ind School .Journal (N.Y.), June 29, 1901.) 
 An Educational Atlas and Educational Ideals in 
 Jotin Bull (1901). 
 Scott, Colin A. Social Education, ch. iii. 
 Search, P. W. Abbotsholme, Century, Vol. 76 : pp. 
 
 235-240. 
 Simons, A. T. Some Modern Experiments in Educa- 
 tion, School World, June, 1900. 
 
 ABBOTT, BENJAMIN (1762-1849). — 
 Schoolman educated in Phillips Academy at 
 Exeter and at Harvard College; instructor in 
 Phillips Academy at Exeter and first principal 
 of Phillips Academy at Andover (1788-1838). 
 
 W. S. M. 
 
 ABBOTT, JACOB (1803-1879). — Author of 
 the " Rollo books"; educated in the district 
 schools and at Bowdoin College and Andover 
 Theological Seminarv; professor in Amherst 
 College (1824-1829), "principal of Mt. Vernon 
 School for Girls in Boston (1829-1834); edited 
 several school books and wrote more than 200 
 books for children. W. S. M. 
 
 A-B-C METHOD.— A method of teaching 
 reading to beginners, in which the first step is 
 to learn the names and letters of the alphabet 
 in order. The letters are then combined into 
 syllables and words, which are pronounced 
 through the assistance given by spelling. It is 
 the method of teaching " reading by spelling the 
 same " mentioned in early American school 
 records. One of the synthetic or word-building 
 methods. 
 
 See Alph.\betic Methods ; Reading, 
 Te.\ching Beginners. 
 
 A-B-C SCHOOLS. — A term commonly used 
 in the past to designate the elementary school, 
 when such schools gave the merest rudiments of 
 learning. The institution is discussed in the fol- 
 lowing article. 
 
 See also D.\me School; Petty School; etc. 
 
 ABCDARIANS, ABECEDARIO, OR ABE- 
 CEDARIE. — The name given to the teacher of 
 children at the earliest stage, or to the children 
 themselves. The term was used by Min- 
 
 sheu in his Guide into Tongues (1617) 
 (see Murray's Oxford Diet.), but was probably 
 in use long before that date. The teaching of 
 the alphabet as preliminary to the learning of 
 Latin gave rise to elementary textbooks ex- 
 tant at any rate as early as 1510 (see Wat- 
 son's English Grammar Schools, chap. ix). 
 Schools in which elementary instruction was 
 carried on, which may be called abecedarian, 
 were in existence in England in the Middle 
 Ages under the names of A-B-C schools, Read- 
 ing, Writing, and Song Schools. (See Leach's 
 English Schools at the Reformation.) In the 
 English organization of schools after the Refor- 
 mation there was no systematic provision for ele- 
 mentary instruction. All that was done was 
 done in the grammar school (q.v.). In 1682 
 Richard Mulcaster (q.v.) published his impor- 
 tant Elementarie, detailing the well-considered 
 methods for teaching reading, writing, drawing, 
 vocal and instrumental music. Arithmetic is 
 omitted. In spite of Mulcaster's plea for ele- 
 mentary schoolmasters as a separate organiza- 
 tion, the elementary work had to be undertaken 
 in the grammar school itself. The Statutes 
 of Alford Grammar School (Lincolnshire) in 
 1599 require that " none " should be admitted 
 before " he can read perfectly and write 
 legibly," and that it is not the business of the 
 schoolmaster to teach writing. But this (like 
 similar statutes of other schools) was clearly 
 a counsel of perfection. For in 1612 .lohn 
 Brinsley {q.v.) in his Lucius Literarius, bitterly 
 complains that the grammar school should be 
 troubled with teaching ABC. " The very 
 little ones in most country towns would require 
 a whole man of themselves to be always 
 teaching the ABC and reading." It is to be 
 noted that both Mulcaster and Brinsley plead 
 for the teaching of sound English to the elemen- 
 tary pupils. 
 
 'Though the main " burden " of teaching the 
 young children, called " petties," fell often 
 on the grammar schools, there were other un- 
 organized agencies for their instruction. There 
 can be no doubt that it was the intention of 
 Edward VI's Itijunctions of 1547 to require 
 the continuance of the old Chantry priests (who 
 played so conspicuous a part in elementary 
 instruction in the pre-Reformation times in 
 England — see Leach's English Schools at the 
 Reformation). Chantry priests were required 
 by these Injunctions to teach youth to read 
 and write and to train them in " good manners 
 and in virtuous exercises." " Every parish," 
 says Mulcaster in his Positions, " hath a 
 minister, if none else in the parish, who can 
 teach writing and reading." So, too, the parish 
 clerk in the Middle Ages had been often a bene- 
 ficed cleric, who undertook elementary in- 
 struction, and there was a survival of the custom 
 in Tudor and Stuart England, so that wc are 
 told of the alphabet inscribed on the church 
 bell, suggesting that A-B-C schools were held 
 in belfries. At the visitation of Dr. Richard
 
 ABCDARIANS 
 
 ABCDARIANS 
 
 Montague, Bishop of Norwich, the inquiry 
 is made, " Do any teach in your Church or 
 Chancel? which is to tiie profanation of that 
 l)Iace." Anotlier survival from the Middle 
 Ages was tne Song Schoolmaster. In the 
 Camden Society's reprint of a sermon hj' a Hoy 
 Bishop {q. v.) in Cdoucester, looS, it would apjjcar 
 that these schools were \'ery i)a(lly conducted. 
 It was only in 1905 that the last of the Song 
 Schools (which combined the special teaching of 
 music with elementary instruction) — namely, 
 that of Newark (Nottinghamshire) disappeared. 
 Churchwarden's accounts and town records 
 show that schools of the abecedarian kind 
 existed in England for elementary instruction, 
 in some connection with the churches — from 
 tlic Hi'formation continuously to what may be 
 calleil the organization of the church elementary 
 schools under the name of the Charity Schools 
 (q.v.) at the beginning of the eighteenth century. 
 Besides the provision of teaching by the 
 clergy, parish clerks, church schools, and the 
 grammar school, there were a large number 
 of voluntary, irregular, uidicensed (by the 
 Bishop or his ordinary) |)rivate adventure 
 schools {q.i'.) of the " dame school " (q.v.) 
 type. Edward (or Edmund) Coote (q.v.), 
 master of the Free School at St. Edmunds 
 Bury (Bury St. Edmunds), catered for these 
 by his textbook The English Schoolmaster, 
 issued in 1596. He states in his " Directions," 
 " Thou mayest sit on thy shop-board, at thy 
 looms, or at thy needle, and never hinder thy 
 work to hear thy scholars after thou hast once 
 made this little book familiar to thee." John 
 Brinsley in 1612 makes a suggestion for passing 
 over from the grammar school the teaching of 
 " petties " in exact accordance with Coote's 
 provision. " It woukl help some poor man or 
 woman, irho knew not how to live otherwi.'ie, and 
 who might teach the petties well, if they were 
 rightly directed." Another expedient for deal- 
 ing with the abecedarians was that of Man- 
 chester Grammar School Statutes (1524), 
 Guisborough Grammar School (1561), Riving- 
 ton Grammar School (1566), and Bungay 
 School (Suffolk, 1592). _ Boys from the highest 
 form were deputed to give the abecedarian and 
 elementary instruction. Thus early the pupil 
 teacher system (q.v.) was instituted. In the main, 
 however, outside of the grammar schools, abece- 
 darian instruction was carried on in " dames 
 schools." Coote had addressed his book to 
 " men and women of trade, as tailors, weavers, 
 seamsters, and such others as have undertaken 
 the charge of teaching others." Occasionally a 
 higher stamp of teacher was secured. Thomas 
 Farnaby (q.v.), afterward one of the greatest 
 classical scholars of his time, the founder of the 
 most renowned of private grammar schools, 
 had accompanied Drake on his last voyage, 
 and on his return to England, as Anthony k 
 Wood tells us, " stooped so low," r. 1596, as to 
 be an abecedarian, at Martock in Somersetshire. 
 But in 1660 Charles Hoole (q.v.) in his "Petty 
 
 Schools," one of tlH> divisions of his Neiv Dis- 
 covery of the Old .[rt of Teaching School, speaks 
 of the " Petty School " as being " left as a work 
 for poor women or others whose necessities 
 comi)el them to undertake it as a 7nere shelter 
 from beggary." 
 
 Hoole's account of what a petty school should 
 be is the most outstanding document of ele- 
 mentary education in England up to the time 
 of the Restoration. He gives in detail a careful 
 method for teaching the alphabet and early 
 spelling, and advocates the teaching of simple 
 English literature to the " petties." Teaching 
 should be placed in the hands of responsible 
 teachers — to be paid at least twenty pounds 
 a year (a not inconsiderable amount in those 
 times), with a house provided. Fees should be 
 required from those able to pay, but poor boys 
 should be admitted free of cost. Hoole urges 
 the wealthy to erect and endow such " Petty " 
 schools. No more than 40 boj-s are to be 
 allotted to each master. The school should 
 have four forms. In the lowest, the letters of 
 the alphabet are to be learned from the primer. 
 In the second, spelling is to be learned from the 
 Psalter. In the third, reading from the Bible. 
 In the fourth form, reading, writing, casting of 
 accounts, and profitable English books. Hoole 
 further hints at the training of such teachers 
 on a similar scheme to that suggested by 
 Matthew Poole in 1658 in his Model for the 
 maintaining of students of choice abilities at the 
 Vniversity, principally in order to the mini.'itry. 
 Nearer the end of the seventeenth century 
 William Walker, in Some Improvements to the 
 Art of teaching, suggested an inquiry from 
 authority with a view to the reformation of 
 " ignorant and injudicious petit schoolmasters 
 and school-madams." Many of the free 
 schools established in the seventeenth century 
 with buildings and endowments of pious bene- 
 factors were elementary schools. They were 
 sometimes established to instruct in reading and 
 writing (sometimes also in arithmetic), and also 
 sometimes to provide premiums for putting boys 
 and girls out to apprenticeship. The first 
 Dissenters' English Charity School was founded 
 in Gravel Lane, Southwark, in 1687. In 1699 
 the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge 
 (q.v.) was established, and from that time for- 
 ward for many years elementary cilucation was 
 chiefly associated with the Charity Schools 
 (q.v.) in connection with that society. 
 
 In America the term was used throughout the 
 colonial period and well into the nineteenth cen- 
 tury to indicate the children engaged in learning 
 the alphabet and the process of reading rather 
 than to indicate the teacher. In general the 
 work of the abecedarian was of a most mechan- 
 ical character, — mere rote work, — and when 
 better methods of elementary teaching were 
 introduced in the first half of the nineteenth 
 century, the term fell into disuse. In fact, the 
 term was used quite often to indicate the pecul- 
 iar rote work by which the alphabet was
 
 ABCDARIANS 
 
 ABELARD 
 
 taught: the teacher, pointing to the letter, 
 saying a, the child repeating, a ; and so 
 through the alphabet (see Warren Burton, 
 The District School as it luas, 1833, for a full de- 
 scription of this method). Henry Barnard, com- 
 menting on the work of the abecedarian, in 
 the early nineteenth century, says: " If a 
 child be bright, the time which passes during 
 this lesson is the only part of the day when he 
 does not think. Not a single faculty of the 
 mind is occupied except that of imitating 
 sounds; and even the number of these imita- 
 tions amounts only to twenty-six. A parrot or 
 an idiot could do the same thing." 
 
 During the early colonial period the same 
 effort was made in the colonies that was made in 
 England to relegate the work of the abecedarian 
 to the home or to the dame school and to keep 
 it out from the town school, even when an 
 English rather .than a Latin school. Thus the 
 agreement between the feoffees of the school of 
 Roxbury, founded 1645, and their schoolmaster 
 in 1668, contains the following clause, " Where- 
 upon ye said John Prudden doth promise and 
 engage to use his best skill and endeavours, 
 both by precept and example, to instruct in all 
 scholasticall, morall, and theologicall disci- 
 pline, the children (so far as they are or shall be 
 capable) of those persons whose names are here 
 underwritten, all ABC Darians excepted." 
 This attitude towards the abecedarian was con- 
 tinued in some of the larger towns until w-ell 
 into the nineteenth century, though for the most 
 part the local school — town or parish — had in- 
 cluded, long before, both the dame school and 
 private abecedarian instruction. 
 
 In Massachusetts, for example, the law pro- 
 vided that " no youth shall be sent to the 
 Grammar Schools, unless they shall have learned 
 in some other school, or in some other way, to 
 read the English language, byspellingthesame"; 
 and also provided for the establishment of 
 preparatory schools to perform this service. 
 In Boston, however, such schools had not been 
 established by the school authorities, and in 
 1817 it was found that there were more than 
 4000 children in 162 private schools. The 
 discovery of these conditions led to the estab- 
 lishment of a Primary School Committee to 
 establish and oversee such elementary schools, 
 in addition to the School Committee of long 
 standing. This separate organization of the 
 schools continued until 1855. In most com- 
 munities, however, the abecedarian had long 
 since been absorbed into the regular public 
 schools. F. W. AND P. M. 
 
 See D.\ME School; Elementary Educa- 
 tion; England, Education in; Colonial 
 Period in American Education. 
 
 References (besides those mentioned in the ar- 
 ticle) : — 
 Adams, F. History of the Elementary School Contest in 
 
 England. (London, 1883.) 
 HoLM.\N, H. English National Education. (London, 
 1898.) 
 
 De Montmorenct, J. E. G. Progress of Education in 
 
 England, eh. iii. (London, 1904.) 
 Fitch. Sir Joshu.\. Educational Aims and Methods, 
 
 Lecture VI. (Endowments and their Influence on 
 
 Education.) (Cambridge. 1900.) 
 WiGHT.M.tN, J. M. Annals of the Boston Primary School 
 
 Committee, 1818-1855. (Boston, 1860.) 
 
 ABELARD (ABAILARD), PETER (1079- 
 1142). — The most famous teacher of the 
 twelfth century ; he was born near Nantes 
 in 1079. He has left an invaluable sketch 
 of his life in a long letter which con- 
 tains The Story of his Disasters ( Hi.^toria 
 calamitatum). No other document of the 
 twelfth century casts so much light on the 
 conditions preceding the rise of the universities. 
 As a young man he went forth to engage in dis- 
 cussion (disputando) in all those places in 
 France where he had heard that the science of 
 dialectic was cultivated. At the cathedral 
 school of Notre Dame in Paris he encountered 
 William of Champeaux (q.v.), and quickly 
 aroused his hostility b}' refuting some of his 
 doctrines. He then began to lecture in the 
 neighborhood of Paris, and attracted many 
 students. After a period of retirement due 
 to illness, he returned to .study rhetoric under 
 William, and claims to have permanently dis- 
 credited him by forcing him to retract or revise 
 his statement of the nature of universals. 
 Abelard then taught logic and " grammar " — 
 to wit the Latin classics — for a time in Paris; 
 but determined to turn to theology, and betook 
 himself to Anselm of Laon. He speedily 
 wearied of the old man's lectures, and tells us 
 how he himself began rival lectures on the book 
 of Ezekiel, to the great delight of the students, 
 but to the scandal of the ecclesiastical authori- 
 ties, since he had no license to teach. On 
 returning to Paris he found that William of 
 Champeaux had withdrawn, and he was per- 
 mitted to lecture regularly in the cathedral 
 school. His distinction as a theologian at- 
 tracted many students, but at the height of his 
 success the tragedy which has rendered his 
 name immortal — his connection with his pupil 
 Heloise and the horrible revenge of her uncle — 
 led to his retirement to a monastery. Later 
 he became a hermit in Champagne, but hundreds 
 of .students continued to flock to him. The 
 end of his life was embittered by a prosecution 
 for heresy conducted by St. Bernard. He was 
 condemned by the Council of Sens in 1141 for 
 the alleged heresies of his works, and was sen- 
 tenced to imprisonment, but allowed to retire 
 to the monastery of Cluny. He died the 
 following year (1142). 
 
 The main secret of Ab^lard's power of attract- 
 ing students was doubtless his stimulating ra- 
 tionalism, his skill in discrediting the positions 
 of less thoughtful rivals, and his remarkable 
 range of reading, which enabled him to illustrate 
 and enliven his lectures. The modern reader 
 is not so likely to seek Abelard's spirit in his 
 longer theological works and sermons as in his
 
 ABELARD 
 
 ABERDEEN 
 
 interesting Dialogue between a Philosopher, a 
 Jew and a Christian, and especially in his fa- 
 mous Sic et Nan. The introduction to the 
 latter work gives us indeed a key to Abelard's 
 intellectual tendencies. There are, he declares, 
 many obvious contradictions and obscurities 
 in the innumerable writings of the Church 
 Fathers, and our respect for their authority 
 should not prevent us from trying to come at the 
 truth. In so doing we need not impugn their 
 good faith and insight. They themselves 
 freely point out one another's mistakes and even 
 admit, as docs Augustine ('/.''.), that they are 
 subject to error. There are many obvious 
 reasons why ancient writings are difficult to 
 understand and are subject to varying interpre- 
 tations. A writer may, for example, employ 
 different terms to mean the same thing, in order 
 to avoid a monotonous repetition of the same 
 word. P'amiliar, vague words may be selected 
 so as to appeal to the intelligence of the common 
 folk; and sometimes a writer sacrifices perfect 
 accuracy in the interest of a clear general state- 
 ment. Then, poetic language is often obscure 
 and vague. Aloreover, the Fathers often relied 
 on the opinions of others, and often introduce 
 erroneous views and leave the reader to distin- 
 guish between the true and the false. In the 
 case of the Scriptures, while we may not say that 
 the writers erred, we may suspect that the scribe 
 made a blunder in copying the manuscript or 
 that there is an error in interpretation, or that 
 the passage is not understood. In view of these 
 considerations and of the necessity of cultivat- 
 ing the critical powers of his students, Abelard 
 brought together a selection of the questions on 
 which the Fathers appeared to disagree, begin- 
 ning significantly enough with the fundamental 
 query, " Should human faith be based on reason 
 or no?" He gives the opposing authorities, but 
 offers no solution, for he maintains that the un- 
 solved problems would excite tender readers to 
 a zealous inquiry into the truth, and so sharpen 
 their wits. " The master-key of knowledge is 
 indeed a persistent and frequent questioning," 
 for did not Aristotle, the most clear-sighted 
 of all philosophers, desire above all other things 
 to arouse this questioning spirit? " By doubt- 
 ing we come to examine, and by examining we 
 come to the truth." 
 
 Here is the basis for the type of higher criti- 
 cism which was only to prevail centuries after 
 Abelard was in his grave. The scholastic 
 philosophers of the thirteenth century were as 
 bold as Abrl.'ird in the questions they proposed 
 and in the difficulties they raised, but they were 
 always careful in their lectures and works to 
 supply the correct answer to them. To Abelard, 
 at least in his younger days, must be attributed 
 the chief role in arousing that intellectual en- 
 thusiasm which attracted thousands of students 
 to Paris and led to the development, a generation 
 after his death, of the cathedral school of Notre 
 Dame into the " universitas," or professors' 
 guild, of Paris. J. H. R. 
 
 See Universities. 
 
 References : — 
 
 Chev.^lier. Ripertoire des Sources Hisloriques. (Bio- 
 Bibliographic : s.f. Abailard.) 
 
 Cousin. Ourragcs inedits d'Abelard. (Paris, 1S36.) 
 Opera. (Paris, 1X49-1859.) 
 
 Erdmann, J. K. History of Philosophy, I. (London 
 and New York, 1)S90.) 
 
 Hausrath. Piter Abelard. (Leipzig, 1893.) 
 
 Henke AND LiNDENKOHL. Edition of Sjc e< jVon. (Mar- 
 burg, 1831.) 
 
 McCaue, Joseph. Peter Abelard. (New York, 1901.) 
 
 Maurice, F. D. Meiiiieral Philosophy from the fifth to 
 the fourteenth centuries. (Loudon and Glasgow, 
 1859.) 
 
 Poole, R. L. Illustrations of Medutval Thought. 
 (London, 1884.) 
 
 Rashdall, H. Universities of Europe iji the Middle 
 Ages. Vol. I. (Oxford, 1895.) 
 
 S.\NDYs, J. E. A History of Classical Scholarship. 
 (Cambridge, 1903.) 
 
 TowN.sEND, W. J. Great Schoolmen of the Middle Ages. 
 (London, 1881.) 
 
 ABERDEEN, THE UNIVERSITY OF.— 
 
 A coeducational institution located at Aberdeen, 
 Scotland. It consists of two colleges having 
 an independent origin and endowment. The 
 older institution, called King's College, was 
 founded in 1494 under a Papal bull obtained 
 at the instance of King James I\'. The 
 other institution, that of Marischal College, was 
 founded in 1593 by George Keith, fifth Earl 
 IMarischal of Scotland, under a Charter ratified 
 by Parliament. Both colleges maintained an 
 indejiendent existence, exercising University 
 rights and privileges until 18.58, when they were 
 united into one corporate body called the Uni- 
 versity of Aberdeen. The University buildings, 
 formerly of King's College, are situated in the 
 older part of the city, and here are conducted the 
 Divinity classes and most of the Arts classes; 
 IMarischal College is situated in the new town, 
 but nothing remains of the original buildings, 
 and recently extensive additions have been 
 made, and here are conducted the remaining 
 courses provided by the University. At present 
 the educational work is divided into five 
 faculties or departments, viz: The faculties 
 of Arts, Science, Divinity, Law and Medicine, 
 and degrees are granted to students successfully 
 undergoing courses of study in the respective 
 Faculties. The only vocational degree con- 
 ferred by the University for other than the 
 learned professions is the Bachelor of Science 
 in the department of Agriculture, which falls 
 under the Faculty of Science. The total num- 
 ber of students in attendance numbers between 
 1200 and 1300, of whom about 900 are students 
 proceeding to graduation in one or more of 
 the faculties. The Faculty of Arts, formerly 
 attended by students desirous of extending their 
 general education, is now largely composed of 
 teacher students and is the largest in number, 
 having over 450 students ; Medjcine conies 
 next, with somewhere about 300 graduating 
 students; the Faculties of Law and Divinity 
 have a comparatively small number of graduat- 
 ing students. The Faculty of Science, insti-
 
 ABILITY 
 
 ABILITY 
 
 tuted only in 1SS9, is gradually increasing in 
 numbers. The income of the University is 
 derived mainly from four sources: (1) Fees 
 of students; (2) Endowments; (3) Grants 
 by the State; (4) Grants from the Carnegie 
 Trust for the endowment and aid of the Uni- 
 versities of Scotland. A. D. 
 
 References : — 
 Walker, R. and Mdnro, A. M. Handbook to Cityatid 
 
 University. (Aberdeen. 1906.) 
 Bdlloch, J. M. History of the University of Aberdeen, 
 
 1495-1895. (London, 1895.) 
 
 ABILITY, GENERAL AND SPECLAL : — 
 
 By ability is meant the power of the indi- 
 vi'dual to produce results. The conception in- 
 cludes all the functions that one may possess, — 
 the organic functions, the powers of movement, 
 the powers of sensation, the higher psychic 
 powers, and the activities which they condition. 
 Ability covers both abihty to do and ability to 
 learn, the latter power revealing itself in modifi- 
 cations of the former. 
 
 The largest contrast between types of ability 
 is ordinarily thought to be that between our 
 mental and our physical powers. There is, how- 
 ever, an intimate connection between the two. 
 This connection is by most psychologists sup- 
 posed to be so close that in the terras of Pro- 
 fessor James' working hj^pothesis " the immedi- 
 ate condition of a state of consciousness is an 
 activity of some sort in the cerebral hemispheres, 
 and " all mental states are followed by bodily 
 activity of some sort." The so-called " func- 
 tional " p.sychology conceives of consciousness 
 as existing in order to modify or to readjust 
 the reflex or habitual physiological reactions 
 of the organism when these prove ill adapted. 
 In that event, it must certainly depend 
 upon a physiological stimulus, for it is only 
 for the sake of facilitating the proper re- 
 sponses to such stimuli that it exists. On the 
 other hand, it must result in movements, for 
 the control of these reactions constitutes its 
 function. 
 
 Since mental ability is concerned in the task 
 of learning, or of readjustment, the distinction 
 between ability to do and ability to learn 
 would seem to be more fundamental than that 
 between mental and physical ability. The two 
 powers, that of doing and that of learning, are, 
 again, as intimately interconnected as are the 
 mind and body. In order to readjust, or to 
 learn, it is necessary that the individual should 
 have the ability to be sensitive to lack of ad- 
 justment, the ability to perform experimental 
 acts with a view toward discovering a reaction 
 that will prove adaptive, and the ability to feel 
 or know when this successful reaction is or is not 
 found. The first and the last of these powers 
 are closely associated, if not identical. Sensi- 
 tivity to lack of adjustment will not only stimu- 
 late experimentation toward a better condition, 
 but will indicate when this experimentation is 
 as yet unsuccessful. Such sensitivity has been 
 
 called affective consciousness, or feeling, and in 
 this we have the first important type of mental 
 ability. If one has no feeling, one cannot learn. 
 Feeling stimulates the learning process, and 
 directs it by compelling the inhibition or elimi- 
 nation of unsuccessful reactions. Without such 
 feeling experimentation or learning could 
 neither begin nor end. 
 
 On the other hand, learning depends quite 
 as much on the power to make experimental 
 reactions as it does on feeling. The possibilities 
 in the way of experimentation may include the 
 sum total of the reactions that the individual 
 can make. Power to learn rests on the number 
 and variety of such reactions and on the ability 
 to make them in an experimental way, — that 
 is, in situations other than those to which they 
 by heredity or habit are associated. Thus 
 to learn rests back upon power to do. 
 
 The reactions that an individual can make 
 cluster about certain large functions. These 
 functions correspond to needs of the organism. 
 They are its instincts. Heredity and habit 
 attach certain reactions to the sense of certain 
 needs. Ability to do, therefore, rests back on 
 one's equipment of instincts, to satisfy which the 
 reactions are made. 
 
 Just as ability to do depends on the instincts, 
 or needs, of the individual, and the reactions 
 that can be made in order to fulfill them, so 
 ability to learn depends on one's power to read- 
 just the reactions, so that when the hereditary 
 or habitual ways of satisfying certain instincts 
 fail, other methods can be substituted. The 
 diversity of organs and structures connected 
 with the body form the physiological basis of 
 the ability to do; the central nervous system 
 is in the main the physiological basis of the 
 power to learn. By it all parts of the body are 
 interconnected, so that the need of any part 
 can be met by the reactions that can be per- 
 formed by any other part. Thus in any emer- 
 gency one can shift rapidly from one to another 
 of his possibilities of action, and learning be- 
 comes possible. 
 
 The kind of learning that involves merely 
 directive feeling and the power to make experi- 
 mental activity is often called " learning by 
 trial and error." It is the simpler method of 
 readjustment. The higher method of learning 
 may be called " conscious learning." The in- 
 dividual who learns consciously does not hasten 
 blindly through a lot of experimental move- 
 ments, but instead reflects upon ideas of move- 
 ments, or plans of action, and considers what is 
 likely to be the outcome of each and its relative 
 advantages and disadvantages. Thus for ex- 
 perimental movements he has experimental 
 ideas. But in order to have these ideas he 
 must cognize the nature of the situations with 
 which he deals, he must retain an account of 
 these cognitions in memory, and be able to 
 recall them when needed in new emergencies. 
 He must be able to perceive, to imagine, and to 
 conceive. Such consciousness, in contrast with 
 
 9
 
 ABILITY 
 
 ABILITY 
 
 feeling, or affective consciousness, may be called 
 cognitive consciousness. As affective conscious- 
 ness stimulates experimentation and elimi- 
 nates the unsuccessful experiments, so cogni- 
 tive consciousness provides ideas to take the 
 place of actual experiments, witli a great result- 
 ing gain in avoidance of destruction, ciTort.aiul, 
 in general, the wear and tear of the blind 
 struggle to evolve a better way of doing things. 
 Affective consciousness may be characterized 
 as selective consciousness; cognitive conscious- 
 ness is descriptive. It describes the conditions 
 and results of experimentation. 
 
 Cognitive consciousness finds its foundation 
 in the different (pialitics that are noted because 
 of the differentiation of our powers of sensation. 
 These cpialitics are discriminated as a result of 
 recall ami comparision by what is known as 
 perception. Perception discriminates and gives 
 meaning to sensation. Imagination reproduces 
 ])erception with variations more or less radical 
 from the original. Conception seizes and ab- 
 stracts the relationships among experiences. 
 Finally, judgment appears to give a cognitive 
 basis for the process of selection among ideas. 
 In judgment cognition encroaches upon the 
 selective function that was originally performed 
 solely by feeling. Thus all the varieties of cog- 
 nition can be interpreted from the point of view 
 of their function in connection with the work 
 of learning or readjustment. 
 
 The physiological foundation of these higher 
 mental powers is found in the cerebral cortex, 
 which is :-onceived to be the organ of memory, 
 and so of the recall, comparison, and analysis 
 of experience. This function may be regarded 
 as the secondary function of the hemispheres, 
 the primary function being that of bringing to- 
 gether all parts of the body, so that learning by 
 a quick resort to one after another reaction 
 until a successful cue is found may be made 
 easy. 
 
 The descriptions of cognition find their func- 
 tion not merely as an aid to the successful prose- 
 cution of the experimentation in connection 
 with which they are accjuired, but also in future 
 emergencies when they are recalled. Indeed, 
 this latter use soon overshadows the former. 
 Before the child has acquired much experience, 
 he learns by trial and error. This learning is not 
 at first favored especiallj^ by cognition. Later, 
 however, as experience accumulates, actual 
 experimenting is cut short, and at length very 
 considerably replaced by foresight. The fact 
 that the process of acquiring ideas is to such an 
 extent separated from that of utilizing them has 
 made mental life seem to be independent of the 
 utilities of physical adjustment. Mental ability 
 has been conceived to be concerned in a differ- 
 ent set of interests from physical ability, and 
 hence somewhat sharply differentiated there- 
 from. 
 
 The tendency to think of mental ability as a 
 thing apart from physical ability and so of the 
 general utilities of the life of the individual is 
 
 apparent in the older psychology. Connected 
 with this was the cla.ssification of mental abili- 
 ties according to what were known as the 
 faculties. This classification recognized that 
 mental ability was not a unitary affair, but 
 rather specialized. It conceived the various 
 processes to which the mind sulimits its experi- 
 ence to be distinct, and held tiiat men might 
 differ from each other in respect to these. 
 Some excel in perception, others in memory 
 or imagination, others in reasoning; some sur- 
 pass in judgment, while some show extraordi- 
 nary powers of will. General ability reduces 
 itself to a sum of special abilities, and the 
 special abilities of the mind are held to lie the 
 facidties. When in the history of p.syciiology 
 the powers of the mind came to be more and 
 more connected with the body and especially 
 with the brain, a school arose which strove 
 to locate the various faculties in different 
 portions of that organ. These men, the phre- 
 nologists iq.r.), offered a far more minute sub- 
 division of the faculties than that just indicated. 
 As many as 43 faculties could, according to 
 Fowler, be distinguished and located. Spurz- 
 heim's {q.v.) list included such traits as com- 
 bativeness, cautiousness, hope, comparison. 
 
 The faculty theory may be regarded as a 
 sort of psychological realism. The reality, 
 so far as mental ability is concerned, is 
 thought to lie in a power that is manifested in a 
 formal process. Not any single mental activity 
 as a whole, but those universal aspects which 
 appear in the common forms of many different 
 activities, is held to be the true essence of mind. 
 This abstract formal aljility Herbart rejected 
 in favor of what he called apperception (q.v.). 
 On the theory of apperception, mental activity 
 consists in the interpretation of sensation by 
 memory, in the fusion of new and old experience. 
 Hence mental ability was made by him a func- 
 tion of the previous experience of the individual. 
 Instead of being an abstract power, it was re- 
 garded as immediately dependent on the con- 
 crete content of consciousness. 
 
 It will be noticed that the theory of appercep- 
 tion can be easily a.ssociated with the functional 
 theory of mind. For while it does not explicitly 
 take the view that consciousness exists for the 
 sake of reailjustment, it regards mental ability 
 as consisting in the functioning of the experience 
 that has been acquired by the individual. The 
 new situation is illuminated by the old experi- 
 ence, according to Herbart; it suggests a num- 
 ber of ideas as to the possible ways of dealing 
 with it, according to the functional psychology. 
 
 The functional psychology does, however, 
 make a marked advance upon the Herbartian 
 analy.sis of mental ability. For by it instinct 
 and the possibilities in the way of overt activity 
 on the part of the individual are conceived to lie 
 back of the possibility of accumulating and 
 using experience. Thus, according to Herbart, 
 interest, which is essential to the effectiveness 
 of mental activity, is conceived to be a result 
 
 10
 
 ABILITY 
 
 ABILITY 
 
 of apperception. The functional psychology 
 would make interest the ground of apperception. 
 The older thinker holds that thinking is based 
 on previous experience; the newer school traces 
 that previous experience back to the reactions 
 and the instincts, the readjustment of the rela- 
 tions between which was the original stimulus 
 to cognition. 
 
 The Herbartian view of mental ability departs 
 from the realism of the faculty theory toward 
 a psychological nominalism that recognizes in 
 the particular experience rather than in the 
 general power the true foundation of mental 
 activity. Mental ability becomes on this basis 
 the sum of an enormous mass of special abilities. 
 We find these abilities ranging themselves in 
 great groups according to the interrelations of 
 the phases of experience of which they consist. 
 Power goes in fields, and one's ability in any 
 field depends on his mastery of the experience 
 that can be said to make it up. This same 
 psychological nominalism may be said to be 
 present in the view of the functional psychology, 
 with the difference that ability is thought to 
 cluster about instincts, for it is in the functioning 
 of these that ex])cricnce is by this school con- 
 ceived to be acquired. 
 
 The theory that mental ability can be classi- 
 fied into faculties received quite as telling a 
 blow from the researches into the relation of 
 mind and brain as it did from the analysis of 
 Herbart. Curiously enough, these researches 
 began with the phrenologists, Gall and Spurz- 
 heim, who, as we have seen, pushed the faculty 
 theory to an e.xtreme. As knowledge of the 
 localization of the functions of the brain in- 
 creased, however, it became apparent that these 
 were associated with the various senses and 
 motor organs of the body. Brain activity was 
 found to consist in the reception of sensory 
 currents and the transformation of these into 
 motor impulses through a more or less compli- 
 cated machinery of association, the nature of 
 which is much dependent upon the earlier 
 experiences of the individual concerned. Thus 
 mental ability was founded on the possession of 
 the special senses and well-equipped brain 
 tracts associated therewith, together with an 
 apparatus for associating these regions with the 
 motor areas. The definite organization of these 
 associations by which power to do is achieved 
 is a result partly of heredity and partly of the 
 practice and experience of the individual. 
 
 The view that mental ability consists of a 
 great ma.ss of special abilities more or less inti- 
 mately related with each other seems fairly well 
 borne out by researches into the correlation of 
 mental traits. A great mass of these are col- 
 lected by Professor Thorndike (Educational 
 Psychology). For example, he found that one's 
 power to remember a series of figures might 
 vary widely according to whether this series 
 were presented to the eye or to the ear. If a 
 number of individuals were tested in both exer- 
 cises, the relative standing of any one in auditory 
 
 memory would not be the same as that in visual 
 memory, although the two functions would have 
 some positive relation to each other. The defi- 
 nite correlation he discovered was from 29 to 39 
 per cent. The correlation between power to 
 remember the contents of a passage and a list 
 of figures, both presented to the ear, was found 
 to be only 4 to 5 per cent ; whereas that between 
 the power to remember a passage presented to 
 the ear and one presented to the eye was 90 
 per cent. 
 
 These results in regard to memory are typical 
 of correlations of specific powers of discrimina- 
 tion, rapidity and accuracy of reaction, etc. 
 Wherever the nature of the material with which 
 the individual was called upon to deal varied, 
 there some variation in the power of the mind to 
 cope with it was discovered. Similar results 
 were obtained from a comparison of the relative 
 abilit}' displayed by students in various school 
 subjects as indicated by the marks received 
 therein. Dr. Wissler found a correlation of 
 standing in Latin with standing in mathematics 
 of 58 per cent. Latin showed 60 per cent cor- 
 relation with German and 75 per cent with 
 Greek. It is evident that the degree of rela- 
 tionship between the subjects is reflected in the 
 relative ability of students in them. 
 
 One of the most important questions regarding 
 ability is that of the respective parts of heredity 
 and of education in determining it. On this 
 matter two distinct questions may be raised. 
 The one concerns the character and the other 
 the relative amount of the material derived from 
 either source. On the question of the character 
 of the contribution of heredity and education 
 to one's ability, the view that the former agency 
 gives the general basis of our intellectual and 
 physical powers, while the latter one trains 
 and specializes these, is commonly held. This 
 conception finds support in a comparison of the 
 abilities of the lower animals and man. As we 
 descend in the scale of life, we find less and less 
 capacity for education, more and more depend- 
 ence on heredity. Moreover, it is seen that 
 the specific nature of the activities of the brutes 
 is determined largely by instinct. In man, 
 however, as Professor James points out, al- 
 though the instincts are even more numerous 
 than in the lower animals, they are more vague, 
 more imperfect. They are just mere needs or 
 desires, the specific method of gratifying which 
 is largely left to the control of education. Man 
 inherits many instincts, the power to do many 
 things, and a nervous sj^stem that permits, on 
 the one hand, the formation of the greatest 
 variety of habits, or associations between stim- 
 uli and movements, and, on the other, the 
 acquisition of a great mass of directive experi- 
 ence. The specific character of the habits and 
 experience which he acquires depends upon 
 education. 
 
 As regards the relative amount of material 
 derived from the two sources, there are a great 
 number of studies, of which Galton's Hereditary 
 
 11
 
 ABITURIENTENPRUFUNG 
 
 ABNOR^L\L 
 
 Genius (New York, 1884), Wood's Mental and 
 Moral Heredity in Royalty (New York, 190G), 
 and Thoriulikf's Mca-'nireinents of Twins (New 
 York, 1905) are among tlie most noteworthy. 
 Galton concludes that there is a marked tend- 
 ency for genius, superior abihty, height, eye 
 color, special kinds of artistic power, and other 
 traits to be liercditary. Thorndikc found that 
 inheritance has a most pronounced effect on 
 such minute powers as those of spelling, writing, 
 addition, and multi))lication, as shown by the 
 extraordinary resemblance of twins in these 
 respects, — a resemblance not to be accounted 
 for by training, since others who had received 
 the same training did not show it. He con- 
 cludes that " heredity itself is highly specialized." 
 In general the investigators agree that educa- 
 tion can fashion one to mediocre efficiency, but 
 that it caiuiot produce marked ability. 
 See FoRM.\L Discipline; Discipline. 
 
 E. N. H. 
 
 References : Any recent text-book in psychology 
 may he consulted, but the following give special 
 treatment : — 
 Heck, W. H. Mental Discipline and Educational 
 
 Values. (New York, 1909.) 
 Thorndike, E. L. Educational Psychology. (New 
 York, 1903.) 
 
 ABITURIENTENPRUFUNG. — Also Ab- 
 
 G.VNti.s-, M.KTURiT-VT.s-, or Reifeprufung. 
 
 The final leaving examination in a German 
 high school with a nine years' course, intro- 
 duced in 1788. The following is the procedure 
 for the examination in Prussia. The examina- 
 tion can only be taken by those who have 
 reached the Prima, or highest class. The 
 faculty decides who shall be admitted to the 
 examination, which in scope and character is 
 limited to the work of the Prima. The examin- 
 ing commission consi-sts of the director, the 
 faculty of the highest class, and a representative 
 of the Provincial School Board (see Ger.m.^ny, 
 Educ.\tion,\l System in). Suitable questions 
 for the examination are submitted by the 
 teachers to the director, who gives his approval 
 and submits the questions to the representative 
 of the Provincial School Board for selection. 
 The examination is both written and oral, but 
 candidates who present good written papers 
 may be excused from the oral. In the Gymna- 
 sium the examination includes: (1) A German 
 essay; (2) a translation from German into 
 Latin; (3) a translation from the Greek; 
 (4) from the French into German; and (5) 
 four problems in mathematics. The oral ex- 
 amination includes Latin, Greek, religion, hi.s- 
 tory, and mathematics. There is a system of 
 balancing up bad papers with the good, except 
 that no candidate will be passed who fails in 
 German or both classical languages. In the 
 Realgymna-tium and the Oberrealschule the 
 examination includes: (1) a German essay; 
 (2) a French or English essay; (.3) a translation 
 from German into French or English; (4) four 
 problems in mathematics; (5) one problem 
 
 in physics or chemistry. In the former there 
 is in addition (6) a translation from Latin into 
 German. The oral examination incluiles reli- 
 gion, French, English, history, mathematics, 
 phj'sics, or chemistry. 
 
 The Abituriodenpriifung is not only a test 
 of scholarship, but success in it carries with it 
 several privileges, all of which are since 1902 en- 
 joyed e(|ually by the Realgymnasium and Ober- 
 realschule with the Gymnasium. The passing of 
 the final examination is obligatory for admi.ssion 
 to the universities and the learned professions 
 since 1834, with the exception that graduates of 
 the Oberrealschule must make up Latin before 
 they can be admitted to the study of medicine, 
 and that candidates for theology must have a 
 knowledge of Latin and Greek, the certificates 
 of the leaving examination now have equal 
 value. A further privilege carried by this exam- 
 ination is the admission, after pursuing certain 
 studies, to all posts in the state service. The 
 Abitiiricntenpriifung serves to secure a certain 
 standard of uniformity in the standards of the 
 high schools throughout the tierman states, 
 since it is practically the only recognized exami- 
 nation for entrance to full enjoyment of univer- 
 sity privileges. 
 
 See CiERM.^NY, Educ.\tio.\ in. 
 References : — 
 Lexis, W. Das deutsche Vnterrichtswesen, Vol. I. 
 
 (Berlin, 1903.) 
 RnssELL, J. E. German Higher Schools. (New York, 
 1905.) 
 
 ABNORMAL. —A term descriptive uf 
 nuirked physical and mental deviation from the 
 condition generally found in the particular class 
 to which reference is made. Some writers incor- 
 rectly use the word as a synonym of " path- 
 ological." The latter term, however, always 
 implies a .state or condition in which there is 
 some interference with the normal functions, 
 as in disease, whereas " abnormal " includes 
 other types of deviation as well. A double- 
 yolked egg is abnormal, but not pathological; 
 a man fifty-four inches tall may be only ab- 
 normal, whereas a man of the same height 
 who is a cretin (dwarf due to insufficient or 
 absent thyroid secretion) is not only abnormal, 
 but also pathological; all hallucinations are 
 abnormal, while only a limited number of them 
 are pathological. 
 
 From time to time attempts have been made 
 to classify bodily and mental abnormalities, but 
 on account of the diversity of the material and 
 the efforts to make the schemes all-inclusive, the 
 plans are not suitable for p.sychological or edu- 
 cational purposes. The diflRculties of classify- 
 ing pathological abnormalities are not so 
 great as those of classifying all abnormalities, 
 but the pathological abnormalities arc suffi- 
 ciently varied in character to require more than 
 one method of grouping. 
 
 For convenience here we may group the 
 bodily and mental activities which are of educa- 
 tional importance into three classes: sensation, 
 
 12
 
 ABNORMAL 
 
 ABSENTIA 
 
 association, and movement. In such of these 
 classes of activities we may find the following 
 kinds of abnormalities: (a) absence or loss, 
 (fc) decrease, and (c) increase. The important 
 abnormalities on this basis of cla.ssification in 
 each of the three classes are given in Tables I, 
 II, III, respectively. 
 
 TABLE I 
 Sensation Abnormalities 
 
 
 Abnormal Conditions 
 
 
 
 
 
 Conditions 
 
 Absence or 
 Losa 
 
 Decrease 
 
 Increase 
 
 vision 
 
 blindness 
 
 amblyopia 
 
 
 hearing 
 
 deafness 
 
 partial deaf- 
 ness 
 
 hyperacusis 
 
 taste 
 
 ageusia 
 
 
 
 smell 
 
 anosmia 
 
 
 hvperosmia 
 
 touch 
 
 anipsthesia 
 
 hvposesthesia 
 
 hyperesthesia 
 
 pain 
 
 aniilgesia 
 
 hypoalsesia 
 
 hyperalgesia 
 
 temperature 
 
 thermoan- 
 
 thermohvpo- 
 
 thermohyper- 
 
 
 esthesia 
 
 :ESthesia 
 
 aesthesia 
 
 TABLE II 
 Association Abnormalities 
 
 Normal 
 
 Abnormal Conditions 
 
 Process 
 
 Absence or 
 Loss 
 
 Decrease 
 
 Increase 
 
 memory 
 
 speech 
 attention 
 
 amnesia 
 
 dumbness 
 
 aphasia 
 
 aprosexia 
 
 varj'ing de- 
 grees of 
 amnesia 
 
 partial apha- 
 sias 
 
 hypermnesia 
 hyperprosexia 
 
 TABLE III 
 Movement Abnormalities 
 
 Absence or Loss 
 
 Decrease 
 
 Increase 
 
 paralysis 
 
 paresis 
 retardation 
 
 spasm 
 tic 
 
 convulsion 
 cramp 
 
 disturbances in movement abilitj'. We may, 
 however, disregard the finer distinctions in this 
 place, and classify the material solely as a con- 
 venience. For the more careful analysis of 
 many of the conditions the reader is referred 
 to the articles dealing with the separate topics. 
 
 Following are lists of abnormalities that can- 
 not be properly clasised in the foregoing tables, 
 but which have many points of similarity to 
 those alreadj' mentioned. Vision : decrease — 
 color blindness, hemianopsia, contractions of 
 the visual field. Hearing: decrease — tone 
 deafness; increase — tinnitus aurium (a sub- 
 jective tinkling sound). Memory: decrease 
 — lapses, forgetfulness. Speech: decrease — 
 aphonia, hoarseness. Attention: decrease — 
 distraction. Movement: increase — tremor, 
 contracture, impulsion, catalepsj-, athetosis; 
 decrease — ataxia, weakness. 
 
 All the abnormalities mentioned thus far 
 may be considered quantitative variations 
 from the normal, but there are other abnor- 
 malities that may more properly be called 
 variations in quality. Some of these, but not 
 all, may be described as perversions of normal 
 conditions. Under this heading (qualitative 
 abnormalities) the most common are: halluci- 
 nations, illusions, delusions, allochiria, polyffs- 
 thesia, vertigo, diaeusis (unpleasant sensation 
 from ordinary stimuli), parosmia (smell perver- 
 sion), kakosmia (subjective smell sensations of 
 an offensive character), and parageusia (taste 
 perversion). 
 
 There are two very general mental abnormali- 
 ties, each composed of a number of perverted, 
 decreased, or increased functions. These two 
 general conditions are commonly called insanity 
 and feeble-mindedness. 
 
 The latter term is used in describing indi- 
 viduals who have not attained a normal mental 
 status, when compared with other indi\iduals 
 in the community. Those individuals are 
 called insane who have shown marked deviation 
 from their own normal manner of feeling, think- 
 ing, and acting. The distinctions between the 
 two classes is brought out in more detail in the 
 articles deahng with these topics. S. I. F. 
 
 ABSENT - MINDEDNESS. — See Atten- 
 
 For a complete division of speech abnormali- 
 ties the reader is referred to the articles on 
 speech defects, aphasia and those mentioned 
 under the latter topic. 
 
 In addition to the abnormalities mentioned in 
 the three tables, there are many others not so 
 distinctly losses, decreases, or increases in func- 
 tion. ]Many of these are complex in character, 
 and, if the classification purports to be complete, 
 they ought to be grouped under two or more 
 headings. All difficulties in movement and all 
 sensation deficiencies may be considered partial 
 losses, but many of the movement abnormalities 
 depend upon sensation los.ses, and some of the 
 sensation abnormalities are dependent upon 
 
 ABSENTIA, DEGREES IN. — The confer- 
 ment of a degree on a candidate who has fulfilled 
 the necessary requirements for it, but is unable 
 to be present. The presentation for degrees was 
 for so long an important feature in a student's 
 career, connected as it generally was with dis- 
 putations, that although the form has dis- 
 appeared, the ceremonial, which is more" pic- 
 turesque than significant, has been retained 
 even by those universities which cannot look 
 back to the period when the degree conferment 
 meant something. Hence the practice of in- 
 sisting that all candidates for degrees be present 
 in person is almost universal in Great Britain 
 
 13
 
 ABSTRACT AND CONCRETE 
 
 ACADEMIC COSTUAIE 
 
 and very common in America. In Great 
 Britain dcprccs in absentia will generally not 
 be granted unless the candidate is out of the 
 country. In case of illness candidates must 
 apjJcar at a suhseciuent conferment. In many 
 universities an intermediate conferment during 
 the year has been introduced, when it is usual 
 to charge an additional fee. When degrees are 
 conferred in aliscnlia, the names of the candi- 
 dates are read out after the conferment of 
 similar degrees. At O.xford degrees i'(( absentia 
 are only conferred on canilidates resident abroad 
 and occupied in inisiness or profession or study, 
 who have fulfilled the statutory requirements, 
 as, for example, suljinitting a dissertation, obtain- 
 ing a grace from their college, or, if the degree 
 is in divinity, subscribing to the statutory dec- 
 laration. In addition an extra payment of £5 
 is required. In American colleges the practice 
 varies. The presence of all candidates is usually 
 expected, but the requirements are more strin- 
 gent for those who are proceeding to the first 
 degree. 
 
 See Degrees. 
 
 ABSTRACT AND CONCRETE. — See Con- 
 
 CltKTi; .\.M) Al!STH--VCT. 
 
 ABSTRACTION. — A term of logic meaning 
 the separation, for i ntellcct iial purposes only, of a 
 quality from the thing to which it belongs, or a 
 relation from the pair of things between which it 
 subsists. Its possibility rests upon capacity for 
 selective attention, in virtue of which some trait 
 not sensuously conspicuous or intense is dwelt 
 upon because of its importance in relation to 
 some conceived end. While the brutes have 
 great power of concentration, there is great 
 doubt whether (except ])erhaps in the case of 
 some of the higher apes and monkeys) they have 
 the power of selective attention. Since reason- 
 ing depends upon the capacity to treat an ex- 
 tracted quality or relation as a sample or typical 
 instance, rational thought is dependent on ab- 
 straction or selective attention. The consider- 
 ation of some quality or relation irrespective 
 of the particular context in which it is found 
 is obviously an indispensable prerequisite 
 for all generalization {q.v.), so much so that it 
 may be put down as a general principle that 
 abstraction exists for the sake of a resulting 
 generalization. If this principle were uniformly 
 borne in mind in education, there would be 
 little occasion for the attacks which educational 
 reformers have made upon the proneness of in- 
 struction to run into abstractions; for it will 
 be found that the abstract in the sense of the 
 unduly abstruse, the excessively theoretical 
 and useless, always means abstraction arrested, 
 so that it has become an end in itself instead of a 
 preliminary to recognition of a general principle. 
 
 J. D. 
 
 See Concrete and Abstr.\ct. 
 
 ABSTRACTION. — A term used along with 
 " comparison " to describe the " third step " in 
 
 the procedure of the recitation, or " inductive 
 development lesson." 
 
 See Co.Mi>.\iusoNs and Abstr.\ction; Reci- 
 T.\TioN, Method of. 
 
 ABUL-WEFA. — Mohamcd ben Mohammed 
 ben .lahja l)en Isma 'il ben el-'Abbas, Abii'l- 
 Wefa el-HuzjanI, one of the greatest teachers 
 and mathematicians among tlie Arabs, was born 
 in Buzjan near Xis.abur in 940, and died in 997. 
 He wrote on arithmetic, geometry, and algebra, 
 and edited various works of AL-Kuow.\ii.\z.Mi 
 (q.v.), Ei:cLiD (q.v.), Diophantus iq.v.), and 
 HIPPARCHUS (q.v.). D. E. S. 
 
 ABULIA. — A symptom in many mental dis- 
 eases, consisting essentially in a decrease or 
 absence of will power, and in a falling oif of 
 attention. In neurasthenia and in psychas- 
 thenia the abulia is incomplete, but in such 
 conditions as hysteria there may be a lo.ss of all 
 voluntary action. All actions are not equally 
 affected, for it is found that those of a reflex 
 and instinctive nature are usually retained, 
 while only those of a more complex nature are 
 lost. In hy.steria the abulia may be so marked 
 as to simulate a complete paralysis, Imt the 
 paralyses of organic origin are not usually con- 
 sidered abulias. 
 
 See PsYCHASTHENi.A., Xeur-vsthenia, and 
 Hysteria. 
 
 References : — 
 
 HuGONiN. Contribution a Vetvde des troubles de la 
 I'ulunle ctiez les alienes. (Paris, 1892.) (With a 
 practically complete bibliography to the year of 
 publication.) 
 
 RiBOT. Maladies de la volonte. (Paris, 1883.) 
 
 ACADEMIC COSTUME. — In this country 
 as in Europe academic costume consists princi- 
 pally of caps, gowns, and hoods of forms that 
 have become specialized and used as outer gar- 
 ments by students, holders of degrees, and offi- 
 cials in universities, colleges, and other institu- 
 tions of learning. It is closely related to the 
 professional costume used by members of the 
 bench and bar in many countries, by the clergy 
 and choirs in many churches, by various frater- 
 nal orders in ceremonial exercises, and has many 
 features in common with the medieval dress still 
 used by ancient guilds. The noticeable feature 
 is the long, full, flowing gown or robe, which 
 seems to have been inherited from the twelfth 
 and thirteenth centuries, when the universities 
 were finding a form which recognized a demo- 
 cratic factor in the self-governing powers, but 
 under a headship appointed by the Church. The 
 scholars were clerics, and so their robes were not 
 far different from those of other clerical orders. 
 
 It seems to have been at this time that 
 the dress of the friars and nuns became fixed. 
 Flowing robes were the dignified dress of the 
 times, and special forms which were set aside for 
 the use of the various parts of the university 
 body have persisted with modifications down to 
 
 14
 
 o 
 
 'o 
 
 e 
 
 o 
 O 
 
 « 
 
 Q 
 
 Q 
 
 13 
 
 
 B 
 
 ■3 
 
 O 
 

 
 ACADEMIC COSTUME 
 
 ACADEMIC COSTUME 
 
 the present. The cold Isuilclings of medieval 
 times required capes and hoods for warmth. 
 The cap replaced the hood for the head and the 
 cape with hood was modified into the present 
 hood, which by colors, trimming, and linings be- 
 comes perhaps the most noticeable and signifi- 
 cant part of the costume in British, Colonial, 
 and American colleges. Full black robes are 
 used by professors in German universities on 
 their ceremonial occasions; in the University 
 of Paris the costume is a gown of black with 
 colored facings, with a colored scarf hanging 
 from the shoulder and a high turban with a 
 
 tion only in the college colors which line the 
 hoods. 
 
 In the colored plate, illustrating the 
 American usage, the hood linings are seen 
 treated heraldically as inverted shields, the 
 colors being arranged as one or- more chevrons 
 of the secondary color, upon a ground of the 
 primary college color, or divided parti-per-chev- 
 ron. Where the same colors have been used by 
 different institutions, — generall.y widely sepa- 
 rated, — different shades of the same colors have 
 been followed. In the British plate, the em- 
 pirical character of the usage is evident. 
 
 Bachelor's Cap, Gown, and Hooi 
 
 Doctor's Cap and Gown. 
 
 Master's Cap, Gown, and Hood. 
 
 colored crown. Different colors denote dif- 
 ferent faculties. For high occasions they have 
 gorgeous robes made largely of silk of the 
 faculty colors — scarlet, crimson, and yellow. 
 Academic costume is largely used in the 
 colleges and universities of the British Empire 
 and the United States. In the former, each 
 university has its own empirical usage, small 
 relationship being discoverable between the 
 various codes, except in the shapes of the caps, 
 gowns, and hoods. The colorings are unrelated, 
 except that red gowns and red hoods are indica- 
 tive of a doctorate. In the United States there 
 is in general use a uniform system adaptable to 
 each institution, and differing at each institu- 
 
 The following are the codes of Oxford, 
 Cambridge, and Edinburgh : — 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD 
 B..\. M.B. 
 
 Gown. Black stuff. 
 Hood. Black stuff 
 
 trimmed with white fur. 
 
 M.A. 
 
 Gown. Black silk. 
 Hood. Black silk 
 with crimson silk. 
 
 lined 
 
 Gown. Black silk. 
 Hood. Blue silk trimmed 
 with white fur. 
 
 M.D. 
 
 Gown. Black silk. 
 Hood. Scarlet cloth lined 
 with crimson silk. 
 
 15
 
 ACADEMIC COSTUME 
 
 ACADEMIC COSTUME 
 
 Mus.B. 
 
 Gown. Black silk. 
 Hood. Blue silk trimmed 
 with white fur. 
 
 Mus.D. 
 
 Gown. Black silk. 
 
 Hood. White silk in bro- 
 cade lined with 
 silk. 
 
 crimson 
 
 S.C.L. and S.M. 
 
 Gown. Black stuff. 
 Hood. Blue silk. 
 
 B.D. 
 
 Gown. Black silk. 
 Hooil. Black silk lined 
 with glossy black silk. 
 
 D.D. 
 
 Gown. Black silk. 
 Hood. Scarlet cloth lined 
 with black silk. 
 
 B.C.L. 
 
 Gown. Black .silk. 
 Hood. Blue silk trimmed 
 with white fur. 
 
 D.C.L. 
 
 Gown. Black silk. 
 Hood. Scarlet cloth lined 
 with crimson silk. 
 
 Doctors of Divinity, Civil Law, Medicine, 
 Mu.sic, Science, and Letters are entitled to wear 
 a scarlet cloth gown, faced and lined with the 
 color of the lining of the hood of their respective 
 faculties. 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE 
 
 B..\. 
 
 Gown. Black stuff. 
 Hood. Black stuff 
 
 trimmed with white fur. 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH 
 
 M.A. 
 
 D.Sc. and D.Litt. 
 
 Gown. Black silk. 
 
 
 Hood. Black silk 
 
 Gown. Black silk. 
 
 with l>lue silk, 
 
 Hood. Scarlet cloth lined 
 
 with white fur. 
 
 with French gruj-. 
 
 
 M.A. 
 
 Gown. Black .silk. 
 Hood. Black silk lined 
 with white silk. 
 
 B.D. 
 
 Gown. Black silk. 
 Hood. Black silk lined 
 with black silk. 
 
 D.D. 
 
 Gown. Black silk. 
 Hood. Scariet cloth 
 with pink silk. 
 
 lined 
 
 LL.B. 
 
 Gown. Black silk. 
 Hood. Black .silk trimmed 
 with white fur. 
 
 LL.M. 
 
 Gown. Black silk. 
 
 Hood. Black silk 
 
 with white fur. 
 
 lined 
 
 LL.D. 
 
 Gown. Black silk. 
 Hood. Scarlet cloth lined 
 with pink silk. 
 
 M.B. 
 
 Gown. Black silk. 
 Hood. Black silk trimmed 
 with white fur. 
 
 M.D. 
 
 Gown. Black silk. 
 Hood. Scarlet cloth lined 
 with pink silk. 
 
 Mus.B. 
 
 Gown. Black silk. 
 Hood. Black stuff 
 
 trimmed with white fur. 
 
 Mus.D. 
 
 Gown. Black silk. 
 Hood. Red puce silk lined 
 with white silk. 
 
 Doctors of Divinity, Laws, Medicine, and 
 Music are entitled to wear scarlet gowns, 
 faced and lined with the color of the lining of the 
 hood of their respective faculties. 
 
 Gown. Black silk. 
 Hood. Black silk lined 
 with white silk. 
 
 B.D. 
 
 Gown. Black silk. 
 
 Hood. Black silk lined 
 with purple silk, bor- 
 dered with fur. 
 
 D.D. 
 
 Gown. Black silk. 
 Hood. Black cloth lined 
 with puri)le silk. 
 
 LL.B. 
 
 lined 
 edged 
 
 LL.D. 
 
 Gown. Black silk. 
 Hood. Black cloth lined 
 with blue silk. 
 
 M.B. and M.S. 
 
 Gown. Black silk. 
 Hood. Black silk lined 
 
 with crimson silk, edged 
 
 with white fur. 
 
 M.D. 
 
 Gown. Black silk. 
 Hood. Black cloth lined 
 with crimson silk. 
 
 B.Sc. 
 
 Gown. 
 
 Black 
 
 silk. 
 
 
 Hood. 
 
 Black 
 
 silk 
 
 lined 
 
 with 
 
 lenion- 
 
 \-ello\\ 
 
 ■ silk, 
 
 edgec 
 
 with white 
 
 ur. 
 
 
 D.Sc 
 
 
 
 Gown. 
 
 Black 
 
 silk. 
 
 
 Hood. 
 
 Black 
 
 silk 
 
 lined 
 
 with 
 
 cmon-. 
 
 ellow 
 
 silk. 
 
 Full-dress gowns for Doctors of the University 
 of Edinburgh are made of superfine scarlet 
 cloth, loose sleeves, lined with rich silk of the 
 color of the lining of the hood of the graduate's 
 degree. 
 
 The following is the Intercollegiate System 
 in use in the United States. 
 
 Undergr.^duate : Of black stuff, round or pointed 
 
 sleeve, open or closed, "no hood. 
 B.\CHELORS : Of black stuff, long pointed sleeve, open 
 
 or closed, with hood. 
 M.4STER.S : Of silk preferably, long closed sleeve, vnth 
 
 slit near upper part for arm, open, with hood. 
 Doctors: Of silk preferably, with round hell sleeve; 
 
 gown faced down the fronts and barred on the sleeves 
 
 with black velvet or velvet wholly or in part of the 
 
 degree color, with hood. 
 
 Presidents, Chancellors, and Deans may have 
 the yokes, fronts, and bars trimmed with gold 
 braid and may wear gold tassels. INIcmbers 
 of the Governing Body (Trustees, etc.) may 
 wear the Doctor's gown during tenure of office. 
 
 Hoods should be of the same materials as the 
 Gowns, arc of di.stinctive shapes for Bachelor, 
 Master, and Doctor, and are lined with silk 
 showing the official colors of the institution con- 
 ferring the degree, or with which the wearer is 
 connected, and are trimmed with velvet of the 
 color distinctive of the degree, thus: — 
 
 Arts and letters white Oratory . . . silver-gray 
 
 Theology . . scarlet Engineering . . f>range 
 
 . purple Pharmacy . . olive 
 
 blue Dentistry . . . lilac 
 
 gold-yellow Veterinary science gray 
 
 brown Forestry . . . russet 
 
 green Library science . lemon 
 
 . i)ink Pedagogy . . . light blue 
 
 . drab 
 
 Laws 
 
 Philosophy 
 Science 
 Fine arts . 
 Medicine 
 Music . 
 
 Commerce and Accountancj' 
 
 16
 
 ACADEMIC COSTUME 
 
 ACADEMIC COSTUME 
 
 CAPS 
 
 The Oxford cap, of serge or broadcloth, with 
 either stiff or folding crown, is worn for all 
 degrees, but the Doctorate is entitled to a gold 
 tassel in whole or part, and the Doctor's cap 
 maj' be of velvet. 
 
 The official colors of some of the more im- 
 portant institutions are as follows: — 
 
 Yale Blue 
 
 Harvard Crimson 
 
 Columbia Light blue, -n-ith white chevron 
 
 Princeton Orange, with black chevron 
 
 Univ. of Penn Red, with blue chevron 
 
 Williams Royal purple 
 
 Bryn Mawr Maize, with white chevron 
 
 Cornell .... Carnelian, with two white chevrons 
 
 University of Chicago Maroon 
 
 Union Garnet 
 
 Hamilton Blue, with buff chevron 
 
 New York University Violet 
 
 Johns Hopkins Black, with gold chevron 
 
 Syracuse Orange 
 
 Tulane Olive, with blue chevron 
 
 Dartmouth Green 
 
 Wellesley Dark blue 
 
 Brown Brown 
 
 Mt. Holyoke Light blue 
 
 Amherst Purple, with white chevron 
 
 Wesleyan Cardinal, with black chevron 
 
 Tufts Brown, with blue chevron 
 
 George Washington Uni- 
 versity Blue, with buff chevron 
 
 Lehigh Brown, with white chevron 
 
 Georgetown Gray, with blue chevron 
 
 Holy Cross Purple 
 
 St. Francis Xavier . . . Maroon, with blue chevron 
 
 Manhattan White, with green chevron 
 
 University of Michigan . Maize, with blue chevron 
 University of California . Gold silk, with Mue chevron 
 
 St. Stephens Cardinal 
 
 Rutgers Scarlet 
 
 Foreign Colleges 
 
 Protestant College, Beirut, 
 
 Syria Turkey red and white 
 
 Robert College, Con- 
 stantinople Light blue 
 
 Manila University Gold and light blue 
 
 Naturally college colors are better known 
 in their bounds than outside, and better at 
 institutions that play match games together 
 than at more distant places. American col- 
 lege colors are, however, being carried every- 
 where, especially since it has become the 
 custom for universities and colleges to give 
 to the recipients of their honorary degrees the 
 correct hoods for these degrees. At centen- 
 nials and other great convocations many are 
 given to vLsiting delegates from American and 
 foreign universities, and are carried and later 
 worn in widely separated places, and thus 
 serve to make known the institutions whose 
 degrees are represented by the hoods. 
 
 As there are a large number of professors 
 in America holding German degrees, in faculties 
 where the intercollegiate system is used, it has 
 become the custom for them to use the caps, 
 gowns, and hoods of their appropriate degrees, 
 which are usually Ph.D., lining the hoods with 
 the colors of the German universities, upon 
 which is laid a German tri-chevron of black, 
 
 VOL. I — c 
 
 white, and red. This custom was inaugurated in 
 189.5 at the University of Chicago by a confer- 
 ence of professors of German and other national- 
 ities who were outfitting under the American 
 system, and who designed this symbolism to in- 
 dicate the source of the degrees which represented 
 so much of German moclcrn research. 
 
 The German universities are represented as 
 follows : — 
 
 University of Berlin 
 
 Purple, with tri-che^'ron in center 
 LTniversity of Freiburg 
 
 Dark green, with tri-chevron in center 
 University of Gottingen 
 
 Yellow, with tri-chevron in center 
 University of Halle 
 
 White, with tri-chevron in center 
 University of Heidelberg 
 
 Red, with tri-chevron in center 
 University of Munich 
 
 Light blue, with tri-che^'ron in center 
 Universitj' of Leipsic 
 
 CJreen above white, with tri-chevron in center 
 University of Jena 
 
 Green above gold, with tri-chevron in center 
 University of \\'iirzburg 
 
 Blue above white, with tri-chevron in center 
 University of Tubingen 
 
 Red above black, with tri-chevron in center 
 University of Bonn 
 
 White above black, with tri-chevron in center 
 University of Strassburg 
 
 Black above red, with white chevron 
 University of Breslau 
 
 Black above white, with red chevron 
 Royal Normal College, Munich 
 
 Blue and white panels, with tri-chevron 
 
 Harvard has the same code for gowns, but 
 shows the school in which the degree was given 
 Ijy the same colors as the trimming of the 
 hoods under the intercollegiate system, in the 
 form of braided double crow's-feet (for honorary 
 degrees, triple crow's-feet) placed on each side 
 of the gown in front near the collar. Harvard 
 hoods are all of the Master's shape, lined with 
 crimson, and are of different lengths for Bache- 
 lors, Masters, and Doctors. For honorary de- 
 grees they are of cloth, otherwise they match 
 the gowns. Professors, assistant professors, 
 and other members of the University Council 
 wear a square soft cap of velvet. 
 
 The following colleges retain empirical codes 
 in use before the framing of the intercollegiate 
 system: Trinitv, University of the South (Se- 
 waneo), St. John's (Annapolis). They are to 
 be foimd in the Living Church Almanac. 
 
 Caps and gowns have been used in the United 
 States from colonial times, particularly at Co- 
 lumbia (King's College), where a local code ex- 
 isted. New York University-, University of Penn- 
 sj'lvania, and others have used gowns for long 
 periods. About 1SS.5 there came a student 
 movement to use them, and from then until 
 1S93 there was a rapidly increasing adoption of 
 the custom on the part of graduating classes due 
 to an appreciation of their value, largely from 
 a democratic standpoint, since gowns and caps 
 clothed all alike in an outward, ecjual fellowship. 
 An interest also arose among college presi- 
 dents and trustees, and the Yale Corporation 
 17
 
 ACADEMIC COSTUME 
 
 ACADEMIE 
 
 was one of the earliest governing bodies to be 
 gowned. The Cohiinhia. Now York University, 
 and University of Pennsylvania faculties were 
 already gowned. The Harvard faculty was 
 supplied for the 2.")0th anniversary in 1886. 
 
 Ttje statute for an Intercollegiate System 
 of Academic Costume was drawn by a comniis- 
 sion proposed by Princeton in 1893, to which 
 the leading universities and colleges were in- 
 vited to send members. Columbia was rep- 
 resented by President Seth Low and Bishop 
 Potter, a trustee; Yale by Rev. Chas. Ray 
 Palmer, a trustee; University of New York 
 by Chancellor McCracken, and Princeton by 
 Col. John.]. McCook, a trustee who was the mov- 
 ing spirit at Princeton in proposing the com- 
 mission, and the secretary of the commission 
 when organized. A number of institutions 
 expressed interest without sending delegates. 
 Col. McCook had seen the value of devices 
 on army uniforms in dilTerentiating the various 
 army corps and divisions. He studied the 
 traditional colors as used in the older universi- 
 ties of Italy, France, and Great Britain to mark 
 the different faculties; he realized the endless 
 confusion that would arise should each Ameri- 
 can college have its own unrelated code of 
 gowns, and especially of hoods, and knew that 
 American colleges would never be able to 
 secure the benefits of academic co.stunie unless 
 a sy.stem could be devised that could be adapted 
 to all institutions and be understood in all by 
 any one who had become familiar vrith the sys- 
 tem at any one institution. The writer, whose 
 article in the University Magazine of Dec, 1893, 
 had pointed out the need of a system, was called 
 into consultation, prepared colored sketches 
 and experimental gowns and hoods, and assisted 
 in defining the distinguishing features of the 
 caps, gowns, ami hoods for the different degrees. 
 
 The statute as prepared by the commission 
 was offered to the universities and colleges, and 
 was soon adopted by a considerable number, 
 and has since been taken up so generally that 
 it is considered to be in force at all institutions in 
 the United States, with the few exceptions 
 noted. In 189-t, when the statute was adopted, 
 a registry under the name of the Intercollegiate 
 Bureau of Academic Costume was opened to 
 record the correct colors of the institutions, the 
 arrangement of the colors where more than one 
 was employed, and any other particulars of the 
 gowns, hoods, and caps u.sed under the system 
 or otherwise of all colleges and universities 
 wherever located, and any other information as 
 to their ceremonies. In 1 902 the Regents of the 
 University of the State of Xew York granted a 
 charter to the Bureau which had really been in 
 existence since 1887, and it has continued its 
 location at .\lbany, N.Y. 
 
 The object of the corporation is " to establish 
 and maintain a library relating to the universi- 
 ties, professional, technical, and advanced 
 schools and colleges of the world, particularly 
 as to their membersliip and their ceremonial 
 
 and other public appearances, including their 
 gowns, hoods, caps, robes, badges, banners, arms, 
 and other regalia used on such occasions; to 
 maintain a register of statutes, codes, and 
 usages, designs and descriptions of the arti- 
 cles of academic costume and regalia with 
 their correct colors, materials, qualities, sizes, 
 proportions, and the arrangement thereof; 
 to promote social intercourse among mem- 
 bers of universities and colleges, and to dis- 
 seminate information on the subjects above 
 mentioned." 
 
 The o]>inion of the bureau is to be had by any 
 one interested, without charge, as it was founded 
 through an academic interest to fill a need of the 
 colleges and universities in collating informa- 
 tion and securing correctness in the use of aca- 
 demic costume — the regalia of the educational 
 army. G. C. L. 
 
 References: — 
 
 Academical Hoods, etc. Rev. John Woodward, LL.D., 
 
 F.S..\. .Scot., Rector of St. Mary's, Montrose. 
 Albani/ Bureau of Academic Costume. Reprint from 
 
 -Vlbimy -trtfHj,-, 1902. 
 Calthrop. Diox Cl.wton. English Costume, Vol. 2, 
 
 p. 142. (London. 1906.) 
 Costumes of the Alembers of the University of Oxford. 
 
 24 plates. Oxford. 
 Costumes of the University of Cambridge. 24 plates. 
 
 Cambridge. 
 F.4JRHOLT, F. W. Costume in England. (London, 
 
 1860.) 
 La Croix, P.\tJL. Manners, Customs, and Dress during 
 
 the Middle Ages. (London. 1877.) 
 Leonard, G.\RDNER C. The Cap andGcnon in America. 
 
 (.\lbany, N.V.. 1896.) 
 Wells. J. Oxford and its Colleges. (London, 1898.) 
 Wells. J. The Oxford Degree Ceremony. (Oxford, 1906.) 
 Wood, T. W. Ecclesiastieal and Academical Colours. 
 
 (London, 1876.) 
 Wood. T. W. The Degrees, Gowns, and Hoods of 
 
 British, Colonial, Indian and American Universities 
 
 and Colleges. (London.) 
 
 ACADEMIC FREEDOM. — See Freedom 
 OF Te-\ching or Academic Freedo.m (for 
 Freedom of Le.\rxixg, see Elective System). 
 
 ACADEMICIAN. - 
 
 NALisM i.\ America. 
 
 - See Educational Jour- 
 
 ACADEMIE (English, academy). — The 
 largest unit in the administrative organization 
 of the French educational system. The ninety 
 departments into which France is divided 
 are grouped in a more or less arbitrary fashion 
 into seventeen academies. These are: Aix, 
 BesanQon, Bordeaux, Caen, Chamb^ry, Cler- 
 mont, Dijon, Grenoble, Lille. Lyons, Montpel- 
 lier, Nancy, Paris, Poitiers, Rennes, Toulouse, 
 and Algier, each one taking its name from the 
 city which is its official seat, and each except 
 ChamWry and Algier having its own university. 
 The administrative officer of the academy is the 
 rector, who is at the head of all three degrees of 
 instruction, elementary, secondary, and higher. 
 (The Minister of Public Instruction is the rec- 
 tor of the Academy of Paris, but his active 
 functions, as far as this particular academy is 
 
 18
 
 ACADEMY 
 
 ACADEMY 
 
 concerned, are delegated to a vice-rector.) 
 Under the rector are as many academy in- 
 spectors as there are departments in the acad- 
 emy, although Paris has several additional 
 inspectors. These academies vary greatly 
 in size and importance, ranging from Paris, 
 with nine departments and approximately five 
 and three quarters millions of people, to Cham- 
 bery, with only two departments and fewer 
 than seventy-eight thousand inhabitants. 
 See Fr.\nce, Education in. 
 
 ACADEMY. — A term derived from the Greek 
 dKaS-rjixeia, a suburb of Athens, which was laid out 
 by Cimon and presented to the city as public 
 pleasure grounds. It was here that Plato met and 
 discussed with his pupils, and here his followers 
 established themselves as a school. Hence the 
 name " Academy" came to be applied to them, 
 and from this use was adopted generally to refer 
 to any school or place of learning or any a.ssocia- 
 tion of men formed for the pursuit of literary or 
 scientific or artistic investigation. The library 
 and university of Alexandria are said to have 
 originated from such an institution, founded by 
 Ptolemy Soter. And Charlemagne and Alcuin 
 are credited with the establishment of an 
 academy for the study of grammar, rhetoric, 
 poetry, history, and mathematics. But it was 
 during the Renaissance that the academy in the 
 sense of an association of literary men sprang 
 into popularity with the educated cla.sses, 
 particularly with the aristocracy, who here 
 found an outlet for their activity. Although 
 the academy may have originated earlier or in 
 another country (Belgium is said to have had an 
 academy in the twelfth century), Italj' is the 
 scene of its fuller development; and only one 
 other institution, the Academy of Floral Games, 
 founded at Toulouse in 1325 to award prizes 
 to successful Troubadours, has had a longer and 
 more successful career, continuing in existence 
 to the present time for the encouragement of 
 poetry. The earliest academies were founded 
 for the advancement of the study, first of cla.ssi- 
 cal, and soon afterwards of Italian, literature. 
 The Platonic Academy was founded at Florence 
 in 1474 under the patronage of Cosmo de' Medici 
 for the study of philology and the philosophy 
 of Plato, to which were soon added the works 
 of Dante and other Italian writers. After the 
 expulsion of the Medici and the dissolution of 
 the academy in 1527, the work, particularly the 
 study of Italian writers, was taken up by the 
 Academy of Florence, 1540. Numerous associa- 
 tions were formed for the same purpose in all 
 parts of Italy; the most famous being the Acca- 
 demia della Cruscn or Furfuratorum, the " acad- 
 emy of the sifted ones," formed in 1587. 
 This academy published in 1613 the Vo- 
 cabulario della Crusca. Incorporated with 
 two other societies it is still in existence. 
 Academies of a similar character soon came 
 to be established throughout Europe. In 
 1617 Die Fruchtbringende Gesellschaft was 
 
 founded at Weimar to foster a study of the 
 German language and rhetoric and to set the 
 standards for a distinctively German education 
 and morality. Its influence, however, was 
 never strong. The further development of the 
 literary academj' took place in France under 
 the patronage of Louis XIV and his ministers. 
 The French Academy originated from a private 
 society formed for the study of French litera- 
 ture. It received its charter from the King, on 
 the recommendation of Richelieu, in 1635. Its 
 aim was " to regulate the language and render it 
 pure, eloquent, and capable of treating the arts 
 and sciences." Its most important work 
 was the issue of the Dictionary in 1639, which 
 has been constantly supplemented. With this 
 Academy all French literary men have been 
 connected. Upon the merits of a body which at- 
 tempts to act as a High Court of Letters it is not 
 necessary to enter here. During the Revolu- 
 tion the French Academy, along with other exist- 
 ing academies, was incorporated in the Institute. 
 An academy of this type was never formed 
 in England. Arising out of the study of litera- 
 ture, academies for the study of archa-ology and 
 history arose. In 1701, under the patronage of 
 the King, the Royal Academy of Inscriptions and 
 Medals was formed, primarily for the purpose 
 of suggesting suitable designs and memorials to 
 commemorate the work of Louis XIV, and 
 secondarily for the study and discussion of the 
 subject generally. In 1755 the Academy of 
 Herculaneum was established at Naples for the 
 study and discussion of antiquities. This 
 academy published an account of its workin 
 1775 in the Antichitd di Ereolano. 
 
 But it was in the field of science that the 
 academy had its greatest and most universal 
 success. The universities in the seventeenth 
 and eighteenth century did not look with favor 
 on the .study of science, and except in a few 
 German universities no encouragement was 
 given to it. The Academy afforded an excellent 
 organization for those whose interests were 
 strongly scientific. It is a matter of note that 
 the best work in science has been done outside 
 the universities and largely through the en- 
 couragement of the academies. The earliest 
 scientific academy was founded in 1560 at 
 Naples — the Academia Seereiorum Naturae 
 — the membership in which was open only to 
 those who had made some discovery in medi- 
 cine or philosophy. Incurring the suspicions of 
 the Church, this academy was speedily dis- 
 solved. An academy with similar aim was 
 formed at Rome under the influence of Federigo 
 Cesi, bearing the name Lined, or the lynxes. 
 The Accademia del Cimento at Florence (1657- 
 1667) was a society founded for the purpose 
 of conducting experiments. Of this academy 
 Torricelli, the inventor of the barometer, was a 
 member. In France the Old Academy of Sciences, 
 which began as a private society, was given a 
 charter at the suggestion of Colbert in 1666. 
 Sections were organized for the study of mathe- 
 
 19
 
 ACADEMY 
 
 ACADEMY 
 
 matics, physics, and chemistry; pensions were 
 given to nienibcrs by the King, ami money 
 was provided for instruments. Descartes and 
 Pascal were members of tiiis institution, and Sir 
 Isaac Ncvs-ton became a foreign associate, and 
 after the academy was reconstituted in 1099 
 every French scientist of note was a member. 
 After being abolished in 1792 the academy 
 was revived and reconstituted in 1812. The 
 earliest scientific academy in Clermany was the 
 Collegium Curiosum, founded by ,J. C. Sturm 
 in 1672, professor at Altorff, for the repetition 
 and discu-ssion of experiments. At the sug- 
 gestion of Leibnitz, Frederick I established the ' 
 Roijul Academy of Science at Berlin in 1700. 
 It was reconstituted in 1812 with four sections, 
 physical, matiiematical, ijhilosopiiical, and his- 
 torical. The regular meml)ers are |)aid. Among 
 its members the academy has included the 
 two lluinboldts, Savigny, Schleiermaclu'r and 
 Ranke. L'nder the influence of the prevail- 
 ing tendency a few followers of Bacon met to- 
 gether in 104.5 for the discu.ssion of experimental 
 society. Out of these meetings arose the Royal 
 Society {q. v.), \\\\\c\\ received its charter in 1002. 
 Two other developments of the academy have 
 been for the study of medicine and surgery 
 {Naturae Curiosi or Leopoldine Academy in 
 Germanj-, f. 1662, Academy of Surgery in Vienna, 
 and the Royal Academy of Medicine in France 
 are the most important) and the fine arts (the 
 Royal Academy of Arts in England, f. 1768, and 
 the Academy of Painting and Sculpture in 
 Paris, f. 1648, are conspicuous examples). 
 
 This type of academy has developed in the 
 United States, beginning with the American 
 Philosophical Society, of which Benjamin Frank- 
 lin was the originator in 1743. In 17S0 the 
 American Academy of Arts and Sciences came 
 into being for the study of American antiquities 
 and natural history. In 1812 was founded the 
 Philadelphia Academy of Natural Science, v:h\ch 
 soon developed a library and museum of con- 
 siderable value, particularly in the fields of orni- 
 thology and conchology. In 1863 the National 
 Academy of Science was chartered by Congress 
 as an official organ for scientific investigation. 
 In 1898 the Washington Academy of Science 
 was formed by the incorporation of several 
 societies working in Washington. A further 
 development is the America/i Academy of 
 Political and Social Science, founded in 1889 
 in Philadelphia. Local academies also exist 
 for the encouragement of fine arts. 
 
 Courtly Academies. — In the middle of the 
 sixteenth century arose, under the influence 
 of treatises like II Cortegiano of Castiglionc {q.v.) 
 the advocacy of a type of school where the sons 
 of nolilemen and landed gentry could obtain the 
 courtly training which tlie public schools of the 
 day did not offer. These schools were known 
 as Academies. In the curriculum were included 
 e.xercises in arms and gymnastics, Latin, modern 
 languages, practical mathematics, and natural 
 philosophy. Such a type of education is 
 
 sketched by Sir Humphrey Gilbert in Qneen 
 Elizabeth's Academy, 1572, setting forth a proj- 
 ect for the education of the wartls of the court 
 and " others of the youth of nobility and gentle- 
 men." A conspicuous feature in the book is 
 the emphasis which is laid on the training in 
 English. The entire aim of this type of educa- 
 tion may be summed up in (Albert's own lan- 
 guage, " For such as govern commonweals ought 
 rather to bend them.selves to the jiractice 
 thereof than to be tied to the Ijookish circum- 
 stances of the same." The practical end was 
 therefore uppermost in the training of the acade- 
 mies. Several other works of the same kind 
 appeared in the .sixteenth and seventeenth 
 centuries. The result of the tendency was seen 
 in the rise of academies at this time. In Ger- 
 many there was a widespread development of 
 them under the title of Ritlcrakademien. In 
 France they were encouraged by Richelieu, 
 under whose patronage the Academy of Tours 
 was established, where the pujiils were taught 
 physical science, mathematics, geography, 
 French, Italian, Spanish, history, heraldry, 
 and martial accomplishments. At Tuilly there 
 was a similar academy under royal patronage. 
 In England the strongest advocate of this 
 type of education was Milton (q.r.), who in the 
 Tractate of Education (1044) fully dcvelojjs the 
 aims and ideals reiircscnted by the academy. 
 The Tractate is all the more valuable as it was 
 based on ISIilton's practical experience, for a 
 short time, at any rate, in keeping an academy. 
 In 1040 a proposal was made in the House of 
 Lords " about the erecting of an Academy, for 
 the breeding and training up of young noblemen 
 and gentlemen." The attempt to introduce 
 academies into England did not succeed. The 
 experiments of Sir Balthazar Gerbier (1049) 
 and of Faubert (1082) in London were short- 
 lived. The academies as developed in France 
 and Germany performed an important function 
 in modernizing the curriculum of the secondary 
 school. In I'^ngland the suggestion contained 
 in Milton's Tractate appears in a modified form 
 to have been taken up in the academies of the 
 dissenters, which arose as a result of the religious 
 intolerance of the period. (See Ge.ntkv, Edu- 
 cation OF.) 
 
 Nonconformist Academies. — By the Act 
 of I'niformity (1602) not only were dissenters 
 excluded from university privileges, but those 
 who by that time had already completed their 
 university education were debarred from teach- 
 ing by the necessity of obtaining a bishop's 
 license. The < result was that those who did 
 attempt to teach did so by stealth or were 
 compelled to move about by the relentlessness 
 of their persecutors. It was in the north of 
 England particularly that the need of higher 
 education was most felt. Cromwell had at- 
 tempted to meet the demand by establishing the 
 University of Durham (q.v.) in 1057, but the 
 patent was withdrawn at the Restoration. 
 Of the two thousand nonconformist ministers. 
 
 20
 
 ACADEMY 
 
 ACADEIVIY 
 
 who were dispossessed by the Act of Uniform- 
 ity, many were driven by necessity, some by 
 choice, others by the need of training up suc- 
 cessors to the nonconformist ministrj', to set 
 up academies. At first many found it difficult 
 to reconcile it to their consciences to give higher 
 instruction, for they felt restrained by the 
 graduation oath of Oxford or Cambridge from 
 imparting instruction of university rank. 
 Ultimately the argument that the oath only 
 applied to institutions which granted degrees 
 prevailed, and the dissenting academies arose 
 in different parts of the country, but more par- 
 ticularly in Lancashire and Yorkshire. The 
 choice of the title "academy" for these in.stitu- 
 tions may be traced back either to Milton's 
 use, or better to the application of the term 
 by Calvin and the founders of the University 
 of Edinburgh to universities which were es- 
 tablished without the sanction of the Pope. 
 Generally these academies were taught by one 
 man, later two or three assistant tutors were 
 engaged. The pupils boarded in the house of 
 the tutor, and often threw in their lot with him, 
 when, owing to the ever-impending danger of 
 prosecution, he found it necessary to move 
 from one town to another. Frequently the 
 tutors continued as dissenting ministers, and the 
 necessity of accepting calls involved the re- 
 moval of the academy. The students were not 
 drawn alone from among the dissenters, for the 
 academies were set up as a protest against the 
 religious intolerance of the universities and as a 
 demand that seats of learning should be open to 
 all. Thus Harley, Earl of Oxford, who later 
 introduced the Schism Bill, was educated in an 
 academy; so too were Thomas Seeker, later 
 Archbisho]) of Canterbury, and Butler, later 
 Bishop of Durham and author of the Analogy. 
 At first the cla-ss of students who were drawn 
 to the academies were in a position to maintain 
 themselves; later, however, they were drawn 
 from a poorer class, and funds for their support 
 were established. The Independents of London 
 had two such funds under the charge of the 
 Independent Fund Board and the King's Head 
 Society. Many depended on and received pri- 
 vate munificence and bequests. In addition 
 to classics and Hebrew, lectures were given at 
 the academies on theology, logic, ethics, 
 natural philosophy, somatology, pneumatology, 
 and chronology. Latin was the language of 
 instruction and conversation, with only slight 
 exceptions, until the change to English was 
 introduced by Doddridge. The students did 
 not receive a preparation for the ministry alone, 
 but for medicine and pul.ilic life. The standard 
 which was attained in the usual course of four 
 years may be judged from the fact that on leav- 
 ing the academies students were permitted 
 to graduate at one of the Scottish universities 
 after one session. 
 
 The earliest academy was established by 
 Richard Frankland in his house at Rathmell, 
 Yorkshire, in 1670. Frankland, who was a 
 
 graduate of Cambridge and was selected for an 
 appointment at Durham University, was a 
 man of strong personality, and had had the 
 courage to beard Charles II on the religious 
 ciuestion. In spite of numerous vicissitudes, 
 he succeeded in keeping his academy together 
 for twenty-eight years. His successor was 
 Timothy Jollie, who removed to Attercliffe in 
 Yorkshire. A large number of other academies 
 soon followed in an unbroken series. Bogue 
 and Bennett ( History of Dissenters, London, 
 lSOS-1812) enumerate thirty-five academies 
 from Frankland's foundation to 1780. Perhaps 
 the teacher who had the widest influence, 
 particularly through his textbooks, was Philip 
 Doddridge (fj.v.), who had charge of the acad- 
 emy at Northampton for twenty-two years 
 and introduced the practice of lecturing in 
 English. With Doddridge the persecution of 
 the dissenting teachers came to an end, through 
 the intervention of George III on his behalf, 
 when an attempt was made to bring him to 
 trial. Doddridge's academy was moved by his 
 successor to Daventry, where Joseph Priestley, 
 who later himself taught in the acadenry at 
 Warrington, was a student. Toward the end 
 of the eighteenth century the activity of the 
 nonconformist academies came to an end, 
 with the exception of the Manchester Academy, 
 founded 1699 and later removed to London and 
 now located at Oxford as Manchester College. 
 
 The service of the nonconformist academies 
 to English education cannot be overrated. 
 At a time when a large number of eager students 
 would have been excluded from the universities 
 they stepped in and very adequately filled the 
 breach. By their attention to subjects which 
 were beyond the scope of the universities, they 
 contributed in assisting the modern branches of 
 learning to obtain a foothold in England. 
 Without the strong conservatism and de\-otion 
 to forms of the older universities, the academies 
 were eminently progressive and adaptable to 
 new needs. Since there was not any restriction 
 as to the length of the courses, students were in 
 a position to go from one academy to another 
 in search of what suited them best. The 
 earnestness of the teachers who were not secure 
 in a lifelong university appointment could not 
 but fire the enthusiasm of their students. On 
 their services to nonconformity and the prin- 
 ciple of toleration this is not the place to enlarge. 
 (See Dissenters and Education.) 
 
 In America. — Secondary education in Amer- 
 ica has appeared, successively, under three domi- 
 nant type forms, the (Latin) grammar school 
 of the colonial period, the academy of the early 
 republic, and the public high school, since the 
 Civil War. The colonial grammar school was a 
 close reproduction of its English prototype. It 
 tended, especially in New England, to be local 
 in its patronage. Its prime function was to 
 fit boys for the university. Its curriculum, 
 accordingly, consisted (properly) of only Latin 
 and Greek. In theory, Latin was the exclusive 
 
 21
 
 ACADEMY 
 
 ACADEMY 
 
 lanKuagc, not only of the schoolroom, but also 
 of the plavKiound. When the exigencies of 
 practical life did force the grammar school to 
 provide English, writing, and arithmetic, such 
 studies were looked ujion as extraneous, in- 
 troduced merely " in order to (jualify such for 
 business as intended to make no further prog- 
 ress in learning." Moreover, for the most 
 part, the grammar school had grown up within 
 some dominant religious establishment which it 
 in turn tended to perpetuate. This was as true 
 of the Episcopal aristocracy of Maryland, 
 Virginia, and South Carolina as it was of the 
 Puritan hierarchy of New England. 
 
 As the eighteenth century progressed, this 
 unity of original control was shaken. White- 
 field and the "Xew Lights" stirred the intrenched 
 religious conservatism from Georgia to Massa- 
 chusetts. A host of Presbyterian Scotch and Irish 
 entered into the Middle and Southern colo- 
 nies. Baptists increased in numbers, and Meth- 
 odism bi'gan to be felt. The day of the non- 
 conformist was at hand. At the same time 
 
 .Vn Early New England .\cademy. 
 
 there was rising everywhere an American spirit 
 which began to be conscious of itself and desirous 
 of settling American problems in an American 
 way. New institutions were demanded. It 
 has been shown in the preceding section how 
 that after the Restoration the academy arose in 
 England to meet, in an individual fashion, the 
 nonconformist need of education. Probably 
 the American academy is not so much a direct 
 transplanting of the English institution as it is 
 a spontaneous outgrowth from somewhat analo- 
 gous circumstances. The old grammar school 
 had been exclusive in aim and curriculum; 
 the university was its raison d'etre. The new 
 institution must be democratic, answering to a 
 majority who are not to go to college. More- 
 over, it must furnish a training more evidently 
 suited to the demands of a new country. 
 Latin had ceased to be the language of practical 
 learning; the Americans recognized the fact. 
 Science as an agency of civilization was begin- 
 ning to be felt, at least in possibility. An ever- 
 extending frontier demanded a school that 
 could care for pupils from remote distances. 
 Flexibility to meet widely varying local needs 
 was an essential rectuisite. In this situation the 
 academy arose. 
 
 To state where in America the academy origi- 
 nated is not easy. Many considerations d(>ny 
 that credit to the free school or " academy " 
 of " Charlestown " (S.C.) in 1712, although no 
 earlier api)lication of the term to a secondary 
 school has been pointed out, and provision was 
 there made for " navigation and surveying and 
 other useful and practical parts of the mathe- 
 matics." Nor can the credit be given to Ten- 
 nent's " Log College " in Xew Jersey (1726), 
 which Whit(>field in 17.39 called an " academy," 
 although this was the parent of the " log col- 
 lege " movement among the Presbyterians; 
 and the " log college " did in many respects 
 belong to the academy type. To Franklin's 
 Philadelphia academy (proposed 1743, estab- 
 lished 17,")1) no exception can be taken. (See 
 Pennsylv.\ni.\, LLNn-ERsiTY OF.) Type and 
 name unite, apparently for the first time in 
 America. By general consent this has been 
 taken as the first clear case of the American 
 academy. As the Revolution drew near, the 
 Presbyterians and other nonconformists es- 
 tablished, especially in the middle and southern 
 colonies, secondary schools which they fre- 
 (luently called academies. King.ston, X.Y., 
 and Newark, X.J., provided " academies " in 
 1773 and 1775 respectively. By 1790 the new 
 type of school was definitely established in all 
 parts of the nation. Among specific institu- 
 tions, the Phillijis academies at Andover (1780) 
 and Exeter (1781) and Erasmus Hall (1787) 
 at Flatbush, L.I., deserve especial notice for 
 their far-reaching influence. 
 
 While the academies are primarily institutions 
 of semi-private or local origin, most of the 
 states assisted in their founding and support. 
 Several states provided systems. Georgia and 
 New York furnish the most interesting early 
 legislation, each in turn curiously anticipating 
 the other. Georgia's constitution of 1777 called 
 for " schools " in each county, " supported at 
 the general expense of the state." In 1783 her 
 legislature provided by land endowment for a 
 system of county academies, and on Feb. 25, 
 1784, similarly endowed a university. New 
 York, on May 1, 17S4, chartered a university 
 and provided for " schools and colleges " to be 
 parts of the university (the grade of the schools 
 not being specified). Georgia amended her 
 university charter in 1785, recpiiring that 
 " all public schools . . . shall be considered as 
 parts or members of the university." The 
 university should " prescribe what branches 
 ... be taught ... in each"; and should 
 " also examine and recommend the instructors 
 to be employed in them." In 1787 New York 
 amended her 1784 act so as to authorize and 
 require the regents " to visit and inspect all the 
 colleges, academies, and schools which are or 
 may be established in this state." In 1813 
 New York established a " Literature Fund," 
 the income of which went to the support of 
 academies. In 1821 Georgia established a 
 similar " academic fund " of 3250,000. But by 
 
 22
 
 ACADEMY 
 
 ACADEMY 
 
 1840 Georgia had abandoned support and con- 
 trol of her academies in favor of elementary 
 education, while at the same time New York 
 began to increase both her support and control. 
 Many other states adopted one or more of 
 the features above described. Massachusetts in 
 1797 sets out a policy of land endowments of 
 properly located academies. The next year 
 Kentucky does the same for a county system. 
 Later ^iaryland, Louisiana, Tennessee, and 
 Indiana adopt the county system. To speak 
 generally, the states subsidized the academies by 
 one plan or another, leaving them, for the most 
 part, to self-perpetuating boards or other forms 
 of local control. Tuition charges were almost 
 invariable. By the middle of the nineteenth 
 century, when the movement began its decline, 
 the academies were very numerous throughout 
 
 
 
 v., 
 
 
 "/'r' 
 
 An Academy Diploma, giving the Curriculmn. 
 
 the Union, forming in many localities the only 
 very definitely organized schools, and admitting 
 pupils of all grades. 
 
 The curriculum of the early academy has 
 already been suggested. Latin still remained 
 as the backbone of the course, though taught 
 now in English and for professedly different 
 reasons. Greek was frequent, if not usual. 
 English grammar held an increasing place from 
 the first. Arithmetic and geometry appeared 
 generally, astronomy frequently. _ " Geography 
 with the use of the globes " was quite the proper 
 thing to advertise. Declamation was usual, 
 as befitted a free country' where oratory was 
 much in demand. Quarterly oral examinations 
 convinced patrons " of the merits of the insti- 
 tution and the literary attainments of the 
 scholars." 
 
 The academy was more open to girls than had 
 been the grammar school. In 1780 there was 
 begun in Philadelphia an academy for girls, 
 
 an example followed increasingly. The most 
 famous of such, Mrs. Willard's seminary, 
 founded in 1821 at Troy, N.Y., may properly 
 be said to be the beginning of the higher educa- 
 tion of women in America. Many academies 
 were coeducational. In the earlier days, this 
 was frequently effected by "female depart- 
 ments." Thus in an 1815 advertisement, "the 
 three departments, classical, English, and fe- 
 male, will be furnished each with an instructor; 
 besides which the Rector will divide his time 
 and exertions among them." 
 
 One of the reasons urged by Franklin for the 
 establishment of his academj^ was " that a num- 
 ber of the poorer sort will hereby be qualified 
 to act as schoolmasters in the country." The 
 argument might have been generalized for the 
 whole country. The academy came to be the 
 chief source of supply of elementary teachers, 
 a fact many times recognized by general school 
 authorities. In 1830 specific preparation of 
 common school teachers was undertaken at 
 Phillips Andover, while three years later 
 " teachers' classes " were provided in many Xew 
 York academies. When the state normal school 
 (f/.c.) came as a distinct institution, it was in 
 fact but the academy transformed for this 
 specific purpose. 
 
 The decline of the movement began toward 
 the middle of the nineteenth century, earlier 
 for the cities and urban regions, later for the 
 rural communities. Many of the smaller acade- 
 mics had never been true secondary schools; 
 such disappear amid improved common schools. 
 The better endowed of the academies, especially 
 those founded by individuals or by churches, 
 remain to-day as important preparatory schools. 
 Many academies that had been founded by 
 state or local public authorities were changed 
 into high schools, as in the " county seminary " 
 system of Indiana and the county academies 
 of Maryland. In the latter case the change 
 is still in process. 
 
 Several reasons may be assigned for the 
 general change from the academy to the public 
 high school. There had grown up a much 
 stronger feeling for the public control and sup- 
 port of popular education. Beginning with the 
 common schools, the movement extended itself 
 later to the field of secondary education. From 
 this point of view the high school is the academy 
 brought into the public school system. Again 
 the academy, with the increase of wealth and 
 the growth of higher education, had become 
 in large measure a college preparatory school. 
 From this point of view the high school is a 
 recurrence to the democratic type which the 
 academy had abandoned. To speak generally, 
 the academy was the product of the frontier 
 period of national development and the laisscz 
 faire theory of government. When these con- 
 ditions departed, the academy gave place to 
 the high school as the predominant secondary 
 school of the American people. 
 
 E. E. B., L L. K., AND W. H. K. 
 
 23
 
 ACADIA 
 
 ACCOMMODATION 
 
 See Art Schools and Art Instruction in 
 Europe; Colonial Period in American 
 Education; Renaissance, Education dur- 
 ing the; Calvinism and Education. 
 
 References: — 
 
 Encyclopirdia Brilannica. Art. "Academy." 
 Ad.^mso.v. Pioneers of Modern Education. (Cani- 
 
 bridBO. 1!I0.5.) 
 Bogle .\ni> Bennett. History of Dissenters. (Lon- 
 don, lSOS-1812.) 
 Brown, E. E. The Making of Our Middle Schools. 
 
 (New York, 1S)02.) 
 Grimm. Ccf'rr Schulc, Univcrsitdt, und Akademien. 
 
 (Berlin, 1S.")0.) 
 H.\LLAM. 1 ntrodurtion. to the Literature of Europe. 
 MuLLER, T. Die W issenschaftli.'iche Vereinc und Gcscll- 
 
 schaftcn in Dcutsehland. (Berlin, lSS-1.) 
 P.\ULSEN, Fh. Geschichte des Gelehrten Unterrichts. 
 
 (Leipzig, lS9fl). 
 Ru.'^SELL, J. E. German Higher Schools. (New York, 
 
 1905.) 
 yeart>ook of the Scientiftc and Learned Societies of Great 
 
 Britain and Ireland. 
 
 ACADIA UNIVERSITY, WOLFVILLE, 
 
 N.S. — Founded by the Nova Scotia liiijjtist 
 Education Society, in 1S;JS. Charter of incor- 
 poration obtained in 1839; given powers of a 
 university in 1840; adopted name Acadia Col- 
 lege in 1841. A revised charter was obtained 
 in 1891 (an Act respecting Acadia University). 
 The Board of (lovernors must report annually 
 to the Bapti.st Convention of the Maritime 
 Provinces, which ai)])oints the governors. Ad- 
 mission to the university is by examination or 
 certificate from an approved high school. Two 
 courses are offered, leading to the B.A. and the 
 B.S. Graduates in the scientific course are 
 admitted to the third-year course of Applied 
 Science at McGill University. The Acadia 
 Seminary for young ladies and the Horton 
 Academy, which is a preparatory institution, 
 are under the control of the Board of Gov- 
 ernors. The total annual income is about 
 $20,000; the value of the productive endow- 
 ment is §240,000. There are ten professors 
 and four instructors. The average salary of 
 professors i.s .?1300 a year. Rev. W. B. 
 Hutchinson, D.D., is the president. 
 
 ACCESSORY MUSCLES. — See Funda- 
 mental and Accessory. 
 
 ACCESSORY SUBJECTS. — A name some- 
 times applied to the more recent acquisitions 
 to the curriculum, particularly those which 
 demand objective and active treatment. 
 Drawing, music, nature study, agriculture, etc., 
 would be included under this term. 
 
 See CuRRicuLu.M, Theory of ; Values, 
 Educational. 
 
 ACCIDENTS IN THE SCHOOL. — See 
 
 Injured, First Aid to. 
 
 ACCIPIES. — A term applied to a woodcut 
 which was frequently used on the title-page of 
 schoolbooks printed about 1.500 and bearing 
 
 the words Accipies tanti doctoris dogmata sancti 
 (thou wilt receive the theories of a great and 
 revered scholar). The practice of using as title- 
 page woodcuts representing as nearly aspo.ssible 
 the characteristics of the author and the nature 
 of the contents of a book was originatetl 
 in the Netherlands about the middle of the 
 fifteenth century. But the first actual use of 
 the Accipies woodcut was made by lieinrich 
 Quentell, a Cologne publisher, in a book 
 issued in 1490. This title-jjage appears on all 
 of his books printed up to 149(), and again in 
 1500. The picture at once became pojiu- 
 lar, and was widely imitated by other ])ublishers, 
 and in some cases was directly reproduced, 
 either because it was difficult to obtain the 
 services of artists locally, or because of the 
 reputation enjoyed by the original. At least 
 five different varieties of the Accipies appeared 
 from 149.5 up to the beginning of tiie sixteenth 
 century. The varieties are of importance, as 
 they afford a clue to the printer. 
 
 The illustration given on page 391 is an accipie.s 
 cut of 1500 with the legend omitted. The dove, 
 usually represented as whispering into the ear of 
 the teacher, is a symbol of the Holy (J host. From 
 the fact that Quentell used such a cut as a title- 
 page to books on Thomas Aquinas, it seems 
 probable that he is here represented as the 
 taittus doctor. 
 
 References: — 
 
 Proctor, R. The .^ecipie.? Woodcut. Bif>liographica, 
 Vol. ,1. (London. 1,S(I5.) 
 
 ScHREiBER, W. L., and Heitz, P. Die Deutschen Acci- 
 pies und Magister cum Discipulis Holzschnilte. 
 (Strassburg, 1908.) 
 
 ACCOMMODATION. — Both the process 
 
 and tlie resuft of the Adaptation {q.v.) of 
 the individual to his surroundings, natural 
 and social, are known as accommodation. 
 Strictly speaking, accommodation marks the 
 processes by which the individual assimi- 
 lates and reproduces the existing environ- 
 ment with a minimum of reaction against it 
 or of effort to change it, while adapta- 
 tion includes also making over of the en- 
 vironment to meet the new demands on the 
 part of the living individual. In this stricter 
 sense accommodation is a form of Habit- 
 uation iq.v.) or "getting used" to ])crsons 
 and things. It covers the whole field of the 
 " unconscious influence of the environment," 
 and is, therefore, of primary importance to the 
 educator, since during the early and plastic 
 years children tend to take up in themselves 
 and reflect all the characteristic features of 
 their social surroundings. Its importance is 
 greatest in the a>sthetic field, in that of minor 
 morals and manners and of habits of speech, 
 (n) Conscious or delilierate a'Sthetic culture 
 is almost a contradiction in terms. Indi- 
 viduals may indeed seek out surroundings 
 unusually rich in artistic material, may cul- 
 tivate opportunities for irsthetic enjoyment, 
 and may engage in practices which arouse sus- 
 
 24
 
 ACCOMMODATION 
 
 ACCOUNTANCY EDUCATION 
 
 ceptibility to beauty and refinement. But 
 such a'sthetic nurture as occurs takes place 
 unconsciously and spontaneously as an accom- 
 modation of the individual organs to the 
 beautiful environment. 
 
 (6) The same principle holds almost to the 
 same extent in the territory of manners. 
 Although conscious effort is relatively of 
 greater importance than in aesthetic appreci- 
 ation, the most effective means of securing a 
 correct bearing, courteous demeanor, and 
 observance of ordinary social conventionalities 
 is contact with an environment in which 
 models of the desired result abound and oppos- 
 ing influences are slight. While matters of 
 right and wrong demand, at critical junctures, 
 a larger measure of conscious reflection and 
 choice, yet manners and morals blend insen- 
 sibly into each other, and the warp, if not the 
 woof, of character is constituted by original 
 tendencies modified by habitual accommo- 
 dations to social demands and relations. 
 
 (f) That habits of correct speech depend 
 upon usage and wont formed through uncon- 
 scious reproduction of good linguistic customs 
 prevailing about one is a commonplace, but 
 a commonplace which illustrates the potency 
 of the principle of accommodation. Even 
 educated persons are apt to betray in occasional 
 lapses into uncouth modes of speech any defi- 
 ciencies of their early environment. 
 
 Although the phrase " unconscious influence 
 of the environment " gives an excellent popular 
 rendering of the technical term "accommoda- 
 tion," we are not to infer that the organism is 
 purely passive in the operations. Here as else- 
 where the initiative lies with the organism in 
 selecting certain congenial phases of the environ- 
 ment as stimuli to which to respond. (See 
 Stimulus and Response). 
 
 Topics allied to Accommodation (aside from 
 those mentioned in the text) are Environment, 
 Imitation, Plasticity (<i.v.). J. D. 
 
 ACCOMMODATION. — The process by 
 which objects at different distances from the 
 eye are focused sharply on the retina. In 
 the higher animals this is brought about by 
 an increase in the convexity of the lens 
 for nearer objects and by a decrease in the 
 convexity for farther objects. The nearest 
 point for which one can accommodate lies 
 about 12 cm, from the eye (roughly deter- 
 mined by moving fine print toward the eye 
 until it becomes blurred) ; the far point for 
 the normal human eye is theoretically infinity. 
 
 R. P. A. " 
 References: — 
 
 HowKLL, W. H. American Text-hook of Physiology- 
 
 (Philadflphi:), 1901.) 
 ScHAFER, E. A. Texlhook of Physiologt/, Vol. II. 
 
 (Edinlmrch, 1808-1000.) 
 
 ACCOUNTANCY EDUCATION. — Although 
 
 the science and practice of accountancy 
 (including bookkeeping) is itself very old, dating 
 
 back even to the A.ssyrians and Babylonians, 
 systematic instruction in it is of extremely 
 recent origin. Even now the school of practical 
 experience, which served for so many centuries, 
 is almost the only one in many countries. Even 
 in the most progressive countries, where the pro- 
 fession of accountancy has the official or semi- 
 official recognition of the governments, a large 
 proportion of the instruction consists in coaching 
 for the examinations which are held from time 
 to time as a basis for the certification of practi- 
 tioners. 
 
 The first instruction in bookkeeping of which 
 there is record was in Italy in the early part of 
 the sixteenth century. The art of bookkeeping 
 had at that time been pretty fully developed in 
 that country, and the first treatise on the subject 
 had been published by Luca Paciolo in 1491 
 at Venice. This treatise {De compiitis ct 
 scripturis) comprised thirty-six chapters in a 
 larger work summarizing the existing knowledge 
 of mathematics. It served as a basis for other 
 Italian treatises. Private schools sprang up 
 to give individual instruction in bookkeeping. 
 Other countries were also much indebted to 
 Paciolo for their first treatises on bookkeeping, 
 and the instruction in these was also in small pri- 
 vate schools. By the latter part of the sixteenth 
 century the knowledge of bookkeeping had 
 spread to all the important countries. Since 
 that time great improvement has been made 
 in the science of bookkeeping and of accounts, 
 but the methods of teaching have remained 
 almost unchanged until comparatively recently. 
 Apprenticeship to practitioners formed the 
 bulk of the preparation, and was indeed re- 
 garded as the most indispensable part of it; the 
 remainder was given in small private schools. 
 This was .still the condition of affairs in almost 
 all countries at the middle of the nineteenth 
 century. 
 
 In the United States at that time a few private 
 business schools were in existence, with book- 
 keeping usually as the foundational study. 
 Other branches of mathematics and penman- 
 ship usually composed the remainder of the 
 curricula. One of the earliest schools, that of 
 James Bennett of New York, taught bookkeep- 
 ing and navigation. Until after 1880, private 
 schools of this kind gave practically all the 
 instruction in bookkeeping obtainable outside 
 business offices. They had, of course, vastly 
 increased in number and importance and in 
 breadth and thoroughness of instruction. 
 About this time the public high schools began 
 to give courses in bookkeeping and other com- 
 mercial subjects. There was still no systematic 
 instruction in the more advanced .science of 
 accounts. 
 
 In 1887 an important step forward was taken, 
 when the American Association of Public 
 Accountants was incorporated under Xew York 
 state laws. Under the auspices of this associa- 
 tion a school of accounts was projected in 1892, 
 but the attempt resulted in nothing. In 1896 
 
 25
 
 ACCOUNTANCY EDUCATION 
 
 ACCOUNTANCY EDUCATION 
 
 an act " to regulate the profession of Public Ac- 
 countancy " was passed by the New York state 
 legislature and the degree of Certified Public 
 Accountant was authorized to be given by the 
 University of the State of New York. Similar 
 legislation has since been undertaken by other 
 states, and the movement is under way to have 
 the profession legally recognized and regulated 
 by every state in the Union. An important 
 effect of this regulation has been in improving 
 the form and the (luality of education for the 
 profession. The rigor of the requirements and 
 the severity of the examinations in most states 
 have made it necessary for the candidate to 
 obtain better instruction than that afforded 
 by his apprenticeship. A large amount of 
 it is still obtained in private " coaching " 
 schools (some of which are conducted by 
 correspondence), but an increasing propor- 
 tion is given in university and college schools 
 of commerce. One of the first of these, the 
 New York University School of Commerce, 
 Accounts, and Finance, was established in 1900, 
 largely through the efforts of the New York 
 State Society of Certified Public Accountants, 
 and its prime purpose was to give scientific 
 preparation for the profession of public ac- 
 countancy. It has since broadened its scope 
 to include the general field of business, but in- 
 struction in accounting still forms the backbone 
 of its curriculum. Attention is concentrated 
 less on preparing students for Certified Public 
 Accountants' examinations than on preparing 
 them for successful practice of this and other 
 business professions. Most of the sessions are 
 held in the evening. 
 
 The New York University school is practically 
 the only one in which accountancy education was 
 of paramount importance in the original ]ilan, 
 but in most of the other university and college 
 schools of commerce instruction in accounting 
 subjects forms a very important part of the cur- 
 riculum. There are over sixty of these schools in 
 the country, among the most important of which 
 are those in the state universities of Pennsj-l- 
 vania, Wisconsin, California, Illinois, and Iowa, 
 Dartmouth College, the University of Chicago, 
 Harvard University, the University of Denver, 
 and Northwestern University. Of these the 
 last two named are most like the New York 
 University school in holding evening sessions 
 and giving accountancy instruction an impor- 
 tant place. Together with the great advance 
 in accountancy education in these schools, there 
 has been a very marked advance since 1900 
 in bookkeeping instruction in the public 
 secondary schools and the private business 
 schools. Much still remains to be done, but 
 it may be said that accountancy education 
 has had a good beginning in the United States, 
 and now rests on a solid foundation. There is, 
 in point of fact, practically no country in the 
 world where accountancy education itself is on 
 a better foundation. 
 
 In England recognition of the profession 
 
 came much earlier, and instruction in it has 
 therefore had a longer history. Many societies 
 of accountants existed at the middle of the 
 nineteenth century ; in ISSO they were all 
 incorporated into the Institute of Chartered 
 Accountants in England and Wales. Steps 
 were taken to protect the title of Char- 
 tered Accountant, and to this and other ends, 
 the Society of Accountants and Auditors 
 was formed in 1SS5. The original societies 
 in the various cities preserved their original 
 organization, but their alliance in the In.sti- 
 tute helped to improve the sy.stem of ex- 
 aminations given. For these examinations 
 private coaching schools still give the chief form 
 of preparation. But some of the societies give 
 assistance in the form of evening classes in 
 accounting subjects. The articled clerks of 
 Chartered Accountants have formed a number 
 of students' societies for the advancement of 
 their professional knowledge. At their meet- 
 ings ]5a])ers are read, examinations discussed, 
 etc. But all this is very unsystematic. More 
 encouraging is the recent establishment at the 
 University of Birmingham and other universi- 
 ties of accounting courses on a jiar with the 
 be.st in the world. Conditions in Scotland have 
 been much the same as in England. There has 
 generally been, however, more help given to 
 apprentices in the way of evening classes. 
 They have also been required to attend certain 
 university law classes, in addition to serving 
 their apprenticeship and passing their account- 
 ancy examinations. 
 
 Of continental countries, Italy is foremost 
 in accountancy education. The profession of 
 accountancy is well recognized, and a large 
 number of societies exist. Membership in them 
 is open to graduates of the accounting courses of 
 the Royal Technical In.stitutes, of which there 
 are more than sixty. The course of study in 
 accounting extends over four years, and includes 
 accounting and auditing, law, political econ- 
 omy, foreign languages, and a number of gen- 
 eral branches. In Germany, commercial educa- 
 tion in general is well developed, but as the 
 profession of accountant has no official recogni- 
 tion, instruction in that branch has received com- 
 paratively little attention. In France, much 
 the same state of affairs exists. Holland has a 
 number of societies of accountants, and instruc- 
 tion in bookkeeping is well organized. In many 
 of the South American Republics, notably 
 Argentine, accountancy has been legally recog- 
 nized for some time, and commercial schools 
 prepare students for it. Japan gives a good 
 character of instruction in bookkeeping in the 
 higher schools of commerce. In other countries 
 accountancy education is in an even less ad- 
 vanced stage, and is practically neglected. But 
 as official recognition is more generally ac- 
 corded, the profession will undoubtedly reach 
 a higher level, and education for it will become 
 more thorough and systematic everywhere. 
 
 J. F. J. 
 
 26
 
 ACCREDITED SCHOOLS 
 
 ACCREDITED SCHOOLS 
 
 References: — 
 
 Barber, E. M. .4 Contribution to the History of Com- 
 mercial Education. (New York, 190.3.) 
 
 Brown, Richard. A History of Accounting and Ac- 
 countants. (Edinburgh, 1905.) 
 
 Herrick, Cheesman a. Meaning and Practice of 
 Commercial Education. (New York and London, 
 1904.) 
 
 Haskins, Charles Waldo. Business Education and 
 Accountancy. (New York and London, 1904.) 
 
 Whitfield, E. E. Commercial Education in Theory 
 and Practice. (London, 1901.) 
 
 ACCREDITED SCHOOLS. —After the or- 
 ganization of public high schools, and after 
 they had begun to prepare their students 
 for entrance into the colleges, the fitness 
 of these students to enter was for some time 
 uniformly tested by the college and by means 
 of an entrance examination in such of the 
 high-school subjects as the college saw fit to 
 accept for entrance. Each college imposed 
 not only its own entrance examination, but its 
 own set of entrance requirements as well. 
 High schools located in a region where colleges 
 were numerous frequently had the difficult 
 task imposed upon them of preparing students 
 in four or five different sets of entrance subjects, 
 to enable different students to enter as many 
 different colleges. The preparation for one 
 was of no necessity suitable for another. As 
 long as the colleges were private institutions 
 no serious objection to this method of pro- 
 cedure could be raised, but with the growth 
 of the state universities as a part of the school 
 system of the state the demand naturally 
 arose that the transition from one part of the 
 public school system to another part of the 
 same system should be made less arbitrary, and 
 that teachers in secondary schools should be 
 permitted to concentrate more of their energy 
 on good instruction and less upon cramming 
 their pupils to meet the peculiarities or the 
 idiosyncrasies of the college examiners. 
 
 One of the earliest as well as one of the 
 most noteworthy attempts to meet this diffi- 
 culty and to offer a reasonable solution of it 
 was the introduction of an accrediting system 
 by the University of Michigan in 1871. Under 
 this system the university agreed to accept 
 into its freshman class such graduates of 
 previously approved high schools as were 
 recommended to it by the principals of the 
 schools as in their judgment properly pre- 
 pared to do college work. This plan, with 
 minor modifications, has been retained by 
 Michigan ever since. From Michigan the 
 plan, or some modification of it, has spread, and 
 nearly all the state universities and many of 
 the colleges of the United States have adopted 
 some form of an accrediting system. Only a 
 few of the older institutions still insist on 
 students passing their own special examination 
 tests; and a few more insist on this, or on the 
 passing of those of an equivalent institution, 
 or of the College Entrance Examination Board 
 iq.v.). Nearly all such institutions are located 
 east of the Alleghany Mountains. 
 
 The plan has been variously modified by 
 different institutions and in different states. 
 Usually a representative of the university, 
 and sometimes a committee of the faculty, 
 inspects the school on request, and inquires 
 into its equipment, scope, the personnel 
 of its teaching force, and the general tone 
 and spirit. The school as a whole, rather 
 than the individual teachers, is approved or 
 disapproved. In Indiana the State Board of 
 Education performs this function, and an 
 accredited school is permitted to send any of 
 its graduates to any state institution, where 
 they must be received without examination. 
 In California the school is inspected by a 
 representative, and sometimes by a number 
 of representatives, of the state university. It 
 must have a reasonably good equipment in 
 building, library, laboratory, and teachers; 
 must provide a full four years' course of in- 
 struction; and must be doing good work. 
 The school may be approved in whole or in 
 part, and the part disapproved is only approved 
 after subsequent inspection has shown that the 
 work has been brought up to the required 
 standard. In many states, within recent years, 
 an official known as a high school inspector, 
 usuallj' attached to the Department of Edu- 
 cation of the state university, though some- 
 times, as in Minnesota, attached to the office 
 of the State Superintendent of Public In- 
 struction, has been appointed to do the 
 greater part of the work of inspection. Ac- 
 crediting is usually made only for a limited 
 period of years, and usually ceases, in certain 
 subjects at least, when new and unexamined 
 teachers are employed. The difficulty as 
 well as the expense connected with an attempt 
 on the part of each institution to inspect and 
 accredit the high schools of any state or region 
 has led, within recent years, to the formation of 
 accrediting associations for the inspection and 
 accrediting of the high schools of certain definite 
 regions. The New England College Entrance 
 Certificate Board is an example of this. An 
 extension of the idea to the different areas of 
 the United States would result not only in a 
 simplification of the work, but a standardizing 
 of the schools as well, and may be expected 
 ultimately to take place. 
 
 In a few states, where the practice of ex- 
 amining the town and rural schools of the 
 county for eighth-grade graduation prevails, 
 County Boards of Education have begun to 
 adopt a form of the accrediting system for 
 elementary schools. The plan is in use in 
 certain California counties, as well as in a few 
 other states. The County Boards, after repeated 
 inspection and examination of the schools of 
 a town, and sometimes of particular rural 
 schools, accredit the school and accept the 
 recommendation of the principal, or teacher. 
 
 E. P. C. 
 
 See also Accredited Teachers; College 
 Entrance Examinations; College Entrance 
 
 27
 
 ACCREDITED TEACHERS 
 
 ACLAND 
 
 Boards; College Entrance Requirements; 
 College and Secondary Schools, Relation 
 of; High School Inspection. 
 
 References: — 
 
 Assoriatc'd Harvard Clubs. SccomI Report of the Com- 
 mittee, OH llic relation of Harvard Cnirersity to 
 schools for secondary education. 8ubruitted to tlu' 
 Chicago meeting. May, I'JUG. Contains mucli 
 information, and a bibliography of articles, dealing 
 with the examination, inspection, and certificate 
 systems. 
 
 Canfield, J. H. The Accredited School System of the 
 University of Nebraska ; Educational Review, \'II, 
 1S4-1S6. 
 
 RicH.iRDsoN, Leon J. The University of California 
 and the Accrediting of Secondary Schools ; School 
 Remnv, X, ()15-(il<). 
 
 The School Review since 1906 has contained a number 
 of good articles on the subject. 
 
 ACCREDITED TEACHERS. — The Cali- 
 fornia system of apcroditiiig Ijoth high and ele- 
 mentary schools is in part a system of accredit- 
 ing teachers. In the high school inspection 
 the work of certain able teachers becomes 
 known and the inspection of their work is, 
 after a time, made only once in two or three 
 years. Sometimes an entire .school is retained 
 on the accredited list for two or three years 
 at a time without an inspection, provided the 
 same principal remains and the teaching force 
 docs not materially change. The same is true 
 of the accrediting of elementary schools by the 
 California County Boards of Education. Cer- 
 tain teachers are known to do good conscientious 
 work and to recommend with care and discre- 
 tion, and their schools are accredited so long 
 as the school authorities retain them as teachers 
 or principals of the schools. The effect of 
 this is good on both the teachers and the school 
 authorities. The plan of accrediting teachers 
 is partially in use in a number of other states, 
 and is a more or less conscious factor in the 
 accrediting of high schools under the accrediting 
 system. E. P. C. 
 
 See Accredited Schools. 
 
 ACCREDITING SYSTEM. — See Accred- 
 ited Schools; High School, Accrediting of. 
 
 ACCURACY. — See Error. 
 
 ACHROMATIC QUALITIES. —Achromatic 
 qualities in visual sen.sation, as distinguished 
 from chromatic qualities (c/.v.), are character- 
 ized by the absence of all specific color tone 
 (q.v.), hue (q.v.), tint (q.p.), or shade (q.v.). 
 They include therefore all the blacks, grays, 
 and whites. Beginning with the deepest black, 
 these qualities may be arranged progressively 
 by just perceptil.ile differences in sensation in 
 a series through the various shades of gray to 
 the most brilliant white. Throughout this pro- 
 gression the transitions are always like in kind 
 — from a quality more similar to black to one 
 just perceptibly more similar to white — and yet 
 the two end qualities — black and white — show 
 no similarity to each other except their absence 
 
 of color. The series of achromatic qualities, 
 or the black-white series, may thus be spatially 
 represented by a straight line, one encl repre- 
 senting black and the other white, with the 
 various grays intervening. The movement 
 from either end to the other is through a 
 uniformly graded series of qualities. In the 
 chromatic series, on the other hand, this uni- 
 formity of transition does not appear. There 
 are sharp transitions. This series is usually, 
 therefore, represented as a triangle, a square, or 
 a circle (see Color Circle), the principal transi- 
 tion points occupying the corners, or, in the 
 case of the circle, the extremities, of certain 
 diameters. Achromatic qualities mixed always 
 yield an achromatic quality, but mixtures of 
 certain chromatic qualities may give an achro- 
 matic quality (sec Complementary Color and 
 Color jNIixture). When an achromatic quality 
 is mixed with a chromatic quality, it alters the 
 saturation and usually the brightness of the 
 chromatic quality. R. P. A. 
 
 See Saturation; Brightness; Intensity. 
 
 References: — 
 
 Baldwin's Diet, of Phil, and Psych. .• Art. Vision. 
 Ebbinghaus, Grundziige d. Psychologic, Vol. I, pp. 105 fT. 
 (Leipzig, 1905.) 
 
 ACKERMANN, WILHELM HEINRICH.— 
 
 (17S9-1S4S.) A Ccrman teacher. ]5orn in 
 Aucrbach, Saxony, he studied theology in 
 Jena, and, as the tutor of some young English- 
 men, went to Pestalozzi's Institute in Yverdun 
 (1811-1813). From^ 181.5 to 1817 he was 
 again with Pestalozzi, and from 1820 until his 
 death he taught at the Musterschule in Frank- 
 fort-on-the-Main. He published Erinncrungen 
 aus meinem Leben bei Pestalozzi (Reminis- 
 cences of my Life with Pestalozzi). 
 
 ACLAND, SIR THOMAS DYKE, Baronet. 
 
 — (1S09-1898.) One of tile founders of Univer- 
 sity Local Examinations for Secondary Schools 
 in England; eldest son of Sir Thomas Dyke 
 Acland, tenth Baronet; educated at Harrow 
 and Christ Church, Oxford; friend of F. D. 
 Maurice, W. E. Gladstone, and the leaders of 
 the Tractarian Movement in Oxford; Fellow of 
 All Souls College, Oxford (18.31); M.P. for 
 West Somerset 1837-1841, for North Devon 
 186.5-188.5, and for the Wellington Division of 
 Somerset 188.5-1886; opposed (1839) govern- 
 ment plan for establishment of Education 
 Department; actively engaged in organization 
 of elementary schools and training colleges 
 upon a diocesan basis in connection with the 
 Church of England; hoped to develop the 
 work of the National Society {q.v.) (Church of 
 England) so as to include establishment and 
 maintenance of secondary schools. As a 
 country gentleman possessing large estates and 
 activeh^ interested in the scientific devclo]-)- 
 ment of agriculture in the west of England, 
 he realized the need for the improvement of the 
 
 28
 
 ACLAND 
 
 ACQUIRED CHARACTERISTICS 
 
 schools to which farmers sent their sons and 
 daughters. In 1857 he adapted the idea of 
 Local Examinations (introduced shortly before 
 by the College of Preceptors and by the Society 
 of Arts) to the educational needs of the west 
 of England, being assisted in this undertaking 
 by Dr. Temple, then on the staff of the Educa- 
 tion Department and subsequently headmaster 
 of Rugby and Archbishop of Canterbury. 
 Among the first examiners were Professor 
 Max Miiller, Dr. Voelker, Mr. George Rich- 
 mond, R.A., and Mr. HuUah. Acland was in- 
 clined to place these local examinations under 
 the direction of the Education Department, but 
 the government declined .the responsibility, 
 which, had it been accepted, would probably 
 have led to the establishment of state Leaving 
 Examinations for secondary schools. In the 
 meantime the older universities (first Oxford 
 and immediately afterwards Cambridge), anx- 
 ious for the improvement of the intellectual 
 standard in secondary schools and distrustful 
 of what might lead to a state monopoly of 
 intellectual control in English secondary and 
 higher education, undertook the manage- 
 ment of the system of Local Examinations 
 (1858). Thus the English universities for the 
 first time took a definite part in the education 
 of persons who were not matriculated members 
 of the university. From this root have grown 
 the Local Examinations of Oxford, Cambridge, 
 and other universities, the Oxford and Cam- 
 bridge Schools' Examination Board, and the 
 systems of University Extension lectures and 
 classes. Through his high social position and 
 intimacy with influential friends at Oxford and 
 in London, Acland was able to render indispen- 
 sable service to a movement which furnished 
 an authoritative and independent test to the 
 results of the teaching in secondary schools, 
 and which drew the older universities into inti- 
 mate relationship with secondary education at a 
 critical period in its development and reform. 
 His efforts, combined with those of Dr. Temple, 
 the Rev. J. L. Brereton, Lord Ebrington (after- 
 wards Earl Fortescue), Mr. Harry Chester, 
 and others, provided through the universities a 
 form of external test of the intellectual work 
 of English secondary schools, which for nearly 
 forty years proved a substitute for state inspec- 
 tion, and is still concurrent with it. Acland's 
 instincts were adverse to any educational mo- 
 nopoly on the part of the .secular State. From 
 1864 to 1867 he served on the Schools' Inquiry 
 Commission, which laid the basis for the reform 
 of English secondary schools of the middle 
 grade. 
 
 In 1890 (set. 81), as a stanch member of 
 the Liberal party, Acland publicly declared in 
 favor of retaining religious instruction in ele- 
 mentary schools, and for the maintenance of 
 Voluntary Schools (q.v.), connected with the 
 various religious bodies (as alternative schools 
 were required by parents in areas in which 
 choice of schools could be allowed), but he was 
 
 emphatically opposed to the claim of subscribers 
 (public funds finding most of the mone.y) to 
 dictate the whole of the religious education to 
 a parish where there was only one school. 
 He advocated representation of the parents on 
 the Managing Committee of each Voluntary 
 School. ^ M. E. S. 
 
 References: — 
 
 Acland, T. D. Account of the Origin and Objects of 
 the New Oxford Examinations for the Title of As- 
 sociate in Arts and Certificates. (London, 1,S5S.) 
 
 Acland, A. H. D. Memoir and Letters of the Riijht 
 Honorable Sir Thomas Dyke Acland. (Printed for 
 private eireulation, 1902.) 
 
 MacKinder, H., and Sadler, M. E. University Exten- 
 sion, Past, Present, and Future. (London, 1890.) 
 
 ACOUMETER. — See Audiometer. 
 
 ACOUSTICS. — The science which treats of 
 sounds and their relations. This science in- 
 cludes a treatment of noise, sensation, and tone 
 sensation. 
 
 Reference: — ■ 
 
 Helmholtz. Tort^ Sensation, 
 
 ACQUIRED CHARACTERISTICS.— Those 
 
 physical or mental traits of any organism 
 which are due to its own life history rather 
 than to its heredity. These traits include modi- 
 fications due to climate, nutrition, chemical 
 agencies in the environment or pressures, the 
 effects of use and disuse, mutilations, habits, 
 and experience. Since the acquired is opposed 
 to the hereditary characteristic, the contrast 
 between the two is essentially that between 
 education and heredity {q.v.). 
 
 It is often difficult to distinguish between 
 characteristics that are hereditary and those 
 that are acquired. The leading cause of this 
 difficulty lies in the fact that wth the higher 
 species, in the lives of which infancy is the 
 first period, the hereditary traits are only 
 in part displayed at birth. It follows that to 
 a great extent they appear only after educa- 
 tional influences have had a chance to work. 
 Hence, one often is at a loss whether to ascribe 
 them to education or to heredity. For example, 
 the ability to walk is plainly in part inherited. 
 The child is born with the bodil.v apparatus 
 which makes the act in question possible. At 
 first, however, he cannot walk. He gains that 
 power usually through a process of experimental 
 efforts, such as are involved in learning any 
 habit. It would seem, then, that the abihty to 
 walk is in part an acquired characteristic. 
 On the other hand, children have been observed 
 who for some reason never tried to walk until 
 all the apparatus involved had fully matured. 
 Then, when they were suddenly moved to make 
 the attempt, they walked and ran as perfectl.v 
 as children of the same age who had learned 
 these arts b.y the ordinarj^ process. 
 
 Such discoveries as this have led many to 
 regard a large part of the training of children as 
 merely an anticipation of heredity, and so labor 
 
 29
 
 ACQUIRED CHARACTERISTICS 
 
 ACQUIRED CHARACTERISTICS 
 
 lost, as well as a source of vexation both to the 
 young and the old. Hence, they have urged 
 with Rousseau that we should leave the child 
 largely to nature, whose benevolent provisions 
 our culture merely forestalls, if it does not 
 impair. It is evident that very many of the 
 mental and moral characteristics of men which 
 seem to be learned may in reality be due largely, 
 if not wholly, to heredity. They are perfect or 
 nearly perfect instincts, instead of being imper- 
 fect ones, such as require education to be brought 
 to a condition for efficient functioning. The 
 same may be said of physical traits. Many 
 weak and sickly children grow into strong and 
 healthy men. This is usually attributed to 
 regimen, when in reality it may often be due 
 to heredity. 
 
 On the other hand, there can be no doubt 
 that men often regard as hereditary wluxt is in 
 reality only an acquired characteristic. Thus 
 such mannerisms of children as are to be found in 
 parents or others in the family may be regarded 
 as inherited, when in point of fact they are due 
 to imitation. There is evidence that among 
 the lower animals many complicated instincts, 
 such as the building of nests by birds, may be 
 not perfect by heredity, as has been supposed, 
 but may instead require help from the imitation 
 of models in order to displaj' their standard 
 efficiency. So, too, diseases which have been 
 ascribed to hereditj- are often due to infection, 
 like tuberculosis, which is not inherited, or to 
 sanitary conditions similar to those of the 
 parents. Intemperance is, doubtless, inherited 
 to a far less extent than has been commonly 
 held; most cases of apparent inheritance iie- 
 ing due to the contagion of example, supporteil 
 often by inherent neurotic tendencies. The 
 famous Jukes family, some 1200 of whom were 
 catalogued as belonging to the criminal, licen- 
 tious, or vicious class, would seem to be a marked 
 illustration of hereditary crime; yet some few 
 cases where members of the family were isolated 
 from the rest and developed in quite a normal 
 way seem to indicate that the characteristics 
 for which the stock was infamous were largeh' 
 acquired. 
 
 Indeed, it may be said that in the adult of 
 the higher species, especially in the mature 
 man, there are very few characteristics that 
 have not been in a measure determined by en- 
 vironmental influences. The infant is in every 
 part so susceptible to such influences that it 
 seems to be made up largely of potentialities 
 for development rather than fixed forms of 
 adjustment. Its dominant hereditary trait is 
 caj)acity for education, for acquiring charac- 
 ters. This is true of the body as a whole, but 
 especially of the nervous system and the 
 brain. The latter organ seems to exist solely 
 for the sake of enabling new habits to be ac- 
 quired. It consists of centers which are con- 
 nected with all the sense organs and all the 
 muscles of the body, together with an aston- 
 ishingly intricate mass of association fibers 
 
 30 
 
 connecting these centers. Since these cerebral 
 a.ssociations are not, as a rule, made definite 
 until experience has organized them into 
 habits, a human being, in whom the brain 
 controls a very large part of the movements 
 of the body, acts in an immature and aimless 
 manner until experience has taught him other- 
 wise. Cerebral control means capacity to 
 acquire habits, with a corresponding helpless- 
 ness until these habits shall have been formed. 
 
 But if with the mature of the human race 
 there are very few characteristics which are 
 not in a measure acquired, so with even 
 greater truth may it be .said that there are 
 very few which are not in part dependent on 
 heredity. Indeed, if we except negative me- 
 chanical or chemical effects, such as mutila- 
 tions or modifications of tissue by chemical 
 agencies, it would seem that all the rest are 
 a result of positive potentialities for develop- 
 ment on the part of the individual, which in 
 turn are due to heredity. The power to learn 
 is made up of the power to develop in a great 
 manj^ ways, each of which is dependent upon 
 something in the structure or other properties 
 of the body, and is in consequence inherited. 
 
 One of the most interesting questions con- 
 cerning acquired characteristics is whether 
 they can become hereditary. So important is 
 this issue that it has split the naturalists who 
 are especially concerned in the mechanism of 
 evolution into two hostile camps, and although 
 the controversy does not to-da.v rage so fiercely 
 as it did in the last decade of the nineteenth 
 century, it is still an issue for debate. 
 
 The natural belief of humanity is unques- 
 tionably that the characteristics acquired by 
 the parents are, in part at least, engrafted 
 upon the heredity of the child. This is es- 
 pecially the view in regard to evil traits. 
 " The sin.s of the fathers shall be visited upon 
 the children." " The fathers have eaten sour 
 grapes and the children's teeth are set on 
 edge." So natural an assumption is this that 
 Lamarck (q.i\), a French naturalist (1744- 
 1829), endeavored to explain by it the evolu- 
 tion of species. One has only to suppose that 
 the effects of use and disuse upon the body 
 and functions of the parent are transmitted in 
 part to the child, who in turn develops still 
 further in the same direction, in order to have 
 an agency by which in a comparatively small 
 fraction of geological time extraordinary 
 changes in structure and capacities might be 
 brought about. Thus Lamarck conceived the 
 evolution of species to be the outcome of the 
 individual activities that make up its history. 
 The heredity of a stock is thought to be, like 
 the constitution of a nation, a product of 
 successive efforts in successive generations 
 to develop a satisfactory working organism. 
 What the fathers achieve, the children have 
 thrust upon them. Evolution is a result of 
 effort, and, since the efforts of different indi- 
 viduals differ both in intensity and direction,
 
 ACQUIRED CHARACTERISTICS 
 
 ACQUIRED CHARACTERISTICS 
 
 their children are born with different charac- 
 teristics, which they in turn develop differently 
 owing to variety in circumstances and in 
 energy. Thus species are differentiated, and 
 we have the variety of life seen in the world 
 to-day. 
 
 Darwin (q.v.) (1S09-18S2) developed a new 
 notion of the method of evolution. By study- 
 ing the methods by which breeders and nursery- 
 men improve the qualities of animals and 
 plants under domestication, he found that it 
 was by breeding only from those that showed 
 the most desirable qualities and destroying the 
 rest. Tills process he called artificial selection. 
 It is to be noted that the qualities for which 
 the selected individuals are chosen are not 
 acquired. The breeder does not find it neces- 
 sary to train a horse to run faster than it would 
 naturally in order to get a parent for a better 
 stock. Rather he chooses among all his horses 
 the one that is by nature fastest. Thus in 
 developing his improved stock he relies on 
 chance variations in natural speed rather than 
 on the effects of training. 
 
 What Darwin saw going on under the con- 
 trol of man he conceived to be taking place 
 under the pressure of competition in nature. 
 Since animals and plants in a state of nature 
 chance to vary from each other in numberless 
 ways, and since there is an enormous loss of 
 life among them from competition, those that 
 tend to survive and to reproduce their kind 
 will be on the whole those best adapted to 
 survive, the fittest. The constant variation 
 in all directions and the constant elimination 
 of the unfit will in time break up any stock 
 into varieties each of which has become quite 
 well adapted to that specific environment 
 which is most available for it. Hence, there 
 will be differentiation of species into varieties. 
 But as these varieties separate more and more 
 widely from others that sprang from the same 
 parentage, they tend more and more to evolve 
 into distinct species. 
 
 Darwin laid most stress on evolution by 
 natural selection operating on chance varia- 
 tions, but he did not reject the idea that there 
 might be evolution by the inheritance of the 
 effects of use and disuse. On the contrary, he 
 accepted this as a genuine factor in the origin 
 of species. The followers of Darwin have, 
 however, in some cases refused to believe in 
 the inheritance of acquired characters. Those 
 who hold this view, which places the burden 
 of explaining evolution almost if not quite 
 entirely upon natural selection, have been 
 called \eo-Dar\\Tnians. Their leader is August 
 Weismann, Professor in the University of Frei- 
 burg. His contention that there is no inherit- 
 ance of acquired characters among multicellular 
 animals is based on his conviction that the 
 physiological mechanism of heredity is such as 
 to render this transmission impossible. The 
 germ from which the new individual springs is 
 distinct from those body cells of the parent 
 
 the modification of which gives rise to acquired 
 
 characteristics. That there exists a mecha- 
 nism by which the acquired traits of the body 
 cells can be transported through the body and 
 made to influence the character of the germ 
 cell is, according to Weismann, incredible. 
 Moreover, it is unnecessary to construct an 
 hypothetical explanation for such transmission, 
 since a careful examination of the facts shows 
 that the supposed fact of inheriting acquired 
 characteristics is a myth. All cases that have 
 been held to be illustrations of this turn out 
 on inspection to be either traits not inherited 
 but rather acquired by the child, or traits not 
 acquired but inherited by the parent. The 
 fact is, he maintains, the child inherits only 
 what the parent inherits, plus such variations 
 as chance or a mixture of blood tends to produce. 
 
 The views of Weismann raised up a host of 
 opponents as well as of defenders. Those who 
 maintain the genuineness of the inheritance of 
 acquired characters have been called the Neo- 
 Lamarckians. They have devoted themselves 
 to a search for cases that would incontestably 
 prove such inheritance. Opinions differ as to 
 whether they have succeeded. The case, re- 
 ported by Brown-Sequard, of the inheritance 
 in guinea pigs of epilepsy that originally was 
 caused by mutilations has been, perhaps, the 
 most convincing instance that they have 
 offered. Mutilations are demonstrably not 
 inherited. No evidence exists to support the 
 notion that habits or acquired mental traits 
 can become hereditary. Where the effects of 
 climate, nutrition, or mode of life are so general 
 as to be capable of affecting the germ as well 
 as the body cells, there we may seem to have 
 some evidence of what might be taken to be 
 the inheritance of acquired traits, but such 
 cases are few, and the effects are rather in- 
 definite. Professor James characterized this 
 evidence as " a beggarly array." On the other 
 hand, the Neo-Lamarckians have raised up to 
 face the Neo-Darwinians two formidable objec- 
 tions. One is that, if we reject the inheritance 
 of acquired characteristics, we have discarded 
 the only intelligible account of the origin of 
 the variations on the ba.sis of which the progress 
 of evolution is made, and have left only the 
 mysterious chance variation. The other is 
 that such slight variations as originate by 
 chance can hardly be supposed to give their 
 possessor any such substantial advantage in 
 the struggle for existence as will enable him to 
 survive when others perish. In that event, 
 there remains no " survival of the fittest," and 
 hence no evolution. 
 
 The first of these objections has been met 
 by a counter-objection. It is maintained that 
 the acquired characteristics, so far from ex- 
 plaining evolution in the powers of living beings, 
 are themselves based on hereditary possibilities 
 of development. The acquired characteristic 
 cannot be used to explain a potentiality for 
 growth upon which it itself is based. The in- 
 
 31
 
 ACQUIRED CHARACTERISTICS 
 
 ACTION WORK 
 
 crease in powers which evolution has Ijrought 
 about cannot, then, be cxphxincd by the uses 
 to which these powers have liecn put, but 
 only by an inherent tendency for living tissue 
 to vary, to develop new possibilities for growth. 
 This view, it will be noted, is substantially in 
 accord with the notion of the relationshi]) 
 between acquired characteristics and heredi- 
 tary powers which was outlined earlier in this 
 article. 
 
 The second objection has threatened the 
 whole Darwinian notion of evolution by 
 natural selection. It may be well to note one 
 ingenious attempt to explain how slight 
 chance variations might prove more useful 
 than is at first apparent. Professors Baldwin 
 and Osborn in America and Morgan in 
 England have suggested a factor that they 
 have called organic selection. Slight chance 
 variations in themselves of no significance 
 may, these writers affirm, be a basis for 
 the development through educative influ- 
 ences of perfected habits which are of the 
 greatest advantage. The organism selects, as 
 it were, these apparently insignificant factors 
 in its equipment. It develops them by use 
 until they become genuine sources of strength. 
 A slight tendency to build a nest would result 
 in so imperfect a product that the eggs would 
 fail of protection and the species gain no ad- 
 vantage. On the other hand, it might afford 
 a basis from which through imitation and ex- 
 perience the bird might build a very safe 
 home for its unhatchcd brood. The slight 
 variation would thus assist in the survival of 
 its possessor. In subsequent generations it 
 might grow greater, and thus in the long run 
 heredity would gain a substantial improve- 
 ment. In singling out and improving the 
 slight variation, the organism would have 
 selected the path along which its heredity 
 should improve. Thus the acquired character, 
 while it is not inherited, woul<l, nevertheless, 
 determine the pathway of improvement in 
 inheritance. 
 
 It is evident to any one that, whatever we 
 say about the inheritance of any acquired 
 characteristics, at any rate relativel_y very few 
 of them are so transmitted. The vast mass of 
 the acquisitions of the human parent have to 
 be acquired by the child. Language, man- 
 ners, ideals, vocational skill, experience, each 
 generation must get for itself. It would seem 
 like a great misfortune that the inheritance of 
 acquired characteristics should not have pre- 
 vailed more extensively. On the other hand, 
 a little reflection will convince us that nature, 
 in shutting us off from this easy method of 
 sharing in the outcome of the development of 
 our parents, has been beneficent rather than 
 the opposite. For we are saved from the in- 
 cubus of an enormous number of habits useful 
 to our fathers, but useless or a positive detri- 
 ment to us, and of habits useless or injurious 
 even to those ancestors who formed them. 
 
 At the price of having to learn for ourselves 
 the valuable habits and ideas of our parents, 
 we gain immunity from those that would im- 
 pair our own efficiency. When one considers 
 the rapidit.y with which in the recent history 
 of man the manners, institutions, and ideals of 
 society have changed, the non-inheritance of 
 acquired characters becomes in his mind in- 
 evitably correlated with progressiveness. 
 
 B. N. H. 
 See also Child Psychology; Culture Epoch 
 Theory; D.\rwi.\; Evolution; Infancy; 
 Habit; Heredity; Lamarck; Mendelianism. 
 
 References: — 
 
 ,Sce the reference list to the above articles. 
 Baldwin, J. M. Development and Evolution. (New 
 
 York and London, 190J.) 
 B.^TESON, W. Mendel's Principles of Heredity. (Lon- 
 don, 1902.) 
 Biomctrika, Cambridge, England, contains many 
 
 articles on the question. 
 Galton, Sir Francis. Hereditary Genius. (London, 
 1892.) 
 Inquiries into Human Faculty. (London, 1S83.) 
 Xatural Inheritance. (London, ISSO.) 
 Lo.MBRoso, C. The Heredity of Acquired Characteris- 
 tics, Forum, XXIV, 200. 
 Romanes, G. J. Examination of Weismannism. 
 
 (London, 1893.) 
 Thorndike. E. L. Educational Psychology. (New 
 
 York, 1903.) 
 Weismann, a. Studien zur Descendenz-Thcorie. (Jena, 
 1902.) 
 Essays on Heredity. (London, 1889.) 
 Vortrdge ilber Descendenz-Theoric. (Jena, 1902.) 
 
 ACQUISITIVENESS.— Animals as well as 
 
 human beings show an instinctive tendency to 
 acquire and retain those objects which attract 
 them, either because of the stimulation offered 
 to their .senses, or because of the satisfaction 
 which these objects afford to instinctive desires. 
 Acquisitiveness has accordingly been described 
 as a fundamental instinct. 
 See Instinct. 
 
 ACTION WORK. — A phrase applied to a 
 special method or device used in teaching read- 
 ing to young beginners, particularly foreign chil- 
 dren with little comprehension of oral English. 
 The child converts the print on the page into 
 spoken English, with or without the aid of a pho- 
 netic system or diacritic marks, and then acts 
 out the statement to prove he possesses its 
 meaning. The device has many variations, all 
 intended to avoid a mere mechanical reading 
 of sounds without meaning. One of the most 
 frequent variations is for the teacher to write 
 a command upon the blackboard, which is read 
 silently by the children, one of whom is desig- 
 nated to carry out the command. The neces- 
 sity of some action as the outcome of the read- 
 ing focuses attention on meaning rather than 
 on mere visual form or pronunciation, and re- 
 veals at once any failure of the child to get 
 the thought of the sentence. Lessons where 
 action work is dominant are frequently called 
 " action lessons." 
 
 See: Reading, Teaching of. 
 
 32
 
 ACTIVITY 
 
 ACTIVITY 
 
 ACTIVITY — Psychological Significance of. 
 
 — This is the most general term applied to all or- 
 ganic processes. In ordinary use it is employed 
 to describe the contractions of the muscles. In 
 physiology it is used to describe the processes 
 that go on in all living cells. In psychological 
 literature it is used cither as synonymous with 
 the general term " consciousness," which is 
 very frequently referred to as mental ac- 
 tivity, or as synonymous with the particular 
 term, " volition," which is regarded as the 
 dynamic side of consciousness. The term 
 is of special significance in educational discus- 
 sions because of the contrast which is some- 
 times drawn between receptivity as the passive 
 phase of mental life and self-activity as the 
 aggressive or dynamic side. In technical psy- 
 chological studies emphasis has of late been 
 placed upon the active processes. Thus Pro- 
 fessor James has laid great emphasis in his 
 theory of the emotions upon the bodily activi- 
 ties which are related to these emotions (see 
 Emotions). The processes of perception have 
 been recognized as intimately related to bodily 
 activities. Thus Wundt lays great stress upon 
 eye movements as important elements in visual 
 perception (see Visu.\l Perception). Both of 
 these writers treat activities as important be- 
 cause of their contribution to new incoming 
 impressions either from the muscles or from the 
 joints or from other active organs. This 
 formula, whereby activity is treated as im- 
 portant for mental life because of the impres- 
 sions which it produces, has of late been sub- 
 jected to severe criticism. Photographs of the 
 eye do not support fully the contentions of 
 writers who have emphasized eye movements 
 as important sources of visual sensation. The 
 other movement sensations of the body are 
 far too gross to explain the precision with 
 which we perceive our relations in .space to 
 objects in the world about us. A series of 
 theories have accordingly been developed 
 which promise to throw great light upon the 
 psychological problems connected with all 
 forms of education, especially with manual 
 training and constructive work. Professor 
 Miinsterberg holds that mental life is con- 
 ditioned by the openness of motor channels in 
 such a way that clearness and vividness of 
 impressions depend upon the openness of these 
 motor channels. Stout, after criticizing James' 
 theory of the emotions, calls attention to the 
 fact that emotions are agreeable when the 
 motor tendencies present in any given situation 
 are harmonious, and disagreeable when the 
 motor tendencies are inharmonious. The gen- 
 eral principle of coordination of motor tenden- 
 cies may verj' advantageously be employed to 
 explain many of the processes of perception. 
 Wherever we recognize an object, there is an 
 elaborate active reaction of the individual as 
 well as a sensory impression. C. H. J. 
 
 See Sympathy, Imitation, and Self Ac- 
 tivity. 
 
 Activity ; Logical Theory and Educational 
 Implication of. — For educational purposes this 
 concept may be defined as a series of changes 
 definitely adapted to accomplishing an end. 
 Hence it is opposed to restless and random 
 changes, as well as to mere quiescence and pas- 
 sive absorption. Dictated exercises, " bu.sy 
 work," etc., when not accompanied by any 
 sense of a result to which they naturally con- 
 tribute, are not activity in its genuine, or 
 intellectual, significance; neither is undirected 
 overflow of motor impulse. By way of em- 
 phasizing the conscious share of the individual 
 in the initiation and execution of a series of 
 changes directed to an end, activity generally 
 appears in educational literature as self-activitij. 
 Under the influence, however, of a dualistic 
 philosophy (see Dualism), self-activity has 
 usually been conceived not as all chances con- 
 sciously directed toward an end with the 
 attainment of which the self has become 
 identified, but as purely mental or psychical. 
 The mind having been separated from the 
 external world and from the body, its activity 
 had to be conceived quite independenth' of 
 any changes effected among objects or through 
 the body. 
 
 The result in education was to give higher 
 education a one-sided direction. Abstract 
 studies, since they in^•olve a minimum of overt 
 action, were regarded as the appropriate ma- 
 terial of self-activity. Owing to the influence 
 of Aristotle, pure activity was identified with 
 the operation of pure reason, a process begin- 
 ning and ending exclusively in the mind and 
 expressed wholly in logical terms. This type 
 of activity characterized liberal or free educa- 
 tion, which was then contrasted with profes- 
 sional and mechanical education, as concerned 
 with arts that took effect in some modification 
 of the body (such as medicine) or external 
 objects, such as the fine and the industrial 
 arts. This lower (base) type of activity and 
 the education concerned with it had not to do 
 with mind in its integrity and purity, but with 
 mind as affected by want or lack, — appetite 
 and external physical circumstances. 
 
 Although this dualistic and exclusively in- 
 tellectualistic philosophy is rarely openly pro- 
 fessed to-day, it has had great historic in- 
 fluence, much of which still survives. Em- 
 bodied in the schola.stic theory of the su- 
 periority of the contemplative to the practical 
 life, it was revived in another form in the hu- 
 manism of the Renaissance; and finds an 
 echo to-day in the assumption that all profes- 
 sional and even useful education must be 
 illiberal and noncultural. While the school prac- 
 tices in question were due not to the theory, 
 but to social conditions which put the stamp 
 of the ignoble and menial upon all economic 
 concerns, yet the theory gave a convenient 
 formulation and seeming justification for the 
 practice of divorcing education for culture and 
 for vocation from each other. 
 
 33
 
 ACTIVITY 
 
 ADAMS 
 
 At the present time, many forces are co- 
 operating to give to the notion of activity a 
 wider and less exclusive content; and, by 
 relieving it of its excessive intellectual asso- 
 ciations, to make it a central principle of all 
 sound educational methods. In other words, 
 " self-activity " is losing its purely iihilosophi- 
 cal meaning, and is becoming identified with 
 all types of directed action in which the pur- 
 pose, choice, and reflection of the indi\itlual 
 take a part. 
 
 Some of the causes of this change are as 
 follows: (1) The development of democracy 
 has tended to break down the association of 
 higher culture with economic leisure, and to em- 
 phasize the necessity of active social service. 
 (2) jNIodern industry has become more and 
 more dependent upon the a])i)lication of science. 
 so that it has lost its purely material and me- 
 chanical character by gaining an intellectual 
 content. On the other hand, the sharp bound- 
 ary between pure and applied science has 
 given way through the increase of facilities for 
 putting even remote and abstract branches of 
 knowledge to some social service. (3) Modern 
 psychology has substituted the notion of a 
 unified psychophysical activity for the older 
 dualism of soul and body. In multitudes of 
 ways, it has demon.strated the cooperation of 
 mind and body to be indispensable. Hence 
 physical activity, instead of being considered 
 an intruder or accidental annex in the training of 
 mind, is seen to plav an organic part. (4) ^lod- 
 ern dynamic or functional logic has shown that 
 reflective thinking is called forth by the need 
 of coordinating conflicting activities into a 
 harmony, and that the main lines of the 
 organization of thoughts are set by the model 
 of practical activities. (See Conflict and 
 Control.) 
 
 The single fact that all conclusive scientific 
 thinking requires experimentation involving the 
 production of physical change is enough in 
 itself to destroy the older notion that the 
 highest mental activity is purely self-inclosed 
 and self-sufficient. 
 
 Some of the effects of the increased impor- 
 tance of the principle of activity in education 
 may also be noted: (1) The kindergarten rests 
 professedly upon this notion. The rediscovery 
 by Froebcl of the significance of play and of 
 occupation (Plato having been the original 
 discoverer) marked an epoch in education. 
 (2) The introduction into elementary educa- 
 tion of various forms of constructive and ex- 
 pressive activity. While the arts (like drawing) 
 and manual training (cooking, sewing, work 
 with wood and metal) were first introduced 
 mainly for utilitarian reasons, when once in- 
 troduced they were found to serve important 
 intellectual and moral ends. The introduction 
 of school gardens, excursions, etc., mark further 
 tendencies in the same direction, as do also the 
 greater attention to games and to physical 
 culture. (3) The recognition that scientific 
 
 34 
 
 study in education is incomplete without pro- 
 vision of laboratories and other opportunities 
 for active work is another aspect of the same 
 principle. That the best thinking involves 
 research, personal intiuiry, and is not to be 
 secured by amassing and absorbing stores of 
 information is a notion destined ultimately to 
 revolutionize methods of instruction. (4) The 
 increasing interest in vocational education, 
 the feeling that education comes short of its 
 proper function unless it assists the individual 
 in his choice and pursuit of a right calling in life, 
 is another evidence of the fundamental signifi- 
 cance attached to the principle of activity. 
 See article on Function. J. D. 
 
 References: — 
 
 Bradley, F. Appearance and Reality. (London and 
 
 New Yorli. l.S(t.3 ) 
 Dewey, J. Studies in Logical Theory. (Chicago, 1!)09.) 
 Child and Curriculum, edited by J. J. Findlay. 
 (London, 1906.) 
 HoBHODSE, L. T. Mind in Evolution. (London, 1901). 
 James, W. Principles of Psychology. (New York, 
 1890.) 
 Talks to Teachers. (New York, 1899.) 
 JuDD, C. H. Genetic Psychology for Teachers. (New 
 York, 190.3.) 
 Psychology. General hitroduction. (New York, 1907.) 
 Ladd, G. T. a Theory of Reality. (New York, 1899.) 
 MtiNSTERBERCi, H. Psychology and Life. (lioston, 
 
 1899.) 
 Stout, G. E. Analytical Psychology. (London and 
 New York, 1896.) 
 Manual of Psychology. (New York, 1899.) 
 
 ADAMS, CHARLES KENDALL. — Histo- 
 rian and educator, born at Derby, Vt., Jan. 
 24, 1835; educated in the public schools, 
 at Derby Academy, and the University of 
 Michigan; professor of history and Latin at 
 Cornell Cniversity (1863-1867) and of history 
 at the University of Michigan (1867-188.5); 
 president of Cornell Universitv (188.5-1892) 
 and of the University of Wisconsin (1892-1902) ; 
 author of Higher Education in Germany and 
 of several historical works. His Manual of 
 Historical Literature (New York, 1889) is 
 important as a general historical bibliographv. 
 Died July 26, 1902. W. S. M." 
 
 ADAMS, DANIEL (1773-1864). — School- 
 man and text book- writer, educated in the 
 schools of New Hampshire and at Dartmouth 
 College: principal of a private school in Boston 
 (1803-1813); author of textbooks in arithmetic, 
 grammar, and reading which were widely used 
 in the schools of New England for many j'ears. 
 
 w. s."m. 
 
 ADAMS. HERBERT BAXTER. — Histo- 
 rian, born at Shutcslnn'y, Mass., A])ril 16, 
 1850; educated at Phillips Exeter Academy, 
 Amherst College, and the University of Hciilel- 
 berg; instructor and professor of history at 
 Johns Hopkins University (1876-1901); author 
 of Study of History in American Colleges and 
 Universities, College of William and Mary, 
 Thomas Jefferson and the University of Virginia,
 
 ADAMS 
 
 ADAPTATION 
 
 and of numerous historical works; also editor 
 of Contribxdions of American Educational His- 
 tory published bv the Bureau of Education; 
 died July 30, 1901. W. S. M. 
 
 ADAMS, JOHN (1772-1863).— Schoolman 
 educated in private schools and at Yale College; 
 instructor in Canterbury (Conn.) Academy; 
 principal of Phillips Academy at Andover 
 (1810-1833); during his closing years actively 
 engaged in Sunday school work in Illinois; 
 author of numerous pamphlets on education. 
 
 W. S. M. 
 
 ADAMS, JOHN QUINCY (1769-1848).— 
 Sixth president of the United States, educated 
 in private schools in Paris, at the University 
 of Leyden and Harvard College; professor of 
 rhetoric and belles lettres at Harvard College 
 (180.5-1809); author of Lectures on Rhetoric and 
 Oratonj. W. S. M. 
 
 ADAMS, WILLIAM TAYLOR (1822-1897). 
 — Schoolman and story-writer, educated in 
 the public and private schools of Boston; 
 teacher and principal in the schools of Boston 
 for 26 years; editor of Student and Schoolmate 
 (1858-1866); wrote under the pseudon>in 
 " Oliver Optic " numerous stories for the 
 young. W. S. M. 
 
 ADAPTATION. — The maintenance of life 
 requires an adaptation of the organism to its 
 surroundings, of the human individual to the 
 natural and social medium in which he is placed. 
 Disturbance of adaptation means disease — 
 physical, mental, moral; and though the 
 capacity of human beings to adapt themselves 
 to abnormal conditions is very great, malad- 
 justment, if extreme and long continued, 
 results in death or arrest of growth. The en- 
 tire process of education {q.v.) may properly 
 be regarded as a process of securing the condi- 
 tions that make for the mo.st complete and 
 effective adaptation of individuals to their 
 physical and moral environment. 
 
 Adaptation is of two types, passive and active, 
 though the distinction is one of degree, not of 
 kind. Passive adaptation is discussed under 
 the caption of accommodation (q.v.). As there 
 noted, the accommodations in which the individ- 
 ual takes on the coloring of his surroundings 
 depend upon his own primary native activities. 
 In progressive societies, then, activities are to 
 an extent directed toward securing an adapta- 
 tion of the environment to the individual's 
 needs and ends, rather than vice versa. Lower 
 forms of life have only a limited power to adjust 
 themselves to changes in their surroundings; 
 if their conditions vary markedly or suddenly, 
 they die. Under ordinary conditions they 
 reach a stable equilibrium, which means arrest 
 of growth. Continued growth means that the 
 
 individual does not accommodate himself to his 
 environment, but takes the initiative in modify- 
 ing it to make it over into accord with his own 
 desires and purposes. Only when the environ- 
 ment develops by the active initiative and plan- 
 ning of individuals is progress secured. AH 
 invention and discovery are cases of active 
 adaptation. 
 
 Spencer's influence is largely responsible for 
 the popular misconception by which both edu- 
 cation and evolution are construed as the 
 molding of pliable and passive organic beings 
 into agreement with fixed and static environing 
 conditions. This view leads to a perversion, 
 practical and theoretical, of education, since it 
 makes its aim the accommodation of individuals 
 to the existing type of social polity and customs, 
 a method which may train followers, but not 
 leaders. To avoid this error, it is necessary 
 to realize that adaptation is a case of control 
 (q.v.) involving the subordination of the en- 
 vironment to the life functions of individuals. 
 The North American Indians accommodated 
 themselves to their surroundings on our 
 Western plains and deserts, and the result was a 
 low and precarious culture. Civilized man 
 employs migration, machinery, means of 
 transportation and communication; and by 
 adapting these same surroundings to his own 
 ends controls the environment instead of having 
 his development controlled by it. Herein lies 
 the difference between stationary and progres- 
 sive societies, between civilization and savagery, 
 between higher and lower forms of animal life. 
 (See besides Accommod.\tion and the references 
 there given, Evolution and Function.) 
 
 J. D. 
 
 Biological Adaptation. — Besides its general 
 philoso])hical and social significance, the term 
 "adaptation" has definite biological and sen- 
 sory connotations that have significance edu- 
 cationally. 
 
 Biologically the term refers to the fact 
 that every organism tends to undergo through 
 natural selection or individual modification a 
 succession of changes whereby its functions are 
 rendered more harmonious with the demands 
 of the environment. Thus plants which live 
 in an arid region adapt themselves to the en- 
 vironment by developing organs for the reten- 
 tion of moisture. Animals that live in a cold 
 climate develop coverings which protect them 
 against the cold. The term has been employed 
 in connection with mental development to 
 indicate that the mental processes are more ad- 
 vantageous as means of fitting an individual to 
 the environment than mere organic changes. 
 
 Sensory Adaptation occurs when any organ 
 of the body is acted upon by external energy 
 which then undergoes a change such that 
 subsequent processes in that organ show the 
 effect of the earlier excitation. This is especially 
 true of the organs of sense. When the eye has 
 been exposed to light for a time, it is less sensi- 
 
 35
 
 ADDISON 
 
 ADDITION 
 
 tive than when it has been exposed in darkness. 
 These states of the eye are defined respectively 
 as daylight adaptation and darkness adaptation. 
 The sense of smell and the temperature sense 
 are especially affected by earlier excitations. 
 The phenomenon is akin to fatigue (q.v.) and 
 after-image (q.v.). C. H. J. 
 
 ADDISON, JOSEPH (1672-1710). — Son 
 of Lancelot Addison, Dean of Lichfield; edu- 
 cated at Charterhouse and Queen's and 
 Magdalen colleges, Oxford; established the 
 Spectator in 1711. In this periodical, which 
 had a wide circulation, he used his influence 
 to secure reforms in English education. In 
 No. 157, August 30, 1711, the writer states: 
 " I have very often with much sorrow bewailed 
 the misfortune of the children of Great Britain, 
 when I consider the ignorance and undiscern- 
 ing of the generality of schoolmasters. The 
 boasted liberty we talk of is but a mean reward 
 for the long servitude, the many heartaches 
 and terrors, to which our childiiood is exposed 
 in going through a grammar-school. Many of 
 these stupid tyrants exercise their cruelty with- 
 out any manner of distinction of the capacities 
 of children, or the intention of parents in their 
 behalf. There are many excellent tempers 
 which are worthy to be nourished and cultivated 
 with all i^ossible diligence and care, that were 
 never designed to be acquainted with Aristotle, 
 Tully or Virgil; ... I am confident that no 
 boy who will not be allured to letters without 
 blows, will ever be brought to anything with 
 them. ... It is wholly to this dreadful 
 practice " (i.e. of indiscriminate corporal 
 punishment in schools) " that we may attribute 
 a certain hardiness and ferocity which some 
 men, though liberally educated, carry about 
 them in all their behaviour. . . . But since 
 this custom of educating by the lash is suffered 
 by the gentry of Great Britain, I would prevail 
 only, that honest heavy lads may be dismissed 
 from slavery sooner than they are at present, 
 and not whipped on to their fourteenth or 
 fifteenth year whether they expect any progress 
 from them or not. Let the child's capacity be 
 forthwith examined, and he sent to some me- 
 chanic way of life, without respect to his birth, if 
 nature designed him for nothing higher. . . . 
 I would not here be supposed to have said that 
 our learned men who have been whipped at 
 school, are not still men of noble and liberal 
 minds; but I am sure they had been much 
 more so than they are, had they never suffered 
 that infamy." 
 
 The influence of the Spectator, which con- 
 tinued to be read as a classic throughout Eng- 
 land, was a strong factor in mitigating the 
 tradition of severity among English school- 
 masters. In the Spectator, Xo. 215, November 6, 
 1711, the writer strongly urges universal 
 education: " I consider a human soul without 
 education like marble in the quarry, which 
 
 shews none of its inherent beauties, until the 
 skill of the polisher fetches out the colours, 
 makes the surface shine, and discovers every 
 ornamental cloud, spot, and vein that runs 
 through the body of it. Education, after the 
 same manner, when it works upon a noble mind, 
 draws out to view every latent virtue and per- 
 fection, which without such helps are never able 
 to make their appearance. . . . What sculpture 
 is to a block of marble, education is to a human 
 soul. Tiic philosopher, the saint, or the hero; 
 the wise, the good, or the great man, very often 
 lie hid and concealed in a plebeian, which a 
 proper education might have disinterred, and 
 have brought to light." 
 
 It should be noted that Addison's father 
 was a native of the County of Westmoreland, 
 in which part of England throughout the 
 seventeenth and eighteenth centuries education 
 was much more highly valued by and generally 
 accessible to the masses of the people than 
 elsewhere in the country. Thus Addison grew 
 up with a knowledge of the benefits of popular 
 education which doubtless affected his point 
 of view. He was a strong advocate of the edu- 
 cational movement which, in the early years 
 of the eighteenth century, led the Church of 
 England to develop charity schools (q.v.) for 
 the children of the poor, and thought the 
 foundation of these schools one of the most 
 beneficent undertakings of the age. He 
 describes Sir Roger de Coverley, his type of 
 an English country gentleman, as employing an 
 itinerant singing-master, who goes about his 
 estate to instruct the people rightly in the tunes 
 of the Psalms, so as to improve the singing in 
 church. Sir Roger follows the public cate- 
 chism in church, and, when pleased with the 
 boy who has answered well, orders a Bible to be 
 sent him next day for his encouragement, some- 
 times accompanying it with a flitch of bacon 
 for the lad's mother. Addison's influence was 
 strong in forming the code of public duty to 
 w-hich enlightened landholders endeavored to 
 conform in England from the beginning of the 
 Hanoverian period. This code was further 
 popularized by Samuel Richardson in his novel 
 Sir Charles Grandison (1753). Its religious 
 earnestness was deepened by the Evangelical 
 movement followed by the Tractarian move- 
 ment. In all its stages it included the duty 
 of providing a humble, but by no means ineffec- 
 tive, form of elementary education for the 
 laboring poor. M. E. S. 
 
 References: — 
 
 Dictionary of Xational Biography. 
 Essaj'S in the Speclalor. 
 
 ADDITION. — A term used in mathematics 
 to indicate the joining of two quantities to form 
 a single quantity. In particular, in elementary 
 arithmetic we add 2 and 3 and say that the result 
 is 5; in advanced arithmetic we add 2 and — 3 
 and say that the result is — 1 ; in complex 
 
 36
 
 ADDITION 
 
 ADELPHI COLLEGE 
 
 numbers we add a + hi and a + h'i and say that 
 the result is (a + a) + (6 + h')i, where i = '^ — 1. 
 Similarly we have sin- a + cos" a = 1, and other 
 forms capable of reduction in various parts of 
 mathematics, all developments of the idea of 
 addition in elementary arithmetic. 
 
 The name of this process has had various 
 vicissitudes. Johannes Hispalensis (John of 
 Seville, John of Luna), a Spanish Jew of c. 1140, 
 called it "aggregation": " Aggregare est quos- 
 libet duos numerosvel plures inunum colligere." 
 The earliest French treatise on algorism (c.l275) 
 uses "assemble " for add : " Se tu veus assamble 
 1. nombre a autre." The first printed arith- 
 metic (Treviso, Italy, 1478) uses "join" in the 
 same sense. " Summation " has long been a 
 rival of "addition," a trace of this use being 
 preserved in the expression " to sum up," and 
 "to sum these numbers." Grammateus (ISlcS) 
 speaks of " Additio oder Summierung," and 
 Rudolff (1526) of "Addirn odcr Summirn." 
 The Germans also used " Zusammenthuung," 
 the French " aiouster," and the Italians 
 " recogliere," " summare," and " acozzare." 
 
 The numbers to be added had no special 
 names in the earlier books of the people. The 
 theoretical books, written in Latin, commonly 
 spoke of them as " numeri addendi," numbers to 
 be added, from which came the word " addendi," 
 or our " addends." FinaBus used this term as 
 early as 1525, and Gemma Frisius (1540) 
 probably did more than any one else to make 
 it popular. Sometimes only the lower of two 
 numbers to be added was called a " numerus 
 addendus," as in the work of George of Hungary 
 (1499). 
 
 The result of addition has had a variety of 
 names, although " sum" has been the favorite. 
 " Product" has also been used, as by John de 
 Muris (c. 1320), and etymologically it has as 
 much reason for being used in addition as in 
 multiplication. Even as late as 1563 Savonne 
 writes, " Adiouster est mettre plusieurs nombres 
 ou sommes ensemble, pour en s^auoir le produit," 
 thus following a common custom of using "sum" 
 for number, and "product" for the result of 
 addition. " Numerus collectus " has also been 
 used, which might naturally have led to the 
 use of " collect."' 
 
 The method of adding numbers, when me- 
 chanical aids (see Abacu.?) were not employed, 
 has changed but little. A commentator of un- 
 known date, writing on the Lilfivati (see 
 Bh.^skara), gives this method for adding 2, 5, 
 32, 193, 18, 10, and 100. 
 
 Sum of the units, 2, 5, 2, 3, S, 0. 
 Sum of the tons, 3, 9, 1, 1, 
 Sum of the hundreds, 1, 0, 0, 1 
 
 Sum of the sums 
 
 20 
 14 
 2 
 
 360 
 
 In the fourteenth century Maximus Planudes 
 iq.v.), whose work was much influenced by the 
 Arabs, placed the sum at the top, checking 
 (see Checks on Operations) his result by 
 
 8030 
 
 2 
 
 5687 
 i34:5 
 
 8 
 3 
 
 05391 
 
 3279 
 
 10-120 
 
 7>sp^0 
 909 
 
 casting out nines, as here shown. The method 
 was purely Arabic. The Hindus, ou the other 
 hand, seem to have commonly 
 written their results below, begin- 
 ning at the right as we do, but can- 
 celing unnecessary figures. They 
 also had what they called a retro- 
 grade method, beginning at the 
 left. 
 
 The expression "to carry" in 
 addition is very old, being derived 
 from the carrying of counters on 
 the line abacus. (See Abacus.) 
 It is found in most if not all 
 European languages. In English it 
 has been perhaps less popular than 
 in some other languages, Recorde 
 {c. 1540) using, for example, the expression 
 " keepe in mynde," and Baker (156S) using 
 "keepe the other in your minde." 
 
 D. E. S. 
 
 ADDITION, Psychology of. — See Number, 
 Psychology of. 
 
 ADELHARD, or ^THELHARD, of Bath. — 
 
 A monk of the twelfth centurj', probably 
 born at Bath, England. At one period of 
 his life he traveled widely, visiting Spain, 
 Greece, North Africa, Egypt, and Asia Minor. 
 He may have lived for a time in Sicily. In 
 his travels he came into contact with Arabian 
 thought, to which are due some of his works 
 on mathematics, medicine, and philosophy. 
 His most important work was a translation 
 into Latin of Euclid's Elements from the 
 Arabic (though some claim without justification 
 that it was from the Greek). This work was 
 used extensively in the thirteenth and fourteenth 
 centuries. About 1260 Giovanni Campano 
 issued the translation as his own work. The 
 first printed edition appeared at Venice in 
 1482. His most Jmportant philosophical works 
 are Perdifficiles Quaestiones, which is represent- 
 ative of his acquaintance with Arabic teachings, 
 and De Eodem et Divcrso {Of Identity and 
 Difference), an attempt to reconcile the theories 
 of Plato and Aristotle on universals. 
 
 Reference: — 
 
 JoURD.-iiN. Recherches sur les Traductions d'Aristote. 
 (Paris, 1843.) 
 
 ADELPHI COLLEGE, BROOKLYN, N. Y. 
 
 — A coeducational, nonsectarian institution, 
 incorporated by the Regents of the State of 
 New York (see University of the State of 
 New York), June 24, 1896. Besides the 
 usual undergraduate courses, admission to 
 which is by examination or certificate from 
 high school, the college maintains a Normal 
 School for Kindergartners with a two-years' 
 course organized in 1893, a Normal School 
 for Art Teachers, formed in 1903, and a 
 School of Fine Arts developed from the art 
 courses in Adelphi Academy, a preparatory 
 
 37
 
 ADELUNG 
 
 ADJUSTMENT 
 
 school founded in 1863, which was the parent of 
 the college, and which remains an important part 
 of its system. The college, wliicli has always 
 emphasized preparation for teaching, offers 
 also extension courses that enable ijublic school 
 teachers to make progress toward a degree 
 without giving up their positions. Peda- 
 gogical studies may be taken as part of the 
 work of the college proper, and, if satisfac- 
 torily completed, admit to the New York City 
 examinations for licenses to teach in the 
 public schools and make the student eligible to 
 receive the College Graduate Professional 
 Certificate issued by the State Education 
 Department at Albany. Adelphi College is 
 tiie only institution in Brooklyn from which a 
 woman may obtain a bachelor's degree. There 
 are no fraternities. The students are organized 
 in self-government associations, and the "honor 
 system" is maintained. Adelphi College is 
 a member of the Association of Colleges in 
 the Middle States and Maryland (q.v.) (see 
 College E\'tr.\nce Boards). There are about 
 500 students; in 1908 the degrees conferred 
 were, M.A., 3 (all for educational researches), 
 A.B., 45. The college is controlled by a 
 self-perpetuating board of trustees; three 
 of the members (1909) are women. The 
 instructing staff numbers 36, of whom 16 
 are full ])rofessors. The grounds, buildings, 
 and equipment were valued (1906) at S530,055. 
 The total annual income is 854,000. The 
 average salary of a professor is S2000. Charles 
 H. Levermore, Ph.D., is president. C. G. 
 
 ADELUNG, JOHANN CHRISTOPH (1732- 
 1806). — A German lexicographer and gramma- 
 rian, born in Spantekow, Pomerania. After 
 studying theology at the University of Halle, 
 he taugiit at the evangelical gymnasium in 
 Erfurt (1759-1761), but had to leave because 
 of his rationalism. The next sixteen years he 
 spent in literary work in Leipzig, and in 1787 
 was appointed chief librarian of the electoral 
 library in Dresden, which position he filled 
 until his death. Adelung's great work is his 
 dictionary of the German language (Gram- 
 malisch-kritisches Worterbuch der hochdeutschen 
 Mundart, 5 v., Leipzig 1774-86), by far the 
 most important work of its kind before Grimm. 
 His German grammar, written 1781 by the 
 order of Minister von Zedlitz, remained for 
 a long time the standard of Germari schools. 
 Among his other works are: "IJber den 
 deutschen SHI (On German Style, 3 v. 1785-1786), 
 Aeltere Geschichte der Deutschen, ihrer Sprache 
 und Literatur (Ancient History of the Germans, 
 their Language and Literature, Leipzig, 1806); 
 and Mithridates oder aUgemeine Sprachen- 
 Kunde (General Linguistics, Berlin, 1806), in 
 which the conception of a science of com- 
 parative philology is foreshadowed. Besides 
 these, he made valuable contributions to 
 the study of medieval Latinity and of the 
 history of Saxony. From 1772 to 1774, he 
 
 published the Leipziger Wochenblatt fiir Kinder 
 (Leipzig Weekly for Children), the first German 
 periodical for young people. F. M. 
 
 ADENOIDS. — (Greek d«e^of<S^s, glandular.) 
 The so-called adenoid growth is really an 
 hypertrophy of the nasopharyngeal tonsil, or 
 what is sometimes called the third tonsil, 
 situated in the cavity between the nose and 
 throat. Many different causes have been 
 assigned for such growths, but no specific cause 
 has yet been established. There is, however, 
 a consensus of opinion in regard to the fact 
 that this hypertrophy is connected with the 
 great activity of the lymphoid tissue in early 
 life. This is a common defect among school 
 children, and its early recognition and treat- 
 ment is extremely desirable for pedagogical 
 as well as hygienic reasons. An operation in 
 childhood is usually successful. The adenoid 
 growth interferes with the nutrition of the brain, 
 and results in linguistic defects, mental con- 
 fusion, dullness, and often in mental irritabil- 
 ity and perversity as regards school discipline. 
 A special form of inattention due to this de- 
 fect has been distinguished, called aproscchia 
 nasalis. Many investigations of this defect 
 among school children in different countries 
 have shown a number of cases, varying from 
 perhaps 5 per cent to 25 per cent or 30 per 
 cent. Tests for this defect should always be 
 included in the physical examination of school 
 children. For further details see the article 
 on the Hygiene of the Nose. W. H. B. 
 
 References: — 
 
 BuRNH.vM, William H. The Hygiene of the Nose- 
 Pedagogical Seminary, June, 1908, Vol. XV, pp. 
 15.5-169. Contains tiiblioRraphy. 
 
 Chockett, E. a. Some Diseases of the Nose and 
 Throat of Interest to Teachers. Addresses and 
 Proceedings of the N. E. A., Boston, Mass., 1903, 
 pp. 102.s-10.31. 
 
 GuLicK. L. H., and Ayres, L. P. Medical Inspection 
 of Schools. (New York, 1908.) 
 
 ADJUSTMENT. — This term is often used 
 as a synonym for Accommod.^tign and Ad.\p- 
 T.\TioN (q.v.). Strictly speaking, the term 
 denotes the result of equilibrium which may 
 be effected by either of these processes. Ad- 
 justment to society is at present a favorite 
 way of conceiving the end of education; while 
 containing an obvious truth, it is in danger of 
 being interpreted in the direction of class 
 education, i.e. fitting individuals to fill specific 
 predetermined positions in the social order, 
 instead of securing to them such a develop- 
 ment of their own powers as will enable them 
 to make their own adjustments in a changing 
 social order. Where economic and social 
 changes are as great and rapid as they are in 
 contemporary life, it is disastrous to try to 
 fix by education the forms which the social 
 adjustments of individuals shall take. A 
 chief cause of incompetency and poverty often 
 lies in the fact that individuals are so edu- 
 
 38
 
 ADLER 
 
 ADOLESCENCE AND YOUTH 
 
 cated only to a special line of activity which 
 is transformed or even eliminated by social 
 progress. J. D. 
 
 ADLER, GEORGE J. (1821-1868).— A Ger- 
 man-American linguist and lexicographer. He 
 was born in Leipzig, and at the age of twelve 
 came to New York. After graduating from 
 New York University in 1844, he became pro- 
 fessor of German in that institution (1846- 
 1854). For the last eight years of his life 
 he was insane. His German-English Dic- 
 tionary, the first edition of which appeared in 
 1848, is still used. He also published a 
 German Grammar (New York, 1868), and other 
 te.xtbooks, a lecture on the Poetry of the Arabs 
 in Spain (New York, 1868), an essay entitled 
 Wilhelm von Humboldt's Linguistic Studies 
 (New York, 1868), and a translation of Fauriel's 
 History of Provencal Poetry. 
 
 ADMINISTRATION, SCHOOL. — This 
 topic covers the work of so many different 
 officers and so many different types of schools 
 that the subject has been treated under a 
 number of heads. For the state aspect of the 
 work see St.\te School Administr.a.tion', 
 and State Bc^rds of Education. For the 
 county aspect of the work see County Syste.m 
 OF School Administration, County Boards 
 OF Educatio.v, and Rural Supervision. 
 For the city aspect of the work see City 
 School Organization, City School Systems, 
 Business Manager, City Boards of Edu- 
 cation, and the articles on the various city 
 school sy.stems, to be found under the cities, 
 as Albany, Buffalo, etc. Other articles 
 relating to all phases of school administra- 
 tion, state, county, city, and district, are 
 Boards of Education, Superintendent of 
 Schools, Supervisors and Inspectors, Ex- 
 a.mi.nation Boards, Apportionment of School 
 Funds, and Certification of Teachers. 
 Rural Supervision deals with the work of 
 county and district authorities. School 
 Funds, and Taxation for Educ^-Tion, deal 
 with the financial aspect of administrative 
 work. For administration in Europe see 
 under the various national systems. E. P. C. 
 
 ADMISSION, EXAMINATION FOR.— See 
 
 College Entrance E.xami.n.ations and Col- 
 lege Entrance Boards. 
 
 ADMISSION OF PUPILS, AND THEIR 
 DEPARTURE FROM THE SCHOOL. — See 
 
 School Census; Compulsory Attendance; 
 Elimination of Pupils; Retard.^tion of 
 Pupils. 
 
 ADOLESCENCE AND YOUTH. — The 
 
 period of life included within these terms ex- 
 tends from pubescence to the attainment of 
 relatively complete maturity. The age varies, 
 being earlier in hot climates than in cold. In 
 
 temperate zones, and especially in America, it 
 usually extends from the fourteenth to the 
 twenty-fifth years for boys and one or two 
 years earlier for girls, but Crampton found a 
 range of four years in the attainment of 
 pubescence. 
 
 Physiologically the general characteristic of 
 adolescence is more rapid growth of all parts 
 of the body than at any time since the first 
 year of life, most rapid in the earlier stage and 
 lessening toward the end. This usually 
 begins at 11 or 12 in girls and about two years 
 later in boys, and its culmination is passed by 
 17 or 18 years. Except from 11 or 12 to 14 
 or 15 years, boys excel girls slightly. Growth 
 in height precedes growth in weight, and 
 is usually complete by 18, while growth in 
 weight may continue to the fiftieth year or 
 later. Not all parts of the body grow with 
 equal rapidity or proportions, but as yet 
 statements as to details must be especially 
 tentative. The bones begin to grow rapidly 
 just at puberty, and after the twelfth year in 
 girls and fifteenth in boys the trunk skeleton 
 increases more than the legs, so that sitting 
 height becomes greater relative to total height. 
 Between the twelfth and nineteenth years the 
 thorax increases from .62 to .76 meter, and the 
 skeleton is completed in many minor details. 
 In girls especially the pelvic region is modified, 
 the iliac arches broaden, and various bones 
 unite, to give better support and balance. 
 This'growth is probably not complete before the 
 twenty-fifth year. Coincident with this ttie 
 hip measure increases relatively more for girls 
 than for boys. The length and width of the face 
 increase especiaDy between the twelfth and 
 sixteenth years, but the skuU changes little, 
 though there is a very slow increase both in 
 length and breadth, as well as a clo.sing of the 
 sutures. The muscles probably grow more 
 rapidly at this time than do any other tissues, 
 but we know little of the details. The main 
 growth in bulk is completed bj' the nineteenth 
 year, but for some time afterwards the working 
 power increases. They constitute by weight 
 43 per cent of the body and are estimated to 
 expend about one fifth of its total energy. The 
 cortical centers for the voluntary muscles cover 
 most of the lateral brain zones, so that training of 
 the voluntary muscles is brain-building. Involun- 
 tary muscles form the heart and digestive tract. 
 Muscles thus are a higlily significant factor in de- 
 termining both physical and psychical efficiency, 
 and their proper development at the ])eriod of 
 most ra]5id growth is one of the most important 
 tasks. In general, motor development seems 
 to proceed from fundamental to accessory, the 
 finer accessory movements and control being 
 pretty well developed by the eleventh year. 
 But with puberty there comes a period of les- 
 sened motor control, — usually placed during 
 the twelfth year for girls and thirteenth for 
 boys, — in which the adolescent should not be 
 expected to do as fine work as before, and liim- 
 
 39
 
 ADOLESCENCE AND YOUTH 
 
 ADOLESCENCE AND YOUTH 
 
 self has the inclination to activities demanding 
 strength rather than delicacy. The demands 
 frequently made at this time upon boys, and 
 still more upon girls, probably lay the basis for 
 various forms of nervousness, automatisms, 
 and ties. Hall believes that at this time the 
 basal muscles of legs, .back, shoulders, heart, 
 lungs, and chest should be developed, and the 
 finer ones involved in reading, writing, and 
 school work generally, should be somewhat re- 
 lieved, at least to this extent, that the adolescent 
 should not be expected to improve in any of the 
 manual aspects of his work, nor blamed if he 
 retrogrades, but should be given just enough 
 practice so that in the development of accessory 
 muscles, which comes a year or two later, he 
 will not have to form new habits again. The 
 chief desideratum here is not to acquire bad 
 habits by over-forcing and not to lose through 
 disuse the good habits already formed. But 
 in the last half of the teens, and still more in 
 the early twenties, the love of skill develops, 
 the accessory muscles should be trained to the 
 highest degree, and the youth raised from the 
 blundering apprentice to the master workman. 
 
 The heart in its growth keeps a constant pro- 
 portion to the total bodily weight, remaining 
 about .48 per cent of it, but at adolescence the 
 frequency of its beats seems to lessen, while their 
 strength is greater. The arteries grow less 
 relatively than the heart, so that at adolescence 
 the blood pressure is greatly increased. The 
 ratio, as given by Truslow, of the volume of the 
 heart to the width of the ascending aorta is 56 
 to 20 before puberty and 97 to 20 after. With 
 this alteration goes a slight increase in tempera- 
 ture of the bod5% of about one half degree F. 
 The number of red corpuscles reaches its maxi- 
 mum in the later teens, and specific gravity at 
 about 14 for girls and 17 for boys. The lungs 
 grow most rapidly in girls between the twelfth 
 and fourteenth years, and in boys about two 
 years later. By the fifteenth year the number 
 of respirations is approximately that of the 
 adult. While the brain is increasing slightly 
 in weight at this time, its weight relative to that 
 of the entire body is diminishing, that is, it does 
 not form so large a percentage of the total 
 weight as before. Kaes, with others, however, 
 believes that after the seventeenth year the brain 
 is increasing greatly in complexity, and with 
 Vulpius he places the development of the middle 
 layer of the cortex in the later teens, the parietal 
 and central regions developing first, then the 
 temporal, and lastly the frontal. This growth 
 probably lasts at least until the fortieth year. 
 It may also be that the two thirds of the brain 
 which Flechsig believes to be in general uncon- 
 nected with sensory and motor centers, as well 
 as the highest level described by Hughlings 
 Jackson, develop at adolescence, though this is 
 only theoretical. As yet very little is known 
 about the development of the digestive tract, 
 glands, and kidneys, though the composition of 
 the urine is greatly modified at adolescence. 
 
 Liver growth is probably relatively complete 
 at 1.5, but the pancreas and spleen seem to 
 continue to grow until the fiftieth year or later. 
 The salivary, sebaceous, and sweat glands in- 
 crease in activity, while the thymus atrophies. 
 Fatty tissue diminishes in boys and increases in 
 girls. 
 
 The sense organs also undergo characteristic 
 alterations. Carman and Gilbert believe that 
 the pain-pressure sensibility lessens at adoles- 
 cence, but their experiments do not seem to 
 eliminate the factor of greater endurance of 
 pain by the adolescent. Their conclusions as 
 to pain-pressure, however, are indirectly sup- 
 ported by the fact that touch-discrimination 
 lessens, because the dermal surface is constantly 
 increasing while the number of tactile end 
 organs remains constant. Hall notes in connec- 
 tion with this a touch hunger at adolescence, 
 manifesting itself in the desire to scratch, rub, 
 pinch, or even abrade the skin. The heightened 
 activity of the sebaceous and sweat glands and 
 the more rapid growth of hair, doubtless make 
 the skin more the focus of sensations than 
 before, and so lead to this increased attention to 
 it. The tendency to skin eruptions at this time 
 would have the same effect. There is also 
 increased sensitiveness to temperature in the 
 later teens. The adolescent's taste alters. The 
 appetite is capricious, new likes and dislikes to 
 food appear, but soon change. Animal food 
 and decided sweets and sours are more desired. 
 A craving for stimulants may appear. Fashion 
 becomes a strong motive in regulating what is 
 eaten, the adolescent often forcing himself 
 to eat food highlj' disagreeable, if he believes 
 that it is the correct thing. Smell also becomes 
 more acute at puberty, and seems to be closely 
 connected with the development of the sexual 
 instinct, but sufficient returns on this point are 
 lacking. The love of perfumes, especially rather 
 strong ones, is characteristic of adolescence. 
 Sight and hearing will be discussed later, since 
 they are closely bound up with the intellectual 
 characteristics of adolescents. 
 
 These investigations are few and unsatisfac- 
 tory, and it is even impossible to say at present 
 how far the greatly heightened sensitiveness to 
 all sorts of stimuli is due to the further develop- 
 ment of the sense organ and how far to the 
 growth of brain centers. Further studies are 
 greatly needed here. Whichever it may be, there 
 is no doubt that the adolescent now as never 
 before is open to the broadening influences 
 of new stimuli, from the grossest to the most 
 refined. This is the decisive age for fixing taste 
 in both its literal and figurative senses. Food, 
 skin, and temperature habits, to say nothing of 
 interests in sounds, colors, and forms, receive 
 now their life trend. Even if the early environ- 
 ment of the child has been unfavorable, it can 
 be largely counteracted, if now the adolescent is 
 surrounded by and chooses for himself the 
 true, the beautiful, and the good, because his 
 brain is still plastic enough to admit much 
 
 40
 
 ADOLESCENCE AND YOUTH 
 
 ADOLESCENCE AND YOUTH 
 
 modification. Hence we so often see in liigh 
 schools transformations of children from poor 
 homes who have come under the influence of some 
 teacher or comrade with better esthetic or 
 hygienic standards. Equally we often see a 
 perverted taste spread through a school, for 
 adolescence is preeminently the time of fads, of 
 purely artificial social judgments on everything 
 in life, from cooking a beefsteak or wearing a tie 
 to reading and pictures. 
 
 Psychological and Sociological. — The rapid 
 growth of the body already roughly indicated 
 is paralleled by a similarly rapid psychic 
 growth, which perhaps manifests itself most 
 characteristically in alterations of moods, and 
 especially in a heightened sense of self. The 
 adolescent longs for excitement, contrast, move- 
 ment, psychically, just as his body longs for 
 exercise and tensions. So, instead of a steady 
 effort, he tends to spurt, periods of intense 
 work being followed by complete idleness, with 
 long hours of sleep. Moods rule the youth, 
 dejection so deep as to suggest genuine melan- 
 cholia being followed by equally great elation. 
 Thoughts of suicide are common, but alternate 
 with dreams of greatness. Both these are 
 undoubtedly motivated by the highly increased 
 sense of self, which is itself pushed into the 
 foreground by the many sensations accompany- 
 ing the bodily growth. So conceit and humility 
 in their most exaggerated forms may be seen in 
 adolescence, as well as an amour propre which 
 shows itself in great sensitiveness to insults. 
 All the social instincts come to the fore, and the 
 youth alternates from extreme individuation to 
 mere slavishness in following his mates; from 
 quixotic generosity to selfishness; from the 
 highest ideals of social self-sacrifice to absurd 
 notions of his rights. The deepest and most far- 
 reaching alteration is naturally in the feelings 
 toward the opposite sex, which probably is 
 responsible for many of the other alterations of 
 both feeling and thought, not ordinarily recog- 
 nized as sexual. In the early teens many 
 students believe that there is first a tendency 
 between the sexes to withdraw from each other's 
 company, though this theory still lacks any ade- 
 quate confirmation. There does, however, seem 
 to be at least a period when both boys and girls 
 complain of the other sex, the girls of the 
 masculine coarseness and roughness, the boys 
 of the feminine softness and foolishness. Fol- 
 lowing this, at about 15 years, the opposite 
 sex becomes excessively attractive, so that it is 
 highly probable that at this period the desire to 
 appear attractive to the opposite sex is an im- 
 portant motivating influence in the adolescent. 
 This is of course much covered to the youth's 
 own consciousness, and is often the last thing 
 he would willingly admit. In boys it manifests 
 itself especially in the showing-off instinct, which 
 seems especially stimulated by the presence of 
 girls. Both girls and boys develop pronounced 
 tastes with regard to eyes, hair, voice, teeth, 
 etc. Girls, though they do show off, tend 
 
 more to the development of reserves, taking the 
 role of judges or choosers of those who please 
 them, thus favoring the selection of some manly 
 characteristics and the atrophy of others, and 
 so finally shaping the youth to their desires. 
 The whole process of selection and mating 
 normally reaches a climax between 20 and 25 
 for women and perhaps five years later for men, 
 when what Hall calls nubility or the marriage- 
 able age is attained. 
 
 But at the same time that the opposite sex 
 becomes so attractive, friendship and hero wor- 
 ship also deepen, and the social instinct is 
 enlarged in all directions. Before pubescence 
 games and plays are largely competitive; after 
 it team work is the most marked characteristic, 
 and with it, the gang and the club appear. 
 While the youth is even more egoistic than 
 before, while he is excessively self-conscious and 
 perhaps aggressive toward the opposite sex, he 
 also lays aside his personal likes and dislikes 
 to work with his team and his school, and adopts 
 almost slavishly the fads and frills dictated by 
 those whom he elects as his socii. He now 
 develops pride in his family, class, city, and 
 nation, and not only civic and national patriot- 
 ism can be most effectively taught, but also 
 love for humanity. 
 
 Closely connected with the social instinct is 
 the religious instinct. From the earliest times 
 the entrance to adult life has been marked by 
 rites and ceremonies designed to test the mettle 
 of the adolescent and to prepare him for the 
 duties of life. Among savage peoples these are 
 usually severe tests of the power to endure pain 
 and overcome fear. In Greece the boy was 
 put through a training of years in serving the 
 state, and in Rome the same was true. The 
 medieval youth of noble descent from 14 to 21 
 served as squire, and at 21 was knighted 
 at the end of long ceremonies of fasting 
 and watching. The Jews also had and have 
 a careful training for adolescents and a ritual 
 used when the boy assumes responsibility for 
 his own acts. Among modern Christian nations 
 these rites are perpetuated only in confirmation, 
 which usually occurs at between 12 and 15 years, 
 and has assumed a wholly religious character. 
 The enlargement of the social sense occurring 
 at adolescence is inevitably accompanied by a 
 deepening of the moral and religious natures, a 
 questioning of one's relations not only to society, 
 but to the universe itself and its Final Cause. 
 The irreligious adolescent is abnormal. The 
 particular form which his newly awakened 
 instinct will take will largely depend upon his 
 milieu, and the age of culmination also varies 
 considerably. Most authorities agree, how- 
 ever, that between 16 and 17 the largest 
 number of conversions is recorded for boys, 
 and a year or two younger for girls. There 
 is still some uncertainty in the curves, but it 
 seems probable that this period is followed 
 by one of backsliding, and that at 20 interest 
 in religion again culminates, this time on a 
 
 41
 
 ADOLESCENCE AND YOUTH 
 
 ADOLESCENCE AND YOUTH 
 
 more reasonable and less purely emotional basis 
 than at first. The normal development of 
 this instinct is obscured by the artificial forcing 
 of the religious sense and of conversion still too 
 prevalent, which is likely to cause the later back- 
 sliding. V\'e can hardly sujipose that, if the 
 original conversion were a normal, natural one, 
 the painful reconstruction later would be neces- 
 sary in so many cases. 
 
 Intellectual. — The intellectual character- 
 istics of adolescence are ecjually marked, 
 and are motivated by the underlying feelings 
 and the rapid growth. Let us first consider 
 those most closely connected with the height- 
 ened sensory and motor development. In 
 the early teens probably hearing is over-acute 
 for a time, making the adolescent keenly 
 sensitive to voices, inflections, etc. At the 
 same time the temporary loss of control accom- 
 panying the change in voice makes girls and 
 especially boys disinclined to sing as nmch as 
 before. Not infrequently the general awkward- 
 ness of this age leads to disliking instrumental 
 practice, the boys and gii'ls feeling their lack 
 of control and their inability to express what 
 perhaps they appreciate deeply. At present 
 studies are entirely lacking to show what sorts 
 of music most appeal to adolescents. We can 
 only say in a general way that rhythm is loved, 
 and that the passion for music seems to decline 
 somewhat after the sixteenth year. We may 
 also add that, as with other forms of art. appre- 
 ciation is farther beyond expression now than 
 at any other time, and that to demand too much 
 expression now may affect the love of the art 
 disastrously. 
 
 This has been better worked out in drawing. 
 Studies of children's drawings, especially those 
 of Barnes, show that from 12 on, tlrawing be- 
 comes distasteful, largely because children 
 become conscious of their defects, i.e. can 
 appreciate better real art. At 14 or 15, with 
 some children, the love of drawing maj' again 
 increase, and with a few it may rise steadily, 
 ending in artistic creation. Gilbert found that 
 the interest in and accuracy of form perceptions 
 begins a new increase between 15 and 16 years, 
 and that the maximum number of letters 
 grasped at one glance continues to increase 
 through high school and college. These facts 
 also would indicate that between 12 and 
 15 years, appreciation should probably be em- 
 phasized rather than expression, expression 
 having its turn when motor control is better. 
 The color sense seems to be fairly developed 
 in girls by the eleventh year, but in boys not 
 until the seventeenth. At adolescence both 
 sexes crave strong color stimuli and have 
 decided likes and dislikes. 
 
 Manual and industrial training problems 
 should be solved by a knowledge of normal 
 growth, but as yet we know too little of the 
 details of adolescent muscular growth. Boys 
 and girls nearly double their dynamometer 
 right-hand grip between 11 and 16 years; 
 
 finger and wrist control, as indicated by tap- 
 ping, is on the rapid increase at 16 in boys, 
 while it declines from 12 to 13 for boys and 
 from 12 to 14 for girls. Judging of lifted 
 weights decreases in accuracy at between 
 15 and 10 for both boys and girls, but then 
 begins to increase again. Power to endure 
 muscular fatigue increases greatly from 12 to 
 18, with maximal increase from 14 to 17 for 
 boys and from 12 to 14 for girls. From 12 
 to 14 both boys and girls improve little in reac- 
 tion times; from 14 to 16 they improve steadily, 
 and then gain little the next year. Obviously, 
 such scattered experiments, which also show 
 deviations in the results obtained by different 
 observers, are a totally insufficient basis for any 
 scheme of motor education. At best, if taken 
 in connection with the other facts of general 
 growth, they seem to indicate certain danger 
 points or tendencies in present methods. The 
 youth tends to exercise of the larger muscles, 
 but much of our industrial education necessi- 
 tates the use of the finer muscles in handling 
 tools, and perhai)s bad attitudes and the steady 
 use of some sets of muscles while others are 
 neglected. The same thing is true of manual 
 training, which neglects the trunk and leg 
 muscles as a rule, while it may develop the 
 hand more than shoulil l)e done at this age. 
 Sloyd aims at a more all-round development, 
 but it too trains only the hand, and neglects 
 much material even for that. The best all- 
 round development is obtainable from the 
 varied and outdoor occupations of a farm, 
 and next to that. Hall declares that we can find 
 it in some of our institutions for negroes, 
 Indians, and juvenile delinciuents. 
 
 Gymnastic training has great opportunities 
 at this time, not only in counteracting any bad 
 effects from industrial training, but in rousing 
 youth to a tremendous enthusiasm for perfect 
 bodies. The love of exercise, so strong at this 
 age, may be made the impetus for the best 
 possible regimen — cold baths, swimming, walk- 
 ing, temperance in eating, etc. Not only this, 
 but the increased body consciousness of adoles- 
 cence leads naturally to a strong interest in the 
 structure and functions of the bodil.v organs, 
 so that physiology and hygiene — in which sex 
 hygiene should not be neglected — can, if 
 properly presented, be one of the most fasci- 
 nating subjects. 
 
 The love of exercise and of manipulation, 
 together with the heightened sensory activities, 
 give the basis for new interests in nature. The 
 rapidly increasing brain connections make 
 possible many new associations with their effects 
 upon imagination and reason, so that for the 
 first time there is now a possibility of the youth 
 seeing tlie universe as a universe, and feeling it 
 as divine. In the later teens most youths and 
 maidens love to think of infinity both in space 
 and time. They try to picture it, and become 
 filled with the sense of their own littleness and 
 the vastness of the universe. Most often these 
 
 42
 
 ADOLESCENCE AND YOUTH 
 
 ADOLESCENCE AND YOUTH 
 
 reflections attach themselves to the heavenly 
 bodies and the sky, toward all of which the 
 feelings are greatly deepened at adolescence. 
 Now the sun, moon, and stars become foci for all 
 sorts of symbolism and fancies, sometimes senti- 
 mental and sometimes mythological and reli- 
 gious. Clouds also become, in Ruskin's opinion, 
 one of the greatest stimulants to imagination, as 
 well as the most beautiful in their color and 
 form and variations. The wind now echoes the 
 restlessness of the youth, and the sea attracts 
 him with its suggestions of eternity. If it 
 really is true that nature appeals to the youth 
 primarily in this poetical way, then it is little 
 wonder that he has no love for high school and 
 college science. To turn from the lovers' moon 
 to the burned-out, cold, dead moon of science; 
 from Shelley's cloud to a mass of cold aqueous 
 vapor with a long Latin name; from a glowing 
 opal symbolic of faith and hope to a dry record 
 of geologic ages; from a heaven full of heroes, 
 hunters, and maidens to estimates of the lengths 
 of time necessary for a ray to reach us from one 
 of them, all this must kill the spontaneous 
 interest in nature and at the very best sub- 
 stitute for it utilitarian motives. Similarly 
 with animate nature. The love of flowers 
 increases markedly at adolescence, and through 
 the care of them and study of their life 
 histories the fundamental facts of reproduc- 
 tion could be naturally learned. Interest in 
 animals also has another increase at about 14, 
 but an interest in them in the concrete. 
 
 That is, high school youth are not developed 
 enough to understand or to assimilate scientific 
 exactness and details. They tend both to 
 poetical views and to applied science, and so, 
 e.g. physics at this time should be closely con- 
 nected with making toys and machines to 
 illustrate its laws; botany to gardening and 
 forestry; astronomy, etc., to weather on one 
 side and to poetry and mythology on the other. 
 Hall gives four stages in the normal adolescent 
 development toward nature: (1) the sentimen- 
 tal, with a love of myth, poetry, and religions 
 of nature; (2) love of popular science and the 
 lives of inventors; (3) interest in industrial pro- 
 cesses on a larger scale; (4) pure science, a stage 
 seldom reached before the end of the college 
 course. 
 
 Adolescent interests in literature and lan- 
 guage are closely akin to those in art. Most 
 youths seem to pass through a period of inability 
 to express themselves in words, like that in 
 drawing. This does not indicate lack of in- 
 terest in words, but rather a sense of their own 
 shortcomings. So Williams, Conradi, Bullock, 
 Henderson, and Kirkpatrick all find a great 
 increase in the reading curve at adolescence, 
 culminating at 14 or 15, between the sixth and 
 eighth grades, and then steadily falling. With 
 boys stories of adventure, travel, and biography 
 culminate in the eighth and ninth grades, and 
 fiction at 11 for both sexes, but there is 
 much variation both in the sort of reading 
 
 preferred and the age when any one sort is most 
 enjoyed. Judging from lists of preferred books, 
 classic writers are not the favorites, but this 
 maj' be due to the fact that they are inaccessible 
 to .youth. 
 
 How far the study of literature should deal 
 with details of style, grammar, and the formal 
 aspects of the subject we cannot say at present. 
 It is suggestive, however, that the few studies 
 made indicate that the love both of slang and of 
 precision in the use of words culminates at about 
 the same age as the reading passion. Studies 
 of reading also indicate that a considerable 
 percentage of youth at this time spontaneously 
 set about enlarging their vocabulary — indeed, 
 the use of slang seems to be a crude attempt in 
 this direction — and study the dictionary for 
 new words. Sentences also become more 
 complicated at this time. All this may indicate 
 that a study of rhetoric is now in place, though 
 probably not of grammar. Rhetoric also, in 
 dealing with figures of speech, may set free the 
 riches of imagination hidden in much of our daily 
 speech and too often never seen by those who 
 use it. An attentive consideration of the literal 
 meanings of such words as " spirit," " animate," 
 " lady," not only aids expression, but greatly 
 quickens imagination, thought, and feeling. 
 Again, the study of foreign languages may and 
 should aid in all these ways, but it can do so only 
 if the root meanings of words and the elements 
 common to various tongues are emphasized and 
 the grammatical aspects somewhat left in the 
 background. There is a keen delight in dis- 
 covering a word common to four or five lan- 
 guages, with the variations of meaning which it 
 has attained in each that has nothing in common 
 with its parsing and declination. 
 
 The expressive side of language, i.e. composi- 
 tion and theme work, is again a much mooted 
 one, and we lack returns upon which to base 
 authoritative recommendations. This much, 
 however, seems probable: Before adolescence 
 far more oral expression should be cultivated 
 than is now the case, and during the time w'hen 
 the reading craze culminates, expression should 
 be encouraged, but not forced, nor too severely 
 criticised for its crudities. Young people not 
 infrecjuently try to write stories, novels, and 
 poetry, but they abhor the usual theme sub- 
 jects, and are too dependent upon their moods 
 for inspiration to submit well to set times for 
 composition. 
 
 Of historical interests we can say still less, 
 and of mathematical practically nothing. 
 Mrs. Barnes' studies seem to indicate that even 
 at 15 interest in the truth of any narrative 
 is very slight, while interest in name and place 
 is strong throughout. Miss Patterson con- 
 cluded that the historical sense, as shown by 
 understanding what a date means, is slight up 
 to the age of 12, and that before that age his- 
 tory should be biography and story, while after 
 that concrete antl rather complete pictures of 
 any given time should be presented. 
 
 43
 
 ADOLESCENCE AND YOUTH 
 
 ADOLESCENCE AND YOUTH 
 
 Hancock's returns indicate that aliility to 
 reason in arithmetic increases greatly between 
 13 and 1.5, while Lindley found the interest 
 in arithmetical puzzles culminating somewhat 
 after this age. But we have nothing at all as 
 yet to indicate the growth of interests in geom- 
 etry and algebra, and so can only note our 
 ignorance. Indeed, the insufficiency of our 
 knowledge of all the intellectual characteristics 
 of adolescence should be very evident from the 
 above account. Until much more detailed and 
 exact material is at hand it is both illogical and 
 wasteful to make over our high schools. That 
 they need to be reformed every one will admit, 
 but until the adolescent mind has been much 
 more closely studied, any reform is likely to be 
 a makeshift as unsuited to the real needs of 
 vouth as the present system. 
 
 A. E. T. AND G. S. H. 
 
 Hygiene of Adolescence. — The hygiene of 
 adolescence differs little from the pedagogy 
 of adolescence. One must regard the funda- 
 mental principles of school hygiene, and 
 adapt education to this stage of develop- 
 ment. It is not always easy, however, to 
 determine an individual's stage of develop- 
 ment. The adaptation of education must be 
 to physiological age rather than to chrono- 
 logical age. Dr. Crampton and others have 
 shown such great individual variations in 
 growth and development that there appears 
 to be no direct correlation between phj-sio- 
 logical age and age in years. 
 
 The characteristics of the period of adoles- 
 cence have been described above. It is the 
 period of rapid physical change and rapid 
 mental development. It is a time of nervous 
 and emotional instability; and modification of 
 function and habit is now easy. It may be 
 specially characterized as a time of functional 
 development and readjustment, as shown ob- 
 viously in such changes as these occurring at 
 the advent of puberty, for example, the change 
 of voice, and especially the physical characteris- 
 tics of sex. On the mental side it is a time of 
 many potential and actual interests, and the 
 youth often exhibits peculiarities of behavior 
 and may hold bizarre and erratic opinions. 
 In a word, the advent of puberty is a period 
 of increased rate of physical growth and of in- 
 creased vitality, as shown apparently by Key's 
 investigation, w-hich indicated that correlated 
 with the increased rate of growth was a de- 
 creased percentage of chronic disease, and by 
 Dr. HartweU's study of the death rates of 
 Boston children, which indicated that this 
 period of increased rate of growth is a period 
 of decreased mortality. Further the studies 
 of Crampton indicate that after the physio- 
 logical changes of puberty have occurred pupils 
 are better fitted to do school work, while 
 those who have not reached this stage of 
 development are at a disadvantage, although 
 of the same chronological age. Although the 
 later period of adolescence is not characterized 
 
 by such marked changes as the early period 
 of puberty, it is throughout a period of rela- 
 tive instability and of rapid change and develop- 
 ment. 
 
 As might naturally be supposed, such a 
 period of instability and of rapid development 
 is not only the opportunity for educational 
 and moral development, but liable in certain 
 respects to be a time of especial danger to 
 health. Certain physical diseases and certain 
 psychoses {q.v.) often occur as incidents of this 
 development. While serious symptoms may 
 appear, the prognosis is usually favorable, and 
 there is good hope of improvement or recovery 
 if a thoroughly hygienic environment can be 
 insured. 
 
 To take a concrete illustration, Dr. Frances 
 Berry of London has reported on some 15S0 
 cases of girls in the elementary schools of Lon- 
 don, of ages ranging from 11 to 15. The ex- 
 amination included a test of the urine with 
 the surprising result that 10 per cent of the 
 cases showed evidence of alljuminuria. Ap- 
 parently this symptom was usually an incident 
 of development. In most eases, although 
 albumen was more or less permanent, no evi- 
 dence was found of anj' detrimental effect on 
 the general health, and only a small percentage 
 of these girls appeared to be in delicate health; 
 and after 16 or 17 years of age, the albumen 
 tended to disappear in a considerable propor- 
 tion of the cases. 
 
 Such symptoms, which would be serious in 
 case of adults, and likewise cardiac disturb- 
 ances and sometimes hysterical neuroses, are 
 often to be looked upon merely as incidents of 
 development; and it is the gravest mistake to 
 treat such cases in the same manner that 
 similar symptoms would be treated in the 
 case of adults. The chief dependence should 
 be upon furnishing a healthful environment 
 and an opportunity for the individual to out- 
 grow the trouble. 
 
 Especially important for the teacher is a 
 word of warning against the danger of mis- 
 taking incidents of development at this period 
 for signs of degeneration. Just as there are 
 many physical disorders, cardiac disturbances, 
 and the like, incident to development at this 
 period, in which the prognosis is favorable, and 
 such neuroses should not be treated as the 
 same symptoms are in the case of adults, so 
 there is good hope of recovery from all sorts 
 of mental and moral perversities and aberra- 
 tions if they are treated as incidents of develop- 
 ment and not as stigmata of degeneration. 
 With suitable environment and education, 
 sanity and morality are both likely to develop, 
 whereas a diagnosis of incipient insanity, or 
 degeneration, or of criminality, followed by 
 drastic punishment, especially arrest and im- 
 prisonment, is liable to develop a real pervert or 
 criminal. In such cases, as with all adolescents, 
 what is usually needed is the example and com- 
 panionship of friends of normal character and 
 
 44
 
 ADOLESCENCE AND YOUTH 
 
 ADOLESCENCE AND YOUTH 
 
 an environment which gives the largest oppor- 
 tunity for vigorous expenditure of energy, for 
 activity in many lines, and the development of 
 manifold interests, rather than instruction 
 however thorough or preacliing however elo- 
 quent. 
 
 Many investigations have shown that the 
 physical changes incident to puberty come 
 one or two years earlier in case of girls than in 
 case of boys. Thus the girl of 13 or 14 is 
 likely to be taller and heavier than the boy 
 of tiie same age, and in general to be both 
 physically and mentally more mature. Hence 
 it is argued by some that in coeducational 
 institutions hke the American high school, 
 where girls and boys have the same tasks and 
 are intimately associated, although later there 
 may be too great demands on the girls, there 
 is danger at this period of overpressure on the 
 boys because of the stimulus coming from girls 
 in the same classes who are more mature; 
 and thus an unwholesome precocious develop- 
 ment intellectually and morally is liable to 
 occur. This problem should be further inves- 
 tigated, but meanwhile from the point of 
 view of hygiene it seems desirable that whether 
 coeducation prevails or not there should be at 
 this period a differentiation in the education 
 of the two sexes. 
 
 Especially important for hygiene are not 
 only the physical characteristics of this period, 
 but also the development of the emotional 
 life, the awakening of manifold interests and 
 tendencies, the nascency of the altruistic im- 
 pulses, and the general mental awakening. 
 This period presents the great opportunity for 
 education, but with this opportunity great 
 clanger is connected, and great care is required 
 to preserve the mental as well as the physical 
 health. Mental hygiene is of vital importance. 
 Among the habits of health that should be 
 developed at this time are three great groups, 
 as follows: 1st, normal reactions to feeling; 
 2d, normal relations to society; 3d, proper 
 mental balance. 
 
 Especially emphasized by hygiene is the 
 need of developing at this period normal habits 
 of reaction to feeling and emotion. The most 
 important contribution to hygiene here i.s that 
 made by psychiatry. Anything which inter- 
 feres with the normal reaction to feeling, 
 whether individual habit or social convention, 
 is dangerous to the mental health. But on 
 the other hand self-control is necessary in 
 the interests of health as well as of morality. 
 Psychology shows the kind of self-control that 
 is "normal. Self-control by repression seems 
 always liable to be dangerous, but normal self- 
 control consists in the inhibition of one form 
 of reaction by a different reaction. More 
 concretely, if it is necessary for the youth to 
 control the reaction to feehng or emotion in 
 one direction, this may be brought about by 
 developing a habit of reacting in a different 
 way. Among the manifold interests and im- 
 
 pulses of this period some would bring upon 
 the individual serious injury, physically, men- 
 tally, and morally, but here protection lies in 
 the development of manifold interests and 
 varied forms of activity. Every interest is in 
 fact potentially a means of self-control, and 
 psychology shows that the normal method of 
 self-control is the inhibition of interest and 
 impulse in one direction by turning attention 
 to something else. Thus it is not a matter of 
 indifference to hygiene what interests are 
 developed. Among the habits distinctly con- 
 ducive to health must be reckoned active in- 
 terests in nature, in outdoor sports, in varied 
 forms of manual work and skill, and the varied 
 forms of artistic activity, in social life, and 
 social institutions. 
 
 The period of adolescence is, as Rousseau 
 long ago pointed out, the new birth of the 
 individual in relation to society. And here 
 again it is distinctly important for the mental 
 health that social interests should be developed. 
 Anything which tends to repress or arrest the 
 social development of the individual is liable 
 to be injurious, and it is a noteworthy charac- 
 teristic of many borderline neuroses that the 
 social relations and social interests are re- 
 pressed or perverted. 
 
 Again, it is important for the health of the 
 individual that a group of habits representing 
 an adaptation to one's environment should be 
 developed. This may be conveniently termed 
 the acquisition of balance. The individual 
 must find his own level, and apparently many 
 cases of nervous disorder, even perhaps cases 
 of dementia praecox (q.v.), may be ameliorated 
 if not prevented by bringing about this indi- 
 vidual adaptation, by decreasing the demands 
 of school and society to a level that balances 
 the individual's powers; hence the need of a 
 better system of grading than that usually 
 adopted and of more careful choice of calling 
 than is frequently made. 
 
 The negative side of the hygiene of adoles- 
 cence should be noted, although it is of less 
 importance than the positive side. In the 
 case of boys the avoidance of injurious habits, 
 vice in its different forms; and on the one 
 hand, excess in any form, or on the other, 
 habits of indolence and inertia; and in case of 
 girls, especially the avoidance of shock and 
 the Hke, which are liable to cause hysterical 
 neuroses. Suitable instruction should of course 
 be given at this period in regard to morals and 
 especially in sex hygiene; but teachers and 
 parents should be warned not to substitute the 
 easy road of instruction for the difficult one of 
 training. W. H. B. 
 
 See articles on Adolescence; Dex-elopment; 
 Dementi.^; Coeducation; Coeducation, Hy- 
 giene of; High Schools; and Sex Hygiene. 
 
 References: — 
 
 BuRK F S. Growth of ChUdren in Height and 
 Weight. (.4m. Jour. Psy., 1S9S, pp. 253-230.) 
 
 45
 
 ADRIAN 
 
 ADULT-SCHOOLS IN ENGLAND 
 
 Berry, Fraxces May D. On the Physical Exam- 
 ination of London Sfhool Children and the Prc\a- 
 lence of Albuminuria. I. Internationale Kotujnss 
 Jilr SchuUiyuiene, Nlirnberg, April, l'J04, Band III, 
 pp. 421-425. 
 
 BuR.\HAM. ^VILLIA^f H. Thc Study of Adolescence. 
 Pedagogical Seminary, 1891, Vol. I, No. 2, pp. 174- 
 195. 
 
 Clouston, Thomas S. Hygiene of Mind. (London, 
 1900.) 2,S4 pp. 
 Neuroses of Development ; being the Morison lec- 
 tures for 1890. (London, 1891.) 138 pp. 
 
 C'rampton, C. Ward. Anatomical or Physiological 
 Age I'fcT.v^s Chronological Age. Pedagogical Semi- 
 nary. (June, 1908.) Vol. 15, pp. 2.'iO-237. 
 
 Hall, G. Stanley. Adolescence, 2 vols. (New York, 
 1907.) This is the only work covering all phases 
 of this subject. 
 Youth. (New York, 1906.) A rcsumiS of the peda- 
 gogical aspects of adolescence. 
 
 Lancaster. Psychology and Pedagogy of Adoles- 
 cence. Ped. Sem., 1897, p]>. 61-12S. 
 
 Lem.\itre. La Vie Menlalc de I' Adolescent, et scs 
 Anomalies. (Paris, 1910.) 
 
 Marro, A. La Puberla. 507 pp. (Bocca, Torino, 
 1897.) French transl.ation. La Puherti. (Paris, 
 1902.) Tliis deals chiefly with the physiloogical side 
 of the subject. 
 
 Meyer, Adolf. What do Histories of Cases of In- 
 sanity Teach L's Concerning Preventive Mental 
 Hygiene during the Years of School Life ? Psy- 
 chological Clinic. (.June 15, 1908.) Vol. 2, No. 4, 
 pp. 89-101. 
 
 Moll, A. Das Sexnellehcn des Kindes. (Berlin, 1909.) 
 
 Scott, Colin. Social Education. (Boston, 1908.) 
 
 Starbcck, E. H. Psychology of Religion, especially the 
 sections dealing with conversion. (New York, 
 1901.) 
 
 Swift, E. J. Mind in the Making. 329 pp. (New 
 York, 1908.) 
 
 Tyler, J. M. Thc Laws of Growth and Development. 
 (New York, 1906.) 
 For physiological and abnormal phases of the sul)- 
 ject, the reader should also refer to the works of 
 Havclock Ellis and Freud. 
 
 ADRIAN. — In 664 Deusdedit, the sixth 
 Aii.'libi.shop of Canterbury, died, and the priest 
 "Wighard (a jiupil of the school in Kent founded 
 by Augustine) was sent to Pope Vitalian for 
 ordination as Archbishoi). He died of the 
 pestilence in Rome, and Vitalian thereupon 
 offered the see to the Abbot Adrian (or Ha- 
 drian), an African monk in the monastery of 
 Xiridanum near Xaples. Adrian refused, and 
 suggested in his place first Andrew, the offi- 
 ciating priest of a neighboring nunnery, and on 
 his refusal the monk Theodore of Tarsus, a monk 
 of the Greek Church. Theodore was accepted 
 by the Pope, and consecrated on March 20, 
 6G8; and on May 27, Theodore and Adrian 
 set out for Britain with Benedict Biscop (e/.f.) 
 as their interpreter and guide. They went by 
 sea to Marseilles and on to Aries, and were 
 detained for some time by Ebroin, the Alayor 
 of the Palace. King Egbert sent for them, but 
 Adrian was still detained for a time, as Ebroin 
 feared that he was engaged on a political mis- 
 sion that might affect Caul. He was after 
 some delay allowed to follow Theodore, and 
 was at once placed over the mona.stery of 
 St. Peter and Paul (St. Augustine's) at Canter- 
 bury which Biscop had governed until Adrian's 
 arrival in the year 670. Probably these 
 scholars brought with them the Manuscript of 
 
 the AcU of the Apostles now at Oxford (Laud, Gr. 
 3.")). The school of Theodore and Adrian at 
 once became famous. They taught tiie metri- 
 cal art, astronomy, and ecclesiastical arithmetic, 
 and " there are still living at this day (732) some 
 of these scholars, who are as well versed in the 
 Greek and Latin tongues as in their own, in 
 which they were born" (Bede, E. H., IV, 2). 
 Albinus, the disciple of Adrian, " who suc- 
 ceeded him in the go\-ernmcnt of his monastery, 
 was so well instructed in literary .studies, that 
 he had no small knowledge of the Greek 
 tongue, and knew the Latin as well as the 
 English, which was his native language " 
 (E. H., V, 20). A more famous jiupil of Adrian 
 was Aldhelm (q.v.), the first in the long line 
 of English scholarship. Adrian's educational 
 work was of prime importance in the history 
 of English education. The school at Canter- 
 bury seems to have been under his control. 
 Aldhelm (in his letter to Eahfrid: see Corre- 
 spondence of St. Boniface) tells us that the 
 scholarship of Theodore and Adrian routed 
 and put to shame that of the scholars of Ire- 
 land; an exaggeration, but nevertheless a very 
 significant exaggeration. Adrian assisted Theo- 
 dore in his official jjerambulation of Britain. 
 He was (says Bede) " everywhere assisted and 
 attended by Adrian." Tiieodore died in 690, 
 but Adrian lived on till 709 or 710, and was 
 buried in the church of his mona.stery. 
 
 J. E. O. DE M. 
 
 ADRIAN COLLEGE (Adrian, Michigan).— 
 
 A coeducational institution, organized JMarch 
 22, 1859, maintains a College of Literature and 
 Arts, a School of Music, a School of Fine Arts, 
 a department of Manual Training, a School of 
 Theology, and a School of Business. Admission 
 to the College of Literature and Arts is by 
 examination or certificate from an approved 
 high school; the School of Theology is open to 
 college graduates or to "those intending to 
 complete a college cour.se." The other depart- 
 ments admit without examination. The 
 seventy-four members of the board of trustees 
 arc elected by the General Conference of the 
 Methodist Protestant Church. College frater- 
 nities at Adrian College have been established 
 as follows: Sigma Al])ha Ejisilon, Kappa 
 Kappa Gamma, Delta Delta Delta; the last 
 two are women's societies. The college has 
 five buildings, valued (1906), with grounds and 
 equipment, at $175,000; the total annual 
 income is about .S20,000. The average salary 
 of a professor is S700. There are twenty mem- 
 bers on the instructing staff, of whom nine arc 
 full professors. The College of Liberal Arts 
 enrolls 105 students. The student body has 
 always included many prospective ministers. 
 The Rev. Brayman William Anthonj% D.D., is 
 president. C. G. 
 
 ADULT SCHOOLS IN ENGLAND. 
 
 Adults, Education of. 
 
 See 
 
 46
 
 ADULTS 
 
 ADULTS 
 
 ADULTS, EDUCATION OF: In England- 
 Adult schools, for the education of nicii and 
 women whose previous education had been 
 neglected or who had no access to other forms 
 of continued instruction, were in their origin 
 closely connected both in England and Wales 
 with the Sunday school movement (q.v.). 
 In Wales the Sunday schools were from the 
 first (1730) largely attended by adults as well 
 as by children. In England the Sunday 
 schools (largely developed through the in- 
 fluence of Robert Raikes iq.v.) and Thomas 
 Stock of Gloucester in 1780) were mainly 
 confined to children. The first adult school 
 in England was opened at Nottingham in 
 1798 by William Singleton, a Methodist, aided 
 by Samuel Fox, a tradesman belonging to the 
 Society of Friends. It was originally started 
 for the instruction of working women, but a 
 men's class was soon added. It has continued 
 without lapse to the present day. Great 
 impetus to the establishment of adult schools 
 was given by the discovery, on the foundation 
 of the British and Foreign Bible Society (q.v.) 
 in 1804, that a great number of the poorer 
 classes could not read. Adult schools were in 
 consequence established at Bristol in 1812, 
 chiefly by the efforts of William Smith, a 
 Methodist, and with the aid of members of 
 the Society of Friends. The movement soon 
 spread to other parts of the country — Plym- 
 outh, London, Yarmouth, Sheffield, Brighton, 
 Buckinghamshire and Berkshire, Ipswich, York, 
 Leeds, and Birmingham. These schools were 
 an outcome of Evangelical philanthropy, and, 
 though providing secular instruction, were 
 religious in their associations. Parallel with 
 these, but of independent origin, were classes 
 in scientific and civic subjects, arranged for 
 working upon a secular basis and without any 
 religious connection. These began in Birming- 
 ham (1789) and in Glasgow (1796). Spread- 
 ing to E(_linburgh, Liverpool, London, and 
 Manchester, they developed into the ^Mechanics' 
 Institutions (q.v.). Thus the English adult 
 schools, which were an important factor in 
 the social movements generated by the Indus- 
 trial Revolution, developed in two separate 
 groups, the one deriving its ideals from the 
 Evangelical movement, the other from political 
 and industrial democracy, the growth of which 
 was stimulated bj' the French Revolution. 
 
 In 1845 the former group of adult schools, 
 which had been falling into decay, was revived 
 and greatly extended by Joseph Sturge and 
 William White of Birmingham. Their labors 
 led to the establishment of the First-Day 
 Schools' Association of the Society of Friends. 
 Adult schools, largely, but not exclusively, in 
 connection with the Society of Friends, are 
 now one of the most important educational 
 agencies among English workingmen, especially 
 in the Midlands and the industrial districts of 
 the North. 
 
 The Mechanics' Institutions spread rapidly 
 
 from 1824 to 1848, with the active assistance 
 of Henry Brougham (q.v.) and Edward Baines 
 (q.v.), but thejf relied too much on lectures 
 unaccompanied by class instruction, and be- 
 came largely identified with the class of small 
 tradesmen whose political and social ideals 
 were micongenial to workingmen inspired by 
 socialistic propaganda. William Lovett and 
 other Chartists published in 1837 a scheme of 
 national education including colleges to be open 
 every evening to adults of both sexes for 
 mutual instruction and all forms of higher and 
 recreative education. The first People's Col- 
 lege was established at Sheffield in 1842 by 
 the Rev. R. S. Bayley, an Independent minister. 
 The program of the Shcflield People's Col- 
 lege suggested in 1853 to Frederick Denison 
 Maurice (q.v.) and his Christian Socialist friends 
 (among whom were Charles Kingsley, Ed- 
 ward ^'ansittart Neale, Thomas Hughes, John 
 Ruskin, Dr. F. J. Furnivall, Dante Gabriel 
 Rossetti, and others) the establishment of 
 the Working Men's College in London. The 
 plan of this college (which was followed by 
 more evanescent institutions in Manchester, 
 Liverpool, Oxford, Cambridge, and elsewhere) 
 brought the spirit of the older universities, with 
 its regard for corporate life and for a religious 
 element in higher education, into fruitful 
 union with the more secularistic movement 
 among Socialist workingmen. Its work effected 
 the union between three separate educational 
 traditions — the Evangelical, the Tractarian, 
 and the Socialistic, the latter having derived 
 much of its force from the propaganda of 
 Robert Owen (q.v.). 
 
 In 1851 the English government first made 
 pecuniary grants to evening schools in con- 
 nection with elementary day schools. These 
 grants were increased in 1855 and 1858, and 
 were supplemented by furtlier grants from the 
 Science and Art Department in 1859 and 1861. 
 In 1893 (in consequence of recommendations 
 made by Lord Cross's Commission of Inquiry 
 into the work of Education Acts, 1886), Mr. 
 Arthur Acland, then ^'ice-President of the 
 Committee of Council on Education, intro- 
 duced a new code for evening schools which 
 encouraged by grants the attendance of students 
 over twenty-one years of age, and introduced a 
 liberal curriculum of civic and general education 
 in evening classes. The government grants, 
 given through the Science and Art Department, 
 had in the meantime stimulated evening classes 
 in scientific and technical subjects. In 1883, 
 largely through the exertions of Mr. James 
 Bryce, an Act of Parliament appropriated 
 money belonging to obsolete charities in the 
 City of London to the establishment of Poly- 
 technics in different parts of the metropolis. 
 These institutions combine technical and 
 general education ^ith collegiate life and 
 popular forms of recreative instruction. They 
 are the outcome of an experiment made by 
 I\Ir. Quintin Hogg, who converted at great 
 
 47
 
 ADULTS 
 
 ADVENTURE SCHOOLS 
 
 expense a derelict place of popular scientific 
 instruction and amusement (the Regent Street 
 Polytechnic) into a social and educational 
 Institute for Young Men. The movement 
 had also been stimulated in 1882 by Sir Walter 
 Besant, who, in his novel, .4// Sorts and Con- 
 ditions of Men, described a plan for a Palace of 
 Delight for the East End of London. There 
 are now in London twelve polytechnic insti- 
 tutes, which are powerful factors in higher adult 
 education in the metropolis. 
 
 Li 1889 the Technical Instruction Act em- 
 powered the County and County Borough 
 Councils (established in 18SS) to expend local 
 rates upon technical education. Large addi- 
 tional funds were made available for this 
 purpose by the Local Taxation (Customs and 
 Excise) Act (1890). These acts, supplemented 
 by the Education Act (1902), have given a great 
 stimulus to adult education throughout England 
 and Wales. At first this movement was almost 
 exclusively technological, but of recent years 
 there has been a rapid increase of interest on 
 the part of workingmen in the development 
 of civic and liberal education through evening 
 classes for adult students (men and women). 
 At the present time, out of every 1000 of the 
 population in England and Wales, about 23 per- 
 sons voluntarily attend some form of evening 
 class on week days. Several agencies have been 
 influential in the development of this move- 
 ment, e.g. the university extension system, 
 the National Home Reading Union, the Young 
 Men's Christian Association, the Recreative 
 Evening Schools' Association, and (during the 
 last few years) the Workers' Educational 
 Association. The latter is in close alliance 
 with the universities, and is rapidly developing 
 tutorial classes in which higher instruction 
 in history and economics is being given by 
 university teachers to small groups of working- 
 men and women, with remarkable results. 
 
 M. E. S. 
 
 In America. — Beyond some efforts for 
 negroes and foreigners, little adult education 
 in America has been directed toward the re- 
 moval of illiteracy, as was the case in England. 
 A wide variety of private, philantliropic, and 
 public schools have arisen, having as their 
 object the special or further education of adults. 
 The special types of this adult education will 
 be discussed under the following heads: — 
 
 Univ'ersity Extension; Chautauqua 
 Movement; Sumjier Schools; Mechanics' 
 Institutes; Y.M.C.A. and Y.W.C.A.; Cor- 
 respondence Schools; E\'ening Schools; 
 Continuation Schools; Cooper Union; 
 Lyceums; Lecture Systems, etc. 
 
 An examination of these agencies will show 
 that four distinct types of education have been 
 involved in them. In some the aims have 
 been mainly practical, or vocational, as the 
 mechanics' in.stitutes and correspondence 
 schools; in others civic training has been a 
 controlling object; in still others a combina- 
 
 tion of cultural and civic training has been 
 sought, as in the lyceums, Chautauqua move- 
 ment, and university extension. Some of 
 these types of adult education have approxi- 
 mated the nature of clubs in that they have 
 provided library facilities and opportunities 
 for physical exercise. 
 
 For detailed discussion see topics referred to 
 above. 
 
 Adult education forms an important part of 
 the educational work of one other European 
 country, namely Denmark. For this, see 
 Denmark, Education in. 
 
 In Germany similar work is done largely 
 by the type of schools termed Continuation 
 schools iq.v.); see also the article on Germany, 
 Education in. 
 
 References (for English experience): — 
 
 Hogg, Ethel M. Quinlin ffogn. (London, 1000.) 
 
 HUD.SON. J. W. History of Adult Education. (London, 
 1,S51.) _ 
 
 LovETT, William. Address from the Working Men's 
 Association to the Working Class on the Subject of 
 National Education. (London, 1837.) 
 
 Ludlow, J. M. Llewchm Dorics. Edited by the 
 Working Men's College 1854-1907. (London, 
 1904.) 
 
 Pole, Dr. History of the Origin and Progress of Adult 
 Schools. (Bristol, 1,S14.) 
 
 Regulations of the Board of Education for Technical 
 Schools, Schools of Art, and other Forms of Pro- 
 vision of Further Education in England and Wales. 
 (Issued annually, London.) 
 
 RowNTHEE, J. W., and Binns, H. B. History of the 
 Adult School Movement. (London, 1902.) 
 
 Sadler, M. E. Continuation Schools in England and 
 Elsewhere. (Manchester, 1907.) 
 
 W'ebb, Sidney. London EdueatioJi. (London, 1904.) 
 
 WiLLiAJi.'i, J. E. Hodder. Life of Sir George Williams. 
 (London, 1906.) 
 
 ADVENTURE SCHOOLS, PRIVATE. — 
 
 Schools opened by private persons as a specu- 
 lative investment. This type of school has 
 had a history almost as continuous as that of 
 educational institutions. Wherever there was 
 an insistence by any authority — church, 
 state, or municipal — that no school should be 
 opened without a license, private schools were 
 sure to be found. After the Church had lost 
 its power to license teachers this devolved to 
 the towns, which guarded the right ciuite as 
 jealously. Germany is perhaps the single 
 instance where state license is universal; where 
 private schools are opened it is necessary that 
 the teachers have at least the sameciualifications 
 as those in the state schools. The Winkel- 
 schulen (q.v.) and dame schools (q.v.) are the 
 main types of private adventure .school in the 
 elementary field; until recently the kindergarten 
 schools were entirely in private hands. The 
 rise of .state intervention in education, the new 
 public interest in and establishment of free 
 schools, have largely done away with private 
 adventure in elementary education. In the field 
 of secondary education the piivate adventure 
 schools have played a very important part, par- 
 ticularly in Great Britain and America. In 
 Great Britain the private schools are modeled 
 
 48
 
 AEGROTAT 
 
 iELFRIC 
 
 almost entirely on the great public schools, while 
 ill America they serve to satisfy class interests. 
 A new scope has been found by the private 
 adventure schools as centers of experimentation 
 and reform. In this direction there is undoubt- 
 edly room in the educational field for private 
 schools. The necessity of competition as well 
 as the development of public intelligence in 
 education must gradually weed out those pri- 
 vate schools which place the financial above 
 the educational interests, while to these factors 
 a certain amount of governmental inspection 
 and restriction will serve to regulate what seems 
 to be a public need and at the same time to do 
 away with the abuses which Dickens jsilloried. 
 See Abecedari.e ; Academies ; Boarding 
 Schools ; Landerziehungsheime ; Private 
 Schools. 
 
 AEGROTAT.— Literally, he is ill. There 
 is a practice at Oxford and Cambridge uni- 
 versities of granting a degree to a candidate 
 who presents himself for honors in a non- 
 professional subject, and is unable to complete 
 the examination through illness. If the papers 
 which the candidate has already completed 
 approach the requisite standard, he is granted 
 a degree with honors. Otherwise the authori- 
 ties may reserve the power to themselves of 
 either granting an ordinary degree or per- 
 mitting the candidate to receive the ordinary 
 degree only after taking a part of the necessary 
 examination. 
 
 iELFRIC. — (c 940-1006.) Schoolbook writer 
 and abbot. ^Elfric's life was wholly un- 
 eventful. All that is known of it is derived 
 from liis own writings. He "spent," he told the 
 monks of Eynsham, "many years in the school 
 of Ethelwold, the venerable priest who taught 
 many for their good." Ethelwold became 
 Bishop of Winchester and c. 962 turned out 
 the secular canons of the cathedral, replacing 
 them by monks, except such, among whom 
 appears to have been ^Elfrie, as would become 
 monks themselves. Ethelwold's successor, 
 jElfheah, sent /Elfric to Cerne Abbey in Dorset- 
 shire, where in 994, he wrote or translated 
 his Homilies or Sermons on the Saints' Days, 
 one of the chief Anglo-Saxon books we possess. 
 In 996 he composed the Lives of the Saints, a 
 tranislation from the Latin. Between those dates, 
 he wrote a Latin grammar and glossary in 
 English, cliiefly, as he says, "excerpts from the 
 smaller and larger Priscian." " I know many 
 will blame me," he says, "for having occupied 
 my time with such small matter as turning 
 the art of grammar into English, but I intend 
 the lessons for ignorant small boys, not for their 
 elders." If any one blames his translation, 
 they may: " I am content to do it as I learnt 
 it in the school of Ethelwold." The grammar 
 is chiefly interesting philologically. The 
 colloquies which were seemingly intended 
 to accompany it as a First Latin Book are a 
 
 VOL. I. — E 49 
 
 Dialogue in Latin with an interlinear literal 
 translation in English, for the author never 
 calls it Saxon, intended to provide a copious 
 vocabulary of all words in common use. For 
 this purpose the boys are made to belong to 
 every occupation and questioned about their 
 business, — plowboy, shepherd, cowherd, 
 huntsman, fisherman, merchant, shoemaker, 
 Salter, baker, cook, smith, falconer, wood- 
 wright and oblate in a monastery. Many of 
 the words would puzzle the best-read scholar 
 of to-day, for the vocabulary was wanted for use 
 in everyday life. As the boys put it, " We ask 
 you, master, to teach us to speak Latin," not 
 to read it or write it. Highly interesting is 
 the account each gives of his life. At the end, 
 they discuss which occupation is the highest and 
 most nece.ssary, and a "counsellor" is intro- 
 duced to sum up the discussion. He decides 
 formally in favor of the monk, but really in 
 favor of the plowboy, as agriculture was the 
 foundation of society. But when each claims 
 that his trade is equally necessary, it is allowed 
 that each does well who does his work well. 
 A sort of appendix by jElfric Bata, a pupil of 
 yElfric's and perhaps a Briton, gives the day 
 of the oblate in the monastery. In 1005, 
 iElfric wrote a Life of Ethelwold, when he 
 was abbot of Eynsham, which, like Winchester, 
 had been converted by Ethelwold from a 
 church of canons to one of monks. Until 
 recently he was confused with another jElfric, 
 who died Archbishop of Canterbury in 1005. 
 The date of our jElfric's death is unknown. 
 
 A. F. L. 
 Reference: — • 
 
 Dictionary of National Biography. 
 
 jELFRIC, ARCHBISHOP OF CANTER- 
 BURY. — This .Elfric (see Diet. Nat. Biog. on 
 this point) was almost certainly the tenth abbot 
 of St. Albans. He was later consecrated Bishop 
 of Ramsbury, and died Archbishop of Canter- 
 bury in 100.5. His importance in the history of 
 education lies in the fact that he promulgated 
 the canons (which have been various!}' dated, 
 but almost certainly belong to the year 994-995) 
 which laid the basis of the parochial system of 
 education in England. The canons of King 
 Edgar (960) iq.v.) had foreshadowed this 
 system, but Elfric adopted the parochial sy-stem 
 which had been formulated (in imitation of the 
 small elementary municipal schools that existed 
 under the Empire from the first century, cf . Pliny 
 the Younger's school at Comum) by Bishop 
 Theodulf of Orleans at the end of the eighth 
 century in pursuance of the ideas of Alcuin and 
 Charles the Great, and given universal signifi- 
 cance by Pope Eugenius II in 826. Canon 20 
 of the laws promulgated by .Elfric is a docu- 
 ment of the first importance. It nms as follows: 
 " Let Priests have schools in the townships 
 (parishes) and small villages (Prexbi/tcri per 
 villa.s et vicos scholas habeaut), and if any of the 
 faithful wish to commend to them his little
 
 .ENEAS SYL\1US 
 
 ^SOP 
 
 children for the learning of letters, let them not 
 refuse to receive and teach them; but with the 
 greatestlove teach them renienil)ering that which 
 was written : those who shall be learned shall shine 
 as the splendour of the heaven and those who 
 shall teach many the right way shall shine as the 
 stars for ever and ever (Dan. xii, 3). When 
 therefore they teach them, let them demand 
 nothing from them in the way of reward 
 for this nor accept anything from them ex- 
 cept what parents freely give to them out 
 of a charitable desire." This provision brings 
 education into touch on the one hand with 
 local government, since the prie.st was the 
 "mass-thane" and with four villagers rep- 
 resented the township, and on the other with 
 the Bishop, who about this date created the 
 official known as the M agister Scholarum (q.v.) 
 and so controlled the parochial schools. 
 
 J. E. G. DE M. 
 See Canon Law in Education. 
 
 Reference: — 
 
 Dictionnru oj \ational Biography. 
 
 ^NEAS SYLVIUS BARTOLOMEUS PIC- 
 COLOMINI. — (Pope Pius II.) A typical 
 humanist of the Reuais.sance period, born at 
 Corsignano in 1405. Beginning as a student 
 of law at Siena, he gave up this study for literary 
 pursuits and studied for a time under Filelfo 
 (fj.v.) at Florence. Throughout a very versatile 
 life, directed by an overpowering and selfish 
 ambition, his interests were mainly literary. 
 His early days were spent in the company of 
 humanists, and he was not exempt from the sen- 
 suahties of the time. But it is characteristic of 
 him that he never apologized for his life at this 
 time, and as pope republished some of his more 
 questionable writings. His life career as a 
 cliplomatist was begun at the Council of Basle, 
 where he became a secretary of the antipope, 
 Felix V. Sent on an embassy to the imperial 
 court, he accepted an offer to enter the imperial 
 service, where, however, he remained in obscurity 
 for some time. Gradually he won the favor 
 of the Imperial Chancellor, and was advanced to 
 important positions. At this time he found it 
 convenient to change his views, and decided 
 that the best way to further advancement would 
 be to enter the Church. He now supported 
 Pope Eugenius IV, and in return for his services 
 in restoring the allegiance of Germany to the 
 Papacy he was made Bishop of Trieste. He 
 continued for several more years in the Emper- 
 or's service, and devoted himself to an agitation 
 against the Turks. In 1456 he became cardinal, 
 and returned to a life of intrigue at Rome, 
 which resulted in his elevation to the Papacy in 
 1458, when he took the title of Pius II. He 
 died in 1464, engaged to the end in political ac- 
 tivity. 
 
 >Encas Sylvius was a product of the time in 
 which he lived. Deeply imbued with an intense 
 love for literary pursuits, he gave a literary turn 
 
 to everything which he undertook. His works, 
 which were not, however, complete, were ])ub- 
 lished in 1571, and filled eleven folio volumes. 
 They include a few poems, a large number of 
 letters, writings on theology, philosophy, and 
 history. He found time in the midst of his 
 activities and intrigues to write On the Xatiire 
 of the Horse, and a Treatise on the Geography 
 of Asia. For the history of education the 
 interest in jEneas Sylvius centers in a treatise 
 on A Liberal Education (De Liberorum Edu- 
 catione) written to Ladislas, King of Bohe- 
 mia and Hungary, with whom he came into 
 contact at the imperial court. This treatise 
 represents the educational ideals of the Renais- 
 sance, which may be summed up in " the 
 cultured gentleman." " Nature, training, and 
 practice are the three factors of education." 
 Importance must be attached to the choice 
 of a teacher and companions. " In the right 
 training of the boy lies the .secret of the in- 
 tegrity of the man." He lays emphasis on the 
 importance of physical training, the early 
 guidance of a mother, and training in philosophy 
 and letters. The curriculum is that which is 
 typical of the Renaissance, and centers round 
 grammar. Although a strong advocate of the 
 cultivation of good style and expression, .Eneas 
 Sylvius' writings cannot be compared for 
 Latinity and polish with those of many of his 
 contemporaries. As he himself wrote, " My 
 style of writing is bold and unpolished, but it is 
 frank and without trappings." 
 
 References: — 
 
 CREI1.-.HTCIX, M.WDELL. Htslorical Essays and Reviews. 
 (London. 11102.) 
 
 S.iXDYs, J. E. .4 History of Classical Scholarship, Vol. 
 II. (Cambridge. 190.S.) 
 
 WooDW.\RD. W. H. Viltorino da Felire and other Hu- 
 manist Educators. (Cambridge. 1905.) 
 
 iEPINUS (HOCK) JOHANNES.— (1499- 
 
 1553.) A CJerman schoolmaster, born in Ziesar 
 (Brandenburg), rector of the school in Stralsund 
 (1524-152S), from where he was called to 
 Hamburg to carry out Bugenhagen's School 
 Regulations iq.v.). He drew up church regu- 
 lations for Stralsund, Hamburg, and other 
 north German cities. 
 
 .SSOP. — The reputed author of a collection 
 of fables, which was certainly popular in Athens 
 in and before the time of Pericles, is said to 
 have been born at Samos (though other cities 
 claimed his origin), and to have been brought 
 to Athens while young as a slave. The date 
 of his birth may have been the latter part of the 
 seventh century B.C. Plutarch, Herodotus, 
 and Phopdrus describe .Esop as being enfran- 
 chised, visiting Croesus, rebuking Solon, visiting 
 Athens, where he is said to have composed the 
 fable of Jupiter and the frogs during the t\Tanny 
 of Pisistratus, and being finally cast from a pre- 
 cipice by the Delphians while on an embassy to 
 them from Croesus. The fables originated by 
 jEsop may not have been at first put into 
 
 50
 
 ^STHESIOMETER 
 
 .ESTHETICS 
 
 writing, but had a great vogue among the 
 ancients as oral tales. Socrates as a prisoner 
 turned some of them into elegiac verse, and 
 Demetrius Phalereus and Phiedrus followed 
 his example. The modern fables known as 
 .iEsop's are spurious, and apparently of oriental 
 origin. 
 
 P. R. C. 
 References: — 
 
 La Fontaine. Fables. (Biography of .Esop in ed. of 
 
 1S8S, pp. 19-34.) 
 .^sop. Fables, with a history of the JSsopic Fable. 
 
 (London, 1SS9.) 
 Sandys. History of Classical Scholarship, (Cambridge, 
 
 19U.3-190S.) 
 
 ^STHESIOMETER. — An apparatus for 
 measuring the distance between two points on 
 the skin which can be just recognized as separate 
 from each other. A pair of ordinary drawing 
 compasses may be used for this purpose, or a 
 horizontal bar with adjustable points. The ends 
 should be made of hartl rubber or bone so as to 
 avoid excessive stimulation of the temperature 
 spots. E. H. Weber, who was the first to use 
 such an apparatus, found that the distances 
 which could be just recognized vary from one 
 miUimeter or less on the end of the finger, to six 
 centimeters in the middle of the back. The 
 apparatus is recommended by Griesbach as a 
 means of measuring fatigue. German and 
 others have rejected this recommendation on 
 the basis of elaborate series of tests. 
 
 References: — 
 
 JnoD, C. H. Laboratory Equipment for Psychological 
 
 Experiments. 
 Griesbach. Archiv fur Hygiene. (Munich, 1895.) 
 
 vESTHETICS. — The philosophy of the 
 beautiful in nature or art. — -Esthetics began 
 in the earliest speculations of the Greeks con- 
 cerning the nature of beauty and of art. Soc- 
 rates raised the question of the relation between 
 use and beauty, and tended to identifv the two. 
 In his discussions of the various arts he a.ssumes 
 that art is imitation, and that the artist can 
 imitate even qualities of character. A success- 
 ful imitation somehow gives pleasure. In dis- 
 cussing the art of the sculptor he tells us that 
 the artist selects the best features from the 
 various objects he has seen and combines them 
 in a work which he is making. 
 
 Plato followed Socrates in the belief that art 
 is essentially imitative. This fact alone was 
 sufficient to condemn it in Plato's mind, for 
 he held that the object which the artist imitates 
 is itself merely a copy of the true ideal object. 
 The work of art is, therefore, thrice removed 
 from the truth. Plato also condemns art on 
 ethical grounds. Homer and the other poets 
 misrepresent the gods, and their influence is 
 almost entirely bad. The imitation of bad 
 models and the exercise of most of the emotions 
 to which art appeals are injurious to strength of 
 character and good citizenship. Plato is, how- 
 ever, a worshiper of beauty, and he places it 
 
 upon an equality with truth and goodness. 
 Beauty in the physical realm is akin to the 
 useful or the purposeful, but it has also harmony 
 and measure as essential qualities. It possesses, 
 in addition, unity, purity, completeness, and 
 perfection. Pure beauty is to be found in 
 straight lines and curves, in simple and per- 
 fectly regular figures, in smooth and clear 
 sounds, in pure colors. Spiritual beauty is 
 identical with the virtues. Absolute beauty 
 belongs to the world of ideas. The pleasure 
 which beauty gives is pure and unmixed with 
 pain. 
 
 Aristotle, like his predecessors, adheres to the 
 imitative theory of art, but he broadens the 
 application of the term "imitation." Art imi- 
 tates nature, but nature is not made up simply 
 of objects; it has also inner principles, and the 
 artist imitates these as well as objects and activi- 
 ties. Music is, for Aristotle, the most imitative 
 of the arts. Aristotle differs widely from Plato 
 in his estimate of the ethical bearings of art. 
 He regards art as a valuable source of relaxa- 
 tion, and an important means to education. 
 The exercise of the emotions of pity and fear 
 occasioned by tragedj' effects a purgation of 
 these emotions. Plato held that the exercise 
 of such feelings tended merely to strengthen 
 them. The impulse to the production of art 
 is to be found in the instinct of imitation. The 
 pleasure occasioned by the perception of a 
 successful imitation is the pleasure of recogni- 
 tion. Aristotle did not cUscuss at length the 
 nature of beauty, but he did assert that a 
 beautiful object must have, in addition to an 
 orderly arrangement of parts, a magnitude 
 which shall be neither too small nor too great 
 for ea.sy comprehension in a single glance. 
 
 There is no conception among the Greek 
 thinkers of a separate science or a separate 
 field of study such as we think of under the 
 name of aesthetics. With Socrates and Plato 
 the discussion of the problems of aesthetics is 
 usually incidental. Aristotle devoted a work to 
 poetry, but apparently even he had no concep- 
 tion of aesthetics as a subject distinct from other 
 subjects. It is true, however, that the Greeks 
 did discuss most of the important problems of 
 {esthetics. They discussed the nature of 
 beauty, its relation to utility, the reason why it 
 gives pleasure. These problems have persisted 
 through the whole history of aesthetics. They 
 cUscussed the nature of art, the impulses 
 which give rise to art, the ethical significance 
 of art. These, too, have been constantly in the 
 foreground up to the present time. Plato 
 raises the question as to the kind of pleasure 
 which beauty gives, and this again is a question 
 which is still awaiting a final answer. Plato 
 attempts also to state the characteristics pos- 
 sessed by those Unes and simple geometrical 
 figures which are regarded as beautiful. This 
 we are usually inclined to think of as a modern 
 problem, and indeed the attempt at a genuinely 
 scientific .solution of it began only after the 
 
 51
 
 .ESTHETICS 
 
 ESTHETICS 
 
 beginning of experimental psychology in modern 
 Germany. 
 
 The hiter Greek thinkers contributed little 
 to the discussion of the problems of a?sthetics. 
 Plotinus, the Nco-Platonist, had much to say of 
 beauty, and gave to it a mystical significance. 
 He was the first important thinker to hold the 
 view that art has as its purpose the representa- 
 tion of the beautiful. The contributions made 
 by the Roman writers, by the Church Fathers, 
 by medieval thinkers, were very small. The 
 most important contribution between the time 
 of Aristotle and modern times was made by 
 Longinus in his book On the Sublime. 
 
 There was a revival of interest in beauty and 
 art in the Renaissance, but this interest was not 
 speculative and did not lead to anj- important 
 contributions to tcsthetic theory. Later on 
 artists and critics began to be interested in 
 a-sthetic problems, and thej% as well as the 
 philosophers, began to discuss aesthetic theories. 
 In England, Shaftesbury revived certain of the 
 doctrines of Plato. Hutchinson, a professor 
 in the University of Glasgow, brought forward 
 a conception which has since been influential. 
 This was the conception of a " sense of beauty." 
 Beauty is perceived by an internal sense, as 
 colors are perceived by the ej'e. 
 
 Edmund Burke, in his Essay on the Origin of 
 our Ideas of the Beautiful and the Sublime, 
 attempted to enumerate the qualities which 
 characterize such objects as can be called either 
 beautiful or sublime. His contribution on this 
 head was not very valuable nor very original, 
 but another feature of his work entitled him to 
 credit as the forerunner of present-day physio- 
 logical aesthetics. His physiology was crude 
 and his conclusions of historical value only, but 
 he did conceive the possibiUty of correlating 
 a-sthetic feelings with certain physiological 
 activities. According to his notion the feelings 
 aroused by beauty were dependent upon a 
 general physiological relaxation, wiiile the 
 feelings aroused ijy the sublime resulted from 
 strain and tension. Among the writers of this 
 period Hogarth should be mentioned. He 
 attempted to discover the qualities of beauti- 
 ful objects, and described what he called the 
 " line of beauty," and the " line of grace." He 
 formulated these after much experimentation 
 and the examination of a great many works of 
 art, but his conclusions were not fruitful. 
 
 The early Greek doctrine that beauty is 
 dependent upon utility was to some extent 
 adopted and broadened by many of the British 
 thinkers. They frequently distinguished be- 
 tween original or intrinsic beauty and derived 
 beauty. Hume and other thinkers of his type 
 formulated and developed the doctrine of the 
 association of ideas. This doctrine, by show- 
 ing how a given quality might give pleasure by 
 being associated wth utility, or indeed with 
 any other pleasure-giving quaUty, w-as offered 
 as a means for accounting for derived beauty. 
 This was one of the most important contribu- 
 
 tions of the British scliool. Such character- 
 istics as those of grandeur, of gracefulness, and 
 the like began to receive attention, and Henry 
 Home, Lord Kames, contributed much to the 
 discussion of these i)roblcnis and indirectly to 
 the thought of many later writers. 
 
 But no one of the writers already mentioned, 
 whether ancient or modern, liad used the term 
 " aesthetics " in its modern meaning. Its first 
 use in this sense is to be found in the .Esthetica 
 of Baumgarten, Professor in the L'niversity of 
 Frankfort in the eighteenth century. Ms- 
 thetics is derived from the Greek aiV^Tjo-is, a 
 word meaning "sensation," and Baumgarten 
 used it in this connection because he believed 
 that in beauty perfection is revealed to the 
 bodily senses. Baumgarten not only em- 
 ployed the term " testhetics," he also marked 
 off the theory of the beautiful as a separate 
 and distinct subject of study. 
 
 Most of the great German philosophers, 
 critics, and poets of the eighteenth and early 
 nineteenth centuries contributed to a greater 
 or less degree to wstlietic theory. In many 
 respects the contribution made by Kant is the 
 most important in the whole history of the 
 subject. He gave to aesthetics a status like 
 that occupied by ethics and logic. In the 
 philosophy of Kant the a'sthetic experience 
 is that which unites the divergent elements of 
 sense and reason. The aesthetic experience is, 
 therefore, in a certain sense, the focus of his 
 thought. Beauty he defined as that which is, 
 first, the object of a disinterested satisfaction; 
 our enjoyment of it is not dependent upon its 
 relation to any private interest of our own, or 
 indeed to anything else whatsoever. It is 
 intrinsically pleasing. Second, the judgment 
 that a given object is beautiful is " subjec- 
 tively universal"; we feel that all others should 
 agree with us in this judgment, and this de- 
 mand for agreement is not based upon any 
 logical premises or concepts, but is based upon 
 our own immediate disinterested enjoyment of 
 the object. Third, we feel that the beautiful 
 object has the " form of purposiveness " with- 
 out any definite purpose; it is not based upon 
 any definite suggestion of utility, but there is 
 a general suggestion of adaptation to purpose. 
 Kant gave to the sublime an importance equal 
 to that of the beautiful. The sublime im- 
 presses us through boundlessness of extent, or 
 of power. It is that which we feel to be great 
 beyond all comparison. We feel respect for it. 
 Kant also contributed to that department of 
 aesthetics which deals with the nature of art; 
 art was for him the production of beauty. 
 
 Schiller regarded himself as a disciple of 
 Kant, and worked out some important doc- 
 trines on the basis of suggestions which he 
 found in Kant's writings. One of the most 
 important of these is the doctrine that the 
 impulse to the production of art is, in its 
 nature, akin to play. That is to say, it is 
 free, spontaneous activity with no ulterior 
 
 52
 
 .ESTHETICS 
 
 ESTHETICS 
 
 purpose. This doctrine was revived and made 
 much of by the Spencerian school. Schiller 
 made a very important contribution to the 
 literature of a?sthetics in his letters on The 
 /Esthetic Education of Man. In these he 
 brings forward ssthetic education as a most 
 important factor in the progress of civilization. 
 
 Hegel made a complete system of a'sthetics, 
 the most complete that history has seen. In 
 this system, art aims at the creation of the 
 beautiful, and the beautiful is the concrete 
 embodiment of the idea. The idea is the very 
 essence of things, the ultimate reality. Con- 
 temporary and later thinkers added their 
 quota to the development of the subject. 
 Schopenhauer, in direct opposition to the intel- 
 lectualism of Hegel, made art the embodiment 
 of the will. 
 
 A distinctly new line of development was 
 set under way by Fechner, who applied to the 
 study of a?sthetic objects the experimental 
 method. The speculations of Plato regarding 
 the qualities of those geometrical figures which 
 are beautiful, the conclusions of Hogarth re- 
 garding the " line of beauty," and the specu- 
 lations of Zeising, a predecessor of Fechner, on 
 the subject of sesthetic proportions in simple 
 geometrical figures had not led to investiga- 
 tions which could be described as strictly 
 scientific. Fechner's method was scientific, 
 and it is interesting to note that his conclusion 
 in one respect coincided with that of Zeising. 
 Zeising had described the " golden section." 
 This was a method of dividing a line in such 
 a way as to make its division most pleasing 
 aesthetically. The proportions were such that 
 the shorter segment of the line bore to the 
 longer segment the same ratio as the longer 
 segment to the line as a whole. The rectangle 
 of most pleasing proportions was one con- 
 structed with these two segments as dimen- 
 sions. Fechner's experiments seemed to estab- 
 lish this theory. Much time and labor have 
 been devoted to experimental aesthetics, but 
 this branch of the subject is still in its infancy. 
 
 Another department of the subject w'hich 
 has recently become fruitful is that which is 
 based upon the study of the art of primitive 
 peoples. Studies in this field have tended to 
 broaden theories of art beyond the concep- 
 tions arrived at by a study of European art 
 alone. Many recent writers have added to the 
 literature of the subject in their various fields. 
 Ps.ychology, general, experimental, and physio- 
 logical, sociology, and anthropology have been 
 the fields in which most recent writers have 
 worked. 
 
 The problems of aesthetics may be grouped 
 as follows: first, those that have to do with 
 art, its nature, origin, and relations to other 
 products of human activity; second, those 
 which have to do with the beautiful, the sub- 
 lime, the ludicrous, the picturesque, and related 
 qualities. The theories of the nature of art 
 arc many. They include the ancient theory 
 
 that art is imitation, the theory that art is the 
 production of the beautiful, various intellec- 
 tualistic theories of art, and the theory that 
 art is emotional expression. Hegel's doctrine 
 that art, in creating the beautiful, embodies 
 the idea, which is the essence of things, the 
 theory that art presents that which is signifi- 
 cant in an object, or that which is characteris- 
 tic either of the individual or of the type, or 
 that which is the dominant feature, or that 
 which is essential or universal to the exclusion 
 of that which is unessential or accidental, are 
 all intellectualistic theories. The theory that 
 art is emotional expression holds that beauty, 
 imitation, and the presentation of ideas of 
 whatever sort, are simply means toward the 
 expression of feeling. Theories of the impulse 
 to the production of art are numerous, in- 
 cluding the theory that the art impulse is to 
 be found in the imitative instinct, or in the 
 play instinct, or in the desire to attract by 
 pleasing, or in the desire to give concrete em-, 
 bodiment to ideas, or to feelings. 
 
 Material for the study of these problems is 
 found in the history of art and of artists, in 
 criticism, in the psychology of art appreciation, 
 in the study of the arts of primitive peoples. 
 The problems which relate to the beautiful, 
 sublime, etc., fall into two groups — those 
 which are concerned with the characteristics 
 of the beautiful objects, and those which are 
 concerned with the qualities of feelings aroused 
 by such objects. The answer to the first 
 question is sometimes stated in metaphysical 
 terms, sometimes in terms which are not 
 metaphysical. The theory that the beautiful 
 is the concrete embodiment of the True, the 
 Good, the Divine, the Idea, or the Universal, 
 are metaphysical in character. 
 
 The so-called " exact aesthetics " has at- 
 tempted to discover by experimental methods 
 the qualities or proportions of objects which 
 are found to be £esthetically pleasing. This 
 mode of approaching the subject has not yet 
 given rise to any important independent 
 generalizations. Usually the reaction against 
 the metaphysical solution of these problems 
 leads to one which is stated in psychological 
 terms and in terms of the asthetic experience. 
 The question as to what a beautiful object is 
 is answered by saying that it is the kind of 
 object which occasions a given kind of experi- 
 ence. There is no universal agreement as to 
 the terms in which this experience shall be 
 described. Kant's description has already 
 been mentioned. The Spencerian school holds 
 that an a-sthetic pleasure is a pleasure which is 
 free from all suggestion of life-serving functions. 
 ^Esthetic feeling has been defined as pleasure 
 which is objectified or thought of as a quality- 
 of the object (Brown and Santayana), as pleas- 
 ure which is relatively permanent in revival 
 (Marshall), etc. Physiological aesthetics attempts 
 to state the differentia of esthetic enjoyment in 
 terms of bodily activity or bodily states. 
 
 53
 
 ESTHETICS 
 
 AFTER-IMAGE 
 
 Since the time of Kant iBsthetics has occu- 
 pied a prominent place in the curricula of 
 German universities. Within ten years most 
 of the more important of the older American 
 universities have established courses in this 
 subject, but in only a very few did a-sthetics 
 have explicit recognition a decade ago. 
 Courses in literary criticism have frequently 
 introduced a few of the problems of lesthetics: 
 courses in metaphysics have occasionally con- 
 tained some reference to the beautiful, and 
 courses in psychology have sometimes called 
 attention to the a'sthetic experience, but out- 
 side of Germany the study of a-sthetic theory 
 has only recently become the object of wide 
 interest. 
 
 The question of Eesthetic education is a 
 matter which has received comparatively little 
 attention from those who have contributed to 
 the advance of a'sthetic theory. Schiller's 
 interest in the subject of esthetic education 
 has already been noted, but he was an excep- 
 tion. The importance of a'sthetic education 
 has not yet received the attention it deserves, 
 nor have the means for its attainment been 
 supplied. Public art galleries, free concerts, 
 and training in drawing have furnished some 
 basis for such culture, but until the proper use 
 of such means has been more completely 
 worked out, and until the oesthetic elements 
 provided .by many of the present subjects of 
 study in the ordinary school curriculum have 
 been utilized, esthetic education must pro- 
 ceed very slowly. The significance of such 
 education from the standpoint of ethics, and 
 from the standpoint of the most complete 
 development of the individual, has frequently 
 been mentioned, Ijut there is no general move- 
 ment toward an adequate provision for it. A 
 serious difficulty is to be found in the fact that 
 such education cannot be conveyed by pre- 
 cept, and an infectious example is not always 
 to be found. A. L. J. 
 
 See Arts in Education ; Art in the 
 School; Art, Methods of Te.\ching; Mu- 
 seums, Music in the School, etc. 
 
 References: — 
 
 Allen, Grant. Physiological /Esihelics. (New York, 
 
 1877.) 
 BosANQUET. History of ^Hslhelics. (London, 1892.) 
 Brown, G. Baldwin. The Fine Arts. (New York, 
 
 1901.) 
 BnRKE. Inquiry into the Origin of our Ideas of the 
 
 Sublime and Beautiful. (New York, 1SS9.) 
 Botcher, S. H. Aristotle's Theory of Poetry and Fine 
 
 Art. (London, 1902.) 
 Croce, Benedetto. /Esthetic as Science of Expression 
 
 and general Linguistic, tr. from Italian Ijy D. Ainslic. 
 
 (London. 1909.) 
 Fechner. Vorschule d. /Esthctik. (Leipzig, lS7fi.) 
 Gaylet, C. M., and Scott, F. N. A Guide to the 
 
 Lilernlure of .■E.'ithetics. (Berkele.v, Cal.. 1N9(>.) 
 Gordon. Kate. .Esthetics. (New York, 1909.) 
 Gurnet. Pouu^r of Soutul. (London. IS.SO.) 
 Hegel. Intrortuction to HrqcVs Philosophy of Fine 
 
 Art, ed. bv B. Bosanquet. (London. l<S,Sfi.) 
 HiRN, Yrjo. The Origins of Art. (London, 1900.) 
 Hogarth. Analysis of Beauty. (Pittsfield, Mass., 
 
 1909.) 
 
 Hutcheson, F. Inquiry info the Original of our Ideas 
 of Beauty and Virtue. (Glasgow, 1772.) 
 
 K.AMES (Home). Elements of Criticism. Ed. by Abr. 
 MUls. (New York, 1857.) 
 
 Kant. Kritik of the Judgment. Ed. by .1. H. 
 Bernard. (London. 1892.) Observations on the 
 Feeling of the Beautiful and the Sublime. 
 
 Knight. W. Philosophy of the Beautiful. (New York, 
 1891.) 
 
 Lalo, C. L' Esthitique Experimenlale. (Paris, 1908.) 
 
 Lessing, G. E. Laocoon. Hamhurgische Dramaturgic. 
 (1766.) 
 
 Lipp.s, T. Rauniaesthrtik und Geometrischoptische Tau- 
 schungen. (Leipzig, 1.S97.) 
 
 LoNGiNDS. Oti the Sublime. Ed. by A. O. Prickard. 
 (Oxford, 1906.) 
 
 Mar-shall, H. R. .Esthetic Principles. (New York, 
 1895.) 
 
 Price, Sir Uverdalb. The Picturesque. (Edinburgh, 
 1842.) 
 
 PoFFER, Ethel D. The Psychology of Beauty. (Bos- 
 ton, 1906.) 
 
 Santayana. The Sense of Beauty. (New York. 1896.) 
 The Life of Reason. (New York, 1906.) 
 
 Schiller. ^Esthetic Letters. Tr. bv Weiss. (Boston, 
 1845.) 
 
 Schopenhauer. Works. 
 
 Shaftesbury. Characteristicks of men, manners, 
 opinions, times, etc. Ed. bv .J. B. Robertson. 
 (London, 1900.) 
 
 Spencer, H. Essays, Scientific, Political and Specula- 
 tive. 
 
 Sully, James. Art. .i?5sthetics in Encyclopedia Britan- 
 nica. 
 
 Tolstoi. What is Art? (New York, 1898.) 
 
 AESTHETIC ELEMENT IN EDUCA- 
 TION. — See Arts in Education. 
 
 AFFECT. — This term is sometimes used as a 
 synonym for emotion. The German term Affekt 
 is the exact equivalent of the English term 
 "emotion." 
 
 Sec Emotion. 
 
 AFFECTION. —In common parlance this 
 word is used to designate a strong personal at- 
 tachment or love for another. In technical 
 writing it is used to designate the process referred 
 to by the term "affect" (q.v.), or the term 
 "emotion" (q.v.), and sometimes the term 
 " feeling." 
 
 AFFECTIVE. — There is no adjectival form of 
 the word " feeling." The lack of such a form has 
 led to the adoption in technical writing of the 
 term "affective" to express that characteristic 
 of consciousness which belongs to a state of 
 feeling. Thus pleasure is described as an 
 agreeable affective experience. 
 
 See Feeling; Emotion. 
 
 AFTER-IMAGE. — When an organ of scn.se, 
 especially the retina, has been stimulated, the or- 
 ganic processes set up by the action of the exter- 
 nal energy continue after the cessation of the 
 stimulus. In some cases the process in the 
 organ of sense will be reversed so as to restore 
 the organ to a normal condition. Thus if 
 one fixates for a period of, say, 30 or 40 seconds 
 anj- bright light and then closes the eyes, or 
 looks upon a medium gray or dark surface, 
 without moving the eyes, a so-called after- 
 
 54
 
 AGASSIZ 
 
 AGENCIES 
 
 image is observed. This image has the shape 
 of the light looked at, and may be, especially 
 if the light be bright, for an instant of the 
 same general color and intensity. The color, 
 however, soon changes. If the light fixated 
 be ordinary white light, such as a white surface 
 reflecting the rays of the sun, or an incan- 
 descent lamp, the second type of the after- 
 image will be dark, although retaining the 
 general shape of the source of light. If the 
 object fixated be colored, the second form of 
 the after-image will be the complementary 
 color to that of the source of light. A red 
 object will, for instance, become bluish green 
 in the after-image; a yellow object, blue; a 
 green object, purple, etc. The first type of 
 the after-image is called positive; the second, 
 negative. Positive after-images are un- 
 doubtedly due to the fact that the nervous 
 apparatus concerned in vision retains for a 
 while, even after the stimulus of light has been 
 removed, the physiological effects of such 
 stimulus. The negative after-image is prob- 
 ably due to some sort of reversal of this physio- 
 logical process in the eye. R. P. A. 
 
 After-images of hearing do not appear; there 
 are after-images in all other spheres of sensa- 
 tion. 
 
 Sec also Ad.4.ptatiox, Sen'sory. 
 
 References : — 
 B.iLDwrN's Dictionary of Philology and Psychology: 
 
 Art. Vision. 
 ScHAFER, E. A. Textbook of Physiology. Vo\. II. 
 
 (Edinburgh, 1898-1900.) 
 Howell, W. H. American Textbook of Physiology. 
 
 (PhUadelphia, 1901.) 
 
 AGASSIZ, LOUIS (JOHN RUDOLPH) 
 
 (1807-1873). — The tlistinguished naturalist and 
 science teacher was born at iMotier, in the 
 canton of Fribourg, Switzerland, May 28, 1807, 
 and received his elementary and secondary 
 education in the gymnasium at Bienne and 
 the college at Neuchatel. It was the purpose 
 of his parents that he should follow commer- 
 cial pursuits, but his keen interest in scientific 
 studies led them to allow him to take up the 
 study of medicine — first at the University of 
 Ziirich, and later at Munich and Heidelberg. 
 He was first professor of natural history in the 
 college at Neuchatel and director of a scientific 
 observatory in the Alps. He visited France 
 and England to acquaint himself with scientific 
 men and movements, and in 1846 he accepted 
 an invitation to give a course of lectures before 
 the Lowell Institute in Boston. The year fol- 
 lowing he accepted the professorship of zoology 
 and geology in the Lawrence Scientific School 
 which Harvard University had just organized. 
 In 1873 he organized on the island of Penikese 
 a summer school of marine zoology for teachers, 
 which brought most of the foremost instructors 
 of science under his instruction. He was a 
 natural teacher, says one of his students, fond 
 of .giving instruction, patient and synii)athetic, 
 overflowing with an earnest love of his subject, 
 
 and having a mind replete with stores of in- 
 formation. The title of which he was proudest 
 was that of the instructor rather than the in- 
 vestigator, and he took real pleasure in in- 
 scribing himself as " Louis Agassiz, teacher." 
 He gave great impetus to the teaching of 
 
 Louis Agassiz. 
 
 science in secondary schools, and, besides his 
 textbooks on physiology and natural history, 
 he published a work on methods of teaching 
 natural history, and made notable contribu- 
 tions to the literature of ichthyologj'. He died 
 at Cambridge, Mass., Dec. 14, 1873. 
 
 W. S. M. 
 Reference: — 
 
 Ag.^ssiz. Eliz.^beth. Louis Agas^s: his Life and Cor- 
 respondence. (Boston, 1893.) 
 
 AGE, SCHOOL. — See Attendance, Com- 
 pulsory. 
 
 AGE OF COLLEGE AND HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 STUDENTS. — See Students, Age of. 
 
 AGENCIES, TEACHERS' EMPLOYMENT. 
 
 — In an informal manner, academies, colleges, 
 and normal schools in their early history 
 in America acted as employment agencies, to 
 the extent of receiving applications for teachers 
 and making recommendations for vacancies. 
 Toward the close of the nineteenth century, 
 this work within educational in.stitutions was 
 much systematized, and now it is usually 
 directed by a special secretary or agent, who 
 systematically compiles estimates of can- 
 didates, obtains information regarding possible 
 sources of employment, and directs eligible
 
 AGENCIES 
 
 AGRAM 
 
 teachers to the right positions. As a rule, 
 this service in institutions is gratuitous to 
 teacher and employing body. 
 
 Private agencies on a commercial basis have 
 existed since 1855, but the period of their ex- 
 tensive development was from 1S70 to 1890. 
 During that time more than fifty different 
 agencies were established, some of which, of 
 course, performed a purely local service. In 
 recent years there has been a tendency to 
 consolidate agencies and to expand the more 
 successful of those already existing. At present 
 the best of the private agencies fill a positive 
 place in the American educational scheme, 
 though it cannot be denied that many agencies 
 have allowed commercial considerations to out- 
 weigh professional standards in the filling of 
 places. The private agency is of most service 
 in filling the exceptional positions — excep- 
 tional in type of work, or efficiency demanded. 
 The unassisted teacher of special preparation 
 has few opportunities of finding vacancies 
 suited to him; the agency with its machinerj' 
 for locating places can make valuable adjust- 
 ments. For this service the agencj' usually 
 charges a registration fee, and assesses the 
 candidate for a certain percentage of his salary 
 in case of election. The assessment varies 
 from 5 per cent to 10 per cent of the salary 
 for the first year, or it may be half of the first 
 month's salary. 
 
 From time to time it has been proposed that 
 state teachers' associations or state boards 
 of education should conduct agencies, but, 
 so far as known, the only move in this direction 
 has been the law passed by Massachusetts: — 
 
 " Any person desiring to teach in the public 
 schools of this commonwealth may file with the 
 state board of education an application in 
 writing .stating the kind and grade of school 
 desired and the experience and training of 
 the applicant, and may file with such appli- 
 cation any evidence of the applicant's character 
 and qualifications. 
 
 " It shall be the duty of the board to receive 
 such applications, to make lists of the same 
 arranged for convenient reference, and on re- 
 quest of the superintendents of schools and school 
 committees of cities and towns to furnish all 
 reasonable information about such applicants. 
 The board may make reasonalile rules and 
 regulations relating to the filing of applications 
 and the giving of information as above pro- 
 vided." (Chap. 399, Acts of 190G, as amended. 
 Chap. 213, Acts of 1907.) 
 
 The private agency in England exists to a 
 far greater extent than in this country, since 
 the great majority of educational positions are 
 filled by selection "from a number of applications 
 rather than by direct recommendation from a 
 college or other institution. The universities 
 have recently instituted appointment boards 
 under the charge of a secretary, but it is too 
 early to make any statement as to their success. 
 Teachers' associations have also within very 
 
 recent times established agencies with special 
 terms to members. The percentage usually 
 charged varies from 2\ to 5 per cent of the 
 first year's salary. The university agencies 
 make no charge at all, as a rule. 
 
 See Uxn^ERSiTY Appointments Boards and 
 Secretaries. 
 
 References: — ■ 
 
 Nothing exists in the way of general references. 
 Private agencies have issued various papers which serve 
 to indicate the historical backgrounds. 
 
 AGENTS. — See Supervisors. 
 
 AGGREGATE IDEA.— This term is em- 
 ployed by Wundt (Uiitlincs of P.vjchology) 
 and other writers to refer to the first stage of 
 experience in which an individual looking at a 
 complex situation gets a complex experience 
 which is not analyzed into its elements. Later 
 development in the presence of such an expe- 
 rience will consist in breaking up of this idea 
 into clearly defined parts which in turn will 
 be combined into more definitely organized 
 experiences. " Aggregate " in this case indicates 
 that the first stage of the complex experience is 
 dependent upon chance complexity rather than 
 upon definite order of the arrangement. Thus 
 the child's first view of a picture is a complex 
 or aggregate idea. His later experiences with 
 the same picture dift'er from this original ex- 
 perience in clearness and organization. 
 
 AGNES SCOTT COLLEGE, DECATUR. GA. 
 
 — A female college, founded by Presliy- 
 terians, in 1889, as a grammar school. Four- 
 teen units are now required for admission. 
 Courses are offered up to the B.A. degree after 
 four years' study. There are in the college 
 12 professors, 1 associate professor, and 4 in- 
 structors and assistants. In connection with 
 the institution are a School of Jlusic, Art, and 
 Expression and an Academy, each with its own 
 faculty. There were, in 1909, 146 students in the 
 college. F. H. Gaines, D.D., is the president. 
 
 AGNOSIA. — The inability to understand 
 speech. See Apha.si.\. 
 
 AGRAM, THE ROYAL FRANCIS JOSEPH 
 UNIVERSITY OF. — This in.stitution in the 
 province of Croatia, Hungary, was not 
 established until 1874, although as early as 
 1776 the old Jesuit school in Agram had 
 been transformed by the Empress Maria 
 Theresa into a regia scienUarum academia, 
 comprising faculties of philosophy and law. 
 The faculty of theology was organized in 1874, 
 and in the following year a division of mathe- 
 matics and natural sciences was added to the 
 faculty of philoso]>hy. A school of forestry 
 is affiliated with the latter faculty, and a 
 school of pharmacy has also been established 
 recently. The language of instruction is 
 Croatian. The annual expenditures amount 
 
 56
 
 AGRAPHIA 
 
 AGRICOLA 
 
 to about §100,000; the library contains about 
 125,000 volumes and almost 800 manuscripts. 
 1059 students were in attendance during the 
 winter semester of 1909-10, of whom more than 
 half were enrolled in the faculty of law, the 
 institution not supporting a medical faculty. All 
 of the departments of the Croatian National 
 Museum, founded in 1846, are closely affiliated 
 with the university, as is the South Slavic 
 Academy of the Sciences and Arts, organized 
 in 1866, which has a collection of about 400 
 paintings, 2650 manuscripts, 30,000 documents, 
 and 40,000 books. The university also stands 
 in close relationship to the Royal Meteorological 
 Observatory, established in 1801, which is the 
 central station for Croatia and Slavonia; a 
 seismological station is connected with the 
 observatory. 
 
 AGRAPHIA. — A disorder of the associa- 
 tions of speech, in which there is a partial or 
 complete inability to express ideas by means 
 of written symbols, in an individual who had 
 previously acquired this mode of speech ex- 
 pression. Often associated with apraxia (q.v.), 
 and with the so-called motor aphasia. 
 
 See Aph.\sia. S. I. F. 
 
 References: — 
 
 Dejerine, J. Contribution k I'^tude des troubles dc 
 I'ecriture chez les aphasiques. C. R. Soc. Biol., 
 1891. 
 
 Wernicke, C. Ein Fall von isolierter Agraphie. AIo- 
 nalsch. f. Psychiat. u. Neurol., XIII, 1903, 241-265. 
 
 Westph.1L. Ueber einen Fall von amnestischer 
 Aphasie, Agraphie and Apraxie nebst eigenartigeu 
 Stbrungen des Erkennens und eklamptische 
 Psyehose. Deutsche Med. Wochenschr., XXXIV, 
 1908, 2320. 
 
 Wolff, G. Ziir Pathologie des Lesens und Schreibens. 
 Alio. Ztseh. f. Psychiat, LX, 1903, 509. 
 
 AGREGATION. — The highest teacher's di- 
 ploma of the French secondary schools, re- 
 quired of all full professors in the lycees (q.v.). 
 In the boys' schools there are eight orders of 
 agreges, viz. philosophy, letters, grammar, 
 history and geography, mathematics, physical 
 sciences, natural sciences, and modern languages 
 (English, German, Italian, Spanish). The 
 candidates for the agregation, the examination 
 for which comes generally at the completion 
 of the course in the higher normal school, 
 although it is not restricted to students of that 
 institution, must already hold the bachelor's and 
 the master's degree and the diploma of higher 
 studies. The difficulty of this examination is 
 still further increased by the fact that it does 
 not depend upon attaining a certain standard 
 of intellectual power, but is a competitive 
 examination, the number of appointments 
 to be made in each group being determined 
 by the Minister one year in advance in accord- 
 ance with the probable needs of the service. 
 The possession of the agregation carries with it 
 five hundred francs per year over and above 
 the regular salary attached to the position. 
 There are five agregations for women, viz. : 
 
 letters, history, mathematics, physical and 
 natural science, and modern languages. There 
 are likewise agregations in the various fields 
 of professional education: law, medicine, and 
 pharmacy. 
 See France, Education in. 
 
 AGRICOLA (SNEIDER) JOHANNES 
 
 (1492-1566). — A German schoolmaster. He 
 was born in Eisleben, wherefore he is also known 
 as Magister Eisleben. In 1525 he was rector 
 of the newly established school in Eisleben, 
 for which he wrote a textbook for religious 
 in.struction. In 1527 he composed, by Luther's 
 direction, a catechism for small children. He 
 also made a collection of German proverbs. 
 
 AGRICOLA, RUDOLPH (1444-1485).— One 
 of the most influential of the northern human- 
 ists. Born near Groningen in Holland, he 
 
 RODOLPHVJ' AGRllCOLA GR.0ENINGV5'. 
 Si tibi nmturis tautum Ucuifiet ab amis, 
 
 Quod medium Hatuis perficere cAgncoh; 
 tAuUore^ aljj poierant tacuijie diferti: 
 
 Quidcjuia enm ratio poflulat.ipfe dahas. 
 
 Rudolph Agricola. 
 
 attended the school in that town. It is im- 
 possible to verify the tradition, which is of 
 late origin, that' he attended the schools of 
 the Brethren of the Common Life (q.v.). At 
 the age of 14 he obtained his bachelor's degree 
 at Erfurt, and at 17 his master's atLouvain. 
 His main interests at that time were in mathe- 
 matics and philosophy. In 1468 he went 
 to Italy and began a .study of law at Pavia, 
 which he soon abandoned to study Greek 
 under Battista Guarino (q.v.) and 'Theodore 
 
 57
 
 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 
 
 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 
 
 Gaza (f/.t'.), who intcrosted him strongly in 
 Aristotle. Unlike the majority of his contem- 
 poraries, Agricola paid considerable attention 
 to the vernacular language. He had already 
 a knowledge of French and German, and he 
 now took up Italian in order to enter into the 
 spirit of the movement which he saw going 
 on around him. He was one of the most 
 accomplished of the northern humanists, and is 
 reputed to have been a great musician and an 
 ardent lover of the fine arts. In 1479, he re- 
 turned to Holland, and although he had several 
 offers, he refused to accept any appointment 
 which would fetter him too much and inter- 
 fere with his studies. In 1484, he accepted 
 an invitation from a former pupil of his, 
 von Dalberg, then Bishop of Worms, to move 
 to Heidelberg. Although he delivered some 
 lectures at the university, it is probable that 
 he did not hold a chair there. At this time 
 his inclinations turned to theology, and he 
 took up the study of Hebrew. His career 
 was, however, cut short by his early death. Of 
 his writings the most important arc the De 
 Inventionc Dialectica, a treatise on the impor- 
 tance of logic as a factor in good style. His ed- 
 ucational treatise, De Formando Sluilio, shows 
 Agricola to belong to the school of humanistic 
 realists. Nothing was to be taught which had 
 not the sanction of the ancient writers. All 
 wisdom, all phases of experience for present 
 guidance, are found in the classics. Theophras- 
 tus and Aristotle are the best exponents of ge- 
 ography and natural science. Like Erasmus, 
 he held that the true end of a liberal education 
 was moral conduct, and that knowledge with- 
 out expression was worthless. 
 
 Although only 41 at the time of his death, 
 Agricola seems to have exercised a remark- 
 able influence on the humanistic movement 
 in Germany, particularly in the direction of 
 a study of Greek. He is mentioned with the 
 highest esteem and respect by the foremost 
 German humanists, and Erasmus is said to 
 have confessed to Agricola's superiority. In 
 view of the fact that Agricola wrote but little, 
 his position must have been due to a remarkably 
 strong personality. 
 
 I. L. K. 
 References: — 
 Schmidt, K. Oeschiclitr der Padagogik, Vol. III. 
 
 (Cothen, 187S.) 
 Woodward, W. H. Sliidies in Education during the 
 
 Age of the Renaissance. (Cambridge, 1900.) 
 
 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION. — Late in 
 the eighteenth century and immediately follow- 
 ing the American Revolution, great popular 
 interest in agriculture arose. Essays and books 
 began to appear, agricultural papers sprang into 
 existence, and the profession of farming com- 
 menced to have a literature. The immediate 
 result of this awakened interest was the forma- 
 tion of agricultural societies in many sections of 
 the eastern United States. These organizations 
 ,at once became centers of agitation for agri- 
 
 cultural schools, and a goodly number of such 
 schools of different grades were actually opened; 
 notably one established in Maine, 1821, and one 
 in Connecticut, 1824, which latter flourished for 
 a number of years and was obliged to increase 
 its capacity for students. The natural con- 
 ditions, however, seemed to be against fruitage 
 of this early movement in the East. With 
 the development of the great West, and with 
 the enormou.sly profitable slave labor of the 
 South, interest in agriculture was transferred 
 to the newer sections of the country. In the 
 Northern states, particularlv, history repeated 
 itself. With their development came again 
 agricultural societies and the agitation for agri- 
 cultural schools; but this was a generation 
 afterward, characterizing the late forties and 
 fifties. Here, again, agitation developed at 
 different points, namely. New York, Pennsyl- 
 vania, Maryland, and Michigan. 
 
 PubUclij Endowed Education. — At this time 
 college education was primarily the business 
 of the Church, and colleges subsisted upon 
 private subscription. Accordingly the early 
 efforts toward financing colleges of agriculture 
 assumed their support by private endowment, 
 and only later did it occur to farseeing men 
 that this new and expensive form of education 
 would need to be supported by public endow- 
 ment if it were to succeed. Much difficulty 
 was encountered in turning over to the public 
 what had been started as pi'ivate enterjirises. 
 
 Pennsylvania Agricultural College underwent 
 a long and ])athetic struggle with poverty, and 
 it was more than a generation before the state 
 fully equipped it to do the work for which it 
 was founded. The movement in New York 
 and elsewhere came to an abrupt end with the 
 oncoming of the Civil War. Michigan was more 
 fortunate. A constitutional convention was in 
 session in the early days of agitation, and some 
 farsighted member succeeded in introducing 
 into the new constitution, adopted in 1850, a 
 clause making it obligatory upon the state at 
 an early date to establish and maintain a college 
 or school of agriculture either in connection 
 with the state university or separated from it. 
 Under this provision the Michigan Agricultural 
 College was opened for students, in 1857, or five 
 years before the Morrill Land Grant Act of 
 1862. In this state, therefore, the agricultural 
 college was from the outset a state institution, 
 and was accordingly freed from the long starva- 
 tion period suffered by others during their 
 transformation away from the plan of the 
 private endowment. 
 
 The Land Grant Act. — Not only the earlier 
 movements in Maine and Connecticut, but the 
 later in Penn.sylvania, Maryland, and Michigan, 
 were distinctively for agricultural education, 
 with no reference whatever to other industries. 
 In New York the movement for agricultural 
 education began early, and by the middle of 
 last century became associated with a move- 
 ment for education in mechanic arts. 
 
 58
 
 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 
 
 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 
 
 About this time, however, another move- 
 ment arose. It developed in Illinois, and was 
 headed by Professor Jonathan B. Turner of 
 Illinois College. Its immediate purpose was 
 to secure the funds arising from the old terri- 
 torial land grant (Northwest Territory) for the 
 establishment of an "Industrial University." ' 
 The teachers of the state desired these funds for 
 a normal school. The teachers won and Tur- 
 ner lost, whereupon he advocated a national 
 policy of a grant of laud to each .state for the 
 establishment of at least one college which 
 should be conducted in the interests not only 
 of agriculture, but of the mechanical arts as 
 well. This plan of Turner's was adopted by 
 the General Assembly of Illinois as a joint 
 resolution, and in this form transmitted to Con- 
 gress in 1853. 
 
 Nothing seems to have come of this memorial 
 to Congress at this time, but four years later 
 (1857) Justin P. Morrill, then a member for 
 Vermont serving his first term in the Lower 
 house, introduced a bill providing a grant of 
 land to each state for the identical purpose 
 advocated by Professor Turner. The exact 
 relations between Professor Turner and Con- 
 gressman, afterward Senator, Morrill have 
 never been definitely established, because much 
 correspondence was burned during the Civil 
 War, but it is known that they conferred. 
 
 The bill had the usual experience of new 
 projects, complicated by the feeling that 
 too free use was being made of the public lands 
 in too many grants, both public and private. 
 Once the bill passed both houses, but it was 
 promptly vetoed by President Buchanan. 
 It passed again, however, and was approved 
 by President Lincoln, July 22, 1862. Thus 
 did the United States in the early days of the 
 greatest civil war of history lay the foundation 
 for a national system of industrial education 
 with but one alteration in the original scheme, 
 namely, a provision that military instruction 
 should be given in all the colleges to be estab- 
 lished under the new grant. 
 
 The Land Grant Colleges. — The pro- 
 visions of the land grant, or, as it is commonly 
 called, the Fir.st Morrill Act, donated to each 
 state in the Union public land scrip to the 
 amount of 30,000 acres for each senator and 
 representative then in Congress, the income 
 from the sale of which should be "for the 
 endowment, support, and maintenance of at 
 least one college, whose leading object shall 
 be, without excluding other scientific and 
 classical studies, and including military tactics, 
 to teach such branches of learning as are re- 
 lated to agriculture and the mechanic arts 
 ... in order to promote the liberal and 
 practical education of the industrial cla.sses 
 in the several pursuits and professions of life." 
 It was clearly the purpose of the Morrill Act 
 to establish a new type of college, and one that 
 
 ' See "A Plan for an Industrial University," United 
 States Patent Office Report, 1852. 
 
 should be distinctlj^ industrial. The objects 
 in view were unique in another particular, 
 namely, they aimed primarily at community 
 development rather than the benefit of the 
 individual student. 
 
 Children from industrial families had been 
 freely admitted to college, but only to be 
 drawn from the industries into the learned 
 professions, which were the only activities 
 recognized by the then existing colleges. 
 While this answered well enough the purposes 
 of individuals, it was held by the promoters of 
 the laud grant act to be against the general 
 welfare that a great system of public education 
 should always draw from the industries, and 
 particularly from the farm, without restoring 
 an equivalent, either in men or in educational 
 advantage. They held that this was universal 
 education only in a personal sense, and that 
 what was then needed was a new kind of col- 
 lege that should educate all who were so in- 
 clined as directly for industrial pursuits as the 
 old-time colleges had educated for the learned 
 professions. The primary purpose was clearly 
 the development of the industries through the 
 applications of science and the activities of 
 educated men, all of which was held to be the 
 more important as the industries were at the 
 basis of all civilization and would always engage 
 the lives and activities of some 90 or 95 per 
 cent of the people. 
 
 Each state accepted the lands and proceeded 
 to establish its new college according to its local 
 conditions and its peculiar interpretation of 
 the Morrill Act. From the fact that the new 
 states were not yet well organized, and that in 
 the old states many privately endowed in- 
 stitutions were languishing for lack of funds, 
 it is hardly strange that they agreed in but 
 one respect, and that was to accept the grant, 
 often without much regard to the peculiar 
 injunctions of the bill. Accordingly, in the 
 East, speaking broadly and wherever there were 
 struggling colleges, the land grant was turned 
 over to existing institutions, whose faculties 
 knew little and apparently cared less about what 
 the law intended to accomplish. They had 
 troubles of their own, and, without really getting 
 into the situation, they too frequently met the 
 conditions of the act in a perfunctory way by 
 offering an agricultural and a mechanical course 
 very largely made up of existing offerings. In 
 the West the funds were quite generally used to 
 start state universities that too often operated 
 in the interest of general education, without 
 devoting much energy to the propagation of the 
 peculiar educational ideals which the Morrill 
 Act was supposed to establish. 
 
 In the Middle West an intermediate course 
 was pursued. Michigan and Pennsylvania 
 already possessed each an agricultural college. 
 In both cases the proceeds of the land grant 
 were at once turned over to these institutions, 
 and all energies were devoted to agriculture, 
 ignoring for many years the mechanical inter- 
 
 59
 
 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 
 
 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 
 
 ests provided for in the act. In still other 
 cases in the Middle West and in the Southern 
 states, no college like those of Michigan and 
 Pennsylvania being in existence, it was quite 
 general to recognize the mechanical clause and 
 put in both agricultural and mechanical courses, 
 sometimes frankly calling them agricultural and 
 mechanical colleges, but often ignoring entirely 
 in the name all reference to mechanics and 
 calling the institution simply an agricultural 
 college, a name that some still retain, though 
 offering both courses. 
 
 Of all the separate agricultural colleges so 
 named, that of Massachusetts alone is strictly 
 agricultural. In some cases the new name, 
 "State College," has been chosen by these insti- 
 tutions so inappropriately named at the outset. 
 In still other cases the state from the first sup- 
 plemented the land grant funds and broadened 
 the educational purpose under the term, "State 
 University," a class of institution which in these 
 latter days is not only satisfying the provisions 
 of the Morrill Act, but is ministering to the edu- 
 cation and the development of the .state in all 
 its important activities. 
 
 In this heterogeneous way did the country 
 begin to execute its mixed and uncertain policy 
 of industrial education of college grade. Very 
 little serious study was given to the new and 
 far-reaching policies introduced thus suddenly 
 into the educational arena, and it may bo said to 
 the credit of some educators and to the discredit 
 of others that few of them indeed realized that 
 anything new had really happened beyond an 
 attempted union of impossible things, and some 
 even fancied they were rendering a real service 
 in helping to remove this educational anomaly, 
 whose powers for evil seemed gigantic and 
 whose powers for advance were not understood. 
 
 Neither agriculture nor mechanics was at 
 first prepared to prosper, educationally. Neither 
 had approved courses of study, neither had 
 a literature, neither had skilled teachers, and 
 both were destitute of the matter and the 
 methods of instruction. Added to this, there 
 was no definite call for instruction in the indus- 
 tries. Many people from the industrial masses 
 desired education, it is true, but not to increase 
 their industrial efficiency. It was rather to 
 escape from the industries into what they 
 regarded as a life of ease -in the professions. 
 
 Without teachers, without matter, methods, 
 or ideals, and above all without an enthusiastic 
 clientele, — for farmers generally scouted at 
 " book farming," — it is not strange that the 
 " new education " languished. Mechanics, or, 
 as it later came to be called, engineering, fared 
 better than agriculture. The basis of its sub- 
 ject matter is mathematics. Its material was 
 thus from the start more exact than were the 
 chemical and biological principles on which 
 agricultural science was later to develop. 
 
 Added to this was the impetus given to 
 invention and con.struction, especially of trans- 
 portation facilities and manufacturing plants, 
 
 by the conditions prevailing immediately upon 
 the close of the Civil War. Moreover, the first 
 results of engineering in.struction were stimu- 
 lating and unexpectedly successful, whereas 
 the earlier efforts in agriculture were pitifully 
 unsuccessful, because from the lack of scientific 
 data they were mainly directed to the handicraft 
 of the profession. By 18.S0 engineering courses 
 were fairly established, fully twenty years aheail 
 of courses equally successful in agriculture. 
 The universities soon learned to tolerate en- 
 gineering and a little later to respect it, but 
 for forty years they had little but contempt for 
 agriculture and agricultural courses. 
 
 It was during those dark days that the serv- 
 ices of Michigan Agricultural College stand 
 out clearly. It was the work of that pioneer in- 
 stitution, which graduated its second cla.ss in the 
 j^ear the Morrill Act was passed, that did more 
 than all other influences combined to demon- 
 strate that there really is such a thing as edu- 
 cation for the affairs of country life, and it is 
 not too much to say that through the sixties 
 and seventies, or for more than twenty years, 
 it was the only experiment of the new order 
 worth mentioning. Following in its footsteps, 
 Massachusetts came on, as did Kansas and 
 Iowa, both to a large extent founded on the 
 " Michigan idea," as it was called. Pennsyl- 
 vania emerged from its financial embarrassment 
 and joined the ranks, but Michigan and Massa- 
 chusetts must be regarded as the two centers 
 from which the later development in agricul- 
 tural education chiefly emanated. 
 
 Influence of the Experiment Stations. — In 
 1887 Congress passed a bill providing that 
 $15,000 in money be appropriated to each state 
 for the organization and conduct of an experi- 
 ment station in connection with its agricultural 
 college. Two facts had become painfully ap- 
 parent. One was that the lands of the original 
 grant had been largely wasted, and the other 
 that agriculture lacked a body of exact scientific 
 data on which to establish courses of reliable 
 instruction. Accordingly the Hatch Act ajjjiro- 
 priated money instead of lands, and made rigid 
 provisions for its expenditure along strictly 
 agricultural lines and for research only. In 
 spite of the utmost precautions, some of those 
 funds were absorbed in teaching by institutions 
 still embarrassed for funds, and by men who 
 scarcely know the meaning of research, or, if 
 they did, were ignorant of how to conduct it. 
 
 But in time, and even in a surprisingly short 
 time, results began to appear. There were 
 men who knew iiow to discover the laws on 
 which plant and animal growth depend, and 
 those on which the soil produces, and gradually 
 the scientific principles underlying agricultural 
 practice began to be established. Moreover, 
 these principles worked when tested out in prac- 
 tice, and for the first time young men fresh from 
 college, but in possession of those principles, 
 succeeded better than had their fathers, though 
 to the art and the manner born. That was 
 
 60
 
 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 
 
 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 
 
 what made agriculture respectable in the uni- 
 versities, and about 1905 this subject had gained 
 a permanent standing in some of the best of the 
 state institutions, which means that at last it 
 was alongside other great fields of inquiry chal- 
 lenging the abilities of the best scholars of the 
 times. Its further progress was greatly stimu- 
 lated by the "Second Morrill Act " of 1890, 
 which was a cash appropriation of §25,000 
 annually for teaching purposes; and this is now 
 supplemented by the Nelson Amendment of 
 1907 for a similar amount. 
 
 Different Kinds of Agriculturnl Colleges. — 
 Roughly speaking, and allowing overlapping 
 more or less, there are nine kinds of agricultural 
 colleges, as follows: (1) The agricultural college 
 that offers agricultural courses onlj', of which 
 Massachusetts is about the only example. 
 (2) The college that offers courses in both agri- 
 culture and engineering, some being known as 
 agricultural and mechanical colleges, as in 
 Mississippi; some as state colleges, as in Iowa 
 and Pennsylvania; and a few as agricultural 
 colleges, though not confining themselves to 
 agricultural courses, as in Michigan and 
 Kansas. (3) The agricultural college that is 
 connected with a state university and consti- 
 tutes one of a half dozen or more separate 
 colleges, of which engineering is a coordinate 
 member, as in Wisconsin, Illinois, Missouri. 
 (4) The agricultural college that has a similar 
 connection with a university not a state institu- 
 tion, as in New York at Ithaca (Cornell). (5) 
 The college that is organized in intimate rela- 
 tion with its experiment station, as in Wisconsin, 
 Minnesota, Nebraska, Illinois, Missouri, Michi- 
 gan, Kansas, etc. (6) The college that is sepa- 
 rated from the experiment station, which exists 
 as a separate organization in a distant part of 
 the state, as in Ohio and Georgia, and to some 
 extent in Connecticut and Louisiana. (7) The 
 college that is distinct from the station, but 
 which has its offices and laboratories upon the 
 same campus, and perhaps within the same 
 buildings, and therefore under the same board of 
 management, as in Maine. (8) Colleges that 
 conduct schools of agriculture of secondary 
 grade in connection with the college organiza- 
 tion, notably Minnesota and Nebraska. (9) 
 Colleges that conduct " short courses " of ten 
 to twelve weeks in the winter and for one or 
 more years for students not able to take the 
 regular academic work. Such courses are se- 
 verely technical, and are to be distinguished 
 from the so-called convention week or farmers' 
 week observed in most of these colleges of all 
 classes. 
 
 Courses of Instruction. — In general, the ag- 
 ricultural colleges undertake to teach not the 
 art but the science of agriculture and the 
 meaning of country life. To this end they 
 generally insist that approximately one half the 
 time be devoted to technical courses, and the 
 other half to the humanities and to the sciences 
 related to agriculture. In the colleges con- 
 
 nected with universities the technical work only 
 is given by the agricultural organization, the 
 sciences and other nontechnical subjects being 
 taken with other students in the general uni- 
 versity departments. In the separate colleges, 
 perforce, scientific and literary departments 
 must be added. But few set courses are in 
 use, but in general the technical instruction is 
 divided into many units, leaving large liberty 
 of election, with definite prerequisites for diffi- 
 cult courses and with certain specific require- 
 ments for graduation. Students graduate from 
 the agricultural colleges with the degree of B.S., 
 sometimes with B.S.A. Speaking generally, 
 the colleges connected with universities main- 
 tain the same standards for graduation as do 
 the other colleges of the institution, and are 
 somewhat above those of the separated colleges. 
 Matriculation is generally based upon 14 to 15 
 units of high school work, with a few excep- 
 tions, and with more or less liberal provisions 
 as to special students temporarily admitted to 
 classes pending the completion of their matricu- 
 lation. 
 
 Origin of the Short Course. — The earlier 
 attempts, especially of the universities, failed 
 because they erred in assuming that technical 
 instruction in agriculture should follow and 
 not precede or accompany the work in related 
 sciences. They erred also in forgetting that no 
 traditions existed whereby young men expected 
 to fit themselves for college instruction in agri- 
 culture. Accordingly, admission was mostly 
 beyond the reach of even the few who ventured 
 to enter the new courses, and for these technical 
 instruction was so long deferred that interest 
 waned and died out. For these and other rea- 
 sons, the attendance everywhere was nominal, 
 and the experiment was tried first in Wis- 
 consin of opening classes in technical instruc- 
 tion for 10 to 12 weeks during the most favor- 
 able season, the winter, and admitting without 
 condition and without credit. This is the short 
 course. It drew large numbers, and has been 
 conducted by most though not all the colleges 
 connected with universities, and by many not 
 so connected. 
 
 Attendance. — For years, as has been stated, 
 the attendance of genuine agricultural students 
 upon the strictly college course was exceedingly 
 limited, but latterly, with the increased value 
 of land and the new interest in agriculture, the 
 number of students is rapidly increasing. 
 The following list shows the increased attendance 
 of one of the larger agricultural colleges, which 
 is by no means exceptional, and at the time of 
 writing for the first time one of the largest and 
 best equipped agricultural colleges has been 
 obliged to turn away students, even though five 
 years ago it had but a normal registration: 
 1898-1899,25; 1899-1900,90; 1900-1901,159; 
 1901-1902, 232; 1902-1903, 284; 1903-1904, 
 339; 1904-1905, 406; 1905-1906, 430; 1906- 
 1907, 462; 1907-1908, 528; 1908-1909, 531; 
 1909-1910, 660. 
 
 61
 
 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 
 
 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 
 
 Househohl Science in Agricultural Colleges-. 
 — Under the above term, or its equivalents, 
 domestic science or home economics, the agri- 
 cultural colleges in most of the states have done 
 much to develop the study of household affairs 
 upon a strictly scientific basis. For the most 
 part the departments are succeeding from the 
 standpoint both of college instruction and of 
 public gatherings, such as farmers' institutes. 
 Just why this subject should have become the 
 special proteg^ of the agricultural colleges it is 
 difficult to see, except as we discover that these 
 colleges are peculiarly likely to function as 
 public service institutions. (See Household 
 Economics.) 
 
 Extension Work. — Either under this head or 
 that of institute work, or both, all of the land 
 grant colleges of agriculture, whether connected 
 with universities or distinct, are doing an im- 
 mense and rapidly growing work. It is a dis- 
 tinct attempt to take the results of new discover- 
 ies and advanced practice direct to the people 
 by avenues outside the classroom, a proceeding 
 quite consistent with the theory that the state 
 university and the state college exist primarily 
 for the community benefit. 
 
 Result.':. — Does the instruction given in the 
 agricultural colleges influence agriculture? and 
 do the colleges educate toward oraway from the 
 farm? The answer is clear to both questions. 
 Under the influence of the college, and its 
 co-worker, the experiment station, a new agri- 
 culture is developing in this country in the 
 hands of an educateil and progressive people 
 who will mostly live in the open country. The 
 keynote of this new agriculture is business 
 organization and a knowledge of the scientific 
 principles underlying successful practice. Under 
 new influences land is rapidh' rising in price, and 
 for the first time its fertility content is valued at 
 its true significance and is being considered from 
 its bearing on a permanent agriculture. 
 
 Statistics show that approximately 55 per 
 cent of the graduates from the colleges con- 
 nected with universities are actively engaged 
 in farming, and that 95 per cent are in agricul- 
 ture in some form. The 45 per cent in agricul- 
 tural activities other than farming are accounted 
 for by the large and growing call for teaching 
 either in colleges or schools and for service in the 
 experiment stations, — indeed, so popular is the 
 new demand that professional teachers and 
 students are now attracted to the field quite 
 independent of the consideration of the practice 
 of farming. 
 
 Of the still larger body who do not graduate, 
 practically all are engaged in farming, and to 
 the credit alike of the instruction, the subject, 
 and the men, it may be said that the percentage 
 of failures, whether of graduates or otherwise, 
 is remarkably low. Education in and for agri- 
 culture seems to be remarkably successful, and 
 with the improvements that are bound to come 
 in the very near future, it will stand as one of the 
 most efficient of all forms of education. E. D. 
 
 Agricultural Experiment Stations. — The first 
 institution of the kind was established in his 
 private capacity by i\Ir. John Bennett Lawes in 
 1843 at Rothamstcd near London, England. 
 In 1851 the first public station was organized 
 at Mockern, Ciermany, with Dr. Emil Wolff as 
 director. So efficient and useful has scientific re- 
 search proved to be in promoting the art of agri- 
 culture that agricultural experiment stations, 
 and agencies having a like function, have in- 
 creased rapidly throughout the entire civilized 
 world, the total luimber in existence at the 
 present time i)robably exceeding 800. In 
 1904 the number was 798. In the United 
 States such stations now number 61, of which 
 every state and territory has one or more. 
 The foundations of these institutions were 
 really laid in the act of Congress approved 
 July' 2, 1862, known as the First Morrill Act, 
 which donated public lands to the several states 
 for the purpose of establishing colleges whose 
 main purpose should be to teach such branches 
 of learning as are related to agriculture and 
 the mechanic arts. These colleges, nearly all 
 of which began an active existence in the late 
 sixties, through their influence on the public 
 mind and their training of young men inclined 
 to enter the field of agricultural science, pre- 
 pared the way for the later organization of ex- 
 periment stations. Indeed, many of the colleges 
 themselves encouraged members of their facul- 
 ties to enter upon the work of inquiry in the 
 interests of agriculture, some institutions going 
 so far as to more or less formally organize 
 efforts for agricultural research. 
 
 The development of experiment stations in the 
 United States, briefly expressed, has been as 
 follows: There was first more or less agricul- 
 tural inquiry carried on by the colleges estab- 
 lished under the terms of the Morrill Act of 
 1862; these efforts undoubtedly led to the 
 formal establishment of experiment stations 
 by the states, the first of these being organized 
 at Connecticut in 1875, the number rising to 
 about 20 by 1887; the passage in 1887 of an act, 
 approved IVIarch 2, of that year known as the 
 Hatch Act, granting federal aid, .815,000 per 
 annum, to each state and territory for the inir- 
 pose of establishing an agricultural experiment 
 station in order " to promote scientific investi- 
 gation and experiment respecting the principles 
 and applications of agricultural science "; fur- 
 ther legislation, approved INIarch 10, 1906, 
 known as the Adams Act, appropriating addi- 
 tional money to each state, ultimately amount- 
 ing to 815,000 per annum, for the more complete 
 endowment and maintenance of agricultural ex- 
 periment stations, this money "to be applied 
 only to paying the necessary expenses of con- 
 ducting original researches or experiments bear- 
 ing directly on the agricultural industry of the 
 United States." In this connection recognition 
 should be given to the influence of a few men 
 connected with the older colleges and universi- 
 ties, including Professors Brewer and Johnson of 
 
 62
 
 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 
 
 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 
 
 Yale University, Professor Storer of Harvard 
 University, Dr. Evan Pugh, President of the 
 Pennsylvania State College, and Dr. W. O. 
 Atwater of Wesleyan University, who were 
 potent factors in promoting a study of science 
 in its relations to agriculture. 
 
 Under the stimulus of the provisions of the 
 Hatch Act the majority of the stations now 
 e.xisting were organized in 1887 and 1888, 
 and with a few exceptions are established as 
 departments of the colleges of agriculture and 
 mechanic arts. The total income of the .sta- 
 tions from all sources is now approximately 
 three millions of dollars, more than one half 
 of which is outside of federal aid, the direct ap- 
 propriations by state governments amounting 
 to nearly a million of dollars. Each station has 
 an administrative officer known as the director, 
 with whom is associated a staff of scientific 
 experts and such clerical help as is necessary 
 for administration purposes. In 1908 the 
 stations employed 1143 persons in the work of 
 administration and inquiry, more than one 
 third of whom were also teaching members of 
 the faculties of the colleges to which the sta- 
 tions are attached. 
 
 It is provided in both the Hatch and 
 Adams acts that the national Department 
 of Agriculture shall exercise an advisory, and 
 within certain limits a supervisory, relation to 
 the experiment stations established under the 
 provisions of these acts. It is made the duty of 
 the Secretary of Agriculture " in general, to 
 furnish such advice and assistance as will best 
 promote the purpose of this [Hatch] act." 
 Beginning with the agricultural appropriation 
 act of 1904, the Secretary of Agriculture is also 
 directed to ascertain whether the appropriations 
 to the stations are expended in accordance with 
 the provisions of the federal law. The Adams 
 Act contains a similar provision. In 1888 the 
 Office of Experiment Stations was established 
 in the Department of Agriculture as an agency 
 through which to deal with the stations, and 
 each year a representative of this office visits 
 each station and inquires into its work. This 
 in no way interferes with the autonomy of 
 the states in organizing and directing the 
 activities of the stations in conformity to the 
 federal laws. 
 
 The subjects to which the stations are giving 
 attention are numerous, but are chiefly included 
 under the heads of agricultural engineering, agri- 
 cultural technics, agronomy, animal husbandry 
 including poultry, animal nutrition, animal 
 pathology, agricultural and pathogenic bacteri- 
 ology, economic entomology, forestry, horticul- 
 ture, mycology, plant nutrition, and plant 
 pathology. In the pursuance of their investiga- 
 tions the stations use both laboratory methods 
 and observations in the realm of practice. For 
 instance, the problem of the influence of particu- 
 lar fertilizers upon a given crop requires that 
 the field experiments shall be supplemented by 
 chemical determinations; a new insect pest can 
 
 be most successfully attacked after its life 
 history is known; the life processes of a patho- 
 genic organism affecting either animals or 
 plants must be known before intelligent pre- 
 ventive measures are possible; problems in the 
 nutrition of animals require elaborate chemical 
 study of metabolic processes, the technics of 
 dairying are largely based on chemical and 
 bacteriological research; and so on through 
 the whole list of agricultural problems. This 
 means that inquiries in the field of so-called pure 
 science must be coordinated with a study of the 
 utilitj' to agriculture of the knowledge that is 
 acquired. 
 
 The results which the stations reach are given 
 to the public mostly in publications known as 
 bulletins, which vary in type from those purely 
 technical to those of a popular character. Some 
 stations issue an annual report which contains 
 a complete account of the work and operations 
 for a year. Station investigators frequently 
 publish articles in scientific journals. Circulars 
 and press bulletins are also sent out. For 1904 
 the stations issued 499 annual reports, bulletins, 
 and circulars, to 889,000 addresses on the regular 
 mailing lists. Under the terms of the Hatch 
 Act these various publications are distributed 
 through the mail without the payment of 
 postage. An extensive correspondence with 
 farmers has grown up, amounting to thousands 
 of letters annually from a single institution. 
 Members of station staffs assist in maintaining 
 farmers' institutes, which were attended in 1908 
 by nearly 2,500,000 persons. 
 
 The experiment stations should be regarded 
 as agencies created to exercise a distinct function 
 that is fundamental to the progress of agricul- 
 tural science, viz, scientific research along lines 
 related to agricultural practice. This function 
 does not properly include academic or popular 
 teaching or the administration of laws. But it 
 can scarcely be said that so far any American 
 experiment station has devoted its energies 
 entirely to the work of inquiry, and some sta- 
 tions have not confined their efforts even 
 chiefly to the field of real investigation. In 
 several states the stations have not only been 
 charged with the scientific service incidental to 
 inspection laws, but also with the duty of initiat- 
 ing and maintaining prosecutions for the viola- 
 tion of the pro\'isions of such laws. Other 
 causes have operated to minimize the extent and 
 efficiency of research efforts. First of all, not 
 far from two fifths of the members of stations 
 are also college teachers, an arrangement said to 
 have the advantages of economy of effort and 
 of associating research with teaching, but which 
 under conditions that have existed has un- 
 doubtedly often reacted seriously upon the 
 station activities. It cannot be said that in the 
 matter of available time or in the range of sub- 
 jects taught the teaching conditions in our 
 American colleges are generally favorable to 
 the spirit of inquiry. Again, demands of the 
 agricultural public for the solution of problems 
 
 63
 
 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 
 
 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 
 
 and the means provided by national and state 
 governments have been greatly in excess of the 
 supply of men adequately trained for the 
 expenditure of funds in cajiable investigation. 
 More than this, members of station staffs have 
 done a large amount of publicity work incident 
 to the necessary legislative support and the 
 cultivation of public understanding and good 
 will. A most serious influence has been the 
 practical coercion of station workers into super- 
 ficial iiujuiry and immature conclusions in an 
 attempt to promptly justify tlie expenditure of 
 public funds for scientific aid to agriculture. 
 This has been accompanied by such a diffusion 
 of effort in a great variety of directions as to 
 preclude the severe study of very many prob- 
 lems. But notwithstanding these untoward 
 conditions, the experiment stations have worked 
 out many results greatly valuable to both 
 science and practice, and have exerted a marked 
 and helpful influence in enlarging and modifying 
 the subject matter of the classroom and in ele- 
 vating the standards of farm management. As 
 time goes on there will undoubtedly come about 
 on the part of these institutions a closer adher- 
 ence to their special functions which will un- 
 doubtedly make possible results of higher scien- 
 tific and practical value. W. H. J. 
 
 Agricultural Instruction in the Lower Schools. 
 — The agricultural colleges have done much, 
 during the past forty years, to prepare the way 
 for an extension of agricultural instruction and 
 to stimulate an interest in the subject, and the 
 very important work which they have done in 
 laying a foundation of sound agricultural knowl- 
 edge was a necessary prereciuisite to any general 
 movement for the extension downward of 
 agricultural instruction. Knowledge had to 
 be accumulated, extended, and popularized be- 
 fore agricultural instruction below the colleges 
 could become possible. The recent activity of 
 the United States Department of Agriculture 
 in stimulating and encouraging the many efforts 
 looking toward the extension of agricultural 
 knowledge and agricultural instruction have 
 been of great service. The movement has also 
 been greatly aided by the knowledge, which has 
 come to us within recent years, of what Euro- 
 pean states and nations have been and are 
 doing in agricultural instruction, and the 
 success which has attended their efforts. The 
 work of France in particular has been an in- 
 spiration to us. Another influence which has 
 greatly aided the movement has been the 
 growing realization that this nation must, 
 ultimately, be a great agricultural nation, and 
 that our present wasteful and unintelligent 
 methods of agriculture will not do for the 
 future. To find a means of disseminating 
 proper ideas as to how best to conserve and to 
 improve our great national resource has been a 
 strong motive underlying the movement. 
 
 Certain movements within the schools them- 
 selves have fitted in with and helped to prepare 
 the way for the development of agricultural in- 
 
 struction. The general introduction of nature 
 study into our schools, which came with the 
 popularization of science, has been of very 
 material value in preparing the way and in 
 developing teachers capable of taking up the 
 agricultural work. The still more recent school 
 garden movement (q.r.) and the general demand 
 for more ])ractical instruction in the public 
 schools, both elementary and secondary, have 
 also contributed their share in preparing the 
 way for the somewhat general introduction of 
 agricultural instruction. As the movement has 
 grown in importance and definiteness, the far- 
 reaching results, both economic and educational, 
 have come more clearly into view, and the 
 movement has in turn begun materially to 
 change our conceptions of the methods of pro- 
 cedure, purposes, and needs of the rural scliool 
 and of the high school in particular, and bids 
 fair to modify for good our whole educational 
 work. 
 
 Agriculhirnl High Schools. — Schools of second- 
 ary grade for theoretical and practical train- 
 ing in agriculture exist in France, Germany, 
 Austria, Sweden, and Japan. The ecoles 
 pratiques of France, first established in 1875, and 
 of which there are now about 50 in existence, 
 are in reality secondary schools for the training 
 in agriculture of the sons of peasant proprietors 
 or small farmers, and with a two years' course 
 of instruction. In Germany many agricultural 
 schools have been established, beginning at the 
 close of the RealschMlcn course, or at the end of 
 iintcr-!iccun(la of the Gymnasia or Realgjjmnasia, 
 in which natural sciences and agriculture take 
 the place of the languages and mathematics 
 of the gymnasial course. In Japan any city, 
 town, or village may establish a secondary 
 school, if the local finances will permit of so 
 doing without detriment to the elementary 
 schools of the place. By 1904 there were 57 
 such schools in Japan, and the number is in- 
 creasing every year. 
 
 It was thirty years after the establishment of 
 agricultural colleges in this country before the 
 first successful agricultural high school was 
 established. This one, established in 1888, 
 was in connection with the University of Minne- 
 sota, and its success was pronounced from the 
 first. By 1898, however, the number of agricul- 
 tural high schools had only increased to 10, 
 and the teaching of agriculture in the normal 
 schools and the elementary schools of the 
 country had only begun. Since then the de- 
 velopment of secondary instruction in agricul- 
 ture has been much more rapid, though the de- 
 velopment has not been so fast as in the case 
 of agricultural instruction in the elementary 
 schools. 
 
 To provide instruction in agriculture in the 
 high schools is a very much easier problem than 
 to provide such instruction for elementary 
 schools. The age and mental capacity of the 
 I)upils, the nature of the school, and the char- 
 acter of its work and equipment, all tend toward 
 
 64
 
 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 
 
 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 
 
 a specialization in subject matter, and spe- 
 cialized agricultural subjects are much better or- 
 ganized and are easier to teach than the more 
 generalized work of the elementary school. 
 The equipment needed, on the other hand, is 
 more extensive, few good textbooks of second- 
 ary grade have as yet been provided, just 
 what is to be taught has not as yet been defi- 
 nitely decided upon and put into practice, 
 and the number of properly equipped teachers 
 is relatively small, and probably will continue 
 to be much less than the demand for some 
 time to come. 
 
 Statistics collected in May, 1909, showed 
 that the number of agricultural high schools, 
 or colleges offering dQfinite secondary agricul- 
 tural courses, had increased to 60; that 346 
 public high schools were teaching agriculture 
 as a part of the high school course ; that 119 
 state and county normal schools and 16 agri- 
 cultural colleges were training teachers to teach 
 agriculture in the schools ; that a number of 
 private secondary schools were aiding in the 
 work ; and that 16 institutions offered corre- 
 spondence or reading courses of .secondary 
 grade. In all about 500 institutions were 
 giving secondary instruction in agriculture 
 in May, 1909, and the number has materially 
 increased since then. Some instruction in 
 agriculture is now being added to secondary 
 school courses so fast and in so many parts of 
 the country that it is difficult to know in how 
 many schools and where it is given. 
 
 The schools giving secondary work in agri- 
 culture may be classified as follows: — 
 
 (a) Secondary schools of agriculture in con- 
 nection with the colleges of agriculture. The 
 Minnesota school is of this type, and similar 
 schools of agriculture, or two-year or three- 
 year practical courses, are now maintained in 
 connection with the colleges of agriculture in 
 Alabama, Arkansas, California, Colorado, 
 Connecticut, Delaware, Florida, Idaho, Ken- 
 tucky, Louisiana, Maine, Maryland, Alinne- 
 sota, Mississippi, Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, 
 New Hampshire, New Jersey, New ^Mexico, 
 North Dakota, Ohio, Oklahoma, Oregon, Penn- 
 sylvania, Porto Rico, Rhode Island, South 
 Dakota, Texas, Utah, Virginia, Washington, 
 West Virginia, Wisconsin, and Wyoming. In 
 addition, a number of the agricultural colleges 
 are giving instruction which is secondary in 
 nature, though it may not be organized as such. 
 The 16 land-grant colleges for the colored 
 race in the Southern states are in large part 
 secondary schools ; their sub-college work 
 representing at least two thirds of their work. 
 These institutions have chosen to produce a 
 large body of practical negro farmers for the 
 South rather than to produce a few highly 
 trained negro experts. 
 
 (6) Agricultural high schools located in large 
 districts, such as those in Alabama, Georgia, 
 Virginia, and Minnesota. Alabama was the 
 first state to organize such schools, and now 
 
 VOL. I — F 65 
 
 has 9, one located in each congressional 
 district. Each school has a branch experi- 
 mental station connected with it; it is provided 
 with land for experimental and instructional 
 purposes ; has an equipment of buildings, 
 animals, and machinery ; and receives a state 
 appropriation of S4500 a year for mainte- 
 nance. Georgia has 11 such schools, similarly 
 located. Land, buildings, and equipment were 
 furnished almost entirely by local contribu- 
 tions, and the state grants from the income 
 from fees and taxes about $7500 a year to 
 each school for maintenance. Each school 
 has not less than 200 acres of land. The 
 schools in each state give a four years' course. 
 Other states having somewhat similar schools 
 are California and Minnesota, where one state 
 school is provided ; New York, with three such 
 schools ; Oklahoma, with one such school 
 provided for each of the five judicial districts 
 of the state ; and Virginia, where it is proposed 
 to establish one in each of the ten congres- 
 sional districts of the state. In Massachusetts 
 a comprehensive scheme of specialized agricul- 
 tural high schools has been planned by the 
 State Industrial Commission, the plan being to 
 locate ten schools at different places in the 
 state, and to divide the .state into ten large 
 agricultural districts. (For a statement of the 
 work of this commission see a special article 
 on Massachusetts Cojimission on Indus- 
 trial AND Technical Education.) The dis- 
 trict plan is perhaps the be.st arrangement for 
 such schools, as the state can then be divided 
 into natural agricultural districts, and a school 
 located in each. 
 
 (c) County agricultural high schools, as in 
 Michigan and Wisconsin. The first of these 
 was established in Wisconsin in 1902, and four 
 are now in existence. These schools are built 
 and equipped at the expense of the counties 
 where located, but the state makes a grant of 
 $4000 a year for each school. The Marathon 
 County school at Wausau, and the Dunn 
 County school at Menomonee were opened in 
 1902, and similar schools have since been opened 
 at Marinette and Winneconne. The course of 
 study in each is two years in length, and con- 
 tains much practical and little academic work. 
 There is a county agricultural high school also 
 at Menominee, Michigan ; and Mississippi 
 has recently provided for state aid of $1000 
 a year to county agricultural high schools, one 
 to be located in each county in the state. 
 County agricultural high schools are also to 
 be found in Marj'land. Experience so far 
 seems to indicate that the county is too small 
 a unit for the proper equipment and mainte- 
 nance of a good agricultural high school. 
 
 (d) State and county normal schools. Over 
 100 normal schools in the United States were 
 giving instruction in agriculture in 1909. In 
 some schools a regular course is given by a 
 trained agricultural teacher; while in others 
 the work is done as a part of the science work.
 
 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 
 
 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 
 
 In all such schools the aim of the work is to 
 prepare teachers of the subject for work in the 
 elementary schools. 
 
 (e) Regular high schools offering instruction 
 in agriculture as a part of their course of in- 
 struction. In such schools no uniform j)lan is 
 followed. In some the work consists of but 
 one or two courses ; in others a number of 
 elective agricultural studies are offered; while 
 in still others a regular agricultural course is 
 given parallel with the other courses of the 
 school. In a few schools the work is somewhat 
 limited and specialized along such lines as 
 horticulture or floriculture. Something like 
 400 schools were offering such in.struction at the 
 close of the school year in 1909, and the number 
 has increased since then. In Missouri alone 
 over 200 high schools reported some instruction 
 in agriculture. In some places, and even in 
 some states, the existing high schools are being 
 reorganized so as to make them in large part 
 agricultural high schools. Circular No. 91, 
 Office of Experiment Stations, U.S. Depart- 
 ment of Agriculture, gives detailed courses of 
 instruction in horticulture and agriculture, as 
 these have been adopted by the Association of 
 American Agricultural Colleges and Experi- 
 ment Stations. 
 
 (/) Private schools or semi-private schools. 
 In this class should be placed the National 
 Farm School, at Doylestown, Pa., established in 
 1896 to provide instruction and practical form 
 work for about 40 boys ; the agricultural 
 department of the Mount Hermon School, near 
 Northfield, Mass., where instruction was 
 begun in 1903 ; the Smith Agricultural School 
 and Northampton School of Technology, at 
 Northampton, Mass., opened in 1908 ; the 
 Winona Agricultural and Technical Institute 
 at Winona Lake, Indiana, cstal)lished in 1902; 
 Tuskegee (f/.c.) in Alabama; and a number of 
 privately endowed colleges, which afford second- 
 ary instruction in agriculture as a part of 
 their work, and nearly all of which are located 
 in the upper Mississippi valley. The schools 
 at Doyleston, Northampton, and Tuskegee 
 also receive some state aid. At Groton, Mass., 
 a school of horticulture and landscape garden- 
 ing for women has been opened, and a course in 
 horticulture is now given at Wellcsley College. 
 
 What is the best way to develop secondary 
 instruction in agriculture is as yet a somewhat 
 unsettled question. Whether it is better to 
 aid the present school system to evolve agri- 
 cultural instruction out of the present work, 
 anil thus make agricultural instruction an 
 integral part of the regular school system ; or 
 whether it is best to establish special and inde- 
 pendent schools for the teaching of agriculture 
 and domestic subjects, — has not as yet been 
 decided. The latter method at present seems 
 to meet W'ith the greatest favor from practical 
 men, but many educators favor the former plan, 
 believing that the inclusion of agricultural 
 instruction into the regular work of the second- 
 
 ary schools, rather than setting it off as a special 
 kind of eilucation for which special and inde- 
 pendent schools need to be established, is best 
 for us as a nation. It was this conception of 
 the unity of all education wdiich led to the oppo- 
 sition, from educational workers, to the con- 
 gressional proposal of 190S to grant aid from the 
 national treasurj' toward the establishment of 
 separate secondary schools of agriculture in 
 the different states. It is probable that lioth 
 types of schools will be needed, and will exist 
 side by side, the larger and more specialized 
 schools being organized for agricultural dis- 
 tricts, as was proposed for Massachusetts, and 
 some agricultural instruction being introduced 
 into most of the towni and rural high schools. 
 
 Agriciilliire in the Elementary Schools. — In- 
 struction in the elements of agriculture began 
 in Europe long before it began in this country, 
 and in certain European states such instruction 
 is a general reciuirement for all rural elementary 
 schools and for all training schools for teachers. 
 In France the work is oldest, and is very 
 thoroughly provided for. In 1879 every normal 
 school, and in 1882 every rural primary school, 
 was required to give a place in the course of 
 study to elementary agriculture. For some time 
 the work was indefinite and general, but in 1896 
 the course of study in agriculture was revised 
 and the instruction made very definite and 
 practical. Since that time progress has been 
 very marked. At the present time agriculture 
 is taught in every rural primary school in 
 France. The work begins with object lessons 
 in the primary grades, changes to nature study 
 of a practical kind in the intermediate grades, 
 and changes further to agriculture and hygiene 
 in the upper grades, with practical exercises in 
 the experimental plot in cultivation, and in 
 grafting. In some departments girls receive 
 the same instruction as boys ; in others the 
 courses are partly parallel, but with special em- 
 phasis for girls on those aspects of home life 
 and work which in France are the work of 
 women, such as butter- and cheese-making, 
 poultry-raising, and gardening. Almost every 
 rural school has a garden attached to it, where 
 intensive work is carried on. A regular text in 
 agriculture is used. In the higher primary 
 schools a further theoretical course in agricul- 
 ture is given, and in rural sections, or where 
 demanded by parents, this is further supple- 
 mented by practical exercises. 
 
 Many other European countries provide 
 instruction in agriculture in their elementary 
 schools, lielgium has one of the best systems of 
 elementary agricultural instruction in Europe. 
 Beginning about twenty j-ears ago, and after 
 the plan of the French, Belgium has since 
 developed an excellent and an individual 
 sy.stem of its own. The theory and practices 
 of agriculture, closely adapted to local needs, 
 are now taught in nearly all of the rural pri- 
 mary schools of the kingdom. The course of 
 instruction in all of the state normal schools 
 
 66
 
 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 
 
 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 
 
 includes agriculture, and summer agricultural 
 normal schools for the instruction of teachers 
 in service have been held. Germany, Austria, 
 and Switzerland have developed special agri- 
 cultural schools, rather than general work in 
 agriculture in connection with the elementary 
 schools. In Sweden the elements of agricul- 
 ture and forestry are taught in all the rural 
 schools, and most of the Swedish schools possess 
 school gardens. The English colonies, in par- 
 ticular the West Indies, Canada, and Australia, 
 have provided for agricultural instruction in 
 certain grades, but in Great Britain little has 
 been done. Japan has recently introduced 
 agricultural instruction into the schools of the 
 empire, and so marked have been the advances 
 that Japan has at present one of the most com- 
 plete systems of agricultural education to be 
 found. A comprehensive scheme of instruc- 
 tion involving nature study, school gardens, 
 and agricultural instruction is being provided 
 as an integral part of the elementary school 
 system of the empire. 
 
 Practicall.v nothing was done toward the 
 introduction of instruction in elementar}' agri- 
 culture in the United States before 1900, but 
 since 1900, and particularly since 1905, very 
 rapid progress has been made. At present the 
 movement for agricultural education is awaken- 
 ing very great interest in all parts of the United 
 States, and many states have included such 
 instruction as a part of the elementary course 
 of study and as a part of the requirements 
 for certificates to teach in the schools. The 
 South and the Middle West have done most in 
 this direction. By October, 1908, Alabama, 
 Georgia, Mississippi, Mi.ssouri, Nebraska, New 
 York, North Carolina, South Dakota, Virginia, 
 and Wisconsin had added agriculture to the list 
 of teachers' examination subjects, and agri- 
 culture had been added to the list of subjects 
 to be taught in the common schools of Ala- 
 bama, Arkansas, California, Georgia, Louisiana, 
 Maine, Maryland, Mississippi, North Carolina, 
 Oklahoma, South Carolina, South Dakota, 
 Texas, and Wisconsin. The state normal 
 schools in nearly all of these states, and in a ' 
 number of others, have added courses of instruc- 
 tion intended to prepare teachers of the subject, 
 and the state normal schools of Wisconsin, 
 Illinois, Missouri, Nebraska, and North Dakota 
 have done conspicuous work in preparing 
 teachers of agriculture. Nearly one half of 
 the agricultural colleges of the country have 
 also joined in the movement for the prepara- 
 tion of agricultural teachers, the work of Cor- 
 nell University, the University of Illinois, 
 Massachusetts Agricultural College, and the 
 Ohio State University being especially note- 
 worthy. The state experiment stations and 
 the national Department of Agriculture have 
 cooperated, many bulletins have been issued 
 by these and by state educational departments, 
 and good textbooks for the use of teachers 
 and pupils are now beginning to appear. No 
 
 67 
 
 new movements, looking to the vitalizing of 
 the work of instruction in the elementary 
 school, has ever met with so ready a response 
 on the part of the people or been adopted with 
 such ease and such rapidity. There is every 
 promise that the movement will spread until 
 agricultural instruction in some form becomes 
 a part of the course 'of instruction for the rural 
 schools and small town schools of aU of the 
 agricultural sections of the country. 
 
 An important accompaniment of the move- 
 ment, in many places, has been the organiza- 
 tion of boys' agricultural clubs, and the interest 
 taken in their work by the farmers themselves. 
 In Iowa, Illinois, Indiana, Kansas, Nebraska, 
 Ohio, and Texas especially noteworthy results 
 have been attained through these clubs. Seeds 
 have been distributed, prize-winning gardens 
 have been planted and cared for, exhibitions of 
 products and judging contests have been held, 
 and deep community interest has been awak- 
 ened. Farmers' institutes have taken on new 
 life, excursions to agricultural colleges have 
 been run, and special lecturers have been sent 
 out to talk to the boys and girls. In Illinois 
 the college of agriculture arranged a two weeks' 
 cour.se of instruction in agriculture, suitable 
 for boys, and the first premium offered in a 
 number of counties was a trip to the agricul- 
 tural college to receive this instruction. 
 
 As to the nature and content of agricultural 
 instruction for elementary schools there seems 
 to be a somewhat general agreement among 
 students of the subject as to what should and 
 should not be done, though the practice in 
 different states is not always in harmony with 
 the best theory. The main effort in all ele- 
 mentary instruction is to be put on the pupil 
 himself rather than on subject matter, to open 
 his eyes to the vegetable and animal life about 
 him, and to relate him to his environment. To 
 be a good farmer he must be a good naturalist. 
 Good farming demands sensitiveness to the 
 phj'sical environment. The imparting of in- 
 formation about agricultural objects and prac- 
 tices is of little value compared with opening 
 the eyes of the child to the things in nature 
 about him. Whatever agricultural instruction 
 is given must be of a kind that is useful and 
 educative to the child ; subjects are not to be 
 introduced because grown-up farmers think 
 them useful. 
 
 The best opinion is that up to the sixth year 
 the instruction in agriculture should be gener- 
 alized nature study, though closely related 
 to the school environment. After the sixth 
 year the work is to be directed more toward 
 agricultural topics. The plan recommended 
 by the Committee on Industrial Education in 
 Schools for Rural Communities is that the first 
 five years should be devoted to generalized 
 nature study, and that concrete and applied 
 nature study be given in the sixth, seventh, 
 and eighth grades, as follows: first half 
 of the sixth year, the affairs of agriculture;
 
 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 
 
 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 
 
 second half, the soil; seventh year, farming 
 schemes and crops; eighth year, animals; all 
 formal and technical agriculture to be deferred 
 until the high school. The Committee on 
 Instruction in Agriculture of the Association of 
 American Agricultural Colleges and Experi- 
 ment Stations, which is a high authority in 
 this country on matters relating to agricultural 
 education, recommends a course of instruction 
 consisting of generalized nature study, with 
 school gardens, in the first three grades; nature 
 study with school and home gardens in the 
 fourth, fiftii, and sixth grades; and elementary 
 agriculture in the seventh and eighth grades. 
 This committee has prepared a syllabus of a 
 course in elementary agriculture which it 
 recommends for elementary schools (Circular 
 No. 60, Office of Experiment Stations), and a 
 series of exercises in elementary agriculture 
 for the seventh grade in these schools (Bulletin 
 No. ISG, Office of Experiment Stations). 
 
 E. P. C. AND L. H. B. 
 A fuller discussion of agricultural instruc- 
 tion in the elementary and secondary school 
 will be found under such topics as Gardens, 
 School; Nature Study; and Rural Schools 
 (q.V.). 
 
 References : — 
 
 (Agricultural Colleges) 
 
 Annual Reports of the \-arious Agricultural Colleges. 
 
 Congressional Record, 1857-1862. 
 
 Davenpuht, E. Address upon The History of Col- 
 legiate Education in Agriculture, licfore the Society 
 for the Promotion of Agricultural Science, 1907. 
 
 Department of Agriculture Year Book : — 
 
 1899, p. 157. Agricultural Education in the United 
 
 States. By A. C. True. 
 1898, p. 63. Some Types of American Agricultural 
 
 Colleges. By A. C. True. 
 1897, p. 279. Popular Education for the Farmer in 
 
 the United States. By A. C. True. 
 1894, p. 81. Education and Research in Agriculture 
 in the United States. By A. C. True. 
 
 History of the Foutiding of tkc College of Agriculture, 
 State College, Pennsylvania. 
 
 Memorial Volume. The Semi-Centennial Celebration of 
 Michigan Agricultural College. 
 
 Xcw York Triljune, 1S57. 
 
 Patent Office Record, 1852. 
 
 Organization List of the Agricultural Colleges and 
 Experiment Stations in the United States, pub- 
 lished by the Office of Experiment Stations. 
 
 (Experiment Stations and Colleges) 
 
 Allen, E. W. Some Ways in which the Department of 
 Agriculture and the Experiment Stations supplement 
 Each Other. (Washington, D.C. : U.S. Dept. of 
 Agr. Year Book for 1905, pp. 167-182.) 
 
 Annual Reports of the Office of Experiment Stations of 
 the U.S. Dept. of Agr., for 1901 to 1908, inclusive. 
 
 Beal, W. H. Some Practical Results of Experiment 
 Station Work. (Washington, D.C. : U.S. Dept. 
 of Agr. Yearbook for 1902, pp. 589-606.) 
 
 Crosby, D. J. Organization and Work of Agricultural 
 Experiment Stations in the United Slates. (Wash- 
 ington, D.C. : U.S. Dept. of Agr., Office of Experi- 
 ment Stations, Doc. 708, 1904. 24 pp., pis. 5.) 
 
 De Vdyst, p. Agricultural Instruction and its Methods. 
 (L'Enseignement Agricole et sos Methodes. Brus- 
 sels, Librairie Albert Dewit, 53 rue Royale, 1909, 
 xii + 354 pp.) 
 
 Experiment Station Record. Office of Experiment Sta- 
 tions, U.S. Dept. of Agr., Washington, D.C. 
 
 The Record contains numerous atjstracts of the 
 publications of the agricultural experiment stations and 
 kindred institutions in this and other countries ; articles 
 and editorials on topics of special interest in agricul- 
 tural science by American and foreign experts ; and 
 notes on the experiment stations. 
 
 Suljscribers can procure this publication regularly 
 from the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, 
 D.C, at SI per volume, payable in advance, two volumes 
 of eight numbers each being issued in a year. 
 
 Experiment Station Work. Office of Experiment 
 Stations, U.S. Dept. of Agr., Washington, D.C. 
 
 Experiment Station Work is published periodically 
 in the Farmers' Bulletin series of this department, and 
 gives a popular summary of some of the more salient 
 practical results of the work of the experiment stations. 
 
 True, A. C, and Crosby, D. J. Agricultural Experi- 
 ment Stations in Foreign Countries. (Washington, 
 D.C. : U.S. Dept. of .\gr.. Office of Experiment 
 Stations, Bull. 112, revised, 1904. 276 pp.) 
 
 True, A. C, and Clark, V. A. The Agricultural Experi- 
 ment Stations in the United States. (Washington, 
 D.C. : U.S. Dept. of Agr., Office of Experiment 
 Stations, Bull. 80, 1900. 636 pp.. pis. 153.) 
 
 (Agriculture in Public Schools) 
 
 Bailey, L. H. On the Training of Persons to teach 
 Agriculture in the Pultlic Schools. Bull. No. 1, 
 1908, U.S. Bu. Educ. pp. 53. 2 pp. bibliography on 
 agricultural education. (Washington, 1908.) 
 Bailey, L. H. The Training of Farmers. The Cen- 
 tury Co. (1909.) 
 Bailey, L. H. Education by Means of Agriculture. 
 Vol. 4, ch. viii. Cyclopedia of American Agricul- 
 ture. (1909.) Historical and descriptive. 
 Ellis, A. Caswell. The Teaching of Agriculture in 
 the Public SchooLi. Univ. of Texas, Bull. No. 
 So. 56 pp. (Austin, 1906.) 
 FooHT, H. W. The American Rural School. (New 
 
 York, 1910.) 
 Jewell, J. R. Agricultural Education. Bull. No. 2, 
 1907, U.S. Bu. Educ. 140 pp. Bibliography of 
 123 titles. (Washington, 1907.) 
 Kern, \. J. Among Country Schools. (Boston, 1906.) 
 N. E. A. : Report of the Committee on Industrial Educa- 
 tion for Rural Communities. (1905.) 97 pp. Sup- 
 plementary Report of 45 pp. in 1907. Published 
 separately, and also in Proc. N.E.A. for 1905 and 
 1907. 
 U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Office of Experiment 
 Stations, Circulars : — 
 No. 49, True, A. C. Secondary Courses in Agricul- 
 ture. 10 pp. (1902.) 
 No. 60. True, A. C. The Teaching of Agriculture in 
 
 the Rural Common Schools. 20 pp. (1904.) 
 No. 69, True, A. C. A Four-Years' College Course 
 
 in Agriculture. 36 pp. (1906.) 
 No. 73, True, A. C. Country Life Education. 13 pp. 
 
 (1907.) 
 No. 77, True, .\.C. A Secondary Course in Agronomy. 
 
 44 pp. (1908.) 
 No. 83, True, A. C. and Crosby, D. J. The Ameri- 
 can System of Agricultural Education. 27 pp. lUd. 
 (1909.) 
 No. 84, Hays, W. M. Education for Country Life. 
 
 40 pp. (1909.) 
 No. 90, Abbey, M. J. Normal School Instruction in 
 
 Agriculture. 31 pp. (1909.) 
 No. 91, True, A. C. Secondary Education in Agricul- 
 ture in the United States. 11 pp. (1909.) Outline 
 courses of study in Horticulture and in Agriculture. 
 U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Sta- 
 tions, Bulletin : — 
 No. 186, Crosby, D. J. Exercises in Elementary 
 Agriculture. 48 pp. (1907.) 
 U.S. Com. of Educ, Annual Reports: — 
 
 The Teaching of Agriculture in the Schools of France 
 and Belgium ; in Rept. for 1905, Vol. I, pp. 87-96. 
 Agricultural High Schools ; in Rept. for 1909, Vol. I, 
 pp. 146-150. 
 
 68
 
 AGRONOMY 
 
 AIR OF THE SCHOOLROOM 
 
 Since about 1904 the magazines have contained many 
 articles on this topic. See Poole 's A n n ual Index. Also 
 consult the Index to the U.S. Com. Educ. Reports. 1867- 
 1907: the Index to IheProc. N.E.A., 1S57-1906: and the 
 Annual Bibliographies of Education since 1904. (See 
 article on Bibliographies op Education.) 
 
 AGRONOMY. — See Agricultural Educa- 
 tion ; EOTAXY. 
 
 AHMES. — An Egyptian scribe, Aahmesu 
 ("the moon-born"), who wrote in the reigu of 
 Ra-a-us (Apepa or Apophis), probably about 
 1700 B.C. He copied a papyrus written some 
 centuries earlier, entitled Directions for Obtain- 
 ing the Knowledge of all Dark Things, and this 
 copy is still preserved in the Rhind collection 
 in the British Museum. It is the oldest 
 extant manuscript on mathematics, although 
 we have a few Babylonian cylinders containing 
 numerical tables and directions for mensura- 
 tion. The work is largely devoted to an elabo- 
 rate treatment of unit fractions. It also gives 
 some crude work in linear equations and in 
 mensuration. A facsimile of the manuscript 
 has been published by the British Museum, and 
 the treatise has been translated into German 
 by Eisenlohr. D. B. S. 
 
 AHN, JOHANN FRANZ. —(1796-1865). 
 A German teacher and textbook writer. 
 Born at Aix-la-Chapelle, he first started in 
 business, but soon turned to teaching. From 
 1843 to 1863 he taught modern languages at 
 the Realschule in Neuss, Rhine province. He 
 acquired a great reputation as the author of a 
 textbook for the study of French, Prakti.scher 
 Lehrgang zur schnellen und leichten Erlernung 
 der franzosischen Sprache, Koln, 1834 (Practical 
 Method for the quick and easy acquisition of the 
 French language), which has passed through over 
 100 editions. His method was widely imitated 
 and applied to the study of English and other 
 modern languages. 
 
 AID FOR COMMON SCHOOLS. — See 
 
 Apportionment of School Funds. 
 
 AID FOR HIGH SCHOOLS. — See High 
 Schools, Support of. 
 
 AID FOR POOR COMMUNITIES. — See 
 
 Apportion.ment of School Funds. 
 
 AIDS, VISUAL. — See Visual Aids; Ap- 
 
 PAKATCS. 
 
 AIM OF EDUCATION. — See End in Edu- 
 cation; Course of Study, Theory of; Cul- 
 ture; Humanism; Naturalism; Philosophy 
 of Education. 
 
 AIM, STATEMENT OF THE, IN METHOD 
 OF THE RECITATION. — In the contem- 
 porary treatment of the method of the recita- 
 tion, more particularly the " inductive develop- 
 ment lesson," a preliminary or sub-step in 
 
 the lesson procedure, additional to the usual 
 " five formal steps." According to the view 
 of Rein it is a preliminary " step," accord- 
 ing to others it is usually a " sub-step " found 
 between the stages of " preparation " and " pres- 
 entation." Logically speaking, the "state- 
 ment of the aim " is the equivalent of the 
 "statement of the problem" to be solved, 
 and appears at the beginning of the teaching 
 process in both inductive and deductive lessons. 
 The object of this preliminary "step" is to 
 focus the attention upon the situation to be 
 solved, and to vitalize the situation for the 
 pupils. The " aim " determines the scope of 
 the lesson and the purpose of the teaching. 
 
 It frequently occurs that the statement of 
 the " teacher's aim " will vary from that of 
 the " pupil's aim." The " teacher's aim " 
 may be more extensive, including more than 
 one end, and extending over many lesson units. 
 A series of " teacher's aims " and one of " pupil's 
 aims " will, in the long run, tend to coincide. 
 The " pupil's aim " will necessarily be stated 
 in terms that are sufficiently definite, attractive, 
 and pertinent to him, so as to provide an ade- 
 quate motive for his activity. Any deliberate 
 " aim " stated at the begiiming of a lesson, 
 by no means exhausts the purposes or ends 
 which may be properly served during the lesson 
 period. Every lesson acquires supplementary 
 aims provoked by the incidents of the lesson; 
 these are usually, though not always, properly 
 subordinated to the " aim " which initiates 
 the class exercise. There are cases where 
 opportunity provides or demands new aims or 
 motives which may properly supplant those 
 that have been planned. H. S. 
 
 See Recitation, Method of. 
 
 AIR OF THE SCHOOLROOM, THE. — If 
 
 we divide the total number of cubic feet of 
 air in a private dwelling room by the number 
 of persons who occupy it and then make the 
 same calculations with a schoolroom, we see 
 immediately that the conditions which obtain 
 in schoolrooms are unfavorable. Various 
 causes help to contaminate the air in a school- 
 room ; for example — sundry chemical sub- 
 stances which are unfit to be inhaled again are 
 thrown off from the body by respiration and 
 perspiration, and these two functions also cause 
 additional moisture in the atmosphere, so 
 that the presence of people is alone sufficient 
 cause to render a room warm and " stuffy." 
 Conditions of imperfect health in individuals, 
 such as decayed teeth, also contribute to render 
 the air of a room foul. Children often bring 
 more or less dirt from the streets into the room, 
 containing organic and nonorganic substances; 
 they leave behind in the room minute particles 
 of their clothes, their shoes, their skin; they 
 rub such particles off the surface of the floor, 
 the walls, the desks. Different kinds of 
 artificial lighting also produce gases, moisture, 
 and warmth. 
 
 69
 
 AIR OF THE SCHOOLROOM 
 
 AIX-MARSEILLES 
 
 Outdoor air contains 20.94 per cent of oxy- 
 gen and 0.04 per cent of carbon dioxide (car- 
 bonic acid gas), exhaled air 16.03 per cent 
 oxygen and 4.38 per cent of carbon dioxide; 
 if the air which is to be inhaled contained the 
 same proportions of oxygen and carbon dioxide 
 as the air which has been exhaled, interchange 
 of these gases in the lungs would be impossible; 
 therefore the change in the composition of the 
 air is of importance. When children are sitting 
 at their lessons the energy of breathing is not 
 the same as it is when they are moving about, 
 and in sitting still the children always reinhale 
 a good deal of the air just exhaled by them. 
 
 Different investigations have been made to 
 find specific noxious (poisonous) substances in 
 the air exhaled. Weichardt has at last found 
 his fatigue toxine in the exhaled air also. We 
 may await the results of further research. The 
 foul smell of air in a crowded room is not in 
 an exact relation to the percentage of carbon 
 dioxide produced by the people in that room, 
 because such odor depends in a large degree 
 upon the cleanliness of the body and clothing. 
 Therefore the maximum of carbon dioxide 
 in a room (in consequence of the presence of 
 people only), as allowed by Pettenkofer, that 
 is to say, 0.1 per cent (one pro mille), is a state- 
 ment not sufficiently based on facts; but we 
 have up to the present time no better means of 
 judging of the deterioration of the air of a 
 schoolroom as far as the proportions of the 
 gases are concerned, and investigations have 
 proved the presence of carbon dioxide in school- 
 rooms in as large quantities as 14.8 pro mille. 
 
 The human body has to get rid of a good 
 deal of the warmth which is continually being 
 produced afresh by vaporization, radiation, 
 and convection; and this is a difficult matter 
 in a crowded schoolroom. The Breslau labora- 
 tory experiments of Fliigge's school have shown 
 that a man inclosed in a case under changing 
 conditions of air felt well if temperature was 
 below 68° and relative moisture below 72 per 
 cent, in spite of the fact that carbon dioxide 
 increa.sed to a large extent; but in highly 
 heated and moist air symptoms like giddiness 
 and so on arose; therefore such conditions 
 should be avoided in crowded rooms. But 
 on the other hand low temperatures would not 
 be good, especially if there are antemic, feeble 
 children, and air which is too dry is not agree- 
 able for teachers who are obliged to speak for 
 a long time w-ith raised voice. 
 
 As to dust, enormous numbers of organic 
 germs have also been found in the air of the 
 schoolroom; the numbers are in general higher, 
 for instance, in old dirty schoolhouses than in 
 new and clean ones; higher if the children are 
 out of poor families and if they move about in 
 the room, and so on ; in every case schoolrooms 
 contain many more germs than less crowded 
 rooms. The greatest number of those germs 
 are not at all infectious, but certainly a propor- 
 tion of them can be malignant. The tender 
 
 mucous membranes are also liable to be 
 scratched by sharp particles of dust, and by 
 this means an easy entrance for dangerous 
 germs is formed. Teachers often suffer from 
 catarrh of the respiratory organs; pupils 
 from inflammations of the conjunctiva. Dust 
 must be carried away from the respiratory 
 organs by the ciliary motion of certain epithe- 
 liums whose power is limited, if indeed they are 
 not already partly destroyed. Therefore intro- 
 duction, production, and stirring up of dust 
 is to be avoided. (For jireserving healthy con- 
 ditions of air in the schoolroom, see V'entil.\- 
 Tiox and Cle.^ning.) L. B. 
 
 References: — 
 
 FliJgge, C. Ubcr Luftverunreinigung, Wiirme- 
 
 stauung unci Luftung in geschlossenen Raunicn. 
 
 Zcitschr. /. Hygiene u. Infektions kraJikhi iten. 
 
 (Leipzig, 1905). Vol. XLIX ; in the .'^anie volume 
 
 the investigations of L. Paul and \V. Ercklentz. 
 GiLLERT. E. Luftprufungen auf Kohlensiiure, ausgef. 
 
 in Berliner Gemeindeschulen. Zeitschr. f. Scliul- 
 
 gcsuiidheilspflege. Vol. VI. (Hamburg, 1S93.) 
 Hesse, F. W. und W. Ein Vorsehlag, die exorbitante 
 
 Verunreinigung dcr Schulluft hintanzuhalten. 
 
 Deutsche Vierleljal-rschrift f. offentl. Gesuntiheits- 
 
 pflege. Vol. X. (Brunswick, 1S7S.) 
 Meyrich, O. Die Staubplage in d. Schule u. Vor- 
 
 schliige zu ihrer Bckampfung. Zeitsehr. f. Schul- 
 
 gesundheilspflegc. Vol. VII. (Hamburg, 1N94.) 
 Pettenkofer, M. Bcziehungen d. Luft zu Kleiduiig, 
 
 Wohnung iirid Boden. (Brunswick. 1872.) 
 RiETSCHEL, H. IJber die Bestimmung der Grenzen des 
 
 Luftwcchsels, etc. Deutsehe Vierteljahrsehrift. f. 
 
 offentl. Gesundheilspflege , \'ol. XXII. (Brunswick, 
 
 1890.) 
 ScHLicK, H. Beeinflussung d. Feuchtigkeit d. Schul- 
 luft durch Verdampfungsschalen, etc. Zeitschr. f. 
 
 Schulgesundheilspflege, Vol. XXII. (Hamburg, 
 
 1909.) .. 
 Stern. R. Ub. d. Einfluss der Ventilation auf die in 
 
 der Luft suspendierten u. s. w. Mikroorganismen. 
 
 Zeitschr. f. Hygiene w. I nfcktionskrankheiten. 
 
 Vol. VII. (Leipzig, 1889.) 
 Weichardt, W. Uber Ausatmungsluft. Archiv fiir 
 
 Hygiene, Vol. LXV. (Munich, 1908.) 
 
 As to methods of examination of air and so on : 
 Em.merich, E.. und Trillich. H. Anleilung zu hy- 
 gienischen V ntersuchungen. 3d ed. (Munich. 1902.) 
 
 (A new edition is in preparation and will probably ap- 
 pear in 1910.) 
 
 Much literature upon the whole subject treated above 
 is quoted in detail in : 
 
 Burgerstein. L., and Netolitzkt. Handbuch der 
 Schulhygiene, pp. 269-272. 2d T. A. ed. (Jena, 
 1902.) 
 
 AIX-MARSEILLES, UNIVERSITY OF. — 
 
 Whether an educational institution existed 
 in the town of Aix-en-Provence continuously 
 from the Roman period or not is doubtful. It 
 is probable, however, that schools of law and 
 theology existed before the papal bull estab- 
 lishing a fttudium generale was issued in 1409. 
 The faculty of medicine was added some time 
 later. Like other universities of France, the 
 university fell into decay and was closed in 
 1789. In 1806 Aix-en-Provence became an 
 academy of the Imperial University. In 1896 
 the university was reestablished as a state 
 institution. At present only the faculties of 
 
 70
 
 AKHMIM PAPYRUS 
 
 ALABAMA INSTITUTE 
 
 law and letters are maintained at Aix itself, 
 while the faculties of sciences, medicine, and 
 pharmacy are conducted at Marseilles. In 1909 
 there were enrolled 1261 students. 
 
 See article on France, Education in. 
 
 AKHMIM PAPYRUS. — A papyrus of edu- 
 cational significance, found in Akhmim, in 
 Upper Egypt. It was written in Greek, 
 probably between 500 and 800 a.d. It is 
 on arithmetic, and it treats the subject sul> 
 stantially as it was treated in the Ahmes {q.v.) 
 papyrus, written more than two thousand years 
 earlier. The papyrus was first described by 
 Baillet in 1892. D. E. S. 
 
 ALABAMA AGRICULTURAL AND ME- 
 CHANICAL COLLEGE, NORMAL, ALA. — 
 
 An institution organized in 1875 for negroes, 
 with an annual appropriation of .SI 000 and a 
 faculty of two teachers. In 1882 through self- 
 sacrifice of the teachers a lot was acquired and 
 buildings were erected by Huntsville. Indus- 
 trial work was added to the literary. In 1885 
 the legislature appropriated .$4000 a year and 
 made the institution the Industrial School for 
 the negroes of Alabama. In 1891 the school 
 received a share in the endowment given by 
 Congress " for the benefit of agriculture and 
 mechanic arts." The property of the school 
 was sold and the school removed to a more 
 accessible site four miles from Huntsville. Ten 
 large buildings and 6 small ones, including 
 a Carnegie Library, have been erected with a 
 barn and dairy, while some older buildings on 
 the site were retained and renovated. The 
 college receives state and federal aid. The 
 institution aims to give " instruction in agri- 
 culture, the mechanic arts, English language, 
 and various branches of mathematical, physical, 
 natural, and economic science with special 
 reference to their apjilication in the industries 
 of life." The industrial work is turned to the 
 advantage of the college. In addition to the 
 schools of Mechanic Arts and Agriculture, 
 there are schools of Music, Domestic Science, 
 Business, Biblical Literature; the Scientific- 
 Literary, Normal, and Preparatory schools. 
 The college confers degrees. The value of the 
 grounds is $10,000; the buildings .$75,000; 
 equipment $15,000. The total annual income 
 is $15,000. There are 10 professors, 4 assist- 
 ant professors, and 25 instructors and assistants. 
 The average salary of professors is .$556 a 
 year. W. H. Councill, Ph.D., is the president. 
 
 ALABAMA BAPTIST COLORED UNIVER- 
 SITY, SELMA, ALA. —The outcome of a 
 proposal made by the Colored Baptist State 
 Convention of Alabama in 1873 to establish 
 a theological school; not opened until 1878 
 at Selma, as " The Baptist Normal and 
 Theological School." The property is now 
 worth about $75,000. The total annual 
 income from tuition and denominational con- 
 
 tributions is $17,000. There is a faculty of 
 19 teachers. Literary, theological, and indus- 
 trial courses are offered. About seven units are 
 required for admission. Degrees are conferred 
 in the college and theological courses. 
 
 ALABAMA BRENAU COLLEGE, EU- 
 FAULA, ALA. — A school for the higher edu- 
 cation of women, opened at Eufaula in 1854 
 as the Union Female College. It was reopened 
 under its present title, in 1905, after a period 
 of decline. The college is maintained bj' fees 
 and contributions from citizens of Eufaula. 
 The institution confers degrees, although the 
 entrance requirements hardly represent more 
 than five units. There are 10 instructors. 
 
 ALABAMA CENTRAL FEMALE COL- 
 LEGE, TUSCALOOSA, ALA. —An institution 
 for the higher education of women, established 
 in 1858. In addition to a Collegiate Depart- 
 ment, there arc also Sub-Collegiate, Music, 
 Art, Elocution, and Business de])artments. 
 Althougli the entrance requirements are vague, 
 degrees are conferred after a four years' course. 
 There are 11 instructors. 
 
 ALABAMA CONFERENCE FEMALE COL- 
 LEGE, TUSKEGEE, ALA, —An institution for 
 the higher education of women, founded in 
 1854 and opened in 1856 as the Tuskegee 
 Female College. The Board of Trustees is 
 nominated by the Alabama Conference of the 
 Methodist Episcopal Church, South. The plant 
 is valued at $125,000. Degrees and diplomas 
 are conferred ; four to eight points of high school 
 work are required for admission to collegiate 
 department. There is a faculty of 11 profes- 
 sors and 2 associate professors. 
 
 ALABAMA NORMAL COLLEGE, LIVING- 
 STON, ALA. — A coeducational institution 
 since 1900; the normal department was opened 
 in 1883 with an annual state appropriation of 
 .$2500, gradually increased up to $15,000 in 
 1907. Pupils admitted at the age of 14; 16 
 for first-grade certificate. Tuition is free 
 except for special lessons in music and art, 
 provided the pupils on graduation enter the 
 teaching profession. Diplomas are awarded 
 in normal classical, normal English, and pro- 
 fessional courses. A four-year course is offered 
 in the normal school. There is a faculty of 
 14 teachers. 
 
 ALABAMA POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE, 
 AUBURN, ALA. —A .state college for the 
 benefit of agriculture and the mechanic arts 
 established by the state in 1872 with an 
 endowment from the land grant appropria- 
 tion made by Congress in 1862. The in- 
 stitution is open to women. The Board of 
 Trustees consists of the Governor and State 
 Superintendent of Education, ex officio, and 
 ten members from nine congressional districts, 
 
 71
 
 ALABAMA 
 
 ALABAMA 
 
 appointed by the Governor with the consent of 
 the Senate. Courses are offered in academic, 
 engineerinp and mines, and aKricultural science 
 departments. There is an annual ajjpropria- 
 tion from the state of about $.'{0,()00. Tlie 
 plant includes 8 buildings. In 1<»()S-1<,H)<) 
 there were enrolled ~U0 students. Candidates 
 are admitted at 1.5 years of age by examina- 
 tion or certificate from approved schools with 
 supplementary examination where necessary. 
 About seven units are recpiired for admission. 
 The faculty includes 22 jirofessors, 5 associate 
 and assistant professors, and. 12 instructors. 
 
 ALABAMA. STATE OF. — First organized 
 by Congress as a part of the Territory of 
 Mississippi in 170S. Organized as the separate 
 Territory of Alabama in 1817, and admitted 
 to the I'nion as the twentv-second state in 
 1819. It is located in the South-Central 
 Division, and has a land area of 51,540 scpiare 
 miles. In size it is about as large as Arkansas, 
 or Wisconsin, and a little larger than the state 
 of New York. For administrative purposes 
 the state is divided into G7 counties, and these 
 in turn into cities and school liistricts. In 1000, 
 Alabama had a population of 1,823,097, and 
 a density of population of 35.5 per square 
 mile. Its estimated population in 1910 was 
 2.14:^,'i<)3. 
 
 Educational History. — The first constitution 
 of Alabama, adopted at the time of the admis- 
 sion of the state into the Union, declared tiiat 
 "schools, and tiie means of education, shall 
 be forever encouraged in this State." This 
 mandate of the constitution remained inef- 
 fective for a long time. Xothing whatever 
 was done toward carrying it into effect before 
 1826, when the first school law, special in its 
 nature and applyingonly to Mobile, was adopted. 
 For the next 28 years the history of educa- 
 tion in Alabama is the history of the schools 
 of Mobile. 
 
 The first attempt to organize a system of 
 schools for the state as a whole was made 
 in 1854. A Superintendent of Education for 
 the state, three Commissioners for each county, 
 and Trustees for each township were pro- 
 vided for. An appropriation of .§100,000 an- 
 nually was ma<le from tiie treasury, to be added 
 to the interest arising from the school fund, 
 which fund in 1855 amounted to 874,087.60. 
 By 1850, reports show that 2200 schools were 
 kept, with an average of six months of school. 
 Kone of these schools were free schools, how- 
 ever, and few were real public schools, the com- 
 mon practice being to grant private teachers a 
 part of the public funds to enable them to 
 lower their tuition charges or to prolong their 
 term. In 1857 the total income for schools 
 was §281,847.41, but this was only 50 per cent 
 of the amount expended, the remainder being 
 made up from contributions and tuition fees. 
 In 1856, County Superintendents of Schools 
 were substituted for the County Commission- 
 
 ers. A few other advances were made during 
 the next few years, but the Civil War put an 
 end to this school system. 
 
 A provisional constitution was adopted 
 in I8()5, which contained about the same 
 educational provisions as those found in the 
 constitution of 1819, but no schools were 
 organized under its authority. In November, 
 1807, the oflice of Superintendent of Education 
 was abolished, and the duties of the office were 
 performed by the State Comptroller until 
 July, 18(i8. The constitution of November, 
 1807, which went into operation in July, 1808, 
 made very definite provisions for a highly 
 centralized state school system. A Superin- 
 tendent of Public Instruction and a State 
 Board of Education were provided for, the 
 latter to meet annually and to have independent 
 authority to legislate for the schools. One 
 fifth of the annual revenue of the state, and 
 certain corporation taxes, were to be devoted 
 entirely to the support of the schools, and 
 schools were to be free to all children of the 
 state between the ages of 5 and 21. Between 
 1808 and 1875, the annual api)ropriations 
 averaged a little over half a million dollars a 
 year, and the number of schools was increased 
 to 3898 by 1874, though the revenues were not 
 sufficient to maintain more than about three 
 and one half months of school. 
 
 In 1875 a new constitution was adopted 
 which radically changed the nature of the school 
 system, and established one much more in 
 harmony with what the people of the state 
 desired. The State Board of Education with 
 legislative authority was abolished; for the 
 definite percentage of the state's taxes re- 
 (piired for schools an annual approi)riation 
 was substituted; the title of Superintendent 
 of Education was restored; separate schools 
 for the two races were made mandatory; 
 aid to sectarian and denominational schools 
 was forbidden; and the independent status 
 of Mobile was perpetuated by exempting 
 Mobile County from the operation of all school 
 laws except those relating to the apportionment 
 of school funds, the making of school reports, 
 and the maintenance of separate schools for 
 the two races. The legislation of 1875-1876 
 carried these provisions into effect. Teachers' 
 Institutes were organized in 1875, and in 1879 
 the examination of all teachers was required 
 for the first time. As late as 1872 it was 
 estimated that one third of all money for the 
 schools still came from donations and sub- 
 scriptions. 
 
 In 1901, a new constitution was adopted 
 which continued most of the educational 
 provisions of the constitution of 1875, but 
 changed the method of state aid from an annual 
 appropriation to a state tax of 30 cents on 
 the SlOO, authorized the voting of a county 
 tax of 10 cents, and reaffirmed the independent 
 position of the schools of Mobile. In 1901 
 a state system for the examination of teachers 
 
 72
 
 ALABAMA 
 
 ALABAMA 
 
 was substituted for the previous unsatis- 
 factory county systems. In 1903 a law pro- 
 viding for the adoption of a state series of uni- 
 form textbooks, a law substituting school 
 districts under a centralized county system 
 of administration for the previous less-central- 
 ized township system, and a law making the 
 county the unit in the apportionment of 
 school funds by the state, were adopted. In 
 1907 a permissive county high school law, 
 by which state aid may be given to such 
 schools as may be formed, and a law known 
 as "The Rural School House Act," by which 
 $67,000 is appropriated annually to help rural 
 districts in building and repairing rural school 
 houses, were enacted. 
 
 Present School System. — The school system 
 of Alabama as at present organized is as follows: 
 At the head of the system is a Superintendent 
 of Education, elected by the people for four- 
 year terms, and ineligible as his own successor. 
 His salary is $3000 per year. He has general 
 supervision of the schools of the state; appor- 
 tions the state school fund to the counties; 
 prepares all blanks and forms used; must 
 visit the counties and hold at least one insti- 
 tute in each congressional district each year; 
 must report annually to the Governor; ap- 
 proves the monthly pay roll of each county, 
 and remits the state money accordingly; ap- 
 proves all grants for aid in building and re- 
 pairing schoolhouses and all plans for new 
 school buildings; and signs all teachers' 
 certificates and revokes the same for cause. 
 He is also president of the State Board of 
 Examiners, has charge of the sale and preser- 
 vation of all school lands, and is a member 
 of the State Text-Book Commission, the 
 State High School Commission, and of the 
 Board of Trustees for the state university 
 and the different state institutions. 
 
 For each county there is a County Superin- 
 tendent of Education, also elected by the people 
 for four-year terms, who receives as salary 4 per 
 cent of all state school money disbursed by him. 
 He oversees the schools of his county, keeps all 
 records, looks after the school funds and lands, 
 pays all teachers except in cities, and reports to 
 the Superintendent of Education for the state. 
 Each county also has a County Board of 
 Education, consisting of the County Superin- 
 tendent of Education and four others elected 
 by the Chairmen of the District Boards of 
 Trustees, not more than one of whom shall 
 be a teacher. This Board holds the title 
 to all school property, employs all teachers for 
 the school districts of the county, and has en- 
 tire control of the public schools of the county, 
 subject only to the provisions of the school 
 law. Their compensation is limited to $20 
 a year. 
 
 For each school district three School Trustees 
 are elected for four-year terms. They are 
 required to take the school census ; care for 
 the school property ; nominate teachers for 
 
 election by the County Board of Education; 
 visit the schools; and make reports to the 
 County Superintendent. The independence 
 of the combined city and county of Mobile 
 is provided for in the constitution and the law, 
 and cities of 6000 inhabitants or over are 
 given similar privileges, except in the matter 
 of textbooks. Smaller cities and towns are 
 governed by Boards of Education, but are 
 subject in all matters to the general school law. 
 A State Board of Examiners examines all 
 candidates for teachers' certificates, including 
 all graduates from the state normal schools, 
 and issues all certificates to teach in the schools 
 of the state. A State Text-Book Commission 
 adopts uniform textbooks for the schools of 
 the state, on five-year contracts. 
 
 School Support. — The state originally re- 
 ceived 902,744 acres of land from the sixteenth 
 section grants made to the states by Congress 
 for schools. The first state constitution, 
 adopted in 1819, directed that the legislature 
 should preserve these lands and apply the 
 funds "in strict conformitv to the object of 
 such grant." By 1855 the sum of Sl,244',793.36 
 had been realized from the sales of this land. 
 The state also received $669,089.78 from the 
 U.S. Surplus Revenue Fund {rj.v.) deposited 
 with the states in 1837, all of which was put into 
 the permanent school fund. There have been 
 some losses and some additions, the total 
 value of the permanent school fund being 
 $2,135,313 when last reported. The annual 
 state appropriation for education consists of 
 the interest on these funds, at the rate of 6 
 per cent on the sixteenth section fund and 
 4 per cent on the Surplus Revenue fund; 
 all rents and incomes from the school lands; 
 escheats; poll taxes (retained in the county 
 where paid); certain license taxes; the sum of 
 $350,000 from the treasury of the state; and 
 the state school tax of 30 cents on the .SI 00 
 authorized by the state constitution. About 
 70 per cent of the expenditure for education 
 at present comes from state sources. All 
 state money is apportioned to the counties 
 solely on the basis of the number of children be- 
 tween the ages of 7 and 21. Within the county 
 all state and county money must be distributed 
 in such a manner as to provide " as nearly as 
 practicable, school terms of equal duration," and 
 the state money can be used only for teachers' 
 salaries. About two thirds of the counties also 
 vote the one-mill tax authorized by the constitu- 
 tion of 1901. Local district taxation has not as 
 yet been authorized. 
 
 The total amount expended for schools during 
 the last year for which reports are available was 
 $2,620,355. Based on the total population 
 of the state this was equal to a per capita ex- 
 penditure of $1.26 a year, the state standing 
 third from the bottom of the list, Miss- 
 issippi and South Carolina alone lieing lower. 
 The average daily expenditure per pupil was 9.3 
 cents and the total yearly expenditure per pupil 
 
 73
 
 ALABAMA' 
 
 ALABAMA 
 
 in average daily attendance was SI 0.52. 
 From the bottom of the hst Alabama has re- 
 cently raised itself to si.xth place in these items. 
 In the amount raised per child 5-18 years of 
 age (.S3. 30), the state stands third from the 
 bottom of the list, the average for the United 
 States as a whole being .$15.52. The relative 
 poverty of the state and the large numlicr of 
 children are evident from the fact that it 
 takes SI. 47 from each adult male to raise .SI. 00 
 for each child, 5-18 years of age, an amount 
 exceeded by but four states, and against an 
 average for the United States as a whole of 
 $1.02. In the total amount of school money 
 raised per adult male of the total population 
 ($4.87), Mississippi, with $4.84, alone was 
 lower, and the average for the United States 
 was $15.79. These figures reveal the meager 
 equipment, the relative poverty, the large 
 numbers of children, and the low expenditure 
 for education in the state. The state has made 
 much ])rogress within the past five years, the 
 ex]ienditure in most items having almost 
 doubled during that time. 
 
 Educational Conditions. — Of the popula- 
 tion in 1900, 45.2 per cent were negroes, and 
 
 99.2 per cent were native born. In one 
 third of the counties the negroes outnumbered 
 the whites, in one sixth of the counties they 
 outnumbered the whites three or more to one, 
 and in six counties they outnumbered the 
 whites more than five to one. The relative 
 increase in the two races between 1890 and 
 1900 was 20.1 per cent for the whites and 21.9 
 per cent for the negroes. Of the total popula- 
 tion, 33.4 per cent are between the ages of 5 and 
 18, a percentage exceeded by but five states, the 
 highest being South Carolina with 34.6 per cent, 
 and the average for the United States being 
 
 28.3 per cent. The state is essentially rural 
 and agricultural, as 88.1 per cent of the popu- 
 lation lived in country districts and only 
 7.3 ]icr cent lived in cities of 8000 inhabitants 
 in 1900. 
 
 The average length of term provided in 
 Alabama was 113.3 days. North Carolina, 
 South Carolina, Florida, and Arkansas alone 
 provided less, the lowest being Arkansas with 
 93.9 days. Of the school population, 5-18 
 years of age, 55.77 per cent were enrolled in 
 the public schools. Louisiana with 49.26 per 
 cent alone enrolled a lower percentage in 
 the public schools, while the average for the 
 United States was 69.32 per cent. Of the 
 number enrolled but 64.44 per cent was in 
 daily attendance, the state standing eleventh 
 from the lowest in this respect. This was equal 
 to an average daily attendance of 73 days for 
 each child enrolled and of 40.7 days for each 
 child in the state, 5-18 of age, as against 75.7 
 and 49.0 days for the South-Central Division 
 and 109.8 and 76.1 days for the United States 
 as a whole. No .statistics are available to enable 
 one to separate the above percentages for white 
 and for colored schools. 
 
 The state has no compulsory attendance 
 law, and no means of enforcing one or of 
 regulating truancy are provided. In 1903, 
 a child labor law was enacted, and in 
 1907 this was revised and made effective. 
 Chihlren under 12 are forbidden to work 
 in mills or factories, and children are permitted 
 to work between 12 and 16 only after 8 weeks 
 of attendance at school. Hours and condi- 
 tions of labor are defined, penalties are pro- 
 vided, and the inspector of jails and alms- 
 houses is charged with the duty of enforcing 
 the law. 
 
 According to the census of 1900, the per- 
 centage of illiterates in the total poi)ulation, 
 10 years of age and over, was 34.0 per cent. 
 The percentage of illiteracy among the colored 
 population was 57.4 per cent. 
 
 In material conditions the schools of the .state 
 make little better showing. As local taxation 
 has not been authorized as yet, schoolhouses 
 and repairs must be provided for by donations 
 and subscriptions. Despite rapid advances 
 within recent years, about one third of all 
 the school buildings in use for public school 
 purposes are still owned by individuals, and 
 the estimated average value of all school 
 buildings in use is only about $450. The 
 Rural School-House Act of 1907, whereby 
 .$67,000 annually, or $1000 for each county, 
 is appropriated to be spent under the direction 
 of the Superintendent of Education, to assist 
 rural communities to obtain better school 
 buildings, will in time do something to relieve 
 the present objectionable conditions. The 
 rural schools of Alabama, however, leave 
 much to be desired, being taught for but a 
 short time and by poorly paid teachers, and 
 having practically no teaching equipment 
 with which to work. The elementary school 
 system, as a whole, is ju.st now in the process 
 of being rounded out and classified, but the 
 work is .slow, due in large part to the inertia 
 develoijed by a period of fifty years under 
 the old conditions. Agricultural instruction 
 and temperance physiology are required to 
 be taught in all the schools of the state, but 
 little else than these and the staple elementary 
 school subjects is provided in any of the schools. 
 But 9 schools in the state are listed as offering 
 manual training. 
 
 Teachers and Training. — The state em- 
 ployed 7757 teachers at the date of last report, 
 about one third of whom were men, and 
 about one third were colored. As nearly 
 as can be calculated from the very imperfect 
 statistical tables available, the average yearly 
 salary for all teachers, based on the average 
 monthly salary and the average length of term, 
 was approximately $200 a year for men and 
 $150 for women, and about $240 a year for 
 teachers in white schools and $100 a year for 
 teachers in colored schools. No statistics are 
 available from which the percentage of teachers 
 who have had any kind of professional train- 
 
 74
 
 ALABAMA 
 
 ALABAMA 
 
 ing can be calculated, but something of the 
 professional status of the teaching force can 
 be determined from the fact that 55 per cent 
 of the white teachers and 58 per cent of the 
 colored teachers were teaching on a third-grade 
 certificate, based on a written examination 
 in spelling, reading, writing, grammar, arith- 
 metic through fractions, primary geography, 
 and the elementary principles of hygiene, 
 physiology, and agriculture. Life diplomas, 
 based on six years of successful teaching on a 
 first-grade certificate, are held by 3.5 per cent 
 of the white teachers and 7 per cent of the 
 colored teachers. As a means of impro%'ing 
 the teachers in service 250 teachers' institutes 
 are held in the different counties each year. 
 The state maintains 7 state normal schools for 
 the training of teachers for the state, as follows : — 
 
 
 
 InTrain- 
 
 
 N.IME 
 
 LoC.\TION 
 
 r.NG 
 
 Grads. 
 
 
 
 Course 
 
 IN 1908 
 
 State Normal College 
 
 Florence 
 
 352 
 
 26 
 
 State Normal College 
 
 Troy 
 
 261 
 
 22 
 
 Stale Normal Srhool 
 
 Jacksonville 
 
 400 
 
 21 
 
 State Normal School 
 
 Daphne 
 
 20 
 
 6 
 
 .\labama Normal College 
 
 Livingston 
 
 27.5 
 
 12 
 
 Falkville Normal College 
 
 Falkville 
 
 26 
 
 
 
 Agricultural and Mechani- 
 
 
 
 
 cal College for Negroes 
 
 Normal 
 
 129 
 
 24 
 
 In addition to the above there are 3 private 
 normal and industrial colleges, 2 of which are 
 for the colored race, including the widely 
 known Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Insti- 
 tute (g.c), at Tuskegee. 
 
 Secondary Education. — Graded schools have 
 been organized in the towns and cities, but a 
 high school system for the state is as yet 
 to be developed. The last available report 
 shows that there were 8 public high schools 
 in cities of SOOO or over, and 1 1 1 public high 
 schools of all kinds in the different towns and 
 districts of the state. In addition to the 
 above 21 private high schools are reported. 
 Three public high schools and 11 private high 
 schools exi.st in the state for the colored 
 race. The work done in nearly all of the high 
 schools is only in part secondary work, as is 
 shown by the presence of many elementary 
 pupils and by the low entrance requirements of 
 the colleges of the state. The high school law 
 of 1907 provides for the ultimate placing of a 
 good high school in each county, but it rests 
 with the Governor to put the law into opera- 
 tion, and this is to take place when in his 
 judgment the conditions of the treasury will 
 permit. A site, building, and eciuipment, 
 costing not less than .S5000 must be pro- 
 vided locally and deeded to the state, after 
 which the state will make an annual appro- 
 priation of S2000 for teachers' salaries. The 
 7 public normal schools, the 9 agricultural high 
 schools, the state industrial school for white 
 girls, and the high schools in the cities, form 
 the chief agencies for secondary education in 
 
 the state. With the development of its 
 agricultural and natural resources, the coming 
 of railways and manufactories, and the con- 
 sequent largely increased expenditure for edu- 
 cation on the part of the people of the state, 
 educational conditions may be expected to 
 improve rapidly in the future. But it will 
 require years to overcome the handicap under 
 which the state now labors. 
 
 Higher and Technical Education. — The 
 University of Alabama, opened in 1831, and 
 the Alabama Polytechnic Institute at Auburn, 
 opened in 1872, stand as the culmination of 
 the public school system of the state. The 
 Agricultural and Mechanical College for negroes 
 at Normal offers agricultural and technical 
 instruction for the colored race. In addition 
 to these state institutions 13 denominational 
 colleges, 2 of which are for the colored race, 
 supplement the higher instruction offered by 
 the state. The colleges are as follows: — ■ 
 
 College 
 
 Location 
 
 Opened 
 
 Control 
 
 For 
 
 For White Race 
 
 
 
 
 
 Spring Hill College 
 
 Spring Hill 
 
 1S30 
 
 R. C. 
 
 Men 
 
 Judson College 
 
 Marion 
 
 18.39 
 
 Bapt. 
 
 Women 
 
 Howard College 
 
 East Lake 
 
 1841 
 
 Bapt. 
 
 Men 
 
 Athens College 
 
 Athens 
 
 1843 
 
 M. E. So. 
 
 Women 
 
 Alabama Brenau 
 
 
 
 
 
 College 
 
 Eufaula 
 
 1854 
 
 Non.Sect. 
 
 Women 
 
 Alabama Confer- 
 
 
 
 
 
 ence Female Col- 
 
 
 
 
 
 lege 
 
 Tuskegee 
 
 1856 
 
 M. E. So. 
 
 Women 
 
 Alabama Central 
 
 
 
 
 
 Female College 
 
 Tuscaloosa 
 
 1858 
 
 Bapt. 
 
 Women 
 
 Southern Univer- 
 
 
 
 
 
 sity 
 
 Greensboro 
 
 1859 
 
 M. E. So. 
 
 Both Sexes 
 
 Tuscaloosa Female 
 
 
 
 
 
 College 
 
 Tuscaloosa 
 
 1860 
 
 M. E. So. 
 
 Women 
 
 St. Bernard College 
 
 St. Bernard 
 
 1892 
 
 R. C. 
 
 Men 
 
 Alabama Synodica! 
 
 
 
 
 
 Col. for Women 
 
 Talladega 
 
 1903 
 
 Presby. 
 
 Women 
 
 For Colored Race 
 
 
 
 
 
 Talladega College 
 
 Talladega 
 
 
 Cong. 
 
 Both Sexes 
 
 Stillman Institute 
 
 Tuscaloosa 
 
 
 S. Presb. 
 
 Men 
 
 Special Institutions. — The most noteworthy 
 special institution maintained by the state 
 is the Alabama Girls' Industrial School at 
 Montevallo, which offers courses similar to 
 those given in the better high schools, and in 
 addition instruction in art, domestic economy, 
 dairying, and manual training. Almost equally 
 noteworthy are the 9 agricultural high schools 
 maintained by the state, one in each con- 
 gressional district, which serve as preparatory 
 departments for the University of Alabama. 
 These offer a good high school course, with 
 instruction in agriculture. The state also 
 maintains the Alabama School for the Deaf, 
 the Alabama School for the Blind, and the 
 Alabama School for Xegro Deaf and Blind, 
 all located at Talladega; and the Alabama 
 Industrial (reformatory) School at East Lake. 
 
 E. P. C. 
 References: — 
 Clark, Willis G. History of Education in Alabama, 
 
 1702-1SS9. Circ. Inf. No. 3, 1889, U. S. Bu. 
 
 Educ, p. 280. 
 
 73
 
 ALABAMA 
 
 ALASKA 
 
 Mato, a. D. On Histon* of Education in Alabama, 
 see Rcpts. U.S. Com. Ediic, 1(S95-1S96, Vol. I, pp. 
 300-30J : 1899-1900, Vol. I, pp. 481-489. 
 
 Annual Reports of the Superintendent of Education of 
 Alabama, 1855-1858 ; 1869-190S. 
 
 Public School Lau's of Alabama, 1908 ed. 
 
 Statistics based on the 1909 Report of U.S. Com. Educ. 
 
 ALABAMA, STATE UNIVERSITY OF. — 
 
 Founded in 1S19 through a donation of 72 
 sections made by Congress for the " endowment 
 of a seminary of learning." In 1820 the title 
 " University of Alabama " was adopted. Tus- 
 caloosa was selected as the seat of the university 
 in 1827. Rev. Alva Woods, D.D., was the first 
 president. The old buildings were destroyed in 
 1865, and new buildings were erected in 1867 
 and instruction resumed in 1869. In 1884 
 Congress made a second donation of 72 sections 
 of public lands. In 1907 the Legislature of 
 Alabama voted $400,000 as a fund for erecting 
 new buildings during 1907-1910, and increased 
 the annual maintenance fund to .125,000. In 
 the same year the Medical College of Alabama 
 (founded 1859) at Mobile became a part of the 
 university, and 845,000 was appropriated to it 
 for new buildings and equipment and an annual 
 sum of S5000 for maintenance. The Board of 
 Trustees consists of the Governor and State 
 Superintendent of Education, ex officio, and 
 one member from each of the congressional dis- 
 tricts except that in which the university is 
 located, which has two members. The uni- 
 versity maintains six departments for academic 
 instruction, education, engineering, law, medi- 
 cine, and pharmacy, and since 1904 a summer 
 school for teachers. Admission is either by 
 certificate from affiliated schools and the first- 
 grade state certificate as teachers in the public 
 schools of Alabama with an examination in sub- 
 jects not covered by the certificate, or by exami- 
 nation. Twelve units, to be raised to fourteen 
 in 1910-1911, are required for admission. 
 English, mathematics, and history must be in- 
 cluded, and no student who is conditioned in 
 more than four units is admitted. Degrees are 
 conferred at the end of a four years' course. 
 The university grounds at Tuscaloosa cover 
 nearly 300 acres, including a campus of 40 acres. 
 There are 9 college buildings. The univer- 
 sity library contains 20,000 volumes and a 
 large number of pamphlets; there is also a valu- 
 able natural historv collection. There were, in 
 1909, 884 students, divided as follows: 284 in the 
 academic department, 48 in engineering, 09 in 
 law, 74 in medicine and 19 in pharmacy, 293 
 in summer school. There is a faculty of 30 
 professors, 28 instructors, lecturers, and assist- 
 ants. T. W. Abercrombie, LL.D., D.C.L., is 
 the president. 
 
 ALABAMA SYNODICAL COLLEGE, TAL- 
 LADEGA, ALA. — An institution for the higher 
 education of women, founded in 1903 by the 
 Presbyterian Synod of Alabama. While the 
 entrance requirements are not definitely stated, 
 the institution grants degrees on a four years' 
 
 76 
 
 course. Primary and preparatory departments 
 are maintained, as well as a conservatory of 
 music and art. There are 10 instructors. 
 
 ALASKA, EDUCATION IN. — The first 
 school in Alaska was established on Kodiak 
 Island in 1784 by Gregory Shelikof, the 
 founder of a Russian trading company. In 
 1799 the Russian-American Fur Company was 
 required to establish schools in connection with 
 its trading posts. In these schools, especially 
 at Sitka, the half-breed young men were 
 trained as mechanics and bookkeepers, and as 
 masters of its vessels, and a few half-breed na- 
 tive girls were trained as housekeepers. Mis- 
 sion schools of the Russo-Greek Church edu- 
 cated a few young half-breed men as priests. 
 The native population as a whole was not 
 reached by this system of education, which 
 was discontinued about 1850. 
 
 In 1877 the first American schools were es- 
 tablished in connection with Presbyterian mis- 
 sions among the natives through the agency 
 of Dr. Sheldon Jackson. The act providing a 
 civil government for Alaska, 1884, directed the 
 Secretary of the Interior to make proper pro- 
 vision for the education of white and native 
 children. In March, 1885, this duty was as- 
 signed to the United States Commissioner of 
 Education, who conducted the schools for both 
 white and native children under annual ap- 
 propriations from Congress until 1900, when 
 Congress authorized the incorporated towns to 
 assume the support and control of their white 
 schools. In 1905 the schools outside of incor- 
 porated towns were placed under the super- 
 vision of the Governor of the District, who was 
 made ex offieio superintendent of public in- 
 struction. Both the schools in incorporated 
 towns and outside of incorporated towns are 
 managed by local boards of three members each, 
 elected by the people; both classes of schools 
 are supported from the moneys received from 
 liquor, occupation, and trade licenses, the for- 
 mer getting one half the income received from 
 this source within the incorporated towns, 
 and the latter one-fourth of the amount received 
 outside the incorporated towns. The only 
 duties of the Governor regarding schools which 
 are expressed, in the statutes have to do with 
 the apportionment of these moneys among 
 the latter class of schools; no supervision has 
 been exercised by him over the schools in the 
 incorporated towns. 
 
 In 1908-1909 there were 10 schools in in- 
 corporated towns and 19 schools outside of in- 
 corporated towns. The latter were maintained 
 at a cost of .S40,762, the enrollment being 684. 
 No statistics are available regarding the former. 
 Schools are usually maintained for nine months 
 in all tow-ns. The largest towns maintain 
 graded schools, including high schools, some of 
 which are of high grade. The schools in the 
 incorporated towns are well housed and well 
 equipped. The contrary is usually the case in
 
 ALASKA 
 
 ALBANY 
 
 the other schools, most of which have but a 
 single teacher, none having more than three. 
 The average salary of teachers is slightly above 
 $100 per mouth, the entire range being from 
 $80 to $175. 
 
 The educational system for the natives, under 
 the Commissioner of Education, was entirely 
 reorganized and greatly extended during 1907- 
 1910. The education of the inferior races is 
 conceived as meaning the advancement of both 
 adults and children in civilization. Four main 
 objects are sought: (1) the development 
 of the native industries and of the industries of 
 civilization to which the natives are adapted; 
 (2) improvement in the domestic arts; (3) 
 the establishment of .sanitary conditions in the 
 native villages and the promotion of hygienic 
 living; (4) the inculcation of moral principles. 
 Only slightly less emphasis is placecl upon in- 
 struction in the elementary school subjects. 
 The schoolhouse in each village is regarded as a 
 social center for the accomplishment of practi- 
 cal ends. These houses contain the school- 
 room, industrial room, kitchen, bath, and the 
 living quarters of the teachers. 
 
 In the school year 1909-1910 the school 
 service embraced 78 stations, with 6 superin- 
 tendents, 96 teachers, 17 physicians, 5 of whom 
 served also as superintendent or teacher, and 3 
 instructors in sanitation and hygiene. During 
 1908-1909 the school enrollment in 69 stations 
 was 3809 and the average attendance 1521; 
 89 teachers made 11,540 visits to homes of na- 
 tives and received 28,583 visitors; 77 of these 
 teachers rendered medical attendance, during 
 the absence of physicians, 9107 times. Since 
 July 1, 1907, the annual appropriation of Con- 
 gress for this service has been $200,000. 
 
 Alaska Reindeer Service. — One of the most 
 notable achievements in the history of the edu- 
 cation of inferior races is conducted by the 
 United States Bureau of Education as a part of 
 its educational system for the natives of Alaska. 
 By the distribution of domestic reindeer im- 
 ported from Siberia among the natives in ac- 
 cordance with a plan which is fundamentally 
 educative in character, a threatening economic 
 danger has been removed, and a new industry, 
 higher in the ethnological scale, has been estala- 
 lished through which the Eskimos are advanc- 
 ing rapidly into a higher civilization. 
 
 The Service, which was inaugurated in 1892, 
 is conducted under rules and regulations ap- 
 proved by the Secretary of the Interior, which 
 provide for the distribution of reindeer to na- 
 tives as reward for apprenticeship, in return for 
 services rendered outside apprenticeship, and 
 by purchase. Whites may acquire male deer by 
 purchase. Distribution occurs mainly through 
 apprenticeship, during which a boy not only ac- 
 quires the art of deermanship, but also receives 
 instruction in the elementary English subjects, 
 in the keeping of accounts, in the marketing of 
 reindeer, and in the purchasing of supplies, 
 during periods of short attendance at the regu- 
 
 77 
 
 lar schools, and also from travehng teachers at 
 the reindeer camps. If his record is good, he 
 receives at the end of each year from 6 to 10 
 reindeer, and at the close of the fourth year 
 becomes a herder. Later he is required to take 
 on apprentices. The Lapps, who were originally 
 employed as instructors in deermanship, have 
 now been largely succeeded by Eskimos. 
 Since 1907, the government by a large increase 
 in the number of its reindeer stations has taken 
 the prominent part formerly held by the 
 missions in the distribution. 
 
 On June 30, 1909, there were 18 government 
 and 10 mission stations, and 22,915 reindeer, 
 19 per cent of which were owned by the govern- 
 ment, 17 per cent by the missions, 14 per cent by 
 the Lapp herders, and 49 per cent by 260 
 natives. In consequence of the Bureau's 
 policy of eventually turning over all its rein- 
 deer to the natives, the percentages of govern- 
 ment and mission reindeer are gradually de- 
 creasing, while the percentage of reindeer owned 
 b}- the natives has increased 8 per cent and the 
 number owming reindeer has increased 128 per 
 cent since 1907. 
 
 The reindeer furnish the natives with meat 
 and milk for food, skins for clothing, and sinew 
 for sleds and other implements; 800 sled deer 
 provide transportation for passengers and 
 freight. In addition the natives have the income 
 from the sale of reindeer products and from 
 freighting, which during the fiscal year 1909 
 amounted to almost $18,000. Some Eskimos 
 maintain bank accounts. Twenty-five Eskimos 
 own herds of over 100 reindeer, ranging in value 
 from S2500 to $20,000 each. H. V. 
 
 References: — 
 
 Brief historj' of Alaska School Service in Report of 
 Harlan Updegraff, Chief of Alaska Division, for 
 1907, found in Report of Commissioner of Education, 
 1907, Vol. I, pp. 371-396. 
 
 Also see reports on Alaska School Service in Reports of 
 Commissioner of Education, 18S9-1906 and 190S. 
 
 Report of Governor of Alaska, 1909, p. 8. 
 
 Reports on Introduction of Domestic Reindeer into 
 Alaska, 1S93-1906, published as Senate Documents. 
 
 Report on .'Uaska Reindeer Service in Report of Commis- 
 sioner of Education, 1906. 
 
 ALBANY, CITY OF. — The capital citv 
 of the state of New York. In 1900 the 
 city had a population of 94,151, and in 1910 
 its estimated population was 100,253. Its 
 school census, 5-18 years of age, was 16,688 in 
 1908, and its total day school enrollment was 
 12,572. The enrollment in private and parochial 
 schools was 5398 additional, and is increasing, 
 while the total of public school enrollment is 
 decreasing. Nineteen per cent of the popula- 
 tion of 1900 was foreign-born, German, Irish, 
 and English being the predominant races. 
 Only 1.2 per cent were negroes. 
 
 A Board of Public Instruction was first or- 
 ganized by law for Albany in 1866, and a 
 City Superintendent of Schools was employed 
 the same year. The Board of Public Instruc- 
 tion was reorganized in 1892, and again in 1902,
 
 ALBANY COLLEGE 
 
 ALBERT OF YORK 
 
 when its name was changed to the Board of 
 Education. The board consists of three mem- 
 bers, apijointed for six-year terms. The Super- 
 intendent of Schools holds office on an indefinite 
 tenure. The city employed 316 teachers and 2.S 
 supervisory officers in 1907-1908, and provided 
 a school term of ISO days in day schools and 87 
 evenings in evening schools; 29 teachers were 
 employed in kindergartens, 50 in evening 
 schools, and 30 in the high school. Of the 
 teachers employed, 313 were women, 213 were 
 graduates of the Albany higli school, and 172 
 were graduates of the City Training School. 
 The total expenditures for current expenses in 
 1908-1909 were $370,270. The city maintains 
 22 day elementary schools, with kindergartens 
 attached, 4 elementar.y evening schools, 1 day 
 and 1 evening high school, and a teachers' 
 training school with a two years' course beyond 
 the high school for the jnirpose of training 
 teachers for the elementary schools of the city. 
 An ungraded school is provided, and a compul- 
 sory attendance officer employed. A teachers' 
 retirement fund went into operation Jan. 1, 
 1908. A vocational school was added in 1909, 
 taking pupils from the elementary schools at the 
 age of 13 or 14 and giving a course of from two to 
 four years. The length of the full course is 
 four years. The first two years are devoted to 
 general mechanical training, and in the la.st two 
 years the studies are more specific in character, 
 with application of subject matter to the in- 
 dustries of Albany and its vicinity. The 
 purpose of the school is largely industrial and 
 technical. 
 
 References: — 
 
 Annual Kvpnrls iif the Board of Education and the Supcrin- 
 tcmhnl of Schools of the City of Albany, 1867-1909. 
 
 Albany Vociitional School, New York State Education 
 Department, Division of Trades Schools. 
 
 ALBANY COLLEGE, ALBANY, ORE, — 
 
 A coeducational institution founded in 1866 
 and placed under the control of the Presbyterian 
 Synod of Oregon, which elects the Board of 
 Trustees. Financial support is given by the 
 sj'nod, the city and community of Albany, and 
 tlie College Board of the Presbyterian Church. 
 All students are expected to attend chapel 
 daily and to devote one hour a week to Bible 
 study. Academic, collegiate, commercial, and 
 musical departments are maintained. Ap- 
 proximately three years' high school work is 
 required for entrance. The B.A. degree and the 
 B.Ped. in the Normal course are given. The 
 majority of the students attending are in the 
 music department. There are 7 professors and 
 5 instructors and assistants. 
 
 ALBERT COLLEGE, BELLEVILLE, ONTA- 
 RIO. — A coeducational institution of prepara- 
 tory grade under the auspices of the General 
 Methodist Conference, giving courses preparing 
 for matriculation for the universities, business 
 courses, and courses in fine arts. 
 
 78 
 
 ALBERT LEA COLLEGE FOR WOMEN. 
 ALBERT LEA, MINN. — .\n educational 
 institution for women, founded in 1884 by 
 the Synod of Minnesota. An academy giv- 
 ing preparatory training is attached to the 
 college. Fifteen units of academy or high 
 school work are reciuired for admission to 
 the freshman class in the college. Cla.ssical, 
 •semicla.ssical, and scientific courses arc offered, 
 with a minimum of electivcs. Departments 
 of fine arts are also maintained. Degrees and 
 diplomas are conferred. Graduates of the 
 college receive state certificates to teach in the 
 high schools after one year's service. There is 
 a faculty of 17 instructors. 
 
 ALBERT OF YORK. — (c. 710.) School- 
 master and Archbishop of York. As master 
 of Alcuin, the most famous educator of his 
 age, whose fame is greater in France and 
 Germany even than in England, it is fortunate 
 that Albert's own merits have been sung by 
 Alcuin himself. Albert, orEthelbert, a relation 
 of his predecessor Egbert, who was himself 
 brother of the reigning king of Northumbria, 
 was brought up in York Minster. He became 
 deacon and priest when quite young; was made 
 Defensor Cleri, an oflSce much like that of the 
 later official of the Court of York or bishop's 
 chancellor. " At the same time he was preferred 
 as master in the city. There he gave to 
 some the art of the science of grammar, pouring 
 on others the rivers of the tongue of orators; 
 these he polished on the whet.stones of law, 
 those he taught to sing together in jFouian 
 chant, making others plaj' on the flute of Ca.s- 
 taly, and run with the feet of lyric poets over the 
 hills of Parnassus." But grammar, song, and 
 rhetoric were not all. He taught the music of 
 the spheres, the use of the globes, and natural 
 history. " Others the said master made to 
 know the harmony of heaven, the labors of 
 sun and moon, the five belts of the sky. the seven 
 planets, the laws of stars, the rising and falling 
 of the wind, the movements of the sea, the 
 earth's quake, the nature of men, cattle, birds, 
 and beasts," " the divers kinds of numbers, and 
 various shapes." He even taught arithmetic 
 and Euclid. He was versed in the calendar and 
 ecclesiastical arithmetic. " Ho gave certainty 
 to the solemnity of Easter's return." Above 
 all, he taught theology. His school was not 
 merely a day school, " whatever youths he saw 
 of eminent intelligence, those he joined to him- 
 self, he taught, he fed, he loved." Alcuin's 
 biographer tells us that Helborcht, as he calls 
 Albert, had round him " a flock of scholars from 
 the sons of gentlemen (nobiJiiim)," some of whom 
 were instructed in the rudiments of the art of 
 grammar, others in the learning of the liberal 
 arts, and some in the divine writings. He 
 traveled abroad and went to Rome, and on his 
 return l)ecame archbishop. The cathedral, 
 with thirty chapels and thirty altars, was rebuilt 
 by his two pupils, Eaubald and Alcuin, under
 
 ALBERTA 
 
 ALBRIGHT COLLEGE 
 
 Albert's directions, and was consecrated ten 
 days before he died. He liad lianded over the 
 archbisliopric to Eaubakl two j'cars before his 
 death, and retired into private life. He is the 
 first book collector recorded in England. The 
 school and the books he gave to Alcuin himself, 
 who gives a poetical catalogue of them, which 
 comprised only some half dozen authors who 
 would now be called classical: Vergil, Statius 
 and Lucan, Aristotle and Cicero; but a large 
 number of grammarians, ten Fathers, and Aid- 
 helm and Bede, who had only recently died. 
 But as the catalogue ends with saying that the 
 rest are too long to write, we may perhaps 
 credit Albert with many more. At all events, 
 he was a remarkably learned man for his age, 
 and showed that he was a great educator by the 
 affection which he inspired in the pupils who 
 commemorated him. A. F. L. 
 
 References: — 
 
 Alcuin. De Poniificihus ct Sanctis Ecclesiae Ebora- 
 
 censis. 
 Le.ich, a. F. Early Yorkshire Schools. (London, 
 
 1899.) 
 R,\INE, J. History of Church of York. Rolls Ser. 1S79. 
 
 ALBERTA,EDUCATIONIN. — SeeCAN.^DA, 
 
 Educ.^tiox IX. 
 
 ALBERTUS MAGNUS,— called the "univer- 
 sal doctor " because of the breadth of his knowl- 
 edge, which rendered him perhaps the most 
 learned of all the medieval schoolmen, — was 
 born perhaps in 1193 at Lauingcn in Swabiaand 
 died at the ripe age of 87 years at Cologne. 
 Albertus had already been well educated both in 
 Paris and Padua when he entered the order of 
 the Dominican friars, in 1223. Subsequently he 
 studied at Bologna, and taught both at Cologne 
 and Paris. Nor were his activities limited to 
 the scholastic field. The greatness of his repu- 
 tation as an exponent of Peter the Lombard, 
 Aristotle, and Averroes caused administrative 
 duties to be put upon him. He served as 
 Provincial of his order in Germany, then as 
 Grand Master of the Palace to Pope Alexander 
 IV, and finally, in 1260, as Bishop of Ratisbon. 
 He assisted at the famous Council of Lyons, but 
 his heart was rather in quiet studies and in his 
 teaching at Cologne. Albertus was skilled in 
 the science of his day, a prolific author of 21 
 folio volumes, a realist in philosophy, a fol- 
 lower but not a slavish imitator of Aristotle, 
 a bold and discriminating theologian, and a 
 master of dialectical method. His influence 
 on the Church has been less than that of Thomas 
 Aquinas, but his Summa Theologiae and com- 
 mentary on the Book of Sentences are among 
 the great literary achievements of medieval 
 scholasticism. P. R. C. 
 
 References: — 
 
 Opera. (Paris, 1890-1899.) 
 
 SiGH.\RT. Albert the Great, tr. by Dixon. (London, 1876.) 
 TowN.sEND. Great Schoolmen of the Middle Ages. 
 (London, 1S81.) 
 
 ALBERUS, ERASMUS.— (f. 1500-1553.) A 
 German pastor and schoolmaster. Born in 
 Sprendlingen, he became teacher in Ursel, and 
 afterwards general superintendent of the 
 churches of Brandenburg. He is the author of 
 a Latin-German dictionary, a book on morals, 
 and a number of pedagogic writings, in which 
 he opposes the barbarous methods of corporal 
 punishment used in the schools of his time. 
 
 ALBION COLLEGE, ALBION, MICHI- 
 GAN. — A coeductional institution, the move- 
 ment to establish which was begun in 1833 by 
 three clergymen of the Methodist Episcopal 
 Church. In November, 1843, the first building 
 was opened; in 1849 the charter was amended to 
 provide for the inclusion of a women's college, 
 and the corporate name became " Wesleyan 
 Seminary and Female College Institute." In 
 1861 this institution became Albion College, and 
 was authorized to confer degrees. In addition to 
 the College of Liberal Arts, admission to which is 
 by examination or certificate from an approved 
 high school, the college maintains a Conserva- 
 tory of Music, a School of Painting, a Business 
 Department, and a Preparatory School. A 
 modified elective system of studies is in effect. 
 The degree of M.A. is given for graduate study. 
 The institution has established a " Business 
 Man's College Course " of three years, leading 
 to the degree of Bachelor of Science; the re- 
 quirements for admission are the same as those 
 for the College of Liberal Arts. Twelve of the 
 16 members of the College Corporation are 
 elected by the Michigan and Detroit Confer- 
 ences of the Methodist Episcopal Church. 
 College fraternities have been established as 
 follows: Delta Tau Delta, Sigma Chi, Alpha 
 Tau Omega, Sigma Nu, Delta Gamma, Kappa 
 Alpha Theta, Alpha Chi Omega; the last three 
 are women's societies. There are (1909) 27 
 members on the instructing staff, 10 of whom 
 are full professors. The students number 452, 
 divided as follows: College of Liberal Arts, 258; 
 Conservatory of Music, 187; School of Painting, 
 13; School of Business, 70; Preparatory and 
 " Unclassified," 79. The grounds, buildings, 
 and equipment were valued (1906) at .S250,000; 
 the total aiuiual income is about S42,000. The 
 average salary of a professor is .S1620. The 
 Rev. Samuel Dickie is president. C. G. 
 
 ALBRIGHT COLLEGE, M'raRSTOWN, PA. 
 
 — Founded in 1902 l:)y the union of Central 
 Pennsylvania and Albright colleges. It is 
 coeducational, and offers classical and scientific 
 courses, and maintains normal and fine arts 
 departments and preparatory school, giving a 
 three years' course. Admission is by certificate 
 of an approved school or by examination require- 
 ments equivalent to three and a half years' high 
 school course. Degrees are conferred. There 
 is a faculty of 11 professors and adjunct pro- 
 fessors. Clellan Asbury Bowman, A.^Sl., Ph.D., 
 is president.
 
 ALCHAYAMI 
 
 ALCIAT 
 
 ALCHAYAMI. — See Omar Khayyam. 
 
 ALCHEMY. — Ancient and medieval chemis- 
 try, from which our modern science did not 
 wholly free itself until Lavoisier {q.v.) made his 
 extraordinary discoveries in the latter part of 
 the eighteenth century. The word is of doubtful 
 origin. Kimia (xim'i) may have to do with an 
 " infusion," or perhaps mth the Greek form of 
 the native name of Egypt. The prefix " al " is 
 a contribution made to the term by the Arabic 
 writers, to whom the Middle Ages owed their 
 knowledge of the subject. Chemical substances 
 and processes naturally engaged the attention 
 of the ancient Egyptians as they gradually 
 learned to work gold and silver, make glass and 
 enamels, to color them, and to dye fabrics. 
 Their success roused indefinite hopes that they 
 might be able to change the baser substances 
 into gold and silver, produce precious stones, and 
 mayhap discover some drug that would put 
 to flight all forms of disease. Accordingly, 
 when alchemy emerges in the writings of the 
 third and fourth century of our era, by Zosimus, 
 Synesius, Olympiodorus, and others, it is traced 
 back to Hermes Trismegistus of mythical 
 Egyptian origin, and contains, along with certain 
 practical and impractical recipes for alloys, 
 bronze, glass, enamels, etc., avast accumulation 
 of superstition, mysticism, and symbolism. 
 This is due in part to the resemblance of the 
 more startling chemical changes to those ascribed 
 to magic; in part to the secrecy demanded by 
 enterprises which if kept to himself might en- 
 rich the fortunate discoverer. The alchemist 
 was from the first a highly suspicious character, 
 open to accusations of imitating gold and silver, 
 brewing poisons, and consorting with evil spirits. 
 We have a report that Diocletian ordered the 
 book of the Egyptians concerning the trans- 
 mutation (-n-epi )(Tjfiia^) of gold and silver to be 
 burned. Alchemy, like astrology, reached 
 western Europe in the thirteenth century 
 through the Arabic w-riters, and continued to 
 flourish there, with all its disreputable accom- 
 paniments, for five hundred years. 
 
 With our modern notions of the various kinds 
 of atoms and the ob.served laws according to 
 which they combine with one another into more 
 or less complicated molecules, it is very difficult 
 indeed to sympathize with the speculations 
 and theories of the Middle .A.ges. Indeed, one 
 may suspect that a considerable part of the fan- 
 tastic terminology of alchemy, some of which can 
 be derived from Egypt, was very obscure even to 
 the adept. It is clear that every one agreed 
 that all things were composed of the four ele- 
 ments, earth, air, fire, and water. Lead was 
 cold and dry; tin, hot and wet; the former had 
 the " complexion " of Saturn, the second of 
 Jupiter. Avicenna is said to have held that 
 copper, which resembled Venus, was nearest 
 silver, and was composed of quicksilver and sul- 
 phur, heated for centuries in the bowels of the 
 earth. Roger Bacon (q-v.), who abhorred 
 
 magic and expresses manj^ reservations in deal- 
 ing with astrology, gives us a good notion of what 
 a thoughtful scholar in the latter part of the 
 thirteenth century might deem the main pur- 
 poses of alchemy. The great object was the 
 discovery of the secret of making gold of lead 
 and silver of copper. In tliis way not only 
 would the state be greatly aided, by a sufficient 
 supply of the precious metals, but, what was far 
 more important, life would be greatly prolonged. 
 " For that drug (medicina) which should re- 
 move all impurities and sources of corruption 
 from the baser metals and produce the purest 
 of gold and silver would, it is believed by the 
 wisest of men, eliminate the sources of corrup- 
 tion in the human body to such a degree that 
 life would be prolonged many centuries " (Opus 
 Majus, Pt. VI). Adam's body was so perfectly 
 tempered and balanced that the elements were 
 held in equilibrium, and, had he not sinned, 
 he would have enjoyed something like bodily 
 immortality. Bacon suggests the principles 
 upon which this elixir or philosopher's stone is 
 to be compounded. He believes that human 
 life could be greatly prolonged by a combination 
 of gold, pearl, flower of sea dew, spermaceti, 
 aloes, bone of stag's heart, flesh of Tyrian snake 
 and of an Ethiopian dragon. These, the very 
 highest authorities agree, would, if reduced to 
 absolute simplicity, so that thej' would not 
 infect one another, produce the sovereign rem- 
 edy (summa 7nedidna). The old alchemistic 
 conceptions linger in our terms, spirits of wine, 
 aqua regia, quicksilver, etc. The search for the 
 philosopher's stone led to much experimentation, 
 and the discovery of new suiistances and com- 
 pounds and useful chemical processes. In the 
 latter half of the seventeenth century many 
 new preparations were discovered, the gases 
 began to be distinguished, and the English 
 chemist Boyle (q.v.) (1626-1691) exercised a 
 decisive influence in eliminating from chemistry 
 the ancient belief in occult properties. 
 
 J. H. R. 
 See article on Che.mistry. 
 
 References: — 
 
 Behthelot, M. Origincs dc V Alchimie. (Paris, 1885.) 
 
 Grande Encyclopedie, s.v. Alchimie. 
 Kopp. H. Die Alchemic in tilterer und neuerer Zeit. 
 
 (1SS6.) 
 Mdir, M. M. p. Story of Alchemy and the Beginnings 
 
 of Chemistry. (New York, 1903.) 
 
 ALCLAT.ALCLATI.orALCLATO (ANDREA). 
 
 — (1492-1550.) Born at Alzatoin the Duchy of 
 Milan in 1492, and died at Pisa in 1550. He was 
 the restorer of the Roman law, and the Renais- 
 sance leader who brought literature to the aid of 
 law. " The historians of Rome, her antiquaries, 
 her orators, and poets were called upon to eluci- 
 date the obsolete words and obscure allusions of 
 the Pandects; to which, the earlier as well as 
 the more valuable and extensive portion of the 
 civil law, this method of classical interpreta^ 
 tion is chiefly applicable." (Hallam, Literature 
 
 SO
 
 ALCOHOL 
 
 ALCOHOL 
 
 of Europe, edition of 1S55, Vol. I, p. 417.) He 
 lectured on law at Avignon, Milan, Bourges, 
 Paris, Pavia, Bologna, and Ferrara. Every- 
 where he urged the lawyers to write with purity 
 and elegance, and bring law into literature. 
 " Practical " lawyers were opposed to him, 
 for he attempted to " sweep away the rubbish 
 of the old conflicting glosses, and their subtili- 
 tie.s." He was a man of the widest learning 
 in the encyclopedia of knowledge of the times. 
 Besides his distinguished position as the re- 
 former of law studies, he was the pioneer in the 
 writing of emblems. Henry Green, the great 
 authority in emblem literature, in his edition 
 (1870) for the Holbein Society of Andreas Al- 
 ciat's Emblcmatum Pontes Quntuor, says: " If we 
 would desire to know what amused, and, maybe, 
 instructed the men who were leisurely literate 
 in the middle of the sixteenth century, we must 
 seek some acquaintance with works like Alciat's 
 Emblems, where the graving-tool attempts to 
 give a visible form to the wisdom concealed in 
 mottoes and exemplified in stanzas, whether 
 of Latin verse or of the vernacular rhymes." 
 Emblem books, it must be also borne in mind, 
 were used by schoolmasters to a.ssist in stimu- 
 lating verse-writing, for rhetoric, and also for 
 conversation study of languages, where the 
 letter-press in connection with the device was 
 given in two or more languages. F. W. 
 
 See Emblems. 
 
 References: — 
 Green, H. Slmkcspeare and the Emblem Writers. 
 (London, 1871.) 
 
 ALCOHOL, THE USE AND PSYCHOLOG- 
 ICAL EFFECT OF. — This is a subject of very 
 great scientific interest in recent years, and one in 
 which much experimental work has been done 
 without very wide conclusive result. The subject 
 has much educational intere.st both because of the 
 actual effect upon school children whether 
 used directly or by their parents, and also 
 because of the extensive legislation relative to 
 temperance instruction (q.v.). Results can be 
 stated in a tentative form only. The appli- 
 cation of such generalizations as have been 
 reached should not be hastily made. 
 
 On respiration alcohol has a slightly stimu- 
 lating effect, increasing somewhat the absorp- 
 tion of oxygen. The aromatic flavors, how- 
 ever, of wines, brandies, and other liquors are 
 found to exert a more powerful influence 
 than the alcohol itself. The presence of pure 
 alcohol affects salivary or pancreatic diges- 
 tion but slightly, when in moderate dilutions. 
 Gastric secretion is powerfully stimulated 
 by moderate doses of alcohol in the stomach, 
 and digestion is not noticeably retarded 
 as long as the percentage of alcohol is below 
 5 per cent. The presence of 15 per cent 
 of alcohol may retard digestive action one 
 fourth, or even one third. Alcohol causes 
 dilatation of the blood vessels, and consequent 
 hyperemia, of the mucous lining along the 
 
 digestive tract, especially of the stomach, 
 attending more or less permanent paralysis 
 of the vaso-motor nerves. A degeneration of 
 the proper glandular tissues is also often attrib- 
 uted to continued use of alcohol, but these 
 results are by no means constant. Among 
 the digestive organs the most marked effect is 
 produced in the liver, in which growth of con- 
 nective tissue is stimulated, giving rise to 
 cirrhosis, or a hardening, of the organ, which 
 is accompanied with degeneration of the liver 
 cells proper and consequent impairment of 
 function. Fatt}' degeneration of the liver cells 
 is often apparently caused by acute alcohol 
 poisoning. 
 
 With regard to the food value of alcohol, 
 the balance of evidence seems to indicate that 
 alcohol is utilized by the body like starches, 
 sugars, and oils, only, however, if taken in small 
 amounts. It is, in fact, actuallj' produced 
 in minute quantities in the various tissues as 
 one of the products of metabolism. It is 
 clearly not a tissue-building food, and the train 
 of effects set up by it is so complicated that 
 the evidence is still inconclusive whether it can 
 be considered even a tissue-protecting or 
 tissue-saving food. In all cases of prolonged 
 and severe tests of strength and endurance, — 
 mountain-climbing, fatiguing expeditions in 
 cold climates, athletic sports, — alcohol is 
 strictly excluded from the diet. 
 
 The continued use of alcohol is recognized as 
 an important cause in cases of shriveled, 
 granular kidney and chronic Bright's disease; 
 and also of dilatation, hypertrophy, and fatty 
 infiltration of the heart, and in cirrhosis of the 
 blood vessels. 
 
 As exhibited in the ordinary phenomena of 
 acute intoxication, more or less marked accord- 
 ing to individual susceptibility and the amount 
 taken, the special toxic effect of alcohol is on 
 the nerve centers. Here the loss of control, in- 
 hibition, and even of the power of coordination 
 is clearly due to a throwing out of function of 
 the higher brain centers. From being at first 
 functional and passing off with the intoxica- 
 tion, recent evidence is accumulating to prove 
 that degeneration of the nerve cells may be 
 caused by continued use of alcohol. This 
 degeneration may occur anywhere in the ner- 
 vous system — in the brain, spinal cord, or 
 sympathetic ganglia; and if cells are destroyed, 
 new cells do not develop, and thus the injury 
 is permanent. As a result various forms of 
 insanity are thus directly caused by alcohol; 
 and these cases amount to from 25 per cent to 
 over 30 per cent of all admissions to insane 
 asylums. Perhaps the most serious general 
 effect of alcohol is the impaired organization of 
 the nervous system in the offspring of alcoholic 
 parentage. Twenty per cent of all epileptics 
 are traced to this cause. 
 
 Demme studied the histories of ten alcoholic 
 and ten normal families, with the following 
 results — 
 
 VOL. I — G 
 
 81
 
 ALCOHOL 
 
 ALCOHOL 
 
 Ten Alcoholic Families 
 
 Ten Normal Families 
 
 61 
 
 2 
 
 (2 backward) 
 
 No. of children . 57 
 Deformed ... 10 
 Idiotic .... 6 
 Epileptic, choreic 6 (one epileptic 
 
 cured ?) 
 
 Non-viable . . 25 .3 
 
 Normal . . . 10(9 ?) (17 per cent) 54 (88.5 per cent) 
 
 An experiment with two pairs of dogs, care- 
 fully balanced, the males brothers and the 
 females sisters from two not closely related 
 litters, yielded a closely comparable result. 
 Chemically pure alcohol, in amount not suffi- 
 cient to cause perceptible intoxication, was 
 given with the animals' meals. 
 
 No. of whelps 
 Deformed 
 Born dead 
 Viable . . . 
 
 No. of whelps 
 Deformed 
 Born dead 
 Viable . . . 
 
 Alcoholic Pair 
 
 (7-7-6-3) 2.3 (17.4 per cent) 
 
 (2-3-3-0) 8 
 
 (2-2-2-3) 9 
 
 (4-O-O-0) 4 (17.4 per cent) 
 
 Normal Pair 
 
 (5-3-8-8-5-6-3-7) 45 
 (1-0-0-2-0-0-0-1) 4 
 (0-0-0-0-0-0-0-0) 
 (4-3-8-5-5-6-3-6) 41 (90.2 percent) 
 
 Davenport says: "Nor do I propose to consider in 
 any detail the effects of drugs on germ plasm. The 
 matter awaits further investigation. Meanwhile ex- 
 perience indicates that the marriage of alcoholists cer- 
 tainly, and probably of users of any drug to extremes, is 
 associated with defective development of offspring, and 
 is, in so far, unfit." {Eugenics^ New York, 1910, p. 5.) 
 
 Public instruction in the physiology and 
 hygiene of alcohol was made the subject of 
 exhaustive investigation by the Committee of 
 Fifty, results of which are published in \o\. 1 
 of the Report cited below. 
 
 Many careful scientific experiments in regard 
 to the effects of the use of alcohol on muscular 
 work and mental activity have been made in 
 recent j^ears. In considering the results of 
 these investigations the first thing should be a 
 word of warning against hasty and sweeping 
 inferences. The effects of alcohol are largely 
 relative to the amount of the dose, the kind of 
 work done, the length of the work, the par- 
 ticular mental processes studied, etc. 
 
 The tests of the effects of alcohol on muscular 
 work have been made for the most part with 
 the ergograph (q.v.), an instrument which 
 records the amount of work done by the con- 
 traction of one finger or one arm in lifting a 
 weight. These tests have usually shown that 
 the amount of work performed l)y a muscle is 
 increased by the use of alcohol, either under 
 certain conditions, or in certain persons, or for 
 a certain time. Usually the number rather 
 than the height of the contraction is affected. 
 Sometimes, the effect of alcohol is first to in- 
 crease the muscular ability and then to 
 decrease it. 
 
 The method itself is not free from objections, 
 especially because certain psychic factors such 
 as suggestion and the like are not excluded. 
 Dr. Rivers, an English investigator who has 
 
 made very careful studies, attempted to rule 
 out these mental factors by disguising the 
 alcohol given to his subjects, mixing it with 
 other drugs. For example, it was administered 
 with a solution of peppermint, so that the sub- 
 ject was unable to tell whether the mixture 
 contained alcohol or not. On certain days 
 10 to 15 cc. of this mixture were given imme- 
 diately before the test, and on other da.vs the 
 same mixture without alcohol was given. 
 Ruling out the factors of interest and sugges- 
 tion in this manner, only negative results 
 were obtained. The work done by the sub- 
 jects was neither increased nor diminished. 
 Thus the problem of the effect of alcohol 
 even upon the muscular ability is a conii)lcx 
 one, and yet the main result seems to be well 
 established, that, except when given in small 
 doses, the effect of alcohol is to increase the 
 ability to do muscular work at first and then 
 to decrease it. 
 
 Tests of work involving mental processes 
 and of memory and association directly have 
 been made by a number of investigators, the 
 most important of these by Kraepelin and his 
 pupils and by Specht. Tests of writing have 
 shown a decrease in the amount of work done. 
 Careful tests of men engaged in typesetting 
 have shown a considerable decrease under the 
 influence of moderate doses of alcohol; and, 
 while the number of persons tested thus far 
 is relatively small, the inference seems to be 
 entirelj' justified that the general effect of 
 alcohol is to decrease one's working capacity 
 in such occupations, although the subject 
 often has the feeling that he is doing more than 
 usual. 
 
 Tests have also been made of the effect of 
 moderate doses of alcohol upon such intellec- 
 tual processes as committing to memory, free 
 and habitual association, discrimination, and 
 the like. The results differ with the different 
 mental processes tested, but generally the 
 effect of alcohol is to decrease the mental 
 ability. The simple reaction time is shortened 
 somewhat at first. Choice reaction times are 
 lengthened. Speech associations are often 
 increased, but in general the power of both 
 free and habitual associations is decreased. 
 The ability to add is decreased; the power of 
 committing to memory is decreased. Atten- 
 tion as tested by the ability to strike a dot on a 
 revolving drum is decreased. 
 
 All of these processes tested are considerably 
 complex. Specht has tried to test the effect 
 of alcohol upon the simplest mental processes, 
 choosing the sensations of sound and testing 
 the initial threshold, that is, the least sound 
 that can be heard, and the discrimination 
 threshold, that is, the smallest difference be- 
 tween two sounds that can be noticed. The 
 striking result was found that the effect of 
 alcohol on these two thresholds is different. 
 The initial threshold is diminished; the dis- 
 crimination threshold is increased; that is, 
 
 82
 
 ALCOHOL 
 
 ALCOTT 
 
 under the influence of alcohol, a lower sound can 
 be heard, but the difference between two 
 sounds must be greater in order that they may 
 be distinguished. The explanation given these 
 opposite results is open to doubt. The effect 
 of alcohol is to narrow the span of con- 
 sciousness and apparently to decrease the 
 memory. As a result of this only the single 
 sound is attended to, and other stimuli are not 
 noticed. The one sensation attended to fills 
 the whole of consciousness. Conseciuently 
 a lower sound than usual can be distinguished; 
 but in case of two sounds the finst fades out 
 or is banished from consciousness as soon as 
 the second is noticed, and consequently the 
 two cannot be held together and compared as 
 in the normal condition. Specht finds that the 
 effects of small doses of alcohol are the same 
 in kind as the effects of large doses, and that 
 the results of taking alcohol are cumulative. 
 
 The chief results of all these investigations 
 of the effect of alcohol on mental ability are 
 apparently the foUo-sving: the sensory-motor 
 activity is increased; the ability to commit to 
 memory and the power of association and the 
 more complex mental proces.ses in general are 
 decreased. The effect of small doses on muscu- 
 lar ability does not seem to be appreciable 
 when the psychic factors of suggestion and the 
 like are ruled out. The effect of larger closes 
 is to increase the muscular ability at first and 
 then decrease it. In general the immediate 
 effects of moderate doses of alcohol of from 
 30 to 40 cc. is to increase muscular ability and 
 to decrease the mental ability. The imme- 
 diate effect of large doses is to decrease the 
 mental ability, and the effect of such doses 
 persists for a long time, perhaps for 48 hours. 
 The depressing effects of alcohol in general 
 have been clearly shown. 
 
 No adequate investigations of the effect of 
 alcohol upon the mental ability of children 
 have been made ; but the studies by Kende 
 on 25 children indicate that the effect is similar 
 to that in case of adults. And there seems to 
 be the more reason for forbidding altogether 
 the use of alcoholic stimulants to children and 
 youth ; for during the period of development 
 at all events the mental activity should be 
 spontaneous, without interference from drugs 
 of any kind, and the effect, even of moderate 
 doses of alcohol, is probably to retard mental 
 development. 
 
 In view of the inadequate investigations 
 already made, the special psychic effects of 
 alcohol can hardly be stated dogmatically. 
 
 C. F. H. andW. H. B. 
 See Temper.ince, Instruction in, for a di.s- 
 cussion of the more directly educational 
 aspect of this topic, and for the legislation relat- 
 ing thereto. 
 
 References: — 
 
 Billings, John S., and others for the Committsp of 
 Fifty. Physiological Aspects of the Liquor Prob- 
 
 83 
 
 lem. (Boston and New York.) Vol. I. 306 pp., 
 
 no inde.x; Vol. II, .379 jjp.. index. 
 Billings, John S., Eliot, Charles W., F.\rn.\m, 
 
 Henrt W., Greene, Jacob L., and Peabody, 
 
 Francis G. The Liquor Problem. A Summary 
 
 of Investigations conducted by the Committee of Fifty 
 
 1S93-1903. (Boston and New York, 1905.) 182 pp. 
 Davenport, C. B. Eugenics, Fit and Unfit Matings. 
 
 (New York, 1910.) 35 pp. 
 Demme, R. Ueher den Einfluss des Alkohols auf den 
 
 Organismen des Kindes. (Stuttgart, 1891.) 
 Horsley, Victor, and Sturge, Mary D. Alcohol and 
 
 the Hitman Body. (London, 1907.) 370 pp. 
 Rivers, W. H. R. The Influence of Alcohol and Other 
 
 Drugs on Fatigve. (London, 1908.) 136 pp. 
 RosANOFF. M. A. and A. J. Evidence against Alcohol 
 
 McClurc's Magazine, March, 1909, Vol. XXXII 
 
 No. 5, pp. 557-566. 
 Specht, W. Die Beeinfliissung der Sinnesfunlctionen 
 
 durch geringe Alkoholmengcn. (Leipzie, 1907.) 
 
 I Teil, 115 p. 
 Wilker. Karl. Die Bedrutung und Stellung der Alko- 
 
 holfrage in der Erziehungs-Schule. (Miinchen. 
 
 1909.) 120 p. 
 Papers by Aschaffenburg, Rudin, Smith, and others in 
 
 Emil Kraepelin's Psychologische Arbeiten, Vols. 1-4. 
 
 (Leipzig.) 
 
 ALCORN AGRICULTURAL AND ME- 
 CHANICAL COLLEGE, ALCORN, MISS.— 
 A coeducational institution for white students, 
 founded by the Southern Presbyterians in 
 1S2S as Oakland College, and taken over in 
 1871 by the state. The present title was 
 adopted in 1878 to obtain the benefits of the 
 act of Congress of 1862. A state appropria- 
 tion of about $15,000 a year is received. A five 
 years' preparatory course, leading up to the 
 four years' college scientific course, is offered, 
 upon the completion of which the degree of 
 B.S. is given. Admission requirements are, 
 however, vague and indefinite. Departments 
 of agriculture, industries, fine arts, and nurse 
 training are also maintained. The faculty 
 includes 5 professors, 3 assistant professors, and 
 12 instructors and assistants. L. J. Brown, B.S., 
 is the president. 
 
 ALCOTT, AMOS BRONSON (1799-1888). 
 — Educator and author, was born at Wolcott, 
 Conn., Nov. 29, 1799. He was essentially 
 self-educated, having received an abbreviated 
 course in the common schools and acade- 
 mies of New England. In 1813 he took 
 up the itinerant occupation of peddler of small 
 wares and subscription books, which took 
 him into most of the states of the Union. He 
 began his career as a teacher in Connecticut in 
 1823, and his school at Cheshire soon attracted 
 widespread notice by the examples of improve- 
 ment which he set. Single desks were substi- 
 tuted for the long benches and double and 
 three-seated desks; the pupils were provided 
 with slates, pencils, and blackboards ; a school 
 library was established ; light gymnastic exer- 
 cises were introduced ; the children were 
 encouraged to keep diaries and to make collec- 
 tions of common objects, and he broke away 
 from the old rule of severe and indiscriminate 
 punishments, and substituted therefor appeals 
 to the affections and moral sentiments of the
 
 ALCOTT 
 
 ALCUIN 
 
 children. Of his course of study he wrote, 
 " It is adapted professedly to the wants and 
 genius of the young mind ; it refers to children, 
 and it insists tliat children are the best judges 
 of what meets their wants and feelings." His 
 scheme of moral training was the most rational 
 and elaborate in the annals of early American 
 education. Equally important was the scheme 
 of physical training. It aimed to .train the 
 physical powers in relation to the jiractical 
 uses of life. It provided special exercises for 
 the eye, the ear, and the voice, with emphasis 
 on such games as balancing, jumping, hojiping, 
 swinging, and running. liis jirinciples of intel- 
 lectual education may be briefly summarized 
 as follows ; follow nature ; employ the known 
 to induce the unknown; teach by visible and 
 tangible objects, by oral, illustrative, and 
 familiar methods ; bring all of the powers of 
 the mind into harmonious development and 
 exercise ; prepare the mind to investigate for 
 itself ; make experiment the test of theory and 
 the basis of fact ; consult the minds, genius, 
 and habits of the pupils ; furnish constant 
 employment. The school was open in the 
 evenings for story-telling, plays, and games. 
 Self-government was a notable feature of the 
 Cheshire experiment. A superintendent, a re- 
 corder, a librarian, and a conservator — selected 
 from the school memljcrs — cooperated with 
 the teacher. Reforms so pronounced were not 
 to pass unchallenged, and j\Ir. Alcott soon met 
 with endless opposition, not only from his 
 patrons but from his colleagues. In 1S2S 
 lie went to Boston, where he opened an infant 
 school and published his Observations on the 
 Principles and Methods of Infant Instruction, 
 which in some respects was an exposition of the 
 Postalozzian method. He was called to Phil- 
 adelphia in 1830 to accept a position in a private 
 school conducted by William Russell, but four 
 years later he returned to Boston and opened 
 the famous Temple School. Here he repeated 
 the experiments of the Cheshire school, and 
 introduced innovations which shocked the 
 pedagogic repose of his conservative contem- 
 poraries. He had as a.ssistant teachers in 
 the Temple School two women who later 
 became distinguished in American education 
 and letters : Elizabeth Palmer Peabody 
 iq.v.) and Sarah Margaret Fuller, afterwards 
 the Marchioness d'Ossoli. Miss Peabody's 
 book, Record of Mr. Alcott' s exemplifying the 
 Principles of Moral Culture (Boston, 1835), 
 gives an admirable pen picture of the Temple 
 School ; and Mr. Alcott's daughter Louisa May 
 in her Little Men utilized many of the incidents 
 of the experiment in her imaginary Plumfield 
 School. In 1836 Mr. Alcott published the 
 first volume of his Conversations icith Children 
 on the Gospels, and a year later the second 
 volume appeared. These books met mth a 
 storm of criticism from the ultra-orthodox 
 which ultimately caused the downfall of his 
 school. The Boston experiment met the 
 
 hearty approval of such well-known educa- 
 tional leaders as Horace Mann, Henry Barnard, 
 Thomas H. (lallaudet, Ralph Waldo Emerson, 
 Walter R. Johnson, and William EUcry Chan- 
 ning ; but the opposition from conservative 
 and traditional schoolmen ruined the financial 
 support of the school, and it had to be given up 
 in 1839. Harriet Martineau, after her return 
 to England from America in 1837, published 
 what she intended to be a caricature of the 
 Temple School. It came to the attention of 
 James Pierrepont Greaves, an English philan- 
 thropist and former a.ssociate of Pestalozzi. 
 He saw in her burlesciue the genuine Pestaloz- 
 zian spirit and method, and at once opened 
 correspondence with Mr. Alcott and pro- 
 nounced him the true successor of the Swiss 
 reformer. An English Pestalozzian school 
 which Greaves was organizing at Ham was 
 named the Alcott House, in honor of the 
 American teacher. Alcott subsequently made 
 a trip to England, but Greaves had died before 
 he reached there. The last fifty years of his 
 life Alcott dsvoted to the study and teaching 
 of philosophy. His contributions to the litera- 
 ture of education will be found in the Amrri- 
 can Journal of Education (1826-1831), the 
 American Annals of Education (1831-1837), 
 and the early volumes of the American Institute 
 of Instruction. During his closing years he 
 took an active part in the conduct of the 
 Concord School of Philosophy. He died at 
 Concord, Mass., March 4, 1888. W. S. M. 
 
 References: — 
 Sanbor.n'. Memoir of A. Bronson Alcott in Barnard's 
 
 American Journal of Education (1877, Vol. XXVII, 
 
 pp. 225-236). 
 Sanborn and Harris. A. Bronson Alcott — His Life 
 
 and Philosophy. (Boston, 1893.) 
 Monroe, W. S. History of the Pestalozzian Movement in 
 
 the United States. (Syracuse. 1905.) 
 
 ALCOTT, WILLIAM ALEXANDER (1798- 
 18.59). — Educational writer, educated in the 
 public schools of Connecticut and at Yale Col- 
 lege ; teacher in the public schools of Connecticut ; 
 institute lecturer in New England ; associate 
 editor of the American Annals of Education; 
 author of Construction of School Houses, A 
 Word to Teachers, Essays on Penmanship, and 
 Confessiojis of a Schoohnnster ; also of numerous 
 articles in educational journals. W. S. M. 
 
 ALCUIN (ALCHUINE ; I.at. ALCUINUS or 
 ALBINUS ; called FLACCUS at the Palace 
 
 School) (735-804), the adviser of Charle- 
 magne, was born of noble Northumbrian parent- 
 age about 735 .\.d. Educated at the School of 
 York, under the supervision of Archbishop Eg- 
 bert iq.v.), he was first the favorite pupil and 
 then the beloved colleague and traveling com- 
 panion of the master, ^Elbert; and finally, 
 when in 766 /Elbert became archbishop, his suc- 
 cessor, jointly with Eanbald in the conduct of 
 the school. He was ordained deacon probably 
 
 84
 
 A. Bronson Alcott. 
 
 WiUiam A. Alcott. 
 
 Lord Brougham. Dr. .\iKirew Bell. 
 
 Early Nineteenth Centcry Educators.
 
 ALCUIN 
 
 ALCUIN 
 
 in 767 (he never received priest's orders), and 
 continued to teacli and travel till in 778 
 iElbert's resignation and Eanbald's consecra- 
 tion as archbishop left him undisputed head 
 of the school, while on .-Elbert's death in 7S0 
 he apparently inherited his master's library. 
 Already his journeys and the influx of foreign 
 students to York had introduced him to many 
 continental scholars, — and now, going to 
 Rome to procure the pallium for Eanbald, he 
 met Charles the Great at Pavia, in March, 781, 
 and was induced to transfer his services, first 
 tentatively and then permanently, from the 
 Northumbrian to the Prankish kingdom. 
 Till 793, however, his work for Charles was 
 only intermittent. He appeared in Mercia 
 in 786, as a Northumbrian commissioner in 
 attendance on the Papal Legates, and again 
 in 790 as an envoy sent by Charles to make 
 peace with Offa; and then Northumbrian affairs 
 occupied him till 793. But in 794 he was 
 present at the Synod of Frankfort, and, various 
 causes having prevented his obejdng Eanbald's 
 summons to York in 795, the murder of the 
 Northumbrian king in 796 finally determined 
 him never to return to England. Hoping for 
 retirement at Fulda, he was allowed only to 
 exchange his work at the palace for the task of 
 establishing a model monastic school as Abbot 
 of St. Martin's at Tours.' Here he spent his 
 last years in study, teaching, and devotions, 
 paying at first an annual visit to the Court, and 
 carrying on in letters, treatises, and even in a 
 public disputation at Aachen (probably in 799), 
 a lengthy controversy with the Adoptionist 
 heretics whose teachings had lately spread from 
 Spain into Southern Gaul. But in 801 in- 
 creasing ill health obliged him to delegate all 
 secular tasks to others, though he still wrote 
 and studied. He died on Whitsunday, May 
 19, 804. 
 
 Lacking as Alcuin was in heroic qualities, — 
 in daring and in originality, — there was much 
 that was attractive in his character. Pure 
 and devout, patient, kindly, and humble- 
 minded, he was generous in the love and ad- 
 miration he lavished on men of a stronger type. 
 Above all things he was faithful — faithful to 
 his master Charles, to the See of Rome, to the 
 orthodo.xy of his teachers, to the moral stand- 
 ard by which he guided himself and judged 
 others, and to the compelling sense of duty 
 which made him forget pain and weakness in 
 his eagerness to be ever gaining and giving the 
 treasures of wisdom and combating error with 
 the weapons of authority and precedent. In 
 some degree this humble fidelity stands in the 
 way of a just estimate of his work. He was 
 so much the instrument of others, the executor 
 of their wishes, the medium for transmitting 
 their teaching, that the personal element is 
 hard to evaluate. His voluminous writings 
 are not in general educational, but consist 
 mainly of letters and poems, controversial, 
 theological, and liturgical compilations. There 
 
 are, however, treatises on grammar, rhetoric, 
 and dialectic, with two short dissertations and 
 various letters on astronomical problems, 
 mainly in connection with the calendar. 
 Works on music, arithmetic, and geometry, 
 mentioned by Alcuin's biographer, are not 
 known to exist. The Grammatica begins 
 with a short dialogue De vera philosophia be- 
 tween a master and a pupil, which indicates 
 Alcuin's views on education. Like most 
 medieval writers, he makes the comprehension 
 of the Scriptures the ultimate aim of study; 
 but, insisting on the need of enlightenment from 
 on high, he urges also the necessity of human 
 effort, and declares the Seven Liberal Arts 
 essential to the attainment of wisdom. In the 
 second dialogue, in which the pe.rsonw are 
 Alcuin and two boys, a Frank and a Saxon, 
 he defines Grammar, meagerly enough, as the 
 " science of written sounds, the guardian of 
 correct speech and writings," and, though enu- 
 merating twenty-six parts of the subject, 
 actually confines himself almost entirely to 
 accidence and etymology: a supplementary 
 De Orthographia, however, correcting the 
 Turonica riisticitas of his pupils at St. Martin's. 
 The De Rhetorica et Virlutibus discusses the 
 uses rather than the nature of Rhetoric. The 
 dialogue form, characteristically Anglo-Saxon, 
 is retained, but the speakers are here Alcuin 
 and Charles himself. The treatment of the 
 subject, based on Cicero and Isidore, is meager. 
 The De Dialectica deals with the dialectic art 
 itself, not merely its applications, but is neither 
 original nor adequate, though dialectic is de- 
 clared necessary to the study of theology. 
 
 These treatises would by themselves hardly 
 entitle Alcuin to a high place in the roll of 
 medieval scholars, but they afford no safe 
 criterion of either his own attainments or his 
 educational success. Granted that his knowl- 
 edge of rhetoric and dialectic was superficial, 
 that he was ignorant of Hebrew and scarcely 
 less so of Greek, yet at least his grammatical 
 studies were wide enough to give him a familiar 
 acquaintance not only with patristic writings, 
 but with some Latin classics, especially with 
 the poets whom to the last he loved to quote, 
 and a capacity for writing, not only facile 
 though faulty and uninspired verses, but Latin 
 prose, which, if not invariably correct, was easy, 
 simple, and dignified. And, again, it was not 
 as the writer of textbooks, — imperfect sum- 
 maries of oral teaching, — but as a Minister of 
 Education to Charles, and as the master whose 
 personal teaching stimulated the interest and 
 industry of pupils, men and women, of every 
 rank and age, that he did his real work for learn- 
 ing. It is indeed impossible to appraise 
 exactly his share in the Carolingian Renaissance. 
 He was undoubtedly the confidential adviser 
 of Charles in his educational schemes; they seem 
 sometimes to follow Anglo-Saxon precedents, 
 — and the Admonitio Generalis and the letter 
 to Abbot Baugulf in particular, breathing 
 
 85
 
 ALDEN 
 
 ALDHELM 
 
 Aleuin's very spirit, may even have been drafted 
 by his pen. But niDie than this cannot l)o 
 said. And, while his k'tters show us the born 
 teacher, — patient, considerate, indefatif!;ul)le; 
 devoted to his task; confident of the sacrcdne.ss 
 of liis vocation, — they give little or no de- 
 tailed information as to the methods and 
 results of all his labors. Thus the value of 
 his work is left to be surmised from the vigor 
 which after his death still marked the schools 
 where he had taught, — from the achieve- 
 ments of his own pupils, or his fellow laborers, 
 — and from the persistence of the conserva- 
 tive, as opposed to the creative, impulse of 
 the intellectual revival, all through the dark 
 period of feudal strife and anarchy, till the 
 dawn of a greater revival in the twelfth 
 century. 
 
 See also the article on Charlemagne and 
 Education. C. J. B. G. 
 
 References : 
 
 Alcuin. O iiera Otnnia. Ed. Frobcn. 3 vols. 
 
 Browne, G. F. Alcuin of York. (London, 1908.) 
 
 Diclionary of Naliomd Biography. 
 
 Dictionary of Christian Biography. 
 
 DnPUY, A. Biography of Alcuin. (Tours, 1876.) 
 
 Gaskoin, C. J. B. Alcuin: His Life and His Work. 
 
 (London, 1904.) 
 Hamehn. F. Biography of Alcuin. (Rennes. 1873.) 
 Hauck, a. Kirehcngeschichtc Deutschlands. lite Theil. 
 Herzog. Realencyclopddie fiir proleslantischc Theologie. 
 
 3te Auflage. 
 Laforet, J. B. Biography of Alcuin. (Louvain. 1851.) 
 LoRENTZ, F. Biography of Alcuin. (Halle, 1829.) Tr. 
 
 by J. M. Slee. (London, 1837.) 
 MoNNiER, F. Biography of Alcuin. (Paris, 1853 and 
 
 1863.) 
 Wattenbach, W. Deutschlands Geschichtsquellen, Vol. I. 
 West, A. F. Alcuin and the Rise of the Christian 
 
 Schools. (Groat Educators.) (London, 1893.) 
 Werner, K. Biography of Alcuin. (Paderborn, 1876.) 
 
 ALDEN, JOSEPH. — Educator and author, 
 born at Cairo, N.Y., Jan. 4, 1807; educated in 
 public and private schools, at Brown University, 
 and Princeton Theological Seminary; professor 
 in Williams College (1835-1852) and in Lafay- 
 ette College (1852-1857); president of Jefferson 
 College (1857-1867) and principal of the State 
 Normal School at Albany (1867-1872); author 
 of Ethica, Logic, Political Economy, Civics, 
 and Intellectual Philosophy ; died at New 
 York City, Aug. 30, 1885. W. S. M. 
 
 ALDEN, TIMOTHY (1781-1839). — Edu- 
 cated in the district schools of Massachusetts 
 and at Harvard College; teacher in public 
 schools and academies; first president of Alle- 
 gheny College (1817-1831). W. S. M. 
 
 ALDHELM (640 (?)-709). — An English 
 scholar important in the history of education as 
 one of the most brilliant of the scholars trained 
 at the Canterbury school founded about 668 
 by the Archbishop Theodore and the Abbot 
 Adrian (q.v.). The school gave a new impulse 
 to learning, though it would be an error to 
 suppose that learning had fallen asleep alto- 
 
 gether between the Roman military evacuation 
 and the coming of Augustine in 597. The 
 school or schools founded in East Anglia by 
 the joint efforts of King Sigberct, the Burgun- 
 dian Bishop Felix, and the Irish monk Fursa in 
 630 depended for teachers on " pedagogues and 
 masters after the custom of Kent'' (Bede, ///.s-<. 
 Eccles., c. xviii), which shows that the Roman 
 imperial schools in Kent survived the Saxon 
 onslaught. Aldhelm himself re])rcsented the 
 older culture, for, born at Siierborne, he had as 
 his teacher the famous Irish teacher Maildulf 
 of Malmesbury, who himself rejiresented, as 
 Fursa represented, the imperial tradition. 
 On the arrival of Theodore and Adrian, Aldhelm 
 at once joined them, and from them and their 
 varied library acquired a profound knowl- 
 edge of Greek and Latin, as well as. there 
 is reason to believe, Hebrew. We know from 
 famous Anglo-Saxon and medieval documents 
 that the study of Helirew never entirely died 
 out. The calls of learning were so insistent 
 that Aldhelm joined the Canterbury school a 
 second time in further search for knowledge. 
 He was a worthy scholar of a school that 
 rendered possible the great literary movement 
 which was to be crowned by Alcuin. Bede 
 tells us that as late as 732 there were scholars 
 to whom Greek and Latin were as familiar 
 as their native tongue. Aldhelm, the chief 
 scholar of his age, did much to strengthen the 
 movement. As the successor of Maildulf in 
 the monastery at Malmesbury, and as the first 
 Bishop of Sherborne, he did much to multiply 
 houses of learning and to spread culture. 
 By his journey to Rome in the days of Pope 
 Sergius, he may be said to ha\-e paved the 
 way for the formation of the Saxon School of 
 Rome by his kinsman Ine, king of the West 
 Saxons, in 727 (Flores Hi.fioriarum, Rolls ed. 
 Vol. I, pp. 368-3G9; and see Matthew Paris). 
 Ine himself was indeed an educationalist 
 worthy of his age for "he hired the services 
 of two most skilful teachers of Greek from 
 Athens." (Sandys.) But Aldhelm was not 
 merely a scholar and the first of the line of 
 scholars who adorned the eighth century in 
 England. He was also a famous builder of 
 churches, and at least one of his buildings 
 still survives. We may see in this church- 
 building movement the origin of that technical 
 training in church schools which was enjoined 
 by the English Canons of the year 960. Ald- 
 helm died in the year 709, in the wooden church 
 of Doulting near Wells, and he was buried at 
 Malmesbury, itself one of the most famous 
 of the early centers of education. Some 
 of Aldhelm's literary work is still extant, such 
 as his De Laitde Virginitatis (which was dedi- 
 cated to and is evidence of the Latin culture 
 of the Abbess of Barking and her nuns), De 
 Laudihus Virginum and an educational work 
 on the writing of Latin verse entitled Liber 
 de Septenario (see the Dictionary of Notional 
 Biography). J. E. G. de M. 
 
 86
 
 ALEXANDER 
 
 ALEXANDRIA 
 
 ALEXANDER, ARCHIBALD (1772-1851). 
 — Historian and tlieologian educated at Wash- 
 ington and Lee University; president of Hamp- 
 den Sidney College (1797-1806) and of Union 
 College in Georgia (1810-1812; professor in 
 Princeton Theological Seminary (1812-1851); 
 author of History of the Log College, Outlines of 
 Moral Science, and of numerous theological 
 and historical works. W. S. M. 
 
 ALEXANDER DE VILLA DEI (or VIL- 
 LEDIEU).— A native of Flanders who 
 flourished during the latter twelfth and early 
 thirteenth centuries. About 1119 he wrote 
 a Latin grammar, a part of which is the Doc- 
 trinale, one of the most famous and most 
 widely used of all textbooks. It is composed 
 in verse, and consists of 2645 lines, 1073 of 
 which are devoted to etymology, 476 to syntax, 
 and 1095 to quantity, accent, and figures. 
 Numerous manuscript copies yet exist, and it 
 went through almost 300 printed editions. 
 As an introductory text it went far to replace 
 the older ones, such as Donatus and Priscian. 
 Its popularity was due partially to its metrical 
 form which rendered it easier to memorize. 
 The prevailing method of elementary instruc- 
 tion was by memorizing of the complete text. 
 Its logical arrangement and distinctions ap- 
 pealed to the dialectic interests of the times; 
 and in addition it included more of a vocabu- 
 lary drawn from Christian authors, and incor- 
 porated many of the changes in the language 
 which had occurred subsequent to the construc- 
 tion of the earlier texts. The general use of 
 the text obtained for its author the title of the 
 "Aristotle of Grammar"; but for the same 
 reason the text drew the special opposition of 
 the early humanists, and it was generally dis- 
 carded early in the sixteenth century. 
 
 References: — 
 
 AiiELsoN, P. The Seven Liberal Arts. (1906.) 
 Neudekek, K. J. Das Doctrinale. (1885.) 
 Reiching, in Monumenta Germaniae Pedagogica, 
 Vol. XII. 
 
 ALEXANDER I, OF RUSSIA. — See Russia, 
 Educ.\tio.\.\l Syste.ms of. 
 
 ALEXANDER, THE GREAT.— Born 356 
 
 B.C., died 323 b.c. He is interesting to us in this 
 place not as conqueror and soldier, but in his 
 capacity as pupil of Aristotle and patron of 
 Greek letters. He was first committed to 
 the care of Lanice, his nurse, who loved him 
 as a mother and whose children afterwards 
 served him to the death. At the age of 6, 
 he fell under the care not of an ordinary 
 Greek pedagogue, the typical chaperoning 
 slave, but of a man of royal birth, Leonidas, 
 a strict disciplinarian who taught the lad 
 temperance and economj^, and perhaps gave 
 him an example of the martinet which Ale.x- 
 ander was not slow to imitate in later life. 
 At length his father, the royal Philip of Mace- 
 
 don, recognizing that it was better to influence 
 the youth by argument than command, sent 
 for Aristotle, as the most learned and saga- 
 cious of philosophers, to come to him. Alexan- 
 der was at this time 12 years of age. The 
 two formed an extraordinary conjunction, 
 for, as Zell says: "The one had the power and 
 the call to master and rule the world. The 
 other had discovered and subjugated a new 
 world for the human mind and for science." 
 Alexander became a pupil in Aristotle's school 
 at Mieza, where the great master was wont to 
 walk through the grove with his pupils or teach 
 them from his great stone chair. Although 
 Aristotle declined the solicitations of Alex- 
 ander, who ascended the Macedonian throne 
 in 336 B.C., to accompany him on his warlike 
 expeditions, a close correspondence and friend- 
 ship appears to have been long maintained 
 between these two, in some respects the great- 
 est figures of the Hellenic age; and it is sig- 
 nificant that on the death of Alexander, the 
 Stagirite philosopher was compelled to quit 
 Athens on the ground that he had been a 
 Macedonian favorite. 
 
 It must have been partly owing to the in- 
 fluence of Aristotle that Alexander became an 
 extensive reader of books and a most en- 
 thusiastic admirer of Homer, whose poetry 
 alone he is said to have found truly noble, 
 grand, and kingly. The principal authorities 
 for Alexander's education are the somewhat 
 doubtful accounts of Plutarch and Dion 
 Chrysostomus. P. R. C. 
 
 References: — 
 
 Hogarth. Philip and Alexander of Macedon. (New 
 York, 1897.) 
 
 Mahaffy, J. P. Alexander's Empire. (New York, 1898.) 
 
 Plutarch. Life of Alexander. 
 
 Sandys, J. E. History of Classical Scholarship. (Cam- 
 bridge, 190.3.) 
 
 Wheeler, B. I. Alexander the Great. (New York, 1900.) 
 
 ALEXANDRIA, SCHOOL AND UNIVER- 
 SITY OF. — An institution which represents the 
 zenith of the somewhat barren and pedantic pe- 
 riod of cosmopolitan Greek learning. The city 
 of Alexandria, founded in 332 b.c. by Alex- 
 ander the Great, fell upon his death to Ptolemy 
 Soter, who reigned in Egypt from 306 to 285 
 B.C. As wise a ruler as he was a successful 
 warrior, Ptolemy appears to have reflected 
 that the supremacy of the Greeks was ulti- 
 mately the supremacy of mind, and under 
 the advice and with the assistance of his 
 friend, the Athenian orator, Demetrius Pha- 
 lereus, he collected a vast number of manu- 
 scripts and built a museum. The museum is 
 to be regarded as an endowed college designed 
 at first as a home of erudition and research 
 rather than a school for the propagation of 
 knowledge. Its professors or fellows con- 
 stituted a body of learned Greeks favored and 
 supported by a Greek dynasty, but isolated 
 in the midst of a nation of unsympathetic 
 
 87
 
 ALEXANDRIA 
 
 ALEXANDRIA 
 
 Egyptians. They were therefore thrown liack 
 upon thi'ir own society and upon the standard 
 literature of the classical age of Greece. Under 
 these circumstances the Alexandrian university 
 became more famous for literary and gram- 
 matical studies than productive genius ; and 
 the library, the greatest of ancient times, 
 eclipsed the importance of the museum. 
 On the other hand, a considerable absolute 
 progress was made at Alexandria in mathe- 
 matics and physical science as well as criticism, 
 antiquarian research, and formal literature. 
 
 In an estimation of the work of the school 
 and university of Alexandria, two periods ought 
 to be carefully discriminated. From its foun- 
 dation to its conquest by Augustus and the 
 Romans in 30 B.C., the reputation of the 
 institution was due to its literary and scientific 
 bias. Subsequent to the Roman conquest, 
 however, and until the occupation of Alex- 
 andria by the Mohammedans in 640 a.d., the 
 remarkaljle feature of Alexandrian culture was 
 the development of the Neo-Platonic philosophy. 
 Accordingly the description which immediately 
 follows ajiplies primarily to the pre-Roman 
 period of Alexandria. 
 
 The successor of the first Ptolemy con- 
 tinued and excelled the endeavors of the 
 founder of his dynasty to make Alexandria 
 the intellectual capital of the world. Ptolemy 
 Philadelphus, during his reign from 2S."> to 
 247 B.C., was advised by the poet Callimachus 
 in much the same way as his predecessor by 
 Demetrius, and collected the works of Aristotle 
 and many Egyptian and Hebrew texts. Dur- 
 ing this reign the greater and the lesser libraries 
 were completed and a beginning was made 
 in the direction of translating the Hebrew 
 Scriptures into Greek. This was the origin 
 of the famous vSeptuagint version of the Old 
 Testament. Of the third Ptolemy, called 
 Euergetes, it is related that he borrowed 
 from Athens and retained the standard editions 
 of the great Athenian dramatists, while he 
 also required travelers to leave behind them 
 a copy of any literary work which they might 
 be so fortunate as to possess. The traditional 
 accounts of the number of books collected in 
 the great library are incredible; the volumes 
 are said to have amounted to 200,000 in the 
 time of Demetrius Phalereus, and to have 
 numbered at the maximum 700,000. 
 
 Inconsiderable as the quantity of extant 
 literature produced by the Alexandrian school 
 must be, in comparison with the enormous 
 amount that has been lost, it is none the less 
 sufficient to indicate the general characteristics 
 of early Alexandrian culture. Much of it 
 was pedantic; there was little or no expression 
 of romanticism outside the poems of Theocritus. 
 There were learned poems like the Hymns 
 of Callimachus, obscure epics such as the 
 Argonaidics of Apollonius Rhodius and the 
 Alexandra or Cassandra of Lycophron, didactic 
 verses typified by the Phenomena and Signs 
 
 of Weather of Aratus, epigrams and satires 
 like those of Timon. The atmosi)here of 
 courts and royal endowments conduced to 
 research rather than creative activity, for- 
 malism rather than freedom. Grammar, 
 criticism, prosody, and mythology were first 
 elevated into sciences at Alexandria. Here, 
 first, lives were devoted to arch;rology; here, 
 the first dictionaries were made. But there 
 was no attempt to nationalize the foreign 
 culture, no attempt to fuse the Greek and 
 Egyptian civilizations. 
 
 If the progress of Alexandrian culture 
 appears to have been slow, relatively to its 
 o])port unities, it is none the less vitallj- im- 
 portant from an absolute point of view. The 
 labors of Euclid on geometry, Apollonius on 
 conic sections, Archimedes on i)hysics, Eratos- 
 thenes on scientific geography. Hero and 
 Philo on dynamics, and Hipparchus on astron- 
 omy cannot be too fully appreciated. It was 
 to Alexandria, and especially to Hipparchus, 
 that the remarkable Ptolemaic system of 
 astronomy, wnth its epicyclical theory of the 
 movements of the heavenly bodies, admirable 
 and serviceable notwithstanding its errors, 
 was due. But such genuine scientific achieve- 
 ments were buried among a mass of prose com- 
 mentaries and expositions. 
 
 One serviceable result of the zeal for exposi- 
 tion and criticism remains to be mentioned. 
 It was the work of the early Alexandrian 
 savants not only to collect and preserve cla.ssical 
 manuscripts, but also to arrange the texts and 
 settle the accents. It is owing to their patient 
 efforts that we now possess the theory of 
 Greek accents and legible texts of the Homeric 
 and other great works of the Greek intellect. 
 
 Subsequent to the Roman occupation of 
 Alexandria in 30 B.C., while the sway of Greek 
 letters in the schools suffers no interruption, it 
 perceptibly yields to the dominant interest in 
 philosophy. Alexandria was peculiarly fitted 
 by its situation and the quality of its population, 
 in which Greek, Hebrew, Arabic, and Egyjitian 
 elements were prominent, to become the seat 
 of a new synthetic philosophy. The peculiarity 
 of Alexandrian philosophy consists in its .sym- 
 bolical and religious bent. In a large measure, 
 these features were the result of an attempt 
 to harmonize the highest results of the religious 
 speculation of Plato and Aristotle with the 
 religion of the Jews and afterwards with Chris- 
 tianity. The contact of Greek with Hebrew 
 thought produced Neo-Platonism (q.v.), which is 
 represented by the names of Animonius Saccas, 
 Plotinus, Porphyry, lamblicus, and Proclus. 
 The contact of free Greek thought with Chris- 
 tian doctrine issued in such heretical forms of 
 belief as Gnosticism {q.v.). The Neo-Platonic 
 philosophy in particular, whose best rei^resenta- 
 tive is Plotinus, has exercised a profound in- 
 fluence upon the thought of both the ancient 
 and the modern world. 
 
 Because of its historical importance, and 
 
 88
 
 ALEXIA 
 
 ALFRED 
 
 because it has been unjustiy viewed by the or- 
 thodox on account of its Hberahsm, and by the 
 scientifically minded on account of its symboli- 
 cal vagaries, the Neo-Platonic philosophy of the 
 Alexandrian school deserves a brief explanation. 
 Its dominant characteristic is mysticism. It 
 confounded philosophy with religion, and practi- 
 cally founded a church in establishing a school. 
 It took up the cudgels against Christianity 
 at the same time that it colored the pages of 
 many of the Greek Fathers. Its heresy was 
 regarded as dangerous because of its very insidi- 
 ous similarity to the Christian doctrine, which 
 made its refutation so much the more difficult. 
 On the other hand, Neo-Platonism, like other 
 forms of mysticism, appealed chiefly to individ- 
 uals and did not attempt to concentrate itself 
 into a formal sj'stem. The method adopted in 
 teaching the system was dialectic. A begin- 
 ning was made from the dissatisfaction with the 
 objects of sense which Plato had felt long before, 
 and the separation of the world of sense from the 
 superior, indeterminate world of perfect ideas 
 which may be contemplated by reason. In 
 reason, the ideas of the good may lie studied by a 
 return upon itself. The Neo-Platonic system of 
 education totally disregarded the world of 
 sense as unreal and remote, and fixed the gaze 
 solely on the so-caUed " intelligible " world, at 
 most adding only mathematics to its con- 
 templation. 
 
 Ultimately as the seat of a metaphj'sical 
 school of Christian theology, as well as of the 
 Neo-Grecian sects, Alexandria became the 
 theater of innumerable and bitter religious 
 polemics between them, especially Neo-Plato- 
 nism and Christianity. P. R. C. 
 
 References: — 
 
 KiNcsLEY, C. Alexandria and Her Schools. (London, 
 
 1854.) 
 Mahaffy, J. P. Greek Life and Thought. (New York 
 
 and London, 1898.) 
 
 ALEXIA. — A speech disorder consisting in the 
 
 inability to read understandingly (not neces- 
 sarily aloud) printed or written speech symbols. 
 See APH.\si.i. 
 
 References: — 
 
 Mills and Weisenburg. Word Blindness, with a 
 Roford of a Case. Review of Neurology and Psy- 
 chiatry, 1906, p. 152. 
 
 GoLDscHEiDER. Ueber corticate Sprach-, Schreib-, und 
 Lesestorung. Berlin, klin. Wochenschrift, 1892, pp. 
 64, 100, 122, 144, 168. 
 
 ALFRED, KING. — (Reigned 871-901 a.d.) 
 As Educator. — The traditional ideals of King 
 Alfred are set forth in his preface to the trans- 
 lation of Pope Gregory's Pastoral Care (ed. by 
 Sweet, E.E.T.S.) and in comments in the trans- 
 lation of Boethius' Consolation of Philosophy 
 (ed. by Sedgeficld, p. 40). These pa.ssages find a 
 close parallel in the Epistola de littcris colendis and 
 other proclamations of Charles the Great (q.v.). 
 The chief motive of reform was the lack of edu- 
 cated clergy who could understand the ritual of 
 
 89 
 
 the Church or translate a Latin letter. In the 
 past, since the work of the Celtic mi-ssionaries, the 
 monasteries and bishops' sees had been the main, 
 if not the only, centers of religious and classical 
 learning. Although the service of the Church 
 had been the first end in view, the secular teach- 
 ing involved had led, especialh' in England, to a 
 generous study of all available knowledge (see 
 Roger, U Enseignement des letlres classiques 
 d' Ausone a Alcuin, Paris, 1905, which contains 
 several chapters upon the spread of learning 
 in Ireland and England). Except in Mercia, 
 where Offa had to some extent maintained the 
 study of letters, an educated clergy had disap- 
 peared in England when King Alfred came to 
 the throne. Alfred's travels and wide interests 
 had prepared him to remedy this defect, and to 
 restore a learned clergy and educational centers. 
 One of the scholars whom he introduced, Asser 
 (q.v.) of St. David's, in his life of the king (ed. 
 by Stevenson, Oxford, 1904, an edition indispen- 
 sable for the student of Alfred's reign) describes 
 the means taken by the king for carrying out 
 his purpose. Learned men were brought from 
 parts outside Wessex, Plegmund from Mercia, 
 Grimbald from Flanders, John the old Saxon, 
 who became respectiveh' Archbishop of Can- 
 terbury, and abbots of Alfred's new foundations 
 at Winchester and Athelney. Neither Grim- 
 bald nor John would have much difficulty with 
 the English tongue (.see Stevenson, p. 311). 
 Alfred was eager for the education of the laity 
 as well as of the clergy. Laymen had shared in 
 the advantages of episcopal schools in the 
 seventh century, e.g. they are found among the 
 scholars of John of Beverley (Roger, op. cit., 
 p. 314). Alfred wished " that all the freeborn 
 youth of England who have sufficient means 
 to devote themselves thereto, be set to learning 
 so long as thej^ are not strong enough for any 
 other occupation, until such time as they can 
 weU read English writing. Let those be 
 taught Latin whom it is proposed to educate 
 further, and promote to higher office" (Preface 
 to Pastoral Care ; Plummer, Life and Times of 
 Alfred, p. 136). It is doubtful to what extent 
 the scholars, new monasteries, and translations 
 for which Alfred was responsible, produced this 
 result. That some result was reached is clear 
 from the story that ignorant royal officials, 
 afraid of the king's displeasure, sought to learn 
 from their children. The king devoted one 
 eighth of his income to a schola utriusque 
 linguae, which developed at his court (Asser, cc. 
 75, 76, 102). In this school the sons of the 
 noble class and officers of lower rank were edu- 
 cated. It was not a school in the ordinary sense 
 of the term, but a more systematic example, on 
 the lines of the school at the court of Charles the 
 Great, of a common institution (Stevenson, p. 
 300; cf. Guilhiermoz, Essai sur Vorigine de la 
 noblesse, Paris. 1902, passim). 
 
 The tradition which connects Alfred with 
 Oxford, which was inserted by Camden in his 
 edition of Asser, has long been known to have no
 
 ALFRED UNIVERSITY 
 
 ALGEBRA 
 
 foundation (Stevenson's Asser, pp. xxxiii scqq.; 
 Parker, Early History of Oxford, ch. v; Rasli- 
 dall, Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages, 
 II, ii, 322-323). F.M.P. 
 
 See Middle Ages, Education in. 
 
 References: — 
 Asser. Life of King Alfred, ed. by Stevenson. Oxford, 
 
 1904. 
 HnNT. A History of the English Church, 597-1006. 
 
 Chap. xiv. (London, 1901.) 
 L.\PPEXBERG. Anglo-Saxon Kings, etc. 
 Pluilmer, C. The Life and Times of Alfred the Great. 
 
 (Oxford, 1902.) 
 William of M,\lmesbury. GestaRegum, ed. by Stubbs. 
 
 Rolls Series, with editorial introductions. 
 
 ALFRED UNIVERSITY, ALFRED, NEW 
 YORK. — A coeducational, nonsectarian in.sti- 
 tution, takes its origin from a small school or- 
 ganized Dec. 5, 1836, in the village of Alfred. In 
 1843, a charter was granted to "Alfred Acad- 
 emy and Teacher's Seminary"; in 1846 three 
 school buildings were erected on the present 
 campus; in 1857 a university charter was se- 
 cured. The university maintains an under- 
 graduate college, admission to which is by 
 examination or certificate from an approved 
 high school, and a preparatory school known as 
 Alfred Academy. By chap. 383, Laics of 
 the State of Xew York, there was established a 
 New York State School of Clay Working and 
 Ceramics, with buildings adjacent to the uni- 
 versity campus ; this school is administered by 
 the trustees of Alfred University. It offers a 
 course of four years leading to the degrees of 
 Bachelor of Philosophy in Ceramics, and of 
 Bachelor of Science in Ceramics, and also a short 
 course of two years. The requirements for ad- 
 mission to the full course are the same as those 
 for entrance to the scientific course of Alfred 
 University. On May 6, 1908, the state of New 
 York also established a state School of Agricul- 
 ture at Alfred University; this school is governed 
 by a Board of JNIanagers appointed by the Alfred 
 University trustees. Its grounds adjoin the 
 university campus. The course comprises three 
 years; it is planned (1909) to offer also a short 
 term of summer work in agriculture. The 
 degree of M.A. is conferred for one year's 
 resident graduate study. Alfred University is 
 governed by a self-perpetuating board of 33 
 trustees. The institution is a member of 
 the Association of Colleges and Preparatory 
 Schools in the Middle States and Maryland 
 (see College Entr.\nce Bo.\rds). There are 
 no college fraternities. The grounds and Ijuild- 
 ings, valued (1906), with equipment, at 8279,000, 
 occupy an unusually beautiful site among high 
 hills near the village of .\lfred, the headquarters 
 in America of the Seventh Dav Baptists. The 
 total income (1906) was .?40,oi9. The average 
 ■salary of a professor is S900. There are (1909) 
 14 members on the instructing staff, of whom 
 12 are full professors. The college has 120 
 students. Boothe ColweU Davis, Ph.D., is 
 president. C. G. 
 
 ALGEBRA. — General Nature of the Subject. 
 
 — The term algebra has hail several meanings in 
 the development of the subject as we now under- 
 stand it, and even at present it is used in a rather 
 undefined sense. As first used, the term referred 
 to the science of the equation, as will be seen in 
 the article given below on the history of algebra. 
 With the development of symbolism, as ex- 
 plained below, it came to refer to that part of 
 mathematics that teaches the use of letters to 
 represent numbers, not merely in equations but 
 in operations es.sential to the study of more ad- 
 vanced mathematics, such as the fundamental 
 operations resembling those of arithmetic. 
 Among the various attempts to define algebra 
 may be mentioned Ne^rton's characterization 
 of the subject as " universal arithmetic," the 
 more common one of "generalized arithmetic," 
 and Comte's expression, the " calculus of func- 
 tions," as distinguished from arithmetic, which 
 is the "calculus of values." None of these 
 attempts is more than a mere epigram. The 
 fact is that mathematicians do not find it neces- 
 sary or profitable to attempt any exact defini- 
 tion of llie science. It is the calculus of certain 
 functions, and in general these functions are 
 those involving addition and an inverse, multi- 
 plication and an inverse, involution and an in- 
 verse. Thus, besides a+b = c we have a = c — b, 
 and b = c — a; besides ab = c we have a = c-i-b, 
 b = c-i-a; besides a'' = e we have a=^c, but 6 
 = log c ^ log a is commonly excluded from ele- 
 mentary algebra, and log a is not considered as 
 an algebraic number. Algebra is commonly 
 considered at present to mean that part of 
 mathematics which uses letters to represent 
 numbers, which treats of the operations of arith- 
 metic performed with numbers represented in 
 this manner, and which emphasizes the u.se of 
 the equation (q.v.). Higher algebra is taken to 
 include such topics as symmetric functions (see 
 Function), power sums (see Power), the 
 proof of the fact that every algebraic equation 
 has a root, number congruences (sec Congru- 
 ence), continued fractions (see Fr.\ctio.\), de- 
 terminants (q.v.), and various other theories 
 needed in advanced work. 
 
 History. — The first traces of algebra are so 
 mingled with those of geometry that it is diffi- 
 cult to say to which subject they should be as- 
 signed. Thus there is reason to believe that the 
 Babylonians knew the law that we express in 
 modern s.vmbols by (n + b)- = a- + 2ab + lr, a 
 law that may very likely have come from geom- 
 etry, but that also may have been derived 
 inductively from a study of numbers. The first 
 definite trace of algebra comes to us from an 
 Egyptian work, in which the subject appears 
 already in a rather advanced state. This 
 manuscript on papyrus was written by a scribe 
 named Ahmes {q.v.) about 1700 B.C., but was 
 copied from an earlier work. In this treatise 
 are found a few crude mathematical symbols, 
 the linear eciuation appears as applied to a few 
 simple problems, and there is a slight treatment 
 
 90
 
 ALGEBRA 
 
 ALGEBRA 
 
 of arithmetical and geometric progressions. 
 The first equation known appears in this 
 worlc in the form "Heap, its seventli, its whole, 
 it makes 19," and this in modern symbols would 
 
 appear a,s'- + x ■ 
 
 19. 
 
 The algebra of the golden age of Greek mathe- 
 matics was merely a phase of geometry. Aris- 
 totle went so far as to represent quantities by 
 letters of the alphabet, saying, "If A is the mov- 
 ing force, B that which is moved, r the dis- 
 tance, and A the time," etc., but such literal 
 notation was exceptional at that period. In 
 general the algebraic knowledge of the Greeks 
 of that time was confined to such theorems as 
 could be developed by geometry. In this way 
 they were aware of the truths which we would 
 now express by 
 
 {a + bY = a: + 2ab+b% 
 {a-by = a:-2ab + b-, 
 (a+b)(a — b) =d- — b-, 
 
 and this involved a knowledge of how to " com- 
 plete the square," that is, of adding 6' to a" 
 ±2ab. 
 
 The greatest algebraist of Greece was 
 Diophantus (q.v.), who lived about 27.5 a.d. 
 He used special symbols for the unknown 
 quantity, and also for its various powers so far 
 as he needed to use them. The unknown was a 
 S5'mbol, the meaning of which is not certain, 
 but it resembled a final sigma, s. The powers 
 from 2 to 6 were represented by S", k", 88", 8k^, 
 kk", for SuVayuts, Kv'/Sos, etc., a symbolism that 
 was not improved upon until the time of Des- 
 cartes (q.v.). The interest of Diophantus was 
 largely in indeterminate equations (q.v.), but 
 he could solve the quadratic equation and 
 special forms of the cubic. His work differs 
 notably from that of his known predecessors in 
 being analytic rather than geometric, and 
 from that of the oriental writers who came after 
 him by being confined to pure mathematics. 
 
 Algebra next flourished almost exclusively in 
 the East. In India there were four great 
 writers, Aryabhatta (q.v.), who lived about 500 
 A.D., iSrahmagupta (q.v.), about 625 .^^.d., 
 Mahavlrarcarya (q.v.), about 850 .\.d., and Bhas- 
 kara (7. v.), about 1150 .\.d. Their works are in 
 rhetorical form, i.e. with the problems written 
 out at full length and with no symbols. The 
 nature of the questions proposed by these orien- 
 tal writers will be understood from the following 
 problem from Mahavlrarcaya: " One fourth 
 of a herd of camels was seen in the forest; 
 twice the square root of that herd had gone to the 
 mountain slopes; and three times five camels 
 remained on the bank of a river. What is the 
 numerical measure of that herd of camels? " 
 
 Algebra next flourished in China and among 
 the Arabs and Persians. The Chinese contri- 
 butions have not been thoroughly studied, but 
 those of the Arabs and Persians are well 
 known. The leading writer of the Bagdad 
 
 school was Mohammed ibn Musa al-Khowaraz- 
 mi (q.v.), who flourished about 830 a.d., and 
 whose name appears in the word algorism 
 (q.v.). He wrote the first book in which the 
 
 .^F^^g^:^ 
 
 
 
 -7-^^ ""*-*-• "'%'* 
 
 
 rrj3;;;;p::ffe^ 
 
 •WT^^-VX: 
 
 
 ?~^rL, 
 
 
 /•i-*. 
 
 
 •^ «— -— J'*y-»'^J'/SV i-"*ir-/^^— „% .^J* 
 
 °T^ ''"'1 — %<.''-'^'"'i *'kS^ "^^ ^f'i'li i-wT 
 
 •^>r->-^ •? 
 
 Page of a Latin Manuscript of Al-Khowarazmi of 1456. 
 (Plimpton Library.) 
 
 word algebra occurs, the title being 'ilm al- 
 jabr wa'l niuqabalah (the science of restoration 
 and comparison), a name that appeared in the 
 Latin translations as Indus algebrae almucgra- 
 balaeque, and in the sixteenth century English 
 as algiebar and almachabel. Among the other 
 oriental writers of note was Omar Khayyam 
 (q.v.), whose work on the cubic equation was in 
 advance of that of his predecessors. 
 
 The first medieval writer of importance 
 was Leonardo Fibonacci (q.v.), about 1200 
 A.D. In the sixteenth century algebra at- 
 tracted much attention in Italy, and the 
 cubic and quadratic equations were solved 
 through the efforts of Tartaglia (q.v.). Cardan 
 (q.v.), and their contemporaries. In Germany 
 Rudolff (q.v.) and Stifel (q.v.) were the leaders 
 in this period and assisted materially in 
 perfecting the symbohc work. One of the 
 Italian names for the subject at this time, 
 Arte maggiore, comes from the late Latin 
 Are major and Ars magna, terms used to dis- 
 tinguish algebra from arithmetic (Ars minor). 
 It was also called La regola delta cosa, from 
 cosa, the Italian for the Latin res, thing, which 
 had been used for the unknown quantity. 
 
 91
 
 ALGEBRA 
 
 ALGEBRA AND GEOMETRY 
 
 From this came the German Coss and English 
 Cossic Art. 
 
 The present symbols of algebra date cliiefly 
 from the period 1550 to 1650, including the 
 symbols x, y, . . . for unknowns and a, h, 
 ... for knowns, due to Descartes (La geo- 
 miirie, 1637). From the middle of the seven- 
 teenth century to the present time the develop- 
 ment of algebra has been chiefly beyond the 
 elementary theory. 
 
 Present Status in the Curriculum. — In the 
 schools of the United States algebra is at 
 present generaUy taught in the first year of a 
 four-year high school course, or in the ninth 
 school year beyond the kindergarten, and in 
 half of the eleventh school year. The general 
 plan is to cover the four fundamental opera- 
 tions wnth integers and fractions, factoring, 
 powers and roots, Unear equations with one, 
 two, or three unknown quantities, and quad- 
 ratic equations with one unknown quantity. 
 This year of work is generally followed by a 
 year in plane geometry. Half of the next 
 year, the eleventh in the pupil's course, is 
 usually devoted to algebra, re\'ie\\ing the pre- 
 ceding work and completing the elementary 
 work through quadratic equations wth two 
 unknown quantities, including easy radical 
 equations. 
 
 There is at present a strong movement in 
 favor of using the Unear equation with one un- 
 known quantity, and also simple formulas in 
 algebraic language, in the work in arithmetic 
 in the elementary grades, and in particular in 
 the seventh and eighth school years. There is 
 also a very marked tendency to change the 
 traditional high school course of four years to a 
 course of five or six years, beginning in the 
 eighth or seventh school year. The effect of 
 this plan wiU be to complete the essentials of 
 arithmetic in the elementary school (the firet 
 six school years), to re\'iew arithmetic in the 
 high school (the second six school years), and to 
 extend algebra over a longer period in the high 
 school. This might profitably be done without 
 taking any more time for mathematics than at 
 present. The result, if we can secure as good 
 candidates for teaching as are secured in the 
 older countries, will be a much better training 
 in algebra before the pupil enters college or 
 goes into business. 
 
 The textbook in elementary algebra is merely 
 a development of the sixteenth-century text- 
 book in arithmetic. One of the first succes.sful 
 works of this kind was the Algebra by Chris- 
 topher Clavius (?.('.), a Jesuit teacher, wiio 
 went from Germany to Rome and published 
 this textbook in 1608. The general plan of 
 the book is similar to that of his Epitome 
 Arithmeticae Practi'cae, which appeared in 
 1583 and which went through several editions, 
 — first notation, then the operations with 
 integers, then fractions, and then equations. 
 There has of late been a tendency to change this 
 plan, and to introduce algebra by showing 
 
 the uses of the formula and of the linear equa- 
 tion with one unknown ciuantity; in other 
 words, to make the transition from arithmetic 
 to algebra less marked. 
 
 In the continental European schools it is 
 the custom to introduce abstract algebra 
 earlier than is usually the case in America. 
 This is accomplished by combining it with 
 arithmetic more fully than is done here; by 
 having less arithmetic taught, partly because 
 of the freedom from the difficult system of 
 comjiound numbers that Ls stiU used in Eng- 
 land, Canada, and the United States; and 
 by having more vigorous teaching than is the 
 general custom in the Western hemisi)here. 
 Thus in tiie Xormallehrplan des Cytmiasitnns 
 of Austria, of 1909, algebraic notation, the 
 negative number, and the geometric- 
 algebraic significance of (a + b), (a — 6)', 
 (« -I- b){a — b), (a + by, etc., are introduced 
 in the sixth school year. In the seventh 
 school year linear equations with several un- 
 knowns and the quadratic equation with one 
 unknown are studied. In the eighth year 
 this work is elaborated, and in the ninth year, 
 at a time w hen the American schools are u.?ually 
 beginning algebra, the subjects of logarithms, 
 complex numbers, and the easier forms of 
 higher equations are being studied. A some- 
 what similar state of advancement Ls seen in 
 the curricula of several of the German states 
 and in the mathematical classes of France. 
 These facts have raised the question as to 
 whether the schools of England and America 
 are utilizing to the best advantage the time as- 
 signed to mathematics. D. E. S. 
 
 References : — 
 
 On the history of algebra, consult : — 
 M.\TTHIESSEN. GrundzilQe dcr antikeii und Tnodemen 
 
 Alucbra. 2d cd. (Leipzig, 1896.) 
 Nesselm.\nn. Die Algebra der Griechen. (Berlin, 
 
 1842.) 
 Heath. Diophantos of Alexandria. (Cambridge, 
 
 1885.) 
 Ball. History of Mathematics. (London, various 
 
 editions.) 
 C.\NTOR. GeschiclUe der Malhemalik. 4 vols. (Leipzig, 
 
 various editions.) 
 And in general, the well-known histories of mathematics. 
 
 On the present status : — 
 Smith. Teaching of Eletneniary Mathematics. (New 
 
 York, lilOO.) 
 Young. The Teaching of Mathematics. (New York, 
 
 1907.) 
 Br.\nford. .4 Study of Mathematical Education. (Ox- 
 ford, 1908.) 
 The files of L'Enseignement Mathimatiquc, of Sehot- 
 tcn's Zeilschrift fiir mathematischcn und naturwissen- 
 schafllichen Unierricht, and of other current educational 
 journals of approximately equal rank. 
 
 ALGEBRA AND GEOMETRY IN THE 
 GRAMMAR GRADES. — The idea of intro- 
 ducing algeln-a and geometry in the elementary 
 school arose from the feeling that too much 
 arithmetic was required and that the foreign 
 mathematical curriculum might profitably re- 
 place the American. By the foreign plan less 
 arithmetic has been required than in the United 
 
 92
 
 ALGEBRA AND GEOMETRY 
 
 ALGORISM 
 
 States, allowing time for some work in literal 
 notation at least, and in some form of ge- 
 ometry. 
 
 The idea is plausible, but like all new ideas 
 it has not been sufficiently considered by 
 some of its advocates. Granted that there is 
 some time available for algebra and geometry 
 in the last six years of the elementary school, 
 what should be the nature of this work ? 
 
 As to algebra, the first experiments led to 
 an attempt to use a considerable amount of 
 literal notation simply because it was part 
 of algebra. Removing of signs of aggregation, 
 performing the various operations with integers 
 and fractions, and the solution of a rather mean- 
 ingless lot of equations, formed the body of the 
 early work as attempted abroad and in America. 
 This has, more recently, given place to a 
 more rational use of algebra as a part of arith- 
 metic. (See Arithmetic). The use of x in a 
 simple equation has come to be allowed in the 
 solution of arithmetical problems, to the ma- 
 terial benefit of arithmetic. The use of the 
 formula, in the ordinary algebraic symbolism, 
 has come to be a recognized part of arithmetic, 
 as in a = ^r. In other words, the part of 
 algebra that throws light upon and correlates 
 with arithmetic has been adopted, not as a 
 separate subject, but as something to be 
 assimilated with the older science. 
 
 There are, however, many schools in which 
 it seems best to introduce an elementary text- 
 book in algebra in the eighth school year, re- 
 placing the arithmetic entircl.v. For such 
 schools several good manuals of elementary 
 algebra have been prepared. The best of 
 these begin by showing the practical u.ses of 
 algebra, usuallj^ in formulas with which the 
 pupils are familiar. They then show the use 
 of the simple equation in the solution of the 
 problems of ordinary arithmetic. This is fol- 
 lowed by the nature of the negative number 
 and its practical applications. The funda- 
 mental operations with integers and fractions 
 are treated in a simple fashion, and the work 
 closes with further ' practical problems in 
 simple equations and easy quadratics. 
 
 Each of these plans is usable, and each is 
 adapted to particular types of school. The 
 plan of introducing the ab.stract algebra of 
 the high school into the elementary grades is 
 not, however, to be commended. 
 
 The introduction of geometry into the 
 elementarv grades has not been so successful. 
 It is true that in the best English schools Euclid 
 is taught in what we would call the grammar 
 grades, but this does not appeal to American 
 teachers as an educational policy to be followed. 
 The work is too abstract and too logical to be 
 understood, and the gain of mere memorizing 
 is offset by the loss in interest. In Germany 
 there are some good textbooks in demonstra- 
 tive geometry, adapted to the grades. These, 
 however, do not appeal to the American 
 teacher as usable here. While better for the 
 
 purpose than Euclid, they are lacking in inter- 
 est and in motive. It is a mistake, however, 
 to feel that America has done nothing in this 
 field. There has always been a considerable 
 amount of work in mensuration in our arith- 
 metics. Formerly this was, like arithmetic in 
 general, merely a matter of rule ; but for some 
 years back there has been a successful effort 
 made to render this work clear to the under- 
 standing, intuitional if not logical in the formal 
 sense. As a result, the work in mensuration 
 now given in the best American arithmetics 
 is a very satisfactory solution of the problem 
 of introducing some geometry into the grades. 
 
 Efforts have been made, but with no marked 
 success, to construct a geometry suited to the 
 grammar grades. These have thus far taken 
 the form of textbooks on constructive geom- 
 etry, on observational geometry, and on an 
 elementary type of demonstrative geometry. 
 These works serve a good purpose in that 
 teachers see how to make the subject of men- 
 suration more real, but they have not had any 
 marked influence beyond this point. Further 
 improvement in the field of geometry in the 
 grades seems to lie (1) in the securing of a 
 larger number of practical problems in men- 
 suration, adapted to the interests of the children, 
 and possibly (2) in the preparation of a text- 
 book in geometry similar to the several text- 
 books in algebra for beginners. D. E. S. 
 
 See also Geometry, and Constructive 
 Geometry. 
 
 ALGERIA. — Recognized educationally as an 
 academy of the University of France or as a 
 division in the central administration of French 
 education. 
 
 See France, Education in. 
 
 ALGOMETER. — An apparatus by which 
 the sensitivity of the skin to pain can be 
 measured. It consists of a blunt point which 
 may be pressed against the skin, a handle to 
 be used in pressing, and a spring which serves 
 both to hold the pressing point in position and 
 as a gauge to measure the amount of pressure. 
 The test for pain has been regarded as of im- 
 portance because there appear to be great in- 
 dividual differences in sensitivity to pain, and 
 some evidence exists which tends to show that 
 habitual criminals are especially insensible to 
 such stimulations. 
 
 ALGORISM. — A word used in the late 
 Rliiklle Ages to mean arithmetic according to the 
 method of the Arabs, as distinguished from 
 that in which the abacus (q.v.) was used. 
 Advocates of algorism were often called algorists, 
 while those who preferred the abacus were 
 called abacists. The words were finally used 
 interchangeably, however, their original mean- 
 ings having been forgotten. Thus we have 
 Borghi's Libra de Abacho (1st ed., Venice, 
 1484), which does not mention the abacus, while 
 
 93
 
 ALIEN PRIORIES 
 
 ALL HALLOWS COLLEGE 
 
 Huswirt's Enchiridion noiiiis Algorism! (1st 
 ed., Cologne, 1501) is largely devoted to the 
 counter reckoning. 
 
 The name comes from tlie Latin translation 
 of the first Arab arithmetic known in which 
 the Hindu system of notation was emjiloyed. 
 The work was written by Mohammed ibn 
 ]M\isa al-Khowarazmi (Mohammed the son 
 of Moses, the Kharezmite), who lived in 
 Bagdad about 830 a.d. Commonly known 
 as al-Khowarazmi, the Latin translation gave 
 as the title of his work. Liber Algorismi. 
 From this, books of this nature came to be 
 called, without much attention to case endings, 
 by such names as Algoriimiis, Algoritmi, 
 AHcgorithmuin, Algorismtis, and Alglwarismi. 
 The change of al to ok, owing to French in- 
 fluence, gave aiigrim and allied forms in Eng- 
 lish of the thirteenth century. 
 
 Of late the term "algorism," less correctly 
 spelled " algorithm," has been used to refer to 
 any particular arrangement of figures in an 
 operation. Thus we speak of the various 
 algorisms of division, such as short division 
 with the ciuotient below, long division with 
 the quotient above, and the older style of long 
 division with the quotient at the right. 
 
 D. E. S. 
 
 ALIEN PRIORIES. — Long before the Con- 
 quest various continental religious houses were 
 extensive landowners in England, and established 
 cells or dependent houses on their lands. An 
 early instance of this was the Priory at Ghent, 
 which acquired from the daughter of King Alfred 
 the extensive lands which were subsequently 
 comprised in the manors of Lewisham and Green- 
 wich. These they held till the fifteenth century. 
 This was one of very many examples. Since 
 these priories appointed to the livings on their 
 lands, they had an important influence on local 
 education, which was, in the matter of elemen- 
 tary education, in the hands of the local priests. 
 But the branch priories themselves seem to 
 have had important schools, for Stow (writing 
 before 159S) definitely states that when 
 Henry V in 1415 finally suppressed the priories 
 these schools were broken up and ceased, and he 
 apparently refers to four London priory schools, 
 i.e. Our Lady of Rouncivall at Charing Cross, 
 Oldborne, Cripplegate Without, and Alders- 
 gate Without (Stow's Survey of London, Book I, 
 p. 54, ed. 1603). The final suppression of the 
 Alien Priories in 1415 (Rot. Pari., Vol. IV, 
 p. 22) therefore marks a definite stage in the 
 dissolution of medieval education, and the 
 destruction thus wrought requires careful es- 
 timation. The question has not yet received 
 adequate investigation. The Commons, as 
 early as 1346, had petitioned King Edward III 
 (2 Rot. Pari., p. 162, Xo. 19) that the abbeys 
 and priories of the alien monks should be de- 
 voted to the education of young English 
 scholars, since for some time they had lost the 
 opportunity of learning. The king rejected 
 
 94 
 
 the petition on the ground that Parliament had 
 no jurisdiction and that he himself had taken 
 the profits of the lands and benefices. This is 
 evidence that as early as 1346 education had 
 suffered loss by the partial suppression of the 
 priories. At the final sui)pression in 1415, 
 when 146 alien priories disappeared, the king 
 at first intended to found a "noble college" 
 at Oxford out of the proceeds. But his death 
 prevented this, and Henry VI applied some 
 of the lands to the endowment of Eton College, 
 Windsor, and King's College, Cambridge. 
 (See Tanner's Notitia (1744) and Some Account 
 of the Alien Priories (1786), which last work 
 gives a list of the lands devoted to educational 
 uses.) The bulk of the Alien Priory lands 
 were, however, appropriated to private uses. 
 
 J. E. G. DE M. 
 
 ALIENIST. — The specialist who makes a 
 study of pathological mental processes. See 
 PsYCHi.\TRY and Abxorm.\lities. 
 
 AL-KAYAMI. — See 0.m.\r Kh.\yyam. 
 
 AL KHOWARAZML — Abu 'Abd Moham- 
 med ibn Allah Musa al-Khowarazmi was the 
 greatest teacher of algcljra in the famous mathe- 
 matical school of Bagdad. He was born in the 
 province of Khwarazm, in the vicinity of the 
 river Oxus. He died at Bagdad about 831 a.d. 
 He wrote the first book entitled Algebra (q.v.), 
 viz. 'Urn al-jahr ica'l muqahalah {the science of 
 restoration and comparison), so called because 
 in an equation (comparison) we take from 
 one side and restore to the other side. Al- 
 Khowarazmi called the unknown quantity 
 "the thing" or "the root." From the former 
 came the use of res in the Latin works based 
 upon the Arabic treatise, and hence the Italian 
 cosa (thing), and hence the German co.'is and 
 the English Cossic Art for algebra. From the 
 word "root" came our expression, "the root 
 of an equation." Al-Khowarazmi first treats 
 of algebra by rules without proofs, and fol- 
 lows this by certain geometric demonstrations 
 of these rules, after the manner of Euclid. 
 The first plan was Hindu, the second Greek, 
 al-Khowarazmi being the first to combine the 
 two methods. His work also contained a 
 treatise on arithmetic, and from his name 
 is derived the word "algorism" (q.v.). It 
 appeared in English, tran.slated by Rosen, 
 in 1830. Like all oriental names, al-Kliowar- 
 azmi's is variously transliterated, appear- 
 ing also as Alkarismi, al-Khowarizmi, and al- 
 Khuwarizmi. (See fig. on p. 91.) D. E. S. 
 
 ALL HALLOWS COLLEGE, SALT LAKE 
 
 CITY, UTAH. — Founded in 1886 and placed 
 under the control of the Marist Fathers in 
 1889. Boys are received on completion of 
 their sixtli year into a special department. 
 Primary, academic, classical, scientific, com- 
 mercial, and post-graduate courses are offered.
 
 ALLEGHENY 
 
 ALLEN UNIVERSITY 
 
 Degrees are given in the scientific and classical 
 departments upon a four years' preparatory 
 course wliich render a student eligible for 
 matriculation in any of the leading universities. 
 
 ALLEGHENY, CITY OF. — A city of the 
 second class, under the laws of Pennsylvania, 
 first incorporated in 1840, and organized as 
 a school district, under the Board of Con- 
 trollers in 1854. In 1900 the city had a 
 total population of 129,896, and in 1907 
 its estimated population was 147,632. Its 
 school census, 6-21 years of age, was esti- 
 mated at 24,000 in 1909, and its total day 
 school enrollment 20,405. Twenty-eight hun- 
 dred children in the city were estimated as 
 enrolled in private and parochial schools. 
 Twenty-three per cent of the population of 
 the city in 1900 was foreign-born, one half of 
 this number was German, one sixth Irish, and 
 the remainder widely scattered. 
 
 The city employed a total of 403 teachers and 
 29 supervisory officers in 1907-1908, the year 
 of the last report, and provided a school term 
 of 200 days. Thirteen teachers were employed 
 in evening schools, 44 in kindergartens, and 
 27 in the high school. The total expenses for 
 maintenance in 1907-1908 were .§677,691. The 
 city provides free te.xtbooks, gives instruc- 
 tion in manual training and domestic science 
 in the schools, and has a compulsory educa- 
 tion department. The one high school offers 
 academic and commercial courses, and has a 
 graduate year of city normal school work 
 for the training of new teachers for the city. 
 
 The school dejiartment is under a Board of 
 Controllers of 90, subdivided into 15 ward 
 boards of 6 members each, elected by wards 
 for three-year terms, and each ward board has 
 a president and a secretary. There are 15 
 committees of the central board, with a repre- 
 sentative from each ward on each. Meetings of 
 the central board and of the different ward 
 boards are held, and authority is di\'ided be- 
 tween them. The ward boards have authority 
 under the law to purchase lots; erect and re- 
 pair buildings; purchase apparatus, stationery, 
 books, furniture, and fuel; pay janitors; borrow 
 money for such purposes, and levy taxes to 
 pay interest and principal. The Board of 
 Controllers has charge of the public library 
 of Allegheny as well as the schools. E. P. C. 
 
 References; — 
 
 Annunl Reports Board of Controllers, 1854-1908. (An- 
 nual Riporls of Superintendent included since 1S74.) 
 
 ALLEGHENY COLLEGE, MEADVILLE, 
 PENNSYLVANIA. —A coeducational institu- 
 tion, founded in 1815 by citizens of Meadville, 
 then a frontier village of 400 inhabitants. The 
 college was chartered in 1817, and in 1820 the 
 corner stone was laid of the first building, 
 Bentley Hall. Admi-ssion is by examination 
 or certificate from an approved high school; 
 the college aims only to supply a liberal educa- 
 
 tion. A preparatory school is maintained, known 
 as the Allegheny College Preijaratory School, 
 which is under the control and supervision of 
 the college, but which has its own building 
 and a distinct corps of instructors. Graduate 
 courses lead to the degree of M.A. A joint 
 board of control, elected by the Erie, Pittsburg, 
 West Virginia, and East Ohio conferences of the 
 Methodist Episcopal Church, nominates three 
 persons, one of whom must be elected to fill each 
 vacancy in the Board of Trustees, which has 50 
 members. Fraternities have been established 
 as follows: Phi Kappa Psi, Phi Gamma Delta, 
 Delta Tau Delta, Phi Delta Theta, Sigma Alpha 
 Epsilon, Kappa Gamma, the last two being 
 women's societies; Alpha Chi Omega, 1891, 
 a women's musical society; and Beta Sigma, 
 local. Allegheny College is a member of the 
 Association of Colleges and Preparatory Schools 
 in the Middle States and Maryland (q.v.) (see 
 College Entrance Boards). There are 10 
 buildings, valued (1906) with grounds and equip- 
 ment at .1440,000, and situated on a campus of 
 unusual beautj', through which runs a ravine. 
 The total annual income averages .150,000. 
 The average salarv of a professor is SI 800. 
 There are (1909) 322 students, of whom 122 
 are women. The instructing staff numbers 22; 
 14 are full professors. William H. Crawford, 
 D.D., is president. C. G. 
 
 ALLEN, FORDYCE ALMON (1820-1880). 
 
 — Schoolman, educated in private schools in 
 Philadelphia and at the Alexander Classical 
 School in New York; teacher and institute 
 instructor (1840-1854); instructor in State 
 Normal School at West Chester, Pa. (1854- 
 1857); principal of the same (1857-1864); 
 principal of the State Normal School at Mans- 
 field, Pa. (1864-1880); author of a Primary 
 Geography and of numerous papers on education. 
 
 W. S. M. 
 
 ALLEN, JEROME. — Educator and author, 
 born at Westminster, \t., .July 17, 1830; educated 
 in public and private schools and at Amherst 
 College; instructor in Maquoketo Academy 
 (1835-1855); professor in Alexander College 
 (1855-1859); president of Knox College (18.59- 
 1869); superintendent of schools at Monticello, 
 111.; principal of the State Normal School at St. 
 Cloud, Minn. (1881-1884); professor of peda- 
 gogy in New York University (1887-1893); 
 author of Map-drawing, Mind Studies for 
 Teachers, and Temperament in Edueation ; 
 editor of Barnes' Educational Monthly (1876- 
 1880) and School Journal (1884-1890); died 
 of May 26, 1894. W. S. M. 
 
 ALLEN UNIVERSITY, COLUMBIA, S.C. 
 
 — A negro in.stitution incorporated by the 
 legislature of South Carolina in 1880. The 
 trustees are elected by the Conference of the 
 .\frican Methodist Church in South Carolina. 
 Courses are offered in theology, law, sciences, 
 
 95
 
 ALLEN 
 
 ALLEYN 
 
 classics, fine arts, industry, and commerce. 
 Primary and preparatory departments are 
 maintained. Approximately two and a half 
 years' high school work are required for entrance. 
 Degrees are conferred. The degree of Licen- 
 tiate of Instruction gives the graduates the 
 privilege of teaching in the public schools of the 
 state without examination. There is a faculty 
 of 16 professors, instructors, and assistants. 
 Wm. D. Johnson, D.D., Ph.D., is president. 
 
 ALLEN, WILLIAM, D.D. — Born at Rossall 
 in Lancashire in 1532, was principal of St. jMary's 
 Hall, Oxford, when, owing to the change of re- 
 ligion conse(iuent on the accession of Elizabeth, 
 ho left and took refuge in the Low Countries. 
 In 1568, in company with other Roman Catholic 
 exiles, he founded a college at Douay, in Flanders, 
 W'here there was a new university already under 
 Oxford influences, in which Allen himself 
 became Regius Professor of Divinity. The 
 object of his college was to afford facilities for 
 exiled Catholics to continue their studies, and 
 the Douay Bible (N.T. 1582; O.T. 1609-1610) 
 and many controversial and other works bear 
 witness to their literarj' activity. But it soon 
 grew also into a missionary college for educat- 
 ing priests to return to England and preach the 
 Roman Catholic religion. As such it continued 
 (with the exception of fifteen years, 1578-1593, 
 when it was temporarily transferred to Rheims) 
 for more than two centuries, until it came to an 
 end during the Terror in 1793. 
 
 In 1575 Allen visited Rome, and established 
 a similar college, which continues to the present 
 day. Ten years later he took up his residence 
 there. He was made cardinal in 1587, and 
 took part in the revision of the Vulgate, which 
 was still incomplete when he died in 1594. 
 
 Reference : — 
 
 See Dictionary of National Biography. 
 
 ALLEN, WILLIAM (1770-1843). — One of 
 the prominent leaders in the educational 
 and philanthropic movement in the first 
 half of the nineteenth century in England. 
 Born in 1770, he was brought up under princi- 
 ples of the Society of Friends. He was cm- 
 ployed in his father's silk business at Rochester. 
 His scientific interests, however, took him to 
 London, where he opened a chemical labora- 
 tory at Plaistow. When he was but 30 years 
 old he refused to accept a fellowship in the 
 Royal Society. In 1801 he became a fellow 
 of the Linna-an Society, and in 1817 of the 
 Royal Society. With some scientific friends, 
 he was active in founding the Askesian Society. 
 From 1802 to 1S26 he lectured at Guy's Hospital. 
 His interests, however, were very wide. He 
 was early attracted to the movement for the 
 abolition of the slave trade and slavery. But 
 he is chiefly known as an energetic worker in 
 the British and Foreign School Society iq.v.). 
 
 He was a member of Lancaster's committee 
 in 1804, and became treasurer of the society in 
 1811. In connection with this movement he 
 traveled widely in Europe, and succeeded in 
 interesting Czar Alexander of Ru.ssia (q.v.) 
 in the work, with the result that several Russian 
 boys were sent to the Borough Road School. 
 In 1818 he made selections from the Bible for 
 use in the British schools, which were trans- 
 lated into Russian. Allen was also actively 
 interested in the New Lanark movement with 
 Bentham (q.v.) and Robert Owen (q.v). About 
 1835 he turned his attention to an agricultural 
 colony and industrial school at Lindfield in 
 Sussex. Allen died in 1843. 
 
 References : — 
 
 Dictionary of National Biography. 
 
 BiNNS. H. B. .4 Century of Education. 1808-1908. 
 ^London, 190S.) 
 
 ALLEN, WILLIAM HENRY (1S0S-18S2). 
 — Educator and author, educated at Maine 
 Conference Seminary and at Bowdoin College; 
 instructor in Cazenovia Seminary (1833-1836); 
 professor in Dickinson College (1836-1850); 
 president of Girard College (1850-1862), of 
 Pennsylvania College at Gettysburg (1865- 
 1866), and again of Girard College (1867- 
 1882) ; author of a number of pamphlets and 
 reports on education. W. S. M. 
 
 ALLENTOWN COLLEGE FOR WOMEN, 
 ALLENTOWN, PA. — An institution estab- 
 lished in 1S66 and controlled by the Eastern 
 Synod of the Reformed Church. Courses are 
 offered to girls between 8 and 18 in elementary, 
 academic, and collegiate departments. Courses 
 in fine arts are also provided. 
 
 ALLEYN, EDWARD (1566-1626). — A 
 well-known actor of Queen Elizabeth's reign, 
 who became largely interested in theater 
 property. In 1605 he purchased the manor 
 of Dulwich, and between 1613 and 1616 he 
 founded Dulwich College, Kent. Already 
 Thomas Sutton had established the famous 
 Charterhouse Hospital and School in 1611. 
 The Puritans inveighed against play-acting, 
 but in Alleyn's foundation of Dulwich it was 
 clear that an actor could be as public-spirited as 
 themselves. The Anglicans were establishing 
 Chelsea College as an institution to afford 
 maintenance to learned men, set apart to 
 answer the Catholic disputants. They ap- 
 pealed, unsuccessfully, to Alleyn to give his 
 money to their purposes. Alleyn secured the 
 services of Inigo Jones as architect. As 
 originally constructed, the "College" consisted 
 of a chapel, a schoolhouse, a kitchen, offices, 
 and twelve dormitories. The set of buildings 
 was named "The College of God's Gift." 
 The dramatist, Thomas Dekker, about this 
 time (1616) in great poverty, wrote some 
 verses to Alleyn in praise of his charity. The 
 
 96
 
 ALLIGATION 
 
 ALMA COLLEGE 
 
 Earl of Arundel wrote to ask Alleyn to " accept 
 a poor fatherless boy to be one of the number " 
 of scholars. The founder chiefly chose for his 
 college those resident in St. Botolph's parish 
 in Bishopsgate, where (strange coincidence) 
 Stephen Gosson, the author of the School of 
 Abuse, 1579 (an invective against play actors) 
 was the rector. Gosson's letters, however, 
 show that he grew into high respect for Alleyn. 
 By 1620, in addition to the 12 poor boys on 
 the foundation, who were gratuitously fed, 
 taught, and clothed, boys were also accepted as 
 boarders, and educated in the school. Pro- 
 vision was made for a master, a warden, 4 fel- 
 lows, 6 Poor Brethren and as many Sisters. 
 The hospital was to be similar to Archbishop 
 Whitgift's hospital at Croydon. As founda- 
 tioners, boys of the name of Alleyn or Allen 
 were to be preferred. The college was opened 
 with great ceremony in 1619, in the presence 
 of Lord ChanceUor Bacon. The Founder's 
 Statutes, 1626, extended the benefits of the 
 school to sons of residents in Dulwich, and as 
 many others as would make up the total num- 
 ber of boys in the college school to SO in all. 
 The college was reconstituted by Act of Parlia- 
 ment in 1858. F. W. 
 
 ALLIGATION. — Until recently an impor- 
 tant chapter in arithmetic, and still taught in a 
 number of European countries, as in the Misch- 
 vngsrechnung of the German schools. It is a 
 crude method of solving linear equations, often 
 indeterminate ones, and is first found in the 
 form in which we have received it in the early 
 Hindu arithmetics. Thus Bhaskara {q.v.) in his 
 LilCivali makes use of it, it being particularly 
 suited to the fanciful projjlenis of the East. It 
 played but little part in the medie\'al arith- 
 metics of Europe, but as the Regula Alligationis 
 it became very prominent in the sixteenth cen- 
 tury. The word is from the Latin «d, to, and 
 Ugare, bind, and is related to the words alloy 
 and alli/, and of course to the French alliage. 
 The Dutch arithmeticians translated it as Den 
 Reghel van Menginghe, Rekeninglien van Menge- 
 lingen, Alligationis ofle Menginghe, etc., and 
 the French used both alliages and alligation. 
 In English, alligation has been the favorite 
 name, although Recorde (c. 1542) remarked 
 that " it might bei well called the rule of 
 Myxture." The reason for the prominence 
 of the subject in the sixteenth century was the 
 great increase in coinage, necessitating the 
 mixture of alloys, problems of this kind being 
 classed under such heads as Del consolare deW 
 ore e deW argento in Italy, Silber Rechnung, 
 Goldt Rechnung, and Kupfer Rechnung in 
 Adam Riese's German arithmetics, and simi- 
 larly in other countries. Robert Recorde {(/.v.) 
 seems to have been the first English writer to 
 suggest the application of alligation to other 
 problems than those relating to alloys, saying, 
 "it hath great vse in composition of medicines, 
 and also in myxtures of metalles, and some vse 
 
 VOL. I — H 97 
 
 it hath in myxtures of wines, but I wishe it 
 were lesse vsed therin than it is now a dales." 
 A specimen of the problems of alligation is the 
 following from Vander Schuere's (1600) Dutch 
 arithmetic: " A brewer has 100 tuns of 5-gulden 
 beer in a vat; how much water must he mix 
 with it to produce 3-gulden beer?" 
 
 The subject was generally dropped from 
 American arithmetics in the last quarter of the 
 nineteenth century, chiefly because it included 
 no real modern problems, and did not represent 
 modern methods of solution. D. E. S. 
 
 ALLOCHEIRLA (or ALLOCHIRIA). — The 
 
 subjective transference of a sensation to the 
 opposite and corresponding half of the body, 
 so that a touch or other stimulus on one leg 
 or arm or side is localized on the opposite 
 side. It is a symptom found in a few organic 
 nervous diseases and commonly in hysteria. 
 
 S. I. F. 
 References: — 
 Obersteiner. On Allocheiria. Brain, 1S85, 153. 
 Jones, E. The Clinical Significance of AUochiria. 
 
 Proc. I . Iniemui. Cong. PsychicU.. Neurol., Psychol., 
 
 pp. 40S-414. (Amsterdam, 1907.) Also in Lancet 
 
 (London), 1907, II, S30-832. 
 The Pathology of Dyschiria. Rev. Neurol, and Psy- 
 
 chiat., VII, 1909, pp. 499-522 ; 559-587. (With 
 
 bililiograpliy of 25 titles.) 
 H.iMMOND, W. A. Allochiria : Its Nature and Seat. 
 
 N.Y. Med. Jour., XXXVII, 1883, 35-37. 
 
 ALLYN, ROBERT (1817-1894). — Educator, 
 attended the public schools of Connecticut 
 and Wesleyan University; instructor in Wil- 
 braham Academy and principal of the same 
 (1841-1848); principal of academy at East 
 Greenwich, R.I. (1848-18.54); state commis- 
 sioner of schools of Rhode Island (1854-1857); 
 professor in the Ohio University at Athens 
 (1857-1859); principal of Wesleyan Female 
 College at Cincinnati (1859-1863); president of 
 McKendree College (1863-1874); principal of 
 the Illinois State Normal School at Carbondale 
 (1874-1892). W. S. M. 
 
 ALMA COLLEGE, ALMA, MICHIGAN. — 
 
 A coeducational institution founded in 1886. 
 The first Board of Trustees was elected by the 
 Synod of Michigan; new members of the 
 board are nominated by the trustees, subject 
 to confirmation by the synod. There are 20 
 trustees, each serving four years. The college 
 is one of 31 institutions reporting to the 
 Presbj^erian College Board {q.v.). The in- 
 stitution maintains the usual undergraduate 
 courses in arts and science, a preparatory 
 academy, schools of music, art, and business, 
 and a school of pedagogy mainly devoted to 
 the training of kindergarten teachers. The 
 college and school of pedagogy admit on 
 examination and certificate of approved high 
 school; the other departments require a com- 
 mon school education. A modified elective 
 sj'stem is in effect; the college courses are 
 offered in seven groups. Instruction in peda-
 
 ALMA COLLEGE 
 
 ALMONRY SCHOOLS 
 
 gogy to juniors and seniors Irads, without 
 examination by the state, to a state teacher's 
 certificate. To graduates of at least two 
 years' standing the degree of M.A. is given for 
 one year's study in residence. There are no 
 college fraternities. Including Wright Hall, 
 a well-eciuippcd dormitory for women, there 
 are six buildings (1906), valued, with grounds 
 and equipment, at .§176,283. The total annual 
 income is about $22,000. The average salary 
 of a professor is $1000. There are 366 students 
 (1909), divided as follows: College, 118; 
 Academy, 39; Commercial School, 46; School 
 of Music, 127; School of Art, 26. Ten of the 
 25 members of the instructing staff are full 
 professors. August F. Bruske, D.D., is presi- 
 dent. C. G. 
 
 ALMA COLLEGE, ST. THOMAS, ONT. 
 
 — An institution for the higher education of 
 women, founded in 1877 and under the control 
 of the General Conference of the Methodist 
 Church. Preparatory and collegiate depart- 
 ments are maintained preparing for university 
 matriculation or for teachers (nonprofessional) 
 examinations. The college is affiliated with 
 the University of Toronto. Courses in fine 
 arts and commercial subjects are offered. 
 Diplomas are given on graduation. Rev. 
 R. T. Warner, M.A., D.D., is the principal. 
 
 ALMA MATER. — Literally, foKter-mother. 
 Applied in classical Latin to the goddesses, in- 
 cluding the Muses. The term is now applied as 
 an expression of affection to the college or univer- 
 sity which one has attended. The use is universal 
 in English, American, and German universities. 
 Compare in this connection the use of the terms 
 " alumnus " [q.v.) and " matriculation " {q.v.). 
 
 ALMAGEST. — The great textbook on astron- 
 omy of tlie Middle Ages, written by Ptolemy 
 {q.v.) in the second century of our era. The 
 name comes from the Arabic al-majMi, from al 
 (the) and a corruption of the Greek fityiaTi], femi- 
 nine form of ntytaro^, greatest. The work con- 
 sists of thirteen books, and includes a treatise 
 on trigonometry. It remained the standard 
 treatise on astronomy until it was superseded 
 by the works of Copernicus and Kepler. 
 
 D. E. S. 
 
 ALMANAC. — A term probably derived from 
 the medieval Spanish — the Arai.iic nl, the, -f- 
 manakh, calendar, possibly originally from the 
 Greek or Latin. The term was introduced into 
 Christian Europe by the astrologers, who 
 adopted much of oriental mysticism, and has 
 since been used to refer to an annual calendar. 
 (See C.\LEND.\R, Computus.) D. E. S. 
 
 ALMONRY SCHOOLS. — These schools, 
 which began to be attached to monasteries in 
 the fourteenth century, form one of the most 
 striking proofs that the monasteries were not 
 
 centers of general education and did not keep 
 schools in the ordinary meaning of the term. 
 The Almoner {Elecmusimirius), or charity dis- 
 tributor, was one of the " obedientiaries," or 
 officers, of most, if not all, monasteries. It 
 was his duty to distribute the broken meats, 
 the " remainder biscuit," from the monks' 
 meals at the gate of the monastery every day, 
 and on certain days to distribute doles in 
 money or kind among the poor, often as 
 many as 1000 receiving a penny each. In 
 some cases the general duty of taking in the 
 poor and sick, for which esi)ecially many monas- 
 teries, notablv Reading, were expressly founded, 
 was discharged by setting up an inn {lio.rpiliuni) 
 or Spital {Iw.'ipitalc) outside the gates, in which 
 generally 12 or 13 old or sick people were 
 maintained at the expense of the Almoner, 
 who, like the other officers, had special estates 
 allotted to him out of the common monastic 
 estate. The earliest mention of education 
 connected with the Almoner is in about 1180, 
 when the Archdeacon of Durham gave a manor 
 to the Almoner of the Cathedral Monastery 
 to supply free food and lodging for 3 boys 
 from the public grammar school, to be nomi- 
 nated by the master. At the beginning of the 
 fourteenth century a movement seems to have 
 sprung up in connection with the great in- 
 crease in the worship of the Virgin Mary, for 
 the establishment of choristers in the Lady 
 Chapels of the monastic churches, and special 
 provision had to be made for their housing and 
 education. It seems that this new develop- 
 ment was not made out of the general monastic 
 funds, but by special endowments given either 
 bv the Abbots or Priors or by outsiders. Thus, 
 by deed of Feb. 16, 1319-1320, at Canterbury, 
 Prior Henry of Eastry founded, probably out 
 of a royal grant, a chantry of 6 priests to 
 pray for the soul of Edward I, with the usual 
 attendant clerks and choristers. It is implied 
 that they had to attend the Cathedral school 
 by the provision that on feast days when the 
 schoolmaster does not lecture they are to attend 
 all the canonical hours. Also it is laid down 
 that no scholar shall be admitted to the Al- 
 monry unless he knows how to read and sing, 
 and is 10 years old at least, and has a decent 
 surplice commensurate with the size of his 
 body. Though the Almonry boys were only 
 fed on the broken meats from the monks' 
 table, yet being one was regarded as a valuable 
 form of scholarship, as is shown by a letter of 
 Queen Philippa to the Prior in 1332, asking 
 him to take Richard of Bedingfield into the 
 Almonry " to be maintained like other poor 
 scholars of his estate." The Prior consents, 
 hoping in return that the Queen will prevent the 
 king's purveyors from seizing the provisions he 
 had collected for his own use while attending 
 Parliament. In 1364 we hear of the school- 
 master of the Almonry being appointed master 
 of the public school of his native town of King- 
 ston-on-Thames. So by that time a separate 
 
 98
 
 ALMONRY SCHOOLS 
 
 ALMONRY SCHOOLS 
 
 schoolmaster, though probably only as a pri- 
 vate tutor, had been provided for these Al- 
 monry boys. St. Alban's Abbey seems to 
 have been the first monastery to follow the 
 example of Canterbury, an " Order of living of 
 the poor scholars in the Almonry " there being 
 made April 4, 1339. The scholars were to stay 
 five years at most, " as that time is sufficient 
 for becoming proficient in grammaticals." 
 They were to " shave an ample crown, hke 
 choristers," and daily say the seven psalms 
 for the Convent and its founders. The 
 sergeant, or servant of the Almoner, to whom 
 their care was deputed, took oath to collect 
 the broken meats of the monastery and faith- 
 fully distribute them to the boys of the Almonry 
 and to friars and other beggars, and to instruct 
 the boys to the best of his ability in morals 
 and learning. 
 
 The first beginnings of the great public 
 school of Westminster may be traced to the 
 provision made for 2 boys' food and cloth- 
 ing, costing 32s. 6d. for the year, as shown in 
 an Almoner's account roll for the year 1355. 
 Their numbers were rapidly increased from 
 that time, as in 1363 cloth for their gowns 
 alone cost 24s. 5d. In 1367, a " master of the 
 boys " appears. In 1373, another account 
 shows that there were 13 boys living in what 
 is then called the Sub-Almonry, and the 
 master received 13s. 4d. a year. In 1380, the 
 master is for the first time called a grammar 
 master, when there were 28 boys. From 
 1388 onwards, he is called Schoolmaster 
 {magister scolarum), and in 1394 his stipend 
 by a new agreement was doubled, £1. 6s. 8d. 
 He had board and lodging as well. Probably 
 the boys attended one of the three pubhc 
 schools of London. Then a school was built 
 for them on the spot, items for its repair occur- 
 ring in 1414 and for its rebuilding in 1422. 
 The payments for cloth for the boys' gowns 
 was raised in 1400 by the Abbot's express 
 orders from 50s. to £6. 8.s. and £7. a year. 
 The master's salary was raised to £2. in 
 1479, when a distinction appears between the 
 " grammar boys " and the " singing boys " who 
 were now provided with a separate singing 
 master. So the school continued to the disso- 
 lution of the abbey in 1539, the normal num- 
 ber of boys appearing to be 24. When the 
 abbey was refounded next year as a cathe- 
 dral, the number of grammar school boys to be 
 maintained out of the foundation was raised to 
 40, and this number of resident King's schol- 
 ars is still kept up. At Durham, a similar 
 Almonry School appears first in 1350, when a 
 payment is made for the "Almonry bishop," 
 the boy bishop (q.v.) of the Almonry boys. A 
 master of the boys in the Almonry is first men- 
 tioned in 1352, and in 1372 he is first called 
 schoolma.ster of the Almonry and paid £1. 
 14s. 3f/. for his salary and gown. It was only 
 on special feasts the boys had anything to eat 
 but the broken meats from the monks' table; 
 
 7.S. was paid for fresh meat for them for Advent, 
 1419. They were set to menial tasks. In 
 1448, 1 pennyworth of bread and beer was 
 given them for tossing hay, and in 1457 Is. 5d. 
 was spent in beer for them for getting stones. 
 The Elizabethan "Rites of Durham" tells us 
 how the broken meats for them were handed 
 out of the pantry window of the Refectory, 
 when they carried them to the Almonry just 
 outside the great gate. When a monk died, 
 the children of the Almonry spent the night 
 by the corpse " sitting on their knees " and 
 reading the Psalter till 8 .\.m. It is probable 
 they attended the bishop's or city grammar 
 school, as, when the Priory was turned into 
 a cathedral, which had tfl keep 18 King's 
 scholars, the last master of the Almonry school 
 became Usher, or Second Master, of the 
 grammar school, the first Headmaster being the 
 master of the city grammar school. At St. 
 Mary's Abbey, York, the Almonry School, in 
 which 50 boys boarded in a house called the 
 Conclave or Chamber, attending the Cathedral 
 or City School, is said to have been founded by 
 William Rufus. But we may put this down 
 as false history. On its dissolution, the same 
 number was provided for in the Hospital 
 annexed by Cardinal Pole to the Cathedral 
 School, but this boarding house was soon 
 discontinued. At Coventry, the Cathedral 
 Priory kept 14 boys in its Almonry at a cost 
 of £12. lis. 4rf. a year. In 1439, the Mayor 
 and six of the Town Council arranged to see the 
 Prior to tell him they were wiUing he should 
 " occupye a scole of gramer " if he likes to teach 
 his brethren and the children of the " Aumbry," 
 but he was not to interfere with the freedom of 
 the citizens as to the city school. At Nor- 
 wich, the Cathedral Priory ought to have 
 maintained in the Almonry 14 boys, but in 
 1520 the bishop found at a visitation that 
 there were only 8. At Thornton Abbey, Lin- 
 colnshire, there ought also to have been 14 
 boys in the almonry, but the bishop in 1424 
 had to order 12 at least to be admitted. At 
 Bardney Abbey, in 1379, the bishop ordered 
 the monks, instead of wandering about the 
 country, to observe their rule, stay at home, 
 and maintain 6 boys to learn grammar (pueri 
 literati). Similar provision was made in other 
 monasteries. Probably not less than 2000 boys 
 were thus provided with board, lodging, and 
 education free, taking England as a whole. 
 The schools were purely charity schools, the 
 boys were made to feel that they were char- 
 ity children, they acted as choristers and page 
 boys to the monks, but they were taught and 
 managed by secular clerks as masters. It is 
 not probable that their education went beyond 
 what choristers get now, except in a few spe- 
 cial instances, such as Westminster. These 
 schools were in historical times the sole con- 
 tribution of the monasteries to education. 
 
 The only secular church in which an Almonry 
 School has been found is St. Paul's, where 
 
 99
 
 ALPHABET 
 
 ALPHABET 
 
 tho 8 choristers, afterwards increased to 10, 
 hitherto living separately and fed by the canons 
 in turn, were collected together and placed in 
 the Almonry under the care of the Almoner on 
 the north side of the cathedral, at the begin- 
 ning of the fourteenth century. Many en- 
 dowments were added for them when their 
 voices " brast " and some of the 10 must have 
 passed on, as Thomas Tusser, c. 1.535, did to 
 Eton, to other schools and the universities. 
 
 A. P. L. 
 
 ALPHABET. — In the widest sense of the 
 term, "alphabet" connotes the sum total of 
 signs and characters that form the basis of writ- 
 ten language, so that it is theoreticallj' proper 
 to speak of the A.ssj'rian or the Chinese alpha- 
 bets, which are composed of a relatively small 
 number of basal characters modified in various 
 ways, until the ultimate quantity of signs be- 
 comes very large. Practically, however, the 
 word " alphabet " refers only to that collection 
 of syllabic characters in which a given language 
 or group of languages is written; and it is 
 thus distinguished from number signs, as well 
 as from idiograms, or characters reiircsenting 
 a word or series of words, as $, or the multi- 
 plicity of signs used in mathematics, astronomy, 
 and other sciences. This restriction of the 
 term, moreover, rules out what may be termed 
 pictographic writing. This system is found in 
 most primitive form among the American 
 Indians, not only in their numerous picto- 
 graphs properly so called, but in the historical 
 records preserved, for example, in the " Lone- 
 dog winter count " of the Siou.x and the similar 
 annals of the Iviowa and the Pima, as well as 
 in the highly developed and probably (|uasi- 
 syllabic value found in the writing of the 
 Aztecs, the Mayas, the Hittites, and the 
 Egj'ptians, yet it must be noted that it was 
 exactly this pictographic theory which prob- 
 ably formed the basis of the complicated 
 Chinese characters. 
 
 The term " alphabet " is of comparatively 
 recent formation, occurring first in the eccle- 
 siastical Latin of Tertullian and Jerome. It 
 denotes, as is well known, the regular sequence 
 of the first two letters of the Greek alphabet, 
 alpha and beta, and finds analogues not only 
 in the English a-b-c, but also in the Arabic 
 abjad, the Old Irish beth-luis-nion, and the 
 Germanic futhork. 
 
 Of all alphabets that which has had the 
 widest and the longest currency is the Grseco- 
 Roman, which is the parent, with more or less 
 modification, of all the modern occidental lan- 
 guages, and which, in its Roman, or modified 
 Roman, form, is now almost universally em- 
 ployed when languages hitherto without script 
 are reduced to writing. On the Greek side this 
 alphabet furnished the foundation for the 
 Slavonic scripts; and on the Roman for all 
 those tongues whose speakers came under the 
 control or the influence of the Roman Empire 
 
 or Church. There is practically no room for 
 doubt that the immediate jiarent of this alpha- 
 bet is the Phoenician script, whose earliest 
 known forms date from about 1000 B.C. (the 
 " Baal Lebanon " bowls), though the best early 
 specimen is the Moabite Stone, which dates 
 from 890 B.C. This Phaiucian ali)habet con- 
 sists of 22 letters, all of which are consonants. 
 This is, indeed, characteristic of all Semitic 
 alphabets allied to the Phrenician, the vowels 
 Vicing left undesignated, except in sacred texts 
 (notably the Bible and the Qur'an) or in diffi- 
 cult poetry and elementary textbooks. The 
 writing in Phccnician, as in the kindred Semitic 
 alphabets, is from right to left, a usage which 
 was also retained in the oldest Greek inscrip- 
 tions, as well as in the ancient Kharoshthi 
 script in India. But for some reason or other 
 aU the Indo-Germanic peoples, excepting the 
 Iranians, who employed an Aramaic form of 
 the Phirnician alphabet in both Avesta and 
 Pahlavi, early felt objections to a script which 
 ran from right to left. In India, therefore, as 
 earlj' as the fifth century B.C., the Brahnii alpha- 
 bet, another variety of the Aramaic, had evi- 
 dently begun to be written both from left to 
 right and boustrophedoti, as by the Greeks until 
 about 500 B.C. The Oscans and Umbrians, 
 before they accepted the Roman alphabet, 
 also wrote from right to left, as was the case in 
 Etruscan and in one archaic Latin inscription 
 (the so-called " Ducnos-inscription "); though 
 the boustropliedon method was observed in the 
 Old Sabellian texts and in an archaic Latin 
 bronze tablet from the Lago di Fucino. Again, 
 while many of tho oldest Norse runic inscrip- 
 tions, and practically all those outside the 
 Norse region, are written from left to right, 
 there was an early tendency to inscribe the 
 runes from right to left, or to write them 
 boustrophedon, or even in serpentine fashion. 
 Normally, however, in the Indo-Germanic 
 alphabets, even in Armenian, which is appar- 
 ently a mixture of Greek and Aramaic types, 
 the script runs from left to right, this also hold- 
 ing good of all Indian scripts except the Kha- 
 roshthi, all except the most archaic Greek and 
 Latin alphabets, and all the scripts based upon 
 them. Only in one outlying member of this 
 alphabetic system, the Tibetan, which is based 
 on Syriac, does the writing run vertically, as 
 in Chinese and Japanese. 
 
 \Ye have seen that the Phoenician alphabet 
 was the parent of a vast number of scripts as 
 far divergent as Roman and Sanskrit, Hebrew 
 and Arabic; and it scarcely need be said that 
 within each of these groups there are many 
 subvarieties, separated not only chronologi- 
 cally, but also, even when used side by side, 
 so distinct in form as to require the most 
 patient paheographical research to show their 
 ultimate kinship. But a further question arises 
 which is by no means so easy to answer. What 
 was the source of the Phoenician alphabet? 
 Here the attempted solutions have been 
 
 100
 
 ALPHABET 
 
 THIS BOOK IS NOT TO Bt 
 TAKtN FROM THE LIBR«k.Ry 
 
 ALPHABET 
 
 numerous. De Rouge and Taylor have main- 
 tained that the Phoenician script was based 
 on the hieratic alphabet of the Egyptians; 
 Deecke, Ball, and Zimmern, among others, 
 trace it to the cuneiform writing of the Assyro- 
 Babylonians; Evans cautiously suggests that 
 the origin is to be sought in Cyprus; Petrie, 
 followed by Clodd, would see in Phoenician 
 script a selection from a large body of signs, 
 apparently geometric rather than hieroglyphic 
 in origin, which is held to have been current 
 throughout the Mediterranean territorj^ about 
 5000. B.C.; Lidzbarski and Delitzsch take an 
 intermediate position, holding that both Baby- 
 lonia and Egypt influenced the Phccnician 
 alphabet; and Hommel has suggested that 
 the source in question was the Mina>an script 
 of South Arabia, which he considers to be older 
 than the North Semitic types. All these 
 views have been submitted to a close criticism 
 by Peters, who thinks it not impossible that the 
 Pha?nician alphabet shows traces of Baby- 
 lonian, Egyptian, and Cretan elements; but 
 that, in view of the names assigned to the 
 letters in the non-Babylonian Semitic languages 
 and in Greek, the main element must probably 
 be sought in Babylonia. It may, of course, be 
 thought that the Phcenician alphaljet was an 
 independent creation. Such inventions are 
 not unknown. An instance in point is the one 
 Polynesian script of which there is any record. 
 This is found on a few wooden tablets from 
 Easter Island, though tradition, which is 
 doubtless correct, declares that the alphabet 
 was brought from some more eastern island 
 whence the Easter Islanders emigrated; and a 
 like assumption of invention seems best to 
 explain the origin of the ancient Irish ogams. 
 But with the Phrenicians this theory of inde- 
 pendent creation is, on the whole, scarcely 
 probable; for the Phoenicians were adapters 
 rather than creators. In a word, the exact 
 source of the Phoenician alphabet, and conse- 
 quently that of our own script, is not yet 
 definitely known. 
 
 Once an alphabet has been constituted, it is 
 modified to meet the needs of other peoples 
 who may adapt it. Thus the Greek alphabet 
 has 24 letters, while the Russian, directly 
 based upon it, has 37. The English alphabet 
 has 26 characters, but the Cherokee, by modify- 
 ing these signs and adding independent crea- 
 tions of its own, raises this number to 85. On 
 the other hand, letters may be dropped. Greek 
 early discarded the Pha?nician vau, koppa, 
 and fiampi (except for numerals), and Pahlavi, 
 based on an Aramaic variety of Phoenician, 
 has but 14, giving rise, since many of these 
 signs have several, often identical, values, to 
 one of the most vexatious scripts ever devised. 
 
 It has already been said that the aljihabet 
 was primarily syllabic. This is true of the 
 Semitic alphabets as a whole, where the vowels 
 are not indicated normally; and it is in a 
 measure true also of all the Indian scripts, 
 
 which are ultimately of Semitic provenance. 
 Thus in Sanskrit there is, for example, a .sign 
 indicating, not n, but na, and another indicating 
 ta ; but if one wishes to indicate nta, he must 
 combine the radical part of the character for 
 na with that for la. This system, however, 
 proved unacceptable to the Indo-Germanic 
 peoples in general, for the Iranians on the one 
 hand, adopting an Aramaic alphabet, and the 
 Greeks on the other, using the Phcenician 
 script, both introduced vocalic characters 
 before the time of their first extant literary 
 monuments. The very first letter of our own 
 alphabet bears witness to this. In Semitic 
 the first character, aleph, represents, not a 
 vowel, but an extremely light guttural, which 
 is exactly represented by the " smooth breath- 
 ing " of the Greek alphabet. But in the 
 earliest Greek, alpha, the letter corresponding, 
 as its very name shows, to the Phoenician 
 aleph, is not a guttural, but the vowel which 
 we term a. 
 
 In the early period the letters of the alpha- 
 bet had names, not the mere implication of 
 the sounds for which they stand, as in our he 
 for 6. This is the rule in such Semitic lan- 
 guages as Hebrew, Syriac, Samaritan, and 
 Ethiopic, and is also the case in Greek. Else- 
 where the principle decays to a greater or less 
 extent, as in Arabic and Armenian, while in 
 Sanskrit there is but a single survival of the 
 old practice in the name for ra, repha (" snarl "). 
 In the Germanic runes there may be an uncon- 
 scious return to the ancient use in the name 
 thorn given to the character /, which is imme- 
 diately derived from the Roman D, and a 
 Salzburg manuscript gives a complete list of 
 names for the Gothic runes. This brings 
 us to the origin of the names of the letters. The 
 meanings of the designations of twelve of the 
 Phoenician letters are practically certain. 
 These are, giving them their Hebrew names, 
 as being the most familiar, as follows: aleph, 
 "ox"; beth, "house"; daleth, "door"; 
 yodh, " hund " ; kaph, "hollow of the hand"; 
 mem, "water"; nu7i, "fish"; 'ain, "eye"; 
 pe, "mouth"; resh, "head"; sin, "tooth"; 
 and tail, " mark." Three others, gimel, lamedh, 
 and samekh, apparently are derived from 
 Semitic triliteral roots; and the remainder 
 are of onomatopoetic or of doubtful origin. 
 With regard to those letter names of known 
 signification, it may be suggested that they 
 were named from being the initial letters of 
 well-known words, beth as being the first letter 
 of beth, " house," etc., precisely as if we called 
 a "archer" and b "butcher" because of the 
 nursery rhyme 
 
 " A was an Archer, and shot at a frog; 
 B was a Butcher, and had a great dog "; etc. 
 
 It has, indeed, been suggested by some scholars 
 that the origin of the Semitic names for the 
 letters is to be sought in the objects of which 
 the letters in question are alleged to have been 
 
 101 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA 
 SANTA BARBARA COLUGE LIBRARY
 
 ALPHABET 
 
 ALPHABET 
 
 primarily pictographs, so that bcth, for instance, 
 would at first have been a pictograph or ideo- 
 gram for " house," whence, since the initial 
 sound of the word in question is b, beth itself 
 came to denote b. This hypothesis is not, 
 however, borne out by the earliest accessible 
 forms of the Phoenician alphabet, for though 
 this might possibly be urged in the case of 
 mem, "water" {^), 'ain, "eye" ('V> ), or 
 sin, " tooth " (w), it will scarcely explain 
 aleph, "ox" (l), belli, "house" {^), kaph, 
 "hollow of the hand" (Ti), or nun, "fish" 
 
 In regard to the general form of letters it 
 should be noted that the material on which 
 they were originally written has largely con- 
 ditioned their shape. The cuneiform char- 
 acters, primarily engraved on wet clay, as may 
 be seen from the numerous Sumerian, Assyr- 
 ian, and Babylonian tablets, are straight, 
 heavy strokes, with a marked indentation 
 where the stylus was first pressed on the writ- 
 ing surface; the Irish ogams, first carved on 
 stone, are either horizontal or oblique lines, or 
 else dots, all suitable for simple working on 
 stone; the Germanic runes, originally 
 " scratched " (as the ctymologj' of the English 
 torite shows) on wood, are plainly designed to 
 avoid interfering with the grain; the South 
 Indian scripts, traced with a sharp stylus on 
 palm leaves, are characterized by curves, and an 
 avoidance of straight lines, to ])revent splitting 
 the fiber of the leaf; and in Egypt, where the 
 writing material was, from the earliest times, 
 papyrus, an elaborate system of essentially 
 pictographic writing could be developed. Of 
 course, these principles are only general, for 
 when an alphabet had once been formed, it 
 was carried out even when written on materials 
 for which it had not originally been intended. 
 As examples of this we may perhaps cite the 
 Maya pictographs on stone as compared with 
 the manuscripts of the same people, or of the 
 Aztecs and Zapotecs; or the wooden tablets 
 of Easter Island, whose pictographic characters 
 are obviously little suited to the material on 
 which they are inscribed, so that probably 
 these characters were primarily devised for 
 some less fragile substance. 
 
 All alphabets consist at first of what might 
 be called capitals, exactly as children to-day 
 begin to learn their letters by making capitals. 
 This is precisely the case with many oriental 
 scripts, such as Hebrew, Arabic, and Sanskrit, 
 where there is no distinction between what 
 are called capital and small letters; and in 
 Greek and Latin inscriptions all the writing 
 is in capitals, as is also the case with the oldest 
 extant manuscripts in these languages. But 
 this sort of writing consumed time, and was 
 unsuitable for rapid correspondence; and there 
 accordingly developed a cursive script. Of 
 this there are countless instances, among the 
 earliest being the successive transitions in 
 Egypt from the hieroglyphic to the hieratic, 
 
 and from that to the demotic script; or the 
 Hebrew " Rashi " cursive beside the conven- 
 tional " square script." While the cursive 
 is thus essentially a later development, it does 
 not altogether supersede the capitals, which 
 remain either for more formal writing, or to 
 mark words to which special importance is 
 attached (for an admirable example in English 
 cf. Exodus iii, 14, vi, 3), or to show that cer- 
 tain words are nouns (as in earlier modern 
 English and in German) or are proper names. 
 As the cursive develops from the capitals, so by 
 analogy cursive script evolves capitals of its 
 own, the result being that alphabets based on 
 the Grffico-Roman system have, in reality, 
 four distinct types of script. 
 
 In the light of what has already been said, the 
 genealogy of the English alphabet may be 
 summarized both clearly and briefly. The 
 Phoenician alphabet, whose precise origin is 
 not yet absolutely certain, was introduced into 
 Greece, probably between the eleventh and 
 eighth centuries B.C. Thence it was carried, 
 in its Chalcidian variety, to Italy by .^gean 
 immigrants, apparently about the eighth cen- 
 tury. From Italy it passed, in the course of 
 Roman conquest, to Gaul and Britain. And 
 mainly from the Anglo-Saxon form the present 
 English alphabet is directly derived. Into all 
 the varieties of the English alphabet, of which 
 phases survive in the " engrossing hand " and 
 the like, there is no space to enter here. It 
 would add no new principles, and properly 
 belongs to the special study of palaeography or 
 diplomatics. The principal innovations of the 
 English alphabet as compared with its immedi- 
 ate ancestor, the Roman, are only five. From 
 the Germanic runes the Anglo-Saxons borrowed 
 two signs — \> (or (J) for ih, and f for iv, the 
 former being imitated in the half-archaic y, 
 as in i/ for the. In the Middle English period the 
 French form of Roman script furnished the 
 character i, which had various values — a 
 sound intermediate between g and y, though 
 inclining to, and often interchangeable with, 
 the latter (as }al, Anglo-Saxon gyllede, English 
 yelled; yet cf. a^eiii beside aye, "against"); 
 the guttural sound represented by the modern 
 gh in daughter (Middle English doHer, Anglo- 
 Saxon dohtor); and .f or z, as marchauid'f, 
 " merchants." And in the earlier period of 
 modern English i was divided into sonant (i) and 
 consonant (j) functions, the latter receiving a 
 letter modified from the former, while a special 
 " double u " (w) was made from vv= uu. 
 
 L. H. G. 
 
 References: — - 
 
 Bergeb. Histoire de Vicriture dans VantiguiU. (Parig, 
 
 1891.) 
 Bla.ss, Hubner. and L.^rfeld. sections on Greek and 
 
 Latin paleography and opigrajiliy in Miillpr, Hand- 
 
 huchdcr klassischen Altertums-Wissenschafl. {2d ed., 
 
 Munich, 1892.) 
 BUhler, Indische Palceographie. (Strassburg, 1896.) 
 BuRNELL. Elements of South Indian Palwography. (2d 
 
 ed., London, 1S7S.) 
 
 102
 
 ALPHABET 
 
 ALSTED 
 
 Cagnat. Cours elcmenlaire d'epigraphie laline. Paris, 
 1898.) 
 
 Clarke. Origin and Varieties of the Semitic Alphabet. 
 (Chicago, 1887.) 
 
 Clodd. Story of the Alphabet. (London, 1900.) 
 
 Delitzsch. Ziir Entstekung dcs &ltesten Schriflsystems . 
 (Leipzig, 1890.) 
 
 Evans. Cretan Pictographs and Pre-Phwnician Script. 
 (London, 1895.) 
 Discoveries of Cretan and JSgean Script. (London, 
 1898.) 
 
 KiHCHOFF. Studien zur Geschichle des griechischen 
 Alphabets. (GUtersloh, 1887.) 
 
 Lepsius. Standard Alphabet. (2d cd., London, 1S0.3.) 
 
 LiDZBAHSKi. Handhuch der nordsemitischen Epigrnphik. 
 (Weimar, 1898.) 
 
 MoRiTZ. Arabic Palmography. (Cairo, 1905.) 
 
 Peter.s. Recent Tlieories of the Origin of the Al- 
 phabet, in Journal of the American Oriental 
 Society, XXII (1901), pp. 177-198. 
 
 Prou. Elements de paieographie laline E et francaise. 
 (Paris, 1892.) 
 
 Roberts. Introduction to Greek Palaeography. (Cam- 
 bridge, 1887.) 
 
 SiEVERS and Arndt-Bloch ; sections on runes and the 
 Roman alphabet in Paul, Grundriss der germanis- 
 chen Philologie, Vol. I, 248-282. (2d ed., Strassburg, 
 1901.) 
 
 Taylor. The Alphabet. (2d ed., London, 1899.) 
 
 Thompson. Handbook of Greek and Latiti PaUeography. 
 (London, 1892.) 
 
 ALPHABET, PHONIC. — See Phonetics. 
 
 ALPHABET, TEACHING THE. — See 
 
 Reading, Teaching Beginning. 
 
 ALPHABET WHEEL. — One of the many 
 devices for teaching the alphabet. In 1820 
 a Hartford publisher issued The Revolving 
 Alphabet or C/h'W.? Instructive Toy. It con- 
 sists of two circular pieces of wood, with 
 a diameter of five inches, Vjetween which 
 was placed a sheet of paper containing the 
 alphabet on one side and a series of little syl- 
 lables on the other. The paper could be re- 
 volved and a short column at a time of the 
 print could be seen through an aperture in 
 the disks. The alphaljet wheel was one of the 
 de\'ices frequently used in the Lancasterian or 
 monitorial system (qq.r.) of instruction. 
 
 Reference: — - 
 
 Johnson, Clifton. Old Time Schools and Schoolbooks. 
 (New York, 1904.) 
 
 ALPHABETIC METHOD. — A special 
 method in teaching reading to beginners, 
 much used prior to the last quarter of the 
 nineteenth century. The children were first 
 taught the letters and names of the alpha- 
 bet. They next spelled the words to be read, 
 and with the approximate sound suggested by 
 the spelling of the word as a guide, proceeded 
 to the pronunciation of the word. If the simple 
 words involved were already in the speech of the 
 child, the spelling sounds usually sufficed to sug- 
 gest the right pronunciation or quickly cor- 
 rected a false pronunciation. The alphabetic 
 method was unsucces.sful with words the sounds 
 of which did not correspond to the spelling. It 
 failed with foreign children, as these had little 
 
 basis in English speech to suggest right pro- 
 nunciation and rectify wrong pronunciation. 
 The weakness of this method became more 
 apparent with the influx of immigrant children 
 during the last half of last century, and the 
 attention of teachers was turned to other and 
 more efficient methods. In the American 
 Colonial {q.v.) period the alphabetic method 
 was about the only special method of teaching 
 reading employed. The transition step of com- 
 bining letters into syllables was provided be- 
 tween the learning of the alphabet and the 
 reading of words. Together the " alphabetic " 
 and " syllabic " methods constituted one of the 
 first " synthetic " methods of teaching begin- 
 ners to read. H. S. 
 See Reading, Teaching Beginners. 
 
 ALPHABETIC SPELLING. — See Spelling. 
 
 ALSACE-LORAINE, EDUCATION IN.— 
 
 See German Ejipire, Education in. 
 
 ALSTED, JOHANN HEINRICH.— A theo- 
 logian of the Reformed Church, the author 
 of a va.st body of theological, philosophical, 
 and pedagogical works, and the master who 
 in many directions exerted a profound influence 
 upon the famous educator Comenius, was born 
 in 15SS at Herborn in Nassau. His father, a 
 minister and teacher, devoted himself to the 
 education of the young Alsted until at the 
 age of 14 he was enrolled on the books of the 
 gymnasium or pjidagogium of his native town. 
 Graduating as an accomplished Latinist, well 
 versed also in philosophy and theology, Alsted 
 proceeded upon one of those academic journeys 
 (peregrinationes academicac) that were at the 
 time regarded as an indispensable supplement 
 to the education of a cultured scholar. Before 
 returning home he had listened to the distin- 
 guished teachers of the day at Marburg, 
 Frankfort, Heidelberg, Strassburg, and Basle. 
 Alsted now became a teacher in the high school 
 at Herborn. His amazing literary activity soon 
 rendered his name illustrious throughout Ger- 
 many, and procured him the rank of extraordi- 
 nary professor of philosophy (ICIO). The 
 youth of all lands in which the Reformed reli- 
 gion had taken root flocked to hear him, and 
 among others Comenius (IGll), who owed 
 to the youthful professor his first impulse 
 toward didactic studies. In 1615 Alsted was 
 made ordinary professor ; and in 1618 one 
 finds him among those summoned to the Dor- 
 drecht Synod, at which the orthodox Reformed 
 theology was to win a signal victorj' over 
 Arminianism. In 1619 Alsted was appointed 
 professor of theology. At this time the storms 
 of the Thirty Years' War devastated the land 
 of Nassau, bringing plague and fire in their 
 train. Knowing that the school at Herborn 
 could never maintain itself in the face of these 
 disasters, Alsted in 1620 reluctantly obeyed a 
 call to the conduct of a new academv at Stuhl- 
 
 103
 
 ALSTED 
 
 ALTERNATING SYSTEM 
 
 Weisscnburg. Here he continued to produce 
 book upon book, so that even his untimely 
 death on November 9, 1638, did not prevent him 
 from taking rank as one of the most prohfic 
 writers of any age. 
 
 Alsted was one of that noble-spirited band 
 in whom the culture of antiquity, but recently 
 made availal)le by the scholars of the Renais- 
 sance, was happily united with the intense moral 
 earnestness of the Reformation. Few had 
 drunk more deeply at the springs of classical 
 
 learning ; few were more zealous in doctrinal 
 disputation or more fervent in religious faith. 
 Education was to Alsted a branch of the history 
 of culture and a handmaiil of divine truth. 
 His universal encyclopedia, in two folio volumes, 
 published at Ilerborn in 1630, the most famous 
 work of his pen and an undertaking that has 
 scarcely a parallel, includes a treatment of edu- 
 cation which is not merely of interest as an illus- 
 tration of the theory, but also the practice of 
 German education in that day. It is obvious 
 that the books upon education, at least, were 
 written with genuine love for the work, and not 
 in a perfunctory spirit. Alsted's Nassau writ- 
 ings include no less than 120 volumes, several of 
 which run each to more than a thousand pages. 
 Consult Johann Heinrich Alsted's pddagogisch- 
 didaktische Reform- Bestrebungen, Lippert. 
 
 P. R. C. 
 
 ALTDORF, THE UNIVERSITY OF. — Near 
 Nuremberg, Bavaria; played a prominent 
 role as a Protestant institution of learning 
 during the seventeenth century. It owed its 
 origin to a Gymnasium removed from Nurem- 
 berg to Altdorf in 1573, although the institu- 
 tion was not transformed into a university 
 until 1622. Like so many of the other German 
 universities established during the seventeenth 
 century, it succumbed under the calamities that 
 befell the German states during the period of 
 the Napoleonic concjuests, and closed its doors 
 in 1S07. 
 
 ALTENSTEIN, KARL FREIHERR VON 
 STEIN ZUM (1770-_1S40J. —The first Prussian 
 Minister of Education. He was born in Ans- 
 bach, being a descendant of one of the oldest 
 German families, studied law at the universities 
 of Erlangen and Gottingen, and entered the 
 Prussian administrative service, in which he 
 rose very rapidly. After the resignation of 
 Stein in 1808, he became minister of finances, 
 and was practically' at the head of the govern- 
 ment until 1810. In this position he cooper- 
 ated very effectivel.v in the establishment of 
 the University of Berlin. In 1817 he was called 
 to the charge of the newly created Ministry of 
 Education, which he directed until 1835, when 
 he retired on account of old age. 
 
 Altenstein's administration was of great in- 
 fluence on the development of the Prussian 
 school system. He established the University 
 of Bonn, as well as many new gymnasiums, 
 teachers' seminaries, and other educational 
 institutions. He tried to enforce the principle 
 of compulsory education and to raise the in- 
 come of the elementary teachers. The project 
 of a general school law worked out under his 
 direction in 1819 did not pass, but its principles 
 were embodied in later legislation. 
 
 ALTERNATION OF STUDIES. — It is usual 
 in arranging the succession of lesson periods 
 to alternate between subjects more or less formal 
 and strainful and those to a considerable degree 
 objective and restful. Thus music, drawing, 
 phj'sical education, manual training, or nature 
 study might follow and be followed by arith- 
 metic, history, grammar, etc. Such a succes- 
 sion, designed to relieve strain and fatigue 
 through recreation or change, is spoken of as 
 an "alternation of studies." 
 
 See Progr.\m ; Schedule. 
 
 ALTERNATING SYSTEM. — In an un- 
 graded school with several divisions or groups 
 it is necessary for the teacher to give his class 
 instruction to the groups in alternation. Even 
 in city schools, where only one grade is under 
 the control of a single teacher, it is frequently 
 required that the children of the single grade 
 be divided into two groups, which are to have 
 the major attention of the teacher alternately. 
 When one group is reciting, the other studies. 
 
 104
 
 ALTHAMMER 
 
 ALTRUISM AND EGOISM 
 
 Such a method of class management is called 
 an " alternating system " of instruction. 
 See Grading; Classification; Program. 
 
 ALTHAMMER, ANDREAS (1498-1564).— 
 A German Lutheran pastor. He was born 
 in Brentz, and became city pastor in Ausbach 
 (1528). He is said to be the author of the first 
 religious te.xtbook which was known by the 
 name of catechism. He published also notes 
 and explanations to the Germania of Tacitus. 
 
 See Catechism. 
 
 ALTHOFF, FRIEDRICH (1839-1908). — For 
 
 about twenty-five years one of the leading 
 officials in the educational administration in 
 Prussia. In 1880 he was appointed professor at 
 Strassburg, and in 1882 he entered the Ministry 
 of Education becoming coimected with the de- 
 partment for universities and scientific institu- 
 tions, where he was active for fifteen years. In 
 1897 he became the chief permanent official 
 in the ministry. During his long official career 
 he exercised a great influence over Prussian 
 education. He took a broad view of education, 
 and showed great interest in educational move- 
 ments in England, France, and the United 
 States. From Harvard University he received 
 an honorary degree. To his suggestion and 
 efforts are due the exchange of German and 
 American professors, and the establishment of 
 the important Inquiry Bureau (Aii.skimftstellc) 
 of the BerUn University. He died on Oct. 20, 
 1908. I. L. K. 
 
 ALTRUISM AND EGOISM. — While these 
 words, as antithetical psychological and moral 
 terms, are comparatively novel in English 
 thought (having been introduced by the fol- 
 lowers of Comte, especially George Eliot, and 
 by Herbert Spencer) the ideas underl.ving them 
 constitute the most fundamental and enduring 
 problem of English ethical speculation. British 
 ethics, in contrast with Continental, has been 
 doniinantly individualistic in its basis and psy- 
 chological in its method. Grotius, the founder 
 of the Continental tradition, re\'ived and de- 
 veloped the classic principle of Greek and Roman 
 morals, that man is social by nature, and that 
 this sociability, being a universal trait, is essen- 
 tially rational in character. Hence the content 
 of morals was arrived at deductively by develop- 
 ing the necessitj' of rational conditions of the 
 manifestation of man's social nature. 
 
 Hobbes started English thought in an opposite 
 direction. He held that the primary law of 
 nature is individual .self-preservation, and that 
 men, instead of being by nature fit for society, 
 are naturally averse to it, the only natural 
 conditions of their coming together socially 
 being accidental, namely, desire for comfort and 
 profit, and vainglory or love of honor and fame 
 attained by a competitive outstripping of 
 others. Since, however, the natural tendencies 
 of men to seek in purely individualistic ways 
 
 their self-preservation bring them into conflict 
 with one another, there results a condition of 
 mutual fear and uncertainty, a condition wherein 
 wealth, the sciences, and the arts are all im- 
 possible, and the life of man is " solitary, 
 brutish, and nasty." From this untoward 
 result of pure individualistic self-seeking, 
 Hobbes deduces the necessity of a central 
 authority; a political sovereign, which has 
 the power to impose common laws upon men 
 and to enforce peace and order. The edicts 
 of civil authority are thus the source of justice 
 and morality. 
 
 While Hobbes' doctrine called out a storm of 
 protest from all quarters, while he had no 
 avowed disciples, nevertheless he set the prob- 
 lem and fixed the method of subsequent British 
 moral theorizing. The problem was reconciling 
 the natural constitution of individual man with 
 the demands of civilized social life. The 
 method was that of psychological examination 
 of the individual to ascertain what is his natural 
 constitution. In the main Hobbes' successors 
 contended that man's psychological structure 
 contains two sets of motive springs, termed 
 respectively self-love and benevolence (or self- 
 interest and sympathy), and that the sympa- 
 thetic spring to action, disinterested interest in 
 the happiness of others, is as much a genuine 
 part of the individual's natural constitution as 
 is his passion for self-preservation. 
 
 By the latter part of the eighteenth century 
 this type of moral philosophy was elaborated 
 to a point where it became the psychological 
 foundation for the economic theory of Adam 
 Smith and the utilitarianism of Jeremy Bentham 
 — the two most influential doctrines of the 
 time. Adam Smith made sympathy the basis 
 of ethics and intelligent self-interest the basis 
 of economics, and bent his energies to proving 
 that if intelligent self-love, or the reasonable 
 desire for personal comfort and profit, were left 
 free from arbitrary political regulations, it 
 naturally brought men together in natural 
 agreement (contracts) so that each man, in 
 serving himself, served his fellow. In this way, 
 under the guidance of the " invisible hand " 
 of Providence, men in seeking their own inter- 
 ests promoted unconsciously the welfare of 
 society as a whole even more efficaciously than 
 if they had sought to do so from motives of 
 conscious philanthropy. 
 
 Jeremy Bentham furnished the natural 
 pendantto this doctrine. Without committing 
 himself upon the psychological question of 
 whether sympathy is as innate as self-love, he 
 held that the sole moral criterion is the tendency 
 of acts to promote universal happiness, so that 
 benevolence is the ultimate virtue. He also 
 held that men's need for the approval, esteem, 
 and aid of others is so great that ultimately the 
 dictates of universal benevolence and of intelli- 
 gent self-love coincide. In promoting the hap- 
 piness of all, the individual is taking the best 
 means to secure his own greatest happiness, and 
 
 105
 
 ALTRUISM AND EGOISM 
 
 ALUMNUS 
 
 \nce versa. Thus Bent ham's moral doctrine 
 effectively supplemented the economic theory 
 of Smith. 
 
 This result, completely reversing the original 
 assumption of Hofebes, practically terminated 
 the movement. Further discussion was coinci- 
 dent with the introduction of the terms "egoism" 
 and "altruism" as substitutes for, although not 
 synonymous with, the older terms. The nine- 
 teenth century, in its reaction against the iso- 
 lated individualism of the eighteenth, laid great 
 stress upon the importance of the tratlitions and 
 institutions of society as absolutely necessary 
 to the proper nurture of the individual. Ego- 
 ism thus became a term standing in the main 
 for the nonsocial tendencies in the individual, 
 which needed to be transformed in order that the 
 individual might take his due place in the social 
 order, while altruism meant regard for the well- 
 being of otliers which formed the social cement, 
 and to which therefore egoism must be subordi- 
 nated, moral discipline consisting essentially in 
 acquiring habits of such subordination. 
 
 Spencer, however, saw in the notion of organic 
 evolution a means of reassigning positive moral 
 value to egoism while reconciling it to altruism. 
 He distinguished " relative ethics " as the code 
 appropriate to an imperfect state of evolution 
 from absolute ethics, or the code obtaining when 
 the goal of evolution, the complete adaptation 
 of the individual to his environment, is attained. 
 During the transition period, only a compro- 
 mise between the claims of individual and 
 general happiness is possible. When individ- 
 uals are completely adapted, however, the 
 acts necessary to the well-being of society will 
 have become, through heredity, the spontaneous 
 functions of the individual, and hence attended 
 with pleasure. 
 
 The present tendency is to view- the whole 
 question as arising from a separation of the 
 individual from social relations wOiich has no 
 basis in fact. The primary or natural im- 
 pulses of man, just because they are natural, 
 are neither egoistic nor altruistic, although 
 some of them tend more to individual results 
 and others to acts serviceable to others. 
 Either tendency may be unduly cultivated, 
 but normal moral growth consists in organizing 
 the natural impulses so that the individual 
 finds his chief interest in acts that at the same 
 time are socially useful. The moral problem 
 of education is thus not one of balancing or com- 
 promising two sets of motives, but of developing 
 that type of ego or self which finds happiness in 
 the kind of acts that are of social value. This 
 result is achieved by enlightening the indi^-idual 
 as to social ends, and by forming a disposition 
 actively interested in such ends, rather than 
 by conscious appeal to " altruistic " motives. 
 The fallacy underlying the older controversy 
 was the false antithesis of the " self " and the 
 "other "; this antithesis is overcome by recog- 
 nition of the objective social relations and 
 activities which concern alike the " self " and 
 
 the " other." To bring about this appreciation 
 of social relations as a common good is the 
 chief function of the school as a social institution. 
 
 J. D. 
 References: — 
 
 CoMTE. .\. Cours de la Philosophic Positive. (Paris, 
 
 lS.30-184.3.) 
 Dewey, J. School and Society. (Chicago. IStOO.) 
 Dewey and Tufts. Ethics. (New York, 1908.) 
 M.\CKENZiE, J. S. Introduction to Social Philosophy. 
 
 (New York, 1895.) 
 Macdougall, W. Social Psychology. (London, 1909.) 
 Ross, E. A. Social Control. (New York, 1908.) 
 Spencer, H. Principles of Psychology. (London, 
 
 1855.) 
 Data of Ethics. (London, 1879.) 
 Westermarck, E. Origin and Development of Moral 
 
 Ideas. (London, 1908.) 
 
 ALUMNI ASSOCIATION. — See Alumnus ; 
 
 I".\IVERSITY AND C'oLLEGE AlUMXI ASSOCIA- 
 TIONS. 
 
 ALUMNUS. — Literally, nur.sling, foster child. 
 A term which is the corollary of the use of Aliia 
 ]\L\TER (q.v.) with reference to a college or uni- 
 versity, and which was at first applied to one 
 who had been a student in such an institution. 
 At present its use has become generalized in 
 America, and applicable to a former pupil in 
 any institution for higher education, including 
 high schools. As opposed to graduate, the 
 term emphasizes rather the personal attitude 
 of affection and devotion to an institution. In 
 LS40 an Alumni Association was formed at 
 Harvard to include all who had taken their first 
 degree at that university. At first only the 
 social side was emphasized by such associa- 
 tions, but gradually a sphere of considerable 
 usefulness was developed, not only in welding 
 together men of one college, but in keeping 
 them in close touch with it and maintaining 
 their interest. A spirit of mutual help has 
 sprung up among the members and has been 
 extended to the young graduates. The influence 
 of alumni associations was crystallized and given 
 a new direction about forty years ago, when 
 a movement began to obtain representation of 
 alumni on boards of trustees of colleges and 
 universities. Since 1S66 the Board of Over- 
 seers at Harvard has consisted of 30 members 
 elected by the alumni. In other universities 
 the alumni have obtained representation on 
 boards of trustees. This practice has become 
 almost universal. As members of different 
 professions and callings, these representatives 
 can exercise their influence in preventing hasty 
 action or conservatism, and introduce an ele- 
 ment of democracy into university manage- 
 ment. The representation of alumni on boards 
 of trustees corresponds to the practice in the 
 English universities of having representatives 
 of Convocation on the Senate. The extension 
 of alumni associations to high schools is a 
 recent movement, and should certainly be an 
 important medium for keeping schools and 
 parents in close touch. In England school tra- 
 ditions and school friendships are maintained 
 
 lOG
 
 AMATEURISM 
 
 AMATEURISM 
 
 and fostered by Old Boys' Associations (e.g. Old 
 Etonians, Old Paulines, etc.), which are being 
 extended to elementary schools. Up to the 
 present only the social side and a spirit of devo- 
 tion to the old school have been emphasized, 
 but there is no reason why they should not in 
 the future develop into an important instrument 
 as representatives of inteUigent lay opinion in 
 education. 
 
 So far as university administration is con- 
 cerned, the alumni associations are represented 
 in England by Convocation (q.v.). Otherwise, 
 with the exception of university clubs in London, 
 there are no organizations which perform the 
 general function of the American associations. 
 
 I. L. K. 
 
 See Colleges, American; University and 
 College Alumni Associations. 
 
 References: — 
 
 BiRDSEYE, C. F. Individual Training in Our Colleges. 
 
 (New York. 1907.) 
 The Reorganizalion of Our Colleges. (New York, 1909.) 
 Eliot, C. W. University Administration. (New York, 
 
 1908.) 
 TnwiNG, C. F. College Administration. (New York, 
 
 1900.) 
 
 AMATEURISM. —The question of amateur- 
 ism has engaged the attention for a number of 
 years of educators responsible for the supervi- 
 sion of college athletics. So long as physical ex- 
 ercises and athletic games are practiced simply 
 to gratifjr the natural desire of youth for physical 
 activity and recreation, all the participants re- 
 main amateurs in the true sense of the word. 
 But when contests are organized as public spec- 
 tacles to which admission fees are charged, and 
 prizes are awarded to the winners, the inevitable 
 result is that some competitors are not content 
 vnih. the honor of winning, but seek to utilize 
 their skill for financial gain. Such a situation 
 was developed in American colleges during the 
 period of rapid extension and specialization of 
 athletics beginning in the decade 1880-1890. 
 The necessity of adopting rules to distinguish 
 amateurs and professional athletes became im- 
 perative when the inordinate desire to win led 
 student athletic managers to offer financial in- 
 ducements to secure expert athletes for college 
 teams. 
 
 There is nothing objectionable about a pro- 
 fessional athlete as such, for he can be a very 
 good sportsman and command general admira- 
 tion and enjoy the public esteem so long as he 
 remains among the professionals, but there is no 
 sympathy with the professional who masquer- 
 ades as an amateur. The professional athlete 
 is the natural result of commercialized athletics; 
 he corresponds to the circus performer and the 
 vaudeville actor who earn a hvelihood by exhibit- 
 ing unusual skill to entertain the public. The 
 conducting of athletic spectacles for financial 
 gain is not a legitimate function of educational 
 institutions; therefore, professional athletes 
 should be excluded from participation in college 
 athletics. 
 
 According to the generally accepted law, 
 an athlete ceases to be an amateur by: (1) 
 Receiving compensation directly or indirectly 
 for ijarticipation in athletic contests. (2) Com- 
 peting with or against a professional. (3) Re- 
 ceiving money for teaching any form of physical 
 exercise. (4) Entering a competition open to 
 all comers. 
 
 The enforcement of the amateur law presents 
 many difficulties, because unscrupulous men are 
 willing to resort to all sorts of questionable 
 practices to evade the letter of the law. The 
 first clause is most difficult to enforce. There 
 are many ways of gaining financial profit from 
 sport without competing for cash prizes or 
 selling valuable prizes won in competition. 
 Scholarships, lucrative positions where the 
 compensation is excessive for the services ren- 
 dered, free board and room under the guise of 
 training expenses, excessive allowance for travel- 
 ing expenses, etc., are some of the methods used 
 to compensate college athletes while assuming 
 to maintain amateur standards. Playing base- 
 ball on summer nines is also responsible for many 
 infractions of the amateur law by college ath- 
 letes. Clauses two and four are rarely vio- 
 lated by college athletes, except in the matter 
 of summer baseball. Clause three presents 
 difficulties only in cases where impecunious 
 college athletes undertake to teach physical 
 training classes as an avocation to help defray 
 their legitimate living expenses. The whole 
 problem of maintaining amateur standards in 
 college athletics could be solved by organizing 
 athletics on an educational basis for the benefit 
 of students and doing away with commercialized 
 athletics. There is honest division of opinion 
 on the question of enforcing this clause, and 
 also in the matter of permitting college students 
 to earn money bj' playing on hotel or other semi- 
 professional " summer nines." Some contend 
 that any bona fide student who maintains a 
 satisfactory standing in his studies and whose 
 conduct is that becoming a gentleman should be 
 permitted to earn money by his athletic skill. 
 The argument advanced to support this prop- 
 osition is, that playing baseball and teaching 
 physical training are just as legitimate methods 
 of earning money as tutoring, singing, or playing 
 in an orchestra, activities to which no objection 
 is made. 
 
 Those who favor the enforcement of the ama- 
 teur law contend that professionalism in college 
 athletics is the cause of many serious evils, and 
 therefore amateur standards must be main- 
 tained. There is no objection to a student 
 using his skill to earn money, but by so 
 doing, he ceases to be an amateur and must 
 forego the privilege of participating in college 
 athletics. 
 
 The inordinate desire to win at any cost 
 because winning insures financial success is 
 largely responsible for the difficulties encoun- 
 tered in maintaining amateur standards. These 
 difficulties will disappear when college athletics 
 107
 
 AMBIDEXTERITY 
 
 AIMBROSE 
 
 are organized on an educational basis, and the 
 commercial interests are eliminateil. 
 
 G. L. M. 
 See Athletics, Educational. 
 
 References : — 
 
 Hetherington, C. W. The Foundation of Ama- 
 teurism. American Physical Education Review, 
 Nov.. 1909. 
 
 Report of Committee on an Amateur Law, for the 
 Intercollegiate Athletic Association. American 
 Physical Education Revierc, March, 1910. 
 
 Report of International Olj'mpic Committee on Status 
 of Amateurism. American Physical Education 
 Review, April, 1910. 
 
 AMBIDEXTERITY. — There are certain 
 individuals who arc able in all types of 
 manipulation to use the right or left hand 
 with equal freedom and skill; they are said 
 to be ambidextrous or to be possessed of am- 
 bidexterity. The great majority of individ- 
 uals are so developed that the finer manipula- 
 tions are made freely and skillfully by one hand 
 only, the other hand acting merely as a holder 
 or support for the manipulating hand. When 
 the finer manipulations are naturally made 
 with the right hand, the person is called right- 
 handed; when the finer manipulations are made 
 naturally with the left hand, the person is said to 
 be left-handed. There are varying degrees of 
 right-handedness and left-handedness, some in- 
 dividuals showing very little ability to train the 
 hand which does not naturally perform fine 
 manipulations, others showing relatively little 
 departure from ambidexterity. 
 
 The causes of these conditions are probably 
 to be found in inherited nervous structures 
 which in turn seem to be very closely related 
 to inherited circulatory organs. The two sides 
 of the brain receive their blood supply through 
 arteries which are asymmetrical. Where the 
 blood supply is larger to the left side of the brain, 
 the right hand is naturally developed to a higher 
 degree of dexterity; where the right side of the 
 brain receives the greatest blood supply, the 
 person is naturally left-handed. Exercise may 
 have some effect in fixing this relation and ex- 
 aggerating the degree of one-sided development, 
 but the inherited structures are doubtless of the 
 first importance. 
 
 The question of what kind of training to give 
 left-handed children is involved by the general 
 fact that all the conventions of life are adjusted 
 on the assumption that right-handedness is not 
 only more common, but more natural. All 
 writing, for example, is adapted to right-handed 
 manipulation. The best practical rule, there- 
 fore, would seem to be this: if a child is so 
 little predisposed toward left-handedness that 
 some effort will fit him to the common mode of 
 action, it is better for him to be trained in 
 right-handed movements. If, on the other 
 hand, he is extremely left-handed, it is futile to 
 attempt to change his inherited mode of activ- 
 ity. Ambidexterity is not a natural goal of 
 development. One hand only is required for 
 
 fine manipulation. The other finds its normal 
 and adeciuate function in supporting the hand 
 engaged in fine manipulations. C. H. J. 
 
 Reference: — 
 
 B.\LDwiN, J. M. Mut\ial Development of the Child and 
 Race. (New York, 1S95.) 
 
 AMBROSE. —The greatest ecclesiastical 
 statesman of the fourth century, born a.d. 
 340 at Treves, where his father was governor. 
 He was educated for the bar in Rome under the 
 foremost rhetoricians, frequenting the Senate 
 and the Forum, and soon surpassing his fellow- 
 students in learning and accomplishments. 
 At an early age he became governor of Northern 
 Italy, and soon gained such a hold upon the 
 people of Milan that they forced him to become 
 their archbishop in 374. jMilan was then the 
 seat of the imjjerial government and needed an 
 archbishop of sound practical wisdom and 
 large executive ability, qualities which Ambrose 
 possessed beyond any man of his time. Under 
 the instruction of Simplicianus he soon became 
 a sound theologian and a great teacher. He 
 fostered sound learning in every way, establish- 
 ing schools and founding monasteries which 
 became centers of intellectual life, not only in 
 Italy, but also in Ireland, for many centuries. 
 His most famous pupil was St. Augustine, 
 through whom he influenced the whole history 
 of Latin theology. In common with the 
 Fathers of the Latin Church, and unlike the 
 Alexandrian teachers, he deprecated the study 
 of Greek philosophy. He distributed his 
 princely fortune amongst the poor, and became 
 the chief champion of the people in their struggle 
 for religious liberty and purity of faith. He 
 contended stubbornly against the Arian, Mani- 
 cha?an, and Pelagian heresies, fearlessly opposing 
 the emperors and leaders of the Church. He 
 left his mark upon the Church chiefly in three 
 ways — in the assertion of her spiritual au- 
 thority (thus laying the foundation for the 
 growth of the Papacy in succeeding centuries), 
 in church music, and in liturgies. He may be 
 regarded as the father of music in the Western 
 Church. This had previously consisted of a 
 monotonous recitation of the psalms and 
 prayers. St. Ambrose introduced measured 
 time, regular rhythm, and varied melody, 
 following the musical system of the Greeks and 
 using antiphonal effects. A contemporary ac- 
 count of the origin and character of this music 
 is given by St. Augustine in his Confessions 
 (IX, 7 and X, 33). The reform spread rapidly 
 until the use of the Ambrosian Chant became 
 almost universal in the Western Church. 
 Later on this was developed into the Gregorian 
 Chant, which resounded through the great 
 cathedrals and abbeys of Europe for a thou- 
 sand years. St. Ambrose also introduced the 
 practice of singing hymns in divine service, and 
 wrote many beautiful Latin hymns, of which the 
 Te Deum Laudamiis is the best known. He 
 
 108
 
 AMERICAN ACADEMY 
 
 AMERICAN ASSOCIATION 
 
 devoted much attention to liturgies, and gave the 
 Liturgy of Mihin a distinctive form, differ- 
 ent from that of Rome and more like those of 
 the East, which is known as the Ambrosian 
 Liturgy and has been tenaciously retained in the 
 Province of Milan down to the present day. St. 
 Ambrose has left a rich legacy of theological 
 treatises, sermons, exegetical, moral, and asceti- 
 cal works, which are full of striking practical 
 thoughts. W. R. 
 
 References: — 
 
 Biography of Ambrose Paulinus, of the eighth century. 
 Farr.\r, F. W. Lives of the Fathers. (New York, 1907.) 
 Robinson, Thornton. The Fathers for English Readers. 
 
 (New York, 1S90-1S9.3.) 
 ScHAFF, Philip, and Wace, H. Library of Greek and 
 
 Latin Fathers, Vol. x. (New Y'ork, 1890-1897.) 
 
 AMERICAN ACADEMY OF ARTS AND 
 
 SCIENCES. — Organized in Boston in 1780. 
 John Adams, afterwards President of the 
 United States, was originally its chief pro- 
 moter. Its purpose was " to promote and en- 
 courage the knowledge of the natural history of 
 the country, and to determine the uses to which 
 the various natural productions of the country 
 may be applied; to promote and encourage 
 medical discourses, mathematical disquisitions, 
 jihilosophical inquiries and experiments; astro- 
 nomical, meteorological and geographical obser- 
 vations, and improvements in agriculture, arts, 
 manufactures, and commerce, and, in fine, to 
 cultivate every art and science which may tend 
 to advance the interest, dignity, honour, and 
 happiness of a free, independent, and virtuous 
 people." It followed in the main the lines 
 of scientific activity adopted by the American 
 Philosophical Society {q.v.). It published for 
 many years scientific memoirs as well as its 
 proceedings. It has a scientific library of up- 
 wards of 25,000 volumes. W. S. M. 
 
 AMERICAN ANNALS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 — See Educatio.n'al Journ.\lis.m in Americ.\. 
 
 AMERICAN ASSOCLA.TION FOR THE 
 ADVANCEMENT OF EDUCATION.— (1849- 
 1855.) An association which met in pursuance 
 of a call from "the friends of the common 
 schools of the LTnited States" at Philadelphia, 
 the 17th, 18th, and 19th of October, 1849. The 
 call was signed by most of the educational 
 leaders of the middle of the last century, in- 
 cluding 12 state superintendents of schools 
 and 25 other representative schoolmen. The 
 purpose of the organization, as stated in 
 the preliminary call, was "that the great cause 
 of popular education in the United States 
 may be advanced and the exertions of its 
 friends strengthened and systematized by mu- 
 tual consultation and deliberation." Horace 
 Mann (q.v.) (179G-1S59), then secretary of 
 the state board of education in Massachusetts, 
 was the president of the first meeting. Eight 
 annual meetings were held, at which a wide 
 
 range of subjects was presented in the form 
 of discussions, addresses, and essays. At 
 the first meeting, for example, the list in- 
 cluded school organization and supervision, 
 normal schools and teachers' institutes, moral 
 and religious instruction, school architecture, 
 the grading sy.stem, the teaching of phonetics, 
 and school funds. The speakers at this meet- 
 ing included Henry Barnard (1811-1900), 
 John Griscom (1774-1852), Joseph Henry 
 (1797-1878), John S. Hart (1810-1877), Alonzo 
 Potter (1800-1865), Gideon F. Thayer (1793- 
 1863), Nathan Bishop (1777-1855), and John 
 Kingsbury (1801-1874). (See articles on these.) 
 The proceedings of the first meeting were 
 printed in a pamphlet of 40 pages. The 
 second meeting of the association was also 
 held in Philadelphia (1850), with Eliphalet 
 Nott (1773-1866), president of Union College, 
 as presiding officer. 
 
 The last meeting was held at Detroit on 
 Aug. 12-15, 1856. It was planned to hold the 
 next session in New York, but the organiza- 
 tion of the National Teachers' Association 
 (q.v.) superseded the American Association for 
 the Advancement of Education, and a ninth 
 meeting was not held. W. S. M. 
 
 AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE 
 
 ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE. — Organized 
 in 1840, as an outgrowth of the American 
 Philosophical Society (q.v.), which Benjamin 
 Franklin had founded in 1743, and of the 
 American Geological Association. Its object is 
 " by periodical and migratory meetings to 
 promote intercourse between those who are cul- 
 tivating sciences in different parts of America, 
 to give a stronger and more general impulse 
 and more systematic direction to scientific re- 
 search, and to procure for the labours of 
 scientific men increased facilities and wider 
 usefulness." Its first meeting was held in 
 Philadelphia, and the subsequent meetings of 
 the association have been held in the leading 
 cities of the country. Its presidents have 
 included most of the first American men of 
 science, — William B. Rogers, W. C. Redfield, 
 Joseph Henry, Alexander Dallas Bache, Louis 
 Agassiz, Benjamin Peirce, James D. Dana, 
 F. A. P. Barnard, Asa Gray, J. W. Powell, 
 Daniel G. Brinton, E. D. Cope, and Lewis H. 
 ^Morgan. The chief executive officer is the 
 permanent secretary, L. 0. Howard, Wash- 
 ington, D. C, being the present incumbent. 
 The association is composed of members and 
 fellows. All persons interested in science 
 are eligible to membership, while fellows are 
 elected from such members as are engaged in 
 advancing science. The association has sec- 
 tions in mathematics and astronomy, physics, 
 chemistry, mechanical science and engineer- 
 ing, geology and geography, zoology, botany, 
 anthropology and p.sychology, social and 
 economic science, physiology and experimental 
 medicine, and education. W. S. M. 
 
 109
 
 AMERICAN COLLEGE 
 
 AMERICAN INTERNATIONAL 
 
 AMERICAN COLLEGE AND EDUCATION 
 SOCIETY. — Sou A.MEHicAN Education So- 
 ciety; College Boards in Educatiox, 
 Denominational. 
 
 AMERICAN EDUCATION SOCIETY.— 
 
 Orpiaiiizt'd in 1815 for the purpose of aid in 
 the odiication of Protestant clergymen. Its 
 original name was the American Society for 
 the Education of Pious Youth for the Gospel 
 Ministry, but the title was changed in 1S20 
 to the American Etlucation Society. It held 
 annual conventions and made ajipropriations 
 to the different colleges for the pa.vnient of tiic 
 tuition of young men looking to the ministry. 
 It also took a keen interest in the subject of 
 religious education in general. W. S. M. 
 
 AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF INSTRUC- 
 TION. — Tlie oldest echicational a.ssociation in 
 the United States, organized in 1830. With two 
 exceptions — 1893, on account of the Inter- 
 national Congress of Education at Chicago, 
 and 1903, when the National Education 
 Association met in Boston — annual meetings 
 have been held. The Institute was organized 
 by "teachers and friends of education" at 
 Boston the 1.5th of March, 1830, and a tempo- 
 rary committee was selected to provide for a 
 program for a general meeting to be held 
 in August that year. The first regular meet- 
 ing, held at Boston the 19th, 20th, 21st, and 
 22d of August, 1830, was attended by 300 
 delegates, who represented the educational 
 interests of 11 states. A constitution was 
 adopted which recited as the object of the new 
 organization "the diffusion of useful knowledge 
 in regard to education." At each meeting 
 problems of vital interest were proposed for 
 general discussion, and set addresses were 
 provided by the executive committee. The 
 annual sessions varied from four to six days, 
 with morning, afternoon, and evening sessions. 
 The original constitution provided that the 
 conventions should meet annually in Boston, 
 but this article was subsequently altered, and 
 the executive committee was given power to 
 call meetings at such jilaces as they deemed 
 best. While not intended solely for New Eng- 
 land, the membership of the Institute has 
 always been almost entirely represented by 
 Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island, 
 Vermont, New Hampshire, and Maine, and 
 for the first 50 years of its existence 49 
 of the meetings were held in New England. 
 Since 1880 4 meetings have been held in 
 New York state and 3 in Canada. The 
 Institute took a leading part in most of the 
 great educational movements of the country 
 during the formative period of the state school 
 systems — such as normal schools, the en- 
 largement and the enrichment of the course 
 of study, provision for better textbooks, school 
 supervision, and the study of science. Its 
 proceedings, which were published from the 
 
 first, include not only the names of practically 
 all the educational leaders of the nineteenth 
 century, but such well-known names in pulilic 
 life as Lyman Beecher, Joseph Story, Caleb 
 Cushing, Ralph Waldo Emerson, A. Bronson 
 Alcott, William E. Channing. Theodore Parker, 
 Ceorge Ticknor, Henry Ward Beecher, Julia 
 Ward Howe, and Kaspar Spurzheim. The 
 list of educators includes every name that 
 belongs to the hi.story of American education 
 during the past century, — Horace Mann, 
 Henry Barnard, Samuel G. Howe, Lowell 
 Mason, William C. Woodbridge, Walter 11. 
 Johnson, William Russell, James G. Carter, 
 William A. Alcott, Elizabeth P. Peabody, 
 Francis Wayland, John D. Philbrick, Warren 
 Colburn, William T. Harris, Charles Brooks, 
 Francis W. Parker, Samuel J. May, Nicholas 
 Tillinghast, to name at random but a few. 
 (See articles on these). Some of the most 
 important contributions to the literature of 
 American education were given originally as 
 lectures at the American Institute of Instruc- 
 tion, as A. Bronson Alcott's Means of Earhj 
 Education (1832), Samuel R. Hall's Qualifica- 
 tion of Teachers (1833), Sarah Austin's Prussian 
 System of Schools (1835), Lowell Mason's 
 Pestalozzian Method of Teaching Music (1834), 
 Samuel G. Howe's Education of the Blind (1836), 
 Charles Brook's Teachers' Seminaries (1837), 
 David P. Page's ]\Ieansand Methods of Instruc- 
 tion (1843), Horace Mann's Motives of Teachers 
 (1847), Henry Barnard's Teachers' Institutes 
 (1849), and Cyrus Pierce's Crime — its Causes 
 and Cure (1853). Albert E. Winship, in a 
 historical sketch of the Institute (see Proc. 
 N.E.A. for 1906), calls attention to the fact 
 that in the American Institute of Instruction 
 were born Greenleaf's arithmetics, Greene's 
 grammars, Hilliard's readers. Mason's music 
 series, Newman's rhetoric, Wayland's philos- 
 ophies, and Harkness' Latin series. 
 
 W. S. M. 
 References : — 
 
 Barn.-vrd, Henry. American Institute of Instruction. 
 
 Amrrican Journal of Education, 1856, Vol. 2, pp. 19- 
 
 .32 and 241-255. 
 Smith. Founders of the Institute. Proc. of Amrrican 
 
 Instilule uf histruclion for 1867, pp. 21.3-218. 
 Winship, A. E. American Institute of Instruction. 
 
 Prnc. National Educational Association for 1906, pp. 
 
 457-463. 
 
 AMERICAN INTERNATIONAL COL- 
 LEGE, SPRINGFIELD, MASS. — Founded 
 in 1885 as the French Protestant College; 
 title changed in 1890 to French-American 
 College and in 1905 to the present title. The 
 institution aims to provide a higher Christian 
 education to foreign immigrant youth of both 
 sexes. A four-year academy course is main- 
 tained, preparing for the college. Pupils are 
 admitted into the college at the age of 15. 
 Two degrees, one in the classical, and one in 
 the literary course, are offered. Industrial 
 training is given by which students may pay 
 their way. There is a faculty of 12 professors 
 
 110
 
 AMERICAN JOURNAL 
 
 AMERICAN LYCEUM 
 
 and instructors. Rev. Samuel H. Lee, M.A., is 
 the president. 
 
 AMERICAN JOURNAL OF EDUCATION. 
 
 — See Educational Journalism in America. 
 
 AMERICAN LIBRARY ASSOCIATION. — 
 
 An orojanization wliich represents tlie interests 
 of public and private, state and city, and insti- 
 tutional and association library interests in 
 the United States, started at Philadelphia 
 in 1876. Excepting 1878 and 1880, it has 
 held annual meetings. Besides the general 
 meetings, it has five sections, as follows: 
 colleges and reference section, catalogue section, 
 library work with children, state library com- 
 mission section, and trustees' section. The 
 permanent headquarters of the association 
 are at No. 1 Washington Street, Chicago. 
 The American Library Journal has been its 
 chief organ. It has been active in the or- 
 ganization of state and local library associa- 
 tions, the organization of training schools for 
 librarians, traveling libraries, and most of 
 the leading topics affecting library science. 
 
 W. S. M. 
 
 AMERICAN LYCEUM ASSOCIATION 
 
 (1831-1S39). — -An educational body which is, 
 after the American Institute of Instruction, the 
 oldest organization of its kind in the United 
 States. This association grew out of the lyceum 
 movement which had been started by Josiah Hol- 
 brook(17SS-lS54) at Millbury, Mass., in 1826, 
 and spread rapidly over Massachusetts and Con- 
 necticut. Holbrook, as early as 1819, organized 
 the first industrial school in the United States 
 after the pattern of Fellenberg's (q.v.) institu- 
 tion at Hofwyl. The purpose of the lyceums 
 which he organized in the different towns was 
 
 (1) the improvement of the common schools, 
 
 (2) the formation of lecture courses and the 
 establishment of classes for the education of 
 adults, and (3) the organization of libraries 
 and museums. The Worcester (Mass.) County 
 Lyceum Association was formed in 1827, and 
 a state association in Massachusetts three 
 years later. By 1831 there were 900 towns 
 in the United States with lyceum a.ssociations, 
 and 56 county associations. The national 
 association was projected at the state con- 
 vention held at Boston in 1830. It was, 
 however, at a meeting of the New York 
 State Lyceum Association, held at Albany the 
 13th of January, 1831, that it was formally 
 organized and the program formulated. The 
 purpose of the American Lj'ceum Association, as 
 set forth in its constitution, was (1) to secure 
 better legislative provisions for schools; (2) to 
 improve the ciualifications of teachers; (3) to 
 secure closer relationship between the com- 
 mon schools and the colleges; (4) to improve 
 methods of instruction and school discipline; 
 (5) to introduce the natural sciences into the 
 course of study; (6) to provide schools with 
 
 books, apparatus, and teaching appliances; 
 and (7) to arouse an interest in the education 
 of girls and women. The first national meet- 
 ing was held in New York City the 4th of May, 
 1831. Seven states were represented. The 
 president of the meeting was Stephen Van 
 Rensselaer (1765-1839). The principal topics of 
 discussion at the first meeting were the extent 
 to which the natural sciences maj' be taught in 
 the common schools, the study of the Bible 
 in the schools, the qualifications of teachers, 
 and the need of seminaries for the education 
 of teachers. In addition to the general to])ies, 
 which were discussed bj^ all the members of 
 the convention, at the subsequent meetings 
 of the association prepared addresses and 
 essays were presented. The second annual 
 meeting of the association was held in New 
 York City the 4th of May, 1832. John Griscom 
 (q.v.) was the president of the meeting. The 
 operations of the various local lyceums was 
 the general topic of the meeting, with essays 
 and addresses on school discipline by President 
 Griscom, the study of the constitution and 
 political institutions by Theodore Freling- 
 huysen (1787-1861), appropriate use of the Bible 
 in common education by Thomas S. Grimke, 
 the extent to which the monitorial system is 
 practicable in common school education by 
 Walter Rogers Johnson (1794-1852), and the in- 
 troduction of the natural sciences in the common 
 schools by Chester Dewey (1784-1867). At 
 the third annual meeting of the association, 
 held in New York City, May, 1833, at which 
 President W. A. Duer of Columbia College 
 presided, the leading topics of discussion were 
 manual labor schools, cabinets of natural 
 history, and the study of phj'siology. As 
 textbooks in the latter subject were wanting, 
 the association decided to offer a prize of .$300 
 for the best manuscript of a textbook on 
 physiology for use in the schools, the same 
 to be published by the association. The 
 selection of the manuscript was left to a com- 
 mittee of four, "one from each of the pro- 
 fessions of medicine, law, theology, and educa- 
 tion." The desirability of " the establishment 
 of a central school for teachers" and the ap- 
 propriateness of the monitorial system for 
 our common schools were the two topics for 
 general discussion. The first six meetings of 
 the American Lj'ceum Association were held in 
 New York City. President Duer of Columbia 
 College presided at the third, fourth, fifth, and 
 sixth annual conventions. The seventh con- 
 vention was held in Philadelphia, G. W. 
 Ridgley presiding, with state aid for education, 
 the monitorial s.vfstem, and female education 
 as the general topics, and essays and addresses 
 on the education of the deaf, stammering, 
 the study of meteorology, of elocution, and 
 the question method in teaching. The eighth 
 annual meeting was held at Hartford, ]\Iay, 1838, 
 with Thomas H. Gallaudet as presiding officer. 
 The ninth and last meeting of the association 
 
 111
 
 AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL 
 
 AMERICAN SCHOOL 
 
 was again held in Xew York City IMay 3-6, 
 1839, with President Ducr of Columbia again 
 as presiding officer. The chief topic at this 
 meeting was the need of improvement of the 
 common schools, with Charles Brooks as the 
 leading speaker. Mr. Brooks asked the asso- 
 ciation to appoint a committee of five to organize 
 a special convention to be held in Philadelphia 
 during November for the consideration of 
 the following topics: (1) to gather educational 
 statistics; (2) to ascertain what has been 
 accomplished in different parts of the country; 
 (3) to discuss systems now in operation in 
 Europe and see how far they may be applied 
 in the United States; (4) to inquire into the 
 value of normal schools; (5) to ascertain how 
 and where may be procured the best school 
 apparatus, reading books, libraries, and models 
 of schoolhouses; (6) to petition Congress to 
 insert a new item in taking the next census, 
 viz. : to see how many children there are in each 
 state between the ages of 7 and 16 who have re- 
 ceived no elementary instruction. These topics, 
 he urged, would elicit a mass of information 
 which might be used as a basis for introducing 
 legislation. The recommendation was adopted, 
 and it was decided to ask the governor of each 
 state to issue an appeal to the friends of edu- 
 cation to attend the proposed convention. 
 The meeting was held at Philadelphia the 
 22d of November, 1839. John Griscom pre- 
 sided. It was attended by 55 delegates from 
 the different .states, and the leading partici- 
 pants were Charles Brooks, Theodore Freling- 
 huysen, Henry R. Schoolcraft, Theodore Dwight, 
 Jr., Alexander Dallas Bache, and E. C. Wines. 
 The meeting by common consent urged the 
 formation of state boards of education and the 
 selection of secretaries of the same to serve as 
 state superintendents of schools. It is doubt- 
 less true that the convention was fruitful in 
 accelerating the unification of state school 
 systems and of emphasizing the need of the 
 service of professional schoolmen in the direc- 
 tion of the same. Although it was voted 
 to hold another convention the following year 
 in Washington, and five special committees 
 were appointed, — one to arrange the national 
 convention, one to memorialize the legislatures 
 of the several states, one to memorialize Con- 
 gress respecting the appropriation of the proceeds 
 of the sale of the public lands, one to issue an 
 appeal to the people with respect to needed 
 improvements in the common schools, and 
 one to memorialize Congress with reference to 
 the Smithsonian legacy, — there is no record 
 of a convention having been held in 1840. 
 The proceedings of the association — to ex- 
 cept the first, which was printed as a separate 
 volume — appeared in the American Annah 
 of Education and the American Monthly 
 Magazine. W. S. M. 
 
 AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY. 
 
 — The oldest scientific society in America, 
 
 and still in existence, was organized in Phila- 
 delphia in 1743. Benjamin P'ranklin, its first 
 secretary and for many years before his death 
 its president, was instrumental in the organi- 
 zation of the society. Its labors were mani- 
 fold, as is indicated by the following statement 
 of its purpose and scope: "To ascertain new- 
 discovered plants, herbs, trees, roots, their 
 virtues, uses, etc.; methods of propagating 
 them and making such as are useful but par- 
 ticular to some plantations more general; 
 improvement of vegetable juices, ciders, wines, 
 etc.; new methods of curing and preventing 
 diseases; aU new-discovered fossils in different 
 countries, as mines, minerals, and quarries; 
 new and useful improvements in any branch of 
 mathematics; new discoveries in chemistry, 
 such as distillation, brewing, and assaying 
 ores; new mechanical inventions for saving la- 
 bour, such as mills and carriages, and for 
 raising and conveying water, draining meadows, 
 etc.; all new arts, trades, and manufactures 
 that may be proposed or thought of; surveys, 
 maps, and charts of particular parts of the sea- 
 coast and of inland countries; courses and 
 junctions of rivers and great roads, and situa- 
 tion of lakes and mountains; nature of soil 
 and its productions; new methods of imjirov- 
 ing breeds of useful animals, and introducing 
 other sorts from foreign countries; new im- 
 provements in planting, gardening, and clear- 
 ing land, and all philosophical (scientific) 
 experiments that let light into the nature of 
 things, tend to increase the power of man over 
 matter, and multiply the conveniences and 
 the pleasures of life." It was the parent of the 
 American Association for the Advancement of 
 Science {q.v.) and of the numerous s])ccial 
 scientific associations in America. From 1799 
 to 1838 it published its " transactions," and 
 since that date its " proceedings." Its head- 
 quarters are at Philadelphia, and since the 
 organization of the American Association for 
 the Advancement of Science ((j.r.) it has served 
 the purpose of a local scientific association 
 for Philadelphia. W. S. M. 
 
 AMERICAN SCHOOL SOCIETY. —Or- 
 ganized in 1832. Its purpose was the em- 
 ployment of professional agents who should 
 examine the schools in the endeavor to improve 
 them, and to organize schools in villages where 
 none existed. During the first year of its 
 existence its six agents visited 150 schools in 
 ^Massachusetts, Vermont, New Hampshire, 
 Maine, Connecticut, and New York. Its first 
 annual convention was held at Andover, 
 Mass., the 5th of August, 1833. Samuel 
 Farrar presided, and Milo P. Jewitt was 
 the secretary, and conventions were held the 
 two foUo^nng years. Samuel R. Hall was 
 the moving spirit in the society. Besides 
 the reports of the agents, the annual conven- 
 tions gave considerable attention to problems 
 of illiteracy in the American states and to the 
 
 112
 
 AMHERST COLLEGE 
 
 AMHERST COLLEGE 
 
 inadequacy of textbooks for use in elementary 
 schools. Among these, besides Samuel R. Hall, 
 who took an active part in the annual meetings 
 of the society, wore Francis Wayland, Jacob 
 Abbot, William C. Woodbridge, Josiah Holbrook, 
 AVilliam A. Alcott, Rufus Choate, and Thomas 
 H. Gallaudet (qq.v.). The work of the society 
 was subsequently taken over by the American 
 Lyceum Association {q.v.). W. S. M. 
 
 AMHERST COLLEGE, AMHERST, MASS. 
 
 — An institution which took its origin from 
 Amherst Academy, founded in 1814, one of 
 the largest of the early New England schools. 
 On Nov. 8, 1817, the trustees of this acad- 
 emy, adopting the suggestion of Rufus 
 Graves, one of their number, voted to estab- 
 lish a " charity fund " for the training of indi- 
 gent candidates for the ministry. Upon the 
 failure of the original plan, which involved 
 only the appointment of a professor, Rufus 
 Graves circulated a proposal for a fund of 
 $50,000 to be used in the establishment of a 
 "Charity Institution." On May 8, 1821, 
 the Rev. Zcphaniah Swift Moore was elected 
 president. His inauguration occurred on the day 
 the college was opened (Sept. 21, 1821). The 
 institution announced its intention of maintain- 
 ing standards equal to those of Yale. Forty- 
 seven students were matriculated, 15 of whom 
 entered from Williams College. Li 1822 
 there were, besides the president, 2 professors 
 and a tutor. The president was the only 
 teacher of the senior class. Nearly all the 
 students were poor, and the cost of a year's 
 schooling was about .$200. The early years 
 were periods of struggle so keen that, when 
 President Moore died from overwork in 1823, 
 the despairing seniors asked permission to 
 graduate from some other institution. Not 
 until the second year of the administration of 
 President Heman Humphrey (inaugurated 
 Oct. 15, 1823) did the college secure a charter. 
 This was granted by the General Court on 
 Feb. 21, 1825, in the face of an opposition 
 led by those who felt that Williams College 
 should be the only college in western Massa- 
 chusetts. From 1825 to 1836 Amherst grew 
 rapidly; for two years the institution had 
 more students than Harvard or any other 
 American college except Yale. But this growth 
 was accompanied by increasing poverty. After 
 several years of suspense, a petition for state 
 aid was denied by the General Court in 1832. 
 Immediately graduates and friends of Amherst 
 by heroic efforts raised .'530,000, allot it sub- 
 scribed before the end of the year. In 1837 
 the enrollment was 259, but by 1846 it had 
 decreased to less than half that number. The 
 partial decline of religious enthusiasm injured 
 the college, as did likewise the anti-slavery 
 agitation. There was also a growing spirit of 
 dissatisfaction among the undergraduates, 
 which began in 1837 when the students asked 
 that the system of honorary appointments l>e 
 
 VOL. I — I 1 
 
 changed. Fostered by the newspapers, the 
 impression became current that the college was 
 mismanaged. Financial impotence contributed 
 to difficulties which were not removed until the 
 resignation of President Humphrey in 1842. 
 His successor was the Rev. Edward Hitchcock, 
 professor of theology and geology, and one of 
 the greatest of American geologists. The tact 
 and sagacity of President Hitchcock brought 
 Amhcnst College from threatened bankruptcy 
 to a safe and permanent prosperity. At the 
 beginning of his administration, the plan was 
 seriously considered of continuing the college 
 in its original form of preparatory school, and 
 certain influential undergraduates remained 
 in college only by the personal persuasion of 
 the president. At its close (1847) the college 
 had received .125,000 of aid from the state, 
 professorships had been endowed with 862,000, 
 the Sears Fund of S12,000 was established, and 
 a scientific course had been organized. Twenty 
 years before, Amherst had been a pioneer in 
 introducing a " parallel course " in which the 
 ancient languages of the old curriculum were 
 replaced by the modern, emphasis was laid 
 upon the sciences, modern history, civil and 
 political law, and a nontechnical study was 
 made of engineering problems. Like this 
 earlier experiment, the scientific course of 
 President Hitchcock la.sted only a few years. 
 The fourth president was the Rev. William 
 Augustus Stearns, Harvard '27, installed 
 Nov. 22, 1854, who, in the words of Pro- 
 fessor W. S. Tyler, " found the college brick, 
 and kft it granite." Seven buildings were 
 erected or partly rebuilt during his administra- 
 tion: the curriculum was broadened, and many 
 scholarships were established. During the Civil 
 War, Amherst enlisted 247 students in the 
 Union army, of whom 78 were undergraduates. 
 The fiftieth anniversary was celebrated at the 
 Commencement of 1871 when nearly 700 
 alumni were present. Upon the sudden 
 death of President Stearns (June 8, 1876), 
 the trustees elected as his successor the Rev. 
 Julius Seelye, professor of philosophy, and at 
 the time a member of Congress. The force 
 of President Seelye's character, and the extent 
 of his reputation as a scholar and educator, 
 did much to place Amherst among the best 
 American colleges. He introduced the system 
 of self-government, anticipated many years 
 before, which developed into one of the best 
 features of Amherst life. The sixth president 
 was Merrill Edwards Gates, who held office 
 from 1890 to 1899. He was succeeded by the 
 Rev. George Harris, 'S3. 
 
 The college is controlled by a Board of Trus- 
 tees of 17 members, of whom 10 are laymen 
 and 7 are clergymen. Twelve trustees are 
 elected for life by the board, and 5 are chosen 
 by the alumni, to serve 5 years. Amherst 
 College was one of the institutions originally 
 accepted by the Carnegie Foundation for the 
 Advancement of Teaching {q.v.). 
 13
 
 AMITY COLLEGE 
 
 AMNESIA 
 
 Dcsrccs conferred are A.B., B.S., and M.A. 
 for one year's graduate study in residence. 
 The college is a member of the New England 
 Association of Colleges and Preparatory 
 Schools (q.v.). 
 
 From the outset, it has been the policy of 
 Amherst to do the work of a " small college " 
 of the best type. The fraternities, which elect 
 nearly the entire student body, have proved 
 instruments of value in training the younger 
 students. The societies include: Alpha Delta 
 Phi, Psi Upsilon, Delta Kappa Epsilon, Delta 
 Upsilon, Chi Psi, Chi Phi, Beta Theta Pi, 
 Thcta Delta Chi, Phi Delta Theta, Phi Gamma 
 Delta, and Phi Kappa Psi. All of them occupy 
 houses. The library has 80,000 volumes. 
 The scientific museums are unusually com- 
 plete. Grounds, buildings, and equipment are 
 valued at $648,500; real estate other than 
 dormitories, etc., at .S13,700. The total produc- 
 tive endowment is .§1,965,284. l.i; the total an- 
 nual income is .S 139,8.56.84, of which .S41, 208.16 
 is from tuition and other fees from students. 
 The average salary of a professor is S2868. 
 The instructing staff (1909) numbers 53, of 
 whom 21 are full professors. There are 528 
 students. More than half of the 4200 graduates 
 have become clergymen or teachers. C. G. 
 
 References: — 
 
 History of .\mhpr.st CoUprp in the biographies of its presi- 
 dents, iu National ( 'i/clopedia of American Biography, 
 Vol. v., pp. .307-310. 
 
 Tyler, Rev. U. S., History of Amherst College, 1S21- 
 ISOl. (N'ew York, l.SOo.) 
 
 AMITY COLLEGE, COLLEGE SPRINGS, 
 IOWA. — A coeducational institution founded 
 in 1855 by the Western Industrial and Scientific 
 Association. Candidates are admitted on 
 presenting a certificate from an academy or 
 high school and making up necessary defi- 
 ciencies, or by examination for which the re- 
 quirements are equivalent approximately to 
 three years' high school work. A preparatory 
 school is attached to the college. Classical, 
 scientific, philosophical, normal, business, and 
 fine arts courses are offered. Degrees are con- 
 ferred in the college and normal studies. Very 
 few of the students take the college course. 
 There is a faculty of 11 professors and in- 
 structors. Ross Turner Campbell, D.D., is the 
 president. 
 
 AMMAN, JOHANN KONRAD (1669-1730). 
 — A Swiss physician and teacher of deaf mutes. 
 Born in Schaffhausen, he studied medicine in 
 Basel, and went in 1690 to Amsterdam, where 
 he soon became famous as a teacher of the deaf 
 and dumb. His system was based on the 
 pupil's observation of the lips and tongue of 
 the teacher and the imitation of the motions 
 seen. He also made the pupil grasp the 
 throat of the teacher and feel the vibrations 
 resulting in sound production. This " articu- 
 lation method," which he explained in his books 
 
 Siirdus loquens {The Deaf Speaking) (Amstei- 
 dam, 1692), and Dissertatio dc loquela (Disser- 
 tation on Speerh) (Amsterdam, 1700), was 
 afterwards adopted and imjiroved by Heinicke, 
 the founder of the first German institution 
 for the instruction of deaf mutes. F. M. 
 
 AMNESLA.— Literally a loss or lack of 
 memory; the term is used to designate the in- 
 ability to recall one or more sets of events in 
 the life of the individual. Amnesia is a com- 
 mon symptom in many types of mental disease, 
 but may occur independently, and, in some 
 people, be consistent with an otherwise per- 
 fectly normal condition of mind. 
 
 It is vi'ell known that there are well-marked 
 normal individual differences in the learning 
 and in the recall of certain classes of facts. 
 One person may be able to remember and to 
 recall the names of people whom he has met, 
 another may be unable to recall the names, but 
 may be able to recall their appearances. These 
 differences in memory ability may be spoken 
 of as amnesias, but, as will be shown later, they 
 are not usually designated in this way. 
 
 Without reference to books or to notes, the 
 stock broker is able to quote the various prices 
 of a fluctuating stock over a period of a j'ear 
 or more, the butcher can give the wholesale 
 and retail prices of meat and poultry for the 
 same period, and the musician can recall the 
 notation and the fingering of many composi- 
 tions, but each of these individuals is usually 
 unable to recall in such detail as are the others 
 the facts in lines of endeavor different to that 
 in which he may be employed. The inability 
 of the stock broker to recall the theme of an 
 opera, or that of the musician to recall the 
 fluctuating prices of stock that he has bought 
 may be called amnesia, but it must be noted 
 that there is not so great an interest in these 
 events and not so much importance that the 
 facts be so well retained. On the other hand, 
 we see that the facts that are so well retained 
 are special vocational facts, and it is usual to 
 consider them the almormal part of memory 
 rather than the normal. In this case the 
 unusual memory is due to close attention, and 
 these special memories may be properly called 
 hypermnesias {q.v., and also article on Memory). 
 
 If there be an inability to recall facts to 
 which the individual pays attention and which 
 it is important for him to remember, we say 
 there is an amnesia. This condition may be 
 permanent or temporary, complete or incom- 
 plete, circumscribed or progressive, and may be 
 due to organic nerve disease or to simple func- 
 tional alterations. 
 
 Many cla.ssifications of the amnesias have 
 been made, but that pro]iosed and used by 
 Janet, which will be followed here, is most sat- 
 isfactory and most complete. 
 
 (1) Sy.Hematized amnesias. The best exam- 
 ple of a systematized amnesia is that of an 
 aphasic (see aph.^sia). In such a case we find 
 
 114
 
 AMOROS 
 
 ANAGNOS 
 
 a loss of a definite category or collection of 
 memories, it may be of sounds, or of move- 
 ments, or of sights, or of other sensory memories 
 or combinations of them, and the associations 
 which were formerly produced by, let us say, 
 a tone or a light are no longer produced. Such 
 a systematized loss is to be found in astasia- 
 abasia (q.v.), in which condition the inability 
 to stand or to walk is not due to any lack of 
 muscular power or to deficient control of in- 
 dividual muscles, but solely to the inability 
 to coordinate the motor impulses. The skin 
 and other sensations accompanying move- 
 ments are retained in this state, and there is 
 also present the ability to .judge movements 
 except in the standing position. There is a 
 motor amnesia, or a loss of the motor images. 
 
 (2) Localized amnesias are memory losses 
 of events occurring during a certain period. 
 This condition is usually found to be due to 
 the shock of an accident or to some other 
 strongly emotional event. If only one event 
 is forgotten, the amnesia is called simple. If 
 the forgotten events are those preceding the 
 accident, the amnesia is called retrograde; if 
 those following the accident or shock, the 
 amnesia is called anterograde. 
 
 (3) A general amnesia may also be produced 
 by shock. In such a case the individual seems, 
 as Janet so well expressed it, " to be born again 
 and to learn anew all that he had previously 
 learned from infancy." 
 
 (4) Continued amnesia. In some there is 
 found a retention and an ability to recall old 
 occurrences, but an inability to recall events of 
 recent date and a difficulty or an inabihty to 
 acquire new facts and to retain them. This 
 is the kind of amnesia usually found in the 
 aged, but it may occur in those in middle life. 
 
 Each of these kinds of amnesia may be (a) 
 complete — everything is lost, and there is 
 no power to recall; {h) incomplete — some 
 memories persist and others can be recalled, 
 if sufficient effort is made; (c) sharp, or 
 circumscribed in time, or (d) progressive — at 
 first incomplete, then increasing little by little 
 until there is a complete amnesia. S. I. F. 
 
 References: — 
 Bruns, O. Ueber retrograde Amnesic. (Tubingen, 
 
 190.3.) 
 Janet, P. Auto?natisme Psycholugique. (Paris, 1S89.) 
 Pick, A. Zur Pathologic dcs Gedilchtnisses. Archiv f. 
 
 Psyrhialr.. 1S*S6, XVII, 83-9S. 
 RiBOT, Thom-\s. Les Maladies de la Memoire. (Paris, 
 
 18S1.) 
 
 AMOROS, FRANCIS (1769-1848). — One of 
 the pioneers of the physical education move- 
 ment in France; was born in Valencia (Spain). 
 At the age of IS, he entered the Spanish 
 army, and gradually rose to the rank of colo- 
 nel. Afterwards he filled various high admin- 
 istrative positions, and, in 1807, he was en- 
 trusted with the education of the young 
 prince Don Francisco de Paula, which he 
 directed according to Pestalozzi's principles. 
 
 115 
 
 During the Napoleonic invasion of Spain, he 
 joined the French party and was employed by 
 King Joseph as governor of several Spanish 
 provinces. In 1814, he was forced to flee from 
 Spain and found a refuge in France. In 1831, 
 he was appointed director of the Military 
 Gymnasium of Paris. His chief work is his 
 Manuel d'education physique, gymnastique et 
 morale, published in 1838. 
 
 AMSTERDAM, UNIVERSITY OF. — 
 
 Founded in 1877 by the Municipal Council, 
 which has a large share in the control and in the 
 election of professors under the supervision of 
 the Ministry of Education. The fact of munici- 
 pal control distinguishes it from the state uni- 
 versities of Holland. The history of the insti- 
 tution, however, goes back to 1632, from which 
 date it maintained a continuous existence as 
 the Athena'um Illustre. Faculties of theology, 
 law, medicine, arts, and the sciences are main- 
 tained. There were enrolled in 1908-1909, 925 
 students and 117 auditors. This institution is 
 to be distinguished from the Free University 
 of Amsterdam, which was founded in 1880 
 by the Association for Reformed Education 
 under the control of five directors. Faculties 
 of law, theology, literature, and medicine are 
 maintained. There was in 1909 an enrollment 
 of about 170 students. 
 See Netherlands, Education in. 
 
 AMUSIA. — An association disorder consist- 
 ing in an inability to appreciate music as such, 
 i.e. as a mode of expression corresponding to 
 speech. It is a special kind of aphasia (q.v.) of 
 rare occurrence. 
 
 References: — 
 
 Blocq. p. L'.\musia. Gaz. hebd. de med. (Paris, 2me 
 
 Ser., XI, 1893.) 
 Mauinesco, G. Des Amusies. Semaine med. (Paris, 
 
 XXV, 1905.) 
 Pick, A. Zur Analyse der Eleraente der Amusie und 
 
 deren Vorkommen ira Rahmen aphasischcr Stiirun- 
 
 gen. Monatsch. f. Psychiat. u. Neurol., XVIII, 
 
 1905, 87-96. 
 
 ANEMIA. — See Diseases, School. 
 
 ANAGNOS, MICHEL (1837-1906). — Suc- 
 cessor of Samuel G. Howe as the American 
 leader of the education of the blind, was born 
 at Epirus, Greece, the 7th of November, 1837, 
 and received his education in the state schools of 
 Greece and at the University of Athens. He 
 came to America in 1867, and became associate 
 director of the Perkins Institution of the Blind. 
 Upon the death of Dr. Howe in 1876 he be- 
 came director of the institution, which position 
 he held for 30 years. He secured the first 
 permanent fund for the printing of books in 
 raised letters for the blind, made the kinder- 
 garten a feature of the schools for the blind, and 
 inaugurated other progressive movements. 
 Besides his 30 annual reports, which cover 
 the entire field of the pedagogy of the blind,
 
 ANALGESIA 
 
 ANALOGY 
 
 he was the author of Education of the Blind, 
 Kindergartens and Primary Schools for the 
 Blind, Through Education to Independence, and 
 of several juvenile books iu raised letters for the 
 blind. lie died at Turn Severin, Rounuinia, 
 the 29th of June, 1906. W. S. M. 
 
 ANALGESIA. — The absence of the sen.se 
 of pain, or the inability to appreciate pain. 
 The word is (1) most correctly used to indicate 
 that condition in which painful stimuli from 
 without the body are not appreciated as such ; 
 (2) sometimes, but incorrectly, used for hypal- 
 gcsia {q.v.) to indicate a lessened i)ain apprecia- 
 tion. The causes and forms of analgesia are 
 discussed in the article on anaesthesia (.q.v.). 
 
 S. I. F. 
 
 ANALOGY. ^Psychology of. There is a 
 strong tendency for individuals to carry 
 over to any new situation wiiich may arise 
 the habits of thought and action which have 
 been cultivated in other situations somewhat 
 similar. Thus, if one has acquired a certain 
 distaste for a person, he is likely to carry over 
 the same general attitude of dislike to any new 
 acquaintance who resembles in features or be- 
 havior the person for whom he first acquired the 
 dislike. Children exhibit the tendency to form 
 plurals of such irregular nouns as man and 
 sheep, after the fashion of regular nouns ending 
 in s. The tendency to reason by analogy is 
 very marked, especially in the case of uncriti- 
 cal individuals at a relatively low stage of in- 
 tellectual development. All savages explain 
 the phenomena of nature after the analogy of 
 their own personal experiences. They come, 
 therefore, to personify all the processes and 
 objects about them. 
 
 An elaborate system of argument by anal- 
 ogy appears in the pseudo-science of astrology. 
 The astrologers, finding that a certain group of 
 events in the world occurred at the time of a 
 certain juxtaposition of the heavenly bodies, 
 looked forward to the recurrence of a similar 
 group of events in the world whenever the same 
 relative positions of heavenly bodies occurred. 
 As knowledge developed, the tendency to argu- 
 ment by analogy became restricted through the 
 exercise of the critical faculty. Two events 
 were compared with each other only when their 
 characteristics could be shown by careful study 
 to have a fundamental resemblance. Thus, the 
 pseudo-science of astrology broke down as soon 
 as it appeared that the laws of human behavior 
 are in no way connected with the position of the 
 heavenly bodies. The child's tendency to form 
 all plurals as if they were regular, disappears 
 as soon as he comes to recognize the complexity 
 of his language and the variety of its forms. 
 A certain number of analogies continue to be 
 justifiable even in later science, but these an- 
 alogies must be sifted, and in all cases where 
 they are accepted, justified by a full statement 
 of their conditions. In the development of 
 
 children the transition from argument by mere 
 analogy to the critical formation of scientific 
 judgment is a definite mark of intellectual 
 development. Analogy may therefore be re- 
 garded as a first and simjile form of reasoning, 
 to be superseded later by critical analysis and 
 comparison. See Analysis and Synthesis. 
 
 C. H. J. 
 
 Logic of. — In its origin analogy was a mathe- 
 matical term, meaning an equivalence of ratio, 
 i.e. a proportion. Thence it was a natural ex- 
 tension to give the word a logical sense, meaning 
 similarity of relations. When Darwin carried 
 over the Malthusian principle of the multiplica- 
 tion of population in human society in excess 
 of the means of subsistence to animal and vege- 
 table life generally, he reasoned by analogy. 
 Although the things were different, he assumed 
 a similarity of relation in the two cases. Anal- 
 ogy is also frequently used in a loose and vague 
 logical sense, meaning any similarity cmi)loyed 
 as a factor in reasoning. In many cases, 
 relations and qualities can hardly be dis- 
 tinguished from each other, so that similarity 
 of quality becomes a basis of inference. In this 
 usage, analogy runs into association by similar- 
 ity iq.v.). That association by similarity is of 
 higher intellectual importance tlian that by 
 contiguity has long been noticed, so that some 
 writers have gone to the extreme of identifying 
 reasoning itself with a.ssociation by similarity. 
 While this view is extreme, there can be no 
 doubt that analogy is always present (either of 
 relations or qualities) as an influential factor 
 in inference. Its value for purposes of proof, 
 however, is not to be identified with its value for 
 discovery. Indispensable for the latter, it is of 
 little weight for the former; that is to say, its 
 role is in induction rather than deduction, unless 
 strict resemblance of relation can be made out, 
 and this resemblance of relation be then traced 
 to a common principle as its ground. In other 
 words, when pupils are engaged in thinking out 
 a new fact or' principle, associations by simi- 
 larity should be encouraged; when they are 
 demonstrating some stated principle, similari- 
 ties should themselves be shown to be effects of 
 a common cause. J. D. 
 
 Reference: — 
 
 Dewey, .J. Studies in Logical Theory. (Chicago, 1909.) 
 
 Method of. — One of the methods by which a 
 chihl is taught to derive the sound of a letter or 
 phonogram (a syllable or other unit of pronun- 
 ciation). (1) A method much employed by 
 teachers in instructing beginners in reading. 
 The underlying principle is that similarity in 
 form implies similarity in sound. Thus, if the 
 child knows his consonants and the words " me " 
 and " rate," he ought to pronounce at sight 
 the new word " relate," the same sound value 
 being given to e in both "me " and " re," 
 and to ate in both " rate " and " late." If 
 not, the teacher will bring the mastered words 
 
 116
 
 ANALYSIS 
 
 ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS 
 
 into juxtaposition with the new word, so as to 
 assist him in getting the sound by analogy. (2) 
 A method used in teaching the chikl to compre- 
 hend the pronunciation given in the dictionary 
 when he has no knowledge of the sounds which 
 go with the special diacritical marks used. 
 Suppose the child seeks the pronunciation of 
 the word " anoint." The word " anoint " is 
 marked "a-noint';" but the child does not 
 know the sound that accompanies a. He glances 
 at the list of simple known words at the bottom 
 of the dictionary page until he finds a word con- 
 taining a similarly marked. He finds the 
 word " ask," and transfers the sound of a 
 in "ask" to the w-ord "anoint." The method 
 of analogy is likewise applicable to spelling and 
 other subjects. H. S. 
 
 See Re.^ding, Teaching Beginners. 
 
 ANALYSIS. — The term used to characterize 
 the " first step" in the procedure of the recita- 
 tion, more particularly in the " inductive de- 
 velopment lesson." 
 
 See Apperception; Prep.'^r.^tion; Recita- 
 tion, Method of. 
 
 ANALYSIS. — In mathematics the term is 
 used in several senses. The primitive use is 
 in the sense of the resolution of a compound 
 into its elements, and in particular the pro- 
 ceeding to resolve a statement sought to be 
 proved into sub-statements that have already 
 been proved. Synthesis, on the other hand, 
 is the proceeding from truths that have already 
 been proved to the truth that we wish to 
 prove. Generally we ascertain the method of 
 proving a proposition in mathematics by analy- 
 sis, and this we follow by a sj^ithetic proof, 
 as in elementary geometry. In another sense 
 the word is used to mean algebra {q.v.), and 
 in particular higher algebra, or the discussion 
 of a problem by means of algebra instead of 
 geometry', and hence our analytic geometry 
 {q.v.). It is more commonly used at present, 
 as designating a branch of mathematics, to 
 refer to the differential and integral calculus, 
 which are sometimes called Infinitesimal Analy- 
 sis, and which include differential equations, the 
 calculus of variations, and other branches. 
 
 D. E. S. 
 
 ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. — In one 
 form or another analysis and synthesis have 
 always been recognized as fundamental fimc- 
 tions of intelligence or reflective thought. 
 Since it appears paradoxical that thinking 
 should at once distinguish particulars and con- 
 nect by universals, the nature of the relation 
 between the functions has been one of the 
 persistent problems of logical theory. The 
 objective counterpart of this prolslcm, or the re- 
 lation of the one and the many, unity and plural- 
 ity, has been a basic question for metaphysics, 
 all kinds of systems, from thoroughgoing atom- 
 ism through various compromises over to abso- 
 
 lute monism, arising according to the degree 
 and kind of emphasis placed upon analysis on 
 one side or synthesis on the other. In the 
 theory of educational method, no question has 
 been more vigorously discussed than the rela- 
 tive values of analytic and synthetic methods 
 in teaching reading, number, geography, nature 
 study, etc. And in many cases where there has 
 been no overt controversy, the changes that 
 have occurred in method of instruction will be 
 found upon examination to consist in shifting 
 from analytic to synthetic methods of attack, 
 or vice versa, or in combining the two methods 
 in different ratios. 
 
 If we note some of the terms that are practi- 
 cally equivalent to analysis and synthesis, we 
 shall recognize more easily the essential signifi- 
 cance of these terms. Discrimination, discern- 
 ment, distinguishing, demarcating, in fact all 
 names that indicate acts that result in marking 
 anything out and off in experience so that it 
 gains in specification, that is, in peculiar indi- 
 viduality, express operations that are analogous 
 to analysis. Abstraction represents analysis 
 carried to the point where some aspect or rela- 
 tion incapable of separate existence is discrimi- 
 nated from its actual context so that mentally 
 at least it seems to have independent existence. 
 Identification, connection, unification, system- 
 atization, are corresponding synonyms for 
 synthesis. In all cases it is obvious that syn- 
 thesis implies the notion of continuity, of neces- 
 sary reference of one thmg to another, just as 
 analysis means particularization, or parting a 
 thing off on its own account. The general 
 bears the same relation to synthesis that the 
 abstract bears to analysis. When the ab- 
 stracted relation or qualitj' is reapplied to 
 particular cases so as to bring them into one 
 cla.ss (or genus) or under one principle of 
 explanation, generalization occurs. Psychologi- 
 cally analysis corresponds to the well-known 
 fact that all attention consists in an increase 
 of clearnes.i coincident with emphasis on the 
 subject matter attended to, while synthesis 
 corresponds to the tendency of all subject 
 matter of attention to gather in relations of sub- 
 ordination about a single focus. For just as in 
 attention mental darkness gives way to clear- 
 ness, so dispersion gives way to concentra- 
 tion or orderly grouping. Going from the 
 technical terms to the empirical facts they ulti- 
 mately signif}', analysis means clearnes.'> through 
 emphasis, synthesis means order through place 
 in a context. 
 
 The bearing of these conceptions may be 
 brought out by contrasting them with the defi- 
 nitions frequently given in pedagogical writings, 
 according to which analysis means mentally 
 breaking a whole into its parts, while synthesis 
 means the mental composition or putting to- 
 gether of parts into a whole. These definitions 
 are not necessarily incorrect, but they are apt 
 to be misleading because they tend to make us 
 conceive analysis and synthesis as some sort 
 
 117
 
 ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS 
 
 ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS 
 
 of mental counterparts, a physical hroaking up. 
 or taking to pieces, and of a physical putting 
 together. Now physical dissection and com- 
 position both operate upon a ready-made object, 
 upon something which is already given. Hence 
 mental analysis is thought of as a picking to 
 pieces in the mind of an object which is already 
 mentally given, that is known; and conversely, 
 synthesis as a piecing together of a number of 
 qualities and relations already known. We 
 analyze — so it is thought — a table by enumer- 
 ating all its properties, — size, form, color, 
 material, use, etc. By combining a certain 
 color, flavor, size, texture, odor, etc., we would 
 get synthetically the notion of an orange. 
 
 But the important thing in genuine analysis 
 and synthesis is that they do not operate with 
 and upon what is already present and given (i.e. 
 known), but are aspects of the process of getting 
 knowledge, that is, of advancing from what is 
 partially known to more adequate knowledge. 
 If the table were already well known, there 
 would be no sense in decomposing it mentally 
 into its constituent properties. The table al- 
 ready is these properties; they are the table. 
 Only if we were not sure whether the object 
 was a table or what kind of a table it was (how 
 much it was worth, whether it would fit our 
 needs, what period it belonged to) should we 
 proceed to select or emphasize any particular 
 aspect of the object. We analyze because there 
 is a specific end to be attained; and we analyze 
 only so as to get clear and reliable indications 
 of the means to be used. If some one fea- 
 ture serves as an adequate evidence of the ob- 
 ject's being a table, or being the kind of a table 
 we want, or worth the price asked for it, we 
 stop there; if more indications are necessary to 
 settle the matter, we go on with our analysis 
 till we think sufficient data for a correct conclu- 
 sion are at hand. 
 
 Synthesis is the correlative process of inter- 
 preting some fact or quality which is perplexing 
 and obscure because of its isolation. We do 
 not put together a number of qualities of taste, 
 smell, touch, and sight that we are already 
 thoroughly familiar with in order to make up 
 an entire object we are equally familiar with; 
 but hitting upon some smell or color we wonder 
 what it means. The only answer to that 
 question is the discovery of some object — 
 a flower, an orange, or whatever it may be — of 
 which it is a distinctive connected part. 
 
 These considerations illustrate the three 
 most important principles of analysis and 
 synthesis. (1) They are performed for the 
 sake of teaching a specific conclusion; or are 
 parts of a process of inference. They are never 
 ends in themselves, or performed simply on their 
 own account. (2) Being controlled by the 
 special end in view, they are always limited as 
 to their extent by reference to the end. We 
 analyze only far enough to get clearly reliable 
 signs with reference to the purpose in hand; we 
 do not synthesize indefinitely, but only till we 
 
 have interpreted a particular isolated puzzling 
 [ihenomenon by so placing it in relation to other 
 things that it is understood. (3) Each process 
 requires the other for its own completion, no 
 matter which one happens to be most prominent 
 at the beginning. They are correlative, not in- 
 dependent, functions. It is for the sake of de- 
 termining the nature of some conclusive whole 
 that we dwell upon and render conspicuously 
 clear any s])ecial trait; it is only by detailed 
 examination and inspection, clearing up some 
 I)articular feature, that we get any sure basis for 
 passing upon the nature of the whole. The 
 sense of the whole end controls what we empha- 
 size and how far we carry our selection and ex- 
 amination for i)articulars; the character of the 
 particular qualities that stand out clearly are 
 the sole guides we possess in reaching a definite 
 conclusion as to the nature of the whole. 
 
 All three of these normal jirinciplcs arc fre- 
 quently violated in methods of teaching. 
 
 (1) Analysis and synthesis are frequently 
 treated as. ends in themselves. The kindergar- 
 ten child analyzes geometrical forms; the ele- 
 mentary pupil analyzes sentences in grammar 
 and objects in " object lessons " or in nature 
 study; the high school pupil carries the obser- 
 vation of distinctions and differences into 
 mathematics and the sciences; and in too many 
 cases the analysis is not performed so as to 
 clarify the means or the data requisite to achieve 
 some end in experience, but simply to multiply 
 information as to details of facts. While ac- 
 quaintance with facts is the nominal purpose, 
 too often the student only accjuires terminology, 
 for facts appeal to any one n.s- facts only when 
 they perform a required function in controlling 
 the achievement of an end or solving a problem. 
 Nor is it enough to have some general end in 
 view, such as acquiring more knowledge or infor- 
 mation. The aim must be sjiecific, and must 
 arise normally in the individual's own experi- 
 ence. 
 
 (2) Making analysis an end in itself always 
 results in violation of the second principle, 
 that of selective emphasis. There being no 
 specific end to control the process of noting 
 particulars, it has no limiting principle. Theoreti- 
 cally anything and everything about the object 
 is of equal importance; hence none of the 
 qualities should be slighted or passed over. All 
 must be enumerated. The tedious nature of 
 this exhaustive analysis is sufficient evidence 
 of the way in which it violates normal mental 
 action. 
 
 (3) The very discussion as to whether certain 
 subjects should be taught analytically or syn- 
 thetically is proof of the violation of the third 
 l)rinciple. Xo subject can be intellectually ac- 
 quired except by using both methods, it being 
 a matter largely of accident and convenience 
 which phase comes first. The child begins 
 reading with isolated letters or isolated phonic 
 elements. Having mastered a variety of these, 
 he then goes on to comliinc them into words, 
 
 118
 
 ANALYTIC GEOMETRY 
 
 ANALYTIC GEOMETRY 
 
 and then to combine words into sentences. 
 The mutual character of analysis and synthesis 
 is wholly lost from view. In fact, the only rea- 
 son for discriminating special forms and special 
 sounds is to get hold of the special tool nece.ssary 
 to master some complete meaning, — and the 
 analytic recognition of special sounds and forms 
 would be accomplished more effectively if 
 performed for rendering clear some special 
 letter, word, or sound important in view of 
 getting a larger and inclu.sive meaning. On the 
 other hand, teachers, in reaction against a 
 method which compels children to occupy them- 
 selves for such a long time ■with senseless forms, 
 begin with whole words, or sentences. But 
 there is no way of attaining a mastery of the 
 meaning of groups of words, or of letters, save 
 to master the particular traits that are im- 
 portant as signs. Even if the child is deliber- 
 ately discouraged from such anal}^sis, he ad- 
 vances in reading ability only because he un- 
 consciously works out some analytic method 
 for himself. 
 
 This discussion of the pedagogical violation 
 of logical principles has considered the matter 
 merely from the side of analj'sis, but the same 
 errors could easily be illustrated from the side of 
 synthesis. Learning general principles, rules, 
 and definitions by themselves instead of as 
 methods of identifying and handling particular 
 cases is an illustration of making synthesis an 
 end in itself, of removing the natural limitations 
 that make it selective, and of isolation from 
 analysis. J. D. 
 
 References: — 
 Dewey, J. Studies in Logical Theory. (Chicago, 1909.) 
 HoBHOD.SE, L. T. Theory of Knowledge. (London, 
 1896.) 
 
 ANALYTIC GEOMETRY. — That branch 
 of mathematics in which geometric truths are 
 investigated by means of analysis (q.v.), and in 
 particular by means of algebra, through the 
 one-to-one correspondence between points in a 
 plane or in space and ciuantities in an equation. 
 More broadlj- considered, it enables the mathe- 
 matician to investigate a geometric problem by 
 putting it into the form of an algebraic equation 
 and, conversely, to carry on an algebraic in- 
 vestigation by the aid of geometry, and in gene- 
 ral to pass from either of these two branches of 
 mathematics to the other in the course of his 
 research, as may be convenient. 
 
 History. — The Greeks carried the subject of 
 elementary geometry (see Geometry) to a high 
 degree of development in the works of Euclid 
 (q.v.) and Archimedes (q.i).). They then di- 
 rected their attention to bringing the study of 
 conies (q.v.) to a similar state of completeness, 
 and this culminated in the works of Apollonius 
 iq.v.). From this time to the seventeenth cen- 
 tury there was no great advance in geometry 
 as distinct from trigonometry. The invention 
 of analytic geometry is usually ascribed to 
 Descartes (1637), but considerable work had 
 
 been done before this time by way of prepara- 
 tion. Apollonius himself had referred the con- 
 ies to their diameters and tangents, and had 
 expressed the relation by means of equations 
 between areas, so that he practically used 
 abscissas and ordinates. He proved, for ex- 
 ample, as Menaechmus had done before him, 
 the property of the parabola which we now ex- 
 press by the equation i/ = px, and in general he 
 knew the most important properties of all the 
 conies that are represented at present by such 
 symbolism as this. While not commonly using 
 the word " ordinate " directly, he frequently 
 uses TtTay/icVojs, ordinate- wise. His full form for 
 ordinate is TCTay/xtVws Karayofiivrj, and occasion- 
 ally he uses each of these words by itself to 
 mean an ordinate. He uses an expression 
 meaning " the (portion) cut off by it (the ordi- 
 nate) from the diameter toward the vertex " 
 as the equivalent of " abscissa." In the Latin 
 tranislations of his works these expressions 
 appear as orrlinatim applicalae and abscis- 
 sae, the former shortened by Fermat (q.v.) 
 into " applicate " and by others into " ordi- 
 nate." In the medieval universities a kind of 
 coordinate geometry appears under the name 
 De Lalitudinibus Formarinn. The latitudo was 
 the ordinate and the longiludo the abscissa, as 
 in ordinary map-drawing. A variable point 
 could thus be referred to rectangular coordinates 
 and a figura formed. By this means Oresme 
 {q.v.), for example, studied geometric figures, 
 including the parabola, but always in the first 
 quadrant. This work was extended by such 
 investigators as Viete (q.v.) and Roberval, 
 and particularly by Fermat, the latter often 
 being called the inventor of analytics. It was 
 Descartes iq.v.), however, who first set forth the 
 essential features of the science, showing the 
 full significance of the positive and the negative 
 quantity \\ith relation to points in the four quad- 
 rants, and the one-to-one correspondence be- 
 tween values of x and y, and points on a curve. 
 The effect of the work of Descartes was to 
 greatly stimulate the study of the ancient conies 
 and to revolutionize methods of mathematical 
 investigation. The extension of the theorj' to 
 space of three dimensions was effected by the 
 efforts of Van Schooten, Parent, and Clairaut, 
 and resulted in Euler's (1731) theorj' of surfaces. 
 The nineteenth century saw the entire subject 
 amplified, other systems of coordinates being 
 introduced for the treatment of certain classes 
 of problems not readily handled by means of the 
 rectangular ones of Descartes or the oblique 
 ones of his immediate successors. 
 
 General Nature as now conceived. — At 
 present analytic geometry has for its first 
 objects of study the conic sections. The com- 
 mon propo.sitions were known to the Greeks, 
 but are established more expeditiously by ana- 
 lytic methods. Higher plane curves are next 
 considered, including some that were known 
 to the Greeks (the cissoid, conchoid, and spiral 
 of Archimedes, for example), and others of later 
 
 119
 
 ANALYTIC METHOD 
 
 ANATOLIUS 
 
 invention, like tlu- liniaQon of Pascal, the 
 Cassiui ovals, and the witch of Ajjjncsi. Curves 
 are usually first referred to rectangular coordi- 
 nates, and then, as the student advances, to 
 oblique coordinates. Polar coordinates are 
 next introduced, a pole, an axis, an angle, 
 and a radius vector sufficing to fix any point 
 on a plane. These three classes of coordi- 
 nates answer for ordinary cases. The num- 
 ber of systems of coordinates is, however, un- 
 limited. Sometimes two poles can be used to 
 advantage, — the bipolar system; at other 
 times three lines in a jilane can better be used, 
 — trilinear eoiirdinates, and so on. For any 
 adequate understanding of the subject the 
 reader must refer to the standard texts. 
 
 Present Status in the Curriculum. — At 
 present it is the custom of colleges in the 
 United States to tc;ich analytic geometry in the 
 sophomore year, the fourteenth school year of 
 the student. It is preceded by a year's work in 
 higher algebra, trigonometry, and often in solid 
 geometry. It is taught cither for a half year 
 or for a year, and is followed l)y a course of 
 greater or less length in the differential and 
 integral calculus. It is still largely devoted to 
 the ancient propositions on conies. In the way 
 of reform several changes have been advocated. 
 One is that the dividing line between ana- 
 lytics and the calculus be partially removed, 
 to the end that a student may use his calculus 
 while studying the curves to which it applies, 
 and use his analytics in the problems in the 
 .calculus where it is helpful, and do all this just 
 at the right time, without waiting a year and 
 having to review the subject. Another sugges- 
 tion is that some analytic geometry be taught in 
 connection with algebra, and this is done by the 
 use of so-called graphs in the latter subject. 
 It is further suggested that the high school take 
 over the trigonometry and solid geometry, 
 leaving analytic geometry for the first year of 
 college. All of these suggestions have merit, 
 but no one is likely to be fully carried out. 
 It seems probable, however, that a moderate 
 amount of graphic work with rectangular coor- 
 dinates will be done in the course in elementary 
 algebra, that trigonometry will be treated more 
 in accord with the usages of analytics, and that 
 there will be a conservative merging of analytics 
 and calculus. D. E. S. 
 
 References: — 
 
 Ou the hi.story of analytic geometn,- : — 
 Heath. Apollo/iias of Pcrga. (Cambridge. 1S96.) 
 CANTOR. Gcschichte der Mathcmalik, Vol. II, ch. 
 
 Ixxvii. 
 S.MITH, D. E. History of Modem Mathematics. (New 
 York, inOG.) ,52 ])p., with a l^ibliography. 
 On the present theDry there are numerous works 
 of high gr.icle, sueli as Briot and Bouquet's Lemons de 
 Giotnitrie annlutique. English by Bo>'d (Chieago, 
 1896), and various eneyclopedias of mathematies. 
 
 ANALYTIC METHOD. —A special method 
 of teaching reading to beginners, in which 
 the first reading is mastered in " thought 
 
 wholes" (sentences, phrases, or words), which 
 are then analyzed or broken into parts 
 (syllables, phonograms, letters). These de- 
 rived parts or units are then used as a basis 
 for interpreting the sounds of other words, 
 phrases, and sentences. The " analytic " and 
 " synthetic " methods are very frequently used 
 as supplementary means in the teaching of be- 
 ginners. " Sentence," "phrase," and "word" 
 methods are types of analytic methods. 
 
 See Analysis and Synthesis; Reading, 
 Teaching Boginners; Synthetic Method. 
 
 ANARTHRIA.— The loss of or a defect in the 
 ability to articulate. The condition is normally 
 found up to 3 or 4 years of age in young children 
 who have not gained sufficient control of the mus- 
 cles to properly coordinate them for the jjroduc- 
 tion of speech sounds. If the condition persists 
 beyond the usual age of speech ac(|uisition, it is 
 pathological. The condition is sometimes pro- 
 duced in older people by disease of parts of the 
 nervous system, especially those associated 
 with the movements of the tongue. The 
 term has sometimes been used to describe a.sso- 
 ciation speech defects of the nature of motor 
 Aphasia (q.v.), both cortical and subcortical. 
 
 See Speech, Defects of. S. I. F. 
 
 ANATOLIUS. — Church Father, born in 
 Alexandria about a.d. 230 and educated 
 in the Christian school of his native city 
 under Dionysius the Great in all the reli- 
 gious and scientific learning of his day. 
 About 270 he succeeded Eusebius as Bishop 
 of Laodicea. We are dependent upon the 
 historian Eusebius, who describes him as sur- 
 passing all men of his time in learning, for 
 information about his life and work (Kcclea. 
 Hist. Bk. VII). He attained the highest emi- 
 nence in mathematics, rhetoric, and philosophy. 
 In his I n.%titutes of Ai-ithmetichc recognizes eight 
 branches of Mathematics: Arithmetic, Geom- 
 etry> Computation, Geodesy, Optics, Theoreti- 
 cal Music, Mechanics, and Astronomy. He 
 defines mathematics as "A theoretic science 
 of things apprehensible by perception and sen- 
 sation for communication to others." He 
 illustrates its greatness by saying that "It 
 begins with a point and a line and forthwith 
 takes heaven itself and all things within its com- 
 pass," and applies to it Homer's description of 
 Discord — 
 
 " Small at her birth, but rising every hour. 
 While scarce the skies her horrid head can bound, 
 She stalks on earth and shakes the world around." 
 
 In his work on The Chronology of Easier he 
 practically settled one of the burning questions 
 of the day and helped to lay the foundations of 
 the modern science of a.stronomy, the only 
 practical application of which up to this time 
 had been to such problems as this. He did not 
 write many books, and only small fragments of 
 these have been preserved. W. R. 
 
 120
 
 ANATOMY 
 
 ANDREW COLLEGE 
 
 References : — 
 
 Farrar, F. W. Lives of the Fathers. (New York, 
 
 1907.) 
 Roberts, A., and Donaldson, J. The Ante-Nicene 
 
 Fathers. Vol. VI. (New York, 1890-1897.) 
 
 ANATOMY. — See Medical Education; 
 Zoology. 
 
 ANCIENT LANGUAGES. — See Greek; 
 Latin; Oriental Languaoes. 
 
 ANDERSON, JOHN, M.A., F.R.S. — (1726- 
 1796). The founder of Ander.son's University, 
 Glasgow, was born in 1726. Educated at the 
 Universit}^ of Glasgow, he was appointed Pro- 
 fessor of Oriental Languages in 1756 in that 
 university, and in 1760 was transferred to the 
 chair of natural philosophy. During his tenure 
 of tlie latter cliair, he perceived tliat a knowl- 
 edge of the principles of natural philosophy 
 was invaluable to mechanics, and this led him to 
 establish, in addition to his usual class, a more 
 popular course for those whose pursuits did not 
 allow them to follow the regular academic 
 curriculum. These lectures he continued until 
 his death in 1796. On his death, he bcciueathcd 
 the whole of his property with a few trifling 
 exceptions " to the public, for the good of man- 
 kind and the improvement of Science in an in- 
 stitution to be denominated Anderson's Univer- 
 sity and to be managed by 81 trustees." Ac- 
 cording to the design of the founder there were 
 to be 4 faculties, each composed of 9 professors, 
 viz., arts, medicine, law, and theology. As the 
 funds were quite inadequate to carry out this 
 object, the institution was at first commenced 
 with a single course of lectures on natural philos- 
 ophy and chemistry by Dr. Thomas Garnett. 
 Li 1796 courses were instituted in mathematics 
 and geography. In 1799 Dr. Garnett was suc- 
 ceeded by Dr. Birkbeck (afterwards founder of 
 the Birkbeck Institution, London) who, in addi- 
 tion to the branches taught by his predecessor, 
 gave free lectures on mechanics and other scien- 
 tific subjects. This was the origin of the popu- 
 lar lectures in Anderson's University and of 
 Mechanics' Institutions in Great Britain. The 
 faculties of law and theology have never been 
 established, but the medical college came into 
 being in 1799 by the appointment of a lecturer 
 on anatomy and surgery. The medical school 
 has at the present time a full complement of pro- 
 fessors, and supplies a sound medical education 
 at a cost suited to the circumstances of many 
 who could not otherwise enter the profession. 
 In 1884 the medical school became a separate 
 and distinct institution under the name of 
 Anderson's College Medical Scliool, the parent 
 institution continuing its popular day and even- 
 ing art and science classes. A. D. 
 
 ANDOVER THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY, 
 CAMBRIDGE, MASS. —Chartered in 1S07 
 and opened in 1808. In 1908 the institution 
 removed to Cambridge and entered into an 
 
 arrangement with Harvard University whereby 
 there is an exchange of privileges and the 
 resources of each are made available to stu- 
 dents of both institutions. The seminary is 
 open to all Protestant students of church 
 membership and graduates of an approved 
 college. This curriculum is one of three j'ears. 
 Students may divide their work between 
 Harvard University and the Seminary. Courses 
 are offered in the Old and New Testaments, 
 Church liistory, systematic theology, and 
 homiletics. Fourteen courses are required for 
 the degree of Bachelor of Divinity, three of 
 which may be taken at Harvard. Students who 
 are not candidates for a degree may receive 
 certificates from the seminary. There is a 
 faculty of 6 professors, 3 lecturers, and an 
 assistant. The library contains books in de- 
 partments of Biblical study, historical, system- 
 atic and practical theology, and in missionary 
 literature of everj' kind. 
 
 ANDRE, CHRISTLAN KARL (1763-1821).— 
 A German educator and journalist. He was 
 born in Hildburghausen. In 1782, he started 
 an educational institute in Arolsen, which 
 three years later he left to become a teacher 
 in Salzmann's Philanthropinum in Schnep- 
 fenthal. In 1798, he accepted a call to be- 
 come the principal of a Protestant school in 
 Briinn. There, as well as in Stuttgart, where 
 he settled in 1821, he continued his literary 
 activity, the chief object of which was the edu- 
 cational uplifting of the masses of the rural 
 population. For this purpose he wrote many 
 pamphlets and published a number of periodi- 
 cals, such as Dcr Landmanii ( The Farmer) (1790- 
 1795), Palriotifiches TageUatl (Patriotic Jour- 
 nal) (1800-1805), and Hesperus (1809-1821). 
 
 ANDREiE, JOHANN VALENTIN (1586- 
 1654). — A German theologian and friend of 
 Comenius. Born in Herrenburg, Wiirtemberg, 
 and educated at the University of Tubingen, he 
 filled various ecclesiastical positions in his 
 native country and died as court preacher in 
 Stuttgart. Andrcie may be regarded as a fore- 
 runner of Spener, the founder of Pietism. In 
 education he was opposed to mere verbalism, 
 and laid emphasis on moral and religious train- 
 ing. Among his writings, which are full of wit 
 and humor, is Turbo (1616), a. dramatic satire on 
 the scholars of his time; also Christianopolis 
 (1019), a sort of Christian Utopia, and Die 
 Christenburg (1G26) (The Christian Castle), an 
 allegory, representing the Church as a besieged 
 city. The opinion that he was the founder or re- 
 storer of the order of Rosicrucians is erroneous. 
 
 ANDREW COLLEGE, CUTHBERT, GA. 
 
 — Founded in 1S54, bj' the Methodist Epis- 
 copal Church, South, and controlled by the 
 South Georgia Conference. Literary, Inisiness, 
 and fine arts departments are maintained. 
 Admission requirements amount approximately 
 
 121
 
 ANDREWS 
 
 ANESTHESIA 
 
 to one and a half years' high school work. 
 Degrees are conferred. There is a faculty 
 of 11 professors. T. W. Malone, M.A., D.D., i's 
 the president. 
 
 ANDREWS, ETHAN ALLEN (1787-1858). 
 
 — Schoolman and textbook writer, educated in 
 the public schools of Connecticut and at Yale 
 College; professor of ancient languages in 
 the University of North Carolina (1822- 
 1828); principal of a private school for girls 
 in Boston (IS3.3-1S39); author of an extended 
 series of Latin texts for use in secondary 
 schools and colleges. W. S. M. 
 
 ANDREWS, ISRAEL WARD (1815-1888). 
 
 — Educator and author, educated in the public 
 schools and at Amherst coUege; teacher in 
 academies in Massachusetts (1835-1839); pro- 
 fessor in Marietta College (1839-1855); presi- 
 dent of the same (1855-1885) and again pro- 
 fessor (1885-1888); author of numerous articles 
 in educational journals. W. S. M. 
 
 ANDREWS, LORIN (1819-1861). — Edu- 
 cator and author, educated at the Kenyon 
 Grammar School and at Kenyon College; 
 prominently identified wth public school work 
 in Ohio; president of Kenyon College (1854- 
 1861); contributed numerous articles to edu- 
 cational journals. W. S. M. 
 
 ANDREWS, ST., THE UNIVERSITY OF. 
 
 — A coeducational institution founded in 1411 
 by Henry Wardlaw, Bishop of St. Andrews, 
 is the oldest of the four universities of Scot- 
 land. It is now composed of three con- 
 stituent colleges, viz. : The United Colleges 
 of St. Salvator (founded in 1450) and St. 
 Leonard (founded in 1512); St. Mary's College 
 (founded in 1537); and LTniversity College, 
 Dundee (q.v.) founded in 1880, affiliated to and 
 made an integral part of the university in 1897. 
 
 In 1597, St. Salvator's and St. Leonard's 
 were united and restricted to the teaching of 
 philosophy, law, and medicine and the College 
 of St. Mary's to the teaching of theology. 
 This arrangement continues to the present 
 day, St. Mary's College being the divinity 
 faculty of the university, whilst courses in 
 arts, science and medicine are taught within 
 the L'^nited Colleges. There is a principal in 
 each of the colleges. Each principal i)resides 
 over his own college, but the principal of the 
 United Colleges is the head of the University 
 and the president of the Senatus Acadcmicus. 
 The work of the university is divided into 
 five departments or faculties, viz.: the facul- 
 ties of divinity, medicine, arts and science, and 
 law; and the total number of students is about 
 550; the largest faculty is that of arts, com- 
 prising over 360 students. 
 
 The United Colleges of St. Salvator and St. 
 Leonard have the greatest number of students, 
 over 300: University College, Dundee, comes 
 
 next, with over 200 students; while St. Mary's 
 College is attended by some 20 to 30 students 
 annually. The only vocational degree granted 
 other than those for the learned professions is 
 that of Baciielor of Science in Engineering, 
 which falls under the Faculty of Science. 
 
 A. D. 
 
 ANDREWS, SAMUEL (1656-1738). — The 
 second president (jf Yale College; graduated 
 from Harvard College in 1675. He engaged in 
 the work of the ministry for several years and 
 succeeded Abraham Pierson as president of Yale 
 in 1707 and continued at the head of the college 
 until the time of his death in 1738 W. S. M. 
 
 ANESTHESIA, or AN.S;STHESLA. — Liter- 
 ally, a loss of feeling or of sensation, is a 
 term used to designate the following differ- 
 ent, but in many respects similar, conditions: 
 
 (1) general surgical anesthesia or narcosis; 
 
 (2) local surgical anesthesia and (3) sensation 
 losses from injury, disease, or other functional 
 derangement of parts of the nervous system. 
 
 In reference to the third class, the anes- 
 thesia of endogenous origin, some people use 
 the term popularly with a broad connotation 
 to include losses of sensations of sight, of hear- 
 ing, of pain, of touch, of pressure, and of all other 
 sensations, and it is commonly used to indicate 
 the loss of ability to appreciate the sensations 
 normally obtained from stimulation of the skin 
 and underlying tissues. The best usage is that 
 in which the term is restricted to indicate the 
 inability to appreciate sensations of light, 
 touch, and, possibly, pressure. For the losses 
 of ability to appreciate other kinds of sensa- 
 tion the following special terms are used: blind- 
 ness, deafness, anosmia, ageusia, analgesia, 
 thermoanesthesia (qq.v.). 
 
 (1) General surgical anesthesia is usually 
 produced by the inhalation of the vapor of 
 sulphuric ether, of chloroform, of nitrous oxide, 
 or of certain combinations of these. The in- 
 gestion or injection of the derivatives of opium 
 and of other alkaloids and of some synthetic 
 chemical compounds also produces states simi- 
 lar to those following the use of chloroform and 
 ether. The inhalation of one of the gases 
 mentioned above produces at first a feeling of 
 suffocation, which is fought against, a stupe- 
 faction, and finally less of consciousness. In 
 the last state voluntary movements cannot 
 be performed and external stimuli are not 
 consciously appreciated. Movements of a 
 reflex character, however, may be produced 
 by appropriate stimulation and certain bodily 
 changes, notably of the respiratory and circula- 
 tory systems, take place in an almost normal 
 manner, unless the amount of the anesthetic 
 be excessive. In every deep narcosis all 
 movements, including those of a reflex nature, 
 cease, and death may result. There is an 
 amnesia for the anesthesic period of time. 
 
 The action of morphine and of other similar 
 
 122
 
 ANESTHESIA 
 
 ANESTHESIA 
 
 agents resembles that of ether and chloroform, 
 but in place of a complete amnesia there may 
 be a remembrance — but usually of a delirious 
 nature. 
 
 (2) Local surgical anesthesia may be pro- 
 duced by a variety of agents, of which cold, 
 and cocaine and its chemical derivatives, are 
 the most important. The application of a 
 mixture of ice and salt or the spray of ether, 
 of ethvl chloride, of methyl chloride, and of 
 many other licjuids of low boiling point pro- 
 duces a greater or less freezing of the parts to 
 which they are applied, and there is loss of 
 certain sensations in that part. After freezing 
 the skin, for example, the sensations of pain, 
 of pressure, of touch, and of temperature are 
 abolished for a time, the duration of the anes- 
 thesia depending upon the amount of the freez- 
 ing and the temperature of the surrounding air. 
 The sensory nerve endings are not all equally 
 affected by applications of short duration, 
 nor does the effect persist for the same length 
 of time for all the different sensations. Pain 
 and temperature sensations appear to be most 
 affected. Thermal .stimuli, especially cold, 
 cannot be felt as such, even after a very brief 
 application of the freezing spray, although 
 light touches and pressures can be well felt. 
 Pain sensation is abolished for several minutes, 
 and remains subacute for a comparatively long 
 period. Touch and pressure sensations are 
 the last to disappear and the first to reappear. 
 
 Anesthesia from cocaine and its derivatives 
 is produced by the subcutaneous injection 
 of solutions of these substances or by the ap- 
 plication of them to mucous surfaces. In 
 some parts of the body cocaine produces a 
 true analgesia without an anesthesia, but 
 usually affects all kinds of sensation in the 
 part to which applied. 
 
 (3) The anesthesias of an endogenous (with- 
 in the body) nature are of more pedagogic 
 interest and importance. Changes in sen- 
 sation may be produced by alterations in the 
 structure or in the conducting power of any 
 part of the afferent system. It is a.ssumed 
 that impulses which are started by stimuU do 
 not become conscious parts of us, i.e. do not 
 become sensations, until they reach the cere- 
 bral cortex (see article on Nervous System 
 especially cerebrum). A sensory .system con- 
 sists of the receiving element in the skin or 
 other organ, the peripheral nerve that con- 
 ducts the impulses to the spinal cord and 
 through it to certain subsidiary centers in 
 the mid-brain (e.g. the thalamus), and the 
 nerve tract leading to and the cells in the 
 cerebral cortex. Theoretically it is possible 
 to have a change in sensation in any small or 
 large part of the body due to functional or 
 structural alterations in some part of this 
 afferent system. In practice, however, it is 
 found that the sensation losses have rather 
 definite characteristics and distributions. 
 
 When a peripheral afferent nerve is cut, 
 
 sensation is lost over a considerable skin area. 
 Stimuh of light touch, of pressure, of tem- 
 perature, and of pain are not appreciated, 
 and the area is anesthesic, analgesic, and ther- 
 moanesthesic. Surrounding this area of com- 
 plete loss there is usually a narrow band from 
 which the sensations of pain, of pressure, and of 
 hotness and coldness may be obtained, Ijut not 
 the sensations of light touch and of warmth and 
 coolness. Such an area is well defined but not 
 sharply marked oft' from all other skin areas. 
 
 The section of a posterior root of the spinal 
 cord is accompanied by similar but not corre- 
 sponding losses, but the 
 definition of areas is not 
 so sharp as in the case of 
 the peripheral nerves. 
 There is, in addition, a 
 marked difference in 
 the areal distribution of 
 the peripheral and the 
 spinal nerves, and this 
 fact enables the physi- 
 cian to diagno.se the seat 
 of a lesion causing an 
 anesthesia. An illus- 
 tration of the varying 
 distribution of the peri- 
 pheral and spinal nerves 
 in the leg is given in 
 Figure 1. In this fig- 
 ure A represents the ap- 
 pro.ximate distribution 
 of the posterior root 
 
 fibers and B that of the fig. i. — Sho^-ing the 
 main peripheral nerves, distribution to the skin of 
 
 Organic disturbances t'^<= anterior part of the leg 
 
 of the sninql cnrrl iiiH "^ *™ sensory fibers, A 
 
 OI ine spinal COICI ana from the posterior roots, B 
 
 the brain produce a from the.peripheral nerves. 
 
 widespread sensory 
 change, but the combi- 
 
 A 1, first sacral ; 2, 3, 
 
 4, 5, 6, respectively fifth, 
 
 ,. c 1 fourth, third, second, and 
 
 nation of sensory losses f^^^t lumbar ; 7, twelfth 
 
 are usually different to 
 those found in lesions 
 
 choratic. 
 
 B 1. median plantar ; 
 
 Of the peripheral nerves f^ ^^-fp^rriT* peroneal ] 
 
 and of the_ posterior 5, saphenous ; 6, common 
 
 roots. At times func- peroneal ; 7. anterior fem- 
 
 tional derangements of '"'-'] ='"'^ obturator : s, lat- 
 
 . ■, '^ eral femoral : 9. ironito- 
 
 ,1 , , - eral femoral 
 
 the central nervous sys- femoral 
 
 tem may be accom- Adapted from Morris. 
 
 panied by anesthesia of 
 
 slight extent. Figure 2 illustrates some of the 
 
 kinds of anesthesias from spinal cord and brain 
 
 lesions. 
 
 The most common diseases in which these 
 forms of anesthesia occur are: injuries to or 
 inflammation of the brain and its membranes, 
 disease of the spinal cord, posterior columns 
 and horns, hysteria and the traumatic neuroses. 
 From injury or disease of the brain mono- 
 and hemi-anesthesias are common. In these 
 eases the borders of the anesthetic areas are not 
 sharply defined, and in the case of the mono- 
 anesthesias the distal portion of the limb is 
 always more affected than the part near the 
 
 123
 
 ANESTHESIA 
 
 ANESTHESIA 
 
 trunk. In ohildrcn cort'l)r;il injury may re- 
 sult in a diplegia (a palsy), and hv accompanied 
 by a bilateral anesthesia. It is more common, 
 
 Fig. 2. — Showins various forms of anesthesia from lesion of 
 the spinal cord and brain. A, mono-aneathesia of the arm. and 
 bilateral anesthesia of the leg ; B, disseminated anesthesias ; C, 
 left hemi-anesthcsia. 
 
 however, to find this distribution from disease 
 or injury to the spinal cord. Disseminated 
 anesthesias are most common in hysteria, and 
 in this disease all other forms of anesthesia 
 may be encountered. The hysterical anesthesia 
 is usually complete and sharply defined, and in 
 these respects is quite unlike the anesthesia 
 from any organic lesion, with the exception of 
 that from peripheral nerve section. The dis- 
 tribution of the anesthetic area in hysteria is 
 usually that of an artificial bodily segment, 
 such as a finger or a hand, and it is not diffi- 
 cult to differentiate the hysterical from organic 
 anesthesia on account of this artificial and 
 unphysiological distribution. 
 
 The sensory lo.sses from lesions of the spinal 
 cord differ according to the level of cord at which 
 the lesion is located and according to the 
 columns or tracts that are diseased. Illus- 
 trations of the extent of the sensory changes 
 according to the vertical location of the cord 
 disturbance will be found in many good text- 
 books dealing with diseases of the nervous 
 system. The sensory functions of special 
 tracts are dealt with in the article on the spinal 
 cord, to which the reader is referred. 
 
 Lesions of the post- central portion of the 
 cerebral cortex produce anesthesia or hypes- 
 thesia, depending upon the extent and the 
 severity of tlie lesion. In the cerebral anes- 
 thesias it is uncommon to find a complete 
 anesthesia, certain sensations always remaining. 
 Lesions of the mid-brain, however, may be 
 followed by a hemi-anesthesia for all forms of 
 skin sensation, especially if the internal capsule 
 or the thalamus be involved. 
 
 The differentiation of the sensory disturbance 
 
 and the diagnosis of the lesion causing the 
 particular type of anesthesia are matters for 
 the neurologist, but the teacher should be 
 informed of such conditions in the 
 children under her control that she 
 may adjust her teaching to the child's 
 endowment. All education lias for its 
 aim the adjustment or the association 
 of sensory and motor impulses, and 
 it is a truism that when cither the 
 motor or sensory endowment is less 
 than normal, or when there is a marked 
 defect in either of these spheres, the 
 child cannot have normal responses to 
 appropriate stimuli. This is well recog- 
 nized in cases of paralysis, because we 
 can see the defect or the result of 
 the defect, but most people, physicians 
 as well as the lait}-, take little account 
 of the conditions which do not intrude 
 themselves upon their vision. The 
 effect of certain sensory losses and the 
 educational application of these facts 
 are given in the article on ataxia (q-v.), 
 and the application of similar facts to 
 educational procedure maj- be made 
 in the same way. At present we 
 know too little of the psj'chology of 
 the mentally and morally defective, but from 
 observations already published it appears that 
 moral as well as physical defects are associated 
 with sensory disorders, and it follows that in 
 the education of both classes the method of 
 dealing with normal children, i.e. on the assump- 
 tion of perfect sensory and motor endowment, 
 is ineffectual, and a waste of time for both 
 pupil and teacher. It is understood, and un- 
 derstanding is followed by practice, that the 
 l)lind may be reached through touch and hear- 
 ing sensations, but it is apparenth- not under- 
 stood that certain people are anesthesic or 
 hypcsthesic and that they must be reached 
 through other senses. S. I. F. 
 
 References: — 
 
 Braun, H. Lokal AnOsthesie, ihre wissenschnflb'chen 
 
 Gnnullagen ■und ■praktische Anwendiing. (Leipzig, 
 
 1907.) 
 FooTE, E. M. Article on Anesthesia, local surgical, 
 
 in Wood's Reference Handbook of the Medical 
 
 Sciences. Vol. 1, pp. 286-290. 
 Franz, S. I. Sensations follomng Ner\'e Division. 
 
 Jour. Compar. \eurol. and Psychol., 1909, Vol. 
 
 19, pp. 107-12.3 : 215-235. 
 Head, H., and Sherren, J. The Consequences of 
 
 Injury to the Peripheral Nerves in Man. Brain, 
 
 1905,'Vol. 28, pp. 116-3.38. 
 Head, H., and Thompson, T. The Grouping of 
 
 .•\ffrrent Impulses within the Spinal Cord. Brain, 
 
 1000, Vol. 29, pp. 537-741. 
 Hewitt, F. W. Ano'slhetics and their Administra- 
 tion. (London, 1907.) 
 Martin. M. Die Anasthesie in der arztlichen Praxis. 
 
 (Mimchen, 1905.) 
 MoNAKow. C. V. Ueber den gegenwartigen Stand der 
 
 Frage nach der Lokalisation im Grosshirn, in 
 
 Ergehnisse der Phi/siolngie (ed. bv L. Asher and 
 
 K. Spiro), 1902, Vol. 1, pt. 2, pp. 534-605. Sec 
 
 especially pp. 621-641. 
 Weitz. J. .\. -Article on Anesthesia in Wood's Reference 
 
 Handbook of the Medical Sciences, Vol. 1 , pp. 282-2S6. 
 
 124
 
 ANGER 
 
 ANGLO-NORMAN SCHOOLBOOKS 
 
 ANGER. — A form of emotional reaction 
 closely related to fear in its physiological condi- 
 tions. Elaborately described by James in his 
 Talks to Teachers (New York, 1S99) and McDou- 
 gall in his Social Psychology. (London, 1909.) 
 
 See Emotions. 
 
 ANGLO-NORMAN DIALECT.— This curi- 
 ous dialect plays a very important part in 
 the medieval history of English education, 
 and that part has a direct lesson for edu- 
 cation in modern times when (as in the case 
 of India) a foreign language is forced upon the 
 schools. The experience of the Middle Ages, 
 like the experience of the English in India, 
 shows that little but loss can result from so 
 irrational a process. The history of the dia- 
 lects can be briefly related. The use of French 
 had become common at the English court 
 before the Conquest, but with the advent of 
 William in 1066 it became in its Norman form 
 the official language. Official documents and 
 all enactments were in Latin or Anglo-Norman, 
 and William I directed tliat all children should 
 learn their lessons in French. We know this 
 from Higden's Polychronicon (1.327), which tells 
 us that " children in school against the usage 
 and manner of all other nations are compelled 
 to leave their own tongue " and do all their 
 school work in French and that this had been 
 the case since the Normans came first to Eng- 
 land. The use of French prevailed at the 
 universities as well as in the schools (see H. 
 Anstey's Munimenta Academica Oxon. pp. 
 Ixx and 438). This curious tongue during the 
 three centuries of its use broke up (in England) 
 into various sub-dialects, and a very consider- 
 able and important literature both in verse 
 and prose survives. But it probably never 
 became really popular (see M. J. Vising, 
 Etude sur le Dialccle Anglo- Normand dii xii" 
 Steele : Upsala, 1882). It was finallj' under- 
 mined by the Black Death {q.v.) of 1349. 
 John de Trevisa (the editor and translator of 
 the Polychronieon in 138.5) tells us that soon 
 after 1349 John Cornwaile, the schoolmaster 
 of Pencriche in Staffordshire, began the move- 
 ment for the expulsion of Anglo-Norman from 
 the schools, and he adds that in the year of 
 writing, 138.5, English is substituted for French 
 in all the grammar schools of England. Even 
 the gentry, he says, were ceasing to teach their 
 children French. The teaching of French 
 was introduced into the schools once more at 
 the beginning of the sixteenth century. But 
 the Anglo-Norman dialect did not entirely die 
 out in the mid-fourteenth century, and must 
 still have been taught to legal apprentices, for, 
 though we know that in 1362 pleas were 
 directed by statute (36 Edw. III., c. 15) to be 
 pleaded in the courts of law in the English 
 tongue, defended, avowed, debated, and judged 
 in English, and enrolled in Latin, yet in fact, 
 as we know from the Year Book Reports, 
 arguments and judgments were delivered in 
 
 Anglo-Norman well into the sixteenth century, 
 while late in that century law books were 
 written in Anglo-Norman. It was a statute 
 of the commonwealth (Act 37 of 1650) that 
 finallj^ abolished the use of Anglo-Norman in 
 legal proceedings. But even to-da}' Anglo- 
 Norman phrases are constantly used in the 
 Law Courts, while the official language of the 
 King of England in the year 1910 is Anglo-Nor- 
 man. As a legislative person he intimates his 
 decisions in the Anglo-Norman tongue, while 
 for ceremonial uses the tongue is still alive; so 
 persistent is the tradition that has its origin in 
 Norman influence over Saxon England nearly 
 nine centuries ago. J. E. G. de M. 
 
 ANGLO-NORMAN SCHOOLBOOKS. — 
 
 The use of Anglo-Norman in English schools 
 during the three centuries from 1066 to 1366 
 involved the use of Anglo-Norman school- 
 books. The history of English education can 
 scarcely be followed without some appreciation 
 of this fact. Unfortunately this field has not yet 
 been surveyed in detail, and the various manu- 
 script libraries in England need to be ransacked 
 for this purpose. The following schoolbooks 
 are, however, known: the De Utensilibvs of 
 Alexander Neckham (1157-1217), a vocabu- 
 lary in Latin with a gloss in Anglo-Norman 
 interspersed with occasional Engli.sh words (the 
 book deals with the details of daily life) ; a vocab- 
 ulary of the names of plants with an explanation 
 of the Latin names in English and Anglo-Nor- 
 man (c. 1250); a vocabulary in Anglo-Norman 
 with an interlinear gloss in Latin written 
 before the year 1300 by Walter de Bibeles- 
 worth at the request of Lady Dionysia de 
 Monchensy of Swanscombe in Kent, with the 
 object of teaching the children of the upper class 
 (for the text of these vocabularies sec the Volumes 
 of Vocabularies in Mayer's Library of National 
 Antiquities, edited bj' Thomas Wright in 1857); 
 Orthographia Gallica (c. 1300) referred to by 
 Dr. H. ffilsner in the Athenwum for Feb. 11, 
 1905. It is difficult to accept Dr. Oilsner's 
 view that Trevisa overrated the use of Anglo- 
 Norman in the schools. It does not, however, 
 appear that Anglo-Norman was regularly 
 used in the parochial schools, and Dr. QSlsner 
 probably only means this. A systematic in- 
 vestigation among extant Mss. will clear up 
 these various questions. An Oxford University 
 statute which H. Anstey in the Munimenta 
 Academica Oxon. (pp. Ixx and 438) refers to 
 the thirteenth century (but wdiich seems to 
 belong to the early fourteenth century) pro- 
 vides that boys shall be taught to construe 
 in French as well as in English in order 
 that the French tongue may not be for- 
 gotten. By the end of the thirteenth century 
 Anglo-Norman was rapidly dying as a tongue, 
 and M. Vising and Dr. (Eisner are correct 
 in the view that it was probably never 
 really popular, except possibly in particular 
 districts. To what extent it has left its mark 
 
 12.5
 
 ANGLO-SAXON 
 
 ANGLO-SAXON 
 
 on local dialects in England remains to be 
 seen. J. E. G. db M. 
 
 Reference: — 
 Montmorency, J. E. G. de. Slate Intervention in 
 English Education. (Cambridge, 1902.) 
 
 ANGLO-SAXON. — Anglo-Saxon, or Old 
 English, is the form of the P^nglish language in 
 current spoken use, and to a certain extent al.so 
 in written use, in England from the coming of 
 the English in the fifth century to about the 
 year 1200. As a literary language the vernac- 
 ular speech within this period acquired considcr- 
 alile dignity, especially in the recording of the 
 native poetical traditions. In the prose, whicli 
 was throughout more academic and ecclesiastical 
 in character than the verse, the vernacular had 
 to meet a stronger competition with the universal 
 Latin of the Middle Ages. Since most of the 
 Old English writings now extant are preserved 
 in the Early West Saxon dialect, which became 
 standard in the reign of King Alfred (d. 901), 
 it is usually this form of the language which 
 is made the basis of study in the modern class- 
 room. 
 
 There are only slight evidences that the ver- 
 nacular was ever the subject of academic 
 instruction during the Anglo-Saxon period. 
 The most important of these evidences is to be 
 found in the statements of Alfred in the Pref- 
 ace to his translation of the Cura Pastoralis 
 of Pope Gregory. (See Alfred, King, .\s 
 Edicator.) Alfred at that place outlines a 
 system of general education according to whicii 
 all English boys are to be instructed in Englisli 
 until they are able to read (and presumably 
 also to write, though this is not specifically 
 stated) English writing. After this those 
 students who are to be prepared for the higher 
 activities of Church and State may proceed, 
 according to Alfred, to the study of Latin. It 
 is not probable that Alfred's scheme for the 
 training of Anglo-Saxon youths in English 
 was ever very extensively carried out. For 
 one thing the disturbed state of public affairs 
 during the Old English period hardly permitted 
 the elaboration of such a comprehensive edu- 
 cational system. Nevertheless, it is certain 
 that some students must have received a good 
 deal of formal instruction in their mother 
 tongue, since it was only by such instruction 
 that the language could be held in the dignified 
 and standard position which for at least four 
 centuries it maintained. It is probable also 
 that formal instruction in Anglo-Saxon was 
 carried on in some of the English monasteries 
 as late as the middle of the twelfth century, 
 since some of the historical writings in Anglo- 
 Saxon, of that period, exhibit a conservative 
 and traditional form of the language different 
 in many respects from the contemporary speech. 
 No textbooks, so far as we are aware, were 
 written for the purpose of instruction in Eng- 
 lish during the Anglo-Saxon period. Such 
 
 schoolbooks as were given English form, for 
 example the Colloquies and tlie Grammar of 
 -Elfric (fj.v.), were written for the primary pur- 
 pose of instruction in Latin, and the English 
 translations are interesting to the student of 
 the vernacular merely as indications that 
 schoolboys found English an easy approach to 
 Latin. 
 
 After the Norman Conquest the English of 
 the preceding period became rapidly unintelli- 
 gible even to an educated Englishman. Chau- 
 cer, for example, could not have read the 
 Beowulf, if he had chanced upon a manuscript 
 copy of it. And Caxton, who was somewhat 
 more expert in languages, tells us (jireface to 
 his EneydoK, 1490) that Old English seemed 
 more like Dutch to him than English, and that 
 he could not understand it. And the false 
 archaisms of Spenser prove a very inadequate 
 knowledge not merely of Anglo-Saxon, but 
 even of Middle English, on his part. 
 
 The return to the manuscript records of 
 Anglo-Saxon in the effort to understand and 
 interpret the language did not occur until the 
 beginning of the sixteenth century. The impulse 
 was then not literary, scientific, or academic, 
 but ecclesiastical and legal. Students of Eng- 
 lish law, on the one hand, were led back to the 
 study of Anglo-Saxon documents in their effort 
 to determine the oldest traditional custom and 
 law of the English people. Ecclesiastics of the 
 Reformed party, on the other hand, used Anglo- 
 Saxon records, especially the sermons of jElfric, 
 to strengthen in general the claims of the Eng- 
 lish Church to independence and purity of 
 doctrine, and to prove in jjarticular that the 
 teachings of the Church of Rome had been 
 different in early days from those which she 
 now professed, thus, as they maintained, con- 
 troverting the Romish theory of doctrinal 
 immutability. It is this ecclesiastical interest 
 which accounts for the important part which 
 such great churchmen as Matthew Parker and 
 William Laud took in the revival of Anglo- 
 Saxon studies. 
 
 The first book printed in Anglo-Saxon 
 appeared in 1.567, and was entitled, .4 Testi- 
 monie of Antiquitic, sheiring the auncicnt faijth 
 in the Church of England touching the sacra- 
 ment and bloude of the Lord here publikely 
 preached, and also receaved in the Saxon's tyme, 
 above 600 yeares agoe. In the following year 
 appeared a work on Anglo-Saxon laws by 
 WiUiam Lambarde, entitled "Apxa'cvo/iia, 
 sive de priscis Anglorum legibus lihri, sermone 
 Anglico, etc. Other early Anglo-Saxon books 
 are of similar character, the prevailing interest 
 in matters theological and legal discouraging 
 the study of the poetical and historical prose 
 manuscripts. Relatively little attention was 
 paid to the language itself. One of the first 
 indications of an attempt to provide for the 
 serious study of the language is to be found 
 in Sir Henry Spelman's plan for the establish- 
 ment of a lectureship in Anglo-Saxon at Cam- 
 
 126
 
 ANGLO-SAXON 
 
 ANGLO-SAXON SCHOOLS 
 
 bridge University. According to the condi- 
 tions of the lectureship, the holder was to 
 deliver two lectures annually, " one on Saxon 
 learning, the other on the old church history 
 and creed of England." But Sir Henry Spei- 
 man died in 1641, and the lectureship, though 
 held by at least two persons, Abraham Wheloc 
 and AVilliam Somner, was never permanently 
 established. As the terms of this projected 
 foundation indicate, the study of the language 
 was still regarded as important mainly from 
 the point of view of Enghsh Church history. 
 The first Anglo-Saxon work of anj' extent to 
 be printed as a whole was Bede's Hisloria 
 Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum, edited by 
 Wheloc in 1643. The first extensive verse 
 published was the religious poetry of Caedmon, 
 edited by the Dutch scholar, Franciscus 
 Junius, Amsterdam, 1655. Toward the end 
 of the seventeenth and in the early eight- 
 eenth century, however, interest in the antiq- 
 uities and hi.story of the English people led 
 to the publication of works of more general 
 interest, and from this period, also, date the 
 first grammars and glossaries of the language. 
 In the year 1750 the first permanent provision 
 was made for the study of Anglo-Saxon. This 
 was a chair for the study of Anglo-Saxon in 
 the University of Oxford, founded by Dr. 
 Richard Rawlinson. The professorship is still 
 in existence, and is now honorably filled by one 
 of the foremost English scholars of the day. 
 This brief chronological survey may be closed 
 by noting that the first complete edition of the 
 most important poetical monument of the 
 Anglo-Saxon period, the Beoioulf, did not 
 appear until 1815, edited by the Danish 
 scholar, Thorkelin, in Copenhagen. 
 
 At the end of the eighteenth and in the early 
 nineteenth centuries, the study of Anglo-Saxon 
 was given a new direction as a result of the 
 investigations in comparative Indo-European 
 linguistics which occupied so much of the 
 scholarly thought of the time, especially in 
 Germany. These historical and comparative 
 views were finst fully formulated in Grimm's 
 Deutsche Gramtnatik, 1819, a book which may 
 be taken as the starting place of the modern 
 attitude toward Anglo-Saxon and the Ger- 
 manic dialects in general. Since this time the 
 study of Anglo-Saxon from the purely linguis- 
 tic point of view, both as an individual dialect, 
 and comparatively as a member of the Indo- 
 European family, has been increasingly promi- 
 nent and productive. The modern scientific 
 and historical method of the study of literature 
 has also led to the careful study of all the sur- 
 viving monuments of literary interest of the 
 Old English period. 
 
 The position which Anglo-Saxon at present 
 occupies in academic instruction is defined and 
 well established. Most European, and prac- 
 tically all English, American, and German 
 universities, provide advanced courses for the 
 study of Anglo-Saxon, usually under the 
 
 direction of a professor of English philology. 
 These courses are concerned both with the 
 study of the language from a scientific point of 
 view and with the interpretation of the litera- 
 ture. In the United States the colleges almost 
 universally offer undergraduate reading courses 
 in Anglo-Saxon, which are taken usually as 
 electives in the student's third or fourth year. 
 In England Anglo-Saxon is not taught in schools 
 of lower grade than the universities, nor is it 
 included in the courses of study of the German 
 gj'mnasiums. The secondary schools and the 
 grades, in the United States, have never given 
 a place to Anglo-Saxon, except in rare sporadic 
 instances. The difficulties of the language 
 are not such as to make the elementary pres- 
 entation of it impracticable, but the present 
 crowded condition of the curricula in grammar 
 and secondary schools leaves little place for a 
 study apparently so remote as Anglo-Saxon. 
 
 It is generally assumed, however, that a 
 thoroughly trained student of English will' be 
 familiar with the Anglo-Saxon language and 
 literature, and such studj' is universally made 
 a prerequisite to the higher university degrees 
 in English. The study of the language is re- 
 garded as an especially necessary and helpful 
 part of the preparation of teachers of English. 
 The justification for such study on the part of 
 teachers who may not themselves be called 
 upon to give instruction in Anglo-Saxon is 
 assumed to lie not in the disciplinary' value of 
 the study of the language, but in furnishing 
 students with a background of historical infor- 
 mation necessary for the intelligent understand- 
 ing of the facts of Modern English. The study 
 of Anglo-Saxon is the most effective means of 
 introducing English-speaking people to the 
 principles of the historical development of the 
 mother tongue. G. P. K. 
 
 References: — 
 
 WtJLKEn. Grundriss zur Geschichte der angehachsischen 
 LiUeratur tnit einer Ubersicht dcr ajigclsdchsischen 
 Wissenschaft (Leipzig, 1885), pp. 1-90, gives a 
 sketch of the history of Anglo-Saxon studies. 
 This should be supplemented by the preface to 
 Liebermann's Die GcsHze der Angdsachsen (Halle, 
 190.3), and by The Dictionary of National Biography 
 under the proper names mentioned above. The 
 arguments for the introduction of Anglo-Saxon 
 into the curriculum of secondary schools are favor- 
 ably presented in Carpenter, Baker, and Scott, 
 The Teaching of English, pp. 215-218. 
 
 ANGLO-SAXON SCHOOLS. — A certain 
 school of historians, the first of whom was 
 William of Malmesbury in the twelfth cen- 
 tury, anxious to show that the Normans 
 had not merely by superior numbers con- 
 quered a people superior to them in the 
 arts of civilization, have written down the 
 Anglo-Saxons as a beer-besodden breed of 
 brainless and bookless barbarians, uncivilized 
 and uneducated. Nothing can be further 
 from the truth. The Anglo-Saxons, from the 
 first moment of their contact with the civili- 
 zation which still found a home, not in Gaul 
 
 127
 
 ANGLO-SAXON SCHOOLS 
 
 ANGLO-SAXON SCHOOLS 
 
 or France, but in Rome, took a leading part in 
 literature and education, and, in spite of the 
 devastation caused by the Danes, continued to 
 talce a leading part until the catastroplie due 
 to the alliance of Danes, Norwegians, Normans, 
 Bretons, and French, which overwhelmed them 
 in 1066. Whether any system of education 
 existed before the Anglo-Saxons espoused 
 Christianity is unknown. The descent of epics 
 like Bcoiculf suggests that some education, 
 founded as in otfier early races on learning by 
 heart the songs of the nation, existed. But 
 for historical purposes, schools in England 
 began with Christianity. Those of Canter- 
 bury, both of grammar and song, which in 631 
 and 636 formed models for schools at Dunwich 
 and York, according to Bede {q.v.), were 
 presumably estabhshed by Augustine {q.v.), 
 the apostle of the English (see Bishops' 
 Schools), in or about the year 603, when ho 
 was allowed to estabhsh a Christian church. 
 Even before the introduction of Greek by the 
 Greek archbishop, Theodore, in 669, the name 
 of Aldiielm (q.v.) is sufficient evidence that 
 all the learning of the age could be acquired 
 in the schools of England. For Aldhelm, who 
 was born about 639, could not have obtained 
 his education from Theodore " in infancy," 
 as alleged in one story, supported by a spurious 
 letter, nor at Malmesbury, as alleged by an- 
 other story, supported by a forged charter, 
 since Malmesbury was then still in the hands 
 of the Britons. A scion of the ro.val West 
 Saxon house, he must have been brought up at 
 Dorchester, where the West Saxon see was 
 established in 63-i by the Roman Birinus and 
 the Prankish Agelbert, who, after studying in 
 Ireland, succeeded Birinus about 6.50. Bede 
 tells us that Aldhelm had been a deacon under 
 Hoeddi, Bishop of Winchester, and one of the 
 chief evidences of Aldhelm's learning is a letter 
 to Hoeddi, apologizing for not coming to keep 
 Christmas at Winchester with his old com- 
 panions, because of his studies. He is explor- 
 ing Roman law to the marrow, is learning to 
 distinguish the one hundred different meters 
 of Latin verse, and is utterly nonplussed by the 
 difficulties of arithmetic, especially fractions, 
 with astronomy and astrology. Aldhelm's 
 treatise on prosody, written to his pupil Acir- 
 cius, King of Northumbria, is certainly a most 
 learned work, while his Latin verses in Praise 
 of Virginity, borrowings from Vergil and Ovid, 
 and his Riddles in 1000 lines, \\\t\\ their acrostic 
 introduction, Aldhelmus cccinit miUena.s ver- 
 sibus odax, would do no discredit to the scholars 
 of the twelfth or the sixteenth centuries. 
 Some letters purporting to be from foreign 
 scholars seeking to study under him, if genuine, 
 may be no more than complimentary verses. 
 How far he really taught a school may be 
 questioned. He seems to have been rather a 
 student than a teacher, while he was a monk, 
 and when he became Bishop of Sherborne in 
 705, his letter to Gerontius and other works are 
 
 those of a divine rather than a master. But 
 one and all testify to the existence of a learned 
 literary coterie and to excellent schools, while 
 the well-known storj' of his English songs by 
 which he attracted careless folk to church 
 shows that he was no mere peasant. The cor- 
 respondence of Winfrith of Nursling, Hants, 
 who changed his name to Boniface, when he 
 exported himself about 715 to become the 
 apostle of (iermany and Archbishop of JMaintz, 
 with eight bishops under him, all Englishmen, 
 and his successor. Lull, in 755, gives a most 
 pleasing picture of English learning. It shows 
 that women shared almost equally with men in 
 the intellectual hfe. Egburg, who may be 
 the same person with Eadburgh, Abbess of St. 
 Mildred's, Thanet, reminds him how she and 
 her brother had been his pupils together. 
 Eangyth, Henburg, Bugge, Cuneburg, and 
 Leobgyth, who followed Boniface to Germany, 
 and Vieune, Abbess of Bischoffsheim, exchange 
 letters w'ith him and his clerks in excellent 
 Latin, adorned ^\•ith scraps of Vergil and other 
 cla.ssic authors as well as of the Scriptures. 
 They give and ask for presents, chiefly of books 
 and manuscripts, especially Bede's and Ald- 
 helm's, and on one occasion Boniface asks 
 Eadburgh to write him a copy of St. Peter's 
 Epistles in letters of gold. They send and are 
 sent Latin verses of their own composition, a 
 feat which the nuns of the twelfth and later 
 centuries would have found quite beyond them. 
 Boniface refers to Winbert, abbot of Nutselling, 
 as having been his master and teacher, and 
 when archbishop still continued to teach him- 
 self. In writing to an Englishman, Aud, 
 whom he had made an abbot in 735, he mod- 
 estly expresses his gratification at Aud's grati- 
 tude for his teaching, as, though he had but little 
 learning, he was at least a devoted teacher. 
 Another of his pupils whom he had sent to 
 Thuringia, addressing him as " his most de- 
 voted instructor in the study of grammar " 
 [in litterarum studiis) asks leave to stay away 
 a little longer and incloses some verses to 
 be corrected by Boniface. The schoolmaster 
 appears too in the incident of a Bavarian 
 priest, who baptized a person with the fcfmula, 
 Baptizo te in nomine patria et fiUa d spiritus 
 sancti. Boniface was so shocked that he 
 had the person rebaptized. The Pope, less 
 pedantic, held that as long as the three persons 
 of the Trinity were named, even in bad gram- 
 mar, the baptism was good. 
 
 It was in Northumbria that schools flourished 
 most. The great name of Bede, one of the 
 greatest among the encyclopedic writers of 
 the Middle Ages, is sufficient testimony to the 
 English teaching. Though he was a pupil 
 from the earliest age in a monastery, and 
 taught in a monastery probably only young 
 monks, yet the monasteries and the monastic 
 schools "of those times were much more like 
 public schools than those of later ages. In the 
 twin monasteries of Jarrow and Wearmouth 
 
 128
 
 ANGLO-SAXON SCHOOLS 
 
 ANGLO-SAXON SCHOOLS 
 
 there were no less than 600 monks instead of 
 the 60 which was the maximum of the Largest 
 monasteries in post-Conquest times. Besides 
 the Ecclesiastical History, which will forever 
 preserve his name as that of the sanest and 
 greatest historian for 500 years, his works are 
 the works of a schoolmaster of no mean order. 
 Contemporarj^ with him, we have Egbert in 
 732, the bishop and teacher of York School, 
 followed by Ethelbert, or Albert, c. 766 iq.v.), 
 Alcuin's master, on whose merits as a school- 
 master Alcuin descants at length. He taught 
 everything — grammar, rhetoric, law, physics, 
 and divinity, to say nothing of arithmetic, 
 geometrj', and the mode of calculating Easter, 
 music, and singing. Alcuin himself succeeded 
 him as master of the Cathedral School of 
 York, with the same extensive curriculum 
 which he took to France, when, in 7S0, he 
 became the master of Charlemagne's Palace 
 School. His correspondence with his old friends 
 at York shows an active interest in education. 
 He sends a master to teach the new school 
 which King Offa of Mercia was setting up, 
 presumably at Lichfield, and proves that 
 schools were no new thing in Mercia by re- 
 gretting that the light of learning was now 
 extinguished in many places in Offa's king- 
 dom. Other letters show his interest in the 
 schools at Canterbury and Hexham, and he 
 seeks to borrow books ' from York for the 
 school he afterwards set up at Tours, because 
 no such treasures were to be found in France. 
 During the Danish invasion, when Win- 
 chester was " to-broke " in 860 and the Hamp- 
 shire thanes fled oversea, learning suffered. 
 It is to this period that the famous complaint 
 of Alfred (g.i'.), in the Preface to his translation 
 of Gregory's Pastoral, refers. He contrasts the 
 past, " How zealous the sacred orders had been 
 in teaching and learning when foreigners came 
 here in search of wisdom and learning," with the 
 present, " when we should have to import 
 them, if we would have them. So clean was it 
 fallen off among the English that there were 
 very few on this side of Humber who could 
 translate a letter from Latin into English, and I 
 believe not many beyond Humber. ... I 
 cannot remember a single one south of the 
 Thames when I came to the throne." But 
 this was but a temporary setback. They still 
 learned to read English, and so Alfred made 
 his own tran.slations. He determined that " all 
 the youth of our English freemen, who are 
 rich enough, should be set to learning until 
 they are able to read English, and those after- 
 wards learn Latin who wish to continue in 
 learning." He set the example in his own 
 family, if the pseudo-Asser, his eleventh-cen- 
 tury biographer, is to be trusted, for his 
 eldest son and daughter, brought up in the 
 court, learned to read English books, and 
 especially Saxon poems, while " Ethelward the 
 youngest was sent to the Grammar School 
 there, with the children of all the nobility of the 
 
 country and many also who were not noble. 
 Books in both Latin and Saxon were dili- 
 gently read in the school. They also had 
 leisure for writing." The pseudo-Asser then 
 depicts the older generation envying the 
 younger, because the latter were learned and 
 they were not. 
 
 In the next generation King Edgar's canons, 
 attributed to the year 960, directed that no 
 priest should take another's scholar without 
 his leave, and that learned prie.sts should not 
 put the half-learned to shame. .<Elfric's (q.v.) 
 grammar and his famous colloquies at the be- 
 ginning of the next century, c. 1005, the Latin 
 interlined with an Anglo-Saxon translation, are 
 the earliest schoolbooks of purely English ori- 
 gin that has come down to us, for Alcuin's were 
 written abroad. He was himself educated at 
 Winchester; where he taught is not known. 
 His book was edited and added to by his pupil 
 ^Elfric Bata. The Anglo-Saxon document 
 known as Ranks, vaguely attributed to " c. 
 1029 to 1060," gives evidence of the wide 
 spread of learning, by laying down that the 
 scholar who had become proficient in learning 
 so as to reach sacred orders, was treated as a 
 free man and ranked according to his orders. 
 The Archdeacon of Bury St. Edmunds, writing 
 in 1070, attributes to the Danish king, Canute, 
 an extensive system of free scholarships to 
 public schools at his own expense. The ac- 
 count of Waltham Holy Cross Church of secular 
 canons, founded by Earl Harold in 1060, brings 
 the tale of English schools up to the date of the 
 Conquest. With the two clerks installed by Tovi 
 le Prude in Waltham, the strenuous carl asso- 
 ciated eleven other wise, prudent, lettered men, 
 carefully chosen from the best of the land, among 
 whom was a certain Teuton unexpectedly 
 bestowed on him by God's gift, Athelard, 
 by birth of Liege and by education of Utrecht, 
 while Wul\\'in, whom the earl set over them as 
 Dean, was illustrious in character and industri- 
 ous in learning. The historian himself was 
 taught by ^Master Peter, the son of Master 
 Athelard; " from whom flowed a copious stream 
 of learning, after the Teutonic fashion, for the 
 composition of letters and verses did not dimin- 
 ish the learning and practice of singing. And 
 so far did their rule differentiate the boys from 
 ordinary boys that they walked, stood, read, 
 and chanted by heart with as great gravity as if 
 they were monks. Whether they were in choir, 
 or marching in procession from school, they go 
 to choir and from choir to school as if they were 
 regular canons getting up to midnight matins." 
 Lastly, when King Henry I wished to prevent 
 the new Norman lord of Warwick from up- 
 setting the constitution of the mother church 
 in favor of a new church, his writ confirmed 
 to the Church of All Saints the school of 
 Warwick as it was in the days of Edward the 
 Confessor. A. F. L. 
 
 See Alcuin; Alfred; Anglo-Norm.\n Dia- 
 lect and Schoolbooks; Bede. 
 
 129
 
 ANHALT 
 
 ANIMAL PSYCHOLOGY 
 
 References: — 
 
 ^LFKic. Colloquies. Ed. T. Wright. 
 
 Alcuim. Carmen Dc Sanctis el Pontificibus ecclesiae 
 
 Eboracensis. Ed. J. Kaine. Hist. Ch. oj York. 
 
 Rolls. SfT. 
 Alcuin. Epistolw. Ed. Jaffe. 
 Aldhel-m. Opera. Ed. J. A. Giles. 
 AssEU. Life of Alfred. Ed. Stevenson. 
 Bede. Feci. History. 
 
 BoNiF.tcii, Lulli Epistolae (Mon. Mogunt), Ed. Ja£f6. 
 Inventio Crucis. Ed. \V. Stubbs. 
 Leach, A. F. Early Yorkshire Schools. I. 
 
 Hist. Warwick School. (London, 1906.) 
 
 — — Hist. Winchester College. (New York, 1899.) 
 
 ANHALT, DUCHY OF, EDUCATION 
 
 IN. — Sei' (!En.M.\N Emi'IUE, Educatio.n in. 
 
 ANIMAL PSYCHOLOGY. — Our natural 
 impulse when we watch the Ijehavior of the 
 lower aninial.s is to interpret that behavior as 
 if it were accompanied by thoughts and emo- 
 tions like those of human beings. Xot only do 
 animals seem more interesting to the ordinary 
 observer if they are thus humanized, but even 
 such writers as Darwin and Romanes have 
 wished to prove that the animal and the human 
 mind are very similar, their aim being to show 
 that in the course of evolution no sharp break 
 has intervened between the highest develop- 
 ment of animal intelligence and the appearance 
 of human intellect. While the supposed facts of 
 animal behavior were being collected merely 
 by chance observations and anecdotes of re- 
 markable animal actions, little restraint of this 
 humanizing tendency was possible; but with 
 the application of the experimental method 
 to the study of such behax'ior, an opposite tend- 
 ency arose. The earliest formal experiments 
 in this field were made by physiologists rather 
 than psychologists, and this fact, together 
 with the scientific caution naturally accom- 
 panying exact experimentation, led to the 
 view that even the simplest forms of conscious- 
 ness in the lower animals must not be assumed 
 to exist unless such an assumption is absolutely 
 necessary. Loeb in 1888 undertook to show 
 that when an animal seeks or avoids a certain 
 stimulus its action is as fatally determined by 
 the stimulus as the attraction of iron by a 
 magnet or the growth of a plant by light. The 
 movement of the animal is a " tropism," its direc- 
 tion determined by the fact that the animal 
 is forced by the action of the stimulus to take 
 up a position where symmetrical points on op- 
 posite sides of its body will be equally stimu- 
 lated. Thus the animal does not mo\'e toward 
 the stimulus because it "likes" it, but because 
 its body is forced into such a position that it can 
 move in no other way. Following Loeb, other 
 phy.siologists, such as Beth, hold that the 
 behavior of all invertebrate animals at least 
 can be explained on the supposition that they 
 are entirely unconscious, and maintain that it 
 is really impossible to know anything about 
 the mind of the lower animals in general. Thus 
 animal psychology has, on this \'iew, no 
 claim to be regarded as a science. It is true 
 
 that the human interpretation of animal be- 
 havior must be abandoned. Careful study 
 of such behavior reveals its many points of 
 difference from human conduct, and the un- 
 like iiodily structure, especially sense-organ 
 structure, of the lower animals and man makes 
 it certain that the animal mind must be unlike 
 the human mind. On the other hand, to argue 
 that we can know nothing of the animal mind 
 because we can never observe it directly, is to 
 attack the basis ui)on which human psychology 
 itself rests, for we can have only an indirect and 
 inferential knowledge of other human minds. 
 Loeb suggested that we should infer the pres- 
 ence of mind in an animal only when its response 
 to a stimulus shows the influence of a former 
 stimulus which occurred together with the one 
 now acting: this phenomenon he called "asso- 
 ciative memory." In one form or another 
 such an influence of the animal's past individual 
 experience has been taken by various authorities 
 as proof of mind. But this influence exists 
 in so many degrees, especially as regards the 
 rapidity with which an animal is affected by it, 
 that its practical value as a criterion is small; 
 and moreover its absence does not prove that 
 an animal is mindless. On the whole, we 
 may sa}^ that the existence of mind in the 
 higher animals is nearly a.s probable as its exist- 
 ence in our fellow men; that there is no point 
 in the animal kingdom below which we can 
 assert that it does not exist; but that our 
 inferences regarding its nature must be care- 
 fully guarded. 
 
 Assuming consciousness in the lower animals, 
 there are two principal ways in which we maj' 
 infer that a given stimulus produces a specific 
 sensation in the animal mind: first, if the 
 animal reacts to that stimulus in a manner 
 different from its mode of reacting to other 
 stimuli, and second, if it possesses a special sense 
 structure without which reaction does not occur. 
 These two lines of evidence reveal the following 
 facts about the senses of the lower animals. 
 The earliest sense to be differentiated from 
 sensibility to mechanical contact is probably the 
 food sense, by which edible and nonedible 
 substances are distinguished. The sense of 
 smell, descended from the food sense, attains 
 high development in certain animals: (1), in 
 the mating of insects it appears to be responsive 
 to stinmli through a great distance; (2) many- 
 animals, the ant and the dog for instance, seem 
 able to analyze complex smells as human 
 beings cannot; (3) in insects, wdiose smell 
 organs are the movable antennae, smell may 
 be a spatial sense giving rise to perceptions of 
 form and size. Of hearing there is little 
 e\'idence in invertebrate animals; structures 
 which were formerly regarded as auditory 
 organs are now thought to be concerned with 
 preserving the balance of the bodJ^ Authorities 
 differ with regard to the existence of hearing 
 even in fish. An important problem con- 
 cerning the sense of sight touches the existence 
 
 130
 
 ANIMAL PSYCHOLOGY 
 
 ANNA SOPHIA 
 
 in an animal of true color discrimination. If 
 an animal apparently distinguishes colors, it 
 may do so as a totally color-blind person does; 
 that is, the colors may be seen as different shades 
 of gray. When, to disprove this supposition, 
 we substitute for the colors the grays that a 
 totally color-blind person sees in their place, 
 and show that the animal cannot discriminate 
 these, there still remains the possibility that the 
 animal may be color-blind, but may see in 
 place of colors grays different from and more 
 readily distinguishable than those seen by a 
 color-blind human being. For instance, there 
 is evidence that red is much darker to some 
 animals than it is to human beings. The for- 
 mation of a visual image seems to be dependent 
 on the possession either of an eye mth a lens, 
 or of the compound eye found in arthropods. 
 A recent experimental te.st of the presence of 
 an image has subjected various animals to the 
 action of two sources of light of equal intensity 
 but unequal area: if an animal that naturally 
 seeks light goes toward the source having 
 greater area, it is concluded that the area is 
 perceived as such. 
 
 The most interesting question in animal psy- 
 chology is that regarding animal methods of learn- 
 ing. Broadly speaking, when a human being's 
 conduct is modified by his past experience, this 
 experience may function in either of two ways. 
 The person may behave differently toward a 
 present stimulus because of previous ex- 
 perience with it, as when we recognize a for- 
 eign word on hearing it. Or a memory image 
 of a previously experienced stimulus may be 
 suggested when the stimulus is not actually 
 present, as when we recall a foreign word men- 
 tally. That animals learn in the first sense, 
 with varj'ing degrees of rapidity, there is much 
 evidence: they learn to choose stimuli with 
 which presumably pleasant experiences have 
 been associated, to work simple mechanisms 
 by which they may obtain food or release from 
 confinement, and to traverse certain paths 
 leading in a similar way to " desirable" results. 
 But there are reasons for thinking that animals 
 rarely show the second kind of learning, in- 
 volving' the revival of a memory idea of an 
 absent object. For instance, (1) they often learn 
 a movement very slowly, only graduall_y ceas- 
 ing to perform many superfluous movements, 
 and at no point seeming to " get the idea " 
 of the right movement; (2) only in the case 
 of monkeys is there good evidence that they 
 imitate each other except in a blind, instinctive 
 fashion: an animal that does not know how to 
 get out of a box by working a mechanism is 
 not helped by watching another animal per- 
 form the trick; (3) instinctive behavior that 
 would in human beings be accompanied by 
 ideas seems not to be so accompanied in animals, 
 as when a wasp in feeding larvae bites off a 
 piece of a larva's body and offers it to the same 
 larva as food. On the other hand, the rapid 
 learning of certain higher vertebrates, monkeys 
 
 and raccoons, for example, makes it possible 
 that they may possess memory ideas, although 
 in far less measure than human beings. If 
 it is thus doubtful whether the lower animals 
 have the power to form ideas at all, it is evident 
 that they can make no use of abstract or general 
 ideas in the human sense of those terms, and that 
 their " reasoning " processes must be rudimen- 
 tary. The absence of language is in itself a 
 sufficient obstacle to the development of abstract 
 thought. In the same way the emotional life 
 of animals must be influenced by the limited 
 function of ideas in their consciousness. 
 While the fundamental human emotions, in- 
 dividual and social, are represented in the 
 animal mind, they are necessarily profoundly 
 modified by the inability of their possessors 
 to reflect freely on the past and forecast clearly 
 the future. M. F. W. 
 
 The influence of animal psychology on the 
 scientific study of educational processes has 
 been large. First, the study of animals has 
 concentrated attention on the fact that there 
 are different methods of learning, and the 
 student of human education has seen the 
 importance of distinguishing between these 
 different types of learning and the methods 
 of cultivating them. Second, it has appeared 
 with all clearness that ideas and all adaptations 
 dependent on ideas are distinctly human. 
 The relation of human education to such natu- 
 ral activities as play, and to instinctive forms of 
 behavior, is clearly understood only when the 
 general relation is clearly defined between activi- 
 ties accompanied by ideas, and activities inde- 
 pendent of ideas. Third, animal psychology has 
 furnished a field of experimentation in which 
 methods of studjdng mental development have 
 been refined, and these methods have been sug- 
 gestive to students of human mental develop- 
 ment. 
 
 References: — 
 
 MonG.\N, C. Lloyd. Introduction to Comparative Psy- 
 chology. (London, 1894.) 
 
 Jenning.s, H. S. Behavior of the Lower Organistns. 
 (Nfw York, 1906.) 
 
 Thorndike, E. L. Associative Processes in Animals. 
 (Boston, 1900.) 
 Mental Life of the Monkeys. (Columbia Contrib. to 
 Philo.s. Psych, and Educ, 1901.) 
 
 Yerkes, R. M. The Dancing Mouse. (New York, 
 1907.) 
 
 Washburn, M. F. The Animal Mind. (New York, 
 1908.) 
 
 ANIMALS AND PLANTS, INSTRUCTION 
 CONCERNING CARE OF. — See Humane 
 
 Education and N.\ture Study. 
 
 ANIMISM. 
 
 See PRiMiTn-E Education. 
 
 ANNA SOPHIA (1584-1652). — Wife of 
 Count Karl Giinthcr von Schwarzburg-Rudol- 
 stadt. A great friend of education, she aided 
 and protected Ratke, from whom she took 
 instruction in Latin and Hebrew. 
 
 131
 
 ANNISTON NORMAL 
 
 ANTHROPOLOGY 
 
 ANNISTON NORMAL, INDUSTRIAL, 
 AND THEOLOGICAL COLLEGE, ANNIS- 
 TON, ALA. — An institutioih for the education 
 of colored boys and girls, founded in 1S97 by the 
 present president, Augustus A. Battle. The aim 
 of the institution is, however, to develop instruc- 
 tion on the industrial side. The normal course 
 follows the eight years of elementary work. 
 There is a four years' college iireparatory course. 
 A three years' course of study is ofl'ered for 
 ministers. 
 
 ANSCHAUUNG. — A German term meaning 
 direct, concrete observation. It has been very 
 frequently used in describing concrete instruc- 
 tion (Anschaiiungsiintcrrichi), that is, instruc- 
 tion based upon objects which can be directly 
 perceived by the student. The word has 
 sometimes been translated by the English 
 word "intuition." This, however, is mis- 
 leading, for intuition as commonly used refers 
 to some unusual insight on the part of the 
 individual. 
 
 ANSELM. — Father of scholasticism and 
 Archbishop of Canterbury; born in Piedmont in 
 1033 and died at Canterbury, England, in 1109. 
 For the purposes of this work it is not the 
 ecclesiastical-political activities which he was 
 compelled against his will to undertake that arc 
 significant so much as his labors as a writer 
 and scholar. He entered the monastery of Bee, 
 where he succeeded the eminent Lanfranc 
 as prior and afterwards became abbot. Bee, 
 already famous, became under Anselm the 
 principal center of learning in western Europe. 
 Here he wrote his works on Truth, The 
 Grammarian, the Freedom of the Will, the 
 Monologion and the Proslogion. Driven from 
 England, where William Rufus had in a 
 moment of penitence appointed him to the long- 
 vacant see of Canterbury, he wrote his theo- 
 logical work Cur Deus homo. Anselm boldly 
 appealed to reason to establish the Christian 
 theology, founded' the medieval realism iq.v.) 
 about which so many scholastic controversies 
 were afterwards centered, elaborated the doc- 
 trine of the Trinity, and stimulated the fruit- 
 ful opposition of the nominalist Roscellin and 
 the conceptualist Ab^lard (q.v.). The vigor 
 and lucidity of his argiunents not onh' stimu- 
 lated his contemporaries, but affected the whole 
 subsequent development of philosophy and 
 Christian theology. P. R. C. 
 
 References : — 
 Ad.\m.s. Saint .\nsplm, in Great English Churchmen, 
 
 pp. 1-16. (1S79.) 
 Anselm. Proslogium, Monologium, etc. Tr. by S. N. 
 
 Deane. (Chicago, 1903.) 
 Opera, in Migne, Pat. Lai. V, 149. 
 Church. Saint Ansdm. (London, 1892.) 
 TowNSEND. Great Schoolmen of the Middle Ages. 
 
 (London, 1881.) 
 WiLKS. Three Archbishops. (London, 1858.) 
 
 ANTHON, CHARLES (1797-1867). — The 
 author of more than fifty Latin and Greek 
 
 texts for secondary schools and colleges; edu- 
 cated in private schools and at Columbia Col- 
 lege; rector of a grammar school; instructor 
 and professor of ancient languages in Colum- 
 bia College (1830-1867). W. S. M. 
 
 ANTHROPOLOGY. — The science of ant hro- 
 jioliigy deals with the characteristics of man as 
 a member of social groups. At the present time 
 the science is treated from three fundamental 
 ))oints of view, — the biological, ethnological, 
 and linguistic. Biological anthropology deals 
 with the anatomy and physiology of the body 
 of man as found in different races and in differ- 
 ent social groups of the same race. Ethnology 
 deals principally with the customs, institu- 
 tions, and beliefs of primitive people, whiles 
 the treatment of more advanced groups is 
 generally left to the study of history and 
 sociology. The linguistic aspect of anthro- 
 pology deals viith the unwritten languages of 
 primitive people. To these branches must be 
 added the subject of prehistoric archaeology, 
 which, however, is closely related to the study 
 of somatology and of ethnology in the same 
 way as paleontology is related to the study 
 of living beings. The object of anthropological 
 study is the elucidation of biological and psy- 
 chological laws governing the development of 
 mankind, and the reconstruction of the j)re- 
 historic history of civilization. 
 
 The development of anthropology is quite 
 recent, and consequently the subject was intro- 
 duced into the curriculum of colleges and 
 universities at a late date. It appears from 
 the description of the field of anthropology 
 given here, that the affiliations of the subject 
 are manifold. Physical anthropology is closely 
 related to biological subjects, and, owing to 
 the social aspect, from which anatomical and 
 l)hysiological questions are treated, its affilia- 
 tions with medicine, particularly with hygiene 
 and with education, are marked. The study 
 of ethnology is closely related with subjects like 
 psychology and philosophy, and is even to a 
 certain extent coterminous with sociology. It 
 also has very close relations to the study of the 
 history of civilization. Linguistic studies are 
 intimately related to the philological depart- 
 ments of knowledge and to the history of litera- 
 ture. Owing to these manifold aspects of the 
 science of anthropology, the teaching of the 
 subject has been taken up from different points 
 of view, according to the peculiar conditions 
 of the institution where it was introduced. 
 
 The first American institutions in which 
 systematic instruction in anthropology was 
 introduced were Harvard Universitv and 
 Clark University, in 1S88 and 1SS9. In Har- 
 vard University, instruction in anthropology 
 was originally primarily archceological and 
 somatological, because it developed from the 
 work of the Peabody Museum of American 
 Archa>ology, and was based on the collections 
 contained in that museum. In Clark Univer- 
 
 132
 
 ANTHROPOLOGY 
 
 ANTHROPOLOGY 
 
 sity, anthropology was introduced as a branch 
 of psychology, and consequently particular 
 stress was laid upon the somatological differ- 
 ences of various races as a basis of the study of 
 mental processes, and upon the psychological 
 aspects of ethnological problems. In Yale 
 University Professor Sumner developed an- 
 thropological studies from the point of view of 
 sociology as an outgrowth of the Department 
 of Political and Social Science; the first course 
 was given in 1885-1886. The development in 
 Columbia University in New York is also char- 
 acteristic of the different lines of approach 
 from which the modern study of anthropology 
 develops. Ethnology was first introduced at 
 that institution in 1S9.3, in the De])artnient of 
 Psychology. About the same time special 
 courses on the development of the races of 
 Europe were established in the Faculty of 
 PoHtical Science, while in 1896 physical an- 
 thropology was introduced in the Faculty of 
 Pure Science. In 1902 anthropology had 
 developed in American universities in such a 
 way that, of 31 universities and colleges of- 
 fering more or less systematic courses in an- 
 thropology, it was affiliated with sociology in 
 9, with philosophy in 5, with psychology in 
 3, with geology and zoologj^ in 5, with medi- 
 cine in 1 institution. In 8 institutions anthro- 
 pology was given without special affiliations 
 with other subjects. 
 
 Anthropology as a University Study. — As 
 a university study, anthropological depart- 
 ments aim to train expert students of anthropo- 
 logical science. Up to the present time there 
 is not a single university in which the subject 
 is taught adequately in its entirety, but dif- 
 ferent aspects — according to the interests of 
 the representatives of the department — are 
 given decided preference. Thus in Harvard 
 University, American archseology is given 
 decided preference over other subjects; while 
 in Columbia University, American ethnology 
 and linguistics are treated more frequently 
 than other subjects. The close affiliation of 
 the Harvard department with the Peabody 
 Museum also brings it aljout that material 
 culture is treated with great intensity, while 
 the separation of the American Museum of 
 Natural History of New York from Columbia 
 University brings it about that psychological 
 questions are given greater prominence. Close 
 affiliations between museums and universities 
 or colleges exist in Harvard University, Yale 
 University, Universitj' of Pennsylvania, and 
 the University of California, to a lesser extent 
 in the University of Chicago. In Columbia 
 University and in the University of Chicago 
 there is no formal relation between the large 
 museums of these cities and the universities. 
 Up to the present time graduate work in an- 
 thropology is carried on particularly at Colum- 
 bia University and Harvard University, to a 
 less extent in the University of Chicago and 
 in the University of California, while less 
 
 extended graduate work is done in a number 
 of other institutions. 
 
 It would seem that the ultimate organiza- 
 tion of graduate work in anthropology will 
 necessitate a somewhat different arrangement 
 of these studies than what is found at the 
 present time in any American institution. It 
 seems particularly necessary that the working 
 anthropologist should specialize in one of the 
 three important lines mentioned before, while 
 the two other subjects should be subsidiary 
 to his principal study. The equal preparation 
 for these three branches is particularly difficult, 
 because the methods of approach of physical 
 anthropology and of linguistics are so entirely 
 distinct, and seem to attract quite different 
 types of mind. Somatology deals, on the 
 whole, with small differences between different 
 types of man, and requires, for this reason, the 
 application of refined bionietrical methods, 
 which are based on the study of biology and of 
 mathematics. Linguistics, on the other hand, 
 requires a thorough philological training such 
 as at present can be attained only in depart- 
 ments dealing with Indo-European languages. 
 It appears, therefore, that for teaching purposes 
 the biological aspect of anthropology should be 
 associated with biological deijartments; that 
 the linguistic study should be associated with 
 philological departments; while the anthropo- 
 logical department, properly speaking, should 
 devote most of its energies to the study of eth- 
 nology. Obviously a rigid classification of a 
 science which occupies so extensive a border- 
 land between a great variety of sciences will 
 never be possible; but the peculiar char- 
 acter of anthropology at any university will 
 always depend upon the particular interests 
 and methods of the instructors. 
 
 Modern development of a number of sciences 
 indicates very clearly that anthropological 
 methods may be applied to advantage in many 
 problems, and this will lead increasingly to a 
 demand for anthropological instruction, which 
 will give the student a grasp of certain kinds of 
 anthropological methods. Thus the hygiene 
 of childhood leads to numerous questions, which 
 can be solved only by anthropometrical methods, 
 and which must be approached with a knowl- 
 edge of the application of anthropology and 
 sociology. (See article on Growth.) In a 
 similar way the study of the early develop- 
 ment of civilization brings out even more 
 clearly the great importance of the psycho- 
 logical problems of anthropology as well 
 as the results of inquiries into prehistoric 
 archaeology. The future development of an- 
 thropology as a university study will have to 
 serve not only the purpose of training the an- 
 thropologist, but also of giving opportunity to 
 students of other sciences to acquire a knowl- 
 edge of anthropological methods, so far as these 
 may be required by them. 
 
 Anthropology as a College Study. — Many 
 American colleges have introduced full courses 
 
 133
 
 ANTHROPOMETRY 
 
 ANTIOCH 
 
 or partial courses in anthropology. The gen- 
 eral tendency seems to be to utilize the sub- 
 ject matter of antliropology to develop the 
 idea of the evolution of modern society from 
 primitive forms. These courses are generally 
 elective, and their correlation with other sul)- 
 jects is not very intimate. It would seem that 
 the general function of a course in antliropology 
 would ))(' to give to the student a wider view of 
 liistory than can be oi)taincd from a considera- 
 tion of the later history of the Euroiican race 
 alone, and that a true appreciation of the sig- 
 nilicancc of the achievements of our civilization 
 in relation to the achievements of other races 
 can be attained. The essential difficulty in 
 the effective use of anthropology for these pur- 
 poses lies in the fact that the college student 
 can hardly be led beyond the most general facts 
 of this science, and that consequently the con- 
 centration of his attention upon the subject is 
 inade<iuate. It might seem that the method 
 which has been developed in a number of insti- 
 tutions, of utilizing anthropology as an intro- 
 duction to semi-historical courses, is more 
 promising; but it is certainly necessary that 
 the affiliations between this subject and other 
 related subjects should be made closer than 
 they are at the jjresent time. 
 
 Elementary and Secondary Schools. — More 
 or less successful attempts have been made 
 during the last fifteen years to utilize the 
 results of anthropology for the purposes of 
 elementary and secondary education. For 
 some time much stress has been laid upon 
 the theory of recapitulation (see Culture 
 Epoch), according to which the development 
 of the child sliould follow in a way the general 
 evolution of civilization; so that the occupa- 
 tions of the young cliild should be similar to 
 the manifestations of life among primitive 
 people, while with increasing age the com- 
 plexit}' of occupations should increase in a way 
 comparable to the deveIo])ment of culture. I 
 believe this point of view has been essentially 
 discarded, while at the same time the inclina- 
 tion remains of utilizing anthropological mate- 
 rial in the early stages of manual training and 
 also in connection with the teaching of geog- 
 raphy, history, and literature. In secondary 
 schools the attempt has been made to develop 
 the foundation of history on an anthropologi- 
 cal basis; and there seems little doubt that a 
 much broader view of the development of so- 
 ciety can be attained by paying attention to the 
 earliest history of invention, to the contribu- 
 tions made to our civilization by different races, 
 and to the contributions of man and woman 
 to the advance of civilization. F. B. 
 
 ANTHROPOMETRY. — See Growth. 
 
 ANTHROPOTOXIN (av^pajTros, man, and 
 TofiKoV, poison). — A term used by the older 
 German investigators to indicate the poison 
 supposed to exist in expired air. Recent in- 
 
 vestigations by Bergey fail to find positive 
 proof of any volatile organic poison in expired 
 air, and indicate that tlie bad effects due to 
 unventilated rooms are chiefly caused by the 
 extreme heat, unfavorable conditions of hu- 
 midity, and perhaps the bad odors, and several 
 other factors, a view corroborated more re- 
 cently by the investigations of Paul in Brcs- 
 lau. W. H. B. 
 
 See Air of the Schoolroom; Carbon 
 Dioxide; Heating and Ventilation. 
 
 ANTIOCH, THE SCHOOL OF. — Antioch 
 
 was foundeil not long after .'{00 h.c, and even 
 in pre-Christian times was celebrated as a 
 center of intellectual life. In the fourth cen- 
 tury A.D. it was the tliird city in importance in 
 the world, and the first of the Roman Kmpire 
 in the East, and was a famous seat of sophistical, 
 or oratorical, study. The nio.st of our informa- 
 tion about the School of Antioch is obtained 
 from Libanius, who was a native of the city, 
 a teacher there from .3.54 to the year of his 
 death, 394, and one of the most famous soph- 
 ists (i.e. teachers of oratory) of his time. 
 
 There seems to have been at Antioch in the 
 fourth century a.d. a fairly well organized 
 school system. The school (called a x°P°''i 
 chorus) of which Libanius was the head com- 
 prised, be.sides himself, four "rhetors" (seem- 
 ingly teachers of the more elementary or tech- 
 nical side of oratory) and at least one "gram- 
 marian," as well as, probably, at one time a 
 teacher of Latin and a teacher of law. Each of 
 these, as well as Libanius himself, was in 
 receipt of an official salary (w'hich in the case 
 of the under teachers was paid by the council, 
 and in the case of Libanius came partly from 
 Antioch and partly from Phoenicia), and they 
 received their appointment from the local 
 council; Libanius's position was an imperial 
 endowment, as is shown by the fact that part of 
 his salary came from outside the city. That 
 there were other schools of the sort at Antioch 
 is probable; possiblj', however, this was the 
 only rhetorical school the members of which 
 received their appointment from, and were paid 
 by, the state. There may have been a school 
 of philosophers, as there was in the neighbor- 
 ing town of Apamea, and there were probably 
 some private schools with fewer instructors. 
 It is certain th.at there were other official 
 sophists at Antioch, but whether they were the 
 Heads of schools similar to the school of Libanius 
 is not known. Two of these official sophists 
 probably occupied chairs which were imperially 
 endowed. 
 
 Apart from the schools, there were other, 
 individual, teachers of various grades, who had 
 no official appointment. All these, together 
 with the schools above mentioned, constituted 
 what may be called the School of Antioch, 
 and of this school — not simply of his own 
 corps of rhetors — Libanius was head. The 
 full details of his official relation to the various 
 
 134
 
 ANTIOCH COLLEGE 
 
 APHASU 
 
 schools and teachers cannot be made out with 
 definiteness. He seems to have had some 
 general oversight of matters pertaining to the 
 teachers and schools of the city, subject to 
 the direction of the municipal council and the 
 Emperor, and he acted as the mouthpiece of 
 council and teachers in their dealings \vith 
 each other. He sometimes selected teachers 
 to receive appointment from the city, and his 
 influence was sufficient to secure at times an 
 increase of salary for a teacher. By \'irtue of 
 his position as head of the School of Antioch 
 Libanius was called " The Sophist of Antioch." 
 The center of university life at Antioch 
 seems to have been the Museum, but Libanius 
 and his corps of teachers had rooms in the 
 senate house. The schools of Antioch in the 
 fourth century drew students from all parts 
 of Asia. As the fourth century wore on, and 
 law and Latin usurped in the popular favor 
 the place of Greek, chairs of these subjects were 
 established at Antioch. We know little about 
 the school in the fifth century, but there is no 
 doubt that rhetorical studies declined at 
 Antioch then, as they did throughout the 
 eastern part of the empire. J. W. H. W. 
 
 Reference: — 
 
 Walden, John W. H. The Universities of Ancient 
 Greece. (New York, 1909.) 
 
 ANTIOCH COLLEGE, YELLOW SPRINGS, 
 OHIO. — Founded in 18.52, with Horace i\Linn 
 as first president. The college is nonsectarian 
 and coeducational. The institution has had 
 some of the most notable American educators on 
 the faculty at one time or another. The four 
 college buildings are situated on a picturesque 
 campus, twenty acres in extent. For an in- 
 stitution of its standing Antioch furnishes an 
 education at a very cheap rate, students' 
 expenses averaging about .8150 a year. Pre- 
 paratory, college, engineering, normal, summer 
 school, and music departments are maintained. 
 Admission is by certificate from an accredited 
 high school or by an examination requiring 
 fifteen units. Degrees are given in classical 
 and scientific courses. The course in ci\il 
 engineering may be completed in two years 
 or taken as part of the college course. The 
 value of the plant is about •? 145,000, the pro- 
 ductive endowment is .§105,000, and annual 
 income about $6500. There are 8 professors, 
 1 associate professor, and 4 instructors in 
 the faculty. S. D. Fess, LL.D., is the presi- 
 dent. 
 
 Reference: — 
 
 HuBBELL. G. A, Horace Mann in Ohio, a study of the 
 application of his public school ideals to college ad' 
 ministration. (New York, 1900.) 
 
 APHASIA. — A difficulty or an inability, 
 due to cerebral disease, (1) to understand one 
 or more of the forms of expressing ideas, and 
 (2) to produce the appropriate movements for 
 
 idea expression, in an individual who had been 
 able to understand and to express his ideas. 
 It will be seen that this definition does not in- 
 clude the inability of the idiot to express ideas 
 or to understand them, nor does it include the 
 inability of the uneducated to understand 
 certain forms of expression, e.g. printing, 
 writing, etc., or their inability to express ideas 
 in all the ways in which an educated individual 
 may. 
 
 In 1861 Broca reported the condition of the 
 brain of a patient that had been unable to 
 express himself by means of vocal speech, and 
 showed that the left hemisphere had been 
 diseased anteriorly, especially in the third 
 frontal convolution. This report and the 
 reports of subsequent similar studies soon led 
 to the general adoption of the lielicf that the 
 left third frontal convolution of the cerebrum 
 is the seat or the center for motor speech. At 
 later dates Wernicke described the clinical 
 form of aphasia in which the individual is 
 unable to understand what is said to him, and 
 Kussmaul that in which there is an inability 
 to understand the meaning of written and 
 printed words. Since these early studies many 
 different kinds of aphasia have been described 
 and the anatomical localizations are as nu- 
 merous as the forms. 
 
 Certain varieties of aphasia have been 
 briefly mentioned above: motor aphasia, the 
 inability to elicit the coordinated movements 
 of the vocal apparatus necessary for the pro- 
 duction of sounds that have idea meanings; 
 ivord dcafncs-'i, or sensory aphasia, the absence 
 of or the deficiency in the ability to associate 
 sounds with ideas; and verbal blindness, or 
 alcria (q.v.), the loss of the power to read 
 understandingly what is written or printed. 
 In addition to these more frequent forms, the 
 following aphasic conditions have been de- 
 scribed: agraphia (q.v.), the loss of the ability 
 to express one's ideas in writing; amusia (q.v.), 
 the loss of the ability to understand music 
 as such; asymbolia, or asymboly (q.v.), the 
 defect or inability of production or of under- 
 standing of movements expressing ideas, e.g. 
 gesture; apra.Tia (q.v.), the inability to ap- 
 preciate the forms of objects and to properly 
 use them; paraphasia or jargon apha.sia, the 
 use of wrong words or of nonsense sounds for 
 the expression of ideas. Agnosia has at times 
 been used as a synonym of sensory aphasia; 
 anarthria, aphemia (q.v.), and aphonia (q.v.) 
 are sometimes used for motor aphasia; and 
 asetnia has at times been employed as a sj^n- 
 onym of aphasia (general). 
 
 The symptoms in the more commonly ob- 
 served types of aphasia are grouped in the ac- 
 companying table, and there are added the quite 
 generally admitted cerebral localizations corre- 
 sponding to the different types of this disorder. 
 From this table it will be seen there are well- 
 marked differences in speech ability associated 
 with disease or destruction of different parts 
 
 135
 
 APHASIA 
 
 APHASIA 
 
 TABLE OF SYMPTOMS IN DIFFERENT FORMS OF APHASIA 
 (Combined from Various Sources) 
 
 
 
 
 Forms of Speech Associations Retained 
 
 Clinical 
 Vabieties; 
 
 Ceredral Localizations 
 
 Understanding 
 of spoken 
 words 
 
 J! O (— 
 
 §53 
 
 If! 
 1 = 
 
 ■§2.0- 
 
 
 f 
 
 1 
 
 Word deafness 
 
 Posterior two i .„-*:„„] . 
 
 no 
 no 
 
 yes 
 yes 
 
 no 
 no 
 
 yes 
 yes 
 
 no 
 no 
 
 no 
 no 
 
 yes 
 poor 
 
 Motor 
 
 Foot of 3 
 Frontal 
 
 cortical 
 subcortical 
 
 yes 
 yes 
 
 yes 
 yes 
 
 no 
 no 
 
 yes 
 poor 
 
 yes 
 poor 
 
 DO 
 
 no 
 
 no 
 no 
 
 Visual (alexia) 
 
 Angular gyrus 
 
 cortical 
 subcortical 
 
 yes 
 yes 
 
 no 
 no 
 
 ves 
 yes 
 
 yes 
 poor 
 
 no 
 poor 
 
 no 
 no 
 
 yes 
 yes 
 
 Agraphia 
 
 2 Frontal 
 
 cortical 
 subcortical 
 
 yes 
 yes 
 
 yes 
 yes 
 
 yes 
 yea 
 
 no 
 poor 
 
 no" 
 poor 
 
 yes 
 yes 
 
 yes 
 yes 
 
 Paraphasia, 
 etc. 
 
 Between T. 
 and 0. 
 
 subcortical 
 
 poor 
 
 poor 
 
 yes 
 
 yes 
 
 no 
 
 yes 
 
 yes 
 
 Between T. 1 
 
 and F. (Is- subcortical 
 
 land of Reil) 1 
 
 poor 
 
 yes 
 
 no 
 
 yes 
 
 no 
 
 yes 
 
 DO 
 
 of the cerebral cortex or of the underlying asso- 
 ciation fibers. It should be noted, however, 
 that in most, if not in all, cases of aphasia the 
 speech disorder is not so simple as might be 
 inferred from the preceding paragraphs and 
 from the table. It seems likely that simple 
 cases are the exception and that careful in- 
 quiry will disclose a combination of defects, 
 showing a marked diminution in one or two of 
 the normal speech abilities (sensory or motor). 
 [At this point it is well to mention that a cer- 
 tain school of neurologists (led by P. Marie) 
 denies the existence of special forms of aphasia 
 and of separate cerebral localizations for dif- 
 ferent speech abilities, and it attempts to ex- 
 plain all such cases on the basis of a dementia. 
 (For this point of view see the work of Moutier 
 given in the bibliography below.) The value 
 of this destructive work of Marie and of his 
 pupils appears to be largely a critical one, in 
 that it calls attention to the inadequacy of 
 previous psychological and anatomical ob- 
 servations.) 
 
 The history of the aphasia doctrine is an ex- 
 cellent example of the popular method of psychol- 
 ogizing, for apparently it has been tacitly as- 
 sumed that the analysis of mental symptoms is 
 extremely simple. At first the speech associa- 
 tion mechanism was divided into sensory and 
 motor, and at the present time this division is 
 still deemed satisfactory by some. Later each 
 of these general forms was subdivided into 
 two; the sensory into visual and auditory, and 
 the motor into vocal and writing. That on 
 the psychological side such a division does 
 not represent the facts is evident when an 
 analysis of speech function is undertaken. 
 The ways in which ideas may be conveyed are 
 greater than four, and it requires no great analyt^ 
 
 ical skill to show that a dozen does not exhaust 
 the probabilities. In any individual who is sus- 
 pected of an acquired speech defect the following 
 is the minimum of conditions that should be 
 investigated to demonstrate a definite disturb- 
 ance of the speech mechanism: — 
 
 (1) Voluntary speech, the ability of the indi- 
 vidual to make his wants known, to carry on 
 a conversation, etc.; (2) reading aloud printed 
 and written words, that there may be obtained 
 an idea of the ability to associate visual and 
 motor; (3) reading (not necessarily aloud) 
 printed and written words and indicating by 
 actions (speech or by arms, legs, etc.) that the 
 sensations were understood Or appreciated; 
 (4) writing from copy (connection between 
 visual and motor); (5) writing from dictation 
 (connection between auditors and motor); 
 (G) writing spontaneously; (7) repeating words 
 that are spoken (connection between audi- 
 tory and motor); (8) understanding of spoken 
 language, as shown by the ability of the in- 
 dividual to respond in an appropriate man- 
 ner; (9) recognition of objects and their use, 
 as indicated by the ability of the patient to 
 take an object in the hand, for example, or 
 to look at it, etc., and to show by action how 
 the particular object is to be used; (10) naming 
 of objects; (11) a.ssociation of name that is 
 seen or heard with an object that is sensed 
 through visual, auditory, tactual, olfactory, 
 gustatory, or the so-called stereognostic senses. 
 
 Any one of these speech associations may 
 be wanting, and there are many possible combi- 
 nations of disorders, as has been indicated above. 
 The combined disorders are, as has been said, 
 most common, and, possibly, the sole clinical 
 forms. For discussion, however, we shall assume 
 the occurrence of the simple types and give 
 
 136
 
 APHASIA 
 
 APHASIA 
 
 their anatomical correlates. The description 
 of the anatomical localization of speech func- 
 tions may well be introduced by a brief general 
 consideration of the relation of the nervous sys- 
 tem to mental states. 
 
 Neurologists, physiologists, and most psychol- 
 ogists assume for the cerebrum a multiplicity 
 of function, with the capacity for unification. 
 AH the functions that the cerebrum has may, 
 for convenience, be classed as sensory, motor, and 
 associational. (See for full detail the article 
 on the Nervous System, especially that deal- 
 ing with the cerebrum.) All of these functions 
 are mediated through the cerebral cortex and 
 the connecting fibers or through the collections 
 of cells in certain places, which collections are 
 called basal ganglia. The collection of cells 
 making up the basal ganglia may for present 
 purposes be disregarded. We may say that any 
 definite collection of cortical cells or of fibers 
 differs in function from all other collections, 
 although all are cross-connected and in the most 
 intimate anatomical and functional relation. 
 This is the general ground from which all the 
 anatomical localizations of speech functions 
 arise. 
 
 On the psychological side, the aspects of 
 speech are sensory, motor, and associational. 
 These three groups may be further subdivided 
 into: sensory — visual, auditory, gustatory, 
 tactual, olfactory, etc.; motor — vocal speech, 
 writing, gesture, the production of print or of 
 other symbols, etc.; and association — the 
 connection between any two or more of the 
 sensory and motor elements. Each of these 
 arbitrarily divided elements is conceived to 
 have a seat or to have its center in some part 
 of the cerebrum (similarly arbitrarily divided). 
 The normal speech function persists only so 
 long as the separate brain areas are intact and 
 the connections unbroken. If any area be- 
 comes diseased by reason of hemorrhage, 
 the choking of an artery, or from any other 
 kind of injury, certain functions will be inter- 
 fered with, but it will be possible to have cer- 
 tain other functions carried on in a normal 
 manner. Thus it is with the speech centers 
 and their connections. If the centers be affected 
 certain definite functions will be lost or im- 
 paired, and if the association tracts are inter- 
 fered with, there will be losses of speech, but 
 of different kinds to the losses observed after 
 destruction of the cortical areas, because the 
 connections have been broken rather than the 
 storehouses. Lesions of appropriate portions 
 of the cerebrum may result, therefore, in a 
 number of different kinds of aphasia, simple 
 or complex, depending upon the location of 
 the injury and upon the number of "centers" 
 or "connections " involved. The foregoing table 
 gives the symptoms in ten of the rather simple 
 uncomplicated aphasias, and it is possible from 
 this table to reconstruct others in which the 
 combinations of aphasias are represented. 
 
 The cerebral localizations of the simple 
 
 aphasias are noted in the table, and some of 
 them are shown in the accompanying diagram. 
 In addition, there are given the location of 
 certain lesions not productive of aphasic con- 
 ditions. It will be noticed that the so-called 
 
 Illustrating the localization of cortical brain lesions 
 productive of aphasias and other defects, (a) The 
 general localization of the speech centers, according to 
 Dejerine. The cross-hatched portions are those most 
 intimately concerned with the speech functions. (6) 
 Localization of a blood clot that produced a .simple motor 
 aphasia (Hotchkiss). (r) Lesion of cortex, productive 
 of psychical blindness, (d) Anatomical localization of 
 a lesion in a case of alexia (Pick), (c) Cortical destruc- 
 tion, productive of word-deafness (Wernicke). (/) Lo- 
 calization of cyst, causing spasm of head and eyes, with- 
 out aphasia (Starr), (g) Lesion causing astcreognosis. 
 (h) Lesion causing paralysis of hand and arm. 
 
 motor aphasias (vocal and writing) are due to 
 lesions of the frontal lobe on the left side, close 
 to the centers for the movement of the right 
 hand, arm, and face, and that the so-called 
 sensory aphasia centers border upon the 
 sensory areas in the posterior portion of the 
 hemisphere. The subcortical aphasias can- 
 not be represented on this diagram, but the 
 location of the lesions causing these conditions 
 may be made fairly well if the motor speech 
 centers are connected by lines with the sensory 
 areas, and lesions supposed to exist at sorne 
 portion of the lines which are drawn. It will 
 be noticed that many of the lines approach 
 the part of the cerebrum called the Island of 
 Reil, and in this region we do, in fact, find 
 many le-sions causing aphasias of the subcorti- 
 cal varieties. 
 
 In no case of aphasia due to unilateral cerebral 
 lesion is speech entirely lost; a certain amount 
 of ability to understand, if it be a sensory 
 aphasia, or ability to vocalize, if it be a motor 
 aphasia, remains. It is possible to show that 
 
 137
 
 APHASIA 
 
 APHTHONIUS OF ANTIOCH 
 
 some thiugs arc understood or some things 
 are said in a proper manner, and this condition 
 is supjjosed by some to bo due to the fact that 
 the left hemisphere is not entirely the seat of 
 the physiological [jroeesses that make up speech 
 aliility, but that the right hemisphere takes a 
 part, though rather a minor one. It also is 
 well known that there is great capacity for 
 reeducation of aphasies, and this rci'ducation 
 has been supposed to take place through the 
 inter\ention of the right half of the cerebrum. 
 The little careful work that has been pul)lished 
 on the |)rocess of reeducation indicates that it 
 takes ])lace in the same manner as does the edu- 
 cation of an indi\idual not previously trained in 
 this ])articular. 
 
 On the side of education the study of the 
 speech disturbances known under the general 
 term of aphasia is of consideralile importance. 
 The analysis of the speech function shows that 
 wc use all kinds of sensory impressions to 
 produce a speech reaction, and that if one 
 sensory stimulus does not produce a cjuick or 
 clear motor result, recourse may be had to 
 impressions through other sensory channels. 
 The aphasic may understand a word if he 
 traces it by hand, even if his eye docs not con- 
 vey to him the impulses that result in apper- 
 ception or an appreciation. He may also gain 
 an understanding of a situation if he has pre- 
 sented to him a combination of visual and audi- 
 tory impressions. It is the same with the child. 
 The combination of stimuli, all meaning the 
 same, will ])roduce a result much more quickly 
 and more effectively than any one stimulus, 
 unless there be added to the one stimulus an 
 emotional element lacking in the combination. 
 In certain defectives it is not possible to pro- 
 duce speech associations when the children are 
 approached through only one sensory channel, 
 and all the avenues of approach must be tried 
 simultaneously if good results are to follow. 
 Other important pedagogical suggestions are to 
 be obtained from a consideration of the relation 
 of motor and sensory defects to speech ability, 
 although many of these defects are not properly 
 described as aphasic conditions. 
 
 For speech defects due to motor incoordina- 
 tion, see Speech, Defects of. S. I. F. 
 
 References: — 
 
 Fur special bibliographies of certain aphasias, look 
 under the articles Agh.vphia, .Alexia, Awusi.\, Apk.\xi.\, 
 and AsYMBOLiA. 
 
 Bastian, H. C. Aphasia and other Speech Defects. 
 
 (London, 1S9S.) 
 Bolton. The higher functions of the human cerebrum, 
 
 pp. 318-345, hi HUl, Further Advances in Physiology. 
 
 (London, 1909.) 
 Collins, J. The Genesis and Dissolution of the Faculty 
 
 of Speech. (New York. US9S.) 
 Dejerine, J. L'aphasie sensorielle. Presse mid., 1906, 
 
 437-440. 
 L'aphasie motrice. Presse mid., 1906, 453-457. 
 Fr.\nz. Reeducation of an aphasic. Jour. Philos., 
 
 Psychol, and ,Sci. Methods. 190.5, 5S9-597. 
 KnssMAUL, A. Die Storungen der Sprache. (3 Aufl. 
 
 1885.) 
 
 Marie, P. Revision de la question de l'aphasie. 
 
 Sem. mcd., 190U. 
 MoUTiEn, F. L'aphasie de liroca. (Paris, 1908.) 
 Pick, von Monakow, Liepmann, and Hahtmann. 
 Diseujj.sion on .\phasia. Comptc rendu des Iramux 
 dii /"■ Congris internal, de psychialr., de neuroL, de 
 psychoL, etc., pp. 341-378. (Amsterdam, 1908.) 
 Stkicker. Studiert ilber die SprachstOrungen. (Wien, 
 
 1880.) 
 Wernicke, C. Gesammelte Aufsatze. (Berlin, 1893.) 
 Wyllie, J. The Disorders of Speech. (Edinburgh, 
 1895.) 
 
 APHEMIA. — The inability, or the distur- 
 bance in the ability to iiroducc vocal speech. 
 Sometimes used as a synonym of aphasia, but 
 not at present commonly used. 
 
 APHONIA. — The inability, partial or com- 
 plete, to produce the sounds that make what 
 is called speech. The term has been used, 
 but incorrectly so, as a synonym of aphasia 
 iq.v.), but is properly applied to all motor 
 speech losses due to any cause, whether 
 in the nervous system or in the peripheral 
 speech mechanism. Paralysis of the vocal 
 cords may cause permanent aphonia, and in- 
 flammation may produce a temporary loss. 
 Whispering and hoarseness arc called limited 
 aphonias. (See Speech, Defects of.) 
 
 References: — 
 
 Baumcarten. VoUstandige Recurrenzparaljse mit 
 totaler .Aphonic. Med.-Chir. Presse, xxxix, 478. 
 (Budapest, 1903.) 
 
 BuRoH.^KT, H. G. Ueber functionelle Aphonic hei 
 Mdnnern und Simulation der Stimmlosigkeit. (Ber- 
 lin, 1892.) 
 
 MuNGER, C. E. — Aphonia. Proc. Conn. Med. Soc, 
 1906, 129-136. 
 
 OsANN, G. Ueber Aphonia spastica. (Wiirzburg, 1882.) 
 
 APHRASIA. — The inability to speak, such 
 as that of the feeble-minded and the insane, from 
 defects or deterioration of the intelligence. 
 Sometimes used to describe the aphasic di.sordcr 
 in which an individual has not the ability to 
 connect words so they may make phrases and 
 sentences. (See Aph.\si.\.) S. I. F. 
 
 APHTHONIUS OF ANTIOCH. — A rheto- 
 rician and sophist who lived about .\.i). 314, 
 of whose life no details are known. His place 
 in the hi.story of education is of importance, 
 because he wrote the Progijmnasmata in 
 Greek. This liook illustrates the methods 
 employed by the Romans in teaching boys 
 so as to be prepared for the schools of the 
 rhetoricians. Aphthonius became the favorite 
 textbook, as had been that of Hcrmogenes. 
 After the Renais.sance Aphthonius was re- 
 discovered, and the schools and univei-sitics took 
 special delight in using a textbook in rhetoric 
 which had been actually employed in the 
 ancient Roman education. The book, origi- 
 nally designed for elementary pupils, was 
 adopted as a standard authority for older pupils, 
 and the editions through which it ran in the 
 sixteenth and seventeenth centuries in Eu- 
 ropean countries were numerous. The Editio 
 
 138
 
 APOLLONIUS 
 
 APPARATUS 
 
 priticeps was in the Aldine Rlirtores Greed, 
 Venice, 1508, fol. About a.d. 1520 Richard 
 Pynson published in London a translation into 
 Latin, edited by G. Hervet, and in 1582 Henry 
 Marsh issued in London a Latin translation by 
 Rodolph Agricola and J. M. Catanipus. In 1620 
 Aphthonius' Progymnasmata had become the 
 property of the Stationers' Company. The 
 recognized position of Aphthonius in Eng- 
 lish schools is further shown by John Brins- 
 ley, Ludus Lilerarius, 1612, who explicitly 
 states that "the custom in schools," in start- 
 ing boys on Latin theme-writing, is to " read 
 them some of Aphthonius' rules " and to be- 
 gin with the models suggested by Aphthonius. 
 This often proved hard for young wits, and 
 one interlocutor in Brinsley's book says the 
 insistence on Aphthonius' methods, involving 
 logic and " moral matters," drove the "scholar 
 to use all devices to leave the school or else 
 caused him to live in a continual horror and 
 hatred of learning, and to account the school 
 not Ludus Literarius but carnificina or pixtri- 
 nuin literarium." Charles Hoole, in the Mm^lcr's 
 Method (1660), defers the use of Aphthonius 
 for the pupil in rhetoric till he reaches the 
 fifth form, when it is to be read in Greek as 
 well as Latin. Aphthonius, like /Esop, wrote 
 fables, and Hoole required fifth-form pupils to 
 translate the fables and themes (from Greek) 
 into pure English and to repeat them (when 
 tran.slated) in both Greek and Latin " that they 
 may gain the method of these kinds of exercise 
 and inure themselves to pronunciation." 
 
 F.W. 
 
 APOLLONIUS. — One of the greatest 
 teachers of and writers upon mathematics 
 among the Greeks. He was born at Perga, 
 in Pamphj'lia, about 260 b.c, and died about 
 200 B.C. He studied in Alexandria, and was 
 very likely connected with the great school 
 there, but very little is known of Ms life. 
 His great treatise on conies {q.v.) was to 
 that subject what Euclid's {q.v.) was to ele- 
 mentary geometry. It remained the stand- 
 ard authority in its field until supplanted by 
 the analytic treatment (see Analytic Geom- 
 etry) invented by Descartes in the seventeenth 
 century. Apollonius also wrote on other 
 branches of geometry and on arithmetic. He 
 was held in such esteem by his contemporaries 
 that he received the name of "Great Geometer." 
 
 See also the article on Alexandria, School 
 
 AND UNn-ERSITY OF. D. E. S. 
 
 APPARATUS. — The history of school ap- 
 paratus is necessarily closely associated with the 
 attempt on the part of teachers to accommodate 
 the mind of the learner to the material embodied 
 in the curriculum. Before much thought was 
 given to what material is best suited to the 
 mental development and comprehension of 
 children, and to what information they should 
 be required to compass, the curriculum was 
 
 139 
 
 largely fashioned to suit the thought life of 
 adults. Xaturally, therefore, many things 
 were introduced into school work making un- 
 warranted demands on the intellectual powers 
 of children, and to overcome these difficulties 
 discerning teachers introduced helps in order 
 to objectify and illustrate principles too ab.stract 
 or intangible for their pupils to comprehend. 
 When reading was taught by the alphabet 
 method, the alphabet wheel, letter blocks, 
 some supposedly significant rhyme, as 
 
 Zaeheus he. 
 Did climb a tree, 
 His Lord to see, 
 
 nonsense word lists, or even cakes in the shape of 
 letters, were introduced as means to stimulate 
 the memory and interest of the children. As 
 the word and sentence methods were developed, 
 charts and word frames, with books planned 
 to suit, took the place of alphabet methods. 
 At the present day, blackboards and large 
 sheets or rolls of ordinary wrapping paper, 
 fastened together or on rollers, with well- 
 planned textbooks, furnish teachers sufficient 
 means to teach reading. Anything beyond 
 this is likely to perplex more than aid. 
 
 When arithmetic included much that was puz- 
 zling and more that premature minds could not 
 grasp, numeral frames, notation and numeration 
 charts, blocks for cube and square root, and 
 various geometrical devices were used to help 
 the pupils along. 
 
 In the teaching of a.stronomy and mathe- 
 matical geography, tellurians, complicated or- 
 reries, globes, and other pieces of apparatus 
 were introduced, and at one time were thought 
 indispensable. All these save globes are now 
 rarely found in our common schools. 
 
 The teaching of physiology, which was 
 chiefly anatomy, began in a general way about 
 fifty years ago, and to meet the needs of teachers 
 who knew verj^ little about the subject, gaudily 
 colored manikins and charts were sold in 
 great numbers. Some of these were very 
 ingeniously made, so that by beginning with 
 the outer form of the human body, and contin- 
 ually peeling off layer by layer, "the true skin, 
 the muscles, the blood vessels, the lungs, vis- 
 cera, etc., were exposed in due order. But 
 as soon as teachers came to have any real and 
 true first-hand knowledge of this subject, and 
 could dissect with any degree of skill and 
 had at least some knowledge of comparative 
 anatomy, the use of such apparatus, com- 
 paratively speaking, has been greatly reduced. 
 
 Naturally the study of the sciences, especially 
 physics and chemistry, has demanded more and 
 more apparatus as the pupils themselves have 
 been increasingly required to learn through 
 doing. But when these subjects were first 
 introduced into the elementary schools, the 
 pieces of apparatus selected (as one may sec by 
 referring to lists recommended and on the 
 market fifty years ago) were for the most part
 
 APPARATUS 
 
 APPARATUS FOR EXERCISES 
 
 those which gave spectacular effects, and upon 
 the use of which the teacher relied for some 
 show of scientific reputation. 
 
 The tendency now is to deal objectively and 
 as simply as possible with tliose physical and 
 chemical properties everywhere in evidence 
 in practical affairs. This reduces reliance on 
 mere experiment, and at the same time turns the 
 attention of the pupil to the significance of the 
 principles illustrated. Furthermore, with the 
 better adaptation of the curriculum to the ca- 
 pacities of children, and to the needs of life, 
 it has been found that such apparatus is often 
 more distracting than helpful. Too much 
 exj)erimentation in the beginning of scientific 
 training may even put children in the attitude 
 of the country boy, who said that he could not 
 see the town for the houses. 
 
 The progress of the teaching of physical 
 geography during the last decade or two 
 has been rapid, but the methods used illustrate 
 fairly well the principle enunciated, that as soon 
 as teachers have acquired a thorough knowl- 
 edge of a subject and practical skill in teaching 
 it, they rely less on apparatus. For example, 
 instead of the cumbersome appliances often 
 found some years ago, designed to illustrate 
 erosion and the carrying power of water, a 
 neighboring stream or gully, after a rain, now 
 suffices. Physical geography is fast becoming 
 an out-of-door study, much to the delight and 
 assistance of the children. Nature is experi- 
 menting every day for those who can see. So 
 too with nature study in general. Those who 
 know and can point out nature's methods are 
 inclined to offer no substitutes, which all too 
 frequently hinder rather than help. 
 
 On the whole, we use less illustrative material 
 in the way of charts, models, etc., in our ele- 
 mentary schools than is used in corresponding 
 schools in Germany, France, or England. Our 
 books are better printed, and contain a larger 
 amount of illustrative material than is generally 
 found in the textbooks used in foreign schools, 
 and hence the need for charts here is not so 
 great. The teacher, in most European schools, is 
 the source of far more of the information pupils 
 get than is the case here; and this partly 
 explains the need for such helps. 
 
 In each school of any size in Germany there 
 is generally a room set apart for teaching helps, 
 and these helps are drawn out by the teachers 
 when needed. This material (Lehrmittrl) covers 
 a wide range of instruction; wall pictures and 
 charts representing history, geography, archi- 
 tecture and art in its various forms, anatomy, 
 physiology, botany, zoology, history of religion, 
 manufacturing, commerce, invention, and all 
 phases of active German life are furnished in 
 great abundance. Besides these, the local 
 museums often contain rooms or sections set 
 apart for pedagogical purposes. These often 
 contain models of farming tools, school benches, 
 tools for working wood and iron, mineral cabi- 
 nets, in addition to an abundant supply of 
 
 maps, charts, and prints on all phases of instruc- 
 tion. (See AIusEUM, Edic.\tion'.\l.) 
 
 When we compare the secondary schools in 
 this regard, our best high schools are as thor- 
 oughly equipped with a[)paratus as those of 
 like type found abroad. In fact, we are spend- 
 ing more for scientific apparatus and equip- 
 ment for high school laboratories than is gen- 
 erally spent in Europe. On the other hand, we 
 are not so careful in our selection of apjiaratus. 
 
 The general principles which seem to be 
 emerging to guide us in matters of school appa- 
 ratus may be summed up and stated as follows: 
 
 1. The more thoroughlv teachers are edu- 
 cated and trained for their work, the less the 
 need for specially prepared and complicated 
 apparatus. 
 
 2. The better the curriculum is adjusted to 
 the needs and capabilities of children, the fewer 
 the requirements for experiments or methods 
 demanding apparatus beyond the power of 
 the teacher to supply. 
 
 3. The simpler the apparatus and the more 
 natural the experiment or method, the more 
 satisfactory are the results for children of the 
 elementary and high school grades. 
 
 4. Apparatus made by the pupils and teach- 
 ers working together, or by the pupils them- 
 selves, often serve to impress the essential pur- 
 pose of an experiment to better advantage than 
 more perfect laboratory appliances furnished 
 ready made. 
 
 5. It is better for the pupils themselves to 
 perform a simple significant experiment illus- 
 trative of some important truth than it is for 
 the teacher to perform in their presence a more 
 elaborate experiment directed toward the same 
 end. 
 
 6. School appliances designed to illustrate 
 those forces and phenomena of nature which 
 have proved themselves significant are more 
 important than those which give spectacular 
 results not readily seen outside the school- 
 room, and less obviously related to the imme- 
 diate needs of life. 
 
 7. Good teachers are increasingly utilizing 
 machine shops, electric lighting plants, water 
 sy.stems, scientific agriculture, and manufactur- 
 ing industries of all sorts, to supplement school 
 experiments and to render them more significant. 
 
 There is a growing use of photographs, pic- 
 ture post cards, illustrated magazines, stereop- 
 ticon slides, and projectiscopes, to bring dis- 
 tant scenes within reach of school children. The 
 only danger here is, that such material may ab- 
 sorb an undue share of time, and the real world 
 around them mav never be made significant. 
 
 F. B. D. 
 
 See Bl.\ckbo.\rds ; L.\bor.\tory ; Chem- 
 istry, Methods of Te.\chixg ; Physics, 
 
 ^IeTHODS of TE.iCHING, ETC.; TRAINING OF 
 
 Te.\chers : Visu.^L Aids. 
 
 APPARATUS FOR EXERCISES. — See 
 Athletic Fields; Gymnasium Equipment. 
 
 140
 
 APPARATUS 
 
 APPERCEPTION 
 
 APPARATUS, PSYCHOLOGICAL. — See 
 
 Laboratory, Psychological. 
 
 APPERCEPTION. — Literally, added to per- 
 ception. In the current usage of to-day two 
 somewhat distinct meanings are apparent. 
 The psychologist means by apperception the 
 interpretation of sensations. Thus to him 
 apperception is necessary in order to get per- 
 ception, since the latter is a form of conscious- 
 ness in which sensations and their meanings 
 are fused. To recognize an object, or to give 
 it position and shape, or to ascribe to it reality, 
 is to apperceive it. On the other hand, in edu- 
 cational discussions apperception usually means 
 not the making of a perception, but rather the 
 adding to the bare perception the richer 
 significations that are brought by a broader 
 experience. Thus the educational use of the 
 term conforms a little more closelj' to its ety- 
 mology than does the psychological one. 
 
 The philosopher Leibnitz introduced the use 
 of the expression. By him mere perception 
 was regarded as a purely immediate form of 
 sentiency. When we become conscious of our 
 perceptions, they are apperceived. Appercep- 
 tion thus relates the perceptions to the self, 
 organizes them as its property, and as the rep- 
 resentations by which it endeavors to describe 
 to itself the external world. Before the ad- 
 vent of apperception, therefore, there is no 
 self-consciousness, but only a confused mass of 
 isolated mental elements. Apperception trans- 
 forms these into genuine consciousness. 
 
 The next philosopher of importance to make 
 special use of the term "apperception "was Kant. 
 To him also it meant the unification of percep- 
 tion. By apperception one's perceptions are 
 all united in being referred to a self which is 
 aware of them in various moments of time. 
 Again they are unified as referring to external 
 objects, all of which belong to one world. 
 Perception merely singles out the object in 
 space and time. Apperception relates the 
 perception to the self and to the world. Thus 
 Kant emphasizes the organizing factor in ap- 
 perception, while Leibnitz lays special .stress 
 on the factor of self-consciousness therein. 
 The two uses of the term do not differ funda- 
 mentally. According to both, apperception 
 is the spontaneous activity of the self, in reflect- 
 ing upon and becoming conscious of its percep- 
 tions, and this process inevitably organizes 
 them in relation to each other in a self, and also 
 constitutes their external objects into the 
 world of things. 
 
 There is, however, one difference between 
 the views of Leibnitz and of Kant that leads 
 directly over to the Herbartian conception of 
 apperception. According to Kant, appercep- 
 tion unifies by applying its own principles of 
 organization to the material given by sense. 
 The product consists therefore of two factors, 
 the organizing warp of a priori forms and the 
 organized woof of o posteriori content. Both 
 
 elements are equally distinguishable in the 
 texture of experience. Thus apperception, 
 and, indeed, perception, are to Kant the estab- 
 lishment of relations among the data given by 
 experience, but these relations are not ab- 
 stracted from experience by the analytic 
 activities of a reflective mind. Rather they 
 are added to experience by the synthetic 
 activity of a constructive mind. Experienc- 
 ing is the clash between the organizing form and 
 the data of sense, and both factors are clearly 
 discernible in the finished product. To Leib- 
 nitz, however, as to all whose psychology fol- 
 lows the lines of the faculty theory, mental 
 activity consists in a manipulation of the data 
 of sense by which these are set in certain rela- 
 tions, and made to reveal certain principles. 
 Thus both form and content are analyzed out 
 of experience by the differentiating power of in- 
 telligence. 
 
 The Herbartian like the Kantian theory of 
 apperception is based on the conception that 
 mental activity consists in the clash of two 
 factors ; that both unite to form the experience. 
 But with Herbart these two factors are not a 
 content given to the mind on the one hand and 
 a form given by the mind on the other. On 
 the contrary, he conceives them to be on the 
 one hand a new datum for experience and on 
 the other the mass of organized experience 
 through which this new datum obtains mean- 
 ing and interest. To be sure the apperceiving 
 ideas according to Herbart differ from that 
 which is apperceived in being organized, related, 
 assimilated, and therein lies their power to 
 apperceive the new idea. But they are not, 
 as with Kant, mere principles of organization, 
 forms to be appliecl to new given content. 
 Thej' are simply old experiences that have 
 already been apperceived, and have thus 
 acquired the power of apperceiving the new 
 ones. Thus, experiencing to Herbart is the clash 
 of two factors of content, a synthetic process 
 as with Kant, but not a synthesis of factors 
 radically different in quality. The idea that 
 apperceives differs from the one that is apper- 
 ceived only in having previously enjoyed the 
 advantage of having been taken in, assimilated, 
 or apperceived by the mind. 
 
 The differences between these views of ap- 
 perception may be figuratively represented as 
 follows. The apperception of Leibnitz is like 
 the activity of a machine that manufactures 
 by combining certain raw materials into fin- 
 ished products. The apperception of Kant 
 is like the activity of a machine that manu- 
 factures by adding certain constituent elements 
 to the raw material, as the warp that binds it 
 together. The apperception of Herbart is 
 like the assimilation of food by the body. As 
 new material is assimilated, it becomes part of 
 the living tissue, by contact with which new 
 food can be made to live. According to Leib- 
 nitz, the mind thinks or apperceives its percep- 
 tions. According to Kant, this process means 
 
 141
 
 APPERCEPTION 
 
 APPERCEPTION 
 
 the imposition of forms of organization upon 
 tlic perceptions. Ilenec one is not far wronp; in 
 saying tliatwitli Kant tlie o /jri'or/ forms do tlie 
 apperceiving or thinlcing. Aecording to Her- 
 bart it is one perception, one idea, tliat mal<es 
 or appereeives anotiier. Ideas arc not dead 
 products of an active mind. Tliey are living 
 forces. They are in a very real sense the mind. 
 
 The Ilcrhartian conception of apperception 
 has two fundamentally important ai)plieationH 
 to educational theory. In the first place, it 
 involves the rejection of the faculty theory, 
 and consequently the theorvof formal discipline 
 (q.v.) as ortlinarily held. In the second place, 
 it leads to a formulation of method and curric- 
 ulum from the ])oint of view of the experience 
 already attained by the child. The ques- 
 tion of formal discipline is considered in a sepa- 
 rate article. Here, however, it may be in 
 place to note that, since according to the 
 faculty theory the ability to carry on the mental 
 process is a function of certain abstract inner 
 powers, there is no reason to suppose that to 
 one who accepts this theory the acquisition of 
 knowledge need be of any educational conse- 
 quence except in so far as it affords a means of 
 disciplining these faculties. We do not think 
 because we have ideas, but because we have 
 faculties. We do not improve our powers of 
 thought by increasing our stock of idea.s, but by 
 strengthening our power to manipulate them. 
 According to the p.sychology implicit in the 
 theory of Locke and Leibnitz, and even that 
 of Kant, since it is the faculty that appercei^'es, 
 the teacher should strive to improve this power 
 by training. On the other hand, according 
 to the psychology of Herbart, since it is the 
 idea that appereeives, the teacher should strive 
 to increase the stock of assimilated experience 
 in the child's mind by instruction. 
 
 The Herbartian theory of apperception 
 throws the emphasis not on the quality of the 
 mind, but rather on its content; not on the self- 
 activity by which according to many the child's 
 development is wholly conditioned, but rather 
 upon the activity of the ideas, the efficiency of 
 which depends upon the thoroughness with 
 which they have been assimilated. Now 
 effective assimilation with Herbart is, to say 
 the least, very largely dependent upon the 
 arrangement of material in instruction. In 
 other words, the excellence of the child's 
 abilities is mainly the consequence of the 
 efficiency with which he has been taught. 
 However, it is perfectly evident that good 
 teaching produces very different results on 
 different minds. This fact is not neglected by 
 Herbart. He grants the importance of the 
 individuality of the child. But to him this 
 individuality seems not so much the source of 
 those energies by which mental development is 
 to be brought about, as rather a mass of factors 
 likely to interfere with the proper apperception 
 of the material of instruction. Thus the posi- 
 tive factor in mental growth is afforded by 
 
 142 
 
 instruction. The inner characteristics of the 
 child are regarded rather as negative influ- 
 ences, interfering with or distorting the natural 
 effects that might be supposed to s|)ring from 
 the teaching that has been given. Certain 
 l^eculiarities, temperament, emotions, disease, 
 are all physiological hindrances to the pure 
 mental i)roccss of apperceiition. They must 
 be known, not to be utilized, but to be coun- 
 teracted. 
 
 Thus according to llerliart the fundamental 
 consideration in education is the order in 
 which material is iiresented to the child's 
 mind. From the point of view of method, this 
 leads to the so-called fariiial steps {q.r.) in in- 
 struction. From the point of view of subject 
 matter, it involves the arrangement of the course 
 of study in such an order that each iiiece of work 
 constitutes the natural preparation for the next. 
 Apperception with Herbart is analyzed into 
 two processes: concentration, or absorption, 
 and reflection. The finst involves the taking 
 in of new material, and the second its organiza- 
 tion in reference to the whole body of ideas in 
 the mind of the learner. Concentration means 
 that tlie new idea possesses enough affinity for 
 the contents of the mind to arouse attention, 
 that is, to drag above the threshold of consciou.s- 
 ness apperceiving ideas. Reflection means 
 the gradual reorganization of thought under the 
 influence of the new idea. To be absorbed, 
 matter must be clearly presented. This first 
 step Herbart called clearness. Rein analyzed 
 it into two, preparation and presentation. 
 The teacher must prepare the way for instruc- 
 tion by finding what ideas the child already 
 possesses which may constitute a basis for 
 apperceiving the new tojuc. He must then so 
 present this topic that it is readily seized by 
 the consciousness thus roused to expect it. 
 The successive topics that are presented must 
 also be interrelated so that each throws light 
 on the other. Method must bring out this 
 connection. Hence a second step of method, 
 or association. Associated material grasped 
 together in a unity of reflection gives system, 
 the third stei) in method. When the mind, 
 thus possessed of system, reacts upon the new 
 thought, it docs so with organized method. The 
 step in instruction that aims to insure this 
 result Herbart calls method. As we have seen. 
 Rein breaks up clearness into preparation and 
 presentation. System and method are by him 
 called condensation and ajiplication. Pro- 
 fessors Charles and Frank McMurry designate 
 the formal steps as preparation, presentation, 
 comparison, generalization, and apiilication. 
 
 The requirements of apperception are funda- 
 mental in determining the formal steps. They 
 arc equally evident in Herbartian schemes for 
 the arrangement of the course of study. Three 
 interrelated conceptions, deduced either wholly 
 or partially from the princijjlc of apperception, 
 have governed the schemes of arrangement 
 of the followers of Herbart. These are corre-
 
 APPERCEPTION 
 
 APPERCEPTION 
 
 lation (q.v.), concentration (q-i'-), and the cul- 
 ture epoch theory (q.v.). By correlation is 
 meant such arrangement of the different lines of 
 work in the school that the work in each con- 
 stantly bears upon the work that is being done 
 at the same time in the other subjects. There 
 are many schemes and degrees of correlation, 
 but it is evident that the principle always is 
 largely an application of the idea of apper- 
 ception. So, too, concentration, which means 
 that one subject of study is selected as the 
 central one in the curriculum and all others 
 are studied as means of comprehending it 
 better, is merely a close application of the prin- 
 cijjle of presenting the new through its relation 
 to the old. 
 
 The scheme of concentration has usually been 
 associated with the culture epoch theory ((/.v.). 
 According to this theory, the studies should be 
 presented to the child in the order of their 
 appearance in the history of the race. Thus 
 the child will be led through a series of " cul- 
 ture epochs " corresponding to those in the 
 history of civilization. The justification for 
 this order of study lies in that it is supposed to 
 be the order of clearest apperception on the 
 part of the child. Two reasons may be offered 
 for this; and each illustrates a somewhat dif- 
 ferent view in regard to the process of apper- 
 ception. According to one of these views the 
 order of growth in culture is its natural, its 
 logical, its inevitable order. The child must 
 pass through these stages because the nature 
 of the material of culture is such that each stage 
 is the logical and necessary preparation for 
 the apperception of the next. Here we find 
 the views of Lessing, Herder, and Hegel. Her- 
 bart, who himself gave a suggestion toward the 
 culture epoch theory, may be said to have 
 found in hi.story the clew to the logical order 
 of apperception. 
 
 The second consideration that led to the cul- 
 ture epoch theory was that of psychological 
 recapitulation. This view was intimately 
 related to, and indeed founded upon, that of 
 biological recapitulation. According to it, the 
 child manifests successively certain instincts. 
 These instincts appear in the order of their 
 racial evolution. Upon them depend the 
 child's interests and activities, and upon in- 
 terest and activity depend his ability to appcr- 
 ceive. To teach a child of 6 what appeals to 
 instincts that do not develop until 12 is to fail 
 utterly in results. The child apperceives only 
 what he is interested in, and he is interested 
 only in that which appeals to instincts that 
 have at least begun to ripen. 
 
 According to the first, the Herbart.ian con- 
 ception of culture epochs, the lack of apper- 
 ception when culture material belonging to 
 later civilizations is presented to a young child 
 is due to the lack of experience. According 
 to the second conception, it is not thus caused, 
 but is rather the result of immaturity of the 
 instincts to which the ideas and feelings of this 
 
 later culture appeal. Xo amount of mere 
 experience with words and facts can make a 
 child of 8 comprehend full.y tales of romantic 
 love. Mere physical maturity brings with it a 
 pyschological maturity that after all counts 
 most for power of apperception. 
 
 So far as the culture epoch is concerned, it 
 is doubtless true that both lines of argument 
 in support of it are in a measure justifiable. 
 But for the treatment of the conception of 
 apperception the differences between them is 
 of great importance. It serves as an introduc- 
 tion to a modern interpretation of appercep- 
 tion somewhat different from that of Herbart. 
 Just as with Herbart apperception is made to 
 depend upon the activity of previously assimi- 
 lated ideas, instead of as formerly upon that 
 of abstract faculties, so in this modern theory 
 it is made to depend upon the activities initiated 
 by the instincts rather than upon the mere 
 functioning of experience accjuired earlier by 
 the individual. Thus in a sense the more 
 modern tendency has been to revive the notion 
 of an inner activity Ijdng behind the mental 
 content and vi\-ifying it. 
 
 There are two methods of conceiving this in- 
 ner activity. According to the one, the concep- 
 tion of Wundt, apperception is " the activity 
 of the otU in the realm of ideas." The will is 
 an agency determinative of the direction of 
 attention, and in fulfilling this function it lifts 
 certain ideas into the focus of consciousness or 
 apperceives them. According to the other con- 
 ception, apperception is incidental to the func- 
 tioning of the instinctive activities. When 
 these activities meet a check, that is, when 
 they fail to gain in an automatic manner the re- 
 sults for which they exist, then dissatisfaction is 
 aroused, attention is drawn to the situation, its 
 characteristics are analyzed, and eventually 
 their significance is so interpreted that a satis- 
 factory learned reaction is substituted for the 
 original instinctive one. Thus apperception 
 is a mental activity roused by the need of read- 
 justment, and operative only on those factors 
 that must be distinguished and interpreted in 
 order to secure this result. In.stead of being 
 merely a function of previous experience, it is 
 rather a function of those inner instinctive 
 needs around the satisfaction of which both 
 the physical and the mental activities of the 
 individual center. 
 
 The Wundtian theory differs from this 
 instinct-motor theory of apperception only in 
 that, after the fashion of Leibnitz and Kant, 
 it emphasizes rather more the spontaneous 
 activity of a purely mental factor. The mind 
 in apperception, according to Wundt, asserts 
 itself, fixing the attention, clarifying the ideas, 
 and thus rousing certain corresponding physio- 
 logical activities. We feel our mental energy 
 innervating the muscles. Apperception is cona- 
 tion. It is the struggle of the will to deter- 
 mine the conduct of the individual. Thus 
 it is immediately connected with movement, 
 
 143
 
 APPERCEPTION 
 
 APPLICATION 
 
 and in fact the sense of the physical activi- 
 ties that apperception initiates intensifies 
 tlie absorption of the mind in the worlc of 
 appcrceiving. 
 
 Right here the instinct-motor or genetic the- 
 ory makes its point tluit apperception appears 
 only when there is forced upon the mind a sense 
 of its activities through some failure of adjust- 
 ment. Thus apiierception is not merely a con- 
 dition of willed movements as with Wundt, but 
 also a result of a failure to move in a satisfac- 
 tory manner. This failure rouses the mind to 
 discover what it wishes to do, in what respect 
 it has failed to acconi])lish its instinctive pur- 
 poses, and the various factors in the situation 
 that may suggest tliis or that reaction as likely 
 to prove a successful method of dealing with it. 
 The two theories are not antagonistic to each 
 other. Rather they may be said to supple- 
 ment each other. To Wundt apperception is 
 the intellectual phase of conation. To the 
 genetic theory it is the intellectual phase of re- 
 adjustment. Wundt finds in it the manifesta- 
 tion of the free inner energy of the self. The 
 genetic theory finds it to be the attention of the 
 mind to its inner needs when these fail to be 
 satisfied by hereditary reactions. When we 
 pass to the educational application of these 
 conceptions of apperception, we find that they 
 lie essentially in the view that interest and ef- 
 fective application to any school work is not 
 directlj' a function of experience in similar lines, 
 but is immediately dependent upon a sense of 
 the value of this work in satisfying the inner 
 needs of the self. It is true, experience may lead 
 one to see a value in work that to the inex- 
 perienced would seem mere useless drudgery. 
 But the experience merely makes clear the 
 connection between the work and the need. 
 It cannot create the need. The energy in a 
 motive comes from within, from instinct or 
 free jjersonality. Experience merely enables 
 this energy to acquire clearness and direction, 
 and thus to become a conscious motive. 
 
 Thus the modern schoolmaster, following the 
 genetic theory of apperception, does not ex- 
 pect to get children interested in the matter of 
 instruction merely by connecting it with some- 
 thing already known by the child. It is nec- 
 essary rather to show that the schoolroom tasks 
 are worth while. There are many things con- 
 cerning which we know much and at the same 
 time wish to know no more. Often enough 
 the child betrays this attitude in the school. 
 Instruction breeds the indifference of mere 
 familiarity unless it connects itself with needs 
 that to the child seem vital. Objects do not 
 excite attention because they are well known. 
 Indeed, the familiar thing, unless it suggests to 
 us some new problem that we feel to be impor- 
 tant, does not seize the attention at all. The 
 important first step in instruction is not mere 
 preparation that simply calls up what the child 
 knows of a subject, but rather the foreshadow- 
 ing of the application which is to be the final 
 
 step, and in which all that is to be learned will 
 finil its meaning and value. E. N. H. 
 
 References: — 
 
 liAiiLEY. 1'hc Educative Process. (New York, 1908.) 
 J.\.MEs. Talks to Teachers on Psychology. (New York, 
 
 1902.) 
 L.4NGE. Apperception. (Boston, 1S93.) 
 McMuRBY. General Method. (New York, 190S.) 
 
 APPLETON, JESSE (1772-1819). — Author 
 and educator, attended Dartmouth College; 
 teacher in New England academies; presi- 
 dent of Bowdoin College (1S07-1S19); one of 
 the founders of the Maine Education Society; 
 author of two volumes of essays on educational, 
 social, and religious subjects. W. S. M. 
 
 APPLICATION. — In teaching, that gen- 
 eral ])rinciple which calls for the acquisition 
 or fixing of knowledge through action, exijres- 
 sion, or i)ractice: also given as the fifth step 
 in the method of the recitation laid down by 
 the Herljartians. (See Hekhart; IMethod, 
 General; Formal Steps.) The popular peda- 
 gogical statement that there shoukl be "no 
 impression without expression" in teaching 
 coincides with this ])rinciple. The principle 
 of application has had its fullest exposition at 
 the hands of the followers of Herbart in their 
 treatment of the Herbartian ''dcveloimient 
 lesson," where it is the fifth or final "step" of 
 the recitation. In Herbart's original and 
 exjiandcd outline it was known as the stage of 
 " method " and was the fourth and final "step." 
 In modern pedagogical practice, the principle 
 has two modes of expres.sing itself: (1) In 
 requiring that the original acquisition of 
 knowledge and values be the product of action, 
 as in any process of "learning by doing." 
 This is the characteristic mode that the prin- 
 ciple takes in the "active learning" of the 
 kindergarten and the more modern type of 
 jjrimary school. It is also noted especially 
 in the teaching of manual training, laboratory, 
 science, drawing, singing, and similar subjects 
 affording a large opportunity for action. (2) In 
 requiring that knowledge largely communicated 
 through conversation, or the printed page, 
 be given actual application as a final safe- 
 guard against defective mastery. The prin- 
 ciple takes this second characteristic mode 
 in the teaching of the more abstract subjects 
 (physics, ethics, etc.) to mature students. 
 In this way general laws, truths, and precepts 
 are brought into effect, tested, and, if necessary, 
 reconstructed. 
 
 The principle of " application " has been given 
 an emphasized and extended importance since 
 the advent of modern psychological influence 
 in teaching theory and the introduction of 
 "active" subjects (manual traiiung, nature 
 study) into the curriculum. The advantages 
 which accrue from its use in the teaching or 
 learning process are numerous. A few may 
 be noted: (1) It guarantees a right selection 
 and elimination of facts; (2) These are learned 
 
 144
 
 APPLICATION 
 
 APPORTIONMENT 
 
 in association, rather tlian in isolation or in 
 detached groups; (3) The ideas involved in 
 a given subject are properly emphasized in 
 the thought system; (4) They are associated 
 in the order of practical need; (5) The think- 
 ing process is improved by the increased interest 
 and attention which comes through doing; 
 (6) The expressed result is a more or less im- 
 mediate and effective check on error in memory 
 and reasoning; and (7) The stimulus which 
 comes from successful achievement is one of the 
 best incentives to further effort. 
 
 The school has many situations and materials 
 through which to exercise, express, or apply 
 what it teaches. The school of the past de- 
 pended almost completely on verbal expression, 
 just as the modern movement tends to regard 
 the constructive or manual arts as the major 
 means of ap]3lying its ideas in the concrete. 
 Beside these, there are the fine arts of drawing, 
 painting, and music, and the subtle expressive- 
 ness of face and posture which reveal the 
 ideas and motives of children in the social 
 relations of playground and classroom. 
 
 To neglect any one of the characteristic 
 types of expression, or any species of them, 
 may be to lose effective means for giving a 
 better knowledge to children than that they 
 have, or to leave them with undiscovered intel- 
 lectual defects. Rote repetitions of words 
 meant to express moral laws will not compensate 
 for that loss of spontaneous self-expression 
 which accompanies a repressive school atmos- 
 phere. In carrying out the principles of " ap- 
 plication" with the materials at hand in school 
 life, four suggestions might be made: (1) No 
 form of application or expression should be 
 neglected. Opportunity for play and socia- 
 bility on the school ground has a fitness for 
 expressing the real moral knowledge of children 
 vastly superior to any facts about morality 
 which they may express verbally in the class- 
 room. (2) No form of action or application 
 should be used when another is more efficient 
 for the purpose involved. With the average 
 child, talking about an irregularlj^ shaped 
 tract of land is much inferior to making a dia- 
 gram of it. (3) When either of two forms 
 will do almost equally well, the teacher may 
 well use the most convenient and economical 
 method, even though it be more artificial. In 
 the case of advanced students, it is certainly less 
 wasteful of time and energy to present a mathe- 
 matical problem through symbols than through 
 objects, the latter method being conceivably 
 better with younger pupils. (4) It will fre- 
 quently be advisable to use several forms of 
 application as supplementary to each other. 
 Frequently any one method would be inade- 
 quate. An account of a school excursion for 
 botanical study may well include oral descrip- 
 tions, rough drawings, and the display of objects 
 collected. H. S. 
 
 See Appkrception; Method; Teaching, 
 Principles of; Recitation, Method of. 
 
 VOL. I — L 145 
 
 References: — 
 Bagley. Educative Procecs, Chaps. XIX, XX. 
 Earhart. Teaching Children to Study; Chap. II. 
 McMnRRT. Method of the Recitation, Chap. IX; 
 
 How to Study and Teaching to Study, Chap. VIII. 
 
 Thorndike. Principles of Teaching, Chap. X. 
 
 APPOINTMENT BOARDS. — See Boards 
 
 OF Education; Teachers, Appointment of; 
 Teachers, Agencies; University Boards of 
 
 Appointment. 
 
 APPOINTMENT OF TEACHERS. — See 
 
 Teachers, Appointment of. 
 
 APPORTIONMENT OF SCHOOL FUNDS. 
 
 — After taxes have been levied for the support 
 of a system of schools, the proceeds of such 
 taxation must be distributed, except in the 
 case of district or town taxation, which is ex- 
 pended where collected, in such a manner as 
 to secure the object for which the taxes were 
 raised. Theoretically the object to be kept in 
 mind in such a distribution is a greater equali- 
 zation of both the burdens and the advantages 
 of education. (See article on Taxation fob 
 Education.) The different plans in use in 
 the different states vary much in nature and 
 in the success with which they accomplish this 
 purpose. The different bases for distribution 
 may be arranged in an ascending scale, accord- 
 ing to their success in attaining this object. 
 
 I. Single Bases of Apportionment. — By 
 a single basis is meant a plan by which all the 
 school money distributed by the state, or by a 
 county, or both, is distributed to the smaller 
 subdivisions on one single basis, such as enroll- 
 ment or attendance. This differs from a com- 
 bination basis, upon which a part of the money 
 is distributed on one basis and the remainder 
 on one or more different bases, the result- 
 ing apportionment being a combined result of 
 the use of two or more bases. Under the single 
 basis plan we have the follomng tj'pes, ar- 
 ranged in their order of merit. 
 
 1. Taxes-where-paid Basis. — This is the low- 
 est and the poorest basis of apportionment in 
 use. By it the state, or the county, merely 
 becomes a tax-collector and gives back to 
 each school unit the money which it has just 
 forced the school unit to pay to it in the form 
 of a tax. The Minnesota " local mill tax " is an 
 example of this, where the county levies a one- 
 mill tax on all property and then gives it to 
 each school district in proportion to the amount 
 paid by each. In the early days of school 
 taxation this basis was commonly used, but it 
 is little used at present, produces no equaliz- 
 ing effect, and its use as an apportionment 
 basis probably will be entirely discontinued 
 before many years. 
 
 2. Taxable Property Basis. — By this the in- 
 come from taxation is distributed to the counties 
 or districts on the basis of the taxable property 
 of the county or districts, as shown by the 
 last assessment list, and without reference to
 
 APPORTIONMENT 
 
 APPORTIONMENT 
 
 whether the taxes for the year have been paid 
 or not. In this last respect it is more just than 
 the preceding basis, because it provides funds 
 for the maintenance of schools for the educa- 
 tion of the children whether their fathers have 
 been able to pay their taxes or not. The 
 basis is used by Pennsylvania for the distribu- 
 tion of one tliirtl, and by Xew Jersey for the 
 distribution of !)0 per cent of the state appropria- 
 tion. Like the preceding basis, it was once much 
 used, but has now been abandoned by nearly 
 all states. It posses.ses no educational sig- 
 nificance, and produces little equalizing effect. 
 
 3. Total Population Basis. — This basis 
 marked a first step toward a distribution bear- 
 ing some relation to the number of children to 
 be educated, and was once used much more than 
 it is to-day. New York still uses it as a partial 
 basis for the distribution of state funds, as 
 also does Vermont. Its defects lie in that a 
 census is taken only infrequently, while changes 
 in population are frequent and rapid; that the 
 total population bears no real relation to the 
 number of children in the community, even 
 in rural districts; ami that it bears no rela- 
 tion to the number of schools that must be 
 maintained. 
 
 4. School Population Basis. — This is com- 
 monly known as the school census basis, the 
 money being distributed in direct proportion to 
 the number of children of school age (see 
 School Census) in the county or district. 
 It appears at first glance to be a just basis, and 
 its extensive use, 38 states using it in whole or 
 in part as a basis for the distribution of school 
 funds, would indicate that it has been so re- 
 garded by legislators and schoolmen. Any 
 careful calculation as to its results, however, 
 will show that it is a very unsatisfactory basis 
 to use. It bears no relation to the real cost 
 of maintaining schools, viz., the number of 
 teachers who must be employed to teach the 
 children. It greatly favors the city as opposed 
 to the country, and the large school as opposed 
 to the small school. It places no premium 
 on the many educational efforts which com- 
 munities should be encouraged to make for 
 themselves, such as the provision of good 
 teachers, small classes, enforcement of atten- 
 dance laws, provision of extra educational 
 efforts so as to attract a larger proportion of 
 the children into the public schools, and the 
 awakening of a community pride in the schools 
 themselves. To stimulate a community to 
 educational activity is more important than to 
 reduce its taxes. 
 
 5. Enrollment Basi.^. — This is a distinct ad- 
 vance over the census basis, in that a community 
 is paid only for the number of children it gets 
 into the schools for a definite period of time, 
 instead of for the number of names of children 
 it gets on the census lists. It is used as a basis 
 of apportionment in Xew Hampshire and in 
 Minnesota, where a 10-day and a 40-day en- 
 rollment, respectively, are required. It places 
 
 a premium on getting the child into the school, 
 and in Minnesota on keeping him long enough 
 to get him interested in the school work. This 
 basis, however, must be regarded as a tran- 
 sition basis from census to daily attendance. 
 
 0. Average Daily Attendance Basis. — This 
 basis is used in whole or in part by a number of 
 states, and is a distinct improvement over 
 any preceding basis. Instead of paying for 
 children on a census roll, or children enrolled for 
 a limited time, payments are made only on the 
 basis of the average number of children re- 
 tained on the rolls of the school during the 
 entire school year. It is a form of " payment 
 by results," as good daily attendance is the 
 result of many community efforts which should 
 be encouraged. It stimulates conununitics to 
 educational activity, and involves all that the 
 enrollment basis involves, and more. 
 
 7. Aggregate Days' Attendance Basis. — This 
 basis is an attempt to measure even more closely 
 the work of the schools, and to pay only for 
 the actual attendance. Average attendance 
 is calculated on average membership (see 
 separate articles for definitions of terms), 
 and hence includes children belonging to the 
 school and absent for a day or two at a time 
 as well as those actually present. Aggregate 
 days' attendance, on the contrarj', includes only 
 those actually present, counting by half days, 
 and the total amount to be apportioned is di- 
 vided by the total number of days' attendance, 
 thus giving a certain number of cents per child 
 per day to be paid. This basis is the most 
 accurate of all, but its use alone would exact 
 a heavier penaltj' from the small country 
 school in favor of the large city school, due to 
 the longer term and the larger number of 
 children taught by one teacher in the cities, than 
 does the school census basis now in use. Com- 
 bined with some basis which first recognized 
 the unit of co.st of maintenance, which is the 
 teacher or room maintained, it is the most just 
 of all bases. It is so used by New Jersey in 
 making the county apportionment. 
 
 8. District Ba.'<is. — This basis is used in part 
 as a basis of apportionment by a few Western 
 states. It is an indirect attempt to recognize 
 the unit of cost of maintaining a school and 
 the teacher who must be employed. In making 
 apportionment a definite sum or proportion is 
 first set aside and given to each district, without 
 regard to size. It is also an attempt to equalize 
 the apportionments as between rural and town 
 or city schools, the district quota being the 
 same for each. Combined with some other 
 basis it can be arranged so as to produce good 
 results, but used alone it would be impractical 
 and unjust, except in a state where all the dis- 
 tricts employed about the same number of 
 teachers, in which case it would approximate 
 the next basis of apportionment. 
 
 9. The Teacher Employed Basi.s. — This is 
 used as a partial basis for the apportionment of 
 funds by New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, 
 
 146
 
 APPORTIONMENT 
 
 APPORTIONMENT 
 
 and Vermont. Delaware alone uses it as a single 
 basis. It can be shown by calculation that it is 
 in many respects the most just single basis that 
 could be used. The monej^ collected from 
 all on the basis of wealth would be distributed 
 for the benefit of all on the basis of the number 
 of teachers needed to teach the children for 
 whom the taxes were collected. The larger 
 communities, where larger salaries are paid and 
 more children are taught under one teacher, 
 would have more parents and more wealth to 
 provide any extra sum needed. The basis, 
 however, fails to place any premium on many 
 desirable educational efforts on the part of a 
 community, and in this lies its chief defect. 
 Combined with aggregate days' attendance 
 it forms one of the most just and one of the 
 best combined bases of apportionment that can 
 be devised. 
 
 II. Combined Bases of Apportionment. — 
 A combination of two or more bases is used by 
 a number of states in order to secure a more 
 equitable result in the distribution of school 
 monej'. Pennsylvania, for example, distrib- 
 utes the state appropriation on the bases of 
 teachers employed, school census, and property 
 valuation, one third on each; New Jersey in 
 making the county apportionment gives .S200 
 for each teacher employed, and the remainder 
 is apportioned on the basis of aggregate days' 
 attendance; in Nebraska one fourth of the 
 county apportionment is given to the school 
 districts equally and without regard to size, 
 and the remainder on the basis of school census; 
 and California, in making the county appor- 
 tionment, gives .$550 to each school for each 
 teacher, counting 70 census children as a 
 teacher, and the remainder on the basis of 
 average daily attendance. Various combina- 
 tion bases can be devised, which, if carefully 
 calculated out, will give fairly equitable returns, 
 but the best basis, from an educational point 
 of view, is a combination of teachers actually 
 employed with average or aggregate days' attend- 
 ance, together with a small reserve fund, as 
 will be described later. If the length of term 
 varies greatly throughout the state, then 
 average daily attendance is the better, as it 
 equalizes all schools as to terms and does not 
 work injustice to the rural schools; but if the 
 term is about the same throughout the state, 
 as in Connecticut, where all schools are required 
 to provide a nine months' school, then aggre- 
 gate days' attendance is the better, as it places 
 a premium on more desirable efforts on the 
 part of the community. 
 
 III. Effort and Need Bases. — In a few 
 states an attempt has been made to apportion 
 at least a part of the fund or taxes with more 
 direct reference to the efforts made by com- 
 munities to provide good schools for them- 
 selves, and also with reference to the relative 
 needs of communities. The setting apart of 
 a reserve fund of from 5 per cent to 10 per 
 cent, to be used, after the regular apportion- 
 
 ment has been made, to render additional assist- 
 ance to those communities which have made 
 a maximum effort and are still in need of addi- 
 tional assistance to enable them to maintain 
 a school the length of time required by law, is 
 the simplest form of such aid. The regular 
 apportionment basis continues to be used, 
 and the reserve fund is used only to render 
 additional assistance to those communities 
 whose peculiar circumstances warrant extra 
 aid. Tlie State Board of Education usually 
 distributes the reserve fund, and only after 
 investigation. Indiana's 5.2 per cent reserve 
 fund is an example of this form of extra aid. 
 Vermont and New Hampshire give somewhat 
 similar assistance to those towns whose tax 
 for schools has exceeded a certain rate. Massa- 
 chusetts uses the entire income from its school 
 fund to help poor towns, distributing the fund 
 only to those towns having a total valuation of 
 taxable property of less than .$2,500,000, and 
 having a graded schedule based on valuation 
 and the proportion of the total town tax de- 
 voted to schools, those having the lowest valua- 
 tion and devoting the largest proportion of 
 their taxes to schools receiving the largest 
 amounts. The principle involved in the setting 
 aside of a reserve fund for the aid of necessitous 
 communities is one that ought to secure for it 
 a wide adoption and usefulness. After the 
 best uniform apportionment plan that can be 
 devised has been put into use, there will still 
 be a few poor communities which cannot meet 
 the demands of the state, though thej' raise 
 the highest amount of tax allowed by law. 
 
 In Connecticut a still further extension of 
 the principle of the equalization of opportuni- 
 ties and advantages has been made bj' a law 
 which virtually equalizes the advantages of 
 education to every child in the state up to 
 $25.00 per year, on a basis of average daily 
 attendance, and at the same time equalizes 
 the burden of support on every taxpayer down 
 to a tax of four mills on the dollar. 
 
 High School Apportionments. — In most 
 states no distinction is made in the apportion- 
 ment of funds between elementary schools and 
 high schools, the money going to a common 
 school fund and any balance needed being 
 raised by extra local taxation. In a few other 
 states, California being an example, all funds 
 for the two classes of schools are carefully 
 segregated, and extra aid for high schools is 
 apportioned at a different time and in a dif- 
 ferent manner from that for elementary schools. 
 In a number of other states where this segrega- 
 tion of funds is not made, some form of extra 
 aid is granted for the maintenance of high 
 schools. For a consideration of this, see High 
 Schools, Support of. E. P. C. 
 
 Europe. — The apportionment of school sup- 
 port in European countries is far more com- 
 plicated than in the United States, and fre- 
 quently involves traditions and vested interests 
 that are hard to disentangle. In general, 
 
 147
 
 APPORTIOXMENT 
 
 APPORTIONMENT 
 
 however, it may be said that Great Britain 
 distributes its large national grant to public 
 education partly to relieve local burdens and 
 partly to stimulate local effort; and that in the 
 centralized administrative schemes of France 
 and the German states the state grants are 
 contributions to aid the communities in carry- 
 ing out prescribed governmental measures. 
 In England, for example, local authorities 
 fix salaries; on the Continent the state or 
 nation does so (at least the minimum). Eng- 
 land may withhold a grant to a community pay- 
 ing salaries deemed too low; in France the 
 state simply pays the prescribed salaries; 
 and in Prussia the state aids the community 
 in paying such salaries. 
 
 Apportinnment in England. — Governmental rec- 
 ognition of education came in England through 
 natural grants to subsidize private or philan- 
 thropic effort. Somtimcs grants were simply 
 lump sums; sometimes based on numbers of 
 children dealt with. By the middle of the nine- 
 teenth century an elaborate scheme of payment 
 by results had developed. National money was 
 distributed to privately managed schools, not on 
 the basis of mere mimbers, but on the basis of 
 the numbers who could reach grades of scholar- 
 ship tested by examinations. The scheme was 
 logical, but the sj'stem of examination proved 
 impossible in the case of young children. The 
 scheme was abandoned for elementary educa- 
 tion (though long continued for technical and art 
 education), and there developed a complicated 
 system of grants: (1) An average attendance 
 grant of 22 shillings for older children, 17 shil- 
 lings for infants; (2) A fee grant for those 
 schools (now all elementary schools) that did 
 not collect fees from parents (by Act of 1891, 
 amounts to 10 shillings); (3) A special subject 
 grant, for manual training, cookery, and agri- 
 culture, where equipment and teachers are 
 excessively expensive; (4) An aid grant of 
 4 shillings per child in attendance plus IJ d. 
 for every 2 d. that a rate (tax) of 1 penny yields 
 less than 10 shillings per scholar; (5) A small 
 population grant, which in effect grants £10 or 
 £15 to small rural schools; and (6) A temporary 
 special aid grant for hijghly rated communities 
 (applies in effect to rapidl.v growing communi- 
 ities where local improvements are a heavy 
 burden). 
 
 The above complicated scheme does (a) 
 give an outright contribution to public educa- 
 tion, (/)) aid weaker communities, and (c) 
 stimulate local effort. By a sj-stem of inspec- 
 tion the government seeks to preserve stand- 
 ards, and maj' withhold all or part of its grant 
 as a penalty for inefficiency. Various stand- 
 ards are prescribed as (a) quality of build- 
 ings, (fc) number of pupils per teacher, (c) 
 salary schedule of teachers, (d) number of 
 trained teachers, (e) equipment, etc.; the net 
 effect of which is that the national Board of 
 Education can practically impose any stand- 
 ard it sees fit. 
 
 In 1906-1907 the national government con- 
 tributed to the support of elementary educa- 
 tion in England over 850, 000,000 ( f 10,408,000) 
 whilst local contributions were about 844,000,000 
 (£8,930,000). The state thus contributed nearly 
 55 per cent. 
 
 Since 1855 the national government had 
 also subsidized technical and art education by a 
 variety of grants calculated to encourage 
 local enterprise and supplement local effort in 
 case of necessity. These were the South 
 Kensington grants, and their bestowal carried 
 the right of inspection. The basis of appor- 
 tionment was very complicated, resting partly 
 on the principle of payment for results and 
 partly on need of assisting in local equip- 
 ment. These grants have now been transferred 
 to the Board of Education, for administration, 
 who thus control the expenditure of about 
 82,800,000 (£450,000) in 1907-1908. The 
 Board of Education also makes special grants 
 to encourage the local training of those destined 
 to be teachers; and under the Act of 1902, it 
 was empowered to subsidize secondary educa- 
 tion where approved standards were main- 
 tained. 
 
 Germamj. The revenue for the support of 
 elementary education in Germany is derived 
 from two main sources — state and local. 
 In 1900-1901 the education of each pupil cost 
 47 marks, of which on the average the state 
 contributed 13.6 marks, or 31 per cent. In 
 Prussia the contribution of the state had risen 
 from 5 per cent in 1871 to 27 per cent in 1901, 
 while during the same period the contributions 
 of school fees had fallen from 19 per cent to a 
 negligible quantitj-, a fraction of 1 per cent for 
 nonresidents. 
 
 The principles of apportionment may be 
 illustrated from Prussia. There the first prin- 
 ciple in relation to elementary education is that 
 the local community (Gemeinde) must erect 
 buildings and pay the teachers. This burden 
 rests on heads of families or householders 
 (HauKvatcr) with or without children, but it 
 may be distributed according to confession — 
 each church member contrilniting to his own 
 school. This household tax is distributed 
 according to possessions. There is added a 
 tax on the ground landlord. 
 
 The second principle is that state aid shall 
 be given to enhance the pensions and insurance 
 of teachers. For the first teacher of the com- 
 munity, 500 marks, for the other male teacher, 
 300 marks, and for the female teachers, 150 
 marks, is the state contribution. This con- 
 tribution may not be given for more than 25 
 teachers in any one district, however. Also it 
 adds to the pension fund up to 600 marks, and 
 proportionately to widows' and orphans' pen- 
 sions. (Lexis, Das Unterrichtswesen, III, 96.) 
 
 The third principle has reference to needy 
 communities, or those that have already 
 heavily taxed themselves. Here state con- 
 tributions may be made to extraordinary ex- 
 
 148
 
 APPOSITION 
 
 APPRENTICESHIP AND EDUCATION 
 
 penses in regard to buildings, etc., and always 
 on the condition of a full exercise of local effort. 
 
 It will be recalled that the State fixes (mini- 
 mum) salaries, qualifications, and pensions 
 of teachers. Hence it is under no obligation 
 to induce local effort in these directions through 
 its state funds. But it does aid in improving 
 the status of the teacher and in helping the 
 community to better equip its schools. 
 
 In regard to secondary and higher education 
 the same principles do not apply. Many of the 
 secondary schools are traditionally royal or 
 state institutions, and as such derive their 
 revenue from endowments, fees, and direct 
 government appropriations. Others are sup- 
 ported by municipalities with the aid of some 
 state contributions. To this class belong 
 especially the scientific secondary schools 
 (Reahchulen). Higher education is entirely 
 supported by the state, beyond the amount 
 raised by fees and endowments. 
 
 France. — There is in France little signifi- 
 cance in the matter of apportionment of funds 
 as that term is understood in the United States. 
 The state (or nation) through central authority 
 establishes schools (except infant schools), 
 fixes salaries of teachers, provides for salary 
 augmentations and pensions, and itself pays 
 these salaries. In 1906 the nation's contribu- 
 tion to current expenses of elementary educa- 
 tion was 65.5 per cent of the total. The com- 
 munes must provide buildings and equipment, 
 but the government now administers a con- 
 siderable loan fund to aid or stimulate this 
 work. Efficiency is secured by state inspec- 
 tion. The inspectorate and the central au- 
 thorities decide all questions. D. S. 
 
 See Cost of Education, and the articles 
 on the various national systems. 
 
 References: — 
 
 For a detailed consideration of the various American 
 plans for the apportionment of school funds see 
 CuBBERLEY, E. P., School Fu7ids and their Apport^on- 
 meni. (Teachers' College, Columbia University, 
 Contributions to Education, No. 2, 1905.) For 
 statistics, see the Annual Report of the U. S. Com- 
 missioner of Education (Washington, D.C.). For 
 England, see Statistics of Public Education in Eng- 
 land and Wales, — A7inual Reports of the Board of 
 Education. For Germany, see Statistisches Jahrbuch 
 filr den Preus.tischen Stoat; Lexis, Dos Unterrichts- 
 
 APPOSITION, METHOD OF. — See Cate- 
 chism; Colloquies. 
 
 APPREHENSION. — A term employed to 
 translate the term Perception as used by 
 Leibnitz and Wundt. This term is in antith- 
 esis to the term Appcrceptioyi as employed by 
 these writers. If the term Perception is trans- 
 lated by the English word "perception" an 
 ambiguity arises which was not present in the 
 mind of these German WTiters because the Ger- 
 man equivalent of the word " perception " is not 
 of this form. 
 
 APPRENTICE TEACHER. — A student 
 teacher; one assigned to practice teaching as 
 part of a course of professional training for 
 teaching. Such teaching may be done (1) in 
 a special training or practice school, parallel 
 to the theoretic work, and under the direct 
 supervision of the faculty of the professional 
 school, or (2) in the classrooms of the regular 
 school system, at the close of a period of theo- 
 retic training, and more or less under the super- 
 vision of the regular school officers. The 
 term " student teacher " is more appropriately 
 appUed to a practice teacher working under 
 the first-named conditions, and " apprentice 
 teacher " to one working under the second- 
 named conditions. The conditions of practice 
 teaching do not always fall into one group or 
 the other, a mixed plan being used, when the 
 terms are used interchangeably. " Practice 
 teacher " is a generic term which may be 
 rightly applied to all teachers still within their 
 period of training or probation. H. S. 
 
 See Teachers, Training op; Monitors; 
 Pupil Teacher. 
 
 APPRENTICESHIP TEACHER. — See Pu- 
 pil Teacher. 
 
 APPRENTICESHIP AND EDUCATION. 
 
 — England. — Hi.slonj. — The apprenticeship sys- 
 tem arose out of the burghal policy of modern 
 Europe, when all craftsmen in towns entered 
 guilds established for mutual protection. They 
 were founded on the principle that labor 
 employed in mechanical trades required more 
 skill and experience than are requisite in hus- 
 bandry. It is not known precisely when 
 apprenticeships were first established, but they 
 were first mentioned in the statutes in 1388 
 (12 Richard II, c. 3) two centuries after the 
 establishment of guilds in England. Henry IV, 
 complaining that husbandry was impoverished 
 by reason of the peasantry leaving the coun- 
 try districts to learn trades in the cities and 
 boroughs, passed a law to repress the in- 
 ferior classes from becoming apprentices 
 (7 Henry IV, c. 17). (Repealed as regards 
 London by 8 Henry VI, c. 11. Repealed as 
 regards Norfolk by 11 Henry VII, c. 11, and 
 by 12 Henry VII, c. 1 in favor of Norwich.) 
 To exercise a trade it was necessary to be 
 free of the fraternity of that trade, and 
 the only way of obtaining this freedom was 
 by serving an apprenticeship to a member 
 of the fraternity. As the various trades 
 became incorporated they were called univer- 
 sities (i.e. corporation.'^), and are often men- 
 tioned in the old charters of towns. The term 
 of apprenticeship in these incorporations was 
 7 years, which is now the period required by a 
 student to obtain the title " master " in the 
 older universities. While these regulations 
 have been relaxed in trades, they have been 
 strictly guarded in the learned professions. 
 The great Statute of Apprentices was passed in 
 
 149
 
 APPRENTICESHIP AND EDUCATION APPRENTICESHIP AND EDUCATION 
 
 the reign of Elizabeth (5 Eliz. c. 4). This 
 act prevented any one serving less than a 7 
 years' apprenticeship from engaging in any 
 trade and was an attempt to co[)e with tlie want 
 of skill in the tradesman. The statute has been 
 much condemned i)y Adam Smith and other 
 writers as interfering with the riglits of the in- 
 dividual, while others aver that it (1) led to 
 the elimination of inferior work, (2) maintained 
 a high rate of wages. The statute of Elizabeth 
 remained in force for two and a half centuries, 
 when an improved state of trade and manu- 
 factures and the changes consequent on the in- 
 troduction of machinery and the factory system 
 demanded an alteration in the law. The result 
 of a petition praying that the statute might be 
 rendered more effectual resulted in the passing 
 the Act 54 George III, c. 96 (1S14), repeaUng 
 the statute so far as it enacted that no person 
 should exercise any trade without having served 
 a 7 years' apprenticeship to it. A reservation, 
 howc\'cr, was made in favor of the bylaws of the 
 City of London and other corporate towns. The 
 latter were deprived of their rights as to appren- 
 tices by the M unicipal Corporations Act of 1835, 
 and London is now the only city which has its 
 own peculiar jurisdiction over apprentices. On 
 the repeal of the statute of Elizabeth wages 
 rose and fell according to the demand for 
 skilled labor. 
 
 Influence of Factory System. — The intro- 
 duction of machinery, followed by the subdivi- 
 sion of many trades, made the 7 years' appren- 
 ticeship no longer necessary or desirable. 
 The employee had now only to learn a single 
 process. Further, the concentration of work 
 into factories led to a decrease in the number 
 of apprentices employed, owing to a repugnance 
 of parents to send their children away from 
 home, and it was not until wages of adult arti- 
 sans had been reduced very con.siderably that 
 other than adult labor was employed to any 
 extent in mills. The deficiency was made up 
 by the Acts 42 George III and 45 William 
 IV, c. 76, c. 46, which allowed Overseers and 
 Guardians of the Poor to bind out apprentices 
 from the different workhouses. These acts 
 contained no directions to the master to afford 
 the apprentice any instruction, the system be- 
 ing merely a billeting of the poor in order to 
 relieve the parish funds. The harsh treatment 
 meted out to parish apprentices led to the Act 
 of 1S02, passed '' for the preservation of the 
 health and morals of apprentices and others 
 employed in cotton and other mills." 
 
 Features of the Old System. — Three 
 characteristics distinguished the old system 
 of apprenticeship: (1) the indentures which 
 bound master and apprentice together for a 
 term of years, (2) the contract in which the 
 master agreed to initiate the apprentice in the 
 mysteries of his trade, (3) the custom of the 
 apprentice to lodge in the house of his master. 
 The system ensured three principles essential to 
 social well-being: (1) the youth of the coun- 
 
 try was under control up to the age of 21 years, 
 
 (2) the control was paternal in character and 
 inspired by a living and individual interest, 
 
 (3) each youth as he crossed the threshold of 
 manhood found opening out for him a career 
 for which he had been specially trained. That 
 evils crept into the system cannot be denied, 
 but the system recognized and made provision 
 for the efficient discipline and training of the 
 youth of England. 
 
 Decay of Apprenticeship. — Under the con- 
 ditions of modern industry the significance of 
 apprenticeship could no longer be secured. 
 The increase in the size of workshops made 
 impossible the personal relations between master 
 and apprentice. For the personal relations 
 there was substituted the cash nexus between 
 the capitalist and the wage earner. The 
 division of labor and the tendency to separate 
 boy's work from man's work not onl}' prevented 
 but rendered unnecessary an all-round training 
 in the various departments of a trade. With 
 the (hsappearance of the paternal relation, 
 neither employer nor employed had any desire 
 to bind himself to the other for a prolonged 
 period. And so, except where conditions were 
 very favorable, in rural districts, in favorable 
 trades and small towns, the apprenticeship 
 system gradually but surely began to decay. 
 (It has been computed that at present not more 
 than 10 per cent of the members of English 
 trade unions have been indentured apprentices 
 to the trades in which they are now engaged. 
 Webb, Indu.ilrial Democracy. Vol. II. p. 474.) 
 With the repeal of the Statute of Apprentices in 
 1814, and the reform of the Poor Law (1833), 
 the State definitely disclaimed all responsibility 
 for the training and welfare of the young until 
 the efforts of philanthropists like Shaftsbury, 
 Fielder, and Oastler, and also of those pioneers 
 of trades unionism, forced the State to recog- 
 nize the evils which that age of uncontrolled 
 liberty had called into being. The decay of 
 apprenticeship was affected by the industrial 
 revolution in two ways: (1) by the congrega- 
 tion of communities into towns where the boy 
 was employed in mills and factories, and was 
 put to work at one specialized process and 
 nothing more, (2) by the attempted limitation 
 of apprentices by trades unions where it 
 could be effected. The result was that the 
 youth of the nation rapidly degenerated phys- 
 ically, while educationally they were destitute. 
 
 Neir Forms of Apprentice Education. — To 
 meet the decay of the apprenticeship system 
 and to supply some form of education to replace 
 the training which it afforded, mechanics' insti- 
 tutes iq.v.) sprang up to supplement the educa- 
 tion of the workingman and boy. Where these 
 did not disappear through inanition and lack 
 of support, they developed into polytechnics 
 (q.v.), technical schools, technological institutes 
 and colleges, which were fo.stered by the grants 
 of the Science and Art Department and later on 
 under the Technical Instruction Act of 1889. 
 
 150
 
 APPRENTICESHIP AND EDUCATION APPRENTICESHIP AND EDUCATION 
 
 (See Industrial Education; Technical Edu- 
 cation; England, Education in; Trade 
 Schools.) The development of technical edu- 
 cation has thrown a new light on the possibili- 
 ties of apprenticeship training. It is being felt 
 more and more that industrial efficiency can 
 be promoted only by having not only skilled, 
 but intelligent, theoretically trained workmen. 
 Though daily instruction for apprentices is far 
 from being generally adopted in England, signs 
 are not wanting that enlightened employers 
 see that if England is to maintain its prestige 
 as a manufacturing nation, an opportunity for 
 combining shop work with technical education 
 must be afforded to the future mechanic. An 
 increasing number of firms in various trades 
 have already taken advantage of existing facili- 
 ties, and allow apprentices to attend technical 
 classes during their working hours. This is 
 especially noticeable in engineering and ship- 
 building industries, where the various sub- 
 divisions of labor and the use of special 
 machinery render it difficult for the apprentices 
 to acquire more than a small amount of manip- 
 ulative skill and a very sUght knowledge of the 
 various processes of the trade in which they 
 are engaged. Various methods are adopted ac- 
 cording to the requirement of the firm, the chief 
 being: (1) Apprentices attend technical classes 
 one or two days each week during their ap- 
 prenticeship. (2) Apprentices attend technical 
 classes during slack periods varying from two 
 to four months. (3) Attendance at a technical 
 class for a specified course entitles a youth to a 
 shorter apprenticeship, one year, and in some 
 cases two years, being allowed. 
 
 Five large railway companies have estal)- 
 lished mechanics' institutes in various centers, 
 notably in Horwich, Crewe, London, Darhng- 
 ton, Gateshead, York, where apprentices attend 
 during the daytime without loss of wages. In a 
 number of works, notably Brunner, Moud, and 
 Co., Northwich, Cheshire; Lever Bros., Port 
 Sunlight ; Clayton and Shuttleworth, Lincoln, 
 attendance at technical classes is made a com- 
 pulsory condition of apprenticeship. 
 
 Apprenticeship Committees. — Along the lines 
 here mentioned there is a possibility that there 
 will be a recrudescence of apprenticeship train- 
 ing. For this purpose committees for appren- 
 ticing young boys are being established and are 
 having a marked effect upon the education of 
 the skilled mechanic. Originally the system 
 was started by the Jewish Board of Guardians 
 in 1840 to assist poor parents to apprentice 
 their boys to a skilled trade. The committees' 
 functions are : (1) To select an occupation 
 for the child. (2) To grant a loan (premium) 
 where necessary for books, clothing, etc. (3) 
 To indenture apprentices wherever possible. 
 (4) To watch over boy or girl during the ap- 
 prenticeship. Where employers do not receive 
 indentured apprentices. Apprenticeship Com- 
 mittees have an indenture form of their own 
 which makes the boy and girl realize their re- 
 
 151 
 
 sponsibility in the matter. In most cases it is 
 a compulsory condition that the boy attends 
 technical classes, and wherever possible em- 
 ployers are chosen who allow a certain time 
 off during working hours for the purpose of 
 attending technical classes without lo.ss of 
 salary. These committees have united in a 
 Central Association for mutual cooperation 
 and support. (Address, Denison House, 
 Vauxhall Bridge Road, London, S.W.). This 
 binding together of forces is all for the public 
 weal, and -will enable the committees to look at 
 the que.stion of profitable employment in its 
 widest aspect. Alreadj^ their experience is 
 being utilized by juvenile labor exchanges and 
 employment registry committees that are 
 being established throughout the country. 
 
 Ari.sing out of the attitude of trade unions 
 toward industrial education a recent proposal has 
 been made to apprentice the young workman 
 directly to the unions instead of to the em- 
 ployers. It is hoped in this way that the feared 
 exploitation of trained apprentices by employers 
 will be prevented, and at the same time these 
 would not come into competition with adult 
 workers, particularly at a time when unemploy- 
 ment is pressing for immediate attention. 
 
 From still another point of view a re\ival of 
 apprenticeship is being advocated. Technical 
 schools, it is claimed, are not a substitute for 
 apprenticeship, because they tend to eradicate 
 iudi\dduality and reduce all workers to a dead 
 level. What is required now is tlie raising of 
 standard and ideals of work. The old guilds 
 did not flood the market with cheap goods, but 
 paid considerable attention to the artistic 
 element. On this side the revi^-al of appren- 
 ticeship on a small scale could be turned to ad- 
 vantage in restoring the arts and crafts. Such 
 a plan has the further recommendation that it 
 would not interfere with the regular system of 
 manufacture and labor by adult workmen. 
 (See London DaihjNeirs, Nov. 13, 15, 16, 1909.) 
 
 In June, 1910, the Juvenile Labor Bureau was 
 transferred from the Board of Trade to the Edu- 
 cation Department. By this latest development, 
 all the work liitherto carried out by Skilled Em- 
 ployment Committees, which were voluntary or- 
 ganizations working under gi-eat disadvantages, 
 will be taken over by the Borough and County 
 Councils. Tills, it is expected, will lead, either 
 (1) to the systematic reorganization of the 
 apprenticeship system ; or (2) to the system at 
 present in vogue in Germany, where the appren- 
 tices' working hours are limited by the educa- 
 tional authorities, who insist that the apprentice 
 shall receive, in addition, technical instruction in 
 his craft up to the age of 17, and in some cases 
 to 18. Similarly " Scholars' Employment Bu- 
 reaus " are being organized in the manufacturing 
 centres tliroughout the countrj'. Their aim is to 
 save boys and girls from " blmd aOey " employ- 
 ments, to which they are attracted by the rclatiA-e 
 high wages of the early stages. These com- 
 mittees work in connection with the employees,
 
 APPRENTICESHIP AND EDUCATION APPRENTICESHIP AND EDUCATION 
 
 all of whom :iro circularized for information, and 
 on the otluT hand tlirough the school teachers. 
 When the time approaches for a boy to lea\-e 
 school, his parents get a letter from the head- 
 master asking tliem to meet him and discuss the 
 lad's future. In very many cases the teacher 
 has a better idea as to where the boy's special 
 abilities lie than have his parents. The class 
 teacher is present at the discussion, and it having 
 been settled what calling is most likely to suit 
 the boy, a card is filleil up giving i)articulars 
 about liim, and if the authorities or the sciiool 
 itself know of no situation open that will suit, 
 the card is sent to the Central Ivlucatioti Office, 
 where, of course, a complete register is kept. 
 
 Summary. — With increased faciUties for 
 education the needs of industrial workers have 
 created a widespreading interest: (1) Among 
 employers of labor, who expect technical train- 
 ing to provide them ultimately with workmen 
 possessing an industrial intelligence at present 
 lacking in the average artisan to-day, owing to 
 the passing away of the old system of appren- 
 ticeship. (2) Among the rank and file of 
 workers, who see in it a means of escape from 
 the monotonous routine which specialized 
 industry imposes upon the worker to-day. 
 
 (3) Among sociologists, who see in its adoption 
 a means of securing industrial efficiency lead- 
 ing to a higher .standard of life for the worker. 
 
 (4) Among educationists, who feel that the 
 present type of school does not meet with the 
 needs of a great mass of the State's children. 
 
 Apprenticeship Legislation. — There still sur- 
 vive in the Statute Book several regulations 
 relating to apprentices. Thus by the statute 
 of 1536 (28 Henry VIII) companies cannot 
 restrain their apprentices from establishing 
 shops when they become free. By 18 George 
 III, c. 47 (1777) no child apprenticed can con- 
 tinue as such after the age of 21. In 1814 
 (54 George III, c. 96) the Statute of Apprentices 
 (5 Eliz. c. 4), so far as it enacted that no person 
 should exercise any trade without having served 
 7 years' apprenticeship to it, was repealed ex- 
 cept for customs in respect for London. Other 
 legislation regulates the apprenticing by over- 
 seers of parishes. The better protection of 
 apprentices and their supervision by overseers 
 and guardians is proWded for by 14 and 15 
 Victoria, c. 11 (1851). Endowments for the 
 payment of apprentices' fees were made educa- 
 tional endowments by 32 and 33 Victoria, 1869. 
 The London (City) Apprentices Act (1889) 
 pro\'ides (1) For apprentices of not less than 
 4 years and not more than 8 years. (2) To 
 omit the covenant binding the apprentice not 
 to marry during the period of apprenticeship. 
 (3) To omit the covenant on the part of the 
 master to pro\ide meat, drink, apparel, lodg- 
 ing, and other necessaries for apprentices, and 
 substitutes payment in wages to be mutually 
 agreed upon. 
 
 The following laws at present regulate 
 apprenticeship: — 
 
 (1) The apprentice must be bound of his 
 own free will or with the consent of his parent 
 or guardian. (2) The apprentice agrees to 
 faithfully serve the master or his representa- 
 tives for the term siiecified in the indentures. 
 X.B. Unfaithful service includes waste, injury 
 to master's property, unlawful absence from 
 w'ork, disobedience of lawful orders, malprac- 
 tices. (3) The father or guardian must guar- 
 antee to provide the apprentice with sufficient 
 food, clothing, lodging, and all necessaries 
 (unless as agreement otherwise is arranged 
 with the master). (See 5.) (4) The master 
 agrees to receive and instruct (or cause to be 
 instructed) adequately the apprentice to the 
 best of his knowledge, power, and ability 
 throughout the term of his apprenticeship. 
 (5) The master must provide tlie ajiprentice 
 with adequate board, lodging, and medical 
 attendance, and treat him as one of the family 
 (unless an agreement otherwise is arranged) (see 
 3), or pay a sum of money as wages (weekly 
 or monthly) in lieu thereof. (6) Wages may 
 be deducted by the master (except in case of 
 illness to be specified by a qualified medical 
 practitioner) for willful default, neglect, or 
 absence from service of the apprentice. (7) 
 Reasonable fines may be deducted from wages 
 for breaking rules (which must be set forth) 
 of the master's establishment. (8) The hours 
 of work must be specified, and overtime must 
 be paid for at a rate specified. (9) The master 
 must pay all travelling expenses of journeys 
 incurred by the apprentice in connection with 
 the business of the said master, and is respon- 
 sible for board and lodging of the apprentice 
 when the latter is working at a distance (speci- 
 fied). (10) The apprentice may be dismissed 
 for (a) gross misconduct, (6) idleness, (c) in- 
 capacit}' of the apprentice to learn his trade. 
 X.B. (c) at master's discretion, but the appren- 
 tice may appeal to justices. 
 
 General. — A contract of apprenticeship is 
 one whereby one person becomes bound to 
 teach another a certain profession or trade, and 
 the latter is bound to learn it and to serve as an 
 apprentice. In common law " writing " is 
 necessary if the contract be for more than a 
 year ; if for less than a j'ear, no written agree- 
 ment is necessary. 
 
 Education of Appreydices. — Three types of 
 facilities are afforded for the training of appren- 
 tices in technical branches. In the first rank 
 are to be found the regular technical schools, 
 which are more and more tending to adapt 
 the whole or part of their courses to the needs 
 of local industries. The employers in many 
 cases compel their apprentices to attend for 
 part time, and in some instances pay their fees. 
 The other practice is to establish schools 
 within the employers' works under the charge 
 of a superintendent who is acquainted with the 
 needs of the establishment. These schools 
 tend to be very specialized. In the third class 
 employers may insist that their apprentices 
 
 152
 
 APPRENTICESHIP AND EDUCATION APPRENTICESHIP AND EDUCATION 
 
 attend evening technical courses. Examples 
 of each type will be given without mak- 
 ing any attempt to be exhaustive. At the 
 same time it must be noted that these repre- 
 sent the highest class of employers engaged in 
 industries not only based on technical skill, but 
 in competition with other countries for the 
 markets of the world. At present their experi- 
 mentation is of importance as a signpost for 
 other employers in smaller industries, and as a 
 guide for future legislation. 
 
 1. Railway companies make provision for 
 the attendance of their apprentices at technical 
 schools without loss of salary. Thus appren- 
 tices from the Great Eastern Railway Co. 
 attend the G. E. R. Mechanics Institute at 
 Stratford, London, for at least one session of 6 
 months. Day classes are also held in the rail- 
 way works. The company pays part of the 
 fees, and no deduction is made from the salary. 
 The Great Western Railway Co. pays the fees 
 of selected apprentices to attend for 1 year in 
 the workshop and for at least one session in the 
 evening technical classes of the Technical 
 School at Swindon. The London and North 
 Western Railway Co. allows apprentices in the 
 electrical department to attend day classes in 
 technological subjects for one half-day weekly 
 at the Mechanics Institute, Crewe, -which was 
 built by the company. So the apprentices 
 from the London and South Western Railway 
 Co. may attend morning classes at the Bat- 
 tersea Polytechnic, London; from the Midland 
 Railway Co. at the Technical School, Derby. 
 
 2. The railway companies are followed 
 closely by the engineering and shipbuilding 
 trades. Apprentices from Vickers, Son and 
 Maxim, Ltd., who have had a high school or 
 grammar school education must attend a two 
 years' course in the Technical Department of 
 Sheffield University, either as a preliminary to 
 entering the works or at a later period of their 
 apprenticeship at their own option. In such 
 cases the apprentice will reenter at the rate 
 of pay which he would have been receiving, if 
 these two years had been spent in the workshop. 
 Selected apprentices from Mather and Piatt, 
 Salford Ironworks, attend technical courses 
 at the Manchester School of Technology one 
 afternoon each week without loss of salary and 
 pay their own fees. The firm makes attend- 
 ance at evening classes a condition of engage- 
 ment as apprentices. Hans Renold, Ltd., 
 Manchester, pay the fees of apprentices who 
 attend the same institution for one whole day 
 each week for technical subjects. Other man- 
 ufacturers in the neighborhood of Manchester 
 follow the same plan. As a result of a confer- 
 ence at Sunderland between the authorities of 
 the Technical College and local engineering 
 and shipbuilding firms, apprentices during the 
 first two years in the workshop must attend 
 technical classes in engineering subjects. Some 
 25 studentships are awarded on the results of 
 examinations on the work of the evening classes 
 
 which enable apprentices to attend day classes 
 for six months in each year for three or four 
 years. The Belfast Technical School provides 
 courses preparatory to apprenticeship and also 
 for apprentices engaged in the local shipyards, 
 who are allowed to attend one full day each 
 week without loss of salary, and whose fees are 
 paid by the employers. The Bellis and Morcom 
 Engineering Works exempt apprentices who 
 attend evening classes at the Birmingham 
 Technical Schools from attendance at work on 
 the following day between 6 a.m. and 9 a.m., 
 and also advance wages on reports of progress 
 from the school principal. Wm. Denny and 
 Son, Dumbarton, permit those apprentices 
 who gain scholarships at the West of Scotland 
 Technical College to attend courses for 6 
 winter months and shopwork during the rest 
 of the year. The time spent at college is 
 counted as part of the apprenticeship period. 
 Arrangements are also made by employers at 
 Middlesboro' and Derby for the attendance of 
 their apprentices at the local Technical Schools. 
 
 3. In the chemical industry, Brunner, Mond 
 and Co. compel their apprentices to attend 
 evening classes at the Verdin Technical School, 
 Cheshire, and selected apprentices may attend 
 day classes on two afternoons each week. The 
 Coalport China Co. permits apprentices with- 
 out loss of salary to attend the Coalportdale 
 Art School, Salop, at arranged periods during 
 the day. Selected dressmaking apprentices 
 from Debenham and Freebody are allowed to 
 attend courses in dressmaking at the London 
 Polytechnic on two afternoons each week. The 
 Masters' Association of Painters and Deco- 
 rators pay the fees of apprentices to attend art 
 courses at the Bradford (Yorkshire) Technical 
 College from two to five days per week during 
 the first year of their apprenticeship. Arrange- 
 ments are made for house painters' apprentices 
 at Halifax and Manchester. 
 
 4. Clayton and Shuttleworth, Ltd., Lincoln, 
 manufacturers of agricultural machinery, have 
 established a practice which it is hoped will 
 combine the old sj'stem of apprenticeship with 
 the modern factory system. A private school 
 is maintained inside the works in which courses 
 of instruction pertaining to the various trade 
 processes carried on in the works are given 
 under the guidance of an expert superintendent 
 who has risen from the ranks. As far as pos- 
 sible every apprentice receives in addition a 
 practical knowledge of as many processes 
 allied to his trade as possible. All apprentices 
 spend a certain amount of each week at class 
 instruction, books and material being supplied 
 free. Merit is recognized, and all apprentices 
 of exceptional ability are given opportunities 
 to enable them to get an all-round knowledge 
 of the trade which will enable them to take posi- 
 tions of foremen or managers of works. Appren- 
 tices are taken on at any age from 15 to 22 
 years, but all receive the same wages at the 
 start. The trades taught are machinist, fitting 
 
 153
 
 APPRENTICESHIP AND EDUCATION APPRENTICESHIP AND EDUCATION 
 
 and erecting, toolmaking, wheelwright, mohi- 
 ing, smithwork, jjoilcr making, pattern mak- 
 ing, joinery. Tiic outcome of this scheme is 
 being watched with interest by educationists 
 tliroughout the country. 
 
 5. Apart from these institutions in which 
 the employers themselves take an active interest, 
 numerous technical antl evening schools provide 
 courses which are attended voluntarily by 
 apprentices at their own expense outside of 
 working hours. Without any attempt at elab- 
 oration three objections may be stated to this 
 system, (a) such courses are attended only by 
 the most ambitious pui)ils, (6) by those whose 
 parents can afford to keep them at school, and 
 (f) evening study at the end of a long day's 
 labor is likely to be unprofitable in many 
 cases. This aspect of apprenticeship training, 
 however, resolves itself into the whole ciucstion 
 of industrial and technical education, which 
 will be found treated under those captions. 
 
 So far as any tendency can be oliserved at 
 present, England is moving in the direction of 
 throwing the onus of the training of apprentices 
 and young employees on the employer, who in 
 the near future will be expected, if not com- 
 pelled, to allow those whom he employs to 
 attend courses to continue their education. 
 (See Report of the consultative committee on at- 
 tendance at continuation .schools.) 
 
 France. — The institution of apprenticeship 
 in France appeared as a feature in the life of 
 the craft guilds or trade corporations that devel- 
 oped from the eleventh to the thirteenth cen- 
 turies parallel with the growth of the com- 
 munes. The first record of the regulations 
 governing apprentices appears in Le Litre 
 dcs Metiers, by fitienne Boileau, appointed 
 provost of Paris by St. Louis in 1261. The 
 conditions attaching to apprentices in all 
 trades then existing are here set down. 
 
 The contract of apprenticeship was a very 
 formal affair, made before witnesses, among 
 whom were officers of the corporation. The 
 contract was often in writing and placed among 
 the archives of the guild. It was very explicit 
 in regard to the duties of the apprentices, and 
 less so in regard to the responsibilities of the 
 master. Before the engagement of the appren- 
 tices the officers of the corporation were sup- 
 posed to assure themselves as to the morality 
 and capacity of the patron. In a very few- 
 trades, such as the barrel makers, masters were 
 permitted to take as many apprentices as they 
 pleased, but such instances were rare exceptions. 
 In all other cases the number was explicitly 
 defined. In some trades three apprentices were 
 authorized, but among the greater number of 
 trades only one or two were allowed. It was 
 common, however, to permit an additional 
 apprentice when the older apprentice was in 
 his last year. From the first the sons of masters, 
 and often the sons-in-law, and even the sons 
 from a prev'ous marriage of the wife, were 
 accorded special privileges. The master could 
 
 always admit his son as an apprentice in addi- 
 tion to the regular number permitted by the 
 guild, anil in later years such apprentices were 
 accordetl increasing freedom from the require- 
 ments which were gradually added to the at- 
 tainment of mastershi]). In certain industries 
 where the wife plied the trade with the husband 
 two apprentices could be taken instead of one. 
 In some cases where the son had jiassctl through 
 the apprenticeship and was working with his 
 father, an additional ai>i)rentice was allowed. 
 Where the number of apprentices was deter- 
 mined, the length of apprenticeship was also 
 fixed. This varied in different trades from 3 
 to 12 years. The apprentice was required to 
 pay the master a sum varying from 20 to 100 
 sous. Sometimes this jiayment bore a relation 
 to the years of ai)prenticeship, as for instance, 
 in one of the weavers' guilds the apprentice who 
 served but 4 years paid 4 livres; one who 
 served 5 years paid 3 livres, 6 years, 1 livre, 
 and one who served 7 years paid nothing. 
 Under certain circumstances it was possible 
 for apprentices to buy off a portion of their 
 time, but the master was not allowed to take 
 another apprentice until the full period of his 
 contract had expired. At first the master was 
 permitted to sell or transfer his apprentice to 
 another master, but on account of frequent 
 abuses this was later forbidden by statute. 
 The making of a masterpiece as a requirement 
 for admission to mastership is mentioned only 
 once in Le Livre des Metiers, indicating that 
 this feature, which later became so important, 
 was not at first commonly demanded. 
 
 As the privileges and strength of the corpora- 
 tions grew, the regulations concerning appren- 
 ticeship became more rigorous. In the four- 
 teenth and fifteenth centuries the number of 
 apprentices allowed was often smaller than in 
 the thirteenth, and the time of apprenticeship 
 was often increased. In the fourteenth cen- 
 tury the requirement of a masterpiece, consum- 
 ing much time and often involving costly mate- 
 rials, from candidates for mastership, became 
 common, and in the fifteenth century the prac- 
 tice was practically universal. Such a master- 
 piece, which was prepared in the hou.sehold of 
 one of the jurors, was not simply an examina- 
 tion as to the skill of the ai)prentice, but was an 
 imposition designed to restrict admission to the 
 corporation to a select few. 
 
 Even the sons of masters were often required 
 to perform the chef d'a-uvre. They were, how- 
 ever, commonly freed from the exaction of 
 money payments. Local restrictions against 
 the admission of artisans who had not served 
 their apprenticeship in the particular town are 
 often found. This was especially the case in 
 the city of Paris, where in a number of trades 
 workmen were not allowed to compete for 
 mastership until they had served a number 
 of years in the workshops of that city. This 
 was carried so far in the seventeenth century 
 as to require masters from outside places to 
 
 154
 
 APPRENTICESHIP AND EDUCATION APPRENTICESHIP AND EDUCATION 
 
 make a chef d'auvre before granting them the 
 right of mastership in Paris. Another new 
 element appears in the statutes of some trades 
 in this century, viz. a requirement similar to 
 the practice which had long obtained in Ger- 
 many that the graduate apprentice should work 
 for a number of years as a journeyman (valet) 
 before becoming a master. 
 
 In the eighteenth century the corporations 
 had become trade aristocracies in which a few 
 well-to-do masters held a monopoly of trade 
 privileges. All requirements for admission, 
 including the chef d'ceuvre, which was more 
 complicated and most costly, had become very 
 burdensome. In addition to the money paid 
 by the apprentice to the master, he was obliged 
 to pay also a fee to the corporation. 
 
 These conditions made the corporations 
 increasingly unpopular, and certain edicts were 
 passed under Louis XVI looking to the reform 
 of some of their abuses. In 1791 their privi- 
 leges were abolished by the National Conven- 
 tion. This action, which did away with all 
 legal regulations and restrictions as to appren- 
 ticeship, created no substitute, and only the 
 voluntary maintenance of the old customs 
 provided a means of training new workers. 
 A law of 1803 which created a consulting 
 Chamber of Arts and Manufactures contained 
 some articles designed to guarantee the execu- 
 tion of the apprentice contract on the part of 
 the masters. The execution of this law was 
 lodged in the police officials. 
 
 By the year 1830 division of labor, machine 
 tools, steam power, quantity production, and 
 capitalist direction, — all the features of the 
 factory system, — were well established. The 
 specialist with a narrow range of training had 
 become an important factor in industry, and 
 thoroughly trained apprentices were fast de- 
 creasing in number. An inquiry by the Paris 
 Chamber of Commerce showed that the con- 
 tract of apprenticeship had neither the impor- 
 tance nor the good consequences that it should 
 have — that only a few contracts were written, 
 and that the conditions were not precise and 
 permitted frequent changes. The law of 1851 
 attempted to regulate this situation and to lay 
 down legal restrictions as to the contract and 
 to otherwise protect the apprentice by defining 
 the responsibilities of masters as to instruction. 
 The law, however, failed to provide any super- 
 vision of the master, and made no pro\dsion to 
 guarantee his capacity. As a consequence of 
 this weakness, certain benevolent societies came 
 into being which endeavored to perform this 
 task and to place boys with competent masters. 
 
 In 1845 the Municipal Council of Paris, seek- 
 ing to improve the conditions of apprenticeship, 
 instituted a number of apprentice prizes or 
 subventions. One prize was awarded to a 
 scholar in each of the primary schools for boys 
 and girls in the city. By the terms of this plan 
 the master taking the scholar as an apprentice 
 received 450 francs, of which 200 francs were 
 
 paid the first year, 150 francs the second, and 
 100 francs the third year of the apprenticeship. 
 By this arrangement one of the best scholars 
 was each year given the opportunity of appren- 
 ticeship under favorable conditions. In 1855 
 the plan was modified so as to apply rather to 
 the poorer boys and to those deemed best fitted 
 for apprenticeship rather than to the brightest 
 scholars. Under these conditions the measure 
 fell into disrepute, and was discontinued in 1872. 
 
 In France more than in any other country 
 the effort has been made to develop not only 
 technical and art schools supplementary to 
 apprenticeship, but schools actually to perform 
 the function and take the place of apprentice- 
 ship. From the first the policy of the French 
 people has been to effect these results mainly 
 through public schools controlled by the central 
 government. See Industrial Education; 
 Technical Education; Feance, Education in. 
 
 Germany. — Up to the beginning of the nine- 
 teenth century the guilds in this country had 
 acquired and exercised great power. The move- 
 ment to transmute the guilds from powerful 
 autocratic bodies into legal corporations began 
 in Prussia in 1810-1811. By the law of 1869 
 all guilds were changed into free corporations 
 (freie Irmiaigcn), which had no power to compel 
 members to join, and consequently could only 
 regulate for apprentices of their own members. 
 The free corporations, however, have gradually 
 acquired considerable influence, and while they 
 cannot interfere with the freedom of their 
 members in their vocations, they can and do 
 regulate the system of apprenticeship. A more 
 recent development has been the passing of a 
 law empowering those who follow the same 
 calling within any town or district to form com- 
 pulsory corporations (Zu'angsinmmgen) by 
 agreement of a majority. Such corporations 
 have tended to increase. An important func- 
 tion exercised by them has been the regulation 
 of apprenticeship, the establishment and sup- 
 port of continuation and professional schools 
 (Fachschulen), the holding of professional ex- 
 aminations at the end of the period of appren- 
 ticeship and for admission of journeymen to the 
 status of masters. By law (Reichsgeircrbe- 
 ordming, 1900 § 127) all indentures for appren- 
 ticeship must be completed in writing within 
 four weeks after it has been entered upon. The 
 contents must set forth: the trade concerned 
 or its branch, the duration of the period of 
 apprenticeship, the premium, the agreement 
 (if any) to provide board, lodging, sick pay, etc., 
 the conditions under which it can be resolved. 
 The indenture is to be signed by the employer 
 and parent or guardian of the apprentice. The 
 employer is bound to instruct the apprentice 
 in anything pertaining to the trade, to compel 
 his attendance at school and supervise his 
 work, to exercise a moral influence over him 
 and stimulate him to industry and diligence. 
 The duration of apprenticeship must be at least 
 three years and not more than four. At the end 
 
 155
 
 APPRENTICESHIP AND EDUCATION APPRENTICESHIP AND EDUCATION 
 
 of the stipulated period the apprentice must be 
 examined by a commission appointed cither by 
 tiie corporation of the trade or by the local 
 chamber of trades, a body representing several 
 corporations. 
 
 So far as the education of the apprentices is 
 concerned, tiie most obvious feature in Germany 
 during the last half century has been the pro- 
 vision by the State of special continuation and 
 technical schools and the compulsion exercised 
 by the State over employers to permit the 
 attendance of their api)rentices and young 
 employees. Particularly is this fact true of 
 Saxony, Bavaria, Baden, and Wiirtemberg. 
 In Prussia there is a permissive law giving 
 power to towns which desire it to provide com- 
 pulsory technical schools. So far as the state 
 system is concerned, and that includes the 
 greater part of the provision of facilities for 
 apprenticeship education, it will be treated 
 under separate titles (see German Empire, 
 Edlc.\tiox in; Continuation Schools; Tech- 
 nical Education; etc.). 
 
 But considerable private effort remains, 
 particularly in the north. Xot only do the 
 corporations (Innungen), which include jour- 
 neymen in many cases as well as master work- 
 men, support local public schools, but many 
 maintain their own schools. Thus in Berlin 
 the Merchants' Association ( Kaufmannscliaft) 
 maintains some six schools to provide continua- 
 tion and commercial education for apprentices 
 and young employees. The Tailors' Associa- 
 tion also maintains an interesting apprenticeship 
 school under the supervision of a committee. 
 All the instructors, except in mathematics, are 
 master tailors or cutters and designers in large 
 houses. The pupils, who arc between 15 and 
 18, attend the course in winter, twice a week, 
 for four years. Similar schools are maintained 
 by the Tinsmiths' Association and the Boot- 
 makers' Association. 
 
 While the system of private training on the 
 premises of the employer was the rule, it is 
 now the exception, and is found only in large 
 concerns. Thus, the clothing establishment of 
 Herzog in Berlin selects for special training a 
 few of the apprentices for important positions 
 in the business. A large firm of locomotive 
 manufacturers in the neighborhood of Berlin 
 makes similar provision for the training of its 
 apprentices, who in most cases are already grad- 
 uates of one of the secondary schools. 
 
 On the whole it may be said that in Germany, 
 as in other countries, apprenticeship education 
 in the workshop is being replaced by regular 
 instruction in schools of different types, which 
 are more and more coming under state control. 
 The employers find it to their interest to accept 
 the state regulations for the compulsory attend- 
 ance of their young workpeople in technical 
 schools for a certain number of hours each 
 week. The combination of workshop and 
 school is the contribution of Germany to the 
 problem of training apprentices. 
 
 Switzerland. — The German system of school 
 and shop training has been adopted in Switzer- 
 land. The shops arc supplemented by indus- 
 trial continuation schools, handicraft trade 
 schools, intermediate technical schools, and 
 technical high schools. Grants made to can- 
 tons, communes, and private school committees 
 may amount to one half the total annual expen- 
 diture. 
 
 Legislation for Education of Apprentices. — 
 The federal government has passed no general 
 law governing the education of the apprentice 
 except to forbid the employment of children 
 in factories under 15 years of age and to restrict 
 the hours of labor for workers under 16 years of 
 age to 1 1 per day, but the Canton of Zurich 
 passed an Apprenticeship Law in 1905 contain- 
 ing the following ])ro visions: — 
 
 (Section 5) The master shall be bound to 
 instruct the apprentice to the best of his ability 
 either in person or through a reliable represent- 
 ative. (Section 11) The master is bound to 
 allow the apprentice at least four hours weekly 
 out of his legal working hours to attend classes 
 for trade instruction or general education if 
 such opportunity is available in the vicinity. 
 (Section 16) The right to have apprentices 
 may be withheld from persons found guilty 
 of gross neglect of duty to his apprentice or for 
 moral unfitness. (Section 19) Every appren- 
 tice at the end of his period shall be summoned 
 by his master to undergo a test to prove his 
 ability and technical knowledge of his trade. 
 N.B. The examination expenses are borne by 
 the Canton. (Section 23) To successful ap- 
 prentices a certificate of apprenticeship shall 
 be issued. (Section 30) Infringement of this law 
 punished by a fine not exceeding (40 dollars). 
 
 The Apprenticeship Act of the Canton of 
 Basle (1906) contains similar provisions to that 
 of Zurich. (See further Switzerland, Edu- 
 cation in.) 
 
 United States. — Since the term "apprentice" 
 is loosely used to designate almost any shop 
 learner or employee below the journeyman, it 
 is important to point out that fundamental 
 to true apprenticeship is the indenture, a legal 
 instrument, in the terms of the laws of New 
 York, " whereby a minor is bound out to serve 
 as a clerk or servant in any trade, profession, 
 or employment, or is apprenticed to learn the 
 art or mystery of any trade or craft." An 
 indenture implies mutual obligation of service 
 in preparation for a definite occupation, and 
 apprenticeship is therefore a sharply defined 
 and strictly limited type of vocational educa- 
 tion. The variations in the type are many; 
 yet they may reasonably be classified into 
 two main groups: the old apprenticeship, in 
 which there were close personal and even do- 
 mestic relations between master and appren- 
 tice, with little, if any, provision for definite 
 education; and the new apprenticeship, in 
 which the personal element has practically 
 disappeared, but in which there is a contin- 
 
 156 ,
 
 APPRENTICESHIP AND EDUCATION APPRENTICESHIP AND EDUCATION 
 
 ually growing emphasis upon both intensive 
 and extensive training. 
 
 At no time has apprenticeship failed to have 
 some footing in the United States. The old 
 form, reaching its maximum in the early nine- 
 teenth century, steadily waned as the factory 
 system grew, and, while still existent, has been 
 of little importance since the Civil War. The 
 new form, having its rise in the exigencies of 
 certain industries, has been steadily making 
 way, during the last fifty years, against indif- 
 ference and prejudice, until to-day it finds itself 
 one of the major means through which the fast 
 growing demand for adequate vocational edu- 
 cation seems likely to be met. 
 
 " Not only herein the United States is the apprentice- 
 ship system in process of being resuscitated along expan- 
 sive lines, in order to meet modern conditions of produc- 
 tion in great manufacturing establishments, but many 
 countries in Europe have for some years been perfecting 
 this process, coordinating the apprenticeship system with 
 general trade and industrial instruction. " — Wright, The 
 Apprentice System, p. 19. 
 
 The apprenticeship of colonial days and of 
 the earlier j'ears of the national existence was 
 that of the Old World, and exhibited like advan- 
 tages and evils. Among the advantages was 
 the direct association of the inexperienced 
 youth with the skilled master versed in his 
 special trade and imparting all its practical 
 details to the apprentice. Where the master 
 was not only efficient, but conscientious, the 
 apprentice doubtless secured the best possible 
 acquaintance with the ramifications of the 
 trade. Domestic intercourse with such a type 
 of master was also of high educational value. 
 On the other hand, the length of the indenture 
 — usually seven years, or until the apprentice 
 came of age — was then, as it would be to-day, 
 altogether too great. Consequently, a large 
 part of the time of the apprentice was neces- 
 sarily given to matters in no way connected 
 with the industry itself. He was employed in 
 sweeping out the shop, taking care of the horses 
 and wagons, doing household chores, and run- 
 ning errands for all the members of the master's 
 family. A typical example given by Mr. E. P. 
 BuUard, Jr., in an addre.ss before the National 
 Society for the Promotion of Industrial Educa- 
 tion (q.v.), outlines the duties of an apprentice 
 bound to a coach-lamp maker: — 
 
 "He had to get up out of bed at half-past four in the 
 morning, sweep out the shop, then liuild the kitchen fires 
 for the lady in the house, had to sweep the house after- 
 wards and do any other work around the house that was 
 required, had to take care of the old man's horses, and 
 along in the afternoon, sometimes, not always, he had an 
 opportunity to go and see how they made coach-lamps." 
 
 The indentures were often strongly obli- 
 gatory on the side of the apprentices, but not 
 so on the side of the master. (This lack of 
 obligation on the part of the master, while 
 frequent in the indentures of the early period, 
 was not universal. Many contracts used the 
 words " and the said master on his part doth 
 hereby promise, covenant and agree to teach 
 
 and instruct said apprentice or cause him to be 
 taught and instructed in the art, trade or call- 
 ing of ... by the best ways and means he 
 can.") The indenture of the apprentice re- 
 ferred to above read: " The master shall 
 endeavor to teach or cause to be taught said 
 apprentice." The master could claim, there- 
 fore, fulfillment of the obhgation, if he showed 
 an attempt on his part to teach. The compen- 
 sation, moreover, was always very small. In 
 this particular instance the master was to pro- 
 vide the apprentice 
 
 '* with sufficient meat, bunk and lodging and to pay 
 him twenty-five dollars per year and furnish his clothes." 
 
 Suited to small and scattered industries and 
 to the semi-domestic crafts, the old apprentice- 
 ship system was wholly inadequate to the con- 
 ditions of a modern factory, and was destined, 
 therefore, to decay. Throughout the two cen- 
 turies of its actual existence in the American 
 Colonies and the United States, it labored, 
 moreover, under peculiar difficulties. The 
 pioneer youth was naturallj^ restless under 
 provisions which tied him down, unless by 
 extraordinary labor he could " buy his time," 
 till his majority, and under laws which classed 
 him 'with servants and with slaves. Where 
 opportunity for independent activity was so 
 easy, where personal liberty was so jealously 
 guarded, and where the very atmosphere was 
 one of change, only a relatively small propor- 
 tion of young men could be found voluntarily 
 to assume obligations which were always uncer- 
 tain, generally unfair to the apprentice, and 
 from which it was difficult and expensive to 
 escape. It is not hard to see, then, why many, 
 if not most, of those early apprentices were 
 either public charges indentured by the parish 
 without regard to their personal wishes in the 
 matter, or orphans taken care of by their 
 guardians in this easy way. 
 
 As pointed out by Dr. Motley in Appren- 
 ticeship in American Trade I'nions, the laws 
 relating to apprenticeship in the United States 
 recognized two purposes: one industrial, that 
 every boy of the artisan class might learn a 
 trade under conditions favorable to the master; 
 the other philanthropic, that there might be 
 " guaranteed to poor, unfortunate or neglected 
 children the opportunity to learn a trade so 
 that they might in time become. useful citizens 
 and not public charges." Neither purpose 
 furnished a very attractive motive for appren- 
 ticeship to American youth. 
 
 With the great manufacturing evolution which 
 had its rise in the middle part of the nineteenth 
 century, and the main features of which were 
 the rapid introduction of labor-saving ma- 
 chinery and the resulting subdivision of pro- 
 cesses, came, naturally but gradually, the dying 
 out of a never very deeply seated and a now no 
 longer effective method of industrial training. 
 On the statute books, however, the early laws 
 were retained for many years after new methods 
 
 157
 
 APPRENTICESHIP AND EDUCATION APPRENTICESHIP AND EDUCATION 
 
 had been inaugurated in practice; and while it 
 is often stated that " the apprenticeship system 
 is dead," yet even to-day, isolateil though not 
 infrequent, instances may be found of the 
 employment of apjirentices under practically 
 the old forms of indenture. 
 
 The process of finding and adopting substi- 
 tutes for this moribund system was neither 
 rapid nor easy. As early as 1850 manufacturers 
 were complaining bitterly of the scarcity of 
 skilletl labor; and the rapid industrial develop- 
 ment following the Civil War made this ques- 
 tion even more acute. The blindness of the 
 manufacturers of that period, both to the need 
 and to the nature of industrial education, and 
 the fear of the worker lest the labor market 
 be over-supplied, united to make experimenta- 
 tion cautious and development extremely slow. 
 This was particularly true as regards the growth 
 of the " new ap]5rcnticeship "; for into this 
 phase of vocational education enter complicated 
 elements due to trade unionism, to specializa- 
 tion of processes, to mobility of labor, and to 
 the personal equation. From their beginning 
 the unions have guarded with most careful 
 regulations the nature and number of appren- 
 tices; in the high specialization of manufactur- 
 ing processes there is bound to be conflict 
 between the employer who wants the increased 
 output which comes from holding an emplo3'ee 
 to a simple process and the workman who de- 
 sires to get an extensive range of skill; in view 
 of the well-known tendency of American 
 workers to migrate, hoping to better their 
 condition, the manufacturer hesitates to train 
 apprentices only to see them employed by his 
 rivals; while the factory system itself makes 
 it exceedingly difficult to secure to the appren- 
 tice right teaching or to guard him from petty 
 tyranny at the hands of those in whose charge 
 he must be placed. Not only has there been 
 disinclination on the part of the average fore- 
 man really to teach the apprentice, but the 
 former's striving for efficiency has led him, 
 for economic reasons, to keep the apprentice at 
 a single process. Skill in such a special pro- 
 cess, moreover, commands higher wages, and 
 has therefore given' the apprentice himself a 
 powerful incentive to stick to that single 
 activity without regard to the ultimate effect 
 upon his mental condition or his material 
 future. 
 
 Despite these difficulties, the demand for 
 skill has been so pressmg that many establish- 
 ments, especially in the machine-building 
 trades, have given much study and experi- 
 mentation to the problem and have evolved 
 therefrom differing, but usually effective, 
 systems of apprenticeship. In the infinite 
 complexity of modern industry it is evident that 
 no one method will suit all cases. Certain 
 industries have machine-tending operations in 
 which very slight skill and training are neces- 
 sary; in others a few expert directors are suffi- 
 cient to control a large body of unskilled labor; 
 
 while others require not only high technical 
 efficiency, but also, because of rapid evolution, 
 unusual adaptability. The manufacture of 
 engines, locomotives, or intricate and delicate 
 tools, for example, demands large numbers of 
 such highly expert workers. 
 
 Carroll D. Wright, in his report on the 
 Apprenticeship System iti its Helation to Iiidus- 
 trinl Eduention, estimating that there are in 
 round numbers 22.5,000 manufacturing estab- 
 lishments in the United States, says: — 
 
 "It is impossible without taking a census of the 
 whole number to ascertain liow man\- have adopted any 
 form of apprenticeship, but from all that can be learned, 
 there must be many, many thousands." 
 
 In the Report of the New York Bureau of 
 Labor Statistics for lOOS, the nundier of appren- 
 tices per 100 employees of high-grade skill is 
 given as 4.S. If this percentage holds for the 
 other manufacturing states, it is evident that 
 apprenticeship is an important force in indus- 
 try. Moreover, in a Report on Industrial 
 Education, published in 1910 by the American 
 Federation of Labor, we find these statements: — 
 
 "It is of more than passing interest to note that the 
 ro\-i\al of apprenticeships by large corporate interests 
 through comprehensive and sane regulations is gradually 
 taking form. With the growing feeling that the old-time 
 apprenticeshij) system nnist be modified to meet modern 
 conditions of life, there looms up the question of a substi- 
 tute which shall keep the best and most necessary of the 
 older customs, and meet modern requirements. It is 
 further recognized that the old apprenticeship system 
 possessed many features that were uneconomic and un- 
 just, but with the preservation of much that was good 
 and its application by proper blending with the modern 
 idea of perfection in theory, it would le.ad to more satis- 
 factory results. A marked tendency towards apprentice- 
 ship is taking place, and the feeling expressed by both 
 employer and employee is that a gradual return will 
 take place if such training is conducted sanely and 
 advantageously to the American Youth." 
 
 This revival of apprenticeship is proceeding, 
 roughly speaking, along four main lines. The 
 first is where the indu.strial establishment and 
 the school system cooperate in the education 
 of the apprentice, practice in the shop being 
 supplemented and illuminated by cognate 
 school study of mathematics, drawing, physics, 
 chemistry, etc. The second is where the em- 
 ployer provides such school exercises within 
 his own establishment. The third is where 
 the industrial establishment recommends or 
 requires school study without making any pro- 
 vision, direct or through affiliation, for such 
 supplementary training. The fourth is where 
 the apprenticeship training is practically con- 
 centrated upon a single process or range of 
 processes for the purpose of securing special- 
 ized skill. 
 
 These varying forms are best illustrated by 
 specific instances. These are given, however, 
 without prejudice to similar, equally effective, 
 examples, which, for lack of space, must be 
 omitted. Perhaps the most striking instance 
 of the first type of apprentice-training, the 
 cooperative plan, exists in Cincinnati, where 
 
 158
 
 APPRENTICESHIP AND EDUCATION APPRENTICESHIP AND EDUCATION 
 
 the University of Cincinnati has engineering 
 courses of six years' duration, during which 
 the students work alternate weeks in the shops 
 of the city throughout the scholastic year, and 
 through the summer on full time. The practi- 
 cal work at the shops is as carefully planned as 
 the theoretical work at the university, and in 
 all cases the students follow as nearly as possi- 
 ble the path of the machine from the raw 
 material to the finished product. The students 
 are paid for their ser\'ices on a scale of wages 
 beginning at 10 cents an hour and increasing at 
 the rate of 1 cent an hour about every 6 months. 
 The total earnings in the 6 years amount 
 to about $2000. This plan has had over 
 three years of successful operation, and has 
 received the highest commendation from the 
 manufacturers of the city. Moreover, under 
 the initiative of the Cincinnati branch of the 
 National Metal Trades Association, this coop- 
 erative plan has been extended to the high 
 school, the plan being to furnish the manu- 
 facturers with skilled mechanics for the shops. 
 Instances of the second type, in which shop 
 and school are intimately associated, are the 
 General Electric Company of Lynn, Mass., 
 the New York Central Lines, the Grand 
 Trunk Railway, and other railroads, the Lud- 
 low Manufacturing Associates of Ludlow, 
 Mass., the Westinghouse Air-Brake Company 
 of Pittsburg, Penn., the Southern Bell Tele- 
 phone Company of Atlanta, Ga., the William 
 Tod Company of Youngstown, Ohio, the 
 George V. Cresson Company of Philadelphia, 
 Penn., and the Yale and Towne Manufactur- 
 ing Company of Stamford, Conn. To quote 
 from M. W. Alexander, Supervisor of Appren- 
 tices of the General Electric Company, at 
 Lynn, Mass.: — 
 
 "The training room is simply a part of the whole 
 factory set aside for the purpose of training apprentices, 
 and is provided with a complement of machines and tools, 
 and the mo.st instructive work that the factory contains 
 at any time." "The apprentice remains in the training 
 room for a period of about a year and a half to two years, 
 . . . and during that time is given an opportunity to 
 work witli the different macliines and tools and to per- 
 form different operations on a variety of work. . . . 
 The apprentice is transferred from the training room at 
 the end of about two years to different departments of 
 the factory. A school has been established in connection 
 with the apprenticeship course, in which instruction of an 
 eminently practical character is given for the purpose of 
 supplementing and amplifying the practical work of the 
 shop. Each apprentice is obliged to spend sLx hours a 
 week out of his regular time of employment in the class- 
 room, during which time he receives the same wages 
 as if he were working at the bench or at the machine. 
 The teachers in the classroom are selected from the 
 staff of engineers, draftsmen, and foremen of the com- 
 pany, and devote part of their time to the work of teach- 
 ing. They are chosen in preference to professional 
 educators on account of their intimate knowledge of the 
 needs of the factory and the industries in general. Their 
 work covers instruction in that branch of mathematics, 
 physics, engineering and mechanical drawing which is 
 a necessary part of the equipment of a skilled artisan. 
 
 In the New York Central Lines and other 
 railroads, the relation between practice and 
 theory is even closer, drawing, mathematics. 
 
 etc., being based wholly upon shop problems 
 which must be worked out by the individual 
 apprentice according to his ability. 
 
 Instances of the third type of apprentice- 
 ship are the R. Hoe and Company's School, 
 where the young employee in the shops pur- 
 sues evening courses, conducted outside the 
 establishment but devised to furnish knowl- 
 edge of things relating to the work in which he 
 is engaged; and the Brown-Ketcham Iron 
 Works of Indianapolis, Ind., which give six 
 months' time on their apprenticeship to those 
 boys who follow the course of instruction in a 
 special night school organized by the Y.M.C.A. 
 
 It is evident, however, that where the indus- 
 try involves many operations and processes, 
 there must always be a strong tendency to use 
 the time and capacity of a boy in thoroughly 
 mastering the special details of a single depart- 
 ment. The National Association of Machine 
 Tool Builders has adopted a system of inden- 
 turing apprentices to a single department for 
 terms varying from one to two years. While 
 this secures special skill, it docs not enable the 
 apprentice to learn the trade as a whole. To 
 quote from a letter explaining this fourth plan: 
 
 "It was the custom in the saw trade originally to 
 indenture apprentices and bind them for four years' 
 apprenticeship at very small wages, and boys so in- 
 dentured were taught every branch of the business. 
 In this present day of specialization, a boy appren- 
 ticed to the sawsmith's trade is limited entirely to the 
 work of straightening and tensioning saws of all kinds. 
 The practice of instructing apprentices has not been given 
 up entirely, but the work in a saw factory is so specialized 
 in these days that an apprentice boy learns only one 
 special part of the work. They are taken on as appren- 
 tices at sixteen or seventeen years old, and they serve 
 four years under instruction, at the end of which time 
 they are entitled to journeyman wages, and are given 
 certificates of graduation, as it were, in their particular 
 branch of the business." 
 
 Of such specialization Mr. Higgins of the 
 Norton Company of Worcester remarks: — 
 
 "Specialization is both a good thing and a bad thing. 
 It is good because it enables the individual who is low 
 in opportunity and outlook to get a footing in the field 
 of productive life, so that he becomes quickly self- 
 supporting and has entered a career that io ever open at 
 the top. . . . The system of narrow specialization is 
 l3ad whenever the individual is induced to take a short 
 cut and be a narrow specialist when he might have done 
 better by a broader all-round training." 
 
 Col. Wright defines the proper apprentice- 
 ship system as one that " will guarantee to the 
 boy the opportunity of learning his trade as a 
 whole at a fixed wage with a steady increa.se." 
 
 The Fore River Ship Building Company of 
 Quincy, Mass., has mapped out careful courses 
 of instruction for apprentices in more than a 
 dozen specific lines. It is interesting to note 
 these divisions, which include special instruc- 
 tion for blacksmiths, coppersmiths, electri- 
 cians, ship-carpenters, pattern-makers, joiners, 
 riveters, ship-fitters, anglesmiths, sheet-iron 
 workers, etc. The Brown and Sharpe Manu- 
 facturing Company of Providence, R. I., 
 have special instruction for core-makers, iron- 
 
 159
 
 APPRENTICESHIP AND EDUCATION APPRENTICESHIP AND EDUCATION 
 
 moulders, machinists, and pattern-makers. 
 In tlicso companies the apprenticeship agree- 
 ments vary in accordance with the special 
 branch of work to be pursued by the apprentice, 
 and they all serve as excellent illustrations of 
 what is called the " special apprenticeshij) 
 system." 
 
 A practically unique form of apprenticeship 
 training is that furnished by the Williamson 
 Free School of Mechanical Trades. Under the 
 foundation deed: — 
 
 "All scholars admitted to the school shall be fed with 
 good, wholesome food : plainly, neatly and comfortaMy 
 clad, and decently and fitly housed and lodged. They 
 shall also ... be thornui;lil\' instructed and groundeci 
 in the rudiments of a cimd lOntrlish common-school edu- 
 cation, embracing spelling, reading, writing, arithmetic, 
 grammar, geography, history, particularly of the United 
 States, and also such of the natural and physical sciences 
 and lower mathematics as in the opinion of the Trustees 
 it may be important for them to acquire to fit themselves 
 for the trades they are to learn. ... I expressly direct 
 that each and every scholar shall be compelled to learn 
 and be thoroughly instructed in one good mechanical 
 trade, so that when they leave the school on the comple- 
 tion of their indentures they may be able to support 
 themselves by the labor of their own hands." 
 
 Another rather unusual form is that prosecuted 
 by the Printing School of the North End Union, 
 in which the cooperation between the master 
 printers and the school is so close as to make 
 the latter virtually an adjunct to the printing 
 establishments themselves. 
 
 So far consideration has been had only to the 
 employer and employee. As has been sug- 
 gested, however, trade unionism has been a 
 large, if not a controlling, factor in the whole 
 modern development of apprenticeship. As 
 a general rule, the trade unions have undertaken 
 to determine apprenticeship regulations. In 
 the early days of unionism, local conditions 
 naturally defined the apprenticeship rules. 
 Limitation of the number of apprentices was 
 very common, on the ground that the introduc- 
 tion into a trade of a large number of trained 
 apprentices would cause a lowering of wages. 
 The problem, and the attitude of organized 
 labor, is fairly stated in the report on Indus- 
 trial Education (1910) of the American Federa- 
 tion of Labor: — 
 
 "The problem of industrial education and trade 
 training is made very complex by the present system of 
 Bpecialization, and unless great care is exercised the 
 exploitation of boys who desire to enter upon a career 
 as skilled craftsmen is probable. A proper apprentice- 
 ship system which will guarantee to the youth the 
 opportunity of learning his trade as a whole is verj- much 
 desired. One of the disadvantages of many apprentice- 
 ship systems is that establishments have become so large 
 and with so many departments with their divisions and 
 subdivisions and processes that the time of the boy is 
 fully employed in mastering details of one department to 
 the exclusion of all other departments. Public indus- 
 trial schools or schools for trade training should never 
 become so narrow in their scope as to prevent an all- 
 round shop training. The action of the National 
 Tool Builders' Association in boldly stating that 
 they expect to train specialists will do more to 
 call to the attention of the public the necessity for 
 broad industrial training before the age of seventeen 
 than any other procedure, hence a \'ital question 
 
 to be considered is how best to provide for the 
 future entrance into skilled trades without o\'ercrowding 
 them, and finally the problem is of so training the 
 workers that they become the best kind of workers the 
 world produces and at the same time develop conditions 
 which go w'ith increased efficiency, increasing wages, 
 and increasingly better living conditions." 
 
 There have almost always been serious dif- 
 ferences regarding ap|ireiiticeship between the 
 employers and the unions, cs)3ecially in connec- 
 tion with the limitation of numbers. A strong 
 union would succeed in enforcing its regulations, 
 while emi)loyers would overrule the weak. Of 
 late years, however, conciliation has been the 
 moving princijjle in all disputed questions, and 
 apprenticeship regulations have been determined 
 by joint boards. 
 
 "Of the 120 national and international trade unions 
 with a total of 1.676.200 members affiliated in 1904 with 
 the American Federation of Labor, 50 unions with a 
 membership of 766.417 do not attempt to maintain ap- 
 prenticeship systems. The remaining, together with 
 pbout half a dozen unaffiliated, national unions, try more 
 or less successfully to enforce apprenticeship regulations. 
 The majority of the unions in which apprenticeship is not 
 a prerequisite to membership are composed of members 
 who perform unskilled labor. Ordinarj' intelligence and 
 physical strength are the qualities chiefly required from 
 these workers." — Motley, Apprenticeship in American 
 Trade Unions. 
 
 The purposes of apprenticeship rules are 
 primarily a shorter working day, an increased 
 wage, and more favorable conditions of em- 
 ployment, these being the ends aimed at by 
 unions and apprenticeship regulation being the 
 machinery used to attain these ends. Admis- 
 sion to the union is the final step in apprentice- 
 ship, special inducements being offered to secure 
 such entrance. 
 
 As stated further by Dr. Motley : "The apprentice- 
 ship system in nearly all the unions is, however, unsatis- 
 factory. . . . This may be attril)uted to three general 
 causes : (a) the large influence of local unions in deter- 
 mining apprenticeship rules ; (ft) the effect of changes in 
 business organization and industrial technique ; (c) 
 the disregard of apprenticeship rules both by employers 
 and the unions." He continues, however : — 
 
 "The most promising tendency in the direction of 
 bettering the conditions of apprenticeship is found in the 
 fact that apprenticeship regulations are in an increasing 
 number of cases formed by joint agreement between the 
 employer and the union, and not, as formerly, by the 
 union or the employer alone. . . . The acceptance of 
 the agreement by employers and unions tends to con- 
 centrate the best thought of both parties upon the 
 subject, with the result that in many instances elaborate 
 and efficient rules have been jointly enacted and en- 
 forced." 
 
 In view of this changing attitude of both 
 employers and labor unions, and in view, more- 
 over, of the success of such experiments as 
 that at Cincinnati and those upon many of the 
 railroads, it would seem safe to predict that 
 apprenticeship education will occupy an increas- 
 ing place in vocational training, and that, in this 
 development, it will follow substantially two 
 main lines, — one leading towards closer co- 
 operation between public education and indus- 
 trial establishments; and the other tending 
 towards an intensive, practical, but nevertheless 
 
 160
 
 APPRENTICESHIP AND EDUCATION 
 
 APTITUDE 
 
 broad, apprenticeship training conducted, with- 
 in the establishments themselves, by men who 
 are educators as well as experts in their special 
 fields. J. S., C. R. R., I. L. K., and J. P. M. 
 
 See articles on Industrial Education ; Trade 
 Unions and Education; Trade Schools; Vo- 
 cational Education; etc. 
 
 References : — 
 
 Gwat Britain. 
 
 Apprenticeship and Skilled ErapIojTnent Association Co. 
 Trades for London Boys. (London, 190S.) 
 Trades for London Girk. (London, 1909.) 
 
 Association of Technical Institutions. Cooperation of 
 Employers and Technical Institutions. (London, 
 1905.) 
 
 CAMP.tGN.tc, E. T., and Russell, C. E. B. School 
 Training and Employment (Lancashire Children). 
 (London, 1903.) 
 
 Consultative Committee. Report on Attendance, Com- 
 pulsory or otherwise, at Continuation Schools, Vol. J. 
 (London, 1909.) 
 
 Creaset, C. H. Technical Education in Evening Schools. 
 (London, 1905.) 
 
 Jackson. Cykil. Report on Boy Labour (Royal Com- 
 mission). (London, 1909.) 
 
 Leeds Education Committee. Higher Education. 
 (Leeds, 1906.) 
 
 London Education Committee. Report on Apprentice- 
 ships. (London, 1906.) 
 
 Millis, C. T. Employment and Education. (London, 
 1906.) 
 A'eed for Systematic Courses of Technical Instruc- 
 tion. (London.) 
 
 Sadler, M. E. Continuation Schools in England and 
 Elsewhere. (Manchester, 1907.) 
 
 Sandiford, Peter. Compulsory Continuation Schools. 
 University Review, April, 1907. (Manchester.) 
 
 Shadwell, a. Industrial Efficiency. (London, 1906.) 
 
 Webb, Sidnev and Beatrice. History of Trades 
 Unioniii?n. (London, 1904.) 
 Industrial Democracy. (London, 1897.) 
 Germany. 
 
 Brentano. Die Arbeitergilden der Gegenwart, (Leipzig, 
 1S71-1S72.) 
 On the History and Development of Gilds and the 
 Origin of Trade Unions. (London, 1870.) 
 
 Leonhard, H. Der Handwerker in Staat und Recht. 
 (Leipzig, 1909.) 
 
 Pope. Die Regelung des Lehrlings- und Gesellenpriifungs- 
 wesens. (Leipzig, 1902.) 
 
 Verein fiir Socialpolitik. Die Reform des Lehrlingswesens. 
 (Leipzig, 1875.) 
 
 Wolff, M. L'Apprentissage en Allcmagne, in Musee 
 Social, Memoires et Documents, 1903, No. 5. 
 (Paris, 1903.) 
 France. 
 
 BnissoN, F. Dictionnaire de Pedagogic. (Paris, 1887.) 
 S.v. Apprenjis, Apprentissage. 
 
 Cacheux, E. Elats actuel en France du PatroTiage et de 
 V Enseignement des Apprentis. (Paris, 1889.) 
 
 Chatelin, D. Les Ecoles d' Apprentissage h Paris. 
 (Paris, 1906.) 
 
 Ministe^re du Commerce, de I'lndustrie, des Postes et 
 des Telegraphes. L'Apprentissage induslriel: Rap- 
 port sur r Apprentissage dans les Industries d'Ameu- 
 blement. (Paris, 1905.) 
 Conseil superieur du Travail, Session de 1902, Ai>- 
 
 prcntissage. (Paris, 1902.) 
 Office du Travail, L'Apprentissage Industriel, Rap- 
 port sur I' Apprentissage dans I'Imprimerie. (Paris, 
 1902.) 
 American. 
 
 American Federation of Labor. Industrial Education, 
 First Edition, 1910. 
 
 Bureau of Labor of the State of Minnesota. Fourth 
 Biennial Report, 1S93-1S94 contains a historical 
 account of the apprenticeship system. 
 
 E.\TON, J. Shirley. Education for Effixciency in Railroad 
 Service. U. S. Bureau of Education, Bull. 1909, 
 No. 10. 
 
 Massachusetts Bureau of Statistics of Labor. Part I, 
 Annual Report for 1906. The Apprenticeship 
 System. 
 
 Motley, James M. Apprenticeship in American Trade 
 Unions. Johns Hopkins University Studies in 
 History and Political Science, 1907. 
 
 Richards, Charles R. Itulustrial Training. New- 
 York Bureau of Labor Statistics. Contains a bib- 
 liography. (New York, 1908.) 
 
 Sadler, M. E. Continuation Schools in England and 
 Elsewhere. (Manchester, 1908.) 
 
 School of Printing, North End Union, Boston, Mass. 
 Apprenticeship Bulletin, Vol. 1, 1907 ; Vol. II, 1908; 
 Vol. Ill, 1909. 
 
 Wright, Carroll D. The Apprenticeship System in its 
 Relation to Industrial Education. U. S. Bureau of 
 Education, Bull. No. 6, contains a bibliography 
 and a digest of apprenticeship laws from the Tenth 
 Report of the U. S. Commissioner of Labor. (Wash- 
 ington, 1908.) 
 
 APPRENTICESHIP EDUCATION UNDER 
 THE POOR LAW. — See Poor Law and 
 Education. 
 
 APRAXIA. — A kind of aphasia (g.v.), in 
 which there is an inability to appreciate the 
 forms of objects and to properly use them. 
 Tlie objects may belong to any field of activity, 
 e.g. pen or pencil, knife or fork, hammer or 
 saw, table or chair, etc., and be sensed by 
 means of any of the sense organs. 
 
 References : — 
 
 Bechterew, W. v. Ueber die Localisation der motor- 
 ischen Apraxie. Monatsch. far Psychiat. u. Neurol., 
 XXV, 1909, 42-51. 
 
 Hartm.vnn, F. Beitrage zur Apraxielehre. Monatsch. 
 fur Psychiatr. u. Neurol. .Vol. XXI, 97-118 ; 248-270. 
 
 LiEPMANN, H. Das Krankheitsbild der Apraxie. Mo- 
 natsch. fur Psychiat. u. Neurol., 1900. 
 
 MoNAKOw, C. V. Ueber den gegenwiirtigen Stand der 
 Frage nach der Localisation im Grosshirn. Apha- 
 sie, Agnosie, Apraxie. In Asher und Spiro : 
 Ergcbnisse der Physiologic, Vol. VI, 1907, pp. 
 334-605. 
 
 APROSECHIA NASALIS, called bv French 
 and English writers APROSEXIA NASALIS 
 
 (d-irpoue^ia, inattention, and na.sali.s, nasal). — 
 This term was invented by Guye to indicate the 
 form of inattention that is apt to occur in case 
 of children suffering from adenoid growths. 
 The child is apt to be dull, Hstless, unable to 
 accomplish satisfactory school work, and some- 
 times distinctly stupid. The effect of an oper- 
 ation removing the adenoid is usually great 
 improvement of the power of attention and of 
 the mental abihty generally. 
 See article on Adenoids. 
 
 APTITUDE. — Mental capacity, native or 
 acquired. An aptitude is that part of a person's 
 mental equipment which gives him a special 
 fitness for any kind of endeavor. Such an 
 aptitude may be the result of either an innate 
 endowment or of special training, or both. 
 
 Individuals differ greatly in their gifts and ca- 
 pacities, such differences being both quantitative 
 and qualitative. Thus in general there are 
 three classes of individuals, differing quantita- 
 tively with respect to their general mental 
 
 IGl
 
 AQUATICS 
 
 AQUINAS 
 
 equipment. They are the talented or gifted 
 persons; the average person, or person of 
 medium ability; and the subnormal. Within 
 each of these classes there are various sub- 
 classes. This is especially true of the last 
 class, which comprises those who are weak- 
 minded and those who arc merely lacking in 
 mental aljility though below the average in 
 capacity. The former are still further sub- 
 divided into the idiots and imbeciles, who differ 
 somewhat in the degree of their mental ability. 
 
 The mental and physical ([ualitics giving ri.sc 
 to differences in aptitude are difficult to dis- 
 tinguish. Apparently differences in the purely 
 sensory basis of the mental life are compara- 
 tively insignificant, as is shown by the fact that 
 many persons deprived of some of their senses 
 reach a high degree of mental development. 
 On the other hand, it is probable that a natural 
 tendency to emphasize the reproduced elements 
 of one or another of the spheres of sense maj' be 
 at the basis of many aptitu<les which express 
 themselves in choice of callings and talented 
 performance. Fundamental differences of this 
 sort, for example, are often at the basis of the 
 high degree of perfection attained by artists, 
 musicians, etc. 
 
 Another fundamental group of differences in 
 mental qualities are differences in attention 
 which to a large extent govern a person's 
 mental aptitudes. The type of a man's atten- 
 tion (distributive or intensive, etc.) has un- 
 doubtedly a great influence upon the direction 
 taken by liis mental development. E. H. C. 
 
 References : — 
 Meu-\i.\nn. E. Experimenielle Padogogik, Vol. I. 
 
 (Leipzig. 1909.) 
 MiJNSTERBERG. Psychology and the Teacher, pp. 212- 
 
 230. 
 
 AQUATICS or WATER SPORTS. — See 
 
 Athletics, Educational; Rowing; Swim- 
 ming; Water Polo. 
 
 A QUA VIVA. 
 
 System or. 
 
 See Jesuits, Educational 
 
 AQUINAS, ST. THOMAS (122.5-1274).— 
 The greatest and most influential philosopher of 
 the ^Middle Ages. He studied first at the Bene- 
 dictine monastery of Monte Casino, and, later, 
 at the University of Naples. After his entrance 
 into the Dominican order in 1243, he became 
 a pupil of AUsert the (Jreat {q.v.) at Cologne 
 and at Paris. In 1251, he began to teach 
 at Paris, but did not obtain his license as 
 Magister, or Doctor, until 12.56. Between the 
 years 1260 and 1270, he taught at Rome, 
 Bologna, Viterbo, Perugia, and Naples. His 
 greatest work, a summary of Catholic philos- 
 ophy and theology entitled Summa Theologica, 
 begun in 1271, was left incomplete. Besides 
 this, he wrote a more popular controversial or 
 apologetic summary, Summa Contra Gentiles, 
 various theological and philosophical Opuscula, 
 
 special treatises {Quaestioncs Disputatae), com- 
 mentaries, exegetical works, etc. The best 
 editions of his Opera Omnia are the Roman 
 of 1570, the Parma edition, 1852-1859, the 
 Paris edition, 1875, the New Roman, or Leonine, 
 edition, 1S82 ff., of which 12 volumes have been 
 published up to date. 
 
 St. Thomas attained very widespread fame 
 as a teacher of philosophy and theology. His 
 method did not differ essentially from that of 
 the monastic teachers of the early Middle 
 Ages. He expounded and commented on a 
 text, using in his philoso|)hical course the text 
 of Aristotle (a sjiccial translation was made at 
 his rec|uest directly from the CJreek by William 
 of Moerbeke (q.v.) about 1260) and in his 
 theological courses either the Latin Vulgate 
 translation of the Bible or the Books of Sen- 
 tences of Peter the Lombard (q.v.). His manner 
 of treating these texts was, however, original, 
 and even novel to the point of arousing the 
 opposition of the reactionaries of his day^ 
 "He was original," writes his disciple William ~ 
 Tocco (Acta Sanctorum Martii, Vol. I, pp.661 ff.) 
 "in the subjects which he introduced into his 
 lectures, in the manner in which he drew his 
 conclusions, in the reasons which he gave for 
 his conclusions; nay, he did not hesitate to 
 teach and to write new opinions." This orig- 
 inality of manner and matter attracted un- 
 favorable attention on the part of his rivals 
 and opponents in the great struggle between 
 the "regulars" and "seculars " which threatened 
 to disrupt the University of Paris during the 
 thirteenth century. He was attacked also 
 by the Franciscan teachers, headed by William 
 of Lamarre. In 1277, three years after his 
 death, the two greatest universities of Chris- 
 tendom, Paris and Oxford, condemned certain 
 of his teachings. He had, however, defenders 
 as well as opponents. In 1278, a General 
 Chapter of the Dominican order held at Milan 
 approved him as a teacher, and before the end 
 of the century his doctrines were generally 
 acknowledged as unassailable from the point 
 of view of orthodoxy. ,His authority as a 
 teacher grew during the fourteenth and fifteenth 
 centuries. His works received special com- 
 mendation from Councils and Popes, until in 
 our own day he was proposed by Pope Leo 
 XIII as patron of Catholic schools throughout 
 the world, and his writings prescribed as a text 
 in Catholic colleges, seminaries, and universities. 
 
 Among the works of St. Thomas there is' 
 none which treats in an exhau.stive manner of 
 the principles of education. In the commen- 
 tary on the Politics of Aristotle, he accepts the 
 Stagirite's principles in regard to the educa- 
 tional function of the state. The treatise 
 De Magistro, incorporated in the Quaestio 
 Disputata de Veritate, is theological and pliilo- 
 sopliical rather than pedagogical. It is divided 
 into four articles. The first inquires whether 
 one man can teach another and so be called 
 "Master," or whether this title belongs to 
 
 162
 
 AQUINAS 
 
 ARABIC EDUCATION 
 
 God alone. The second article discusses 
 whether one may be said to be his own teacher. 
 The third takes up the question whether man 
 may be taught by an angel. The fourth is 
 devoted to the question whether teaching be- 
 longs to the active or to the contemplative 
 life. Here, as elsewhere in the Quaestiones 
 Disputatae, the contents of the tract are deter- 
 mined not so much by the requirements of a 
 strictly logical division of topics as by the im- 
 mediate needs of the controversy which had 
 arisen in the schools. The question to which 
 the first article is devoted is discu.ssed also 
 in the Sumina Theologica, la, CXIII, Art. I. 
 -In both places St. Thomas expounds a view 
 which recalls the Socratic doctrine of develop- 
 ment. There are, he says, in the human mind, 
 as it were, seeds of knowledge (quaedam scien- 
 liarum seinuia), general principles, which con- 
 tain potentially the more definite knowledge 
 of particulars. 'The function of the teacher is to 
 propose general principles to the mind of the 
 pupil, who, by the natural light of reason, 
 perceives them to be true, and then to aid him 
 in passing to particular applications. Thus 
 the process of teaching follows the path mapped 
 out by nature itself; for teaching is an art, and 
 the first canon of art is to follow nature. • 
 
 Among the Opuscula is a letter addressed to 
 a student who had inquired what is the best 
 way to acquire knowledge, human and divine. 
 St. Thomas answers in a brief summary of the 
 dispositions, mental, moral, and spiritual, which 
 are requisite for the acquisition of knowledge. 
 Among the counsels which he gives is this: Be- 
 gin by what is less difficult and so proceed by 
 easy stages to more difficult questions: do not 
 enter at once into the sea of knowledge, but 
 approach it by the streams that lead to it. 
 {Opusc. LXI, in Paris edition, Vol. XXVIII, 
 pp. 46 ff.) The Opusculum De Eruditione Prin- 
 cipum, which, however, is of doubtful authen- 
 ticity, contains a lengthy discussion of the duties 
 of parents in regard to the education of their 
 children, and enumerates the qualities which a 
 teacher should possess. These last are reduced 
 to five: ability (especially originality), correct 
 living, humble knowledge, eloquence, and skill 
 in teaching (perilia docendi). Skill in teaching 
 is conditioned by a talent for clearness, the 
 ability to be brief without being obscure, an 
 appreciation of the useful, kindness (suaintas), 
 and deliberatene.ss (i.e. mediocrilns inter velo- 
 citatem et tarditatem). The requirements on 
 the part of the learner are, likewise, treated 
 at length. Throughout the discussion there 
 is an interweaving of intellectual, moral, and 
 .spiritual considerations {Opu.fc. XXXVII, in 
 Paris edition, Vol. XXVII, pp. 5.51 ff.). 
 
 W. T. 
 
 References : — 
 
 Dra.ne, a. T. Christian Schools and Scholars. (Lon- 
 don. 18,S1.) 
 
 Pace. St. Thomas' Theory of Education, in Catholic 
 University Bulletin, July, 1902. 
 
 163 
 
 Sandys, J. E. History of Classical Scholarship, Vol. I. 
 
 (Cambridge, 190.3.) 
 St. Thomae Aquinatis. Opera Omnia. (Paris, 1875.) 
 TowNSEND, W. J. The Great Schoolmen of the Middle 
 
 Ages. (London. ISSl.) 
 Turner, W. History of Philosophy. (Boston, 190.3.) 
 Vaughan. St. Thomas of Aquin. (London, 1872.) 
 
 ARABIC EDUCATION. — TWs subject is 
 chiefly of interest to students of Western 
 civilizations from the fact that it contributed 
 to illumine the period of the so-called " Dark 
 Ages." It was essentially Greek rather than 
 Arabian in character and origin. It is true, 
 indeed, that the early or Bedouin period 
 of the Saracenic people was adorned by a 
 certain indigenous culture. Arabic poetry 
 originated in a period of most remote antiquity; 
 and the Kitab al-AJghani, or Book of Songs, 
 contains a store of information of pre-Moham- 
 medan culture. But the coming of Mohammed, 
 in 571, gave a new character to the Arabian . 
 civilization, sounding a note of war against the 
 infidel which accompanied the banner of Islam 
 throughout Western India, northern Africa, and 
 Spain. Spain was completely conquered, ex- 
 cept for the Christians who remained in the 
 mountains, by 715 a.d. In the East, the rise 
 of the Abbasid dynasty, which involved the 
 removal of the Khalifate from Damascus to 
 Baghdad, inaugurated a new and brilliant 
 period of civilization. 
 
 The Abbasids made a deliberate attempt to 
 extend and popularize education. Under their 
 patronage a diligent search for books, and a 
 systematic process of translating foreign writings, 
 was instituted. Syrian monks had long been 
 engaged in the translation of Greek works into 
 Syriac; and now the Nestorians, an exiled and 
 persecuted sect of Christians, were employed 
 to make Arabian versions from the Syriac for the 
 khaUfs. Carrhae, the Haran of the Scriptures, 
 became a celebrated center of astronomical 
 and scientific knowledge. Each mosque estab- 
 lished a public school for reading and writing 
 the Koran. It is said that over one thousand 
 students attended the medical college, hospital 
 for clinical instruction, and chemical laboratories 
 of the second of the Abloasids. One even hears 
 of a Nestorian as " superintendent of public in- 
 struction." 
 
 An impetus was given to the cause of edu- 
 cation in 7.S6 by the accession to the Khalifate 
 of Haroun-al-Raschid, whose efforts on behalf 
 of enlightenment were only surpassed by those 
 of his son and successor Al-mamum. Both 
 caused mosques and academies to be built; Al- 
 mamum founded a university, a library, and an 
 observatory at Baghdad, proceeded to accept 
 books and even pictures and maps as tribute, 
 endowed professorial chairs, assisted indigent 
 students, bought rare instruments and manu- 
 scripts, and addicted himself to study. About 
 this time was effected a famous translation of 
 Ptolemy's Geography and Astronomy, under 
 the name of the Almngefil : and tran.slations 
 were also made of Aristotle's Categories and
 
 ARABIC EDUCATION 
 
 ARABIC EDUCATION 
 
 Poetics, Plato's Republic and Timctus, the 
 Elements of Euclid, and the works of (Jalen on 
 medicine. Meantime, in the way of indigenous 
 literature, history was voluminously repre- 
 sented by a mass of rather superfic'ial and 
 credulous chronicles. Romance of a strictly 
 native and Eastern character appeared in the 
 Thovsand and OneNigldff and other tales, which 
 seem to have originated in Baghdad probably 
 in the cour.se of the eleventh century. 
 
 The Moorish conquerors of Spain were divided 
 in their aims and ambitions; and it was not 
 until the establishment of Abelu-r-rahmen I 
 on the throne of an independent Spanish 
 Khalifate that order, civilization and learning 
 became concentrated in this region of Europe. 
 From the ninth to the eleventh century, Spain 
 was the principal seat of Western culture. 
 From the educational point of view, it is not 
 perhaps the palaces, mosques, public baths, 
 aqueducts, market places, street lamps, and 
 street pavements of the period that ought to 
 claim attention ; nor yet such luxuries as flowers, 
 gold, silver, ivory, marble, citron, and sandal- 
 wood, pearls, crystal, and lapis lazuli brought 
 from abroad; nor the paintings, chandeliers, 
 perfumes, fountains, stained glass windows, mo- 
 saic floors, and hot and cold water frequently to 
 be found in the houses; but rather the libraries, 
 schools of the mosques, and universities that 
 attract our involuntary attention and admi- 
 ration. Many of the teachers were Jews. It 
 was fashionable for men of power and wealth 
 to collect manuscripts and place their libraries 
 at the disposal of scholars. In particular, the 
 Khalif Al-hakem II (961-976) assembled copyists 
 and bookbinders, encouraged learned men 
 at his court, and is even said to have collected 
 600,000 volumes for his magnificent library. 
 Cordova was perhaps the most enlightened 
 city of the world, being splendidly rivaled by 
 Toledo, Granada, and Seville. 
 
 The field of Mohammedan learning from the 
 ninth to the eleventh centuries, if one may 
 omit the study of the Koran as not bearing 
 closely upon European development, comprised 
 two principal parts, practical science and 
 phOosophy. Arabian mathematics were based 
 upon the Greek, but profited by the introduction 
 of Hindu numerals. The Arabians improved 
 the method of solving quadratic equations; 
 and added to trigonometrv the use of sines 
 for chords, tables, and formulae. Arabian geom- 
 etry was based upon the Greek, but the algebra 
 and the arithmetic drew upon Hindu sources. 
 They developed an astronomy, or astrologyCg.v.) 
 more accurate than that of the ancient Greeks, 
 though their success was principally due in the 
 first place to a knowledge of the Ptolemaic 
 system. Al-Batani of Syria, S79-920 .\.d., 
 was most celebrated for the exactness of his 
 astronomical calculations. The first a.stronomi- 
 cal observatory in Spain may have been that 
 constructed in 1196 by the Moor Geber at 
 Seville. Arabic algebra was primarily derived 
 
 from India; Arabic geometry from Greece. In 
 geometry the Arabians fully appreciated the 
 Greek masters Euclid, ApoUonius, and the 
 others, and made practical applications of their 
 knowledge to hydra ulics. They used sighted 
 tubes to observe the stars, knew the earth to be 
 round, measured a degree of latitude, computed 
 the angle of the ecliptic, made a close determina- 
 tion of the length of the year, taught geog- 
 raphy bv means of globes, and named many 
 of the stars. Western Europe still retains the 
 Arabic terms algebra, azimuth, zenith, nadir, 
 etc. 
 
 Medicine was a fundamental subject of study 
 among the Arabians. Most of the sciences 
 were subordinated to it; and even astrology 
 was pressed into its service. Although the 
 prohibitions of the Koran restricted anatomical 
 investigations, even dissection was practiced 
 more or less in Spain. The earlier medical 
 texts were translations from the Greek, and 
 followed Hippocrates and the Alexandrians. 
 Physicians were required to pass an exami- 
 nation before being permitted to practice. 
 Diet, drugs, and disea.ses such as fevers and 
 leprosy were thoroughly studied. Chemistry 
 came to be studied in connection with medicine 
 and particularly in relation to the search for the 
 elixir of life, as well as the philosopher's stone. 
 The khalifs were liberal in the support of 
 laboratories as well as libraries. Geber dis- 
 covered nitric acid and aqua regia ; Rhazes 
 discovered sulphuric acid. Substances were 
 reduced to their constituent elements, and the 
 properties of gases investigated. In physics 
 it was Alhazen who corrected the mistaken 
 theories of sight that had been fornuilated by 
 the Greeks, and showed the relation of the eye 
 to rays of light. Studies were also pursued in 
 problems of gravity, capillary attraction, and 
 the weight and velocitj' of bodies. One may 
 also recall that the skill of the Arabians in 
 metal work was amply attested by their 
 bitterest foes, the Crusaders; and that they ex- 
 celled in all manner of fine workmanship. 
 
 Arabic philosophy preserved the unfettered 
 forces of Hellenic genius during their long period 
 of partial exile from the intellectual life of 
 western Europe. It was founded principally 
 upon Aristotle {q.v.), but influenced also by the 
 \eo-Platonic {q.v.) and Hebrew philosophies. 
 Avicenna {q.v.) (980-1037) before he was 
 seventeen years of age had read parts of Aris- 
 totle, it is said, forty times over; but it was the 
 Spanish INIoor, Averroes {q.v.) who became the 
 medium whereby a practically complete posses- 
 sion of the works of the great Greek master came 
 to enrich the thought of medieval Europe. 
 In the twelfth century the principal works of 
 Ari.stotle, together with the Commentaries of 
 Averroes, found their way into Latin, probably 
 through the medium of Hebrew. Toledo, after 
 its capture in 1081 by Alphonso \l, became 
 an important center of learning, and it was 
 here that the translators pursued their task of 
 
 164
 
 ARABIC NOTATION 
 
 ARCHAEOLOGY 
 
 rendering Arabic into Latin. Tlirough their 
 labors, by tlie end of tlie twelftli century West- 
 ern Europe had inherited not only Aristotle, 
 but a knowledge of the Arabic or Hindu no- 
 tation, the Almagest, Euclid, and Arabian 
 algebra. There was still much material for 
 which Europe was not ripe, including great 
 dictionaries and encyclopedias, innumerable 
 biographies and histories, treatises in science 
 and philosophy, and disquisitions on art and 
 antiquities. 
 
 The direct bearing of Arabic culture upon 
 European education may be illustrated by the 
 facts that Gerbert (later Pope Sylvester II) 
 studied in Spain; Gerard of Cremona sought 
 a copy of the Almagest in Toledo; Daniel de 
 Morlai left the University of Paris for Toledo, 
 and brought thence to England many precious 
 books; Michael Scott studied at Toledo, and 
 a monk of !Monte Cassino named Constantino 
 at Baghdad; Athelard of Bath pursued Arabic 
 science and philosophy in Asia Minor, Egypt, 
 and Spain; while Arabic textbooks in medicine 
 for a long time dominated the course of instruc- 
 tion given at the celebrated medical school at 
 Montpellier. P. R. C. 
 
 See Semitic Education. 
 
 References: — 
 
 Cajori. History of Mathematics. (New York, 1906.) 
 
 CoPPEE. History of the Conquest of Spain by the Arab 
 Moors. 
 
 Draper. Intellectual Development of Europe. 
 
 Hallam. Europe in the Middle Ages. 
 
 Hu.iRT. History of Arabic Literature. (New York, 1903.) 
 
 HoNGERFORD. Rise of Arab Learning (Ail. Monthly, 
 Vol. LVIII). 
 
 LACfioix. Science and Literature in the Middle Ages. 
 
 Rashdall. Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages. 
 (Oxford, 1895.) 
 
 Sandys. History of Classical Scholarship. (Cambridge, 
 1903-1908.) 
 
 Tow.NSEND. Great Schoobnen of the Middle Ages. (Lon- 
 don, 1881.) 
 
 Traill. Social England. (New York, 1894-1897.) 
 
 White. Warfare of Science. (New York, 1888.) 
 
 ARABIC NOTATION. — See Notation. 
 
 ARABIC NUMERALS. — See Numerals. 
 
 ARBOR DAY. — See Special Days. 
 
 ARCADIA COLLEGE AND URSULINE 
 ACADEMY, ARCADIA, MO. — An institu- 
 tion for the education of girls established in 
 1877 and under the control of the Ursuline 
 nuns. A curriculum is provided for a course 
 of 11 years, 8 in the primary and 3 in the 
 academic departments. Commercial and fine 
 arts subjects are also taught. 
 
 ARCHAEOLOGY. — Greek. — The science of 
 Greek antifiuities includes within its scope 
 all the material remains of the Greek people. 
 As there could be no such science until the 
 works of the Greeks had been discovered, 
 studied, and classified, the science of Greek 
 archaeology antedates by but little the begin- 
 
 ning of the nineteenth century. Its develop- 
 ment, however, has been remarkably rapid, and 
 each year additions to the materials for study 
 occasion constant modifications of theories and 
 classifications. 
 
 The early history of this subject is coincident 
 with the growth of interest in the antiquities of 
 Rome. As early as the fifteenth century papal 
 princes and other wealthy men in Rome, 
 Florence, Naples, and elsewhere in Italy began 
 to accumulate collections of ancient statues 
 which with few exceptions were Roman copies 
 of Greek originals. During the sixteenth and 
 seventeenth centuries the enthusiasm for col- 
 lecting antiquities rapidly developed and spread 
 from Italy into foreign countries, being espe- 
 cially fostered in England by wealthy noblemen. 
 The supply of ancient objects in Ital_v could not 
 equal the demand, and therefore as early as 
 1630 the Earl of Arundel sought objects from 
 Greece. But during the seventeenth century 
 France is particularly prominent in the inves- 
 tigation of Greek antiquities. The French 
 consuls at Athens .studied the visible remains 
 in the city. The French monks applied them- 
 selves to topography and prepared a map of the 
 city, while descriptions of visits there are re- 
 corded by the French ambassador, Louis des 
 Haves (1630), and the French priest, Robert 
 de Dreux (1669). 
 
 Much more important, however, was the 
 tour of Greece made by the Marquis de 
 Nointel in 1674, for in his party were several 
 artists who made drawings of various ancient 
 buildings, as well as of the sculptures in the pedi- 
 ments of the Parthenon. The sketches of the 
 Parthenon are of peculiar importance, as they 
 represent the state of the building prior to its 
 bombardment by the Venetians in 1687. About 
 this same time (1675-1676) another important 
 tour of exploration of Greece was undertaken by 
 a French physician, Jacob Spon, and George 
 Wheler, an Englishman. 
 
 The violent conflicts between Turks and 
 Venetians for the mastery of Greece at the 
 end of this century occasioned the destruction 
 of many ancient buildings that had previously 
 been visited and described. For the next fifty 
 years, apart from some Italian studies of 
 minor importance inspired by the brief Venetian 
 occupation of Athens, we have no reports on 
 the antiquities of Greece. But in the j'ear 1733 
 an event destined to have great influence on the 
 development of public interest in Greece was 
 the formation of the Society of Dilettanti in 
 London. Members of this society furnished 
 support to the publication of the most ambitious 
 work on Greek remains undertaken up to this 
 time. In 1751 two Englishmen, James Stuart, 
 a painter, and Nicholas Revett, an architect, 
 began in Greece a careful and accurate study of 
 ancient buildings and sculptures which occupied 
 them for several years and resulted in the publi- 
 cation of an epoch-making work in four volumes, 
 The Antiquities of Athens (1762-1816). Before 
 
 165
 
 ARCHEOLOGY 
 
 ARCHEOLOGY 
 
 the second volume of this work had appeared an 
 expedition was sent out (1764) by tlie Soeicty 
 of Dilettanti to make a similar extensive study 
 of the anticiuities of Ionia. Revett as archi- 
 tect again, with his associates Richard Chandler 
 and Pars an artist, published the discoveries in 
 two volumes (1769, 1797). About this time 
 too appeared (1763) a great work, the History 
 of Ancient Art, by a German scholar, Johann 
 Joachim Winckelmann (1717-1768). Although 
 Winckelmann never visited Greece and had 
 liractically no Greek originals before him in 
 Rome, his vision was so broad and his insight so 
 keen that his work was for many years the 
 highest authority on Greek art, and he is justly 
 regarded as the father of Greek archaeology. 
 
 The popular interest in Greek antiquities that 
 was fostered in England by the Society of 
 Dilettanti, by the collections of noblemen, and 
 by the foundation of the British Museum (1759), 
 in (iermany by the researches of Winckelmann 
 and others, was aroused equally among the 
 French by the victories of Napoleon, who plun- 
 dered Italy and other parts of Europe of many 
 works of art in order to form in Paris a Mus^e 
 NapoMon. Under Napoleon too the royal col- 
 lection in the Louvre was opened to the public 
 as the Mus6e Frangais (1798), and Visconti, a 
 distinguished Italian scholar, was placed in 
 charge of antiquities in France. 
 
 Napoleon's booty, which came largely from 
 Italy, was naturally Roman for the most part, 
 but in England in the meanwhile a constantly 
 increasing number of Greek antiquities was 
 being gathered in the Museum as well as in 
 private collections. Then in the opening 
 years of the nineteenth century occurred a 
 notable event in the history of our subject. 
 Lord Elgin, the British Ambassador to Constan- 
 tinople, received permission from the Ottoman 
 government to remove some sculptures from 
 the Acropolis in Athens, a concession which, 
 freely interpreted, resulted after a year's work 
 (1802-1803) in a shipment to England of many 
 sculptures, chiefly from the Parthenon, the Erec- 
 theum, and the temple of Athena Nik^. The im- 
 mediate effect of their arrival in England was a 
 Cjuarrel as to their artistic value, which was be- 
 littled by the Society of Dilettanti under the 
 leadership of Richard Payne Knight, so that it 
 was not until after distinguished foreign scholars, 
 notably Visconti and Canova, had expressed 
 their admiration of them, that the sculptures were 
 acquired by the English government for a com- 
 paratively small sum and placed in the British 
 Museum (1816), where the Elgin marbles are 
 still the chief artistic treasure of the people. 
 
 In the meantime other Englishmen were seek- 
 ing and studying antiquities in Greece. Among 
 them those who achieved most important re- 
 sults were the architects Cockerell and Foster, 
 who, together with two Germans, Haller von 
 Hallerstein and Linckh, discovered in 1811 
 most of the pedimental sculptures belonging 
 to the temple of Aphaia on the island of iEgina. 
 
 These were purchased at auction in 1812 by 
 Crown Prince Ludwig of Bavaria, and were 
 placed eventually in the Glyptothek at Munich. 
 Another important work undertaken by mem- 
 bers of this same party in 1811 was the inves- 
 tigation and excavation of the temjile of Apollo 
 at Bassir in Arcadia, which contributed much 
 to the knowledge of Greek architecture and 
 resulted in the discovery of many pieces of 
 sculpture, mainly from the frieze, which were 
 bought for the British Museum in 1814. About 
 this time, too, investigations were made by 
 Cockerell and other English architects of the 
 ruined temples of Sicily, at Girgenti and Seli- 
 nunte; while in 1828 Northern Italy furnished 
 a large amount of new material for the study 
 of Greek art in the discovery of several thou- 
 sand painted vases on the estate of Lucien 
 Bonaparte at Vulci in Etruria. Collections of 
 painted vases had long been in existence, the 
 oldest catalogue of such a collection being 
 dated as early as 1696, and perhaps the most 
 notable was that made by Sir William Hamilton 
 which he sold to the British Museum in 1767. 
 As many of these vases were found in tombs 
 in Etruria, they were generally regarded as ex- 
 amples of Etruscan art, although Winckel- 
 mann in his History of Art had declared that 
 they were wholly Greek, a view which did not 
 receive wide acceptance until similar examples 
 of painted pottery had been found in various 
 sites of Greece, and Otto Jahn in 1854 had made 
 an accurate and comparative study of all the 
 material available. 
 
 In the years immediately preceding and 
 during the tumult of the Greek struggle for 
 independence (1821-1832) no archa>ological 
 study was possible in Greece, though on the 
 Lsland of Alelos in 1S20 was found the statue 
 of Aphrodite, which was acquired by the 
 French Amba.ssador in Constantinople, who 
 presented it to the Louvre, where it was placed 
 on exhibition in 1821. With the successful 
 termination of the revolution and the election 
 of the Bavarian Prince Otto to the throne of 
 Greece in 1832 a new era dawned for Greek 
 archaeology. A German scholar, Ludwig Ro.ss, 
 was appointed Conservator of Antiquities, under 
 whose direction the Acropolis was cleared of 
 all but ancient buildings, the temple of Athena 
 Nik^, which had been torn down for a Turk- 
 ish fortification, was restored to its original 
 position, and many fragments of sculpture and 
 architecture were carefully collected. Ross 
 was succeeded as Conservator of Antiquities 
 in 1836 by a Greek, Pittakes, and the growing 
 interest of the natives in the ancient remains 
 of their land was evidenced by the formation 
 of a Greek archaeological society in 1827. For- 
 eigners, however, still continued to make the 
 most important researches. In 1846-1847 
 an English architect, F. C. Penrose, made care- 
 ful and accurate studies of the Parthenon and 
 Propylaia, and in this decade the German 
 savants Ross and Ulrichs traveled through 
 
 166
 
 ARCHiEOLOGY 
 
 ARCHEOLOGY 
 
 many parts of the Greek world, making notes 
 and observations which are still of value. 
 English expeditions to Lycia in 1842-1844 
 brought to the British Museum many of the 
 sculptures of the "Harpy Tomb" and the 
 " Nereid Monument," while later expeditions 
 secured to England the greater part of the 
 Mausoleum of Halicarnassits. 
 
 In 1846 was founded the French School 
 of Archaeology in Athens. This incident 
 marked an epoch in Greek archaeology because 
 the French method, which has been imitated 
 by other nations, has been to train young men 
 by residence in Greece, through whom elaborate 
 and systematic excavations could be conducted. 
 From the discovery of the BeuM gateway of 
 the Acropolis in 1852 up to the present time 
 the French School has Ijeen engaged in a series 
 of works of the first importance. They have 
 made excavations at Myrina in Asia Minor, 
 at Mount Potus in Bceotia, at Tegea in 
 the Peloponnesus, and they have uncovered 
 two great sanctuaries of Apollo at Delos and 
 Delphi. At both of these sites work has been 
 conducted for many years and is not yet com- 
 pleted. At both places blocks of buildings 
 have been unearthed, wliich yielded many in- 
 scriptions, vases, and coins, much information 
 on architecture, and some important sculptures, 
 of which the most famous is the bronze chari- 
 oteer found at Delphi in 1896 and exhibited 
 there now in the local museum. 
 
 The Athenian branch of the German Archae- 
 ological Institute was founded in 1874, but 
 throughout the century Germans had played 
 an important role in the development of archae- 
 ology, and shortly before that date, Heinrich 
 Schliemann had given a new impetus to the 
 study, and opened a new field for research by 
 the discovery (1871) of the mythical city of 
 Troy, where were found treasures of gold and 
 gems, and examples of art and craft, which, 
 known before only by vague refeiences in an- 
 cient authors, were supposed to be creations of 
 poetic fancy. Further excavations in Troy 
 were made by Schliemann in 1878 and 1890, 
 and the work there was finished in 1893-1894 
 by Wilhelm Dorpfeld, who for more than 
 twenty-five years was in charge of the In- 
 stitute at Athens. Confirmation of the exist- 
 ence of an advanced civilization prior to the 
 beginning of Greek history was sought and 
 found by Schliemann at Mvcena" (1874) and 
 at Tiryns (1884). _ A sketch of the other 
 manifold activities in the province of Greek 
 archaeology in which Germans have been 
 engaged during the past quarter of a century 
 would require a lengthy treatise. Only their 
 most extensive and important campaigns may 
 be mentioned. In the years 1875-1880 the 
 entire precinct of Olympia was excavated under 
 the direction of Ernst Curtius by means of 
 funds provided by the German Empire. This 
 was the first great scientific excavation which 
 for accuracy of work and record set a new 
 
 standard for archaeologists. The results were 
 particularly important for architecture, as the 
 Heraeum, one of the oldest Doric temples, 
 was uncovered beside the larger and later 
 temple of Zeus; and for sculpture in the un- 
 earthing of the pedimental statues and metopes 
 from the Zeus temple, the Nike of Paeonius, 
 and the Hermes of Pra.xiteles, all now exhibited 
 in the Museum at Olympia. Another great 
 German undertaking was the excavation of 
 Pergamum by the Berlin Museum (1878-1886), 
 as a result of which the important reliefs from 
 the famous altar of Zeus were secured to the 
 city of Berlin. Since 1900 the German Insti- 
 tute has been continuing work on this site 
 under Dorpfeld's direction, in order to lay bare 
 the entire city. Another city dating for the 
 most part from Hellenistic times which has been 
 excavated by the Berlin Museum is Priene 
 (1895-1899), under the direction of T. Wiegand, 
 and under the same auspices Miletus (1899) 
 and Didyma, where work is not yet entirely 
 completed. Other important work has been 
 carried to completion at Thera (1896-1901) 
 by Hiller von Gaertringen, and at ^Egina 
 (1901-1904) by Adolf Furtwangler. 
 
 While Germany has been the most active 
 and successful nation engaged in Greek archae- 
 ology, the representatives of other nations 
 have not been idle. In 1882 the American 
 School of Classical Studies was founded in 
 Athens, and Americans have been engaged in 
 three large undertakings, at Assos (1881-1883), 
 at the Argive Heraeum (1892-1893), and, since 
 1896, at Corinth, where many landmarks of 
 the ancient city have been located, notably 
 the agora, the theater, and the famous fountain 
 of Pirene. The American School also has 
 nearly completed (1910) an elaborate and ex- 
 haustive study of the Erechtheum in Athens, 
 which is expected soon to be published. Fur- 
 thermore, Americans have ju.st set hand to 
 two undertakings which promise to outrank 
 in magnitude and importance any they have 
 hitherto attempted, namely, the excavation of 
 Sardes, capital of Lydia, under the direction 
 of H. C. Butler, and of Cyrene in Libya by 
 the Archaeological Institute of America. The 
 English, who in 1879 had organized a Society 
 for the Promotion of Hellenic Studies in Lon- 
 don, founded a school at Athens in 1885, by 
 which, among other works, excavations have 
 been made at Megalopolis (1890-1891), on 
 Melos (1896-1899), and since 1906 have been 
 conducted successfully at Sparta. But Eng- 
 land's greatest claim to fame in this line rests 
 on the remarkable results attained by Arthur 
 Evans in Crete, where since 1900 he has con- 
 ducted excavations at Knosos which have 
 proved that as early as 2000 b.c. the people of 
 this island had developed a high degree of 
 knowledge in art and sculpture, construction 
 and design, comfort and sanitation, and pos- 
 sessed an elaborate system of writing, attested 
 by over 6000 inscriptions, still undeciphered. 
 
 167
 
 ARCHEOLOGY 
 
 ARCHEOLOGY 
 
 These results have been confirmed at many 
 other places in Crete, notably at Phrcstus and 
 Agia Triada by the Italian scholars Halbherr 
 and Pernier, at Gournia by Americans, at 
 Palaikastro and elsewhere by the British 
 School. Among the activities of other nations 
 Austria should not be overlooked, for from her 
 originated several important undertakings, an 
 expedition to Samot brace (1875), to Giolbaschi 
 (1882), whence were brought to Vienna the 
 remarkable sculptured friezes, and finally the 
 uncovering of the city of Ejjhesus (1895-1905). 
 The Austrians also maintain an archaeological 
 mis.sion at Athens as a branch of the Archaeo- 
 logical Institute in Vienna (1898). Danish 
 excavations have been conducted in Rhodes 
 since 1902 by Kinch and Hlinkenbcrg with 
 unvarying success. Italians have limited them- 
 selves to Crete, but the founding of a school in 
 Athens which has been recently determined 
 by the Italian government will undoubtedly 
 lead Italian scholars into other branches of 
 this subject. 
 
 While the Greeks have thus generously 
 accorded to foreigners the privilege of conduct- 
 ing these important and extensive undertak- 
 ings in their land, they themselves have been 
 engaged in archsological works of equal mag- 
 nitude, which have been carried out by their 
 trained scholars \\-ith scientific accuracy, and 
 have yielded notable results. The present 
 Ephor of Antiquities, Panagiotes Kavvadias, 
 excavated the entire surface of the Acropolis 
 to bed rock (1885-1891), finding among other 
 objects many architectural fragments which 
 proved the existence of two early temples of 
 Athena antedating the Persian Invasion, and a 
 series of fifteen statues of women, still retaining 
 brilliant coloring, although buried since 480 b.c, 
 which furnished a new chapter to the study of 
 the development of Attic art. Another great 
 work successfully completed by Kavvadias 
 was the excavation of the precinct of Asklepios 
 at Epidaurus (1881-1903), the most famous 
 health resort and sanatorium of ancient Greece. 
 The Greeks have also completed important 
 and successful work at Eleusis (1882-1890), 
 at the Amphiaraion of Oropus (18S4-18S7), 
 at Lykosoura (1889), and elsewhere. 
 
 As a result of this ceaseless activity during 
 the past quarter century Greece is known to us 
 better than she has ever been known before. 
 Her history has been pushed back a thousand 
 years, so that ages before Homer's time we can 
 trace the migration of Hellenic people, their 
 invasions, their attacks, their defeats. Her 
 artistic bloom in the time of Pericles we know 
 to be a renascence of the IMinoan-Mj-censean 
 period that reached its acme a thousand years 
 earlier, and moreover we can follow the decline 
 of the one period and watch the growth of the 
 second. The development of the artistic prin- 
 ciple, according to canons, and in distinct 
 schools, is clear to us, and the widespread publi- 
 cation of reproductions of Greek sculpture 
 
 and architecture has had a wholesome influ- 
 ence upon the artists and architects of our own 
 day. Furthermore, through the excavation 
 of entire cities, the habits and customs of the 
 average (!reek are familiar not only to scholars, 
 but to the average man to-tlay, througli the 
 scattering of ancient objects of all kinds from 
 Italy and Greece, and their cxhil)ition in the 
 many museums of the world, among the most 
 important of which must now be reckoned 
 the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York 
 and the Museum of Fine Arts in Boston, which 
 furnish to Americans a first-hand knowledge 
 of many departments of Greek art and life. 
 
 The institutions where Greek archaeology 
 may be most satisfactorily studied are here 
 named, together with a statement of courses 
 occasionally offered bj' each: — 
 
 American. — University of California: Intro- 
 duction to classical arclurology; History of 
 Greek art; Topography of Athens. 
 
 University of Chicago: Greek life studied 
 from monuments; Ancient Athens; Olj'nipia 
 and Deljihi; Inscriptions; Art; Sculpture; 
 Vases; Architecture; Greek and Roman coins. 
 
 Columbia University: Introduction to Greek 
 archaeology; Sculpture; Epigra])hy; Vases; 
 Acropolis of Athens. 
 
 Cornell University: Greek archaology; 
 Pausanias; History of Greek sculpture; Greek 
 life. 
 
 Harvard University: Greek archa>ology; 
 Topography and monuments of ancient Athens;. 
 Paleography; Epigraphy; Vase-painting. 
 
 Johns Hopkins University: Greek archipol- 
 ogy; Topography of Greece and of Asia Minor ; 
 Vase-painting; Sculpture; Epigraphy; Pale- 
 ography; Architecture; Greek life. 
 
 University of ISlichigan: Pausanias and the 
 topography and monuments of ancient Athens; 
 Ancient Athenian life; History of Greek art; 
 Paleography; Epigraphy. 
 
 University of Pennsylvania: Greek archsB- 
 ology; Greek life; Epigraphy; Pausanias. 
 
 Princeton University: Topography of Attica; 
 Greek inscriptions; Greek dialects; Greek 
 theater. 
 
 Yale University; Topography and monu- 
 ments of Athens; Greek sculpture, and the 
 lesser arts; Architecture. 
 
 Similar courses are offered at all the more 
 important foreign universities, of which may 
 be mentioned particularly: — 
 
 German: The Universities of Berlin, Bonn, 
 Halle, Leipzig, and Munich. 
 
 French : the Sorbonne, and Ecole du Louvre 
 at Paris. T. L. S. 
 
 Roman. — Roman archa>ology may be rough- 
 ly defined as the science which deals with 
 the tangible remains of ancient Roman 
 civilization. By the study of these remains 
 in the light of ancient literary records the 
 
 168
 
 
 X
 
 ARCHEOLOGY 
 
 ARCHAEOLOGY 
 
 archaeologist attempts to restore the exter- 
 nal surroundings of the Romans of antiquity. 
 
 The history of Roman archaeology may be 
 said to begin in the Middle Ages with the guide- 
 books to the city which were prepared for the 
 use of pilgrim visitors at a time when most of 
 the ancient buildings had already disappeared. 
 The destruction of ancient Rome had been due 
 in some measure to early Christian fanaticism, 
 which wished to remove all reminders of pagan 
 religion, and in greater measure to the plunder- 
 ing spirit of barbarian invaders. But the 
 greatest offenders of all were the Romans them- 
 selves, who even until Renaissance times looked 
 upon the monuments chiefly as valuable reposi- 
 tories of building material. In the fourteenth 
 century, however, the ignorance and careless- 
 ness of the Middle Ages began to give way 
 before a growing intelligent curiosity, and Cola 
 di Rienzo (lSIO-1354) sought to connect the 
 Rome of his day with the glorious past and to 
 find grounds for the reestablishment of the 
 Roman republic in his interpretation of ancient 
 ruins and inscrijitions. From this time on the 
 sentiment in favor of preserving the monu- 
 ments increased, and museums of antiquities 
 began to be established in Italy. As early as 
 1467 statues were brought together from all 
 parts of the city by Pope Paul II, the Capito- 
 line Museum was founded by his successor 
 Sixtus IV (1471), and the earliest of the Vatican 
 collections (Belvidere) began to take form under 
 Julius II in 1510 (Michaehs, in Jahrbuch 
 d. K. D. Arch. Inst., V, 1890, p. 10). Mean- 
 while interest in the topography of ancient 
 Rome had been aroused bv Poggio Bracciolini 
 (1380-1449) and Flavio B'iondo (Roma Instau- 
 rata, 1446), and in sculpture by Andrea Fulvio 
 and others, but these and their successors in 
 the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries had 
 little or no sense of the development of antiq- 
 uity. All periods were alike to them; the 
 historical method had not yet been formulated. 
 By the eighteenth century the number of 
 marbles, bronzes, and other ancient objects 
 accumulated in the museums had vastly in- 
 creased, and a master hand was needed to bring 
 order out of this chaos. The necessary im- 
 pulse was given by the discovery of Hercula- 
 neum in 1720 and of Pompeii in 1748, and the 
 historical and scientific method which is still 
 pursued was definitely introduced into archaeo- 
 logical studies by Winckelmann (1717-1768), 
 though Count Caj'lus (Recueil d' Antiquites, 
 1752-1754) had already made a beginning in 
 this direction. Winckelmann's most important 
 works were Geschichte der Kunst des Alter- 
 thunis, Dresden, 1764-1767 (tr. by G. H. Lodge, 
 2 vols., 1880) and Monumenti Inediti, Rome, 
 1767. In these he laid down and applied the 
 principles now everywhere recognized, that the 
 artistic product of antiquity must always be 
 studied in the light of the history and customs 
 of the time, and that the development of art 
 must be traced stej) by step from its primitive 
 
 beginnings to its highest excellence and its 
 final decay. 
 
 During the first half of the nineteenth cen- 
 tury the excavation of Pompeii was carried 
 forward with the support of the Bourbon rulers 
 of Naples, considerable digging was done in 
 Rome, and, especially after 1827, many Etrus- 
 can tombs were discovered at Corneto, Chiusi, 
 Ccrvetri, and elsewhere, and their wall paint- 
 ings, bronzes, and painted vases brought to light. 
 The great increase in archaeological material 
 now emphasized the need, already felt, of a 
 definite organization for systematic study and 
 publication. This led to the establishment at 
 Rome in 1829 of the Istituto di Correspondenza 
 Archeologica, which -was at first international, 
 but in course of time became the Imperial 
 German Archaeological Institute. Among its 
 publications were the Annali delV Istituto di 
 Corr. Arch. (vols. 1-57, 1829-1885), from 1886 
 known as the Jahrbuch desK. D. Arch. Insti uts 
 (Vol. XXV, 1910); and the BuUettino dell' 
 Istituto di Corr. Arch. (1829-1885), from 1886 
 known as the Mitthcilungen des K. D. Arch. 
 Instituts, romische Abtheilung (Yo\. XXV, 1910). 
 Catalogues, too, of the collections of antiquities 
 in Rome were prepared, and extensive projects 
 of publication, for example, the Corpus Inscrip- 
 tionum Latinarum, were undertaken. In fact, 
 the Institute served and still serves as a kind 
 of archfeological university.' , 
 
 In 1875 was organized I'Eeole fran^aise de 
 Rome to give archa>ological training to French 
 students. Its chief organ is the Melanges d'ar- 
 cheologie et histoire, published, one volume each 
 year, since 1881, though it shares with the 
 French school at Athens responsibility for a 
 series of valuable monographs on archaeological 
 subjects begun in 1876 with the general title 
 Bibliotheque des Ecoles fran^aises d' Athenes et 
 de Rome. Next the American School of Classical 
 Studies in Rome (Via Vicenza 5) was organized 
 in 1895 by the Archaeological Institute of 
 America for the purpose of furnishing to grad- 
 uates of American colleges advanced instruc- 
 tion and guidance in tho.se studies which may 
 be best pursued in Rome. The investigations 
 of its members have been published regularly 
 in the American Journal of Archwologij (second 
 series. Vol. XIV, 1910), and two volumes of 
 " supplementary papers " have appeared. 
 This school, through its former professors and 
 students now teaching in many American insti- 
 tutions of learning, is exerting a real and steadily 
 increasing influence upon claissical studies in 
 America. The latest of the foreign schools to 
 be established was the British School at Rome, 
 opened in 1901. Under its auspices four vol- 
 umes of researches, with the title Papers of 
 the British School at Rome, have been published. 
 
 While all this archsological work has been 
 done by the foreigners in Italy, the Italians 
 
 ' An excellent account of this movement i-s given by 
 A. Michaelis in the Journal of Hellenic Studies, Vol. X, 
 1889, pp. 190-215. 
 
 169
 
 ARCHiEOLOGY 
 
 ARCHiEOLOGY 
 
 thcmselvps have not been idle. Almost all the 
 excavation in Italy in recent years has been 
 conducted by the Italian government, whose 
 official organ of ])ul)lication is the Nutizie 
 degli scai'i di anticliiU'i (monthly since 1870), 
 now in Vol. VI (1910), Series 5 of the Atli dclla 
 Reale Accademia dci Lincei. By the authority 
 of the same academy are published the Roidi- 
 conti (Vol. 19, 1910), and the Monumenti 
 Anlichi (Vol. 22, 1910). The municipal archa>- 
 ological commission of Rome, too, issues the 
 BuUctti no delta Commi^n. Arch. Comiin. di Roma 
 (Vol. 38, 1910), and the Societa llaliana di 
 anitcologia c storia dell' arte recently established 
 its own beautifully illustrated magazine Ausonia 
 (Vol. 4, 1910). All these periodicals, together 
 with others of less sjjecial importance for Rome, 
 record the history of archaeological progress 
 year by year, and must be read con.stantly by 
 those who desire to keep abreast of the times 
 in this rapidly developing subject. 
 
 The principal fields included under the 
 general head of Roman archieology are architec- 
 ture, sculpture, painting, and the minor arts. 
 In all these Rome was debtor first to the art 
 of Etruria and afterward to the Greek art of 
 the Hellenistic period. From Etruria, her 
 only teacher of art during the early days of the 
 Republic, she took over the arch and the 
 vault, the so-called Tuscan order or Etruscan- 
 Doric column, the structure of the temple, and 
 the type for dwellings and tombs, as well as 
 derived a certain tendency to realism in 
 sculpture and her whole technique in the minor 
 arts. From Greece she took the Ionic and 
 Corinthian orders and the general plan of such 
 buildings as the theater, the circus, the portico, 
 and the basilica. The fora, surrounded by 
 great public buildings, were modeled after 
 the Greek ayopui, and under Greek in- 
 fluence private houses became more luxurious 
 and more elaborately decorated, and a feeling 
 for beauty was developed in every field of art. 
 Until the third century b.c. and even later, 
 the Roman had been so intent on defending his 
 independence, extending his sway, and develop- 
 ing his political organization, that he had little 
 time for the cultivation of art. But when all 
 this was past and he had nothing more to fear, 
 that is, when he was at last in a position to 
 develop an art of his own, he found himself face 
 to face with a competitor so immeasurably 
 his superior in all things artistic that he yielded 
 complctel.y and once for all to the Greek 
 influence. 
 
 And yet the Roman was not merely a slavish 
 imitator. Though he borrowed the elements 
 from Etruria and Greece, he impressed them 
 with his own stamp and developed an art which, 
 if not equal to Greek art from the point of 
 view of ideal beauty, yet had its own strength 
 and characteristic features quite in harmony 
 with the genius of a conquering, organizing, 
 and governing people. He found new ways 
 of using the architectural elements, he developed 
 
 the composite order and the honorary column 
 with sculptures in relief, he transformed the 
 agora, the basilica, the theater, and the circus, 
 he invented the amphitheater and the baths, 
 and he surpassed all the peoples of antiquity, 
 if not of all time, in his great works of public 
 utility, such as bridges, aqueducts, and mili- 
 tary roads. In short, in all the arts the Roman 
 struck out new ways for himself, adai)ting his 
 arti.stic heritage in accordance with his own 
 tastes and needs. The highest level of artistic 
 excellence was reached in the first century and 
 a half of the Empire, after which Roman art, 
 yielding more and more to the national tend- 
 ency to the colossal in construction and to the 
 florid in decoration, rapidly declined. 
 
 The branch of art in which the Romans were 
 most original was architecture, and the chief 
 fundamental elements employed by their archi- 
 tects wore the arch and the vault. It was 
 largely through increasing freedom and boldness 
 in the use of these elements that Roman archi- 
 tecture developed a national character and 
 was able to inclose vast interior spaces unencum- 
 bered by columns. It began in simplicity, 
 following closelj' the Etruscan models, then 
 took over the Greek orders and changed them, 
 graduall}' grew more elaborate and profuse in 
 rich ornamentation, especially with colored 
 marble, and finally degenerated into mere 
 bigness and ponderosity. The available mate- 
 rials were at first only the soft volcanic tufa 
 of the neighborhood, later supplemented by 
 peiierino from the Alban region, and travertine 
 from the valley of the Anio near Tibur, but 
 by the end of the Republic the use of baked 
 bricks, concrete and imported marble, the 
 standard building materials of the Empire, had 
 commenced. A combination of lime and the 
 red volcanic earth known as pozzolana pro- 
 duced an hydraulic cement which, mixed with 
 fragments of stone, of brick, or, in later times, 
 of marble, formed a concrete of unequaled 
 hardness and durability. Most walls of im- 
 perial times were constructed of this concrete 
 with a facing of bricks or small stones of regular 
 shape with points tailing inward, this again 
 being furnished with a covering of stucco or of 
 richly colored marble slabs (H. W. PuUen, 
 Handbook of Ancient Roman Marbles, London, 
 1894). Solid arches also and vaultings were 
 made of this concrete — a fact which more than 
 anything else accounts for the characteristics 
 and development of Roman architecture. 
 
 In this method of construction the column had 
 no structural function and was friMpiently 
 engaged as a mere decorative element on the 
 surface of walls or pillars of concrete, though 
 there were many exceptions, especially in 
 temples or porticoes, in which columns were 
 used independently to sustain the entablature 
 and the roof. Of the Greek orders the Doric 
 and Ionic met with comparatively little favor at 
 Rome, as they were too simple and severe to 
 appeal strongly to Roman taste in any but 
 
 170
 
 ARCHAEOLOGY 
 
 ARCHEOLOGY 
 
 the early period. When the Doric does appear, 
 it is not in the pure Greek form, Ijut in tlie so- 
 called Tuscan form which had been adopted 
 from the Etruscans. In this type of column a 
 base was placed under, the fluting was omitted, 
 and various ornamental elements were added at 
 the top. During the Empire this order was 
 usually limited to exterior use and in the lowest 
 story of buildings like the Colosseum and the 
 Theater of Marcellus, in which a series of 
 columns of the Ionic order form part of the 
 exterior ornament of the second story. Far 
 more popular with the Romans was the more 
 elaborate and ornate Corinthian order, which 
 they used with a very rich entablature. By a 
 combination of the Corinthian with the Ionic 
 capital a new order was developed, the most 
 elaborate and most characteristically Roman 
 of all. This so-called Composite capital was 
 frequently enriched in fantastic ways, and 
 sometimes even human figures were intro- 
 duced, as, for example, a figure of Hercules in 
 a capital at the Baths of Caracalla. 
 
 The entry of the Italian troops into Rome, 
 and the establishment of the national capital 
 there in 1870 mark an important era in archseo- 
 logical studies. The excavations made in 
 connection with the building of new streets and 
 new houses laid bare many previously unknown 
 ancient structures and brought to light so 
 many statues and other artistic products of 
 antiquity that the museums could not con- 
 tain them. And in addition to these accidental 
 discoveries great advances were made in the 
 systematic campaign of excavation carried on 
 by the new government. On the Palatine Hill 
 the Villa Farnese had passed, in 1861, into the 
 hands of Napoleon III, who had caused exten- 
 sive excavations to be made for the purpose of 
 laying bare the remains of the imperial palaces. 
 In the course of this work (1869) the lower 
 levels of the so-called House of Livia had been 
 cleared and the three rooms mth fine wall 
 paintings brought to light. These explorations 
 were now continued and extended over almost 
 the whole surface of the hill until a fairly clear 
 idea of the appearance of this aristocratic 
 region of imperial Rome was obtained. The 
 original palace of Augustus, which was enlarged 
 and rebuilt in more sumptuous fashion by 
 Domitian, is still to a large extent concealed 
 under the buildings and grounds of the Villa 
 Mills, but the government is now in possession 
 of this also, and will probably excavate it at 
 an early date. The year 1907 witnessed the 
 excavation of the lower levels at the west corner 
 of the hill, which has always been associated 
 with the foundation of Rome. Here forti- 
 fication walls and a reservoir for water of very 
 early times were discovered, and also a cemetery 
 with primitive burials, which, taken in con- 
 nection with similar prehistoric cemeteries 
 found in recent years in the Forum and on the 
 Quirinal, seem to show that more than one 
 settlement must have occupied the region of 
 
 the "seven hills" as early as the ninth or tenth 
 century B.C. The full significance of these 
 latest discoveries, however, is not yet apparent. 
 
 In the Roman Forum long-continued ex- 
 cavations have changed the picturesque Campo 
 Vaccino of a hundred years ago into a dreary 
 waste — relieved here and there by recently 
 planted trees and flowers — full of ruins and 
 architectural fragments. For this loss of 
 natural beauty, however, there is ample com- 
 pensation in our increa.sed knowledge of Roman 
 topography and antiquities and in the light that 
 has been shed on Roman history, particularly 
 of the earher periods. In the first half of the last 
 century, especially under the direction of Carlo 
 Fea, and, after 1827, of Antonio Nibby, con- 
 siderable portions of the northwestern end of 
 the Forum were uncovered and the slope 
 of the Capitoline Hill with the foundation of 
 the Tabularium was laid bare. After 1870 the 
 work, which had been neglected for seventeen 
 years, was again taken up by the new govern- 
 ment, and has been vigorously pushed forward 
 • — with interruptions — till the present time, 
 particularly under the supervision of Rosa, 
 Fiorelli, Lanciani, and Boni. The whole area 
 of the Forum was now freed from earth and 
 rubbish, the temples of Vesta and Divus luhus 
 were excavated, the Sacra Via was opened up 
 from the temple of Faustina to the Basilica of 
 Constantine, and the House of the Vestals was 
 discovered. Still more important are the re- 
 sults of the latest campaign, which began in 
 1898. The excavated area is now fully twice 
 as great as it was ten years ago, and exploration 
 has been pushed to deeper levels than ever 
 before, but without destroying the monuments 
 of later times which often rest upon those of the 
 earlier periods. The most striking discoveries 
 made in the course of this work were the so- 
 called Lapis Niger with the shrine and very 
 ancient inscribed stele beneath, the spring and 
 shrine of Juturna, the early Christian Basilica 
 of S. Maria Antiqua, the primitive cemetery, 
 the base of the equestrian statue of Domitian, 
 the Lacus Curtius, and the Tribunal Pratorium. 
 In 1908 workmen were engaged in clearing the 
 Basilica ^Emilia and in digging near the Arch of 
 Titus in the effort to locate the site of the 
 temple of Juppiter Stator. Other excavations in 
 and near the Forum, especially in the Comitium, 
 will, it is hoped, proceed as rapidly as possible 
 and still further valuable results be reached. 
 
 Mention should be made in pa.ssing of the 
 splendid house of the Augustan period which 
 came to light in the garden of the Farnesina 
 across the Tiber during the building of the new 
 river embankment in 1878. Its well-preserved 
 wall paintings belong to the so-called second 
 style, and for beauty, richness, and at the same 
 time good taste are as far superior to most of 
 the Pompeian paintings as the capital of the 
 empire was superior to the little country town 
 of Campania. The ceilings of stucco, too, 
 ornamented with graceful patterns in relief. 
 
 171
 
 ARCHAEOLOGY 
 
 ARCHEOLOGY 
 
 so different from the more elaborate and gaudy 
 work of later times, furnish some of the most 
 beautiful specimens of ancient decorative art, 
 and are among the most valued treasures of the 
 National Museum. 
 
 Apart from these and other results of ex- 
 cavation in Rome, the raiiid arclueological prog- 
 ress of the last thirty years has been due in 
 large part to a more thorough study of monu- 
 ments that have long been familiar in con- 
 nection with those more recently brought to 
 light. From these researches has come forth 
 a better appreciation of Roman plastic art, 
 which is no longer considered merely as a 
 subordinate and unimportant development of 
 Greek sculjiture, but as a phase of art in many 
 ways independent and quite worthy of study 
 by itself and for its own sake. About ISSO 
 F. von Duhn showed that a number of monu- 
 mental reliefs in the Villa Medici, the Lou\tc, 
 and elsewhere were parts of the Ara Pacis 
 Augustae decreed by the Senate in 13 b.c. in 
 honor of Augustus and in commemoration of the 
 world-wide peace. Later Eugen Petersen con- 
 tinued the study of this subject and after fur- 
 ther excavation and discovery on the site of the 
 altar itself was able to give a fairly complete 
 idea of its size and shape and of the arrange- 
 ment and significance of its historical and 
 decorative reliefs (1894). This magnificent 
 monument is purely Roman in conception and 
 execution, and is now justly regarded as the 
 finest example of Roman plastic art in the early 
 days of the Empire. Next followed a series of 
 brilliant researches in the later periods. Franz 
 Wicklioff studied the reliefs of the Arch of Titus 
 (1895) and gave a more definite idea of the 
 technical methods and conceptions of the 
 Flavian artists. Konrad Cichorius pulslished 
 in beautiful plates with explanatory text (1896- 
 1900) the historical reliefs of the column of 
 Trajan. About the same time (1895) casts and 
 photographs of the reliefs on the column of 
 M. Aurelius (Piazza Colonna) were made at the 
 expense of the German Emperor, and thus it 
 was possible for the first time to study these two 
 honorary columns in connection. From this 
 comparison the spiral band of relief representing 
 scenes from the expeditions of JNI. Aurelius 
 against the Germans, though of great interest, 
 especially for the ethnologist, was more dis- 
 tinctly recognized as vastly inferior in artistic 
 value to the apparently similar band on the 
 earlier column. The Arch of Constantine, too, 
 near the Colosseum, came in for its share of 
 attention, and Petersen enabled us to distin- 
 guish clearly between the fine round medal- 
 lions stolen by Constantine from some monu- 
 ment of Trajan and the oblong sculptured 
 panels of the time of M. Aurelius; even the 
 unpractised eye can discern by a single glance at 
 the reliefs that belong to the period of Con- 
 stantine the almost incredible decadence of art 
 in the fourth century. This arch thus holds 
 a unique position among the monuments of 
 
 Roman art in that it presents at the same time 
 examples of the artistic workmanship of three 
 distinct periods. 
 
 The ruins of Pompeii and the objects found 
 there — now i)reserved mainly in the Naples 
 Museum — con.stitute one of the chief sources 
 for our knowledge of ancient Roman life and 
 in particular of the Roman house, its furniture 
 and decoration. After 1860, when Bourl)on mis- 
 rule came to an end, the Italians put the ex- 
 cavations in charge of Giuseppe Fiorelli, who 
 carried the work forward with great energy and 
 careful scientific method. Now for the first 
 time the upper stories of buildings were care- 
 fully preserved and a much more complete 
 idea of the structure of the house was possible. 
 At the same time, through the broad-minded 
 policy of Fiorelli, opportunity to study these 
 materials was freely given to all, an opiiortunity 
 of which archa'ologi.sts were not slow to avail 
 themselves. The extant paintings of Pompeii 
 and Herculaneum were catalogued by W. 
 Helbig, who argued in a scries of brilliant in- 
 vestigations that the paintings, though exe- 
 cuted in Roman times, were merely inferior 
 copies or adaptations of Hellenistic masterpieces. 
 This view was subsequently much modified by 
 the studies of Otto Donner and others, who 
 showed that these wall decorations, while in 
 many cases derived from the Greek, are yet in 
 some respects quite independent and have 
 characteristics \vhich are purely Roman. In 
 1873 Fiorelli published the results of liis long- 
 continued study of the materials and methods 
 em])loycd in the building of Pompeii, a subject 
 which has been treated also by R. Schoene, 
 H. Nissen, and since 1879 by A. Mau (died 
 April, 1909). 
 
 The earliest period of Pompeian architecture 
 — leaving out of consideration the Doric temple 
 and the city walls — is the so-called " period 
 of the limestone atriums," in which the houses 
 were built mainly of the limestone taken from 
 the bed of the neighboring river Sarno. They 
 were without columns, without paintings, and 
 of one story in height. The best remaining 
 example of this type is the House of the Sur- 
 geon. This period was followed about 200 is.c. 
 or a little later by the "tufa period" which 
 roughly coincides with the second century b.c. 
 The use of columns now led to an extension of 
 the earlier Italic plan of the house, and a peri- 
 style and other Greek elements, together with 
 a second story, began to be added. At the same 
 time the interior walls were colored, but not 
 adorned with paintings. Residences of palatial 
 size and grandeur, like the House of the Faun, 
 were now con.structcd, and fine public buildings, 
 such as the large theater, baths, and temples, 
 arose. All this points to the strong influ- 
 ence of Greek art and Greek culture during this 
 period, which came to an end with the conver- 
 sion of the city into a Roman colony by Sulla. 
 From this time forward bricks were used along 
 with tufa and lava, as the favorite building 
 
 172
 
 ARCHAEOLOGY 
 
 ARCHEOLOGY 
 
 material, and the interior walls of houses are 
 now no longer colored only, but are decorated 
 with real paintings. 
 
 The earlier students of Pompeian archae- 
 ology had given only superficial attention to 
 the wall paintings, and it remained for Mau to 
 show that the " Pompeian style " was in reality 
 a series of several different styles quite distinct 
 from one another. As has been indicated above, 
 it was with the strong Hellenistic influences 
 of the " tufa " period that Greek fondness for 
 color made itself felt at Pompeii, but only in so 
 far as to cause the introduction of the " first 
 style " of decoration, in which the wall covered 
 with stucco was made to imitate by color and 
 relief a surface veneered with slabs of colored 
 marble. The most fitting floor to accompany 
 these walls was mosaic pavement, such, for 
 example, as the mosaic picture of Alexander 
 in battle, discovered in 1831 in the House of the 
 Faun. In the period of the Roman colony a 
 new method of wall decoration came into vogue, 
 the " second " or Architectural stj'le, which 
 still imitated the veneering of marble, though 
 without the aid of relief, but added various 
 architectural designs. This stjde "remained in 
 vogue to the time of Augustus, and then gave 
 place to the 'third' or Ornate style, which is 
 characterized by a freer use of ornament and 
 the introduction of designs and scenes sugges- 
 tive of an Egyptian origin." It is therefore 
 natural to associate this style with the period 
 which followed the conquest of Egypt and its 
 conversion into a Roman province (30 B.C.). 
 "The 'fourth' or Intricate style came in about 
 the year 50 .\.d. and represents with its involved 
 and fantastic designs the last stage in the devel- 
 opment of Pompeian wall decoration " (Mau- 
 Kelsey, pp. 43 ff.) . Mau, as the quotations show, 
 held that these four stages followed one another 
 in turn, and as far as the first and second stjdes 
 are concerned this is perfectly clear. But it 
 cannot be considered established that the third 
 and fourth were not contemporaneous. The 
 final victory of the fourth over the third style 
 in the reign of Nero was finite in harmony with 
 the tendencies of the time. It is, of course, 
 perfectly obvious that this development of wall 
 decoration was not confined to the compara- 
 tively unimportant Campanian town. Rome 
 has jaelded some examples, and specimens 
 have come to light elsewhere, but the study of 
 origins and influences in the history of ancient 
 wall decoration is as yet only well begun. The 
 materials are becoming abundant, — the House 
 of the Vettii, discovered in 1894-1S95, alone has 
 scores of pictures, — and steady progress toward 
 fuller knowledge seems assured. 
 
 Similar rapid advances have been made in 
 our knowledge of the minor arts of antiquity. 
 To give even a superficial account of the vast 
 materials in this field which are now treasured 
 in the museums would require a volume; for 
 the present purpose an illustration or two mu.st 
 suffice. In 1894-1S96, through excavations 
 
 wliich were made at Boscoreale near Pompeii, 
 we had our first glimpse into the arrangements of 
 an ancient country residence. The most im- 
 portant " find " was an elaborate set of silver 
 dishes and utensils — 103 pieces — which the 
 owner had been unable to carry away with him 
 at the time of the disaster which overwhelmed 
 Pompeii and its vicinity, though he had already 
 gathered it together for that purpose. Not- 
 withstanding the efforts of the Italian govern- 
 ment to prevent its export, this priceless treas- 
 ure of ancient toreutic art soon found its way 
 to Paris, where it is now preserved in the Louvre. 
 The two cups with the skeletons in high relief 
 grouped with philosophers and poets probably 
 came from Alexandria; the bowl with the 
 high relief in the bottom representing Alex- 
 andria as a goddess, if not itself executed in 
 Egypt, is surely a copy of an Alexandrine work. 
 On the other hand, those pieces which portray 
 historical scenes from the lives of Augustus and 
 Tiberius, and those which are adorned with 
 Roman portrait heads, are of course Roman in 
 origin. Most of the pieces are doubtless of 
 Roman execution and probably of the Augustan 
 age, though the influence of Alexandrine, and 
 in general of Hellenistic, models must not be 
 forgotten. Another silver table service, little, 
 if at all, inferior to that of Boscoreale, was 
 found in 1868 at Hildesheim and is now in 
 Berlin. These two collections, together with 
 some others of less importance, and the indi- 
 vidual objects unearthed in various places, 
 give a fairly complete idea of the work of the 
 Roman silversmiths. 
 
 For the study of ancient pottery, as well as 
 of workmanship in gold, bronze, iron, ivory, 
 glass, and precious stones, extensive materials 
 are now available. Readers who desire to 
 pursue the subject further will find the neces- 
 sary direction in the selected bibliography 
 given below. 
 
 As a subject of study in the college and in 
 the university, Roman archaeology has never 
 claimed and does not yet recei-\-e as much atten- 
 tion as Greek archaeology and art. There 
 are signs, however, of improvement in this 
 regard, and most of the better American and 
 Canadian institutions, following the example 
 of German universities especially, now offer 
 instruction in one or more branches of the 
 subject. The courses most commonly given 
 are those in Roman Private Life, but in some of 
 the leading universities, more particularly those 
 which have graduate schools of high rank, in- 
 stniction is usually offered in general Roman 
 Archaeology, Roman Art and Architecture, to- 
 pography and monuments of Rome, and in 
 a few places, for example, Chicago, Columbia, 
 and Johns Hopkins, in numismatics. Some- 
 times, as at Yale, a man who is primarily inter- 
 ested in the Greek field gives courses on the 
 Roman side also, more often the Roman archae- 
 ology is divided among the Latinists and the 
 Greek archaeologists, as it is, for example, at 
 
 173
 
 ARCHEOLOGY 
 
 ARCHAEOLOGY 
 
 Chicago, Harvard, and Princeton, hut in most 
 ])laces this work falls to the busy professor of 
 Latin. Few institutions, possibly only Cohini- 
 bia and .Johns Ilojikiiis, have men of profes- 
 sorial rank whose time is devoted exclusively 
 or almost exclusively to this department. ()f 
 late years some of the leading universities have 
 been accumulating arelueological materials for 
 teaching puri)oses, and mu.seums of greater 
 or less extent devoted to Roman anti(iuities 
 and inscriptions are coming to be regarded as 
 indispensalile for work of a high order in this 
 field. The most notable of such collections 
 for the use of students are probalily those 
 of Columbia, Johns Hopkins, Michigan, and 
 Pennsylvania. H. L. W. 
 
 References: — 
 
 Periodicah : — 
 American Journal of Archo'ologi/. 
 Annual of the British Schaol at Athens. 
 Bulletin dc Correspondenee hcllenique. 
 Bulletinn della commissione archeologiea communale di 
 
 Ho ma. 
 Ephvmeris arcluiiologike. 
 Jahrhuck des fcaiserlich deutschen arch&ologischen Insti- 
 
 luts. 
 Jahresheftc des wsterrciehi-sehen archiiologischcn Instituts. 
 Journal of Hellenic Studies. 
 Mitteilungen des kaiserlich deuLschen archaologischen In- 
 
 .^litul^, alhenische Abteilung und romische Ahteilung. 
 Notizie degli Scavi. 
 Revue archSologique. 
 
 General Works: — 
 
 Baumf.isteh, A. DenkmalcT des klassischen AUeTlhums. 
 (Munich, 1SS4-1S8S.) 
 
 CtROTTi, G. A History of Art, Vol. I, Ancient art, re- 
 vised by Mrs. Strong, tr. bv Alice Todd, 540 illustra- 
 tions. (London 190S.) This little book deals with 
 Oriental, Greek, Etruscan, and Roman art and 
 contains excellent classified bibliograi)hies. 
 
 Dare.mbero and S.\ulio. Dictionnaire des anliquilcs 
 grccques et romaines. 
 
 Herders. Bilderntlas zur Kunstgeschichte, I, Altertmn it. 
 Millclaltcr. 76 Tafeln mit 720 Bildern. (Freiburg 
 in Brei.sgau, 1905.) 
 
 LnCKENBAca e .\dami, C. Arte e storia ncl mondo aniico. 
 Ell. Maggiore. 152 plates. (Bergamo, 1907.) 
 
 MlCH.^ELis, A. Die archaologischen Entdeckungen dts 
 neunzehnten Jahrhunderts (Leipzig, 1906), tr. by 
 Bettina Kahnweiler. (London, 1908.) 
 
 Perrot and Chipiez. Histoire del'art dans I'antiquite, 
 Vols. VI, Vn, and VIH. (Paris, 1894-190.3.) 
 
 Reinach, S. .ipollo. Eng. tr. by F. Simmonds. 
 (London, 1907.) Good bibliography. 
 
 RoscHER, W. H. Au.\fiihrliches Lexicon der griechijichen 
 und romischen Mythologic. (Leipzig, 1884-1910.) 
 
 Springer, .\.. and Mithaells, A. Handlmch der 
 Kunslijcschichte, Vol. \, 7th ed. (Leipzig. 1904.) 
 
 Steudinc, H. Denktndler antiker Kunst fiir d. Gymna- 
 sium ausgewdhlt. 2d Aufl. 66 plates. (Leipzig, 
 1907.) 
 
 Win'ter. F. Kxinstgcichichtc in Bildern. \, Das AUertum, 
 100 plates. (Leipzig and Berlin, 1900.) 
 
 Special Works on Greek Archasology : — 
 BuRROW.s, R. M. The Discoveries in Crete. (London, 
 
 1907.) 
 D'OocE, M. L. The Acropolis of Athens. (New York 
 
 and London, 1908.) 
 Fowler, H. N., and Wheeler, .1. R. A Handbook of 
 
 Greek Archeeology. (New York, 1909.) 
 Fr.\zer, ,7. G. Pausanias* Description of Greece. 
 
 (London, 1898.) 
 Furtwangler, .\., and Reichhold, K. Die grieehische 
 
 Vasenmalerci. (Munich, 1900.) 
 G.\RDNER, P. A Grammar of Greek Art. (London and 
 
 New York, 1905.) 
 
 OvERBECK, ,1. Die antiken Schriftqiiellen zur Geschichte 
 
 der liildendcn Kiinste bei den Griechen. (Leipzig, 
 
 1868.) 
 Roberts, E. S. An Introduction to Greek Epigraphy. 
 
 (Cambridge, 1887-1905.) 
 TsouNTAs, Ch., and Manatt, J. L The Mycenean Age. 
 
 (Boston, 1897.) 
 
 Topography and Monuments of Rome: — 
 Ameldng, \V.. and Holtzin'ger, H. The Museums and 
 
 Ruins of Rome. Vol.11. The ruins, by Holtzinger. 
 
 (London, 1906.) Brief and accurate description of 
 
 the monuments. 
 Huelsen, Ch. The Roman Forum, its History and 
 
 Monuments, tr. by J. B. Carter, 2d ed. (Home, 1909.) 
 
 The best outline, with detailed bibliography. 
 Jordan, H. Topographie d. Stadt Rom im AUertum, 
 
 P by Ch. HueLsen, Berlin, 1907. (I', I=, and II 
 
 appeared more than 20 years ago.) Covers the 
 
 city except Fora and Capitol. 
 Lanciani, R. Storia dcgli Scavi di Roma. 3 vols, have 
 
 appeared (1902-1907), bringing the history down 
 
 to 1565. 
 The Destruction of Aticicnl Rome. (New York, 
 
 1899.) 
 Perschinka, F. Das alte Rom. (Wien, 1908.) A brief 
 
 (61 pp.) introduction to the whole subject, with 88 
 
 goorl illustrations. 
 Platner, S. B. The Topography and Monuments of 
 
 Ancient Rome. (Boston, 1904.) 2d ed. soon to be 
 
 issued. 
 RicHTER, O. Topographie d. Stadt Rom, 2te. Aufl. 
 
 (Munchen, 1901.) 
 RoDOCANAfHi, E. The Roman Capitol in Ancient and 
 
 Modern Times. Eng. tr. bv F. Lawton. (London, 
 
 1906.) 
 
 Roman Art and Archeeology (in General) : — 
 Gentile, I., and Ricci, R. Trattato generale di archeologia 
 e storia delt' arte Italica, Etrusca, e Romano, .3d ediz. 
 (Milano, 1901.) Excellent elementary work with 
 full bibliographies and supplementary volume of 
 illustrations. 
 Marth.\, Joles. L' Archiologie Etrusque et Romaine. 
 
 (Paris.) 
 WiCKHOFF, F. Roman art; .some of its Principles and 
 their Appli^-ation to Early Christian Painting. 
 Eng. tr. by Mrs. Strong. (London. 1900.) Empha- 
 sizes the individuality- and independence of Roman 
 art. 
 
 Architecture : — 
 Anderson, W., and Spiers, P. The Architecture of 
 
 Greece and Rome. Illustrated. (London, 1907.) 
 DuRM, J. Baukunst d. Etrusker u. Romer. (2d .Aufl., 
 
 Stuttgart, 1905.) Standard work with illustrations 
 
 and bibliography. 
 Die Baukunst der Griechen (Handbuch der Archi- 
 
 tectur). Vol. II, 3d ed. (Darmstadt, 1910.) 
 Marqc.\nd, .\. Greek Architecture. (New York and 
 
 London. 1909.) 
 Sturgis, R. Hislon/ of Architecture, I (antiijuity). 
 
 (New York, 1900.) 
 
 Sculpture: — 
 
 Bernoulli. J. J. Rom. Ikonographie. 3 vols. (Stutt- 
 gart, 1S92-1.S94.) 
 
 Bbunn-Brcckjuann-.^rndt. Denkmalcr griech . u rom. 
 Skulptur. This expensive collection of large plates 
 begiin at Munich in 1897, together with the Griech. 
 «. rom. Portrats, begun in 190l, is still in progress, 
 and furnishes the best available illustrations. 
 
 Gardner, E. A. Handbook of Greek Sculpture, 2d ed. 
 (London and New Yf)rk, 1900.) 
 
 Mach, E. v. a Handbook of Greek and Roman Sculp- 
 ture. (Boston, 1905.) 
 
 Reinach, ,S. Ripertoire dc la statuaire Grecque el 
 Romaine, 3 vols. (Paris, 1897-1904.) Inex- 
 pensive collection of small cuts. 
 
 Strong, Mr.s. .Vrthur (Eugenie Sellers). Roman 
 Sculpture from Augustus to Constantine. (London 
 and New York, 1907.) This has good illustrations 
 which may be supplemented by the University 
 Prints accomijanying the following. 
 
 174
 
 ARCH^OLOGICAL INSTITUTE 
 
 ARCHDEACON 
 
 Painting, Pompeii, Herculaneum : — ■ 
 GiRARD, P. Histoire de la peinture antique. (Paris, 
 
 1892.) 
 Hermann, P. DenkniUler der Malerei. (Munich, 
 
 1907.) 
 Mau, a. Geschichte d. decorativcn Wandmalerei in 
 
 Pompeii. (Berlin, 1882.) 
 Pompeii: its life and art. Eng. ed. (revised) by 
 
 F. W. Kelsey. (New York. 1902.) Many illustra- 
 tions and good bibliography. New enlarged 
 
 German cd. (Leipzig. 190S.) 
 Rodenwaldt, G. Die liumposition dcr pompcianischen 
 
 Wandgemdlde. Illustrated. (Berlin, 1909.) 
 Waldstein, C, and Shoobridge, L. Herculaneum, past, 
 
 present, and future. (London, 1908.) Numerous 
 
 fine illustrations and bibliography. 
 VVoLTMANN, A., and Woermann, K. History of painting. 
 
 Vol. I (ancient painting). Eng. ed. by S. Colvin. 
 
 (London, 1880.) 
 
 Minor Arts: Numismatics: — 
 Babelon, E. Description historique et chronologigue des 
 
 monnaies de la repuhlique Romaine. Two vols. 
 
 (Paris, 1885-1S86.) (See as above.) 
 Traite des monnaies grecques et romaines. Vol. I, 
 
 1904. II and III, 1907. (Paris.) 
 f'OHEN, H. Description historique des monnaies frap- 
 
 pees sous I'empire Romain. 8 vols. 2d ed. (Paris, 
 
 1880-1892.) 
 FuRTWAXGLER, A. Die antiken Gemmen. Geschichte 
 
 der Steinschncidekunst im klassischen Altertum. 
 
 (Leipzig, 1900.) 
 Gnecchi, F. Roman coins. 2d ed., Eng. trans, by 
 
 A. W. Hands, London, 1903. Contains illustra- 
 tions and bibliography. 3d Italian ed. (Milan, 
 
 1907.) 
 Head, B. V. Historia Numorum, a Manual of Greek 
 
 Numismatics. (Oxford, 1887.) 
 PoTTiER, E. Les statuettes de terre cuite dans I'antiquiti. 
 
 Illustrated. (Paris, 1900.) 
 Walters, H. B. Catalogue of the Bronzes in the British 
 
 Museum. (London, 1899.) 
 
 History of Ancient Potteru. (London, 1905.) 
 
 Winter. F. Die Tijpen der figiirlichen Terrakotte?i. 
 
 (B.-rlin and Stuttgart, 1903.) 
 
 ARCH^OLOGICAL INSTITUTE OF 
 
 AMERICA. —Founded in Boston in 1879 and 
 incorporated by Act of Congress in 1906; 
 it has its headquarters in Washington, D.C. 
 Its purpose is to promote archaeological 
 research by founding schools and maintaining 
 fellowships, by conducting excavations and 
 explorations and aiding in those conducted 
 by others, by publishing the results of archaeo- 
 logical research, by holding meetings for the 
 presentation and discussion of archaeological 
 subjects, and by maintaining courses of public 
 lectures. 
 
 The work of the Institute is organized in the 
 following departments, each of which is in 
 charge of its own managing committee: Greek, 
 Roman, Oriental, American, Renaissance. To 
 these Egyptian i.s now being added. The 
 American School of Cla.ssical Studies at Athens, 
 established in 1881, has conducted excavations 
 at the Argive Heraeum and in Corinth as well 
 as at several less important sites in Greece, 
 and has published several volumes of Papers, 
 Bulletins, and Reports. The American School 
 of Classical Studies in Rome was founded in 
 189.5, and though not permitted to excavate, has 
 published two volumes of " Supplementary 
 Papers " and many si)ecial monographs. The 
 American School of Oriental Study and Re- 
 
 .search (Jerusalem) was organized in 1900, and 
 has already done important work of exploration 
 in Palestine. In 1907 the School of American 
 Archaeology (Santa F6) was founded as a 
 school of research to direct investigations in 
 the American field. Its activities have extended 
 to Arizona, Utah, New Mexico, Mexico, and 
 Central America. The work in Medieval and 
 Renaissance studies is pursued chiefly under 
 the direction of the School in Rome, where a 
 large library is deposited for that purpose. 
 
 In addition to the researches and publications 
 of the schools, the Institute itself has carried 
 through large undertakings of publication and 
 excavation. For example, it conducted ex- 
 tensive excavations at Assos, and is now (1910) 
 beginning work at Cyrene. Besides its special 
 publications, it regularly issues the American 
 Journal of Archceology and the Bulletin of the 
 Archmological Institute of America. 
 
 The Institute consists of 32 affiliated So- 
 cieties, with a total membership of about .3000, 
 situated in the chief cities of the United States 
 and Canada. To each of these are sent an- 
 nually several lecturers, both American and 
 foreign, to present the newer phases of progress 
 in the different fields of archaeological research. 
 Fuller information with regard to the Institute 
 may be had from the Secretary, George Wash- 
 ington University, Washington, D.C. 
 
 See Archaeology. 
 
 ARCHDEACON. — It has been assumed or 
 suggested by a good many writers on the his- 
 tory of educational institutions that the arch- 
 deacon was the primary educational authority. 
 But there is nothing in the canon law to suggest 
 that teaching or inspection or government of 
 schools and scholars formed any part of the 
 archidiaconal functions. In the Institution of 
 St. Osmund, c. 1090, the archdeacon's duties are 
 summed up in the terms, "the archdeacons' 
 powers lie in the cure of souls " {archidiaconi 
 in cura pollent animarum). They exercised, by 
 devolution from the bishop, whose eyes they 
 are said to be (that is, inspectors on his behalf), 
 and to whom they reported, jurisdiction over 
 offen.ses against morality and sins of a character 
 absolution for which was not reserved to the 
 bishop or the Pope himself . In the case of an 
 ordinary bishopric or cathedral, the educational 
 authority was not the archdeacon, but the 
 schoolmaster, later called chancellor. In some 
 cathedrals, however, the archdeacon was the 
 principal person next after the bishop, and 
 it so happened that this was the case with 
 Bologna iq.i'.), the seat as some say of the 
 first, and at all events of one of the first and 
 most famous of universities and the specially 
 legal university. In this position he seemed 
 to have exercised the same kind of power in 
 regard to the university as the Chancellor of 
 Notre Dame did at Paris. But it is noticeable 
 that in perhaps the earliest mention of him 
 in this capacity he is called archdeacon and 
 
 175
 
 ARCHDEACON 
 
 ARCHES 
 
 chancellor, viz. of the cathedral, and in 1404 
 is called head and chancellor of the university, 
 and the position was formally conferred by 
 Papal bull of Honorius III, an cx-archdeacon 
 of BoloRne himself. This ca.se, though it is in 
 fact no i)roof of archidiaconal authority in 
 education, but rather the contrary, may have 
 given rise to claims of the same sort by other 
 archdeacons. In England the archdeacon seems 
 to have been unknown before the Xorman Con- 
 quest. Archdeacons only apjiear in three or 
 four charters, all of them marked as spurious. 
 As the system of schools was fully established, 
 this seems to be conclusive against their possess- 
 ing in England educational jiowcr ex officio. 
 The schoolmaster and chancellor used this in 
 the secular cathedrals, while the bishops (see 
 Bishop's Schools) in the case of the monastic 
 cathedrals retained this educational power of 
 supervising schools and appointing masters in 
 their own hands. The presence, however, of 
 the Archdeacon of Oxford, when some statutes 
 were made for the grammar schools there in 
 1306, has been inferred to show archidiaconal 
 control over them. But he was accompanied 
 by the official (later called chancellor) of the 
 Bishop of Lincoln, and seems to have been 
 acting jointly with the official as the bishoji's 
 representative. At Cambridge, 30 years earlier, 
 the Archdeacon of Ely seems to have contestetl 
 with the Chancellor of the University the juris- 
 diction over the grammar schools there, which 
 were no doubt older than the university, and 
 not part of it, and the master of which exercised 
 independent jurisdiction over his scholars as his 
 brother of Canterbury did. The appointment 
 of this master of ' glomery ' or grammar seems 
 indeed to have belonged to the archdeacon, 
 and the reason no doubt was that it had been 
 assigned to him by the bishop, Ely being a 
 monastic see, and his cathedral therefore not 
 possessing a chancellor. At Worcester it would 
 appear that the archdeacon claimed a similar 
 authority, and in 1312, when the bishop ap- 
 pointeil a master of the grammar school of the 
 city of Worcester, he said that he did so whether 
 the power of appointment belonged to him by 
 episcopal or by archidiaconal authority, thus 
 overriding whatever claim the archdeacon may 
 have made. At Canterbury from 1306 to 1450 
 the archbishop himself appointed the master, 
 and so at Winchester as late as 14.55. The en- 
 graving given in Emil Reiche's German Lehrer 
 in 1901, purporting to be an archdeacon teach- 
 ing boys reading and music, must be a case of 
 mistaken identity. The person in question has 
 on a doctor's cap. There is no evidence forth- 
 coming of an archdeacon acting as teacher. 
 
 After the Reformation, when chancellors of 
 cathedrals ceased to exercise any educational su- 
 pervision, and the officials had become merely 
 judges of the bishop's courts, the archdeacons 
 were emploj'ed as the bishops' representatives to 
 make inquiries as to schools for the enforcement 
 of the canon and statute law imposing tests on 
 
 schoolmasters. It was a regular part of their 
 duty at visitations to inquire whether the schools 
 were kept by persons projjcrly licensed and who 
 had taken the necessary oaths, and whether they 
 were susiiected of papacy or nonconformity. 
 This was ])artic'ularly the case in the reign of 
 Elizabeth, and we find instances wherever 
 the records of visitations can be found. So, 
 when the Barons of the Exchequer wanted to 
 be satisfied in 1572 that the sciiools continued 
 by the Chantry commissioners were in work- 
 ing order and ileserved the stipends paid out of 
 the Exchequer, the inquiry was directed to the 
 bishop, who deputed the archdeacon to visit the 
 place and sec, and he reported to the bishop, 
 who made return to the Exche(iuer court. After 
 the Toleration Act, when the ordinary ceased 
 to have power, the archdeacons cea.sed to make 
 inquiries about schools, and all connection with 
 them ceased. A. F. L. 
 
 References: — 
 
 Cm-ims Juris Cononici; ed. Leipzig, ISSl. 
 
 ARCHES, SCHOOL OF THE. — A school 
 in London of early origin, attached to the 
 Church of St. Mary Le Bow, which stood upon 
 arches and was known as the Ecclesia Sanctae 
 IMariae dc Arcubus (bow was the usual Saxon 
 term for an arch or bridge, sec Hutton, A. W., 
 .1 Short Ilixiory and Description of Bow Church). 
 The school was po.ssibly held in the ancient 
 crypt, which still exists, though the church 
 itself was destroyed in the great fire of 1666. 
 There is knowledge of the school in the elev- 
 enth century. Tlie School of the Arches, and 
 the schools of St. Paul's and St. Martin's Le 
 Grand were the only three schools in London 
 which had the exclusive right to educate as 
 against strange unqualified masters who at- 
 tempted to open schools in the fourteenth 
 century. It is interesting to notice that the 
 secular courts supported the strange masters 
 against the ecclesiastical authorities who pro- 
 tected the three schools. This action of the 
 secular courts was reflected in the decision in the 
 Gloucester Grammar Sciiool case (1410). In 
 1446 the number of recognized schools rose to 
 five, but the claim was again questioned in the 
 following 3'ear, owing to the great need of 
 grammar schools in London. 
 
 From this date the history of the School of the 
 Arches is obscure. It is probable that the 
 grammar school, like many others in the seven- 
 teenth century, was converted into an elemen- 
 tary parochial school and was taken over in 
 1701 by the Charity School Movement (q.v.). 
 The school became a w-ard school for boys and 
 girls in 1714: was removed to Old Change in 
 17G6, to Distaff Lane in 1S18, and in 1855 out 
 of London to Anglcsea House, Shooter's Hill, 
 above Woolwich. To this day the children 
 from this school are taken annually on St. 
 Mark's day to a church in the immediate 
 vicinity of St. Mary Le Bow, to the Church of 
 
 176
 
 ARCHIMEDES 
 
 ARCHITECTURAL EDUCATION 
 
 St. Mary Aldermary, to hear a sermon on " the 
 excellency of the Liturgy of the Church of 
 England." It is tempting to believe that this 
 church is attended by mistake, and that the 
 children are intended to go to the church that 
 is almost entirely built on the site of a Roman 
 temple, to the church where the Court of 
 Arches sat for seven or more centuries, to the 
 church where the curfew bell about the year of 
 Grace 1375 called Dick Whittington back to 
 London. J. E. G. de M. 
 
 See articles on Te.a.chers, Licensing of; 
 Middle Ages, Education in. 
 
 References: — 
 
 DuGDALE. History of St. Paul's Cathedral, ed. 1658, 
 
 P- 9- 
 HuTTON, A. W. A Short History and Description of 
 
 Bow Church. 
 Montmorency, J. E. G. de. State Intervention in 
 
 English Education. (Cambridge, 1902.) 
 Newcouhts History of the Diocese of London, ed. 1708, 
 
 p. 109. 
 
 ARCHIMEDES. — The greatest mathe- 
 matician of Greece, and a prolific and profound 
 writer on mathematics and physics. He was 
 born probably about 287 b.c, and was killed at 
 the sack of Syracuse by the Romans in 212 b.c. 
 He visited and probably studied at Alexandria. 
 In elementary mathematics he is known chiefly 
 for his mensuration of the circle by a method 
 still in use in the schools, and for his treatise 
 on the sphere and cylinder. Among the propo- 
 sitions enunciated by him is the one assert- 
 ing that the area of the surface of a sphere is 
 four times that of one of its great circles, 
 and the one comparing the volume and the 
 surface of a sphere with those of the circum- 
 scribed cylinder. The style of Archimedes 
 was not like that of Euclid {q.v.). The latter 
 was essentially a teacher, and a genius in 
 textbook-making; but Arcliimedes was a dis- 
 coverer, and his writings were less suited to 
 the use of the beginner. D. E. S. 
 
 See Alexandria, School and Uni\'ersity 
 
 ARCHITECTURAL EDUCATION.— His- 
 torical. — Systematic provision for the technical 
 training of architects for their profession is a 
 comparatively modern institution. The oldest 
 existing school of architecture is that of the 
 French Academy at Rome established by 
 Louis XIV, in 1671. But this was not a school 
 with a complete curriculum of professional 
 study, and it was not until 1816, under Louis 
 XVIII, that the firstcompletely organized train- 
 ing school for architects was established — 
 that of the Ecole des Beaux-Arts at Paris. 
 Previous to that date preparation for the prac- 
 tice of architecture was obtained, as for most 
 other callings, by apprenticeship to practitioners 
 already in the exercise of their profession. 
 This was true not only of Europe in the Middle 
 Ages and in the Renaissance, but probably 
 also of Egypt, Greece, and Rome in antiquity. 
 
 VOL. I — N 177 
 
 We have no records to enlighten us in de- 
 tail as to the manner in which the architects 
 of the classic ages received their special edu- 
 cation, as we certainly should have had if there 
 had been specially organized professional 
 schools of architecture. It is, however, known 
 that the building crafts were in the hands of 
 guilds which, under the later emperors at least, 
 were hereditary ; and it is probable that in 
 each guild there were schools or other means pro- 
 vided for teaching the craft, besides the ap- 
 prenticeship of sons to fathers or to other mas- 
 ters. It is also a well-known historical fact 
 that ''the Emperor Constantino did, in the 
 fourth centur)', establish such a school at 
 Rome for the training of the architects to be 
 employed in building his new capital at Byzan- 
 tium on the Bosphorus, the existing supply 
 of capable practitioners being unequal to the 
 extraordinary task of transforming a second- 
 rate provincial town into a completely equipped 
 imperial capital. But this was an exceptional 
 provision for an exceptional emergency, and 
 passed away with "the emergency which had 
 called it into existence. 
 
 It is not known how or where men like 
 Anthemius and Isodorus, the architects of 
 Ilagia Sophia, two hundred years later, were 
 educated for their stupendous task, or their 
 successors, W'ho continued for nearly a thousand 
 years to maintain in Southeastern Europe the 
 traditions of the Byzantine style. But as it 
 was predominantly an ecclesiastical style, it 
 was probably, to some extent at least, the 
 Greek and Byzantine monasteries that supplied 
 the technical and artistic part of that education. 
 
 With the end of the tenth century there be- 
 gan in Western Europe a revival of architecture, 
 which took on an extraordinarj^ development 
 during the latter part of the eleventh and during 
 the twelfth century. This revival, which was 
 itself but one phase of a marvelous and wide- 
 spread intellectual awakening, was chiefly 
 monastic and ecclesiastical in character, and 
 it was in the great monasteries, especially 
 those of the Benedictine and Cistercian orders, 
 that the men were trained who built the 
 great abbeys, cloisters, and churches of the 
 Romanesque style. This, at least is true 
 of England, France, and Germany. It is 
 probable that there was a much larger secu- 
 lar element in the development of archi- 
 tecture in Italy at the same time, though just 
 how important was the part played by the 
 maestri comacini, or guilds of masons, at that 
 time is not certainly known. (Cf. Leader 
 Scott, The Cathedral Builders.) But so far as 
 Western Europe is concerned, it was in the great 
 monasteries that the master builders of the 
 Romanesque period learned their crafts. These 
 monasteries were the chief homes and nurseries 
 both of learning and of the fine arts in those 
 days, and come nearest to offering a parallel to 
 the architectural schools of our own time. But 
 it must not be imagined that there was anything
 
 ARCHITECTURAL EDUCATION 
 
 ARCHITECTURAL EDUCATION 
 
 like the organized currieiiluni and discipline of 
 tiie modern sciiools. The various departments 
 of architectural training had not been reduced 
 to precise canons and scientific formulation. 
 The methods were those of apprenticeship; 
 constructive and engineering principles, so far 
 as they had been formulated at all, had been 
 worked out empirically, as the results of hard 
 experience; architecture was not a profession, 
 but a craft, embodying traditions that had been 
 gradually accumulated in the building expe- 
 rience of the monasteries, to be mastered by 
 practice, not erudition. The work of design 
 and building was not divided in the lines of 
 modern practice, and the training required 
 was totally unlike that needed by the modern 
 architect. The design, certainly the type, of 
 each buikiing, was based on that of some other 
 building of the same class already erected, with 
 such improvements as the experience of that 
 building suggested. Neither in general design 
 nor in details w^as there necessity for com- 
 pletely new invention. The number of kinds 
 of buildings required was comparatively small; 
 the requirements changed little and slowly. 
 The monastic apprenticeship sufficed for the 
 occasion. 
 
 With the decline of the paramountcy of 
 the monastic orders, the practice of architeeture 
 passed chiefly into the hands of the guilds of 
 the masons and other building trades, and its 
 problems were multiplied by the addition of 
 civic structures — town halls, courts of justice, 
 and palaces. The master masons were trained 
 by apprenticeship in their guilds, very much 
 as they had formerly learned their trade in 
 the monasteries. There was no real change 
 in the system of training until the Renaissance 
 revolutionized the art and practice of architec- 
 ture, and introduced wholly new elements into 
 design which the guilds were ill fitted to 
 supply. In the first place, the revival of 
 classic studies and the effort to restore the 
 classic, that is Roman, forms and ideals in 
 architecture, made necessary an intimate knowl- 
 edge of Roman details and gave rise to the 
 archaeological study of antique monuments. 
 In the second place, the development of secular 
 and palace architecture, of landscape gardening 
 and architecture, and the adoption of the dome 
 in place of the Gothic groined vaulting as the 
 distinctive feature of church architecture, revo- 
 lutionized construction, and made almost use- 
 less the entire traditional apparatus of the 
 mediaeval architectural teaching. Architecture 
 became more than formerly an art of pure de- 
 sign, less one of struct ural exigency. Its success- 
 ful practice required the training of the taste 
 and of the sense of proportion and decoration, 
 skill in drawing, and a thorough mastery of 
 the classic alphabet of architectural elements, 
 rather than the apprenticeship of the mason's 
 shop and stoneyard. Design and execution 
 became separate and independent activities, and 
 except where the building of a great dome 
 
 in masonry called for special experience in 
 scientific construction, there were seldom 
 structural difficulties of a kind to call for any 
 special scientific training on the part of the 
 designer. Hence during the earlier Re- 
 naissance goldsmiths, painters, sculptors, and 
 inlayers successfully attempted architectural 
 design, while in the later Renaissance of the 
 seventeenth and eighteenth centuries architec- 
 ture was successfully practiced by learned ama- 
 teurs and members of other professions. The 
 east facade of the Louvre and Christ Church 
 in Philadelphia were designed by physicians 
 (Dr. Perrault and Dr. Kearsley respectively), 
 while the greatest of all English architects, 
 Sir Christopher Wren, was a professor of 
 astronomy at Oxford when he began his career 
 as an architect. 
 
 Modem Architectural Instruction., ■ — The 
 present section of architecture of the Ecole des 
 Beaux-Arts (see Art Schools .\nd Art In- 
 struction IN ErROPE) was definitely consti- 
 tuted in 1816 in the reign of Louis XVIII. This 
 school has supplied a pattern for all other 
 French schools of architecture, and for the 
 American schools to a considerable degree, and 
 has strongly influenced even the Cerman and 
 Austrian systems. It was in this school that 
 the principles and the various categories of 
 architectural knowledge were first analyzed 
 and separated into distinct groups or courses 
 of instruction, and the ancient methods of 
 apprenticeship training in the ateliers or offices 
 of leading practitioners- — which had previously 
 offered the only available means of acquiring 
 the art — were modified and adapted to the 
 purposes and systematic organization of a great 
 school. The theory, mathematics, and science 
 of architectural design and construction were, 
 and still are, taught by lectures to large classes 
 at once. The drawing and the design proper 
 were, and are, taught in various studios or 
 ateliers maintained by different masters, sub- 
 ject to competitive tests from time to time in 
 both drawing and design. In Great Britain 
 preparation for the profession is still in large 
 measure acquired by apprenticeship; the student 
 pays an annual premium to enter the office of 
 a practitioner as an articled pupil, and receives 
 such instruction as the master may choose to 
 give him, working meanwhile as a draftsman on 
 his master's business, when not receiving in- 
 struction. Elsewhere in Europe architectural 
 education is chiefly in the hands of the govern- 
 ment, in connection either with technological 
 schools or schools of art. Thus in Switzerland 
 the chief school of architecture is that of the 
 Zurich Polytechnicum; in Vienna it is in con- 
 nection with the Imperial School of Art; in 
 Germany there are departments of architec- 
 ture in various Technixehe Hochschttlen, while in 
 Turkey a school of architecture is maintained 
 by the Imperial Museum of Art at Constanti- 
 nople. The Italian architects are trained chiefly 
 in schools of engineering. 
 
 178
 
 ARCHITECTURAL EDUCATION 
 
 ARCHITECTURAL EDUCATION 
 
 This variety in modern methods of technical 
 education in architecture is due to the manifold 
 aspects and relations of architecture. It is 
 at once a science, an art, and a learned pro- 
 fession; its practitioner must furthermore be 
 familiar with a number of mechanical trades; 
 and the knowledge and experience it calls for 
 are of the most varied character. One system 
 of training may emphasize its scientific side, 
 dwelling upon the mathematics, mechanics, and 
 engineering necessary for the proper designing 
 of foundations, retaining walls, roofs, vaults, 
 columns, and girders, or upon the physics, 
 chemistry, and electrical science required for 
 the proper construction, wiring, and heating 
 and ventilating equipment of a modern build- 
 ing; and these are subjects best taught in a 
 school of engineering. Another sy.stem may em- 
 phasize the artistic side of architecture, giving 
 special importance to the teaching of drawing, 
 drafting, shades, and shadows, perspective and 
 modeling; to the history of architectural styles 
 and ornament, and to the theory and practice of 
 design. Such a school would naturally be 
 joined to a school of art rather than to a techno- 
 logical institute. 
 
 Present Position. — These observations lead 
 naturally to a survey of the work of the architect 
 and of the various branches of study that 
 may be considered as preparatory for tliis 
 work. 
 
 The function of the architect is the designing 
 of artistic buildings; that is, of edifices which, 
 while they serve the utilitarian purpose of 
 housing and sheltering human beings, activities, 
 industries, and material goods in the most 
 convenient and efficient manner, shall also be 
 in themselves beautiful, objects of pleasing 
 contemplation, adornments to the city or region 
 in which they are placed. This combination of 
 utility and beauty, this joint and simultaneous 
 pursuit of the useful and the beautiful, is what 
 tlifferentiates architecture from engineering. 
 Fundamental to all artistic design is drawing, as 
 essential to the designer as writing is to the 
 novelist or poet. Fundamental to correct con- 
 struction in its higher forms is mathematics 
 with its applications in mechanics. Mathe- 
 matics and drawing are thus the foundation 
 studies of all training in architectural design. 
 But these two heads cover a large number of 
 distinct subjects. Freehand drawing may in- 
 clude drawing from the flat, from casts, from 
 objects, from living models, draped or nude, 
 in pencil, water colors, charcoal and crayon, 
 pen-and-ink. Architectural drawing or draft- 
 ing comprises projections, intersections, shades 
 and shadows, perspective, descriptive geometry, 
 and stereotomy; the drawing of the orders of 
 architecture and of the elementary forms of 
 architecture — doors, windows, arches, arcades, 
 vaults, balustrades, spires, etc.; the combined 
 application of projections and shades and 
 shadows to the "rendering" of plans, eleva- 
 tions, and sections with shadows cast and inter- 
 
 preted in washes of India ink and color; and 
 practice in the making of office drawings with 
 their conventional representations and systems 
 of tinting and figuring. 
 
 The scientific study of construction has been 
 greatly complicated in modern times by the 
 marvelous development of steel as a building 
 material, and lately also of concrete, and by 
 the growing complexity of modern buildings. 
 Plumbing and wiring, heating and ventilation, 
 elevators and mail chutes, have introduced 
 numberless features and problems unknown 
 fifty years ago. The architect must provide 
 intelligently for these in his designs, besides 
 knowing how to calculate the strength of col- 
 umns and girders, arches and vaults. Hence in 
 addition to the prerequisite algebra, geometry, 
 and trigonometry, he should master analytical 
 geometry, the calculus and mechanics, graphical 
 statics and strength of materials. A fair knowl- 
 edge of physics and chemistry and of their 
 applications in sanitation, heating and ventila- 
 tion, and electric installation, is important. 
 Indeed, these studies may be carried very far 
 into their various subdivisions and applications 
 without exhausting the list of desirable scien- 
 tific attainments of the architect. 
 
 While pursuing these various studies, the 
 student is presumably applying his newly 
 acquired knowledge in the solving of problems 
 in design. In this work he will be aided by 
 lectures on the theory of design and decora- 
 tion, and by familiarizing himself with the 
 history and characteristics of the various 
 styles and of the great masterpieces of his art. 
 Lectures and seminars on the history of archi- 
 tecture and of ornament, with study of reference 
 books and photographs, ■will provide the means 
 for acquiring this sort of knowledge and resource. 
 The problems in design are worked out in the 
 studio or drafting room, under frequent criti- 
 cism and advice, and in most schools are 
 judged by a jury of award. In England 
 especially, and also in some other European 
 schools, the measuring of actual examples of 
 historic architecture and the embodying of the 
 results in carefully elaborated scale drawings, is 
 a valuable adjunct to the work in design. The 
 methods and procedures in the teaching of 
 design vary greatly in different countries and 
 in different schools; some emphasize planning, 
 some draftsmanship ; in some schools the teach- 
 ing is extremely practical, in others very ideal- 
 istic. Some make sound construction and 
 practical convenience the chief considerations; 
 others seek to stimulate the imagination and 
 cultivate the power of artistic expression; while 
 in still others archaeological correctness, erudi- 
 tion, and detailed acquaintance with and use of 
 particular historic styles are insisted on as sine 
 quA non in good design. 
 
 But while there is this wide variety of 
 method, proportion, and emphasis, there is a 
 fairly general agreement as to the essential 
 subjects of study. They may be grouped under 
 
 179
 
 ARCHITECTURAL EDUCATION 
 
 ARCHITECTURAL EDUCATION 
 
 the five heads of (a) DeHneation, iiicludiiiK all 
 graphics and drawing; (/)) Construction, di- 
 vided into science, comprising all the mathe- 
 matics and engineering of the course, and 
 practice, comprising specifications, materials, 
 and superintendence; (c) History, treating 
 both of architectural styles and of their decora- 
 tive details, with whatever may be necessary 
 in the way of archa'ology; ((/) Design, com- 
 prising theory (theory of planning, of compo- 
 sition, of decoration, of color, etc.), and practice 
 (the solution of proiilems in design upon 
 definite programs) ; and finally (c) Office 
 Practice: the principles of contracts, profes- 
 sional relations, ethics, competitions, etc. 
 Other studies are often found in the programs 
 of arcliitectural schools, such as history, eco- 
 nomics, modern languages, or English litera- 
 ture, but these are simply introduced as ele- 
 ments of liberal culture; they are not parts of 
 an architectural curriculum. Certain other 
 studies, not strictly architectural, are neverthe- 
 less desirable as preliminaries or additions to 
 an arcliitectural curriculum; notablj' such 
 sciences as botany, hygiene, physics and chem- 
 istr.y, analytical geometry and the calculus. 
 
 There is a wide diversity of opinion and 
 practice as to the best methods for the teaching 
 of design, especially as to the relative impor- 
 tance of imaginative and practical proiilems. 
 The French system, which is also the basis of 
 the systems of most American schools, elimi- 
 nates as far as possible from the problems given 
 out to be solved by the students those practical 
 and utilitarian elements which in real practice 
 so often hamper the freedom of the designer. 
 The programs of these problems require no 
 figured working drawings and structural de- 
 tails, no calculation of strains and stresses, no 
 minuti;p of flues and ducts, no consideration of 
 cost. They are intended to stimulate rather 
 than to restrict the imagination, and to give 
 the widest possible scope for artistic expression. 
 Tliey are usually of a more or less monumental 
 character, in order to train tlic student into a 
 due sense of the possibilities of large concep- 
 tions, dignified composition, and harmonious 
 detail. Particular emphasis is laid upon the 
 plan, upon the right balance and distribution 
 of parts, the proper handling of entrances, 
 circulation, stairs, and vistas, and an artistic 
 and logical correlation of exterior and interior, 
 of plan and section and elevation. The theory 
 is that an architect so trained will, under the 
 restrictions of practical work, still conceive his 
 designs in a monumental spirit and upon arti.s- 
 tic lines; wiiilc one who has never had this sort 
 of training will always dwell on details and 
 utilitarian considerations, and his work will 
 always lack imagination and the higher artistic 
 qualities. In some quarters, both in France 
 and elsewhere, this idea is decried, and the stu- 
 dent is required from the first to work out 
 problems of the character whicli he is likely to 
 meet with in ordinary practice, and as nearly as 
 
 possii)le under the limitat ions of ordinary practice. 
 There is also considerable variety as to the treat- 
 ment of style, some schools insisting on classic 
 or neo-classic details, some on the archa^ologic- 
 ally correct use of historic noncla.ssic styles. 
 Tlie relative inqjortance of artistic draftsman- 
 ship varies greatly in different schools. Most 
 <)f the American scliools follow tlie lead of the 
 Ecole des Heaux-Arts in attaching great impor- 
 tance to the drawing and " rendering " of the 
 designs; but there is in many minds an appre- 
 ciation of the danger of over-valuation of mere 
 draftsmanship as against design properly speak- 
 ing. 
 
 In all schools the student is required to do a 
 certain amount of what might be called oflice 
 work; that is, to prepare working drawings 
 with structural details of one or more of the 
 designs he has made; Init here again there is 
 wide variety in the amount and character of 
 such work. In the French system it is con- 
 fined to a single prolilem, the final task in the 
 curriculum for the diploma; a thesis problem 
 of a practical though monumental character 
 which forms the cubuination of the course in 
 scientific construction. Most of the English 
 schools are evening schools for draftsmen cm- 
 jiloyed in offices during the day; and while 
 the office work thus gives the student a certain 
 amount of practical experience, a large amount 
 of time is also generally devoted to the study 
 in the scliool of ijractical construction in a very 
 detailed manner, often with cla.ssroom demon- 
 stration of the various building trades by expert 
 workmen in those trades. 
 
 All this variety of theory and practice in ar- 
 chitectural education is due to the great com- 
 plexity of architecture, which has so many 
 branches, and is related to so many interests 
 and so many kinds of knowledge that it is 
 impos.siljle to include them all in any scheme of 
 teaching that comprises onlj- three or four 
 years' work. Every system of architectural 
 training is therefore of necessity a conq)romise, 
 and its real function can only be to eciuip the 
 student with a fund of knowledge upon which 
 he can safely l)ase all his later acquisitions; 
 and with a method of work and a habit of 
 thought which will enable him in his after prac- 
 tice to acquire further knowledge and skill and 
 u.se these wisely and well. It is therefore less 
 the particular things he studies and does in the 
 schools than the way in which he is taught 
 to study and do them, that counts. That 
 school does the most for him which trains him 
 best for the needs of five and ten years after 
 graduation, rather than for mere draftsman's 
 work in the years immediately succeeding his 
 school days. 
 
 England. — In England the theory is that 
 office work and academic training should be 
 coincident and complementary. The student 
 enters the office of an architect as an " articled " 
 student or apprentice for a term usually of 
 three years, paying an annual premium for 
 
 180
 
 ARCHITECTURAL EDUCATION 
 
 ARCHITECTURAL EDUCATION 
 
 that period and receiving such instruction as 
 his chief may give him. As soon as he is able, 
 he passes the preliminary examinations held 
 by the Royal Institute of British Architects. 
 His further studies may be continued during his 
 articled service by attendance on evening classes 
 maintained by various colleges, boards, and 
 societies {e.g. the evening classes of the Arclii- 
 tectural Association or of the South Kensing- 
 ton School of Art) ; and in time, usually at the 
 end of four years, he may go up for the final 
 examinations of the Institute; and again, after 
 a still further course in the Royal Academy 
 classes, he may compete for a gold medal or a 
 traveling bursary or studentship. 
 
 This S3'stem is being considerably modified, 
 however, by the multiplication of all-day 
 courses {e.g. the Edinburgh College of Art, 
 the London University College School, the 
 Architectural Association day classes) for 
 students who can afford to dispense for the 
 time being with office work, having already 
 had two or three j'ears of it, or intending 
 to take it up after the school course is fin- 
 ished. But in few or none of the schools 
 does pure design, exemplified in a long series 
 of progressive problems upon ideal programs, 
 receive the emphasis and attention which 
 characterize the French and American sys- 
 tems, nor is academic draftsmanship taught 
 after the Continental and American fashion. 
 On the other hand, more is made of pen draw- 
 ing and measured drawings of existing monu- 
 ments than anywhere else. 
 
 France, —r In France the young student 
 enters the Ecole des Beaux-Arts or one of the 
 provincial schools on passing entrance exami- 
 nations in the orders, drawing, mathematics, 
 history, and modeling, and is enrolled in one 
 of the ateliers or studios of a professor in the 
 school or of an outside practitioner, for the work 
 in design in the " second class." Upon passing 
 examinations in the school in descriptive ge- 
 ometry, stereotomy, analytical geometry, and 
 construction, and acquiring a certain number of 
 " values " in freehand drawing, modeling, and 
 design, he is admitted to the " first class." In 
 this grade he pursues further studies in construc- 
 tion, building legislation, and other technical 
 branches and after acquiring further " values " 
 in drawing and design, he prepares an elaborate 
 thesis design with the structural details and 
 engineering calculations fully worked out, and 
 graduates with the diploine (hi gouvernement, 
 which qualifies him for official appointment in 
 any of the numerous governmental services 
 of communes, municipalities, or departments 
 (counties), or of the general government. 
 Usually a certain amount of office experience 
 has been acquired by sporadic engagements 
 during the scholastic course. 
 
 The distinctive excellence of the French 
 schooling lies in its system of teaching design 
 and in the admirable training which it provides 
 in all forms of artistic draftsmansliip. Archi- 
 
 tecture is conceived of throughout as an art, 
 and all constructive science as subordinate to 
 and serving the art of design. Hence the work 
 in design predominates throughout. In Paris 
 the programs of all the problems for the two 
 classes respectively are issued by the Professor 
 of Theory upon specified dates: the students 
 make summary sketches of the proposed solu- 
 tions of these problems, to which their subse- 
 quent elaborations of the design must essen- 
 tially conform. Two months are allowed for 
 this elaboration,' which is worked out under 
 frequent criticism from the patron or architect- 
 master of the atelier. But quite as valuable, 
 in its way, as the patron's instruction is the 
 free and constant interchange of criticism and 
 assistance between the students of the atelier, 
 the ajiciens or " elders " criticizing and instruct- 
 ing the younger men, who in turn assist in the 
 drafting of the designs of the elders. The 
 " rendered " or elaborated drawings are handed 
 in on a fixed date, publicly exhibited, judged by 
 a jury composed of school professors and of pa- 
 trons of a selected list of ateliers, and " mentions," 
 "first mentions," and "medals" are awarded 
 to such among them as seem to deserve it, each 
 award conferring a certain number of "values." 
 Similar judgment is passed upon the work in 
 freehand drawing in stated competitions. In 
 addition to the regular problem competitions, 
 there are special competitions for medals 
 and money prizes, in decoration and architec- 
 ture, such as the Godebceuf, the Chaude- 
 saigues, and the Prix Americain, founded by 
 American gifts, most of these prizes being open 
 only to French citizens. Finally there is the 
 annual contest for the Prize of Rome or Grand 
 Prix d' Architecture. The preliminary competi- 
 tion, open to all Frenchmen, consists of a two 
 days' sketch problem, as a result of which the 
 ten final competitors are chosen, who work, 
 during four months, upon a new program for a 
 large and elaborate building or group of build- 
 ings. The winner of the First Grand Prize 
 is sent to Rome as a ■pensionnaire of the Villa 
 Medici, where he spends three years, followed 
 by two years of travel and study in Italy and 
 Greece at the expense of the government. This 
 is the highest honor any student can win. It 
 secures him important official employment and 
 confers lasting distinction upon the winner. It 
 is the goal of the entire system, and its influ- 
 ence is all-important in maintaining the classic 
 traditions of monumental design in France. 
 
 The Ecole Speciale d' Architecture, on the 
 Boulevard Montparnasse, Paris, is a private 
 institution, following in part the system of the 
 Ecole des Beaux-Arts, but with more attention 
 to practical details and less emphasis on aca- 
 demic traditions. Many architects are trained 
 in the Ecole Centrale des Arts el Manufactures, 
 which is really a school of engineering, with 
 incidental architectural studies. But the great 
 majority of the successful, French practitioners 
 have been trained in the Ecole des Beaux-Arts. 
 
 181
 
 ARCHITECTURAL EDUCATION 
 
 ARCHITECTURAL EDUCATION 
 
 United Slates. — In the United States the 
 first organized school of architecture was tliat 
 established in the Massachusetts Institute of 
 Technology, under the direction of Professor 
 William R. Ware of Boston, in 1866. This 
 was followed by the organization of a course in 
 architecture at Cornell University under Pro- 
 fessor Charles Babcock a few years later, and 
 soon afterwards by the opening of a similar 
 course in the Illinois State Industrial Univer- 
 sity at Champaign by Professor N. Clifford 
 Ricker. In ISSl Professor Ware was called to 
 Columbia College (now Columliia University) 
 to establish a department of architecture in the 
 technical sciiool, then known as the School of 
 Mines; and not long after a similar department 
 was started in the University of Pennsylvania. 
 Within the past 20 years. Harvard University, 
 Syracuse University, the University of Cali- 
 fornia, Washington University at St. Louis, 
 George Washington University at Washington, 
 D.C., McGiU University at i\Iontreal, Canada, 
 Michigan University, Tulane University at 
 New Orleans, and several important technical 
 schools have established more or less complete 
 courses in architecture. The Society of Beaux- 
 Arts Architects of America has also estab- 
 lished an important system of competitions in 
 design in two classes, "B " and "A," after the 
 model of the French Ecole competitions, but 
 it does not maintain any school, properly 
 speaking. 
 
 In the majority of American schools of archi- 
 tecture a modification of the French system 
 prevails. The student passes examinations for 
 admission, approximately equivalent to those 
 for admi-ssion to the B.A. or college course, and 
 pursues for four years a curriculum which 
 combines lecture courses and recitations in 
 the mathematics, science, theory, and history 
 of the art, with drafting-room work on prob- 
 lems in design and in freehand drawing. The 
 classroom courses cover mathematics through 
 the calculus, mechanics, graphical statics, and 
 strength of materials; shades and shadows, 
 perspective, descriptive geometry and stereot- 
 omy; the history of architecture; the theory 
 of design and decoration; specifications, build- 
 ing construction and contracts, and in many 
 cases, physics, chemistry, botany and geology, 
 hygiene and sanitation, French, and German. 
 The work in design is generally patterned after 
 the French in the form of the program and the 
 kind of presentation and draftsmanship re- 
 quired; and in several cases the professor of 
 design is a Frenchman. But in only one school, 
 that of Columbia University, is there more than 
 one atelier. In this school there are three, each 
 with its own supervisor or supervisors, provid- 
 ing the stimulus of friendly emulation within 
 the school which the single atelier system lacks, 
 and which is so important an element in the 
 success of the Paris system. At Harvard 
 University monotony and narrowness of teach- 
 ing are avoided by intrusting the preparation 
 
 of programs and the criticism of the designs 
 successively to different architects. Several 
 of the schools adopt the Beaux-Arts Society's 
 problems, which thus provide an intcrscholastic 
 emulation in place of the Parisian and Colum- 
 bian system of inter-atelier emulation within 
 the school. 
 
 Nearly all the schools require a graduating 
 thesis design of some imjiortance. Some schools 
 require summer vacation work. Columbia re- 
 (]uires every student to do at least one month's 
 office work and one design in each summer 
 vacation. 
 
 Several of the schools offer for competition 
 among their graduates prize scholarships for 
 foreign travel and study. Not only the winners 
 of these, but many others, graduates or students 
 who have spent two or three years in an Ameri- 
 can school without graduating, devote from two 
 to four or even five or six years to study in 
 Paris at the Ecole, often with a view to winning 
 the diplome du gouvernement. This seems to be 
 a wasteful course: after four years in the 
 American school, two years in Paris — not 
 necessarily as a registered student in the 
 Ecole — should suffice for acquiring the best 
 part of the French training, — the French 
 criticism, environment, and manner of attack 
 and study of problems in design, — and a year 
 or two of travel in Italy and other European 
 centers of art, to study the great monuments of 
 architecture, should supply the further culture 
 and information most needed by the American 
 practitioner. 
 
 Office training and experience in the prepa- 
 ration of working drawings and in the innu- 
 merable details of construction and superin- 
 tendence are usually acquired by the American 
 student after leaving the school. Only a small 
 part of this training can be advantageously 
 provided in a school, and this is fairly well 
 given in the larger schools in the United States 
 and Canada. In some cases the student enters 
 the school after a year or two of office experi- 
 ence, and many schools admit office draftsmen 
 as special or nonmatrieulatcd students. Most 
 of the schools confer on their graduates the 
 degree of Bachelor of Science; two or three that 
 of Bachelor of Architecture. Columbia Uni- 
 versity gives the degree of Bachelor of Archi- 
 tecture only to students who enter with two 
 complete years of collegiate or scientific school 
 .study to their credit; a Professional Certificate 
 is given to graduates who have entered with 
 only a secondary school training. 
 
 The tendency in the United States is toward 
 a constantly higher and more exacting training 
 for the architect, and the profession is coming 
 more and more into the hands of highly edu- 
 cated practitioners. Probably the weakest 
 feature of the American schools is in their fol- 
 lowing French academic models too clo.sely in 
 design and draftsmanship; but there is little 
 doubt that time will bring greater independence 
 and a healthy originality more in accord with 
 
 182
 
 ARCHITECTURE 
 
 ARCHITECTURE 
 
 the American spirit of initiative than is now 
 apparent. A. D. F. H. 
 
 See Arch.eology; Art Schools; Arts in 
 Education; Design; Drawing; etc. 
 
 References: — • 
 
 Architectural Record for 1907. Series of articles on the 
 Teaching of Architecture in various American Insti- 
 tutions. 
 Blomfield, R. The Mistress Art. (London. 1908.) 
 Blondel. Cours d' Architecture. (Paris, 1675-1683.) 
 Esquire. Traite elementaire d' Architecture. 
 Flagg, Ernest. The Kcole des Beaux-Arts. Architec- 
 tural Record, 1894. two articles. 
 Gaddet. Theorie de I' Architecture. (Paris, 1902.) 
 Hamlin, A. D. F. Architectural Education in America. 
 Journal of R. I. B. A., third series. Vol. XVII, No. 4. 
 .Iackson, T. G. Reason in Architecture. (London, 1906.) 
 Reynaud, L. Trailed' Architecture. (Paris, 1S63-1867.) 
 Spiers. R. P. The French Diplome and the German 
 System of .Architectural Education. Transactions of 
 the Royal Institute of British Architects, 1883-1884. 
 Statham, H. H. Architecture for General Readers. (New 
 
 York, 1895.) 
 Sturgis, R. Dictionary of Architecture, a.viic\es Architect , 
 and Schools of Architecture. (New York, 1901-1902.) 
 Sturgis, R. How to Judge Architecture. (New York, 
 
 1903.) 
 White, W. H. The Education and Positions of Architects 
 in France since 1871. Transactions of the Royal In- 
 stitute of British Architects, 1883-1884. 
 
 ARCHITECTURE, SCHOOL.— School archi- 
 tecture of to-day is the product of educational 
 development and of educational faith. Natu- 
 rally, then, if there are educational remnants 
 clinging to our theories, we may expect to find 
 architectural remnants to correspond. The 
 school, as we now know it, had its beginnings 
 in ecclesiasticism, and carries theoretical rem- 
 nants which can be understood only by reference 
 to its beginnings. Schoolhouses grew out of 
 church buildings, and are yet often burdened 
 with remnants which can be interpreted and 
 made clear only by reference to their origin. 
 All the old churches, and most of the new ones, 
 have spires or great towers. Nearly all school- 
 houses of any size built 25 or more years ago 
 in this country likewise bear this architec- 
 tural feature. Schoolhouses of the modern 
 era were first built in churchyards or near to 
 them, and a small part of the meager room 
 given to the church was doled out to the school. 
 While the schoolhouse as a public building is 
 no longer attached to the church, the size of 
 the lot still tells the story of this part of its 
 heritage. In the churches and early schools, 
 the priest-teacher spoke ex cathedra; the fixed 
 platforms in grammar schools are remnants of 
 these. Churches were for the most part cold 
 and dark, and gloomy within ; the early schools 
 were their counterparts in these respects, and 
 many of a like kind are yet in evidence. Churches 
 were built on the theory that the congregation 
 had little to do but to attend regularly, listen 
 attentively, and keep still. Hence the win- 
 dows were not primarily designed to give 
 adequate light for either reading or writing; 
 school buildings inherited not only the shape 
 of their windows, but the position and relative 
 size of them. The benches, where any were 
 
 supplied in the early churches, were made to 
 suit adults; the schools are just now getting 
 rid of such. The old churches had no adequate 
 means of ventilation or heating; the struggle 
 to meet these necessities in our schools still 
 continues. And so in many other ways the ear- 
 marks of church architecture are still clinging 
 to our school buildings, despite the fact that 
 many of these features are not only useless now, 
 but never were needed in schools. But the last 
 quarter of a century has seen great progress in 
 school architecture, mainly as a result of a cor- 
 responding development in educational theory 
 and practice. Modern school buildings are, 
 inside and out, rapidly taking a form which 
 history does not duplicate. As has been sug- 
 gested, it is yet a difficult problem in many parts 
 of our country to get rid of the useless tradi- 
 tions, especially the towers, but they are, 
 generally speaking, rapidly disappearing. 
 
 In the following discussions and suggestions 
 concerning school buildings the purpose is to 
 consider somewhat briefly the requirements 
 of school buildings for convenience, health, 
 safety and general educational fitness, from 
 the point of view of the practical schoolman 
 rather than of the professional architect. 
 
 Building Materials. — At present the begin- 
 ning of a movement for the use of more per- 
 manent materials in school buildings is increas- 
 ingly apparent. Earthquakes and disastrous 
 fires have made it clear that in the long run 
 permanent fireproof buildings are far cheaper 
 than those buUt of wood, or of brick, stone, or 
 wood combined. With a well-defined move- 
 ment throughout the country in favor of the 
 issuance and sale of long-time bonds, to bear 
 the cost of construction, a community has a 
 questionable right to use such money to build 
 school buildings of a perishable material and 
 expect a future generation to join in payment for 
 them. Of course there are many sides to this 
 question; but the one here pointed out is not 
 always in the mind of those who use the money 
 of a future generation. This, however, is not 
 the most important question at issue in the use 
 of materials for the construction of public 
 buildings. The United States government 
 builds all its public buildings for permanency, 
 and safety from fires and natural disasters of 
 every sort, and as a result spends nothing for 
 insurance, next to nothing for repairing damages 
 caused by the elements, and a very small per 
 cent for repairs. All the government buildings 
 came out of the San Francisco earthquake and 
 fire with very little damage, while wreckage 
 and disaster appeared on every side. Make 
 good foundations, the best possible, use good 
 materials, the best obtainable, permit none 
 but the best of workmen to build, employ 
 safe forms of construction, insist that the work 
 be done exactly according to specifications, and 
 there is little danger. These were the lessons 
 learned in San Francisco, but they cost many 
 lives and hundreds of millions of dollars. 
 
 183
 
 ARCHITECTURE 
 
 ARCHITECTURE 
 
 First Floor — Tilton School, Chicago. 
 
 Well-built wooden schoolhouses on good 
 foundations, those which reach down to bed 
 rock, or undisturbed solid clay, will stand 
 earthquake shocks, but are alwa3's in danger 
 of being destroyed by fire. They are expensive 
 to keep in good condition and not infrequently 
 are allowed to look untidy for lack of paint, or 
 needed repairs. They are hot in summer and 
 cold in winter, even under the best methods of 
 construction. A very large percentage of them 
 are in time consumed by fire, and this percen- 
 tage is probably as high now as at any other 
 time, for laboratories and electric wiring have 
 a<lded fuel to the flame. It seems probable that 
 that period in the hurried and rapid develop- 
 ment when there was neither time nor money 
 to build more permanent buildings has nearly 
 passed away. There has been a sudden burst 
 into the age of cement and steel construction, 
 and this gives promise of safer and saner use 
 of public money for school Iniildings. A few 
 years' more experience in working with cement 
 and steel framing will make it possible to insist 
 on fireproof construction for all large or even 
 medium-sized school buildings. There can be 
 no doubt that even now where the burden of 
 
 184 
 
 Second Floor — Tilton School, Chicago. 
 
 a mortgage is placed on future citizens to help 
 to pay for the construction and equipment of 
 school buildings, this is the only just and safe 
 thing to do. Brick buildings set on damp- 
 proofed concrete foundations are durable if 
 the bricks arc well made and the mortar of high 
 grade. But brick buildings when unsupported 
 by steel frames are readily broken in earth- 
 quakes, become very damp in rainy weather 
 or in a moist climate, and are sufliciently porous 
 to allow strong winds to drive air through the 
 walls. It is possible, of course, to treat brick 
 walls with waterproofing materials so as to 
 largely eliminate the etfects of driving rains and 
 strong currents of winds; but the general lack 
 of knowledge in the use of such materials and 
 the expense thus incurred operate to prevent 
 much from being done in this direction. When 
 the best bricks are used, put together by high- 
 grade workmen, with cement mortar, and water- 
 proofing material is applied, brick buildings cost 
 nearly as much as reinforced concrete. Stone 
 buildings are generally more expen.-^ivc than 
 those using any other kind of material because 
 of the difficulty of getting durable stone and 
 the expense of preparing and of handling such
 
 ARCHITECTURE 
 
 ARCHITECTURE 
 
 Third Floor, Tilton School, Chicago. 
 
 material. It seems then that the most prom- 
 ising material for use in school buildings is re- 
 enforced concrete. Such buildings are readily 
 made safe from fires, storms, and earthquakes, 
 are warm in winter, cool in summer, and when 
 carefully constructed are free from moisture 
 and the troubles caused by cold winds. They 
 will last indefinitely and become stronger 
 with age. They will soon save their cost in 
 reduced insurance, fuel bills, and the expense 
 incident to repairs. It seems entirely probable 
 in view of such methods as Mr. Robert Aiken 
 (see " Monolithic Concrete Wall Buildings — 
 Methods, Construction, and Cost," Proceedings of 
 the National Assuciation of Cement Users, 1909, 
 pp. 83 ff.), Edison, and others are using, that 
 it will not be long until recnforced concrete 
 buildings will cost less than first-class wooden 
 construction, and that brick and stone will lie 
 used much less extensively than at present. 
 In those communities where workmen have 
 learned to handle concrete, even under present 
 conditions, it seems that a thoroughly well- 
 built wooden building or a brick building made 
 of first-class materials throughout and built 
 by skilled workmen is nearly or quite as ex- 
 
 pensive as one well built of reenforced concrete. 
 (Cf. Knapp, "The Construction and Cost of 
 Small Concrete Houses," Proc. Nat. Ass'n Ce- 
 ment [/sees, 1909, pp. 204 ff.) The growing sim- 
 plicity in the outward form of modern school 
 buildings suggests a type which would readily 
 lend itself to the use of the latter material. 
 One present difficulty seems to bo that the artist- 
 architect does not yet know how to handle con- 
 crete to the best advantage. This is not strange, 
 or to be wondered at in the least. Time 
 will give greater assurance. Finally it must be 
 remembered that wood is increasingly expensive, 
 cement less and less expensive as its manufac- 
 ture is better understood. 
 
 Types of School Buildings. — From a non- 
 technical architectural point of view, several 
 new types of schoolhouses are in process of 
 development in this country, while at the same 
 time in isolated places older forms are still re- 
 tained. From a recent critical study of hun- 
 dreds of school buildings both old and new 
 from all parts of the country, the following sug- 
 gestions relative to present conditions seem 
 worthy of record: — 
 
 1. The old form of schoolhouse bearing an 
 incongruous and impertinent tower is rapidly 
 disappearing, though some new and expensive 
 buildings retain this remnant of ecclesiasticism. 
 These remnants have clung tenaciously, and 
 in many places are very hard to get rid of. 
 Some few modern architects have used smaU 
 towers on school buildings with good taste, but 
 others are not only wasting the public money 
 by the continuance of such features, but shock- 
 ing all sense of propriety and at the same time 
 introducing danger without compensation. For 
 towers are dangerous in storms, and in ninety- 
 nine cases out of a hundred are worse than use- 
 less at all times. 
 
 2. In the old form of school buildings windows 
 were invariably found on three sides of a school- 
 room, if it were possible to so place them. This 
 too is passing, and unilateral lighting even in a 
 one-room building will soon be required even 
 by legal enactments. Unilateral lighting has 
 introduced some architectural difficulties which 
 have been hard to overcome, but these are now 
 being mastered, and as a result a new type of 
 construction has developed to meet hygienic 
 requirements in this regard. 
 
 3. Until withhi a very few years one of the 
 most difficult and expensive parts of a large 
 school building was the roof with its heavy 
 timbers and its irregularities of proportion. A 
 new type with a flat roof is making rapid head- 
 way, and in the main shows better lines than its 
 predecessor. It is interesting to note that this 
 feature has been adopted from business houses, 
 and to those who can read between the lines it 
 will suggest a significant change in the educa- 
 tional faith of the present. 
 
 4. The so-called mi.ssion style of architecture 
 is well adapted to small or medium-sized school 
 buildings of one, or even two stories in height, 
 
 185
 
 ARCHITECTURE 
 
 ARCHITECTURE 
 
 and in tlie far West and southwest is showing a 
 decided influence on the form of the newer 
 school buildings. This type of building re- 
 quires ample space for courts and cloisters, or 
 covered passageways along the court, and is 
 most effective in one-story buildings constructed 
 of cement covered by a comparatively flat roof 
 of red tiles with broad eaves. Buildings of this 
 type blend well with the browns and greens 
 alternately dominant in these sections of our 
 country, and from the .strictly architectural 
 point of view, this tj'pe gives promise of a 
 welcome relief from the almost featureless 
 form of usual schoolhouse construction. 
 
 5. The "H" or "E" type of buildings is 
 especially adaptable to city conditions where 
 large buildings must be erected on small lots 
 and in the neighborhood of tall business blocks, 
 dusty and noi.sy streets. These forms give 
 opportunities for better use of the light available, 
 shield the cla.ssrooms to a degree from noise and 
 dust, and furnish some court space available 
 for open-air exercise. New York City has used 
 these types to good effect, and other large cities 
 have not been slow in taking advantage of the 
 suggestions afforded. These types are especially 
 helpful where a lot must be used which faces 
 broad side to the north and south. These 
 forms are also well adapted, where space per- 
 mits, to enlargements without destroying the 
 unity of the building. 
 
 6. There is a distinct tendency observable 
 to construct buildings for manual training 
 high schools on the factory plan, as may be ob- 
 served in the great Albert G. Lane Technical 
 School in Chicago. This is a short-sighted 
 policy, and if continued will react against such 
 schools to make them mere trade schools. 
 Naturally, buildings designed especially for the 
 manual arts must have a con.struction which 
 will be suitable to their purpose, but there is 
 more need, rather than less, to make such 
 buildings outwardly and inwardly attractive. 
 It is to be hoped that everywhere buildings 
 designed for such work will in the future be built 
 by architects who believe in the dignity of 
 labor and in the great value of good taste for 
 all classes of American citizens. 
 
 Foundations. — In the construction of foun- 
 dations for school buildings there are certain 
 specific requirements which deserve special 
 attention: — 
 
 1. Foundations ought to be so constructed 
 as to prevent moisture from rising to the upper 
 walls on account of the force of capillary attrac- 
 tion. A school building is insanitary when 
 the walls are damp, for the reason that by the 
 evaporation of this moisture, the walls are 
 left cold, and the air in the room is contaminated 
 by such moisture. 
 
 2. Dry walls are necessary to prevent black 
 boards from sweating and the walls from dis- 
 coloring. 
 
 3. If wooden joists are used, they will quickly 
 rot when in contact with damp walls, and thus 
 
 endanger the safety of the building. In those 
 sections of the country where irrigation is 
 general and the ground water line is thereby 
 brought near the surface of the ground, or 
 when school buildings are located on water- 
 soaked ground, porous foundation walls have 
 l)rovcd especially dangerous or unhygienic. 
 
 4. All foundation walls should therefore be 
 rendered damp-proof on the outside below the 
 ground line, and also in cross section a short 
 distance above the ground or immediately 
 below the water table. There have been a 
 number of methods devised for breaking this 
 capillarity, but perhaps the best now known 
 consists in incorporating in the wall just below 
 the water table a layer of Portland cement and 
 a good quality of sand in the proportion of 1 : 1 
 or IJ. This layer need not be more than two 
 or three inches thick to get results. Naturally 
 a layer so thick would be imjjracticable or inad- 
 visable in a brick wall, and this may be over- 
 come by several thinner laj'ers of mortar. In 
 cement walls this difficulty will not arise. 
 A layer of slate carefully set in rich cement 
 mortar renders a wall impermeable to rising 
 water, but there is some danger of crushing this 
 material in heavy walls. However, it has been 
 used with good effect and with no apparent 
 resulting weakness. 
 
 Naturally, the whole secret of waterproofing 
 consists in completely filling the voids in the 
 materials used. Hence thorough mixing be- 
 fore applying and a good shaking or troweling 
 together when applying will aid. The Sylvester 
 Process is made by using "one part cement to 
 2| parts of sand and adding thereto I of a 
 pound of pulverized alum (dry) to each cubic 
 foot of sand, all of which was mixed dry, then 
 the proper amount of water — in which has 
 been dissolved about J of a pound of soft soap 
 to the gallon of water — was added, and the 
 mixing thoroughly completed." (See Taylor 
 and Thompson, Concrete, Plain and Reinforced, 
 p. 421.) 
 
 The Committee appointed by the National 
 Association of Cement Users report that, 
 "No difficulty is experienced in a carefully 
 conducted laboratory in obtaining waterproof 
 mortars in such lean proportions as one part of 
 cement to four of sand. There is no excuse 
 for failure when a fairly graded natural sand 
 is used with leaner mortars, confirming the fact 
 that the necessity of waterproofing treatment 
 with ordinary field concrete mixtures is due 
 either to the use of poor materials, or to poor 
 proportioning or bad handling, or to all of these 
 combined." (See Report of Com. on Water 
 Proofing Materials, An. Report Proc. Am. Soc. 
 for Testing Materials, 1909, p. 292.) 
 
 5. It is scarcely necessary to add that founda- 
 tions should rest on solid rock or firm clay well 
 below the basement floor. But earthquakes 
 seem to be increasingly common these latter 
 days, and they are likely to occur at any time 
 and in all parts of the country. Good founda- 
 
 186
 
 ARCHITECTURE 
 
 ARCHITECTURE 
 
 tions are absolutely essential to insure safety 
 in those parts of the country where these disturb- 
 ances are most common, for while a building 
 may stand, chimneys are easily broken, and 
 when crashing through a building are likely to 
 cause serious damage, not to mention the 
 possible loss of life, if the school should be 
 in session. 
 
 6. It is therefore advisable in buildings using 
 any kind of material for the superstructure to 
 use concrete for the basement walls, to set these 
 firmly, and render them proof against the rise 
 of ground water from the sides or the ground be- 
 low the walls. 
 
 Basements. — All modern schoolhouses prop- 
 erly placed and hygienically constructed should 
 have basements. The necessity of basement 
 room for school buildings has developed to meet 
 the demands of modern methods of heating, 
 ventilation, and general sanitation, though there 
 are now many other uses which this part of the 
 school building subserves. The basement of a 
 school building deserves a great deal of careful 
 planning in order to render it both hygienic and 
 serviceable. In the first place, the depth of the 
 excavation will depend on the nature of the soil, 
 topographical features of the neighborhood, 
 the requirements for ample light, and the size 
 and height of the building. When it becomes 
 necessary to locate a school buUding on ground 
 as low or lower than that in its immediate envi- 
 ronment, it is evident, unless an ample and com- 
 plete system of under-drainage can be readily 
 constructed, that a basement floor must be 
 very little, if at all, below the surface of the 
 ground. When a more fortunate location can 
 be had where the natural drainage is away from 
 the building, it is perfectly safe to drop a base- 
 ment floor 3 or 4 feet below the surface 
 of the ground, if meanwhile the form of con- 
 struction wiU permit of ample window surface, 
 complete drainage, and safe sewer connections. 
 The basement room should be at least 10 feet 
 high in the clear to properly accommodate the 
 heating and ventilating plant and also to insure 
 ample light, room, and ventilation. It is often 
 almost imperative in small buildings of two or 
 more stories in height to drop the basement 
 floor into the ground as low as permissible in 
 order to get good proportion; but in large 
 buildings this is not necessary, and frequently 
 inadvisable for the sake of proportion. Hence, 
 it is evident that each basement must be planned 
 not only to suit the location selected, but also to 
 meet the requirements of proportion in the 
 superstructure. Under some conditions much 
 relief from what would otherwise result in un- 
 satisfactory proportion can be obtained by 
 judicious use of terracing. 
 
 In the next place, a basement whose floor 
 line is 3 or 4 feet below the level of the ground 
 ought to have as few solid inner cross walls as 
 safety of construction and due privacy or isolation 
 of the various conveniences will permit. Many 
 times piers and beams or arches may take the 
 
 place of solid supporting cross walls, thereby giv- 
 ing opportunity for better lighting, better venti- 
 lation, and better general sanitation. A base- 
 ment chopped up into dark and almost inaccessi- 
 ble rooms is likely to be not only insanitary, but 
 very unhandy and inconvenient. It is essen- 
 tial that basements receive abundance of light 
 and from any and every quarter possible, and 
 they need as much direct sunshine as can be 
 admitted. The question of the location and 
 size of basement windows is a matter of great 
 importance both for the sake of strength and 
 sanitation. The usual danger comes from 
 making the windows too small, and thus by 
 reason of the interference of thick walls only a 
 limited amount of direct sunshine can enter. 
 The floors of basements should be impervious 
 to ground air, and as free from moisture as possi- 
 ble. It has been found that if a thick strong 
 base of cement carefully leveled and thoroughly 
 set is coated with a good layer of hard asphal- 
 tum evenly applied, it will furnish good pro- 
 tection against the rise of ground air. The 
 difficulties with the use of asphaltum are that 
 it absorbs much of the light, and is influenced 
 by fire or heat about the furnaces. When a 
 basement is thoroughly and safely guarded 
 from the ground water by satisfactory under- 
 drainage, much ground air that would press for 
 entrance through a basement floor would es- 
 cape through such drains and the porous soil 
 all about the drains, and hence under these 
 conditions a solid well-finished cement floor is 
 entirely satisfactory. This, however, only on 
 condition that the floors above are very tight, 
 and special ventilating stacks lead from the 
 basement to the outer air above the building. 
 
 The walls of a basement should be lined 
 with white enameled brick or white glazed 
 earthen tiles. These give a clean surface, 
 absorb no light, are easily kept clean, and are 
 altogether acceptable. In small to medium- 
 sized school buildings the basement offers on 
 the whole the best location for latrines and 
 urinals. There are some objections to locating 
 these necessities in a basement, but when due 
 precautions are taken to secure good light, good 
 and safe ventilation, and satisfactory plumbing, 
 this location has proved satisfactory, especially 
 for grammar schools. In large buildings for 
 both elementary and high schools, additional 
 provisions for latrines must be made on the 
 main floors. In high school buildings of more 
 than two stories the prevailing cu.stom, and one 
 that should commend itself to all communities, 
 is to distribute these necessities and place them 
 on the main floors. This method saves time, 
 prevents congestion on stairways and in halls, 
 and with good planning permits of privacy and 
 safe ventilation. 
 
 Basements when well planned and %yell 
 lighted afford good space for manual training 
 work in both wood and iron. These rooms 
 supi)ly convenient and safe storage for materials, 
 and, on the whole, operate to prevent more 
 
 187
 
 ARCHITECTURE 
 
 ARCHITECTURE 
 
 disturbances from such work than when done 
 in any other part of a building. 
 
 As suggested above, wlicre a heating system 
 is installed for a single building, whether a hot 
 air furnace, steam, or hot water coils arc used, 
 the best place to locate the furnaces or boilers 
 is in the basement. This method is followed 
 almost universally, e.xeept where groups of 
 buildings are sufficiently near each other so 
 that one central steam or hot water plant can 
 be made to supply all of the various buildings. 
 
 All machinery for purposes of plenum ventila- 
 tion are best placed in the basement of tlu^ 
 building they are designed to serve. Hence, 
 all the requirements needed must be wrought 
 out in the plans for a basement before construc- 
 tion Ix'gius. Tills point it is necessary to men- 
 tion because many architects give far less 
 study to the basement plans than they deserve, 
 and when the time comes for placing fans, ven- 
 tilating ducts, and heating aiiparatus, serious 
 and almost insuperable difficulties are fre- 
 quently encountered. Again in small or aver- 
 age sized school buildings the basement affords 
 a good location for shower baths. This loca- 
 tion brings them near the most convenient 
 sources for heating the water, and renders the 
 requisite plumbing simpler and hence less 
 expensive. In large high schools, baths can 
 be more conveniently distributed to the various 
 floors. Taking into account all of the above 
 suggestions, — and many others will be obvious, 
 — it does not seem in the least an exaggeration 
 to say that the basements of our modern school 
 buildings are essential and necessary elements in 
 school architecture, and deserve most thought- 
 ful consideration. 
 
 Drainage. — All school buildings, as stated 
 elsewhere, should be located on ground higher 
 than that in the immediate neighborhood, and 
 then under-drained so that there will neither 
 be any pressure of water from below the floor 
 of the basement, or upon the foundation walls. 
 Unless this is done, it is almost an impossibility 
 in rainy weather to prevent water from break- 
 ing through a cement floor, or at least from 
 keeping the basement walls and floors damp and 
 cold, and also to prevent the entrance of 
 ground air at all times. Generally speaking, 
 it is not expensive thoroughly to drain the 
 ground about a school building, for the work 
 does not often require skilled labor, and com- 
 mon earthen tiles, such as farmers use in under- 
 draining their land, are perfectly satisfactory 
 for this purpose. This drain, however, must 
 have a good free outlet, ought to be laid on all 
 sides of the building about 6 feet outside the 
 foundation walls, and well below the level of the 
 footing for the w-alls. If this plan is followed, 
 there is no need for drains under any part of 
 the building. Those directly connected with 
 sewers should be placed on the outside whenever 
 possible. It is of course essential for tile 
 drains to remain uncemented at the joints, in 
 order that the ground water may enter and 
 
 escape through them. It is also a needless ex- 
 pense to fill the excavation for this drain with 
 coarse gravel or broken stone, for the water 
 entering the tiles is all, or nearly all, forced up 
 from below it. It is well, however, to cover 
 these tiles with a few inches of coarse gravel or 
 broken stone, especially if the soil is sand}', to 
 ])revent any sediment from filtering through 
 the joints. The rest of the ditch can be filled 
 with the earth taken from it. All eave spouts 
 should terminate at the ground line in sewer 
 tiles carefully cemented together, so that all 
 the water shed from the roof would be carried 
 away from the building. If this is not done, 
 it will \)e almost ini]K)Ssible to prevent water- 
 soaked basement walls and the troubles inci- 
 dent thereto. 
 
 Clasfuvoms. — The classroom has been 
 rightly called the unit of a school building. All 
 other parts of the building are subsidiary to 
 this unit. The size, shape, and construction of 
 a classroom arc therefore matters of primary 
 importance. Before any definite plans can be 
 drawn for a school building, the number, size, 
 and form of these units must be determined. 
 
 For elementary schools, it is generally con- 
 ceded that a room 32 feet long, 24 feet wide, 
 and 12\ feet high in the clear, approximates the 
 dimensions demanded by a modern elementary 
 classroom. The following reasons are given 
 for these dimensions: — 
 
 (a) Xo child should be at a greater distance 
 than 30 feet from the blackboard at the teacher's 
 end of the room. This demand arises from 
 the fact that if a child is further removed from 
 this board, it makes it difficult for him readily 
 and easily to see the written directions placed 
 thereon by the teacher. 
 
 (6) Some children find it difficult to hear 
 what the teacher says, even when speaking 
 clearly and with good tones, when they arc 
 more than 28 or 30 feet from her. But the 
 difficulty is still more apparent when a teacher 
 has a weak voice, and the ciuality of her voice 
 has no great carrying power. It is very tir<'- 
 some for any one to strive to listen, and since 
 children naturally hear less accurately than 
 adults and interpret what they hear more 
 slowly, the importance of this requirement is 
 still more apparent. Bad spelling, faulty pro- 
 nunciations, and misunderstandings are often 
 due to the inability of children to hear well. 
 Hence the size of the classroom must be ad- 
 justed to prevent these troubles. The fatigue 
 arising from the strain of trying to hear is not 
 only annoying and wasteful of energy, but it 
 is the source of careless attention. 
 
 (c) The width of a classroom should never 
 be more than twice the height of the top of 
 the windows from the floor. This requirement 
 is necessary on account of the fact that the 
 further from the windows a child is seated, the 
 less favorable is the light. A moment's thought 
 will suffice to make it clear to any one that the 
 amount of light that wiU fall on the books or 
 
 1S8
 
 ARCHITECTURE 
 
 ARCHITECTURE 
 
 writing material on those desks furthest re- 
 moved from the windows is much diminished 
 because of the fact that most of the rays of light 
 entering from the top of tlie windows cannot 
 reach across the room, and also that those 
 which do so, strike at an unfavorable angle for 
 reflection to the eyes of the pupils so situated. 
 The greater the amount of sky visible bj- any 
 pupil seated at his desk, the stronger and more 
 satisfactory wiU the light be, provided, of course, 
 that the windows face in the proper direction 
 and are not too low. Therefore, since unilateral 
 lighting is much to be preferred, and since it 
 is rarely advisable to make the ceilings higher 
 than 121 feet above the floor, classrooms should 
 not be more than 24 feet wide. Indeed, manj^ 
 authorities set the width limit at a smaller 
 figure, (rl) The height of the ceiling above the 
 floor should rarely be greater than 12 \ feet. 
 The reasons for this demand are the following: — 
 
 (1) Every foot uselessly added to the height 
 of a school building more than proportionately 
 increases the cost of the building, for with an 
 increase in the height of the walls, strength 
 must also be increased. (2) Every foot added 
 to a lower story of a school building of two or 
 more stories adds to the height children must 
 climb to reach the upper rooms. This is a hard- 
 ship on adolescent girls, wastes time in assem- 
 bling and dismissing children, adds to the danger 
 in case of fires or storms, and increases the cost 
 of maintenance, especially in heating. 
 
 If school buildings must be located where 
 the horizon line is raised by hills, mountains, 
 or tall buildings, it is advisable to place the 
 ceiling 13 J feet from the floor, in order that 
 the tops of the windows may be raised 13 feet 
 from the floor. But it is altogether an erro- 
 neous notion that there should be a large space 
 above the tops of the windows to keep the room 
 cool in hot weather. An enormous amount of 
 money has been thus wasted in the construc- 
 tion of schoolhouses, especially in the southern 
 states. A ceiling higher than 12i feet will 
 render a room very little cooler unless the win- 
 dows are placed correspondingly higher. Class- 
 rooms in the top story of a building may be 
 rendered more pleasant in hot climates by 
 making adequate provision for free ventilation 
 of the attic. 
 
 Color of Walls. — It has been found, through 
 experience and by photometric tests, that the 
 color of the ceilings and of the walls of school- 
 rooms above the wainscoting should be a light 
 gray or a light buff color. When walls are 
 tinted thus, the absorption of light is very 
 small and there is no glare or high lights, on 
 bright days. Green or red absorbs too nmch light, 
 so that, generally speaking, these colors should 
 not be used. A very light shade of green is 
 pleasing, but it fades rapidly and often un- 
 evenly, and absorbs more light than a light 
 bufl or gray; but a very light and delicate tint 
 of green for the walls of a room receiving abun- 
 dance of light is permissible. Were it not for 
 
 the fact that pure white walls dazzle, and ofi'er 
 too sharp a contrast with the page of a book 
 and especially with the blackboards, it would be 
 best to leave them untinted. The chief pur- 
 pose, then, of introducing any color in finishing 
 the walls and ceilings is to soften the contrast, 
 thereby preventing fatigue of the ciliary mus- 
 cles and the frequent overstimulation of the 
 retina when the eyes are suddenly turned from 
 a darker to a brighter surface. 
 
 Several years ago a committee of prominent 
 oculists of New York City reported to the 
 Board of Education of that city the following 
 recommendations relative to the color of the 
 walls of the schoolrooms: " The red end of the 
 spectrum should never be chosen in the paint- 
 ing or decoration of schoolrooms. The lighter 
 and more delicate shades of yellow or gray 
 should be chosen."' Recently a corresponding 
 body of specialists made similar recommenda- 
 tions to the Board of Education of Boston. 
 
 A color which will prove satisfactory for 
 home decoration will not necessarily meet the 
 requirements of schoolrooms, and failure to 
 recognize this has introduced much trouble. 
 It is impossible to get too much diffused light 
 in a schoolroom, when walls, furniture, and all 
 finishings are so harmonious as to prevent 
 sharp contrasts. Hence colors which will 
 iieitlier absorb the light nor produce sharp con- 
 trasts mu.st have the preference, even at the 
 expense of apparent a?sthetic effect, although 
 in the long run, a soft gray, or an inconsjiicu- 
 ous buff or yellow tint, will prove more har- 
 monious than more decided colors and afford 
 equal aesthetic effect. 
 
 Were it not for the fact that such a large 
 blackboard area is demanded in schoolrooms, 
 it would be pos.sible to vary the color of walls 
 somewhat wnthout harmful effect. And this 
 fact will suggest to thoughtful teachers that in 
 rooms not properly lighted much relief can be 
 offered by drawing light buff or unbleached 
 linen shades over blackboards when they are 
 not in use. Under certain conditions such a 
 precaution may serve to multiply the efficiency 
 of the light b}' a half. 
 
 Where wood is used for wainscoting, it is 
 essential to finish it in what is known as a dead 
 finish, that is, without a high polish, and to 
 retain the natural color of the wood. Where 
 bricks or tiles are used, they must be selected 
 to meet the same demands, for any surface in a 
 schoolroom which will reflect high light, or un- 
 necessarily absorb the light, will prove harm- 
 ful. 
 
 In general it may be said that the ceiling of 
 a schoolroom can be finished in lighter tones 
 than the walls without harm, for this surface is 
 usually outside the field of vision, and the con- 
 trast here, even when visible, is between wall 
 and ceiling, instead of blackboard and ceiling. 
 
 Floors of School Buildings. — Provision should 
 be made for double floors in all rooms of 
 the first story of a school building, and on all 
 189
 
 ARCHITECTURE 
 
 ARCHITECTURE 
 
 other stories unless fireproof construction is 
 used. Double floors are necessary for several 
 reasons, but chiefly to prevent the entrance of 
 cold impure air forced from the ground through 
 the greater i)re.ssure of the air outside the build- 
 ing, and to make it possible to render one class- 
 room free from the disturbances caused by 
 noise in another. One of the most common 
 complaints heard from teachers and pupils in 
 cold weather arises from the uneven distribu- 
 tion of heat in the classroom. A room in 
 which the thermometer will register 70° F. 4 feet 
 from the floor in the middle of the room, and 
 C3° F. at the floor line immediately below, can- 
 not be a healthful or pleasant room in which 
 to work in cold weather. That this is not an 
 imaginary situation will be v-ouched for by a 
 great multitude of teachers in our country. 
 Teachers who have to move about much in the 
 room find even a greater discrepancy than is 
 here suggested. At a level 5 feet above the floor 
 the difference may be more marked. Such 
 unevenne.ss of temperature will cause distur- 
 bances in circulation, and these are forerunners 
 of colds. Besides headaches, the oppressive 
 feelings of working in a high temperature will 
 always be in evidence. Floors therefore must 
 be so carefully constructed that cold air from 
 below cannot find entrance. In all buildings 
 where this inflow is not prevented by fireproof- 
 ing material, double floors must be demanded. 
 The first or lower layer of such a double floor 
 can be made out of any sort of evenly sawn 
 rough dry timber. The joists should be tight 
 and the boards laid down diagonally to the 
 joists. Between this and the outer floor there 
 should be a good deadener, which will at the 
 same time be impermeable to the inflow of 
 cold air. A good quality of heavy asbestos 
 quilt will serve this double purpose, and it has 
 the added advantage of being noninflammable. 
 The " Cabot Deadening (Juilt " made of criss- 
 cross layers of eel grass stitched between two 
 layers of paper is a good deadener, and it is 
 claimed will prevent the entrance of ground 
 air. Its construction seems to be such as to 
 warrant its use for this purpose. It is cer- 
 tainly a satisfactory deadener, not only for 
 floors, but for partitions. 
 
 The material to be used for the floor proper 
 is a matter of prime importance, for no other 
 part of a school building is subjected to such 
 rough usage as the floors of classrooms, and 
 none has more to do with the general sanitary 
 condition or appearance of the schoolroom. 
 Good oak floors made of 3-inch boards tongued 
 and grooved and fastened with cut nails are the 
 best; but such lumber has become expensive, 
 and in many cases the price is prohibitive. 
 Hard maple makes good floors, takes a good 
 polish, but is softer than oak and shows the 
 dents of heel tacks. Hard straight-grained 
 pine 21 to 3 inches wide and laid as suggested 
 above is less expensive and makes a satisfactory 
 floor. But when pine is used some competent 
 
 man with unquestioned authority ought to 
 inspect every board in order to prevent tlie use 
 of a single piece showing " slash " grain or 
 pitch gashes. I have seen floors almost ruined 
 by the use of a few such boards, for they will 
 si)linter and fill up with dirt in sjjite of all a 
 caretaker can do. It would be an excellent 
 precaution to have a special supervisor em- 
 ployed when any kind of material is used in 
 laying floors, for American workmen arc pro- 
 verbially careless, and battered floors will 
 inevitably result unless vigorous oversight and 
 un(|ue.stioned authority are there to prevent. 
 After a floor has been laid and all the rest of 
 the work of the room completed, it should be 
 lilaned or sandpapered to a smooth, even sur- 
 face, and treated so as to receive and hold 
 a wax finish. The " dustless oil " dressing 
 much in evidence these days should be limited 
 to those rooms designed for the lower grades of 
 the elementary schools. When put on lightly, 
 it is effective in preventing dust from rising 
 when the floors are swept, and in this it serves 
 a very useful purpose. But when i)Ut on too 
 heavily, it ruins the skirts of the teacher, and 
 if used in the rooms for the upper grades or 
 high sc'hools, it causes much trouble by soiling 
 the skirts of the larger girls. When used, the 
 most competent and careful janitor ought to be 
 detailed to apply it. Teachers can, in a meas- 
 ure, protect their clothing from harm by the 
 use of rugs, but this is impracticable for the 
 larger girls. Where " dustless oil dressing " 
 is not used, a good floor wax should be applied 
 and the floors always swept with a fiber brush 
 after scattering a few handfuls of damp saw- 
 dust or scrajis of dampened paper over the floor. 
 Dry sweeping is an abomination, and feather 
 dusters should be banished from the school 
 buildings. 
 
 In the near future afl schoolrooms will be 
 cleaned by some form of suction, and the 
 trouble and danger from dust will be very 
 greatly reduced. All new buildings ought to be 
 constructed with this in view. 
 
 Doors. — All doors in school buildings should 
 open outward in order to reduce the dangers 
 from fires. Most states require this by law. 
 All outside doors should be double, and so 
 constructed as to close together in the middle 
 without the need of a permanent upright, so 
 that when both are opened there will be no 
 obstruction left. There are several patent 
 fastenings now on the market which render the 
 doors secure from without, but easily opened 
 from within. These are convenient and are 
 essential for safety. In cities it is almost neces- 
 sary to keep the main doors of a school building 
 locked during the school session, in order to 
 prevent pilfering by those who are not attend- 
 ing school, but who may readily by one excuse 
 or another explain their presence in a building. 
 By the use of the fastenings referred to there 
 is no added danger in thus locking the doors, for 
 they are not locked from within, and a few 
 
 190
 
 ARCHITECTURE 
 
 ARCHITECTURE 
 
 pounds' pressure will open them. The doors 
 from the classrooms into halls should be plain, 
 without panels or glass. Paneled doors sag, 
 shrink, and catch dust. They are not so strong 
 as plain veneered doors, which are constructed 
 by veneering on both sides of a solid base made 
 of any strong light wood well seasoned, tongued 
 and grooved, glued and set together with the 
 grain running parallel with the floor. The 
 veneering material will be set with the grain 
 vertical to the floor, and can be selected to match 
 the finish in the classrooms and halls. Such 
 a construction gives a strong light-weight door, 
 which will not sag, gives no ledges for dust, 
 and, when the hardware is in place, makesa more 
 beautiful door than the stock doors everywhere 
 in evidence. Such doors are on the market, 
 and are being used in some of the best school 
 buildings in the country. There is no need of 
 a so-called carpet strip under inside doors in 
 school buildings, and their use ought to be 
 discontinued. They catch and hold the dirt, 
 make it difficult to sweep the floor, cause chil- 
 dren to stumble, and in general are out of place. 
 To the objection urged that they are necessary 
 to prevent the door from dragging on the floor, 
 it may be replied that when the floors are level, 
 the door jambs vertical, and the doors set on 
 strong solid hinges, there is no difficulty. The 
 door ought to be set to clear the floor only the 
 fraction of an inch. 
 
 It is better to use in classrooms doors 
 without glass set in them, and without tran- 
 soms over them. Occasionally, where halls 
 would be dark without the light introduced 
 through transoms and glass in the doors, it is 
 necessary to include these in the construction, 
 but where halls are wide and properly lighted, 
 it is better to eliminate all glass from doors. 
 The reasons for this recommendation are these: 
 the ledges introduced by the insertion of tran- 
 soms catch dust, and the glass is rarely kept 
 clean. Besides, such openings introduce diffi- 
 culties where mechanical means for ventilation 
 are employed. In plenum ventilation there 
 will be a leakage of air around a transom which 
 will operate to reduce the pressure needed to 
 drive the foul air out through the exit ducts. 
 Classrooms should be private, and hence glass 
 in doors, if used at all, should be ground or non- 
 transparent. When glass is inserted in the 
 doors of schoolrooms, there is alwaj's danger of 
 breaking it, for children cannot be expected to 
 be as careful as adults. Even in high school 
 buildings where doors are fitted with a panel 
 of glass, the expense from breakage is not a 
 small item, not to mention the danger implied. 
 
 Cloakrooms. — The best arrangement thus far 
 made for cloakrooms in buildings designed for 
 grammar schools consists in cutting off a space 
 about 5 feet wide on the teacher's end of the 
 room, if possible, and communicating with the 
 room by two doors, but having no direct com- 
 munication with the hall. The illustration shown 
 in the following figure, will make this plan clear. 
 
 \ 
 
 
 1 , . 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 Location of Desks and Oloakroom for Grammar School. 
 
 Such an arrangement gives the teacher com- 
 plete control of the cloakroom, prevents pilfer- 
 ing from any one outside the room, prevents 
 confusion in halls, and makes it possible to 
 ventilate the cloakroom, thereby keeping the 
 air pure about all articles of clothing, preclud- 
 ing the possibility of the entrance of foul air 
 from such a room into the classroom, and to 
 dry wet clothing. It will be seen by reference 
 to the plan that a large window is arranged 
 to light the cloakroom, and that the doors 
 swing outward into the classroom. An open- 
 ing in the lower part of each door should be 
 made through which to drive the air. An exit 
 duct should be arranged so as to open above 
 the wraps, and thence into the general exit 
 system above. 
 
 It is scarcely necessary to discuss the sort 
 of hooks to use in such a room, but it might be 
 well to say that there are hooks now on the 
 market which are much more satisfactory 
 than the old style of short hooks. These are 
 so arranged that the clothing is not piled to- 
 gether in such a heap, thereby protecting hats, 
 and giving better opportunity for ventilation. 
 These are advertised in many of the current 
 school journals. One of the difficulties com- 
 mon to schools as to other public buildings is 
 that of caring for wet umbrellas and overshoes, 
 for there are thieves in schools, as well as out- 
 side of them. Such difficulties may be mini- 
 mized by the proper construction of lockers, 
 or by small individual compartments without 
 locks, for in the lower grades children cannot be 
 expected to handle a lock and key without 
 trouble. Naturally, some drip basin or trough 
 must be arranged for umbrellas, and some 
 pigeon-hole for overshoes. With these num- 
 bered or named there ought to be little trouble. 
 Hats, caps, and wraps are not troublesome by 
 reason of unwarranted appropriation, for here 
 variety is the safeguard, and these are more 
 hygienically placed out of lockers where proper 
 ventilation is more easily secured. In build- 
 ings for the grammar grades a common cloak- 
 room is permissible where order and segrega- 
 tion in the lines is maintained; but in high 
 191
 
 ARCHITECTURE 
 
 ARCHITECTURE 
 
 schools separate cloakrooms are ahsolutely nec- 
 essary, but this separation introduces some 
 difficult problems. There are many high school 
 buildings, new and old, in which provision for 
 locker rooms has been made in the basement ; 
 but this in general is not advisable. In the 
 first place, there is a freedom and a carelessness 
 connected with basements which advise against 
 the use of such a location for locker rooms, 
 especially when such rooms come to be gather- 
 ing or loafing ])laces. In the second jilace, it 
 is very dillicult to light and ventilate such 
 rooms properly, and keep them free from damp- 
 ness or odors, especially in wet weather. In the 
 third place, it is rarely possible to make base- 
 ment rooms as neat and attractive as they 
 should be made. A neat, well-lighted, well- 
 appointed locker room will command a respect 
 and a corresjionding deportment which is 
 rarely associated with a dark, disagreeable one. 
 This is a reaction of human nature which must 
 be calculated on, and no teacher has a right to 
 neglect it. In the next place, other things 
 being equal, more thefts and pilferings arc 
 associated with basement locker rooms than 
 those on the main floors. The reasons are 
 obvious. On the whole, then, it is wise to plan 
 locker rooms for high school pupils on the 
 main floors. Such a plan is more expensive 
 for small schools, but makes less difference in 
 this regard for larger schools. 
 
 It is intlefensible to place lockers in hallways 
 for several reasons, chief among which are the 
 following: — 
 
 (1) The}' are unsightly and cannot be venti- 
 lated well without much ex-pense. 
 
 (2) They obstruct the halls and cause them to 
 be congested several times during the day. 
 
 (3) They gather a much greater amount of 
 dust than when situated in closed rooms. 
 
 (4) Such a location does not offer sufficient 
 privacy, especially for the girls. 
 
 (5) HaUs offer one of the best opportunities for 
 the most efTcctive decoration of any part of the 
 buildings anil, if littered by lockers, nothing effec- 
 tive can be done. Some day in the near future 
 it may be hoped that public school buildings will 
 sei-\-e as an incentive to artists to develop mural 
 painting in this country, and to seize upon this 
 opportunity to make their ideals count for most. 
 In this regard tliis country is far behind what it 
 should be. 
 
 (6) In case of fire the possible attempt of some 
 one to save clotliing or books would endanger 
 many. Wide unobstructed hails will soon be 
 demandetl by legislative enactment. 
 
 With reference to the kind of lockers to use 
 no final word can be said; but a few essentials 
 ought to be specified. They ought to have safe 
 locks, and, if possible, be made of metal connected 
 up with the ventilating system so that under 
 any ordinary use they would remain dry and 
 pure. They ought to be placed against a wall, 
 or, better, built into it, so as to prevent any 
 obstruction of light. They ought to be num- 
 
 bered in such a way that no change would be 
 necessary or possible. Combination locks save 
 much annoyance as the result of the loss of 
 keys, but they sometimes introduce more 
 trouble by reason of careless use, or forgetful- 
 ness of combinations. 
 
 In close proxinuty to locker rooms there 
 should be dressing rooms especially for the 
 girls, and such rooms deserve accommodations 
 not necessary to specify here. Neat and taste- 
 ful dressing rooms are very helpful agencies in 
 the management and control of public schools, 
 and are worthy of more attention than is usually 
 given to them. 
 
 Halls. — The halls of school buildings de- 
 serve careful consideration, for perhaps no 
 other part of the school building aside from the 
 assembly room offers better opportunity for 
 a\sthetic treatment than do the halls, and cer- 
 tainly no part is more used by the school as a 
 whole. Halls should be well-lighted, broad, 
 and spacious. In this country it is a custom 
 almost universal to place classrooms on both 
 sides of a hall, and, unless such halls extend 
 through the building, they are never well- 
 lighted save where a skylight can be introduced, 
 and this opportunity is linuted almost exclu- 
 siveh- to the top floor. Dark halls form one of 
 the most notable defects in the construction of 
 modern buildings. The newer types of Ger- 
 man school buildings rarely have classrooms on 
 both sides of a hall, and as a result their halls 
 are well lighted and often beautifuUy decorated. 
 The width of a properly constructed hallway 
 will in part depend on the number and age of 
 the pupils attending the school. In high 
 schools where, at the close of each recitation 
 period, there is a general change of rooms by all 
 students, it is essential that plenty of space is 
 afforded, for nothing will break down the disci- 
 pline and decorum of a school more quickly 
 than a general scramble and crowtling in the 
 halls. Under the old curriculum, where each 
 member of a given class took the same courses, 
 it was possible for teachers to exchange rooms, 
 but since elective courses have been introduced, 
 classes are broken up each period, and it has 
 become necessarj' for the students to make 
 regular changes. Furthermore, each teacher 
 in larger schools is a specialist and his room is 
 equipped with books and apparatus suited to 
 a special line of work, so that he must remain 
 and the students pass. The main hall of a large 
 high school should therefore be from 14 to 17 
 feet wide, well lighted from both ends, and must 
 contain no furniture of any sort. Moreover, 
 it is a wise policy to make the wainscoting 
 of the halls of white tiles or light-colored glazed 
 brick. This treatment will not only serve good 
 hj'gienic and resthetic purposes, but will 
 render the light more effective and give a 
 dignity to a building well worth all it costs. 
 The floors of halls are very important elements, 
 and deserve special attention. Some of the 
 newer fireproofed buildings use plain hard 
 
 192
 
 Assembly Room {Avla) in Gymnasium at Zehlendokf, Germany (showin<; mural decorations). 
 
 ^&i^:^- .^,:^^^:i.^ A 
 
 TiLToN School, Chicago.
 
 ARCHITECTURE 
 
 ARCHITECTURE 
 
 cement, others decorative tiles set in cement, 
 while still others use broken bits of variously 
 colored marble set in cement and rubbed to a 
 smooth polished surface. There are many 
 advantages accruing from the use of such 
 materials for the floors of halls, which will 
 readily suggest themselves. About the only 
 objections that could be offered are that they 
 are cold, rather noisy, and the initial expense 
 is large. But in the long run they soon save 
 their cost by reducing the amount of labor 
 necessary in keeping them clean, and they last 
 indefinitely. Where wooden floors are used, it 
 is false economy to use anything but the best 
 of wood, such as oak, hard maple, or straight- 
 grained pine free from defects of any sort. 
 If wood is used, a good quality of wax or dust- 
 less oil dressing properly applied will serve 
 to protect and keep them neat and clean. Oil 
 dressing can be used in halls with less danger 
 and to better advantage than in classrooms, for 
 in the halls the skirts of the older girls do not 
 come in contact with the floor as they do in the 
 classrooms. The walls of a spacious well- 
 lighted hall in a school building offer a fine 
 opportunity for hanging pictures or for mural 
 paintings. 
 
 It is somewhat discouraging, however, when 
 one finds halls littered with hat pegs, or lined 
 with long rows of lockers. Safety in case of 
 fires, economy in time, and the demands of good 
 taste all appeal for wide, well-lighted, well-kept 
 halls. On this point, a large percentage of 
 our school architects need much education, 
 and often require authoritative commands. 
 
 Assembly Rooms. — There is at present a 
 well-marked and decided movement through- 
 out the country for assembly rooms, both for 
 grammar schools and high schools. The de- 
 mand for such rooms has grown out of the 
 desire to accommodate the whole school for 
 music and especially for chorus work, for general 
 lectures, for concerts, for morning assemblies, 
 and particularly to meet the demand for general 
 socialization of our school work. 
 
 In no country in the world is there more 
 urgent need for such accommodations than in 
 this, where the theories of education and govern- 
 ment are based on the principle of a democracy 
 which exists for the sake of individual freedom 
 and individual initiative. The problem is, 
 how can the citizen live for himself and at the 
 same time maintain a government which will 
 permit other citizens to do likewise? The 
 schools must furnish opportunities for that 
 social contact wherein selfish individualism 
 will be given a chance to realize its shortcom- 
 ings, and where team work will appear as the 
 best opportunity for all. Student self-govern- 
 ment, still in its infancy, will, when properly 
 understood and rationally guided, form one of 
 the most essential features of high schools in 
 the future. Surely no better opportunity 
 could be afforded for developing those elemental 
 qualities of citizenship than in a school where 
 
 all may have favorable opr-ortunity for personal 
 growth, and where variety of interests and of 
 talent must be conserved in so far as this 
 variety is favorable to the individual and to 
 the group. An assembly room is a necessity 
 of democracy, and on this basis alone is worth 
 more than it costs. But youth needs that 
 quieting, restful influence of music, that poise 
 and insight gained through dramatic expression, 
 and especially those ethical ideals which emerge 
 only when life touches life. It is therefore 
 unhesitatingly and urgently recommended that 
 assembly rooms be provided in every school, 
 elementary or secondary, where a hundred or 
 more young people are brought together. 
 But where should these be placed, and how 
 constructed? 
 
 1. Wherever possible, they should be situated 
 on the ground floor, furnished with a large stage, 
 good, comfortable chairs, and so situated as 
 to give all a good view of the stage and the 
 room as a whole. The prevailing custom in 
 German j^ is to make the floors of their assembly 
 rooms flat, while in this country the tendency 
 is to provide a sloping floor. Balconies or 
 galleries about an a.ssembly room in foreign 
 countries are the exception; here it is the rule. 
 In these matters, and from our point of view, 
 we have the advantage. In the German schools 
 it is almo.st universal to place the Aida or Fest- 
 saal on the top floor of the building; here a 
 decided movement is now dominant to place 
 them on the first floor. Here again there is an 
 advantage, for safety, accessibility, and econ- 
 omy of construction demand the location of an 
 assembly room on the first floor. But this lo- 
 cation introduces some architectural difficulties 
 not easily overcome. For example, it is more 
 difficult to secure good light for an assembly 
 room situated on the first floor than on the 
 second or third, and especially if it occupies the 
 central part of the building. 
 
 The solution of this problem has taken 
 several forms, but the so-called "H" or "E" 
 form of building has made it possible to place 
 the assembly room on the main floor and at 
 the same time to get good light and afford every 
 convenience necessary. The following de- 
 scription of the position and lighting of the 
 assembly room in a medium-sized building for 
 the La Crosse High School will illustrate the so- 
 lution suggested above: Directly across the cen- 
 ter of the main corridor and opposite the main 
 entrance is the auditorium, which occupies 
 the space of the first and second floors at the 
 center of the building. It is 51 by 76 feet, ex- 
 clusive of the stage. The main floor is pro- 
 vided with 600 opera chairs, and the balcony 
 will accommodate about 250. The skylight and 
 the courts on either side give abundance of light, 
 and the arrangement of aisles with access from 
 each of the three corridors facilitates the rapid 
 assembh' or distribution of the school. This is 
 what might be named a tyjiical modern assembly 
 room for school buildings, as to po.sition, lighting, 
 
 193
 
 ARCHITECTURE 
 
 ARCHITECTURE 
 
 and accessibility. When such rooms are on the 
 first floor above the basement, it is compara- 
 tively easy to drop the stage end of the room 
 lower than the level of the first floor for the 
 rest of the building, tliereby securing without 
 waste of space or undue exj)ense the great ad- 
 vantage of a sloping floor. To secure this form 
 of construction when assembly rooms occupy 
 space on the second and third stories necessi- 
 tates much extra expense and often unwarranted 
 forms of construction. The smaller schools of 
 the country have in the main been content with 
 "big rooms," for assembly halls, ditYering from 
 classrooms only in size; but liaving learned 
 that the first floor is more economical for such 
 rooms, and that the most satisfactory form of 
 construction is best attained when assembly 
 rooms are situated on the main floor, it seems 
 highly probable that there are here the begin- 
 nings of what will become the standard position 
 and construction of assemblj' rooms for public 
 schools. The main reasons assigned for this 
 anticipation are these: — 
 
 4 (1) A.ssembly rooms will become more and 
 more a center for general educational endeavor, 
 especially for pubhc lectures, evening schools, 
 and evening entertainments in competition 
 with the cheap and often vulgar "shows" of the 
 moving picture and vaudeville type. Hence, 
 in order to save the building and permit of easy 
 access, they must be on the first floor. (2) The 
 danger in case of fire is greatly lessened by 
 tliis position. (3) The heating and ventila- 
 tion of a room so situated is more easily effected 
 than when removed farther from furnace and 
 fan. (4) It is much less expensive to secure 
 safe and solid construction for the main floor of 
 an assembly room when supports can be set 
 directly beneath the floor than when inter- 
 ference with the space below necessitates 
 scattered supports or heavy beam construction, 
 (o) Such a position brings the balcony on a 
 level with the second floor, and on the whole 
 brings the assembly room closer to the main 
 classrooms than if placed higher in the building. 
 
 (6) This position permits of the construction 
 of a number of exits from the main floor not 
 possible when placed higher. For example, 
 separate entrances and exits from the stage will 
 often save much time, inconvenience, and trouble. 
 
 (7) The general public will more readily attend 
 lectures and evening classes when held in rooms 
 directly accessible from the first floor than 
 when one or more stairs must be climbed. 
 
 Stairways. — In two-story buildings designed 
 for Iiigh schools there should be at least two 
 stairways from the first floor to the second, and 
 more in large schools. These stairways ought to 
 be situated as near the ends or outer walls of 
 the building as the plan of construction will 
 permit. For when so located there is a natural 
 division of the students into groups, and, gen- 
 craUy speaking, this, in case of panic, will pre- 
 vent that congestion on stairs and landings 
 which is the nightmare of all teachers who 
 
 take precaution against loss of life in case of 
 fire. Besides, this location facilitates passing 
 up and down.stairs Ijctwcen recitations. One 
 hundred students in double file can easily 
 descend a broad, well-hghted stairway in 35 
 seconds, and with proper fire drills can reduce 
 this time to some extent and with all safety, 
 so that they can emerge from the buikling in a 
 minute to a minute and a half. Kxperience has 
 shown that a thousand children in a two-story 
 grammar school building, furnished with four 
 stairways, can be trained to get out safely in 
 a minute, if the stairways are properly placed 
 and wide enough. Another reason for placing 
 the stairways leading to the second floor near 
 the ends or opposite sides of the buildings is the 
 fact that fires as a rule originate in the central 
 part of the buikling, or, if they do not originate 
 there, the smoke is hkely to seem to gather 
 there and render a central stairway dark and 
 forbidding. There is, moreover, a better chance 
 for light near the outside walls, and less inflam- 
 mable materials, especially in brick, stone, or 
 cement construction. 
 
 The stairways should be of fireproof construc- 
 tion, especially in a wooden buikling. The 
 prevailing custom is to make wooden stairs in 
 wooden buildings, and more resistant stairs in 
 stone, brick, or cement buildings. A moment's 
 thought is sufficient to show that in this regard 
 wooden buildings need greater care in the con- 
 struction of stairs than any other sort of building. 
 
 It is in no sense unreasonable to insi-st on 
 fireproof stairs in all large two-story buildings, 
 especially now that the material is within 
 reach of all. Steel frames incased in cement 
 and with treads made of the same material render 
 stairways reasonably safe against fires, and also 
 insure much greater permanency. The width 
 of a stairway will of course depend in part on 
 the number of students it is designed to accom- 
 modate; but in all cases it should be wide 
 enough for two adults to ascend or descend 
 abreast without crowding. In large schools 
 there should be room for three adults on the 
 same tread at once. In general, 5' to 6 feet 
 in width will give plenty of room save in very 
 large schools. The height of t he riser should not 
 exceed 6 inches, and the width of the tread 
 should be not less than 10 inches in the clear, 
 while 12 inches is better. There should be 
 a rectangular landing halfway up, and this 
 should be in width nearly if not quite double the 
 length of the tread. Such a width will help to 
 prevent blockades in case of fire, and will insure 
 better light on the stairs. It may be said here 
 in passing that the habit of decorating this 
 landing with potted plants, box seats, etc., 
 needs questioning. If plants can be placed 
 safely out of the way, there can be no objection 
 offered. Some day it may be hoped that the 
 walls above these landings as well as in the hall- 
 ways will be decorated with mural paintings of 
 a worthy sort, and then they will not seem so 
 bare and cheerless. Muclj has been written on 
 
 194
 
 ARCHITECTURE 
 
 ARCHITECTURE 
 
 the question of whether or not stairways 
 should be boxed in or finished with openwork 
 surmounted with a handrail. Those favoring 
 the former method have cited instances where 
 children have fallen over and received serious 
 injuries where open balustrades have been used. 
 But the danger from this sort of construction 
 seems very slight indeed where due care is 
 taken to make these high enough and suffi- 
 ciently strong. The most objectionable fea- 
 ture of the open balustrade along stairways is 
 the fact that in mixed schools they do not 
 sufficiently shield the girls, as they ascend, from 
 exposure to the view of those on the lower 
 half of the stairs. At the high school age, girls 
 still wear short skirts, and in mixed schools, 
 stairways thus constructed furnish opportu- 
 nities which may be very objectionable. On the 
 other hand, the boxed-in stairway is much 
 darker and far less acceptable from the stand- 
 point of appearance. It therefore seems wise 
 in building for mixed schools to recommend 
 a balustrade with the lower part soUd and the 
 upper part more open. 
 
 The prevailing custom in the newer buildings 
 is to make these balustrades of iron wrought into 
 more or less elaborate patterns. The matter 
 of keeping stair railing free from dust ought 
 to suggest to builders the need for designs 
 easily cleaned as well as beautiful. 
 
 When stair treads are made of cement, the 
 corners next to the risers ought to be left 
 rounded or less angular instead of square, in 
 order to facilitate cleaning. Dirt caught in 
 rectangular corners is hard to remove, and by 
 reason of this fact is often left undisturbed. 
 Where wooden stairs are used, triangular 
 pieces of tin made to fit the corners closely save 
 much work in sweeping, and give better results 
 in cleanliness. It is a wise procedure, in the 
 construction of fireproof stairways, to use 
 the very best cement so that the treads may 
 resist wear, stand level or nearly so, and espe- 
 cially to render the exposed edges .strong and non- 
 slippery. Handrails are needed on the wall side 
 as well as along the outer side. These, however, 
 should not extend more than 3 or 4 inches from 
 the wall, and should be at least 3 feet high above 
 the tread. They are often too low to offer 
 satisfactory protection in going down the stairs. 
 
 The short flights of steps through the main 
 entrances to the first floor need to be w'ider than 
 those in the stairways proper, and can be con- 
 structed of stone or cement. The back stair- 
 ways leading from the first floor to the base- 
 ment can be more safely placed near the center 
 of the building, for they are not likely to be 
 used in case of fire. 
 
 Lunchrooms. — Since the introduction into 
 the curriculum of courses in cooking, especially 
 in high schools, the lunchroom has made its 
 appearance and now occupies a legitimate space 
 in most well-equipped high school buildings. 
 In many of the European schools, lunchrooms 
 are constructed in buildings for elementary 
 
 classes, in order to serve without cost a midday 
 meal to those children whose families cannot 
 afford the e.xpense, or to serve a light warm 
 meal to those who can afford to pay for such 
 service. Several cities in our country make 
 like provision for poor children as well as for 
 those in more fortunate circumstances. But 
 the lunchroom in this country is more generally 
 found in buildings for high schools. Aside 
 from the necessary cooking equipment, these 
 rooms deserve good light, good ventilation, and 
 tasteful decoration. It seems unfortunate that 
 so many of these rooms have been placed in 
 basements where lighting is often poor, where the 
 air is generally impure, and where the environ- 
 ment is not altogether wholesome or inviting. 
 
 Cooking and lunch rooms ought to be com- 
 bined and situated on one of the main floors, 
 preferably the top floor in buildings of two 
 stories, and due provision made for receiving the 
 supplies by means of a lift. A meal hurriedly 
 prepared or "bolted" in a dark, unattractive 
 room cannot recommend the sort of hygienic 
 living for which our whole educational scheme 
 should stand. The chief reasons given why 
 basement rooms have been chosen are these: 
 when so situated, supplies are more easily de- 
 Uvered, storeroom is more readily secured, and 
 it has been easier and less expensive to install 
 the ranges and other cooking appliances. But 
 with the development of gas stoves and heaters 
 it is now a comparativel}' easy matter, where 
 gas can be supplied, to locate cooking rooms in 
 more attractive parts of the building, and in the 
 future it seems altogether likely that such rooms 
 will be given more thoughtful consideration. 
 
 Other aspects of School Architecture not 
 relating directly to the construction of the 
 framework of the buildings will be treated under 
 special headings. Thus, see articles on Desks 
 and Seats; Drinking Fountains; Heating 
 and Ventilation; Latrintis; Lighting; and 
 the various topics on Hygiene of the School. 
 
 F. B. D. 
 
 References: — 
 
 B.tGiNSKY, Adolph. Hatidbuch der Schulhygiene. (Stutt- 
 gart, 1S9S-1900.) 
 
 Barnard, Henry. School Architecture. (New York, 
 1848.) 
 
 Billings. J. S. Ventilation and Heating. (New York, 
 1893.) 
 
 Bruce, Willi.vm George. School Houses. (Milwau- 
 kee, 1903.) 
 
 Burgerstein and Netolitsky. Handbuch der Schul- 
 hygiene. (Jena, 1902.) 
 
 Bdrnham, W. H. Outlines of School Hygiene, Ped. Sem. 
 Vol. II, No. 1. 
 
 Carpenter, Alfred. The Principles and Practice of 
 School Hi/giene. (London, 1887.) 
 
 Carpenter, "Roll.i C. Heating and Ventilating Build- 
 ings. (New York, 1896.) 
 
 Clay, Felix. Modern School Buildings. (London, 
 1903.) 
 
 CoHN, H. The Hygiene of the Eye. (London, 1886.) 
 
 Farquharson, Robert. School Hygiene and Diseases 
 Incident to School Life. (London, 1885.) 
 
 Hy.itt, Edward. School Architecture and School 
 Improvement in California, Office of Supt. of Pub. 
 Inst., Sacramento, Cal. 
 
 KoTELMANN, Ludwig. School Hygiene. (Bordeen, 1899.) 
 
 195
 
 ARGENTINE REPUBLIC 
 
 ARGENTINE REPUBLIC 
 
 Mardle, a. p. Sanitary Construction of Schoolhouges. 
 
 Bureau of Edtiration. (Washington. D.C, 1891.) 
 Morrison. CIilreht I?. The Wiililntion and Warming 
 
 of Scliool Buildings. (New York, 18S7.) 
 Newsholme, Arthur. School Hygiitie. (Boston, 1901.) 
 Roos.t, D. B. St. John. Dcfccliic Eyesight. (New 
 
 York, 1899.) 
 RowE, Stewart H. The Lighting of School Buildings. 
 
 (New Y'ork, 1904.) 
 Shaw, Edward R. School Hygiene. (New York, 
 
 1906.) 
 The American Architect. Modern School Houses: 
 
 City and Suburban. (New York, 1910.) 
 Y'oDNC. A. G. Seventh Centennial Report of the State 
 
 Board of Health of Maine, 1892. 
 Report of Commission on S('hi>oliiouses for Washington, 
 
 D.C, 61st Congress. Senate Doeument No. 338. 
 Numerous Sehool Reports, especially from Boston, Cleve- 
 land, .St. Louis, and Chicago. 
 
 The following magazines deal frequently with questions 
 of School .\rchitecture : — 
 Das Schulhaus, Berlin, Germany, edited by Karl 
 
 Vanselow. 
 Peilagogical Seminary, Clark University, Worcester, 
 
 M.1SS., edited by G. Stanley Hall. 
 School Board Journal, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, edited by 
 
 Wm. Geo. Bruce. 
 Zcitschrifl fur Schulgesundheitspflege, Hamburg, Germany. 
 
 Special A r tides : — 
 Hall. G. Stanley. Hygiene and School Buildings, 
 
 Proc. N. E. A.. Vol. 1892, pp. 682-689. 
 H.\MMOND, Jason E. Sehool Architecture, Proc. N. E. 
 
 A.. 1897. pp. 306-309. 
 Johnson, C. C. Model School House, World's Work, 
 
 Vol. 12, pp. 7(564-7668, June 1900. 
 Marble. A. P., Ideal Country Schoolhouse, Proc. N. 
 
 E. A.. Vol. 1897, p. 570. 
 R0BIN.SON, J. B. Sehool Buildings of New Y'ork, 
 
 Architect. Record, Vol. 7, pp. 359-384. 
 Snyder, C. B. J. School Buildings in New Y'ork 
 
 City, Educ. Review, Jan., 1898. 
 Soldan, F. Louis. School Architecture, Proc. N. E. A., 
 
 1898, pp. 523-524. 
 Grove, Aaron. Public School Houses, Education, 
 
 Vol. 17, pp. 407-411. 
 
 ARGENTINE REPUBLIC, EDUCATION 
 IN THE. — Historical. — The ArKeiitine Re- 
 public dates it.s independence from ISIO, 
 although the separation from Spain was not 
 formally declared until 1816. Prior to tliis 
 time the territory was a Spanish po.ssession, 
 forming the most important part of the vice- 
 royalty of Rio de la Plata. The first Spanish 
 settlers in this fertile region came from Peru, 
 and introduced the system of clerical education 
 already established in the northern colony. 
 Its chief agencies were the teaching orders of the 
 Church, the Jesuits, Franci.scans, and Domini- 
 cans, whose numbers were subsequently in- 
 creased by direct arrivals from the mother 
 country. The King of Spain, although the head 
 of the religious instruction by virtue of his 
 right of patronship, respected the autonomy 
 of the institutions conducted by the clergy, 
 and the apostolic approbation of the Pope was 
 always sought in founding universities. 
 
 The purpose of the clerical instruction was 
 twofold: first, the conversion of the Indians, 
 or, at least, their transformation into obedient 
 vassals; second, the maintenance among the 
 Spaniards themselves of their religious and 
 intellectual inheritance. As regards the Indians, 
 the efforts of these religious teachers were of 
 
 chief consequence by reason of their effects upon 
 the " mixed bloods," descendants of Spaniards 
 and Indians, who were thus early inilmed with 
 the ideas of the superior race and assimilated to 
 its higher social order. 
 
 While there was no organized system of edu- 
 cation in the Spanish colonies, the course pur- 
 sued was practically the .same in all. At 
 Cordova, a city founded in La Plata in 1573 
 l)y Spaniards from Peru, the .Jesuits established 
 the Ciilcgio Ma.rinio in 1609, and this became 
 the controlling center of education in the prov- 
 ince. In 1614 the institution was rai.sed by 
 pontifical and royal decrees to the dignity of a 
 university, and in 1(>22, bj- order of Philip III, 
 was authorized to grant the degrees of bachelor, 
 licentiate, master, and doctor. The faculty 
 of civil law was not added till the eighteenth 
 century, authority to confer degrees in law 
 being granted in 1796. 
 
 Upon the expulsion of the Jesuits by decree 
 of Carlos III in 1767, the institution with its 
 affiliated colleges was given over to the secular 
 clergy. Subse(iuently, it was transferred to 
 the Franciscan order, in whose charge it re- 
 mained until the nineteenth century. Secu- 
 larized by a royal decree of ISOO, which took 
 effect eight years later, the university entered 
 upon a new era under lay auspices, and with a 
 new scheme of instruction. The philosophical 
 faculty was extended to include the experi- 
 mental study of physics, and the course in this 
 faculty was made a prerecjuisite to the studies 
 of theology aiul law. 
 
 The second university, that of Buenos Aires, 
 was formed by the union of several strug- 
 gling institutions in 1821, soon after the or- 
 ganization of the provisional government. The 
 influence of the university system established 
 by Napoleon in France was reflected in this 
 new foundation, which was charged with the 
 administration of official instruction in Buenos 
 Aires from the elementary schools to the highest 
 faculties. 
 
 These university movements were signs of 
 the reaction against the old regime due to in- 
 herent impulses toward liberty stimulated by 
 the philosophical and political doctrines then 
 rife in France; for in spite of royal prohibi- 
 tions the ideas of the French encyclopedists, and 
 the speculations of Montesquieu, Rousseau, 
 and Voltaire, penetrated the distant province. 
 When the revolution was accomplished, how- 
 ever, the patriotic leaders turned to the United 
 States for sounder principles to guide in the 
 formation of a repulilican government. The 
 constitution adopted b_v the republic in 1853 
 expressly provided that primary schools should 
 be established in each of the federated prov- 
 inces. This provision was made obligatory 
 upon the states by the constitution of 1S60, 
 adopted after Buenos Aires joined the federa- 
 tion. The importance of education as a factor 
 in the national life was recognized by the crea- 
 tion of a ministry of public instruction in the 
 
 190
 
 ARGENTINE REPUBLIC 
 
 ARGENTINE REPUBLIC 
 
 newly formed government. From the extent 
 of the country, the sparse population, the want 
 of democratic traditions, and of immediate in- 
 centives, the cause of primary education lan- 
 guished, excepting in the capital city, where 
 this interest was under the direct control of the 
 federal government. 
 
 The vigorous movement in behalf of popular 
 education which gave Argentina the leadership 
 in this respect in South America was excited 
 by the efforts of President Domingo Faustino 
 Sarmiento. In a period of exile during his ro- 
 mantic career. Dr. Sarmiento was commissioned 
 by the Chilean government to study the systems 
 of education in the United States and Europe. 
 While on this mission he formed intimate ac- 
 quaintance with Humboldt, Guizot, Cobden, 
 and Horace Mann. Subsequently, he' repre- 
 sented his country as minister jilenipotentiary 
 at Washington, and from this mission he was 
 recalled in 186S by his election to the presi- 
 dency of his country. 
 
 Among the measures advocated by this 
 eminent statesman for the development of the 
 republic, popular education held the chief place; 
 two essential conditions of an efficient system 
 of public instruction were secured by his per- 
 sonal efforts. He gave national direction to 
 the work by means of liberal appropriations 
 from the public treasury in aid of schools in the 
 several provinces of the republic, and at Parana, 
 capital of the province of Entre Rios, he organ- 
 ized a normal school of modern type in charge 
 of a group of teachers called from the United 
 States to assist in the enterprise. The law of 
 1873 passed just at the close of his presidential 
 term placed the policy of national aid for pri- 
 mary education in the several provinces upon a 
 permanent basis. 
 
 In 1884, ten years after the close of President 
 Sarmiento's term as chief executive, the law 
 was passed by which the present school system 
 is regulated. The measure was national in 
 scope, but on account of the constitutional 
 independence of the several provinces in re- 
 spect to this interest its direct application was 
 limited to the capital city and sectional terri- 
 tories under the immediate control of the 
 national government, and to schools in the 
 provinces sharing in the government subsidy. 
 The national law has served, however, to bring 
 about a fair degree of uniformity in the several 
 provincial laws. 
 
 The difference in their historic origins ex- 
 plains the continued distinction between the 
 two departments of the general system of educa- 
 tion in the republic, the one comprising the 
 primary and normal schools, the other, the 
 culture and professional schools of the country, 
 corresponding to the old universities and col- 
 leges. Intermediate between the two groups 
 are the recently organized commercial and 
 technical schools. 
 
 Present Systems. — Primary Schools. — The 
 federal government administers primary educa- 
 
 tion through the national board of education 
 (Cotisejo Xacional de Edncaciim) which was 
 formed in the ministry of education in 1881. 
 This board is assisted by a body of inspectors, 
 who must be graduates from the highest normal 
 course, and must have had several years ex- 
 perience in teaching in the public schools. The 
 inspectors visit and report upon all schools 
 maintained bj' the central authority. In the 
 capital city the primary schools have attained a 
 fair degree of efficiency, and illustrate most fully 
 the provisions of the law of 1884. Instruction 
 is obligatory for children 6 to 14 years of age, 
 either in public schools or by private agencies; 
 public primary schools are gratuitous, and are 
 organized in six one-year grades, or classes. 
 Each class must have a minimum attendance, 
 i.e. 25 pupils in grades 1 and 2; 15 in the 
 higher grades. Coeducation is allowed only 
 in the three lower grades. The course of study 
 must conform to an official program drawn up 
 by a select committee of teachers, inspectors, 
 and school physicians. The schools are non- 
 sectarian, but the clergy of the different de- 
 nominations may be admitted to give religious 
 instruction before or after school hours, a 
 privilege which is chiefly exercised by the clergy 
 of the state church, i.e. the Roman Catholic. 
 
 Candidates for teachers' positions must be 
 provided with a professional diploma, a health 
 certificate, and a certificate of high moral char- 
 acter. Salaries are arranged in three grades, pro- 
 motion being determined by merit and length of 
 service. Teachers have a right to a pension 
 after 20 years of continuous service. 
 
 There is a local school board for each of 
 the 22 precincts of Buenos Aires, which has 
 direct control of the schools of the district. 
 Medical inspection of schools is intrusted to a 
 medical corps appointed by the national board. 
 The primary schools sub-sidized by the federal 
 government in the several states form in each 
 a group of model schools conforming as closely 
 as possible to the provisions of the school law 
 of 1884. 
 
 The actual status of primary education ac- 
 cording to the latest official report is indicated 
 by the following table. The proportion of 
 children not attending school, as shown by the 
 table (columns 10 and 11) and the high degree 
 of illiteracy (affecting 50.5 per cent of the popu- 
 lation over 6 years of age, in 1905), are exciting 
 alarm. At present there is a strong movement 
 toward increase of central control over primary 
 education; even the complete nationalization 
 of primary schools is advocated. 
 
 During the fiscal year 1907, the national 
 board expended .?4,2i2,419 for the establish- 
 ment and maintenance of primary schools in 
 the federal capital, in the territories, and for 
 primary schools in the states, supported by 
 national funds. 
 
 Normal schools, which form a very important 
 feature of the Argentine system of public in- 
 struction, are a link between the primary 
 
 197
 
 ARGENTINE REPUBLIC 
 
 ARGENTINE REPUBLIC 
 
 CQ 
 
 D 
 b 
 
 Pi 
 
 g 
 
 H 
 Z 
 « 
 
 n 
 o 
 
 OQ 
 
 o 
 
 O 
 
 ts 
 
 Percentage of 
 
 Children of 
 School Age not 
 
 ATTENDINQ ScHOOL 
 
 On basis 
 of stand- 
 ard set 
 by law of 
 the prov- 
 inces 
 
 - 
 
 g?5S 
 
 S3 
 
 On basis 
 of stand- 
 ard set by 
 national 
 law, G-14 
 years 
 
 o 
 
 
 S 
 
 OS 
 
 Children of 
 School Aoe not 
 attendinq school 
 
 On basis 
 of stand- 
 ard set 
 by law of 
 the prov- 
 inces 
 
 Oi 
 
 coooo 
 
 CD 
 N 
 O 
 
 On basis 
 of stand- 
 ard set by 
 national 
 law, 6-14 
 years 
 
 QO 
 
 SS§§ 
 
 
 a 
 u 
 
 a 
 
 < 
 
 ,3 
 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 a 
 
 "a 
 
 1 
 
 t^ 
 
 in (MOO 
 
 COOW 
 •^ .-1 
 
 8" 
 
 to 
 
 
 <o 
 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 In schools 
 supported 
 
 by 
 provinces 
 
 la 
 
 CO 
 
 i 
 
 Iff 
 CO 
 
 In schools 
 supported 
 by federal 
 Govern- 
 ment 
 
 •^ 
 
 Hi 
 gag 
 
 CO 
 
 ". 
 
 CO 
 
 1-0 
 
 ID 
 D 
 
 (0 
 
 Z 
 
 O 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 ca 
 o 
 
 Calculated 
 on baais of 
 school pop- 
 ulation as 
 determined 
 by local 
 law 1 
 
 CO 
 
 COC^ o 
 toi>->n 
 
 CO CO CO 
 S IN 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 Calculated 
 on basis of 
 school age 
 determined 
 by national 
 law, 6-14 
 years 
 
 CJ 
 
 t^COOO 
 
 
 z 
 
 m 
 
 a. 
 
 - 
 
 SS8?5 
 
 •"1* w 
 
 1-1 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 a) 
 
 ill 
 
 1 
 
 o 
 
 schools and the higher institutions. By reason 
 of their academic studies and their adminis- 
 tration, they may properly be classed with the 
 secondary institutions. The federal govern- 
 ment maintains one normal school in each 
 state and provides scholarships in the normal 
 schools maintained by local authorities. All 
 schools of the class conform to the official pro- 
 gram and are subject to government inspection. 
 They number at present 35, of which 6 are 
 at the national capital and wholly under govern- 
 ment direction. Of the total number, 4 are for 
 men only, IS for women, and 13, including 
 one school at the capital for teachers of modern 
 languages, are coeducational. The number of 
 students in the normal schools in 1905 was 2011. 
 
 These schools confer two grades of diplomas, one 
 at the end of a four years' course, and the other 
 at the end of six years, to graduates who are 
 called " normal professors." From this class 
 of graduates the government school inspectors 
 are selected. 
 
 Secondary Education. — Public secondary 
 education is provided in colcgios, 25 in number, 
 estaiilished and maintained by the federal gov- 
 ernment. The official jirogram of these in- 
 stitutions, which is arranged for a course of 
 five years, is correlated with that of the national 
 primary schools and prepares for admission to 
 the specialized university courses. The studies 
 comprised are mathematics, the sciences, 
 Argentine history, modern languages — French, 
 Enghsh, and Italian — in addition to the 
 native Spanish, drawing, manual arts, and 
 gymnastics. To these subjects are added, in 
 tiie fourth and fifth years, general history, 
 ancient and modern, geography of Asia and 
 Africa, psychology, civic instruction, and 
 philosophy. The course has an essentially 
 modern character corresponding to that of the 
 modern high schools of our own country, and to 
 the scientific and modern language course of 
 the French lyc^es. Pupils are expected to 
 enter at 12 years of age and to be ready for the 
 university at 17 or IS. 
 
 The deep interest of the government in the 
 cause of modern and scientific education is 
 shown by the efforts lavished upon these sec- 
 ondary institutions. They are provided with 
 imposing buildings and ample equipments, and 
 receive liberal appropriations from the public 
 treasury. In 190S this allowance reached a 
 total of $1,386,000, of which amount nearly 
 $550,000 were expended on the five colcgios in 
 the federal capital. The colegios of the smaller 
 towns illustrate very clearly the defects of the 
 present organization. These are unstable, 
 overcrowded, with ambitious programs, and 
 are influenced by the peculiar mode of appoint- 
 ing professors. The subjects of instruction are 
 divided into catcdras, or chairs, each chair in- 
 cluding a minimum of three hours of instruction 
 a week. The chairs are usually divided among 
 the resident lawyers and physicians. Under 
 such a system, the professors have little personal 
 influence upon students and little or no profes- 
 sional spirit and solidarity. 
 
 The school census of 1905 gave 4103 students 
 in 16 of the public secondary schools, an aver- 
 age of 256 students to each school, which 
 would only be attained in the larger cities. 
 The students in these national schools are 
 drawn from the humbler social classes, the 
 patronage of the leading families going pre- 
 ferably to the older classical colleges which are 
 still managed by the various religious orders, 
 Jesuits, who returned to the countrj- in 1S36, 
 Redemptionists, etc. The courses of instruction 
 of these private secondary schools are neces- 
 sarily determined by the official entrance re- 
 quirements and the degree examinations of the 
 
 198
 
 ARGENTINE REPUBLIC 
 
 ARGENTINE REPUBLIC 
 
 universities, but with provision for modern 
 studies tliey still retain the classical humanities. 
 They number 450 as against 190 public colegios. 
 
 The interest of the government in the " higher 
 education" of young women is indicated by 
 the estabhshment of two national secondary 
 schools, liceos, one at Buenos Aires, the other at 
 La Plata. They follow the crowded program 
 of the colegios with the addition of music and 
 domestic science. It needs hardly be said 
 that the majority of young women in Argentina 
 are educated in convents and church schools. 
 
 Commercial and Industrial Schools. — The 
 efforts of President Sarmiento to modernize 
 education in Argentina were ably seconded by 
 his minister of public instruction. Doctor 
 Avellaneda, who pointed out the fact that in- 
 dustries owe their perfection to scientific knowl- 
 edge and that manual labor must go along 
 with instruction in the sciences; he illustrated 
 his position by the then recent universal ex- 
 position of 1S67 in England, where could be 
 seen the results of such combination. Doctor 
 Avellaneda insisted that it was necessary to 
 keep in mind the peculiar needs of Argentina 
 in introducing technical instruction into the 
 country, and accordingly such instruction was 
 inaugurated by creating departments of agri- 
 culture in the various colegios, together with 
 departments of mines, which latter had an 
 ephemeral existence but led to the establish- 
 ment of a national school of mines. 
 
 In 1889 manual training was introduced into 
 several colegios and was made a part of the 
 course of instruction in national primary schools 
 by programs drawn up in 1890. The move- 
 ment was fostered by the Association for Indus- 
 trial Education and by the religious societies, 
 and finally two national industrial schools were 
 organized, one at Buenos Aires, the other at 
 Rosario. The government also maintains 
 three trade schools for girls at Buenos Aires, 
 and, stimulated by these examples, local au- 
 thorities are giving serious attention to this 
 branch of public instruction. The importance 
 of commercial training has but recently been 
 recognized in Argentina, but already three com- 
 mercial schools have been established at the 
 capital (two for men and one for women), and 
 several similar schools in provincial cities. 
 
 Agricultural Education. — In 1871 a depart- 
 ment of agriculture was created with the special 
 object of diffusing a knowledge of all things 
 relating to agriculture throughout the country; 
 but little was effected in this way, principally 
 through want of funds, until this department 
 was converted, in 1899, into the ministry of 
 agriculture, in which was included a division 
 of instruction. Since then a number of schools 
 of agriculture have been established in the 
 different provinces, with plantations, vineyards, 
 and the other necessary equipment, in which 
 instruction is given both in theoretical and 
 practical agriculture. 
 
 The advantage which the federal capital 
 
 enjoys from the fostering care of the govern- 
 ment is illustrated by a group of special sec- 
 ondary schools whose names sufficiently indicate 
 their general character. The most important 
 of these are the National Institute for Second- 
 ary Teachers, the National Academy of Fine 
 Arts, and the Normal Institute for Physical 
 Culture. 
 
 Higher Education. — Higher education im- 
 parted in the universities and superior technical 
 schools is under the immediate control of the 
 federal government. The two universities 
 already mentioned, Cordova and Buenos Aires, 
 were reorganized by the republican government 
 somewhat after the model of the French facul- 
 ties as constituted by Napoleon. The want 
 of vital union between the faculties led to the 
 same narrow specialization that was long the 
 bane of higher education in France. To 
 correct this tendency a different system was 
 adopted in the organization of the National 
 University of La Plata, estabUshed in 1906. 
 Tins university forms an organic body under a 
 president who has supervisory powers over all 
 the faculties. 
 
 Each of the three universities comprises a 
 faculty of law, a faculty of philosophy and 
 letters, a faculty of natural sciences, and a 
 faculty of physical and mathematical sciences. 
 Cordova and Buenos Aires have also a medical 
 faculty. The programs, degree examinations, 
 etc., are regulated by official programs. The 
 University of La Plata, like the national 
 colegios, is whoUy modern in character, and the 
 high standards maintained and the close organ- 
 ization of the several faculties will in time, it is 
 believed, impart a more solid character to the 
 modern scheme of secondary instruction. The 
 three universities have a registration of about 
 3500 students. They are maintained exclu- 
 sively by federal appropriations. There are no 
 tuition fees, and the matriculation and gradua- 
 tion fees are very low. For the year 1908 the 
 appropriations were as follows: University of 
 Cordova, §276,825; L^niversitv of Buenos Aires, 
 $449,350; University of La Plata, $430,000. 
 
 The government is exceedingly liberal in the 
 matter of capital expenditure for the univer- 
 sities, and has recently adopted plans for 
 magnificent new buildings for the faculty of 
 physical and mathematical science (which 
 includes engineering) of tlie University of 
 Buenos Aires; for the erection of a new hos- 
 pital costing .S6, 000, 000 to be an adjunct to 
 the medical school; and for a scries of new 
 buildings to commemorate the tercentenary 
 of tlie Uni\'ersitj' of Cordova. The higher 
 technical training is imparted in the school of 
 mines reorganized in 1897, a college of agricul- 
 ture, and a naval and mihtary school, all under 
 government control. 
 
 The recent development of technical educa- 
 tion, and the general awakening to the impor- 
 tance of scientific education in its relation to 
 industrial progress, indicate the increasing 
 
 199
 
 ARGUMENTATION 
 
 ARISTOTLE 
 
 influence of the methods and ideals of education 
 in the United States as contrasted with the 
 traditional literary spirit of the older schools. 
 This tendency has been stimulated by the 
 National Pedap;oRical IMuseum, located at 
 Buenos Aires, which secured much illustrative 
 material from the St. Louis E.xposition of 
 1904. The early scholastic relations between 
 the Arfientine Republic and the United States 
 are illustrated l)y the fact that Dr. Benjamin 
 A. Gould was appointed the first director of the 
 National Observatory, which was founded at 
 Cordova in 1S0.5 and has achieved great dis- 
 tinction in astronomical science. 
 
 Art shares with science the liberal patronage 
 of the Argentine government, which is prepar- 
 ing to cclel)rate its centennial by an inter- 
 national art exhibit to be held at Buenos Aires 
 from Mav to September, 1910. 
 
 „ . " R- L. P. 
 
 References: — 
 
 Argentine Republic Comision de la exposicion db 
 Chica<.;o, lsy3. Miuistcrio do justicia, culto e iii- 
 stnifcioii jnihlica. Infurnie sohrf la educacion sfcuii- 
 daria y normal en la Rcpublica Agcntina. (La Plata, 
 1S93.) 
 
 BuNGE, Carlos O. Historical sketch of education in 
 the Argentine Republic. El Monitor de la Educa- 
 cion comnn, Oct. 31, 190S. Translation (with sonic 
 omissions) in Report of Commissioner of Education, 
 1909, chap. VII, pp. 350-357. 
 
 Gahekt, Rei-nhold Rudolf Hugo Adolf Ludwig. 
 Da^ deulschc Bildungswescn in Argentinicn und 
 Heine Organisation. Berlin, D. Reimer. (E. Vohsen.) 
 1908. 
 Conscjo Xacional de educacion. La ensehav^a 
 practica e industrial en la Repuhlica Argentina, 
 por el Dr. J. B. Zubiaur. vocal del Consejo Nacional 
 de educacion. (Buenos Aires, 1900.) 
 
 GoNz.\LEZ, JoAQriN, V. The Naiicnial University of La 
 Plata. Tr. by George Wilson-Rae. . . . (Buenos 
 Aires, 1906.) 
 
 HiPPEAU, Celestin (1803-1883). L'instructionpuhlique 
 dans I' Ajnerique du Sud {Republique Argenlim) ; 
 enseignemcnt primaire — enseignement secondaire — 
 enseignernent sup^ricur. . . . (Paris, introd. 1878.) 
 
 Laws, Statutes, etc. Lcyes, decretos y resoluciones sobre 
 instruccion superior, secundaria, normal y especial. . . . 
 Recapiladas por Juan Garcia Mcron. . . . (Buenos 
 Aires, 1900-1901.) 
 
 MiXISTERlO DE JUSTICL\, CULTO B INSTRUCCION PUB- 
 LICO. Alemorias e informes, or annual and special re- 
 ports. 
 Ministerio de justicia, culto e instruccion publica. 
 Samiicnto, Domingo Faustino, 1811-18S8. Las 
 escuelas: base de la prosperidad i de la rcpublica 
 en los Estados Uni<los. . . . I?ifonne al jttinistro 
 de instruccion publica de la Repuhlica Argenliiia. 
 Pasado por D. F. Sarmiento. . . . (N'ew York, 1869.) 
 
 RowE, L. S. Educational Progress in the Argentine 
 Republic, in Report of the Commissioner of Educa- 
 tion, 1909. chap. VII, pp. 3:23-349. 
 
 Pack.ard. R. L. Modern aspect of higher education in 
 Spanish-.Vnierican countries. In Report of the 
 Commissioner of Education, 1908, Vol. I. chap. V. 
 
 Zubiaur, J. B. Quclques mots sur rirtstructio?i publigue 
 et privee dans Ui Republique Argentine. (Paris, 
 1889.) 
 
 Files of El Monitor de la Educacion Comun. 
 
 ARGUMENTATION, 
 and Rhetoric. 
 
 See Composition 
 
 ARISTOPHANES.— Censor, satirist, and 
 poet, born probably at Athens at an uncer- 
 tain date, perhaps 448 B.C. Aristophanes was 
 
 animated by a more serious purpose than is to 
 be expected of the Old Comedy in general. His 
 sympathies were conservative and aristocratic, 
 and in the Clouds (423 b.c.) his full genius is 
 directed against the spirit of intellectual inves- 
 tigation that is connected with the names of 
 Socrates and the Sophists. The older school 
 of natural philosophers offered a legitimate 
 subject for ridicule, but the full animosity of the 
 poet is directed, not against Heraclcitus and 
 Anaxagoras so much as the doctrines of the 
 social pliilosophers and teachers of rhetoric, 
 such as Protagoras, Prodicus, Gorgias, and 
 Hippias. Socrates is taken as the type of the 
 new thought in all its branches. Thus the 
 Cloud.s becomes a document of great interest 
 in the history of education. A youth, Phidip- 
 pides, is sent by his father to learn of Socrates, 
 whose doctrines finally render him an accom- 
 plished rogue, a role, however, for which he is 
 clearly destined by nature from the beginning. 
 The education of Phidippides is to be in the 
 two causes, " the better, whatever it may be; 
 and the worse, which, by maintaining what is 
 unjust, overturns the better. If not both, at 
 any rate the unjust one by all means." 
 
 Next to the Clouds, the most important 
 drama of Aristophanes, regarded from the 
 educational viewpoint, is the Frogs. Here 
 jEschylus and Euripides are revealed in the 
 course of an argument in which they criticise 
 passages in one another's work. Euripides 
 objects to the bombast of his predecessor, and 
 claims to have made tragedy more intimate 
 and domestic; ^Eschylus retorts with charges 
 of skepticism, sopliistry, and morbidness. The 
 Frogs contains another passing attack on 
 Socrates. Aristophanes throws many side- 
 lights on Greek life and education. 
 
 P. R. C. 
 References: — 
 Ari.stoph.vnes. Clouds, Frogs, Knights, Acharniana, 
 
 Birds, etc. 
 Collins. Aristophanes. (New York, 1885.) 
 ■ft'HiTE. The "stage" in Aristophanes, in Hanard 
 
 Studies, 1891, vol. 2. 
 
 ARISTOTLE. — Born at Stageira, a city 
 of Chalcitlicc, in 384 B.C. His father was 
 physician to King Amyntas of Macedon, and 
 he doubtless received the elements of a scien- 
 tific education from him. At the age of 18, 
 he was sent to Athens, which had lost most of 
 its political im))ortance, but was now- recog- 
 nized as the chief center of higher education in 
 Hellas. There he joined the Academy, which 
 had been founded by Plato iq.v.) some twenty 
 years earlier, and was now attracting students 
 from every cjuarter of the Greek world, and he 
 remained a member of the society till Plato's 
 death in 347 B.C. Like many other students 
 of the Academy, he also attended the other 
 great educational institution of Athens, the 
 school of Isocrates (q.v.). When Plato was 
 succeeded by his nephew Speusippus, Aristotle 
 left Athens with Xenocrates, and betook him- 
 
 200
 
 ARISTOTLE 
 
 ARISTOTLE 
 
 self to the court of Hcrmeias of Atarneus, one 
 of the many princes who had been trained in 
 the Academy. Four years later, when he was 
 living at iMitylene, he received a call to under- 
 take the education of Alexander of Macedon, 
 then a lad of 13, and this engagement seems 
 to have lasted for 3 years, at the end of which 
 time he returned to Stageira. In 339 b.c. 
 Speusippus died, and was succeeded in the head- 
 ship of the Academy by Xenocrates, and 4 
 years later Aristotle returned to Athens and 
 founded a rival school in the Lyceum. Most 
 of the writings which have been preserved 
 are the lectures which he prepared for delivery 
 in the school, though he also wrote other works, 
 for a wider public, which are often quoted. 
 On the death of Alexander (323 B.C.), the anti- 
 Macedonian party forced Aristotle to leave 
 Athens, and he died the next year near Chalcis 
 in Eubcea. 
 
 Aristotle's practical experience as an educa- 
 tor thus falls into two well-marked stages, his 
 tutorship to the young prince, and his headship 
 of the Lyceum. It is not likely that he had 
 any great influence over Alexander, and his 
 allusions to the unpleasantnesses of court life 
 suggest that he did not feel at ease in the posi- 
 tion as governor of a prince. In any case, the 
 ideals which inspired Alexander were by no 
 means those of Aristotle, as we know them 
 from the Politics and elsewhere, but rather 
 those of Plato and Isocrates. It was Isocrates 
 who had preached, in season and out of season, 
 the gospel of a regenerated Hellenism founded 
 on the conquest of the Persian Empire; and 
 Plato's views were similar, though he busied 
 himself chiefly with the other side of the same 
 problem, the preservation of Western Hellas 
 from the Carthaginians. Such ideas were 
 quite foreign to Aristotle's mind, and he no- 
 where shows any interest in the work which 
 his illustrious pupil was doing during the years 
 when he was lecturing in the Lyceum. Indeed, 
 he barely mentions him at all; for the Rhetoric 
 dedicated to Alexander is not his work, and the 
 prefatory epistle is a forgery. In two im- 
 portant respects his views were diametrically 
 opposed to those of his pupil : he regards the 
 distinction between Hellenes and barbarians 
 as fundamental, and he still clings to the old 
 ideal of a self-sufficing city state. He nowhere 
 shows the least appreciation of the fact, which 
 was clearly seen both by Plato and Isocrates, 
 that the ri.sing power was military monarchy. 
 
 Aristotle's work as head of the Lyceum was 
 of a more fruitful character. It is true that 
 the Lyceum was far less successful than the 
 Academy in training practical legislators and 
 statesmen, but it soon became a great center 
 of research, especially in biology and history. 
 Speu.sippus had no doubt led the way in 
 biology; but, on the whole, it is true to say 
 that zoology was the creation of Aristotle, 
 while the foundations of botany were laid by 
 his associate and successor, Theophrastus. 
 
 The indifference of the Lyceum to the advance 
 made by the Academy in mathematics pre- 
 vented it, indeed, from contributing much to 
 the exact sciences, anfl Aristotle's astronomical 
 and cosmological teaching was distinctly retro- 
 grade; but in everything that depended upon 
 the accumulation and classification of facts and 
 observations the Lyceum easily led. 
 
 Aristotle's scheme of education is taken in 
 the main from Plato, and in particular from 
 that given in the Laws, for which the reader 
 may l3e referred to the article on Plato. What 
 must be noted especially liere are the points of 
 difference, which present several features of 
 interest. 
 
 To ArLstotle, as to Plato, education is a 
 branch of the practical science of politics, that 
 is, the art of securing happiness {€v8aLfjiovla) 
 for a community of citizens. There is an im- 
 portant difference, however, in the way in 
 which Aristotle regards this end. To Plato it 
 was a good " state " or " condition " of the 
 soul (f^is r^s i/'Dx^s) ; to Aristotle it is rather 
 the "activity" (ivfpyeia) proceeding from such 
 a state. This does not mean, however, that 
 ArLstotle's ideal was more practical than 
 Plato's. On the contrary, we find that to him 
 the highest form of activity is "contemplation " 
 {Oimpua), while Plato always insists that the 
 results of scientific contemplation must be 
 made serviceable to the community and to 
 mankind. Both Plato and Aristotle, however, 
 are agreed that two kinds of goodness, which 
 Aristotle calls goodness of character and good- 
 ness of intellect (in scholastic phrase, moral 
 and intellectual virtue), are necessary, and that 
 the first is to be produced by habituation 
 (iOia-fj.o'i) , the second by teaching. As this 
 implies that we must do good things before 
 we are good, in order to become good, the 
 necessity of education is apparent. 
 
 This subordination of education to politics 
 has some very important consequences. Plato 
 had given a scheme of education for the 
 " Guardians " in the Republic, which deals 
 with the ideal state; in the Laws he set himself 
 to construct a second-best state, and the 
 scheme of education differs accordingly. In 
 the same way, Aristotle teaches that each form 
 of state — aristocratic, democratic, and the 
 rest — has a special kind of education appro- 
 priate to it. It is only in the best state, where 
 the good man and the good citizen are identical, 
 that the right education will necessarily be 
 that which is best for the individual as such. 
 It will also follow that education is a matter of 
 public concern and cannot be left to private 
 control, though Aristotle admits at the end of 
 the Ethics that, in an imperfect state, where 
 education is neglected, fathers of families must 
 do their best to perform the functions of do- 
 mestic legislators. 
 
 Aristotle's scheme, so far as it is preserved, 
 is to be found in the Seventh and Eighth Books 
 of the Politics, and follows very closely on the 
 
 201
 
 ARISTOTLE 
 
 ARISTOTLE 
 
 lines of Plato's sohemp as given in the Seventh 
 Book of the Laws. Both begin witli infancy, 
 though Aristotle does not go nearly so niueh 
 into detail on tliis subjeet as Plato. A milk 
 diet, plenty of movement, and exposure to 
 cold are his main points. Up to the age of .">, 
 the child is too young for compulsory exercises 
 of anj' sort; these would only hinder its 
 growth. Games are the chief means of educa- 
 tion at this stage, and these must be approved 
 l)y the Inspector of Children. Aristotle agrees 
 with Plato that they should for the most jjart 
 be imitations of what the child will have to do 
 when it is older, but he thinks it a mistake to 
 try to prevent children from cr\-ing and kick- 
 ing freely. The.se things help their growth. 
 Aristotle clearly assumes that the chiklren are 
 to be brought up at home, and not in public 
 infant schools, as Plato proposed; but he has 
 a strong feeling of the danger of letting them 
 associate much with servants, and he insists 
 that they must be safeguarded from all indecent 
 words and sights. From the age of 5 till that 
 of 7, they should look on at the exercises in 
 which they will soon have to take part. 
 
 Education proper begins at the age of 7. 
 We have seen already that it is to be under 
 public supervision; but "there is a dispute 
 about subjects " ( fjuiOi'maTa) . Are we to keep 
 the intellect or the character chiefly in view? 
 Are we to regard the utility of the subjects, or 
 some higher ciuality in them ? Aristotle seeks 
 to answer these questions by considering the 
 subjects actually taught in his time. These 
 are (1) reading and writing, (2) gymnastics, 
 (3) music, to which some add (4) drawing. 
 Reading is plainly to be justified on utilitarian 
 grounds, and so is drawing. Gymnastics is 
 supposed to make brave soldiers, ^^'hen we 
 come to music, however, it does not appear to 
 have anj' direct utility, so there is at least one 
 of the commonly received subjects which must 
 be justified on other than utilitarian grounds. 
 Nor is the value of the others purely utilitarian. 
 Reading has a higher end, and so has drawing. 
 It serves not merely to save us from making 
 blunders in our purchases, or to prevent our 
 being cheated in buying or selling furniture, 
 but also to train us in the perception of bodily 
 beauty. 
 
 The education of the body must precede that 
 of the mind, so gymnastics and drill are essen- 
 tial at this stage. We must be careful, however, 
 not to allow hard and brutal exercises, which 
 spoil the children's appearance and stunt their 
 growth. Up to the age of puberty, only the 
 lighter exercises are to be allowed. The list 
 of Olympic Victors shows that the same person 
 has very rarely been successful both in the 
 contests of boys and in those of men, and this 
 is a clear indication that severe training is bad 
 for young boys. The time for severe gymnastic 
 training does not begin till three years after 
 puberty, and this three years' interval is to 
 be devoted to the "other subjects." It is to 
 
 be noted here that Aristotle differs from Plato 
 in keeping gymnastic training more sharply 
 separated from other subjects, which only find 
 a place between the two periods of gymna.'^tic 
 training. He held that it was impossible to 
 exert the mind and the body at the same time. 
 Plato's rule was, on the contrary, "never to 
 move the mind without the body or the bodj- 
 without the mind," and he begins the "other 
 subjects" at the age of 10. lie also assumes 
 that mathematics will be begun at the age of 
 18, when Aristotle's pupil would be .start- 
 ing on his gymnastic training and unable to 
 attend to anything else. In both Plato and 
 Aristotle we note that a far sharper line is drawn 
 between adolescence and early manhood than 
 with us, and that although adolescence was 
 presumably earlier with the Greeks than among 
 us. There is little doubt that the prolongation 
 of boyhood to an age when most of our pupils 
 have to be earning their living was the secret of 
 the physical perfection to which the Greeks 
 attained, and Aristotle is a great deal more 
 conservative in this matter than Plato. 
 
 We have seen that music has no obvious 
 practical utility, but its end is not merely 
 pleasure, either. It is pleasant, of course, and 
 may therefore be used for puri)oses of relaxa- 
 tion, but that is not its function in a scheme 
 of education. Again, if we consider what is the 
 liighest function of music, we see that it is to 
 furnish a means of employing leisure nobly 
 (a^oXij, Suxyaiftj). The end of life is not work 
 or business; for we are busy, as nature teaches 
 us, only in order that we may attain to leisure, 
 and then our occupation should be with some- 
 thing that has value in itself and not merely 
 as a means to something else. But this is not 
 the educational function of music, either: for 
 the young are not concerned with the noble use 
 of leisure, and it is not even necessary for them 
 to learn music as a preparation for it. They 
 might learn to play later in life; or, so far as 
 the noble use of leisure goes, they might content 
 themselves with listening to professional per- 
 formances, which will necessarily be better than 
 their own. There is a third function of music, 
 the " purgative," when it is used to effect a dis- 
 charge of overwrought feelings of pity and fear, 
 but that cannot be its educational function, 
 either. Music can only be justified here in so 
 far as it contributes to the training of character, 
 and we do find music presents in a higher 
 degree than anything else direct likenesses of 
 different types of feeling and character. In 
 this sense, it is more directly imitative than 
 painting or sculpture, which only express differ- 
 ences of character in an indistinct manner. It 
 is therefore by learning to take pleasure in the 
 right kinds of music that the young can most 
 easily be led to take pleasure in right feelings 
 and good characters, and to feel pain at the 
 opposite. 
 
 To a modern, this is the most difficult part 
 of the Greek theory of education to appreciate; 
 
 202
 
 ARISTOTLE 
 
 ARITHMETIC 
 
 but it is no peculiar theory of Aristotle's, but 
 common to all Greek writers. They hardl.y 
 ever mention the art of sculpture at all, though 
 we are accustomed to think of that as the art 
 in which they excelled. Painting is referred to 
 rather more frequently, but the typical art is 
 always music. And yet Greek music was 
 hardly what we should call by that name at all. 
 Harmony was unknown, and the melodies were 
 most primitive. On the other hand, the 
 rhythms were much more complicated than 
 ours; and, above all, the Greeks had an elab- 
 orate system of "modes" or scales differing in 
 pitch and position. It was in these that they 
 chiefly felt the power of music to imitate feel- 
 ings and character; and, if we think of the 
 difference in feeling which we still recognize in 
 major and minor scales, we may partly under- 
 stand what they meant. 
 
 Aristotle holds, then, that the young must be 
 accustomed to scales which express good char- 
 acter, and he criticises Plato for allowing the use 
 of the orgiastic Phrygian mode in education. It 
 is of the utmost importance that our pupils 
 should be taught to play upon the lyre, and, 
 above all, to tune it in the proper key. The 
 educational effect upon the character is thus 
 much strengthened; and besides, it is really 
 impossible to distinguish good and bad music 
 without being able to play a little. We must 
 remember, however, that we do not wish to 
 train professional musicians any more than 
 professional athletes. Professional excellence 
 in anything is alwaj^s one-sided and therefore 
 fatal to a harmonious education of mind and 
 body. 
 
 At this point Aristotle's scheme of education 
 comes abruptly to an end. Even his discussion 
 of music is incomplete; for he has not yet 
 discussed either rhythm or words, under which 
 last head he must have treated everything that 
 we call literature. The Poetics does not help 
 us; for that is a practical course of lectures in- 
 tended to teach older people how to write 
 tragedies, and has nothing to do with education. 
 As Mr. Xewman puts it, "Our latest glimpse 
 of the youthful object of Aristotle's care is ob- 
 tained at the moment when, at the age of 19 
 or thereabouts, he is committed for the first 
 time to the tender mercies of the sterner form 
 of gymnastics, and left we do not exactly know 
 for what period, but probably till the age of 21, 
 in the hands of the gymnastic trainer." Either 
 the Politics was never finished, or the end of it 
 has been lost. What is still more serious is 
 that we know nothing at all of Aristotle's scheme 
 for the training of the intellect, which could not 
 have failed to be interesting, and would prob- 
 ably have been more independent of Plato than 
 his plan for the training of character. It is 
 probable that other sciences than the mathe- 
 matical would play some part, and that Ari.s- 
 totle would make more of literary and historical 
 studies than Plato did. It is certain that he would 
 have championed the cause of science as an end 
 
 in itself in a far more exclusive spirit. His ideal 
 seems to have been that of a well-ordered state, 
 in which a few choice spirits were set apart for 
 purely scientific work, and did not have to 
 trouble themselves about practical matters. 
 This would never have contented Plato. His 
 ideal of science was at least as high, but he held 
 that those who had contemplated the Good 
 must "descend into the Cave in their turn" 
 for the service of humanity. Aristotle's sharp 
 separation between theoretical and practical wis- 
 dom enabled him to dispense with this necessity. 
 It can hardly be said that Aristotle's educa- 
 tional views have had any influence ujion peda- 
 gogic theory till quite recently. The school 
 which he founded devoted itself more and more 
 to historical research, and soon ceased to be 
 otherwise important. Nor had his theories any 
 importance in the Middle Ages. There was 
 indeed a Latin version of the Politics as early as 
 the thirteenth century, and it had considerable 
 influence upon contemporary political thought; 
 but we look in vain for traces of its educational 
 teaching. The medieval scheme of education 
 was Greek, but not Aristotelian, in its origin. 
 It goes back through the Neo-Platonists to 
 Plato himself, and through him to the Pythag- 
 oreans, and it was already fixed on traditional 
 lines before the revival of Aristotelian study. 
 In modern times the Politics has chiefly served 
 as the channel through which the more mature 
 ideas of Plato on education have become known; 
 for the Laws are comparatively little read. 
 The real bearing of Aristotle's discussions can 
 only be fully seized, however, by reading them 
 in the light of his master's teaching. J. B. 
 
 References: — 
 
 Br.\dlet, Aristotle^ s Conception of the State, in Abbott '3 
 
 Hellenica. (London, ISSO.) 
 Burnet, J. Aristotle on Education. (Cambridge, 1903.) 
 D.wiDSON, T. Aristotle and the Ancient Educational 
 
 Ideals. (New York, 1892.) 
 The Education of the Greek People. (New York, 
 
 1894.) 
 Dickinson, G. L. The Greek View of Life. (London, 
 
 1896.) 
 JowETT, B. The Politics of Aristotle, I. (Oxford. 1885.) 
 Monroe, P. Text-Book in the History of Education. 
 
 (New York, 1906.) 
 Source Book for the History of Education for the 
 
 Greek and Roman Period. (New York. 1901.) 
 Welldon, J. B. C. Nicomachcan Ethics of Aristotle. 
 
 (London, 1906.) 
 
 ARITHMETIC. — History. — Arithmetic is 
 the oldest of all sciences, and for commercial 
 purposes at least it was well developed in the 
 earliest historic period of which we have any 
 exact information. In the cuneiform inscrip- 
 tions of Babylon, for example, tables of squares 
 and cubes, written on a decimal-sexagesimal 
 system, are extant that date back to about 2000 
 B.C., — the Senkereh tablets in the British 
 Museum discovered in L854. More recently 
 Hilprecht has deciphered numerous tablets 
 from Nippur that are probably somewhat older, 
 and that show a very advanced system of mul- 
 tiplication and division tables, certain multipli- 
 
 203
 
 ARITHMETIC 
 
 ARITHMETIC 
 
 cands reaching nearly to 200,000. It was perhaps 
 about the time that the clay tablets contain- 
 ing these tables were prepared that the orig- 
 inal papyrus was written from wliieh the 
 Egyptian scribe Ahmes iq.v.) copied his work. 
 In this copy of about 1700 u.c. an advanced 
 state of arithmetic is set forth. AA'e have, how- 
 ever, earlier evidence than either the cuneiform 
 inscriptions or the papyrus, since a piece of 
 pottery on which some numerals are written and 
 which dates from the first dynasty of Egypt 
 has recently been brought to light. We may 
 therefore be assure<l that the science was 
 quite well developed in the earliest historic 
 times. 
 
 The definite history of the subject assumes 
 satisfactory form when we reach the Greek 
 civilization. Here it first appears m the form 
 of practical calculation, or AoyioriKj; (logistic) 
 as the Greeks called it, from Aoyos (calculation, 
 reason, speech). From this term the auditors 
 of accounts in Athens were called Xoyunai 
 The theory of numbers was clearly distinguished 
 from logistic and was called apidfuqTiKi] (arith- 
 metic), from a.pidi).6<i (number). Logistic was 
 tauglit to those going into trade, as the use of 
 the swanpan (see Ab.\cus) is taught in China 
 to-day, but was not considered part of a hberal 
 education. We have no ancient treatise ex- 
 tant on the Greek logistic, although we are 
 familiar with some of the methods of computa- 
 tion through certain works on metrics. 
 
 The apL$ixr)ri>cri is, howevcr, well known to 
 us. It formed, with geometry, all that was 
 known of pure mathematics in the philosophic 
 schools of Greece. It first appeared in a large 
 way in the school of Pythagoras (q.v.), in the 
 sixth century B.C., and was very likely brought 
 by him from Babylon and Egypt. He based his 
 philosophy on the postulate that number is the 
 cause of the varied qualities of matter, and thus 
 the scientific study of number became a neces- 
 sary introduction to his subtler theories, even 
 as geometry was to Plato's. Humfrey Baker 
 was correct in spirit, although historically at 
 fault, when he wrote in The Wcllspring of 
 Sciences (1568), " The noble philosopher Pithag- 
 oras who caused this inscription to be written 
 (vpon his schoole doore where hee taught 
 philosophy) in greate letters. Nemo Arilh- 
 melicae ignarus hie ingrediatur: Let none enter 
 heere, that is ignorant in Arithmetike," a 
 paraphrase of Plato's well-known statement 
 concerning geometry. Pytliagoras, or at any 
 rate his followers, considered 5 the cause of 
 color, 6 of cold, 7 of mind and health and light, 
 8 of love and friendship and invention, and so 
 on. Earth was held to be the product of the 
 cube, fire of the pjTamid, air of the octahedron, 
 water of the icosahedron, and the universe of 
 the dodecahedron, and this fanciful theory was 
 connected with arithmetic through polygonal 
 and solid numbers. Thus there was not only 
 the square number, but also the triangular, 
 pentagonal, and so on. 
 
 Triangular Numbers .'. .V, 
 
 • • • 
 
 Square Numbers '.'. '.'.', 
 
 Pentagonal Numbers '.'. '.'.'. 
 
 • • • 
 • • • • 
 
 Hexagonal Numbers V V 
 
 In the same way there were not only cube 
 numbers, but also pyramidal, parallclopipedal, 
 etc. I\Iuch interest attached to odd numbers, 
 and in particular to primes, these being more 
 difficult to manipulate. The primes below 10 
 were those that appealed most to the popular 
 knowledge, whence, excluding 2 as an even 
 number, 3, 5, and 7 were held in the highest 
 esteem. Of these, 5 was half of the common 
 radix, 10, and Jience in general was not so 
 mysterious, although the Pythagoreans made 
 much of it. Three and 7 were therefore the ob- 
 jects of popular superstitious respect in ancient 
 days, and the tradition has maintained its place 
 as the race has developed. 
 
 The greatest writer on aritlunetic among the 
 Greeks was Nicomachus iq.v.), who flourished 
 about 100 A.D. He endeavoured to do for tliis 
 science what Euclid had done for geometry and 
 he accordingly embodied in his treatise the 
 arithmetical lorethat had accumulated in Greece 
 for several centuries. The effort was not suc- 
 cessful, save as it preserved much of the early 
 theory of numbers, and with this work the 
 Greek contributions to the science practically 
 close, the Arithmetic of Diophantus iq.v.) being 
 more strictly speaking an algebra. 
 
 The chief contribution of the East to arith- 
 metic was the numerals (q.v.). The various 
 treatises of India (see Ary.\bh.^tt.\, Bh.\sk.\ra) 
 show that the principal applications in that 
 country, between 500 a.d. and 1200 a.d. were 
 interest, measurements, inheritance problems, 
 alligation, and rule of three. 
 
 The most important single work of the early 
 Arab supremacy is the arithmetic of al-Khowa- 
 razmi (q.v.), written about 830 a.d., and set- 
 ting forth the importance of the Hindu numeral 
 system. Among the Arabs, as among the Hin- 
 dus, the operations were performed in a more 
 primitive manner than at present (see Addition, 
 Subtraction', Mlltiplication, Division, 
 Abacus), but the general principles were those 
 in use to-day. 
 
 In the Middle Ages in Europe arithmetic 
 maintained its ancient di^-ision into practical 
 calculation and the theory of numbers, the 
 latter entering into the courses in the univer- 
 sities. The Church schools were interested 
 largely in computations relating to the calen- 
 dar. (See Computus, Calendar.) 
 
 The first printed arithmetic appeared at 
 Treviso, near Venice, in 1478. The first similar 
 
 204
 
 ARITHMETIC 
 
 ARITHMETIC 
 
 publication appeared in Germany at Bamberg 
 in 1482, in England at London in 1522, and in 
 France at Paris in 1495. There were earlier 
 printed works, however, that contained a little 
 work upon the subject. For example, Caxton 
 published an anonymous work in London in 
 1480, entitled The Mirrour of the World or 
 Thymage of the Same, containing a chapter 
 beginning with the words, "And after of Arsme- 
 trike and whereof it proceedith." The first 
 arithmetic printed in America appeared in the 
 City of Mexico in 1556, — Sumario copedioso 
 de las quetas de plata y oro . . . con algunas 
 reglas tocantes al Aritmelica. Fecho por Juan 
 Diez freile. The first arithmetics in the 
 English language are probably lost, but the 
 first one of note was Robert Recorde's The 
 Grovnd of Aries, of which no copy of the first 
 edition is extant. It appeared between 1540 
 and 1542, and ran through many editions. 
 The first arithmetic published in the English 
 language in America was a reprint of Hodder's 
 work which appeared in Boston in 1719. The 
 first one by an American author was Isaac 
 Greenwood's book, published at Boston in 1729. 
 
 The chapters of elementary arithmetic at 
 first showed a combination of the Greek theory 
 of numbers and the art of calculating. Thus 
 there was more or less treatment of prime num- 
 bers and of amicable, deficient, and redundant 
 numbers, as well as of square and cube roots and 
 proportion, all these originally belonging to 
 the theory of numbers. Along with these came 
 an extensive treatment of the greatest common 
 divisor, needed in the Middle Ages when large 
 common fractions had not been replaced by 
 decimals (see Fr.\ctio.\.s), together with such 
 semi-practical subjects as alligation (a kind of 
 substitute for indeterminate equations), rule 
 of three (a non-theoretical proportion), the 
 chain rule, and other topics now superseded 
 by more modern ones. Gradually the commer- 
 cial features have replaced the theoretical ones, 
 until at present elementary arithmetic pre- 
 tends, at least, to be a practical subject. 
 
 General Nature as now Conceived. — As has 
 been stated under the history of arithmetic, 
 the present tendency in America, and largely 
 in other countries, is to consider arithmetic 
 as a practical subject that is necessary in the 
 life of every citizen, man or woman. It is 
 not denied, save by a few, that arithmetic has 
 a culture value that is mingled \\-ith its utilita- 
 rian value, although, like the culture of letters, 
 of art, and of science in general, its exact bounds 
 could not be marked out even if it were desirable 
 to do so. That the form of reasoning of mathe- 
 matics, the habit of accuracy, and the contact 
 with exact truth found in the study of arith- 
 metic affect the pupil favorably in his other 
 work would hardlj' he questioned by any fair- 
 minded person. It is the present feeling, how- 
 ever, that these features of training can all be 
 secured from the study of genuine, modern, 
 commercial problems, better than from obsolete 
 
 business forms and better than from mere 
 puzzles. The best textbook-makers at the 
 present time, therefore, are attempting to 
 balance fairly the abstract drill work with such 
 concrete problems as shall show the real appli- 
 cations of arithmetic to the daily life surround- 
 ing the pupil. 
 
 The History of Teaching. — As stated in the 
 section on the liistory of arithmetic, the subject 
 was taught in early times under two distinct 
 aspects. In the preparation of the merchant 
 and those who had to do with land measure and 
 building, arithmetic was taught purely from the 
 side of calculation, the abacus iq.v.) playing an 
 important part in most countries. This phase 
 of the subject was often left to slaves, to those 
 who prepared apprentices, and later to schools 
 of arithmetic {Rcchenschidcn). The science of 
 numbers was taught in such schools of philos- 
 ophy as those of Pythagoras and Plato, in such 
 early universities as that at Alexandria, and in 
 the medieval universities of Europe. 
 
 It was not until printed books appeared 
 that an effort was made to unite these two 
 phases. One result of printing was to spread 
 abroad a knowledge of the superioritj' of the 
 Arabic numerals over the Roman, and this led 
 to the abandoning of the abacus. The effect 
 on the teaching of arithmetic was not fortunate 
 in one respect, since the giving up of the counters 
 led from the concrete, visual, palpable arith- 
 metic to the abstract arithmetic of figures. 
 Counting and reckoning came to be more 
 matters of words and abstract rules than before, 
 and arithmetic was probably more poorly 
 taught than it was under the abacus system. 
 
 To break away from this method of the mere 
 rule, efforts began to be made in the seventeenth 
 century, and, in a more pronounced way, 
 early in the eighteenth century, notably in the 
 Francke {q.v.) institute at Halle. These efforts 
 were in the chrection of making the number 
 concept more real and the applications of 
 number more genuine. Thus in the Braun- 
 schweig-Luneburg school decree of 1737 there 
 are directions for beginning number work by 
 counting the fingers, apples, and other objects, 
 and for basing the multiplication table upon 
 addition. Christian Wolf (q.v.) (1728) in- 
 sisted upon getting at the foundation principles 
 of number by questions as to the child's reasons 
 for proceeding; Christian von Clausberg (1732) 
 urged that a clear understanding should 
 accompany each rule; and Basedow (q.v.) 
 (1763) emphasized the danger of having the 
 child feel that he proceeded merely on the 
 authority of his teacher. It was in the Phil- 
 anthropin at Dessau, however, that serious 
 attempts at reform were first made in any 
 noteworthy fashion. The leader in this phase 
 of the work of the Philanthropinists was 
 Christian Trapp (1777). He advocated teach- 
 ing the fundamental operations with nuts and 
 other objects before the figures were learned, 
 a feature emphasized by Pestalozzi a little 
 
 205
 
 ARITHMETIC 
 
 ARITHMETIC 
 
 later. Trapp was succeeded by Gottlieb 
 Busse (1779), who wrote extensively upon pri- 
 mary arithmetic, and who introduced the so- 
 called number pictures by which he brought 
 to the child's senses a group of dots along with 
 the figure, a scheme that is still found helpful 
 in all schools. Much credit is also due to 
 Freiherr von Rochow of Rekahn (q.v.) near 
 Brandenburg, and his associates, who about 
 this time sought to free elementary arithmetic 
 from the mere demands of mechanical business 
 and raise it to the plane of a culture subject in 
 the best sense. Mention should also be made 
 of the work of Peter ^"illaume of Halberstadt 
 (1779), who insisted that arithmetic "is a 
 practical logic," and based all of his work -with 
 numbers upon perception, and brought oral 
 arithmetic forward as more worthy of attention. 
 In this movement there also joined Bernard 
 Overberg (q.v.) of Mlinster (1793), A. H. 
 Niemeyer (q.v.) (1802), and G. F. Dinter (q.v.) 
 (1806), and each was influential in preparing 
 the way for Pestalozzi (q.v.). It is to the latter 
 (1803) that we owe the greatest impetus in 
 the rational teaching of arithmetic to young 
 children. The essential features of his reform 
 are as follows: (1) He taught arithmetic to 
 children as soon as they entered school, basing 
 his work on perception. (2) He insisted upon 
 a knowledge of number and the simplest oper- 
 ations, using objects, before the figures were 
 taught. (3) He approached the subject of 
 fractions in the same way. (4) He made arith- 
 metic the most prominent subject in the school, 
 and it is to his influence that its present promi- 
 nence is due. (5) He emphasized oral arith- 
 metic, a movement that led to the great success 
 of Warren Colburn (q.v.) in the United States. 
 The next noteworthy name is that of Tillich 
 (q.v.) (1806), who attempted to improve upon 
 Pestalozzi by a systematic use of material, 
 inventing for this purpose a set of prismatic 
 blocks of different lengths so arranged as to 
 make prominent the decimal feature of our 
 number system. The plan failed, as all such 
 narrow plans do, and from the time of Tillich 
 to the present there have been innumerable 
 illustrations of this law. An enthusiastic 
 teacher finds some device; he exalts it to a 
 "method"; it succeeds because of his enthu- 
 siasm; it proceeds fairly well in the hands of 
 his pupils, and then it is forgotten save for 
 some little feature that becomes impressed upon 
 the permanent educational body. Of these 
 semi-forgotten methods a few may be men- 
 tioned. Turk (1810) did not -nish arithmetic 
 in what we call the first grade, nor before the 
 child reached the age of 10 years, and of this 
 idea there is just at present a temporary revival 
 as if it were a new discovery, although it was 
 practically universal before Pestalozzi. Kawe- 
 rau (1816) made formal culture the great aim 
 in teaching, and his extreme views provoked 
 a reaction that is perhaps reaching its climax 
 at the present time. Krancke (1819) suggested 
 
 the concentric circle plan, keeping the child 
 in the number space 1-10 until that was 
 mastered, in spite of the fact that a child's 
 interest in and need for counting runs far be- 
 yond his work in the operations at every step 
 in his progress. Grube (1842) carried Krancke's 
 plan to an extreme, but had at least the merit 
 of thoroughness. He used objective illustra- 
 tion more extensively than any one would ad- 
 vocate at present, and attemjited the impossible 
 task of having a pupil master each number 
 before proceeding to the next. Knilling (1897) 
 and Tanck (1884) carry to an extreme the plan 
 of building all number work uiion counting. 
 
 The arrangement of matter in the textbook 
 has occupied the attention of writers for the 
 past half century. There are two plans, more 
 or less connected. The first and oldest is the 
 topical arrangement, the one that was followed 
 for thousands of years in the teaching of 
 arithmetic. This has the advantage of a 
 thorough treatment of each topic as it is met, 
 thereafter not returning to it. The other is 
 the "spiral method," first brought into promi- 
 nence by Ruhsam in 1866. It has the advan- 
 tage of returning to each topic, each time with 
 a higher treatment. Neither plan has ])roved 
 successful in its extreme form, as might have 
 been expected. The spiral plan has had to 
 give way to a topical plan within a period of one 
 year or two years, thereafter again reviewing 
 some or all topics. This has given rise to the 
 favorite three-book series in the American 
 schools of to-day. The extreme spiral plan 
 resulted in scraps of information and lack of 
 continuity and a falling off in interest from 
 want of a feeling of mastery. At present, in 
 the United States, the tendency is to merge the 
 two plans, preserving the strength of the topical 
 arrangement within each half year, each year, 
 or within some longer period, reviewing sys- 
 tematically and on a higher plan, one or more 
 times according to the subject, all of the impor- 
 tant topics of arithmetic. 
 
 Present Status in the Curriculum. — Placed 
 in a position of preeminence by Pestalozzi, 
 arithmetic has for a century been looked upon 
 as the most important sbbject in the curric- 
 ulum. In spite of all the attacks made by 
 modern subjects that call for their share in the 
 course, it has maintained its position even to 
 the present time. One reason for this is its 
 dcfiniteness; it has an exact, well-arranged 
 body of material, and it has proved its usa- 
 bility. Other subjects, like handwork and 
 nature study, however, have not yet developed 
 in such way as to present definite reasons for 
 being, or a definite, well-arranged sequence 
 of topics. For this reason arithmetic will 
 probably maintain a prominent place for a 
 long time to come. 
 
 It is not, however, to be expected that it 
 should keep the position it once held. There 
 is no reason why it should take the, time that 
 it does, if other weU-defined subjects appear 
 
 206
 
 ARITHMETIC 
 
 ARITHMETIC 
 
 that can justify their inclusion in the curric- 
 ulum. The actual business part of arithmetic 
 can easily be taught in less time than is now 
 given to the subject, and arithmetic must 
 surrender a portion of the time it occupies as 
 soon as these other topics are sufficiently 
 ordered and thought out to justly claim a share. 
 
 At present arithmetic is commonly taught 
 in the schools of the United States during the 
 first eight school years. There is some attempt 
 to return to the pre-Pestalozzian view, ad- 
 vocated also by Tiirk, of omitting it from the 
 first school year, but it is a doctrinaire idea 
 that is not taken very seriously. There is also 
 an attempt to merge algebra and arithmetic 
 in the eighth, or the seventh and eighth, school 
 years, and this seems likely to succeed, in spite 
 of the efforts of some writers to make the 
 algebra rather useless. There is no reason 
 why algeljraic notation should not come to the 
 help of arithmetic and mensuration in the 
 seventh school year, but there is a good reason 
 why algebra should not replace arithmetic 
 at this time. The pupil in his seventh school 
 year begins to appreciate the larger problems 
 of business, and they must be taught here if 
 ever. Some arithmetic must therefore be 
 retained in these years, and particularly the 
 commercial part and mensuration, and so far 
 as algebra can throw light upon these subjects 
 it should be employed. 
 
 There is, in American schools, a further study 
 of arithmetic in commercial classes in the high 
 school, where questions of banking, invest- 
 ments, bookkeeping, commissions, and the 
 like are better understood. 
 
 In European countries the movement to 
 imjjrove the curriculum ls progressing most 
 satisfactorily, especially in Ciermany. There 
 the obsolete part of arithmetic has been rather 
 completely eradicated. Algebra is joined to 
 arithmetic from the sixth school year, the word 
 " arithmetic " including our elements of algebra. 
 In general, more of an attempt is made to carry 
 arithmetic, algebra, and geometry simulta- 
 neously in the sixth, seventh, and eighth school 
 years, than in our common schools. This is 
 a little more apparent than real, however, since 
 we are now, in schools like those of New York 
 City, improving the mensuration to a point 
 where it may rank with the early geometry of 
 Germany, and are adding algebra to the curric- 
 ulum. In France the arithmetic seems more 
 theoretical than necessary, but, as in all Con- 
 tinental countries, a year is gained over the 
 English and American schools by the use of 
 the metric system. In England the arith- 
 metic seems in process of slow improvement, 
 although a great deal of obsolete matter is 
 found in the textbooks. The far-reaching 
 examination system in that country seems 
 responsible for the retention of much useless 
 matter. If the jirinciple were accepted that the 
 mental discipline of arithmetic can come from 
 a modern problem, representing real conditions, 
 
 as well as from an obsolete one, it would seem 
 that the English textbooks might be improved 
 without loss of that thoroughness which is such 
 a commendable and characteristic feature. 
 
 D. E. S. 
 References: — ■ 
 
 On the general history of arithmetic : — 
 
 B.\LL. History of Mathematics. (London, various 
 editions.) 
 
 Cajori. History of Elementary Mathematics. (New 
 York, 1896.) 
 
 C.u-rroR. Geschichtc der Mathematik. (Leipzig, various 
 editions.) 
 
 Fink. History of Mathematics. (Chicago, 1900.) 
 
 Sterner. Geschiehte der Rechenkunst. (Munich, 1891.) 
 
 Unger. Die Mcthodik der praktischen Arithmetik in 
 historiseher Eniwickelung. (Leipzig, 1888.) 
 
 Various other general and special histories of mathe- 
 matics. 
 
 On the important sixteenth-century arithmetics : — 
 
 J.\ckson. The Educational Significance of Sixteenth 
 Century Arithmetic. (New York, 1906.) 
 
 KucKUCR.. Die Rechenkunst im sechzehnten Jahrhun- 
 dert. (Berlin, 1874.) 
 
 Smith. Rara Arithmeiica. (Boston, 1909.) 
 
 On the history of methods of teaching arithmetic : — 
 
 Janicke. Grundsiige der Gcschichte und Methodik des 
 
 Rechenunterrichts. (Gotha, 1879.) 
 S.MITH. Teaching of Elementary Mathematics. (New 
 
 York, 1900.) 
 Unger. Work above cited. 
 
 On the present status : — 
 
 Branford. a Study of Mathematical Education. 
 (Oxford, 1908.) 
 
 McLellan and Dewey. Psychology of Number. (New 
 York, 1898.) 
 
 McMuRRY. Special Method in Arithmetic. (New 
 Y'ork, 1905.) 
 
 S.MITH. The Teaching of Arithmetic. With bibliog- 
 raphy. (New Y'ork, 1909.) 
 
 Stone. Arithmetical Abilities. (New York, 1908.) 
 
 Y'oung. The Teaching of Mathematics. (New York, 
 1907.) 
 
 ARITHMETIC, HYGIENE OF. — The hy- 
 giene of instruction in its positive aim of de- 
 veloping habits of healthful activity scruti- 
 nizes all the processes of learning and all 
 methods of instruction from the point of view 
 of healthful development. Even in a subject 
 like arithmetic, which represents par excellence 
 an intellectual branch of instruction, the 
 demands of hygiene are important. 
 
 In the first place arithmetic is of ancient 
 origin, and from its history an undue impor- 
 tance has often been assigned to it. A feeling 
 of the transcendent importance of this subject 
 has prevailed in modern times even among 
 everyday people as well as among philosophers. 
 In the minds of many both instinctive and 
 practical interests are associated with it. 
 Hence it has come to pass that in the history of 
 the schools an undue amount of time and 
 attention have been devoted to the subject; 
 and a considerable ballast of unessential or 
 extraneous material has crept into the text- 
 books. To-day in many urban schools prob- 
 ably from one sixth to one fifth of the total 
 time in the classroom is devoted to this subject. 
 
 207
 
 ARITHMETIC 
 
 ARITHMETIC 
 
 and in the rural schools probably often con- 
 siderably more. Besides this, pupils are very apt 
 to spend considerable time in home study 
 in arithmetic. Recently voices have been 
 raised against exaggerated views of its value. 
 According to Sir William Hamilton, mathe- 
 matics is not aseful for training the jiowers of 
 oliservation, nor for cultivating the reasoning 
 power; so that even the traditional significance 
 of the subject is questioned liy competent 
 authorities. As an instrument of mental 
 culture mathematics can pretend to but a single 
 benefit. This study " if pursued in moderation, 
 and if efficiently counteracted, may be bene- 
 ficial in the correction of a certain vice and in 
 the formation of its corresponding virtue. The 
 vice is the habit of mental distraction; the 
 virtue, the habit of continuous attention." 
 This beneficial effect of mathematics in train- 
 ing attention is recognized by hygiene and 
 strongly commended. The exaggerated ideas 
 of the efficacy of arithmetic in the cultivation 
 of the mind and the resulting over-pressure 
 and premature training are strongly con- 
 demned by hygiene. With the many subjects 
 that always crowd the curriculum, the question 
 whether too much time is not spent on arith- 
 metic and whether improper material is not 
 often presented, although primarily pedagogical, 
 liecomes hygienic also. 
 
 Again, certain individuals seem to have little 
 ability for work in mathematics, and others 
 seem to be in special danger of nervous over- 
 strain from work in this subject. An English 
 physician, Dr. Sturgis, has studied- chorea in 
 children, and many of these cases he has found 
 due, as he thinks, to causes connected with the 
 school work, and arithmetic he deems an espe- 
 cial factor in producing the disorder. In case 
 of a nervous child he mauitains that working 
 sums is liable to cause chorea. In the case of 
 some children, as pointed out by General 
 Walker, work in arithmetic is a frequent cause 
 of worry and interference with sleep. When 
 children do sums in their dreams, this is a 
 danger signal. All such obvious causes of 
 injury to health are condemned by hygiene, 
 but it demands special attention to some less 
 obvious but more general results of certain 
 methods of instruction. 
 
 Pedagogy is concerned with the direct results 
 of instruction. But besides the primary results 
 of instruction in any subject, there are, as has 
 been pointed out l)y Dr. Baade, certain second- 
 ary effects of instruction, certain by-products, 
 to use the language of industry, which are often 
 of great importance. In arithmetic there is a 
 good opportunity to study the latter. Certain 
 habits of interference of association, certain 
 arrests, as they have been called by Dr. Triplett, 
 illustrate very well these secondary effects of 
 certain methods and processes of learning. 
 
 Number forms sometimes illustrate the second- 
 ary effects of instruction. Such habits repre- 
 sent not only so much mental ballast, but 
 
 usually also interference of association and often 
 the germs of pathological neuroses. They are 
 probably jiretty common. The counting habit, 
 arithmotnnnia, so-called, is likely to have several 
 representatives in each class, according to Trip- 
 lett's investigations. This is a real handicap, 
 filling the mind with quantitative ideas to the 
 exclusion of causal relations. 
 
 Hygiene is especially concerned with the 
 problem of the age when work in arithmetic 
 should be begun. In order to answer this 
 question it is necessary to consider briefly 
 the mental operations involved in arithmetical 
 work. In the simpler study of number and 
 number relations, in addition, subtraction, and 
 the rest, the process of learning is chiefly one 
 of acquiring habitual a.ssociations. What hj-- 
 giene demands here is that these should be 
 formed naturally and that interference of as- 
 sociation or mental confusion shall be avoided. 
 
 Again, in teaching arithmetic to very young 
 children all sorts of objective methods and 
 devices have been developed, and these are 
 deemed necessary in such instruction. Still 
 further, it appears that the number forms and 
 the like which are common in adults are devel- 
 oped in the early years of instruction. From 
 these are likely to develop artificial and gro- 
 tesque habits of thought, as illustrated by Dr. 
 Triplett's so-called arrests and bj' some of the 
 number forms. 
 
 The problem of the proper age for begiiming 
 arithmetic is then something like this. At 
 what age can a child be drilled in arithmetical 
 processes without the aid of artificial devices 
 and the like which are likely to persist as arrests 
 or habits of interference of association; and at 
 what age should the study of logic be begun; 
 at what age does the child have a nascent inter- 
 est for arithmetical work? We have at pres- 
 ent no adequate data for answering these 
 questions, but until further investigations have 
 been made the verdict of hygiene is that ordi- 
 narily formal instruction in arithmetic should 
 be postponed until at least the age of 8 or 10. 
 The Italian physiologist, Mosso, President G. 
 Stanley Hall, Professor Patrick, and others 
 agree in condemning formal instruction in this 
 subject before this age. " Mathematics in 
 every form," writes Professor Patrick, " is a 
 subject conspicuously ill-fitted to the child 
 mind. It deals not with real things, but 
 with abstractions. When referred to concrete 
 objects, it concerns not the objects themselves, 
 but their relations to each other. It involves 
 comparison, analysis, abstraction. . . . The 
 grotesque number forms w'hich so many chil- 
 dren have, and which originate in this period, 
 are evidence of the necessity which the child 
 feels of giving some kind of bodily shape to 
 these abstractions which he is compelled to 
 study." 
 
 The practical teachings of the hygiene of 
 instruction as regards arithmetic may be 
 summed >ip in the light of our present knowl- 
 
 208
 
 ARITHMETIC IN VERSE 
 
 ARIZONA 
 
 edge somewhat as follows: the formal instruc- 
 tion in this subject should not be begun before 
 the age of S or 10. Arithmetical work before 
 this should be spontaneous activity on the part 
 of the child. By postponing arithmetic until 
 this age, it is possible to do away for the most 
 part with artificial devices and methods which 
 may lead to arrests or interference of associa- 
 tion later on. The work in arithmetic should 
 be simple, and the complex examples in logic 
 and the like should be eliminated. In the case 
 of nervous children special care should be taken 
 to avoid worry and the development of neuroses 
 like chorea. And, in general, special attention 
 should be given in this subject to the secondary 
 effects which are important from the point of 
 view of mental hygiene. W. H. B. 
 
 References : — 
 
 B.v.iDE, Walter. Experimentelle und kritische Beitrage 
 znr Frage nach den sekurtddren Wirkungen des 
 Unterrichta itmhesondere auf die Empfdnglichkeit 
 des Schiilers. (Leipzig, 1907.) 
 
 B.ULET, M. A. The Teaching of Arithmetic in Elemen- 
 tary Schools. Proc. of IV. E. A., Asbury Park, 
 N. J., July, 1905, pp. 380-387. 
 
 Browne, Charles E. The Psychology of the Simple 
 Arithmetical Processes : A study of Certain Habits 
 of Attention and Association. Airier, Jour, of 
 Psych.. Jan., 1906, Vol. 17, No. 1, pp. 1-37. 
 
 Safford, T. H. Modern Teaching of .'Vrithmetic. 
 Atlantic Monthly, May, 1891, Vol. LXVII, pp. 
 668-675. 
 
 Triplett, Norm.^n. Pedagogical Arrests and Peculiari- 
 ties. Ped. Sem.. June, 1905, Vol. 12, pp. 141-157. 
 
 Walker, F. A. Arithmetic in the Primary and 
 Grammar Schools. In his Discussio?is in Educa- 
 tion, pp. 209-232. (New York, 1899.) 
 
 ARITHMETIC IN VERSE. — See Versifi- 
 cation AS A iMethgd of Teaching. 
 
 ARITHMETIC, PSYCHOLOGY OF. — See 
 
 Number, Psychology of. 
 
 ARITHMETIC SCHOOLS. — See Writing 
 and Arithmetic Schools. 
 
 ARIZONA, TERRITORY OF. — Organized 
 
 as a territory by Congress in 1863 from lands 
 formerly a part of New Mexico, and an enabling 
 act for its admission as a state has been before 
 Congress for the last two years. It is located 
 in the Western Division, and has a land area of 
 112,920 square miles. In size it is about as 
 large as New England, New York, and New 
 Jerse)' combined. For administrative pur- 
 poses the state is divided into 13 counties, and 
 these in turn into school districts. In 1900 Ari- 
 zona had a population of 122,931, and a density 
 of population of only 1.1 persons per square 
 mile. Its estimated population in 1910 was 
 157,619. 
 
 Educational History. — The first record of 
 an appropriation for public school purposes 
 is found in the proceedings of the first Legisla- 
 tive Assembly, which met at Prescott in 1864, 
 and appropriated out of the treasury a sum 
 of $250 to each of the towns of Prescott, La 
 Paz, and Mojave, for a public school, conditional 
 
 on the towns raising the same amount; and 
 $500 to Tucson, conditional on the town 
 maintaining a school taught in the English 
 language. No further legislation was enacted 
 until 1868, and any schools in existence during 
 that interval must have been maintained by 
 private means. In 1868 the first school law 
 was enacted, and a system of free schools was 
 provided for, but, as no tax was required to be 
 levied, no schools were opened. The report 
 of the Governor in 1870 stated that there was 
 not a public school in the territory. In 1871 
 a new school law was enacted, and the outlines 
 of the present school system were laid down. 
 The law of 1871 provided for a system of public 
 instruction patterned after the California law 
 of 1866. The Governor was made ex officio 
 Superintendent of Public Instruction, the Pro- 
 bate Judges were to act as ex officio County 
 Superintendents, and the Governor appointed 
 County Examiners to assist the judges in ex- 
 aminations. Governor Safford was deeply 
 interested in education, and seems to have done 
 much to urge the people to found schools. The 
 first school under the new law was opened in 
 Tucson in March, 1871, and by 1880 about one 
 half of the school population was enrolled in the 
 schools. In 1872 the first public school for 
 girls was opened in Tucson. In 1875 the ques- 
 tion of aid to private and sectarian schools was 
 definitely settled. In 1873, 1875, 1879, 1881, 
 and 1883, revisions of the school law were en- 
 acted. In 1879 the separate office of Superin- 
 tendent of Public Instruction was established. 
 In 1883 a Territorial School Fund was created, 
 and the law of 1879 was much enlarged. In 1885 
 the present law was substituted for what existed 
 before. This law has been amended in minor 
 particulars and a number of additions have been 
 made to it, but the main outlines, adapted in 
 large part from the California law, have re- 
 mained unchanged to the present time. 
 
 The year 1885 may be fixed upon as the date 
 of the establishment of the present school 
 system. The Legislature of that year also 
 rounded out the school system by establishing 
 a normal school at Tempe, and the state uni- 
 versity at Tucson. In 1881 a uniform series 
 of textbooks for the schools of the state was 
 provided for, and in 1885 the State Board of 
 Education issued a uniform state course of 
 study. No records exi.st showing the condition 
 of the schools prior to 1885. In that year there 
 were 137 schools in the territory, maintaining 
 an average of 120 days, with an average daily 
 attendance of 3,226 children, and at a total 
 expense of $138,164. Schools and attendance 
 have increased five times since 1885, and ex- 
 penses six times. In 1892 a State Teachers' 
 Association was organized; in 1895 a Union 
 High School law was passed; in 1899 the North- 
 ern Arizona Normal School was established at 
 Flagstaff; manual training was authorized in 
 1905; and the consohdation of schools was 
 authorized in 1907. 
 
 209
 
 ARIZONA 
 
 ARIZONA 
 
 Present School System. At the head of the 
 system is a Suporintendont of Public Instruc- 
 tion, a Board of Education, and a lioard of 
 Examiners. The Superintendent of Public 
 instruction receives a salary of S2000 a year; 
 has general oversight of the schools of the state; 
 apportions all school money to the counties; 
 prepares all blank forms used; and makes a 
 biennial report to the Governor on the condition 
 of the schools. The Board of Education, con- 
 sisting of the Governor, Treasurer, Superin- 
 tendent of Public Instruction, Principals of 
 the Normal Schools, President of the Univer- 
 sity of Arizona, and two school men appointed 
 by the Governor, adopts rules and regulations 
 for the schools; prescribes and enforces the 
 use of a uniform series of textbooks, and a uni- 
 form course of study for the schools; adopts a 
 list of books for school libraries; issues educa- 
 tional and life diplomas; and revokes any 
 diploma or certificate for cause. The Board 
 of Examiners, which consists of the Superin- 
 tendent of Public Instruction and two persons 
 appointed by him, adopts rules and regulations 
 concerning examinations; prepares all questions 
 and grades all papers; issues and revokes 
 certificates to teach; and recommends candi- 
 dates for life and educational diplomas. 
 
 For each county there is a County School 
 Superintendent, who apportions the school 
 money to the districts; approves all bills for 
 all purposes, and draws his warrant for their 
 payment; conducts the teachers' examina- 
 tions for the Board of Examiners, and forwards 
 all papers to them for grading; appoints dis- 
 trict trustees and fills all vacancies; conducts 
 an annual county teachers' institute; visits, 
 examines, and has general oversight over the 
 schools of his county. 
 
 For each school district there is a board of 
 3 School Trustees, one elected each year by 
 the people, and holding office for 3-year 
 terms. It is their duty to enforce the rules, 
 regulations, and laws; to manage and care for 
 the school property; to provide furniture and 
 supplies; to rent, build, or repair schoolhouses 
 as directed; to employ teachers and other 
 employees and fix their compensation; to 
 employ a supervising principal if the district 
 contains 1000 or more census children; to 
 admit and exclude pupils; to see that an 
 annual school census is taken; to call district 
 meetings in emergencies or on petition; to 
 call an election to vote a special tax for addi- 
 tional school facilities, or bonds for a new 
 schoolhouse; and to make reports to the 
 County Superintendent or the Superintendent 
 of Public Instruction. 
 
 School Support. — Arizona originally received 
 the 16th and 36th section of land for schools, 
 which were set aside bv Act of Congress in 
 1861. These amounted to 4,050,347 acres. 
 The enabling act for the admission of Arizona 
 as a state provides for the further grant of 
 sections 2 and 32 in each township, which 
 
 would double the grant for schools. Three 
 million acres of land are also appropriated to 
 paj- the debts of the territory and of the 
 counties, with a provision that any surplus 
 shall be added to the common school fund. 
 The act also provides for a minimum sale price 
 of S3, $5, and $25 per acre, according to loca- 
 tion. 
 
 Much of this land is, as yet, of little value. 
 A general tax of 3 cents on each SlOO of property, 
 together with the interest on the permanent 
 fund, is apportioned to the counties on the 
 basis of the school census, 6-21 years of age. 
 In each county, poll taxes and fines go to the 
 county school fund, which is further augmented 
 by a county school tax of not less than 50 cents 
 nor more than 90 cents on each .SlOO. All 
 state and county money is now added together, 
 and is apportioned to the different districts 
 by the County Superintendent in the follow- 
 ing manner: — 
 
 To districts having 10 to 20 census children, 
 S500; to districts having 20 or more census 
 children, S600; and to all districts having had 
 an average daily attendance of over 25 during 
 the preceding year, S25 per pupil for such excess. 
 The money which remains is to be apportioned 
 among the districts which have shown, for 
 5 months, an increase in the average daily 
 attendance over that of the preceding year. 
 Any special district taxation, as well as all 
 fines collected for the violation of local ordi- 
 nances, go to the district where collected. 
 Most of the county districts levy no local tax. 
 The Arizona apportionment plan is better even 
 than that in California, good as is the latter, 
 and, like California, it insures a good school and 
 a good teacher for every district in the state. 
 Of the total school revenue, 16.02 per cent 
 comes from permanent funds and rents, 20.09 
 per cent from state taxation, 57.94 per cent 
 from local taxation, and 5.95 per cent from 
 miscellaneous sources. 
 
 The total expenditure for schools, during the 
 last year for which reports are available, was 
 8767,031. This was equal to an expenditure 
 of $5.09 per capita of the total population, as 
 against $4.27 for the L'. S. as a whole. The 
 average expenditure jicr pupil per day in aver- 
 age daily attendance was 33.64 cents, as against 
 19.8 cents for the U.S. as a whole, and 27.3 
 cents for the Western Division. North Dakota, 
 Montana, and Nevada alone spent more. The 
 total yearly expenditure per pupil in average 
 daily attendance was $45.31, an amount 
 exceeded by only 2 Eastern and 5 Western 
 states. Each adult male needs to contribute 
 but 72 cents to produce $1 for each child 5 to 
 18 years of age in the state, as against SI. 02 for 
 the U. S. as a whole. These figures show a 
 high per pupil expenditure on a low per capita 
 cost. This is due in part to the large per 
 capita wealth of Arizona, and in part to the 
 large excess of adult males. Arizona has made 
 very rapid progress in expenditures within 
 
 210
 
 ARIZONA 
 
 ARIZONA 
 
 recent years, and every item of school expense 
 has increased much more rapidly than has 
 the population. During the past six years, 
 the expenditures have almost doubled, while 
 the school census has increased scarcely 40 
 per cent. 
 
 Educational Conditions. — Of the population 
 of 1900, 17.9 per cent were foreign born, and 
 of this number 59 per cent were Mexicans. 
 Classified by race, 75.6 per cent were white; 
 11.5 per cent were Indians; 1.5 per cent were 
 Negroes; and 1.4 per cent were Mongohans. 
 By sex, 58.4 per cent were men; and 25.9 per 
 cent were between the ages of 5 and 18 years. 
 Of the total population of 1900, 84.1 per cent 
 lived in country districts, and the state had 
 no city at that time with as many as 8000 
 inhabitants. Mining and agriculture are the 
 chief resources of the state. Large areas are 
 practically uninhabited. In illiteracy, accord- 
 ing to the census of 1900, 14.9 per cent of the 
 white population 10 years of age or over, and 
 29 per cent of the total population, were illiter- 
 ate. The large percentage of illiteracy among 
 the native whites is due to the presence of so 
 many Mexicans, and in the total population 
 to the presence of so many Mexicans and 
 Indians. 
 
 The average length of term provided in 
 Arizona was 135 days, as against 163.3 daj'S 
 in the Western Division, and 154.1 days for the 
 U. S. as a whole. Of the school population, 
 5-18 years of age, 65.59 per cent were enrolled 
 in the schools, as against 69.61 per cent for the 
 U. S. as a whole. Of the number enrolled, but 
 62.64 per cent were in daily attendance, as 
 against 71.24 per cent for the U. S., and 73.22 
 per cent for the Western Division. This 
 equaled an average daily attendance of but 
 58.8 days per year for each child 5-18 years of 
 age, and 84.6 days for each child enrolled, as 
 against 76.1 days on census, and 109.8 days on 
 enrollment for the U. S., and 109.3 days on 
 census, and 119.6 days on enrollment for the 
 Western Division. The large number of Mexi- 
 can and Indian children explain these low 
 percentages. 
 
 The compulsory attendance law requires 
 the attendance of all children between 8 and 
 14 years at the public schools for a period of 
 6 months each year, unless excused for certain 
 statutory reasons, and lists of children not in 
 attendance must be furnished to the sheriffs, 
 constables, or city marshals of the respective 
 school subdivisions, whose duty it is to locate, 
 inquire into, and, if necessary, prosecute such 
 eases. Employers are forbidden to employ 
 such children, and attendance cards must be 
 kept on file and open to inspection for all chil- 
 dren. It is difficult to enforce such a law, 
 because of the sparse population. A sheriff 
 with a county as large as Massachusetts can 
 do little, and the percentages for attendance 
 would indicate that the law is not enforced. 
 
 The average value of the school buildings in 
 
 use has increased rapidlv in recent years, and 
 reached S3S35 by 1907. The schools are 
 nearly all small, there being but 15 schools in 
 the state in 1906 that employed as many as 
 8 teachers, and but 5 schools that employed as 
 many as 15 teachers. The schools are graded, 
 and are relatively well taught, the apportion- 
 ment plan in use enabling every school in Ari- 
 zona to secure a good teacher. In addition 
 to the regular elementary school studies, 
 manual training and domestic science are 
 authorized for all schools having a school census 
 of 200 or over, though the last available report 
 shows that but one city has so far provided 
 such instruction. 
 
 Teachers and Training. — Arizona employed 
 645 teachers during the last year for which 
 reports are available, of whom 109 were men 
 and 536 were women. The average monthly 
 salary was $99.50 for men, and $75.06 for 
 women, with a school term of 6i months. 
 The certification standards are much higher 
 than these to be found in many Eastern or 
 Mississippi Valley states. Two state cer- 
 tificates are issued by a central examination 
 board, both of which are valid in any county. 
 In 1908, 51 per cent of the teachers held the 
 highest grade certificate. Graduates of col- 
 leges in any state may be certificated on cre- 
 dentials, and the holders of life diplomas 
 from any state or of diplomas of graduation 
 from any state normal school are certificated 
 without examination. In this matter of inter- 
 state recognition of credentials, Arizona is 
 more libera) than any state in the Union. 
 Arizona maintams two normal schools for the 
 training of elementary teachers, one at Tempe 
 and one at Flag.staff, though the number of 
 graduates from the two schools combined has, 
 for some j'ears, been exceeded from two to 
 three times by the number of normal graduates 
 coming into the state from other states. 
 
 Secondary Education. The first high school 
 in Arizona was organized in 1895, under the 
 provLsions of an act permitting any district, 
 or any union of adjoining districts, having a 
 school census of 1000 or over, to unite and 
 form a high school district. Owing to the small 
 population, high school development has of 
 necessity been slow. The second school was 
 formed in 1901; a third in 1903; in 1905 the 
 number rose to 5; and in 1908 to 8. There 
 are but two private high schools in Arizona, 
 both of which are small. Like California, 
 Arizona has wisely reserved the state fund and 
 all state and county taxes for elementary schools 
 only, so that the high schools are supported 
 wholly by separate taxation. At present this 
 is in the form of a tax on the districts main- 
 taining them, there being as yet no state aid. 
 
 Higher and Special Education. The L'niver- 
 sity of Arizona, opened in 1891, is the only 
 institution for higher education in the state. 
 Arizona maintains an industrial (reform) school 
 at Benson for both sexes, and also appropriates 
 
 211
 
 ARIZONA 
 
 ARKANSAS 
 
 money to care for its deaf, dumb, and blind 
 in institutions in other states. There are no 
 professional scliools in the state apart from tlie 
 University of Arizona and the two state normal 
 schools at Tcmpe and Flagstaff. Tiie enabling 
 act for the admission of Arizona as a state, 
 however, provides for the grant to the state of 
 120,000 arres of land for the state university; 
 for asylums for the deaf, blind, and dimib, 
 100,000 acres; for normal schools, 200,000 
 acres; for agricultural and mechanical colleges, 
 150,000 acres; for a school of mines, 150,000 
 acres. E. P. C. 
 
 References: — 
 
 Arizarid School Laws, 1909. 
 
 Biennial lie ports Superintendent of Public Instruction, 
 
 Territory of Arizona. 1.S72-190S. 
 McCre.\, S. p. The Establiahmcnt of the Arizona 
 
 School Systems ; History, 1H64-190I ; in Bier>. 
 
 Rcpt., Supt. P. I., 190S, pp. 72-141. 
 Stati.stics leased on the Report of the Superintenrlcnt for 
 
 1907-1908, and Sept. U. S. Com. Educ. for 1909. 
 
 ARIZONA, UNIVERSITY OF, TUCSON, 
 ARIZ. — A coeducational institution for higher 
 education maintained by the territory as part 
 of the system of public education. It was 
 organized in 18S5 in accordance with the 
 requirements of the Morrill Act of 1862. The 
 statutes were revised in 1901, and the govern- 
 ment of the university was placed in the hands 
 of a Board of Regents consisting of the Gover- 
 nor and Superintendent of Public Instruction, 
 ex officio, and 4 members appointed by the 
 Governor for 4-year terms. The university 
 consists of the college of agriculture and me- 
 chanical arts, the school of mines, the agricul- 
 tural experiment station, and the preparatory 
 department; a normal department is author- 
 ized by statute, but has not yet been established. 
 The preparatory department is a manual train- 
 ing high school with a 4 years' curriculum, 
 and will probably disappear in time. Respon- 
 sive to the needs and opportunities of the terri- 
 tory, the university essentially lays emphasis 
 on mining engineering. The 10 buildings 
 which constitute the plant and dormitories of 
 the university are situated in a campus 55 
 acres in extent commanding a view of the moun- 
 tains on all sides. The university is main- 
 tained by federal and territorial funds. Fifty- 
 seven sections of valuable pine land have been 
 set apart by the federal government for the 
 university, which will receive the title as soon 
 as the territory is admitted as a state. By 
 the Morrill Act of 1890 the university receives 
 §25,000 a year which will ultimately be doubled 
 by the provisions of the Nelson Fund, created by 
 act of 1907; under the Hatch Act the university 
 receives .SI 5,000 a year; and under the Adams 
 Act of 1906 the university will ultimately be 
 entitled to an annual appropriation of $15,000. 
 The territorial appropriation in 1909 was 
 835,500 for the year. Sums of money are also 
 obtained from other sources, and in addition 
 the university has two endowments. Appli- 
 
 cants for admission to the freshman class must 
 be at least 16 years of age and must satisfy 
 recjuirements amounting to api)roximately 15 
 units. Candidates from approved high schools 
 are admitted without examination except in 
 English conipo-sition. Degrees of Bachelor of 
 Philosophy and Bachelor of Science are given 
 on the completion of a 4-year course. The 
 total number of students in 1909 was 201, of 
 whom 100 were in the prejjaratory department. 
 There are 14 professors, 3 assistant professors, 
 and 23 instructors and assistants. Kendric 
 Charles Babcock, Ph.D., is the president. 
 
 ARKANSAS, STATE OF. — A part of the 
 original territory of Louisiana, obtained from 
 France in 1803. It was organized as a part of 
 the Territory of Louisiana in 1805, then as a 
 part of the Territory of Missouri in 1812, and 
 finally as the Territory of Arkansas in 1819. 
 In 1836 it was admitted to the LTnion as the 
 25th state. It is located in the South Central 
 Division, and has a land area of 53,045 square 
 miles. In size, it is a little larger than Penn- 
 sylvania and New Jersey combined. For 
 administrative purposes the state is divided 
 into 75 counties, and these in turn into school 
 districts and towns. In 1900 Arkansas had 
 a population of 1,311,564, and a density of 
 jjopulation of 24.7. Its estimated population 
 in 1909 was 1,494,917. 
 
 Educational History. A number of private 
 schools were opened in the territory between 
 1820 and 1830. An academy was chartered in 
 1829, and in the same year the first law relating 
 to public schools was enacted. This law 
 required each county court to appoint some 
 citizen to look after the 16th section lands and 
 to lease them, and provided that any income 
 from the lands should be used, under the 
 management of the judges of the court, for 
 the support of schools. The constitution of 
 1836 contained a short article, which embraced 
 a general preamble as to the importance of 
 knowledge and learning, made it the duty of 
 the Legislature to care for the school lands, and 
 obligated it to pass laws looking to intellectual, 
 agricultural, and scientific improvement. 
 
 From 1840 to 1843 a number of special acts 
 were passed, providing for schools in various 
 townships. In 1843 the first general school law 
 was enacted. This provided for the sale of the 
 16th section lands; provided for trustees for 
 each township; and made provision for the 
 examination of teachers, for a 4 months' school, 
 for the visitation of schools, for the addition 
 of fines and forfeitures to the school fund, and 
 for the distribution of funds to the townships. 
 In the .same j-ear an ex-officio State Board of 
 Education was created, consisting of the Gov- 
 ernor, the Supreme Judges of the State, the 
 Speaker of the House, the President of the 
 Senate, and 10 members of the Legislature, 
 who were to report to the Legislature and to 
 make recommendations as to laws and means 
 
 212
 
 ARKANSAS 
 
 ARKANSAS 
 
 of improvement. In 1S53 the Secretary of 
 State was made ex-offwio Superintendent of 
 Schools, and county commissioners were given 
 general supervision of all the schools in each 
 county. By 1854, when the first school re- 
 port was made, it was estimated that about 25 
 per cent of the pupUs of school age in the state 
 were enrolled in public schools, and by 1860, 
 tliat about 750 public schools were in opera- 
 tion in the state. These schools were main- 
 tained in small part by the income from the 
 school land and school-land funds, and in large 
 part by tuition fees. There was no general 
 taxation for education until after the Civil War. 
 
 Beside these schools a number of academies 
 were chartered between 1836 and 1861, charters 
 for 62 such institutions being granted between 
 1850 and 1861. Many of these were female 
 academies. Tuition fees were common in all 
 of these schools. Three colleges, also, were 
 chartered during this latter period. The Civil 
 War put an end to these efforts, and closed the 
 schools and academies. The last report issued 
 under the old conditions states that "there are 
 but two public schools in existence in the state." 
 
 In 1867, the legislature of the locally re- 
 organized state passed " An Act to establish a 
 common-school system in the State." This 
 levied the first school tax in the history of the 
 state, a 2-mill tax, but the tax was not to be 
 levied "upon the property of persons of color," 
 and the schools were not to be open to their 
 children. A Superintendent of Public Instruc- 
 tion for the state and a County School Com- 
 missioner for each county were provided for. 
 Each township was constituted a separate 
 school district, but incorporated towns might 
 be set apart as special districts. Three trus- 
 tees were provided for each district, and a 3- 
 months' school was kept. Taxes were collected, 
 school officials were elected, and a number of 
 schools were opened, but the further develop- 
 ment of this school system was checked by the 
 incoming of a military government, at the close 
 of the year, which superseded the civil, and by 
 the adoption of a new constitution and the 
 establishment of a reconstruction government. 
 
 This new constitution of 1868 made detailed 
 provision for a free state school system for all 
 the children of the state; forbade any aid to 
 religious or sectarian schools; provided for a 
 State Superintendent of Public Instruction and 
 for the establishment and maintenance of a 
 state university; fixed the permanent school 
 fund, arranged for its increase, and appropriated 
 its annual revenue, together with a poll tax of 
 SI. 00 and " so much of the ordinary revenue of 
 the State as may be necessary" for the mainte- 
 nance of schools; further provided for a state 
 school tax to insure a 3-months' term in every 
 district, and for district taxes for building and 
 furnishing schoolhouses; and converted all 
 county school funds and the sale price for all 
 school lands into the general treasury, and 
 obligated the state to jjay an annual interest 
 
 on the same at the rate of 6 per cent. The law 
 of 1868 carried these provisions into effect, and 
 in addition provided for a state Board of Educa- 
 tion, for teachers' institutes, teachers' certifi- 
 cates, separate schools for the two races, and 
 for the appointment by the Governor of a cir- 
 cuit superintendent for each of the 10 judicial 
 circuits of the state. These men, who were to 
 be paid a yearly salary of 83000 each, were 
 virtually deputy state superintendents. In 
 1871 these circuit superintendents were super- 
 seded by county superintendents. 
 
 The new pro\'isions for education were the 
 best Arkansas had so far had, but the new con- 
 stitution and the laws framed under it had to 
 bear the odium of the period of reconstruction, 
 and the new system failed to secure the support 
 of the people. Nevertheless, some progress was 
 made during the reconstruction period. The 
 number of pupils enrolled was increased to 
 107,908 by 1870, but by 1872 this had fallen 
 off to 32,863. A state Teachers' Association 
 was organized in 1869; the Arkansas Journal of 
 Education was established in 1870; the insti- 
 tutions for the bhnd and deaf were reorganized 
 and reestablished; the University of Arkansas 
 was established in 1871, and opened its doors in 
 1872, with a teacher's training course included in 
 the curriculum; and a branch state normal 
 school for negroes was established at Pine 
 Bluff in 1873, and began its work in 1875. On 
 the other hand, the electors in many districts 
 failed or refused to levy the schoolhouse taxes; 
 taxes, when paid, were usually paid in greatly 
 depreciated state script; in 1873 the revenue 
 laws were revised and the state 2-mill appro- 
 priation for schools was cut off, reducing the 
 state aid by three-fourths; and manj^ of the 
 school districts, as well as many of the counties, 
 and also the state as a whole, became deeplj' and 
 often almost hopelessly involved in debt. By 
 1874 the burden of debt and mismanagement 
 had become so great that the reconstruction 
 government was overthrown, and another new 
 constitution was adopted. 
 
 The constitution of 1874, which prevails to- 
 day, also made provision for a state school 
 system, but simplified the system, reduced 
 expenses, and strictly limited taxation. The 
 Secretary of State was made ex officio Superin- 
 tendent of Public Instruction, untU otherwise 
 provided by the legislature, and the legisla- 
 ture was given power to establish such other 
 school officers as might at any time seem neces- 
 sary. The general school law of 1875 carried 
 these provisions into effect, and the system 
 adopted then has prevailed, in its main outlines^, 
 up to the present time. The office of State 
 Superintendent of Public Instruction was re- 
 established, but to the County Court, and to a 
 county or judicial circuit Examiner was given 
 the work usually done by county superin- 
 tendents. In 1907 an optional law, by which 
 counties may vote on the question of establish- 
 ing the office for the county, was enacted. In 
 
 213
 
 ARKANSAS 
 
 ARKANSAS 
 
 1899 a similar optional law was passed, by 
 which any county may vote on the question of 
 county uniformity of textbooks. In 1907 the 
 first iiulependent state normal school was pro- 
 vided for. 
 
 Present School System. — The school system 
 of Arkansas is at jiresent organized as follows: 
 — At the head of the system is a Superin- 
 tendent of Public Instruction, elected by the 
 people for a 2-year term. He receives a salary 
 of $2500 per year; is vested with the general 
 superintendence of the business relating to the 
 common schools of the state; examines the 
 appointees for county examiners; prepares and 
 furnishes all questions for .state and county 
 teachers' examinations; conducts the state 
 examinations for state certificates, and grants 
 these and life diplomas; prepares all blank 
 forms used; with the Auditor and the Secretary 
 of State constitutes the Commissioners of the 
 Common School Fund, which looks after the 
 preservation and investment of the funds and 
 the distribution of the income; makes an annual 
 report to the Governor on the school affairs of 
 the state, with such recommendations as he 
 desires to make; apportions all school money 
 once a year to the counties; prepares a sug- 
 gestive list of textbooks and apparatus from 
 which adoptions may be made by the counties 
 and school districts of the state; and prepares 
 a graded common school course of study for 
 use in the different school districts. There is no 
 state board of education. 
 
 The administration of educational affairs in 
 each county, except where it has been voted 
 since 1907 to establish the office of county 
 superintendent, is under the charge of the 
 county court and a county examiner. The 
 county court apportions aU school money 
 received from the state or from county funds 
 to the different school districts, and appoints the 
 examiner for a term of 2 years. The county 
 examiner acts, in part, as the representative of 
 the court. In counties divided into two or 
 more judicial districts, an examiner may be 
 appointed for each district. The examiner must 
 be a resident and an elector, must hold or 
 must obtain a first-grade teacher's license, 
 and receives as salary an amount fixed by the 
 county judge, which amount is usally equal 
 to the sum of the fees paid by applicants for 
 examination for licen.ses to teach. The ex- 
 aminer examines and licenses all teachers for 
 the county; may revoke licenses issued, for 
 cause; must conduct a teachers' institute each 
 year; is enjoined to promote the interests of 
 the public schools in his county; must make 
 an annual report to the Superintendent of 
 Public Instruction; and must report to the 
 county court. In counties which have voted to 
 have a county superintendent instead of a 
 county examiner, the superintendent performs 
 the duties indicated for the examiner, and re- 
 ceives a salary of not less than $600 nor more 
 than $1200 per year. 
 
 Each county is divided into a number of 
 school districts, which may be added to, divided, 
 or dissolved by the county court, acting on i)eti- 
 tion. For each district 3 directors are elected. 
 Transfers of children from one school district 
 to another are made by the county court, 
 which transfers, with the children, the taxes 
 ])aid by their parents. The annual school 
 district meeting is still retained in Arkansas 
 as an important feature of rural school manage- 
 ment. The meetings are invested with the 
 power to elect school trustees, who must be able 
 to read and write; to locate the schoolhou.se; 
 to determine by vote the amount of the district 
 tax up to 7 mills, which ma^' be raised for 
 schools; to determine the Icngtli of time the 
 schools shall be kept open, and, in case the 
 funds arc not sufficient to sustain a school for 
 3 months, the meeting may vote to have no 
 school at all that year and to save the funds for 
 the next year. In each school district the 
 Board of Directors so elected shall make i)ro- 
 visions for separate schools for white and 
 colored children; "shall adopt such other 
 measures as they may judge expedient for carry- 
 ing the free school system into effectual and 
 uniform operation"; shall have charge of the 
 buildings and grounds; have power to employ 
 teachers and fix their wages, and draw orders 
 for the payment of the same, though all teachers 
 emploj'ed must be at least four degrees of re- 
 lationship removed from any school director; 
 nmst adopt textbooks where county uniform- 
 ity does not exist ; may permit a private school 
 to be taught in the schoolhouse, when the public 
 school is not in session; and must make annual 
 reports to the district meeting and to the county 
 examiner, or to the county superintendent 
 where such an officer exists. 
 
 Any incorporated town or city may be or- 
 ganized as a special school district, by petition 
 and special election. At the election the elec- 
 tors vote for or against special organization, 
 for 6 directors, and for or against a special 
 tax. Boards of Directors in such special dis- 
 tricts have the same powers as similar boards 
 in regular districts; and, in addition, may 
 organize graded and high schools; may em- 
 ploy principals and superintendents; may 
 admit pupils from other districts by their own 
 act; ma.y appoint boards of \'isitors to inspect 
 the schools, and boards of examiners to ex- 
 amine teachers; and may borrow money for 
 school buildings on notes or mortgages in the 
 name of the district. All teachers employed 
 in any kind of district must hold a regular 
 state or county certificate, though the boar<l of 
 examiners in special districts is to examine 
 the teachers again as to their fitness to teach 
 in the schools of the special district. 
 
 School Support. — Arkansas originally re- 
 ceived 8<S6,460 acres from the 10th section 
 grants made to the state by Congress for 
 schools, and also two townships (46,080 acres) 
 of saUne lands for schools. The state also 
 
 214
 
 ARKANSAS 
 
 ARKANSAS 
 
 received two townships of land for a seminary 
 of learning, and this, with the consent of Con- 
 gress in 1844, was added to the common school 
 land fund. The first state constitution, in 
 1836, made it the duty of the general assembly to 
 improve the lands and apply the income "to 
 the accomplishment of the object for which they 
 are or may be intended." In 1843 the sale of 
 these lands by survey, division into tracts of 
 not over 40 acres, and sale by public auction 
 was provided for by law, and the same method 
 practically is still used. Many sales were 
 made, but the fund accumulated was all lost 
 before the close of the Civil War. Much was 
 lost in Arkansas bonds and by payments made 
 in Confederate money, and the last .S8000 of 
 the fund was appropriated to the general state 
 fund and used to buy medicines for the Con- 
 federate troo])s, and the medicines were lost on 
 a steamer which was wrecked on the Brazos 
 River in Texas. 
 
 At the close of the war about four fifths of 
 the lands were still unsold, and the claims of 
 the school fund against the state amounted to 
 three quarters of a million of dollars. The debt 
 to the school fund has never been capitalized 
 or paid. Since the war a new school fund of 
 $1,13.5,279 has been built up. The annual state 
 appropriation for schools consists of the hiter- 
 est on this, amounting in 1905-1908 to .§34,035, 
 and of the proceeds of a state tax of 3 mills, as 
 required bv the state constitution, which in 
 1907-1908 produced .§1,018,250. Tliis fund is 
 api^ortioned to the counties on the sole basis of 
 the number of children 6-21 years of age listed 
 in the counties. After reaching the county 
 treasuries, the proceeds of the .SI poll taxes 
 (about 8200,000 each year) is added, and the 
 fund is then apportioned by the counties to the 
 school districts on this same school census basis. 
 No county school tax is levied. District taxa- 
 tion up to 7 mills mav be levied by individual 
 districts, and in 1907-1908 §1,518,250 came 
 from this source. 
 
 The total amount expended for schools during 
 the last year for which reports are available 
 was .S2, 494,801. Based on the total popu- 
 lation of the state this was equal to a per capita 
 expenditure of .SI. 71 a year, which is an increase 
 of 02 per cent in eight years. The South Cen- 
 tral Division expended .§1.80, the North Cen- 
 tral Divisou .§5.03, and the U.S. as a whole 
 •14.27. The average daily expenditure per 
 pupil was 11.4 cents, and the total yearly ex- 
 penditure per pupil in average daily attendance 
 was S10.72. This is lower than in the majority- 
 of the Southern states. In amount raised for 
 each child 5-18 years, (.S5.35), the state is a 
 little below the average for all the Southern 
 states, but is much below the average for the 
 U.S. as a whole (.§15.52). The state is very 
 poor relativelj', as is shown by the amount 
 ($1.41) which each male must contribute to 
 provide 81.00 for each child 5-18 years of age. 
 Only 5 states have to pay more, all of these 
 
 being in the South. These figures, taken in 
 connection with those for attendance and term, 
 reveal the relative poverty and the poor educa- 
 tional facilities provided. 
 
 Educational Conditions. — Of the total popu- 
 lation in 1900,28 per cent were negroes, and 
 98.9 per cent were native born. In 13 counties 
 the blacks exceed the whites, and in 4 counties 
 they exceed the whites by or over 4 to 1. The 
 state is rural and agricultural, as 91.5 per cent 
 lived in country districts in 1900, and but 5.4 
 per cent in cities of 8000 inhabitants or over. 
 
 The average length of term provided in 
 Arkansas was 93.9 days as against 118.2 days 
 for the South Central Division, and 154.1 
 days for the U.S. as a whole. No other state 
 except North Carolina and South Carolina pro- 
 vided less than 100 days of school. 
 
 In percentage of the school population, 5-18 
 years of age, enrolled in the schools (74.27 per 
 cent) , and in the percentage of the number en- 
 roUed, in average daily attendance (63.56 per 
 cent), Arkansas is a little below the average for 
 the South Central Division. This is equal to an 
 average daily attendance of 59.7 days for each 
 pupil enrolled, and 44.3 days for each child 5-18 
 years of age, as against 75.7 and 49.0 days for 
 the South Central Division, and 109.3 and 76.1 
 days for the U.S. as a whole. Two states were 
 lower than Arkansas in either item. No sta- 
 tistics are available to enable one to separate 
 the above percentages for wliite and colored 
 schools. 
 
 The state has a combined compulsory attend- 
 ance and child labor law, but no means of 
 enforcing it or of regulating truancy are pro- 
 vided. Twelve weeks of schooling are recjuired 
 of all children under 14, and children under 12 
 shall not be employed in any factory or manufac- 
 turing establishment unless a widowed mother 
 or a totally disabled father is dependent upon 
 the labor of the child for support, but in no case 
 shall a child under 10 be allowed to work. 
 
 Little is taught in the schools beyond the 
 common branches, except Arkansas history. 
 Manual training is taught in but two cities in 
 the state. The schools are only partially 
 graded, and many offer only an incomplete 
 elementary school course. The schools leave 
 much to be desired, and, considered broadly, 
 are among the poorest in the South. 
 
 In illiteracy, according to the census of 1900, 
 one person in five could not read or write, 
 the percentage being 20.4 per cent. As between 
 the races, 11.5 per cent of the whites and 43 
 per cent of the negroes were illiterate. These 
 are about average percentages for the Southern 
 states. 
 
 In material conditions, despite rapid ad- 
 vances made within the past eight years, 
 the schools are still poorly housed and poorly 
 financed, and the teachers are poorly paid. 
 The estimated average value of all the school- 
 houses in use in the state, public and private, 
 was only $706. In June, 1906, the School Direc- 
 
 215
 
 ARKANSAS 
 
 ARKANSAS 
 
 tors reported 1102 schoolhouses out of a total 
 of 5238 as l)eiiiK worth less than SlOO eacli, 
 and nearly one half of this number as worth 
 less than SSO each. No state aid has been 
 granted toward building better schoolhouses, 
 as has been done in a number of southern 
 states, and there is no supervision of school- 
 house plans. 
 
 Teachcrx and Training. The state employed 
 8297 teachers. Of these 46 per cent were men; 
 and 19 per cent were for colored schools. No 
 statistics arc available from which the percent- 
 ages of teachers who have had any kind of 
 professional training can be calculated, but 
 something of the professional status of the 
 teaching force can be determined from the kinds 
 of teachers' licenses held. The third-grade 
 license, based on an examination in reading, 
 writing, spelling, grammar, arithmetic, geog- 
 raphy, and U.S. history, and good for only 6 
 months, was held by 22 per cent of the teachers: 
 the second-grade license, based on the third- 
 grade subjects and the history of Arkansas, 
 physiology, and the theory and practice of 
 teaching, in addition, and valid for 1 year, was 
 held by 31 per cent of the teachers; the first- 
 grade license, based on the second-grade sub- 
 jects and civil government and elementary 
 algebra, in addition, and good for 2 years, was 
 held by 4.5 per cent of the teachers; state 
 licenses, based on the first-grade subjects and 
 an examination in algebra, plane geometry, 
 general history, rhetoric, and civil government, 
 in addition, and good for 6 years; and life 
 diplomas, issued on still further examination 
 in physics, mental philosophy, Latin, natural 
 history, constitutions of Arkansas and the U.S., 
 and art of teaching, were together held by but 
 2 per cent of the teachers. It is impossible 
 to separate the percentages for white and 
 negro teachers. 
 
 The average monthly salaries by grades of 
 Ucense were : — 
 
 License 
 
 MAI4BS 
 
 Females 
 
 Both 
 
 State 
 
 First Grade 
 Second Grade 
 Third Grade 
 
 $ 
 
 48.12 
 38.06 
 33.24 
 
 s — 
 
 40.40 
 34.60 
 30.40 
 
 S 73.52 
 
 With an average length of term of 93.9 days for 
 the 75 counties, with 4 counties averaging 
 less than 60 days, with but IS counties averag- 
 ing over 100 days, and with 46.0 per cent of the 
 teachers men, the qualitj' of the service ren- 
 dered may be imagined. 
 
 As a means of improving the teachers in 
 service an institute of one week must be held by 
 the county examiner or superintendent in 
 each county, in June of each year, and for 
 3 daj's' attendance teachers may have their 
 
 licenses to teach renewed for the time for 
 which they were originally granted, though 
 not exceeding one year; third-grade licenses 
 cannot be renewed more than once; and sec- 
 ond-grade licenses more than twice. If a 
 teacher's license expires during the term for 
 which he or she was emploj'cd to teach, no 
 further license is necessary to complete the 
 term. 
 
 For the training of teachers the state imi- 
 versity has maintained a normal department 
 since it began, and the branch normal school 
 for negroes at Pine Bluff has been in existence 
 since 1875, but, though repeatedly urged by 
 successive state superintendents, nothing was 
 done toward establishing a normal school for 
 white teachers untU 1907. 
 
 Secondary Education . — The number of special 
 school districts is constantly increasing, and 
 in these graded schools have been organized, 
 and, in some cases, more or less complete high 
 schools as well. There are now about 200 
 special districts in the state, out of a total of 
 more than 5000 districts. The last report 
 showed there were 94 public high schools in the 
 state, with an average enrollment of about 50 
 students and an average of 2.5 teachers to the 
 school, and 16 private high schools with about 
 75 pupils and 3 teachers to the school. Seven 
 of the public high schools were for the negro race. 
 No high school law and no special qualifications 
 for high school teachers exist, and where high 
 schools are formed they are supported wholly 
 by local taxation. The high schools which 
 exist are only partially complete, and a high 
 school system for the state is yet to be evolved. 
 
 Higher and Technical Education. — The 
 University of Arkansas (q.v.), at Fayetteville, 
 was opened in 1872. In addition to the state 
 university there are 9 denominational colleges 
 in the state, all established since 1872, 2 of 
 them being for negroes. They have small 
 endowments, and do a relatively low grade of 
 work. The state also maintains the Arkansas 
 School for the Blind, and the Arkansas Dcaf- 
 Mute Institute, both located at Little Rock. 
 
 The following is a list of colleges in the state: — 
 
 iNSTITCmOM 
 
 Location 
 
 Opened 
 
 Control 
 
 For 
 
 For Whites 
 
 
 
 
 
 Arkansas CoUeKe 
 
 Batesville 
 
 1872 
 
 Presbv. 
 
 Both Sexes 
 
 Heildrix OiUeEe 
 
 Conway 
 
 1884 
 
 M. E. So. 
 
 Both Sexes 
 
 Ouachita College 
 
 Arkadelphia 
 
 1 886 
 
 Bapt. 
 
 Both Sexes 
 
 Henderson College 
 
 Arkadelphia 
 
 1890 
 
 Mcth. 
 
 Both Sexes 
 
 Ark. Cumberland 
 
 
 
 Climb. 
 Presb. 
 
 
 Colleae . . . 
 
 ClarksviUe 
 
 1891 
 
 Both Sexes 
 
 Central Baptist 
 
 
 
 
 College . . . 
 
 Conway 
 
 1892 
 
 Bapt. 
 
 Women 
 
 For Negroes 
 
 
 
 
 
 Arkansas Baptist 
 
 
 
 
 
 College . . . 
 
 Little Rock 
 
 — . 
 
 Bapt. 
 
 Both Sexes 
 
 Philander Smith 
 
 
 
 
 
 College . . . 
 
 Little Rock 
 
 — 
 
 M.E. 
 
 Both Sexes 
 
 Southland College 
 
 Southland 
 
 — 
 
 Friends 
 
 Both Sexes 
 
 E. P. C. 
 
 216
 
 ARI^NSAS BAPTIST COLLEGE 
 
 ARMOUR INSTITUTE 
 
 References : — 
 
 Biennial Reports, Superintendent of Public Instruction, 
 Arkansas, 1868-1908. 
 
 Digest oj Laws relating to Free Schools in the Stale of 
 Arkansas, 1907 ed. 
 
 Mayo, A. D. The Common School in the Southern 
 States beyond the Mississippi River, from 1830- 
 1860 ; in Report U. S. Commissioner of Education, 
 1900-1901, Vol. I, pp. 388-393. 
 
 Shinn, Josi.\h H. History of Education in Arkansas. 
 Circular of Information, No. 1, 1900, U.S. Bureau of 
 Education. (Washington, 1900.) 
 
 Statistics based on 1909 Report U.S. Com. Educ. and 
 1907-1908 Report Superintendent of Public Instruc- 
 tion of Arkansas. 
 
 ARKANSAS BAPTIST COLLEGE, LITTLE 
 ROCK, ARK. — A coeducational institution 
 owned and controlled by the negro Baptists 
 of Arkansas, and organized in 1884. Liter- 
 ary, religious, and industrial training is the aim 
 of the college. Grammar school, academic, 
 college, and music departments are maintained, 
 and commercial and theological courses are 
 given. It is intended to lay stronger empha- 
 sis on industrial training, and the Griggs Indus- 
 trial Farm awaits development as soon as funds 
 can be obtained. The large majority of the 
 pupils are in the grammar school and academic 
 departments. Degrees of Bachelor of Arts and 
 Bachelor of Theology are given. There are 
 15 instructors in the institution. Jos. A. 
 Booker, A.M., D.D., is the president. 
 
 ARKANSAS COLLEGE, BATESVILLE, 
 ARK. — A coeducational in.stitution organized 
 in 1872 and under the control of the Synod of 
 Arkansas of the Presbyterian Church of the 
 United States. Preparatory and college de- 
 partments are maintained. Admission to the 
 college is by requirements equivalent to about 
 8 points work in high school. Degrees are 
 granted by the college. There is a faculty of 
 7 professors and several assistants. Eugene 
 R. Long, A.M., Ph.D., is the president. 
 
 ARKANSAS CUMBERLAND COLLEGE, 
 CLARKSVILLE, ARK. — A coeducational in- 
 stitution under the auspices of the Arkansas 
 Synod of the Presbyterian Church. Primary, 
 academic, college, and fine arts departments 
 are maintained. Free tuition is given to pro- 
 bationers for the ministry. A normal course 
 for teachers is offered, preparing for teachers' 
 certificates. Admission to the college is by re- 
 quirements equivalent to about 6 points of high 
 school work. There is a faculty of 12 members. 
 Rev. G. D. Crawford, D.D., is the president. 
 
 ARKANSAS, UNIVERSITY OF, FAYETTE- 
 VILLE, ARK. — A state institution for the 
 provision of higher education, organized in 
 1871 under the Morrill Act of 1862, the bene- 
 fits of which were accepted, as also of the Act 
 of 1890, the Hatch Act of 1887, and the Adams 
 Act, 1906. Tuition is free, except in law, medi- 
 cine, music, and art. The plant consists of 
 11 buildings and dormitories. Admission is 
 
 by examination requiring at present IIJ units, 
 to be raised up to 14 units by 1912. Certifi- 
 cates of accredited schools are also accepted 
 for admission. The following departments 
 are included in the university: the college of 
 liberal arts, sciences and engineering, the col- 
 lege of agriculture, the agricultural experiment 
 station, the conservatory of mu.sic and art, 
 and the preparatory school, all located at 
 Fayetteville; at Little Rock are the medical 
 and law schools; and at Pine Bluff the branch 
 normal school. The preparatory school offers 
 a course of one year only. A department of 
 secondary education is maintained by the 
 university to inquire into high school condi- 
 tions, to organize such schools, and exercise 
 supervision over them. Degrees are given in all 
 departments of study except the normal cour.se, 
 in which a certificate, accepted as a license 
 to teach in a state school for 6 years, is given. 
 There are 25 professors, 7 associate, and 10 
 adjunct professors, and 27 instructors and assist- 
 ants at the Fayetteville departments. John 
 Newton TiUman, LL.D., is the president. 
 
 ARMENIA, AMERICAN SCHOOLS IN. — 
 
 See Missions, Educational Aspect of Mod- 
 ern. 
 
 ARMOUR INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, 
 CHICAGO, ILL. — Founded in 1892 by Philip 
 D. Armour of Chicago " for all who are ear- 
 nestly seeking technical education "; the aim 
 of the institute is, broadly, " to help those who 
 wish to help themselves." The Institute is 
 intended to afford a combination of " broad 
 scientific training with the elements of liberal 
 culture." There are included in the Institute 
 the college of engineering. Armour Scientific 
 Academy, evening class instruction, and sum- 
 mer courses. Of these the scientific academy, 
 which offers a preparatory course to the college 
 of engineering, is to be discontinued after the 
 academic year 1909-1910. The college of en- 
 gineering is organized in 14 departments, giving 
 courses in mechanical, electrical, civil, chemical, 
 and fire protection engineering; architecture, 
 mathematics, physics, English, history, and 
 political science, language, economics, and phi- 
 losophy, physical culture and graduate work. 
 Admission is by certificate from an academy 
 or high school of good standing, or by exami- 
 nation, the requirements for which are equiva- 
 lent to 15 units. The degree of Bachelor of 
 Science is given in the different departments 
 on completion of a 4 years' prescribed course 
 and presentation of a thesis. The evening 
 classes are arranged to meet the needs of those 
 who are engaged during the day in technical 
 pursuits. Shop work is given, and a college 
 preparatory course is offered. Correspondence 
 school students largely avail themselves of these 
 facilities. The plant includes 5 buildings, 
 while the architectural and fire protection 
 engineering courses are carried on in build- 
 
 217
 
 ARMSTRONG 
 
 ARNDT 
 
 ings at some distance from the main institute. 
 The laboratories contain the most modern 
 equiiiment, and afford excellent facilities for 
 research. The lihrar.y contains 2.5,000 volumes, 
 2500 pamphlets and 1.50 periodicals, and is 
 primarily a reference library for engineering 
 students. Among the publications of the 
 Institute are the Arinotir Engineer, a semi- 
 annual technical publication, and the Integral, 
 an annual pulilication edited by the junior 
 class. The C'hapin Club, organized in 1907, 
 has for its object the i)romotion of the social 
 interests and welfare of the students. In 1908- 
 1909 the students were distributed as follows: 
 in engineering — 170 in electrical, 141 in civil, 
 104 in mechanical, 4,5 in chemical, 17 in fire 
 protection; in architecture, 100; special stu- 
 dents, 21; til5 students took evening classes. 
 The faculty includes 12 professors, 11 associate 
 professors, 12 assistant professors, and 25 
 instructors. The value of the plant is esti- 
 mated at .55,000,000; the productive endow- 
 ment is .§1,500,000, and the annual income is 
 $215,000. Frank Wakeley Gunsaulus, D.D., 
 LL.D., is the President. 
 
 ARMSTRONG, SAMUEL CHAPIN (1839- 
 1893). — The organizer of the Hampton Insti- 
 tute, for negroes and Indians, was born on 
 the Hawaiian islands, of missionary parents, 
 
 Gcuoral S. A. Armstrong. 
 
 Jan. .30, 1839. He received his preliminary 
 education in the Oahu College, Hawaii and 
 was graduated from Williams College. For 
 several years he was connected with the de- 
 partment of public instruction of Hawaii, 
 where he obtained the expert knowledge of 
 
 the educational needs of backward peoples 
 which was subseciucntly of so nmch value to 
 him in his work among the negroes and Indians. 
 He was at the head of a colored regiment 
 during the Civil War, retiring at its close with 
 the rank of brigadier-general. He was selected 
 l)y General Howard as superintendent of edu- 
 cation of the Freedmen's Bureau (q.v.) for 
 \'irginia. Two years later (1808), reahzing 
 the industrial needs of the colored people, he 
 organized the IIani|)ton Normal and Agricul- 
 tural Institute (ry.c), the parent of many such 
 institutions in America. During the 25 years 
 tiiat he directed Hampton (1808-1893), "Gen- 
 eral Armstrong practically fashioned the edu- 
 cational j)olicy of the native Indians and the 
 negroes, and the men and women that he 
 trained became the leaders among their own 
 people. He was the author of several papers 
 on the education of negroes and Indians. 
 
 W. S. M. 
 See H.\MrTON Institute. 
 
 References: — 
 
 Peabody. Address in Alemory of General Samuel C. 
 
 Annstruna. (Boston, 1898.) 
 Talbot. Edith Armstrong. S. C. Armstrong. A 
 
 Biooraphical Study. (New York, 1904.) 
 See articles ia Atlantic Monlldy, Vol.73, \>.'M; Educational 
 
 Rev. Vol. 6., p. 105. 
 
 ARNAULD, ANTOINE. — After St. Cyran 
 (q.v.) tlie mo.st important member of the 
 Port-Royal (q.v.). Born in 1612, the son of a 
 lawyer, he was early destined to enter the same 
 profession as his father. He changed, however, 
 from law to theology. He obtained the docto- 
 rate in 1041, and entered the Society of the 
 Sorbonne in 1643. In the same year he wrote 
 his Livre de la frequenle c.ommiiniun, which 
 brought upon him the enmity of the Jesuits, 
 who persecuted him for the rest of his life with 
 their attacks. Arnauld was a strong defender 
 of Jansenism. In 1656 he was excluded from 
 the Sorbonne. In 1648 he had joined the 
 Port-Royalists. Although he did not teach, 
 he expresses a keen interest in education, and 
 wTote a Memoir on the Regulations of Studies 
 in the Humanities {Memoire sur le Rcglement 
 des Etudes dans Ics Letlres humaincs). Many 
 of his writings were on school subjects, and 
 many others he inspired. Among these are 
 the General Grammar {Grammaire Generale), 
 1060; Element.t of Geometry (Elements de Geo- 
 melrie), 1660-1601; the treatise on Logic (Lo- 
 gique), 1GG2. In 1679 Arnauld was compelled to 
 leave France, and spent the rest of his days in 
 Belgium, like so many of his friends, trying to 
 find a new home. He died in Brussels in 1694. 
 
 See article on Pokt-Royal. 
 
 References: — 
 Carre, I. Les Pedagogues de Port-Royal. (Paris, 1887.) 
 Cadet, F., and Jones, A. D. Port-Royal Education. 
 (New York. 189.S.) 
 
 ARNDT, ERNST MORITZ (1769-18G0).— 
 A German patriot and poet. Born at Schoritz 
 
 218
 
 Thomas Arnold. (See p. 220.) 
 
 Matthew Arnold. (St-r p. 21'J.J 
 
 U' 
 
 V** 
 
 Kl 
 
 
 k^_._ ,_ 
 
 
 Thomas Carlylc. (.See p. 533.) Lord Chesterfield. (.See p. 596.) 
 
 A Group of English Men of Letters — Writers on Education.
 
 ARNOBIUS 
 
 ARNOLD 
 
 on the island of Riigen, which then belonged 
 to Sweden, he received his education at the 
 gymnasium of Stralsund and the universities 
 of Greifswald and Jena. In 1800 he began to 
 lecture in Greifswald on history and philology. 
 His history of serfdom in Pomerania (1803) 
 brought about the liberation of the Pomeranian 
 peasants. His real life work commenced in 
 1806 with his attacks on Napoleon in his 
 Spirit of the Times {Voin Geist der Zcit). 
 On account of this he was forced to flee for his 
 life; he went first to Sweden, and finally, in 
 1812, to St. Petersburg. From there he 
 issued a large number of patriotic articles and 
 pamphlets which were very influential in rous- 
 ing the German people for their war of libera- 
 tion from the Napoleonic despotism. After 
 Napoleon's defeat in Russia, Arndt returned to 
 Germany, where he continued his literary ac- 
 tivity. Some of his inspiring war lyrics, such 
 as Was ist des Deutschen Valerland ? and Der 
 Gott, der Eisen wachsen liess, der wollte keine 
 Knechte, are sung in German schools to this day. 
 In 1817 he was called as professor of history to 
 the newly established University of Bonn, but, 
 incurring the displeasure of the government on 
 account of his liberalism, he was suspended 
 from office in 1820 and remained in retirement 
 until restored on the accession of Frederick 
 William IV in 1840. The following j^ear he 
 was elected Rector of the University, and in 
 1848 sent as a delegate to the first German 
 parliament in Frankfort. His ninetieth birth- 
 day was celebrated with great enthusiasm all 
 over Germany in 1859; a month later he died 
 in Bonn. 
 
 " Father Arndt " was a typical representa- 
 tive of German idealism ; he had a deeply reli- 
 gious nature, full of the love of his country 
 and of liberty. As a university teacher he was 
 very popular, not on account of great scholar- 
 ship, but through his inspiring eloquence and 
 personal magnetism. His special contributions 
 to pedagog}' are chiefly contained in his Frag- 
 ments on Human Education (1805). His ideas 
 on education are based on those of Rousseau; 
 he insists on a harmonious development of the 
 physical, aesthetic, moral, and intellectual nature 
 of the child, on teaching by induction, and a 
 careful study of the individuality of children. 
 
 F. M. 
 
 ARNOBIUS, THE ELDER, (also knov\7i as 
 AFER). — A Christian writer born during the 
 latter part of the third century in Sicca Venerea 
 in Numidia. Nothing is known of his early 
 life and training, but from the fact that he was a 
 rhetorician by profession it must be inferred 
 that he had received the usual course of disci- 
 pline in the schools. After his conversion to 
 Christianity he wrote a work in seven books 
 called Advcrsns Gentes, the main object of which 
 was to refute the charge that the calamities 
 of the world were caused by the " impiety " 
 of the Christians. It is not a profound work. 
 
 though skillful use is made of the current criti- 
 cisms of the opponents of the new faith. It 
 reveals the influence of his rhetorical training. 
 In the second book he discussed the nature of 
 the soul with considerable acumen, advancing 
 the somewhat unusual doctrine that a belief 
 in the soul's immortality has a prejudicial effect 
 on human life. He combated, as Justin did, 
 Plato's theory that knowledge is essentially 
 reminiscence. The argument of the Meno, he 
 declared, does not prove that the answers given 
 by the slave to the geometrical questions of 
 Socrates were omng to a knowledge of the 
 subject already existing in him; but (1) to the 
 use of his own intelligence (intelligentia), and 
 (2) to the methodical manner in which the 
 questions were put to him. As an apologist 
 and critic Arnobius exerted but small influence, 
 and his chief significance for education lies in 
 his discussion of the soul. H. D. 
 
 (The works of Arnobius have been edited 
 by Oehler (1846) and others, and translated 
 into English as Vol. XIX of the Ante-Nicene 
 Library. Cf. E. Klussmann, Arnob. und 
 Lucretius, in Philologus, Vol. XXVI, 1867.) 
 
 ARNOLD, MATTHEW (1822-1888). — Son 
 of Dr. Thomas Arnold of Rugby; educated 
 at Rugbv, Winchester, and Balliol College, 
 Oxford; Fellow of Oriel College (1845); for a 
 short time master at Rugby; Inspector of 
 Elementary Schools under the Education De- 
 partment (1851-1886), during which period he 
 published almost all his poetry and prose 
 writings. In 1859 he was appointed Assistant 
 Commissioner to the Royal Commission, which, 
 under the Duke of Newcastle, inquired into 
 the state of popular education in England. On 
 behalf of the Commission, he investigated the 
 state of education in France, Switzerland, and 
 Holland, and reports which he based upon 
 his inquiries were subsequently published as 
 part of the Report of the Commission. In 
 1865 he was appointed by the Schools' Inquiry 
 Commission to investigate the system of educa- 
 tion of the middle and upper classes in France, 
 Germany, Switzerland, and Italy. His report 
 was published by the Commissioners. As 
 Inspector of Schools he wrote general reports 
 on Elementary Schools in 1852-1858, 1860, 
 1861, 1863, 1807, 1869, 1871, 1872, 1874, 1876, 
 1878, 1880, 1882, and reports on some of the 
 Training Colleges at intervals between the 
 years 1853 and 1868. These reports were sub- 
 sequently edited and published by liis friend, 
 Lord Sandford. 
 
 Matthew Arnold exerted strong influence on 
 English educational ideas for three reasons: 
 (1) He was one of the English writers of high 
 distinction who have pressed upon the nation 
 the fundamental importance of public educa- 
 tion as a factor in the well-being of the state. 
 Thousands of men and women holding high 
 positions in government and in society had 
 tlicir thoughts turned by Matthew Arnold's 
 
 219
 
 ARNOLD 
 
 ARNOLD 
 
 writings to the suliject of education, from which 
 they would otiierwise have shrunk from lack of 
 interest in its ordinary presentation. Much of 
 the administrative interest in public education 
 which became noticeable in England in the 
 last twenty years of the reign of Queen Victoria 
 may in i)art be traced to the literary influence 
 of Matthew Arnold. (2) He took delight in 
 making his fellow countrymen feel ashamed by 
 contrasting the meager educational activities 
 of the Knglish State and those of France, Ger- 
 many, and other continental peoples. Having 
 grown u]) at a time when the English nation 
 was strongly self-confident and little inclined 
 to admit the superiority of any foreign system 
 of social organization, Arnold indulged himself 
 in the opposite habit, and idealized foreign 
 systems of education and government, partly 
 with the intention of impressing his fellow citi- 
 zens with the need for reform, partly from a 
 natural tendency to see the weak side of English 
 habits of nund and to overestimate the merits 
 of Continental methods of education. (3) He 
 was one of the literary leaders of the reaction 
 against individualism in English national life 
 and against the influence (wrongly identified 
 by him with Puritanism) which minimized the 
 functions of the State in promoting collec- 
 tive well-being by means of public education 
 and state-aided culture. Matthew Arnold's 
 influence was increased by the fact that he 
 was the son of the man who had been the chief 
 reformer of the English public schools. Bril- 
 liant in literary criticism, a master of political 
 irony, politely pitiless in his satire of English 
 social and intellectual prejudice, he helped in 
 making England self-conscious, dissatisfied 
 with itself, vaguely collectivist in its educational 
 ideal, and ready to accept immense develop- 
 ment of public e.xpenditure and of state inspec- 
 tion in educational work. His influence was 
 solvent, unsettling, provocative, w'ith a certain 
 foreign strain in it which went with a lack of 
 insight into the historical significance of many 
 points of view traditionally accepted in Eng- 
 land. Of foreign schools and political institu- 
 tions he was an impressionable observer rather 
 than a sagacious critic. He rarely struck a 
 true balance between the satisfactory and the 
 mischievous results of any form of governmental 
 control in education; he was a brilliant impres- 
 sionist rather than a scientific investigator. 
 He idealized the action of the State without 
 measuring the practical effects of organized 
 bureaucracy. In his political ideal, his father's 
 almost Hebraic theocracy had faded into a 
 somewliat dilettante admiration for govern- 
 mental action, for many of the practical 
 results of which he would himself have felt 
 profound distaste. For the more scientific 
 study of educational methods as applied to 
 the problems of teaching he showed compara- 
 tively little aptitude. A responsible oflficer 
 of the Education Department during the years 
 in which the system of "payment by results " 
 
 deeply injured the work of the best English 
 elementary schools, he did comparatively little, 
 even in his public writings, and still less by 
 personal influence and protest, to check ad- 
 ministrative tendencies which were hurtful to 
 the best interests of English elementary educa- 
 tion. But no English writer of his time, with 
 the exception of Herbert Sjjencer ((/.v.) and 
 possibly of Huxley {g.v.), did so much in popu- 
 larizing the discussion of educational problems. 
 He approached them, however, from the point 
 of view of political philosophy and government, 
 rather than from the stand])oint of i)sychology 
 or physiology. He thought rather loosely 
 about forms of public control in education, 
 and, while weakening resjx'ct for indivitlual 
 enterprise, threw but little liglit upon the de- 
 fects of organized democracy in the sjihore of 
 educational government. He was strongly im- 
 pressed by the achievements of Gernumy in 
 the public provision of secondary and higher 
 education, but did not press to any jioint (if 
 thoroughness his inquiry into the fundamental 
 differences between different forms of national 
 organization. As an educational writer, his 
 chief service to England lay in his reiterated 
 and urgent advice in regard to the provision 
 of a liberal secondary education for the masses 
 of the people; but his achievements as an edu- 
 cational thinker were on a much lower plane 
 than his work in poetry and in literary criticism. 
 
 M. E. S. 
 
 References : — 
 Matthew Arnold. Culture and Anarchy, 18G9. 
 
 Reports on Elementary Scliools, 1852-1882. Ed. by 
 Lord Sandford. (London, 1889.) 
 
 Higher Schools and Universities in Germany. 
 (London, 1874.) 
 
 A French Eton, or Middle-class Education in the 
 State, to whicli is added Schools and Universities 
 in France. (Pulilishcd respectively in 1864 and 
 1868.) 
 
 Ecce. Convcrtimur ad Cirntoa. (In Irish Essays 
 and Others, 1.S82.) 
 
 Porro unum cat ncccaaarium. (In Minted Essays, 
 1879.) 
 Fitch. Sir Joshua. Thomas and Matthew Arnold. 
 (New York. 1897.) 
 
 ARNOLD, THOMAS (1795-1842). — Head- 
 master of Kugby School, 1828-1842; was born 
 at Cowes in the Isle of Wight, where his father 
 was Collector of the Customs. He was edu- 
 cated (1803-1807)at Warminster (where he was 
 much influenced by reading Joseph Priestley's 
 Lectures on History) and at Winchester College 
 (1807-1811). From his Winchester experience 
 he derived many of his ideas as to school disci- 
 pline and as to the benefit of intrusting elder 
 boys in a school with authority over the younger. 
 See his article on the discipline of public 
 schools in 1835. Winchester traditions (among 
 the most ancient in Enghsh education) largely 
 influenced Arnold when in later years he re- 
 organized the school life at Rugby. 
 
 In 1811, in his sixteenth year, he was elected 
 Scholar of Corpus Christi College, Oxford; 
 in 1814 he was placed in the first class in Litlerae 
 
 220
 
 ARNOLD 
 
 ARNOLD 
 
 Humaniores. ka an undergraduate at Corpus 
 he became the intimate friend of J. T. Cole- 
 ridge and of John Keble. Through Coleridge, 
 Arnold became acquainted with the Lyrical 
 Ballads and the first edition of Wordsworth's 
 poems. The young men became zealous 
 disciples of Wordsworth's philosophy. The 
 teaching of the Lake poets brought out in 
 Arnold, who had a natural leaning toward 
 practical and evidently useful studies, a feeling 
 for lofty and imaginative thoughts which had 
 a great spiritual influence upon his life. Arnold 
 took particular delight in long country rambles, 
 in the beauties of nature, and in the sea and 
 shipping. Always impressionable, and insen- 
 sibly changing his point of view under the 
 dominant opinions of his time or of valued 
 friends, Arnold owed much to the influences 
 of his early education at Winchester and Ox- 
 ford, the effects of wliich were never effaced 
 from his mind and character. He evidently 
 obtained more valuable education from his 
 contemporaries, especially at college, and 
 from his private studies, than from the actual 
 instruction wihch he received from his tutors. 
 He thus learned to appreciate the educational 
 value of corporate and collegiate hfe and to 
 assign a high value to the influence of a school 
 community upon each of its individual members. 
 In 1815 he was elected FeUow of Oriel College, 
 then the center of the most active intellectual 
 life in the university. Here he became ac- 
 quainted with Richard Whately (afterwards 
 Archbishop of Dubhn) and John Henry New- 
 man, and found himself in the vortex of theo- 
 logical discu.ssion. Taking Holy Orders in 
 1818, he settled in the following year at Lale- 
 ham (on the banks of the Thames near iStaines), 
 with his mother, aunt, and sister. Here (hav- 
 ing married Mary Penrose in 1820) he re- 
 mained for nine years, taking seven or eight 
 young men as private pupils in preparation for 
 their university life. In boyhood and early 
 youth he had been somewhat indolent, morbidly 
 restless, apt to indulge himself in vague schemes 
 without definite purpose, and beset by intel- 
 lectual doubts as to the realities of religious 
 belief. During his life at Laleham he under- 
 went a great change, vi.siting much among the 
 poor, becoming intensely religious, and forming 
 habits of indefatigable industry and persever- 
 ance. "The most remarkable thing," wrote 
 a former pupil, " which struck me at once on 
 joining the Laleham circle, was the wonderful 
 healthiness of tone and feeling which prevailed 
 in it. Everything about me I immediately 
 found to be most real; it was a place where a 
 newcomer at once felt that a great and earnest 
 work was going forward. Dr. Arnold's great 
 power as a private tutor rested in this, that 
 he gave such an intense earnestness to life." 
 Thus at Laleham Arnold developed his great 
 powers as a teacher of young men (he was 
 always more successful with older boys than 
 with young ones) and his intense reality of 
 
 221 
 
 religious and political conviction. At Lale- 
 ham also he began his first edition of Thucy- 
 dides and his studies in the history of Greece 
 and Rome. In 1825, in order to read Nie- 
 buhr's History of Rome, he learned German. 
 Theocratic in his instincts, he desired to apply 
 the principles of the Gospel to the legislation 
 and administration of the modern State. 
 He opposed the quietism and intellectual 
 inertia of the Evangelicals, and the tendency 
 of the Tractarians to separate Church from 
 State. His ideal was a political community 
 interpenetrated by Christian principles, and 
 applying tho.se principles in its laws and ad- 
 ministration — the latter including a system 
 of national education. 
 
 In December, 1827, he was elected head- 
 master of Rugby. One of his friends. Dr. 
 Hawkins, afterwards Provost of Oriel, predicted 
 that if Arnold were elected to the headmaster- 
 ship of Rugby he would change the face of 
 education all through the pubUc schools of 
 England. In August, 1828, he entered upon 
 his new office. When he became headmaster 
 of Rugby, he found a general feehng of dis- 
 satisfaction with the condition of the public 
 schools. The older cla.ssical curriculum was 
 vehementlj' attacked on the ground of its nar- 
 rowness and inutility. The absence of sys- 
 tematic attempts at Christian education in the 
 pubhc schools had become a scandal in the 
 eyes of religious men. Many thought that 
 the whole system would soon be destroyed. 
 It was clear that a great reformation was 
 necessary and that this would be extremely 
 difficult, owing to the conservatism of the in- 
 stitutions concerned. Arnold determined that 
 he would devote his life to the internal re- 
 form of the great public school, to the raising 
 of its ideals of corporate life, to checking the 
 thoughtless waste and selfishness of school- 
 boys, and to inculcating into their minds the 
 principles of reverence for the law and regard 
 for the claims of the poorer classes. He there- 
 fore viewed his administration at Rugby as a 
 political experiment of far-reaching importance. 
 His energy was boundless; he threw himself 
 vehemently into a contest again.st evil. Con- 
 scious of his own integrity, and contemning 
 worLUy advantage, he was bold in pohcy, 
 regardless of attacks. More than once he 
 resisted the attempts of his governing body to 
 interfere with his independence of action; he 
 insisted upon ha\-ing complete control over the 
 administration of the school, and over his own 
 private occupations. He claimed and exer- 
 cised complete liberty of opinion and action in 
 regard to current politics, and was at one time 
 nearly dismissed from the headmastership for 
 alleged political partisanship. The freedom 
 which Arnold claimed would have been impos- 
 sible under any system of higher education 
 directly controlled by the State. His open- 
 ness of speech on current questions of political 
 controversy and his vigorous participation in
 
 ARNOLD 
 
 ARNOLD 
 
 discussions on social and political questions 
 would iiave been regarded as inconii)atible 
 with the neutrality of a civil servant. 
 
 Arnold's relations with his assistant masters 
 were exemplary. He regarded their coopera- 
 tion in the government of the school as essential; 
 he was entirely free from jealousj' of his subor- 
 dinates, and rejoiced when they gained inde- 
 pendent reputations. lie was deeply impressed 
 by the evil influence often prevailing in a 
 community of boys living in an atmosphere of 
 tradition and in almost monastic seclusion 
 from the society of women, but he thought that 
 these conditions of education, thougii perilous, 
 served also to promote manly growth of char- 
 acter, and therefore should be reformed, not 
 overtlirown. " Another system," he said, 
 " may be better in itself; but I am placed in 
 this system and am liound to try what I can 
 make of it." He regarded religious influences 
 and religious teaciiing as essential to the welfare 
 of the school. Ho endeavored to hasten the 
 change from childhood to manhood without 
 prematurely exhausting the faculties of body 
 or mind. Many of his pupils and contempo- 
 raries thought that he overpressed boys by his 
 appeals to their moral thoughtfulness, and that 
 he prematurely burdened them with moral 
 resjjonsibilities beyond their age. He wished, 
 so far as possible, that things should be done 
 by the boys and very little for them, and there- 
 fore appealed to their common-sense and 
 trusted to their conscience. Lying to the 
 masters he made a great moral offense; he 
 placed implicit confidence in a boy's assertion, 
 but if a falsehood were discovered, he punished 
 it severely. " There grew up in conseciuence," 
 says Dean Stanley, "a general feeling that it 
 was a shame to tell Arnold a lie — he always 
 believes one." He laid great stress upon the 
 mutual responsibilities of a school unity. 
 " Is this a Christian school ? " he once indig- 
 nantly asked the boys at a time when he had 
 discovered traces of an evil influence. " I 
 cannot remain here if all is to be carried on by 
 con.straint and force; if I am to be here as a 
 gaoler I will resign my office at once." He 
 insisted on the right to expel boys whose influ- 
 ence he believed to be hurtful. He once 
 said to the assembled school, " It is not neces- 
 sary that this should be a school of 300 or 100 
 or of 50 boys; but it is necessary that it should 
 be a school of Christian gentlemen." 
 
 Arnold modificil the severity of punishment, 
 especially in the higher parts of the school. He 
 retained flogging, but confined it to moral 
 offenses. He determined to improve to the 
 utmost the existing machinery of the sixth form 
 and of fagging, by i)lacing in the hands of the 
 30 boys who composed the highest class 
 special responsibilities and powers. In this 
 he largely followed the tradition of Winchester. 
 He placed the aims of school life in the follow- 
 ing order: (1) religious and moral principles, 
 (2) gentlemanly conduct, (3) inteUectual ability. 
 
 He treated the sixth form like ofl^cers in the 
 army and navy, relying on their moral courage 
 to assist him in his government of the school. 
 He discouraged the practice of sending boys of 
 tender years to a jniblic school, and encouraged 
 the development of preparatory schools under 
 private teachers. He endeavored to give 
 reality to the religious life of the school. In 
 his own class, he said a special prayer before his 
 lesson, over and above the general prayers 
 read before the whole school. He had a strong 
 belief in the general union of moral and intel- 
 lectual excellence; for mere intellectual acute- 
 ness he had little respect. He liberally con- 
 tributed toward prizes and scholarshijis as 
 incentives to study. He devoted nuich of his 
 leisure to the preparation of new examinations 
 for various classes and to a yearly examination 
 for the whole school. He kept up his [jcrsonal 
 intimacy with pupils who had left the school. 
 He was a strong advocate of classical education, 
 but in his hands the study of Greek and Latin 
 authors was permeated with interest in modern 
 questions. He discarded in his teaching mere 
 verbal criticism and many of the elegant 
 refinements of scholarship. He made the 
 study of modern history and modern languages 
 and of mathematics more important in the 
 course of education at Rugby. In teaching 
 he questioned largely, making his exiilanations 
 as short as possible and steadily checking him- 
 self from imparting too much information. 
 He encouraged boys to read and think for them- 
 selves. He was always ready to acknowledge 
 mistakes in his own scholarship, and never con- 
 cealed his own ignorance. He w\as a master 
 of extemporary translation from Latin and 
 Greek into good English, a power which he had 
 begun to acquire at Winchester and steadily 
 developed through later life. His teaching of 
 history was stimulating and vigorous. It 
 was always his wish that his pupils should form 
 their opinions for themselves and not take them 
 on trust from him. " It would be a great 
 mistake," he said, " if I were to try to make 
 myself here into a Pope." The result of his 
 teaching was to make his more sensitive pnjiils 
 " appreciate moral agreement amidst much 
 intellectual difference." 
 
 His most powerful influence over the school 
 was exerted from the pulpit. He preached 
 every Sunday afternoon, and his sermons deejily 
 moved those who heard them. Dean Stanley 
 well describes the interest and attention which 
 the boys gave to the sermons and the lasting 
 impressions which they carried away. 
 
 Arnold broke down the old tradition of aloof- 
 ness practiced by the masters of the English 
 public schools. "Many of the boys, especially 
 the younger, feared him, but out of this feel- 
 ing of fear," wrote Dean Stanley, "grew up a 
 deep admiration partaking largely of the nature 
 of awe, and this softened into a sort of loyalty, 
 which remained even in the closer and more 
 affectionate sympathy of lateryears." Arnold's 
 
 222
 
 ARRESTED DEVELOPMENT 
 
 ART IN EDUCATION 
 
 influence was not confined to Rugby. The 
 headmasters of other schools, especially Win- 
 chester and Harrow, were inspired by his 
 example, and to Arnold may be traced a great 
 moral revival in the English public schools, and 
 their strong hold upon the affections of English- 
 men. He practically saved the English public 
 school system from destructive attack. Had it 
 not been for Arnold, it is probable that English 
 higher secondary education would have passed 
 more or less completely under the control of the 
 State. Arnold's personality captivated the 
 imagination of England; his heroic figure stood 
 for an educational ideal. English people real- 
 ized that state control would be incompatible 
 with the retention of any such vigorous person- 
 ality in the service of the great pubUc schools. 
 His constant appeal to the value of historical 
 tradition found a sympathetic echo in the Eng- 
 lish mind. Under Arnold's influence ancient 
 foundations for the higher education of boys 
 in England renewed their youth. A large 
 number of other schools were established on 
 similar principles, and the semi-independent 
 corporate foundations formed the type upon 
 which the new schools were modeled. Arnold's 
 great originality lay in his moral personality. 
 He reinvigorated an old system and transformed 
 its inner life. The romantic halo which sur- 
 rounds his name is partly due to the fact of his 
 sudden and early death, which took place at 
 Rugby at the end of the summer term of 1842. 
 The impression produced by the news upon the 
 minds of boys who had been educated by him 
 is described by Thomas Hughes in Tom Browivs 
 School Days. Arnold's influence was also 
 greatly extended by the publication of his 
 Life and Correspondence edited by his favorite 
 pupil, Arthur Stanley, afterwards Dean of 
 Westminster. M. E. S. 
 
 References: — - 
 
 Arnold, Thomas. The MisceUaneous Works of Thomas 
 Arnold, D.D. (Important as cont.aimiig several 
 educational essays and much of his writing on 
 political questions.) 
 Sermons Preached at Hughy School. 
 
 F1NDL.1Y, J. J. Arnold of Rugby, Hu School Life and 
 Contributions to Education. (Cambridge University 
 Press, 1897.) 
 
 Stanley, Arthuh Penrhtn. The Life and Correspond- 
 ence of Thomas Arnold, D.D. (Various editions.) 
 
 ARRESTED DEVELOPMENT. — See Re- 
 
 TARD.\TIO.\. 
 
 ART, APPLIED. —See Design. 
 
 ART IN EDUCATION. — A study of educa- 
 tion in its earlier forms, not only in savage com- 
 munities, but in a civilization as advanced as the 
 Athenian, reveals the great role played bj' the 
 arts. Anthropological investigations have con- 
 firmed the obvious educational influence by 
 showing the great part played by the arts in the 
 Ufe of the community and in determining prog- 
 ress. Psychology adds to these convictions the 
 
 fact of the fundamental character of the impul- 
 sive tendencies which are the physiological origin 
 of the activities that lead to the arts. All of 
 these facts are opposed to the common assump- 
 tion that the arts represent a kind of educational 
 luxury and superfluity. 
 
 \'arious classifications have been made of the 
 arts, — they have been subdivided into the 
 spatial and "the temporal, arts of rest and motion, 
 of the eye and the ear, etc. However correct 
 for their own purposes, these divisions are edu- 
 cationally defective in that they start from art 
 products rather than from the psychophysical 
 acts from which these products originate. 
 More significant from the educational point of 
 view is the classification of Santayana according 
 to which arts are distinguished into those that 
 spring from automatisms, i.e. organic or " spon- 
 taneous " movements which, when rhythmi- 
 cally ordered and accompanied by intensified 
 emotion, themselves constitute acts, and those 
 in which the movements, even if similarly in- 
 duced originally, terminate in effective en- 
 during modifications in natural objects. The 
 dance, pantomime, song, music, etc., belong in 
 the first class; the second class Santayana 
 terms "plastic," including in it architecture, 
 sculpture, painting, and design. 
 
 Anthropological and historical inquiry have 
 fairly estabhshed the following principles: first, 
 that art is born of primary impulses of human 
 nature when the activity, whether automatic 
 or plastic, has social value; second, that this 
 social value is conferred by the tendency of the 
 activity or its product to spread an emotional 
 mood "favorable to joint or concerted action. 
 Otherwise put, the arts, in their origin, tended 
 to contagion or communication of an emotion, 
 that produced unity of attitude and of outlook 
 and imagination. From this point of view, no 
 sharp line divided the fine and useful arts from 
 each other. Any useful object — a piece of pot- 
 tery, of weaving, an implement of hunting — 
 that provokes social reminiscences and antici- 
 pations attaches contagious emotions to itself, 
 and acquires cesthetic quality. The marked 
 distinction between useful and fine arts is chiefly 
 a product of slave labor or of commercial pro- 
 duction, making things for a market, under 
 circumstances where the factor of shared emo- 
 tional life is ehminated. 
 
 Another significant trait of the arts in their 
 simple and more natural form is the promi- 
 nence of the festal element. Tribal dances are 
 the background, out of which music, poetry, 
 and the drama all gradually differentiated. 
 These pantomime dances were either occasional 
 or ceremonial, i.e. they were either community 
 celebrations of more or less choice episodes 
 happening to attract general attention, or else 
 were stated and recurrent celebrations of im- 
 portant tribal traditions and customs, attaching 
 to changes in the season, return of food animals, 
 gathering crops, war expeditions, etc. 
 
 Some of the educational bearings of these 
 
 223
 
 ART IN EDUCATION 
 
 ART IN EDUCATION 
 
 considerations, psychological and ethnological, 
 conic out conspicuously in the older Athenian 
 education. Music (in the Greek sense) and gym- 
 nastic were, in general, ami in many of the 
 details of their educational use, very direct out- 
 growtiis of the role of the dramatic and com- 
 munal arts of more primitive societies. It is 
 not dilhcult to detect in Plato's treatment of 
 gymnastics in the Republic and the Laws the 
 fact that dances, etc., originally associated with 
 industrial and military crises in the life of a 
 peo|)le, had become so saturated with elements 
 of rhythm, measure, and order, and ^nth social 
 memories and hopes, as to present great value 
 in the training of the young; while music was 
 frankly a vehicle for carrying what was of tvpical 
 or idealized value in the traditions of the (ireek 
 people, by enhancing their emotional value so 
 that they would deeply, though uncon.sciously, 
 modify the character of children's tastes and likes 
 and dislikes in the direction that reason would 
 later consciou.sly approve. 
 
 If we attempt to summarize the meaning of 
 the facts mentioned in this brief summary 
 for present educational practice, the following 
 points stand out clearly: — 
 
 1 . There has been great loss in relegating the 
 arts to the relatively trivial role which they 
 finally assumed in schooling, and there is corre- 
 sponding promise of gain in the efforts making 
 in the last generation to restore these to a more 
 important position. Viewed both psycholog- 
 ically and socially, the arts represent not luxuries 
 and superfluities, but fundamental forces of de- 
 velopment. 
 
 2. Instead of testhetic appreciation, the 
 sense of beauty, etc., coming first and leading 
 to artistic expression in order to satisfy itself, 
 the order is the reverse. Man instinctively 
 attempts to enhance and perpetuate his images 
 that are charged with emotional value by some 
 kind of objectification through action. The 
 outcome inevitably is marked by certain factors 
 of balance, rhythm, and constructive order, and 
 by the function of representation, i.e. of 
 recording in some adequate way the values to 
 which emotions cling. The sense of beauty, 
 or aesthetic appreciation, is a reflex product 
 of this attempt at production. A product, 
 which is objectively crude, but which represents 
 a genuine attempt at embodiment of an ex- 
 perienced value of unusual emotional quality, 
 is more likely to be an effective means of cul- 
 tivating taste and aesthetic sensitiveness than 
 the presentation for passive appreciation of 
 much more perfect works produced by others. 
 Tlie latter are indispensable, but their function 
 is to serve as mo<lels which will stimulate to 
 appreciation of crudities and imperfections that 
 may be refined away,and to enlarge theemotional 
 images out of which personal expression springs. 
 In the end, the great majority of pupils are 
 of course to become appreciators of art rather 
 than its producers in any technical sense. 
 But only by taking some part in creative pro- 
 
 duction (and that not for the sake consciously 
 of producing beauty but sinqily of embodying 
 vital and significant feelings) can a wholesome 
 and natural attitude of appreciation finally be 
 secured. 
 
 3. The social, or communicable, character of 
 the emotions from which a>.sthetic expression 
 naturally springs, emphasizes the values of 
 joint exiicriences and actions of a more or less 
 domestic nature. (Jroup activity of a joyous 
 character celebrating some event or fact of 
 common value is the natural soil of artistic 
 creation in the school as well as out. 
 
 4. Expressive activity is also especially 
 adapted for educational use in that the separa- 
 tion, so usual with adults, between the utilita- 
 rian and the artistic does not naturally exi.st 
 for them. In the absence of economic jiressure, 
 the measure of use is simply value contributed 
 to the enhancement of individual and group 
 fife. Cooking, even such seemingly utilitarian 
 things as setting a table and .serving a meal, 
 easily take on for children an artistic value so 
 far as they represent a consciousness and com- 
 memoration of things to which children attach 
 a vague social significance, all the more potent 
 because in its vagueness it represents the 
 mysterious and attractive world of adult life. 
 The separation of the externally and technically 
 useful from emotional and imaginative enrich- 
 ment is unnatural psychological divorce, and 
 one of the chief functions of the arts in educa- 
 tion is to maintain the natural union of the 
 socially important with that which makes 
 strong emotional appeal. 
 
 5. Literature is probably the art mcst g(>n- 
 erally available for school purposes. In order 
 that it may be a genuine art it is necessary that 
 it be presented as a consummation and perfecting 
 of factors which the child already appreciates 
 as having value. This means that it is not 
 so much a point of departure for instruction 
 as it is a focus in which other factors gather 
 together in a vivid and ordered way. Litera- 
 ture is not to be used as a means for any other 
 end than this gathering together, in a vital 
 and readily appreciated way, of scattered 
 and inchoate elements of experience. It is 
 not, for example, to be made a means of 
 moral instruction or consciously impressing a 
 specific moral lesson. It is ethically impor- 
 tant simjily because it presents in a form easilj- 
 grasped and likely to be enduring values which 
 are themselves felt to be intrinsically important. 
 Any attempt at definite formulation and im- 
 pressing of these values and the kind of conduct 
 they require is certainly detrimental to the 
 literature as art, and is very likely to be harm- 
 ful to the moral influence which the values 
 might exercise, if left undisturbed in their 
 proper medium of feeling and imagination. The 
 same principle holds, of course, of methods that 
 utilize literature simply as a means of teaching 
 grammar, information about the history of 
 literary men, antiquities, or any of the diverse 
 
 224
 
 ART IN THE SCHOOLS 
 
 ART IN THE SCHOOLS 
 
 topics which have been hung upon literature as 
 upon a peg. J. D. 
 
 See Activity; Art in the Schools; Art, 
 Methods of Teaching; Course of Study, 
 Theory of; Design; Drawing; Dancing; 
 Occupations; Primitive Society, Education 
 
 IN. 
 
 References : — ■ 
 
 Gayon. Art from the Sodohgical Point of View. 
 Groos. The Beginnings of Art. 
 
 The Play of Men. (Now York, 1901.) 
 HiRN. The Origins of .Art. (London, 1900.) 
 Sant.wana. Sense of Beauty. (New York, 1896.) 
 
 The Life of Reason. V9I. IV. (New York, 1906.) 
 TuPTS. On the Genesis of the J£sthetic Categories. 
 
 (Chicago, 1903.) 
 Wallaschek. Primitive Music. (London, 1893.) 
 
 ART IN THE SCHOOLS. — Historical De- 
 velopment. — Free-hand drawing as an element 
 in education has been advocated since the time 
 of Aristotle, who included it among his subjects 
 of instruction. It appeared, however, neither 
 in the Triviiun nor the Quadrivium of later 
 schoolmen, and is not recognized as an important 
 element of study until we reach the educational 
 reformers of modern times. Comenius recom- 
 mends it strongly, as does Locke, who would 
 have the child taught to draw after he has 
 learned to write. Rousseau and Pestalozzi 
 both advocate it, the former for the skill it 
 gives, and the latter, with keener insight, for its 
 eifect upon the taste of the worker. Beside 
 drawing in the flat, Pestalozzi would have the 
 child study representation in three dimensions 
 through modeling in clay. His suggestions 
 were amplified and developed by Froebel, who 
 in his Kindergarten made drawing and aU forms 
 of representative handwork play an important 
 part. 
 
 In recent times the subject has come to occupy 
 a prominent place in the curriculum of the ele- 
 mentary school. Reasons physiologic as well 
 as pedagogic and economic are urged for its 
 teaching. It is presented as an instinctive 
 expression of the child, one which permits his 
 motor activities to be exercised and trained. 
 It is the most generally advocated form of 
 manual work, and in recent years has come to 
 be considered as the most fundamental of 
 vocational subjects. Its value as an {esthetic 
 agent in education is especially emphasized in 
 the United States. 
 
 The industrial argument for drawing is based 
 on economic reasons. Up to the middle of the 
 nineteenth century the usual education of the 
 artisan included an apprenticeship in which the 
 drawing of his trade formed an essential part. 
 The development of modern factory processes, 
 with the enormous increase in the use of machin- 
 ery, has caused the older trades to be divided 
 and subdivided and the apprenticeship system 
 practically to disappear. With this disappear- 
 ance there has risen, of necessity, a demand that 
 the elements of industrial drawing be taught 
 in the public schools. This demand first made 
 
 itself felt in the great manufacturing centers on 
 the Continent and in England, later in America, 
 and in 1870 it formed the chief argument 
 which led to the introduction of drawing into 
 Massachusetts, first of the states to require this 
 teaching. 
 
 In the first quarter of the nineteenth century 
 Prussia developed a scheme of elementary 
 teaching which soon came to be widely quoted. 
 A little later this was followed by action of the 
 English Parliament looking to the establish- 
 ment of a national school of design. This 
 school was opened in 1837, and in 1841 was ex- 
 tended through branch schools, with annual 
 state grants, into various of the manufacturing 
 districts of the kingdom. A sinniltaneous 
 development of industrial art education took 
 jilace in Denmark, France, and Austria, but 
 it was not until 1851 that the subject came, 
 through the International Exhibition in London, 
 to attract profound attention from economists 
 and educators. This exhibition placed before 
 the world at large the comparative excellence 
 of the art manufactures of the different Con- 
 tinental states and showed the great impor- 
 tance of art training for the artisan. 
 
 England immediately set about reorganizing 
 her national school, and, as the South Kensing- 
 ton system, made one of the first moves of the 
 new institution a department for the training 
 of art teachers for the elementary schools. A 
 coincident development took place in the indus- 
 trial art movement everywhere upon the Con- 
 tinent. This led to the multiplication of 
 schools of industrial art for a great variety 
 of trades, and to a considerable increase in the 
 attention to drawing in the elementary curric- 
 ulum. 
 
 In the United States, as has been noted, 
 drawing first made its public school appearance 
 at the industrial centers. In 1812 William 
 Bently Fowle, headmaister of a Boston public 
 school, introduced it as a required study, and 
 shortly thereafter translated for the use of 
 teachers an elementary work published in 
 France, on the drawing of geometric figures. 
 In 1827 the subject was introduced into the 
 English High School in Boston, where until 
 1836 it remained an optional study. Not, 
 however, until 1853 was a special teacher 
 assigned to the subject. Philadelphia, in 1842, 
 appointed one of its leading artists, Rembrant 
 Peale, to supervise drawing in its public schools; 
 and various other cities, after this date, intro- 
 duced it in some form or other. In most cases 
 it was in the high school that it appeared and 
 was generally offered as training in the making 
 of geometric figures and highly conventional 
 patterns. 
 
 The great manufacturing state of Massachu- 
 setts, feeling the industrial importance of the 
 subject, in 1860 included it as a permissive 
 topic in the curriculum, and ten years later 
 made the subject mandatory. 
 
 The rapid development of the subject under 
 
 VOL. 1 Q 
 
 225
 
 ART IN THE SCHOOLS 
 
 ART IN THE SCHOOLS 
 
 the new statute is indicated by the fact that, 
 while there is no reference to drawing in tlie 
 report of the state iioard for 1868, the year fol- 
 lowing the adoption of the statute, 1871, saw 
 extracts referring to it from the reports of 
 superintendents of 45 towns. With the adop- 
 tion of the statute referred to, Massachusetts 
 employed a director of industrial art in the 
 person of Walter Smith. The latter was a 
 teacher from England who had been trained 
 at South Kensington; and one of his first efforts 
 was to develop a scheme of training of grade 
 teachers in tiie city of Boston and tiiroughout 
 the state. In 1S73 the state organized a normal 
 school for the training of art teachers. This 
 has since graduated several hundred students, 
 and has influenced the development of normal 
 art departments in many other institutions. It 
 still remains tlie one state school in the country 
 devoted entirely to normal art teaching. 
 
 The effect of the International Exhibition 
 in London in 18.51 was to rouse in many ways 
 an interest in art throughout the kingdom. 
 Each of the great international fairs held since 
 has operated to develop critical comparisons 
 between the work of national systems of art 
 instruction. In the United States the Cen- 
 tennial Exhibition of 1876 served to quicken 
 general interest, no less than twelve large art 
 schools being organized in the first half of the 
 decade succeeding the Philadelphia Exposition. 
 These comparative exhibitions of work have 
 served as clearing houses for the exchange of 
 ideas, and to a large extent have led to a con- 
 siderable degree of unification in the general 
 approach to drawing. 
 
 As taught in the elementary school, the early 
 drawing both on the Continent and in America 
 was marked by formality of approach. The 
 subject was primarily regarded as a motor drill, 
 and practically no opportunity was given for 
 self-expression. Schoolmasters influenced by 
 the three R's were slow to admit that it had 
 any value other than a disciplinary one, though 
 some agreed that it might be an aid to penman- 
 ship. The exercises chiefly consisted of geo- 
 metric figures on cards, set for reproduction, 
 like the written copies of the writing master. 
 An advance was later made in offering pictures 
 in outline and in light and shade. These also 
 were offered as copies. Little, if any, work was 
 done from actual models, and the only really 
 practical part played by the subject was in 
 the making of maps. 
 
 Influences of Child Study. — Drawing ap- 
 peared as one of the most essential forms of 
 motor work in the Froebelian practice, but 
 even in the freer air of the kindergarten it re- 
 tained much of the formality referred to. It 
 remained for a new generation to undertake a 
 careful study of children's interests and of 
 their developments, with a view to determin- 
 ing, as regards drawing, both the nature of the 
 subject matter and the method of its teacliing 
 in the different school years. 
 
 This study of children incident to the general 
 development of genetic psychology has served, 
 jiarticularly in America, to introduce a large 
 degree of personal freedom and of personal 
 experience into the work of the drawing course. 
 A number of trained investigators have re- 
 corded their observations in monographs. 
 These include, among others, the studies of 
 Passy and Compayr^, Binet and Perez in 
 France, (Joetze, Pappenheim, Levenstein, and 
 Kerschensteiner in Ciermany, Ricci in Italy, 
 Cook, Hooper, and Partridge in England, 
 Barnes, Lukens, JMaitland, O'Shea, and Shinn 
 in America. 
 
 The general trend of these investigations 
 has served to emphasize the child's desire to 
 work in color and to use drawing as a direct 
 means of expression intimately akin to speech. 
 Practically no esthetic interest has been 
 found in the early years, though it appears as 
 a marked characteristic of atlolescence. The 
 spontaneous drawings of children are pictorial. 
 Decoration as such for the younger children has 
 only a secondary interest, chiefly in the jileas- 
 ure of rhythmic repetitions. Living things 
 and those connected with the child's life are 
 the most attractive. The young child elects 
 to draw from memory rather than from the 
 object, and to use liis drawing as a means of 
 telling a story. 
 
 In the latter part of the elementary school 
 period, from 9 to 14, profound changes take 
 place, both in the body and mind of the child. 
 In this pre-pubertal age childhood makes its 
 first advance toward youth, and the learner 
 becomes willing to undertake systematic prac- 
 tice to cultivate his manual skill. If the finer 
 muscular coordinations are not acquired at 
 this time, they become difficult of development 
 in later life. As adolescence progresses, general 
 ideas become attractive and the children are 
 more interested in the abstract in both form 
 and decoration. Their critical sense becomes 
 far keener, and their interest in nature and art 
 experiences a marked increase. 
 
 Present Position. — The result of the studies 
 referred to has been to alter the presentation 
 of drawing in both the elementary and inter- 
 mediate schools. The systems of the Continent 
 have reflected the change somewhat more 
 slowly than the English and American courses, 
 but for the most part there has been a consider- 
 able advance through all schools toward the 
 more natural use of drawing as a means of 
 expression by the young child. The u.se of 
 the formal geometric copy has very largely 
 disappeared. Color has been widely intro- 
 duced, and much work in the making of pictorial 
 illustrations is encouraged on the part of the 
 small children in all the more advanced Aus- 
 trian, German, and American schools. The 
 use of natural objects has taken the place of the 
 outline drawing card, and drawing from forms 
 of three dimensions are now called for in the 
 early lessons. With increasing industrial devel- 
 
 226
 
 ART IN THE SCHOOLS 
 
 ART IN THE SCHOOLS 
 
 opment there has been a coincident demand 
 that the drawing of the higher grades relate 
 itself as nearly as possible to the vocational 
 needs of the pupils. The teaching of plan and 
 instrumental drawing has been widelj' intro- 
 duced, especially in the German schools, while 
 instruction in applied design in color is coming 
 to occupy very considerable attention in both 
 American and Continental systems. At the 
 present time changes in the teaching of the 
 latter subject are still much in the making, and 
 any exhibition of work from a number of 
 cities will show steps in the transition all the 
 way from mechanically devised ornaments as 
 developed in the drawing books of the early 
 seventies to original and individual examples 
 of applied pattern in various forms of craft 
 work. 
 
 In 1900 a group of art teachers representing 
 a number of countries met at Paris at the 
 International Exhibition, and organized an 
 International Society for the development of 
 art teaching. A smaU international exhibition 
 was held at Berne by the association in 1904, 
 and an extended exhibition representing 37 
 countries in London in 1908. Nearly 2000 
 members were registered at the latter meeting. 
 The work shown illustrated the art teaching 
 from the infant classes through the normal, 
 industrial, and fine art schools of each nation. 
 
 A comparative study of the work of the 
 elementary schools showed greater precision 
 and formality in the teaching of the Continental 
 instructors, and greater freedom and individ- 
 uality in the work of the American cities. 
 The American scheme of study was as a whole 
 the more elaborate, carrying forward various 
 forms of work, illu.stration, nature drawing, 
 landscape, still life, applied design, from the 
 lower to the higher grades. Few of the Con- 
 tinental cities showed work from elementary 
 schools in applied decoration, but the work 
 from simple objects in the flat, leaves, feathers, 
 shells, insects, etc., reached high standards of 
 technical exceUence. Particular attention was 
 seen to be given in the German schools to the 
 use of free-hand sketching, in connection with 
 a variety of other subjects, as nature study, 
 physics, physiology, and local maps and plan 
 drawing. 
 
 Germany. — The later drawing of the German 
 schools bears traces of the earlier " systems " 
 which developed in different cities under strong 
 directors. The so-called Prussian system or- 
 ganized lay Stuhlmann at Hamburg carried the 
 pupil through a series of geometric ornamental 
 forms beginning with drawing on net lines. 
 It ended with the perspective drawing of solids. 
 Instruments were constantly employed, and 
 the models, as originally presented, were very 
 formal in character — blocks, moldings, etc. 
 In contrast with the Prussian sj-stem was the 
 so-called Leipzig plan developed under Flinzer. 
 This discarded all net lines, and began with 
 free-hand work. Thus it continued through 
 
 the entire course, drawing from solids being 
 undertaken in the third grade. The plan in the 
 Westphalia schools included drawing from 
 three-dimension forms in the lower grades. 
 Mention should also be made of the Munich 
 plan recently developed by Kerschensteiner. 
 This places much emphasis on decorative brush 
 work in primitive geometric style, and on im- 
 aginative drawing on the part of the smaller 
 children. It develops a different syllabus for 
 boys and girls in the primary schools, and 
 places stress on the early teaching of memory 
 drawing following class discussion. Drawing 
 from nature is introduced about the age of 
 10. The scheme as a whole is based on an 
 elaborate study made in the Bavarian schools 
 by the superintendent of Munich. While 
 drawing in the German elementary schools 
 receives careful attention, one must look to the 
 industrial schools to find it in its most signifi- 
 cant form. A very large number of these 
 institutions have within the last 50 years been 
 created throughout Germany. In all of them 
 industrial drawing forms one of the most impor- 
 tant elements of the curriculum. For the most 
 part this drawing is highly specialized and deals 
 with the particular type of work most essential 
 to success in the industry for which the school 
 prepares, that is, with drawing for machinists, 
 for carvers, jewelers, sign-painters, etc. In- 
 strumental or plan drawing in these schools is 
 universal, and the eciuipments are noteworthy 
 for their elaborate models. 
 
 SunUerland. — Other of the Continental gov- 
 ernments have created schools on similar lines. 
 Switzerland, for example, makes drawing com- 
 pulsory in the elementary schools, where the 
 work is taught by the class teacher. The 
 higher grades give 2 hours a week to free- 
 hand drawing and 2 hours a week to instru- 
 mental drawdng. For older pupils there are 
 very completely organized technical and art 
 and craft schools in Berne, Lucerne, Geneva, 
 and other industrial centers. The work of the 
 industrial art school of Zurich has become 
 widely known through its technical excellence. 
 
 England. — The development of these in- 
 dustrial art schools upon the Continent has 
 been paralleled by a number of the larger 
 cities of England and Scotland. Each of these 
 municipalities has a more or less complete 
 elementary school course from the first to the 
 seventh standard, covering the years between 
 7 and 14. A kindergarten or infant school 
 course precedes this. The work in the lower 
 classes is largely free, and in the more highly 
 developed systems, as at Leicester, about half 
 the school time is reported to be given to draw- 
 ing and manual training. In the elementary 
 grades or standards some 3 hours a week are 
 given to drawing, with from 1 to 2\ hours 
 additional for handwork. The class teachers 
 give the instruction, and normal art methods 
 form a required study in the training schools. 
 The work in the elementary schools is designed 
 
 227
 
 ART IN THE SCHOOLS 
 
 ART IN THE SCHOOLS 
 
 to lead forward talented pupils to the munic- 
 ipal art school. Sometimes, as in Leicester, 
 Bradford, liiriiiiiiKhain, or Leeds, this is one 
 large central institution with a great variety 
 of classes in all forms of industrial art; some- 
 times, as in London, many separate art centers 
 are developed. Some of these are special, as 
 tlie jihoto-engraving school of Fleet Street, but 
 many have varied courses, as the Camden 
 School of Art, the Central School of Arts and 
 Crafts, the Hammersmith School of Arts and 
 Crafts, and the Cambervvell School of Arts 
 and Crafts, etc. In these industrial art 
 schools, teachers of high technical training are 
 employed, and drawings, designs, and craft 
 work of marked merit are produced. Eng- 
 land's national scheme of art training has its 
 center at South Kensington. Here appears 
 the Royal College of Art, established for the 
 training of art teachers and for the instruction 
 of students in fine arts, architecture, manufac- 
 tures, and decoration. It is primarily intended 
 for the unusually talented workers who have 
 been trained in local schools and who are 
 selected by a competitive examination for ad- 
 mission to the college. The latter has 4 
 schools, one of architecture, one of ornament, 
 a school of decorative painting, and one of 
 sculpture. A number of craft classes supjile- 
 ment the school of ornament, and valuable 
 scholarships make po.ssible the thorough educa- 
 tion of the more gifted pupils. At South Ken- 
 sington the Board of Education annually holds 
 a national competition. This is for the awards 
 of numerous prizes for a large number of proj- 
 ects which are offered for graphic solution. 
 The report of the competition for 1908 noted 
 nearly 14,000 works submitted from 230 schools 
 of art throughout the kingdom. In addition 
 833 were submitted from 58 science schools, 
 970 from 1 14 art evening schools and day 
 classes, and 93 from 3 technical institutions. 
 Elaborately illustrated reports of these compe- 
 titions indicate the high order of excellence of 
 tiie work of the prize winners. 
 
 America. — Art education in the United 
 States has of necessity no central organization 
 similar to that of South Kensington. Many 
 individual states, following the example of 
 Mas.sachusetts, have directed that drawing be 
 taught in the schools throughout the state, but 
 only two states, Massachusetts and New York, 
 have state directors of the subject. For the 
 most part, the development of the topic has 
 been left to the initiative of the school officers 
 of the cities and local communities. Consider- 
 able variations in the time given and the subject 
 studied are therefore to be found. 
 
 The usual organization includes a super- 
 vising teacher who lays out and directs the 
 work of the grade teachers. Many rural 
 schools, however, have not the advantage of 
 such expert direction, and are either ol)liged to 
 have recourse to drawing books or to omit the 
 subject. In the smaller towns the supervisor, 
 
 generally a woman, teaches in the high schooL 
 The larger systems have a separate teacher in 
 this school, and in some of the greater cities 
 4 or 5 art instructors in one building. In these 
 cities numerous as.sistant sujicrvisors are em- 
 ployed. New York City leading, with over 50 
 of these district directors. 
 
 The time given varies much in different 
 cities. San Francisco, Albany, Detroit, and a 
 few others give 1 hour a week in all grades. 
 Many other towns report IJ hours to drawing, 
 while others relate the drawing and manual 
 work so closely that the time for each is not 
 indicated. Thus Philadelphia requires 100 
 miinites per week for drawing and construc- 
 tive work in the first 4 years, and 120 minutes 
 in the last 4. New York has 2 hours a week 
 for the manual arts in the first 3 years, increas- 
 ing through the higher years until 25 hours 
 arc given in the seventh and eiglith grades. 
 Boston records the largest proportion of time 
 of any city. It devotes 21 hours to the manual 
 arts in the first year, 3 hours from the second 
 through the fifth, and 5 hours a week in the sixth, 
 seventh, and eighth years. Many of these 
 cities issue elaborate outlines of study, illus- 
 trated in some cases with scores of drawings. 
 The.se courses, as a rule, present 4 different 
 topics — illu.strative or pictorial drawing, repre- 
 sentative or object drawing, applied design, and 
 instrumental or working drawing. An addi- 
 tional subject in the form of picture study 
 frequently appears. This is offered with the 
 view of devcloi)ing the pupil's sense of appreci- 
 ation of pictorial art and of acquainting him 
 with the work of the more famous painters. 
 
 As has been noted, there appears throughout 
 the American system a progressive tendency 
 to unite the drawing and the manual training 
 or constructive work into a coordinate whole. 
 Certain cities therefore offer their work in the 
 "manual arts "rather than in drawing and in 
 handwork. The plan generally followed leaves 
 to the first 4 years, or the so-called primary 
 grades, the greater part of the illustrative draw- 
 ing. With this is associated the first steps 
 in object drawing and simple constructive work 
 in paper, clay, raffia, cord, etc. There is a 
 marked trend toward developing the.se different 
 subjects around "centers of interest" related 
 to the language, nature work, and other studies 
 of the grade. Much of the work is done in 
 color, chalk, crayon, or water-color paints being 
 employed. The illustrative drawing develops 
 pictures of scenes dealing with the various 
 topics studied, while the representative work 
 is done largely from the model. Flowers, 
 vegetables, toys, and simple objects are em- 
 ployed. The chief aim of the earlier work 
 may be defined as an effort to induce the pupils 
 to use their drawing freely and in spirited and 
 individual fashion, to lead to an increasing 
 refinement of muscular coordination, and to 
 waken a definite interest in form and color. 
 
 The work of the grades from the fourth 
 
 22s
 
 ART IN THE SCHOOLS 
 
 ART IN THE SCHOOLS 
 
 through the eighth year sees the introduction 
 of applied design. With the increase of the 
 critical faculty the illustrative drawing be- 
 comes less valuable and the study of decoration 
 of more service. The designs are commonly 
 developed in color, and for the most part are 
 applied to constructed forms made in card- 
 board, leather, wood, etc. In many systems 
 a considerable amount of elementary craft 
 work is done in the form of stenciling, block 
 printing, leather tooling, etc. This offers 
 additional opportunities for the application of 
 pattern. Representative drawing in the upper 
 grades is done from a large variety of simple 
 models, sometimes in light and shade, but more 
 often in drawings in colored crayon or chalk, 
 or in pencil outline. The working drawing 
 taught in these grades includes simple plans, 
 and requires the use of drawing board, com- 
 passes, and triangles. Where, as in many cases, 
 elementary shopwork is taught to these boys, 
 the latter drawing is used to develop the re- 
 quired plans for the shop. The girls of related 
 classes study either sewing or cooking, and are 
 often required to learn garment drafting in 
 place of the instrumental drawing taught to 
 boys. Throughout the upper years many draw- 
 ing outlines offer specific suggestions relative 
 to training in art appreciation. Well-known 
 pictures are presented for study, a number of 
 business firms supplying for this purpose small 
 and inexpensive reproductions of masterpieces. 
 Where this work is done it is generally asso- 
 ciated with the language teaching. In the high 
 schools there is a marked tendency to make 
 this training in art appreciation of first impor- 
 tance. The earlier teaching was characterized 
 by an effort to reproduce the atmosphere of the 
 art school. Much work was done in drawing 
 from the cast and in more or less elaborate 
 studies of the antique. The earlier high schools 
 that required drawing were few and far be- 
 tween. Even at the present time the subject 
 is only to be found in the larger cities and in 
 well-organized rural systems. In Massachusetts 
 as late as 1903, 105 of the 244 high schools gave 
 no attention to drav/ing. Since then many of 
 these schools have introduced it, and it has 
 been made a required element in the high 
 school curriculum of the state of New York. 
 
 The change in approach to drawing in the 
 high school has been of a nature similar to that 
 in the grades. It has been realized that few of 
 the pupils in these schools can become artists, 
 and that the aim of such training should rather 
 be to help the many to see their study in art as 
 something of much value to them in their every- 
 day life. This effort to make the work more 
 alive and appealing has turned the course from 
 the older studio " cast drawing " toward work 
 in applied design. The movement is one which 
 aims to lead the pupil to see that art must exist 
 in good form or bad, in his dress, his home, and 
 in the town in which he lives. It assumes that 
 taste is a subject which can be taught, and strives 
 
 to teach it, not by talking about it, but through 
 the effort to create fine patterns for hangings, 
 simple forms for jewels, simpler decorations for 
 dress, and a great variety of objects which may 
 be developed through the minor crafts. 
 
 Differentiation of high school courses has 
 already in the larger cities led to highly special- 
 ized work in drawing of a vocational nature. 
 Thus commercial high schools offer courses 
 which lay emphasis on commercial design, 
 printing, and composition, while manual train- 
 ing high schools place major weight on instru- 
 mental drawing and constructive design. A 
 few other schools of a technical nature offer 
 opportunity to their pupils to specialize in art 
 and to devote as much as half of the school 
 time in the higher years to forms of industrial 
 drawing and design. In these institutions tech- 
 nical standards are being raised to approach 
 the higlily developed work of the Continent. 
 The general high school system in America is 
 not organized on lines similar to those of second- 
 ary schools in Europe. The difference appears 
 clearlj' in the aim of the art teaching, the em- 
 phasis being rather upon the technical side in 
 Continental institutions and upon the esthetic 
 side in schools in the United States. Tech- 
 nique in the latter schools is by no means 
 ignored, but it is generally assumed that few 
 of the pupils will ever become technicians, and 
 that the comparatively little time given to the 
 subject of drawing should be directed so far as 
 possible to raising the pupil's appreciation and 
 sharpening his critical sense for fine form, har- 
 monious color, and appropriate decoration. 
 One of the elements prejudicing the early devel- 
 opment of drawing in high schools was the re- 
 fusal of college authorities to accept it as a 
 subject for credit on examination for admi.ssion. 
 Within recent years a number of the leading 
 universities have permitted drawing to be offered 
 on entrance, and a few have made it a required 
 subject for technical, engineering, fine arts, 
 and architectural courses. 
 
 Municipal industrial art schools of the type 
 common in all the larger European cities are 
 as yet rare in the United States. Nearly every 
 city of any size can boast some school giving 
 industrial art training, but for the most part 
 these schools are under private foundations. 
 The great majority of them see the industrial 
 art work as but one, and often a minor phase 
 of work, while the school devotes its chief at- 
 tention to its fine and normal art courses. 
 
 The growth of institutions for the training of 
 art teachers has been considerable. Massa- 
 chusetts, as was noted, organized, in 1870, the 
 first and only state school whose sole purpose is 
 to educate teachers of art. More than 50 
 schools now offer normal art courses of from 
 1 to 4 years, while the state normal schools (for 
 the general training of teachers) commonly 
 present some work in methods of art teaching 
 to their students. Supplementing the work 
 of the normal art schools there has developed, 
 
 •229
 
 ART IN THE SCHOOLS 
 
 ART TEACHING 
 
 largely within the last decade, a system of 
 summer art schools, where brief courses are 
 given in methods and in the arts and crafts. 
 These are ilesigned for the instruction of art su- 
 pervisors and teachers from the grades. The 
 larger number of these schools are connected 
 with colleges and art institutions which offer 
 extended courses in the winter sessions. 
 
 There are numerous professional organiza- 
 tions of drawing teachers both in Europe and 
 America. England has an Art Teachers' (Juild 
 and London an Association of Art Masters. In 
 Scotland there is also an Art Teachers' Associa- 
 tion at Dundee and Hamilton. All of these 
 associations, together with those in the United 
 States, are represented in the International 
 Association of Art Teachers. The earliest as- 
 sociation of art teachers in the United States was 
 organized in 1874 by students of the Massa- 
 chu.sctts Normal Art School. At the present 
 time three interstate associations hold annual 
 meetings, the papers of which are published in 
 volumes of transactions. All of these societies, 
 through the intimacy of relation which has 
 grown up between art and handwork, exist 
 as Associations of Art and Manual Training 
 Teachers. The Eastern draws its membership 
 from the Atlantic seaboard, the Western from 
 the Middle states, and the Pacific from west 
 of the Rocky Mountains. 
 
 The National Education Association also has 
 its Department of Art and Manual Training, 
 which meets annually in connection with the 
 general association. For the past nine years 
 the Council of Supervisors of the Manual Arts 
 has issued a Year I3ook containing the studies of 
 its members. In a large number of states there 
 are to be found local art societies meeting as a 
 rule with the State Teachers' Association. The 
 literature issued by these various organizations 
 is now considerable. It offers the best source 
 in which to study the aim and ideals of the 
 American art teachers. J. P. H. 
 
 See ^Esthetics; Art in Education; Art, 
 Methods of Te.\ching; Course of Study, 
 Theory of; Design; Dr.\wing. 
 
 References: — 
 
 American Art Annual. 7 vols., 1898, 1899, 1900, 190.3, 
 1905, 1907, 1909-1910. F. N. Levy, Editor. Biog- 
 raphies of American Painters and Illustrators and 
 Crafts Workers. Art Schools and Organizations, 
 Art Sales, etc. American Art Annual, New 
 York. 
 
 AH and Industry. I. Edwards Clark, Editor. 4 vols. 
 Part I. INS.';. Drawing in Puhlic Schools: Part II. 
 1892, Inihislrial luid Maiiniil Training; Parts III 
 and IV, 1S'.(7 IS'.ts, Industrial and Technical Train- 
 ing. Bureau of Education, Washington, D.C 
 
 Art Education in the Public Schools of the United States. 
 J. P. Haney, Editor. 8vo., 432 pp., 105 pis. Ameri- 
 can Art Annual. (New York, 1908.) 
 
 Babnes, E.\rl. ,Stiidiis in Education. 2 vols. Illus. 
 (Stanford University and Philadelphia, 1897.) 
 
 Colin, Paul. Enseigncment dcs Arts du dessin. (In 
 Paris Exposition universcUe, 1889.) Rapports du 
 jury inlernafl. 1890-1S92, Vol. VI, pp. 121-248. 
 
 ConRAJOD, Louis C. L. Histoire de I'eijseignement des 
 arts du dessin en XVIII sUcle; I'Ecolc royale des 
 Aleves protegis. 8vo. (Paris, 1874.) 
 
 GoTZE. W. Das Kind als Kiinsllrr. (Hamburg, 1898.) 
 
 Great Britain — -Education, Committee of Council on 
 
 — Science and Art Department. Directory with 
 
 regulations for establishing and coiulueting science 
 
 and art schools. (London.) 
 
 Instruction in Fine and Manual Arts in the United Stales. 
 
 .'statistical monograph ; H. T. Bailey, Editor. 
 
 Forming Bull. VI, 1909, U.S. Bureau of Education, 
 
 Washington, D.C. 
 
 Jahrlmch filr den Zeichen-und Kunslunterrichl. Edited 
 
 by G. Freise, Hanover. 
 Kerchensteiner, G. Die Enttmekelung der Zeichner- 
 
 ischcn Bcgabung. (Munich, 1905.) 
 Lerez. L'Art et la Poisie chcz V Enfant. (Paris, 1888.) 
 Proceedings Eastern Art Teachfrs' Association (now 
 Eastern Art and Manual Training Teachers' 
 Association). 6 vols., 8vo. Pub. bv the Association, 
 E. E. Struble, See. (Newark, N..I.) 
 Proceedings National Education A.^socialio7i (Annual) ; 
 see Department of Art Education. (Pub. by the 
 Association, Winona, Miim.) 
 Proceedings Western Drawing Teachers^ Association (now 
 Western Drawing and Manual Training Teachers' 
 Association). 16 vols. (Pub. bv the Association, 
 W. T. Bawden, Editor, Normal, 111.) 
 Report of Examiners, National Competitors, Board of 
 Education, South Kensington. Annual. (Wynian 
 and Sons, London.) 
 School Art Book. Monthly magazine. 9 vols. Illus. 
 
 (Pub. by the Davis Press, \Vorcester, Mass.) 
 Sparks, John C. L. Schools of Art, their origin, history, 
 work and influence. In Report International 
 Health Eihib., Vol. 8. pp. 721-880. (London, 18S4.) 
 Transactions International Art Congress, Vols. 1900. 1904, 
 1908. Vol. Ill, 1908. (Pub. by the Congress, 
 151 Cannon St., London, S.C.) 
 Yearbooks of the Council of Supervisors of the Manual 
 Arts. 7 vols., 8vo. 1901-1907. Illustrated Stud- 
 ies in Art Education by various writers. (Pub. by 
 Society : address E. D. Griswold, Hastings-on-Hud- 
 son, New Y^rk.) 
 It is to be noted that practically all the large cities in the 
 United States and England publish their art courses 
 of study for the public schools ; various cities and 
 localities on the (Jontinent do the same. 
 
 ART, METHODS OF TEACHING.- Meth- 
 ods of teaching art depend ujion the conception 
 of art held and upon the purposes for which 
 the subject is introduced into the curriculum. 
 If the purpose is to interest the pujiil in nature 
 or to develop the power of observation, or the 
 power of coordinating ideas and hand manipu- 
 lation, as is often stated, no strictly a-sthetic 
 purpose is involved, and a type of method 
 wholly different from those adopted for the 
 development of artistic appreciation is ajipro- 
 priate. Again the conception of art, w'hcther 
 it is imitation of nature or the expression of 
 harmonies of form, tone, and color, has a decid- 
 ing influence on the type of method adopted. 
 
 Individuals varj' and modify the details of 
 their methods of teaching, but all art instruc- 
 tion can be classified under two heads according 
 to the point of view and the principles involved. 
 "These systems are radically different in charac- 
 ter, affecting the entire makeup and conduct of 
 courses of study. They are, respectively, the 
 academic (analytic), the structural (synthetic). 
 The academic method is a reflection of the 
 professional art school. Its origin may be traced 
 to the later Renaissance. The method is tra- 
 ditional and scientific, making the acquirement 
 of knowledge of nature's facts the first step 
 and the foundation of all progress. The pupil 
 
 230
 
 ART TEACHING 
 
 ART TEACHING 
 
 learns to draw, but defers expression until 
 he has attained proficiency in representation. 
 The process is imitative, and the standard 
 external. The structural is a return to the natu- 
 ral method of pre-academic days. It was tlie 
 method practiced in Europe from ancient times 
 down to the Renaissance, and is still used by 
 the Orientals and by all who are independent of 
 scientific domination. The approach is through 
 structure — the building up of harmonies of 
 shape, tone, and color — and the purpose is 
 the development of power in the individual. 
 Self-expression begins at once, involving all 
 forms of drawing, and leading to appreciation. 
 The process is creative, and the standard is 
 individual judgment as to fine relations. 
 
 The academic method is trulj' analytic, teach- 
 ing the pupils " to see," to gather fact upon fact, 
 to store up knowledge, to acquire skill. Its 
 analogue is the old way of teaching language 
 through grammar, rather than through use of 
 the language. Self-expression in terms of line, 
 tone, and color is deferred, and appreciation is 
 only a by-product. It brings about a some- 
 what sentimental view of external nature as the 
 source of all art. Whistler's remark that 
 " nature is seldom right " was a blow at this 
 false standard. Critics of the academic school 
 must refer aU excellence to nature. For ex- 
 ample, they interpret Greek art in terms of fact 
 
 — making the study of the bodies of athletes 
 the source of artistic power. They measure 
 Japanese art, not by quality, but by truth and 
 perspective. This imitative and scientific sys- 
 tem is derived from the eighteenth-century 
 academies and is being followed in our modern 
 academies of art. It owes its origin to the late 
 Renaissance, when creative power was feeble 
 and interest in the sciences dominant. Because 
 one of the greatest of all artists, Leonardo da 
 Vinci, was possessed of boundless curiosity 
 and sought the secret of nature with toilsome 
 persistency, his followers concluded that the 
 pursuit of truth was the laasis of art study. 
 Leonardo himself, like all the masters of the 
 Renaissance, was trained by apprenticeship 
 
 — in fact, by a structural method — to strive 
 for quality and mystery and power in expres- 
 sion. His genius controlled his scientific in- 
 struction, and he built aU his knowledge into 
 his art fabric. 
 
 Continuing the traditional scientific scheme, 
 the academic method in these days requires 
 that schools and courses of instruction be 
 highly specialized. The relation of object draw- 
 ing, cast drawing, light and shade work, and 
 stiU-life painting to mural decoration, house 
 furnishing, costume, handicraft, and the indus- 
 tries is not very clear. It is often forced — 
 for example, the naturalistic flowers in full 
 modeling repeated over wall paper, carpets, and 
 china with no reference whatever to any prin- 
 ciple of design. The processes . and subjects 
 of academic teaching are good in themselves, 
 but the emphasis is iu the wrong place. The 
 
 tendency is to make art in schools cither a 
 pretty accomplishment or an adjunct to some 
 business pursuit. 
 
 The structural method disregards the theories 
 of the eighteenth-century academicians, and 
 ignores their division of the subject into repre- 
 sentative and decorative art. Instead of 
 setting up external nature as the standard, the 
 action of the human mind in harmony-building 
 becomes the foundation for studJ^ The ele- 
 ments of space art are shape, tone, and color, 
 the whole visible world being revealed in these 
 terms. Education in space art follows the 
 analogy of music and literature — beginning 
 with structures of a simple order — a few lines, 
 a few sounds, a few words — and proceetfing 
 onward by steady growth. Rhythm, subor- 
 dination, symmetry, proportion, tone values, 
 color schemes are fundamental to all the arts, 
 at least by analogy. From this point of view 
 design, instead of being classed as " decoration," 
 is seen to be the very primer of art. Nature's 
 beauties are cases of accidental harmonic 
 structure, to be copied not as a mere exercise, 
 but because they are beautiful and the study 
 of them increases capacity for appreciation, 
 or because they suggest motives for design. 
 
 Synthesis (self-expression) is the center of 
 effort, with the sciences as aids. The fine 
 arts of architecture, painting, and sculpture 
 have been developed from industries, not from 
 nature or the bodies of athletes. The begin- 
 ning and the end is the relation of forms to 
 spaces, not the copying of anything. Greek 
 art, from its earliest to the best period, is an 
 effort in compo.sition — the purpose being to 
 attain finer and finer relations of line and space. 
 When the artists turned their attention to 
 copjdng facts (human bodies), Greek art dis- 
 appeared. The same may be said of Italian 
 art, of textile design, and of Gothic art. 
 
 What we call art springs from a desire to 
 make things " look well." The raw materials 
 may be put together in a rude way, for mere use, 
 or may serve a higher use by being put together 
 in a fine way, satisfying a strong desire of human 
 nature. This finer way means ability to make 
 the best choice — and this comes from the 
 trained judgment. The history of art develop- 
 ment shows that whenever the workers con- 
 stantly improved upon ])roportion, tone, and 
 color there was growth into fine art. The 
 simple process of adapting forms to spaces 
 began with painting on clay bowls and carving 
 the handles of utensils or weapons — and 
 ended in the Greek sculptures, the Gothic 
 cathedral, the mural painting. There was 
 no distinction between art and industry, 
 between representative and decorative. 
 
 A course of structural art teaching begins 
 with simple forms of creative work, the pupil 
 drawing upon all nature and all the art of the 
 world for examples. Representation and the 
 sciences become aids to self-expression, rather 
 than preliminary exercises, as under the aca- 
 
 231
 
 ART TEACHING 
 
 ART SCHOOLS 
 
 demic system. There is opportunity for im- 
 mediate ai)plication in industry, liandicraft, 
 home decoration and costume. 
 
 The structural method of art teaching, 
 though comparatively new in the United States, 
 is not new as a principle. The old system of 
 apprenticeship taught art in practically this 
 form. Art is studied in this way in Japan. 
 The Japanese, however, have introduced the 
 academic system in some of their schools, and 
 the two are conducted side by side. It is 
 significant that designers for the great Japanese 
 industries of lacquer, metal, and textile, are 
 trained by the pure Japanese (synthetic) 
 method. The art of Persia, India, Turkey, 
 China, in fact of the whole Orient, is a higher 
 form of industry, developed without copying 
 nature or historic styles. In the United States 
 the art teaching in professional schools has 
 followed largely tlie academic method. Nor- 
 mal art courses for the training of teachers 
 have been until recently thoroughly academic, 
 the subjects being object drawing, life drawing, 
 water color painting (still life, figure, landscape), 
 pen and ink, perspective, anatomy, etc. The 
 inadequacy of this and the feeling that art 
 training must be something more than pastime, 
 together with the increased interest in industrial 
 education, have forced synthetic methods 
 into manj' of the normal schools, adding to the 
 academic courses composition in line, dark-and- 
 light, and color, and studies in art appreciation. 
 
 An influential illustration of this type is to 
 be seen in the art work of Teachers College, 
 Columbia University. Here the structural 
 method is adopted, with a 2 years' course 
 (capable of being extended to 4 years) for the 
 training of art teachers, supervisors, designers, 
 craftsmen, painters, and sculptors. The first 
 or junior year is given to general work in prin- 
 ciples of design, drawing, painting, modeling, 
 art appreciation, history of art, and psychology ; 
 the second or senior year, to special studies of 
 advanced composition, with figures and land- 
 scape, painting of figures, still life and land- 
 scape, advanced design, house decoration, his- 
 tory of education, theory and practice of 
 teacliing art, practice teaching. With these 
 courses arc closely associated handwork in the 
 industrial and household arts — wood, metal, 
 pottery, costume design, and house furnishing. 
 
 The structural method is now found side by 
 side with the academic in many schools, passing 
 under the name of design (q.v.) or composition 
 (q.v.). 
 
 These two influences are reflected in the art 
 teaching in the public schools, with the aca- 
 demic in the ascendant, though evidently losing 
 ground from year to year. The old rigid 
 copy books and the type forms have given 
 way to nature drawing, mass painting, and 
 illustration. These, however, tending to put 
 art among the pastimes, cannot hold the 
 monopoly. Design with its stimulating appli- 
 cation in industry, and the new thought of art 
 
 teaching as a development of i)ower, have intro- 
 duced new problems and caused the study of 
 sijacing, dark-and-light, and the a])i)lication 
 in manual training to have more prominence. 
 In the yearly exhibitions of school art the 
 academic influence is seen in mass painting, 
 blotty landscapes in color, dictation exercises 
 in landscape, pose drawling (figures not in 
 action), illustration in crayon, water color, and 
 cut paper. The structural influence appears 
 in designs (for panels, book covers, pages, 
 posters), massing in two and more values, land- 
 scape in a few flat tones, illustrations for books, 
 color schemes, pottery, baskets, bookbinding, 
 wood and metal construction, brush drawing, 
 pencil drawing, painting in flat tones, with or 
 without outline. Wood block jirinting ujion 
 textiles and paper was iiitrotlueed into the 
 Teachers College practice school in 1905, and 
 has since been extensively adopted in elemen- 
 tary and secondary schools, and in art schools, 
 as a method of studying composition of pattern 
 and of making experiments in color harmony. 
 
 A. W. D. 
 See: Art in the Schools; Composition; 
 Design; Drawing. 
 
 References: — 
 Dow. A. \y. Composition. (New York.) 
 
 Theory and Practice of Teactnng Art. (Publication 
 of Teachers College, New York.) 
 
 ART SCHOOLS AND ART INSTRUC- 
 TION. — In Europe. — France. — In a concise 
 review of the art schools of Europe the first 
 place must justly be accorded to France. That 
 country has been the art center of the world 
 since the displacement of Italy from tiiat 
 position, when the Renaissance movement had 
 lost its vitality in the peninsula. Throughout 
 all vicissitudes, political and religious, wliich 
 at times have amounted to cataclysms and 
 have occasioned temporary chaos, France has 
 preserved her art impulse, and immediately 
 upon the institution of a new order of things, 
 she has proceeded to a new artistic expression, 
 indicative of changed conditions, yet always 
 distinctly national. 
 
 To begin with France is also the natural 
 manner of procedure, since the interest of a 
 large,body of enlightened Americans centers in 
 the Ecole dcs Beaux-Arts, or in the ateliers of 
 Paris. 
 
 The first-named institution, whose title 
 appears to lose something of its meaning when 
 translated into English as " School of Fine 
 Arts," is the oldest foundation of its kind exists 
 ing north of the Alps. It owes its inception to 
 Cardinal Mazarin, who, in 1648, organized it 
 as a school of painting and sculpture, modeled, 
 as to general features, upon the academies of 
 Rome, Bologna, and Florence; while that 
 other great minister, Colbert, who was a wise 
 patron of the fine arts and a most farseeing 
 economist, created, in 1671, a school of archi- 
 tecture, thus completing one of the most 
 
 232
 
 ART SCHOOLS 
 
 ART SCHOOLS 
 
 durable administrative triumphs of the long, 
 brilhant reign of Louis the Fourteenth. The 
 initiative of France was followed by the foun- 
 dation of the Academy of Berlin in 1694, and 
 by that of the Royal Academy of London in 
 1766, these dates showing that the Academies 
 des Beaux-Arts of France were already some- 
 what advanced upon their civilizing mission 
 at the time when the first art schools of the 
 eastern and the northern neighbors of that 
 country were entering upon their existence. 
 It is, also, interesting to note in passing that 
 the academies of France early extended their 
 influence to America; since scarcely had the 
 independence of the colonies been assured, when 
 the municipal council of Boston proposed to 
 send a commission to examine them with a 
 view to founding a similar institution. 
 
 The Revolution of 1789-1793 suppressed all 
 existing academies of art, science, and literature 
 in France, to replace them, after a short interval, 
 by a composite body known as the Institut 
 National, two sections of which, the Academy 
 of Painting and Sculpture founded by Wazarin, 
 and the Academy of Architecture founded by 
 Colbert, were finally united in 1816, the year 
 following the fall of Napoleon and the restora- 
 tion of the Bourbon dynasty. 
 
 From this moment the real Ecole des Beaux- 
 Arts dates its existence, although in 1863 it 
 submitted to a radical change in administra- 
 tion effected by M. de Nieuwerkerke, a min- 
 ister of Napoleon Third, who, after an exciting 
 struggle maintained by parliamentarians and 
 publicists, succeeded in depriving the school 
 of the authority to rule itself, and in placing it 
 under tlie direction of the French government. 
 Since this cri.sis the changes in the school have 
 been solely those of evolution, such as the estab- 
 lishment of new professorships and of courses of 
 "simultaneous," that is, of "theoretic studies; 
 also, the admission of women, the first exami- 
 nation leading to this contested departure 
 from old restrictions having occurred in the 
 Section of Drawing and Painting, in June, 1897, 
 when out of 42 candidates who presented 
 themselves, 10 were received as students. For 
 foreigners the main interest of the Ecole des 
 Beaux-Arts has long centered in the Section or 
 School of Architecture, which, in spite of steady 
 criticism directed against it from more or less 
 powerful sources, yet ranks, beyond all doubt, 
 as the first in the world. (See Architectural 
 Education.) 
 
 Regarding the value of the training offered 
 by this most important section of the school, 
 there have been and -ndll continue to be 
 the most varying opinions expressed in the 
 United States. But the discussion, when 
 reduced to its lowest terms, would appear 
 to be based on the natural opposition exist- 
 ing between Latin and Teutonic methods; 
 between highly developed organization on the 
 one side, and strong individualism on the other. 
 And one who disinterestedly examines the 
 
 question at issue cannot do otherwise than 
 acknowledge advantages: in the federated 
 system of ateliers which make up the school; 
 in the teaching of design by practicing architects 
 of the highest distinction, who are paid for 
 their services almost whoUy by the honor attach- 
 ing to their professorships; in the division of 
 the students into anciens and nouveaux, the 
 former of whom criticize the work and aid in 
 the studies of the latter, thereby effecting the 
 perfect unity of the student body, which is a 
 first essential of success in an educational insti- 
 tution. Furthermore, the long hfe of the 
 school is in itself a proof of its very positive 
 value. It has had an existence of more than 
 two and a half centuries; for the Revolution of 
 1789 did not interrupt the continuity of its 
 traditions. It stands, therefore, as an example 
 of the law of the survival of the fittest, as do 
 consequently the methods which it professes, 
 since these are the outcome of generation after 
 generation of the best thought and experience 
 of able architects. The princijiles of natural 
 selection are as incontrovertible in art as in 
 nature, and nowhere in the domain of the 
 former are they better set forth than in the 
 present strong vitality of the School of Architec- 
 ture of the Beaux-Arts. Nor are the main 
 results of the training given in this school, as 
 some critics would have them to be, a series of 
 formula", a command of certain architectural 
 forms, a narrow, bigoted belief in certain styles. 
 On the contrary, these results, even if judged in 
 a restricted sense, that is, by the life work of 
 the serious American students of the school, 
 appear to be: rational methods of attacking 
 and of .studying all problems presented; clear 
 expression of the plan in the elevation; high 
 development of the quahties of dignity, beauty, 
 and refinement. In support of these state- 
 ments we have but to turn to the Pubhc Libra- 
 ries of Boston and New York, to the National 
 Academy of Design and the Tribune Building 
 in the latter city, to superb domestic types 
 Hke the residence of George Vanderbilt, at 
 Asheville, N. C, and having impartially studied 
 them, we must conclude that the School 
 of Architecture of the Beaux-Arts is a foun- 
 tainhead of good doctrine; furthermore, that 
 schools of this nature serve to unify one 
 generation with another, and that it is only 
 the few creative geniuses sweeping, like meteors, 
 the heavens of art, who can afford to neglect 
 severe academic training. 
 
 As to , the Section of Drawing and Painting 
 of the Ecole des Beaux-Arts, they have less 
 interest for American readers, since the majority 
 of the students of these arts from our country 
 elect to work in some one of the private acad- 
 emies, or ateliers, there paying moderate rates 
 of tuition, rather than to seek entrance into 
 the government schools, where in all branches 
 the instruction is free to all comers. One of 
 these academies, now known as t\\c Colarossi, 
 under its former name of Academic Suisse, dates 
 
 233
 
 ART SCHOOLS 
 
 ART SCHOOLS 
 
 its existence from ISlC; while the noted 
 Academie Julian, nunicd from its founder, 
 wlio was a man of artistic and administrative 
 ability, and withal a finished French gentleman, 
 was opened a half century later, with a regis- 
 tration of only 20 persons, but expanded rapidly, 
 until shortly before the death of M. Julian, 
 which occurred in 1905, it numbered 1000 
 students, 300 or 400 of whom were women; 
 the latter occupying exclusively 3 out of the 
 5 working studios of which the academy 
 was then comi)osed. To-day, governed by a 
 nephew of its hrst director, who also bears the 
 same surname, the organization continues its 
 activities, apparently without loss of numbers. 
 Another important institution of a similar 
 character, taking its name from that of the old 
 street of the Latin cpiarter, La Grande Chaumiere 
 in which it is situated, also attracts large num- 
 bers of foreign students. These academies 
 usually hold tliroc se.ssions per day, and offer 
 roncoiirf: or competitions, at stated intervals, 
 during the winter months; while, during the 
 remainder of the year, the students may work 
 without such impetus, under the criticism of 
 celebrated artists who regularly visit the 
 ateliers. 
 
 The unsurpassed instruction thus provided at 
 the maximum annual cost of 400 francs for 
 men, and of 700 for women, constitutes the 
 chief value of such academies for the earnest 
 student; but the excellence, variety, and con- 
 stant attendance of the models there em- 
 ployed, attract experienced artists who, by 
 taking advantage of these courses, are able to 
 reduce one of their largest and most necessary 
 expenses. 
 
 Passing from the schools of Paris offering 
 instruction in the fine arts, strictly speaking, 
 to those devoted to the decorative and applied 
 arts, the origin of the movement responsible for 
 the creation of the institutions of the latter 
 class must be briefly indicated. While certain 
 critics attribute the revival of the minor arts, 
 which occurred in the latter half of the nine- 
 teenth century, exclusively to English influence, 
 it must be admitted that the French impetus 
 was national and due to VioUet-le-Duc, the great 
 French architect and writer. His champion- 
 ship, of the Gothic led to his retirement from 
 the Ecole dcfi Bcaux-ArU, and to the foundation 
 by him of a special school which, as an exponent 
 of the medieval system, directed attention to 
 the so-called arts and crafts and to all design in 
 which ])lant forms ])lay an important part. As 
 a result having its first and partially hidden cause 
 in the influence just described, there is the 
 School of Decorative Arts subventioned by the 
 French government, and now under the direc- 
 tion of ]\I. Louvrier dc Lajollaj-e. 
 
 Another institution worthy of remark is the 
 school founded by M. Guerin, sometime official 
 architect of the City of Paris, in consequence of 
 a decree issued by the French government to 
 the effect that a certificate of proficiency be 
 
 demanded from all drawing masters teaching 
 in the national colleges. Courses in draughts- 
 manship, perspective, and decorative art are 
 here offered under such noted masters as M. 
 Guerin himself, Luc Olivier Merson, and Ku- 
 gene Gra.sset, the last of whom is very widely 
 known abroad from his eiicydojiedic work 
 entitled The Plaid. The curriculum of this 
 school reaches through a jterioil of 3 years, 
 during the first of which the ])U])il comiioscs de- 
 signs from rectilinear and curvilinear elements, 
 thence jiassing to the study of jjlant forms, 
 and, in his third year, using lanilscaiie, animals, 
 and the human figure as portions of decorative 
 design. The criticism which may he offered 
 regarding this school is that its fine theoretical 
 instruction lacks the complement of the jiracti- 
 cal element; that it needs technical workshops 
 wherein the designer might learn the i)ossil.iili- 
 ties and the limitations of various mediums, 
 and so acquire that integral education, as a 
 result of which the brain and the hand work to- 
 gether in harmony. 
 
 Another and nmch newer form of art instruc- 
 tion in France, the purpose of which is not the 
 development of experts, but the elevation of 
 the people, is due to a body calling it.self the 
 Societe Naturnale de I'Art a l' Ecolc, founded 
 in 1907, whose constitution is given at length 
 in one of the monthly issues of the Encyclopedie 
 Laroiisse. This society, recognizing the educa- 
 tive, moral, and economic value of art, as a 
 factor tending to facilitate and to beautify life 
 among the masses, aims not only to afford 
 instruction adapted to further the end just 
 stated, but also to provide primary school 
 buildings, the situation, construction, and deco- 
 ration of which shall improve the health, as 
 well as develop the minds and the taste of the 
 children thereupon attendant. This .society, 
 as described in the report given in Laroii,s.ie, 
 consists of thirty sections having seats in the 
 principal cities of the country, and it offers an 
 example of the strong centralization so charac- 
 teristic of all schemes devised by the French 
 mind. It testifies also to the anxiety which 
 has lieen awakened in the hearts of the wisest 
 among the nations as to the necessity of action 
 and foresight, if France is to maintain her im- 
 portance, rather than fall a victim to that 
 somewhat vague malady indicated by certain 
 sociologists under the name of Latin decadence. 
 
 15ut however present tendencies may lie re- 
 garded, it mu!3t be granted that the descend- 
 ants of those races who peopled the southern 
 peninsulas of Europe possess the highest gifts in 
 the arts of form; while the Germanic and 
 Celtic bodies have shown in these arts assimi- 
 lative, rather than creative qualities. 
 
 England. — The Royal Academy of Arts in 
 London was founded in 1766, more than a 
 century after Cardinal Mazarin had organized 
 the nucleus which was to result in the Ecole des 
 Beaux-Aria. Unlike those of its I'rench fore- 
 runner, the schools of the English academy 
 
 234
 
 ART SCHOOLS 
 
 ART SCHOOLS 
 
 have trained almost exclusively native students, 
 and from them as a center propaganda have not 
 gone out to cause discussion abroad. They 
 have been largely insular in their influence; 
 they possess no great department of architec- 
 ture, and no Prix de Rome is fixed as their 
 great award, although travehng scholarships 
 are granted l:)iennaUy by the administration for 
 excellence in the several fine arts. These schools 
 are most liberally organized as to entrance 
 standards of general attainments, and as to age 
 Umitations. To them applicants, after a pre- 
 liminary technical test, ciuite elementary in 
 character, are admitted as probationers for 
 three months, and, the required work of this 
 period being successfully accomplished, the pro- 
 bationers become regular students to whom 
 the privileges of the school are open for seven 
 years without fees for instruction from the first 
 artists of the kingdom. 
 
 While the Royal Academy thus stands for all 
 that is formal in English art, the school at South 
 Kensington, since it owes its creation to a very 
 modern imjjulse, follows in its administration 
 the trend of the times. As early as 18.57, the 
 seat of a governmental Commission of Arts and 
 Sciences was fixed at South Kensington, and 
 this body, recognizing that instruction in deco- 
 rative art is of the highest economic value, 
 proceeded to emphasize this study in the 
 curriculum of the new school, with the result 
 that, ten or twelve years later, textile designs 
 were purchased by a French manufacturer from 
 students at South Kensington. This occur- 
 rence was but the beginning of the gradual 
 change of old conditions under which English 
 industries purchased their designs from French 
 artists; while, at the present time, side by side 
 with the beautiful fabrics of domestic design, 
 Parisian shops display the distinctive work of 
 rivals from beyond the Channel. 
 
 The school at South Kensington, known offi- 
 cially as the Royal College of Art, offers courses 
 in drawing, painting, modeling, and designing 
 for architecture, manufactures, and decoration. 
 Having as its primary purpose the instruction 
 of art masters and mistresses, and of students 
 selected by competition in the art exhibitions 
 of the Board of Education, the school admits 
 other applicants upon the payment of a fee of 
 12 pounds 10 shillings per term, and to the 
 number permitted by the space at disposal. 
 Such students numbered 150 at the last obtain- 
 able report. The existence of this institu- 
 tion marks a period in the art history of the 
 United Kingdom, since at the time of its founda- 
 tion but 55,000 persons were receiving art in- 
 struction within the limits named; while now 
 they have risen to nearly 3,000,000. Further- 
 more, the value of South Kensington as a 
 producer of national wealth is recognized by 
 the enlightened portion of the English people, 
 and the director. Sir Caspar Purdon Clarke, 
 who framed the policy to which much of the 
 success attending the enterprise is due, was 
 
 knighted by Queen Victoria for his services to 
 the Crown, and until recently was the Director 
 of the Metropolitan Museum of New York 
 City. 
 
 A fruitful effort to use art as a factor in the 
 general development of the child is now exerted 
 by the Royal Drawing Society, under the presi- 
 dencj' of the Princess Louise, Duchess of Argyll. 
 This society was incorporated in 1902, having 
 as its avowed object: " the encouragement of 
 drawing, painting, and modeling in all their 
 branches as a means of education and for devel- 
 oping spontaneous pictorial drawing, painting, 
 and modehng from memory by children." The 
 results obtained by this society were studied 
 and approved by the French Minister of Fine 
 Arts in 1904, and later by the International 
 Congress of Education held at Berne, Switzer- 
 land. In 1905 the latter body expressed its senti- 
 ments in a resolution adopted to the effect that 
 " it is in the interest of general education to find 
 means to develop the art instinct existing in 
 children, and to determine in what way they con- 
 ceive a picture according to nature, or imagina- 
 tion, and what method they use in line and color 
 to render from memory their received imprest 
 sions." 
 
 Societies such as the one just described and 
 its French counterpart, L'Art a I'Ecole, show 
 an encouraging trend of thought which, to 
 borrow words from the constitution of the 
 French body, argues " the desire to prepare a 
 better future for the generations who are to 
 succeed the men of the present." Nor is it 
 too much to assert that deeply below superfi- 
 cial observation the same impul.se animates the 
 strong movement which, within the last forty, 
 and notably the last twenty years has caused 
 the foundation of schools throughout Europe, 
 from Russia to Italy, whose complex purpose is 
 to render life more agreeable by means of beau- 
 tiful surroundings, to raise the workshop to 
 the dignified place occupied by it in the days of 
 the artisan guilds, and to educate in the same 
 person the brain and the hand, that there may 
 be no waste of energy, time, or money expendi- 
 ture. 
 
 Austria. — One of the most important of 
 such schools, and, at the same time, one whose 
 methods are instructive to study, is located in 
 Vienna, which, hke all other European capitals, 
 has its Academy, founded in the eighteenth 
 century, which stands as the exponent of the 
 fine arts, strictly speaking. But the School of 
 the Decorative Arts is also a governmental 
 institution, whose object is to acquire absolute 
 control of the industrial art of the Empire. 
 The means of instruction which it offers are 
 divided into two distinct categories, theoretical 
 and practical; the first represented by the Mu- 
 seum of Art and Industry, and in part by the 
 School of Arts and Crafts; the second, by 
 the School of Textiles, Lace, and Embroidery. 
 The Museum is itself divided into two sections: 
 the permanent, devoted to the preservation of 
 
 235
 
 ART SCHOOLS 
 
 ART SCHOOLS 
 
 historic and niodcrn masterpieces, and the 
 temporary, inchulinp; the circuhiting section, 
 which aims at the instrvictioii of both the pubUc 
 in general and the producers, the latter being 
 invited twice yearly to an exhibition of designs 
 and objects of art. Nor does the Museum con- 
 fine its work to the capital city, since with 
 Vienna as a center, it has organized 00 jjro- 
 vincial and periodic ex{)ositions, wliich last 
 several weeks and are explained to visitors 
 by means of systematic lectures. It purposes, 
 furtliermore, to advance industrial art through- 
 out the Empire by the development of teclmitiue 
 and the creation of new models. To accomplish 
 the first purpose pro\-incial schools have been 
 founded for the proper direction of the ocal 
 art industries, from which the best pupils are 
 sent to stuily in Vienna, after acquiring profi- 
 ciency in their special branch. The attain- 
 ment of the second object devolves upon a com- 
 mission of 2 architects and 4 or 5 designers, 
 who are appointed to produce new models; a 
 method of procedure which would appear to 
 be faulty, since, the artist being paid by the 
 government, and the manufacturer being in- 
 vited to acquire his designs, there results no 
 free and extended competition, which alone gives 
 vitality to art. Furthermore, the Museum, in 
 adopting this plan, first creates designers who 
 must live by their talents, and then prevents 
 these same individuals from finding necessary 
 work. Against this system protests have arisen 
 among the designers who contend that the 
 executants, that is, the manufacturers, are 
 thereby favored to the detriment of the com- 
 plainants, who are the creators. 
 
 Of later establishment than the Museum is 
 the allied School of Arts and Crafts, founded in 
 1867 by Baron de Myrbach, the object of which 
 is to join theory with practice, teaching with 
 actual production, in order that the pupil, on 
 finishing his course, may go out an irreproach- 
 able workman, as well as a thoroughly educated 
 designer. Courses are there offered to both 
 sexes in drawing, modeling, and arcliitecture, 
 and the candidate for admission presents hun- 
 self at the preparatory school with a draw- 
 ing of a vase; a study of a plant after nature; 
 another of a mask; a third which involves the 
 rudiments of figure drawing. Being admitted, 
 the student selects at will a course either in 
 academic drawing and modeling, in the draw- 
 ing of plant and animal forms, or in ornamental 
 sculpture, to which he mu.st add the minor 
 subjects of the history of art and of ornament, 
 perspective, lettering, and applied chemistry. 
 Then, having completed these courses, he 
 passes to one of the professors of the school 
 proper; working with the latter six mornings 
 of the week in his major branch, and dividing 
 the afternoons equally between professors of 
 the two remaining arts. Finally, having ac- 
 quired a certain proficiency, he specializes 
 under the guidance of his major professor. In the 
 school proper there are three studios for each 
 
 of the three principal arts, and to them are joined 
 the workshops which complete the efficiency of 
 the system. The professors arc brought into 
 close and constant contact with the students, 
 and thus, owing to the large amount of iiersonal 
 instruction given, the former become responsible 
 for the progress and the attainments of the 
 latter. Another advantage exists in the low 
 annual fee for instruction, which is the e(iuiva- 
 lent of S 12; while, in some instances, even this 
 is remitted and a monthly scholarship of the 
 value of SSis awarded upon the recommenda- 
 tion of a professor; further provision is also 
 made for poor students by means of a restaurant 
 fitted to their needs, which was established by 
 the founder of the school, Baron de Myrbach. 
 Altogether this institution is one that should be 
 studied by the foreign observer, and it con- 
 stitutes a single expression of that general move- 
 ment which in late years has so advanced 
 Austria and made Vienna in all that relates 
 to municipal art the close rival of Paris. 
 
 Scotland. — Another city remarkable for its 
 modern a'sthetic spirit is that of (ilasgow, 
 Scotland, whose art school, established in 1840, 
 and subventioned by both government and 
 municipahty, contains a department of decora- 
 tive and applied arts, which receives special 
 attention as a factor whose value in an indus- 
 trial country cannot be overestimated. But the 
 directors, in the fear lest the constant produc- 
 tion of designers might disturb the proper 
 relations between supply and demand, wisely 
 added workshops to the theoretical instruction, 
 although the former, according to the record of 
 an expert visitor in 1907, were not -so efficient as 
 those belonging to the Vienna School. At 
 Glasgow- the chief professor of the decorative 
 arts, M. Giraldon, teaches but three months 
 of the year, November, February, and May; 
 the students working alone during the intervals, 
 under the suggestions of an associate instructor. 
 This sj-stem is said to produce most gratifying 
 results. Success is also attained through the 
 nature of the assigned problems which aim at 
 the correlation of the decorative arts, as may 
 be seen in the hypothetical scheme to provide 
 for a rich amateur the embellishments of a hall 
 devoted to Shakespearean study. The specifi- 
 cations for this scheme demanded wall tajies- 
 trics, a frieze and wainscoting in carved wood, 
 eight circular windows in stained glass, sliowiiig 
 ten color values, a painted decoration in six 
 colors for the wall spaces between each two of 
 the windows, a casket for a manuscriiit copy of 
 Juliux Cirndr, and a tablet to be {)laced above 
 the entrance door. From these specifications 
 may be determined the breadth of the instruction 
 offered at the Glasgow school, which, perhaps, 
 enforces theory and design to the detriment of 
 technique, since it lacks artisans in the work- 
 shops to teach the students the exact handling 
 of their various mediums. There, as at Vienna, 
 the result is necessarily the creation of artists. 
 
 But, in other parts of Europe, notably in 
 
 236
 
 ART SCHOOLS 
 
 ART SCHOOLS 
 
 several newer institutions, the point of view is 
 directly opposite. 
 
 Switzerland. — An instance of the latter is the 
 School of Industrial Art, at Zurich, established in 
 1905, on the foundations of an earlier one dating 
 from 1875. This school follows a system which 
 is more easily maintained in a country without 
 artistic originality than in one which is bound 
 by strong traditions. It gives primarily techni- 
 cal instruction, with jesthetic culture as an 
 accessory. Having this practical aim, it divides 
 its pupils into three classes: the first comprising 
 apprentices who, under the Swiss law of 1907, 
 must be sent to a trade school at least 4 
 hours per week, for a period of 4 years; 
 those of the second class are artisans who, 
 already thorough workmen, wish to perfect 
 themselves as art craftsmen, that they may 
 design, as well as execute; while the third 
 class is composed of somewhat skilled workmen 
 and foremen of industrial establishments, the 
 latter of whom often exert in their positions 
 greater influence than the owners themselves, 
 who, as commercial men only, are badly adapted 
 to follow the technical processes of manufacture. 
 As a farther step toward practicality and the 
 prevention of useless effort, the followers of 
 each trade are taught to draw in a special man- 
 ner; the designer of textiles accentuating color, 
 while the joiner and the metal worker empha- 
 size the qualities of form. It must also be 
 noted that at Zurich there are no professors of 
 design, and that the director, M. de Praetere, 
 is a thoroughly trained Belgian technician, 
 who possesses, at the same time, a fine theoreti- 
 cal and artistic education. Under his direction 
 the Zurich school will presumably contribute in 
 large measure and rapidly to the formation of a 
 national Swi.ss style. 
 
 Russifi. — Another country presenting recent 
 and unique interest in the same field of effort 
 is Russia, where in all branches of art two 
 opposite parties are active: one of which wor- 
 ships before the newest French altars, while 
 the other exalts the old Russia which existed 
 before Peter the Great. The national spirit 
 is, however, growing .strong hourly, and is des- 
 tined to conquer; as may be concluded from a 
 review of the nineteenth century, during which 
 period, through the influence of the composer 
 Glinka, Russian music came to prevail over 
 that of the Italian school, and later, the old art 
 industries of the people were revived under the 
 leadership of women of high position favored by 
 the Ministry of Public Instruction. As yet the 
 artistic products obtained by these pioneers of 
 reform are like new thoughts expressed in stam- 
 mering speech. But they are also like the works 
 of the Italian pre-Raphaclite painters, strong, 
 vital, and appealing. 
 
 Germ(in)/. — The German Empire commands 
 attention as containing many focal points of 
 art interest, certain of them being of compelling 
 brilliancy. The very existence of these mul- 
 tiple centers testifies to the course, character. 
 
 and vicissitudes of German culture. In Ger- 
 many the Reformation acted as a great solvent 
 upon the continuity of art traditions. The 
 essentially burgher culture there prevailing in 
 the period just preceding that religious move- 
 ment, declined with the spread of the simpler 
 form of worship which required neither the 
 great cathedral planned for imposing proces- 
 sions; nor the carved shrine, like Adam Krafft's 
 sacrament house reaching to the crown of 
 lofty Gothic vaults; nor yet the altar picture 
 making its strong sensuous appeal of color. 
 This profound change in the life of the people, 
 together with the confu.sion wrought in the first 
 half of the seventeenth century by the Thirty 
 Years' War, so deadened the art instincts of the 
 Germans that a strong fostering care was 
 necessary, after a long lapse of production, 
 again to force them into life and action. They 
 awakened under the formative influence of the 
 German princes who, independent and supreme 
 within their own small domains, modeled 
 themselves upon the old conception of a sover- 
 eign; e-xercising the sole governing power and 
 becoming patrons of the fine arts, largely to 
 satisfy their desire to surround themselves 
 with pomp and majesty. 
 
 As an effect of this spirit, numerous art schools 
 arose in Germany during the late seventeenth 
 and throughout the eighteenth century, or- 
 ganized after the plan of foreign institutions, 
 by whose instruction influences from Italy, the 
 Netherlands, and France were grafted upon 
 German art impulses, with the result of pro- 
 ducing an interesting and independent develop- 
 ment of foreign thought upon Teutonic soil. 
 Of necessity these art schools were founded in 
 the capitals or "residences" of their princely 
 patrons; while the old free cities of the Empire, 
 long previously the centers of the burgher art 
 of Germany, had fallen into decline. Cities like 
 Berlin, Munich, and Dresden, which were 
 comparatively unimportant at the period of 
 the Reformation, now received a powerful 
 art impetus. But again, after the wars of the 
 Napoleonic era had ceased, the burgher, or 
 middle class, renewed its importance; so that in 
 the second half of the nineteenth century, the 
 financial and municipal power of Nuremberg, 
 Augsburg, Frankfort, and Cologne again sur- 
 passed that of the artificially formed capitals and 
 "residences," with the sole exception of Berlin. 
 These brief explanations will account for the 
 existence of the many centers of art in Germany, 
 and, at the same time, explain the location of 
 the academies, which, with few exceptions, are 
 not found in the old imperial cities made famous 
 by pre-Reformation art. 
 
 Of all the art academies now active in Ger- 
 many, the one offering the greatest interest to 
 foreigners is that of Munich: the city which 
 has been the art capital of the country since 
 the early part of the nineteenth century, 
 when King Louis I of Bavaria gathered about 
 him a company of noted artists, the greatest of 
 
 237
 
 ART SCHOOLS 
 
 ART SCHOOLS 
 
 wliom was the Danish sculptor, Thorwaklspii, 
 aud proceeded to the foundation of such treas- 
 ure houses of historic art as the Glyptothek 
 and the two Pinacotlieks. The Munich Acad- 
 emy dates from 1809, and tlie community of 
 artists resident in that city forms practically 
 a state within a state. In the opinion of Ger- 
 man authorities, the long-maintained position 
 of Alunich as the art capital of the Empire has 
 heen due to the close sympathy of its ])roduc- 
 tions with the life of the people, in contrast 
 with the formal, aristocratic ciuality of the art 
 of the other centers, which, throughout the 
 nineteenth century, made no appeal to those 
 most important social factors, the middle and 
 lower classes. And this judgment would seem 
 to be justified, since repeatedly impulses have 
 gone out from the Bavarian capital which 
 have carried all Germany with them. In the 
 Munich Academy, which offers instruction in 
 all branches of the fine arts, at a nominal fee, 
 there are found students from nearly every 
 European country, with Russians, Hungarians, 
 and Scandinavians conspicuous among the for- 
 eigners. Formerly, too, there was a large, 
 enthusiastic American element in attendance, 
 but this, in recent years, shows a great decrease 
 from the numbers reached in the days when 
 the older generation of our living painters 
 followed the instructions of the Academy pro- 
 fessors; certain of them choosing ]\Iumch 
 rather than Paris as the sole place of their 
 foreign studies. 
 
 To-day, the departments forming the Acad- 
 emy are criticized in general for a too great free- 
 dom of organization and system, while the 
 school of architecture in particular is censured 
 for its advocacy of a devitalized style; the "cold 
 Parthenons " which it creates being evidently 
 survivals of the impetus given when Louis I 
 erected his great classic structures and the 
 iEgina marbles were carried to make their 
 permanent home in Munich. 
 
 It is therefore through the art of the painter 
 that the city retains its position; perhaps largely 
 through the highly specialized branch of carica- 
 ture, nowhere else so early, so broadly, and so 
 perfectly developed. Kaulbach, the most 
 widely known of all German painters to the 
 Americans of a generation ago, by reason of his 
 formal mural art, Swind, and Spitzweg delivered 
 the traditions of caricature to the greatest living 
 German representative of this branch, Adolf 
 Oberlander; while the Munich Flitgende 
 Blatter, Jugcml, and SiinpUci.ssimus, the most 
 important satiric publications in Germany, 
 developed under the influence of the Munich 
 Academy. 
 
 Another evidence of the clo.se bonds which 
 unite the art of Munich with the eommon people 
 is the emphasis laid by the Academy upon 
 genre painting, the greatest representative of 
 his class being Defregger, the master of idealized 
 Bavarian peasant types. Lastly, these same 
 sympathetic relations may be deduced from 
 
 the fact that thousands of tillers of the soil 
 followed in the funeral procession of the painter 
 Lcnbach, in whose portraits of von Moltke 
 and Bismarck the simi)le folk saw the symbols 
 of the rejuvenation of the Fatherland. 
 
 In truth the new art movement in Germany 
 dates from the unification of the Empire, after 
 the Franco-Prussian war of 1S70, and it is a 
 phenomenon quite similar to the a'sthetic 
 awakening which pervaded Greece after the 
 battle of Salamis, and to that bloom of liter- 
 ature which, in England, followed the destruc- 
 tion of the Spanish Armada. Before the great 
 war, the typical German artist lield himself 
 aloof from the arti.s;ui, but since that momentous 
 event all Germans have recognized the value 
 of their heritage from the mcdii'\al craft 
 guilds and the racial art of pre-Heformation 
 times. It is plain that this fidelity to Teutonic 
 sources of inspiration now throbs through the 
 hearts of the painters of the Empire, without 
 regard to regional differences, if we may judge 
 from the selection of their works recently ex- 
 hibited in America, wherein even the novice in 
 criticism could recognize under their modern 
 disguises the spirits of the "Little Masters of 
 Cologne," of Holbein, of Hals, of Rembrandt, 
 and of Ruysdael. 
 
 In all that relates to primary art instruction 
 throughout Germany, the prophet of the move- 
 ment was Wilhelm von Humboldt, who in 1809 
 gave voice to the spirit which became active 
 a century later. Following von Humboldt, 
 scientists like Virchow regretted "the insuf- 
 ficient talent for observation and delineation 
 evident in the people," and so led on to the 
 adoption in 1901 of a new plan of teaching, 
 practically uniform, and according to which 
 the child in his first years of training draws 
 entirely from memory, that he may acquire, not 
 mechanical skill, but the ability to express 
 himself, after which he is gradually i)rogressed 
 to the actual, or living, model. 
 
 In Prussia, art instruction is regarded as an 
 integral part of general education, and the draw- 
 ing masters are especially trained in normal 
 classes; while southern Germany shows great 
 activity in the establishment of schools whose 
 object is manual training; Munich again dis- 
 playing her individuality in providing for the 
 needs, practical and asthetic, of the German 
 home by fostering the art industries. In Berlin, 
 the decorative arts are, also, highly favored, and 
 schools teaching these branches receive nmnic- 
 ipal subsidies; while private institutions ac- 
 knowledge the trend of the times by offering 
 courses, not only in design, but also in model- 
 ing and in the handling of various mediums. 
 
 As an art capital, Berlin ranks second only 
 to Munich; her academy dating, as we have 
 seen, from 1694; while that of her rival was 
 founded more than a century later, although the 
 Prussian institution has never attracted foreign 
 students in any considerable number, nor ex- 
 tended its influence beyond the limits of Ger- 
 
 238
 
 ART SCHOOLS 
 
 ART SCHOOLS 
 
 many. But the artistic importance of Berlin 
 is rapidly growing. In architecture, through 
 the works of Wallot and of Messel, this city 
 has created a distinctive, individual style; in 
 dramatic literature and stage production it 
 holds the first place, and in the remaining arts, 
 according to the judgment of certain critics, it 
 will quickly advance to occupy the same high 
 position. 
 
 Ranking after Berlin and Munich, but in an 
 order difficult to determine, stand Dresden, 
 Carlsruhe, Stuttgart, Weimar, and Dlisseldorf, 
 each city possessing its academy of formal art, 
 and each also stirred by a revival of racial in- 
 spiration, as a result of the care of the present 
 imperial government to secure the artistic 
 education of the masses, as well as to provide 
 for the specialized training of artists; the 
 whole constituting a system which may be 
 defined as " paternal," in the highest sense of 
 that much-abused term. 
 
 Italy. — Another example of the effect of 
 political unification upon the art teaching and, 
 consequently, upon the art production of a 
 people must be noted at the end of this brief 
 review. At the Paris Exposition of 1867, 
 Italy, then "a geographical expression," pre- 
 sented a collection of works which gained a 
 greater number of prizes than was awarded to 
 the artists of any other nationality. But 
 in these works regional differences, both of con- 
 ception and of technique, were so sharply ac- 
 cented that the historian, Pasquale Villari, 
 raised an eloquent plea for the formation of a 
 true modern Italian art, as the successor of the 
 Lombard, the Tuscan, and the Neapolitan; in- 
 dicating as a means to this end the transfor- 
 mation of the provincial academies with their 
 antiquated formuLne into schools which should 
 teach the universal, basic principles of design 
 and composition. To-day, at a distance of 
 forty years, although the fusion is not so com- 
 plete as the enthusiastic patriot could have 
 desired, still the processes of absorption and 
 assimilation have so far progressed that the 
 Italian architect, sculptor, or painter may be 
 recognized by his creations, as the unit of an 
 organic nation. The modern spirit walks abroad 
 in Rome, the recognized stronghold of classic 
 traditions, and it is difficult to realize, in Victor 
 Emanuel's capital, that little more than a cen- 
 tury ago, through the influence of the sculptor 
 Canova, the Roman Academy, named from 
 the accredited apostolic painter, St. Luke, ob- 
 tained the monopoly of artistic teaching. The 
 opening of the " Gallery of Modern Art " in 
 Rome parallels the breach made by the army 
 of the King in the walls of the Papal City. The 
 engineering of the subway, the architectural 
 treatment of the new Palace of Justice, and of 
 the villas in the recently constructed Trasteve- 
 rine quarter show that foreign influence has been 
 permitted to mingle with native talent to the 
 making of a new epoch. The artificial academic 
 spirit, from its former seat in the Academy 
 
 of St. Luke, dominated all the arts in Rome, but 
 now liberty is so omnipresent in the schools that 
 even foreigners respond to its call ; the students 
 in architecture of the Ecole des Beaux-Arts resi- 
 dent at the French Academy having been 
 known to send back to Paris, together with 
 their obligatory stylistic designs and restora- 
 tions, treatments of the most modern problems, 
 such as the scheme for a model workingmen's 
 tenement. 
 
 Of long-standing reputation and acknowl- 
 edged merit are the art schools, or academies, of 
 Naples, Florence, Milan, and Turin ; the proof of 
 their excellence existing in the men whom they 
 sent out in the latter half of the nineteenth 
 century; Naples alone producing three noted 
 masters in painting, Palizzi, Morelli, and 
 Michetti. These institutions primarily offer 
 instruction in painting and sculpture, while 
 courses in architecture are, in some cases, as at 
 Turin, relegated to the engineering schools. 
 
 A last point of resemblance between Ger- 
 many and Italy, as an effect of unification, may 
 be seen in the development of the industrial arts, 
 which began about the year 1880, and is still 
 in active progress. Although the last country 
 to join in the arts and crafts movement, fol- 
 lowing in this France, Germany, England, and 
 Austria, Italy, in so doing, simply renewed con- 
 nection with her artists of the Middle Ages and 
 of the Renaissance, who did not disdain to 
 produce the humblest objects of domestic serv- 
 ice, since they glorified them with a touch 
 of genius. Most interesting results of this 
 movement were seen at the Turin Exposition of 
 1902; that city and Milan being the centers 
 of instruction in the decorative arts. In some 
 instances, also, the workshops of art artisans, 
 or those even of commercial firms producing 
 objects of art, take the place of schools; a system 
 of instruction founded on historical precedent, 
 and which, although privately conducted, is 
 the same in principle as the method pursued 
 at Zurich under governmental control, and 
 aiming to unite in one person the artist and the 
 artisan. 
 
 Thus, the conclusion to be gained from a 
 cursory review of the art schools and the existing 
 art tendencies in Europe is that everywhere in 
 the Old World, even in the most conservative 
 cities and institutions, there is a movement 
 which, in Russia, would be termed "going to- 
 ward the people." I. S. 
 
 See the various articles on the educational 
 system of each country for full statement of the 
 various art schools; also Architectural 
 Education; Art in the Schools; Design; 
 Drawing: etc. 
 
 United States. — In .studying the art schools 
 it is necessary to distinguisli between the dif- 
 ferent tjTJes of schools in which the visual arts 
 are taught. Although some of the schools 
 include several departments, the majority 
 can be classed under one of the following heads: 
 (1) fine arts schools, where drawing, painting, 
 
 239
 
 ART SCHOOLS 
 
 ART SCHOOLS 
 
 and spulpturo alone arc taught; (2) schools 
 of design, where, in addition to the acaileniic 
 branches, design in its application to manufac- 
 tures is given; (3) schools of architecture; 
 (4) industrial art schools with workshops that 
 closely a])proach conditions in the manufactur- 
 ing world; (5) manual training and technical 
 schools; ((J) normal art schools; (7) general 
 instruction in drawing and tlie history of art, 
 given entirely for their cultural value. This 
 article treats in detail the first and second of 
 these groujis. The schools of architecture, 
 industrial art schools, manual training and 
 technical schools, will he found under the ajjpro- 
 priate heads. The sixth and seventh topics are 
 discussed under the preceding topic, Aht in 
 THE Schools. 
 
 During the eighteenth century any citizen 
 of the American colonics who wanted to learn 
 how to paint was obliged to go to Europe, and 
 the success of Benjamin West, born in Pennsyl- 
 vania in 1738, led many young Americans to 
 follow him to London. With the death of 
 West in 1S20, London ceased to be the Mecca 
 of American portrait and historical painters. 
 The first quarter of the nineteenth saw a so- 
 called " revival of art " in Oermanj', led by 
 Overbeck (17S9-1S69) and Cornelius (1783- 
 1867), the latter becoming the head of the 
 Munich school, and painting heroes of the 
 classic and the Christian world on a large 
 scale. After 1826 Diisseldorf came into promi- 
 nence under the guidance of Schadow (1789- 
 1862), and this school was inclined toward the 
 easel picture with sentimental, dramatic, or 
 romantic subjects. Emanuel Leutze (1816- 
 1868), German by birth, but an American by 
 adoption, was a pupil of Lessing at Diisseldorf, 
 and had a good deal to do with introducing 
 Diisseldorf methods into America. Another 
 and a stronger influence was that of the French 
 romantic movement, which can be dated from 
 the year 1822, when Delacroix exliibited his 
 " Dante and Virgil " at the Salon. A Boston 
 painter, William Morris Hunt (1824-1879), 
 went to Paris, where he became a pupil of 
 Couture, and, after spending several years at 
 Barbizon with Millet, returned to Boston, in 
 1855, where his personal force attracted many 
 pupils. He was a painter of ability, but per- 
 haps his greatest influence was as a teacher, and 
 many prominent American painters, notably 
 John La Farge, trace their beginnings to his 
 studio. About 1870 Munich again drew many 
 American students. Walter Shirlaw went 
 there when the siege of Paris closed that city 
 to art students. Frank Duveneck and William 
 M. Chase studied in Munich in the early 
 seventies. 
 
 But while many ambitious painters and 
 sculptors found their way to the European 
 schools, art was beginning to take root in the 
 United States. As far back as 1791 Charles 
 Willson Peale tried to found an art school in 
 Philadelpliia. He was not successful, but his 
 
 attempt led, in 1805, to the establishment of 
 the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts, 
 the oldest art institution in the country. The 
 Schools of the Natiomd Academy of Design 
 date from 1826, while 1844 saw the establish- 
 ment of the Philad('li)hia School of Design for 
 Women; Cooper Union {(i-v.), which included 
 a free school of art for women as well as even- 
 ing classes in drawing for men, was opened in 
 New York in 1S57; the school of tin; Art Insti- 
 tute of Chicago is a direct continuation of the 
 old Academy of Design organized in that city 
 in 1867 and never susjjcnded cx<'ept at the time 
 of the great fire in 1871 ; 1873 saw the establish- 
 ment in Boston of the Massachusetts Normal Art 
 School; and the Art Students' League of New 
 York was organized in 1875. The Philadelphia 
 Centennial Exposition of 1876 gave a strong 
 impetus to art education, and was followed by 
 a rapid growth of art schools. The School of 
 Drawing and Painting of the Boston Museum 
 was started at once; the School of Industrial 
 Art of the Pennsylvania Museum followed in 
 1877, with the Rhode Island School of Design 
 at Providence the same year and the St. Louis 
 School of Fine Arts in 1879. The present 
 status of the principal schools of fine arts and 
 of design in the United States is shown in the 
 following jiaragraphs: — ■ 
 
 Schools of Fine Arts. — New Haven, Conn. — 
 The Yale School of Fine Arts was founded by 
 Augustus Russell Street in 1864, and occupies a 
 building on the university grounds with well-ap- 
 pointed classrooms and galleries that contain the 
 Jarves Collection of Italian paintings, the most 
 important public collection of this period in 
 the United States; the Trumbull collection of 
 historical portraits and other paintings illus- 
 trative of the American Revolution; as well 
 as a general collection. The registration for 
 1909-1910 was 82, and there are 8 instructors. 
 The courses in painting, sculpture, and archi- 
 tecture lead to the degree of Bachelor in Fine 
 Arts. The Winchester Fellowship provides 
 151000 a year for European study; this and 
 several smaller scholarships and prizes are 
 endowed. The total equipment, including pro- 
 fessional foundations, is valued at $400,000. 
 Fees are $30 for a term of 3 months. 
 
 Ae«! York. — The Art Students' League 
 of New Y'ork was founded in 1875 and incor- 
 porated in 1878 for the purpose of establishing 
 and maintaining an academic school of art, 
 which should give a thorough course of study 
 in drawing, painting, and sculpture. The 
 founders were .students in the life classes of the 
 National Academy of Design, who established 
 this school to secure increased facilities. It 
 is a cooperative institution managed by a 
 Board of Control consisting of 12 members, 
 elected annually, who receive no remuneration. 
 A majority of the members of the board are 
 students actually at work in the classes. The 
 school is self-supporting, and, having no eii- 
 dowment fund, it is run entirely upon the tui- 
 
 240
 
 ART SCHOOLS 
 
 ART SCHOOLS 
 
 tion fees of its pupils. Artists and students 
 intending to make art a profession, who have 
 worked in the hfe classes 3 months, may be 
 elected members of the League. The League 
 is a stockholder in the American Fine Arts 
 Building, and occupies the upper floors of the 
 building, whUe the galleries on the main floor 
 are devoted to the annual exhibition of the 
 National Academy of Design, the American 
 Water Color Society, the New York Water 
 Color Club, and the Architectural League. 
 This school is the model on which many others 
 throughout the countr}' have been organized. 
 The fees are from .S30 to S70 for the winter 
 term of 8 months, .$35 in the evening classes 
 or the Saturday classes, and S20 for the summer 
 school in New York. A summer school is also 
 maintained at Woodstock, N.Y. Prizes and 
 scholarships to the number of 17 are given in 
 the school. There is also an annual competi- 
 tion for scholarships, open to all art students in 
 the United States and Canada, with the excep- 
 tion of New York City, whereby 10 scholarships 
 are awarded for the best work shown. The 
 enrollment averages 1000 during the winter, 
 with 14 instructors; in the summer there are 
 about 100 students. 
 
 The National Academy of Design traces its 
 origin back to 1802, when it was proposed to 
 found the New York Academy of the Fine Arts. 
 Officers were elected on Dec. 3 of that year, 
 and on Feb. 12, 1808, a charter was ob- 
 tained under the name of the American Acad- 
 emy of Arts. Shortly before .securing its 
 charter, Robert R. Livingston, then Ambassa- 
 dor to France, purchased by order of the 
 trustees and sent to New York a number of 
 casts from the antique, probably the first 
 casts ever brought to this country. The in- 
 stitution lay dormant for many years, but 
 was revived by an exhibition in 1816, and 
 in January, 1818, John Trumbull was elected 
 president. During the following summer the 
 collection of casts was opened to students in 
 the mornings from 6 to 8 o'clock, with William 
 Dunlap as keeper. The hours were incon- 
 venient, few attended, and the first attempt 
 at founding an art school in New York failed. 
 Another unsuccessful attempt to open the 
 collection of casts to students led to a meet- 
 ing of artists on Nov. 8, 1825, in the rooms 
 of the New York Historical Society, and the 
 New York Drawing Association was formed, 
 with S. F. B. Morse as president. At a meet- 
 ing of the Drawing Association on Jan. 18, 
 1826, they organized the National Academy of 
 Design, to be composed and governed entirely 
 by artists. It was at first only an evening 
 drawing class, but in time exhibitions were 
 successfully managed and the school enlarged, 
 and for many years the academy occupied its 
 own building at Fourth Avenue and 23d Street. 
 Since October, 1899, the schools have been 
 located at Amsterdam Avenue and 109th 
 Street, not far from Columbia University, with 
 
 which they are now affiliated. The exhibitions, 
 however, are held in the American Fine Arts 
 Building at 215 West 57th Street. The instruc- 
 tion is purely academic, if one excepts the 
 class in etching. There are about 250 students, 
 under 10 instructors. All instruction is free, 
 but examinations must be passed to secure 
 admission, and no applicant over 30 years of 
 age is accepted. There are numerous prizes 
 and scholarships, including the Mooney Me- 
 morial Traveling Scholarship of $750 a year for 
 2 years and the Lazarus Traveling Scholarship. 
 This last consists of $1000 a year for 3 years 
 and is open to any male citizen of the United 
 States who can successfully pa.ss the examina- 
 tions which are held every third year at the 
 Academy. 
 
 Philadelphia, Pa. — The Penjisyhania Acad- 
 emy of the Fine Arts was organized in 1805 
 at a meeting held in Lidependence Hall, and 
 shortly after a building was erected which 
 was occupied for half a century. In 1876 the 
 present building was dedicated. It contains 
 a permanent collection of painting and sculpture, 
 including the Gallery of National Portraiture, 
 the Temple Collection of Modern American 
 Paintings, and the Gibson Collection of paint- 
 ings by European artists of the nineteenth 
 century. Annual exhibitions of oil paintings 
 and sculpture, of miniatures, of water colors, 
 and of architecture are held in the galleries. 
 The school at present has a registration of 
 about 400, with 10 instructors. The course is 
 strictly academic, and includes the antique, 
 life and head painting, illustration and model- 
 ing. There are 2 terms in the school year; 
 fees $50 a term. The Cresson Fund enables 
 the academy to award $500 traveling scholar- 
 ships to 20 or more students each year in the 
 departments of painting, sculpture, and illus- 
 tration. There are several other prizes of 
 lesser amounts. 
 
 Washington, D. C. — The Corcoran School 
 of Art is maintained in the Corcoran Art 
 Gallery, and has been part of the regular work 
 of that institution since it was incorporated in 
 1870. The academic subjects alone are taught, 
 and the registration is about 225, with 6 in- 
 structors. There are day and evening classes, 
 all of which are free. 
 
 The American Academy in Rome was incor- 
 porated by Act of Congress on March 3, 1905, 
 " for the purpose of maintaining an institution 
 to promote the study and practice of the fine 
 arts and to aid and stimulate the education 
 and training of architects, painters, sculptors, 
 and other artists, by enabling such citizens of 
 the United States as shall be selected by compe- 
 tition from among those who have passed with 
 honor through leading technical schools or 
 have been equally well qualified by private 
 instruction or study, to develop their powers 
 and complete their training under the most 
 favorable conditions of direction and surround- 
 ings." The Academy occupies the Villa Mira- 
 
 241
 
 ART SCHOOLS 
 
 ART SCHOOLS 
 
 fiori in Romp, Italy, and has an endowment 
 fund of nearly S1,()0(),0()(). It is the home of the 
 various holders of scholarships who carry on 
 their work under the guidance of the Director 
 of the Academy. The principal scholarsiiips 
 available are those of the Academy itself, which 
 now sends to Europe each year for 3 years 
 one architect, one sculptor, and one painter; 
 the Lazarus scholarship for mural painting; 
 the Paige scholarship in painting; the Rinehart 
 scholarship for sculpture; the ^IcKim, the 
 Society of Ueaux-Arts, the Cornell, the Rotch, 
 and several otliers in arcliitecture. 
 
 Schools of Design. — Among the schools of 
 design many will be found conducting aca- 
 demic courses side by side with their depart- 
 ment of design, and also classes in the various 
 crafts, such as bookbinding, pottery, and metal 
 work. The numerous small arts and crafts 
 societies scattered over the country form centers 
 for teaching the crafts, and many have sales- 
 rooms for the disposal of members' work. A 
 number of these societies are federated, and the 
 Boston Society of Arts and Crafts serves as the 
 headquarters of the National League of Handi- 
 craft Societies. 
 
 Baltimore, Md. — The Maryland Inftiliite 
 of Art and Design occupies its own building, 
 which was erected in 1907. Over 700 students 
 receive instruction from 43 teachers in noth 
 day and evening classes. The courses include 
 the usual academic training in drawing, paint- 
 ing, and sculpture; the architectural department 
 has over 300 students; there is a normal de- 
 partment; and special classes for illustration 
 and for design and applied arts. The fees are 
 nominal. There are several prizes and schol- 
 arships, including the Rinehart scholarship in 
 sculpture, open to any American man not over 
 37 years of age, and entitltng to -t years of Euro- 
 pean study. 
 
 Boston, Mass. — ■ The Museum of Fine Arts 
 was incorporated in 1870, and included as one 
 of its " objects " to provide opporttmitics and 
 means for giving instruction in drawing, paint- 
 ing, modeling, and design, with their industrial 
 application through lectures, practical schools, 
 and a special library. The museum building 
 in Copley Sciuare was opened July 4, 1876, and 
 soon after arrangements were made whereby 
 three rooms in the basement w-ere assigned, free 
 of rent, to the School of Drawing and Painting 
 then being conducted by Otto Grundmann and 
 Dr. William Rimmer. This arrangement was 
 continued with the use of additional room until 
 the removal of the museum to its new building, 
 which was opened in the autumn of 1909. The 
 school is now installed in a building designed 
 and erected for it on Huntington Avenue, adjoin- 
 ing the Museum of Fine Arts. Instruction is 
 offered in drawing, painting, modeling, and de- 
 sign, \\-ith supplementary courses in anatomy 
 and perspective. The school is open to both 
 sexes; the number of pupils in 1909-10 was 263, 
 of whom 74 were in the department of design; 
 
 there arc 13 instructors. A unique feature, 
 known as the Master's Class, is the post- 
 graduate course, whose object is to instruct 
 advanced pupils in the art of constructing and 
 painting pictures. These special pupils ordi- 
 narily have studios to themselves, models are 
 furnished when required, and criticisms are 
 given by members of the regular corps of in- 
 structors. There are 3 terms in the school 
 year; fee for the year SIOO. The school awards 
 16 scholarships entitling to free tuition; the 
 Paige traveling scholarship, open to both sexes, 
 is awarded for general excellence and consists 
 of .SSOO a year for 2 years' travel; there are 
 several other money prizes, and dijilomas are 
 given, upon application, to those who have 
 fulfilled the requirements of the Council. 
 The course in design is conducted by means of 
 problems, by the study of the development of 
 design and ils relation to sculpture, painting, 
 and architecture. There are also lectures by 
 specialists given at the school or at the museum. 
 There is a course in metal work and one in 
 interior decoration, and there is a postgraduate 
 course for those who desire technical training 
 in professional work. Pupils must be over 
 16 years of age. The tuition fee is SI 10 a 
 year; evening classes S20. There is a traveling 
 scholarship of S200 a year, limited to men stu- 
 dents, a scholarship providing a visit to an 
 American Museum of Fine Arts, and cash 
 prizes for the best work done in design. 
 
 Buffalo, N.Y.— The Art Students' League, 
 founded in 1888, now occupies room in the 
 Albright Art Gallery, and is therefore in close 
 touch with the permanent and current exhibi- 
 tions. There were, in 1909-10, 266 students 
 under 6 instructors. The courses include the 
 academic branches, and also design, metal work, 
 and a normal course. 
 
 Chicago, III. — The Art Institute of Chicago has 
 the largest number of students and offers special 
 advantages for study, owing to the fact that 
 here are found the combination of the art 
 museum, a well-equipped library, a large audi- 
 torium with regular course of lectures, current 
 exhibitions of work by foreign and American 
 artists, and a staff of about 50 instructors. The 
 attendance for the year ending May 31, 1909, 
 was 3222, which included students in the day, 
 evening, Saturday, and summer classes. There 
 are seven di.^tinct schools with different princi- 
 pals: academic, decorative design, normal, archi- 
 tecture (which is affiliated with the Armour 
 Institute of Technology), evening, Saturday, and 
 summer. The school is organized upon the 
 French " ateher and concours " system. There 
 are two foreign travel scholarships of .?245 
 each, and two American scholarships of S2.50 
 and .S125 respectively. The fees average S30 
 a term for the three winter terms, and S2.5 for the 
 summer term. Large schemes are frequently 
 carried out by the school, such as the mural 
 decoration of a Pubhc School and the Pageant 
 given in 1909. 
 
 242
 
 ART SCHOOLS 
 
 ART SCHOOLS 
 
 The Academy of Fine Arts is a private school 
 in Chicago, which, with a staff of 15 teachers, 
 gives instruction to about 400 students in the 
 academic branches, illustration, commercial de- 
 sign, mechanical drawing, interior decoration, 
 metal work, and leatlier work. 
 
 Cincinnati, Ohio. — The Art Academy dates 
 from 1869, when the McMicken School of Design 
 was established in accordance with a bequest to 
 the city of Cincinnati; in 1884 it was transferred 
 to the Museum Association, and the present 
 building in Eden Park, close to the museum, 
 was dedicated in 1887. The attendance for 
 1909-10 was 383, and there are 10 in.structors. 
 There are daj% evening, Saturday, and summer 
 classes. In addition to the academic branches 
 there are classes in modeling, wood carving, 
 design, and china painting. The location of the 
 Rockvvood Pottery in this city gives a special 
 reason for the last-mentioned course. The 
 average fee is S25 for each of the winter terms 
 and $20 for the summer term. 
 
 Cleveland, Ohio, School of Art was incorporated 
 in 1882 as the Western Reserve School of 
 Design for Women, but has been known under 
 its present name since 1891. A well-equipped 
 building, erected on a site donated by J. H. 
 Wade, was opened in 1905; a separate build- 
 ing for the department of sculpture was 
 erected and equipped by Thomas H. White 
 at a cost of $15,000. The students number 
 about 350, and there are 14 instructors. The 
 regular 4 years' course includes pictorial art, 
 decorative design, architectural sculpture, and 
 normal art training; special classes in illustra- 
 tion, cartooning, and ceramics; also evening 
 classes for both men and women, and Saturday 
 classes. The fees average $50 a year. 
 
 Columbus, Ohio, Art School Tvas founded by 
 the Columbus Art Association in 1879. There 
 are about 150 students and 4 instructors. Deco- 
 rative design is taught in addition to the usual 
 academic subjects. The fee is $15 for 36 lessons 
 in painting, and other subjects in proportion. 
 
 Indianapolis, Ind. — The John Herron Art 
 Institute School is conducted by the Art Associa- 
 tion of Indianapolis and it occupies a well- 
 equipped building dedicated in October, 1907, 
 and situated near the museum. There were, in 
 1909-10, 350 students, with 15 instructors. The 
 courses include the academic branches, design, 
 metal work, wood carving, and ceramic decora- 
 tion. The fees average $10 a month. 
 
 Los Angeles, Cal., College of Fine Arts, of the 
 University of Southern California, was established 
 in 1901. The registration for 1909-10 was 253, 
 under 7 instructors. There are three-year courses 
 in the fine and in the applied arts, open free to 
 both men and women. 
 
 Minneapolis, Minn., School of Fine Arts is 
 located in the Public Library Building. The 
 school was founded in 1SS6 by the Minneapolis 
 Society of Fine Arts, and has an excellent 
 collection of casts. There were during 1909-10 
 275 students and 7 instructors. There are 4 dis- 
 
 tinct departments: academic, decorative design, 
 handicraft, and architecture. There are also 
 evening, children's, and summer classes. The 
 fees average $40 for the j'oar of 3 terms. 
 
 New Orleans, La. — The Art Department of the 
 Sophie Newcomb Memorial College for Women 
 was founded in 1888, and now occupies its 
 own building. The courses include the aca- 
 demic, pottery, textile, and normal. The pottery 
 (marked N. C.) is a unique feature, and has led 
 to the establishment of a salesroom and to its 
 general sale in other cities. There are about 
 100 students, with 1 1 instructors. The fee is 
 $15 for each term of 12 weeks and $10 a month 
 in the summer school. 
 
 Neiv York, N. Y. — Cooper Union maintains 
 a Free Woman's Art School and a Free Night 
 School of Art for Men. In the former the 
 average attendance during 1909-10 was 325, with 
 a waiting list of 64 ; in addition to the academic 
 studies there are clas.ses in illustration, design, 
 and miniature painting. The evening School 
 for Men is attended by over 1100 students, 
 and there is always a waiting list. The courses 
 include architectural and free-hand drawing, 
 decorative design, and modeling. The Cooper 
 Union Museum for the Arts of Decoration offers 
 special facilities for study, and there is also a 
 large general library in the building, which was 
 dedicated by Peter Cooper in 1857 " to be de- 
 voted for ever to the union of Art and Science 
 in their application to the useful purposes of 
 life." All instruction is free, and there are 
 several cash prizes and scholarships, including 
 one at the Byrdcliffe Summer School of Art. 
 
 New York School of Applied Design for 
 Women was founded in 1892 by Mrs. Dunlap 
 Hopkins for the purpose of affording women 
 practical instruction which will enable them 
 to earn a livelihood by the application of orna- 
 mental design to manufacture and the numerous 
 arts and crafts. In the autumn of 1909 the 
 school moved into its own building specially 
 erected and adapted to its needs. The ele- 
 mentary department includes instruction in 
 object drawing, perspective, flower drawing and 
 painting, drawing from the antique, conven- 
 tionalization, and historic ornament; the ad- 
 vanced department teaches the application of 
 design to the manufacture of wall paper and of 
 silk, illustration, and the work of an architectural 
 draughtsman. There were, during 1909-10, 534 
 students under 15 instructors. There are 3 
 terms in the year, and the tuition fees are $25 
 each term. About $600 is awarded annually in 
 prizes, and in each of the advanced departments 
 a scholarship for the following year is given. 
 The library contains about 8000 plates. 
 
 New York School of Fine and Applied Art is 
 the successor to the Chase School, which was 
 established in 1895. The present courses in- 
 clude the academic, commercial illustration, 
 normal, decorative design, interior decoration, 
 costume design, clay modeling, metal work, 
 basketry, china painting, and Saturday and 
 
 243
 
 ART SCHOOLS 
 
 ART SCHOOLS 
 
 children's classes. The fees vary from $2 a 
 month in the sketch class to SlOO a season for 
 all-day work in the portrait class. No exami- 
 nations are necessary. 
 
 Pralt Institute, founded in 1887, gave instruc- 
 tion in its vSchool of Fine and Applied Arts 
 during 1908-1909 to a total of 953 students, 
 divided as follows: 152 male and 294 female in 
 tiie day courses, 270 male and 55 female in the 
 evening, and 67 boys and 115 girls for special 
 work. There are 34 instructors; the depart- 
 ment contains 40 classrooms, .studios, and 
 offices; a museum is connected with the depart- 
 ment; and there is an art gallery in the adjacent 
 lilirary building in which e.vliihitions are main- 
 tained from October to June. The various 
 courses of study include: life, portrait, and 
 pictorial illustration; costume illustration; com- 
 position and design; modeling; oil and water 
 color painting; general applied design, stained 
 glass, interior decoration, textile and furniture 
 design, art metal, jewelry, chasing, enameling 
 and medal work; architectural construction 
 and architectural design; and normal art and 
 manual training. The general art course covers 
 4 years, and is fundamental to all others. 
 The fees for the day courses are S25 for each of 
 the 3 terms in the season; evening classes 
 $15 for the .season of 6 months. Examinations 
 are required for admission. 
 
 The Young Wonie7i's Christian Association of 
 Neu' York maintains morning, afternoon, and 
 evening classes for the purpose of training 
 designers to apply art to the industries. The 
 courses include design, costume designing, color 
 work, wood carving, modeling, and embroidery. 
 The attendance during 1909-10 was 88, and there 
 are 3 instructors. The fees are from SIO to $20 
 a year. 
 
 Philadelphia, Pa. — The School of Design for 
 TFomen was founded in 1844 in the home of Mrs. 
 Sarah Peter; when it had outgrown the limits 
 of a private enterprise, the Franklin Institute 
 assumed the management of the school until 
 1853, when it was incorporated. Its present 
 home is the Forrest Mansion, and there are 
 about 150 students, with 10 instructors. In 
 addition to the academic branches there is a 
 normal course of 4 years and courses in technical 
 design, illustration, and general applied design. 
 The fees are .?35 a term, and there are 2 Eu- 
 ropean and 5 school fellowships. 
 
 Providence, R.I. — The Rhode Island School 
 of Design was incorporated in 1877, and gives 
 as its purpose: (1) The instruction of arti.sans 
 in drawing, painting, modeling, and design- 
 ing, that they may successfully apply the 
 principles of art to the requirements of trade 
 and manufactures. (2) The systematic train- 
 ing of students in the practice of art, that they 
 may understand its principles, give instruction 
 to others, or become artists. (3) The general 
 advancement of art education by the exhibition 
 of works of art and art studies and by lectures 
 on art. 
 
 The museum consists of eight galleries con- 
 taining oil paintings, casts from the antique, 
 Japanese art objects, and ])easant pottery. The 
 Colonial House built by Stephen O. Metcalf is a 
 continuation of tlie galleries, and contains the 
 Pendleton collection of antique furniture, 
 pottery, textiles, and paintings. During the 
 course of the j-ear a number of special exhibi- 
 tions are held. The school registration for 1909 
 -1910 was 900, and there are 44 instructors. 
 Full courses of instruction leading to a diploma 
 are offered in the 8 departments of the school: 
 freehand drawing and painting; decorative de- 
 sign; modeling and sculpture; architecture; 
 mechanical design: textile design; jewelry de- 
 sign; and normal art. Students are required 
 to attend a series of lectures on the principles 
 of design and to do a prescribed amount of 
 reading. Fees are $35 for each of the 2 terms 
 for the day classes of 30 hours a week; $9 a 
 term for hours a week in the evening classes. 
 In addition to the studios in the main building 
 on Waterman Street, the department of design 
 is located in Memorial Hall on Benefit Street, 
 where there is also a large hall seating 800 
 people; a generous gift of the building at 
 35 North Main Street enabled the opening of 
 this building in the fall of 1909 for the machine 
 shops, the departments of jewelry design, model- 
 ing, and painting, the laboratories of tiie textile 
 chemistry classes, and a large lecture room. 
 
 Rochester, N.Y. — The Department of Fine 
 and Applied Arts of the Mechanics' htstitute 
 occupies the Bevier Memorial building, erected 
 in 1908. There are about 300 students, under 
 8 teachers. The courses include the aca- 
 demic branches, architecture, decorative and 
 costume design, and normal classes. The fees 
 are $26 a term, with 3 terms of 3 months 
 each. There are 4 scholarships, and several 
 small prizes. Lectures are given and exhibi- 
 tions are held from time to time. 
 
 Saint Paul, Minn., In.ttitute School of Art is 
 the outgrowth of a class in china painting organized 
 in 1890 by a group of women. In 1894 it was 
 incorporated under the name of the St. Paul 
 School of Fine Arts, and when the St. Paul In- 
 stitute of Arts and Sciences was incorporated in 
 1908, it took over the school. Rooms in the 
 auditorium building were leased from the city, 
 and the school now occupies the whole top 
 floor and a large part of the middle floor. The 
 registration for the year ending June, 1909, 
 was 375, with C instructors. There is a general 
 ■fine arts course and one in design and handi- 
 craft; the latter includes stenciling, block 
 jjrinting, pottery, leather work, bookbinding, 
 jewelry, and metal work. The tuition fees are 
 from $30 to .$50 for the year of 8 months. There 
 are several scholarships and prizes. 
 
 Saint Louis, Mo., School of Fine Arts originated 
 in a free evening draw'ing class organized by 
 Hal.sey C. Ives in 1874, and was formally es- 
 tablished as a department of Washington Uni- 
 versity in 1879 under the directorship of Pro- 
 
 244
 
 ART SCHOOLS 
 
 ARTICULAR SENSATION 
 
 fessor Ives. A home for the work was provided 
 through the generosity of Wayman Crow, a 
 large collection of casts was obtained from 
 Europe, and a loan collection of paintings was 
 shown when the building was dedicated in 1881. 
 Following the World's Fair in 1904 changes in 
 the organization have led to the Citj' Art 
 Museum being located in Forest Park, and the 
 School, in the autumn of 1909, moved to what 
 was formerly known as the British Pavilion, 
 now a part of Washington University Grounds. 
 The rooms which formed part of the exhibit 
 of the British government will be preserved m- 
 tact, as well as the beautiful formal garden on 
 which the building faces. It is within 8 minutes' 
 walk of the Museum. The course of instruction 
 includes the academic branches; architectural 
 and mechanical drawing; historic ornament; 
 decorative design for textiles, wall paper, etc. ; 
 ceramic decoration ; molding and turning of pot- 
 tery; bookbinding; metal work; wood carving. 
 There is an extended lecture course, and work in 
 the library is recjuired. For both the day and 
 evening classes there are 2 terms in the year. 
 Fee for fuU tuition in aU day classes $50 for 
 each term of IS weeks. 
 
 San Francisco. — The California School of 
 Design is managed by the San Francisco Insti- 
 tute of Art, and is affiliated with the University 
 of California. There are day and evening 
 classes in the academic branches, and courses in 
 design and normal art training with a teaching 
 staff of 9. The fees are from 812 a year for the 
 Saturday class to $75 a year for the full course. 
 
 Syracuse, N. Y. — The College of Fine Arts 
 of the Syracuse University gives a 4 years' 
 course in painting, 2 years' in design, and a 
 special course in illustration. The registration 
 is about 150, and there are 6 instructors. 
 
 Worcester, Mass. — The School of the Worces- 
 ter Art Museum was founded in 1898, and 
 occupies the residence of the late Stephen Salis- 
 bury, the founder of the Worcester Art Museum, 
 which has been remodeled for school purposes. 
 In addition to the usual studies and lecture 
 rooms, there are shops for metal work, weaving, 
 and bookbinding. The main building of the 
 museum is near at hand, and the pupils have 
 free access to it for study, library work, and ex- 
 hibitions. The course includes drawing and 
 painting, design, metal work, bookbinding, 
 weaving, and the history of art. There is a 
 Wednesday evening class in design and one on 
 Saturday morning for children. There are three 
 terms of 10 weeks each and the fees are $12 
 a term, or $30 for the full year. The attendance 
 for 1909-10 was 114, and there are 4 instructors. 
 
 Art Museums. — Important factors in art 
 education are the museums and societies that 
 are constantly holding exhibitions. In many 
 cases the art school is directly associated with 
 the local art museum, as at the Art Institute 
 of Chicago, the Pennsylvania Academy of the 
 Fine Arts, and others. At the Boston Museum, 
 the Metropolitan Museum in New York, and 
 
 others, expert guidance and courses of lectures 
 form part of the regular work, and information 
 about this will be found under the article on 
 Museums. In the smaller cities the library is 
 the art center, and many art schools are located 
 in library buildings. (See Museums.) 
 
 The object of the older art schools was the 
 academic training of professionals and ama- 
 teurs in the arts of drawing, painting, and 
 sculpture. Modern educational ideas tend to 
 train the craftsman, the industrial art worker. 
 The older method aimed to make painters of 
 easel pictures and carvers of ideal sculpture, 
 while only if the pupil failed to reach the desired 
 standard was his attention directed toward 
 the wide field of the industrial arts. To-day 
 the aim is to develop among the vast majority 
 of the people the industrial value of good 
 craftsmanship which comes from the ability to 
 use hand and eye with that knowledge and skill 
 which are derived from the study of drawing, 
 painting, and modeling. When here and there 
 an unusually talented pupil is discovered, 
 every possible opportunity should be given for 
 the development of the talent. There is also, 
 underlying all the instruction, the cultivation 
 of an appreciative public. F. L. 
 
 See Art in the Schools; Art, Methods 
 OF Teaching. 
 
 References: — 
 
 B.iiLEY, Henry Turneb. Instruction in the Fine and 
 Manual Arts in the United Stales. (Bureau of Edu- 
 cation, Washington, D.C., 1909.) 
 
 Clabee, Isaac Edwards. The Relation of Art to 
 Education, 1874, p. 56 ; Art and Industry, Part I, 
 Drawing in Public Schools, 1885, p. 842 ; Part 11, 
 Industrial and Manual Training in Public Schools, 
 1892, p. 13.38; Part III, Industrial and Technical 
 Training in Voluntary Associations and Endowed 
 Institutions, 1897, p. 1145; Part IV, Industrial 
 and Technical Training in Schools of Technology 
 and in United States Land Grant Colleges, 1898, 
 p. 1020. (Bureau of Education, Washington. D.C.) 
 
 Haney, James Pabton. Art Education in the Public 
 Schools of the United States. (American Art An- 
 nual, Inc., New York, 1908.) 
 
 Also the following Periodicals : — 
 American Art Annual. (New York.) 
 Architectural Record. 
 Art et Decoration. (Paris.) 
 Burlington Magazine. (London.) 
 International Studio. (London and New York.) 
 La Rassegna d'Arts. (Rome.) 
 Magazine of Art. (London.) 
 
 Reports of the Proceedings of numerous educational 
 bodies. 
 
 ART MUSEUMS. — See Art Schools; 
 Museums. 
 
 ARTICLE. — See Numbers. 
 
 ARTICULAR SENSATION. — When a mem- 
 ber is moved one is conscious of the movement. 
 This consciousness of the movement was re- 
 ferred by Goldscheider in large part to the joint. 
 He found that anaesthesia of the joint induced by 
 passing an electric current through it decreased 
 the sensitiveness to movement. He also con- 
 vinced himself by direct experiment that the 
 
 245
 
 ARTICULATION 
 
 ASCHAM 
 
 surfaces of the joints were sensitive to strong 
 stimuli. It has been (luestioiieii whether the 
 current really ana-sthetizes the joint or affects 
 the muscles and tendons about it. Then, too, 
 no sense ends have been discovered on the joint 
 surfaces. Those skeptical of the existence of 
 an articular sensitivity would explain the ap- 
 preciation of movement in terms of sense organs 
 in muscle, tendon fasciip, and even in the exter- 
 nal skin. W. B. P. 
 
 ARTICULATION. — This term is employed 
 in edut'ational discussion to designate the pro- 
 cess of adjusting the work of one tyi)e of school 
 to that of another, in order to make more effec- 
 tive the transition of the pupil. Owing to their 
 independent origins, the transition from the 
 elementary school to the secondary school is 
 especially difficult. Subjects and methods of 
 instruction present new problems to the student. 
 The result is that a considerable number of pu- 
 pils fail early in their high school career, owing 
 to what mav be removable difficulties. 
 
 In order to make the transition less difficult, 
 the plan has been proposed, and occasionally 
 carried out in practice, of making the beginnings 
 of Latin or a modern language in the upper 
 grades of the elementary school; developing 
 some work in algebra and geometry along with 
 the arithmetic of the same grades; the applica- 
 tion to the teaching of eighth-grade literature 
 of some of the methods employed in the high 
 school; and, finally, the de\-clopment in the 
 upper grades of departmental teaching (q.v.) 
 so as to accustom pupils to the methods of 
 special teachers. In spite of various attempts in 
 tills direction, it still remains true that the tran- 
 sition involves considerable hardship, and in 
 recent years attempts have beqn made, by 
 means of elective subjects in the high school 
 and by having high school teachers study the 
 qualifications of elementary pupils, to relieve 
 the situation from this side. 
 
 Similar difficulties are often found in the 
 transition from secondary school to college, 
 less, however, owing to lack of articulation in 
 studies and curricula than to change of social 
 surroundings. D. S. 
 
 See Accredited Schools; College; Col- 
 lege Entrance Requirements; Flexibility 
 IN the Gr.\des; High Schools. 
 
 References : — 
 DuTTON .VND Snedden. Aciminislralion of Public 
 Education in the United States. (New York, 1908.) 
 See chapters xviii and xx, and the references there 
 given. 
 
 ARTS, SEVEN LIBERAL. — Sec Liberal 
 Arts, Seven. 
 
 ARYABHATTA. — The first great Hindu 
 teacher of mathematics whose works have come 
 down to us. He was born at the ancient Kusu- 
 mapura, the City of Flowers, a little town on 
 the Jumma just above its confluence with the 
 
 Ganges, and not far from the present Patna, 
 called by the Mohammedans Azimabad, by 
 the ancient Buddhists Pataliputra, and by Meg- 
 asthenes, the ancient Syrian ambassador, 
 Palibothra, so that Aryabhatta's birthplace is 
 given under these various names. The date of 
 his birth is 476 A.D., so that his work was 
 done early in the sixth century. He wrote three 
 treatises, the Arynhhalt'tij, Daxa-g'itikCi, and 
 AryCiMamla. The first treats of arithmetic 
 and algebra, and was probably the standard 
 text for centuries. It is noteworthy that 
 Aryabhatta gives the value of t as in our nota- 
 tion 3.1416, a remarkable approximation for the 
 period. D. E. S. 
 
 ASBURY COLLEGE, WILMORE, KY. — 
 
 A coeducational institution founded in 1890 and 
 held in trust by a boarfl of trustees mostly 
 Methodist. A model school, giving instruction 
 in common school branches, academic, college, 
 and theological departments are maintained, as 
 well as courses in commercial and fine arts sub- 
 jects. The entrance requirements, when a 
 certificate from the academy or accredited 
 high schools is not presented, are equivalent 
 to about 2 years of high school work. In the 
 college degrees are given on work in the classi- 
 cal, scientific, and literary courses. The faculty 
 consists of 5 professors, 3 associate and 2 assistant 
 professors, and 6 instructors and a.ssistants. 
 Aaron S. Watkins, LL.D., is the president. 
 
 ASCHAM, ROGER (1515-1568). — Son of 
 the steward to Lord Scrope of Bolton, born 
 at Kirby Wiske, near Northallerton in York- 
 shire. In 1530, he entered St. John's College, 
 Cambridge. After gi'aduating M.A. in 1537, in 
 1538 he was appointed Greek reader at St. John's 
 College. He was a renowned calligrapher. 
 In 1546 he succeeded Sir John Cheke as pul)lic 
 orator in the University of Candiridge. He was 
 the tutor of Princess (afterwards Queen) 
 Elizabeth. In 1550 he became secretary to Sir 
 Richard Moryson, English amba.ssador to the 
 Emperor Charles V. He then traveled for two 
 years in Italy and Germany. In 1553 he be- 
 came Latin Secretary to Queen Mary. He 
 married Margaret Howe in 1554. In 1545 ho 
 published his Toxoplithis, and in 1570 his Srlwle- 
 maMer appeared, posthumously. His other 
 works were (1) A Report of the AJfnirs and State 
 of Germany, 1553. (2) Some Latin poems. (3) 
 Some theological tractates. (4) His letters, 
 295 in number, edited by Dr. Giles in the 
 Whole Works of Roger Ascham (1865). 
 
 The Toxophilus (1545) is a noteworthy work 
 for two reasons. Ascham's advocacy of archery 
 as a pleasant and patriotic form of exercise 
 places him as a pioneer on educational physical 
 exercise, as against the ordinary bookworm 
 Renaissance scholar. And, secondly, Ascham 
 uses his opportunity to educate with genuine 
 enthusiasm. He employs the English language 
 in WTiting his book, rather than Latin or Greek, 
 
 246
 
 ASCHAM 
 
 ASHLAND COLLEGE 
 
 as he declares he could readily have done. The 
 following educational ideas are advanced in the 
 Toxophilus: shooting should be with the bow 
 "fit" for scholars and students, as well as for 
 princes and great men; youth ought to learn to 
 sing, but not to get wrapt up in music ; no man 
 can "use" too much shooting; a protest against 
 cards and dice; the importance of shootmg as 
 a recreation in training for possible use in war. 
 He states as a fundamental principle that in 
 learning anything (e.g. in shooting) a man 
 "must covet to be best, or else he shall never 
 attain to be mean." 
 
 The Schole master (1570) is Roger Ascham's 
 great educational work. It is one of the most 
 representative of Renaissance writings in Eng- 
 land, one of the most typical works of the time in 
 
 f^) THE ^ 
 
 g^J scHOL^^r^fASTsn ^i^ 
 
 ^'^ '■■ '--■■■ 
 
 ^^^ Orplainc.vid pcrfitCiWtyoJtc-i- ;.r/;!;?>5 
 Sy*t^ '/"■■*•■''•" '""•■" '"'•;?• I'll ff!<ui'\ fm-^cfcd'^^A 
 
 dH (adifdlltiacfcrfot til! Littn 
 
 .iii.i with ftH^H l.uj:;t 1.. 
 fiffui.rfl IdUjiitc , a:. :, ■ 
 jtitm f nrtte , .i»,./ 
 f,-t(v f-itin. 
 
 cucrAUcri]:.!:'.. 
 
 
 
 English literature and one still of real impor- 
 tance in its view of the early teaching of the 
 classics. Its style is attractively quaint and spon- 
 taneous, and at the same time it is full of com- 
 mon sense as well as of learning. It gives a 
 historical insight into the social conditions of the 
 age, and combines both descriptive accounts 
 of actual teaching and of suggested reforms. 
 The running away from Eton College of several 
 scholars for fear of a beating induces Ascham 
 to write his book to plead for such gentleness in 
 tlie schoolmaster as will inspire his pupils' love. 
 Other points are the nature of quick and hard 
 wits; of the limitations that should be placed 
 on the choice of those selected for the higlier 
 
 learning. Ascham then proceeds to deal with 
 the young gentlemen; the too great liberty to 
 "live as they lust"; of their letting loose too 
 soon to overmuch experience of ill; of the 
 gathering of wit and fortune by the method of 
 experience compared with the method of learn- 
 ing, showing that the school of experience is 
 very costly; and lastly of the journcyings of 
 young Englishmen into Catholic countries as 
 very hazardous, and ordinarily attended with 
 more harm than good. 
 
 Ascham is particularly well known by his 
 double translation method of learning Latin. 
 The steps are: (1) the master construes a pas- 
 sage to the pupil as often as the pupil needs; 
 he also parses it over "perfectly" ; the pupil then 
 construes it orally, and is tested to see that he 
 "doubteth in nothing"; (2) the pupil next trans- 
 lates the same passage, writing it out in a paper 
 book. This the master examines, corrects, and 
 returns. (3) After an interval of "an hour at 
 the least," the pupil translates back his own 
 corrected English rendering into Latin in a 
 second paper book. Then the master is to 
 compare the pupil's Latin with the original, 
 and when the right words and true construction 
 and learning of words are given, to say "Here 
 ye do well." If the pupil has "missed" in, 
 say, a passage of Cicero, let the master point out 
 what Cicero would have done differently from 
 the pupil's performance. 
 
 Thus exercised in the double translation from 
 Latin to English, and from English to Latin, 
 the pupil's observation is to be exercised to note, 
 in a third paper book, synonymous terms, meta- 
 phors, phrases, and so on. Grammar is thus 
 entirely subordinated to classical literature. 
 Ascham interestingly discusses the contempo- 
 rary methods of teaching by paraphrases, meta- 
 phrases, epitome, imitation, and declamation, 
 and offers suggestions as to reading of authors. 
 In the course of the Scholcmaster passages of 
 historical interest and literary style occur when 
 he speaks of educational topics connected with 
 Lady Jane Grey and Queen Elizabeth. Queen 
 Elizabeth — in return — is reported to have 
 said on hearing of Ascham's death that she 
 "would rather have thrown ten thousand pounds 
 into the sea than have lost her Ascham." 
 
 F. W. 
 References: — • 
 Arber, E. Reprint of the Toxophilvs. (Westminster, 
 
 1903.) 
 Benndorf, Cornelie. Die englische Padagogik im 
 16 Jahrhunderl (Elyot, Ascham, Mulcaster). (Wien 
 and Leipzig. 1905.) 
 Coleridge, Habtlet. Life of Ascham in Worthies oj 
 
 Yorkshire. 
 Holzamer, J. Der Schulmeister. (Wien, 1881.) 
 K.iTTERFELD, Alfred. Roger Ascham; Sein Leben und 
 
 seine Werke. (.Strassburg, 1879.) 
 L.\urie, S. S. Educatiotinl Opinion from the Renais- 
 sance, pp. 58-85. (Cambridge, 1904.) 
 M.iYOR, J. E. B. The Schoolmaster. (London, 1863.) 
 
 ASHLAND COLLEGE. ASHLAND, OHIO. 
 
 — A coeducational institution founded in 1S78 
 and incorporated in 1S8S as the Asliland Uni- 
 
 247
 
 ASS'S BRIDGE 
 
 ASSOCIATION 
 
 versity, under the auspices of the Conference 
 of the Bretliren Church. There arc no defi- 
 nite entrance reciuirements. Preparatory, nor- 
 mal, coUege, theological, commercial, and line 
 arts departments are maintained. Degrees are 
 given on completion of the necessarj- courses. 
 There are 11 professors and 4 instructors on 
 the faculty. John Lewis Gillin, B.D., Ph.D., is 
 the president. 
 
 ASS'S BRIDGE. — Or pons affinorum, a 
 term applied l)y I'.nglish and American mathe- 
 maticians to the fifth proposition in the first 
 book of Euclid. When the term arose is not 
 known, but probably at a late period. The 
 origin of the term is also open to doubt. By 
 some it is thought to have arisen from the 
 difficulties which the fifth proposition presented 
 to beginners. Probably, however, the figure 
 used by Euclid to illustrate the proposition, 
 from its resemblance to a bridge, gave rise to 
 the term. The French mathematicians refer the 
 term to the Pythagorean proposition. (Eu- 
 chd I, 47.) 
 
 ASSEMBLY ROOMS. — See Architecture, 
 School. 
 
 ASSER. — See Alfred the Great, and An- 
 GLo-S.\xox Education. 
 
 ASSIGNMENT. — A special portion of the 
 lesson period, usually at the close, in which the 
 assignment work is made for the ne.xt day. As 
 a typeof teaching activityit issometimesspoken 
 of as an "assignment lesson," inasmuch as con- 
 siderable care and time is given to presenting 
 the problem to be solved by the child, preparing 
 his mind for the work to be done, and suggesting 
 the materials, observations, books, maps, etc., 
 which he is to utilize. In a sense, the "assign- 
 ment" represents the stage of "preparation" in 
 a lesson which the pupil is to continue at home, 
 without the supervision of the teacher. H. S. 
 
 See Teaching, Types of; Lesson Types. 
 
 ASSIMILATION. — Used in technical psy- 
 chology to describe a phase of perception where- 
 by present experiences are related to earlier 
 experiences and so modified as to conform in 
 character to the earlier experiences. Thus 
 if one hears a sound and by a process of associ- 
 ation relates it to a word which is famihar in 
 his experience, the present sound will take on a 
 form similar to the earlier sound, even though its 
 present form may be somewhat different. This 
 appears most clearly when we misunderstand a 
 word by virtue of the modification of the present 
 sound through earlier experiences. C. H. J. 
 
 References : — 
 WuxDT. Outlines of Psychology, tr. by C. H. Judd. 
 (Leipzig, 1S97.) 
 
 ASSISTANT TEACHER. — See Teacher, 
 Assistant. 
 
 ASSOCLATION. — The term and fact of 
 association has i)layed an important part in the 
 explanation of the mental operations from the 
 time when mental processes first attracted 
 notice. Briefly stated, association is an attempt 
 to explain the order of ideas in terms of tlie 
 connections established by earlier exi)eriencing 
 of the same ideas or of the objects to which the 
 ideas are referred. Four laws of recall have 
 been generally accepted. There is some 
 warrant for the statement that Aristotle origi- 
 nally formulated them, but they were given 
 their wide acceptance by the English Associa- 
 tionist school from Hume to Alill and Bain. 
 The laws assert that ideas succeed each 
 other in consciousness if the objects that they 
 represent have been (a) perceived together 
 (association by contiguity), or (6) in imme- 
 diate succession (association by succession), 
 or (c) are similar (association by similarity), or 
 ((/) contrast with each other (association liy 
 contrast). These laws correspond to the 
 actual observation of the course of thought, 
 but recently there has been very general 
 skepticism as to whether they afford any ex- 
 planation of the succession of ideas. Very evi- 
 dently the laws of contiguity and succession are 
 on a different level from the laws of similarity 
 and contrast. Contiguity and succession are 
 easily established and definite; similarity and 
 contrast are of varying degrees and uncertain. 
 It is much easier, too, to see how the first two 
 factors should exert an actual influence than 
 the latter two. The difference between the two 
 groups was recognized by the associationists in 
 that they made the one explain the more 
 mechanical connections while the more rational 
 mental processes were explained by similarity. 
 
 The recent discussions of association have 
 shifted the emphasis from description to expla- 
 nation. Not the order of ideas superficially 
 regarded, but the underlying causes of the suc- 
 cession, have been prominent. Consequently 
 the nervous basis of association has had large 
 place, for at present ideas are not regarded as 
 persistent entities in themselves. What per- 
 sists is the potentiality or tendency to act of 
 the nerve cells at the basis of the idea. Sher- 
 rington and his school refer the association to 
 some change in the contact of end-brush and 
 dendrite of the neurone that they call the 
 synapse. Association would be defined as a 
 change in the synapse T\Tought by the simul- 
 taneous or successive action of thetwo neurones. 
 Since every idea is really very complex, many 
 cells and many synapses would be involved 
 in each. On the accepted theory the forma- 
 tion of associations would consist in some 
 change in the synapses of two neurones or 
 groups of neurones, and the process of recalling 
 one idea would be to have one of the two 
 groups excited, which would lead to the transfer 
 of the excitation across the synapse to the 
 other neurone. When the word " apple " 
 suggests " tree/' it would be explained that 
 
 248
 
 ASSOCIATION 
 
 ASSOCIATION 
 
 the neurones that were concerned in hearing 
 the two words had become connected at tlieir 
 synapses through frequent use in succession, and 
 that nowwhen the cell corresponding to" apple " 
 was excited, the excitation spread to the other 
 cell that corresponded to " tree." 
 
 These more fundamental explanations of 
 association have made it necessary to distin- 
 guish even more sharply than the earlier theorists 
 between association by contiguity and succes- 
 sion and association tiy similarity or contrast. 
 Simultaneous or successive action of two neu- 
 rones can easily be understood to produce a 
 change in the synapse that would make one 
 recall the other, but no direct change of the 
 kind can be ascribed to similarity or to con- 
 trast as such. Two general ways have been 
 followed to dispose of associations by similarity 
 and contrast. One, advocated by Ebbinghaus 
 among others, would argue that similar and 
 more particularly contrasting ideas are asso- 
 ciated, not because they contrast or are similar, 
 but because the objects that were similar or 
 contrasted have also been at some time contigu- 
 ous or have succeeded each other. Light 
 and dark, for example, contrast, but they recall 
 each other on this theory because they are 
 frequently associated in perception, not because 
 of the contrast. Wundt and James, among 
 others, explain association by similarity as due 
 to the presence of identical elements that 
 account at once for the recall through contiguity 
 and for the fact that the ideas that recall one 
 another are similar. Both men rest their inter- 
 pretation upon the fact that while the object 
 is regarded as a unit, the idea that represents it 
 must be thought of as composed of a number 
 of different units, or at least that many neurones 
 must be active when the idea is in mind. 
 Association between ideas that are seen to be 
 similar when examined after they have been in 
 consciousness are recalled not because they are 
 similar, but because they have in common some 
 group of elements that constitute a center 
 about which the ideas may be said to disappear 
 and reappear. Many of the elements of the 
 first idea disappear, leaving only this center, 
 and the center itself recalls other elements 
 with which it has been earlier a.ssociated and 
 these with it constitute the recalled idea. 
 On the nervous side this means that many of 
 the mass of neurones originally excited cease 
 to act, that certain ones persist, and that the 
 excitation spreads from them over the synapses 
 prepared by earlier connections to other 
 neurones that have also been excited simul- 
 taneously with them at some earlier time. 
 Since certain of the elements in the two masses 
 are common, the two ideas will be similar. 
 Wundt calls association of this kind "association 
 by "identity "; James gives the process the name 
 of " focalized recall." Bradley uses the term 
 "associative redintegration." Whatever the 
 name assigned, and whether we agree that the 
 process is or is not identical with the associa- 
 
 tion by similarity of the older school, there can 
 certainly be no doubt that the greater number 
 of associations actually observed are of this 
 sort. 
 
 One important difficulty with the doctrine 
 of association of the older theorists that has 
 been recognized more and more recently is that 
 the mental operations are more variafjle than 
 the theories would admit. Strictly applied, 
 there could be but one association that is most 
 strongly connected with any other, and this 
 should follow the other invariablj\ As a 
 matter of fact, weaker associations are contin- 
 ually gaining the mastery over the stronger; 
 ideas frequently associated are often subor- 
 dinated to those that have been seldom con- 
 nected with the inciting idea. The older 
 writers made a place for this by making asso- 
 ciations by similarity more flexible than asso- 
 ciation by contiguity or succession. Rational 
 connections were grouped under similarity, 
 the mechanical connections under the two first 
 heads. In the modern discussions the selec- 
 tion of one from the many possible a.ssociates is 
 made to depend either upon an arbitrary force 
 that is called the "self," "will," or, by Wundt, 
 " apperception," or is referred to the wider rela- 
 tions of the idea to other ideas and considera- 
 tions that may be present at the moment. 
 Watt and the Kiilpe school, for example, 
 find the controlling influence in the task of the 
 moment, in the general purpose; others call 
 the control from the wider setting the " attitude " 
 or the cortical set. Whatever we call it, or how- 
 ever it may be explained in the last analysis, 
 it is now a matter of general agreement that 
 most associations are to be explained in large 
 part by mental states that are wider than the 
 immediately preceding idea, and that this 
 wider control accounts for the flexibility of 
 association and for the adaptability to particu- 
 lar conditions. Not the state of the single 
 synapse, but the activity of wide areas of the 
 cortex; not the condition of the neurones at 
 the immediate moment, but the activity of 
 the nervous system over considerable periods, 
 determines the final outcome of the associations. 
 
 As one would expect from the many changes 
 in point of view, there have been many different 
 classifications of associations. Some of the 
 more important may be mentioned and re- 
 ferred to the general outline given above. 
 Wundt, for example, distinguishes associations 
 between elements from the same sense depart- 
 ment from elements derived from different 
 senses. The former he calls assimilatioijs, 
 the latter, after Herbart, complications. Assimi- 
 lations are found most frequently in illusions 
 or in normal perceptions. The contributions 
 of the senses are supplemented by memories 
 from the same sense to constitute the object 
 seen. Complications are found in the supple- 
 menting of tactual impressions by visual impres- 
 sions, as when one feels an object in the 
 dark. Other classifications emphasize the dif- 
 
 249
 
 ASSOCIATION 
 
 ASSOCIATION INSTITUTE 
 
 ference between the mechanically determined 
 and the more rationally determined associations 
 that we have seen to grow out of tiie entire 
 appreciation of the situation. Two of the 
 more common classifications are into external 
 and internal associations, or into divergent and 
 convergent associations. The former is used 
 more widely by psychiatrists. The flight of 
 ideas of a maniac, or the substitution of a word 
 with strong associations but without meaning in 
 the context for another that should logically 
 follow it are instances of external association; 
 the associations of orderly thinking arc due to 
 internal associations. "Divergent" and "con- 
 vergent " are used by Sully and others in place of 
 "external " and 'internal." Divergent associa- 
 tions spread from the initial word and depend 
 upon that word alone; convergent associates 
 come from the word plus other elements of ex- 
 perience which converge upon the resulting 
 idea to assist in arousing it. W. B. P. 
 
 References: — 
 Ferri, Louis. La psychologic de I'associalion depuia 
 
 Hnhhcsjusgii'd nos jours; histoire el critique. (Paris, 
 
 1883.) 
 J.\ME8. W. Psychology. (New York, 1904.) 
 W'u-VDT, W. Outlines of Psychology, tr. by C. H. Judd. 
 
 (Leipzig, 1897.) 
 
 ASSOCIATION. — The second of the four 
 steps of the recitation or inductive develop- 
 ment lesson as originally suggested by Hcrbart. 
 By the step of association, Herbart meant to 
 intlicate the stage in which the various particu- 
 lars or details are associated through the dis- 
 covery of common qualities. In present ter- 
 minology it is the step of "comparison and 
 abstraction." 
 
 See Recit.\tion', Method of. 
 
 ASSOCIATION AND REPRODUCTION 
 
 OF IDEAS. — See Associ.^tion. 
 
 ASSOCIATION OF CATHOLIC COLLEGES 
 OF THE UNITED STATES. — Organized 
 in Chicago in 1899 under the guidance of Right 
 Reverend Monsignor Thomas J. Conety, D.D., 
 rector of the Catholic University. The pur- 
 poses of the association are to study the ques- 
 tions connected with college education, to 
 advance the unification of system of Catholic 
 education, and to strive toward a larger devel- 
 opment of college work. Representatives from 
 53 colleges joined in the first organization of 
 the association. The association now includes 
 about 90 colleges, conducted chiefly by religious 
 teaching orders of men as follows: Augustinians, 
 Benedictines, Capuchins, Carmelites, Order 
 of Charity, Christian Brothers, Franciscans, 
 Franciscan Brothers, Holy Cross, Holy Ghost, 
 Jesuits, IMarists, Society of Mary, Precious 
 Blood, Brothers of the Sacred Heart, Saint 
 Viateur, Vincentians, and the Zaverian 
 Brothers. The colleges of this group range 
 from classical to commercial institutions created 
 to meet the demands of those destined for the 
 
 priesthood, the learned professions, and busi- 
 ness careers. No uniformity of entrance 
 standards exists. 
 
 See CoN\-ENT Schools; Religious Teach- 
 ing Orders; Monastic Schools; etc. 
 
 ASSOCIATION OF COLLEGES AND 
 PREPARATORY SCHOOLS OF THE MID- 
 DLE STATES AND MARYLAND. —This 
 
 organization has developed by successive stages 
 from an organization of college teachers, 
 founded in LSSS, into an important body 
 representing college and secondary school 
 interests; only approved schools are admitted 
 to membership. At its annual meetings (in 
 the Thanksgiving holidays) are discussed 
 topics bearing on the relations of bodies 
 of colleges and the secondary schools; the 
 speakers selected represent the college and 
 the school point of view. The presiding officer 
 is in alternate years a college professor or a 
 school princijial. The proceedings published 
 annually contain notable utterances on vital 
 educational i-ssucs; in them may be traced the 
 inception and progress of important educa- 
 tional measures. Thus the College Entrance 
 Examination Board, which in 19()9 examined 
 by a uniform system over 3400 candidates for 
 admission to college, originated in the counsels 
 of the Association, to which it owes its present 
 influence. Similarly the Association has co- 
 operated through committees with other or- 
 ganizations in unifying and strengthening the 
 college entrance requirements in English; 
 from the Association have sprung several 
 adjunct societies, that meet as sections of the 
 parent society, e.g. A History Teachers' Asso- 
 ciation, and a Classical Teachers' Association. 
 
 J. S. 
 See College Entrance Examination 
 Boards. 
 
 Reference: — 
 
 Sachs, .Itlius. Historic Sketch of the Association 
 of Colleges and Preparatory Schools of the Middle 
 Stales and Maryland, in the Proceedings of the same 
 for 1908. 
 
 ASSOCIATION OF COLLEGES AND 
 PREPARATORY SCHOOLS OF THE 
 SOUTHERN STATES. —Sec College Ex- 
 amination AND Certification Boards. 
 
 ASSOCIATION OF COLLEGIATE ALUM- 
 NAE. — See Women, Higher Education of. 
 
 ASSOCIATION OF IDEAS. 
 
 TION. 
 
 - See Associa- 
 
 ASSOCIATION INSTITUTE, CHICAGO, 
 ILL. — A day and evening school for men 
 and boys conducted by the Central Department 
 of the Y.M.C.A. (q.v.) and organized in 1893. 
 The range of work offered is from elementary 
 to collegiate grade. Its evening school is one of 
 the largest in the country, and in 1908-1909 
 
 2.50
 
 ASSOCIATIONS 
 
 ASSYRO-BABYLONIANS 
 
 80 or more classes were conducted, while the 
 enrollment was 1149 students. In the same 
 year, the day classes, which were begun in 
 1896, enrolled 414 students. The Institute 
 frankly aims at being supplementarj' to other 
 schools and to give the student what he needs. 
 Business, college preparatory, and technical 
 courses are the most important of those offered. 
 The certificates of this institute are recognized 
 by many colleges, universities, and professional 
 institutions. No students are admitted under 
 15 years of age. A summer school for grammar 
 school boys and an English school for those 
 who have not completed the grammar schools 
 are also provided. J. Goodwin Perkins is the 
 educational director. 
 
 ASSOCIATIONS. — See Educational As- 
 sociations; Teachers' Associations. 
 
 ASSOCIATIONS, SCIENTIFIC — See Sci- 
 entific Associations. 
 
 ASSOCIATIONS, TEACHERS'. — See 
 
 Teachers' Associations. 
 
 ASSOCIATIONS, TEACHERS' VOLUN- 
 TARY. — See Teachers' Associations. 
 
 ASSUMPTION COLLEGE, SANDWICH, 
 ONT. — A Catholic school established in 
 1857 by the Jesuit Fathers, but which has 
 successively passed into the control of the 
 Benedictines and Basilians, who now have 
 charge. Preparatory, classical, and commercial 
 departments are maintained. The classical 
 course is one of 7 years. Rev. F. Forster, 
 C.S.B., is the president. 
 
 ASSYRO-BABYLONIANS, THE EDUCA- 
 TION OF THE. — Inasmuch as the civiliza- 
 tion of the Assyro-Babylonians was based, even 
 more than that of other peoples of antiquity, 
 upon the quality and extent of their learning, an 
 exhaustive paper on this subject should neces- 
 sarily cover in detail the entire field of their 
 national culture, besides embracing such ma- 
 terial as might be at hand regarding their ped- 
 agogic methods. As such a presentation in 
 extenso is obviously beyond the limits of the 
 present treatise, it must suffice here merely to 
 touch very briefly, first, upon the scope and 
 quality of the Assyro-Babylonian learning, and 
 secondly, upon its extent among and influence 
 upon the various classes of the people of Assyro- 
 Babj'lonia, who, for our purposes at least, may 
 be looked upon as a single nation, because, dur- 
 ing the whole period of their history, either one 
 or the other of these two kindred powers held 
 the Semitic hegemony of Western Asia. 
 
 It may now be regarded as an established 
 thesis that the primitive civilization of Baby- 
 lonia (the mother of the subsequent Assyro- 
 Babylonian culture) was not Semitic, but that 
 
 it was the product of that non-Aryan, non- 
 Semitic, linguistically agglutinative race of 
 people, whom we now agree to designate as 
 " Sumerians," ■ who were undoubtedly the 
 founders of the cuneiform or wedge writing, 
 in which in later daj's arose the vast treasury 
 of the Assyro-Babylonian Semitic literature. 
 All primitive education, or civilization, for the 
 terms are really synonymous in relation to an- 
 cient times, was mainly dependent upon the 
 character of the system of writing upon which 
 it was based. It is clear that the cuneiform 
 system of writing originated as a lineal picture 
 writing, scratched at first upon stone and later 
 upon clay, each sign having primitively been 
 the picture of an object, which sign was later 
 conventionalized as the writing became more 
 cursive. To each such sign picture was attrib- 
 uted as a syllabic value the Sumerian word, 
 practically always monosyllabic, denoting the 
 object represented by the picture. Thus, to 
 the sign for " water," which was originally the 
 picture of a falling stream, was assigned the 
 value a, which was the Sumerian word for 
 " water," and when, in later times, the invad- 
 ing Semites adopted the Sumerian characters, 
 they used the sign with the sound a, quite irre- 
 spective of its meaning in Sumerian as " water," 
 in order to denote the same sound a, wherever 
 it occurred in the Semitic Assyro-Babylonian 
 language. In other words, the original mono- 
 syllabic Sumerian words came to serve as simple 
 syllable values, to spell out Semitic vocables syl- 
 labically. This system naturally soon de- 
 veloped into a regular syllabary, consisting of 
 such values as ba, ab, da, ad, etc., but never 
 into a consonantal and vocalic alphabet, such 
 as we use to-day. Then, as the necessity for 
 abbre\iated writing became apparent to the 
 cuneiform scribes, they complicated still further 
 their method of recording by frequently adopt- 
 ing the original Sumerian idea sign, or ideo- 
 graph, as it is now called, and pronouncing it 
 with the corresponding Semitic word. Thus, 
 in the case of the water sign, pronounced in 
 Sumerian a, if the Semitic scribe wished to 
 write " water " more expeditiously, he used 
 the Sumerian a sign = " water," but pro- 
 nounced it in Semitic im'i " water," rather 
 than spell it out syllabicall3^ mu-u. On the 
 other hand, the scribe was at perfect liberty 
 to use the Sumerian water sign, with the 
 value a, in spelling out phonetically any 
 Semitic word which contained that value. An 
 AssjTo-Babylonian reader, consequently, had 
 always to ask himself whether the signs were 
 being used ideographically, or merely phoneti- 
 cally; a circumstance which materially com- 
 plicated the difficulties of cuneiform reading. 
 With a system of writing which embodied, be- 
 sides the ninety simple syllabic signs, some 
 
 ' On the Sumerian Lmguage, cf . J. Dyncley Prince , 
 Materials for a Sumerian Lexicon, .T. C. Hinrichs'scfie 
 Buchhandiung, Leipzig, 190S, pp. VII-XXXIV. 
 
 251
 
 ASSYRO-BABYLONIANS 
 
 ASSYRO-BABYLONIANS 
 
 12,200 possible ideographic combinations,' it is 
 most .surprisiiiK tliat such an elaborate litera- 
 ture, both religious and secular, should have 
 been developed by this remarkable people. 
 
 Their religious hterature embraced a large 
 amount of devotional ritual, such as psalms, 
 hymns, anil i)rayers to the various gods, usually 
 written in both Sumerian (first line) and Semitic 
 (second line), which were employed in the 
 worship of the different temples.- Besides 
 the.se, they recorded a number of historically 
 important religious and semi-religious legends, 
 the most noteworthy of which are the Creation 
 Story ^ and the so-called Nimrod Epic,' em- 
 bodying their Deluge account, which is strik- 
 ingly similar to that of the Hebrew Old Testa- 
 ment. Important also were the Adapa and 
 the Zu stories; both of them complicated 
 nature-myths.* All these legends are highly 
 valuable to-day from the point of view of the 
 study of the development of religious thought, 
 as showing that the Assyro-Babylonians 
 evolved, during the three thousand years of 
 their national growth, a very well-ordered 
 religious system. 
 
 A further branch of this their religious ac- 
 tivity was also, undoubtedly, their evolution of 
 an elaborate system of astronomical observa- 
 tions, which they, of course, used chiefly for 
 astrological purposes, many of which records 
 we find carefully inscribed in the cuneiform 
 literature." Indeed, the early Babylonian and 
 Assyrian astronomical facts, particularly regard- 
 ing the grouping of the constellations, which 
 they believed augured good or ill for mankind, 
 form the basis of all later astronomical work. 
 For example, in connection with their astro- 
 nomical and astrological activity, they estab- 
 lished the seven-day week, and also worked 
 out the basis of ordinary mathematical reckon- 
 ing, founded at first upon the sexagesimal, and 
 
 ' For an inductive textbook for beginners in Assyrian, 
 cf. J. Dynclcy Prince, Assyrian Primer, Columtua 
 University Press, 1909. 
 
 2 A large number of these hymns and psalms has 
 already been published in various European languages 
 by Messrs. Thureau-Dangin, Zimmcrn, Bczold, Lang- 
 don, Vanderburgh, Prince, and other Assyriologists. 
 The student should consult the recent files of the 
 Journal of the American Oriental Society, the American 
 Journal of Semitic Languages, the Journal Asiatique, the 
 Zeitsehrift fiir Assyriohgie, and the Wiener Zeitsehrift fur 
 Kunde (les M orgcnlandcs : also F. A. Vanderburgh, 
 Sumeriun Hi/mns, Columbia University Press, 1908. 
 
 »Cf. L. W. King, The Seven Tablets of Creation, 
 Luzac, London, 1902. 
 
 * Cf. Paul Haupt's text, das Bahylonische Nimrodepos, 
 1891, and partial translation, Johns Hopkins Uni- 
 versity Circulars, Vol. VIII, No. G9, pp. 17-18; also in 
 Beitrdge zur scniiti^chen Sprachwissenschaft, Vol. I, pp. 
 122 ff. See also P. Jensen, Die Kosmologie der Babylonicr, 
 pp. 36S ff. On the recently discovered Deluge fragment, 
 edited by H. V. Hilprecht with translation in the 
 Babylonian Expedition of the L^niversity of Pennsyl- 
 vania, Vol. V, No. 1, .see the re\new by J. Dynelcy 
 Prince and F. .\. Vanderburgh in the .July number of 
 the American Journal of Semitic Languages, 1910. 
 
 * See Morris Jastrow, Jr., Religion of Babylonia and 
 Assyria (English edition). Index, s.v. ".A.dapa " and "Zu." 
 
 " Cf. Virolleaud, L'Astrologie Chaldeenne, Paris, 1908- 
 1909 ; C. Fossey, La Magie Assyrienne, Paris, 1902. 
 
 later upon the decimal, system, of which they 
 were the inventors, so that in a sense we may 
 look upon them as having been the fathers both 
 of astronomy and of mathematics in general. 
 
 Then, too, as the Assyro-Babylonian political 
 influence extended practically all over the 
 nearer East, they became great traders, both 
 at home and abroad, and accordingly evolved 
 a system of keeping accounts, which, consider- 
 ing the difficulty of their writing and the perish- 
 able nature of their writing material (usually 
 baked clay), is little short of marvelous. 
 Their alluvial land, especially in Babylonia, 
 supplied them with little or no stone. Both 
 the temple and the private accounts and con- 
 tracts, thousands of specimens of which, pre- 
 served on cylinders and tablets, some of th("m 
 encased in clay envelopes, have come down to 
 us, bear witness of their immense commerce 
 and business activity.' They also very natu- 
 rally evolved a system of law, based both 
 upon their religion and their commerce, which 
 was certainly not equaled in later days even 
 by the Hebrews. The now famous laws of the 
 Babylonian King Hammurabi (2342-22S8 B.C.) 
 form a master monument of the legal acumen 
 and sense of justice of these highly civilized 
 ancient peoples. 
 
 Finally, in this connection, their royal and 
 governmental epistolary literature,'- such as 
 correspondence between kings and governors, 
 and their carefully kept reign records, the 
 events of each year being tabulated according 
 to their proper sequence, gave them an im- 
 mense purely historical collection of literature. 
 
 The student of education is bound to con- 
 sider what a vast quantity of in.structional 
 subjects the Assyro-Babylonians had to handle, 
 the nucleus of it certainly dating from 2342- 
 2288 B.C., the era of Hamnmrabi, and, of 
 course, constantly increasing in material down 
 to the culmination of the later Babylonian 
 power under Nebuchadnezzar ((304-562 b.c). 
 They had, without doubt, hundreds of students 
 in every temple; for the temples were their 
 centers of educational activity until the end of 
 their dominion in 537 B.C., when Cyrus the 
 Persian took the city of Babylon and thus 
 ended the Semitic sway in western Asia. 
 These students, in the later days, when the 
 educational material had reached vast jiropor- 
 tions, nuLst have specialized in the various lines 
 of mental activity. That is, there must have 
 been students of the purely religious literature 
 (belief and ritual); of the astronomical and 
 astrological documents, a difficult specialty in 
 itself to-day; of their very large epistolary 
 literature; of the historical records; and 
 finally, of their widespread business documents, 
 and of what practically amounted to their 
 
 ^ a. J. "H. Stcvonaon, Assyrian ami Batiylonian Con- 
 tracts, American Book Company, 1902 ; Robert Lau, 
 Contract Tablets, Columbia University Press, 190.'). 
 
 ' See L. W. King, Letters and Inscriptions of Ham- 
 murabi, Luzac, London, 1898 : R. C Thompson, Lale 
 Babylonian Letters, Luzac, London, 1906. 
 
 252
 
 ASSYRO-BABYLONIANS 
 
 ASSYRO-BABYLONIANS 
 
 system of banking.^ Certainly no other people 
 of the ancient East had a broader field for edu- 
 cational activity than had the Assyro-Baby- 
 lonians. Indeed, it was owing to the excessive 
 intellectual activity of the last King of Babylon, 
 Nabonidus (556-537 B.C.), who was more of a 
 scholar than a ruler, and who, owing to his 
 purely scholarly trend of mind, permitted the 
 Babylonian name in western Asia to become 
 more of a shadow than a reality, that Babylon, 
 then the center of Semitic power, finally fell 
 into the hands of the alien Cyrus in 527 b.c. 
 
 We know very little regarding the Assyro- 
 Babylonian system of instruction, as they 
 have left us comparatively few records of a 
 purely educational character, but we may cer- 
 tainly be permitted to take for granted the 
 following facts. As stated above, the temples, 
 each of which was usually the religious and 
 often the political center of its district, were 
 also the educational centers for the instruction 
 of the scribal and priestly caste. It cannot, 
 of course, be supposed that education was ever 
 spread broadcast among the population, as is 
 the case to-day in the West, the chief hindrance 
 to such a condition, no doubt, being, not only 
 their system of social classes, but also the 
 extreme difficulty of learning the dual system 
 of cuneiform writing descriljed above. Indeed, 
 this cause holds good to-day to a great extent 
 in the entire Orient, where the literary lan- 
 guages, as is the case with Arabic, Persian, and 
 Turkish, have been developed along quite 
 different lines from the vernaculars. Judging 
 from the conservative East of to-day, it may 
 be supposed that this was particularly the 
 case in Assyro-Babylonia, where every scribe 
 had to learn how to read and \\Tite not only 
 the Semitic vernacular, but also the ancient 
 Sumerian language, which remained the reli- 
 gious idiom of the temple service down to the 
 latest date, the tongue in which probably all 
 devotional rites were carried on. In short, 
 Sumerian must have occupied much the same 
 position among the Assyro-Babylonians as was 
 held by Latin in our own medieval period. 
 This seems clear from the fact that we have 
 a large number of what were evidently purely 
 educational documents intended to enable the 
 students to master the intricacies of Sumerian; 
 such as lists of grammatical forms wth Semitic 
 explanations and hsts of words explanatory in 
 both languages of the proper values of the 
 ideographic signs. We know also that much 
 the same methods which are followed by our 
 own Assyriological students of modern times 
 were used by students in Eg.v]3t at the time 
 of the so-called Tell el-Amarna correspondence 
 in the Babylonian language between early 
 Babylonian kings and Egyptian monarch's 
 and governors (c. 2200 b.c); viz., the learner 
 divided his words by means of lines drawn 
 
 • Clay, The Business DocumenU of Murashi'i Sons. 
 Babylonian Expedition of the University of Penn- 
 sylvaoia, X. 
 
 upon the tablets, in order to get the proper 
 grammatical divisions. Furthermore, the very 
 large bilingual hymn literature may be classified 
 as educational in its nature, where the Sumerian 
 line has the corresponding Assyro-Babylonian 
 translation directly under it. It must be sup- 
 posed that such documents as these were 
 written especially for the purpose of familiariz- 
 ing the young priesthood with the character of 
 the hymns in question. It is probable also 
 that they had educational, astronomical, and 
 astrological tablets, as well as purely arith- 
 metical tablets, intended to teach the students 
 the principles of the multiplication table, as 
 instanced by the recent Nippur discoveries of 
 what are apparently very simple examples of 
 multiplication.' This implies that they began 
 to instruct students at quite an early age. 
 Then, too, the hitherto unmentioned incanta- 
 tion literature,^ giving in both Sumerian and 
 Assyro-Babjdonian all sorts of medicinal 
 charms against every kind of disease, may be 
 classified as instructional documents to the 
 youthful medical fraternity, which was always 
 a caste of the priesthood. The extremely 
 numerous scribal copies of every kind of his- 
 torical record, made by the orders of the last 
 great King of Assyria, Assurbanipal (668-626 
 B.C.), must, no doubt, be placed in the same 
 educational category. 
 
 In short, it is perfectly clear that these 
 people paid especial attention to the education 
 of their scribal or learned class, but it is equally 
 probable that education was looked upon, not 
 as a universal necessity, — this has never been 
 the case in the East, — but as belonging to a 
 particular set of specialists, whose duty it was 
 to maintain it for the w-elfare of the nation as 
 a whole. There is nothing to indicate that 
 this scribal caste ^ was drawn in later days 
 from any particular racial or aristocratic class. 
 No doubt any intelligent free-born lad was 
 permitted to dedicate his talents to this neces- 
 sary branch of the nation's activity and to 
 become either a conservator or enricher of 
 their literature, religious or legal, or else a 
 public accountant for the maintenance of their 
 commerce. Only, every such scribe was, with- 
 out doubt, a member of the priestly orders, 
 who were, as in our own Middle Ages, the 
 conservers of all learning. In very ancient 
 days, however, it seems that this priestly 
 scribal class was largely recruited from the 
 Chaldeans, a Semitic race kindred to the 
 Babylonians, who came first from the South 
 along the coast of the Persian Gulf at a very 
 
 ' H. V. Hilprecht. Explorations in Bible Lands, 
 Philadrlphia, 1903, p. 5.31. 
 
 = R. r. Thompson, Reports of the Magicians and 
 Astrologers of Nineveh and Babylon, Vols. I. II, Luzac, 
 London, 1900; The Devils and Eril Spirits of Babylonia, 
 Vols. I, II, Luzac London, 1907. 
 
 ' On soribal ca.ste in general, and particvilarly among 
 the Hebrews, ef. J. Dyneley Prince in Cheyne's En- 
 cyclopwdia Biblica, s.v. "Scribes and Pharisees," cols. 
 4321-4332. 
 
 253
 
 ASTASIA-ABASIA 
 
 ASTEREOGNOSIS 
 
 early date. Herodotus used the term " Chal- 
 deans" to denote essentially the priestly class 
 of Babylonia, a usage which became current 
 in later times among all peoples foreign to the 
 Ass_yro- Babylonians, and which is probably to 
 be explained in the following manner.' 
 
 The sudden rise of the later Babylonian 
 empire under tiic Chaldean rule of Nebuchad- 
 nezzar, the son of Nabopolassar, the first of the 
 later purely Chaldean dynasty, tended to 
 produce so thorough an amalgamation of the 
 Chaldeans and Bal)ylonians proper, who had 
 theretofore probably been racially distinct, 
 that, in the course of time, no perceptible 
 differences existed between these two Semitic 
 peoples. The name " Chaldean," however, 
 lived on in the restricted sense of the prie.stly 
 educated caste, and for this reason. The 
 Kaldi had seized and held from most ancient 
 times the region of old Sumer in southern 
 Babylonia, the early center of the non-Semitic 
 Sumerian culture. This superior civilization 
 these Chaldeans adopted eventually as their 
 own, and, as they were the dominant race, the 
 priestly caste of that region became a Chaldean 
 institution. It is reasonable to conjecture, 
 then, that southern Babylonia, the home of 
 the old culture, supplied Babylon and other 
 important cities with priests and scribes, who 
 were correctly termed " Chaldeans " from their 
 original descent, a name, however, which in 
 later days, owing to the amalgamation of the 
 Chaldeans and Babylonians, lost its national 
 force and became a distinctive appellation of 
 the priestly caste. 
 
 It is really marvelous that we are able 
 to-day to formulate as many facts as we do 
 regarding the ancient Assyro-Babylonian civili- 
 zation. After lying buried for over two thou- 
 sand years beneath the ruin-hills of Babylonia 
 and Assyria, the records of this great culture 
 of the ancient East have come to light prac- 
 tically within our own times, and have given 
 us an insight into some of the most minute 
 details of their public polity and even of their 
 daily life. Like the vallev of dry bones men- 
 tioned by the Prophet Ezekiel (37, 7), before 
 the creative breath of modern Assyriological 
 science, there have arisen " a noise . . . and 
 a shaking, and the bones have come together, 
 bone to his bone." J. D. P. 
 
 ASTASIA-ABASIA. — The loss of the ability 
 to stand and to walk, without corresponding 
 losses of the sensations wliich help to coordi- 
 nate the movements in walking and standing, 
 and without paralysis of the walking and 
 standing muscles. The condition is usually 
 found only in hysterical patients. Bloch, who 
 first described the symptom, explained it as 
 being due to a faulty initial impulse from the 
 
 ' J. Dyncley Prince, Commrntnry on the Book of 
 Daniel, J. C. Hinrichs'sche Buchhandlung, Leipzig, 1S99, 
 pp. 59-61. 
 
 cerebral cortex. It is one form of amnesia 
 (q.v.). S. I. F. 
 
 References: — 
 Bloch. S\ir une affection caracti^ris^e par I'astasie et 
 
 dc I'abasic. Archivcti de Neurol., Vol. XV, 1888. 
 De Buck, D. Reflexions sur un s.\MHlr6ino d'astasie- 
 
 alia-sic. Bull. Soc. de Med. Mcnt. de Belgique, 
 
 1!)0.J, pp. 195-200. 
 Stroii.viayeh, W. Ucber das Symptom der Abasie- 
 
 astasie. Monnischr. f. Psychial. u. Neurol., Vol. 
 
 XII, 1902, pp. 315-328. 
 
 ASTELL, MARY (1668-1731). — Writer on 
 miscellaneous topics. She was the daughter of 
 a Newcastle merchant who gave her a careful 
 education. When about 20 she settled in 
 London, where and at Chelsea she passed the 
 rest of her life. When she was 20, she pub- 
 lished anonymously a Scriuu.<f I'ropo.tal to 
 Ladies, in which she advised the erection of a 
 sort of Church of England nunnery, without 
 vows, in which religion and education should go 
 hand in hand. In 1697, the year in which 
 Defoe complained that Mrs. Astell had antici- 
 pated some of his ideas, she published a second 
 part, giving a method for the improvement of 
 the minds of the recluses. Bisho]) Burnet is 
 said to have persuaded some great lady, who 
 had been taken by the scheme, not to endow the 
 institution because it savored too much of 
 popery. Years later the Tatlcr in an unworthy 
 fashion satirized the proposal and its estimable 
 author. Her other writings, political and 
 ecclesiastical, are of consequence mainly be- 
 cause they prove her to have been a woman of 
 considerable acuteness, who did not hesitate 
 to engage on equal terms with men like Atter- 
 bury and John Norris of Bemcrton. An 
 exception should be made in favor of her 
 Essay in Defence of the Female Sex (1096) 
 and Some Reflections itpon Marriage (1700), 
 the former of which contains not a little 
 vigorous satire upon the sex to which this 
 good and able, but somewhat eccentric, lady did 
 not belong. Mrs. Astell is not much remem- 
 bered, but a careful monograph dealing with 
 her and other women writers of her day, e.g. 
 Mrs. Elizabeth Elstob, the Anglo-Saxon scliolar, 
 is much to be desired. I have relied on Canon 
 Overton's article in the Dictionary of National 
 Biography, Ballard's Memoirs of British Ladies, 
 and my own notes. W. P. T. 
 
 ASTEREOGNOSIS. — Loss of stereognostic 
 sense (?) is tlie inability to decide from touch 
 and motor sensations the nature and use of 
 objects. If when the eyes are closed a pencil or 
 a coin be placed in the hand of a normal person, 
 there are obtained sensations of hardness, of 
 temperature, and complex perceptions of round- 
 ness, of length, etc., which are interpreted by 
 the individual to mean rcspectivelj' a pencil or 
 a coin. In the condition of a.stereognosis the 
 interpretation of the different sensations is not 
 possible, although many of the sensory organs 
 may be as acute as in a normal individual. The 
 
 254
 
 ASTHENIC EMOTIONS 
 
 ASTIGMATISM 
 
 disorder is produced by lesions in the parietal 
 cerebral cortex, and may be unilateral. 
 
 Although the term is used in many articles as 
 if it referred to a sensation loss, it is well known 
 that the so-called stereognostic sense is a com- 
 plex of sensational elements, of the nature of an 
 association, and astereognosis is, therefore, a 
 loss of certain associations, and may be directly 
 compared with the various kinds of aphasia. 
 
 Astereognosis is normal in young children, in- 
 asmuch as they cannot recognize by means of 
 touch and movement sensations the nature of 
 objects which may be given to them. The 
 sense may be much improved by systematic 
 training. S. I. F. 
 
 References : — 
 
 BuLLARD, W. N. Value of astereognosis as a localizing 
 symptom in cerei:)ral affections. Jour. Nerv. and 
 Ment. Dis., Vol. XXXI, 1904, pp. 241-249. 
 
 Walton and P.\ul. Clinical value of astereognosis and 
 its bearing upon cerebral localization. Jour. Nerv. 
 and Ment. Dis., Vol. XXVIII, 1901, pp. 191-213. 
 
 ASTHENIC EMOTIONS.— See E.motio.ns. 
 
 ASTIGMATISM (d- privative and o-Tty/Aa, 
 a point). — That condition of refraction in 
 which parallel rays of light entering the eye 
 do not come to a focus at the same point on the 
 retina. The defect is due to an error in the 
 refracting surface either of the cornea, or of the 
 lens, or of both, or in their setting. Astigmatism 
 was first discovered more than a hundred years 
 ago by Thomas Young, who was astigmatic 
 himself. He noted this defect in his own case 
 but thought it due to the lens of his eye. It 
 was not until many years later that Bonders 
 showed that astigmatism usually results from 
 an error of refraction in the cornea. 
 
 There are two kinds of astigmatism, regular 
 and irregular. The irregular form occurs when 
 the same meridian of the cornea or the lens 
 varies in curvature, that is, has an unequal 
 refraction in its different parts. This may be 
 congenital, or due to ulcers, nebulae, or the like. 
 Regular astigmatism is caused by a curvature of 
 the cornea that varies so that one meridian has 
 a greater refraction than another at right 
 angles to it. These are called the chief merid- 
 ians. Regiilar astigmatism may be corrected 
 by cylindrical lenses; irregular astigmatism can- 
 not be corrected, but may sometimes be amelio- 
 rated by stenopaic spectacles. One form of 
 this trouble due to disease could be prevented 
 by proper cleansing of the newborn infant's eyes. 
 
 Regular astigmatism, caused when one 
 meridian has greater refraction than another, 
 Bonders has shown, is in most cases due to differ- 
 ences in refraction of the cornea, and that in 
 the majority of cases the vertical meridian, 
 or one lying near to the vertical, has greater 
 refraction than the horizontal. This has been 
 well illustrated by comparing the ordinary astig- 
 matic eye to an egg, or, more accurately, the 
 cornea to the segment of an egg. If we call 
 
 the meridians running lengthwise of the egg 
 horizontal meridians, and those running the 
 other way vertical, then the egg usually has a 
 greater curvature on its vertical than on its 
 horizontal meridians. The astigmatic cornea 
 has a similar curvature. In some cases, how- 
 ever, the horizontal meridians have a greater 
 degree of refraction than the vertical. Thus 
 the regular astigmatism is of two kinds: first, 
 the common form where the refraction is 
 greater in the vertical meridian than in the 
 horizontal, called normal astigmatism; and, 
 second, the condition where the refraction is 
 greater in the horizontal than in the vertical 
 meridian, or the so-called perverse or inverse 
 astigmatism. The so-caUed normal astigma- 
 tism (astigmatism " according to the rule " 
 of French and Enghsh WTiters) is the most 
 common form. The inverse or perverse astig- 
 matism (astigmatism" contrary to the rule" 
 of French and English WTiters) is relatively rare. 
 The accompanying cuts illu.strate the refrac- 
 tive condition of the ordinary astigmatic eye. 
 
 Vert, M 
 I 
 
 er 
 
 d. 
 
 1 
 
 I it 
 
 1 
 
 i ^^.^ 
 
 i^ 
 
 L in CO 
 
 
 
 T^^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 \^-^ 
 
 i"""^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 |\6 
 
 :; 
 
 II 
 
 L in 00 
 
 :,; 
 
 Horiz. Merid. 
 
 Astigmatism : Vertical (I) ; Horizontal (II). 
 
 I represents the condition of the vertical me- 
 ridians, II that of the horizontal meridians. 
 Parallel rays of light coming from the point 
 L strike the cornea, are reflected by the more 
 sharply curved meridian ah and come to a 
 focus at/, and then diverge again. In II the 
 rays of light from L are reflected by the slightly 
 curved meridian cd, and do not come to a focus 
 until they reach the point /. At xx, the line on 
 which lies the focus / of the vertical meridians, 
 the rays of light from L make merely a blurred 
 image. It is the same at zz, the line on which 
 lies the focus / of the horizontal meridians. 
 
 In recent years especially important investi- 
 gations of this condition in the eyes of school 
 children have been made by use of the ophthal- 
 mometer. Among these, especially interesting 
 are the investigations by Br. Stocker and Dr. 
 Steiger in Switzerland. In 189.5-1S9G Dr. 
 Stocker tested the vision of 2307 school children 
 in Lucerne — 1132 boys, 1175 girls. Bifferencea 
 of refraction of less than a quarter of a diopter 
 were not reckoned (a diopter being a degree of 
 refraction equal to that of a lens whose focus is 
 at a distance of one meter. See article on the 
 
 255
 
 ASTIGMATISM 
 
 ASTIGMATISM 
 
 Eye, Hvgiexe of). Only 77, that is, 3.3 per cent 
 of all the children tested had a perfectly sym- 
 metrical cornea in both eyes. In the case of 185 
 children one eye was normal. Altogether only 
 339 eyes were free from astigmatism, that is, 
 7.3 per cent of the ej'es were found to be sym- 
 metrical. The minimum degree of astigmatism 
 was .25 diopter, as nothing less than this was reck- 
 oned; and the maximum degree of astigmatism 
 was 7 diopters. Among the girls he found not 
 only a greater number of astigmatic eyes than 
 among the boys, but the degree of astigmatism 
 was on an average greater in case of the girls. 
 
 Careful investigations have been made also 
 for many vears by Steiger in Ziirieh and Bern. 
 During the years 1894-1903 a total of 25,905 
 school children between the ages of 6 and 7, or 
 sometimes between 7 and 8, were tested. 
 Among these 7736 were referred to Dr. Steiger 
 for sjiecial examination. Of these 5195 were 
 found to be definitely abnormal, and about half, 
 2406, were astigmatic in one or both eyes. 
 
 According to Steiger's investigations more 
 than half of those children with deficient 
 vision owe this condition solely or chiefly to 
 astigmatism, and all other factors together have 
 less influence than this one defect. Miss 
 Harrington and Karl Pearson find that astigma- 
 tism stands next to myopia as a cause of defec- 
 tive vision. 
 
 Not only is the vision likely to be affected 
 by astigmatism, but a long list of di.jorders 
 follows as a result of the incident eye strain. 
 The symptoms are familiar to every compe- 
 tent oculist. It is one of the chief causes of 
 nervous headache, dizziness, nausea, and func- 
 tional disorders of digestion, and neurasthenia 
 or nervous weakness. Many inflammations of 
 the cornea arc said to be due to the continuous 
 contraction of the ciliary muscle in trying to 
 overcome the defect by accommodation. And 
 in like manner inflammations of the eyelids 
 and the conjunctiva are often due to this, and 
 are cured by fitting with suitable glasses. 
 
 While our knowledge of aistigmatism is of 
 recent origin, the fact of astigmatism must have 
 been as old as scholarship itself. Dr. Gould 
 has attempted to diagnose the defects of a group 
 of literary men and men of science from the 
 data left by their journals and the like, and it is 
 his belief that Carlyle, Darwin, Huxley, George 
 Eliot, Herbert Spencer, Wagner, Nietzsche, 
 and a number of others were chronic sufferers 
 from eye strain, and that most of their physical 
 troubles, headache, depression, nervousness, 
 indigestion, and the like were due primarily to 
 eye strain. While Dr. Gould probably exagger- 
 ates and ignores the influence of other factors 
 in making his diagnoses, he does make out 
 a pretty good case as regards a numljer of these 
 writers. And he is right in maintaining that the 
 discovery of astigmatism was one of the greatest 
 medical discoveries of the last century. 
 
 The invention of the ophthalmoscope and the 
 ophthalmometer made more accurate tests of 
 
 the human eye possible. And among the results 
 found i)y using these instruments was the dis- 
 covery that few if any eyes are perfectly sym- 
 metrical. Although Dr. Stocker ignored all 
 cases of astigmatism where the error of refrac- 
 tion was less than a cjuarter of a diopter, he 
 found only 7.3 per cent of the eyes of the school 
 children examined free from astigmatism. 
 Now if practically everybody has at least one 
 eye more or less astigmatic, the serious question 
 is what degree of astigmatism should be cor- 
 rected by the use of cylindrical lenses. The 
 answer is an individual one. A considerable 
 degree of astigmatism is often corrected by the 
 muscles of accommodation without apparent 
 injury to health, and on the other hand in 
 many cases of slight astigmatism, half a diopter 
 or less, great advantage comes by correcting the 
 error of refraction. Many cases have been 
 reported where headache and serious nervous 
 disorder were greatly relieved by correction for 
 such slight astigmatism. No general rule can 
 be laid down, but in all cases where children 
 are nervous and suffer from headache, indiges- 
 tion, and the like, a competent oculist should 
 be consulted and the question decided in view 
 of the conditions of the individual case. 
 
 The correction of astigmatism by the use of 
 cylindrical lenses seems not to have been made 
 in this country before 1872. The importance 
 of correcting this defect, however, was soon 
 recognized and emphasized by Weir Mitchell, 
 but it is only still more recently that the hy- 
 gienic importance of making tests for astigma- 
 tism in the schools has been recognized. Al- 
 though Java!, the great French ophthalmologist, 
 had shown the significance of the subject, Cohn, 
 even in the second edition of his Hygiene of the 
 Eye, published in 1892, said that its investiga- 
 tion and diagnosis had little importance for 
 school hygiene. 
 
 Recent investigations emphasize the great 
 importance of making tests for astigmatism 
 in the case of all school children. Unfortu- 
 nately in many schools of this country, even 
 where tests for myopia and hyperopia are made, 
 tests for a.stigmatism are omitted. It is ex- 
 tremely desirable that a system similar to that 
 employed in Zurich should be adopted. In 
 that city at the beginning of each new school 
 year all the pupils of the beginning class have 
 their eyes tested by the city physicians. All 
 pupils not having normal acuity of vision, and 
 suspicious cases, are referred to an ophthalmolo- 
 gist, Dr. Steiger, for special investigation. 
 
 The results of correcting the defects by suit- 
 able glasses are often remarkable. The child 
 who has suffered from dizziness, headache, 
 nausea, indigestion, and shows perhaps general 
 symptoms of anaemia, becomes comfortable, 
 free from nervousness, and capable of doing 
 school work without discomfort. 
 
 The recent scientific study by Miss Barring- 
 ton and Karl Pearson, as well as the investiga- 
 tions of Steiger, show that regular astigmatism, 
 
 256
 
 ASTROLOGY 
 
 ASTROLOGY 
 
 like other conditions of refraction, is inherited. 
 No satisfactory evidence that the defect is 
 caused by the conditions of school environment 
 has been found. W. H. B. 
 
 See articles on the Eye, Hygiene of; Myopia; 
 Hypermetropia. 
 
 References : — - 
 
 Allport, Frank. The eyes and ears of school children. 
 Inlernatiortnles Archiv fur Schulhygiene, Bd. 3, pp. 
 20-36. (Leipzig, 1907.) 
 
 Barrington, A.my, and Pearson, Karl. A first study o/ 
 the inheritance of vision and of the relative influence 
 of heredity and environment on sight. {Eugenics, 
 Laboratory Memoirs. Vol. V, 61pp.) (London, 1909.) 
 
 Brav, Aaron. Astigmatism, a cause of vomituig 
 in school children. New York Medical Journal, 
 Aug. 26, 1905, pp. 421-423. (New York, 1905.) 
 
 Gould, George M. Biographic Clinics. Vol. 1, 213 
 pp., 1904, Vol. 2, 391 pp. (Philadelphia, 1903.) 
 
 NuEL, J. P. Astigmatisme. Dictionnaire de Physi- 
 ologie. Vol. 1, pp. 779-802. (Paris, 1895.) 
 
 Standish, Myles. Facts and fallacies in the examina- 
 tion of school children's eyes. Proc. N. E. A., 1903, 
 pp. 1020-1023. 
 
 Steiger, Adolf. Schule und Astigmatismus. Bericht 
 iiber den 1. Internationale Kongress fiir Schul- 
 hygiene. Vol. 3, pp. 483-494. (Nuremberg, 1904.) 
 
 Stocker, Friedrich. Die Augen der .Schiller und 
 Schillerinnen der Stadschulen von Luzcrn mit 
 spczicller Beriicksichtigung des Astigmatismus. 
 J ahres- Bericht uber die Primar- und Sckundarschulen 
 der Stadt Luzem. Schuljahr 1895-1896. (Luzern, 
 1896.) 
 
 Swift, Edgar J. Eye defects in students and children. 
 Pedagogical Seminary, Oct., 1897. Vol. 5, pp. 
 202-220. 
 
 ASTROLOGY. — The study of the relative 
 positions of the heavenly bodies, especially of 
 the sun, moon, planets, and twelve signs of the 
 zodiac, with a view to determining the course 
 of human affairs, whether of individuals or na- 
 tions. Astrology would appear to have been 
 first elaborated into a system by the Semitic 
 Chaldeans about a thousand years before our 
 era, and it is to their sexagesimal method of 
 reckoning that we owe our division of the circle 
 into 360 degrees and the division of the degree 
 and the hour into minutes and seconds. This 
 pseudo-science of the stars, allied with magic 
 on the one hand and with astronomy on the 
 other, underwent various modifications and 
 adjustments as it spread westward into Greece 
 and Egypt. The astrological works attributed 
 to the celebrated geographer and astronomer, 
 Ptolemy (q.v.), who lived at Alexandria in the 
 first half of the second century, .summed up the 
 subject in a scholarly spirit. These works fell 
 into the hands of the Arabic astronomers and 
 through them reached France, Italy, Germany, 
 and England in the thirteenth century. As- 
 trology continued to flourish in western Europe 
 for four centuries or more, taking on a suffi- 
 ciently Christian air to be heartily approved by 
 such thoughtful persons as Roger Bacon (q.v.) 
 and Melanchthon (q.v.). 
 
 Few ideas are more natural or persistent than 
 the belief that the heavens influence earthly 
 events. It is clear enough in the case of the 
 sun. and moon, why not in that of the 
 
 planets too ? Then the Middle Ages held, 
 with Aristotle, that the heavenly bodies were 
 angelic in their nature, not mere huge masses of 
 rock, vapor, or glowing gases, as we conceive 
 them. Accordingly even the most learned long 
 accepted the main presuppositions of astrology, 
 however bitterly they might denounce the 
 arrogance and preposterous claims of the pro- 
 fessional astrologer, who often bore a strong 
 resemblance to a magician. Astronomy always 
 exi.sted alongside of astrology and was based 
 mainly on the remarkable Almagest of Ptolemy, 
 in which he gives the chief results of the work 
 of Hipparchus and earlier investigators. " Nat- 
 ural " astrology dealt with the influences of 
 the heavens on the earth itself and had some 
 affinity with meteorology; " judicial " astrol- 
 ogy had to do especially with the fate of individ- 
 uals. The fundamental principle of judicial 
 astrology was based on the assumption that all 
 things were composed of the four elements, 
 earth, air, fire, and water. Every man's 
 character is due to his temperainentum, that is to 
 say, to the admixture of the four elements in his 
 particular case, and this admixture is largely 
 determined at the time of his conception in 
 the womb and at the moment of his birth. 
 Now, if it be assumed, that the heavenly 
 bodies inevitably exercise an influence on the 
 earth, the temperament of an individual, his 
 natural aptitudes, and liis probable fate can be 
 forecast, at least in a general way, by ascertain- 
 ing the particular situation of the sun, moon, 
 and planets in the zodiac at the time of his 
 conception and of his birth. Roger Bacon, 
 who devotes an important section of his Opus 
 Majlis to the subject, declares that no jirudent 
 astrologer will undertake to guarantee his fore- 
 casts, but will confine himself to a considera- 
 tion of the way in which the body is modified 
 by the heavens, and in its turn excites the mind 
 to public and private acts, just as external 
 sights and sounds are seen to rouse men's 
 passions and ambitions. For are not the heav- 
 ens and the stars more potent to affect the 
 bodily organs than the lower phenomena of 
 sight and hearing'? The prognostications of the 
 astrologer were, therefore, at best warnings based 
 on the discovery of a person's " complexion"; 
 it was unsafe to prophesy particular events, 
 since many allowances must alwaj's be made 
 for errors in the highly intricate calculations, 
 for the exercise of free will and acts of God. 
 The influences ascribed to the individual heav- 
 enly bodies were traditional, but subject to 
 varying interpretations — Jupiter and Venus 
 were auspicious; Saturn and Mars boded ill; 
 Venus was connected with the joys of this life, 
 Jupiter with those of the next. One born under 
 the influence of Venus should be on his guard 
 against the temptations of the flesh, but in 
 selecting a career he might more safely engage 
 in one connected with personal adornment than 
 with those of war, appropriate enough to a per- 
 son born under Mars. It was deemed especially 
 
 VOL. I — s 
 
 257
 
 ASTRONOMY 
 
 ASTRONOIMY 
 
 essential that a physician should be familiar 
 with the elements of astrology in order that he 
 might by ol)serving the conjunctions of the 
 planets determine the critical days in tlie course 
 of [larticular diseases and adjust his treatment 
 accordingly. Tiic most celebrated of medieval 
 astrologers, Cecco d' Ascoli, wiio lield the cliair 
 of astrology in the university of Bologna, main- 
 tained tliat a jihysieian witliout astrology was no 
 better than an eye whicii did not see. Rasluhill 
 records an instance in the sixteenth century 
 of a scholar admitted i)y the University of Ox- 
 ford to practice in astrology, and assumes that 
 it was the regular custom to grant such licenses. 
 The University of Pressburg {(/.v.), founded in 
 1465-1467, owed its special fame to its astro- 
 logical professors. By the end of the sixteenth 
 century a.strology began to lose its hold on the 
 learned, but the gifted astronomer, Kepler (q.v.), 
 who died in 1630, still adhered to the ancient 
 belief. It has often been alleged that astrology 
 served to foster astronomy. This may have been 
 true in the beginning, but astronomy had become 
 an independent science in the times of Eratos- 
 thenes and Hipparchus, w^hose discoveries are 
 brought together in Ptolemy's AlmagcH, which 
 became the manual of the Arabic and medieval 
 astronomers. In the Sphere of John of Holy- 
 wood (d. 1252) (q.v.), in the Opus Majus of 
 Roger Bacon and elsewhere, astronomical facts 
 are carefully separated from the study of astrol- 
 ogy. We may conclude, therefore, that the 
 development of astronomj' owed little or noth- 
 ing to the bastard science of astrology. 
 
 J. H. R. 
 References : — 
 Bennett, E. H. Astrology. (New York, 1897.) 
 Bridges, ed. Roger Bacon, Opus Majus, Vol. I, pp. 238 
 
 sqq. (O.^ford, 1897.) 
 Myer. Handhuch dcr Aslrologic. (Berlin, 1891.) 
 MAnRY, A. La Magic ct I'Astrologie dans I'AntiquiU et 
 au Moyen Age. (Paris, 1877.) 
 
 ASTRONOMY. — Astronomy is the oldest of 
 the sciences: doubtless the very first phenom- 
 ena of nature ever made the subject of human 
 inquiry were astronomical phenomena. It is 
 probably not too much to say that a study of the 
 state of culture among the most ancient peoples 
 involves principally an investigation of their 
 astronomic acquirements. There must have 
 been a time in the dim past when every man 
 engaged in the teaching profession was instruct- 
 ing every one of his students about astronomy; 
 — to-day, only an infinitesimal fraction of our 
 teachers teacli this science, and that only to a 
 small number of students. 
 
 The change must have been gradual, and the 
 reason for it is not far to seek. It did not be- 
 come operative with universal effect until com- 
 paratively recent times: astronomy ceased to 
 be taught universally and extensively about the 
 date when science began to be primarily utili- 
 tarian in motive. At this time also the general 
 facts and theories of astronomy had been known 
 so long that it seemed as though they had 
 
 258 
 
 always been known to every one; as though 
 children were now born with astronomic knowl- 
 edge, or would at least acquire it themselves 
 as they learn to creep and walk. To a utili- 
 tarian age astronomy seems a somewhat worn- 
 out, useless science: it has been relegated to a 
 few pages in schoolbooks on geography, pages 
 that are doubtless often onutted when the book 
 is studied. It is probably a real fact, and an 
 interesting one, that the entire educated public 
 was once so well versed in astronomy that the 
 science was ousted from the curricula of pro- 
 fessional teachers. Children learned it from 
 their parents, no doubt, as girls learn cooking 
 and other domestic accomplishments from their 
 mothers. 
 
 But the lapse of generations has seen this 
 kind of knowledge pass into the region of the 
 forgotten. Probably Sir George Airy was right 
 in the remark attributed to him, that not more 
 than one man in a thousand knows that the 
 stars rise and set like the sun and moon. A 
 learned professor (not of astronomy) once 
 asked the WTiter whether the moon passes 
 through the phases of full moon, new moon, 
 etc., in all parts of the earth, as it did in the 
 region where he lived. 
 
 Astronomy formed one of the subj ects of study 
 included under the quadrivium {q.v.), and was 
 usually associated with mathematics. The 
 tendency even beyond the period of the great 
 astronomers was to pay more attention to 
 the fanciful and astrological. This was fos- 
 tered also by the influence of the Arabic and 
 Hebrew wTiters which came through Spain. 
 In the universities the subject of a.stronomy 
 was in almost all cases taught by a professor 
 of mathematics. Of the great astronomers 
 Tycho Brahe lectured at the University of 
 Copenhagen in 1574; Galileo Galilei was first 
 professor of mathematics and astronomy at 
 Pisa from 1589 to 1592, but did not meet with 
 so much success as at Padua where he lectured 
 to crowded classes for twelve years; Kepler was 
 attracted to astronomy from theology by an 
 opportunity which presented itself of an ap- 
 pointment as lecturer on mathematics and 
 astronomy at Gratz, in 1594, but so little popu- 
 larity did these subjects enjoy that he was com- 
 pelled to fill up his time by giving instruction in 
 other branches. The opposition of the Church 
 and the radical views of the leaders in the field 
 cooperated effectively to prevent any change in 
 the content of astronomy, so that even as late 
 as the beginnings of the seventeenth century 
 Ptolemy's Almagest and Thenrica Plavctarum 
 continued to be used as official textbooks. 
 The establishment of the Savilian Professorship 
 of Astronomy at Oxford in 1619 put an end to the 
 old system. Frequently this office was com- 
 bined with that of Royal Astronomer at the 
 Greenwich Observatory. Newton's great con- 
 tributions at Cambridge were made as Lucasian 
 Professor of Mathematics. The chair in a.stron- 
 omy and experimental philosophy at Cam-
 
 ASTRONOMY 
 
 ASTRONOMY 
 
 bridge was not instituted until 1704; in 1749 
 another chair in astronomy and geometry was 
 founded. At Glasgow University the chair in 
 astronomy, together with an observatory, was 
 established in 1760; at Dublin in 1774; and at 
 Edinburgh in 1786. As a general rule astronomi- 
 cal studies are taken up by advanced students 
 in mathematics and physics. At Glasgow the 
 subject may be offered for both ordinary and 
 honors degrees. The newer universities have 
 not as yet instituted separate chairs in astron- 
 omy; the subject is associated usually with the 
 department of physics. 
 
 In Germany at the beginning of the last cen- 
 tury general courses were offered in the uni- 
 versities in astronomy as a cultural subject. 
 At present the subject is usually associated with 
 the professorships in mathematics. Few of the 
 many universities have a separate department in 
 astronomy; in several the subject is not repre- 
 sented by a professor. At Marburg astron- 
 omy is associated with physics. Many of the 
 universities are furnished with observatories, 
 which, however, through lack of means, are not 
 so well equipped as the English and American. 
 
 In the United States the science formed a 
 subject of the college curriculum from an early 
 date. It is mentioned in New England's First 
 Fruits (1643) as being studied at Harvard in the 
 third year of the course. When the course at 
 Harvard was lengthened to four years, astron- 
 omy was put into the fourth year; so the Har- 
 vard archives in a manuscript dated 1690 refer 
 to the use of Gassendus' Instituiio Astronomica, 
 a textbook which had a long vogue and is 
 mentioned again in the diary of President 
 Wadsworth (1725-1736) as being used by the 
 Senior Sophisters. By 1742 the textbook 
 appears to be Watts' Astronomy, which is also 
 mentioned in a letter of Joseph Shippen, who 
 was a student at Princeton (1750). In 1760 it 
 is voted at Harvard " that the thanks of this 
 corporation be given to the Hon. James Bowdoin 
 for his generous donation of an orrery to the 
 apparatus of Harvard College " ; and an expedi- 
 tion was sent to Newfoundland to observe the 
 transit of Venus. In 1788 it was voted that 
 " Mr. Webber be desired to give the Senior 
 Class after Commencement, such a course of 
 astronomical lectures as those of that standing 
 have been used to attend in the fall of the year 
 for several years past." And in the same year 
 it was voted that " the HoUi.s Professor of 
 Mathematics, shall carry the four classes for- 
 ward by private lectures in the Mathematics 
 in the following order ... in conic sections 
 as far as shall be necessary for the understanding 
 of those parts of Natural Philosophy and Astron- 
 omy where these sections are applied; in 
 spheric Geometry and Trigonometry, with the 
 application of the solution of Astronomical 
 Problems, etc. . . . That it be recommended 
 to the Professor, in his public lectures, which he 
 shall deliver once a week, viz., on Wednesdays 
 at two o'clock in the afternoon, as has been 
 
 259 
 
 customary, to be as systematic as may be, and 
 to endeavor to go through a regular course on 
 the Theory of Natural Philosojihy and Astron- 
 omy in four j'ears. But this systematic pursuit 
 shall not prevent the Professor's interesting 
 lectures upon any important phenomena that 
 may turn up, though they may, for a short 
 term, interrupt the general course. . . . He 
 shall, under Solar Astronomy, particularly 
 explain the Precession of the Equinoxes, the 
 nutation of the Earth's Axis, and the motion of 
 the Apogee, — Under Lunar Astronomy, the 
 Moon's Libration, and the motion of her Apogee 
 and Nodes; and under sydereal Astronomy, the 
 Aberration of Light." In 1791 astronomy 
 was included among the subjects of examina- 
 tion, and in 1796 Ferguson's Astronomy is 
 mentioned. The subject was taught by the 
 professor or tutor in mathematics and natural 
 philosophy, and the mathematical astronomy 
 was emphasized. The only apparatus used 
 was an orrery. 
 
 The course at Harvard is typical of the other 
 universities at that time. At Yale " natural 
 philosophy, astronomy, and other parts of 
 mathematics " were taught in the third year 
 in the days of Rector Williams. In 1771 a 
 professorship of mathematics and natural 
 philosophy was estabhshed, and it is stated 
 by his son that Dr. Dwight carried his 
 mathematical class " as far as any of them 
 could go in Principia of Newton." In addi- 
 tion to Gassendus' Astronomy the textbooks of 
 Nehcmiah Strong {Astronomy Improved) and of 
 Benjamin Martin (Philosophia Britannica, a 
 New and Comprehensive System of the New- 
 tonian Philosophy, Astronomy , Geography with 
 notes). In the advertisement of King's College 
 (now Columbia University) it is mentioned that 
 " it is the design of the College to instruct and 
 perfect youth in . . . the knowledge of all 
 nature in the Heavens above us and in the 
 Air. ..." (1754.) And in 1755 the Laws and 
 Orders include mathematics and mathematical 
 and ex-perimental philosophy. In 1784 there was 
 appointed a Professor of Natural Philosophy 
 and Astronomy, who in 1789 lectured once a 
 day on astronomy. At Princeton astronomy 
 was evidently taugnt in 1750 with the aid of 
 textbooks (Martin's and Watt's) and an orrery 
 constructed by David Rittenhouse, who himself 
 had one of the earliest private observatories in 
 America. 
 
 Astronomy continued to be the adjunct of the 
 professor of mathematics or natural philosophy 
 or both until the last century. A professor of 
 astronomy appears to have been appointed at 
 Harvard in 1825. Observatory work was a 
 matter of slow development. Lack of funds and 
 opposition from those who did not understand 
 the needs of such an institution or suspected its 
 uses prevented any progress in the eighteenth 
 century. An attempt was made at Harvard 
 in 1816 through John Farrar, Hollis Professor 
 of Mathematics and Natural Philosophy
 
 ASTRONOMY 
 
 ASTRONOMY 
 
 and Nathaniel Bowditch to establish an obser- 
 vatory, but no more advance was made than to 
 secure sketches for it. In 1823 John Quincy 
 Adams interested himself in the matter, and 
 made an offer of financial help, if subscriptions 
 could be raised. But this attempt also failed. 
 In IS39 William Cranch Bond was appointed 
 astronomical ol)servcr. Bond brought his ap- 
 paratus to Cambridge and was temporarily 
 located there. In 1843 interest was aroused in 
 astronomy by a remarkable comet ; the occasion 
 was seized by Professor Benjamin Pcirce to raise 
 subscriptions for an observatory, which was 
 finally erected and opened in 1847. In 1832 
 Yale had erected a telescope on the tower of one 
 of her buildings. In 1837 Professor Albert 
 Hopkins had completed an observatory at 
 Williams College, the first in this country of 
 a permanent kind. Hopkins was one of the 
 earliest teachers of astronomy to use the 
 observatory in connection with his lectures. 
 In 1838 an observatory was established at the 
 Central High School in Philadelphia. At 
 Princeton the first observatory, the Halsted 
 Observatory, was not established until 1872, 
 followed in 1878 by an observatory of instruc- 
 tion. 
 
 But the observatories which were erected at 
 the colleges were mainly, with few exceptions, 
 for the use of practical astronomers. Thus 
 that at Harvard became the seat of the Ameri- 
 can Nautical Almanac. It was onlj' gradually 
 that the importance of laboratory work in as- 
 tronomy became established as a principle of 
 instruction, and observatory work, which for a 
 long time was given merely as a favor of the 
 ])ractical astronomer, was recognized as an 
 essential training. 
 
 Astronomy is taught to-day to a similar 
 extent in all civilized countries; as follows: 
 (1) brief attention in elementary geography 
 classes; (2) classes in a few high schools 
 and similar institutions; (3) elementary or in- 
 troductory courses in colleges; (4) advanced 
 or graduate courses in universities. 
 
 A few words may be said about these various 
 sources of astronomic instruction. In the first 
 place, it is probably hopeless to expect much 
 from elementary school work, because any 
 effort to give more attention to school astron- 
 omy would surely be branded as a non-utilitarian 
 fad. Moreover, it is questionable whether such 
 an effort would be justifiable; for, after all, 
 astronomy as a study has its best (lisciplinary 
 effect upon somewhat maturer minds. It should 
 be found rather in the latter part of the high 
 school course, or in the college. 
 
 College and high school courses in elementary 
 astronomy consist of the so-called descriptive 
 astronomy. It is in this part of the general 
 educational curriculum that astronomy as a 
 study has its proper place, not merely to relieve 
 ignorance by conveying to the student a few 
 facts about the heavenly bodies; b>it because 
 this science has so particularly high a value 
 
 in training the mind. There is no other branch 
 of human knowledge possessing a subject 
 matter so well adapted to produce the habit of 
 accurate thinking. Astronomy owes its real 
 preeminence in this respect to the intricacy 
 of tiie problems it [iresents, to the extraordinary 
 precision of which their solutions admit, and 
 to the ajjpeal it makes to the imagination by 
 reason of the vast volumes and areas included 
 within the scope of its problems. Events occur 
 within a drop of water as intricate as any in the 
 solar system; they occur doubtless even within 
 a singh; atom, mere element in a constituent 
 molecule of that water; but for educational 
 purposes the study of those atomic intricacies 
 is surely incomparably inferior to the vaster 
 gyrations of our sun and planets. 
 
 But notwithstanding the above facts, which 
 are sufficiently obvious, the science of astron- 
 omy is taught to-day to an insignificant frac- 
 tion only of the student armj' attending our 
 colleges. Everywhere it is an elective subject, 
 and it is not elected by many students. This 
 undesirable state would doubtless soon cease 
 to e.xist if teachers would avoid two errors 
 into which they have shown a surprising 
 tendency to fall. The first is an effort to 
 devote altogether too much time and atten- 
 tion to the very latest discoveries; the second 
 is an undue use of the stereopticon in the hope 
 of making the subject more interesting. The 
 proper way to plan an elementary course in 
 astronomy is to imagine the students looking 
 about them at the heavens above and the 
 earth beneath, and to give them simple but 
 complete explanations of the phenomena that 
 unfold themselves there before their eyes. 
 These explanations should be made by the 
 teacher verbally with the assistance of black- 
 board diagrams and home textbook reading 
 by the student. The magic lantern should be 
 used sparingly and occasionally to illustrate by 
 photographs the appearance of the heavenly 
 bodies as shown by great telescopes. Fre- 
 quently the professor should meet the class 
 personally at the observatory in small sections 
 to emphasize the regular classroom work by 
 informal explanations and questionings. A 
 large quantity of observational work is not as 
 important as the sectional meetings just men- 
 tioned. But the observatory meetings should 
 be held regularly, irrespective of weather, 
 because the explanatory questioning should be 
 considered the essential thing, and not " nature- 
 study " through the telescope. 
 
 Having thus discussed briefly the subject of 
 elementary astronomy, it remains to touch 
 upon advanced or graduate courses in this 
 science. These are e\erywhere attended by 
 very few students. Probably most candidates 
 for the advanced university degree of Ph.D. 
 intend to be teachers, and they nat\irally desire 
 to study subjects of which the elements are 
 widely taught, and in which there is therefore 
 a good opportunity to secure a position. All 
 
 260
 
 ASTRONOMY 
 
 ATAXIA 
 
 high schools and colleges have professors of 
 mathematics and physics; only the large insti- 
 tutions maintain separate professorships of 
 astronomy. Therefore graduate students who 
 have an inclination for exact science take 
 their advanced work in mathematics and 
 physics; not infrequently they find advisable 
 a third course in the history or theory of educa- 
 tion. The ancient and most honorable subject 
 of celestial mechanics, always extolled as the 
 branch of learning in which have been achieved 
 the highest triumphs of the human intellect, is 
 now neglected almost totally by graduate stu- 
 dents. It does not appear that blame attaches 
 to any one for this state of affairs, as is the case 
 in the neglect of elementary instruction. The 
 trend of events has brought this result irresist- 
 ibly, as it has many other results unforeseen a 
 generation or two in the past. 
 
 In addition to the very advanced courses, 
 leading to the Ph.D. degree, most universities 
 in Europe and America offer also certain inter- 
 mediate courses, which are attended each year 
 by a very few students in the large institutions. 
 One of these courses is always practical. Stu- 
 dents are instructed in the use of the sextant, 
 transit, and other astronomical instruments; 
 they make their own observations and carry 
 out the necessary calculations under direction. 
 The other somewhat advanced course usually 
 deals with comet orbit calculations; it is more 
 or less introductory to celestial mechanics, 
 and seldom has more than two or three stu- 
 dents. Finally, one or two universities offer 
 practical courses in astrophysics, the work 
 being done in the observatories, and requir- 
 ing extremely elaborate and costly instru- 
 mental equipment. 
 
 On the whole, we may sum up the present 
 educational outlook in astronomy quite opti- 
 mistically. Overinsistence upon laboratory 
 work will cease, and will be replaced by study 
 in science as a part of modern culture. When 
 that occurs, astronomy will come into its own 
 again, so far as elementary instruction is con- 
 cerned. This will benefit both thS teacher and 
 the student; both will be better men because 
 of it. The immediate future of advanced 
 instruction cannot be foreseen; it will depend 
 on the impetus and direction given to human 
 thought by those few men of genius who shall 
 live during the next generation. H. J. 
 
 References: — 
 
 Berry, A. Short History of Astronomy. (New York, 
 
 1899.) 
 Hall, A. On the Teaching of Astronomy in the United 
 
 States, in Science, July 6, 1900. 
 LooMis. E. Progress of Astronomy. (New York, 1850.) 
 Marie, C. F. M. Histoires des Sciences mathematiques 
 
 et physiques. (Paris, 1883-1888.) 
 Safford, T. H. The Development of Astronomy in the 
 
 United States. (Williamstown, Mass., 1888.) 
 Snow, L. F. The College Curriculum in the United 
 
 States. (New York, 1907.) 
 Williams, H. S. History of Science. (London and 
 
 New York. 1904.) 
 Story of IQth Century Science, (New York, 1900.) 
 
 ASYMBOLIA, or ASYMBOLY. — The loss 
 of the ability to understand signs of speech, and 
 to communicate one's ideas by words or ges- 
 tures. Sometimes used as a synonym of 
 aphasia {q.v.). 
 
 Reference: — • 
 Reich. Asvmbolie als Stoning der Reproduktion. 
 Berl. Klin. Wochenschr., Vol. XVI, 1909, p. 131. 
 
 ATAVISM. — The characteristics of an indi- 
 vidual are very frequently due to inheritance 
 which must be traced back of the immediate 
 parents to an earlier ancestor. This reversion 
 to an earlier generation is known as atavism. 
 A complicated law of inheritance was worked 
 out by Mendel. In accordance with this law 
 every second generation resembles the grand- 
 parents in a certain definite ratio. The inter- 
 mediate generations, that is, the parents of the 
 individual under consideration, may exhibit 
 a combination of the characteristics which 
 appear in pure form in the last generation and 
 in the grandparent. One interesting case of 
 atavism appears in the fact that color-blind- 
 ness is likely to be transmitted through a 
 female who does not herself exhibit the char- 
 acteristic. A boy may thus resemble his grand- 
 father in being color-blind, though the mother 
 does not exhibit the trait. The extent to which 
 atavism appears in human beings has been a 
 subject of inquiry. The results of such inves- 
 tigations have, however, never furnished any 
 large grounds for educational conclusions. 
 
 C. H. J. 
 
 ATAXIA, — A deficiency or an absence of 
 the ability to coordinate movements. The 
 term is applied to defects of movement of the 
 body as a whole or to those of any of its parts, 
 and at times is used as the name of the disease 
 that produces the condition. 
 
 When a movement is to be performed, effer- 
 ent nervous impulses are sent from the cells in 
 the anterior horn of the spinal cord (which 
 cells may have been activated by impulses 
 from higher cells, e.g. those in the cerebral 
 cortex), and there result contraction of certain 
 muscles and relaxation of others. Accompany- 
 ing the movement there is a stimulation of the 
 afferent end organs in the moving tissues. The 
 afferent nervous impulses that are originated 
 by the movement go to the spinal cord and 
 thence at times to the cerebellum and to the 
 cerebrum. These impulses arise from the end 
 organs in the skin, the joints, the tendons, the 
 muscles, and, possibly, the bones. 
 
 Somehow as the result of the sequence of 
 efferent and afferent impulses a nervous asso- 
 ciation is formed which in subsequent move- 
 ments exerts an influence on the efferent 
 impulse. In other words, a control is estab- 
 lished, and it is found that movements which 
 at first are of a gross and to some extent of 
 an indiscriminate character become finer, more 
 settled, and more accurately adjusted to the 
 
 261
 
 ATAXIA 
 
 ATAXIA 
 
 desired end. To characterize the later stages 
 of muscular education and control the term 
 "coordination" is used, while the movements 
 in which the control is lacking or defective 
 are called incoordinate or ataxic. 
 
 Since it is neccssaiy that there be an educa- 
 tion in movement, and since it is known that the 
 accuracy of movement depends upon certain 
 sensory factors (at times of the nature of rep- 
 resentation), it folio w.s that there may be all 
 grades of coordination or incoordination de- 
 pending upon the sensory capabilities and upon 
 the amount of the education. It also is easily 
 understood that incoordination or ataxia is 
 natural when a movement has been performed 
 only a few times and when the sensory ele- 
 ments are impaired. 
 
 To most readers it is unnecessary to point out 
 the ataxic condition in young children, which at 
 birth is almost complete, and which persists for 
 many of the most important human activities 
 even for tliree or four years. In this connec- 
 tion two kinds of coordinated movements need 
 but be mentioned: walking and vocal speech. 
 In other activities a normal incoordination or 
 ataxia may be noted even in adults. The 
 reader need but call to mind or observe the 
 awkward and useless motions of most men 
 when they sew; the badly directed, peculiar 
 movements of a woman when she throws a 
 ball; the clumsy, unskillful activity of the 
 adult learning to dance; and the laborious 
 movements of one learning to swim. If the 
 education process begins too late in life, cer- 
 tain movements may never become so wtU 
 coordinated that the activity is easily and well 
 performed. 
 
 The ability to coordinate movements appears 
 to have a direct relation with the ability of the 
 IcAver centers (i.e. those below the cerebral 
 cortex) to assume control of these movements, 
 but the condition of ataxia may be the result 
 of injury, disease, or destruction of any part of 
 the afferent system that is used in coordination. 
 It is known that lesions or functional altera- 
 tions of the peripheral nerves, of the spinal 
 cord and medulla oblongata, of the cerebellum 
 and of the cerebrum may produce ataxia, 
 provided the appropriate afferent elements are 
 involved. 
 
 A common ataxic experience, due to a func- 
 tional derangement, is that experienced in the 
 leg w-hen that member "goes to sleep." The 
 condition persists for only a short, time, but, 
 with the exception of cramp or of paropsthesia 
 (peculiar subjective sensations of tingling and 
 heaviness), is characteristic of mo.st ataxic 
 states. If cramp is not present, all kinds of 
 movement are possible; the individual may 
 stand or walk or even dance, but these move- 
 ments are awkward, and both objectively and sub- 
 jectively apparently uncontrolled. The leg may 
 be dragged, the foot may be lifted too high or put 
 down too forcibly. In such a condition the 
 spinal cord or the brain or both do not receive 
 
 the proper afferent impulses, and the individual 
 
 or his brain or his spinal cord does not become 
 aware of the position of the limb. 
 
 Alcoholic liquors produce an ataxia when 
 taken in sufficient quantities. There is a 
 staggering gait, a stumbling and hesitating 
 speech, fumbling of the hands, and a difficulty 
 in the performance of all movements requiring 
 fine adjustment. In such a condition sensory 
 deficiencies can be demonstrated, and, wdien 
 the amount of the ingested alcohol is very large, 
 a complete anaesthesia may result. 
 
 The sway of the body, the stagger, the slow, 
 hesitating, slurring, and jumbled speech of the 
 drunkard are paralleled bj- similar states due 
 to organic nervous disease not traceable to 
 alcohol. These symptoms are found in locomo- 
 tor ataxia (tabes dorsali.'^). In this disease there 
 is a degeneration or destruction of the po.sterior 
 nerve roots and column.s of the spinal cord, and 
 the afferent impuLscs that normally traverse 
 these paths cannot reach their respective centers. 
 A similar combination occurs in the diseases 
 known as " combined sclerosis " and " Fried- 
 reich's ataxia,'' although in both diseases there 
 may be involved the efferent paths as well as 
 the afferent. Some cases have been observed 
 in which ataxia is due to defective development 
 of the cerebellum, and disease of this organ 
 in adults produces a similar condition, usually 
 noticeable only when the individual is in 
 the upright position. It may also be men- 
 tioned that inflammation of and hemorrhage 
 into the internal ear produce a staggering gait, 
 associated with vertigo. All the symptoms in 
 these organic diseases may be simulated in 
 neurasthenia (q.v.) and hysteria (q.v.). Loco- 
 motor ataxia and combined sclerosis are almost 
 exclusively diseases of adult life, while Fried- 
 reich's ataxia and the ataxia of Marie (due to 
 defective development of the cerebellum) are 
 congenital. The ataxias due to internal and 
 middle ear diseases and those associated with 
 neurasthenia and hysteria may arise at any age. 
 
 ^lost, but not all, of the ataxias are chronic 
 and incurable. Those associated with neuras- 
 thenia and hysteria give way to normal coor- 
 dination under appropriate treatment for these 
 diseases, while the ataxias of organic origin 
 may be ameliorated by appropriate measures, 
 largely of an educational character. In many 
 of the organic ata.xias associations other than 
 those between the normal afferent (i.e. from 
 skin, muscles, joints, tendons, and bones) and 
 efferent impulses may be formed, and the 
 individual obtain or regain a degree of coordina- 
 tion satisfactory for the most important pur- 
 poses of life. For the treatment of locomotor 
 ataxia Fraenkel has devised a system of train- 
 ing w-hich has produced apparently wonderful 
 results. The system depends upon the princi- 
 ple of the substitution of other afferent impulses 
 for those normally employed in the coordina- 
 tion of movement. The most important sub- 
 stitution is that of \-isual and motor impulses 
 
 262
 
 ATELIER 
 
 ATHENAGORAS 
 
 from the eyes for the normal afferent impulses 
 from the legs. In other cases in which ataxia 
 is not associated with paralj'sis or other motor 
 defect such a course of training is efficacious. 
 A few words may be added about the popular 
 misconception of an exclusive connection be- 
 tween paralysis and the ability to perform 
 actions. In locomotor ataxia, in cerebellar 
 ataxia, and in the early stages of Friedreich's 
 ataxia no true paralysis is present, but there 
 is an apparent inability to move the limbs 
 properly. This inability, as has been explained 
 above, is entirely due to the lack of association 
 between the afferent and efferent elements. 
 An example from school life may help to make 
 this fact remembered. A teacher of a lower 
 grade called the writer's attention to a boy in 
 her class, whose apparent inabilitj' to stand in 
 line, to perform simple gymnastic movements 
 when he was shown them, etc., had caused her 
 to be censured by one of the supervisors. The 
 supervisor would not believe the boy was ab- 
 normal in this direction, for there was no paral- 
 ysis and no defect of vision or of hearing. A 
 brief examination, suggested by the teacher's 
 report, showed that the boy had a defective 
 position sense, that with his eyes closed he 
 could not touch his nose, did not know the 
 position in which his legs were placed, and was 
 ataxic from absence or defect of the normal 
 afferent movement impulses. Such a boy can 
 be trained to walk, to stand, and to perform all 
 other important coordinate actions, but only 
 when there is on the part of the teacher and the 
 parents an appreciation of the reason for the 
 defect, and when appropriate, not the usual, 
 methods are employed. S. I. F. 
 
 References : — 
 
 FoEBSTER, Q. Die Physiologie und Pathologic der 
 
 Coordination. 316 pp. (Jena. 1902.) 
 GoLDscHEiDER. Kasuistischer Beitrag zur Lehre von 
 
 der sensorischen Ataxie. Neurol. Ccntralblatt, 
 
 1906, Vol. XXV, 338-. 
 Leyden, E. v., und Laz.irus, P. Ucber die sensorische 
 
 Theorie der spinalen Ataxie. Festschr. J. Rosenthal, 
 
 1906, TeU II, pp. 3-10. 
 Pexa, W. Beitrag zur Ataxie im Kinde.-salter. Wien. 
 
 med. Wochensch.. 1908, Vol. LVIII, 1779-1783 ; 
 
 1841-1843 : 1882-1885. 
 Thomas. Article on Ataxie, in Richet, Diction, de 
 
 Physiologie. Paris, 1895, Vol. I, pp. 805-813. 
 
 ATELIER. — See Aht Schools; Archi- 
 tectural Education. 
 
 ATHANASIUS, ST. — Born in Alexandria in 
 
 297. Nothing is known of his early life ; but about 
 313, when he was 16 years of age, Alexander, 
 his predecessor in the bishopric of Alexan- 
 dria, made him his pupil and private secretary. 
 Thereafter he devoted himself to the Christian 
 ministry. His education was probably gained 
 in his native city, at the museum, where he 
 would have learned grammar, logic, and rhetoric. 
 In the Christian catechetical school he would 
 have been carefully trained in the philosophy 
 of Christianity. However, these details may 
 
 be uncertain; but it is clear, from his own 
 writings, that his mind was well disciplined, and 
 that he possessed a character chastened by 
 asceticism, while his intimacy with the famous 
 recluse, Anthony, served to develop in him 
 faith and courage of a high order. His intel- 
 lectual career is intimately associated with the 
 controversies of his age, cliiefly the movement 
 which centered about the crystallization of the 
 Catholic dogma of the Trinity, in which he 
 maintained the ultradogmatic views enun- 
 ciated at the Council of Nicea (325). He may 
 also be said to have laid the foundation of that 
 movement which later resulted in the harden- 
 ing of tradition under the Augustinian influence, 
 wliich practically dominated the intellectual 
 life of the Church during the medieval period, 
 and exerted such a profound influence on the 
 education of that and succeeding times. The 
 history of these controversies properly belongs 
 to historical theology, and need not detain us 
 here. His friend, Gregory of Nazianzus, de- 
 scribes tliis famous controversialist as small of 
 stature, but his face was " as the face of an 
 angel." Though engaged in the bitterest 
 contests, resisting false charges, suffering in 
 banishment, he seems to have been a kindly 
 man, pleasant in conversation and in temper, 
 effective both in argument and in action. As 
 a teacher he was directed by the desire to be of 
 ser\ace to all classes of minds, to which he seems 
 to have adapted himself with success. His 
 long and somewhat unprofitable career came 
 to a close in 373. His works include the two 
 essays. Contra Genies, De Incarnatione Verhi, 
 the so-called Festal Letters, and his Apologia, 
 in none of which is a consistent pedagogical 
 doctrine revealed. His significance for general 
 education, therefore, is small, and lies chiefly, 
 as already stated, in his defense of the orthodox 
 doctrine of the Trinity and its relation to the 
 nature and extent of human knowledge. It 
 seems certain that the views of Athanasius 
 indicate a departure from those held by the 
 early Church. 
 
 The works of Athanasius are included in the 
 Library of Church Fathers (Oxford, 1843). 
 
 Mohler's Athanasius (1827), Farrar, Lives 
 of the Fathers, Vol. I, pp. 369-42,5 (New York, 
 1889). See also the works of Dorner and 
 Sclileiermachor. H. D. 
 
 ATHELHARD. — See Adelhard. 
 
 ATHENAGORAS. — Christian philosopher 
 born at Athens in the second century a.d., 
 exactly when it is not known. Nothing reliable 
 is known of his early life and training, except 
 that he was a Christian and wrote his chief 
 work, the Apology, which was addressed to the 
 Emperor Marcus Aurelius, about 176 or 177 a.d. 
 He was a powerful thinker and great teacher, 
 and there is some evidence that he was, at 
 least for a time, the head of the famous cate- 
 chetical school at Alexandria, and probably 
 
 263
 
 ATHENS COLLEGE 
 
 ATHENS 
 
 the teacher of Clement (q.v.), its ilhistrioiis 
 leader (150-220). As such he naturally claims 
 some attention in the history of educational 
 theory and practice. His ])hilosopliical doc- 
 trine is [jrofoundly tinned with Platonism and 
 does not show complete independence; yet he 
 is one of the most attractive writers of the 
 period of the Apologists, and did much, in his 
 office as a teacher, to orient the western mind 
 ia the spirit of the idealistic faith by showing 
 the various points of contact between Platon- 
 ism and ('hristianity. Essentially an eclectic 
 and reconciler, like others of this school, he 
 maintained the free union of faith and knowl- 
 edge, resisting the ultra-dogmatic view, and 
 attracted many pupils by the agreeable com- 
 bination of the Hellenistic and Christian views 
 and by the beauty of his presentation. Quite 
 naturally, however, the theological interest 
 overtops all the others. Hence his importance 
 for technical educational theory and prac- 
 tice is small. Perhaps his doctrine of knowl- 
 edge bears the closest relation to pedagogy, 
 and deserves attention for its irenic tendency. 
 He maintained that the Lognx, or divine intel- 
 ligence, was, equally for the Hellenic poets and 
 philosophers as for the inspired writers of the 
 Scriptures, the source of the perfect clearness 
 and certainty of knowledge; that divine truth 
 was the result, not of the excogitations of the 
 mind, but of revelation, vouchsafed to the 
 thinker by the Holy Spirit speaking through 
 the Logos. In general, rationality is the ac- 
 tive force (iSfa Kol ivipyiia) in all created things 
 and minds, and emanates from God, going 
 forth from him and returning to him like a 
 ray of the sun. His pedagogical doctrine, 
 though not defined in so many words, may thus 
 be summarized under these two heads: (1) 
 knowledge and faith arc indissolubly connected 
 in the process of education; (2) the substance 
 of teaching is the truth revealed by the divine 
 spirit to the soul, and is a gradual revelation, 
 culminating in Christianity. H. D. 
 
 References: — 
 The work.s of Athenagoras have been collected and 
 
 translated in the Ante-Nicene Library. 
 Clarisse, Th. a. De Ath. Vita, Scriptis el Doclrina. 
 (Leyden, 1819.) 
 
 ATHENS COLLEGE, ATHENS, ALA. — 
 
 An institution for the education of young 
 women founded by the Tennessee Conference 
 in 1842 and transferred to the North Alabama 
 Conference in 1870. Students are admitted 
 at the age of 15, and for the degree courses the 
 requirements are ajjproximately S points of high 
 school work. Classical, scientific, and normal 
 certificate courses are offered. Preparatory, 
 fine arts, and commercial departments are 
 maintained. There is a faculty of 16 pro- 
 fessors and instructors. Mary Norman Moore 
 is the president. 
 
 ATHENS, THE UNIVERSITY OF. — The 
 
 University of Athens was due to the organiza- 
 
 tion and establishment under governmental 
 control, in the second century A. I)., of instruc- 
 tion in two different branches of study — philos- 
 ophy and rhetoric. Both of these had been 
 given an academic standing in the fifth century 
 B.C., or soon after, as a result of the impulse 
 given to study by Socrates and the Sophists. 
 Philosophy found a home in the four great 
 schools of philosophy, the Academic, the Peri- 
 patetic, the Stoic, and the Epicurean, while 
 rhetoric, or oratory, was developed into an 
 art, and made one of the studies of the Gre- 
 cian youth, by Isocrates in the fourth cen- 
 tury B.C. Into this higher education of the 
 fourth and third centuries m.c. there became 
 dovetailcil the ephcbic college. This was a 
 sort of military academy, in which originally 
 all native male Athenians, on coming of age, 
 were obliged to enroll themselves for a period of 
 two years. Later, that is, from the end of the 
 second century b.c, foreigners were also ad- 
 mitted. Gradually it became the custom for the 
 members of the school to attend, in a body and 
 under the leadershij) of their director, the lec- 
 tures of the philosophers, rhetoricians, and 
 "grammarians." Still later the intellectual 
 studies took preced(>nce of the military training, 
 and in the end the latter became wholly second- 
 ary to the former or was allowed to lapse alto- 
 gether. For the period of the University proper, 
 that is, from the second century a.d. onward, 
 the ephebic college has no significance in the 
 history of the higher education. 
 
 From the fourth century b.c. to the second 
 century a.d. philosophical and rhetorical schools 
 flourished side by side at Athens as private 
 institutions, and students flocked to them 
 from many parts of the Greek and Roman 
 worlds. From time to time during the latter 
 part of this period certain privileges were 
 granted to teachers, individually or as a class, 
 but no attempt was made to give them an 
 official standing until the time of Antoninus 
 Pius. Antoninus is said to have granted 
 honors and salaries to rhetoricians and philos- 
 ophers throughout the provinces. The honors 
 consisted for the most part of exemption from 
 taxes and immunity from i)ublic duties, many 
 of which duties required the expenditure of 
 much time and money. These honors were to 
 be granted only after formal vote of the local 
 council and enrollment of the beneficiary in the 
 official list of beneficiaries. The chair of 
 rhetoric established at Athens by Antoninus 
 was called the " political " chair, but whether 
 by this was meant a municipal chair, i.e. a 
 chair endowed by the municipality, or a chair 
 of political, as distinguished from sophistical, 
 oratory, is not certain. The salary of this chair 
 was one talent (SI 080). Possibly a chair of 
 " grammar" and a chair or chairs of philosophy 
 also were endowed at Athens by this emperor. 
 
 The work begun by Antoninus Pius was con- 
 tinued by Marcus Aurelius (q.v.). Marcus es- 
 tablished at Athens a second chair of rhetoric, 
 
 264
 
 ATHENS 
 
 ATHENS 
 
 called the " sophistical " chair, as well as two 
 chairs in each of the four schools of philosophy. 
 The salary of each of these chairs was 10,000 
 drachmae ($1800), which was to be paid from 
 the imperial funds. Marcus assigned to the 
 venerable sophist, Herodes Atticus, the duty 
 of making the appointments, after examina- 
 tion, to the philosophical chairs, while he 
 reserved to himself the privilege of filling the 
 chair of sophistry. This arrangement, so far as 
 concerns the sophistical chair, continued up to 
 the middle of the third century. With the 
 philosophical chairs the case was otherwise. 
 Herodes died about 179. After his death the 
 duty of examining the candidates and making 
 the appointments in this department was as- 
 signed to a " board of electors," the constitution 
 of which is not certain; they are called by Lucian 
 " the best, the oldest, and the wisest of those 
 in the city," and it has been thought that 
 they were members of the local council or the 
 Areopagus. The holder of the sophistical chair 
 ranked in dignity above the other professors. 
 
 It is evident that Marcus aimed to make of 
 Athens a real university center. The measures 
 he took in furtherance of this aim were thorough- 
 going and extensive. Loss of independence on 
 the part of the schools, and greater oversight 
 and control of the schools on the part of the 
 emperor marked the changes that he introduced. 
 The rhetorical, or sophistical, instruction thus 
 officially established at Athens and elsewhere 
 by Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aurelius 
 claimed to prepare young men for professional 
 and official life (a claim that the philosophical 
 schools also had originally made). The train- 
 ing that was provided was literary and human- 
 istic. The "grammarian" (a term of much 
 broader import than the term as used in Eng- 
 lish) introduced the pupil to the language, 
 literature, and life of the Greek race; the 
 sophist, whose course followed that of the 
 "grammarian," trained him to individual ef- 
 fort in the use of language and argument. 
 
 Through the second century and until about 
 the middle of the third century the University 
 of Athens prospered uninterruptedly. Some 
 of the distinguished men who taught there 
 during this period were Herodes Atticus, 
 Theodotus, Lollianus, Philiscus, and Adrian. 
 Early in the second half of the third century, 
 owing to the inroads of the Gothic tribes from 
 the north, the whole mechanism of the Univer- 
 sity fell into disarrangement. With the ad- 
 vent of new conditions, however, under Dio- 
 cletian and Constantine, the University entered, 
 in somewhat altered form, upon another period 
 of prosperity. The various schools of philos- 
 ophy, with the exception of the Academic 
 school, had by this time passed out of exist- 
 ence, but sophistry flourished no less gloriously 
 than before. Distinguished sophists at Athens 
 in the fourth century were Pro»resius, Julian, 
 Himerius, and Hepha>stion. 
 
 The number of official sophists at Athens in 
 
 265 
 
 the fourth century is uncertain, but there were 
 at least three, and there may have been more. 
 Besides the regularly appointed teachers, there 
 were many others of various grades who held 
 no official appointment, and who depended for 
 their income solely on the fees of their students. 
 The local council was at this time the appoint- 
 ing power, subject, however, to the direction, 
 which was not always or perhaps even generally 
 exercised, of the proconsul and the emperor. 
 Candidates must be of good moral character and 
 proficiency in the subject of their profession. 
 Sometimes, notably on occasion of the ap- 
 pointment of the Head of the rhetorical 
 school, a rhetorical contest was in.stituted 
 among the various candidates, for the purpose 
 of determining which candidate could assert 
 the best claim to the position. 
 
 The establishment by Constantine of Chris- 
 tianity as the court religion contained the germs 
 of serious consequences for Athens, and it was 
 this that contributed in largest measure to 
 the fall of the University. The ancient culture 
 and the ancient religion were so closely united 
 that the two were generally considered insep- 
 arable, and the fall of the one meant the ulti- 
 mate fall of the other. The fifth century is 
 marked by the gradual decline of the study 
 of oratory and the growth of the Neo-Platonic 
 school at Athens. Neo-Platonism at this 
 time represented nearly all the philosophy of 
 the age. It pretended to be simply a develop- 
 ment of the ideas contained in the writings of 
 Plato, but it really embodied doctrines of 
 other schools, as the Aristotelian and the Stoic, 
 and finally assumed the character of a religion 
 tinged with Eastern mysticism. The Neo- 
 Platonic school at Athens enjoyed the en- 
 dowment of the Academy, of which it claimed 
 to be the legitimate successor. To it flocked 
 the most of those who were philosophically 
 or spiritually inclined, but were out of sym- 
 pathy with the new religion. The deathblow 
 to the ancient instruction came in a rescript of 
 Justinian of the year 529, forbidding the teach- 
 ing of all philosophy and the expounding of 
 the law at Athens. All grants of public funds 
 maile by previous emperors in the interests of 
 learning were withdrawn, and the endowment 
 of the philosophical school at Athens was con- 
 fiscated. 
 
 The University of Athens, in common with 
 most other Greek universities, was of the nature 
 of a voluntary congregation of professors and 
 students, without governing or examining 
 board. The various streams of education met 
 either in the local council or in the emperor, 
 but no attempt was made by either of these to 
 regulate the kind or the amount of instruction. 
 Athens was the chief center of sophistical 
 study in ancient times. The history and as- 
 sociations of the city exercised a powerful in- 
 fluence over the imaginations of men through- 
 out antiquity, and students flocked thither 
 from all parts of the Eastern world. Many of
 
 ATHLETICS 
 
 ATHLETICS 
 
 the distinctive features of Greek university life 
 existed there in their most pronounced form. 
 
 J. W. H. VV. 
 See Greece, Education in; Universities. 
 
 References : — 
 Capes, \\'. W. University Life in Ancient Athens. 
 
 (London. KS77.) 
 Waldkn, J. W. H. The Universities of Ancient Greece. 
 
 (New York, 1909.) 
 
 ATHLETICS, EDUCATIONAL. — Forms of 
 phy.sifiil oxcrci.scs iiicludins individual and 
 team games, track and field athletics and all 
 contests of phy.sical strength and skill for 
 personal jilcasure or individual or social honors, 
 which arc carried on in connection with educa- 
 tional work, and at least ostensibly for educa- 
 tional ends. All youth in all tribes and all nations 
 naturally enter into jihysical contests of some 
 character, especially running, leaping, wresthng, 
 throwing, etc. These contests develop in 
 widely different forms, and are transmitted by 
 tradition, thus entering into the customs of the 
 people. Social thinkers recognize certain educa- 
 tional values in these contests and encourage 
 them. Historically this tendencj- developed to 
 its greatest perfection among the Ancient 
 Greeks. In England athletics, like gymnastics 
 in Germany and Sweden, are a well-rccognized 
 phase of the general education of youth. The 
 movement in the United States, educationally 
 and socially, is of national importance. 
 
 During the la.st decade of the nineteenth 
 century and the first decade of the twentieth, 
 a nation-wide development and organization 
 of athletics among youth took place. Every 
 institution centered in the hfe of youth, either 
 by compulsion or choice assumed some degree 
 of leadership in athletics. The older move- 
 ment in athletic clubs and especially in colleges 
 became more intensive with grow'ing faculty 
 control in the latter. The Young Men's Chris- 
 tian Associations put greater emphasis on 
 physical work and organized the Athletic 
 League of North America. Development in 
 high schools became practically universal, 
 extended to elementary schools, and gainecl 
 an added power through the organization of 
 public school athletic leagues. The playground 
 campaign, with its athletics for the " older chil- 
 dren," became a national issue. Finally, social 
 settlements, Sunday schools, and boys' clubs 
 began the organization of athletic activities, 
 and particularly in large cities the formation of 
 athletic leagues. This general development 
 came partly from the natural inclinations of 
 youth and jiartly from the deliberate planning 
 of adults interested in the educational and social 
 welfare of youth. 
 
 While the values of athletic activities among 
 youth may be recognized, certain difficulties 
 in securing these values for large numbers, and 
 certain tendencies to evil, are also recognized 
 by educators. Furthermore, there is a tend- 
 ency for athletics to be totally transformed 
 
 in character, as they develop under certain 
 social con<litions best illustrated liistorically in 
 the degeneration of the contests of Ancient 
 Greece into those of a later period, and finally 
 into those of the Roman Circus and Amphi- 
 theater. 
 
 Educational Value of Athletics. — The ed- 
 ucational values of athletics are primarily 
 those of all vigorous neuromuscular exercise. 
 (1) Exercise secures organic development, i.e. 
 the development of those organs and functions 
 during the growth of the individual from in- 
 fancy to maturity that gives vitality, vigor, 
 functional power for health to the limit of 
 inherited i)ossibilities. (2) Exercise secures 
 psj'chomotor development, i.e. the develop- 
 ment of that control of the nuiscular system 
 which gives skill, body resourcefulness, and 
 the fundamental basis for a broad " manual," 
 industrial, and artistic training. (.'5) Exercise 
 gives the opportunity for securing a mental 
 and moral discipline (a) by giving a drill in 
 vigorous activities which require alertness, 
 effort, determination; (6) by giving self- 
 knowledge of physical powers through com- 
 parison with others; (c) by giving standards 
 for intelligent care of the body, esi)ecially the 
 nervous system, to secure the greatest physical 
 efficiency; (d) by giving discipline in self-con- 
 trol; (c) by giving concepts of "team work" 
 or cooperative self-subordinatioti and social 
 experience under conditions that identify the 
 youth with the social interests of the group 
 demanding cooperation. 
 
 These values may be secured with different 
 emphasis through industrial labor, gymnastics, 
 vigorous play, or athletics. The aim in each 
 of these activities is different, hence the bodily 
 results vary. In industrial activities, the 
 aim is industrial results; the bodily results 
 may be and usually are very unbalanced. In 
 gymnastics (q.i'.), the aim is physical develop- 
 ment through set, formal movements, delinitely 
 arranged and susceptible of predetermination 
 as to results. In athletics (though they may 
 also be taken consciously for the exercise), the 
 aim is the contest, and the movements depend 
 upon the exigencies of the contest. The 
 exercise is not so easily predetermined as to 
 results. This gives gymna.stics the advan- 
 tage in the precision of physical results that 
 may be secured. In athletics the movements 
 are more specialized and less easily controlled, 
 though they may be graded loosely to fit in- 
 dividual needs and tastes. While athletics, 
 generally speaking, secure all results, gymnastics 
 in some cases will succeed where athletics will 
 fail. The advantages of athletics over gym- 
 nastics arise from their competitive and social 
 nature. While athletics may be used as a 
 gymnastics, and some forms of gynuuistics 
 may be used in the spirit of athletics, and each 
 made to grade one into the other, athletics 
 are fundamentally competitive and social; 
 gymnastics are only so by consent. Athletics, 
 
 266
 
 ATHLETICS 
 
 ATHLETICS 
 
 being competitive and social, rouse a broader 
 range of social impulses and emotions than 
 gymnastics. They furnish possil)ilities for a 
 deeper social stimulus and training. Gym- 
 nastics gain all fundamental results, but can- 
 not compare with athletics in these broader 
 disciplinary values. From the viewpoint of 
 general education and a broad physical educa- 
 tion, athletics must be considered coordinate 
 with g}'mnastics in composing the technique of 
 physical education for youth. Atliletics prob- 
 ably possess the larger values, but no broad 
 rational system of physical education can be 
 based on either alone. 
 
 Athletics, being contests between two or 
 more individuals, are essentially social, and re- 
 quire organization through mutual agreement. 
 Several possible groupings of individuals for 
 contests may take place in any social com- 
 munity. (1) Two or more individuals or groups 
 of individuals may organize spontaneously, 
 day by day, irrespective of social affiliations, 
 for a contest or a period of play. This is the 
 usual method among town boj's, town men, 
 schoolboys, and many college men untouched 
 by an athletic association. (2) Permanent asso- 
 ciations may be organized to furnish facilities 
 for contests among members, as is usually the 
 case in local clubs such as tennis and golf 
 associations. (3) Institutional groups or asso- 
 ciations organized for other functions than ath- 
 letics may organize for the development of 
 facilities and the promotion of interest, as is 
 usually the case in schools and clubs. (4) 
 Finally the members of the whole complex 
 group, the institution, town, city, or nation, 
 may organize under the name of the group for 
 intergroup, interinstitutional, or international 
 contests with other groups. The conditions 
 affecting the development of athletics in these 
 various groups differ. Manj' of the tendencies 
 to evil grow with progress from the simpler 
 to the more complex forms of organization. 
 Under simple conditions the managerial func- 
 tion is undifferentiated. With the development 
 of athletics in formal organization the manage- 
 rial function arises as a distinct special force. 
 
 Athletics, like all games, are passed on by 
 tradition — by imitation and by the older and 
 experienced teaching the younger and inex- 
 perienced. As athletics progress in formal 
 organization, the instructional function tends 
 to be differentiated and specialized, and the 
 instructor or coach develops with special 
 powers for good or evil. 
 
 Creative Forces in Athletics. — All the 
 various forms of athletics are created, and all 
 the different tendencies in development are 
 determined by two different classes of interests 
 in contests common to all men: the partici- 
 pant's or contestant's impulses, pleasures, and 
 interests in the activities and result of the 
 contest, and the spectator's impulses, pleas- 
 ures and interests in the contest and its results 
 as a spectacle. 
 
 The Contestant's Incentives. — The contes- 
 tant's pleasures and interests develop out of a 
 series of play tendencies which must be under- 
 stood to understand athletics. At the founda- 
 tion of all vigorous muscular play there is a 
 pleasure in the mere motor discharge exhibited 
 by the young of all animals — a satisfaction of 
 the primitive hunger for activity. To these 
 fundamental pleasures there are added a long 
 series of pleasurable emotional states. There 
 is the conflict of daring and fear in feats, the 
 pleasure in accomplishment and success, the 
 pleasure and pride in overcoming difficulties 
 and encountering risk or danger with all its 
 emotional tension, the exaltation that comes 
 in the rebound from fear through relief, the 
 tension of expectation and shock of surprise, 
 the pleasure of enduring hardships and suppress- 
 ing pain, the pleasure in mastery of self, the 
 inspiration of being a cause, and all the emo- 
 tional content that holds attention and height- 
 ens the reality of life, which is opposed to 
 ennui, and which for the adolescent is a neuro- 
 logical necessity. Then there are the impulses 
 which influence the form of play. Through all 
 childhood there is intense pleasure in being 
 chased and chasing, hiding, being sought and 
 seeking. The combative social and egoistic 
 impulses, appearing in plaj' from early child- 
 hood, become especially prominent with adoles- 
 cence. Simple running for its own sake soon 
 loses its charm and must be turned into a con- 
 test, thus satisfying the combative impulse. 
 Rolling about on the floor is turned into a 
 tu.s.sle. The egoistic impulse combines with 
 the combative to give keenness to do something 
 as well as or better than some one else. This 
 tendency becomes peculiarly strong in the ado- 
 lescent period (q.v.), the athletic age. 
 
 The social impulses, with perhaps some sexual 
 elements, add their force. A desire for social 
 applause and approbation leads often to self- 
 exhibition and a display of skill or courage. 
 Especially keen is the pleasure of achievement 
 in competition under social conditions, perhaps 
 the highest stimulus and satisfaction m youth to 
 the egoistic impulses and emotions. Cravings 
 for self-testings, self-evaluation, the determi- 
 nation of one's social status, become promi- 
 nent. Where these impulses come in contact 
 with developed or traditional play activities, 
 as in athletics, there arises spontaneou.sly a 
 craving to gain one's place in the social system, 
 to become a member of the team, to represent 
 one's fellows, to support the honor of the 
 group, and to win the satisfaction and applause 
 of achievement, to gain honor. Public interest 
 intensifies these expressions. To be prominent 
 in social activities is one of the most stimulating 
 of social motives. 
 
 Athletics are then the more formal contests 
 among plays and games, limited by formal rules 
 and arranged by social usage or agreement to 
 give the largest satisfaction to the combative, 
 egoistic, and social impulses and emotions. 
 
 267
 
 ATHLETICS 
 
 ATHLETICS 
 
 The primary incentive in athletics is to secure 
 these pleasures. Uninfluenced from without, 
 there is no other conscious aim than tliese pleas- 
 ures. \\'ith the development of athletics in 
 social proniinenco, motives Ijccome more and 
 more social, centering in honor. A series of 
 secondary interests and motives arise, such as 
 a desire for social j)roniincncc, leadership, or 
 power. Under the stimulus of social applau.sc 
 and tiie desire for honor, the primary pleasures 
 in the contest may be replaced by discomfort 
 or hardship, or even pain, yet the motive sus- 
 tains the effort. If to these highly developed 
 motives the desire for material gain is added, 
 the aim becomes professional. How the mo- 
 tives in the individual shall develop is deter- 
 mined by his temperament and the social con- 
 ditions surrounding him. It is in the soil of 
 specialized social motives, so far as the athlete 
 is concerned, that most of the difficulties in 
 athletics develop. 
 
 The nature of the incentives that create play 
 and athletics, and the need of vigorous neuro- 
 muscular activities during the entire period of 
 growth and development in order to realize 
 bodily powers, reveal the functions and mean- 
 ing of athletics. Nature made the play im- 
 pulse the guardian of physical and mental needs. 
 As contests appear with, and are especially char- 
 acteristic of, the adolescent period, they may 
 fairly be considered the natural vigorous 
 e.xercise of youth. In this sense they may be 
 interpreted as nature's means of physical educa- 
 tion during the adolescent period. The pri- 
 mary motives in athletics and the normal results 
 are purely educational: the youth's aim in 
 contests is pleasure; nature's aim is education. 
 In these activities, youth has inherent rights, 
 and society is profoundly affected morally and 
 socially by a neglect or protection of these 
 rights. The place of athletics among the 
 social customs of a people and in an educational 
 system must be determined theoretically by the 
 necessary amount of daily vigorous activity 
 required during the successive years of youth 
 to develop complete organic power and funda- 
 mental psychomotor skill, by the relative 
 superiority of athletics to any other vigorous 
 activity for moral and social discipline, and by 
 the influence of these activities on the general 
 recreative and social customs of the people. 
 
 The Spectator's Incentives. — The spectator's 
 interest in athletics, like the participant's, 
 arises from a deep-seated tendency in human 
 nature. It is closely related to the dramatic 
 interest. The struggles of others excite, fasci- 
 nate, sway. Through sympathy the spectator 
 enters into the struggle. Especially strong is 
 the excitement in fighting contests. Human 
 nature loves to see a fight. The extremes of 
 emotion aroused are best illustrated by the 
 world's great fighting spectacles: the gladia- 
 torial contest, the chariot race, and the bull 
 fight of earlier times; the horse race, the prize 
 fight, and the professional baseball contest of 
 
 modern times. The less extreme expressions 
 arc seen in the support of traveling acrobats, 
 foot racers, and games not intended for spec- 
 tators. Out of this primal interest in a strug- 
 gle, common to all human beings, evolves the 
 spectator. 
 
 The nature of the contest that will satisfy 
 different individuals depends on character, 
 intelligence, training, culture, and life condi- 
 tions. On one side there are those who are 
 satisfied with the pleasures of a skillful contest 
 between gentlemen, on the other those who are 
 satisfied oidy with a fierce personal, often brutal 
 combat that reveals and rouses primitive 
 human passions. Between these two extremes 
 are all pleasure seekers at an athletic contest. 
 In the development of all sports these two 
 classes are ever in opposition. The desires of 
 the one, therefore its influence, are in direct 
 opposition to the other. Neither can be satis- 
 fied permanently with what pleases the other. 
 The development of athletics in the group will 
 be according to which element dominates in 
 the creation of public sentiment. In propor- 
 tion as the extreme spectacle-loving element 
 can make its desires felt, will the anti-social 
 tendencies, revealed in the destruction of 
 many sports in the past, reappear. The human 
 tendencies exhibited in the more or less extinct 
 or disgraced contests of the past are still active, 
 and reveal themselves in athletics to-day as in 
 older times. 
 
 Many characters are not satisfied with the 
 emotions connected with the spectacle alone. 
 They must play with the emotions of chance 
 and intensify the pleasures in the spectacle by a 
 wager on the result, hence gambling becomes 
 associated with the contest. Furthermore, 
 many live over an emotional reverberation of 
 the contest after it is finished, thus developing 
 athletic gossip and the sporting sheet in news- 
 papers, which in turn arouses the same tenden- 
 cies in others. 
 
 The spectator everywhere tends to take 
 sides and become a partisan. With the devel- 
 opment of athletics, the organization of inter- 
 group contests, and the selection of a team 
 to represent the group, partisan athletics arise; 
 the spectator becomes an institutional partisan 
 and takes on a new power for influence. Social 
 pride, clannishness, rivalry, and all the emotions 
 exhibited by a group in competition with 
 another group, surround the contest. Group 
 becomes arrayed against group. The contest 
 tends to take on the characteristics of group 
 war. Public interest becomes partisan, and 
 the partisan aim becomes the dominant aim. 
 Interest centers in the emotions connected with 
 the chances of winning, and shifts to an empha- 
 sis on results. Partisan demonstrations add to 
 the spectacle, which attracts an ever-widening 
 circle of spectators. 
 
 The influence of the spectator on the more 
 complex development of athletics has been 
 profound. The spectator's pleasure in the 
 
 268
 
 ATHLETICS 
 
 ATHLETICS 
 
 skilled exhibition or contest, and his willingness 
 to pay for the pleasure, added to the economic 
 needs of some skillful performers, have created 
 the professional athlete and professional ath- 
 letics. The professional makes a business of 
 training and developing personal skill to supply 
 a social demand for amusement. His activi- 
 ties can no longer be classified as play. Again 
 the spectator, as indicated in the social elements 
 of the contestant's incentives, supplies the more 
 stimulating applause, approbation, and honors, 
 and, as his interest centers on the more exciting 
 contests and the most skilled athletes, he tends 
 to mold the athlete's motives and the form of 
 his activities. The athlete's motives and the 
 spectator's interests tend to complement each 
 other. This tendency is particularly conspicu- 
 ous in intergroup partisan athletics. The 
 susceptibilities of different individuals to the 
 influences of the spectator vary greatly, but 
 the combination of the specialized social mo- 
 tives in some athletes and the spectator's 
 desires tend to the development of a form of 
 specialized, highly skilled athletics primarily 
 for the amusement of the spectator. The 
 athlete requires special training, thus empha- 
 sizing the coaching function; the spectator's 
 interests require management, thus emphasizing 
 the managerial function. Therefore the influ- 
 ence of the spectator, while a stimulating, 
 though unessential force in the development of 
 athletics, tends toward a narrow, highly skilled 
 form of athletics rather than toward a widening 
 sway of the athletic interest as an educational 
 force. Hence, the spectator and his influence 
 are the most serious problem in the advanc- 
 ing power of athletics. 
 
 Evils of Athletics. — A number of evils are 
 associated with athletic activities, but a dis- 
 tinction should be made between elemental 
 tendencies to evil and the exaggerated compli- 
 cations of these evils through specific influences 
 in the development of athletics. 
 
 1. There is the tendency, associated with all 
 vigorous activities, to physical injury. This 
 tendency is increased by an individual's com- 
 peting in activities for which he is unfitted, 
 inadequately traineil, or improperly equipped, 
 or against individuals out of his class, or while 
 fatigued, etc. The tendency may be mini- 
 mized by proper inspection, classification, and 
 training. 
 
 2. There is the tendency, associated with 
 many pleasurable activities, to overindulgence 
 which results in physical harm and a dissipa- 
 tion of time. This is chiefly a product of ill- 
 advised enthusiasm, and is exaggerated by the 
 pressure of partisan rivalry. It is eliminated 
 by competent supervision or leadership. 
 
 3. There is the tendency to specialization 
 which may result in unbalanced development 
 and unfortunate play habits. It is exagger- 
 ated artificially by the pressure of partisan 
 rivalry in intergroup competition. It may be 
 eliminated by competent supervision. 
 
 4. There is the tendency, common to all 
 social competition, to bad manners, to irri- 
 tability in defeat and gloating in victory, 
 though individuals differ greatly in these tend- 
 encies. The tendency is exaggerated by bad 
 play traditions in the group, by bad leadership, 
 by disrespect for rivals, by bad treatment on 
 the part of rivals, and by the pressure of parti- 
 sans. It may be controlled by strong leader- 
 ship in building wholesome play standards, and 
 by good management, instruction, and disci- 
 pline. 
 
 5. There is a tendencj' to evasions of the 
 rules of the game. The rules are articles of 
 agreement under which a trial of skill is to be 
 made, violations of which are dishonest. The 
 limitations of the rules offer temptations which 
 test character and training. The tendency is 
 exaggerated by bad play traditions, by vicious 
 instructions from coaches, by suspicion of rivals, 
 by partisan pressure to win, etc. The tendency 
 may be controlled by strong leadership in the 
 development of sentiment among athletes and 
 by an administration that counteracts the 
 influence of the spectator. 
 
 6. There is a tendency to violations of the 
 principles of classification in any group which 
 under the law of participation narrows partici- 
 pation. This tendency is seen under simple 
 conditions and in small groups where the 
 older, stronger, and more aggressive eliminate 
 the younger, weaker, or timid from certain 
 games. It is seen under complex conditions 
 in large groups where there is a temptation to 
 neglect players less skilled than the few best 
 or to use players not legitimately members of 
 the group. The tendency to violate an accepted 
 classification and thus to gain an advantage 
 is strikingly exaggerated through the pressure 
 of partisan rivalry, the interests of the profes- 
 sional coach, and suspicion of rivals in inter- 
 group contests. This tendency may be mini- 
 mized by educational leadership that will 
 control the influence of partisan and coach. 
 Public opinion may here be very effective. 
 (See Amateurism.) 
 
 7. There is the tendency for athletics to 
 come under the control of the spectator and 
 develop into specialized intergroup partisan 
 contests, which in turn tends to destroy general 
 participation and the social respect for athletics. 
 This tendency is especially strong in the later 
 years of youth. With the development of 
 intergroup contests, the desire to win tends to 
 become extreme. Group pride is involved, and 
 success coveted as an honor. This intensi- 
 fication of the desire to win and the exaggera- 
 tion of the importance of winning tends to 
 destroy the character of athletics as play. 
 Training for skill is pushed to the limit of 
 youthful endurance, which, though the disci- 
 pline majf be commended, few individuals 
 are capable of enduring. Excc])tional individ- 
 uals must carry the burden, so there is selected 
 a special group of athletes on which spectators, 
 
 269
 
 ATHLETICS 
 
 ATHLETICS 
 
 coaches, and managers focus their attention: 
 leaving the majority of the group forgotten 
 and neglected. Exceptional individuals are 
 scarce, hence partisans search for them, and 
 proselyting, or recruiting methods develop, 
 which tend to corrupt violations of the laws of 
 classification. Even for the exceptional ath- 
 lete, play is changed into work, and the 
 energy and time consumed the maximum. As 
 a natural result there develops in some athletes 
 the question: What is there in it? This the 
 partisan tends to meet by extra encourage- 
 ments, inducements, honors and rewards, and 
 petty professional practices develop which are 
 ])erpetuated by custom and the enthusiasm of 
 partisans. The extreme specialized training 
 aggravates the lesser tendencies to evil, to avoid 
 which artificial methods are adopted. Trainers, 
 rubbers, and the training table are employed 
 to meet the physical needs; officials are mul- 
 tiplied to minimize the tendencies to unsocial 
 acts and violations of the rules of the game; 
 and complex eligibility codes are formulatetl 
 to reduce the tendency to ignore the laws of 
 classification. 
 
 Both the managerial and instructional func- 
 tions tend to become totally divorced from the 
 play needs of the masses of youth and to be- 
 come highly specialized agents of the spectator. 
 The coach, being judged by the results of con- 
 tests, concentrates his efforts on exceptional 
 athletes. The manager, being dependent on 
 the spectator for finances, tends to manage 
 solely in the interest of the spectator. This 
 management and the expenses connected with 
 the equipment of teams, cost of games and 
 trips, officials, training tables, coaches, trainers, 
 rubbers, doctors' bills, medical supplies, honors, 
 rewards, privileges, etc., tend to surround 
 athletics with a strong commercial atmosphere 
 unwholesome and destructive to the play spirit. 
 The final tendency of partisan athletics is 
 toward a business, involving a few specialized 
 athletes performing for the satisfaction of 
 partisans, which is essentialh' professional in 
 methods and commercial in character. Youth 
 tends to lose all sense of athletics as a natural, 
 valuable, and dignified acti\-ity, and public 
 opinion tends to consider athletics merely as 
 a spectacle. How far this evolution will pro- 
 ceed in the organized athletics in any group 
 will depend upon the age of the contestants 
 and the elements to be considered under con- 
 trol. 
 
 Several factors tend to exaggerate the special- 
 izing influence of the spectator. The press 
 associates partisan contests not with educa- 
 tional topics, but with professional baseball, 
 prize fighting and horse-racing gossip, thus 
 misguiding public opinion. Educators, con- 
 centrated on intellectual education, tend to 
 avoid leadership in the outdoor life of youth. 
 They tend to leave managers, coaches, and 
 players without supervision, subject to the 
 domination of partisans, and free to use their 
 
 own methods. Winning teams have been 
 associated with the advertising movement, 
 especially in colleges, and this leads educators 
 to tolerate unwholesome practices. The same 
 results flow from suspicion of rivals. 
 
 Of these several tendencies to evil in ath- 
 letics, the first three, or the tendencies to phys- 
 ical injury, overindulgence, and specialization 
 reduce or destroy the valuable physical results 
 of play; the fourth and fifth, or the tendencies 
 to bad manners and violations of the rules of 
 the game, reduce or destroy the valuable moral 
 results; the sixth and seventh, or the tendencies 
 to violations of the law of classification and to 
 control by spectators, reduces or destroys the 
 educational values of athletics for the many, 
 and the social respect for athletics among 
 serious people. 
 
 It is clear that the tendencies to evil increase 
 in seriousness as youth approaches maturity, 
 as the intergroup organization becomes em- 
 phasized, and as the partisan spirit develops. 
 
 Control. — The importance and the values of 
 athletics in the life of youth, the factors con- 
 trolling participation and the tendencies to 
 evil, show a need of administrative authority 
 with larger vision and broader educational 
 powers than arc possessed by youth. Experi- 
 ence has shown that the play life of both chil- 
 dren and youth must be supervised, if the 
 values of play are to be secured and the evils 
 eliminated. This control becomes increasingly 
 important with the advancing years of youth 
 because the factors tending to eliminate from 
 participation and the tendencies to evil become 
 more influential. The values of athletics are 
 the normal product of the athletic impulse; 
 the evils are the product of the ignorance of 
 youth, social influences beyond its understand- 
 ing, and the neglect of natural leaders or teachers. 
 Youth is helpless alone to understand or con- 
 trol the factors influencing participation or 
 the factors causing tendencies to evil. Edu- 
 cators or social workers start a reform wave 
 when they realize that neglect has divorced 
 atliletic influences from the aims of education, 
 that the masses of youth have lost the habit 
 of, and respect for, participation, and that 
 public opinion through lack of respect is un- 
 favorable and depressing to the general spirit 
 of play among youth. Attempted reform 
 often precipitates an athletic struggle between 
 the reform interests and the interests in control 
 of the athletics to be reformed. Potentially or 
 actually this struggle exists under all conditions 
 because of the contrast in tendencies between the 
 two primary interests in contests and a corre- 
 sponding contrast in public opinion. Between the 
 tw'o primary interests a transitional mixture of 
 the two exists which causes most of the struggle. 
 These three interests give three general con- 
 cepts of what athletics are for and whom they 
 they are for, to which all current opinions and 
 attitudes refer and which determine all policies 
 and methods in the administration of athletics. 
 
 270
 
 ATHLETICS 
 
 ATHLETICS 
 
 These concepts may be formulated as follows: 
 (1) Atliletics are solely for the pleasure of the 
 spectator and the profit of the athlete who 
 furnishes the pleasure. (2) Athletics are pri- 
 marily for the pleasure of the spectator, espe- 
 cially the partisan sympathizer, and secondarily 
 the pleasure or honor of the athlete. (3) Ath- 
 letics are primarily for the benefit of the athlete 
 seeking pleasure, and achieving organic and 
 social power, for the fellowship, sympathy, unity, 
 and loyalty among members of the team and 
 (where intcrgroup teams exist) among the 
 members of the social group which the team 
 represents. If athletics are organized and ad- 
 ministered on the first of these concepts, there 
 arises pure professional athletics, or athletics 
 for the spectator. This concept has its legiti- 
 mate place; to it, in respectable expressions, 
 there have been no serious objections so 
 long as it keeps its place. If athletics are 
 organized and administered on the third of 
 these concepts, "educational athletics," as 
 defined above, are the result. If athletics 
 are organized and administered on the second 
 of these concepts, there develops a class 
 of athletics somewhere between "educational 
 athletics" and professional athletics, which 
 are seldom truly educational, and more sel- 
 dom frankly professional. The tendency they 
 take depends upon the class of characters 
 dominant in the control of their organization 
 and administration. In this concept there is 
 nothing that is distinctly independent of the 
 other two. It is a transitional mixture of the 
 two primary interests. In it there is nothing 
 that does not logically belong to the first or 
 third concept. It is based on misguided 
 notions, half evolved customs, and incomplete 
 logic. 
 
 Again, if the first concept is accepted, the 
 policies will center in one position: "get the 
 best talent possible " and satisfy the spectators. 
 If the second concept is accepted, the desires 
 of partisans and anxiety concerning questions 
 of material for winning teams will be paramount 
 in the development of administrative policies, 
 always with an exaggeration of tendencies to 
 evil. If the third concept is accepted, the only 
 position that can be taken is: athletics are for 
 the education of all youth irrespective of 
 athletic skill or ability to make pleasure for 
 spectators, bring "honor" to a group, or sat- 
 isfy the pride of partisans. This concept and 
 its interpretation does not necessarily abolish 
 pleasure for the spectator, nor the possibilities of 
 his education as a spectator, but it determines 
 absolutely the primary point of view in the 
 creation of administrative policies and methods. 
 It determines the relative amount of time 
 that should be devoted to vigorous muscular 
 activities as compared with other educational 
 activities, the obligations of institutions to fur- 
 nish opportunities for participation by all and 
 instruction for all, the organization of activities 
 to meet all needs and capacities and to conserve 
 
 primarily the interests of the many, the attitude 
 • on violations of the law of classification, re- 
 cruiting and uneducational methods of develop- 
 ing teams, the supervision of the conduct of 
 athletes in games, in training quarters and on 
 trips, the character and number of games 
 played, the character of instructors and mana- 
 gers, the financial methods, the kind of train- 
 ing methods, such as training tables, trainers, 
 and supplies, the attitude in inter-institutional 
 relationships, etc. 
 
 An effective control depends on public opin- 
 ion and expert educational leadership. Effec- 
 tive leadership will be hampered by an unintel- 
 ligent, careless, or vicious public opinion; public 
 opinion, even educationally the best, can be 
 effective only through technical leadership. 
 Educational athletics for all can be fully realized 
 only when the public sees clearly the distinction 
 between athletics as an educational force in the 
 life of youth and athletics as an amusement for 
 the public, until it respects athletics as an es- 
 sential element in the education of youth, fos- 
 ters a spirit of competitive play, and supports 
 an educational administration. Public opinion 
 will take this position only when educational 
 leaders see and cultivate this viewpoint. 
 Effective leadership requires technical skiU, 
 knowledge, authority, and character to secure 
 the participation of all and to avoid the evil 
 tendencies. 
 
 To secure effective participation, an educa- 
 tional administration must supply three things. 
 (1) It must supply opportunities in the form 
 of equipment and activities that will meet the 
 capacities, needs, and tastes of all. (2) It 
 must supply instructors for all that are pri- 
 marily interested in the education of youth, 
 that are trained to recognize individual capaci- 
 ties, needs, and tastes, and that will give sym- 
 pathetic leadership, encouragement, and stimu- 
 lus, especially to the less fortunate, in the 
 development of effective play habits. (3) It 
 must supply an organization that is primarily 
 concerned in conserving the educational rights 
 of youth in athletics, that will inspire respect, 
 and that will maintain a fair classification for 
 competition. 
 
 To avoid the evil tendencies an educational 
 administration must also supply three additional 
 influences. (1) It must supply the technical 
 knowledge and skill to give physical examina- 
 tions, supervise the amount and character of ac- 
 tivities, and care for minor inj uries, thus avoiding 
 the tendencies to evils that destroy physical re- 
 sults. (2) It must supply a moral leadership 
 with knowledge and skill and character power 
 sufficient to control bad manners and tendencies 
 to violations of the rules of the games and all 
 tendencies that destroy moral results. (3) It 
 must supply a social leadership with educational 
 ideals, independent character, and honesty 
 sufficient both to lead the earnest, honest, and 
 reasonable spectators and to control or ignore 
 the nan'ow or selfish partisan in all tendencies 
 
 271
 
 ATHLETICS 
 
 ATHLETICS 
 
 to violations of the law of classification, the 
 educational viewpoint, and the social status of 
 athletics. 
 
 All these requirements in an efficient educa- 
 tional leadership demand specialists trained as 
 educators in tlie use of vigorous play activities 
 as educational subject matter. C. W. H. 
 
 Athletics in England. — Nothing in English 
 school life has been more generously accepted 
 and develojied than the passion for athletics. 
 It is sometimes said that this exaltation of 
 athletics is an entirely modern feature in 
 English school life. In a sense this is eminently 
 true. Consciously and purjiosely we have ac- 
 corded a place to games in our school curriculum, 
 which would have been incomprehensible to the 
 schoolmaster of ninety years ago. We have 
 given athletics a definite status in school life. 
 Nevertheless, it would be quite wrong to imag- 
 ine that the worship of sport, as its detractors 
 term the attitude, is the mere perversion of a 
 modern and decadent age. Witness my Lord 
 Chesterfield, who writes in 1740: "If you have a 
 right ambition you will desire to excel all boys 
 of your age at cricket, as well as in learning.'' 
 Could a modern paterfamilias wTite more 
 sagely? Witness too the same w'riter when he 
 alludes to " your various occupations of Greek 
 and cricket, Latin and pitch-farthing." Even 
 the poet Cowpcr recalls with pride in 1781 that 
 "as a boy I excelled at cricket and football." 
 And when one inquires into the origin of some 
 of the peculiar forms of football which are still 
 played at ancient English schools, and is frankly 
 told that the beginnings of the game "are lost 
 in obscurity," or "are probably coeval with the 
 school itself," can one imagine that the boy who 
 led his side to \'ictory in the old-established 
 struggles of these schools was anything else but 
 a hero in the eyes both of his schoolmates and 
 of the ranks of society from which the school 
 was recruited? But at the same time it is 
 most certainly true that the last ninety years 
 of education in England have placed the 
 athletics of the schools and universities on an 
 enormously higher plane. 
 
 To this several causes have contributed. In 
 the first place, the rapid advance of industrial 
 life and conditions, in the place of the less 
 cramped, more active existence of our ancestors, 
 has concentrated attention on physical fitness 
 and well-being. Secondly, it must be remem- 
 bered that since 1815 we have enjoyed almost 
 undisturbed peace. Rugby football may not be 
 as dangerous an occupation as fighting pitched 
 battles. Nevertheless, w^ith the aversion to the 
 military spirit, w^hich undoubtedly exists in 
 England, the field of athletics came as a welcome 
 outlet for the fighting spirit of the nation's 
 youth. And lastly, and most important consid- 
 eration of all, the advent of great headmasters 
 like Arnold, who laid enormous stress upon the 
 training of character as the real business of the 
 English school, gave a very real impulse to the 
 practice of athletics. As late as 1834, we find 
 
 27'. 
 
 a headmaster of Winchester objecting to his 
 scholars rowing a match against Eton, on the 
 ground that it withdrew them from their work, 
 and complaining of the " intemperance and 
 excesses" to which such matches gave rise. 
 When we find that one of the school crews 
 starts at half-past five in the morning and re- 
 turns about nine in the evening having dined 
 en route, the Headmaster's hostility to this 
 branch of athletics as thus conducted is ex- 
 tremely intelligible. 
 
 But the new impulse to the formation of 
 character at school grasped at once the ready 
 instrument which lay waiting to be employed 
 and developed. Athletics became a serious i)art 
 of school training, not so much to produce 
 soundness of body and limb as to give an op- 
 portunity for a spontaneous exercise of those 
 qualities of cooperation between members of 
 the team, and of chi\alry toward the opposi- 
 tion, which are after all the basis of subsequent 
 civic life. It is a significant fact that the only 
 sport which has never been able to obtain a 
 real hold in the English school and university 
 is the sport which involves mere individual 
 and personal effort. The winner of the mile 
 race at a school is a pale shadow compared with 
 the captain of cricket; and yet the one receives 
 a prize, the other nothing but responsibility. 
 Briefly, therefore, the school has made athletics 
 an essential part of its educational machinery; 
 in the formulation of its ideals, it has surveyed 
 the whole field of a boy's activities, and has 
 accepted the guidance and control of all. The 
 result has been the indefinite extension of or- 
 ganized games throughout the schools of Eng- 
 land. Adoption of the same rules led at once 
 to competition. In the case of rowing and 
 cricket, agreement more or less complete early 
 existed. Football was played under many dif- 
 ferent codes of laws, but by 1890 all the schools, 
 with a few exceptions, had accepted either the 
 Rugby or Association Code, and this opened 
 up the way to interschool contests. Naturally 
 the school games found their place in the 
 universities to which the schoolboj- proceeded, 
 and by 1880, all over England, the games were 
 being developed and improved by the aid of 
 strenuous rivalry. Eton had played the first 
 cricket match with Harrow, as far back as 1S22; 
 1827 was the date of the first match at the same 
 game between Oxford and Cambridge; 1829 
 saw the first intervarsity boat race; 1873 
 the first intervarsity Rugby match. At the 
 present day, there is a rapid succession of inter- 
 school and university matches. 
 
 The universal acceptance by the schools of 
 responsibility for the games has involved, 
 of necessity, strict organization. At all the 
 public boarding schools games are compul- 
 sory for every boy unless medically exempted. 
 Even at the secondary day schools the same 
 attitude is being, so far as possible, gradually 
 adopted, though obviously the nonresidential 
 character of these schools, and the fact that
 
 ATHLETICS 
 
 ATHLETICS 
 
 many boys come from a considerable distance, 
 make it almost impossible to insist upon any 
 hard and fast rules. But by carefully nursing 
 school opinion, and by seeing that every boy 
 has at any rate the opportunity of participating 
 in the games, the modern day school is approxi- 
 mating more and more closely in this respect 
 to the principles of the public schools. At the 
 commencement of the school term, all the games 
 are placed in the charge of the school captain, 
 who is, as a rule, the senior color remaining in 
 the school from the team of the previous season. 
 With the assistance of the other old colors he ar- 
 ranges the whole school in a series of games, 
 which is posted at once on the school notice 
 board. Each game has its appointed captain, 
 who is then responsible on each day when 
 games take place for arranging the sides for the 
 day. Any boy who is unable to play, and has 
 got leave to be absent, must .strike off his name 
 before a certain time, and his place is filled, 
 either by selecting a player from the next game 
 — a method which involves some arrangement 
 between the captains — or in some cases by 
 making the games always contain more players 
 than is absolutely essential, and thus allowing a 
 margin for defections. From the top game the 
 captain selects his school team or teams. A 
 boy who has been misplaced in the games has 
 no difficulty m making the misjudgment known; 
 for, when not playing, the captain of the school 
 and the members of the first game are con- 
 tinually undertaking the duties of referee in 
 the lower games, while at some schools, matches 
 are periodically arranged between the lower 
 division of the higher game and the upper 
 division of the lower game, in order to dis- 
 cover any injustice of placing. Naturally, 
 the matches against other schools are the events 
 of the year, and every effort is made by the 
 captain to get together the best side the school 
 can produce. The school matches are usually 
 arranged toward the end of the season, so that 
 by means of preliminary club matches an oppor- 
 tunity may be afforded of building up the best 
 side available. It has been found that the 
 standard of play in the lower games of the 
 school is apt to lose place, when thirty boys or 
 so merely repeat day after day the same per- 
 formances against each other. In consequence, 
 at all schools matches of some sort have been 
 introduced — interhouse or interclass matches, 
 for instance, for boys of all ages, and the 
 same for boys under a certain age, or under a 
 certain school game — and nothing has been 
 found more useful than these, for bringing out 
 into notice promising young players. During 
 the season colors are awarded to the various 
 teams or games, by the captain of the school. 
 One of the masters is always president of the 
 games committee, but his functions are limited 
 to advice and guidance. The question of 
 the finances of school games is very simple. 
 Every boy who plays games pays a games sub- 
 scription, usually very light. The money so 
 
 VOL. I — T 
 
 provided, together with any other source of 
 revenue which maybe available, — for instance, 
 the profits of the school " shop," — is devoted 
 to the upkeep of the grounds. The boys pay 
 their own expenses, in traveling to play other 
 schools, and no gate money is taken. 
 
 At the universities the games are run on 
 very similar lines, save that the undergraduate 
 assumes entire active control of each branch 
 of sport, with no dormant authority in the back- 
 ground. Each branch starts the season with 
 its committee, consisting of the senior color, 
 the captain or president for the current year, 
 and of the other "blues" remaining over from 
 the previous season. Trials are arranged for 
 such players in residence as have either made 
 their mark in previous years, or come fresh 
 with reputations from the schools. By means 
 of these, and the guidance afforded by inter- 
 college matches, the captain and committee 
 choose the university team, which takes its 
 place among the English clubs, and is gradually 
 built up into the final form which is selected to 
 do service in the interuniversity match. The 
 financial aspect of university sport differs 
 somewhat from that of the schools. Every 
 one who represents his university pays his 
 subscription to the University Club, which 
 is distinct in each case from the College Clubs 
 which pursue the same sport. Out of this 
 fund, and the gate money, which is taken at 
 university fixtures, the bare expenses of each 
 member of the team are paid, in accordance 
 with the regulations of the English unions 
 as to amateurism; by tacit agreement at the 
 present moment, a player always loses a little 
 in the incidental expenses of traveling. There 
 are old players who would prefer to see univer- 
 sity men paying all their own expenses; but 
 with the amount of traveling which jsresent- 
 day athletics entail it has been considered best 
 in the interests of the games themselves, and 
 in order not to prevent the best talent at the 
 university participating in the sports, to let 
 jjlayers avail themselves of the practical basis 
 laid down by the unions and associations. 
 Needless to say, the limit is rigidly observed, 
 and the accounts carefully managed by more or 
 less permanent honorary secretaries. The af- 
 fairs of the various college clubs within the 
 universities differ in obvious points. No 
 gate money being available, every club relies 
 on its members' subscriptions, and the universal 
 practice is for an undergi-aduate to pay a sub- 
 scription to the combined atUetic clubs of liis 
 college; he is then entitled to participate in any 
 sport. In the case of exceptional expense, when 
 for instance a coUege crew is sent to compete at 
 Henley, a subscription is as a rule specially raised 
 hi the college to defray part of the expenses of the 
 members of the crew. 
 
 On the subject of athletics there is un- 
 doubtedly at the present moment a certain 
 division of opinion in England. That the sport 
 of our schools and universities is scrupulously 
 273
 
 ATHLETICS 
 
 ATHLETICS 
 
 clean and honest, no one for a minute denies; 
 nor again, does anybody question tliat tlie dis- 
 cipline of mind and body thus secured is ex- 
 tremely valuable for every boy — a discipline 
 brought into play, not only on the cricket and 
 football field, but also in the whole manage- 
 ment and control of the school games. Never- 
 theless, even among those who grant all these 
 contentions, there is often a real feeling of 
 uneasiness, which may be attributed, as a rule, 
 to one of three ideas. In the first place, there 
 are those who are of opinion that the vigor 
 and force of the nation might be much more 
 profitably employed in these days than in 
 passionate devotion to athletics. They think 
 little of the "muddied oaf" and the "flanneled 
 fool," regard his blind enthusiasm as something 
 akin to madness, and piously hope tliat one 
 day his ardor may take a more martial and 
 patriotic turn. But the charge should not be 
 laid ui)on the athlete as such. The great 
 volunteer movement of 1860 went hand in 
 hand with a vast athletic revival; the two were 
 regariled as aiming at a single object, and if only 
 the athlete were as convinced of the serious 
 purjiose of the one as he is with regard to the 
 other, there would be no question of conflicting 
 interests. Secondly, there is a much more 
 justifiable reason for apprehension with regard 
 to athletics. It is said that athletics havi^ be- 
 come the dominating factor in all our education, 
 and that other interests and occupations are 
 rajiidly going to the wall. That there is truth 
 in this charge must unfortunately be admitted. 
 Games are excellent things to play, but when 
 they become an obsession in boys' conversation, 
 the result is deplorable. Boy nature admires 
 physical much more easily than intellectual 
 prowess, and the athlete bulks large in his view; 
 small wonder, therefore, that with all the tinsel 
 of athletic distinction which is dangled before 
 his eyes, he tends sometimes to forget that ath- 
 letics are not the real business of his life. Never- 
 theless, the danger is recognized, and it is not 
 so alarming as is sometimes alleged, for a per- 
 version can be corrected. Finally, some would 
 maintain that the modern treatment of games 
 as a serious part of school life is destroying the 
 primary purpose for which a game exists — 
 the purpose of relaxation and recreation. Here 
 again we must to some extent plead guilty. 
 The strain of athletics is qvute a real thing. 
 But on the other hand, even a change of oc- 
 cupation is recreation; and moreover, boys 
 do get, under present conditions, as much time 
 to si)end irresponsibly as many schoolmasters 
 think desirable. 
 
 Exaggerated, therefore, though the interest 
 in athletics may sometimes be, they nevertheless 
 perform a function in English school life, with- 
 out which the educational machinery would 
 seem gro.s.sly inadequate for the production of 
 the ideals which are entertained. They have 
 become bound up with the national virtues; 
 they are part of the national life. D. G. S. 
 
 See articles on the respective English Uni- 
 versities and Public Schools. 
 
 College Athletics. — Athletics occupy a 
 very large place in the life of American college 
 students to-day, when we consider that the 
 first intercollegiate contest in the United States 
 was a boat race between Harvard and Yale in 
 1852. College athletics as wc have them to- 
 day are divided into four major sports, rowing, 
 baseball, football, and track atliletics; and about 
 a dozen minor sports, basketball, lacrosse, soccer, 
 cricket, tennis, golf, swimming, water polo, gym- 
 nastics, fencing, wrestling, bowling, and shoot- 
 ing. 
 
 The major sports arc the oldest, rowing dat- 
 ing back to 1852, baseball to 1859, football 
 to the early seventies, and track athletics to the 
 late seventies. Most of the minor sports were 
 introduced during the decade from 1890 to 1900. 
 The growth of athletics in the colleges was 
 rather slow from 1852 to about 1880, but the 
 advent of track athletics and football adih-d new 
 impetus to the movement. Before 1880 the 
 methods of conducting athletics were simple; 
 there were no salaried coaches, no training 
 tables and elaborate uniforms; the expenses 
 were small, and they were paid mostly by the 
 participants in the sports. After 1880 the 
 attention given to athletics increased rai)idly; 
 elaborate methods of training were developed, 
 expert coaches were engaged for teams, many 
 new sports were taken up, and the number of 
 students taking part in them was multiplied. 
 The cost of maintaining athletics increased pro- 
 portionately. The students interested in athlet- 
 ics failed to secure financial support from the 
 college funds, and very soon learned that funds 
 could be secured from gate receipts and en- 
 thusiastic alumni. They also learned from 
 experience that the public and the alumni 
 would give generous support to winning teams, 
 but would soon withdraw their support from 
 losing teams. 
 
 That situation was undoubtedly a large 
 factor in bringing about a radical change in the 
 character of college athletics. The old con- 
 ception of securing healthful ])liysical activity, 
 wholesome recreation, and friendly competition 
 for all stuilents was superseded by the new idea of 
 sacrificing everything for the sake of turning out 
 a winning team. All the evils of professionalism, 
 recruiting, neglect of studies, brutality, extrava- 
 gance, etc., that have existed during the last 
 twenty years are the result directly or indirectly 
 of this inordinate desire to win at any cost be- 
 cause a winning team insures financial success. 
 Tiie annual receipts from admissions to games in 
 each of several colleges amount to more than 
 one hundred thousand dollars, and from a 
 single football game to as much as seventy 
 thousand dollars. The effect of such a policy 
 upon the students was distinctly harmful. The 
 exaggerated importance placed upon winning 
 led to such a degree of specialization in 
 athletics that only men of exceptional ability 
 
 274
 
 ATHLETICS 
 
 ATHLETICS 
 
 could earn a place on the teams. If men of 
 exceptional ability were not found in the student 
 body, they were recruited from the outside by 
 offering them inducements in the form of 
 scholarships or positions with light work and 
 large pay. 
 
 One of the greatest defects is that the college 
 equipment for exercise is monopolized by the 
 teams, with the result that the main body of 
 students who need the exercise most, must con- 
 tent themselves with the exercise involved in 
 " rooting " for the teams. The amount of time 
 and energy required of the atliletes is so great 
 that many of them are unable to maintain satis- 
 factory academic standing. The standards of 
 extravagant living, the newspaper notoriety, and 
 the hero-worship enjoyed by the successful ath- 
 letes during their atlJetic career leave them after 
 graduation with extravagant habits of living not 
 in accord with their financial and social position. 
 Another most unfortunate result of placing un- 
 due emphasis upon winning athletic contests 
 is in the practice of gambling upon the outcome 
 of the games. Many students acquire the 
 gambling habit while under the influence of the 
 hysterical excitement over college athletic con- 
 tests. 
 
 These evils exist in varying degree in many 
 colleges; they reached a climax during the pe- 
 riod from 1900 to 1905, when the situation was 
 revealed through discussion in the public press. 
 The death of a college student during a foot- 
 ball game, and the reports of a large number of 
 serious injuries to football players, precipitated a 
 widespread outcry for reform. A conference of 
 representatives from all the colleges and uni- 
 versities was called in New York in 1905 to 
 consider the problems of athletic reform. 
 Seventy institutions responded by sending 
 official delegates. The result of this conference 
 was the organization of the Intercollegiate 
 Athletic Association of the United States. The 
 policy adopted by the association was to in- 
 stitute a campaign of education in athletic ad- 
 ministration through annual conferences, com- 
 mittee reports, discussions, and publication. 
 The results thus far accomplished are most 
 encouraging. The e\'ils of professionalism, 
 proselyting, extravagant expenditures, the 
 training table, and too long schedules of games 
 have been greatly lessened. The playing rules 
 of football have been improved, and provision 
 made for more efficient officials to conduct the 
 games. 
 
 Another very important result of the publicity 
 given to problems of athletic reform is a fuller 
 realization by college authorities of their respon- 
 sibility in correcting existing evils. The con- 
 viction is growing among college officials that 
 athletics when properly conducted contribute 
 to the physical, moral, and social development 
 of college students. But, in order that such 
 results may be obtained, athletics must be ad- 
 ministered in much the same way as other 
 branches of education. It is necessary to ac- 
 
 commodate all the students in the institutions; it 
 is also essential to appoint a director or mana- 
 ger to organize and direct the athletic activities. 
 
 College athletics are now passing through a 
 period of transition. There are three distinct 
 policies advocated by different groups interested 
 in the problem. The younger alumni (par- 
 ticularly those who were pronainent in athletics 
 when undergraduates) ; some of the under- 
 graduates; the " sporting element " of the public; 
 and the large number of business men who 
 represent the transportation, hotel, and other 
 interests that derive financial benefits from 
 athletic contests, advocate the policy of lais.sez 
 faire toward commercialized athletics. A small 
 group, including some college officers, a few 
 of the older alumni, and some parents of college 
 students take the opposite view and advocate 
 the prohibition of all intercollegiate athletic 
 contests. The majority of college officers, a 
 large proportion of alumni, many undergrad- 
 uates, and the majority of their parents advo- 
 cate more educational athletics for the mass of 
 students and the careful supervision and control 
 of intercollegiate athletics by college authorities. 
 That the advocates of this policy are numerous 
 and influential is evidenced by the present 
 trend of college athletics. 
 
 In 1905 college athletics were controlled al- 
 most entirely by students and alumni, under the 
 supervision of an atliletic board made up of a 
 minority of faculty members and a majority of 
 alumni and undergraduates. Since 1905 a grailual 
 change has taken place in methods of organiza- 
 tion and control. The aims sought by the 
 various colleges and universities are essentially 
 the same; i.e. to encourage and develop intra- 
 mural athletics for the mass of students, to 
 curtail and control intercollegiate atliletics by 
 appointing a director or manager of athletics 
 responsible to and paid by the college authori- 
 ties. In the smaller institutions this respon- 
 sibility is given to the gymnasium director, 
 but in many of the large colleges and uni- 
 versities a graduate manager of athletics is 
 appointed to give all his time to the work under 
 the direction of the president or a special com- 
 mittee appointed for the purpose. 
 
 The problem of controlling intercollegiate 
 athletics includes three parts. First, the con- 
 trol of finances, — this is accomplished by re- 
 cjuiring managers of athletic teams to submit 
 budgets at the beginning of the season; to order 
 all supplies on official order slips; to pay all 
 bills by check, all order slips and checks to be 
 countersigned by the graduate manager; and 
 to require a detailed financial report at the 
 end of the season. Second, the control of 
 atliletic policy; schedules of contests; absence 
 of students from academic exercises for the pur- 
 pose of athletic training and competition; ap- 
 pointment, supervision, and dismissal of em- 
 ployed coaches and trainers; and the care and 
 maintenance of college property used for ath- 
 letic purposes — all these matters are con- 
 
 275
 
 ATHLETICS 
 
 ATHLETICS 
 
 trolled by the graduate manager. Third, the 
 control of students representing the institu- 
 tion in intercollegiate athletic contests. Every 
 student desiring to participate in such contests 
 is required to answer questions on a printed 
 blank concerning his amateur standing, submit 
 to a medical examination, and maintain a 
 definite standard in scholarship. 
 
 The results already obtained are most en- 
 couraging. In colleges where a few years ago 
 baseball was played only by fifteen or twenty 
 expert players on the "varsity" squad, there 
 are now scores of students organized into class, 
 dormitory, and fraternity teams; where only 
 two "eights" were in training for the " varsity" 
 crew, there are as many as ten or even twenty 
 crews getting the benefit of this delightful sport. 
 
 Tangible results are apparent also in saner 
 methods of conducting intercollegiate athletics. 
 The control exercised by a competent man with 
 authority is efficient in setting up and maintain- 
 ing high standards of conduct and manage- 
 ment in all phases of intercollegiate athletics. 
 Further development along these lines will 
 undoubtedly result in correlating athletics with 
 the intellectual and social activities of college 
 life, and thus enhance the value of a college edu- 
 cation in fitting young men for life. 
 
 An indication of the proportion of students 
 participating in some form of athletic activity 
 in American colleges may be given from the 
 following table. Out of about 80,000 male 
 students in the colleges represented in this 
 entire inquiry 32 per cent are engaged in some 
 form of athletics. Out of about 20,000 female 
 students 18 per cent are engaged in some form of 
 atliletics. The reported figures for a typical 
 list of institutions are as follows: — 
 
 
 No 
 Stud 
 
 OF 
 ENT8 
 
 No. OF Stu- 
 
 dent-sEngaged 
 
 IN Athletics 
 
 
 Male 
 
 Female 
 
 Male 
 
 Female 
 
 Adelphi College 
 
 60 
 
 440 
 
 10 
 
 50 
 
 Amherst College .... 
 
 550 
 
 
 400 
 
 
 Bowdoin College .... 
 
 350 
 
 
 300 
 
 
 Colgate University . . . 
 
 2087 
 
 
 200 
 
 
 Colorado College .... 
 
 328 
 
 250 
 
 300 
 
 200 
 
 Columbia University . . . 
 
 3000 
 
 1500 
 
 500 
 
 200 
 
 Cornell University . . . 
 
 3150 
 
 3.50 
 
 1200 
 
 
 Dartmouth College . . . 
 
 1197 
 
 
 300 
 
 
 
 Dennison University . . . 
 
 312 
 
 240 
 
 150 
 
 100 
 
 Dickinson College .... 
 
 483 
 
 97 
 
 322 
 
 
 Harvard University . . . 
 
 3918 
 
 
 2000 
 
 
 Haverford College . . . 
 
 150 
 
 
 120 
 
 
 Johns Hopkins University . 
 
 613 
 
 30 
 
 50 
 
 
 Lehigh University .... 
 
 720 
 
 
 300 
 
 
 Leland Stanford. Jr. University 
 
 1000 
 
 500 
 
 227 
 
 25 
 
 Miami University .... 
 
 287 
 
 244 
 
 95 
 
 25 
 
 Swarthmore College . . . 
 
 156 
 
 203 
 
 156 
 
 203 
 
 S>Tacuse University . . . 
 
 2000 
 
 
 1500 
 
 
 U. S. Military Academy . . 
 
 600 
 
 
 
 600 
 
 
 University of California . . 
 
 1728 
 
 971 
 
 500 
 
 100 
 
 University of Chicago . . 
 
 1380 
 
 920 
 
 225 
 
 ISO 
 
 Br>-n Mawr College . . . 
 
 
 420 
 
 
 378 
 
 Vassar College 
 
 
 1014 
 
 
 100 
 
 The special aspects of the problem of educa- 
 tional athletics are discussed above under the 
 appropriate caption. See below for athletics in 
 Secondary and Elementary schools. See also 
 
 the various games, such as Baseball, Cricket; 
 Rowing, Swimming; sec also Athletic Field; 
 Dancing; (iymnastics; Hygie.ne, Personal; 
 Hygiene, School; Playgrounds; etc. 
 
 G. L. M. 
 
 Secondary Schools. — Slngea of Devclnpment. — 
 Athletics for high school boys seem to be iiassing 
 through tlu-ee distinct stages as regards the atti- 
 tude of the school authorities. First, opposi- 
 tion; second, toleration; third, cooperation. 
 It is not many years since sciiool authorities 
 looked upon athletics as a positive evil, and not 
 only refused to allow the schoolboys to take 
 part, as re])resenting the schools, but absolutely 
 opposed such activities. After a time they 
 began to realize that boys were sure to engage 
 in athletics, whether the school authorities 
 gave their permission or not, and a period of 
 toleration followed. The result was that 
 teams competing under the school name fre- 
 quently brought discredit upon the school and 
 caused principals and teachers considerable 
 annoyance. The difficulties were practically 
 solved when the teachers took hold with the 
 boys and helped to organize the sports and to 
 provide the necessary accommodations. 
 
 Organized Athletics. — The problem of con- 
 trol has been made difficult through neglect, 
 but organized athletics in the elementary school 
 is helping to improve the situation by develop- 
 ing a proper spirit among the boys and bringing 
 them to appreciate the necessity of rules of 
 eligibility and competition. It is reasonable 
 to hope that well-organized athletics in the 
 elementary and high schools of the country will 
 help solve the problems of athletic control in 
 colleges and universities. Cooperation of other 
 athletic associations, as the Amateur AtUctic 
 Union, the Military Association, etc., is abso- 
 lutely necessary in order to enable the school 
 authorities to enforce their authority, and is 
 usually given. A few test cases bringing home to 
 schoolboys the fact that they can have no stand- 
 ing in other clubs or associations unless they 
 preserve their athletic standing in their school 
 are sufficient to fix the authority of school 
 officers. 
 
 Rules of Eligibility. — The following rules 
 of eligibility are taken from the handbook of 
 the Public Schools Athletic League of New 
 York City. 
 
 No high school pupil shall represent hi.«i school unless 
 he has attended a school for twenty school weeks, ex- 
 cept 
 
 (a) He has been promoted from an elementary 
 school, whereupon he shall be eligible im- 
 mediately : 
 (6) He has been admitted from a school outside the 
 New York Public Schools, whereupon he shall 
 be eligible after an attendance of twenty school 
 days. 
 No high school pupil who has reached the age of 
 twenty-one shall be eligible to represent his school in any 
 branch of athletics. 
 
 A boy shall be eligible to represent his school in 
 athletics during any "marking" interval who has placed 
 14 hours {13 hours) of prepared work to his credit at the 
 last rating in the office records. 
 
 276
 
 
 
 
 fAUk 
 
 
 oil 
 
 
 
 ruMir ri;i\ {511,1111. 1, .lirsry City, N.J. 
 
 ^^^^^■lirkllillli --ai-alSlfK^ - 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 ,j^:***-v;-fi'^y'* 
 
 ^:> 
 
 m 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 •*- "^^^fc ^w^^^^^fcfr. 
 
 ^-^. 
 
 . JX^^^ 
 
 .rss. 
 
 ^ >iir^H 
 
 fH^ 
 
 Rcl;i>' Raci', El(Mnontar>' Sohoiil Bo>'3. 
 
 Cruss f 'duiitiy Run, Xt'W York f'ity Hinh Silinols 
 
 Athletic Meet of the Colorado Springs School. 
 Athletics in the Schools.
 
 ATHLETICS 
 
 ATHLETICS 
 
 Note. — In those high schools where physical training 
 is not conducted according to the syllabus 13 hours, 
 instead of 14, shall be considered as constituting eligi- 
 bility. 
 
 N.B. — Drawing and shop work in manual training 
 schools shall count one hour for two. 
 
 Any extraordinary case shall be submitted to the 
 high schools Games Committee. 
 
 A graduate of a three years' course in the high schools 
 who returns to take up postgraduate work is permitted 
 to take part in athletics, providing he is eligible according 
 to the rules of the Public Schools Athletic League. 
 
 No pupil who is a graduate of a four-year secondary 
 school course shall be eligible to represent any school. 
 
 Only those pupils who are taking full work in a regular 
 course shall be eligible to represent the school. 
 
 No pupil shall be allowed to compete in the mile run 
 unless he has reached the age of sixteen years and six 
 months. No pupil shall be allowed to compete in the 
 junior events if he is sixteen years old or older. A birth 
 certificate shall be accepted as proof of a high school 
 junior's age. If such certificate cannot be secured, 
 other evidence may be submitted to the High Schools 
 Games Committee. 
 
 Any boy who has matriculated in any college or who 
 has played on a college team shall not be eligible to 
 represent a high school. 
 
 No entry shall be accepted unless countersigned by 
 the principal or the school's representative on the High 
 Schools Games Committee. 
 
 Any high school pupil known to have bet or acted as 
 an agent for others in betting on athletic contests shall 
 be debarred from competition for one year. 
 
 Safeguards. — In the secondary schools the 
 events are graded on a plan similar to that in 
 the elementary schools, and a limit is placed 
 upon the number of events in which a boy may 
 enter. All boys taking part in the interschool 
 competitions are required to present a certif- 
 icate signed by a reliable physician stating 
 that they are physically able to participate. 
 Eflfort is made to ehminate from the list of 
 events those that present any danger of serious 
 injury to the participants. As an example of this, 
 football under college rules has been discouraged 
 by the League. In New York City soccer 
 football is played as a substitute. The game 
 of soccer is free from the dangers of mass plays 
 and tackles, and offers an opportunity for all 
 boys to take part. The small boy has an equal 
 chance with the larger fellows. In fact, he is 
 frequently able to outplay his bulky opponent. 
 
 Events. — The generally accepted events 
 for secondary school boys are ; 100 yard dash, 
 220 yard run, 440 yard run, 880 yard run, 
 1 mile run, 100 yard hurdles, 120 yard hurdles, 
 220 yard hurdles, half mile and mile relays; 
 running broad .jump; running high jump, pole 
 vaulting, putting 12 pound shot, discus throw, 
 basketball, baseball, soccer football, cross- 
 country running, tennis, swimming, skating, 
 marksmanship. 
 
 Values. — Among the objections that are 
 raised against athletics for schoolboys are the 
 following: Overstrain, unfair tactics, too 
 much publicitj', and too much time and atten- 
 tion. On the other side there are positive 
 advantages of well-organized athletics, such as 
 the development of courage, decision, alertness, 
 tenacity, resource, obedience, restraint, fair- 
 ness, cooperation, self-sacrifice, and generalship. 
 
 The outlook is exceedingly hopeful because the 
 advantages so manifestly outweigh the disad- 
 vantages, and because under a well-organized 
 system the evils may be practically eliminated. 
 
 Elementary Schools. — " Organized for the 
 purpose of giving athletics a proper place in our 
 schools " is the reason given by the President 
 of the Public Schools Athletic Association of 
 Newark, N.J., for the formation of his Associa- 
 tion. " To develop the rational activities of 
 the boys and girls " is another significant quo- 
 tation from the handbook of the same organiza- 
 tion. The declaration of purpose set forth 
 by the Public Schools Athletic League of New 
 York City is, " to provide healthful, joyous, 
 and constructive play, folk dancing, and 
 athletics for every boy and girl." 
 
 School principals, teachers, and boards of 
 education are coming to realize that it is greatly 
 to their advantage, as well as a matter of simple 
 justice, to cooperate wth the pupils in their 
 athletic activities. Evidence of this is the 
 formal organization of public schools athletic 
 leagues in the following cities: Baltimore, Md., 
 Birmingham, Ala., Buffalo, N.Y., Cincinnati, 
 Ohio, Cleveland, Ohio, Fitchburg, Mass., 
 Kansas City, Mo., Newark, N.J., New Orleans, 
 La., New York, N.Y., Pittsburg, Pa., Racine, 
 Wis., San Francisco, Cal., Seattle, Wash., 
 Springfield, Mass., Syracuse, N.Y., Tacoma, 
 Wash., Troy, N.Y. 
 
 The Beginning in New York City. — Since 
 the work in New York City is typical of what 
 is being done throughout the whole country, 
 some reference to its inception and development 
 may be in order. The first step was the forma- 
 tion of a voluntary organization by schoolmen 
 and citizens interested in helping boys in their 
 athletic sports; then the extension of the work 
 so that the great mass of boys and girls were 
 reached; and finally official recognition by the 
 school authorities. 
 
 In 1903 the Director of Physical Training of the 
 New York public schools, together with the 
 City Superintendent, members of the Board of 
 Education, principals, and other public-spirited 
 citizens met to consider what might be done to 
 provide opportunity for wholesome athletics 
 for boys in the public schools. Following this, 
 a meeting of principals was held at which a 
 definite plan for the organization of a league 
 was presented. The proposition met with 
 general approval, although some were skeptical 
 about the possibility of making it succeed. In 
 order to bring the matter before the public and 
 the schoolboys themselves, a set of games for 
 all the schools of the city was held in Madison 
 Square garden. It was by far the largest 
 athletic meet, as regards the number of com- 
 petitors, that had ever been held. Some 1500 
 boys took part. The usual track and field 
 events, such as the 50 and 100 yard dashes, 
 relay races, broad jumping, high jumping, shot 
 putting, etc., were the only ones attempted at 
 that time. From that beginning there has been 
 
 277
 
 ATHLETICS 
 
 ATHLETICS 
 
 built up a great system of athletics that reaches 
 not only the few athletically inclined boys, but 
 the whole mass of boys and girls in the public 
 schools. This has been brought about by 
 inaugurating special forms of competition. 
 Two of tiie most successful of these are " class 
 athletics " and the " athletic badge test." 
 
 Class Athletics. — " Class athletics " is a 
 form of competition in which the whole member- 
 ship of the class takes part, and a record is 
 made, not by individuals, but by the class as a 
 whole. One of the events in this form of ath- 
 letics is the standing broad .jump. Every boy 
 in the class must jump. The records of all 
 jumping are added together, and the total dis- 
 tance jumped is divided by the number of 
 boys taking part, thus giving the jumping 
 ability of the class as a whole. This record is 
 compared with those of other classes of the 
 same school grade, and the class making the 
 highest record is awarded a trophy, which may 
 be hung up in the classroom until the next 
 season, when it is again put up for competition. 
 This plan does away with the objection that is 
 often raised that the athletic games provide 
 for the experts only, and that these are not the 
 ones in greatest need of its benefits. It reaches 
 the boy who docs not usually take part, and class 
 spirit forces him to train conscientiously and 
 do his very best at the time of the competition. 
 During the season for class athletics it is no 
 unusual sight to see clas.ses in groups on the 
 athletic fields or in alleys practicing the event 
 that is soon to take place, the more expert 
 coaching the others, and altogether developing 
 a class spirit that is wholesome and good. 
 Another advantage of this form of athletics is 
 that the small class has as good a chance of 
 winning as the large classes. 
 
 Athletic Badge Test. — The "athletic badge 
 test" is another form of competition distinctly 
 different from all other kinds of athletics, in 
 that it is not necessary to defeat some one in 
 order to win. Every boy who can bring him- 
 self to the prescribed standard of physical 
 efficiency, and who at the same time is doing 
 satisfactory work in school, may win an ath- 
 letic badge. The boys are divided into two 
 classes for the competition, and events are 
 prescribed suitable to each group. 
 
 Boys under 13 years of age have the follow- 
 ing standards: 60 yard dash in 8f seconds; 
 pull up 4 times; standard broad jump, 5 feet, 
 9 inches. 
 
 All other elementary school boys have the 
 following standards: 00 yard dash in 8 seconds, 
 or 100 yard dash (out of doors) in 14 seconds; 
 pull up 6 times; standing broad jump, 6 feet, 
 6 inches. 
 
 When the tests were first made in New York 
 City, whole classes were found in which no boy 
 could pull himself up once. In fact, less than 
 2 per cent of those taking the test the first year 
 were able to qualify. Five years later 59 per 
 cent of the boys in one school won badges, and 
 
 in many schools from 40 per cent to 50 per cent 
 of the boys were able to qualify. These badges 
 are greatly i>rized by the boys, because they 
 stand both for athletic ability and satisfactory 
 work in the school. 
 
 Eligibility. — The development of star 
 athletes is not the business of a i)ui)lic school 
 athletic league. Its activities should be so 
 closely correhited with the work of the school 
 that they will result in a better school spirit, 
 better classroom work, better deportment, and 
 better health. One of the first considerations, 
 therefore, is that of eligibility, ami all agree 
 that every boy who takes part in the school 
 athletics should be doing satisfactory school 
 work. He should have a passing mark in 
 effort, proficiency, and deportment. 
 
 The competitions which begin in an informal 
 way are sure to become more and more strenu- 
 ous and intense. Interschool rivalry develops 
 to a marked degree, and the pressure becomes 
 constantly greater to relax on the eligibility 
 requirements and let the more expert take part 
 in order that the school may win. This is one 
 of the chief dangers. The principal should be 
 given absolute authority, under the rules, to 
 control competition in his own school, and must 
 be held ultimately responsible, both as regards 
 eligibility and conduct in the games. 
 
 Standards of Classification. — Classification 
 of the boys taking part is another necessity. 
 That is, they must be divided into groups so 
 that those shall come together in comi)etition 
 who are of the same general physical ability. 
 Grouping was first tried on the basis of age, 
 and two classifications were made; boys under 
 1.3 years of age, and all other elementary school 
 boys. Serious objections were found to this 
 classification. First, that it was difficult to 
 guarantee that the boy rightfully belonged in 
 the group in which he was placed. Boys of 
 the same age differ greatly in physical develop- 
 ment, and it did not seem fair that a boy 5 feet 
 tall should be competing against a boy 4 feet 
 tall, and suspicion that the 5-foot boy was older 
 than he professed to be was a natural result. 
 Second, by extensive tests it was found that a 
 boy's weight is a better index of his physical 
 al)ility than is his age. Therefore, the classifi- 
 cation bj' weight was adopted, and the follow- 
 ing limits set: 80 pounds, 95 pounds, 115 
 pounds, and above. 
 
 For the track and field games the boys were 
 weighed at the time of competition. In team 
 tournaments extending over a considerable 
 length of time it was found necessary to weigh 
 the boys at the beginning of the tournament 
 only. Objections have also developed to this 
 classification, due largely to the great interest 
 and the vigor of competition. In order to keep 
 under the weight limits, boys have been found 
 to "train down" by taking frequent Turkish 
 baths and by starving them.sclves just before 
 the competitions. This has been met by the 
 rule that any boy who is found to have " trained 
 278
 
 ATHLETICS 
 
 ATHLETICS 
 
 down" in order to come within the weight 
 limits shall be debarred from competition. 
 
 In New Orleans classification by height has 
 worked out very satisfactorily. A recent sug- 
 gestion is that the boys should be classified on 
 a combination basis of age, height, and weight. 
 That is. Class A might be all boys whose age 
 in years, plus one half the height in inches, plus 
 one quarter of weight in pounds, shall not 
 exceed 62. There is no doubt that some such 
 plan as this would make a perfectly fair classi- 
 fication, but its practical working is not certain. 
 
 Limiting Competition. — Another leading 
 consideration in athletics for schoolboys is 
 that of limiting the competition both as to the 
 severity of the events and the number of events 
 entered. The events for the different groups 
 must be so arranged that the distance for the 
 race, or the length of playing time in the game, 
 shall absolutely prevent overstrain. One of 
 the events that is hard to regulate from this 
 view point is the "pull up." Consequently 
 it has been criticized, and in some cities dropped 
 from the list. Beginning with the moderate 
 requirement of 4 pull ups in the athletic badge 
 test, the boys have gone on practicing in this 
 event until some are able to make a record of 
 40, or even more. Although the strain may be 
 no greater than that in other forms of athletics, 
 the competition cannot be controlled suffi- 
 ciently to make it an absolutely safe event. 
 
 Limiting the number of events in which a 
 boy may take part is another definite means of 
 safeguarding him in the games. In the large 
 city systems, where hundreds of boys are 
 entered in the same event, and where there 
 must of necessity be the trials, the semi-finals, 
 and finals in all the races, it is usual to hmit 
 elementary school boys to one event only, with 
 the possible exception of raising it to one track 
 event and one field event. In small cities, 
 where the entries are small, and where only one 
 " heat" is necessary in any race, the boys may 
 be allowed to enter more than one event. 
 Limiting the number of events participated in 
 has another advantage which is not at first 
 apparent. It distributes the competition and 
 gives a large number of boys an opportunity to 
 take part. For example, a school may be 
 allowed to make 2.5 entries in a set of games. 
 If there were no limit to the number of events 
 a boy might enter, it would be possible for 3 
 or 4 boys to represent the entire school, but by 
 limiting the entry to one event for each boy, 
 25 boys are given a chance to take part. 
 
 Athletics for Girls. — Athletics for the girls 
 is a natural outgrowth of the organization of 
 school athletics, and the mistake has quite 
 generally been made of attempting to use for 
 the girls the same kind of competition that has 
 developed for the boys. One WTiter on the 
 subject says, " I wish that we might break away 
 entirely from the idea that in order to have 
 athletics for girls we must approach the subject 
 from a man's point of view, and that we might 
 
 face the issue squarely and evolve our own 
 individual, natural sports, regardless of whether 
 or not they coincide with those of men." 
 Athletics for girls might well be considered 
 from the following standpoints, as suggested 
 by the Inspector of Athletics for girls in New 
 York City: First: What exercises are likely 
 to be injurious to the girls? Second: What 
 exercises are mechanically suited to the ability 
 of the average girl? Third: What exercises 
 are best suited to her muscular strength and 
 endurance? Fourth: What forms of exercise 
 will contribute to her health and vitality, and 
 help to fit her for a normal woman's life? 
 Fifth: What forms of physical activity come 
 nearest to containing for her the primitive 
 appeal that atliletics in the accepted .sense hold 
 for the boys? 
 
 The following are some of the events recom- 
 mended by a special committee of the Play- 
 ground Association of America: (a) For the 
 immature girl, — archery, ball throwing, folk 
 dancing, low hurdle racing, running short dis- 
 tances, rowing, skating, swimming, tennis, 
 walking. (6) For the mature girl, — the same 
 events as above, plus basketball, climbing, 
 field hockey, and indoor baseball. Other events 
 that are used with satisfactory results are the 
 potato race, Indian club race, and volley 
 ball. 
 
 Effect vpon the School. — The leading con- 
 sideration in atliletics for school children must 
 always be that of the effect upon the school. 
 In cities where this work has been organized 
 and given a fair test, school authorities are 
 practically unanimous that: (1) Class work is 
 better. (2) The health of the school children 
 is improved. (3) A wholesome school spirit 
 is developed. (4) There is less trouble about 
 disciphne, owing to the closer relation and better 
 understanding between the pupils and teachers. 
 A district superintendent in the New York 
 City schools recently declared at a public meet- 
 ing that organized athletics had done more to 
 break up truancy in his district than anj^ other 
 thing that had been tried. The following quota- 
 tion from a letter wTitten to the Secretary of 
 the New York City League by a school prin- 
 cipal is typical of the attitude of teachers, prin- 
 cipals, and superintendents: "Permit me to 
 add a word of commendation to the many you 
 have received, for the excellent work your 
 , association is doing toward developing a love 
 in our public schools boys for clean athletics. 
 These sports, I believe, improve our boys, not 
 only physically, but also mentally and morally. 
 This conclusion has been the result of my per- 
 sonal observations extending over about four 
 years. I have known of many cases where boys 
 who had previously been quite neglectful of 
 both studies and conduct in their classes, 
 showed marked improvement in both lines 
 after entering into athletic contests. I have 
 yet to find the boy who has done poorer work 
 at school because of these sports. Many times 
 79
 
 ATHLETICS 
 
 ATHLETICS 
 
 the leaders in athletics have also been the 
 leaders of their class iu their studies." 
 
 Progress of the Movement. — Mention of a 
 few special features of the development in 
 school athletics throughout the country may 
 serve to indicate the progress of this work. 
 In Cleveland, Ohio, where the athletics were 
 organized and conilucted for a time entirely 
 without official recognition by the school 
 authorities, the school board has adopted resolu- 
 tions which are in part as follows: — 
 
 ".\thlctic events and games arc constituted a regular 
 division of the course of ijh>*sical training, and shall be 
 provided for under the supervision of the Department 
 of Phy.sieal Training in such manner, approved by the 
 Superinteiulent of Schools, as shall subserve the purpose 
 of physical training as herein stated, and be so arranged 
 that ever}- pviblic school pupil desiring to do so may be 
 able to participate in activities of this nature appropriate 
 to his age and development." 
 
 The resolution states in detail the regulations 
 that shall govern participation in the various 
 athletic events. 
 
 In Tacoma, Wash., a magnificent stadium 
 has been constructed for the public school boys 
 at a cost of approximately $80,000.. A con- 
 siderable part of this sum has been donated 
 by the business men of the city. In New 
 Orleans much attention has been given to the 
 development of indoor baseball plaj-ed outdoors 
 as a substitute for the regulation baseball 
 game. This was done as a means of making 
 baseball possible to large numbers of boys 
 where playing space is exceedingly limited. 
 It is reported that this form of baseball is 
 exceedingly popular. Over 80 teams par- 
 ticipated in a recent tournament. The Public 
 Schools Athletic League of Troy, N.Y., has 
 pursued a noteworthy course concerning medals 
 and trophies. Trophies are given to the 
 schools only, and even then they do not be- 
 come the permanent property of any school, but 
 are competed for annually. No medals are 
 given to individual competitors in the games. 
 A careful record of those securing first, second, 
 and third places in the various events is kept, 
 and at the end of the year a big athletic cele- 
 bration is held. Addresses are made by the 
 mayor, councilmen, superintendent of schools, 
 and others, and the boys who have won in any 
 event throughout the j'ear are called to the 
 platform and presented with a ribbon badge 
 by the president of the League. This avoids 
 the evil of excessive prizes, and serves as a big 
 rally day for all the schools, at which school 
 spirit runs high and the citizens are shown 
 what the schools are doing in this department 
 of their work. Baltimore has an unusual 
 organization known as the Public Athletic 
 League, one department of which has to do 
 with athletics for the schoolboys in coopera- 
 tion with the school authorities, and another 
 department conducts the public playgrounds 
 chiefly during the summer recess. In Newark, 
 N.J., a splendid athletic field has been provided 
 for the public schools at a cost of $75,000. 
 
 Athletic CourtcKij. — One of the benefits of 
 organized athletics for schoolboys is the oppor- 
 tunity that is afforded for practicing those 
 manly virtues that mean so much to success in 
 after life. One public schools athletic league 
 ])rints in its handbook the following standards, 
 and emphasizes them to the boys as the ideal 
 in athletic competitions: (1) The rules of games 
 are to be regarded as mutual agreements, the 
 sjjirit or letter of which one should no sooner 
 try to evade or break than one would any other 
 agreement between gentlemen. The stealing 
 of advantage in sport is to be regarded in the 
 same way as stealing of any other kind. (2) 
 Visiting teams are to be honored guests of the 
 home team, and all their mutual relationships 
 are to be governed bj' the spirit which is under- 
 stood to guide in such relationships, {'.i) No 
 action is to be taken nor course of conduct pur- 
 sued which would seem ungentlemanly or dis- 
 honorable if known to one's opponent or the 
 public. (4) No advantages are to be sought 
 over others, except these in which the game is 
 understood to show superiority. (5) Officers 
 and opponents are to be regarded and treated 
 as honest in intention. When opponents are 
 evidently not gentlemen, and officers manifestly 
 dishonest or incompetent, future relationships 
 with them may be avoided. (6) Decisions of 
 oflicials are to be abided by, even when they 
 seem unfair. (7) Ungentlemanly or unfair 
 means are not to be used, even when they are 
 used by opponents. (8) Good points in others 
 should be aj)preciated and suitable recognition 
 given. 
 
 Progress. — The Board of Aldermen of New 
 York City has made an appropriation of 
 $500,000 for the purchase and equipment of 
 athletic fields for schoolboys, and has placed 
 these fields under the direction of the Board 
 of Education. The military authorities of the 
 city have been most courteous in allowing the 
 use of their armories, not only for sets of 
 games, but also as practice places for the school- 
 boys after school hours. In the rapidly 
 growing cities of the West the authorities are 
 realizing the necessity of setting aside space 
 for play and athletics. A bill presented in 
 1909 before the Legislature of the State of 
 Washington prescribed a minimum limit of 
 100 sciuare feet of play space per child in con- 
 nection with all new sites for school buildings. 
 Although the bill failed to pass, it is significant 
 that such a measure should have been presented, 
 and that it had the unqualified indorsement of 
 the State Superintendent of Schools. 
 
 Stati.stici. — In 1904-1905, J. H. McCurdy, 
 M.D., of the SprmgfieklY.M.C.A. Training School, 
 made a careful study of the extent of physical 
 training and athletics in the public schools of 555 
 cities in the United States. These cities included 
 58 having a population of over 50,000, 48 having a 
 population of from 25,000 to 50,000, 153 having 
 a population of from 10,000 to 25,000, 210 having 
 a population of from 5000 to 10,000, 86 under 
 
 280
 
 ATHLETICS 
 
 ATHLETIC FIELD 
 
 5000 population. Among the 555 cities, 12cS 
 were found to have special teachers of physical 
 training, and 102 of these had high school athletic 
 organizations. In the 427 cities without special 
 teachers of physical training, 243 had high school 
 athletic organizations, makmg a total of 345 
 cities, or about 62 per cent of the whole number, 
 having such organizations. The school superin- 
 tendents were asked to state their position con- 
 cerning competitive athletics in high schools. In 
 the 555 cities, 438 approved, 27 disapproved, 8 
 were doubtful, 82 did not answer. The popularity 
 of the different branches of atUetics is shown in 
 the following statistics taken from this same 
 study: In the 555 cities 432 high schools have 
 football teams, 360 high schools have baseball 
 teams, 213 high schools have basketball teams, 
 161 high schools have track teams. 
 
 The questionnaires indicated that the super- 
 intendent put considerable emphasis upon 
 plays and games, and desired to place in charge 
 of the boys' sports competent supervisors, 
 who should be members of the faculty. 
 
 L. F. H. 
 
 See also the articles on the various forms of 
 athletics, i.e. Baseball; Cricket; see also 
 Amatedrism; Athletic Field; Gymnastics; 
 Hygiene, Personal; Hygien-e, School, etc. 
 
 References: — 
 
 General : — 
 JoH.NSON, George E. Education by Plays and Games, 
 
 with Biljliography. (Boston, 1907.) 
 Leland, Arthur and Lorna H. Playground Technique 
 
 and Playcraft, with BibUography. (Springfield, 
 
 1909.) 
 McCuRDY, J. H. Bibliography of Physical Training;. 
 
 See group 013, Philosophy, Relationships, which 
 
 gives the best references up to 1905. (Springfield, 
 
 1905.) 
 Mero, E. B. American Playgrounds, with Bibliography. 
 
 (Boston, 1908.) 
 Official Handbook of the Athletic League of the Young 
 
 Men's Christian Association of North America. 
 
 (American Sports Publishing Co., New York.) 
 Ofiicia! Handbook of the Public Schools Athletic 
 
 League, published yearly since 1904. (American 
 
 Sports Publishing Co.. New York.) 
 Official Handbook of Sunday School Athletic League of 
 
 Brooklyn, New York. (The Walden Press, 64 
 
 Fulton Street, New York.) 
 Playground .Association of America. Proceedings of 
 
 Annual Playground Congress, 1908, 1909. (New 
 
 York.) 
 Proceedings of the Athletic Research Societ.v. American 
 
 Physical Education Review, Vol. XV, Nos. 3 and 4, 
 
 March and .April, 1910. 
 Proceedings of Intercollegiate Athletic Association of 
 
 the United States. Published yearly since 1000. 
 
 (These papers are the best on college athletics, an;l 
 
 are all published in the American Physical Education 
 
 Review.) 
 Report and Proceedings of Athletic League of Balti- 
 more, 1909. 
 Report of Committee on An Amatoir Law. American 
 
 Physical Education Review, Vol. XV, No. 3, March, 
 
 1910. 
 Year Rook of the Public Schools Athletic League of the 
 
 City of New York. (Published since 1905.) 
 
 Athletics in England: — 
 CooKsoN, C. E.i.'tays on Secondary Education, pp. 283- 
 305. (London, 1S98.) 
 
 CoRBiN, J. Schoolboy Life in Englartd. (New York 
 and London, 1898.) 
 Public Schools from within. (London, 1906.) 
 
 Public School Athletics: — 
 
 Bishop, E. C. How Should the Athletics of the Y.M. 
 C.A. Supplement that of the Public School, Hygiene 
 and Physical Education, Vol. I, No. 10, p. 880. 
 (Springfield, Mass.) 
 
 Cline. Earle. The Advisability of Inter-High School 
 Contests in Athletics, Physical Education Review, 
 Vol. XIV, No. 1, p. 22. (Springfield, Mass.) 
 
 Handbooks of the Public Schools Athletic Leagues of 
 Baltimore, Md., Buffalo, N. Y., Newark, N. J., 
 New Orleans, La., New York, N. Y., Seattle, Wash. 
 (These will be sent free on application.) 
 
 L.\RNED, C. W. Athletics from Historical and Educa- 
 tional Standpoint, Physical Education Review, 
 Vol. XIV, No. 1, p. 1. (Springfield, Mass.) 
 
 Meanwell, W. E. The Team Game Tournament, 
 Hygiene and Physical Education, Vol. I, No. 9, 
 p. 896. (Springfield, Mass.) 
 
 Nichols, E. H. Competitive Athletics, Physical 
 Education Review, Vol. XIV, No. 9, p. 589. (Spring- 
 field, Mass.) 
 
 Report of the Committee on Athletics for Boys and 
 Athletics for Girls of the Playground Association of 
 America, 1 Madison Avenue, New York City. 
 (Sent free on application.) 
 
 Pamphlet on Public Schools Athletics, Department of 
 (I^hild Hygiene of the Russell Sage Foundation, 
 1 Madison Avenue, New York City. (Sent free on 
 application.) 
 
 ATHLETIC FIELD. — An athletic field is 
 an essential part of the equipment in every 
 educational institution. The size and arrange- 
 ment of the field vary according to the char- 
 acter of the institution and the number of stu- 
 dents to be accommodated. Some of the large 
 colleges and preparatory schools have from 20 
 to 30 acres laid out for baseball, football, 
 track and field sports, and lawn tennis. Other 
 institutions located in or near cities where land 
 is expensive have smaller fields, often limited 
 to a few acres. There is a marked tendency 
 to increase the equipment for outdoor sports 
 and games in schools and colleges. Many 
 new and growing institutions have made the 
 mistake of not acquiring sufficient land for 
 athletic fields when land was cheap, and later 
 found it impossible to secure adequate space. 
 The minimum area necessarj^ for an athletic 
 field to accommodate 500 to 1000 students in 
 outdoor sports is about 6 or 7 acres. 
 
 The location of the athletic field is of utmost 
 importance. The ideal location is adjoining 
 the gymnasium building ; when this is not pos- 
 sible, the field should be as near the gj'mnasium 
 as possible. Experience has shown that the 
 value of a field to the students decreases rapidly 
 as the distance of the field from the gymnasium 
 increases. When the athletic field is located 
 more than a quarter of a mile from the gym- 
 nasium and campus, the following difficulties 
 are encountered: (1) Students object to the 
 loss of time and energy involved in walking to 
 and from the field; (2) If dressing and bathing 
 facilities are not provided at the field, students 
 object to walking to and from the field in exer- 
 cising costume, and they are more liable to 
 take cold after exercise; (3) If dressing and 
 
 281
 
 ATHLETIC FIELD 
 
 ATHLETIC FIELD 
 
 bathing facilities are provided at the field, the 
 cost of construction and administration is 
 greatly increased. A small field near tiic sym- 
 uasium is usually preferable to a large field 
 half a mile or a mile away. 
 
 A typical athletic field containing a playing 
 field for baseball, football, lacrosse, soccer, 
 field sports, (juartcr mile running track, tennis 
 courts, grand stand, etc., requires a field 400 
 by 700 feet, about G\ acres. The arrangement 
 of such a field is shown ou the diagram. 
 
 Plau for an Atfiletic Field. 
 
 This is a quarter mile track with one side 
 prolonged for the 220 yards straightaway. 
 The straight sides are 110 yards in length and 
 69 yards, 1 inch apart, measured from curb to 
 curb. The sides are joined at either end by 
 semicircles having a radius of 103 feet, 6h 
 inches from center to curb. This form of 
 track is the best for running races. The track 
 should be at least 12 feet wide; a width of 15 
 or 18 feet is preferable. If it is not practicable 
 to make the whole track 18 feet wide, that 
 breadth should be given to the straightaway. 
 
 The position of the baseball diamond, catcher's 
 path, and backstop are shown in I and O. 
 The diamond may be shifted a little in either 
 direction, if found desirable. The letters M, 
 N, S, and T indicate the positions of the 4 goal 
 posts for football. The best way to arrange 
 them is to sink 4 posts, a foot in diameter and 
 4 feet long, 2 inches below the surface of the 
 field. These posts have in the upper ends 
 holes a foot deep, into which the goal posts fit. 
 When not in use remove the goal posts, put 
 wooden plugs into the holes, and cover up the 
 sunken posts, so as to leave the ground unob- 
 structed. The inner field may also be used for 
 soccer football and lacrosse by erecting goals 
 which may be put up and removed easily. All 
 that portion of the inner field, beginning at the 
 end of the track opposite from the baseball 
 backstop, and extending toward the baseball 
 diamond, may be marked into lawn tennis 
 courts. Other courts may be laid out in the 
 corners of the field, not used for grand stand. 
 The most convenient positions of the jumping 
 and pole-vaulting runs and pits are indicated 
 by the letters P, Q, and R. The circles for the 
 shot and hammer are indicated by the letters 
 J and L. 
 
 The grand stand should be located as shown 
 at D, on the other side of the track from the 
 finish line of all the races. The floor of the 
 front row of seats on the stand should be at 
 least 6 feet above the level of the track, in 
 order that the view of the spectators may not 
 be obstructed by persons walking in front of 
 the stands. On the outer edge of the track, in 
 front of the grand stand, tiiere should be a 
 single row of seats reserved exclusively for 
 contestants, and officials not actively engaged 
 in the contests then taking place. The space 
 under the grand stand may be used for dressing 
 rooms, bathrooms, lavatories, etc. 
 
 To lay out the track, first mark out by a row 
 of small wooden ])egs a straight fine down the 
 center of the field from one end to the other. 
 On this line stick 2 large pegs, 540 feet 1 inch 
 apart, making the position where it is desired 
 to have the extreme points of the end of the 
 track. From these 2 large pegs measure off 
 105 feet A inch toward the center, and mark 
 the points by stakes. Then, with a wire 105 
 feet 5 inches in length held at one end against 
 the stakes and having at the other a sharp 
 spike, scratch out on the ground the semi- 
 circular ends; mark them out by rows of small 
 pegs, which will be tlie straight sides. Then 
 measure carefully around the course thus 
 marked out by pegs, and, if it is found a few 
 inches longer or shorter than a quarter mile, 
 adjust some of the end pegs so as to make it 
 exactly correct. Then mark out the line for 
 the curb, 18 inches inside this measurement 
 line, all round the field, and the track is laid 
 out. 
 
 The curb should be of 2 X 9 inch wood, 
 3 inches above the path and 6 inches under 
 ground, so as to be firm. This should be bent 
 around the curves by samng slits into its inner 
 edges as frequently as necessary, thus making 
 the line of the curb round and not a succession 
 of straight edges. Holes should be bored 
 through this curb every few feet, just at the 
 surface of the path, so as to allow the water to 
 run through into the inner field, and there 
 should be, just inside of the curb, an open ditch 
 or a 4-inch covered drain to receive the water. 
 The track should have a slope from the outside 
 to the inside, just enough so that the water 
 will run off freely into the inner field. The 
 lowest part of the track should not be less than 
 3 inches above the level of the inner field, .so 
 that in wet weather the path will drain freely 
 and promptly. On the ends the track should 
 be sloped up from the curb, about one quarter 
 inch to the foot, so as to permit draining. 
 
 The proper construction of the track surface 
 is of utmost importance. A good track is 
 light and springy; it drains easily in wet 
 weather and does not get dusty in dry weather. 
 These results are most likely to be secured by 
 building a track according to the following 
 directions: — 
 
 1. Excavate the track surface to a depth of 
 
 282
 
 ATKINSON 
 
 ATOMISM 
 
 9 inches below the final grade of the track, giv- 
 ing it a slope of 3 inches in IS feet. 
 
 2. Spread a layer of broken stone 3 inches 
 deep, and roll to an even surface. 
 
 3. Upon this, a layer of 3 inches of coarse 
 cinders to be carefully spread and rolled in 
 thin layers and thoroughly soaked while being 
 rolled. 
 
 4. The final layer, or top-dressing, is to be 
 laid in the same manner. It is to be 3 inches 
 deep, and consists of a mixture of loam and 
 cinders in the proportion of half loam and half 
 cinders, both to be thoroughly mixed after 
 sifting in most careful manner, using finest 
 sieve. This layer is then carefully spread and 
 rolled. 
 
 After a track has been built, constant atten- 
 tion is necessary to keep it up to a high .stand- 
 ard of efficiency. It should be rolled every 
 day and sprinkled as often as necessary to keep 
 it smooth, firm, and free from dust. G. L. M. 
 
 ATKINSON, EDWARD PARSONS (1820- 
 1890). — Educator and author, was graduated 
 at Harvard in 1838. For 30 j^ears he was 
 engaged in public school work in Massachu- 
 setts, and from 1868 to 1889 he was professor 
 of English in the Massachusetts Institute of 
 Technology. He was one of the editors of the 
 Massachusetts Teacher and the author of the 
 following educational works: Classical and 
 Scientific Studies, Great Schools of England, 
 History and the Study of History, Study of 
 Politics. W. S. M. 
 
 ATLANTA BAPTIST COLLEGE, ATLANTA, 
 
 GA. — An institution for the education of 
 negro young men, organized in 1867 in Augusta, 
 Ga., as the Augusta Institute. The removal 
 to Atlanta was made in 1879, and the present 
 title was obtained in 1897. It is under the 
 auspices of the American Baptist Home Mission 
 Society. Preparatory, academic, college, and 
 theological departments are maintained. The 
 academy gives approximately 16 units of high 
 school work. In the college the degree of 
 B.A. is conferred on those who complete the 
 course. More than half of those attending 
 the institution are in the preparatory depart- 
 ment, which comprises the five higher grades of 
 the public school and equips pupils to enter 
 the academy or to pass the state teachers' 
 examination. There is a faculty of 10 profes- 
 sors and 7 instructors. 
 
 ATLANTA, CITY OF. — The capital and 
 the largest city of Georgia. Organized as a 
 city in 1874, and operating under siiecial laws 
 of the state of Georgia. In 1900 Atlanta had 
 a population of 89,872, and in 1908 an esti- 
 mated population of 109,545. Its school census, 
 6-18 years of age, was 25,490 in 1908, and its 
 total day-school enrollment was 15,952 in 1910. 
 33 per cent of the total population in 1900 was 
 
 of the colored race, and 2 per cent was foreign- 
 born. 
 
 The school department is under the control 
 of a Board of Education, composed of 10 mem- 
 bers, consisting of 1 elected from each of 8 
 wards, and the Alayor of Atlanta and the 
 Chairman of the Public School Committee of 
 the City Council, ex-officio. The Superintend- 
 ent of City Schools rejiorts directly to the 
 State School Commissioner, instead of through 
 the County School Commissioner, and likewise 
 the city draws its proportion of the state school 
 fund direct. 
 
 The city maintains elementary schools for 
 the two races, and 2 high schools for whites, 
 1 for boys and 1 for girls. It employed 429 
 teachers and 13 supervisory officers, and pro- 
 vided a term of 200 days in 1909-1910; 39 
 teachers were employed in liigh schools. Thirteen 
 teachers were employed in evening schools, and 
 a term of 200 evenings was provided. The total 
 receipts for current expenses in 1907-1908 were 
 $330,320. The city provides manual training 
 in the elementary school and in the boys' high 
 school. 
 
 Reference : — 
 
 Reports and Manuals Atlanta Public School's, 1871— 
 1910. 
 
 ATLANTA UNIVERSITY, ATLANTA, GA. 
 
 — An institution for the higher education of 
 negroes, incorporated in 1867 and opened in 
 1869. A high school course (college and nor- 
 mal preparatory) and college and normal 
 courses are offered. The college entrance 
 requirements are equivalent to about 21 years' 
 high school work. The majority of the stu- 
 dents are in the high school. The normal 
 work is done in 2 years. Degrees are given at 
 the end of the 4 years' course. There are 5 
 professors, 5 instructors, and a number of assist- 
 ants on the faculty. Rev. Edward T. Ware, 
 A.B., is the president. 
 
 ATLANTIC CHRISTIAN COLLEGE. WIL- 
 SON, N.C. — A coeducational institution, 
 founded in 1902, as the state college of the 
 Christian Church. Preparatory, collegiate, 
 ministerial, commercial, and fine arts depart- 
 ments are provided. Admission is by cer- 
 tificate from an accredited high school or by 
 examination requiring about 21 years' high 
 school work. Diplomas and degrees are con- 
 ferred. The theological course may be com- 
 pleted in 3 years after graduation, or in 4 years 
 after the freshman class. There is a faculty of 
 14 instructors. Jesse C. Caldwell, A.B., B.D., 
 is the president. 
 
 ATLAS, SCHOOL. — See M.\ps. 
 
 ATOMISM. — The philosophical theory of 
 matter which endeavors to discover the nature 
 of its constitution by resolving it into its 
 simplest and indivisible elements. These are 
 
 283
 
 ATOMISM 
 
 ATTENDANCE 
 
 called atoms {aTo/jui). The theory (also 
 known in modern times as "materialism") 
 found its first formulation among several (Jreek 
 thinkers (usually referred to as the Atomists) 
 in the ])re-So(Tatic group of Greek philosophers, 
 chief among whom were Leucippus (c. 500 B.C.) 
 and Demoeritus (460-370 B.C.). By the latter 
 especially matter is regarded as divisible into 
 an infinite number of infinitely little particles 
 or molecules which unite and separate. These 
 particles possess the same intrinsic quality, 
 ditTcr in form, size, and relative position, and 
 are in ceaseless motion. This motion is orig- 
 inally their own; and the changes which 
 happen in the world are caused by them accord- 
 ing to necessity, and not according to any end or 
 design. The soul and all its activities, includ- 
 ing knowledge, are also explained by means 
 of atoms, although finer and smoother ones are 
 postulated for tliis purpose. 
 
 In one form or another, atomism as a philo- 
 sophical doctrine or a scientific theory has 
 continued down to the present day. Among 
 the philosophers it has received acceptance as 
 a theory of all things, or modification as a 
 theory of matter only, by Epicurus, Lucretius, 
 ScotusErigcna, Cusanus, Descartes (corpuscles), 
 Hobbes, Leibnitz (immaterial monads), Lamet- 
 trie, Holbach, Kant, Fechner, and others. 
 In more recent times the atomic theory has 
 been particularly suggestive for the develop- 
 ment of hypotheses by the physical sciences. 
 Their rapid development, especially as relates 
 to the explanation of phenomena in physics, 
 chemistry, and physical chemistry, has ad- 
 vanced largely in terms of an atomistic theory. 
 Two instances illustrate the scientific services 
 of modern atomism; namely, the molecular 
 theory of gases, and the important theory of 
 atomic weights. Each atom in a given chem- 
 ical element has the same form and weight. 
 But the different elements now known to chem- 
 istry are regarded as having atoms of different 
 weights, which are estimated in terms of tlie 
 ratios in which they, respectively, unite with 
 hydrogen, the latter being taken arbitrarily 
 as one. The more recent theory of vorte.\ 
 atoms has given place to the electric theory of 
 matter, which holds that the primitive constit- 
 uent of the atom is the electron. 
 
 For the most part, atomism (or materialism) 
 as a philosophical theory has, oddly enough, 
 not formulated a definite, positive theory of 
 education. Its contribution to the solution of 
 both the theoretical and the practical problems 
 of education is negligible. The chief historical 
 instance where a materialistic psychology and 
 philosophy came nearest to exerting a molding 
 influence upon educational theory may be 
 found in French thought preceding the French 
 Revolution. The logical bearing of this theory 
 upon education is to eliminate the more human 
 values and to require a complete reduction of 
 formal schooling and incidental education to 
 the status of a mechanical process. E. F. B. 
 
 References: ^ 
 
 Langk. History of Materialism. Eng.tr.lS92. 
 Lasswitz. Gcschichte drr Atomiatik vom Mitlelalter bis 
 
 Nni'tun. 2 vols, IbllO. 
 Mabillkau. Histoirede la philosophic atomistiquc, 1895. 
 
 ATROPHY. — When any organ is not used 
 it tends to become weaker, and in many cases 
 shrinks in size. This reduction of an organ 
 to inactivity is known as a jjroce.ss of atrophy. 
 The term "atrophy" is used figuratively with 
 reference to mental functions, these functions 
 being said to atrophy through lack of exercise. 
 The lack of exercise necessary for the proper 
 development of an organ or function may be 
 due to a variety of causes. In some cases 
 atrophy of functions is due to neglect, in other 
 ca.ses to pathological conditions which interfere 
 with proper nutrition or circulation. 
 
 ATTENDANCE. — The school attendance 
 of a child is recorded in terms of presence and 
 punctuality. Reports upon a child's attend- 
 ance are usually made to the parents by indi- 
 cating the number of times of tardiness and the 
 number of days or half days of absence. Aver- 
 ages of school attendance in school reports are 
 calculated from the record of presence or 
 absence, tarcUness usually being disregarded 
 in the measure of attendance. The measures 
 of attendance used to indicate the attendance 
 of a given school vary with different localities, 
 those in most common use being the following: 
 (1) Total enrollment or register of the entire 
 number of names recorded in the various 
 registers; (2) Net enrollment, the total en- 
 rollment minus duplicate enrollments due to the 
 transfer of children from grade to grade or to 
 rcadmi.ssions; (3) average enrollment, or average 
 number belonging, a variously calculated meas- 
 ure which attempts to express the average en- 
 rollments for the period covered by the mea.s- 
 ure; and (4) average daily attendance, commonly 
 found by dividing the total number of days of 
 attendance by the total number of days taught. 
 The last-named measure is most frequently 
 used. It is frequently the case that school 
 moneys are distributed to schools upon the 
 basis of some measure of attendance. 
 
 The problem of maintaining punctual and 
 persi.stent attendance is important in school 
 management, particularly in districts where 
 parents are lax in the control of their children. 
 Irregular attendance interferes greatly with 
 the efficiency and economy of school effort. 
 Every child who returns to school after an 
 absence holds back the progress of his class, 
 or becomes an increased burden because of his 
 need for more or less individual attention from 
 the teacher. In consequence, teachers expend 
 considerable effort in the maintenance of 
 attendance. The child is held to account for 
 his absences and tardinesses, and a written 
 excuse from his parents is required. If illness 
 in the household or matters of important 
 family business have detained the child, then 
 
 284
 
 ATTENDANCE 
 
 ATTENDANCE 
 
 the excuse is accepted. If such an excuse is 
 not provided, the child's dehnquency is treated 
 as an infraction of the rules of the school, and 
 punished with reprimands, detention, loss of 
 privileges, etc. Sometimes the standing in 
 attendance is permitted to affect the standing 
 in scholarship, and consequently the promotion 
 of the pupil; such a treatment of absence is 
 generally regarded as unjustifiable in present- 
 day practice. It frequently occurs that the 
 teacher, under pressure from a superior ofRcer 
 or under the stress of interclass or interschool 
 competition, may make absence and tardiness 
 seem greater offenses than they are, and thus 
 impel children to a morbid fear of staying out 
 of school, even when illness or some other 
 course justifies the same. Under normal 
 circumstances there will always be some ab- 
 sence, the acceptable average daily attendance 
 being variable. Roughly speaking, the attend- 
 ance should not be allowed to fall below an 
 average daily attendance of about 90 per cent. 
 The attempt of a teacher to maintain it above 
 about 98 per cent may not justify the effort ex- 
 pended and the discomfort caused to the legiti- 
 mate absentees. 
 
 The problem of reducing unpunctuality or 
 tardiness is similar to that of eliminating 
 unnecessary absences. An interesting school 
 life increases school attendance, a.s interesting 
 morning exercises or assemblies reduces tardi- 
 ness. It occurs now and then that teachers 
 make children feel the disgrace of tardiness so 
 keenly that they prefer to absent themselves 
 from school a half day to being late. Such an 
 emphasis is obviously unwarranted. 
 
 Many devices are used to stimulate proper 
 attendance. Among these are the ringing of 
 a warning bell prior to the final bell of assem- 
 bly, competition between classes and schools, 
 demerit marks, honor rolls, the po.sting of 
 names, later excusal from school attendance, 
 etc. When persistent absences occur among 
 children of compulsory school age, the aid of 
 the attendance or truancy officer is invoked. 
 
 H. S. 
 
 See Attendance, Compulsory. 
 
 References : — 
 
 Bagley. 
 
 Seeley. 
 
 School Manngemcnl. Chap. V. 
 New School Achievement, Chap. V. 
 
 ATTENDANCE, COMPULSORY. — The 
 
 State acts toward education in a threefold 
 way: it may support education; it may control 
 and manage it; and it may enforce it on given 
 communities or individuals. Any one or more 
 of these functions it may leave to private initia- 
 tive. But the nineteenth century has witnessed 
 state activity on a large scale "along all three 
 lines, with reference to that stage of education 
 commonly called elementary. The right of 
 society (acting through the State) to compel 
 a certain amount of attendance at school has 
 long been unquestioned; and in recent years it 
 
 has become customary to insist also on a mini- 
 mum standard of educational proficiency be- 
 ing realized as a condition for leaving school. 
 
 Compulsory education has become closely 
 identified with a number of other phases of 
 social economy, .such as restriction of labor for 
 young children, industries prohibited on ac- 
 count of danger to life and health or morals, 
 administration of relief, and the education of 
 defectives. In America the recent activity 
 in legislation relating to compulsory education 
 has not come so much from educators as from 
 the leading voluntary movements for the physi- 
 cal, moral, and intellectual welfare of children. 
 These movements have sought the fuller pro- 
 tection of cliildhood in general, and compul- 
 sory education has been but one of the main 
 features. 
 
 Germany. — Historical. — The notion of edu- 
 cation made compulsory by the State had its 
 origin in Germany. The Reformation (q.v.), 
 as voiced by Luther and others, stood, among 
 other things, for universal education supported 
 and controlled by the State. Luther also 
 clearly perceived the logical necessity of com- 
 pelling negligent or selfish parents to procure 
 education for their children, and the obligation 
 of communities to assist needy parents in this 
 respect. " It becomes councilmen and magis- 
 trates to watch over youth with unremit- 
 ting care and diligence." Universal education 
 along the line of vernacular studies followed 
 gradually after the Reformation, and within 
 200 years of Luther's period the principle of 
 compulsory education was being put in prac- 
 tice. As early as 1619 school attendance was 
 made compulsory in Weimar for all children 
 from 6 to 12, while in 1642 the same principle 
 was adopted in Gotha. In 1773 compulsory 
 attendance was made effective in Saxony, 
 the ages embraced being from the fifth to the 
 fourteenth year. 
 
 As early as 1713 King Frederick William 
 perceived with dissatisfaction that "parents, 
 especially in the country, prove negligent in 
 sending their children to school, in consequence 
 of which negligence the poor youth are kept 
 in grcss ignorance as concerns reading, writing, 
 and ciphering, as well as that which concerns 
 the weal and salvation of their souls." In 1717 
 the Iving issued the first law of compulsory 
 attendance for Prussia. It orders that " here- 
 after wherever there are schools in the place 
 the parents shall be obliged, under severe 
 penalties, to send their children to school." 
 "School is to be attended daily in winter, 
 but in summer at least twice a week." "In 
 cases where parents have not the means to pay 
 so much, the fee is to be paid from the 
 community's funds." In 1763 appeared the 
 General Countnj School Regulations, which 
 united the various existing ordinances relating 
 to compulsory attendance. They provided for 
 the ages of compulsory schooling, the fees that 
 might be charged, penalties to be imposed on 
 
 285
 
 ATTENDANCE 
 
 ATTENDANCE 
 
 negligent parents, and the obligation of com- 
 munities to educate children of destitute 
 parents. These regulations, elaborated under 
 Frederick the (!rcat, were slightly bettered 
 from time to time, but they made from the 
 outset a comprehensive system of school con- 
 trol. In many respects they have reciuired 
 no change to this day. Of course it must not 
 be understood that this desirable legislation 
 was everywhere equally enforced. Local 
 authorities often ignored it; and there was a 
 period when even the minister of State (Woell- 
 ner in 1794) undertook distinctly reactionary 
 measures. But all subsequent rulers who 
 sought the well-being of the people favored and 
 usually procured compliance with compulsory 
 education legislation. In passing, it may be 
 noted that the General Code of 1794 contained 
 one provision which in modern times comes to 
 be a final step in compulsory education: " the 
 instruction in school must be continued until 
 the child is found to possess the knowledge 
 necessary to every rational being." 
 
 Subsequent steps in the development of 
 compulsory education in Prussia are mainly 
 matters of detail. In 18S8 fees were abolished. 
 The extension of Prussian authority over ac- 
 quired provinces introduced many difficulties, 
 which resulted in bringing all types of educa- 
 tion more or less directly under the state author- 
 ities, and state aid was provided to needy 
 communities. In 1890 all compulsory educa- 
 tion legislation was unified, and by a series of 
 devices responsibility was entailed on parents, 
 employers, and communities to a degree which 
 makes evasion of this obligation impossible in 
 the case of persons of settled habitation, and 
 almost impossible in case of shifting peoples, 
 hke canal boatmen, etc. 
 
 Present System. — Compulsory education in 
 Germany has now the following marked fea- 
 tures: Except in case of some defectives, all 
 children must complete the elementary (Volk- 
 schide) course of study or attend until 14. After 
 this they must continue in school unless regu- 
 larly employed; and in most parts of the 
 empire those employed must until they reach 
 17 or 18 make a minimum of attendance at 
 continuation school, an amount which may 
 be stated in terms of hours per week or hours 
 per year and ranges from 2 to 4 hours per week. 
 
 See CoN'TiNUATioN Schools, and Germ.\ny, 
 Education in. 
 
 Formerly this compulsory attendance was 
 made in Sunday or evening schools; but oppo- 
 sition among physicians developed toward 
 compulsory evening school attendance for 
 children of 14 to 17 years of age, and the tend- 
 ency of recent legislation has been to require 
 that employers should release their apprentices 
 for sufficient day hours per week to meet the 
 requirements of compulsory attendance. For 
 apprentices in some fields continuation attend- 
 ance is obligatory until 17, in others until 18. 
 When it is recalled that the typical German 
 
 must at 19 or 20 begin 2 or more years of com- 
 pulsory service in the army, which is in effect 
 a school, it is evident that the period of com- 
 pulsory education for the German youth is a 
 long one. 
 
 France. — Prior to the Revolution the ques- 
 tion of compulsory education was mostly an 
 academic one. The ai)plication of compulsion 
 was opposed on the grounds of human liberty 
 by WTiters like Talleyrand, who yet argued in 
 favor of free education in the essentials of 
 knowledge. 
 
 The National Convention in 1792 created a 
 committee on public instruction which among 
 other topics debated the iirinciple of compulsion, 
 usually in the direction of favoring it. The 
 so-called loi Bouqiden made attendance for 
 at least 3 years obligatory. But under the 
 Napoleonic regime the compulsory principle 
 was not asserted. For 30 years no further prog- 
 ress appears. The law of 1833 did not compel 
 attendance, but paved the way for it, since it 
 was made obligatory on the communes to pro- 
 vide and enforce education. In 1848 Carnot 
 proposed a more comprehensive law, but all the 
 time the question was involved with that of free 
 education. In 1871 Simon's projected law 
 asserted the necessity of requiring each child 
 from 6 to 13 to attend school, and inipo.sed 
 penalties on parents who employed children 
 during this period. Local committees (com- 
 missions scolaircs) were to enforce this attend- 
 ance. These committees were also to hold 
 examinations of children educated privately 
 or by religious bodies, and then would be able 
 to send the child to another school in case he 
 exhibited imperfect results in examination. 
 
 But not until 1882 were laws finally enacted 
 that expressed the principle comprehensivelv. 
 The famous law of March 28, 1882, made pri- 
 mary education compulsory and religious educa- 
 tion optional. Education could be given any- 
 where, but a local committee must oversee its 
 results. A variety of detailed measures was 
 aimed to secure its enforcement. (Dreyfus- 
 Brissac, L'enseignemenl ohligatoire, in Rccueil des 
 Monographies Pedagogiques.) 
 
 In practice the above law was good except 
 as regards the testing of private education. 
 Local examination by commissions scolaircs was 
 quite unworkable. But as regards some kinds 
 of school attendance the law is along right lines. 
 The local authority (mayor) makes out a list 
 of all children in the commune. Absences 
 must be notified to the mayor by the parents. 
 
 The weakness of the law at present consists 
 in the early age (11) at which a child may take 
 examinations for the jirimary certificate, on 
 obtaining which he may take employment. 
 The brightest children, therefore, can be earliest 
 forced into labor by unscrupulous parents. 
 
 England. — The early efforts for the protec- 
 tion of children lay along humanitarian lines. 
 The factory system made legislation to protect 
 children from premature or overwork necessarj', 
 
 286
 
 ATTENDANCE 
 
 ATTENDANCE 
 
 but for two reasons compulsory education re- 
 ceived little attention until after 1870. The first 
 was the individualistic character of Englishmen. 
 "My impression is that such an Act (subjecting 
 to imprisonment any parent who did not send 
 his child to school), if passed and attempted 
 to be carried out, would produce a national , 
 commotion not much less dangerous than that 
 which attended a poll tax," declared Mr. Bel- 
 lairs, an experienced inspector, in 1864. The 
 second was that the administration of edu- 
 cation was still a private or philanthropic 
 affair, and the State was not able to enforce 
 attendances. 
 
 But in 1870 and 1873 the establishment of 
 board schools carried also the principle of com- 
 pulsion, at first in the shape of powers given to 
 local boards. A more complete act in 187G 
 laid down a variety of detailed measures for en- 
 forcement. Parents or guardians of children 
 from 5 to 14 (originally 5 to 13) were put under 
 obligations to send them to a certified school 
 every day that such school is in session. In case 
 children are sent to an uncertified (inspected 
 and approved) school, the burden rests on the 
 parent to prove the competency of the school. 
 Five to 13 is still admitted as the compulsory age 
 in certain rural districts. 
 
 A considerable list of exemptions, however, 
 existed. At 12 children could be examined, 
 and if found proficient could be excused from 
 further attendance. A system of part-time 
 attendance could also be permitted by local 
 authorities, that is, for children' from 12 to 14 
 (11 to 14 in agricultural areas) if they had at- 
 tained a certain standard of proficiency or made 
 during 5 previous years a required number 
 of attendances. As modified by special pro- 
 visions, the English law is exceedingly complex, 
 and local authorities have considerable latitude 
 in its enforcement. The principle of com- 
 pulsion has always been resisted there, as in the 
 United States. Local authorities have not 
 always been zealous in executing the laws, and 
 their enforcement has been due largely to the 
 authorities engaged in carrying into effect 
 factory legislation. 
 
 In 1908 the passage of the Children's Act 
 codified a variety of legislation relating to 
 children, and opened the way for more compre- 
 hensive reform measures which are now in pro- 
 cess of discussion. The abolition of the half- 
 time system and the development of compulsory 
 continuation school attendance (already legal- 
 ized in Scotland) are foreshadowed. 
 
 United States. — Hidorical. — Compulsory 
 education in the United States occurred first in 
 Massachusetts. As far back as 1642 the select- 
 men were enjoined to compel parents to teach 
 their children themselves or to procure that 
 teaching for them. But the need of compulsory 
 education is not keenly felt in an agricultural 
 population, especially if it is homogeneous, and 
 if newly arrived foreigners are not numerous. 
 Not till the approach of the middle of the nme- 
 
 teenth century did Massachusetts realize the 
 need of enforced attendance. This was one 
 of the matters to which the State Board of 
 Education, created in 1837, gave its attention. 
 In 1842 a child labor law was passed; in 1852 
 the first law on compulsory attendance ap- 
 - peared. It required of each child from 8 
 to 14 years of age at least 12 weeks of 
 attendance each year, of which 6 should be 
 consecutive. A fair penalty was imposed, but 
 parents able to prove poverty or inability could 
 be excused. The law seems to have had little 
 force and to have claimed little attention. 
 Many of the absentees were children whose 
 parents had lost control of them, so the author- 
 ities turned their attention to dealing with 
 truants. 
 
 Recognizing the unsatisfactory condition of 
 existing laws, the State Board recommended 
 a new law in 1872. This was passed next year. 
 It reduced the period of compulsorj' attendance 
 2 years (but this was again raised to 14 next 
 year), but extended the time each year from 
 12 to 20 weeks. Town officials were subject 
 to a penalty if they refused to enforce the law. 
 It was also made obligatory upon towns to 
 provide a place for the confinement of truants. 
 Truant officers were made a part of the school 
 system, receiving their appointments from the 
 school committee. In 1875 Superintendent 
 Philbrick gave expression to the need of 
 a registry of children subject to the law, thus 
 giving rise to the school census system of 
 Massachusetts. In 1876 a fairly satisfactory 
 child labor law passed the legislature; and in 
 1878 it was provided that state grants could 
 be withheld from towns failing to carry out 
 truancy legislation. 
 
 Like much subsequent legislation in other 
 states, these early laws set good standards, but 
 were irregularly and intermittently enforced. 
 This matter was made the subject of a detailed 
 inquiry by the secretary of the State Board in 
 1886. He found a variety of deficiencies in the 
 enforcement of the law. This agent, Mr. 
 (leorge H. Martin, made a number of recom- 
 mendations, some of which have appeared in 
 subsequent legislation. Most important were 
 the recommendations that the burden of proof 
 in the case of absence should fall on the parent, 
 that attendance should be compulsory during 
 the entire time school is in session, that the State 
 should provide clothing and books of children 
 of indigent parents, and that the cost of educat- 
 ing truants should fall on a larger area than the 
 town — preferably the county or state. He 
 also ad\'ised the creation of the office of state 
 agent to look after truancy, as in Connecticut, 
 but this has not been adopted. In 1889 com- 
 prehensive legislation was again ado])tcd in the 
 matters of child labor and compulsory attend- 
 ance. The most novel provisions of this legis- 
 lation are found in the provisions which give 
 school committees the authority to approve pri- 
 vate schools, attendance at which is considered 
 
 287
 
 ATTENDANCE 
 
 ATTENDANCE 
 
 equivalent to that at public schools, prohibits 
 the employment of children during hours of 
 school session, requires the presentation of a 
 certificate issued by the school authorities in 
 the case of the employment of children un- 
 der 16, and in effect imposes an educational 
 qualification. The new law seems to have 
 worked well, but many areas had insufficient ac- 
 commodations for truants, and there it naturally 
 failed in some degree. 
 
 The early history of compulsory school legis- 
 lation in Connecticut seems to have been 
 similar to that of Massachusetts. The law 
 expressed an ideal, but many obstacles inter- 
 fered with its enforcement. In the examina- 
 tion of these laws made in 1890 {Re pi. Com. 
 Ed. for 18S8-1S89, pp. 470-526) the statement 
 occurs again and again that the law is "prac- 
 tically a dead letter." The chief obstacles 
 were: the indifference of local public opinion; 
 the unwillingness of local police or other offi- 
 cials to enforce the law against individuals, 
 especially those who needed the assistance that 
 came from the labor of children; the lack of 
 school accommodations, especially for truant 
 children; the lack of correspondence between 
 the period of compulsory attendance and the 
 total session of the schools which always pro- 
 voked irregularity and lack of regard for the 
 law; and the poverty of parents. In its legisla- 
 tion of 1872 Connecticut took the heroic step 
 of putting the enforcement of child labor laws 
 and compulsory education laws in the hands of 
 state agents, a measure which has probably 
 given that state the most effectively enforced 
 system yet devised. The law refused also to 
 recognize poverty of parents as a bar, thus re- 
 moving one of the commonest grounds of eva- 
 sion. 
 
 The following list shows the dates at which 
 the several states enacted compulsory education 
 legi-slation (from Rept. Com. Erf. "1888-1889, 
 p. 471): Massachusetts, 1852; District of Colum- 
 bia, 1864; Vermont, 1867; New Hampshire, 
 Michigan, Washington, 1871; Connecticut and 
 New Mexico, 1872; Nevada, 1873; New York, 
 Kansas, California, 1874; Maine, New Jersey, 
 1875; Wyoming, 1876; Ohio, 1877; Wisconsin, 
 1879; Rhode Island, Illinois, Dakota, Montana, 
 1883. Between 1SS5 and 1890 Minnesota, 
 Nebraska, Idaho, Colorado, Oregon, and Utah 
 made laws on the subject. 
 
 It is true that i)r('vious legislation had some- 
 times the effect of retiuiring school attendance. 
 In the seventeenth century Connecticut imi- 
 tated Massachusetts in penalizing selectmen, 
 if they did not compel parents to educate their 
 children. The same state in 1813 required the 
 proprietors of manufacturing establishments to 
 see that the children in their employ could read, 
 write, and cipher; and in 1842 the employment 
 of children under 15 was prohibited unless 
 they had been instructed for 3 months in 
 the preceding year. As far back as 1850 
 towns in Maine were authorized to make laws 
 
 against truancy, but nothing appears to have 
 been done. 
 
 In 1890, 27 states and the District of Colum- 
 bia had laws on compulsory education. This 
 embraced all except the Southern states, which 
 had not begun to legislate on the subject. In 
 all of these except Wisconsin, which put 13 
 as the minimum age, 14 or more was the mini- 
 mum age of exemption from school attendance;, 
 but in Maine, Rhode Island, and Washington 
 the minimum age was 15, and in Connecticut, 
 Minnesota, and Wyoming the minimum age was 
 16. More important was the amount of attend- 
 ance to be made each year, since, if the com- 
 pulsory attendance is considerably less than 
 the full term, the practical difficulties in the way 
 of enforcing the law are multiplied. In 17 
 states an attendance of 12 weeks was pre- 
 scribed; in 4, 16; and in 4, 20. Only one state 
 
 — Connecticut — required attendance as long 
 as the schools were in session, while Massachu- 
 setts, in effect, obtained the same thing in 
 cities. 
 
 In all states except New Jersey it was reported 
 that school officers and their truant officers were 
 charged with enforcement of the law. There 
 was no centralized control except in Connecti- 
 cut. In New Jersey police officers and con- 
 stables were required to carry out the law. 
 Penalties inflicted on parents were almost uni- 
 formly fines ranging from $1 to S20, with 
 augmentation for repeated offense. Very few 
 states had truant schools, though in some 
 cases youths could be committed to reform 
 schools. 
 
 Only 10 states report a minimum age — 
 ranging from 10 to 13 — below which employ- 
 ment during school hours is prohibited. In 
 13 states a certain amount of school attendance 
 • — from 1 to 5 years — is made a prerequisite 
 of employment, while as yet there was no refer- 
 ence to definite educational qualifications which 
 must be attained. Twelve states take some 
 notice of the kind of instruction which must be 
 given in private schools, if this is to l)e ac- 
 cepted in lieu of attendance at public schools, 
 but these requirements were meager and jjrob- 
 ably unenforcible. Only Ohio makes attend- 
 ance compulsory beyond the minimum age 
 
 — from 14 to 16 — in case of children not 
 employed. 
 
 In 8 or more states local authorities were 
 authorized to provide free books for children of 
 indigent or poor parents; but as many other 
 states provided free books for all pupils, this 
 comparison is not of much value. But, very sig- 
 nificantly, 2 states — Ohio and Colorado — en- 
 able local authorities to provide free clothing, 
 thus coming definitely into the field in aid of 
 children whose parents feel too poor to send 
 them to school. 
 
 Present SyMem. — By 1908 almost all the 
 states had enacted legislation on the .subject. 
 The following table taken from the Rcpt. Com. 
 Ed. 1908, Vol. I, shows in detail the situation. 
 
 288
 
 ATTENDANCE ATTENDANCE 
 
 STATUTORY PROVISIONS RELATING TO COMPULSORY ATTENDANCE AND CHILD LABOR 
 
 CoMPuxsoBY Education 
 
 Child Labor 
 
 State 
 
 Alabama . 
 
 Arizona . . 
 Arkansas . 
 
 California . 
 
 Colorado . 
 
 Connecticut . 
 
 Delaware. 
 
 District of Co- 
 lumbia 
 
 Florida. 
 
 Georgia . 
 
 Idaho. 
 
 Illinois. 
 
 Indiana . 
 
 Age 
 
 8-141 
 
 8-14 
 
 8-14 
 
 -16' 
 
 7-16" 
 
 7-14^ 
 
 Annual period 
 
 6 months ; 20 weeks 
 consecutive. 
 
 Full term. 
 
 Full term , 
 
 Full term. 
 
 5 months (may be re- 
 duced by districts 
 to 3). 
 
 Full term. 
 
 Full term. 
 
 Full term, to be not 
 less than 110 days 
 of actual teaching. 
 
 Full term . 
 
 Penalty on parents for 
 
 neglect 
 
 $5 to S25. 
 
 Age under which specified 
 employments are forbidden 
 
 10 years, in factories in all 
 cases ; 12, unless or- 
 phans, or children of the 
 widowed or disabled ; 
 12, in mines. 
 
 First, not over $10 or 
 5 days' imprison- 
 ment ; subsequent, 
 $10 to $50, or 5 to 
 25 days, or both. 
 
 $5 to $25. 
 
 Not exceeding S5 each 
 week of absence. 
 
 First, not over $2 ; 
 after, not over $5. 
 On default, impris- 
 onment 2 to 5 days. 
 
 Not exceeding $20 . 
 
 Not over $300 or 
 imprisonment not 
 over 6 months, or 
 both. 
 
 $5 to $20 and costs, 
 stand committed 
 until paid. Penalty 
 for false statements 
 as to age or attend- 
 ance, $3 to $20. 
 
 5 to $25, and, in 
 discretion of court, 
 imprisonment 2 to 
 90 days. 
 
 12 years, in all cases in 
 manufacturing estab- 
 lishments, except can- 
 ning industries in vaca- 
 tion ; 14, unless to sup- 
 port a parent or self, as 
 specified by law ; 14, in 
 mines ; females not at 
 all in mines. 
 
 14 years, in any mercantile 
 or manufacturing estab- 
 lishment, workshop, ho- 
 tel, or as messenger, etc. 
 Children 12 to 14, upon 
 permit, may work if par- 
 ents incapacitated, or 
 during vacation. 
 
 14 years, in any under- 
 ground works, mine, 
 smelter, mill, or factory. 
 No female may be em- 
 ployed in a coal mine. 
 
 14 years, in any me- 
 chanical, mercantile, or 
 manufacturing estab- 
 lishment. 
 
 14 years, in any factory, 
 workshop, or manufac- 
 turing establishment, 
 except in canning indus- 
 try, etc., or to support 
 widowed mother. 
 
 14 years, in any factory, 
 workshop, store, office, 
 hotel, theater, as mes- 
 senger, etc. Children 12 
 to 14 may get permit to 
 work in certain cases. 
 
 Children under 15 may not 
 be employed more than 
 60 days without consent 
 of legal guardian. 
 
 10 years, in or about any 
 manufactxiring establish- 
 ment : 12 years after 
 Jan. 1, 1907, except for 
 support of self or parents 
 in specified cases. 
 
 14 years, in any mine, fac- 
 tory, workshop, mercan- 
 tile establishment, laun- 
 dry, hotel, etc., except 
 over 12 during vacations. 
 
 14 years, in any mercan- 
 tile institution, factory, 
 office, theater, elevator, 
 etc., or as messenger or 
 driver ; 16, in or about 
 any mine. No female 
 may work in or about a 
 mine. 
 
 14 years, in any manufac- 
 turing or mercantile es- 
 tablishment, mine, 
 quarry, laundry, renova- 
 ting works, bakery, or 
 printing office. No female 
 may work in a mine. 
 
 Educational restrictions on 
 child labor 
 
 No child under 14 may be em- 
 ployed during school hours. 
 
 No child 14 to 18, unable to 
 write, may be employed in 
 a manufacturing establish- 
 ment, unless he has attended 
 school 12 weeks the preceding 
 year. 
 
 No minor under 16 may work 
 for gain in school hours, un- 
 less he can read and write 
 English or attends night 
 school. 
 
 Unlawful to employ children 
 under 14 during school hours 
 unless they have complied 
 with the school-attendance 
 law ; under 16, unable to 
 read and write, unless at- 
 tending day or night school. 
 
 Children under 14 may not be 
 employed while school is in 
 session. Children 14 to 16 
 cannot leave school to be 
 employed, unless their edu- 
 cation is satisfactory to the 
 local or state school board. 
 
 No child 14 to 16 may be so em- 
 ployed, unless he has at- 
 tended day or night school 12 
 weeks the preceding year. 
 
 Children under 14 maj^ not do 
 any work for wages during 
 school hours ; nor under 16 
 in preceding employments, 
 unless they can read and 
 \\rite, and attended school 
 130 days preceding year. 
 
 After Jan. 1, 1908, no child 
 under 14 may be employed as 
 in preceding column (with 
 the exception there noted) 
 unless aVjle to write and has 
 attended school 12 weeks the 
 preceding j'ear ; under 18, 
 unless so attended school. 
 
 No child under 14 may be em- 
 ployed in any way during 
 school hours. 
 
 No child 1 4 to 1 6 unable to read 
 and write may be empIo\-ed 
 unless attending an evening 
 school, if there is one. No 
 child under 14 may be em- 
 ployed at any work for wages 
 during the school term. 
 
 Children under 16 uniible to 
 read and write English may 
 not be employed in foregoing 
 employments except in vaca- 
 tion of public schools. 
 
 VOL. I U 
 
 289
 
 ATTENDANCE ATTENDANCE 
 
 STATUTORY PROVISIONS RELATING TO COMPULSORY ATTENDANCE AND CHILD LABOR — Continued 
 
 CoMPCLsoBY Education 
 
 State 
 
 Iowa, 
 
 Kansas. 
 
 Kentucky . 
 
 Louisiana . 
 
 Ma 
 
 Maryland' 
 
 Maasachusetts . 
 
 Michigan. 
 
 MioDesota. 
 
 M ississippi . 
 
 Missouri . . 
 
 Montana ' . 
 
 Age 
 
 8-15* 
 
 7-14 
 
 7-15 
 
 8-12' 
 
 7-16 
 
 S-14» 
 
 8-143 
 
 Annual Period 
 
 16 consecutive weeks 
 
 Full term". 
 
 8 consecutive weeks ; 
 full term in cities of 
 first, second, third, 
 and fourth classes. 
 
 Penalty on parents for 
 neglect 
 
 $3 to S20 
 
 $5 to $25. 
 
 First, $5 to S20 ; sub- 
 sequent, $10 to $50. 
 
 Full term. 
 
 Full term . 
 
 Full term. 
 
 Full term . 
 
 Full term . 
 
 Not leas than ^^ of 
 term. Full term in 
 cities of over 
 500.000. 
 
 Full term ; in no case 
 less than 16 weeks. 
 
 Not exceeding $25, or 
 imprisonment not 
 exceeding 30 days. 
 
 Not exceeding $5. 
 
 Not exceeding $20 . . 
 
 Fine of S5 to $50, or 
 imprisonment 2 to 
 90 days, or both. 
 
 Not over $50, 
 imprisonment 
 over 30 days. 
 
 $10 to $25, or impris- 
 onment 2 to 10 
 (lays, or both. 
 
 $5 to $20. 
 
 Child Labor 
 
 Age under which specified 
 employments are forbidden 
 
 14 years, in any mine, fac- 
 tory, mill, shop, laun- 
 dry, packing house, ele- 
 vator, or store where 
 more than 8 persons are 
 employed. 
 
 14 years, in any factory or 
 packing house or in or 
 about any mine ; IG, in 
 any dangerous, etc., 
 employment. 
 
 14 years, in any mine, 
 workshop, factory, 
 
 store, office, hotel, as 
 messenger, etc. 
 
 14 years, in any manufac- 
 turing or mercantile es- 
 tablishment, mine, laun- 
 dry, carrying messages, 
 etc. 
 
 14 years, in any manufac- 
 turing or mechanical es- 
 tablishment. 
 
 14 years, in mills and fac- 
 tories (except canning 
 establishments), unless 
 self, widowed mother, or 
 invalid father solely de- 
 pendent upon such em- 
 ploj-ment. 19 counties 
 exempt from law. 
 
 14 years, in factories, 
 workshops, or mercan- 
 tile establishments. 
 
 14 years, in any manufac- 
 turing or mercantile es- 
 tablishment, workshop, 
 laundry, store, oflSce, 
 hotel, messenger ser- 
 vice, etc. 
 
 14 years, in factories, mills, 
 workshops, or mines. 
 
 12 years, in any mill, fac- 
 tory, or manufacturing 
 establishment. 
 
 14 years, in any mine, 
 manufacturing or mer- 
 cantile establishment, 
 laundr\', etc., in cities of 
 over 10.000 ; no females 
 in mines. 
 
 16 years, in mines or under- 
 groimd works. 
 
 Educational restrictions on 
 child labor 
 
 No minor under 16 may work 
 in a coal mine unless he can 
 rend and write and has at- 
 tended school 3 months in 
 the year. 
 
 Under 14 may not be employed 
 in any way during school 
 term : nor from 14 to 16 in 
 stated occupations unless he 
 can read and write, and at- 
 tended school 100 days 
 preceding year. 
 
 Children under 14 may not be 
 employed in foregoing em- 
 ploj-ments, nor in clothing, 
 dressmaking, or millinery 
 establishments, unless they 
 have attended school 4 
 months in preceding jear. 
 
 Children under 15 shall not be 
 employed in any manufac- 
 turmg or mechanical estab- 
 lishment, excepf dviring va- 
 cation, unless they have 
 attended school 16 weeks 
 during preceding year. 
 
 No minor 12 to 16, unable to 
 read and write English, may 
 be employed where there is 
 an evening school, unless at- 
 tending that or another 
 school. 
 
 Children under 14 may not be 
 employed at any work for 
 wage? during school hours ; 
 from 14 to 16 may not be so 
 employed in any factory, 
 workshop, or mercantile es- 
 tablishment if unable to read 
 and write.^ 
 
 Children 14 to 16 unable to 
 read and write English may 
 not be employed. 
 
 Children under 14 years may 
 not be employed in any ser- 
 vice during school term ; 
 under school age {16 years), 
 in any occupation during 
 school term unless they have 
 attended school the pre- 
 scribed period ; under 16, 
 unable to read and write 
 English, in any indoor occu- 
 pation (except in vacation) 
 unless attending day or 
 evening school. 
 
 No child 8 to 14 may be em- 
 ployed in any way in school 
 hours unless he has complied 
 with the attendance law. 
 
 No boy under 16 may work 
 in a mine unless he can read 
 and write. 
 
 Children under 14 not to be 
 employed during school ses- 
 sions unless they have com- 
 Cleted the studies required 
 y law ; from 14 to 16, if 
 unable to read and write 
 English. 
 
 290
 
 ATTENDANCE ATTENDANCE 
 
 STATUTORY PROVISIONS RELATING TO COMPULSORY ATTENDANCE AND CHILD LABOR— Continued 
 
 Compulsory Education 
 
 Child Labor 
 
 Nebraska^". . . 
 
 Nevada . 
 
 New Hamp- 
 shire " 
 
 New Jersey. . 
 
 New Mexico. 
 New York . . . 
 
 Age 
 
 7-15 
 
 S-14 
 7-14 
 
 7-1712 
 
 7-14 
 8-163 
 
 North Carolina 
 
 North Dakota. 
 
 Ohio. 
 
 Oklahoma . 
 Oregon .... 
 
 Pennsylvania. 
 
 Rhode Island . 
 
 S-14n 
 
 S-16 
 0-14! 
 
 8-16" 
 
 7-1 5» 
 
 Annual Period 
 
 Two thirds of school 
 term ; in no case 
 less than 12 weeks. 
 Full term in cities, 
 hotel, etc. 
 
 16 weeks ; 8 consecu- 
 tive. 
 
 8 Full term . 
 
 Full term . 
 
 3 months. 
 
 Full term (Oct. 1 to 
 June 1). 
 
 16 weeks. 
 
 Full term . 
 
 Full term ; in no case 
 less than 24 weeks. 
 
 .3 to 6 months", 
 and fi Full term. 
 
 Full term ; but the 
 school board of 
 each district has 
 power to reduce 
 this to not less than 
 70 per cent of the 
 term. 
 
 Full term. 
 
 Penally on parents for 
 neglect 
 
 $5 to S25 (on truant 
 officer) 
 
 First. $50 to $100; 
 subsequent, SlOO to 
 S200 ; with costs. 
 
 First, SIO ; subse- 
 quent, $20. 
 
 ' Punishable as a dis- 
 orderly person." 
 
 $5 to S25, or impris- 
 onment not exceed- 
 ing 10 days. 
 
 First, not exceeding 
 S5 ; subsequent, 
 not exceeding $50, 
 or imprisonment 
 not exceeding 30 
 days, or both fine 
 and imprisonment. 
 
 $5 to $25. 
 
 $5 to $20 (on school 
 official). 
 
 $5 to $20 ; on default, 
 imprisonment from 
 10 to 30 days. 
 
 SIO to S50. 
 
 $5 to $25 fine, or im- 
 prisonment 2 to 10 
 days, or both. 
 
 First , not exceeding 
 S2 ; subsequent, 
 not exceeding So ; 
 on default, impris- 
 onment ; first, not 
 over 2 days ; subse- 
 quent, not over 5. 
 
 Not exceeding $20. 
 
 Acts under which specified 
 employments are forbidden 
 
 14 years, in any manufac- 
 facturing or mercantile 
 establishment, office, 
 hotel, etc. 
 
 12 years, in any manufac- 
 turing establishment. 
 
 14 years, in factories, work- 
 shops, mills, or manu- 
 facturing establish- 
 ments ; also mines. 
 
 14 years, in factories; if 
 14 to 16, the child must 
 have attended school 
 130 days the preceding 
 year, and be able to read 
 and write English, and 
 cipher. Similar provi- 
 sions apply, in places of 
 over 3000 populat ion , 
 to work in mercantile 
 establishments, business 
 offices, restaurants, ho- 
 tels, express or messen- 
 ger service, except for 
 children over 12 in small 
 places during vacation. 
 For work in or about 
 mines 16 years is the 
 minimum. No female 
 may work in a mine. 
 
 12 years in any factory or 
 manufacturing estab- 
 lishment (does not apply 
 to oyster canning and 
 packing) ; 12 years, in 
 mines employing over 10 
 men (boys) ; children 12 
 to 13 may be employed 
 in factories only as 
 apprentices. 
 12 years, in mines, fac- 
 tories, and workshops 
 (constitution of State). 
 
 14 years, in any factory, 
 workshop, business of- 
 fice, mercantile estab- 
 lishment, hotel, as mes- 
 senger, etc. 
 
 16 years, in mines (no girls 
 in mines). 
 
 14 years, in any factor>', 
 store, workshop, in or 
 about any mine, or in 
 the telegraph, telephone. 
 or public messenger ser- 
 
 14 years, in any employ- 
 ment, except domestic, 
 coal mining, or farm la- 
 bor ; 16 years in coal 
 mines : 14 years in or 
 about the outside work- 
 ings of coal mines. Girls 
 may not work in or 
 about coal mines. 
 
 13 vears before, 14 after 
 Dec. 31. 1906. in any fac- 
 tory, manufacturing or 
 business establishment. 
 
 Educational restrictions on 
 child labor 
 
 No child under 14 may be em- 
 ployed in any service during 
 school hours. 
 
 No child under 14 may be em- 
 ployed during school sessions, 
 nor under 16 if unable to read 
 and write English. No mi- 
 nor unable to read and write 
 English may be employed 
 unless attending day or 
 evening school, if any is held. 
 
 Children under 15 must have 
 attended school 12 weeks the 
 preceding year as a condi- 
 tion of employment. 
 
 Unlawful to employ in any 
 business or service child 
 under 14 during school term ; 
 14 to 16, unless he has at- 
 tended 130 da.\'s preceding 
 year, and can read and write 
 English, and cipher, or {in 
 first and second class cities) 
 has completed elementary 
 course or attends evening 
 school 16 weeks a year. See 
 preceding colunm. 
 
 Apprentices, 12 to 13 years, 
 must have attended school 4 
 months in preceding 12. 
 
 Children under 14 may not be 
 employed in any manner 
 during school hours unless 
 they have attended school 12 
 weeks during the year. 
 
 No child between 14 and 16 
 may be employed in fore- 
 going occupations without a 
 schooling certificate. 
 
 Foregoing employments for- 
 bidden to any child 14 to 16 
 unless he attended school 160 
 days preceding year and can 
 read English. No child under 
 14 may be employed in any 
 work for compensation dur- 
 ing school hours. 
 
 No child 14 to 16 may be em- 
 ployed unless he can read 
 and write English and has 
 complied with the school 
 laws. 
 
 Children under 13 may not 
 be employed except during 
 school vacations. 
 
 291
 
 ATTENDANCE ATTENDANCE 
 
 STATUTORY PROVISIONS RELATING TO COMPULSORY ATTENDANCE AND CHILD LABOR — CoMnued 
 
 CouptiLsoRT Education 
 
 Child Labor 
 
 State 
 
 Age 
 
 Annual Period 
 
 PencUly on parents for 
 
 Acts uuii'-r which specified 
 
 Educational rcHlriclions on 
 
 
 
 
 neglect 
 
 employments are forbidden 
 
 child labor 
 
 South Carolina. 
 
 
 
 
 10 years after May 1, 1903 ; 
 11 after May 1, 1904; 
 
 Children may work in textile 
 
 
 
 
 
 establishments in June, July, 
 
 
 
 
 
 12 after May 1, 1905, in 
 
 and August if they have at- 
 
 
 
 
 
 any factory, mine, or 
 
 tended school 4 months dur- 
 
 
 
 
 
 textile establishment, 
 
 ing the year and can read 
 
 
 
 
 
 except that certain self- 
 
 and write. 
 
 
 
 
 
 depentlent children may 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 work in the latter. 
 
 
 South Dakota. . 
 
 A-14' 
 
 Full term ; but di^ 
 Iricts may reduce it 
 
 SIO to $20 and costs ; 
 stand committed 
 
 14 years, in mines 
 
 No child 8 to 14 to "be employed 
 
 
 
 during school hours unless 
 
 
 
 to 16 weeks, 12 
 
 till paid. 
 
 
 he has attended school 12 
 
 
 
 consecutive. 
 
 
 
 weeka during the year. 
 
 Tennesaee 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 14 years, in workshops. 
 factories, or mines. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Texas 
 
 
 
 
 12 years, in mills, factories, 
 manufacturing or other 
 
 Unlawful to employ children 12 
 
 
 
 
 
 to 14 who cannot read and 
 
 
 
 
 
 establishments using 
 
 write English, in mills, fac- 
 
 
 
 
 
 machinery ; 10 years in 
 
 tories, etc.. certain self-de- 
 
 
 
 
 
 mines, distilleries, or 
 
 pendent children excepted. 
 
 
 
 
 
 breweries. 
 
 
 Utah 
 
 S-lfi 
 
 20 weeks, 10 consecu- 
 tive ; in cities of 
 
 First, not exceeding 
 SIO ; subsequent. 
 
 14 years, in mines (con- 
 stitution of State). 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 the Ist and 2d class 
 
 not exceeding $30, 
 
 
 
 
 
 30 weeks. 10 con- 
 
 with costs. 
 
 
 
 
 
 secutive. 
 
 
 
 
 Vermont 
 
 S~15>8 
 
 Full term 
 
 $5 to $25 
 
 12 years, for any railroad 
 company or in any mil!. 
 
 No child under 16 who has not 
 
 
 
 
 completed the 9-year school 
 
 
 
 
 
 factory, quarry, or work- 
 
 course may be employed in 
 
 
 
 
 
 shop, or carrying mes- 
 
 any railroad, factory, mine. 
 
 
 
 
 
 sages. 
 
 or quarry work, or in deliv- 
 ering; messages, except out 
 of school hours. 
 
 Virginia" 
 
 8-12 
 
 12 weeka 
 
 First. S2 to $10 ; sub- 
 sequent, $5 to $20. 
 
 13 years, after March 1, 
 1909; 14 after March 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1, 1910, in any factory, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 workshop, mercantile es- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 tablishment, or mine, ex- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 cept in certain cases of 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 need over 12. 
 
 
 Washington. . . 
 
 8-15 
 
 Full term 
 
 Not over $25 
 
 14 years, in mines (boys) ; 
 12 (boys), in the outside 
 
 Children under 1.5 may not be 
 
 
 
 employed while the schools 
 
 
 
 
 
 workings of a colliery ; 
 
 are in session, unless excused 
 
 
 
 
 
 14, in any factory, mill, 
 
 by the school superintendent. 
 
 
 
 
 
 workshop, or store, ex- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 cept (12 to 14) in speci- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 fied cases of need. 
 
 
 We3t Virginia , . 
 
 S-14 
 
 20 week.<i 
 
 First, $2; subsequent, 
 $5. 
 
 12 years, in factories, 
 workshops, mercant ile 
 
 No child under 14 shall be so 
 
 
 
 employed during school term 
 
 
 
 
 
 or manufacturing estab- 
 
 if it hinders regular attend- 
 
 
 
 
 
 lishment ; 14 in mines 
 
 ance. 
 
 
 
 
 
 (no girls may work in 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 mines). 
 
 
 Wiaconain 
 
 7-Us 
 
 Full term in 1st class 
 
 $5 to $50 and costs, 
 
 12 years, in any occupa- 
 
 Children 12 to 14 may not be 
 
 
 
 cities ; in 2d class 
 
 or imprisonment 
 
 tion ; 14, in factories. 
 
 employed in any occupation, 
 
 
 
 cities not less than 
 
 not over 3 months. 
 
 workshops, mines ; 14 
 
 except during school vaca- 
 
 
 
 8, elsewhere not 
 
 or both. 
 
 to 16. in any occupation 
 
 tions by specified written 
 
 
 
 less than 6 school 
 
 
 without specified wTitten 
 
 permit, in stores, offices, ho- 
 
 
 
 months. 
 
 
 permit. 
 
 tels, mercantile establish- 
 ments, laundries, or public 
 messenger service, where they 
 reside(docs not apply to farm- 
 ing or other outdoor work). 
 
 Wyoming 
 
 7-14 
 
 6 months 
 
 Not exceeding $25 
 
 14 years, in mines ; fe- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 males may not work in 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 mines. (Constitution.) 
 
 
 United States 
 
 
 
 
 12 years, in the under- 
 ground workings of any 
 
 
 laws (for 
 
 
 
 
 
 territories). 
 
 
 
 
 mine. 
 
 
 * To 16. if unable to read and write English. 
 
 * Children 14 to 16 whose labor is necessary to their own or parents' support are excused. 
 ' Not applicable to children over 14 lawfully employed to labor at home or elsewhere. 
 
 * Except children over 14 who have completed eighth crade, or have to support selves or parents. " Inclusive. 
 
 * 8 weeks for children over 14 who can read and write English and are at work to support themselves or others. 
 
 ' The provisions tabulated for Maryland (except in fifth column) are those of the act of 1902, whose operation is limited to 
 Baltimore City and .Mlegheny County. 
 
 * Must be able to so read and write as is required to enter the second grade in 1906, third in 1907, and fourth in 1908 and after. 
 « To 16 years in cities of over 500,000 for children not lawfully and usefully employed 6 hours a day. 
 
 '° To 16 years in cities. " To "iG if unable to read and write English. 
 
 " Does not apply to children over 15 who have finished grammar school course and are regularly employed ; otherwise must 
 attend grammar, or high, or manual training school. 
 
 " Law does not take effect in any county until voted by the county ; does not apply to 1 1 counties, nor to children over 12 law- 
 fully employed at home or elsewhere. i* In the discretion of school boards. 
 
 ^ Not applicable to children over 13 who can read and write English and are regularly employed in useful service. 
 
 " Not applicable to children over 13 who are lawfully employed. 
 
 " A compulsory attendance act was passed in 1905 applying only to Claiborne and Union counties ; one for Campbell and 
 Scott counties in 1907. »* Children over 15 or under 8. when once enrolled, must attend the full term they are enrolled for. 
 
 " Compulsory attendance law optional with the voters of any county, city or town. 
 
 292
 
 ATTENDANCE 
 
 ATTENDANCE 
 
 Enforcement of the Law. — Contemporary 
 attendance legislation involves the following 
 chief factors: (a) A minimum age of universal 
 attendance; (b) a minimum age unless certain 
 educational requirements have been met; 
 
 (c) the obligation of attendance beyond the 
 minimum age if child is not regularly employed; 
 
 (d) amount of attendance each year made 
 obligatory, and its distribution within the 
 school year; (e) special requirements and ex- 
 emptions, and (/) machinery of enforcement. 
 
 (a) Throughout almost the entire United 
 States some school attendance is compulsory 
 from 7 or 8 years of age to 14. Alabama, 
 Georgia, Florida, South Carolina, Texas, and 
 Viriginia have not legislated on the subject 
 (1909); and in North Carolina and Ten- 
 nessee legislation so far passed is applicable 
 only to special sections. (6) Massachusetts, 
 New York, Idaho, New Hampshire, and others 
 require certain educational qualifications, other- 
 wise attendance is compulsory to 16. The 
 (1908) law of New Jersey sets an upper 
 limit of 17 for all who have not completed 
 the eight grades; those finishing the elementary 
 school course may not leave until 15. (c) A 
 number of states require, especially in cities, 
 that children under 16 must attend school regu- 
 larly unless definitely employed. Illinois, Mary- 
 land, Pennsylvania, and ^lissouri (St. Louis 
 and Kansas City only) are examples, (d) Laws 
 on compulsory education have frequently been 
 nullified because the amount of attendance 
 each year was not specified, and consequently 
 evasions were easy. Even yet some states 
 prescribe a minimum amount, e.g. Iowa, 16 
 consecutive weeks; Missouri (outside of St. 
 Louis), not less than half the term; Nebraska, 
 two thirds of term. The majority of states 
 having well-developed legislation now make 
 attendance obligatory for the entire term 
 during which school is in session, (e) Re- 
 cently special legislation in some states pro- 
 vides for compulsory attendance from 8 to 
 20, at State School for Deaf. Nebraska, Min- 
 nesota, and North Carolina (for whites), have 
 somewhat similar legislation. In earlv stages 
 poverty of parents paved the way for exemptions, 
 but the modern tendency is away from this. 
 Many states provide for supplying free books 
 to needy children. In Ohio and Colorado boards 
 of education must give aid in clothing where it 
 is necessary. In some large cities philanthropj' 
 has secured the provision of scholarships for 
 those whose parents need aid in keeping chil- 
 dren at school. (/) Much good legislation 
 relating to children breaks down because of 
 poor machinery of enforcement. In Connect- 
 icut there is a state agent with assistants who 
 attends to the execution of laws on compul- 
 sory education and child labor. In all other 
 states the enforcement of the law is local. In 
 nonurban areas school boards and local con- 
 stables are authorized to proceed against par- 
 ents failing to keep children in school; in cities 
 
 it is now common to constitute special attend- 
 ance officers with limited police powers. 
 Most of this machinery is yet very defective. 
 Two main difficulties present themselves in the 
 way of reform: — 
 
 Registration of children. — The lack of ade- 
 quate registration of the school children con- 
 tributory to a given school is the first. In the 
 absence of any registration the attendance 
 officers do not know at the beginning of the 
 year what children are eligible for attendance 
 at school. They do not know what children 
 are being sent to parochial schools, and ^hey 
 have no systematic means of finding the chil- 
 dren who are legitimately out of school owing to 
 health conditions. In case children are obliged 
 to attend evening school, there is no adequate 
 means of knowing whether such attendance is 
 made or not. At the end of the year there is 
 no evidence as to how much of school attend- 
 ance a given pupil has made. Attendance 
 officers are obliged to do their work in a most 
 unsystematic fashion, seeking children in parks 
 and other places of resort. 
 
 AH of these difficulties are to be obviated 
 through a system of registration by which all of 
 the children of a given area will be enrolled on 
 cards and these cards kept in some central place 
 in the area, preferably the school principal's 
 office. The attendance officers could take these 
 cards shortly after the opening of school and 
 make note of all children not attending. The 
 attendance of local parochial schools could then 
 be taken, and there would finally remain a small 
 number of names unaccounted for. The attend- 
 ance officer would then immediately visit 
 the homes of these children and take account of 
 the reasons for their absence. A similar pro- 
 cedure would appl}^ in the case of enforcing 
 evening school attendance for pupils from 
 14 to 16. 
 
 In the enforcement of compulsory education 
 a serious difficulty has arisen in the matter of 
 counting the equivalence of nonpublic educa- 
 tion. This imposes serious difficulties on 
 officers engaged in the enforcement of the law. 
 The Ohio compulsory law required every 
 parish school to furnish the names, ages, and 
 places of residence of its pupils. One large 
 school refused to do this on constitutional 
 grounds, but the Supreme Court decided that 
 the law was not unconstitutional, in that it did 
 not really interfere with the right of parents to 
 educate children according to the dictates of 
 their conscience. 
 
 Again a series of difficulties were encountered 
 in Wisconsin and Illinois about 1890 regarding 
 the states' right to inspect the quality of instruc- 
 tion given in private schools. Nothing is ac- 
 complished for the State by mere attendance. 
 The so-called Bennett law in Wisconsin open- 
 ing the way to state inspection of private schools 
 was fought and finally repealed, but it is a fact 
 that Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Rhode 
 Island have all along recognized the right of 
 
 293
 
 ATTENDANCE 
 
 ATTENDANCE 
 
 inspection of private schools, though in no very 
 formal manner. To a certain extent compulsory 
 attendance must stand or fall with the right of 
 inspection of private sdiools. 
 
 From the start it has been found that the 
 satisfactory execution of attendance laws re- 
 quires special adjustments within the schools. 
 Ciiildren forced to come to school against their 
 will, or with little interest in school, cannot be 
 classified with children who attend regularly. 
 Those disposed to be truants should have special 
 schools where close discipline may be exercised. 
 Those merely irregular need ungraded or 
 specially graded classes for their accommoda- 
 tion. Under former conditions of administration 
 it was customary to expel the incorrigible pupil 
 from school. Wliatever the effect of this on the 
 pupil expelled, it at least iiad the effect of 
 removing from the schoolroom what was 
 commonly a source of moral contagion and of 
 great difficulty to the teacher. This class of 
 children still exists; and no adequate compul- 
 sory measures can be directed toward them 
 unless special schools are provided. The school 
 authorities themselves will hartlly cooperate in 
 enforcing the law if such is not the case. New 
 York State passed its first compulsory law in 
 1874; after fourteen years' trial it was found 
 that the law had not modified school attendance, 
 had not secured the cooperation of school 
 principals, and was substantially a dead letter. 
 The machinery for its execution was inadequate, 
 but at bottom it was a question of lack of ac- 
 commodation for the difficult pupil. 
 
 Within recent years it has become obvious 
 that at least three and probably four different 
 types of special class or school are necessary in 
 any city to procure the adequate carrying out of 
 the law. (a) Those pupils who have l)ecome 
 quite incorrigible, and whose parents have lost 
 control of them, must be sent to an institutional 
 school, committed for a term of years. Only 
 thoroughgoing reform is adequate. (&) A day 
 truant school, where hours are long and manual 
 work abundant. This school, while allo\\'ing 
 pupils to sleep at home, should aim primarily 
 to keep them off the street and away from 
 contagion of bad company. Such schools do 
 not exist in America, but are found in English 
 cities, (c) Special classes should be provided 
 for pupils who cannot easily be brought under 
 the ordinary school discipline. These classes 
 may have the same programs as the ordinary 
 classes, but should be under charge of teachers 
 of sufficient maturity, exiiericnce, and personal 
 character to cope with this type of child, 
 (rf) Possibly a fourth Ujic of class should be 
 for those who by irregular attendance have 
 hopelessly fallen away from the regular class 
 attainments. 
 
 The registration of children is not a function 
 that can be adequately carried on by the police 
 department. It should center around the 
 school, and the officers responsible for it should 
 be finally amenable to the education authorities. 
 
 Labor officials and others concerned with the 
 enforcement of child labor laws, inspection, and 
 so fortli, dcahng as they do with the minority 
 of school children, should always have acces.s to 
 the registration cards in order to get any special 
 information tliat they miglit require. Calcu- 
 lations have shown that, with the system of 
 registration once started, an average of one 
 attendance officer to four or five thousand 
 school children can easily carry out the provi- 
 sions of compulsory registration. The cards 
 should be so arranged as to receive at the end 
 of each year a statement of the amount of 
 attendance made by each pupil, whether in 
 public or private school, and also some state- 
 ment as to reasons for absence. 
 
 Until some adequate system of registration 
 is enforced, and the machinery for it built up 
 within the school system, it would appear that 
 a great many of our efforts in the direction of 
 compulsory attendance must be futile, and nmst 
 also tend to bring the law into contempt. 
 
 Classification and Treatment of Truants. — 
 The second difficulty lies in the unsatisfactory 
 methods of cla.ssifying and treating the pupils 
 who have already become addicted to truancy, 
 or who are misfits as far as the school is con- 
 cerned. It is well known that principals of 
 schools will often fail to aid in the enforcement 
 of the law when the boy concerned is one who, 
 if forced back into school, does not profit by its 
 work and is a continual source of disturbance. 
 The ordinary schoolroom is not and should not 
 be a reform school, and a principal often feels 
 justified in refusing to inflict on a schoolroom 
 with forty well-disposed pupils, a boy who has 
 become addicted to truancy, and has become a 
 possible source of moral contagion to the re- 
 maining children. The school principal knows 
 that one or two spoiled children may claim an 
 altogether disproportionate share of the teacher's 
 time and energj', and may also very materially 
 demoraUze the schoolroom. On the otlier hand 
 it may not be at all practicable to send such a 
 boy to the reform school. 
 
 The obvious remedy lies in the fuller develop- 
 ment of disciplinary classes, one of which at least 
 should be attached to each large school, and tlie 
 principal should have full power of commitment 
 to this disciplinary class. The disciphnary class 
 would, of course, be an ungraded class, and the 
 teacher should be specially selected and com- 
 pensated, and not more than 20 or 25 boys 
 should be kept in a room. Attendance in this 
 disciplinary class should continue as long as it 
 seems that the pupil is mentally or morally a 
 misfit for the regular schoolroom. 
 
 Beyond this disciplinary class there should 
 be a day truant school of a type not now found in 
 America, but which is working verj' successfully 
 in certain English cities. This day truant 
 school should receive all children who are too 
 incorrigible for the disciplinary class, and who 
 possess homes which are capable of supplement- 
 ing the school work. In the day truant school 
 
 294
 
 ATTENDANCE 
 
 ATTENTION 
 
 the program should be very different from that 
 in the elementary school. The school day 
 should be long, from 9 to 12 hours. There 
 should be abundant opportunity for su]Der- 
 vised play, and half of the working hours 
 should be given to some form of industrial work. 
 By this means the boys would be kept off the 
 streets, something which is not practicable in 
 the ordinary school. The systematic course of 
 treatment would result in the building up of 
 right habits, and the school itself would keep 
 in close touch with the homes. 
 
 Of course, for children who have got quite 
 beyond the control of the parents, or who come 
 from so-called broken homes, the ordinary 
 boarding reform school is the only solution. 
 These schools already exist, and the procedure 
 for the commitment of cases to them is well 
 known. Until we have some such fundamental 
 classification and segregation of the more diffi- 
 cult cases of truancy as that proposed above, it 
 would be very difficult to enforce the law with 
 regard to a large group of boys for whom it is 
 especiallj' necessary. 
 
 The American states are obviously moving 
 toward certain standards in compulsory at- 
 tendance which will partly depend upon de- 
 velopment of additional school facilities. For 
 example, child labor legislation is increasingly 
 closing up industries to youths under 16. 
 The raising of educational standards will com- 
 pel many children to attend school until they 
 are 16. The State will provide for those 
 who are demonstrably needy, rather than allow 
 dependent parents to withhold from children 
 their educational heritage. The increasing 
 appreciation of the need of vocational education 
 will result in the provision of special school 
 facilities for imparting either the whole or part 
 of this education. It is not improbable that 
 the advanced position of Germany in this 
 respect {i.e. compelling children from fourteen 
 to eighteen to give part time to continuation 
 education of a vocational or other character), 
 will be imitated. Special schools will be pro- 
 vided for defectives and delinquents, and at- 
 tendance at these made obligatory. Ulti- 
 mately a complete system of registration of 
 all children must be provided, to be carried on 
 by attendance officers and centralized in each 
 limited school area, not only for the enforce- 
 ment of attendance, but for obtaining com- 
 pliance with child labor legislation, and the 
 provision of medical or other aid. D. S. 
 
 See articles on Child L.ibor, Official State 
 Publications on Education, and on the va- 
 rious national systems. 
 
 References: — 
 
 Each Report of the Commi.ssion of Education con- 
 tains material. See especially one for U»U7, p. 4L3. 
 Murphy, E. G. Problems of the Present South. (New 
 
 York, 1904.) 
 Sewall, Hann.\h R. Child Labor in the United States, 
 
 in U. S. Bureau of Labor. Bull. No. 52, Vol. 9. 
 Shaw, W. B. Compulsory Education in the United 
 
 States, Ed. Rev. 3 ; 444 ; 4 : 47, 129. 
 
 SuLLiv.iN, J. D. Summary of Compulsory Attendance 
 and Child Labor Law. New York State Education 
 Department, Bull. 114, Legislature 34. (Albany, 
 1007.) 
 
 ATTENDANCE OFFICERS. 
 
 ANCE, Compulsory. 
 
 ■ See Attend- 
 
 295 
 
 ATTENTION. --The Conscious Activity of 
 the Mind. Attention is the great gateway of 
 the mind. Through it must pass every sen- 
 sation and every idea which would gain access 
 to the field of consciousness. This fact is 
 sometimes expressed by saying that the mind 
 always has a focus point, that thoughts mo- 
 mentarily in this focus are more intense, or 
 at lea.st clearer and more distinct, than those 
 outside. Only such thoughts as gain entrance 
 to this focus really come to full and complete 
 consciousness. Many others succeed in forcing 
 their way into the margins of the focus, but 
 further than that they do not get. This selec- 
 tive property of mental activity, this fact of con- 
 centration it is to which the term " attention " 
 is applied. Evidently it is one of the most 
 fundamental attributes of the mind and one 
 which must condition every stage of mental 
 development and education. We may well 
 ask first what influences are responsible for the 
 success or failure of particular items to secure 
 a place in this focal region of the mind. 
 
 Primarily, no doubt, one's inherited nervous 
 organization is the most important element. 
 A child may be relatively more sensitive to 
 sound than to light. In this case his primitive 
 consciousness will tend to be dominated by 
 auditory experiences rather than by those of a 
 visual kind. In later life this bias toward one 
 sensory realm may lead to the formation of a 
 serious interest, which will control his entire 
 career. He may thus be led to become a 
 musician. Certain sorts of stimulation appeal 
 strongly to all of us by virtue of our common 
 human ancestry and without regard to the 
 peculiar personal organization which we may 
 chance to have acquired in the vicissitudes of 
 inheritance. All intense stimuli thus tend to 
 arouse attention. All emotional objects, such, 
 for example, as those which occasion fear, anger, 
 love, and all the stronger feelings, tend similarly 
 to transfix our attention at the expense of less 
 exciting competitors. On the other hand, at- 
 tention is often drawn through the influences 
 of experience to objects which inherently pos- 
 sessed no attraction. In this way one may be 
 led into some form of employment with no 
 other interest than the securing of a livelihood, 
 but in the progress of time the duties therewith 
 connected may take on an interest which 
 renders them most alluring to attention. 
 
 Psychologists have been in the habit of using 
 several classifications of the various ways in 
 which we exercise our attention. They speak 
 of sensory or ideational attention, depending 
 on the particular nature of the conscious fact 
 to which we attend. If some object present to
 
 ATTENTION 
 
 ATTENTION 
 
 the physical senses is the focus of attention, 
 we have the first variety; if the object is a 
 thought in tiie mind of something not present 
 to the senses, we have the second form. Again 
 they speak of immediate or derived attention, de- 
 pending on whether the tliought is one possess- 
 ing inherent interest or one gaining its power 
 over the mind by virtue of some rehition to 
 another object itself having such attractive- 
 ness. The interest of the .youth in the maiden 
 is direct. His interest in his profession may be 
 only indirect or mediate, brought about by the 
 possibility tliat it may afford means to care for 
 the maiden. Both these divisions seem to be 
 based on circumstances more or less extrinsic 
 to the act of attention itself. A more genuinely 
 intrinsic division is that into sjiontaneous, 
 involuntary, and voluntary attention. 
 
 Spontaneous attention • is sufficiently ex- 
 plained, perhaps, by the very title. Whenever 
 we attend willingly and without effort, we have 
 in some measure spontaneous attention. In 
 the life of the child such attention is manifested 
 by the response to almost every form of sensory 
 stinnilation. It is manifested by everj-body 
 through the interest in objects which appeal 
 to our feelings strongly, especially those which 
 please or excite us powerfully. Involuntary 
 attention is represented by such experiences 
 as those in which we are assailed by some ex- 
 tremely intense stimulation, like a violent noise, 
 to which we are obliged to attend, momentarily 
 at least, whether we so desire or not. Morbid 
 ideas sometimes exercise a similar coercive 
 influence over attention. The mind cannot 
 leave them alone, no matter how great the 
 effort. Voluntary attention is exercised when- 
 ever we attend as a result of a definite purpose 
 and effort so to do. The student applying 
 himself to his task in the face of distraction 
 represents this form of mental activity. 
 
 Different as these three kinds of attention 
 at first sight appear, there is reason to think 
 that they are in reality derivatives of a common 
 primitive type, i.e. spontaneous attention. 
 As the mind gains in maturity, its ideas become 
 systematized and arranged with reference to 
 definite desires and purpo.ses. The need of 
 food and warmth may be taken as illustrations 
 of influences which from the very beginning 
 exercise pressure on the mind, and thereby 
 little by little force attention to display pref- 
 erence for such objects and ideas as are pleas- 
 urably related to these items, with a corre- 
 sponding neglect of all other competing items. 
 This organization of a set of relatively perma- 
 nent interests is the beginning of voluntary 
 attention, which thus grows out of the spon- 
 taneous type of attentive process. Involuntary 
 attention in the case of ideas is essentially 
 pathological. In the ease of sense stimuli 
 occasioning this form of attentive response, it 
 is simply an expression of the evolutionary 
 value of giving heed to strong stimuli so many 
 of which are dangerous for the organism. If 
 
 violent stimulations did not contain menace 
 for the welfare of the individual, most of the 
 instances of involuntary attention would never 
 occur. Until voluntary purpcses are formed 
 involuntary attention is indistinguishable from 
 spontaneous attention. When these purposes 
 are matured, involuntary attention remains 
 as a safeguard against too great absorption in 
 purely intellectual forms of interest with for- 
 getfulness of the possible dangers and demands 
 of physical nature. 
 
 One of the interesting problems connected 
 with attention is that of the number of objects 
 to which we can attend sinuiltaneously. A 
 great many striking experiments have been per- 
 formed, showing that in a practical way the 
 number of elements which may enter into the 
 focus of attention varies widely under different 
 circumstances. For example, if 3 letters be 
 exposed to the eye for a fraction of a second, 
 it maybe impossible to read more than one of 
 them with certainty. But if they spell a word, 
 they can be readily recognized, and under such 
 conditions even more letters may be correctly 
 read in the same period of time. However 
 many elements may thus enter into an object 
 of attention, they are combined by the mind 
 into essentially one " thing," so that psycho- 
 logically speaking it may be said that we 
 attend to but one object at a time. The 
 problem as to how many movements we can 
 perform at once must be sharply separated 
 from the problem just stated. We can do an 
 indefinite number of things at one time, the 
 only limitation being native skill and practice. 
 But such achievements do not involve attending 
 to each part of the activity. Indeed, it is 
 only as we learn to get along without attending 
 to the details that our skill rises toward per- 
 fection. 
 
 Another interesting feature of attention is 
 the fluctuating or rhythmic character of it. 
 The reasons for these fluctuations have been 
 sought in various directions: they have been 
 attributed to fatigue in the muscles involved in 
 the retention of our bodily attitudes; they 
 have been referred to fatigue in the cells of the 
 cerebral cortex, etc. Indeed, some evidence 
 has recently been brought forward to discredit 
 the belief that the fluctuations are really attrib- 
 utable to attention at all. But in a practical 
 way there can be no doubt that attention has 
 periodic shifts. Certainly if we wish to con- 
 tinue our attending to a given subject of 
 thought, we find it necessary to keep noting 
 something new about it. Simply to fixate it 
 in a blind sort of fashion results in our suddenly 
 finding ourselves attending to something quite 
 foreign to the topic with which we started. 
 The length of these periods of fluctuation de- 
 pends on many circumstances which forbid 
 any general statement. But they may be 
 said to be relatively brief, in many instances 
 not more than 2 or 3 seconds, often much less. 
 
 Attention sustains certain important rela- 
 
 296
 
 ATTENTION 
 
 ATTENTION 
 
 tions to other parts of mental life which deserve 
 special mention. In the first place, attention 
 is all-important for memory. A good memory 
 depends on many factors, but on none more 
 invariably than upon attention. Nine tenths 
 of all the inability to remember which vexes 
 the life of the ordinary person, and especially 
 the ordinary school child, is due to inattention, 
 i.e. attention to something other than the 
 thing to be remembered. On the other hand, 
 all persons who possess good memories are 
 capable of concentrating their minds with 
 firmness and at will upon the matter in hand. 
 Five minutes of such concentrated attention is 
 worth an hour of the diffused and wandering 
 attention which is the best contribution that 
 many students ever make to their intellectual 
 development. 
 
 Attention is also related to habit, to will, and 
 to motor activities in the most intimate manner. 
 It is a commonly accepted doctrine among 
 psychologists that attention is the cardinal fact 
 in the exercise of the will. What we attend to is 
 that which determines what we will. Indeed, to 
 attend fixedly to an idea of action with complete 
 disregard of all competing ideas is to will the 
 act. Only by the power of inhibiting ideas is 
 any idea ever prevented from immediately 
 occasioning action. To attend unwaveringly 
 to an idea is to forestall this inhibitive process 
 and thus bring action to pass. The principles 
 of attention are accordingly the principles of 
 the will. Not only, however, are motor 
 activities consequences of attention; they are 
 also conditions of its occurrence. To give 
 attention to an object of vision requires a 
 certain accommodation of the muscles of the 
 eye. The same thing is true of auditory atten- 
 tion, and even attention to ideas involves cer- 
 tain bodily attitudes which facilitate, if they do 
 not render possible, the directing of attention 
 to intellectual ends. In the last case these 
 attitudes are generally such as tend to assure 
 freedom from distraction and the securing of 
 an easy bodily position from which fatigue will 
 not speedily arise. It is furthermore a com- 
 monplace of modern psychology that habits are 
 built up by a slow process in which we first 
 give attention to the various steps in the 
 coordination to be learned, whereupon little 
 by little we find ourselves coming into posses- 
 sion of the power to execute the act, whatever 
 it may be, without any thought and with an 
 increasing speed and accuracy that is almo.st 
 miraculous. Learning to master the type- 
 writer or the piano will illustrate the point. 
 Attention to motor activities is therefore the 
 first step in that most significant of all the 
 chapters of our life accomplishments, i.e. the 
 process by means of which we come to command 
 hundreds of automatic acts which take charge 
 for us of the routine of everyday affairs. Walk- 
 ing, eating, dressing, — what is there which does 
 not illustrate the matter? 
 
 The foregoing sketch contains certain obvious 
 
 implications for educational procedure and 
 theory. An attribute of the mind which is of 
 fundamental consequence for memory, for will, 
 and for the formation of habit must possess 
 extreme importance for education. The sig- 
 nificant educational problems which center 
 about attention may be formulated as follows. 
 
 How can children be taught concentration 
 of attention? Without such concentration 
 memory can never be reliable, and efficiency of 
 every kind will be on a low level. How can 
 voluntary attention be superposed upon spon- 
 taneous and involuntary attention, or inatten- 
 tion, as the latter conditions are often called ? 
 No one has acliieved any material mastery over 
 himself who cannot at will control his atten- 
 tion even amid distractions. 
 
 On the whole, modern psychology agrees 
 with pedagogical practice in the general char- 
 acter of the reply which it makes to these ques- 
 tions. Concentration can only be gained by 
 successful appeal to interest (q.v.). This 
 interest maj' be of a highly vicarious type, as 
 when, under the older regime, the birch was 
 introcluced to secure concentration of attention 
 upon classical literature. Or it can be direct, 
 as in the modern efforts so to arrange the 
 curriculum as to meet the child's mind on the 
 level of its native vital needs. In actual execu- 
 tion this latter method is often charged with 
 sentimentalism and mushiness. It is not yet 
 clear that consequences such as would justify 
 this charge necessarily emanate from it. 
 Voluntary attention is generally procured by 
 the appeal to the indirect rewards, and natur- 
 ally, for such attention is precisely that variety 
 where in the nature of the case interest is not 
 felt in the task itself. Here again, however, 
 the actual practice differs widely; in some 
 schools the incentive comes almost wholly from 
 fear of punishment, in other schools it is con- 
 nected with rewards of one sort or another. In 
 whatever manner gained, nothing is clearer than 
 the fact that in one way or another the capacity 
 to stand being bored and uncomfortable is a 
 sine qua non of any high mental efficiency. 
 
 Interest conceived in a broad and sane way 
 is doubtless the clew to a deeper solution of the 
 educational problems of attention than any 
 other yet suggested. But it must be interest 
 viewed from the standpoint of deep, persistent, 
 socialized human needs, not from that of tran- 
 sient, ephemeral likes and di.slikes, which 
 would speedily reduce to chaos any educational 
 system that undertook to recognize them. We 
 always do appeal to interest of one kind or 
 another, and always must so appeal in our 
 efforts to train attention. The only problem 
 which we have to face, therefore, is that of 
 selecting the special type of interest upon which 
 we shall plac« our reliance and seeing to it 
 that we employ it in a way to encourage the 
 qualities we desire to develop, rather than 
 defeat the end for which we strive. J. R. A. 
 
 See Discipline, Formal. 
 
 297
 
 ATTITUDE 
 
 AUDITORY DISCRIMINATION 
 
 References: — 
 
 Baulky. \V. C. The Educative Process. (New York, 
 
 1!)0S.) 
 Dewey, J. Interest as related to will. (BloominEton, 
 
 111., 1.S96.) 
 J.t.MEs, W. Talks to Teachers. (New York, 1899.) 
 PiLL-SBCRY, W. B. Attention. (New York, 1908.) 
 Tuor:jdike, E. L. Principles of Teaching. (New 
 
 York, 1900.) 
 TiTCHENER, E. B. Psychology of Feeling and Attention. 
 
 (New York, 1908.) 
 
 ATTITUDE. — A term which has been u.-<ed 
 to describe in a general way the reaction of a 
 subject upon any impression received from his 
 environment. Used in this fashion it is suffi- 
 ciently comprehensive to include feeling, atten- 
 tion, and other similar general jihases of mental 
 experience. It refers also to bodily activities 
 when these are directed toward given objects, 
 and thus serves the useful purpose of associat- 
 ing in discussion mental states with the bodily 
 reactions which they condition or by which 
 they are themselves conditioned. Thus one 
 speaks of an attitude of di.sgust or pleasure, and 
 includes at once the inner mental emotional 
 experience and its physical external accom- 
 paniments of muscular response. C. H. J. 
 
 See Ability, General and Special ; Indi- 
 vidual Differences. 
 
 ATYPICAL. — Deviation from the normal 
 or typical in either direction, e.g. both genius 
 and idiot are atypical in comparison with nor- 
 mal individuals. See Abnormal; Exceptional 
 Classes, Education of, Individual Differ- 
 ences. 
 
 ATYPICAL CHILDREN. — See Defec- 
 tives, Education of; DEFECT^^^Es, Schools 
 
 FOR. 
 
 AUBURN THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY, 
 AUBURN, N.Y. — Established in 1819 by the 
 Cleneral Presbyterian Assembly for the training 
 of ministers. Students who have graduated 
 from college with the degree of B.A. are ad- 
 mitted, although candidates over 25 are ad- 
 mitted on examination. The degree of bachelor 
 of divinity is conferred at the end of 3 years' 
 study. Courses in religious pedagogy and 
 Sundaj' school history and principles are given. 
 There are 10 professors and 1 instructor on the 
 faculty. Rev. George Black Stewart, D.D., 
 LL.D., is the president. 
 
 AUDIOMETER. — An instrument for deter- 
 mining the degree of auditory sensitivity and 
 discrimination of sound intensities possessed by 
 an individual. The audiometer, or acoumeter, 
 enables one to produce sounds of a uniform char- 
 acter, but of variable and measurable strength. 
 At present audiometers are built on the principle 
 that the sound in a telephone receiver varies 
 with the strength of the current which is sent 
 through it. Tuning forks, singing flames, 
 falling pellets, falling hammers, have been used 
 
 for the same purpose, but are not practical. 
 The almost universal substitute for an audiom- 
 eter is a ticking watch held at variable dis- 
 tances from the ear. (For the history of 
 audiometry and illustrations of the different 
 types of audiometers, see Vaschide, " Dc 
 I'audiometrie " in Bulletin laryngohnjic, otologic 
 et rhinologic. Vol. V, Sept., 1001.) The audiom- 
 eter is used in psychology, as in the measuring 
 of sensitivity and discrimination for the inten- 
 sity of sounds, auditory attention, auditory 
 fatigue, the effect of physical and mental 
 stimuli upon hearing, etc.; in education, for 
 the determination of hearing ability of school 
 children, or selected classes of people; in medi- 
 cine for proving up cases under treatment by 
 the aurist. C. E. S. 
 
 AUDITORY. — See Hearing. 
 
 AUDITORY DISCRIMINATION. — This 
 term may refer to the aliility to distinguish inten- 
 sities or to the ability to distinguish qualitative 
 differences, especially of tones. The measure- 
 ment of auditory discrimination for intensity 
 is one of the best known of the so-called mental 
 or sensory tests (q.v.). The measurement con- 
 sists in determining how small a deviation in 
 intensity from a given standard tone an indi- 
 vidual can hear. The magnitude of this least 
 perceptible difference in intensity of tone, to- 
 gether with the measurement of the reliability 
 of that magnitude, are taken as indices to the 
 capacity for intellectual use of the difference in 
 the strength, loudness, or intensity of sound. 
 (See Audiometer.) 
 
 Keenness of tonal hearing is measured by the 
 threshold of discrimination, i.e. the smallest 
 vibration difference which can be perceived as 
 a difference in pitch. Individuals differ greatly 
 in this capacity, and lack of tone discrimina- 
 tion is not necessarily a sign of lack of general 
 mental ability. A good musical ear will detect 
 a pitch difference of one vibration or less; 
 ordinary students of music may get along with 
 a discrimination of from 1 to 5 vilirations, 
 and those who cannot discern less than 5 to 15 
 vibrations may be al)le to appreciate something 
 of music. But those whose discrimination 
 lies beyond 15 vibrations, should not, and sel- 
 dom do, have anything to do with music. 
 These estimates are given upon the basis of 
 measurements at 43.5 vibrations per second. 
 At this point 1 vibration is equivalent to 
 about 3V of a tone. This discrimination can 
 be measured most conveniently by a series 
 of tuning forks, each fork varying from the 
 standard by small steps in a series. The dis- 
 crimination is usually keenest about the age 
 of 10, provided the child has had sufficient 
 training at that time to under.stand the mean- 
 ing of pitch. The measurement may be made 
 so as to determine approximately the physio- 
 logical limit, which is the limit set by the 
 physical structure of the ear, and if this is done, 
 
 298
 
 AUDITORY PERCEPTION 
 
 AUGUSTINE OF CANTERBURY 
 
 no improvement will result from training. It 
 is therefore possible to use the discrimination 
 test for diagnosis, early in childhood, to deter- 
 mine whether or not the child is physically 
 capable of musical appreciation. A class of 
 eighth grade pupils will show a better average 
 record than a class of university students. 
 Girls and boys have about equal ability in this 
 respect. Poor discrimination results in lack 
 of real enjoyment of music, and usually makes 
 music pupils dull. C. E. S. 
 
 AUDITORY PERCEPTION. — Certain 
 phases of auditory perception are of importance 
 because the organs of hearing are especially 
 significant in all social intercourse. The human 
 ear differs from the animal ear in that it is 
 employed chiefly for the recognition of fine 
 distinctions in sound. It would be disadvan- 
 tageous for a human being to have the long, 
 funnel-shaped ear of an animal, since this funnel 
 would act as a resonator and modify the char- 
 acter of external sounds, thereby obscuring 
 many of the differences essential in the recog- 
 nition of language. The ear of the animal is 
 employed in the recognition of the direction 
 from which sounds come. In human experience 
 recognition of spatial relations through sound 
 is relatively undeveloped. This recognition 
 of spatial relations through sound depends 
 very largely upon binaural hearing (q.v.). 
 Other phases of auditory perception are dis- 
 cussed under Be.\ts, CoMBiN.-i.TioN Tones, 
 Tones and Noises. See also Deafness; Tone 
 Deafness; and Perception. C.H.J. 
 
 AUGSBURG SEMINARY, MINNEAPOLIS, 
 MINN. — Founded in 1869 by Norwegians at 
 Marshall, Wis., to train ministers for the Lu- 
 theran Free Church; removed to the present 
 location in 1S72. The basis of the institution 
 has, however, been broadened, and in addition 
 to the theological course, preparatory and 
 college departments are maintained. The 
 admission requirements to the college are 
 equivalent approximately to 2 years' high school 
 work. The degree of B. A. is given in the college 
 on completion of the 4 years' course, and the 
 degree of candidatus theologiae in the theological 
 department. Nearly half the number of stu- 
 dents are in the preparatory department. 
 The faculty consists of 10 professors and 6 
 instructors and lecturers. Professor Sven 
 Oftedalil is the president. 
 
 AUGUSTANA COLLEGE, CANTON, S.D. 
 
 — A coeducational institution of the United 
 Norwegian Lutheran Church of America, 
 originally the Lutheran Augustana School, 
 founded in 1860 and located at Chicago, since 
 when it was moved several times, and finally 
 to Canton in 1884. Preparatory, academic, 
 normal, music, and commercial courses are 
 offered. The 4-year normal course leads to 
 a 5-year state certificate on the graduation 
 
 diploma. A parochial normal course of 2 years 
 is also maintained to prepare teachers for 
 Lutheran parochial schools. There are 11 
 instructors. Anthony G. Tuve is the president. 
 
 AUGUSTANA COLLEGE AND THEO- 
 LOGICAL SEMINARY, ROCK ISLAND, ILL. 
 
 — A denominational institution owned by the 
 Evangelical Lutheran Augustana Synod of 
 North America, founded in 1860. While prima- 
 rily intended for the preparation of ministers, 
 the institution now includes preparatory, 
 academic, collegiate, normal, business, and 
 music departments. Admission to the college 
 is by certificate from any state accredited high 
 school, the academy, or by examination re- 
 quiring about 12i units. In the college six 
 groups are offered — classical, modern lan- 
 guage, Latin-scientific, general science, pre- 
 medical, and mathematical. Degrees are 
 granted on completion of prescribed courses. 
 Students may enter into the normal depart- 
 ment from the preparatory. Candidates are 
 admitted to the theological course who have 
 graduated in a college course. Three years' 
 residence is required for the B.D. degree. 
 The archives of the college contain a historical 
 collection of American Lutheran and Scandi- 
 navian American literature, and files of the 
 leading American Lutheran periodicals. There 
 is a faculty of 42 professors, instructors, and 
 assistants. Rev. Gustav Albert Andreen, 
 Ph.D., R.N.O., is the president. 
 
 AUGUSTINE OF CANTERBURY. — As 
 
 the founder of the English Church, St. Augus- 
 tine was the father also of English education. 
 For the school had in those days become an 
 inseparable accident of the church. Nothing 
 is known of Augustine's birth or life before he, 
 being a monk and Prepositus or Provost of St. 
 Andrews monastery at Rome, was selected by 
 Pope Gregory the Great in 595 to go out as a 
 missionary to England. He was to go at first 
 to Deira, or Yorkshire, to convert to Chris- 
 tianity the people whose golden-haired sons, 
 according to the legend told by Bede, had 
 attracted Gregory's attention in the slave 
 market, as looking like angels rather than 
 Angles, and, being Deirans, to be saved De ira 
 Dei. But when in Gaul, on his way to England, 
 Augustine heard such dreadful accounts of the 
 fierceness of the North that he and his 30 com- 
 panions gave up the mission and returned to 
 Rome. They were sent out again, this time to 
 Canterbury instead of York, because the 
 Queen Bertha, being a Prankish princess, was 
 a Christian, and, according to Gregory's letter 
 to her, " endowed with learning." Ethelbert, 
 her husband, was converted, and in 602 or 
 603 Augustine, having been made bishop in 
 597, consecrated Christ Church, an old Roman 
 church, it is said by Bede, as a cathedral. 
 Though Augustine is never spoken of as a 
 learned man otherwise than in the scriptures, 
 
 299
 
 AUGUSTINE, ST. 
 
 AUGUSTINE, ST. 
 
 he, of course, knew Latin and was able to teach 
 it. He was expressly told by Gregory that, 
 being a bishop, he must give up the monastic 
 life and live like other bishops with his clerks, 
 but, being a monk, he sliould live witli them 
 not on a separate portion of the episcopal 
 estate, hut like tiic early Christians, having all 
 things in common with them. That he set up 
 a school is to be inferred from Bede's mention 
 (iii, IS) of the Canterbury School as a thing of 
 course, when he recounts the establishment by 
 Sigebert, King of the East .\ngles, on his return 
 from exile in Gaul, " wishing to imitate what 
 he had seen well arranged there," of a grammar 
 school {xcolfim in qua piicri liltcris erudirentur). 
 Bishop Felix, whom he liad got from Kent, 
 helped him, and " provided for them (the boys) 
 pedagogues and masters after the fashion of the 
 people of Canterbury." Augustine's episco- 
 pate was very short. After a signal failure, 
 due to his insolent assumption of superiority, 
 to bring tlie British bishops to acknowledge 
 his primacy and enter into communion with 
 the English church, which, besides Canterbury, 
 consisted onlv of two bishoprics, London and 
 Rochester, he died May 26, 605. A. F. L. 
 
 References: — 
 
 Bede. EccI. Hist. EtI. by Plummcr. 
 
 Hadda.n and 8tubbs. Eccl. Doc. 
 
 CuTTs, E. L. Augiustinc of Canterbury. (London, l^i*o.) 
 
 AUGUSTINE, ST. (354-430 .^.d.). — Bi.shop 
 of Hippo, and one of the most noted of the 
 Latin Fathers. He has the high educational 
 interest of exhibiting the Latin culture to us 
 at the moment when the Western Empire 
 reaches its pedagogic culmination, and then 
 revealing one of the causes of the decay of 
 culture and education in Europe. Born at 
 Thagaste (now South-Arras, in Algeria) on 
 Nov. 13, 354, he passed through the hands 
 ' of the public elementary teacher (calcvlo 
 or literator), and went on to the higher school 
 of the grammaticits or litcr(itu.s, another mu- 
 nicipal institution, for Greek and Latin lit- 
 ters. Greek he never adequately commands 1, 
 and it is not without bearing on the inexact- 
 ness of his erudition that the grammaticiis 
 merely gave his pupils history, geography, etc., 
 in the form of a rambling commentary on 
 the poets. Donatus was just then beginning 
 his reform of the grammatica. As he was in- 
 tended for the bar, he then studied rhetoric at 
 Madaura, in the third and highest grade of 
 municipally subsidized school. 
 
 In his sixteenth year Augustine, whose 
 father — a pagan, and curial of his town — 
 had just died, was sent by a wealthy uncle to 
 the metropolitan school (a kind of provincial 
 university) at Carthage. Here logic, music, 
 mathematics, and astronomy were imparted. 
 The reading of Cicero's Hortensius, in his 
 eighteenth year, gave him a serious bent for 
 philosophy, and he embraced Manicha'ism. 
 Abandoning his forensic ambition, probably 
 
 from lack of funds, he returned to teach gram- 
 mar at Thagaste, and continue his study of 
 philosophy. There he wrote his first treatise, 
 De ApU) et Pulchro, which has not survived. 
 In 379 or 380 he opened a school of rhetoric at 
 Carthage, but the unruly conduct of the pupils 
 and a breach with the Manicha^ans induced 
 him to leave Africa. In 384 he opened a pri- 
 vate school of rhetoric at Rome, and in the same 
 year, disliking Rome, obtained the position of 
 public teacher of rhetoric at Milan. 
 
 The religious condition of Rome had inclined 
 Augustine to the philoso])hy of the New Acad- 
 emy (skepticism), and he had two years of great 
 unrest. At last a " Platonist " (more probably 
 a Neo- Platonist — his references to Greek 
 schools are always loose) work removed his 
 materialistic difficulties, and he yielded to the 
 entreaties of his mother, St. Monica, and St. 
 Ambrose. With a few pupils he retired to a 
 villa toward the Ali)s, and there wrote or 
 dictated — shorthand was in common use at 
 the time — a series of Platonist treatises and 
 discussions {Contra Academicos, De Bcata 
 Vita, De Ordine, and the SoUloquia). He 
 returned to Milan for baptism in the spring of 
 387, and set out for Africa. 
 
 Losing his mother at Ostia, he proceeded to 
 Rome and began his long controversial career 
 with a vigorous camiiaign against the Mani- 
 chees. On his return to Thagaste he converted 
 his father's house into a religious-philosophical 
 community, and wrote his De Vera Religione 
 (in which his philosophic stage culminates), 
 Dc Genesi (a liberal interpretation), and De 
 Musica. His fame for asceticism (of philo- 
 sophic moderation) and learning made him so 
 much sought as a bishop that he had to move 
 about warily, but he was captured and made 
 auxiliary bishop by the little pamccin at Hippo 
 in 391. In the succeeding years of heavy 
 controversial work against Manichees, Pagans, 
 Donatists, and Pelagians, his zeal for culture 
 wholly disappeared. He ceased to read lay 
 works, derided questions of natural science, 
 and came to speak of Plato as " that fool." 
 Only when he comes to write his Dc Civilate 
 Dei — written at intervals from 413 to 427 — 
 against the cultivated pagans do we realize the 
 culture he had garnered. All the weightier 
 writers concur that his erudition was as loose 
 and ill disciplined as it was vast and varied. 
 The fault lies with the pedagogy of the time, 
 and his later absorption in controversial work. 
 He was one of the most learned, and the most 
 subtle and jihilosophical, of later Latin writers. 
 
 In the kind of small seminary, or clergy-house, 
 which he established at Hippo, there was no 
 systematic teaching, nor did he demand any 
 in the monasteries which he encouraged. He, 
 however, laid down rules for the .systematic 
 study of scripture in his De Doctrina Chris- 
 tiana (397 and 426), wrote a small manual De 
 Cnlcrhizandi.'i Rudibu.'i (400), and in 423 com- 
 piled for a rebellious community of nuns the 
 
 300
 
 AURELIUS 
 
 AUSTRALIA 
 
 code of regulations which became the Rtde of 
 Si. Augustine. His Retractationes (426 or 427) 
 embody the idea of revising rather than re- 
 tracting, but show a wide removal from his 
 early philosophy. He died on Aug. 28, 430, 
 saddened by the spectacle of the Vandals 
 destroying his whole lifcwork. 
 
 Augustine is perhaps best known as the 
 author of the Confessions, an account of his 
 life up to the time of his baptism. Whether 
 the work, which was written about 400, was 
 motivated by a desire to moderate the enthu- 
 siasm of his admirers or to praise God for his 
 conversion, it is marked by the care with which 
 the author lays bare his inmost thoughts. As 
 a psychological studj' of the development of a 
 human soul, the Co7ifessions have a strong 
 interest for the reader. In addition to the 
 narrative of his own life the author includes 
 discussions of philosophic and religious ques- 
 tions. J. MacC. 
 
 References : — 
 Harnack, a. Confessions. Tr. (London, 1901.) 
 McCabe, J. St. Augustine and his Age. (New York, 
 
 1903.) 
 ScHAFF, P., and Wace, H. Nicene and Post-Nicene 
 
 Fathers. (New York, 1903.) 
 
 AURELIUS. — See Maecds Aurelius. 
 
 AURICULAR INSTRUCTION.— See Deaf, 
 
 Education of. 
 
 AUSONIUS, DECIMUS MAGNUS. ^ Born 
 at Bordeaux about the year 309; was educated 
 in the city of his birth, and afterwards at 
 Toulouse, under the auspices of his uncle, the 
 rhetorician Arborius. His studies were prin- 
 cipally, after the manner of the time, in Latin 
 and (Sreek grammar, rhetoric and law. After 
 essaying the practice of law Ausonius turned to 
 the art of teaching, and accepted a chair of 
 grammar at Bordeaux, in which he was emi- 
 nently successful, finall}' becoming a rhetorician 
 and the most conspicuous teacher in Gaul. 
 His fame reached the ears of Valentinian, who 
 called him to the imperial court, intrusted him 
 with the education of his young son Gratian, 
 then a lad of 8 years, and thus permitted him 
 to compare himself with other tutors of princes, 
 including the great Seneca, Fronto, and Lac- 
 tantius. It was perhaps at this time that 
 Ausonius first professed himself a Christian, 
 and the shallowness of his profession accorded 
 perfectly with that of the Emperor himself. 
 The good fortune of Ausonius gave a new im- 
 pulse to his muse, and won him the friendship, 
 besides, of such notables as Symmachus and 
 Probus. 
 
 Gratian had barely emerged from the age of 
 tutelage, when he succeeded, in 37.5, to the gov- 
 ernment of the empire, and soon bestirred him- 
 self to reward his teacher. Ausonius became 
 prefect of Africa and Italy, and afterwards of 
 Gaul; and the sum of his honors was completed 
 
 by the gift of the consulship for the year 379. 
 But the downfall of his protector was near, and 
 with the fall of Gratian Ausonius retired from 
 court to the nest of his old age in Aquitaine, 
 notwithstanding that apparently the favor of 
 Theodosius also would have been extended 
 toward him. Here he superintended the 
 education of his grandson, wrote elegies to his 
 parents and the professors at Bordeaux, and 
 poems inspired by well-worn remnants of the 
 ancient mythology; and here he may have 
 died about the year 394. He lived in an age 
 when true poetry was impossible ; but his 
 verses have delicacy and ingenuity, and traces 
 of an original grace and love of natural beauty; 
 and incidentally, they reflect considerable light 
 on the methods and character of contemporary 
 Roman education. They indicate the disci- 
 pline of the schools, the content of grammati- 
 cal studies, the widespread use of shorthand 
 and mnemonic rhymes, the scope, specializa- 
 tion, and imperial support of higher education, 
 the high culture of Gaul in the fourth century, 
 and the arid and pedantic character of the 
 literary instruction of the period. P. R. C. 
 
 References: — 
 
 Ausonius, Opera, ed. by Schenkl. (Berlin, 1883.) 
 Ibid., Mosella, tr. by C. T. Brooks, in Waring's 
 
 Bride of the Rhine. (Boston, 1878.) 
 Dill. Roman Society in the Last Century of the Western 
 
 Empire. (London, 1899.) 
 Cole, P. R. Capella, Ausonius and the Theodosian 
 
 C'ode. Teachers College Publications. (New York, 
 
 1909.) 
 
 AUSTIN COLLEGE, SHERMAN, TEX. — 
 
 Founded in 1849 by the Presbyterians of Texas, 
 and first located at Huntsville, but removed 
 to Sherman in 1876. Preparatory and college 
 departments are maintained. The admission 
 requirements amount approximately to 8 points 
 of high school work. There is a faculty of 8 
 professors and 3 instructors. 
 
 AUSTRALLA, EDUCATION IN. — The 
 
 character of Australian education is on the 
 whole homogeneous; but the sy.stcms in oper- 
 ation in the different states are totallj' inde- 
 pendent of one another and of the federal gov- 
 ernment, and must accordingly receive separate 
 treatment. It is perhaps unfortunate that no 
 provision of any character concerning education 
 has been included in the act of federation; 
 but this fact also indicates the general com- 
 petency of the state governments with reference 
 to educational matters. The peculiarity of Aus- 
 tralian education is that the State not only 
 controls, but completely and absolutely sup- 
 ports and regulates the system of public educa- 
 tion, without support from or interference by 
 the localities in which the schools may lie. 
 Australian education tends therefore to be cen- 
 tralized, systematic, and homogeneous; but 
 since local interest is naturally fitful, the ex- 
 ternal equipment of the schools is usually of an 
 inferior character, while the qualifications of the 
 
 301
 
 AUSTIL\LIA 
 
 AUSTRALIA 
 
 teachers are distinctly superior. The schools 
 are open 220 days or more during the year. 
 Primary education is free, secondary education 
 not so. Tiie state secondary schools arc fewer 
 and somewhat less important than tho.se of a 
 semi-pul)lic, endow^ed, or denominational char- 
 acter. The iituversities of Sydney (New South 
 Wales), Melbourne (Victoria), and on a smaller 
 scale Adelaide (South Australia), and the 
 University of Tasmania arc excellent colleges 
 after their kind, staffed by British professors, 
 and reflecting oversea rather than Australian 
 culture. A fifth university is about to be 
 founded at Brisbane, (Queensland. 
 
 Primary education throughout Australia is free, 
 eomi)ul.sory, and secular, notwithstanding that its 
 development has been che(iuered by private and 
 denominational uifluences. \'ictoria practically 
 adopted the tlireefold ideal by an act of 1S72, 
 New South Wales in 18S0, (Jucen.sland in 1S75, 
 South Australia and Western Australia in 1S7S. 
 Until recently a nominal fee, tlireepence per 
 week per child, had been charged upon such 
 parents as were able to afford it, but all such 
 charges have been repealed, partly upon prin- 
 ciple, since the State owes education to its 
 citizens, and the older generation to the younger, 
 and partly for expediency-, in that the half-con- 
 cealed distinction between eleemosynary and 
 contributing pupils had tended to become 
 invidious. 
 
 New South Wales. — For the purposes of the 
 present undertaking, it seems preferable to con- 
 sider education in New South Wales as a type, 
 rather than to attempt to describe education 
 in each of the Australian colonies in an equally 
 abbreviated way. The first white settlement 
 was effected in Australia in 1788, at Sydney, New 
 South Wales. It is clear that the earliest settlers 
 were not blind to the claims of education, since it 
 is upon record that the first church in Australia, 
 built in 1793, was used also as a schoolhou.se. 
 An orphan school and asylum, founded in 
 New South Wales in 1801, was supported by 
 an endowment of 13,000 acres of land, also 
 by harbor dues, various fines, and the con- 
 fiscation of stray goats ! In 1821 there were 
 only 1524 children being instructed, out of a 
 population of upwards of 35,000; and although 
 the years 1824-1835 saw the establishment of 
 a free grammar school, infant schools, the King's 
 School, and the Sydney College (now Sydney 
 Grammar School), there was great need of a 
 liberal and extensive system of education such 
 as only the State could provide. An adaptation 
 of the monitorial system of Bell and Lancaster 
 was in vogue in the primary schools. Thus 
 education fared as ill as might be in New South 
 Wales until 1848, when vigor was infused into 
 the situation by the creation of a dual system of 
 national and state-aided denominational schools. 
 
 The dual system was obviously wasteful and 
 undemocratic in principle, but it was not until 
 the superior efficiency of the national schools, 
 largely due as it was to a system of training 
 
 teachers and pupil teachers at a model school 
 and training college in Sydney, had amply 
 demonstrated their superiority to the public, 
 that the complete victory of the national 
 schools was assured. An act of 1866 abolished 
 the dual boards in favor of a new Council of 
 Education, and unified the organization of the 
 two orders of schools. This act was su])er.seded 
 by that of 1880, which established a state 
 department of education, under a Minister of 
 Public Instruction with a permanent lender 
 Secretary. Departmental officers and teachers 
 were henceforth civil servants, and education 
 was compulsory and practically secular and free, 
 save that a i)ortion of the time of the impils 
 might be set aside for the religious instruction 
 of school children by the clergymen of their 
 denomination, and a fee of threepence per 
 child (recently abolished), not exceeding a 
 shilling for one family, was paid weekly to 
 the State. Meanwhile the University of Sydiiey, 
 established in 1852, was steadily growing more 
 influential and eflRcient. In 1902 a com- 
 mission appointed to investigate and report 
 upon the methods of education in use in Great 
 Britain, the United States, and the principal 
 countries of Europe was influential in securing 
 several drastic changes, especially the abolition 
 of payment by results and the pupil teacher 
 system, and the extension of facilities for the 
 training of teachers and for technical education. 
 The great problem of New South Wales, and in- 
 deed of all the Australian colonies, is at present 
 how to provide a more accessible and popvilar 
 system of secondary education to facilitate 
 progress from primary schools to the university, 
 and to prepare scholars for the higher walks of 
 commercial and industrial life. 
 
 In New South Wales all children between 
 the ages of 6 and 14 years are required to 
 attend a state or private school, or to receive 
 regular instruction in some equivalent way. 
 In a state having an area of 310.372 square 
 miles, with a population of only 1,527,000, it is 
 readily seen that the determined effort of the 
 State to educate all its citizens is attended by 
 unusual difficulties. On the other hand, the 
 population is remarkably homogeneous, all 
 but 2J per cent being British or Australian 
 born. It is remarkable that of the total popu- 
 lation more than one third is concentrated in 
 the city of Sydnej', which accordingly is well 
 equipped with public schools comparable to 
 those of the other great cities of the world. 
 The principal difficulty is to reach the sparse 
 population of the inland districts. In order 
 that this may be more effectually done, central 
 schools are established in svich localities, to 
 which children are conveyed from a distance in 
 suitable vehicles free of charge. Since the rail- 
 ways, like the public schools, are owned and 
 operated by the State, school children are al- 
 lowed to travel free by rail to the school near- 
 est their homes, or to the nearest public high 
 school, as the case may be. 
 
 302
 
 AUSTRALIA 
 
 AUSTRALIA 
 
 The public schools are nonsectarian. Gen- 
 eral religious instruction is given, but this is not 
 connected with any particular religious organ- 
 ization. Periods are set apart during which 
 sectarian ministers may instruct the children 
 who profess their respective denominations, 
 subject to the consent of the parents or guard- 
 ians. 
 
 While the public elementary schools are free, 
 this is not the case with the public secondary 
 schools. These, moreover, are few in number, 
 though they compete successfully as to results 
 with the great semi-public secondary schools 
 which flourish in the Australian colonies as 
 they do in England. While the extension of 
 public facilities for secondary education is a 
 question very ardently agitated at the present 
 time, it ought to be stated that all of the 
 larger so-called elementary schools of New 
 South Wales give instruction to older boys and 
 girls in secondary subjects, that not only the 
 principals, but the assistant teachers in these 
 schools are frequently university graduates, 
 and that they are fully competent as at present 
 constituted to prepare pupils directly for the 
 entrance examinations of universities. It is 
 therefore possible in fact, but not in theory, 
 for pupils to receive advanced secondary in- 
 struction in the ordinary state schools. Many 
 scholarships and bursaries enable children who 
 are successful in competitive examinations to 
 attend the secondary schools and afterwards the 
 university free of any charge to their parents. 
 
 There are altogether 2918 state schools in 
 New South Wales. At the census of 1901 
 it was found that only 8 per cent of the popu- 
 lation of 5 years and over were unable to 
 read. The annual expenditure of the govern- 
 ment on education, science, and art is about 
 £970,000 sterling. This is pro^^ded out of 
 the consolidated revenue. There is no special 
 tax or rate for education, and no local contri- 
 bution is required from townships or counties 
 for the support of schools. The number of 
 pupils in attendance at the state schools of New 
 South Wales in 1907 was 235,736. There 
 were 60,000 scholars in attendance at private 
 and denominational schools. The plan of 
 giving state aid to denominational education 
 was abandoned in 18S0, and there is no likeli- 
 hood of its revival. The training of .state school 
 teachers is in a stage of transition to a high 
 and uniform level. 
 
 Technical education receives a rapidly in- 
 creasing appropriation from the state govern- 
 ment, amounting in 1907 to about £25,000 
 sterling. The several government technical col- 
 leges and schools together have an enrollment of 
 about 12,000 students, male and female The 
 State also conducts an admirable agricultural 
 College and four experimental farms ; and 
 great expansion is taking place in the direction 
 of agricultural education even in the rural 
 schools. 
 
 Sydney University maintains a high standard 
 
 of college education, and many of its graduates 
 have achieved distinction in postgraduate study 
 at British, American, and German universities. 
 One thousand one hundred and si.xty five 
 students, including 136 women, attended 
 lectures during 1906. The staff consisted of 
 15 professors, with an average annual salary of 
 more than £ 1000, and 68 lecturers and demon- 
 strators. The year's expenditure was £50,298 
 sterling, of which sum £ 13,750 sterling was 
 granted by the government. This endowment 
 has been increased in 1908 to £22,500. 
 
 It may be added that the Australian and 
 Technological Museums count more than 
 357,000 visitors annually, that the free public 
 library under the state Department of Public 
 Instruction has nearly 200,000 volumes, that the 
 new Mitchell Library contains the best collec- 
 tion of Australian books in the world, and that 
 the national art gallery at Sydney has paint- 
 ings and objects of art estimated at a value of 
 £ 130,000 sterlirig. 
 
 School libraries, school banks, and school 
 gardens play important parts in the lives of the 
 children who attend the state schools. The older 
 boys are drilled as cadets and are taught the art 
 of rifle shooting. Swimming is also taught 
 wherever possible in connection with the schools. 
 A very lively spirit of progress has within the 
 last few years taken possession of the edu- 
 cational world, dating on the whole from the 
 accession of Mr. Peter Board, M.A., as perma- 
 nent head of the department of public instruc- 
 tion. As in all the colonies, this depaitment 
 is under the final control of a minister for 
 public instruction, who is nominated by the 
 state premier, and whose tenure of office 
 depends upon that of his party in Parliament. 
 The director of education, or under secretary 
 for public instruction, is the permanent head of 
 the department subject to the minister who 
 represents its parliamentary and fiscal interests. 
 
 Victoria. — It will be unnecessary to char- 
 acterize Victorian education at such length, 
 since in its general outline it resembles education 
 in New South Wales. In this comparison, the 
 system of Victorian education must be recog- 
 nized to be equal and in some respects superior 
 to that of New South Wales. Continuation 
 schools of a vocational character are in their 
 infancy in both colonies; but more practical 
 progress is being made with them in Victoria. 
 The equipment for the training of teachers is 
 also superior in the southern state, which has, 
 like New South Wales, a reforming director of 
 education, Mr. Frank Tate, M.A., the author of 
 an important report upon observations made 
 during an official visit to Europe and America. 
 Victoria is behind New South Wales in the 
 establishment of central district state schools. 
 
 There are in Victoria at present (1908) 2088 
 state schools, having a total enrollment of 203,- 
 782 pupils. The state expenditure for 1907 
 was as follows: for primary education, £665,403 
 sterling; for secondary education, £5874 ster- 
 
 303
 
 AUSTRALIA 
 
 AUSTRIA 
 
 ling; for technical education, £22,322 sterling; 
 for university education, £21,000 sterling. The 
 expenditures upon secondary' and technical edu- 
 cation are l^eing rapidly augmented. The ex- 
 penditure upon university education merely 
 represents an annual grant in aid of the work 
 of the University of Melbourne, which is not to 
 be regarded as a state university, although 
 the government college for the training of 
 teachers is affiliated to it. 
 
 South Australia. — During 1907 there were 
 in all 721 schools in operation in South 
 Australia, having an average daily attendance 
 in public schools of 31,365, and in provisional 
 schools 6496, giving a total a .-erage attendance 
 of 37,861. The number of teachers employed 
 was 1389, of whom 419 were male and 970 
 female. The net cost of educational operations 
 to the State was tl.")0,l,57 sterling. 
 
 Western Australia. — In 1907, the average 
 enrollment in the public schools was 29,679; the 
 average attendance 24,9.50, or 84.07 per cent. 
 The compulsory ages for attendance are from 
 6 to 14; but 8.8 per cent of the children are 
 under 6 and 6.3 per cent over 14. In New South 
 Wales a still higher percentage is found of 
 children over 14, namely 9.3. In all there 
 were 395 schools open during 1907. There 
 were 744 regular adult teachers, 86 pupil teach- 
 ers, and 56 sewing mistresses. An acute diffi- 
 culty in Western Australia and all the sparsely 
 populated districts in the Australian colonies 
 is to find teachers for the increasing numbers 
 of small schools. The average salary for all 
 adult teachers in 1907 was £149. The total 
 state disbursement for education during the 
 financial vear from July 1, 1906, to June 30, 
 1907, was £168,7.53. 
 
 Queensland. — In 1907 there were 2396 
 teachers employed in the state schools in 
 Queensland, wliich numbered altogether 1090, 
 including provisional schools. The gross de- 
 partmental expenditure was £342,600 ster- 
 ling. Of this sum £313,792 went to primary 
 education, £6182 to scholarships and ex- 
 hibitions, £ 7000 to endowments to grammar 
 schools, £ 7749 to technical education, and 
 £ 2070 to grants in aid of schools of arts. The 
 average daily attendance for all schools, state 
 and provisional, amounted to 66,849. Queens- 
 land is now principally occupied with the proj- 
 ect of a university at Brisbane, the appoint- 
 ment of a sufficient number of itinerant teachers 
 to penetrate the vast spaces of the interior, tlie 
 establishment of continuation clas.ses, and the 
 improvement and extension of technical educa- 
 tion. 
 
 Tasmania. — Although separated from the 
 Australian continent by water, Tasmania is one 
 of the states of the Australian federation. Dur- 
 ing the year 1906 tiiere were in all 350 schools 
 in operation. The total number of children 
 taught in these schools during the year was 
 22,622, allowance having been made for those 
 enrolled in more than one school during 1906. 
 
 The average daily attendance was 13,730. 
 This average is considered very low; moreover, 
 the accommodation in the schools is less ade- 
 quate than in other Australian states, and 
 little attempt is made to enforce the clauses 
 governing compulsory attendance. The total 
 number of teachers of all ranks in 1906 was 546. 
 Of these 12.8 per cent were pupil teachers. The 
 total expenditure on primary education for the 
 year 1906 was £ 57,819 sterling, while an amount 
 of £2650 was devoted to technical education. 
 Fuller information may be obtained from 
 the annual reports issued by the ministers for 
 public instruction in the several states. 
 
 P. R. C. 
 
 AUSTRIA, EDUCATION IN. — Austria- 
 Hungary is a constitutional monarchy com- 
 prising two states entirely independent of each 
 other locally, but united through the identity 
 of the sovereign and affairs common to both. 
 
 Austria comprises 14 provinces, with an area 
 of 115,903 English square miles; population 
 26,150,708 (census of 1900). Hungary (exclud- 
 ing Croatia and Slavonia) has an area of 109,007 
 English square miles; population 16,721,574 
 (census of 1900). The educational system of 
 Hungary will be treated in a separate article. 
 
 Historical Development. — The history of 
 education in Austria deals not with the develop- 
 ment of a single race, but of several races living 
 in different territories, which have been united 
 under one government in the course of several 
 centuries. The earliest schools in what is now 
 included in Austrian territory were the cathedral 
 and monastic schools (gq-v.) of the Middle Ages. 
 The establishment of these schools dates from 
 the beginning of the eighth centur.v, and until 
 the thirteenth century they afforded the only 
 means of instruction. During this period 
 parish schools were established, but they offered 
 little instruction except in singing and in the 
 catechism, which were requirements of the 
 Church. Universities were also founded, one 
 at Prague (q.v.) in 1348 and one at Vienna (q.v.) 
 in 1365. These were modeled, in general, 
 after the University of Paris, with the faculties 
 of arts, theology, law, and medicine. 
 
 At the timj of the Reformation (1524) parish 
 schools under the direction of the Catholic 
 Church had been established in many of the 
 towns and villages. Followers of Martin Luther 
 were bitterly opposed, and attempts by teachers 
 of the new faith to open schools were the occasion 
 of strife. The Jesuits iq.i'.), on the other hand, 
 were encouraged to open schools which naturally 
 strengthened the Catholic Church. This strife 
 grew bitter in Austria, and finally culminated 
 in war, which was detrimental to all schools 
 and disastrous to the Protestants (1620). 
 After this war the field of instruction was prac- 
 tically limited to the Catholic Church! During 
 the seventeenth century, the schools of higher 
 instruction were in the hands of the Jesuits, 
 and primary instruction, still confined chiefly 
 
 304
 
 AUSTRIA 
 
 AUSTRIA 
 
 to religious teaching and the catechism, remained 
 under the supervision of the Church; advance, 
 however, was made in schools established by 
 the Piarists (q.v.), in which, besides the cate- 
 chism, reading, writing, and arithmetic were 
 taught. Special schools for the nobilitj' and 
 schools for military training were opened in 
 some of the cities during the first half of the 
 eighteenth century. 
 
 Down to 1770 the government had exercised 
 no control over schools further than to enforce 
 the church regulations, to act as arbiter in 
 settling disputes, and to permit the teaching 
 of the poor in schools other than those of the 
 religious orders. The first decisive step to- 
 ward the formation of a state system of edu- 
 cation was taken during the reign of Maria 
 Theresa (q.v.). The defeat of her armies by 
 Frederick the Great (1762) and the expulsion 
 of the Jesuits (1773) both conduced to this re- 
 sult. A new education law, enacted 1774, pro- 
 vided for a central school commission (Studien- 
 hofkommission) which should exercise general 
 control over all schools, and an administrative 
 council in each of the provinces. The law 
 further provided for three classes of schools, 
 Volksschulen, or trivial schools (as they were 
 called), Hauptschiden, or high schools, and 
 normal schools. The Volksschulen were to be 
 opened in every parish, for instruction in religion, 
 morals, reading, writing, and arithmetic; the 
 expense to be borne by the communities and 
 the manorial lords. High schools were required 
 in every circle or district for instruction in geog- 
 raphy and history, composition, arithmetic 
 and geometry, and the elements of Latin; and 
 normal schools serving the twofold purpose of 
 training teachers and of model schools in the 
 capitals of the crown lands. Religious instruc- 
 tion was left to the clergy. The salaries of 
 high school and normal school teachers were 
 fixed, and the country teachers were recom-- 
 mended to the manorial lords and the communi- 
 ties for aid, and were also permitted to engage 
 in other occupations. A publishing house for 
 schoolbooks was established ; textbooks and 
 methods of instruction and discipline were pre- 
 scribed. The school age was from 6 to 12 years. 
 Sunday schools for the benefit of children who 
 were over 12 years of age and not attending 
 school, and for apprentices, especially, were 
 opened. As a result of the reform many new 
 schools were established, and a general desire for 
 education was awakened throughout the prov- 
 inces. In 1775, Bohemia had about 1000 
 schools, with 30,000 pupils; in 1789, 2244 
 schools, with about 165,000 pupils. In 1775 
 Mahren had about 10,000 pupils, and in 17S5 
 about 67,000 pupils. 
 
 The movement already started was continued 
 under the reign of Joseph II (1765-1790). Act- 
 ing on the advice of the school commission, he 
 sanctioned measures which made attendance at 
 school compulsory on penalty of fine; relieved 
 teachers from military service, and fixed a 
 
 minimum salary, any deficiency being supplied 
 from the school fund; and, what is of more con- 
 sequence, he granted religious liberty to the 
 Protestants (1781), which enabled them to 
 establish schools. 
 
 Toward the close of the century the effects of 
 the political movements in France were felt 
 in other countries of Europe. The measures 
 taken by Francis II to safeguard the empire, 
 which consequently restricted the freedom of 
 his subjects, tended at the same time to lower 
 the ideals of the schools. His adviser, Rotten- 
 han, maintained, however, that the object of 
 the Volksscfnde was to make the laboring 
 classes more industrious and amenable to the 
 law, and that even the laboring man was capa- 
 ble of conducting a school. His views carried 
 weight, as appears from the Poliiische Verfassnng 
 derdeutschen Schiden {Constitution of the Austrian 
 Public Schools), enacted in 1805. No change 
 was made in the general plan of supervision 
 for the state and crown lands, but the Con- 
 stitutiun provided for district supervision by 
 the clergy of the districts, who reported to the 
 bishops or consistorial council and also to the 
 magistrates; and it placed the parish schools 
 under direction of the respective pastors of the 
 parish in which the school was located. 
 
 The subjects of instruction for the Volks- 
 schulen were extended to include vocal music, 
 the native language, and manual exercises. 
 In towns the course of study was extended so 
 that 20 hours of instruction a week should 
 be given and an assistant teacher provided 
 wherever required. Children of the poor were 
 to be instructed gratuitously. Teachers must 
 have received at least 3 months' normal 
 training; the regulations determined their 
 mode of appointment as well as that of school 
 officers, and also specified requirements for the 
 construction and equipment of schoolhouses. 
 
 Except for minor changes, the schools were 
 administered according to the Constitution 
 until 1848. During this period the province 
 of instruction was extended, notably by the 
 founding of schools of trades and industry. The 
 technical high schools of Vienna, Prague, Gratz, 
 and Lemberg were opened. From 1828 to 
 1847 the number of Sunday, or adult, schools 
 increased from 8867 to 11,432. During the 
 same period the number of superior elementary 
 schools increased from 261 to 333, the Volks- 
 schulen, from 14,750 to 16,800, and the schools 
 for girls, from 1380 to 2550. 
 
 The political upheaval in Europe in 1848 led 
 to a revolution in Austria and the general 
 demand for a revision of the constitution. 
 The new era was marked by the creation of a 
 ministry of public instruction replacing the 
 school commission, which for three quarters 
 of a century had controlled school affairs, and 
 under the direction of the ministry new regu- 
 lations pertaining to elementary schools were 
 promulgated in 1848, followed in 1849 by a 
 law for secondary and superior education. 
 
 VOL. I — X 
 
 305
 
 AUSTRIA 
 
 AUSTRIA 
 
 Elementary education was made a first charge 
 upon communities, the province and state to 
 render assistance where local resources proved 
 inadequate. Provision was also made for the 
 establishment of "burgher" schools, offering 
 advanced courses of instruction covering 2 
 and 3 years. This class of high schools af- 
 forded a general education for those who were 
 not preparing for the university or technical 
 schools. 
 
 Present System. — The organization of the 
 system of public instruction under govern- 
 ment direction was completed by the law of 
 1869, which is still in force. 
 
 Adiniiiistrntion of Elementary Schools. — The 
 minister of public instruction has general direc- 
 tion and supervision of the schools of the em- 
 pire. In each crown land there is a provincial 
 school council at the head of which is the super- 
 intendent of the province (Lnndes-SchuUnspek- 
 tnr), who is the medium of intercommunication 
 between the minister and lower authorities. 
 Each crown land is divided into Bezirke, or 
 school districts, the schools of which are super- 
 vised by a school council (Bczirksschulrat). 
 The members of this council are nominated by 
 the teachers of the district, and are appointed 
 l)y the higher school councils. Each district is 
 subdivided into smaller districts for the 
 individual schools, which are under the control 
 of local school boards. 
 
 Classification and Curricidum. — The ele- 
 mentary schools include the Volksschulen and 
 the superior elementary schools or Biirger- 
 schulen. Many of the Volksschulen are un- 
 graded, especially in the country, while those 
 in towns and cities have from 2 to 8 classes 
 or grades. The subjects of instruction, and the 
 plan for an ungraded school, are shown in the 
 following table. 
 
 Subjects 
 
 Religion 
 
 Mother tongue 
 
 Arithmetic 
 
 Natural history and elementary 
 
 physics 
 
 Geography and history .... 
 Writing 
 
 Drawing, and elementary geometry 
 
 Singing 
 
 Gymnaatics 
 
 Total ntimber of hours per week 
 
 Hours a Week 
 
 First 
 Year 
 
 2 
 
 12 
 
 4 
 
 19 
 
 Second, 
 Third. 
 
 and 
 Fourth 
 Years 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 4 
 
 25 
 
 Fifth to 
 Eighth 
 Years 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 
 [Fori 
 
 3 girls 
 
 1 hr. 
 
 28 
 
 1 Domestic science for girls. 
 
 Plan of studies for an eight-grade "burgher" 
 school for boys : — 
 
 Subjects 
 
 Religion 
 
 Mother tongue . . . 
 
 Gfogranhy and history 
 
 Natural history .' . 
 
 Elementary physics 
 
 Arithmetic . . . . 
 
 Geometry, and geo- 
 metrical drawing 
 
 Freehand drawing . 
 
 Writing 
 
 Singing ^ 
 
 Gymnastics . . . . 
 
 Total number of hours 
 per week .... 
 
 Yeahs — Hours a Week 
 
 1st 2d 3d 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 
 
 1 
 12 
 
 18 
 
 20 
 
 23 
 
 25 
 
 26 
 
 Compnlsory School Attendance. — Attendance 
 at school is conipulsor_v in most of the provinces 
 for every child from the age of 6 to 14. In 
 Istria, Galicia, and Dalmatia, the age is 
 from 6 to 12, and in Bukowina, from 6 to 
 13. The child is allowed to withdraw from 
 school only when he can give a certificate 
 showing that he has completed the required 
 course of study. Children employed in large 
 factories continue their education at special 
 schools supported by their employers. Sepa- 
 rate schools for boys and girls are common in 
 the cities and towns, while in the country they 
 are taught together. The cost of erecting 
 school buildings and the payment for teaching 
 is borne chiefly by the commune. 
 
 Although, from time to time, efforts have 
 been made through the predominant influence of 
 the Cierman population to force the use of 
 the German language upon all the provinces, 
 instruction in the native tongue is a privilege 
 which has been jealously guarded by the several 
 nationalities, and consequently textbooks are 
 printed in their various tongues. It is often 
 necessary to instruct children of several nation- 
 alities in the same school, which greatly in- 
 creases the teacher's task. 
 
 In 1906 there were 21,666 elementary schools, 
 with 4,067,243 pupils. The languages of in- 
 struction in 1906 were as follows: German, 
 8194; Czech, 5496; Slavish dialects, 6448; 
 Italian, 598; Rumanian, 150; Magyar 4; while 
 in 277 schools more than one language is used. 
 The total expenditure for elcmcntarv instruc- 
 tion was 121,0.58,000 kr. or S24,574,774. 
 
 Teachers and Teachers' Training. — Schools 
 for the training of teachers in Austria were first 
 established in 1774, and it was ordered that one 
 such school should be provided in the capital of 
 every province; upon the establishment of the 
 schools a limited amount of training became 
 compulsory on the part of the teacher. This 
 requirement is still in force. 
 
 In 1905, there were 111 training schools for 
 teachers, 57 for men, with 11,161 students and 
 993 teachers; and 54 for women, mth 7519 
 students and 986 teachers. The course of train- 
 ing covers 4 years, and includes a review of the 
 
 306
 
 AUSTRIA 
 
 AUSTRIA 
 
 high school subjects, together with pedagogy, 
 psychology, historj' of education, drawing, 
 gymnastics, and music. 
 
 Teachers are appointed by the district council, 
 and their nominations are confirmed by the 
 provincial authorities. The general school law 
 fixes the minimum salary, which may be in- 
 creased by communities; hence the salaries paid 
 in the different districts vary according to the 
 wealth and progressive spirit. After 40 years' 
 service teachers are entitled to a pension equal 
 in amount to the salary received. 
 
 In 1906 the total number of teachers in the 
 elementary schools, including special teachers 
 of religion and manual arts, was 96,300. 
 
 Secondary Schools. — The history of second- 
 ary education in Austria for a period of three 
 centuries is confined chiefly to the schools 
 under the control of the religious orders, which 
 were established as early as the fourteenth 
 century. The State made no provision for 
 secondary instruction until 1773, consequently 
 these schools were conducted according to the 
 regulations of the different orders controlling 
 them. In the schools of the Jesuits the Ratio 
 Studiorum was followed, which, because it was 
 not modified to meet the demands of the people, 
 became one cause of the expulsion of this order 
 (1772). Their property was seized b}^ the State, 
 and their schools reorganized as State institu- 
 tions, to be conducted according to official reg- 
 ulations ( 1 773) . When expelled the Jesuits were 
 maintaining 37 gymnasia. Schools of a similar 
 grade were also conducted by the Piarists (g.v.) 
 (24 in number), by the Benedictines (q.v.), and 
 other religious orders. The Latin language had 
 been used almost exclusively in the Jesuit 
 schools for both speaking and writing. The 
 Piarists followed, in general, similar methods, 
 but they also gave attention to Greek, German, 
 history, geography, mathematics, and physics. 
 
 The organization of the gymnasia adopted by 
 the State was similar to that of the Piarist schools, 
 and the course of study practically the same. 
 The principal aim of the grammar classes was 
 to teach the pupils to speak Latin with cor- 
 rectness, an accomplishment of first importance 
 for clergy and diplomats. No important changes 
 in the general regulations for the state gymnasia 
 were made until 1805, when the Constitution of 
 
 the Austrian schools was adopted. The regula- 
 tions therein embodied increased the number of 
 classes to 6 and required as many teachers as 
 classes. The hours of study were limited to IS a 
 week, and were divided as follows: 9 hours a 
 week to the subjects of geography, history, 
 mathematics, natural history, and physics in the 
 three lower classes; 9 hours a week to Greek, in 
 the three upper classes; while 9 hours a week 
 were devoted to Latin throughout the course. 
 The speaking of Latin was required in the third 
 and higher classes. Improved textbooks were 
 issued, with instructions respecting their use. 
 
 The establishment of gymnasia was encour- 
 aged by wealthy communities and cities, and 
 also by the religious orders, so that the number 
 of the schools gradually increased; in 1818 
 there were altogether 82 secondary schools, 
 public and private. 
 
 No further attempts toward a reorganiza- 
 tion of the gymnasia were made until 1849. 
 The regulations then adopted separated the 
 philosophical course from the higher depart- 
 ment, and united it mth the humanity classes 
 to form the upper gymnasium (Obergymnasium), 
 from which the lower gymnasium ( Unter- 
 gi/tnnasium) was distinct in gradation. The 
 course of study was extended to 8 years. The 
 gymnasia are still conducted according to these 
 regulations. The same law (1849) recognized 
 the realschulen and regulated their organiza- 
 tion. The subjects of study and the extent of 
 the course were unsettled questions until 1869, 
 when a new law, defining the course of study, 
 was enacted. This law, which is still in force, 
 prescribed a course of study for 7 classes, or 
 years. Another class of secondary schools, 
 closely related both to the gymnasia and the 
 realschulen, are the realgymnasia, which were 
 first opened in 1864, but not officially recognized 
 until 1869, when regulations were enacted pre- 
 scribing the course of study. This class of 
 schools is intended for students who do not 
 expect to enter either the universitj' or the 
 higher technical schools, but the training they 
 give admits to the higher classes of both the 
 gymnasia and realschulen. 
 
 The relation between these three classes of 
 schools is indicated by the following tabular 
 view of their curricula. 
 
 Gymnasidm (8 Yr9.) 
 
 Total 
 Number 
 
 OF 
 
 Hours 
 
 Realschulen (7 Yrs.) 
 
 Total 
 Number 
 
 OF 
 
 Hours 
 
 Realgymnasium (4 Yrs.) 
 
 Total 
 
 Number 
 
 OF 
 
 Hours 
 
 Religion 
 
 Latin .... ... 
 
 Greek . 
 
 680 
 2000 
 1120 
 
 1000 
 960 
 920 
 760 
 
 Religion 
 
 German language and literature 
 
 French 
 
 English 
 
 History and geography . . . 
 
 Mathematics 
 
 Natural history and physics 
 
 Chemistry 
 
 Geometrical drawing .... 
 
 Freehand drawing 
 
 Penmanship 
 
 320 
 
 960 
 
 920 
 
 280 
 
 960 
 
 1160 
 
 1120 
 
 440 
 
 960 
 
 960 
 
 80 
 
 Religion 
 
 German 
 
 320 
 
 480 
 
 1120 
 
 German 
 
 Mother toncue 
 
 History and geography . . 
 
 Mathematics 
 
 Natural history and physics 
 
 Greek 
 
 French 
 
 History and geography . . . 
 
 Mathematics 
 
 Natural history and physics 
 
 Chemistry 
 
 Geometrical drawing ... I 
 Freehand drawing . . . . / 
 
 320 
 240 
 560 
 480 
 420 
 60 
 
 560 
 
 307
 
 AUSTRIA 
 
 AUSTRIA 
 
 The administration of secondary schools is 
 vested, first, in the ministry of instruction; 
 second, in an inspector for the schools of each 
 crown land; third, in a local board. Church 
 and private schools arc subject to the same 
 regulations as state schools. The public 
 gymnasia (including roalgymnasia) and real- 
 schulen are maintained either by the State, 
 the crown lands, or the cities. A majority of 
 them, however, are maintained by the State. 
 Private gymnasia derive their maintenance 
 from subventions and from ecclesiastical foun- 
 dations. A small tuition fee is charged in these 
 schools. The number of state and private 
 gymnasia in 1908-1909 was 267, with 91,267 
 students. The languages of instruction used 
 in these schools was as follows: German, 127; 
 Bohemian, 53 ; Polish, 56 ; Italian, 6 ; Ruthe- 
 nian, 7; Serbo-Croatian, 6; mixed languages, 12. 
 During the same year there were 141 real- 
 schulen, with 46,374 students. 
 
 The teachers are trained at the univcr-sities 
 and at the teachers' seminaries. After 8 years' 
 teaching service they are entitled to a pension, 
 which after 30 years amounts to full salary. 
 The number of teachers in the gymnasia in 
 1905-1906 was 5329 and in the Vcalschulen 
 (1905-1906) 2817. In every scliool there must 
 be a library containing books suitable for both 
 teachers and students. The teachers of a 
 district must meet for conference once a year, 
 and all those of a province must meet once in 
 3 years. 
 
 Trade Schools (Fachschulen) . — Trade schools 
 were established originally in the larger cities 
 and towns for the purpose of encouraging home 
 industries. Within the last quarter century 
 they have been opened in all parts of the 
 empire, and the trades taught conform, as far 
 as possible, to local demands. The course of 
 instruction therefore varies, requiring, however, 
 about the same time, i.e. from 2 to 4 years, 
 for completion. In every school a certain 
 number of hours each week is devoted to com- 
 mercial education, bookkeeping, shorthand, 
 commercial arithmetic, drawing, and design. 
 The school hours are from 8 to 12 in the morn- 
 ing and from 2 to 6 in the evening. Pupils 
 must have completed the course of study in the 
 elementary schools before entering the trade 
 school. The tuition is from 2 to 5 crowns a 
 term. The great variety of schools indicates the 
 range of industries for which Austria is noted. 
 They include schools for weaving, stone cutting, 
 jewelry, stone setting, cabinet work, basket 
 making, glass making, pottery, and other trades. 
 About 150 fackschulen are subject to state 
 supervision, and of these 70 receive state aid. 
 Closely related to the trade schools for men 
 are the lace schools for women. These are 
 under the direction of the central lace school 
 of Vienna, which is also a training school for 
 teachers. In 1905 there were 30 such schools. 
 
 Besides the class of trade schools named 
 there are high schools for arts and crafts ( Hii- 
 
 here-Gewerbeschitlc) , foremen's schools, for those 
 who have had experience in some trade, general 
 artisans' schools, which give a better prelimi- 
 nary training than the pupils can get in the 
 public school, and continuation schools. The 
 last-named schools arc conducted evenings and 
 Sunday morning, and are attended by appren- 
 tices and artisans. They number above 800, 
 many of which are subsidized by the govern- 
 ment. 
 
 The total number of industrial schools in 
 1905 was 1274, with 127,400 pupils. 
 
 Commercial Schools. — Commercial educa- 
 tion received a new impulse upon the reorgan- 
 ization of the ^'icnna commercial academy in 
 1873. Since then similar academies have been es- 
 tablished by comnmnes, chambers of commerce, 
 and private corporations in different parts 
 of the empire. Many of these schools are 
 granted a subvention by the State, and are under 
 the control of the ministries of Public Instruc- 
 tion and Commerce (since 1888). There are 
 academies which offer advanced commercial 
 training, and commercial schools which prepare 
 for office and ordinary business affairs. The 
 course of study in all commercial schools com- 
 prises geography, arithmetic, writing, phonog- 
 raphy, and German, while in the academies 
 it includes foreign languages, mathematics, 
 geometry, physics, commercial law, and chem- 
 istry. 
 
 In 1905 there were 272 commercial schools, 
 with 29,300 students. The language of instruc- 
 tion ( UtUerrichtssprache) in these schools 
 varies: 185 use German; 60 use Czech; 5, 
 Polish; 6, Italian; and 16, mixed languages. 
 
 Higher Education. — The institutions for 
 higher education maybe divided into two classes: 
 universities and professional schools, and 
 higher technical schools. 
 
 Universities. — There are 8 universities in 
 Austria, the oldest of which, the University of 
 Prague, was founded in 1348 by an imperial 
 charter issued by Charles IV, which provided 
 for four faculties, theology, medicine, arts, and 
 law, with a rector at the head of each faculty. 
 In 1370 the law faculty was separated from the 
 university, and for a time regulated its own 
 affairs as a separate university. 
 
 The students were granted a voice in the 
 administration, and to this end the student 
 population was divided into four nations: Bo- 
 hemia, Poland, Bavaria, and Saxony, an organi- 
 zation which had formal recognition down to the 
 nineteenth century. The heads of these nations 
 sat in the council which regulated the affairs of 
 the university. Prague soon attracted students 
 from all parts of Europe, and especially those 
 of the German and Bohemian nationalities. As 
 a consequence the political and religious dif- 
 ferences of the Teutons and Czechs invaded 
 the university life, much to its detriment. 
 The quarrel was ended by the withdrawal of 
 the German students (estimated at 5000), in 
 1409. As a consequence Prague suffered a 
 
 308
 
 AUSTRIA 
 
 AUSTRIA 
 
 decline, and for nearly two centuries was repre- 
 sented by the single faculty of theology. In 
 1793 a chair of the Bohemian language and 
 literature was founded. From this small 
 beginning the use of the language rapidly 
 increased, and an intense rivalry grew up be- 
 tween the Bohemian and German students. 
 The difficulties were finally adjusted in 1S8I 
 by the creation of a Bohemian university 
 coequal with the old institution. 
 
 The University of Vienna was founded by a 
 charter issued by Rudolf IV in 1365, the con- 
 stitution being similar in many respects to that 
 of Prague. After the decline of Prague (1409) 
 Vienna attracted a great number of students 
 and was soon at the head of all the German 
 universities. For more than a century it has 
 been distinguished particularly for its school 
 of medicine. With the single exception of 
 Cracow, as will be seen by reference to the table 
 below, none of the remaining universities was 
 founded before the sixteenth century. 
 
 The universities are subject to the Ministry 
 of Instruction, but enjoy a high degree of 
 autonomy. The internal affairs are regulated 
 by rectors and by the deans of the faculties. 
 They are maintained by fees and annual appro- 
 priations from the State. The number of pro- 
 fessors and instructors in each faculty and the 
 number of matriculates are shown in the follow- 
 ing table: — • 
 
 Professors receive a salarj^ from the State, 
 the honorarium having been abolished in 1896. 
 They are appointed by the Minister of Public 
 Instruction upon recommendation of the faculty 
 in which the vacancy exists. 
 
 There are independent theological faculties 
 at Olmiitz (founded as a university in 1581, 
 but suppressed in 1853), at Salzburg (founded 
 in 1623, but deprived of secular faculties in 
 1815), and at Vienna. These faculties, which 
 in 1907 comprised 350 students, rank with 
 those of the universities. 
 
 Technical Education. — State technical schools 
 are located at Briinn, Gratz, Lemberg, Prague, 
 and Vienna. The school at Prague was estab- 
 lished as early as 1806, and the school at Vienna 
 in 1815. The principal courses of study are 
 chemistry, electrical and mechanical engineer- 
 ing. These schools rank with the universities. 
 The following table shows the number and dis- 
 tribution of the teachers and students in 1907- 
 1908. 
 
 Technical High Schools 
 
 Teach- 
 ers 
 
 Stu- 
 dents 
 
 Volumes 
 
 IN 
 
 Library 
 
 Brunn (German) 
 
 Brunn (Bohemi.in) .... 
 
 Gratz 
 
 Lemberg 
 
 Prague (German) .... 
 Prague (Bohemian) .... 
 
 Vienna 
 
 Vienna (Agriculture) . . . 
 
 94 
 70 
 43 
 56 
 
 74 
 118 
 180 
 
 00 
 
 613 
 
 439 
 
 703 
 
 1629 
 
 1030 
 
 2541 
 
 2998 
 
 772 
 
 27,600 
 10,035 
 
 14,050 
 
 103,425 
 26,000 
 
 > -J 
 
 o < 
 
 P z 
 H ^: o 
 
 OOOOCCO 
 
 O C' O C '-O lO 
 
 oco'0_c;c^^co 
 OOiO*t .-•■^ 
 O; X cc c) 35 lo 
 CO .-«««.-• CO 
 
 Q r--^coto®co^oo 
 
 V O CO CD --no 1-1 -- CO 
 
 "o lo 00 o ■-' t- r- Oi o 
 
 P IN N-HCO>-<COr- 
 
 S tn Tf -t" X Oi f-i CO O N 
 
 i- b «cocoajTj'iOGOO 
 
 H COt-CO"* 
 
 ^ ONtOCO 
 
 (OiC CD 
 
 lO.-'O 
 
 OiOO 
 COlOlO 
 
 
 ■<*<CON(N 
 
 .— IMCD 
 
 E t- 00 O N «> eo OJ ■* 
 
 > 5 -HWNl-HfN-HNCO 
 
 2 2 ^.OC-it-:o--OTt< 
 
 ■^ lO CD (M T** 00 >-< >n 
 cDt^OOr^QO'fCOCD 
 COOOlOCDt^COOOCO 
 
 O N S ~'0' ■- ^ - 
 
 P O u a; aj © 03 
 
 o a N.c^ 3 3a 
 
 o t- -^ m fl bc to o 
 
 2 SS sis 2.2 
 
 In addition to the above-namtd institutions, 
 there are many technical schools, of an inferior 
 order or narrower scope, training pupils for 
 special indu.stries; in particular for mining, 
 agriculture, and forestry. In 1906 the agricul- 
 tural and forestry schools numbered 190, with 
 8000 pupils. 
 
 Academies and Societies. — Study and inves- 
 tigation is encouraged by academies and so- 
 cieties, some of which are subsidized by the 
 State. Located at Vienna are the Royal Acad- 
 emy of Science, founded in 1847, the Anthropo- 
 
 309
 
 AUSTRIAN METHOD 
 
 AUTOIVIATON THEORY 
 
 logical Society (1S70), with 450 members, and 
 the Royal Geographical Society (ISaG), with 
 2000 members and a lihrarj' of 8000 volumes. 
 At Prague are the Bohemian Academy of Sci- 
 ence, Literature, and Art (1890), and the; Royal 
 Bohemian Society of Science (1770), the latter 
 having 230 members and a library of 30,000 
 volumes. A Royal Academy (Polish) is located 
 at Cracow, and a Society for the Advancement 
 of Polish science at Lemberg. L. D. A. 
 
 References: — 
 
 Austria, llunrlhiich dcr Rcichsgesclze und Mitiistmal- 
 
 vcrordnunui-n iihcr dns VolkssehulwcsfH in den im 
 
 Hcicharate verlretrnen K'tnigrcichen und Ldndcrn. 
 
 (Wien, 1S7S-1S79.) 2 vols. .Svo. 
 Ministeriuni fiir Cultus and Unterricht. Instruc- 
 
 lionen iiher den Unterricht an den Realschulen. 5 Aufl. 
 
 (Wicu, 1S99.) 256 pp. 4vo. 
 Sammlung der fiir die osterreichischen U niversittiten 
 
 giltigen Geseize und Verordnungen. (Wien, 18S5.) 
 
 2 vols. Svo. 
 Verordnungsblatt fiir das Volksschdwesen im KOni- 
 
 greich liiihmcn. (Prag. 1,S72-1N<)().) 19 vols. 8vo. 
 Egger-Miiluvald. .\lois. Ocslerreichischcs Volks- und 
 
 M iltelseliulwescn in dcr Periode von 1867-1877. 
 
 (Wien, 1878.) 164 pp. 8vo. 
 J.VME.s, Edmund J. Higher Commercial Instruction in 
 
 Austria. In his Education of Bttsiness Men in 
 
 Europe, pp. 1-52. (New York, 1893.) 
 Klemm, L. R. Education in Austria-Hungary in 
 
 1889-1890. In Vnited States Bureau of Education, 
 
 Annual Report of the Commissioner, 1889-1890, pp. 
 
 419-454. 
 Levetus, a. S. Imperial arts and crafts schools, 
 
 Vienna. International Studio, Vol. 30, pp. 323-334, 
 
 Feb., 1907. 
 Marenzeller, Edmund. N ormalien fiir die Gymnasien 
 
 und Realschulen in Oesierreich. (Wien, 1884-1889.) 
 
 2 vols. 8vo. 
 Public Instruction in Austria. The American Journal 
 
 of Education, Vol. 6, pp. 5-32, 337-352, 609-624, 
 
 1866. 
 Strakosch-Grassman, Gustav. Geschichte des Sster- 
 
 reichisehen Uttterrichtswescns. (Wien, 1905.) 372 
 
 pp. 8vo. 
 TEGonoRSKi, LuDwiK. Dc V instrnciion puhligue en 
 
 Aulriche. par un diplomate etranger qui a longtemps 
 
 reside (Idusce pays. (Paris, Is 11.) .360 pp. Tinio. 
 Weiss, .\.ntox. Die Ensleluuigxgeschichte des Volks- 
 
 schuljilaiirs con 1804. (Craz. 1906.) 227 pp. 8vo. 
 
 AUSTRIAN METHOD OF SUBTRACTION. 
 
 — See Subtraction. 
 
 AUTO-. — A general prefix which indicates 
 any process initiated by the individual without 
 external interference; such as autohypnosis. 
 Sec Self-Instructiox. 
 
 AUTOMATIC MOVEMENT. — Certain 
 movements of the body are executed without 
 deliberation or choice. Thus one winks when 
 any object moves rapidly toward the eyes; one 
 throws out his hands to protect himself when 
 falling forward. Such activities as these are 
 due to an organized nervous mechanism, which 
 was cither inherited or has been so completely 
 perfected through long use as to be entirely 
 beyond the control of consciousness. Auto- 
 matic activities are of the same general type 
 as reflexes (q.v.). The distinction which is 
 sometimes drawn between the two terms is 
 that reflexes are regarded as somewhat simpler 
 
 than automatic movements. Topics which 
 should be consulted in the same connection are 
 instinct and habit. The importance of dis- 
 tinguishing automatic movement in any edu- 
 cational discussion is that the complete per- 
 fection of a movement relieves consciousness so 
 that attention may turn to the other phases of 
 the situation and not be drawn to the details 
 which would guide the movements. C. H. J. 
 
 AUTOMATISM. — Refers to forms of ac- 
 tivity which arise in response to internal stimu- 
 lation. These internally initiated forms of 
 behavior are very frequently due to circulatory 
 stimuli acting directly on the nerve centers, or 
 to toxines contained in the blood. 
 
 See Somnambulism. 
 
 The AuTOMATOi;nArii. — Winn m use a 
 screen (not shown in the illustration) cuts off 
 the view of the apparatus from the subject. 
 The recording dc\nce, which may also be used 
 separately, is shown in outline in half its full 
 size. R is a glass rod which moves freely up 
 and down in the glass tube T, whirh is set into 
 the cork C. A rubber band B is pro\'ided to 
 prevent the rod from falling through the tube, 
 when not resting upon the recording plate. 
 
 AUTOMATOGRAPH. — An apparatus for 
 the study of involuntary movements. One type 
 is exhibited in the figure. For further discus- 
 sion of records see Mind Reading. 
 
 Reference: — 
 
 Jastrow. J. Facland Fable in Psychology, pp. 306-336. 
 (Boston, 1901.) 
 
 AUTOMATON THEORY. — The physio- 
 logical processes which are involved in reflex 
 action (q.v.) seem to operate without any refer- 
 ence to conscious choice. The mechanism is 
 accordingly said to constitute an automaton. 
 When all action is reduced to reflex activity, as 
 it is by some students of human behavior, the 
 body is treated as an automaton, and no ])lace 
 is left in the theory of such writers for the recog- 
 nition of consciousness as a cause. Conscious- 
 ness is merely an added phenomenon without 
 influence in determining bodily action. The 
 automaton theory is not necessarily opposed to 
 the principle that education can modify indi- 
 vidual character. Even reflex activities can be 
 
 310
 
 AVENTINUS 
 
 AVICENNA 
 
 modified tlirougli use and througli fluctuations 
 in external stimuli. Tlie body could be in- 
 fluenced in its development quite apart from 
 the training of consciousness. The automaton 
 theory, however, lays greater emphasis upon 
 habit and reflex activity than upon the opposite, 
 which may be described as freedom of choice 
 and conscious control. For further discussion of 
 this matter see Will. C. H. J. 
 
 AVENTINUS, J9HANNES (1477-1534). — 
 A Bavarian liumanist, so called from his birth- 
 place, Abensberg ; his real name was Turn- 
 mair. He was author of the first Latin gram- 
 mar which was (partly) written in German, 
 and published in Munich in 1512. (Cf. Rau- 
 mer's Geschichte der Padagogik, Vol. Ill, p. 108.) 
 
 AVERAGE. — See Graphic Curve. 
 
 AVERAGE MEMBERSHIP. — A term 
 used in educational statistics, which, however, 
 yet lacks standardization. Total enrollment 
 (q.v.) and average daily attendance are also 
 used as measures of school attendance, but are 
 respectively too large and too small to be satis- 
 factory measures to the end of school accom- 
 modation. The pupil is a member of a school, 
 or technically belongs, as long as he has not 
 removed or been absent too long to preserve his 
 claim to his seat. In some states after 5 
 days of unexcused absence the pupil ceases to 
 be a member; in others the number is 3. In 
 some cases the pupil technically belongs even 
 after some weeks of absence, if that be neces- 
 sary owing to sickness. The consequence is 
 that whereas the signification of the measures 
 total enrollment and average daily attendance 
 are practically uniform, that of average 
 membership is not. D. S. 
 
 See Attendance. 
 
 References : — 
 
 Ddtton and Snedden. Administration of Puhlic 
 Education in the United States, ch. xxx- (New 
 York, 1U08.) 
 
 Snedden and Allen. School Reports and School 
 Efficiency. (New York, 1908.) 
 
 AVERAGES. 
 
 TISTICS. 
 
 See Graphic Curve; St.\- 
 
 AVERROES, ABU'L WALID MOHAM- 
 MED.— The son of Achmet, tlie son of Mo- 
 hammed, the son of Rushd; born at Cordova, in 
 Spain, in 11 26. Few men have exerted a greater 
 influence upon the course of the thought of the 
 Western world. His sire and grandsire had 
 been eminent in jurisprudence, and his own 
 studies proceeded from theology and canon law 
 to philosophy and medicine. His talents 
 procured him an appointment to expound 
 Aristotle to the Khalif Abu Yakub Yusuf ; and 
 he is heard of also as a judge at Seville and 
 Cordova. The rationalism of Averroes was, 
 however, his undoing, and in 1195 his fanatical 
 
 enemies caused him to be banished to a Jewish 
 settlement at Lacena. Restored after two years 
 to safety and the royal favor of Khalif Yakub 
 al-Mansur, he died shortly afterwards, on 
 Dec. 10, 1198, in Morocco, leaving a family 
 of several sons. 
 
 Averroes is the great master in the history 
 of Mohammedan philosophy, and it was only 
 due to the victory of orthodox Moslem fanati- 
 cism that his successors were compelled to come 
 from Christendom rather than Islam. In 
 Averroes the pure philosophy of Aristotle was 
 almost entirely freed from the persistent 
 mystical influence of Neo-Platonism. Aver- 
 roes was the great commentator whom Dante 
 and the medieval thinkers could not regard 
 entirely as a heathen. His work was the 
 medium whereby a great part of the lost work 
 of Aristotle was restored to the civilization of 
 western Europe. His debt to earlier Hebrew 
 philosophy and his influence upon subsequent 
 Hebrew speculation were perhaps equally great. 
 The first greeting of the writings of Averroes 
 and Aristotle in Christendom took the form of 
 persecution; but through the genius of Albertus 
 Magnus (q.v.) and Thomas Aquinas (q.v.) the 
 dangerous tenets were molded to the support 
 of orthodoxy. It appears to be true that the 
 first complete infidelity, or skepticism, indeed, 
 the first complete rationalism, which entered 
 the fold of Christendom crept in with the fearless 
 criticisms and impartial theological judgments 
 of the famous Moor. 
 
 Reference: — 
 Renan. Averroes et VAverro'isme. 
 
 AVICENNA (ABU ALI EL-HOSSEIN IBN- 
 ABDALLAH IBN-SINA).— Born about 980 a. d. 
 at Efsene, in the Bokhara region. His father, 
 a tax collector, removed to Bokhara, and ap- 
 pears to have given the son an excellent edu- 
 cation, an advantage which was appreciated 
 to such a degree that the boy was the marvel 
 of all who knew him. In medicine and philo.s- 
 ophy he surpassed all others, even in a region 
 then famous for these studies. At 17 he be- 
 came court physician, utilized the librarj' of the 
 Emir, and on his father's death proceeded ui)on 
 travels which closed with an appointment as 
 Vizier to the Emir of Hamadan. Driven thence 
 by a mutiny of the troops, he continued to 
 study and teach in secret, until discovered and 
 imprisoned by a new Emir of Hamadan. 
 Escaping in disguise, Avicenna found security 
 and honor at Ispahan, acting as court physician, 
 studying and writing, yet leading a life of orien- 
 tal pleasure and excess. His complex career 
 was terminated in June, 1037. 
 
 The importance of Avicenna to Western 
 thought lies in the fact that his work, based 
 largely on Galen and ultimately Hippocrates 
 and Aristotle, became the great medical text- 
 book of the medieval universities. His system 
 of medicine, Kanun fi'l Tibb, carries minute- 
 
 311
 
 AXIOM 
 
 BACCHANTS 
 
 ness of classification of bodily ailments to an 
 extreme, but is inferior in the parts which deal 
 with surgery. His canon only lost its hold on 
 the Western universities in the seventeenth 
 century. The philosophical works of Avicenna 
 are characterized by an attempt to combine 
 religion and philosojjhy in a consistent system, 
 and were not without influence upon Albert us 
 Magnus iq.v.) and the later scholasticism. 
 
 AXIOM. — A term used in mathematics to 
 indicate a general assumption agreed to by all. 
 Euclid iq.v.) used the expression " common 
 notions" (koivuI ivfotac) , but his commentator 
 Proclus iq.v.) uses " axiom " (d^i'w^a), and 
 this name has replaced the older one. The 
 distinction between an axiom and a postulate 
 is not always clearly set forth in the works of 
 the Greek geometricians, but in Euclid it is 
 quite evident. A postulate (aiVr^/ia) is a 
 request made by a teacher to his pupil, or a con- 
 cession by the latter, that some proposition may 
 be granted without proof, as a basis upon 
 which the particular science in question (in 
 Euclid's case, geometry) may be built. An 
 axiom is a demand of a more general nature, 
 also relating to basal principles, and commonly 
 assented to by every one. Tluis it is an axiom 
 that quantities that are equal to the same 
 quantity are equal to each other, — a gener- 
 ally accepted truth in all mathematics, at least 
 with slight modifications or explanations. It is 
 a postulate that through a point only one line 
 can be drawn parallel to a given straight line, 
 for this is an assumption peculiar to geometry, 
 and is by no means as generally agreed to as 
 the axioms. Indeed, this particular postulate 
 may be denied, and a contradictory one sub- 
 stituted for it, as was done in the works of 
 Lobachevsky (1793-1856) and Bolyai (1802- 
 1860), resulting in the " non-Euclidean geom- 
 etry." The postulates of Euclid were 5 in 
 number, and the " common notions " (axioms) 
 were also 5, the latter having been supple- 
 mented by various commentators. D. E. S. 
 
 AXIS CYLINDER. — See Nervous System. 
 
 AZARIAS, BROTHER. — See Mullany, 
 
 P.\TRIt'K Fr.\NCIS. 
 
 AZTECS, SCHOOLS OF. — See Mexico, 
 Education in; Primitiv'e Society, Educa- 
 tion IN. 
 
 BABYHOOD. 
 
 Psychology. 
 
 See Child Study; Child 
 
 BACCALAUREUS. — There can be no doubt 
 that the numerous derivations assigned to this 
 word hitherto were fanciful. It is now well 
 established that the word baccalaurcus, or 
 baccalarius, was derived from the Low Latin 
 bacca (for vacca), and was a term applied to a 
 
 cowboy or herdsman ser\'ing under a farmer. 
 Young warriors who were not yet knights were 
 also called bachelors. Clearly it denoted one 
 who was serving an apprenticeship. As used 
 in connection with the universities of the 
 Middle Ages, the term was ap])lied to a student 
 who, while still pursuing his studies under a 
 mayistcr, was permitted to lecture or prepare 
 other students. This interpretation brings the 
 medieval universities into line with the guild 
 organizations of the period. Before a stuilent 
 could become a master, or obtain the license 
 to teach, he had to serve a term of apprentice- 
 ship. The period of apprenticeship began in 
 the earlier universities at the end of a 5 years' 
 course of study. Later, when the " arts 
 faculty " came to be recognized as part of the 
 universitj', the period iiegan on the completion 
 of the study of the trivium (q.v.). Although 
 there was nothing in the nature of an exami- 
 nation, the candidate for the title had to go 
 through a ceremony or " determination," an 
 imitation of the disputation of the masters. 
 Admission to the bachelor's degree belonged 
 either to the proctors (Paris), the rector 
 (Bologna), or to the Chancellor (Oxford). 
 At Paris an Examen Baccalariandorum was 
 introduced about 1275, and was conducted by 
 a board of examiners, who decided whether a 
 candidate might be admitted to determine. 
 After the institution of the examination the 
 baccalaureate became an inferior degree. 
 See article on Degrees. 
 Reference : 
 
 Ra.shdall, H. Unwersilics of Europe in the Middle 
 Ages. (Oxford, 1895.) 
 
 BACCHANTS {Baccantes from vaganfes, 
 "wanderers"; also referred to Bacchus). — The 
 wandering student of the late Middle Ages. 
 The term was usually apjjlied to the students of 
 grammar and rhetoric, who led a roving life, 
 visiting the various church, mona.stic, or burgher 
 schools, usually accompanied by smaller boys 
 (.see Shooters), who were nominally ap- 
 prenticed to them, until in time a permanent 
 place was found, when the bacchant became a 
 localus iq.v.). The wandering priests (ckrici 
 vagantes) had formed a feature of the Hfe of 
 the Church from the fifth century, at least. 
 With the founding of the early universities, the 
 wandering scholars became a class distinct from 
 the wandering priests, though many of the 
 scholars were in orders, and most of the re- 
 mainder aspired to be. Those who adopted 
 the wandering life as a definite mode of living 
 as distinguished from those who simply sought 
 to follow the most attractive teacher were 
 called Golinrds (q.v.). By the fourteenth 
 century these Goliards had sunk in poimlar 
 esteem, and they tended to fuse with other 
 wandering classes, as the minstrels. But witli 
 the growth of a more extensive system of 
 grammar schools throughout Europe during 
 the Renaissance period a younger group of 
 
 312
 
 BACHE 
 
 BACON 
 
 migrating students grew up, — the bacchants, 
 — in time to become a social nuisance and an 
 educational perversion. It became one of the 
 aims of the Protestant reformers to suppress 
 this class. The development of state systems of 
 schools giv ng uniform opportunities in almost 
 every locality made this possible. However, 
 the migrating teacher (see Boarding Round of 
 Teachers) continued in Teutonic lands as a 
 sur\'ival. Two classic accounts of the wander- 
 ing scholars have been left, the Autobiographies 
 of Thomas Platter (q.v.) and of Johannes Butz- 
 Bach {q.v.). See Symonds, Wine, Women, and 
 Song. 
 
 References: — 
 
 Freyt.\g, Gustav. Pictures of German Life in the 
 Fifteenth, Sixteenth and Sneiilcenth Centuries. 
 Tr. Mrs. Malcolm. (London, 1.S02.) 
 
 Monroe, P. Thomas Platter and the Educational 
 Renaissance of the Sixteenth Century. (N.Y., 1909.) 
 
 BACHE, ALEXANDER DALLAS (1806- 
 1867). — Educator and author, was born in 
 Philadelphia July 19, 1806. He was gradu- 
 ated from the United States Military Academy 
 at West Point in 1826, and for 2 years 
 was an in.structor in that institution. For 
 8 years (1828-1836) he was professor in the 
 University of Pennsylvania. Having been 
 elected president of Girard College, he was sent 
 by the board of trustees of that institution to 
 Europe for 2 years that he might study the 
 educational systems of the old world. During 
 this interval he visited all the countries of 
 western Europe, and came to know with a 
 good deal of intimacy their educational insti- 
 tutions. His Report on Education in Europe 
 (Philadelphia, 1839, 666 pp.) was the earliest 
 comprehensive account of European school 
 systems published in America, and certainly 
 no account has ever since been published that 
 covers the same ground so well. While in 
 Europe he visited 278 different institutions, 
 including practically every class, from the 
 elementary schools to the higher seats of learn- 
 ing, and including schools for defectives, de- 
 pendents, and deUncjuents, as well as technical 
 and industrial institutes. He was president 
 of Girard College until 1841, when he accepted 
 the prineipalship of the Central High School 
 at Philadelphia. From 1843 to 1847 he was 
 superintendent of the United States Coast 
 Survey. He was one of the incorporators of 
 the Smithsonian Institution (q.v.) and the 
 American Association for the Advancement of 
 Science (q.v.) and was active in the organization 
 of the National Academy of Science (q.v.) and 
 its first president. He was an advocate of 
 school athletics and other forms of physical 
 training, and was keenly interested in the edu- 
 cation of women. His report (1840) on ,4 
 High School for Girls and a Seminary for 
 Female Teachers, which was widely reprinted, 
 aided greatly the cause of the higher education 
 of women. His published essays include 150 
 
 titles, many of which are on education. He 
 died Feb. 17, 1867. W. S. M. 
 
 BACHI, PIETRO (1787-1853). — Teacher 
 of foreign languages, educated in Sicily and at 
 the University of Padua. He was for 20 years 
 instructor in Italian and Spanish at Harvard 
 College, and the author of a series of college 
 textbooks on these two languages. W. S. M. 
 
 BACKWARD PUPILS. — Children who do 
 
 not progress from grade to grade according to 
 the normal rate of the school system, and who 
 constantly require special assistance in the 
 classes in which they are enrolled, are called 
 " backward," " over-age," or " retarded " 
 pupils. Bright pupils, slightly and tempo- 
 rarily retarded, because of illness, necessary 
 ab.sence, transfer from one school system to an- 
 other, or other circumstantial causes, are not, 
 strictly speaking, " backward pupils." The 
 " backward " child is caused by phy.sical or 
 mental defects of a congenital type, or by 
 family neglect, irregular school attendance, and 
 inefficient modes of instruction. Various de- 
 vices, particularly the ungraded class, have 
 been utilized to relieve the regular graded classes 
 of the burden of the " backward " child and to 
 make it possible for such " over-age " children 
 to get the special attention they require. 
 
 H. S. 
 See Retardation; also. Grading and Pro- 
 motion. 
 
 BACON, FRANCIS (1561-1626). — Baron 
 Verulam, Viscount St. Albans; English philos- 
 opher, statesman, and man of letters. Bacon 
 was one of the greatest lights of the brilliant 
 age of Elizabeth, being, as he said, " two years 
 younger than her Majesty's happy reign." He 
 was a contemporary also of Elizabeth's suc- 
 cessor, the pretentious pedant. King James. 
 Shakespeare was 3 years Bacon's junior and 
 was outlived by Bacon 10 years. Bacon did 
 not highly esteem the profession of actor, say- 
 ing " and though the thing itself be disreputa- 
 ble in the profession of it, yet it is excellent as 
 a discipline; we mean the action of the theatre." 
 
 In his twelfth year Bacon went with his 
 brother Anthony to Trinity College, Cam- 
 bridge. After 3 years spent here, during which 
 he came to dislike the philosophy of Aris- 
 totle as formal and profitless, he traveled 
 in France as an attache of the English embassy, 
 gaining valuable experience. On returning to 
 England, having but little means, he studied 
 law, and became a barrister in 1582. Two 
 years later he was elected to Parliament, where 
 he displayed great ability, conceived high 
 ambitions for poUtical preferment, suffered 
 from financial embarrassments, but profited 
 politically and financially by the friendship of 
 the Queen's greate.st favorite, the brilliant 
 Essex, and cherished his youthful purpose to 
 renew science by showing to it both jts true 
 
 313
 
 BACON 
 
 BACON 
 
 method and its grand mission. About 1592 
 he addressed a letter to his uncle, the prominent 
 Lord Burleigh, asking for aid, and saying, 
 among other things: " I confess that I have as 
 vast intellectual ends as moderate civil ends; 
 for I have taken all knowledge to be my prov- 
 ince; and if I could purge it of two sort of 
 rovers . . . (the frivolous disputers and the 
 blind experimenters), I hope I should bring in 
 industrious observations, grounded conclusions, 
 and profitaljle inventions and discoveries; the 
 best state of the province. This, whether it be 
 curiosity or vain-glory, or nature, or (if one take 
 it favorably) philanthropia, is so fixed in my 
 mind as it cannot be removed." 
 
 The latter part of his political career was 
 crowned with high honors, though shadowed 
 by his prosecution of his friend and benefactor, 
 Essex, for the crime of treason, and disgraced by 
 the charge and confession, as Lord Chancellor, 
 of bribery. In 1595, Bacon became Queen's 
 Counsel; in 1607, under James, Solicitor- 
 General; in 1613, Attorney-Cieneral; in 1617, 
 Keeper of the Great Seal, as his father before 
 him had been; in 1619, Lord Chancellor, with 
 the title of Baron Verulam; in 1620, Viscount 
 of St. Albans. Concerning the two notaiile 
 charges against his character, his so-called 
 treachery to Essex and his being guilty of 
 bribery, it may in justice be remarked that 
 the rash Essex had indeed been guilty of trea- 
 son in championing the Scottish succession, 
 and Bacon as the Queen's Counsel simply did 
 his official duty in a difficult situation, though 
 perhaps with unbecoming zeal. As to the 
 bribery, it was common in those days for liti- 
 gants to make presents to the judges, and it 
 was not common to take notice of it. Bacon 
 himself fairly observes; " I was the justest 
 judge that was in England these fifty years; 
 but it was the justest censure that was in Par- 
 liament these two hundred years." He also 
 maintained that the bribe had never been in 
 his eye when he gave judgment. But he was 
 stripped of his offices, though allowed to retain 
 his titles by a small vote, and Pope, with sting- 
 ing satire, could write; — 
 
 " If parts allure thee, think how Bacon shined ; 
 The wisest, brightest, meanest of mankind." 
 
 During his busy public life Bacon had used 
 his leisure moments in writing. After his fall, 
 some six years of feeble health were devoted to 
 the same purpose. His death came from 
 catching cold, while experimenting on the pre- 
 servative properties of snow. His writings 
 show the flexibility of the newly formed Eng- 
 lish language; they are very quotable, despite 
 the heaviness of the thought and the compact- 
 ness of the style; and they are very compre- 
 hensive and remarkable, making epochs, in 
 fact, in literature, in science, and in philosophy. 
 Though anticipating much of modern progress. 
 Bacon did not anticipate the future of the 
 English language. Conforming to the Renais- 
 
 sance custom of the time, he either wrote in, or 
 else translated into, Latin all his main works. 
 
 Bacon had a vast plan in his writings, which 
 he was not able fully to execute. The plan 
 was called the Magna In.stauratiu, the Great 
 Renewal. In short, the Great Renewal meant 
 that the new object of knowledge is not words, 
 but nature; the new source of knowledge is not 
 [)ure reason, but the senses; the new method of 
 knowledge is not deduction, but induction; and 
 the new aim of knowledge is not discipline, but 
 l)ower. The first jiarl of the Magna Jiixtauralio 
 was published in 1605, and was entitled Of the 
 I'roficience and Advancement of Learning. This 
 work refutes the objections to learning, and 
 distrii)utes knowledge into the three main di- 
 visions of history, poesy, and philosophy, thus 
 making " a small glolje of the intellectual world " 
 and exhibiting its undiscovered countries. He 
 rang the bell, as he said, to call the wits to- 
 gether. The second part of the Magna InMau- 
 ratio appeared as the Novum Urganinn in 1620. 
 
 Title page to Novum Organiim (1(520). 
 
 In the short preface to this work he contrasts 
 " the method of cultivating the sciences," 
 " the anticipation of the mind," with " the 
 method of discovering the sciences," " the 
 interpretation of nature." In .sum, the one is 
 deduction, the Organum of Aristotle; the 
 other is induction, the Xoviim Organvm_ of 
 Bacon. The first aphorism of Book I gives 
 the animating spirit of the whole: " Man, as 
 
 314
 
 Francis Bacon (1561-1526). (Stv p. 313.) 
 
 Alexander Bain ;1^1.S-1'JU3;. C6i.e p. olh.; 
 
 George Berlieley (l(3.s4-1753). (See p. 365.) Frcaoriclc Eduard Bencke (1798-1S54). (See p. 362.) 
 
 A Group of Philosophers, Contributors to Education. 
 
 (With the permission of the Open Court Publishing Co.)
 
 BACON 
 
 BACON 
 
 the minister and interpreter of nature, does 
 and understands as much as his observations 
 on the order of nature, either with regard to 
 things or the mind, permit him and neither 
 knows nor is capable of more." Yet, Bacon 
 admitted revelation to be a source of knowledge 
 and a basis for religion. The famous " idols " 
 appear in this piece. The third part of the 
 Magna Instaiiratio is represented by the Sylva 
 Sylvarum, together with some minor works. This 
 part attempts to present the data of the universe 
 as phenomena for induction, to provide an "ex- 
 perimental history of nature." It shows the 
 range of Bacon's knowledge, his moderate ca- 
 pacity in handling induction, his failure to appre- 
 ciate the element of risk that enters into every in- 
 ductive leap of the understanding, his consequent 
 excessive caution in generalizing, and his undue 
 depreciation of deduction. The tlu-ee remaining 
 parts of the Magna Instauratio were unfortu- 
 nately never completed. 
 
 Among the other writings of Bacon possess- 
 ing particular educational significance are the 
 unfinished New Atlantis, and certain of the 
 ever living Essays. The Neiv Atlantis is an- 
 other one of the Renaissance Utopias, con- 
 cerning which Bacon's first editor, Wm. Raw- 
 ley, says: " This fable my lord devised, to 
 the end that he might exhibit therein a model 
 or description of a college, instituted for the 
 interpreting of nature, and the producing of 
 great and marvellous works, for the benefit of 
 men; under the name of Solomon's House, or 
 the College of the Six Days' Works." In 
 truly modern fashion Bacon describes " Solo- 
 mon's House " as an investigating university, 
 science appearing as the civilizing agency in the 
 ideal society, binding man to man, and also 
 leading man to God. 
 
 The Essays or Counsels Civil and Moral 
 were written and rewritten at intervals from 
 1597 to 1625. They provide that analysis into 
 elements of the inner life of man which his 
 inductive philosophy requires of the outer life 
 of nature. Many of these counsels are excel- 
 lent, some in Machiavellian fashion separate 
 politics from ethics, and all are shrewd and sug- 
 gestive. Of particular educational moment 
 may be mentioned those entitled: " Of Parents 
 and Children," " Of Travel," " Of Regimen 
 of Health," " Of Custom and Education," 
 " Of Gardens," " Of Studies." These essays 
 were so purely distilled in the retort of Bacon's 
 analyzing thought that they cannot be sum- 
 marized, and perluxps quotations that might be 
 made from them are already in the mind of the 
 reader. 
 
 Bacon rarely discussed specific educational 
 questions. The more interest attaches to 
 certain views of his on the " Arts of Teaching " 
 that appear in Book VI, ch. iv, of the Ad- 
 vancement of Learning. We there learn that 
 education, according to Bacon, should go 
 on in colleges and not wholly in private 
 houses and schools; that too concise methods. 
 
 too hasty opinions, are to be avoided, which 
 " rather make a show of improvement than 
 procure it "; that there are two ways of exer- 
 cising genius, from the easy to the hard and 
 from the hard to the easy, " for it is one method 
 to begin swimming with bladders, and another 
 to begin dancing with loaded shoes"; that 
 " excursions of genius are to be somewhat 
 favored"; that " the suiting of studies to the 
 genius [ability] is of singular use"; that 
 " e%'eryone makes greater progress in those 
 studies whereto he is naturally inclined "; that 
 " there are certain remedies in a proper choice 
 of studies for particular indispositions of mind," 
 e.g. he recommends mathematics for inatten- 
 tion; and that exercises should be varied in 
 character to prevent the fixation of faults. 
 These definite views on teaching hardly surpass 
 the customary principles advocated by the 
 Renaissance educators. In fact, they rather 
 indicate that Bacon paid only casual attention 
 to teachers and teaching. 
 
 This conclusion is borne out also by the 
 repeated and undiscriminating praise he accords 
 the Jesuits. In this same chapter he says, "For 
 the doctrine of school-learning, it were the short 
 way to refer it to the Jesuits, who in point of 
 usefulness have herein excelled." In the first 
 book of the Advancement of Learning he wntes, 
 "... the wisdom of the ancientest and best 
 times always complained that states were too 
 busy with laws and too remiss in point of educa- 
 tion. This excellent part of ancient discipline 
 has in some measure been revived of late by the 
 colleges of Jesuits abroad ; in regard of whose dili- 
 gence in fashioning the morals and cultivating 
 the minds of youth, I may say, as Agesilaus said 
 to his enemy Pharnabasus, talis quam sis, utinam 
 noster esses." Shall we say that Bacon had not 
 worked out carefully the bearings of his own 
 fundamental principles of investigation, of 
 induction in science, upon education, or that he 
 simpl)', reflecting a popular opinion, misunder- 
 stood what the Jesuits were doing, since Jesuitic 
 and Baconian results are mutually contradictor}', 
 or perhaps that both alternatives are true ? The 
 man who did see the application of Bacon's phi- 
 losophy to education was Comenius iq.v.). 
 
 In sum, the educational influence of Bacon 
 was general rather than specific; he discovered 
 a mine that has enriched modern thought, life, 
 and civilization, but he was unable to work out 
 all its veins; his immediate service is to educa- 
 tion in the broad sense of the term rather than 
 to the school. Thus, broadly speaking. Bacon 
 initiated the greatest reform movement in 
 education following the Renaissance, viz. 
 "sense-realism." His followers reconstituted 
 the curriculum and revolutionized school 
 method. He destroyed the reign of authority 
 in science; he helped to make modern science 
 and modern philosophy possible; he substituted 
 nature for dialectic disputation; he considered 
 the narrow humanism of Ascham and Sturm to 
 be " the first distemper of learning, when men 
 
 315
 
 BACON 
 
 BACON 
 
 study words and not matter"; he substituted 
 induction for deduction in the study of nature, 
 thus giving education tlie sense basis; and in tlie 
 spirit of philanthropy he started the ideal of 
 pansophism iq.v.), tliat all knowledge might be 
 unified for dissemination among men. These 
 wonderful innovations were not effected with- 
 out tlie assistance of the scientific geniuses and 
 the practical schoolmasters of the period, such 
 as Bruno, Copernicus, Da X'inci, Galileo, Kepler, 
 Grotius, Boyle, Mulcaster, Katke, and C'omenius. 
 But Bacon was the philosophical inspiration of 
 the modern scientific movement. His great- 
 ness consists in his formulation of the scientific 
 problem, his provision of the means for its 
 solution, and his now fulfilled )5rophesies of the 
 results. Bacon has provided the mottoes for 
 modern contributions to uiuversal scholarship, 
 from Kant to Sandys. 
 
 Of the epoch-making character of his work 
 he was very well aware, finding comfort in the 
 fruits to come from the travail of his mind. 
 Rewrote: "I have held up a light (Induction) 
 in the obscurity of philosophy which will be 
 seen centuries after I am dead. It will be seen 
 amid the erection of temples, tombs, palaces, 
 theatres, bridges, making noble roads, cutting 
 canals, granting multitude of charters and 
 liberties for comfort of decayed companies and 
 corporations; the foundation of colleges and 
 lectures for learning and the education of 
 youth; foundations and institutions of orders 
 and fraternities for nobility, enterprise, and 
 obedience; but, above all, the establishing 
 good laws for the regulation of the kingdom, 
 and as an example to the world." H. H. H. 
 
 References : — 
 Chfrch, R. W. Bacon. fXcw York. 18S4.) 
 Complete Works. — Ed. by Willi.ui Rawlet. (Am- 
 sterdara, 1G03.) 
 Ed. bv MoMTAGUE. (London, 1825-1834.) 
 Ed. by H. G. Bohr. (London, 1846.) 
 Ed. by Ellis, Spedding, and Heath. (London, 
 1857-18.59.) 
 Fischer, Kuno. Francis Bacon und seine Nachfolger. 
 
 2d od. (Leipzig, 1875.) 
 Fowler, Th. Bacon. (London, 1881.) 
 NicHOL. J. Bacon. 2 vols. (Edinburgh, 1888-1889.) 
 Re.\jus.\t, Ch. de. Bacon, sa vie, son temps, sa phi- 
 losophic et son influence iusquh nos jours, 2d ed. 
 (Paris. 1858.) 
 Spedding, J. Account of the Life and Times of Francis 
 Bacon. 2 vols. (London. 1879.) 
 
 BACON, ROGER (c. 1214-1294). — This 
 monk was the most profound thinker and per- 
 haps the most learned man of the thirteenth 
 century. Probably under the influence of 
 Grosseteste (q.v.), one of his teachers, he joined 
 the Franciscan Order. He studied at Oxford 
 and in Paris, and returned to England about 
 the year 1250. In 1257 he was sent back to 
 Paris, and was twice put under restraint. At 
 the end of the first period (1267) he composed 
 for Pope Clement IV his great works, the Opus 
 Majus, an encyclopedic treatise on all the 
 learning of his day; the Opra Minus, in which 
 he discusses the obstacles of learning in his 
 
 day, and the varying and various versions of 
 the Scriptures; and the Opu.s Tertium which 
 deals with many scientific, philosophical, gram- 
 matical, and philological questions. To those 
 works we must add the Conipctidium Studii 
 I'hilosophiac, the Compendium Studii Tlicologiac 
 (1292), his Greek and Hebrew grammars, and 
 many still unprinted works. He seems to 
 have died at Oxford in 1294. 
 
 Bacon is important in the history of education 
 as, from the point of view of general culture, 
 marking the high watermark of medieval 
 intellectual activity, and as an uncompromising 
 critic of the methods of education in his own 
 times. Dr. T. A. Walker, in his chapter on 
 Education in Vol. II of the Cambridge History 
 of English Literature, deals with the first point. 
 He says: " The glory of the Grey Friars cul- 
 minated in Roger Bacon (e. 1214-1294). 
 Skilled in all the recognized studies of his age, 
 he, in opposition to prevailing ideas, though 
 remaining a schoolman, pointed to the study 
 of languages and mathematics as affording the 
 true basis for a sound system of education, and 
 incurred amongst his contemporaries and suc- 
 ceeding generations the lasting suspicion of 
 tampering with the illegitimate by leading the 
 way in the pursuit of natural science." A 
 leading spirit in the universities of Paris and 
 Oxford, he was of course intimately familiar 
 with the intellectual needs of his age; and it is 
 important to realize that he was essentially 
 a forerunner of the Renaissance in England, and 
 not only of the classical Renaissance, but of that 
 other aspect of the Renaissance, the philosophic 
 and scientific Renaissance, which began to ex- 
 tend the horizon of English thought in the 
 seventeenth century. His activity in the sphere 
 of education was precisely of the same nature 
 as his activity in other directions — in the direc- 
 tions of pure thought, of pure scholarship, of 
 natural science. An infinitely greater thinker 
 than his later namesake, Francis Bacon (q.v.), he 
 had the same universality of nund, the same 
 desire to provoke a divine discontent in the 
 minds of men, the same determination to go 
 back to reality and to sweep away the shams 
 and unrealities of current intellectual life. 
 That he did much for that life is shown by the 
 fact that his textbooks and treatises steadily 
 circulated in England up to the very eve of the 
 Reformation. His views can be well illustrated 
 by his educational efforts. He and the scholars 
 that he gathered together had a great influence 
 on educational thought. We may rightly 
 attribute to his influence and the memory of his 
 work the remarkable provisions made by the 
 Council of \'ienne in 1.311 for the teaching of 
 Hebrew in the universities of Oxford, Bologna, 
 Salamanca, and in the Roman schools. His 
 work on arithmetic was circulating as late as 
 the fifteenth century, his De Caelo et Mundo 
 was in the library that Humphrey Duke of 
 Gloucester gave to Oxford in the next century, 
 his De Grammatica, his Greek Grammar, his 
 
 316
 
 BACON 
 
 BAHRDT 
 
 Hebrew Grammar, all had their place in the 
 slow rebirth of European intellectual life. 
 But he not only produced books for educational 
 use. His mind was intensely critical as well 
 as supremely constructive, and his attacks on 
 the schoolbooks current in his own day show 
 better than any other evidence his attitude 
 to education and his lines of educational in- 
 fluence. Five writers of popular schoolbooks 
 he literally slaughters, Papias, Hugutio, Alex- 
 ander de Villa Dei, Neckam, and Brito. The 
 first schoolbook in use in England after the 
 Conquest was the Eleinenlarium of Papias (com- 
 posed about 1053 a.d.). Hugutio was Bishop 
 of Ferrara from 1191 to 1212, and compiled a 
 Vocahidarium (which Johannes de Janua de 
 Balbus used in conjunction with the Elemen- 
 tarium of Papias to form his Catholicon or 
 Summa, which appeared in 12S6). Alexander 
 Neckara's De Utensilibus appeared before 1217, 
 while Alexander de Villa Dei (q.v.) produced his 
 Docirinale Puerorum about 1209, a work that 
 widely circulated in France and England. 
 Bacon attacks most of these works. He vio- 
 lently attacks Alexander de Villa Dei's Dociri- 
 nale Puerorum (Greek Grammar, p. 121). So 
 much for Bacon's criticism of schoolbooks. 
 It is sound in every particular, and, if it did not 
 save the schools from such books, it must have 
 done much good in the universities. For the 
 most part Bacon reserved his praise for Boethius, 
 Bede, and Grosseteste, and he is never tired of 
 preaching the need of Greek and Hebrew in in- 
 tellectual life. The Latins, he declared, forgetful 
 of Roman Law, " had not, themselves originated 
 a single branch of learning" (see Greek Grammar, 
 Introduction, p. xvi). Bacon learned Greek 
 from Greek teachers, and so, as did Reuchlin 
 (q.v.) two centuries later, adopted the pro- 
 nunciation known as Ilacism " in distinction 
 from the Elacism introduced by Erasmus." 
 Though Bacon based his Grammar on Priscian, 
 he does not hesitate to differ from him, if he 
 disagrees. Thus he contradicts the assertion 
 of Priscian that Mi cannot be the dative of 
 Ego (Opus Tertium, Ixi, p. 24.5). 
 
 ' ' Bacon possessed the true phOological instinct ; 
 he had a keen perception of the connection sub- 
 sisting between the various dialects belonging 
 to groups of languages. At a time when that 
 study was as yet entirely unknown in Europe, 
 Bacon speculated on the kinship of languages" 
 (Hirsch) and endeavored to prove the existence 
 of auniversal grammar with accidental differences 
 in particular cases. It was in sucli a spirit 
 that he produced for the use of Latin scholars 
 his Greek and Hebrew grammars. He re- 
 garded grammar (or, if the term might be used, 
 culture;) as the necessary antecedent of special- 
 ization in science (Opus Terliiun, xxviii, p. 102), 
 and in this anticipates much modern thought 
 on education. The revival of Greek by Bacon is 
 a stage in that fascinating subject, the history 
 of Greek learning in England and Europe. In 
 668 Theodore and Adrian (q.v.) brought back 
 
 Greek to England. Some of the scholars 
 who survived into Bede's time, such as Tobias, 
 Bishop of Rochester (d. 726) and Tatwine 
 (d. 734) were as familiar with Latin and Greek 
 as their mother tongue. Odo, Archbishop of 
 Canterbury, who died in 961, carried on the 
 Greek tradition. An examination of the 
 early English Psalters and books of antiphone 
 shows that Greek was used in parts of the 
 services, in certain places at least, to the end of 
 the Saxon period (see King Ethelstan's Psalter 
 and the Winchester copy of the Gloria of the 
 first half of the eleventh century). For the most 
 part it is written phonetically, but we have a 
 Sanctus in Greek uncials. This dwindling 
 echo of Greek scholarship was given new life 
 by Roger Bacon, who passed on the tradition to 
 the days of the New Learning. 
 
 J. E. G. DE M. 
 References : — 
 
 Brewster, J. S. Fr. Rogeri Bacon, Opera inedita. (Rolls 
 
 Series, 1859.) 
 Charles, E. Bacon, sa vie, ses ouvrages, ses doctrines. 
 
 (Paris, 1861.) 
 Nolan, E., and Hirsch, S. A. Greek Grammar of 
 
 Roger Bacon. (Cambridge, 1902.) 
 Sandys, J. E. A History of Classical Scholarship, 
 
 Vol. I. (Cambridge, 1903.) 
 
 BACONE COLLEGE, BACONE, OKLA- 
 HOMA. — A coeducational institution estab- 
 lished in 1880. The school, which has a campus 
 of 160 acres, provides a 4 years' high school and 
 freshman and sophomore college courses. 
 
 BACTERIOLOGY. — See Biology; Botany; 
 Household Arts ; Medical Education. 
 
 BADEN, GRAND-DUCHY OF, EDUCA- 
 TION IN. — See German Empire, Education 
 
 IN. 
 
 BAHNMAIER, JONATHAN FRLEDRICH 
 
 (1841). — A German theologian, born in Obris- 
 tenfeld in Wiirtemberg. In 1806 he became 
 pastor in Marbach; in 1815professor of theology 
 and pedagogy in Tubingen. He was a follower 
 of Pestalozzi, and did much for the schools of 
 his native country. 
 
 BAHRDT, KARL FRIEDRICH (1714-1792). 
 — A German theologian and educator, promi- 
 nent in the philanthropinist movement (q.v.). 
 Born in Bischofswerda, Saxony, he attended 
 the school of Schulpforta, and then went, rather 
 ill prepared, to the University of Leipzig, where 
 he became professor of biblical theology (1766). 
 Owing partly to his very unorthodox religious 
 views, and partly to his immoral life, he was 
 compelled to give up his university work, and 
 accepted in 1775 a call of Baron de Salis to di- 
 rect the Philanthropinum of Marschlins in 
 Switzerland. The work there, as well as in a 
 new Philanthropinum, which he opened in 
 Heideshcim in the Palatinate in 1777, was an 
 utter failure. From 1779 until his death, he 
 lived in Halle, where he lectured on moral phi- 
 
 317
 
 BAILEY 
 
 BAINES 
 
 losoiihy, and, at the same time, kept an inn, 
 which was largely patronized by the students. 
 Bahrdt was a man of brilliant intellect, but 
 totally lacking in character. As a theologian, 
 he was one of the most extreme exponents of 
 rationalism, while his pedagogic ideas are based 
 on those of Basedow. The absurdities of his 
 educational practice, however, as well as his 
 charlatanism and immorality, brought ill re- 
 pute upon the whole movement of Philanthrop- 
 inism. F. M. 
 
 Reference: — 
 
 Lgyser, J. K. Ft. Bahrdl. dcr Zcilgenosse Pestalozzis, 
 sein Vfrhliltnis znm Philunthrojnttismutt und zur 
 neueren PUdagogik. (Neustadt a.d. H. 1870.) 
 
 BAILEY, EBENEZER ( 1 795-1839). — School- 
 man, educated in the schools of Massachusetts 
 and at Yale College; principal of schools in ^'i^- 
 ginia and Massachusetts and of the Girls' 
 High School in Boston: one of the organizers 
 of the American Institute of Instruction; 
 author of Young Ladies' Clnss Book, Philosophi- 
 cal Conversations, and a textbook in algebra. 
 
 W. S. M. 
 
 BAILEY, WILLLAM RUFUS (1793-1863). 
 — Educator, graduated at Dartmouth College 
 in 1813. For ten years he was a teacher in 
 academies in Maine and New Hampshire, and 
 for twenty years he was principal of secondary 
 schools in Virginia and the Carolinas. He 
 was professor in Austin College, Tex., from 1S.'J4 
 to 1858, and during the next five years he was 
 president of that institution. His textbooks on 
 grammar were widely used in the South. 
 
 W. S. M. 
 
 BAIN, ALEXANDER, LL.D. (1818-1903).— 
 Professor of Logic and English in the Univer- 
 sity of Aberdeen from 18(50 to 1880. He was 
 elected Lord Rector of the University in 1881, 
 and reelected for another term of office in 1884. 
 He wrote largely on psychological and logical 
 subjects, his chief contributions being: The 
 Senses and the Intellect (1855); The Emotions 
 and the Will (1859); The Study of Character 
 (1861); Mental and Moral Science (1868); 
 Logic, Deductive and Inductive (1870); Mind 
 and Body (1873); James Mill, a biography, and 
 John Stuart Mill, a criticism icith some personal 
 recollections (1882). His chief contributions 
 to educational theory and practice were: 
 Education as a Science (1879); English Gram- 
 mar (1863); A Manual of English Comjiosition 
 and Rhetoric (1866); On Teaching English 
 (1887). 
 
 His most important contribution to edu- 
 cation is contained in his Education as a 
 Science. In this work Bain treats of the 
 scope of education; of the bearings of physiol- 
 ogy and psychology on educational practice 
 and methods; of educational values; of the 
 logical and psychological sequence of subjects; 
 and of the methods of teaching the various sub- 
 
 jects of school instruction. Chapters are also 
 devoted to moral and to art education. Accord- ' 
 ing to Bain, the science of education is con- 
 fined "to the efforts made of set purpose to 
 train men in a jxirticular way, the efforts of the 
 grown-up i)art of the community to inform the 
 intellect and mould the character of the young, 
 and more especially to the labours of professional 
 educators or schoolmasters." It is, moreover, 
 the arts and methods employed by the school- 
 master which form the main study of the 
 science of education, for though he is not alone 
 in the work, yet in his efforts he typifies the 
 process in its greatest singleness and purity. 
 If in any way we can improve the art of the 
 teacher, we shall have done nearly all that can 
 be required of a science and art of education. 
 Two important i)oints are to be noted in Bain's 
 conception of education. He excludes physical 
 education from the conception, on the ground 
 that, whilst the " fact of bodily health or vigour 
 is a leading postulate in bodily or mental train- 
 ing," yet the " trainer docs not take upon himself 
 to lay down the rules of hygiene." Education 
 again docs not embrace the employment of our 
 intellectual functions when directed to produc- 
 tive labor, and as a consequence technical and 
 professional education does not come within 
 the scope of the pure science of education. 
 
 The other princiiilc of importance is that 
 Bain considered that the leading intjuiry in the 
 art of education is how to strengthen memory, 
 and hence the chief contribution of psychology 
 to education lay in the statement of the con- 
 ditions of the retentive functions of mind. 
 
 A. D. 
 
 References: — 
 
 Bain, A. Autobiography, ed. by W. L. Davidson. 
 
 (London, 1904.) 
 Davidson, W. L. Prof. Bain's Philosophv. Mind, 
 
 Vol. 29, p. 161. 
 
 BAINES, EDWARD (1774-1848). — A 
 leader of opinion against governmental action 
 in English national education; organizer of 
 Mechanics' Institutes; born near Preston 
 (1774); descended from a Yorkshire yeoman 
 family; educated first at Hawkshcad Grammar 
 School (where he was a younger schoolfellow 
 of the poet Wordsworth) and afterwards at 
 Preston Grammar School; apprenticed (a't. 
 16) to a printer in Preston; in 1795 moved to 
 Leeds, Yorkshire, where he entered the office 
 of the Leeds Mercury; was ambitious to follow 
 the example of Benjamin Franklin, whose life 
 he made his model; drawn by sympathy with 
 their political principles, he joined the Inde- 
 pendents, and was a strenuous advocate of 
 Nonconformist principles during the whole of 
 his political life. In 1801 he became proprietor 
 of the Leeds Mercury, which, under his direction, 
 became the chief Liberal organ in the North of 
 England; Liberal Member for Leeds, 1834-1841; 
 \'igorous advocate of the abolition of church 
 rates and of the civil disabilities of Noncon- 
 
 318
 
 BAINES 
 
 BAKER UNIVERSITY 
 
 formists; a student of county history and 
 author of useful works of topographical re- 
 search. Leeds was at that time an important 
 center of political and social thought, and out 
 of local discussions on economic and constitu- 
 tional questions there emerged striking, but 
 somewhat extreme, theories, both in favor of 
 laissez faire and of governmental action in 
 social reform. Baines, an honest but self- 
 educated man, strenuous in political agitation, 
 but lacking in philosophic insight into the com- 
 plexity of English political conditions, became a 
 protagonist of the extreme opponents to the 
 bureaucratic tendency in English administra- 
 tion, which drew its strength from Benthamism 
 on the one hand and socialistic aspirations on 
 the other. In 1846 he addressed a series of 
 letters to Lord John Russell, then Prime 
 Minister, in which he reviewed the extent to 
 which voluntary effort had met educational 
 destitution in England and Wales. He argued 
 that it would be unwise to depart from the prin- 
 ciples of voluntary and independent organiza- 
 tion in educational work — that any imitation 
 of Continental systems of governmental con- 
 trol of education would impair the habit of 
 English self-reliance, and ultimatelj' undermine 
 political freedom. He maintained that the 
 emulation of the religious bodies, working 
 together with the competition of private school- 
 masters, would afford a better guarantee for 
 improvement in national education than any 
 system under the management and support of 
 the State. He violently opposed the new 
 Minutes of the Committee of Council on Educa- 
 tion, published in August, 1846, with their 
 elaborate scheme of grants to schoolmasters, 
 pupil teachers, and normal schools. With the 
 help of the Rev. Dr. Hamilton of Leeds, he 
 organized a popular agitation against the new 
 scheme of State-aided elementary education. 
 His efforts produced a breach in the Liberal 
 party between those who would apply to na- 
 tional education the principles of laissez faire 
 which had been adopted in certain matters of 
 trade, and those who believed that the instruc- 
 tion of the people could not be effectively 
 secured without governmental action and sub- 
 sidy. In 1848 Baines, with Edward Miall, 
 Henry Richard, and others, delivered, under the 
 auspices of the Congregational Board of Edu- 
 cation, a series of lectures upon the relation 
 between education and the State. Baines' 
 lecture On the Progress in Efficiency of Volun- 
 tary Education in England helped in making 
 the published volume of these lectures (called 
 The Crosby Hall Lectures on Education) a 
 locus classicus of arguments against government 
 grants for educational purposes. He was also 
 an active friend of mechanics' institutions, and 
 took a chief part in organizing in 1825 the 
 Yorkshire Union of Mechanics' Institutes, 
 by which it was hoped to strengthen the edu- 
 cational work of the institutions by a form of 
 voluntary federation and by cooperation in the 
 
 319 
 
 employment of traveling teachers of science. 
 In connection with the Yorkshire Union was 
 organized a system of traveling libraries, i.e. 
 boxes of books which were sent out in rotation 
 to mechanics' institutions in villages and 
 small towns. The Union, with its traveling 
 libraries, still maintains its work, and the system 
 of travehng libraries subsequently adopted in 
 connection with the university extension sys- 
 tem was copied from this precedent. 
 
 Baines was typical of the vigor, self-reli- 
 ance, political zeal, and intellectual limitations 
 of the middle-class Nonconformists in the indus- 
 trial districts of Yorkshire during the period of 
 individualistic free trade. No one applied in 
 a more thoroughgoing way the doctrines of 
 voluntaryism to the problems of national edu- 
 cation. His limited sympathies prevented him 
 from appreciating the possibility of a form of 
 state action in English education which would 
 avoid alike the evils of centralized bureaucracy 
 and of wasteful laissez faire. His influence 
 kept many of the industrial leaders in York- 
 shire from throwing themselves vigorously into 
 educational reform in conjunction with the 
 State, and by the violence of its prejudices pre- 
 pared the way for a reaction in popular opin- 
 ion toward an undue reliance upon govern- 
 mental effort in elementary education. 
 
 M. E. S. 
 
 See Adult Schools. 
 
 Reference: — 
 
 Baines, E. Life of Edward Baines. (London, 1851.) 
 Crosby Hall Lectures on Education. (London, 1848.) 
 
 BAKER, HUMPHREY. — Writer of an arith- 
 metical book called The Wellspring of Sciences, 
 1562. The British Museum has editions 1574, 
 1580, 1583, 1602, showing the popularity of 
 the work in Queen Elizabeth's reign. Baker's 
 teaching of arithmetic was practical, whilst 
 Recorde's Ground of Artes (or arithmetic), 
 enlarged by John Dee, 1561, was strong on the 
 theoretical side. In Baker's book in the 1562 
 edition is a prospectus of his specialistic school 
 for teaching the subject. This is one of the very 
 early private schools, instituted for business 
 men as well as schoolboys, who ordinarily did 
 not have arithmetic in the grammar school till a 
 much later period. Baker's prospectus states 
 " such as are desirous eyther themselves to 
 learn or to have thejT children or servants in- 
 structed ... it may please them to repayre 
 unto the house of Humphrey Baker . . . when 
 they shall fyiide the Professors of the said 
 Artes etc. Readie to do their diligent endeav- 
 ours for a reasonable consideration." For the 
 convenience of those living at a distance. Baker 
 took in boarders. This is a very early instance 
 of a private boarding school. F. W. 
 
 BAKER UNIVERSITY, BALDWIN, KAN. 
 
 — A coeducational institution, the first col- 
 lege of liberal arts in the state, was founded 1858,
 
 BALDWIN 
 
 BALTIMORE 
 
 by the Kansas Educational Association of the 
 Methodist Episcopal Church, an organization 
 chartered by the territorial legislature. The 
 40 members of the Board of Trustees are 
 elected by the Kansas and South Kansas Con- 
 ference of the same church. The institution 
 maintains a college of liberal arts, a prepara- 
 tory academy, a normal school, a conserva- 
 tory of music, schools of oratory, business, and 
 art, and a summer school. Admission to the 
 college is by examination or certificate from an 
 approved high school; after the freshman 
 year the studies are largely elective. The 
 Normal School requires a common school edu- 
 cation; on the completion of a 4-year course, 
 in addition to a satisfactory examination in 5 
 professional branches, a life certificate is given 
 to teach in any city or district of Kansas. 
 The same certificate may also be given to grad- 
 uates of the college. The Conservatory of 
 Music confers the degree of Bachelor of Music. 
 The M.A. degree may be gained for 1 year's 
 work in residence or 2 years' in absentia. 
 College fraternities have been established as 
 follows: Delta Tau Delta, Kappa Sigma, 
 Delta Delta Delta, Xu Alpha, the last two are 
 women's societies. There are 5 buildings, 
 valued (1906), with grounds and equipment, 
 including- libraries, at 8307,023. The total 
 annual income is about S42,000. About $9,500 
 a year is appropriated for the support of the 
 college by the Methodist Episcopal Church. 
 There are 724 students (1909), representing 
 15 states and territories, and divided as fol- 
 lows: College of Liberal Arts, 378; Academy, 
 152; Normal School, 35; Conservatory of 
 Music, 99; School of Art, 13; School of Ora- 
 tory, 48; School of Business, 55. Of the 22 
 members of the instructing staff, 18 are full 
 professors. The average salary of a professor 
 is S12.50. Lemuel Hubert ^lurlin, D.D., is 
 president. C. G. 
 
 BALDWIN, JOSEPH (1827-1900). — Edu- 
 cator; educated in the common schools of 
 Pennsylvania, at the New Castle Seminary, 
 and at Bethany (Va.) College. He was instruc- 
 tor in private and state normal schools in 
 Pennsylvania, Indiana, and Missouri; principal 
 of the State Normal School at Kirksville, Mo., 
 for 14 years; principal of the State Normal 
 School at Huntsville, Tex., for 10 years, and 
 from 1891 to 1897 profe.ssor of pedagogy in the 
 University of Texas. Author of Art of School 
 Management, Elemcntanj Psychology and Educa- 
 tion, Psychology Applied to Art of Teaching, and 
 School Management and Methods. W. S. M. 
 
 BALDWIN, THERON (1801-1870). — 
 Educated in the schools of Connecticut and at 
 Yale College; founded the Illinois College 
 and was its agent (1829-1834); principal of 
 the Female Seminary at Monticello, 111. (1835- 
 1843) ; active in the organization of the Western 
 College Society. W. S. M. 
 
 BALDWIN UNIVERSITY, BEREA, OHIO. 
 
 — FdUMilrd in 1S5G as a coeducational institu- 
 tion for higher education. I'rcparatory colle- 
 giate (classical, philosophical, scientific, legal, 
 and theological), normal, and nmsical depart- 
 ments are maintained. The requirements for 
 admission to the college arc aljout 15 units. 
 Students may enter the law school and the nor- 
 mal course without fulfilling these requirements. 
 Degrees are conferred in the college deiuirt- 
 ment. The institution works in conjunction 
 with the Cicrman Wallace College, where com- 
 mercial courses and other privileges are open 
 to students of ]5aldwin University. There is a 
 faculty of 9 professors, some of whom are also 
 engaged at the German Wallace College, and 
 1 1 instructors and assistants. 
 
 BALTIMORE CITY COLLEGE. BALTI- 
 MORE, MD. — Founded in 1S39 as a high 
 school for boys by the Commissioners of Public 
 Schools on the resolution of the mayor and city 
 council. In 1848 the title of Central High 
 School was adopted; the present title was 
 adopted in 1866. There are 9 members on the 
 Board of Trustees, who arc appointed l)y the 
 mayor. Pupils who have completed the work 
 of the eighth grade in a public grammar school 
 of the city are admitted on the recommenda- 
 tion of their principal and the approval of the 
 superintendent. Others mu.st pass an examina- 
 tion in the subjects of the eighth grade. The 
 usual number of courses of a high school are 
 offered, but 3 years of English, 2 years of a for- 
 eign language, 2 j'ears of mathematics, 1 year 
 of science, ancl 2 years of drawing are constants 
 in all. A complete curriculum consists of 
 15 units. A department of pedagogy is main- 
 tained to afford an opportunity to i)reparc for 
 the graded list of candidates for positions in the 
 public schools of the citj'. Students may 
 enter this department in their fourth year. 
 Certificates of graduation are given to those 
 who complete the courses. Francis A. Soper, 
 A.M., is the principal. 
 
 BALTIMORE, CITY OF. — The largest 
 
 city in Maryland, and an important commercial 
 center. Incorporated as a city in 1898, and 
 operating under a special charter granted at the 
 time of incorporation. In 1900 the city had a 
 population of 508,957, and its estimated popu- 
 lation in 1909 was 576,023. Of the total popu- 
 lation in 1900, 13.5 per cent were negroes, and 
 15.5 per cent were foreign-born. Of the latter 
 one half were Germans, one seventh Russians, 
 and one eighth Irish. Its school census, 8-16 
 years of age, was 75,728 in 1908, and its total 
 day school enrollment in 1909 was 80,363 in day 
 schools and 9024 in night schools. It is estimated 
 that 25,000 children were enrolled in private 
 and parochial schools. Of the total enrollment 
 18.5 per cent was in the schools for the negro 
 race. 
 
 History. — The first quasi-public school in 
 
 320
 
 BALTIMORE 
 
 BALTIMORE POLYTECHNIC 
 
 Baltimore was a Lancastrian charity school, 
 opened in 1820. In 1825, the legislature 
 passed an act permitting the establishment of 
 a system of schools in Baltimore, and the levy- 
 ing of a general tax to help maintain them. In 
 1828, a Board of School Commissioners, num- 
 bering 6, was organized, and in 1829, 3 schools 
 were opened. In 18.30, the first schoolhouse 
 belonging to the city was erected. By 1839, 
 the school enrollment had increased to 1126, 
 and the mayor and city council requested the 
 school commissioners to establish a high school. 
 This was done, the school opening in 1839, 
 and being one of the earliest high schools estab- 
 lished. The next year 9 schools were in opera- 
 tion, with an enrollment of 1834 pupils. In 
 1849, a Superintendent of City Schools was 
 appointed. In 1898, Baltimore was organ- 
 ized as a city, and adopted a charter in which 
 provision was made for the reorganization of 
 the school sj'stem, and for the complete separa- 
 tion of business and educational affairs. 
 
 Present School System. — The public school 
 system of the city of Baltimore, at present, is as 
 follows: — 
 
 A Board of School Commissioners, consisting 
 of 9 members, appointed by the mayor, for 
 6-year terms, from the city at large, and from 
 those " most capable of promoting the interests 
 of public education, by means of their intelli- 
 gence, character, education, and business 
 habits," have control of the schools. The 
 members serve without pay. The board 
 appoints and fixes the salaries of the Superin- 
 tendent of Public Instruction and his assistants, 
 and all other officers, clerks, and employees, 
 with the right to remove them at pleasure; 
 confirms or rejects all nominations of teachers 
 made by the superintendent, from his graded 
 examination lists; removes teachers on the 
 recommendation of the superintendent after 
 trial; passes on all plans for school buildings 
 and repairs, tlie work to be done bj* the Inspec- 
 tor of Buildings; and purchases, through the 
 Board of Awards, textbooks, stationary, furni- 
 ture, and all supplies. Expenditures for build- 
 ings and sites are onlj' indirectly under the 
 control of the Board of School Commissioners. 
 
 The Superintendent of Public Instruction 
 is the executive officer of the board. He has 
 general supervision of the schools; examines 
 all teachers, nominates them to the board for 
 appointment and promotion, and assigns and 
 transfers them at will; and advises the board 
 in respect to the course of study, textbooks, and 
 methods of instruction. He is aided by 3 
 assistant superintendents, and 24 principals, 
 1 for each of the 24 groups into which the 
 city is divided. A group usually consists of a 
 number of primary schools and a central gram- 
 mar school. There are 116 elementary schools 
 in the city, besides a number of portable school 
 buildings and rented branch buildings. The 
 superintendent is also assisted by 12 Attend- 
 ance Officers ; a Supervisor of School Build- 
 
 ings; and special supervisors of drawing, music, 
 physical training, sewing, cooking, and manual 
 training. 
 
 The school system includes kindergartens; 
 elementary schools for both races, covering 
 8 years' work; evening schools; and high 
 schools. In 9 of the elementary schools, Ger- 
 man is taught along with English throughout 
 the entire course. Latin may be begun in the 
 seventh year, if desired. Ungraded classes are 
 maintained for irregular pupils. Evening 
 schools are maintained for 6 months each year, 
 on 3 evenings each week. Free textbooks are 
 provided bj' funds received from the State for 
 that purpose. A Parental School is main- 
 tained for the care of habitual truants, com- 
 mitted to it by the Juvenile Court. Instruc- 
 tion in the subjects taught by the special 
 teachers is offered in both the grades and the 
 high schools. Five 4-j'ear high schools are 
 maintained at public expense: the Eastern 
 and Western high schools for girls, and the 
 Baltimore City College, the three of which offer 
 similar secondary work; the Baltimore Poly- 
 technic Institute, a manual training high 
 school; and the colored high school for both 
 sexes, offering general and industrial courses. 
 The city also maintains two training schools 
 for the preparation of teachers for the ele- 
 mentary schools of the city, one for each race. 
 The teachers' training course requires 2 years 
 beyond high school graduation, the first of 
 which is given to study and observation, and 
 the second largely to practice in actual teaching. 
 The enrollment in the training schools in 1909- 
 1910 was 161 in the white school and 82 in the 
 colored school. The passing of the regular 
 competitive examinations for elementary teach- 
 ers constitutes the graduation. Those pass- 
 ing are placed on a graded eligible list, from 
 which the superintendent recommends for 
 appointment. A teachers' retirement act for 
 Baltimore was passed by the Maryland legis- 
 lature in 1907. 
 
 The city employed 1777 teachers in 1908- 
 1909. Of these 21 were kindergarten teachers, 
 1514 were in elementary schools, 168 in high 
 schools, and 80 were special teachers. The 
 total expense of maintaining the schools during 
 1909-1910 was 81,608,776.07, all but $48,768.46 
 of which was raised by the city by a school tax 
 of 42i cents. The average cost for all schools 
 based on average number belonging was $23.61. 
 
 E. P. C. 
 Reference: — 
 
 Annual Reports, Board of School Cortimissioners to the 
 Mayor and City Council of Baltimore, 1829-date. 
 Statistics based on the 1908 Report and 1909 Direc- 
 tory. 
 
 BALTIMORE POLYTECHNIC INSTI- 
 TUTE, BALTIMORE, MD. — The second 
 manual training school in the United States to be 
 established as part of the public school system, 
 organized and opened in 1884 as the Baltimore 
 
 321
 
 BALTIMORE SCHOOL OF LAW 
 
 BARNARD COLLEGE 
 
 Manual Training School, changed to the present 
 title in 1893. The Institute is by charter of 
 1901 under the control of the Board of School 
 CDmniissioners appointed by the mayor; these 
 in turn apiioint a Board of School \'isitors. 
 Students who have completed the elementary 
 school course are admitted to the Institute. 
 The aim of the Institute is to provide a broad 
 education and to lay the foundation for speciali- 
 zation in those jirofessions which are based on 
 mechanical arts and applied sciences. Speciali- 
 zation docs not begin until the fourth, the last, 
 year of the course. There were enrolled in 
 1908-19(19 776 students. The faculty includes 
 nearly forty instructors. 
 
 BALTIMORE UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF 
 LAW, BALTIMORE, MD. — Incorporated in 
 1SS4 to afford an oiiportunity to those wlio 
 wish to enter the legal profession of receiving 
 assistance in their reading. All lectures arc 
 held in the evening. The course of instruction 
 is 3 years, and leads to the degree of Bach- 
 elor of Laws. No preliminary examination is 
 required for entrance. A moot court is con- 
 ducted by the members of the law faculty, 
 which luunbers 15 lecturers, to afford the 
 students a training in practice, pleading, and 
 forensic debate. 
 
 BAMBERG, THE UNIVERSITY OF, BA- 
 VARIA. — l':stal)lished in 1648, the year that 
 marks the close of the Thirty Years' War. It 
 was a Catholic university that owed its origin to 
 the bishop of the territory, the theological fac- 
 ulty being the most important branch of the 
 institution. The university never attained 
 any special prominence, and ceased to exist in 
 1803. 
 
 BANCROFT, CECIL FRANKLIN (1839- 
 1901). — One of the leaders in private secondary 
 education in New England; was educated at 
 Dartmouth College, Andover Theological Sem- 
 inary, and the universities of Germany. For 
 12 years (1860-1872) he was principal of 
 secondary schools in New Hampshire and 
 Tennessee, and for 28 years (1873-1901) he 
 was principal of Phillips Academy at Andover. 
 He contributed numerous articles to the litera- 
 ture of secondary education. W. S. M. 
 
 BANCROFT, GEORGE (1800-1891).— 
 Historian, educated at Harvard College and 
 the University of Gottingen; tutor at Harvard 
 College; with Dr. Cogswell he founded the 
 famous Round Hill School at Northampton, 
 Mass., in 1823; author of several textbooks 
 and of numerous historical works of great 
 renown. W. S. M. 
 
 BANGOR THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY, 
 BANGOR, ME. — Founded in ISl 1 and opened 
 in 1816 at Hampden, Mass., by the Society 
 for Promoting Theological Education; it was 
 removed to Bangor in 1819. The curriculum 
 
 covers a period of 3 years. The institution 
 since 1905 is empowered to grant degrees in 
 divinity. The course is open to men and 
 women who have had a college or high school 
 training or its equivalent. There is a faculty 
 of 6 professors and 2 instructors. Rev. David 
 Nelson Beach, D.D., is the president. 
 
 BANISTER, ZILPAH GRANT (1794-1874). 
 — One of 1 he pioneers in t lie higher education of 
 women, was educated by private tutors and at 
 the Rev. .Joseph Emerson's Seminary for 
 Young Ladies at Saugus; siie taught for sev- 
 eral years in the district schools of Connecti- 
 cut, was principal of the Adams Female Acad- 
 emy at Derry, N.H. (1824-1828), and of the 
 Female Seminary at Ipswich (1828-1839); 
 she contributed numerous articles on female 
 education to the Connecticut Common School 
 Journal. W. S. M. 
 
 BANKS. — See S.wings Banks in Schools. 
 
 BAPTIST UNIVERSITY FOR WOMEN. — 
 
 See Meredith College, Raleigh, N.C. 
 
 BARCELONA, UNIVERSITY OF. — See 
 
 Spain, Education in. 
 
 BARET, JOHN. — An English lexicographer 
 of tiie sixteenth century. The date of his birth 
 is unknown, and it is very probable that he 
 died at some time during 1580. He was a 
 Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. He 
 was the author of An Alvearie or Triple Dic- 
 tionaric in Englischc, Latin and French ; Very 
 projitable for all such as be desirous of any of 
 those three languages. Also by the two Tables 
 in the cnde of this booke, they may contrari- 
 wise find the most necessary Latin or French 
 wordes, placed after the order of an alphabet, 
 whatsoever are to be found in any other Dic- 
 tionarie: And so to turn them backwards again 
 into Englische xrhen thry read any Latin or French 
 authors, and doubt of any hard vorde therein, 
 1573. The title Alvearie (or beehive) is a ref- 
 erence to the cooperation in the work of his 
 pupils at Cambridge. The work is based on 
 the Bibliolhcca ( Librarie) of Sir Tliomas Elyot 
 {q.v.). The preface contains among others a 
 Latin poem in praise of the author by Richard 
 Mulcaster ((/.!!.). A second edition appeared in 
 1580, in the preface of which reference is made 
 to the recent death of the author. 
 
 References: — 
 
 Dictioniiry of National Biofirnpli]/. 
 
 Watson, Foster. TJw English Grammar Schools tip 
 to 1660. (Cambridge, 1908.) 
 
 BARNARD'S AMERICAN JOURNAL OF 
 EDUCATION. — Sec EDr( ational Journal- 
 ism IN America. 
 
 BARNARD COLLEGE. — The first result 
 of the movement for the higher education of 
 women in New York City, in which President 
 
 322
 
 James G. Cartir. 
 
 Cliarlfs Brooks, 
 
 Henrj- Barnard. Frederick A. P. Barnard. 
 
 A Group of Ameritax Educ.\tors.
 
 BARNARD COLLEGE 
 
 BARNARD 
 
 Barnard of Columbia College took a leading 
 part, was the adoption of a resolution by the 
 trustees of that college in 1883, offering de- 
 grees to women able to pass the appropriate 
 examinations without, however, providing in- 
 struction for women leading to these exami- 
 nations. It was naturally found that this failed 
 to solve the problem, and in 1889 an actual 
 college for women was founded, and began its 
 work in a private house, the instruction being 
 given almost wholly as additional work by 
 members of the Columbia College Staff. The 
 movement had warm supporters, the Barnard 
 Club, for example, having been organized in 
 behalf of the young college by some of the 
 most influential people in New York, and in 
 1897 sufficient funds had been raised to enable 
 Barnard College to move into three beautiful 
 and well-equipped buildings of its own, on 
 ground adjacent to that of Columbia University. 
 The money had largely been provided by 
 generous memlaers of the Board of Trustees, 
 and in 190.3 one of the board presented the 
 three blocks of land lying south of the original 
 property, so that the college has now ample 
 room for growth. A dormitory building has 
 already been erected on this property. The 
 original Chairman of the Trustees' Academic 
 Committee, Miss Ella Weed, was practically 
 head of the college until her death in 1894. 
 She was followed by Miss Emily James Smith 
 (Mrs. George Haven Putnam) as Dean, and 
 she in 1900 by Miss Laura Drake Gill. Since 
 Miss Gill's resignation in 1907, the college has 
 been under the direction of Professor William 
 T. Brewster, elected Provost in 1910. 
 
 The faculty now numbers 33, and there are 
 in addition .38 officers of instruction and adminis- 
 tration. Tlu'ough the exchange of courses by 
 officers of the Barnard Foundation for those by 
 other university officers, it is possible to extend 
 a wide tender to the students of the college. 
 Three programs of study are offered, one leading 
 to A.B.; another, which makes particular pro- 
 vision for intensive work in the natural sciences, 
 leading to B.S.; and a 2-year course not 
 leading to a degree, but designed to afford pre- 
 liminary training for professional stud.v in 
 Teachers College and elsewhere. The graduate 
 work formerly undertaken by Barnard College 
 was turned over to the university in 1900. 
 
 The college owns and occupies for educational 
 purposes buildings and grounds of an assessed 
 valuation of more than $2,000,000, and has in 
 addition more than $1,000,000 held for invest- 
 ment. The annual budget is something over 
 $1.57,000, of which two thirds conies from stu- 
 dents' fees, and practically all of the remainder 
 from investments. The buildings provide more 
 than 1200 sittings, the total floor area, including 
 the dormitory, being about 150,000 square feet. 
 The present student registration is 513; the 
 total undergraduate registration since the 
 founding of the college, 3882; and the total 
 number of degrees granted, over 800. 
 
 In 1900 the relations of Barnard College 
 to Columbia University were defined in a for- 
 mal agreement, which makes provision that in 
 every way Barnard College, while retaining its 
 independent corporate existence, bears, as an 
 undergraduate institution for women, the same 
 relation to the university as a whole as does 
 Columbia College for men. In other words, its 
 position is unique among women's colleges in 
 that, while independent and interested in its 
 own welfare, it shares the resources and ideals 
 of a great university. F. P. K. 
 
 BARNARD, FREDERICK AUGUSTUS 
 PORTER (1809-1889). — The tenth president of 
 Columbia University, and the author of numer- 
 ous textbooks and works on education ; was born 
 at Sheffield, Mass., May 5, 1809, and was 
 graduated from Yale College in 1828. He 
 was 2 years a tutor at Yale, and 6 years in- 
 structor in the school for the deaf at Hartford 
 and master of the grammar school in that 
 city. In 1837 he became professor of mathe- 
 matics in the University of Alabama, and 11 
 years later was appointed to a similar post in 
 the University of Mississippi. From 1856 to 
 1861 he was president of the University of 
 Mississippi, and in 1860 he accompanied a 
 scientific expedition to Labrador to study the 
 total eclipse of the sun. He became president 
 of Columbia in 1864, and was at the head of that 
 institution until his death. He was one of the 
 incorporators of the American Association for 
 the Advancement of Science (g.v.) (its president 
 in 1860) , and of the National Academy of Science 
 (q.v.) (its foreign secretary from 1874 to 1880). 
 He was also active in the American Association 
 for the Advancement of Education (q.v.) 
 (its president in 1855), and made notable con- 
 tributions to the educational journals of his 
 day. He represented the United States at in- 
 ternational expositions at Paris in 1867, and 
 again in 1878. His reports to the tru.stees 
 of the University of Mississippi and Colum- 
 bia University have been characterized as 
 " of the highest practical importance in the 
 history of American education." Besides nu- 
 merous contributions on education and science 
 to the North American Revieiv and the Amer- 
 ican Journal of Science and Arts, and Jolm- 
 son's Encyclopedia (of which he was editor- 
 in-chief), his published works include Treatise on 
 Arithmetic (1830), Analytic Grammar ipith Sym- 
 bolic Illustrations (1836), Letters on College Gov- 
 ernment (1854), Collegiate Education (1854), Art 
 Culture (1854), History of the United States 
 Coast Survey (1857), University Education (1858), 
 Academic Degrees, and scientific works on the 
 undulatory theory of light, machinery, and pro- 
 cesses of the industrial arts, and the metric 
 system of weights and measures. He died at 
 New York City, April 27, 1889. W. S. M. 
 
 References: — 
 \\N Amrince, J. H. a History of Columbia University, 
 (New York, 1904.) 
 
 323
 
 BARNARD 
 
 BARNARD 
 
 Barnard. H. America/i Journal of Education, Vol. V, 
 
 pp. 753-780. 
 Sherwood. S. Columbia University, in U.S. Circulars 
 
 of Information, lUOO, No. 3. 
 WIN3HIP, A. E. Great American Educators. (Chicago, 
 
 1900.) 
 
 BARNARD, HENRY (1811-1900). — Edu- 
 cator and author, activity in so many fickls of 
 education place liim easily with Horace Mann 
 among the foremost American educators. 
 He was born at Hartford, Conn., Jan. 24, 
 1811. He received his elementary and sec- 
 ondary education in the Hopkins Grammar 
 School at Hartford and the Monson Academy, 
 and his collegiate education at Yale, graduating 
 in the class of 1S30, and began the study of law 
 in the office of Willis Hall, afterwards attorney- 
 general of the state of New York. Upon the 
 request of President Day of Yale he took 
 charge of an academy at Wellsboro, Pa., for a 
 year. He went to Europe in 1S35 to study the 
 social and educational institutions, and his work 
 on Reformatory Education, which was the result of 
 this tour, was not only one of the earliest, but one 
 of the most important American contributions 
 to the literature of the care and treatment 
 of juvenile delinquents. He visited Hofwyl, 
 and, while keenly impressed with the work 
 of Fellenberg (q.v.), was much more in- 
 fluenced by the labors of some of Pestalozzi's 
 other disciples, whom he visited in Switzerland 
 and Germany. Upon his return to America in 
 1837, he was elected a member of the legislature 
 of Connecticut, and formulated the measure 
 which created the State Board of Education and 
 is the basis of the present Connecticut school 
 system. A board of education for the super- 
 vision of the schools of the state having been 
 created, Mr. Barnard was induced to accept the 
 post of secretary for one year, as it was his in- 
 tention to take up the profession of law. The 
 reforms in Connecticut during the four years 
 that he was at the head of the system (1838- 
 1842) were not less significant than the better 
 known reforms which Horace Mann at the 
 same time was carrying out in Massachusetts. 
 One of the most notable measures of his adminis- 
 tration was the organization in 1S39 of the first 
 teachers' institute. E.xtensive use was made 
 of the institutes in the training of teachers. 
 Besides the instruction which he himself gave, 
 Barnard secured the services of professors in 
 Yale College and other institutions for series of 
 lessons and lectures on methods of teaching 
 the common school branches. He also estab- 
 lished the Connecticut Common Sc)iool .Journal 
 for the dissemination of knowledge among 
 teachers, boards of education, and friends of 
 the common schools. Salutary laws were en- 
 acted, and, to quote from Horace Mann, "the 
 cold torpidity of the state soon felt the sensa- 
 tions of returning vitality." The next six 
 years (1843-1849) he was engaged in a similar 
 mission in Rhode Island. He organized in 
 1845 the Rhode Island Institute of Instruction, 
 
 the oldest state teachers' association in the 
 United States. He was active in the organi- 
 zation of town libraries for the use of the 
 schools, and at the termination of his labors 
 29 out of the 32 towns of the state had 
 libraries of 500 or more volumes. He was 
 also active in the organization of popular lec- 
 ture courses in the towns for the teachers 
 and the general public. For his teachers' in- 
 stitutes he devised a traveling model school, 
 which he placed in cliarge of William S. Baker. 
 Teacher and children were taken from town to 
 town in a wagon fitted out for the purpose of 
 giving practical lessons in jiedagogy. In 1851 
 he was again elected secretary of the State 
 Board of Education of C'onnectieut and ])rin- 
 cipal of the newly organized State Normal 
 School at New Britain, in which capacity he 
 served the State for four years. It was during 
 this period that he published his book on 
 Normal Schools (Hartford, 1S51) and his work 
 on School Architecture, the first American book 
 of its kind. He was active in the organization 
 of the American Association for the Advance- 
 ment of Education (c/.v.), and was its president 
 in 1855. He represented the United States at 
 the educational congress held at London in 
 1854, and saw exhibited for the first time the 
 workings of Froebel's system of Kindergarten, of 
 which he published the fir.st American account. 
 In 1855 he began the publication of his monu- 
 mental American Journal of Education, which 
 is unquestional)ly his greatest contribution to 
 educational literature. He continued to edit 
 this journal for 26 years in the face of heavy 
 financial difficulties, publishing in all 32 vol- 
 umes of more than 800 pages each. It was not 
 an educational journal in the accepted u.sc of 
 that term, but, as Robert Herbert Quick {q.v.) 
 once remarked, "avast encyclopedia of educa- 
 tional literature." (See article on Educational 
 Journalism.) In 1858 Mr. Barnard was chosen 
 chancellor of the University of Wisconsin, and 
 added to this labor the organization of the State 
 Normal School and the conduct of the teachers' 
 institutes. Overwork and failing health com- 
 pelled him to resign at the end of two years. 
 During this period he published 7 volumes of 
 Papers for Teachers, which included accounts 
 of and translations from Comenius, Rousseau, 
 Pestalozzi, and other great educational reformers, 
 together with papers by William Russell, James 
 G. Carter, William C. Woodbridge, and other 
 contemporary educators (see articles on these). 
 At the close of the Civil War he accejUed the 
 presidency of St. John's College at Annapolis, 
 Md., but resigned a year later to accept the 
 post of United States Commissioner of Educa- 
 tion, which Congress had created. A dozen 
 years before he had advocated before the 
 American Association for the Advancement 
 of Education {q.v.) a national department of 
 education; and James A. Garfield, who had 
 introduced the measure in Congress, joined 
 with the educators of America in recommending 
 
 324
 
 BARNES 
 
 BARRING OUT THE TEACHER 
 
 to President Johnson the appointment of Mr. 
 Barnard. He organized the U. S. Bureau of Edu- 
 cation (q.v.), and outlined the pohcy which it 
 has since followed in the collection of educational 
 statistics and in attempts at the unification of 
 the educational forces of the country. Besides 
 the reports of the Bureau, he made an exhaus- 
 tive study of the conditions of schools in the 
 District of Columbia, and made it the subject 
 of a special report. While not a partisan in 
 politics, Mr. Barnard had always clung to the 
 political doctrines of Thomas Jefferson, and 
 with the election of President Grant he was 
 superseded by General John Eaton. This 
 practically closed his active educational career, 
 although he did editorial work on his journal, 
 and gave many educational addresses during 
 the 30 j^ears that followed. Besides his re- 
 ports as superintendent of schools in Con- 
 necticut and Rhode Island, and as United 
 States Commissioner of Education, and the 4 
 volumes of the Connecticut Common School 
 Journal, the 3 volumes of the Rhode Island 
 Institute of Instruction, and the 32 volumes 
 of the American Journal of Education he pub- 
 lished 52 works on the history and theory of 
 education and accounts of European and 
 American school systems. Among such works 
 are his Pcstalozzi and Pestalozzianism, Kinder- 
 garten and Child Culture, German Schools and 
 Teachers, American Pedagogy, Ettglish Peda- 
 gogy, National Education in Europe, School 
 Architecture, and Normal Schools. He gave 
 America her earliest literature of education. 
 He touches at many points most of the progres- 
 sive educational movements of the nineteenth 
 century. He died at Hartford (in the house in 
 which he was born) on July 6, 1900. 
 
 W. S. M. 
 References: — 
 Proceedings of National Education Association, 1901, 
 
 pp. 390—4.38. Memorial Addresses. 
 HncHES, H. B., The Nestor of American Education. 
 
 New England Magazine, July, 1S96. 
 Monroe, W. S. Bibliography of Henry Barnard. 
 
 (Boston, 1897.) 
 Educational Labors of Henry Barnard. (Syracuse, 
 
 1893.) 
 Philbrick. Labors of Henry Barnard in Connecticut 
 
 and Rhode Island. Barnard's American Journal 
 
 of Education, 1856, Vol. I, pp. 659-738. 
 
 BARNES, MARY SHELDON. — Daughter 
 
 of Edward Austin Sheldon, who originated the 
 Oswego movement, was born at Oswego, N.Y., 
 Sept. 15, 1850. She received her elemen- 
 tary and secondary training in the schools 
 of Oswego and the Oswego Normal School, and 
 her collegiate education at the University of 
 Michigan, graduating in the first class that 
 admitted women to that institution. She 
 subse<iucntly studied at Xewnham College, 
 Cambridge, England, and at the University of 
 Ziirich. She was professor of history at Welles- 
 ley College from 1876 to 1880, at the Oswego 
 normal school from 1882 to 1884, and at Stan- 
 ford University from 1891 to 1896. She married 
 
 Professor Earl Barnes in 1884, and devoted 
 the next 7 years to study and travel. Mrs. 
 Barnes had been trained in the Pestalozzian 
 method at Oswego, and she was the first in 
 America to apply the Pestalozzian method 
 to the teaching of history. She applied the 
 inductive method to the development of local 
 historic concepts and the gradual upbuilding of 
 the historic sense by means of objective mate- 
 rials. Her Studies in General History and 
 American History, with the teachers' manuals 
 accompanj-ing the same, together with her 
 Studies in the Historical Method, give the 
 pedagogic basis of her method. As the first 
 American teacher to develop the source method 
 of historic instruction, and thus bring her 
 students into thoughtful relation with historical 
 realities, she was a pioneer. In addition to 
 the works already referred to, she was the author 
 of numerous papers on the study of local his- 
 tory and the development of the historic sense 
 in primitive man and the child. She died 
 at London, England, Aug. 27, 1898. 
 
 W. S. M. 
 Reference: — ■ 
 Monroe. W. S. History of the Pestalozzian Movement in 
 the United States. (.Syracuse, 1905.) 
 
 BARNES' TEACHERS' MONTHLY. — See 
 
 Educational Journalism in America. 
 
 BARRING OUT THE TEACHER. — A 
 
 custom common in earlier times in Great Brit- 
 ain and America, and not unknown in other 
 countries. The barricading of the schoolroom 
 against the teacher seems originally to have 
 been connected with the observance of some 
 holiday, as Shrove Tuesday, and was usually 
 employed by the pupils to enforce customary 
 rights as to hohdays. Frequently it came to 
 be used to enforce any demands which the 
 pupils might have to make, or even as a form 
 of disapproval in general. This type of disturb- 
 ance frequently occurred in Scotch schools 
 from about the end of the sixteenth century, and 
 often a.ssumed a very serious character, as, for 
 example, in 1587, when after a barring-out at 
 the Edinburgh High School it was found that 
 the scholars had provided themselves with all 
 kinds of firearms. At the same school occurred 
 a barring-out in 1595 which resulted in the fatal 
 shooting by a boy of one of the city officials 
 whose assistance had been summoned. 
 
 Charles Hoole (q.v.) in his work on Scholas- 
 tic Discipline, published in 1659, discusses the 
 custom at length. " I should here add some- 
 thing touching these usual customs which are 
 yet on foot in most places, of scholars excluding 
 or shutting out the master once a year, and 
 capitulating with him about orders to be ob- 
 served, or the like; but forasmuch as I see they 
 differ very much, and are of late discontinued 
 in many schools, I will only mention how they 
 may be carried on, where they yet remain, 
 without any contest or disturbance, till at last 
 they die of themselves." 
 
 325
 
 BARTLETT 
 
 BASEBALL 
 
 Hoole then states six rules to be followed by 
 the students, stipulating (1) that there should 
 be uo barring-out until after St. Andrew's Day 
 iq.v.); (2) that the scholars behave civiUy 
 though merrily and use no weapons nor injure 
 one another; (3) that the demands be formu- 
 lated by the heads of each class and preserved 
 in writing through tlie highest scholar; (4) that 
 the master keep aloof during the conference of 
 the pupils; (5) that exercises or examples of 
 work be exposed by each scholar for the teacher; 
 (6) that tlie teacher should be notified and 
 be accompanied by parents or friends. Hoole 
 adds: " In London and most other places, the 
 usual manner remaineth of breaking up schools 
 (for a time of intermi.ssion of studies and visit- 
 ing of friends) about a week before Christmas, 
 Easter, and Whitsuntide, till the week following 
 those holy days begin, at which time every 
 scholar bringeth something to the master as a 
 token of his own and his parents' gratitude for 
 his care and love towards him." 
 
 Thus our school holidays seem to have been 
 established. But Hoole also pro\-ides rules for 
 the teacher, requiring him among other things 
 to make small gifts to each pupil or a modest 
 collation as an acknowledgment of the "cour- 
 tesies" of the pupils. 
 
 In America the "barring-out" came to be 
 definitely connected with the latter custom 
 as well as with the holidays, and was adopted 
 by the pupils to enforce both privileges. 
 A Virginia schoolmaster (see Fithians' Journal 
 and Letters, p. 04) writes in 1774, " Mr. Goodlet 
 was barred out of his school last Monday by 
 his scholars, for Christmas Holidays, which 
 are to continue till twelfth day: but my scholars 
 are of a more cjuiet nature, and have consented 
 to have four or five days now and to have their 
 full hohday in May next, when I propose by 
 permission of Providence to go home." During 
 the early nmeteenth century barring-out became 
 a recognized test of authority or power between 
 pupils and master, and was frequently re- 
 sorted to early in the term. In the frontier 
 states it was a test to which every schoolmaster 
 must submit, as in a way he was on examination 
 for fitness. With the introduction of the 
 woman teacher and a modern conception of 
 education, the practice disappeared. Recent 
 instances of "strikes" among college and high 
 school pupils are no doubt but a sur\'ival. 
 
 See Boy Bishop. 
 
 References : — 
 Barnard. 11. American Journal of Education, Vol. 16, 
 
 p. 121 ; Vol. 17, p. .3US ; Vol. 22, p. 47.3. 
 CARLISLE. English Endowtd Schools. (London, 1S18.) 
 Edgeworth, Maria. Moral Tales: The Barring-Out. 
 EoOLESTON, Edward. The Hoosier Schoolmaster. 
 
 BARTLETT, SAMUEL COLCORD (1817- 
 189S). — Educator, graduated at Dartmouth 
 College in 1836, and Andover Theological Sem- 
 inarj- in 1842; principal of secondary school in 
 Vermont (1836-1838); professor in Western 
 
 Reserve College (1846-1852) and in the Chicago 
 Theological Seminary (1858-1877); president 
 of Dartmouth College (1877-1892); author of 
 several theological works. W. S. M. 
 
 BARTLETT, WILLIAM HOLMES CHAM- 
 BERS (1S04-1S93). — Educated in the public 
 schools of Pennsylvania and at the \\'est Point 
 Military Academy; instructor in the latter in- 
 stitution (1S34-1S71); author of Elements of 
 Natural Philosophy, Treatise on Astroiiomij, 
 Anahjticnl Mechanics, and of numerous works 
 on acoustics and optics. W. S. M. 
 
 BARZIZZA, GASPARINO DA (GASPARI- 
 
 NUS BARZIZroS).— Bornat Barzizza near Ber- 
 gamo about 1370, died 1431. He is celebrated 
 as a collaborator with Petrarch, a commentator 
 upon the De Oratore, De Officiis, De Senecttde, 
 Letters and Philippics of Cicero, a collector of 
 manuscripts, a teacher successively at Pavia, 
 Venice, Padua, Ferrara, and Milan. His .style 
 of Latin was elegant, correct, and graceful, not 
 a slavish imitation of the Ciceronian mode. 
 His Book of Letters had the distinction of being 
 printed in 1470 in Paris, being thus the first book 
 turned out by the French printing press. The 
 main interest of Barzizza was in scholarship, 
 but his teaching, which was essentially an en- 
 deavor to naturalize the content of the classical 
 civilization in the Italy of his day, appears to 
 have been as influential as his learning. 
 
 P. R. C. 
 References : — 
 Barzizu's. Epislolarum liber, de Orthographia et 
 
 Punclualionc, etc. 
 Sandys. History of Classical Scholarship. (Cam- 
 bridge, 1903-1908.) 
 
 BASAL READERS. — Reading books de- 
 signed for teaching beginners to read during 
 the first school year. Basal readers are some- 
 times spoken of as "foundation readers," or as 
 "beginning readers." These usually include 
 the "primer" and the "first reader." They 
 maybe of two types: (1) "Method readers," 
 where the material is primarily selected with 
 reference to phonetic chfficulties, so that the 
 child will more readily acquire the independ- 
 ent power to pronounce words from the 
 printed page, and (2) "Xon-method readers," 
 where phonetic and diacritical factors are quite 
 subordinated to the thought of the material 
 presented. H. S. 
 
 See Reading, Teaching of. 
 
 BASAL READING. — The preliminary drill 
 in the mechanics of reading, designed to be a 
 foundation for later reading in which thought 
 and feeling rather than pronunciation are the 
 conscious factors. Basal reading covers the 
 first and second school years, more particularly 
 the first. 
 
 BASEBALL. — There is no definite evidence 
 concerning the origin of baseball. The Eng- 
 
 326
 
 BASEBALL 
 
 BASEDOW 
 
 lish game of "rounders" and the New Eng- 
 land game of "one old cat" or " two old cat " 
 both contributed something to the earliest form 
 of baseball. 
 
 Rounders was played on a ground shaped 
 like a regular pentagon with the home base at 
 one angle and four others at the other angles, 
 perhaps 45 or 60 feet apart as compared 
 to the 90 feet in baseball. The server or 
 pitcher stood in the center and tossed the 
 ball to the batter, who stood at home plate. 
 There used to be, as at baseball, one side out in 
 the field and the other in at the bat, not less than 
 10 players nor more than 30 in all. The ball 
 was tossed by the pitcher to the catcher; 
 the batsman had a limited number of chances 
 to hit the ball out of reach of the players and thus 
 secure his base; the batsman was put out by 
 failing to hit the ball or Ijy getting caught be- 
 tween bases. In all these points rounders 
 was much like modern baseball. 
 
 Rounders was played by schoolboys in the 
 United States until it was gradually displaced 
 by the new game of baseball. The first crude 
 games of baseball were played in Philadelphia 
 and New York about 1S40. A national asso- 
 ciation of players was organized in 1858, but the 
 Civil War checked furtlier progress. In 1865 
 the game began to be played again, and de- 
 veloped rapidly. 
 
 The first college game of baseball was played 
 on July 1, 1859, at Pittsfield, Massachusetts, 
 between Amherst and Williams, and was won by 
 Amherst, 73-32. Other colleges soon had 
 baseball teams, and in 1879 the Intercollegiate 
 Baseball Association was organized, including 
 Harvard, Princeton, Brown, Amherst, and 
 Dartmouth. Since that time the game has 
 developed to such proportions that nearly every 
 college and secondarj' school in the country 
 has one or more teams, and a majority of the 
 boys in the elementary schools play the game. 
 In New York City, Springfield, Massachusetts, 
 and a number of other cities, there are regularly 
 organized leagues of grammar school baseball 
 teams. 
 
 Baseball is recognized as the national game 
 of the United States; it is played by more 
 individuals and for a longer time each year 
 than any other game. Considered from the 
 standpoint of its educational value, baseball is 
 the best game in general use in our educational 
 institutions. It can be played by students of 
 all ages, from the elementary school to the 
 university; it affords general, varied, and 
 wholesome exercise; it is intensely interesting; 
 it serves to develop agihty, quick perception, 
 judgment, and accuracy ; it inculcates valuable 
 moral habits, such as cooperation, obedience 
 to the captain and umpire, and loyalty to the 
 team and school. Of course, the educational 
 value of baseball is dependent upon proper in- 
 struction and regulation to insure that the game 
 be played according to tiie rules and with due 
 regard to the ethics of sport. Without proper 
 
 supervision, baseball often degenerates into a 
 rough game, physically dangerous and morally 
 injurious to the plaj'ers. 
 
 The regulation ground requires a smooth 
 field, at least 350 feet square exclusive of the 
 space for grand stands. The home base is 
 located 90 feet from the back stop at the end 
 of the field, and constitutes one corner of the 
 "diamond"; the sides of the "diamond" are 
 90 feet long and serve as base lines. The 
 distance from home base along the base lines 
 and through the center of the diamond to the 
 nearest fence should be at least 235 feet. 
 
 When a baseball field is to be used by boys 
 under 16 years, the length of the base lines 
 should be reduced from the regulation 90 feet 
 to about 75 feet. 
 
 The difficulty of finding vacant land large 
 enough for baseball grounds in cities has led to 
 modification of the game on city playgrounds. 
 The modified game is called playground ball, and 
 is played successfully on small areas, so that 
 three or four games may be carried on simulta- 
 neously on a ground barely large enough for one 
 game of regular baseball. The essential modi- 
 fication is in the ball, which is made larger and 
 softer than the regular baseball, thus greatly 
 lessening the distance that it can be batted and 
 thrown. The base lines are decreased in propor- 
 tion. 
 
 A similar modification of baseball has been 
 made to adapt the game to gj'mnasium floors in- 
 doors. The use of a large soft ball and a small 
 bat, and a rule requiring that the ball be tossed 
 instead of thrown, alter the game sufficiently to 
 make it perfectly safe in the gymnasium, while 
 retaining the essential features of baseball. 
 This modification of baseball has made it a 
 most valuable and fascinating game for girls. 
 It is played by girls in the gymnasium and out of 
 doors in many schools and colleges, and is grow- 
 ing in popularity every year. G. L. M. 
 
 References : — 
 
 Baseball Rules, published annually. (American Sports 
 Pub. Co., New York.) 
 
 Chadwick, Henry. Baseball in the Colleges. Outing, 
 August, 188S. 
 
 Church, S. R. Baseball. (San Francisco, 1902.) 
 
 Eckel, .John C, and Connelly, Frank. The Univer- 
 sal Baseball Guide. (New York, IJSOO.) 
 
 McGiLLicuDDY, C. How to Play Baseball. (New York, 
 1902.) 
 
 Ward, John M. Origin and History of Baseball. 
 (Athletic Pub. Co., Philadelphia, 18S9.) 
 
 BASEDOW, JOHANN HEINRICH (1724- 
 1790). — Prominent, educational reformer. He 
 was born in Hamburg, the son of a wigmaker. 
 Both parents were of a gloomy temperament; 
 the mother died in a fit of insanity. At the age 
 of 18 he ran away from home and found refuge 
 in the house of a physician. After about a 
 year he returned to Hamburg and continued 
 "his education at the gymnasium (1743-1746). 
 He then spent two years at the University of 
 Leipzig, after which he accepted a position as 
 tutor. He entered upon this work with great 
 
 327
 
 BASEDOW 
 
 BASEL 
 
 enthusiasm, and his methods, which were based 
 on the principles of Locke and Comenius, were 
 very successful. He discarded memorizing, 
 made much use of common objects, and taught 
 Latin in an easy conversational way. In 1753 
 he was appointed professor of ethics and litera- 
 ture at the Danish Academy in Soroe. His 
 unorthodox religious opinions caused his trans- 
 fer to the gymnasium in Altona (1761). There 
 he i.ssucil a number of theological pamphlets, 
 wliich still further drew upon him the persecu- 
 tion of the orthodox party. 
 
 Stimulated by the interest in education 
 which had byen excited by the appearance of 
 Rousseau's Emile, he resolved to become an 
 educational reformer, and, in 1768, i.ssued his 
 Vorslellung an Menschenfreunde und vermogende 
 Manner ilber Schulen, Studien und ihren Ein- 
 fluss in die offcntliche Wohlfahrt (Appeal 
 to the Friends of Humanity and Men of Mea7is, 
 on Schools, on Siudics, and their Influence on 
 Public Welfare). In this he developed the 
 plan of a national school system with reformed 
 methods of instruction. As he considered the 
 preparation of appropriate textbooks, which did 
 not yet exist, to be the first ^ep toward a really 
 efficient reform of education, he projjosed the 
 publication of an Elementary Book, which 
 should contain the whole subject matter to be 
 used in the instruction of children. The cost of 
 publication of this work was to be defrayed by 
 popular subscription. The success of this appeal 
 was phenomenal; nothing since the time of 
 Luther's address to the German cities had 
 stirred up the nation to such an active interest 
 in education. Money poured in from all sides, 
 and the work appeared in 1770, preceded by a 
 Methodenbuch fur Vater und Mutter der 
 Familien und Volker (Book of Methods for 
 Fathers and Mothers of Families and Nations). 
 The Elementarwerk was afterwards (1774) 
 revised and enlarged to 4 volumes, illustrated 
 by 100 plates, thus forming a work analogous 
 to the Orbis Pictus of Comenius. At the same 
 time Basedow was given the opportunity 
 to put his reform ideas into operation. At 
 Dessau, where he had been called by Prince 
 Leopold of Anhalt-Dessau, he established an 
 institution for the education of boys of wealthy 
 families and for the training of teachers. The 
 institution, which he called the Philanthropi- 
 num, was opened in 1774. It was not successful. 
 Basedow, although splendid as a pedagogic 
 writer and agitator, not only lacked teach- 
 ing experience and organizing ability, but his 
 irascible temper made it impossible for him 
 to work with others. In 177S he withdrew 
 from the management, and, for a time, turned 
 again to theological writing. The last five years 
 of his life he spent partly in Dessau and partly 
 in Magdeburg, where he taught in a small 
 school in order to test a new method of teaching 
 reading which he had invented. 
 
 Basedow's character has often been harshly 
 judged, especially by the opponents of his reli- 
 
 gious and educational \'iews. Suffering from a 
 hereditary taint and from the vulgar associations 
 of his youth, he totally lacked tact and social 
 grace. At times, especially when under nervous 
 strain caused by his erratic methods of work, 
 he was intemperate. It is also true that much 
 of his writing reads hke that of a charlatan. 
 Nevertheless it cannot be doubted that his zeal 
 for the cause of education was sincere, although 
 he was often carried away by his own enthu- 
 siasm. Had he been an imposter, he could never 
 have earned the approbation of such men as 
 Kant, jMendelssohn, and even Goethe. Among 
 the reforms of education which are more or less 
 directly due to Philanthropinism, the movement 
 headed by Basedow, the following may be 
 mentioned: the emphasis on jileasuralile in- 
 terest in teaching; on realistic instruction; on 
 object teaching, and nature study; on physical 
 education; the improvenent of textbooks; the 
 creation of a new htcrature designed for chil- 
 dren; and the conversational method in the 
 teaching of foreign languages. F. M. 
 
 See Philanthropinism. 
 
 References: — 
 
 B.iRN.vRn, H. German Educational Reformers. (New 
 
 York. 1863.) 
 Basedow, J. B. Avsgewahlte Schriften mil Basedow's 
 
 Biographie, Einleitungen iuid Anmcrkungcn, in 
 
 Bihlioihek PSdagogischcr Klassikcr. (Lungeusalza, 
 
 KSSO.) 
 DiESTELMANN. Boscdow, in Grosse Erzieher. (Leipzig, 
 
 1S97.) 
 Garboviciantj, p. Die Didaktik Basedows im Ver- 
 
 glciche zur Didaktik des Comenius. (Bucharest, 
 
 1S87.) 
 GiJRiNG, H. Johann Bemhard Basedows Pddngogische 
 
 Schriften, in Bihliothek Padagogischer Klassiker. 
 
 (Langensalza, 18S0.) 
 L.\NG. O. H. Basedow, His Life and Work. (New 
 
 York, 1891.) 
 PiNLOCHE, A. La Reforme de V Education en Allemagne 
 
 au IS^me Siecle. Basedow et le Phitantfiropinism. 
 
 (Paris, 1889 ; Leipzig. 1896.) 
 Quick, R. H. Essays on Educational Reformers. (New 
 
 York, 1890.) 
 ScHMiD, K. A. Geschichte der Erziehung, 1898 ; Vol. 4, 
 
 Pt. 2. (Stuttgart, 1898.) 
 
 BASEL, SWITZERLAND, THE UNIVER- 
 SITY OF. — Established in 1400, having 
 been authorized by a papal bull in the previous 
 year. The original suggestion for its founda- 
 .tion came from the citizens themselves, whose 
 wishes were fulfilled by Pope Pius II. Among 
 its early teachers were the celebrated preacher 
 Johann Geiler von Kaisersberg and Sebastian 
 Brant, author of the famous Ship of Fools. 
 The university played a prominent role during 
 and immediately after the Protestant reforma- 
 tion, Erasmus (q.v.) having joined the theo- 
 logical faculty in 1520 and CEcolampadius 
 three years later, the second half of the six- 
 teenth century being the period of its greatest 
 renown. During the second half of the follow- 
 ing century the institution entered upon a period 
 of stagnation, but in the eighteenth century 
 it received a new lease of life, largely through 
 the work of the mathematicians Bernoulli and 
 
 328
 
 BASEMENT IN SCHOOLHOUSE 
 
 BASIL 
 
 Euler (q.v.). Basel is still regarded as one 
 of the main bulwarks of Protestant theology 
 in Switzerland. The university comprises the 
 four traditional faculties of theology, law, 
 medicine, and philosophy, the last-mentioned 
 containing the customary philological-historical 
 and mathematical-scientific groups. The Ger- 
 man language serves as the medium of instruc- 
 tion. The hbrary contains over 250,000 vol- 
 umes, as well as 1500 manuscripts. The canton 
 appropriates about .SS5,000 to the university an- 
 nually, the income-bearing funds of the institu- 
 tion being valued at approximately .1300,000. 
 Basel attracted 782 students in the winter sem- 
 ester of 1909-1910, of whom more than half were 
 enrolled in the faculty of philosophy. R. T. 
 
 BASEMENT IN SCHOOLHOUSE. — See 
 
 Architecture, School. 
 
 BASHFULNESS. — Sometimes described as 
 an instinct, closely related in character to fear. 
 It appears especially in children, sometimes 
 passing through several periods of varjdng 
 intensity. It consists in an inhibition of vol- 
 untary acti^^ty, a heightening of the general 
 muscular tension, and a disposition to retreat 
 from social notice. It is opposed in character 
 to what is sometimes called the social instinct. 
 
 See Instinct and E.motional Expression. 
 
 BASIL, THE GREAT, BISHOP OF C^S- 
 AREA. — The founder of monasticism, who, 
 with Gregory of Nyssa (q.v.), his brother, and 
 Gregory of Nazianzus (q.v.), his intimate friend 
 and schoolfellow, make up the group of theo- 
 logians known among the Fathers as the "three 
 great Cappadocians." Basil was probably 
 born in the year 329 at Caesarea in Cappadocia, 
 where his father, Basil the elder, was a success- 
 ful teacher of rhetoric. The early education 
 of Basil was intrusted to his grandmother, the 
 saintly Macrina, one of the women of the Church 
 to be grouped with Monica, and in this Macrina 
 followed the educational precepts of Gregory 
 Thaumaturgus (q.v.). As a young man Basil 
 studied first with his father and afterwards at 
 Athens, where his companions were Gregorj' of 
 Nazianzus, and for a time the future emperor 
 Julian, with whom he was for some years on terms 
 of friendship. After spending several years at 
 Athens, Basil returned to Csesarea, where he prac- 
 ticed the profession of an instructor in rhetoric 
 with .success, and also undertook the education 
 of boys. In all this his experience was strik- 
 ingly unlike that of St. Augustine. Throughout 
 this trying period in his hfe he remained a pure 
 and upright man. When, therefore, he under- 
 went his "conversion," whereby, encouraged by 
 his mother and sister, he gave up the life of a 
 rhetorician, with its temptations of pride and 
 vanity, to embrace the monastic hfe, he never 
 adopted the pessimistic position of Augustine. 
 As yet, however, the monastic hfe was hardly 
 
 organized in the Church, though ascetism was 
 in high esteem as a means of attaining Christian 
 perfection. The solitary monks of Egypt had, 
 indeed, gradually gathered in communities, but 
 the hermit life was the only form of asceticism 
 then known in Asia Minor. Basil saw the de- 
 fect of a system which aimed at Christian per- 
 fection and yet by isolation rendered impossible 
 the highest virtues, which were social in their 
 nature. The community life was therefore his 
 ideal. In the developed form of his rule, which 
 remains as the general rule throughout the 
 East, the monasteries were organized as self- 
 supporting societies, in many respects similar to 
 the Benedictine monasteries of a later period in 
 the West. Basil did not remain a monk many 
 years, for he was ordained presbyter in 364, and 
 served as the coadjutor to Eusebius, Bishop 
 of Caesarea. He succeeded to that see in 
 370, and remained there for the rest of his life, 
 and in this position became the leading cham- 
 pion of the Nicene party. He died in 379 at 
 the early age of 50, worn out by his labors 
 and his austerities, which had early undermined 
 his health. 
 
 Basil's place in the history of pedagogy is 
 assured not only by his very extensive institu- 
 tional work, but still more by two works, his rules 
 for monks and his homily on the use of pagan 
 literature (Oratio ad Adolescentes, Horn. XXII). 
 The first were notable not merely for wise in- 
 sight into the conditions of moral training, for 
 the monastic system in the Church has always 
 been a system of higher moral training to 
 which those who aimed at Christian perfection 
 submitted themselves, but also the place in 
 that system of the education of the young 
 children given by parents to the monasteries or 
 received as orphans. The monastery school 
 arose as a pro^dsion for these children in the 
 East, and became, as in the West, a part of the 
 monastic establishment. The point of most 
 interest in these rules concerning education of 
 children in the monasteries is the conception of 
 the method and purpose of punishment. There 
 should be some rational connection between an 
 offense and its punishment, which should be 
 more than suffering inflicted for wrong-doing. 
 It should be an exercise in the opposite virtue. 
 The child that injured another should seek 
 the forgiveness of the child wronged and seek 
 to perform acts of kindness for him ; the greedy 
 child should be punished by being deprived of 
 a portion of his food; the evil speaker should 
 be sentenced to a period of silence. In his 
 attitude toward heathen literature Basil took 
 the position that there was benefit to be gained 
 from the study of all kinds of writings. There 
 was much in the heathen writers offensive to 
 believers in Christianity, and much that was 
 bad morally. But we must not take things in- 
 discriminately, but rather only what is profit- 
 able. It would be shameful for us who in the 
 case of food reject the injurious, to take, in the 
 case of studies, no account of what keeps the 
 
 329
 
 BASKERVILLE 
 
 BASKETBALL 
 
 soul alive, but like mountain streams to sweep 
 in everything that happens to be in our way. 
 With this spirit Basil could find much moral 
 instruction even in myths, which to a mind less 
 liberally trained or of a more literal turn of 
 thought were offensive. This position, which is 
 to-day self-evident, was liy no means so at a time 
 when Christianity was still standing opposed to 
 a heathenism which, in sjiite of the existence of 
 many heathen of high character and noble lives, 
 was not unjustly associated with what was 
 most corrupt in the life of the times. 
 
 J. C. A. Jr. 
 References: — 
 Allari), p. si. Basile. (Paris, 1899.) 
 BoHRiNGER. Die Kirche Christi und ilire Zctigeii oder 
 
 die Kirehengeschichte in Biographieen, 1 Aut\. Hd. 
 
 VII. Die drei Kappadoeier. 1. Basilius von 
 
 Caeaarea. (Stuttgart, 1875.) 
 F.\RRAR. Lires of Ihe Fathers, Vol. II, 1SS9, and tlie 
 
 various Lives of ,Saint.«. 
 Garnier and Maran. Basilii Opera, 3 vols, folio. 
 
 (Paris,1721-1730; and 1N39.) 
 MiRNE. Palrologia Grarn. Voh. 29-32. (Paris, IS.")?.) 
 ScHAFF and Wace. Niccne and Post-Nicene Fathers, 
 
 Vol. 8, with Prolegomena by Bloomfield Jackson; 
 
 the best work in Ens^lish. (New York, 1895.) 
 Smith, R. T. .S^ i?asi7 ^/jc Grro/, in the series of Fathers 
 
 for English Readers, S. P. C. K. 
 Venables. Dictionary of Christian Biography, art. 
 
 " Basilius of Ca3sarea. " 
 Sec also the various Church Histories of Neander, 
 
 Schrockh. Dupin, and others, and various Lives of 
 
 Saints. 
 
 BASKERVILLE, WILLIAM MALONE 
 
 (1850-1S99). — Educator ami author; educated 
 at Randolph-Macon College and the Univcnsity 
 of Leipzig; professor in Wofford College and 
 Vanderbilt University; author ol Higher Educa- 
 tion of Women and of numerous English texts. 
 
 W. S. M. 
 
 BASKETBALL. — The history of the origin 
 and development of basketball is radically dif- 
 ferent from that of other games. Most of our 
 popular games, like basketball, footliall, and 
 cricket, were developed gradually over periods 
 of scores or hundreds of years. Not so with 
 basketball, which was invented in 1891 and in 
 less than three years had become the national 
 indoor game of America. The circumstances at- 
 tending the invention of this game explain to 
 some extent its remarkable success. Dr. Luther 
 Halsey Gulick told liis class in philosophy of 
 physical training at the Springfield Y.M.C.A. 
 Training School that a real need existed for an 
 indoor game having the following characteris- 
 tics: (1) Vigorous enough to develop general 
 organic vigor. (2) Suitable for gymnasiums 
 of different size and proportions. (,3) One that 
 should not necessitate elaborate and expen- 
 sive equipment for the game or players. (4) 
 Simple enough to be played by individuals 
 not endowed with unusual size, strength, and 
 skill. (5) It should be interesting. Dr. Gulick 
 requested his students to submit games em- 
 bodying these characteristics. Mr. (now Dr.) 
 James Naismith submitted the game of basket- 
 
 ball. The game was tried by the students in 
 the Training School with very satisfactory 
 results. 
 
 The main features of basketliall as first worked 
 out by Mr. Naismith have been retained, al- 
 though many changes and additions in minor 
 details have been introduced from time to time. 
 In the beginning the game was plaj'cd with 
 9 on a side; a little later the nundjer 
 was reduced to 7, and later to 5. The 
 growth of interest in basketball has been phe- 
 nomenal. For two or three years, the game was 
 played almost exclusively in the gymnasiums 
 of the Young Men's Christian Association; it 
 ■was then taken up by the colleges, schools, 
 and athletic clubs, and before 1900 was played 
 in nearly every gymnasium in the country. 
 
 There are many good indoor games in use in 
 connection with the ])hysical activities of our 
 schools and colleges, but basketball is played 
 more than all other indoor games together, and 
 is by far the most popular. This great jiopular- 
 ity is justified because basketball combines 
 many important educational advantages. As 
 an exercise it is one of the most valuable for 
 developing organic vigor of heart and lungs, 
 agility, bodily control, and endurance; as a game 
 it affords admirable training in self-control, 
 judgment, cooperation, obedience, and loyalty; 
 as a means of recreation it is fascinating. 
 Besides all these positive advantages of the 
 game itself, basketball is a most valuable 
 game because it is adapted to boys and girls of 
 all ages; it is so simjile that players enjoy it 
 from the beginning; it may be played in a gym- 
 nasium of any size or shape, and is also a good 
 outdoor game; and it rccjuires less parapher- 
 nalia for the game and the players than any 
 other game. 
 
 There are dangers in basketball when the 
 game is not properly regulated. The game is so 
 fascinating that players are tempted to play 
 until overfatigued; students whose hearts are 
 weak or who are untrained should be cautioned 
 and supervised most carefully if allowed to play 
 at all. RLany cases of heart strain and impaired 
 health have resulted from unregulated basket- 
 ball. The game is so exciting that it easily 
 degenerates into a rough and tumble fight for 
 the ball, if not carefully regulated. Students 
 should never be permitted to play basketball 
 without an umpire to direct the game and en- 
 force the rules. 
 
 College men play basketball -with 5 players 
 on a side, and the players are allowed to run all 
 over the court. Many of the leading directors 
 of physical education consider this game too 
 violent for girls and women. In order to meet 
 this objection, Dr. Dudley Allen Sargent modi- 
 fied the game by dividing the court into three 
 eciual parts and limiting the activity of each 
 player to one third of the court. The modi- 
 fied game is usually played with 9 on a side 
 though it may be played with 7 or even 
 5 on a side. The rules are the same as in the 
 
 330
 
 BASKETRY 
 
 BATES COLLEGE 
 
 men's game, except that the players are re- 
 quired to remain in one section of the court, and 
 the rules governing rough playing are more 
 severe. The result of these modifications is a 
 less strenuous game, much better adapted to girls 
 and women than the regular game as played 
 by men. G. L. M. 
 
 References: — 
 
 Basketball Rules. Published Annually, American Sports 
 
 Co., New York. 
 Browne, T. J. History and Philosophy of Basketball. 
 
 Spalding's Athletic Lilirary, Vol. VIII. ISnS. 
 GuLiCK, L. H. Basketball. Physical Education, Vol. 
 
 4, p. 120. 
 Hepbdkn, G. T. How to Play Basketball. American 
 
 Sports Co. (New York, 1904.) 
 
 BASKETRY. — See Textiles, in the 
 
 Schools. 
 
 BAT A VIA SYSTEM. —A name for an idea 
 worked out, within recent years, by Superin- 
 tendent John Kennedy, of Batavda, N.Y., 
 and having for its purpose the improvement 
 of instruction in the public schools. In Ba- 
 tavia it has been put into practice in both the 
 elementary schools and the high school. The 
 idea has awakened much interest; hundreds 
 of superintendents, principals, and teachers 
 have visited Batavia to inspect the schools and 
 to examine into the workings of the system ; and 
 the idea or plan has been adopted by a number 
 of cities in other parts of the United States, 
 from Maine to California. The essential fea- 
 tures of the plan are based on the behef that too 
 much time has heretofore been given to whole- 
 sale recitation work; that both the brighter 
 and the poorer children in the class have been 
 unnecessarily sacrificed to the class system ; and 
 that the strain on teachers has been too great. In 
 the working out of this idea the remedy adopted 
 has been to have but one class to the room, un- 
 less there are more than 50 children, in which 
 case there are two classes and two teachers; to 
 give each teacher half of her time each day free 
 from recitation work, to use in watching the 
 pupils in their studies, and helping where help 
 is needed; and in case a second teacher is added 
 to a room, such teacher is not an inexperienced 
 beginner, but an old and a successful teacher. 
 A decrease in the amount of class recitation work 
 and an increase in the amount of individual 
 study and individual assistance are the central 
 features of the plan. It is claimed for the plan 
 that pupils working under it become more in- 
 dependent workers and make better individual 
 progre.ss. The idea is much like the " Pueblo 
 Plan," inaugurated some fifteen years ago 
 at Pueblo, Col. On the other hand, cer- 
 tain olijections to the plan are found by some 
 teachers, on the ground that the pupils miss 
 the helpful stimulus that comes from group 
 work under a strong, sympathetic teacher; that 
 bright pupils are neglected under this system 
 for dull pupils; ami that the plan tends to- 
 ward average results even more than the grade 
 
 system. Advocates of the Batavia plan con- 
 tend that, on the contrary, the exact opposite 
 of these contentions is a marked feature of the 
 plan. The success of the Batavia idea, where 
 tried, would indicate a wide field of usefulness 
 for it, despite certam obvious limitations. 
 
 Batavia is a city of 9180 inhabitants, ac- 
 cording to the census of 1900, and an estimated 
 population in 1908 of 10,774. The city em- 
 ployed 52 regular teachers and 3 supervisors in 
 1907-1908, maintained 187 days of school, and 
 had a total enrollment of 1624 pupils in all of 
 its schools. E. P. C. 
 
 BATEMAN, NEWTON. — Educator, born 
 at Fairton, N.J., July 27, 1822; educated in 
 the public schools of New Jersey and at Illi- 
 nois College and Lane Theological Seminary; 
 principal of school at St. Louis (1845-1846); 
 professor in St. Charles College, Missouri, 
 from 1847 to 1851; principal of Female College 
 at Jacksonville, 111. (1851-1857); state super- 
 intendent of public instruction in Illinois from 
 1858 to 1870; president of Knox College 
 (1875-1893); active in the educational organ- 
 izations of lUinois; died at Galesburg, 111., 
 Oct. 21, 1897. W. S. M. 
 
 BATES COLLEGE, LEWISTON, MAINE. 
 
 — A uonsectarian, coeducational institution, 
 chartered in 1864, as the result of a petition in 
 1862 of 16 students in the Maine State Semi- 
 nary, who wished collegiate instruction from that 
 institution. The Maine State Seminary was 
 established in 1855 to replace the Parsonsfield 
 Seminary, destroyed by fire. Through the 
 efforts of Oren B. Cheney and Ebenezer 
 Knoulton, Baptist clergymen, it was granted 
 aid by the state legislature. At its beginning, 
 the seminary was independent of church con- 
 trol and without denominational restrictions. 
 In 1862, Benjamin E. Bates, one of the founders 
 of the city of Lewiston, gave $25,000 to establish 
 the college petitioned for, with a further gift 
 of §75,000 in 1863. The charter organized a 
 governing board consisting of a Board of Fel- 
 lows and a Board of Overseers, with several seats 
 in the latter board to be filled upon nomination 
 of the alumni; this bicameral arrangement 
 closely follows that of Bowdoin College, which, 
 in turn, was modeled upon Harvard Univer- 
 sity. In 1891, at the request of President 
 Cheney, the legislature amended the charter by 
 prescribing that the president and a majority of 
 both boards should be members of the Free 
 Baptist denomination; in 1907, again at the 
 request of the college, this amendment was re- 
 pealed and Bates College was accepted by 
 the Carnegie Foundation for the Advance- 
 ment of Teaching (q.v.) as a nonsectarian 
 institution participating in its system of re- 
 tiring allowances to professors. From its in- 
 ception, the college has accepted women stu- 
 dents, thus (as it claims) beginning on the 
 Atlantic seaboard the movement for the higher 
 
 331
 
 BATES 
 
 BATHS 
 
 education of woinon. Bates College has kept 
 characteristics due to its history and the cir- 
 cumstances of its founding; fraternities are 
 prohibited; no one "can be a member of the 
 college without taking and keeping a pledge to 
 abstain from alcoholic drinks;" the necessary 
 expenses are low (S206 a year), and many of 
 the students are self-supporting. The old 
 New England custom is kept of encourag- 
 ing needy students to teach during part of the 
 year. There are many scholarships. Degrees 
 given are A.B., and M.A. to graduates of at least 
 three years' standing. The Cobb Divinity 
 School, after 38 years of existence as a depart- 
 ment, was discontinued in 1908. There are 
 11 buildings valued, with grounds and 
 equipment, at $425,000. The resources have 
 doubled within the past four years, largely 
 through the benefactions of Mr. Andrew 
 Carnegie and of Mr. Bartlett Doe, late of San 
 Francisco. The net income for the fiscid year 
 1908 was .'547,525; gifts from private sources 
 amounted to 866,982. The average salary of 
 a professor is $1480. There are (1910) 461 
 students, and 22 members on the instructing 
 staff, of whom 16 are full professors. George 
 C. Chase, D.D., LL.D. is president. C. G. 
 
 BATES, JOSHUA (1776-1854). — Gradu- 
 ated at Harvard College in 1800; instructor 
 in Phillips Academy at Andover (1800-1803), 
 and president of Middlebury (Vt.) College 
 (1818-1839). 
 
 BATES, JOSHUA, (1810-1888). — Edu- 
 cated at Phillips Academy, Andover, and 
 Middlebury (Vt.) College; principal of the 
 schools at Charlestown, Mass. (1833-1844), 
 and of the Brimmer School in Boston (1844- 
 1876). 
 
 BATES, SAMUEL PENNIMAN (1827- 
 1902). — Educator and author, educated in 
 the public schools of Massachusetts, at the 
 Worcester Academy, and at Brown University; 
 principal of Academy at Mead\nlle (1851-1857); 
 superintendent of schools in Crawford County, 
 Pa. (1857-1860); deputy state superintend- 
 ent of public instruction in Pennsvlvania 
 (1860-1866); author of Liheral Education, 
 Methods of Teachers' Instilides, History of 
 Colleges in Pennsylvania, and of numerous his- 
 torical works. W. S. M. 
 
 BATHS. — For more than a quarter of a cen- 
 tury baths have been a regular part of the equip- 
 ment of modern .school buildings in Europe, 
 and they have long since passed the experi- 
 mental stage in some American cities. But 
 their general introduction into schools has been 
 delayed longer than could have been antici- 
 pated. This tardy recognition is due partly 
 to the fact that home facilities for baths 
 are better and more generally found here than 
 in Europe, and partly to the fact that our 
 
 general governmental attitude is less paternal. 
 But in the crowded centers of large cities con- 
 ditions have rapidly become so bad that school 
 and general municipal baths have become ne- 
 cessities for the sake of the pul)lic welfare. Out- 
 side the large cities comparatively little progress 
 has been made in supplying bathing facilities 
 in grammar schools. But the larger and better 
 buildings for high schools are now being gen- 
 erally equipped with baths. The demand, 
 however, has come in connection with the de- 
 velopment of athletics, and physical training 
 in gymnastics. Football, track work, tennis, 
 and such vigorous sports, together with more 
 systematic gymnastic work, have made bathing 
 facilities necessary in buildings for the larger 
 high schools, and it seems probable that similar 
 demands will eventually have to be met in all 
 larger and better grammar schools. Be that 
 as it may, there is now comparatively little 
 demand in smaller cities in connection with pub- 
 lic school buildings to supply bathing facilities 
 for all of the pupils in attendance, and the neces- 
 sity of publicly supervising the bathing of all 
 school children has not yet been reached. In 
 making this statement there is no desire to 
 minimize the need of school baths. Public 
 health and public morals, it may safely be said, 
 would in many parts of the country profit much 
 by the introduction and discreet use of school 
 baths, especially in village and country schools. 
 The greatest need for school baths is at present 
 in the congested districts of large cities, and in 
 the villages and country districts where bathtubs 
 in homes are comparatively rare. 
 
 Disregarding all questions of comparative 
 need and matters of local policy and local pride, 
 if a school is to be equipped with baths, what 
 are the requirements? Naturally, the first 
 requisite is a satisfactory water supply. This 
 has been the chief drawback in village and 
 country schools both for the high school and 
 elementary grades. In cities with public 
 waterworks and sewer systems it is a matter of 
 small expense to equip a school with baths. 
 But it is now possible to have regular and 
 adequate water supply in village and country 
 schools by the introduction of the air pressure 
 tank system; windmills and water tanks above 
 ground are impracticable in cold climates and 
 are unreliable anywhere. (See further discus- 
 sion of this method under Katrines and 
 Urinals.) 
 
 Bathtubs have no place in public school 
 buildings, simply because they are too expen- 
 sive to install and operate, offer too much op- 
 portunity for contagion, require too much at- 
 tention to keep clean, and take up too much 
 room. Besides, a rain or shower bath is more 
 invigorating and more cleansing than a tub 
 bath, and requires less time. Swimming 
 tanks introduce an element of wholesome exer- 
 cise and sport not connected with other forms 
 of baths, and are worthy attractions for boys; 
 but they are not practicable in most schools, 
 
 332
 
 '•■'"''-■-... mPu 
 
 Wif School. Dre«len 
 
 tJennanv.
 
 BATTERSEA TRAINING COLLEGE 
 
 BAURIEGEL 
 
 because of the lack of space, the cost of con- 
 struction, and the great amount of water re- 
 quired. This form of bath has gradually been 
 taken over and developed by clubs of various 
 sorts and by Y.M.C.A. workers. Compara- 
 tively few even of the best high school buildings 
 have swimming pools worthy of note. In 
 England this form of bath is much more in 
 evidence in the schools than it is here. The 
 problem, then, of supplying baths in schools nar- 
 rows itself almost exclusively to shower or rain 
 baths. 
 
 In planning to ecjuip a school building with 
 shower baths, the first question to arise is this: 
 where shall they be placed? In small or me- 
 dium-sized buildings, the best and most con- 
 venient place is the basement, if it is well lighted, 
 well ventilated, and safely drained. This lo- 
 cation insures privacy, requires less e.xpense 
 for plumbing, introduces less danger to a build- 
 ing, prevents disturbance when baths are 
 taken during school hours, and can be super- 
 vised more easily. In large buildings designed 
 for the use of both sexes, it is often better to 
 locate a few on each main floor, and in proxim- 
 ity with the toilets. But, especially for the 
 boys, the basement or some place adjacent to 
 the gymnasium is the most convenient place. 
 In grammar schools, where the younger children 
 take their baths at stated times and according 
 to program, a common open bathroom with a 
 series of showers conveniently placed above 
 shallow but wide basins has proved satis- 
 factory. But where such a common room is 
 used, individual dressing rooms in close proximity 
 are necessary, where the clothing can be left, 
 where a thin bathing trunk can be put on be- 
 fore the bath, and where each pupil can retire 
 to dry his body and put on his clothing. Natur- 
 ally, for pupils in the upper grades and high 
 schools, separate double stalls are necessary, 
 one with shower attachments, and the other 
 for a dressing room. These can all be located 
 in a common room with common drainage and 
 common heating and ventilation. The floors 
 should be waterproof and laid with white 
 tiles, and the walls covered with the same 
 material to the height of 5 or 6 feet. All other 
 exposed surfaces of the room should be plas- 
 tered with damp-proof cement plaster. Every 
 bathroom demands as much sunlight as pos- 
 sible, and the drainage should be safely trapped 
 into a. sewer, or better still into a separate drain. 
 A separate and special system for heating bath 
 water is necessary, for it is neither safe nor 
 sanitary to use water from either a steam or a 
 hot water boiler which is used to heat the school- 
 rooms by either direct or indirect radiation. 
 
 P. B. D. 
 
 BATTERSEA TRAINING COLLEGE, ENG- 
 LAND. — An institution for the training of 
 teachers for pauper schools established in 1S40 
 by James Phillips Kay (afterwards Sir James 
 P. Kay-Shuttleworth) and Edward Carleton 
 
 Tuffnell at their own expense. These phi- 
 lanthropists had been at considerable pains to 
 learn what was done in the same field on the 
 Continent, and had spent some time in visiting 
 the institutions of Fellenberg and Vehrli (q.v.). 
 Becoming particularly impressed with the 
 simplicity of life at Kruitzlingen, Vehrli's 
 school, and the high intellectual attainments 
 of the pupils, they decided to model their insti- 
 tution on it. Sir James himself for a time acted 
 as superintendent. Thus Battersea is the first 
 attempt to found a normal school on a Conti- 
 nental model, as opposed to the monitorial 
 system which then prevailed in England. 
 Orphan boys were selected and apprenticed 
 from the ages of 14 to 21 to become teachers. 
 Others were, however, also received on recom- 
 mendation for periods of at least one year. The 
 founders hoped that in time public attention 
 and support would be attracted to their work, 
 but although grants were given by the govern- 
 ment, the burden and the responsibility became 
 too great for two men alone, with the result that 
 the college was transferred to the National 
 Society (^.f.) in 1843, and has since remained 
 under its control as a denominational training 
 college for teachers. As to the general relation 
 of the college to the English system of training 
 teachers, see the article on the Training of 
 Teachers, in England. 
 
 Reference: — 
 
 Kay-Shuttleworth, Sir James. Four Periods in 
 Public Education. (London, 1862.) 
 
 BAUER, KARL LUDWIG (1730-1799). —A 
 distinguished German philologist and school- 
 man. He was born and received his education 
 in Leipzig. In 1766, he became rector of the 
 classical high school (Lyceum) of Hirschberg 
 in Silesia. The graduation examination which 
 he introduced there in 1776 {Abilurienten- 
 examen) later on (1788) was made obligatory 
 for all Prussian gj-mnasia and up to the 
 present time forms a characteristic feature of 
 all the higher schools in Germany. He made 
 numerous contributions to classical philology, 
 among which may be mentioned his standard 
 Latin Dictionary. 
 
 BAURIEGEL, JOHANN CHRISTIAN (1773- 
 1850). — An excellent German schoolmaster. 
 Born in Saxony of very poor parents, he started 
 as a servant in the house of Professor Erncsti in 
 Leipzig, but in 1796 came under the instruction 
 of Dinter, who was then privately training 
 young men to become teachers. After receiv- 
 ing an appointment in a country school, he 
 himself started a teachers' seminary which he 
 conducted in addition to his school work, giv- 
 ing from 65 to 70 hours of instruction per 
 week. Besides this, he found time to advance 
 elementary education by a number of valuable 
 writings. He has left an autobiography, Mein 
 Leben und Wirken {My Life and Work), 
 Neustadt, a.d., Orla, 1847. 
 
 333
 
 BAVARIA 
 
 BAYLOR UNIVERSITY 
 
 BAVARIA, KINDOM OF, EDUCATION 
 
 IN. — See (.'lEHMAN Kaipire, Education in. 
 
 BAXTER, RICHARD (1613-1691). — The 
 connection of this eminent dissenting divine 
 (who was one of the earliest and most effective 
 writers of what may be called Christian litera- 
 ture for the people) , with the history of elemen- 
 tary education in England, is interesting and 
 important. Born in Shropshire, he was educated 
 at Wroxeter school, and took orders in the 
 Estabhshed Church, and was curate at Kidder- 
 minster from 1641 till the Restoration, when he 
 was ejected. He was one of the many clergy 
 who were tried by .Jeffre.vs (May 30, 16S5). 
 He was imprisoned, but secured his freedom 
 in 16S6. At that date he had long been one of 
 the most popular theological writers in England, 
 and it is interesting to recall the fact that his 
 books were to be found in New College, Cam- 
 bridge, Mass. (Harvard), and are mentioned in 
 Edward Randolph's Report on the College 
 dated Oct. 12, 1676. (See Calendar of 
 Stale Papers, Colonial Series, America and 
 West Indies, 1675-1676, p. 467.) The Act of 
 Uniformity of 1662 operated with great severity 
 on dissenting schoolmasters, and Baxter, who, 
 though a dissenter, was in close touch with the 
 leading Churchmen, made great efforts to secure 
 better terms for the nonconformist teachers. 
 In 1674 Baxter and Dean Tillotson (afterwards 
 Archbishop of Canterbury) drew up a "Healing 
 Act" for a union between conformists and non- 
 conformists, and these proposals included free- 
 dom for nonconformists under certain conditions 
 to act as schoolmasters. (For another "Healing 
 Act" of the same type see Lord Somer's Collec- 
 tion of Tracts.) The moment that this proposed 
 compromise appeared was important, since all 
 parties recognized that efficient elementary 
 schools for the poor were a necessity. The 
 Courts of Justice had already (1670) in William 
 Bate's case (Ventris's Reports, Vol. I, p. 41) 
 held that the schoolmaster nominee of a 
 founder or lay patron of a school could not 
 be ejected for nonconformity by the Bishops, and 
 further cases in favor of dissenters were 
 about to be decided. Moreover Gouge's (f/.f.) 
 schools were already making way in Wales. 
 Baxter's agreement with Tillotson was approved 
 by the leading nonconformists, but it was, un- 
 fortunately, not accepted by the Bishops. 
 Nevertheless, it had its effect. The Church 
 gradually from this time onward ceased to in- 
 si.st on its legal rights, and no opposition to the 
 establishment of nonconformist charity schools 
 was made when they began to appear some ten 
 years later (1685). But Baxter's efforts at this 
 time on behalf of education were not limited 
 to his weighty intervention in the general 
 struggle between conformists and noncon- 
 formists. Thomas Gouge {q.v.) in 1672 had 
 begun (with the permission of the Bishops) his 
 evangelical work in Wales, and Baxter took 
 close interest in this work and brought to- 
 
 gether both Church and nonconformist forces 
 for the purposes of helping forward this Welsh 
 work. Within a month or two of the compact 
 with Tillotson, in midsummer 1674, a Trust 
 was formed to found schools and distribute 
 Bibles and religious books in Wales. It is pretty 
 clear that the Trust was associated with Gouge's 
 schools. The printed report of the Trust, dated 
 Lady Day, 1675, was signed by Tillotson, Which- 
 cot, Ford, Durham, Stillingflcct, Meriton, Gouge, 
 Poole, and Firmin; while Bates, Owtram, Pat- 
 rick, Burton, Baxter, Fowler, Griffith, and others 
 also aided the Trust. The fact tliat the Trust 
 was formed at the same time as the agreement 
 with Tillotson shows that that agreement was 
 intended to help Gouge's schools. Whether 
 this agreement can be connected with the 
 charity schools (q.v.) may be doubted, but 
 these various elementary school revivals are 
 clearly all part of one movement. 
 
 J. E. G. DE M. 
 References: — 
 BiKCH. Life of Tillotson. (London. 1752.) 
 Montmorency, J. E. G. de. Slate I ntervenlion in 
 
 English Educatioyi. (Cambridge, 1902.) 
 Reliquicc BazUriancE. (London, 169G.) 
 
 BAYLOR COLLEGE, BELTON, TEX. — 
 
 Founded in 1845, for the education of girls and 
 young women, under the auspices of the Bap- 
 tist Convention of Texas. The admission re- 
 quirements are not definitely stated, but gradu- 
 ates of approved high schools receive advanced 
 standing in the college. Preparatory, collegiate, 
 commercial, and fine arts courses are given. 
 There are 21 professors and 3 assistants. 
 W. A. Wilson, A.M., D.D., is the president. 
 
 BAYLOR UNIVERSITY, WACO, TEXAS.— 
 
 A coeducational institution, owing its founda- 
 tion to a movement begun by the Texas Union 
 Baptist Association, which, in 1842, resolved to 
 establish in Texas a Baptist university. The 
 charter was obtained Feb. 1, 1845, from 
 the Republic of Texas; in the same year, the 
 preparatory department was opened at the 
 town of Independence. Other departments 
 were opened later at the same place. In 1868, 
 Waco University, founded in 1861 by Rufus C. 
 Burleson, w'ho had resigned the presidency of 
 Baylor University, passed into the control of 
 the newly organized Baptist General Associa- 
 tion. The two universities were united in 1868 
 under the name of "Baylor University at Waco," 
 and the two organizations of the denomination 
 having been consolidated under the name of 
 " The Baptist General Convention of Texas," 
 Baylor University was placed under the control 
 of this body, which elects the 13 members of the 
 Board of trustees. In 1897 the Baptist Edu- 
 cational Commission, inaugurated at a meet- 
 ing of the Baptist General Convention of Texas, 
 put into effect a scheme of correlation for the 
 educational institutions of the denomination 
 in Texas, by the terms of which Baylor Univer- 
 sity was made the head of the system, and the 
 
 334
 
 BEALE 
 
 BEATING THE BOUNDS 
 
 following colleges and academies were per- 
 manently correlated with the universit)': Bay- 
 lor Female College, Beltou (an institution which 
 confers the bachelor's and master's degrees) ; 
 Howard Payne College, Brown wood; Decatur 
 College, Decatur; Burselor College, Green- 
 ville; Goodnight Academy, Goodnight; and 
 Canadian Academy, Canadian. Baylor Univer- 
 sity maintains an undergraduate college, ad- 
 mission to which is by examination or certificate 
 from an accredited high school; a preparatory 
 school known as Baylor Academy; a depart- 
 ment of Fine Arts, including music and oratory, 
 a Department of Medicine and Pharmacy, at 
 Dallas, Texas; and since 1SS9 a two months' 
 summer session, which is a regular term of 
 university work and includes a Teachers' 
 Summer Normal School. A department of 
 law was established in 1S51, but abandoned 
 after a few years. In general, the present or- 
 ganization of the university seems to be pat- 
 terned after that of the University of Chicago. 
 There are no college fraternities, but Phi 
 Gamma Delta maintained a chapter from 1856 
 to 1SS8, and Sigma Alpha Epsilon from 1858 
 to 1861. There are 9 buildings, valued, 
 with grounds and equipment, at $800,000, 
 the annual income (1906) was $75,500. The 
 average salary of a professor is SI 500. There 
 are (1909) 53 members on the instructing staff, 
 8 of whom are full professors. The students 
 number 1296, distributed as follows: College, 
 271; Academy, 343; Medicine and Pharmacy, 
 80; Summer Session, 314; 606 are women. 
 Samuel Palmer Brooks, A.]\I., is president. 
 
 C. G. 
 
 BEALE, DOROTHEA (1831-1906). — An 
 English schoohnistress who made one of the 
 greatest contributions to the movement for the 
 higher education of girls and women in Eng- 
 land. After attending a school in England up 
 to the age of 13, she was kept at home, where 
 she entered on a course of wide reading. At the 
 age of 16 she was sent for a year to a school 
 for English girls at Paris. In 1848, she entered 
 (Jueen's College, London, where she showed a 
 strong interest in mathematics, and was for a 
 time tutor in that subject. In 1857, she was 
 appointed head teacher at the Clergy Daughters 
 School at Castcrton in Westmoreland, where 
 she taught a remarkable arraj' of subjects. 
 From this school she resigned at the end of a 
 year, owing largely to a conflict of religious 
 opinions. For a time she remained without 
 an appointment, and spent the interval in writ- 
 ing a history, in social work, in a visit to Ger- 
 many, where she visited the Deaconesses' 
 Institute at Kaiserwerth, which she described 
 in a small book, and in teaching in a private 
 school. In 1858 an opportunity which she long 
 desired offered itself in the vacancy for a lady 
 principal at the Ladies' College, Cheltenham, 
 which had been founded a few years previously. 
 She was aj)pointcd, and entered on a career 
 
 which has served to make the education of 
 girls what it is at present. From a school with 
 rapidly dwindling numbers under a local 
 board, she succeeded in making one of the 
 most important girls' schools in England, with 
 beautiful and admirably equipped buildings. 
 In place of the numerous girls' schools which 
 devoted their time to the teaching of accom- 
 plishments, she was instrumental in leading the 
 way to the foundation of day schools offering 
 what is recognized as a complete secondary 
 education. Several times the Educational 
 Commissions turned to Miss Beale for guidance 
 on the question of the education of girls. Her 
 aim was to secure for girls and women an edu- 
 cation for life in the widest sense. To a keen 
 intellect were added a deeply religious spirit and 
 great teaching ability. To her powers as an 
 organizer the large school, St. Hilda's College 
 for the training of secondary teachers (opened 
 in 1885), St. Hilda's Hall, a residence for women 
 students at Oxford, and St. Hilda's East, a 
 settlement in London, bear testimony, for they 
 are all the work of her untiring energy. But 
 her interests were not limited to her school; 
 she was ready to advise on the foundation of 
 other girls' schools and to assist headmistresses 
 of other schools. She was for a time President 
 of the Association for Headmistresses. In 
 1898, she was elected corresponding member 
 of the N.E.A. In 1902, the Edinburgh Univer- 
 sity conferred on her the honorary degree of 
 LL.D. Among her works are A Student's 
 History of English and General History (1858); 
 a Chart (1863) representing historical material 
 in tabular form; Work and Play in Girls' 
 Schools (1898); and a History of the Ladies' 
 College. Miss Beale remained active at school 
 up to within three weeks of her death on 
 Nov. 9, 1906. 
 
 References : — 
 
 Journal of Education, London, 1907, p. 26. 
 R.\IKES, E. Dorothea Beale of Cheltenham. (London, 
 1908.) 
 
 BEATING THE BOUNDS. — The origin 
 of "Beating the Bounds" of a parish or of cer- 
 tain other areas is lost in the mists of prehis- 
 tory. We know that curious rites including 
 the sacrifice of animals and even human beings 
 on the boundary stones or marks at one time 
 took place (see Mrs. Green's Town Life in the 
 Fifteenth Century, Vol. I. p. 134). From medieval 
 times it has lieen and is still the practice for the 
 clergy, the church wardens, and the parishioners 
 to perambulate the parish on Ascension Day or 
 the three Rogation Days preceding it. It was in 
 this procession that the connection with schools 
 arose, for it was the practice until comparatively 
 modern times to take the school children on the 
 perambulation and beat them (the beating 
 probably became gradually nominal in more 
 recent times) at the boundaries of the parish in 
 order that such boundaries might be fixed in the 
 children's minds. The fact that children in 
 
 335
 
 BEATS 
 
 BEC 
 
 Anglo-Saxon times were forbidden to be taught 
 by a priest of another parish may possibly be 
 associated with this (see Canons of 960). 
 
 J. E. G. DE M. 
 
 BEATS. — A resultant rising and falling of 
 tonal intensities which is heard when two 
 tones of similar Init not identical rates of \ibra- 
 tion are sounded together. Thus if two tones, 
 one of 200 and another of 201 vibrations are 
 sounded together, the resultant tone will be 
 alternately strong and weak one time per second. 
 The strong pulsation, or beat, is produced by 
 coinciding phases of the two sets of vibrations, 
 whereas the weak tone or interval between 
 the beats corresponds to the opposition in phase. 
 Beats are of considerable aid in tuning, mea.s- 
 urements of pitch, etc. In the production 
 of consonance and dissonance they play a 
 most important role. C. E. S. 
 
 BEATUS RHENANUS, BILD VON RHEI- 
 
 NAU. — A humanist of the fifteenth century. 
 Born at Schlettstadt in 1485, he attended the 
 Latin school there, which had been brought to 
 a high standard by Ludwig Dringenberg (q.v.). 
 From 1503 to 1507 he studied at the University 
 of Paris, and was strongly influenced by Le Fevre 
 (Jacob Faber Stapulensis), who lectured on 
 Aristotle's Works. He made an attempt to 
 learn Greek, but the lecturer on that language, 
 though a Greek, was no teacher. In 1608, he 
 went to Strassburg, where he was employed as 
 a proofreader. Here he came into contact with 
 a number of the most famous of the German 
 humanists. Two years later he was attracted 
 to Basel by an opportunity of renewing his 
 study of Greek under Conon, one of the most 
 famous teachers of the day. Here he also acted 
 as proofreader in the printing office of Frobin. 
 In 1514 he met Erasmus, and a lifelong friend- 
 ship began between the two. Erasmus speaks 
 very highly of his young friend. In an appeal 
 to Pope Leo for support of the edition of St. 
 Jerome he speaks of Beatus Rhenanus as "a 
 young man whose profound learning is equaled 
 only by his exquisite critical taste." In 1515, 
 he dedicated a commentary on Psalm I to him. 
 In 1520 he left his letters to be edited by 
 Rhenanus, whom he calls his alter ego. In ad- 
 dition to supervising the publications of Eras- 
 mus' works in 1540, Rhenanus was himself a 
 prolific editor and author. Among his editions 
 of the classics are Plini Epistolae, 1514, Tacitus, 
 1519, TertuUian, 1521, Velleins Paterculus, 1522, 
 Livij, 1535. He also wrote a history of Ger- 
 many in three books {Reritm Germanicarum lihri 
 ires). Rhenanus enjoyed the friendship of the 
 humanists who centered round Schlettstadt, 
 Strassburg, and Basel. He died at Strassburg, 
 in 1547. In connection with Rhenanus it is 
 interesting to notice that his library, which 
 he bequeathed to the Council of his native town, 
 remains treasured almost intact in tKe library 
 of Schlettstadt. An added interest attaches to 
 
 the collection because the development of the 
 interests and the course of reading pursued by 
 Rhenanus can be traced from the dates which 
 are inscribed on his books. 
 
 References : — 
 
 HoR.twiTZ. A. Beatus Rhenanus, Ein hiographischer 
 Versuch. Sitzungsbpricht dor Pliilosophisch- 
 Historisehen ("lasse dcr Kaiscrlicheu Akademie 
 dor Wisscnschaftcn. (Vienna. 1N72.) 
 
 Knod, G. Aus dcr Bibliothck (les Beatus Rhenanus. 
 (Leipzig, 1S89.) 
 
 Nichols, F. M. The Epistles of Erasmus. (London, 
 1904.) 
 
 BEAUMONT COLLEGE, HARRODS- 
 BURG, KY. — A school for girls and young 
 ladies, known from 1S56 to 1893 as "Daughters 
 College." Students are admitted by certifi- 
 cate from creditable institutions or by exami- 
 nation, the requirements for the college being 
 equivalent to about 4 or 5 points. Primary, 
 preparatory, and collegiate departments are 
 maintained. Four literarj' and five nui.^ical 
 courses are offered, on completion of which de- 
 grees are conferred. 
 
 BEAUVOIR COLLEGE, WILMAR, ARK. — 
 
 A private coeducational institution, founded in 
 1903. Primary, preparatory, and collegiate, 
 fine arts and commercial departments are 
 maintained. Students may enter the college 
 after 8 years of primary work. The majority 
 of the pupils are in the preparatory depart- 
 ment. There are 16 instructors on the faculty. 
 
 BEAVER COLLEGE, BEAVER, PA. — An 
 
 institution for the education of young women, 
 opened in 1853 as "Beaver Seminary"; the 
 majority of the trustees are of the Methodist 
 Episcopal Church. College preparatory, col- 
 lege, and fine arts departments are maintained. 
 The admi.ssionrequirements would be equivalent 
 to about 12 points. Certificates from approved 
 schools are also accepted. Men are admitted 
 only as special students. There is a faculty 
 of is members. 
 
 BEC. — The site in the eleventh century 
 of the most famous abbey and school in 
 Europe, the seat of the teachings of Lanfranc 
 and Anselm. The ruins may still be seen near 
 Brionne, in the department of Eure. Bee was 
 as remarkable a monument to Norman energy 
 in the ecclesiastical and literary sphere as the 
 conquest of England in that of military, po- 
 litical, and administrative efficiency. Greek 
 had been almost forgotten in the west, but 
 Anselm was familiar ^-ith many of the opinions 
 of the Greeks, inquired for Greek writings, and 
 used Greek titles for some of his works. No 
 Greek book, however, is mentioned in an ex- 
 tant catalogue of the monastic library of Bee 
 of about 1164. It is probable that Bee was 
 one of the few seats where law continued to be 
 taught during the Dark Ages, and that Lan- 
 franc, for example, lectured in law. Theobald, 
 
 336
 
 BECHER 
 
 BECKER 
 
 who became Archbishop of Canterbury, is 
 known to have pursued his studies at Bee, 
 and was instrumental in promoting the study of 
 the Roman law among his personal retinue of 
 clerics. Bee was rather liberally di,sposed to- 
 ward the classical studies, and Etienno of 
 Rouen, who taught at the abbey toward the 
 close of the twelfth century, defended this po- 
 sition byan appeal to thegxample of the Fathers. 
 The abstract made by Etienne of Quintilian's 
 Institutes of Oratory for his pupils at Bee is still 
 preserved in the Paris Library as the Codex 
 Pratensis. P. R. C. 
 
 References : — 
 
 Chronicon Beccensis ahhatiae ah ipsa fundatione ad an. 
 
 1407, in Lanfranc, Opera, Migne. (Pat. Lat. Vol. 
 
 150.) 
 Sandy.s. History of Classical Scholarship. (Cambridge, 
 
 1903-190S.) 
 
 BECHER, JOHANN JOACHIM (1625- 
 1682). — A German economist, chemist, and 
 pedagogical writer. Born in Spe3^er, the son 
 of a Lutheran pastor, he early lest his father, 
 and studied, chiefly in an autodidactic way, 
 theology, mathematics, medicine, chemistry, 
 and politics. Being obliged to support him- 
 self by tutoring, he also gave attention to the 
 methods of teaching. In 1660 the Elector of 
 Mainz appointed him court physician and 
 teacher of medicine. Subsequently he entered 
 the services of other German princes, such as 
 the Electors of the Palatinate and of Bavaria, 
 and, in 1666, became a "Councilor of Com- 
 merce" at the imperial court at Vienna. He 
 traveled extensively in Holland, England, 
 and Scotland, and died (1682) as a poor man in 
 London. 
 
 Becher is one of the most remarkable men of 
 the seventeenth century. Always full of ideas, 
 schemes, and projects, he combined an ency- 
 clopedic knowledge with manj'-sided practical 
 interests. In the history of chemistrj^, he stands 
 as the originator of the first consistent, although 
 incorrect, theory of chemical action. The 
 processes of burning and of the calcination of 
 metals were explained by him on the suppo- 
 sition that these substances contained a com- 
 bustible element of which they became deprived 
 on ignition. These doctrines, further devel- 
 oped by Stahl (1660-1734), constituted the 
 famous phlogistic theory, which dominated 
 chemistry until toward the close of the eigh- 
 teenth century. 
 
 As an economist, Becher was imbued with 
 the ideas of his age, which were represented 
 by the policies of Colbert, the great minister 
 of finance of Louis XIV. He was a thorough 
 believer in the absolute power of the State, the 
 encouragement of home industry, and the 
 improvement of commerce. 
 
 The producing cla.sses, farmers, artisans, 
 merchants, he regarded as the backbone of the 
 State. Like Bacon, he considered the object 
 of science to be the improvement of the state 
 
 of society. He himself made a number of 
 useful inventions, such as an improved weav- 
 ing loom, a knitting machine, and others. He 
 also imagined to have discovered a method of 
 commuting the baser metals into gold. Among 
 the schemes which he conceived was the project 
 of a German West India company, for which 
 he succeeded in obtaining from the Dutch 
 government a grant of 3000 stiuare miles of 
 land between the rivers Orinoco and Amazon. 
 In accordance with his economic views are 
 his educational ideas, which strike us as exceed- 
 ingly modern. They are contained chiefly in 
 his Methodus Didactica, a short treatise written 
 in 1667. There we find the first demand for 
 special schools for the preparation of manu- 
 facturers and merchants. Becher was also the 
 first to separate religious education from general 
 instruction and to put both under the control 
 of the State. His complete plan of a school 
 organization makes provision for an elementary 
 school as a common foundation, followed by a 
 Latin school with a 3 years' course, a school of 
 mechanic arts, and a " philosophical " school 
 which was to give a more extended scientific 
 and technical training. He also develops the 
 plan of a theatrum naturae et artis, a natural and 
 technological museum. 
 
 He was interested in female education, as 
 well as in the education of neglected children. 
 On the model of workhouses and orphan 
 asylums which he had observed in Holland, he 
 organized such an institution in Vienna in 1671. 
 
 F. M. 
 References: — 
 Ekdberg-Krczenciewski, Johann Joachim Becher. 
 
 (Jena, 1896.) 
 Heumann, Alfred. Becher, in Monatshefte der Come- 
 nius Gesellschaft, Vol. IX. 
 
 BECKER.KARL FERDINAND (1775-1849). 
 
 — A German philologist, the chief representa- 
 tive of the philosophical school of language 
 teaching. He was born in Liser, Rhine prov- 
 ince, studied for 2 years at the priests' semi- 
 nary in Hildesheim, became a teacher at the 
 age of 19, but later on (1799) took up the study 
 of medicine in Gottingen, and began to practice 
 in 1803. In 1814 he became the director of 
 several military hospitals in Frankfort-on-the- 
 Main, and in 1815 he settled as a physician in 
 Offenbach, where, 8 years later, he opened a 
 small private school which he directed until his 
 death. The instruction which he gave led him 
 to resume the linguistic studies which had 
 occupied him as a teacher early in his life. He 
 first published his work on Dculsclic Wortbild- 
 vng {German Word-Formation), 1824, which 
 was followed by his Organismus dcr Sprache 
 {Organism of Language) , 1 827, A usfiilirliche deut- 
 sche Grannnatik {Complete German Grammar), 
 1836-1839, and Der deutsche Stil {German 
 Style), 1848, as well as by numerous textbooks 
 and other writings. Although he was at the 
 age of 50 when he resumed his linguistic re- 
 
 VOL. I — z 
 
 337
 
 BECKINGTON 
 
 BEDE 
 
 searches, his work showed great vigor and 
 originality. He looked upon hinguage as an or- 
 ganic product of the human mind, and thouglit 
 that its hiws could be studied by tlie deductive- 
 logical method. His system, which was skill- 
 fully adapted for the purposes of the elementary 
 school by Wurst and Honkamp, for a time 
 dominated the grammatical instruction in 
 (".ermany, both with regard to modern and 
 classical languages. It commended itself by 
 its clearness and its insistence on the self- 
 activity of the pui)ils, but it was opposed, by 
 Diesterweg among others, because it was too 
 rigid and formal, and made too great demands 
 on the logical powers of the young mind. 
 Scientifically, Becker's deductive method of 
 language study has been superseded by the far 
 deeper and more fertile inductive method of the 
 historic school, represented by such names as 
 Herder, Wilhelm von Humboldt, Bopp, and 
 Jakob (Irimm; nevertheless, much of his work, 
 especially on the syntax and style of modern 
 High-C!erman, is still of very great value to the 
 teacher. F. M. 
 
 References: — 
 Helmsdorfeb. Becker der Grammaliker. (Frankfurt, 
 
 1854.) 
 ScHERER, W. Article in AUgemeine Deutsche Biographic. 
 
 BECKINGTON, THOS. — See Eton. 
 
 BEDALES. — A private experimental board- 
 ing school of the " new school " {q.v.) type, 
 founded in 1892 by Mr. Badley; now located 
 near Petersfield, Hants. Interest to the 
 general student of education centers in the ex- 
 periment in coeducation, which is by no means 
 considered an experiment by the school itself. 
 About a third of the 150 students arc girls. 
 The general rule seems to be to bring the two 
 sexes together in schooling and other relations 
 where this seems to prove an advantage to both, 
 but also to provide opportunity for separate 
 activities when such are needed. There is a 
 definite inclusion of household and farm activ- 
 ities among the educational means, and the 
 courses in biology, chemistry, and physics take 
 account of these interests. The modern move- 
 ment in mathematics seen at its best in Eng- 
 land has had its influence, and, in place of the 
 material still so commonly found in American 
 schools during early adolescence, students are 
 brought naturally and profitably into higher 
 mathematics by 14 or 15 and even earlier. 
 These larger inclusions are suggestive of the 
 wide range of activities. Each student has a 
 course well within his powers, but has the ad- 
 vantages of (1) a choice of subjects not usually 
 counted as associates in the ordinary curriculum, 
 and (2) association with other students working 
 in other lines beyond his own. Thus a student 
 preparing for architecture was at 17 doing 
 superior work in the excavation of near-by 
 Roman villas and baths under the direction of 
 the head of the classics department, and also 
 
 had charge of planning and building the stable 
 erected by the boys for the horse they had 
 bought to keep their grounds for sports in 
 order. F. A. M. 
 
 See Abbotsholme ; Boarding Schools ; 
 Deutsche Landerziehungsheime ; L'Ecole 
 DEs Roches ; New School. 
 
 References: — 
 
 B.vDLEY, J. H. Bedalcs School, Elem. Sch. Tr., Vol. V, 
 p. 2o7. 
 
 The Possibility of Coeducation in English Preparatory 
 and Other Secondary Schools. (In Great Britain. 
 Speciul Reports on Education . \'ol. \'I, pjj. 500-515.) 
 
 Bedalcs Chronicle. (A. \V. Childs, High St., Peters- 
 field.) 
 
 Bedalcs Record. (Annual. Published at Bedales, Peters- 
 field, Hants. England.) 
 
 Bedales School, Outline of its Aims and Systems. (Uni- 
 versit.v Press, Cambridge.) 
 
 HODSON, F. Ed. Broad Lines in Science Teaching 
 (Christophers, London), especially chapters by 
 Badley. Garstang. Hodson, and Unwin. 
 
 Jackjun, W. S. Notes on Foreign Schools. Ed. Ret., 
 Vol. XXI, p. 2; Vol. XXII.p. 50. 
 
 Manny, F. A. A Simple Life, Kindergarten Maga- 
 zine. Vol. XIV, p. 3S7. 
 
 Meredith, George. Lord Ormont and his Aminta. 
 (Coeducational Boarding School.) 
 
 BEDE (BAEDA). — The famous Bede, known 
 from the ninth century onward as the \'enerable, 
 was almost beyond doubt born in the year 673, 
 and almost as certainly died on the 26th of May, 
 735, though Mayor and Lumby give some 
 grounds for thinking that it may have been as 
 late as May 9, 742. He was born on the land 
 belonging to the twin monaster.v of Wearmouth 
 and Jarrow, founded in 674, with Jarrow added 
 in 681 or 682. At the age of 7 he was sent to the 
 Monastery of Wearmouth, to be brought up in 
 religion under the famous Abbot Benedict 
 Biscop {q.v.). In 681 he passed to Jarrow with 
 its new Abbot Ceolfrid, fellow-laborer of 
 Biscop, and at Jarrow his whole life of spiritual 
 and intellectual activity was spent. At 19 
 he became deacon, and in 702 he was ordained 
 priest by John, Bishop of Hexham. Bede's 
 life as a student was spent in the most favor- 
 able surroundings that that age and country 
 offered. Biscop in addition to pictures, fur- 
 niture, and relics, brought to the monastery in 
 the course of his five visits to Rome a vast store 
 of books. (See Bede's Vilae Ahbaium.) He 
 also brought books from Vienne, and on a sixth 
 visit to the Continent he devoted himself to 
 the collection of books, including classical works 
 (Sandys, //i.s/or?/ of Cla.sftical ,SchuIar.'<hip, Vol. I, 
 p. 468, 2ded.). Bede was in the heart of culture, 
 and Alcuin tells us of his diligence as a student. 
 He became an excellent scholar, with some 
 knowledge, at any rate, of Greek and possibly of 
 Hebrew, and showed skill in Latin verse. He 
 frequently quotes Cicero, Virgil, and Horace 
 and, " doubtless at second hand," Lucilius and 
 Varro. He was familiar with Jerome's edition 
 of Eusebius, with Augustine and Isidore. His 
 training at Jarrow made him not only a scholar, 
 but a historian of the first rank. He uses his 
 material with skill and judgment, and is an 
 
 338
 
 BEDE 
 
 BEECHER 
 
 authority of the most rchable character. His 
 long, happy, and arduous life of teaching and 
 writing at Jarrow was apiiarontly only broken by 
 two short visits, one to his former pupil, Egbert, 
 Archbishop of York, and founder of the famous 
 School of York, which through its most dis- 
 tinguished disciple Alcuin (q.v.) gave life to the 
 culture of the Middle Ages, and another to 
 Lindisfarne for the purpose of gathering mate- 
 rial for the life of Cuthberth. His literary 
 activity lasted from the age of 30 till his death. 
 On his deathbed he was engaged in the trans- 
 lation into Anglo-Saxon of the Gospel of St. 
 John, and one of the most striking passages in 
 English literature is the famous letter of Bede's 
 disciple and pupil Cuthberth to Cuthwine de- 
 scribing the scene. But he also wrote much 
 on particular books of the Old Testament and 
 of the New Testament; the lives of various 
 saints; the Lives of the Abbots (Benedict, 
 Ceolfrid, and Huaetberht) of Jarrow, A Marti/r- 
 ologij, and his immortal Historia Ecdeslastira 
 gentis Anglorum (731), in five books. Nor did his 
 restless pen cease with these labors. He was 
 at heart a teacher, and from him sprang in a 
 direct line the later scholarship of France and 
 England. He made his own textbooks; he 
 wrote in addition to the work on meter, a Book 
 of Hymns in varying meters; a Book of Epi- 
 grams in heroic or elegiac verse, works On the 
 Nature of Things and Of the Times and an ele- 
 mentary textbook of Orthography arranged in 
 alphabetical order. His is, and always will 
 remain, one of the greatest names in the history 
 of English culture. His Ecclesiastical History 
 of the English has considerable importance to 
 the student of the history of education. A large 
 part of the knowledge of the history of educa- 
 tion in England before the eighth century is 
 obtained from this work. As instances may 
 be mentioned the following significant indica- 
 tions of the state of education in early England. 
 In E. H. Ill, 3, Bede gives an account of 
 Adrian's school founded in 635 on Lindisfarne 
 for English children as weU as their elders, 
 which shows the combined influences from 
 Ireland, Gaul, and Kent before the arrival of 
 Augustine. These influences were exercised 
 by the Irish scholar Fursa, and the Kentish 
 Bishop Felix, who assi.sted Sigbert, King of 
 East Anglia, in founding a school for boys, 
 which stood in almost direct relation to the 
 Roman Imperial Education referred to in 
 Gratian's Edict of 376. In Book IV, S, there 
 is a reference, the only one on the subject 
 before the canon of the Council of Cloveshoo 
 (q.v.), to the education of young boys in nun- 
 neries, a practice wliich continued for many 
 years (see papers on the Medieval Education of 
 Women in England, Journal of Education, 
 June, 1909, supplement). The importance of 
 Ireland as a University for England and as the 
 training college of Europe about the middle of 
 the seventh century is noticed by Bede. One 
 other reference to Bede's information on the 
 
 history of education and culture must suffice. 
 He tells us (IV and V) that Theodore and 
 Adrian after 669 gathered " a crowd of disciples " 
 and taught them not only Holy Scriptures but 
 also the metrical art, astronomy, and eccle- 
 siastical arithmetic. " A testimony whereof is, 
 that there are still living at this day some of 
 their scholars, who are as well versed in the 
 Greek and Latin tongues as in their own, in 
 which they were born," men such as Tobias, Tat- 
 wine, and Albinus. " The tradition of Greek," 
 says Dr. Sandys, " descended to the early days 
 of Odo (875-961), Archbishop of Canterbury." 
 As part of the church service it lasted still 
 longer. Bede tells us also something of the 
 collection and circulation of books in his time 
 and of the close educational touch kept with 
 Rome. This ecclesiastical history is a neces- 
 sary volume to the student of the history of 
 education in Europe. J. E. G. de M. 
 
 BEECHER, CATHERINE ELIZABETH 
 
 (1800-1878). — Daughter of Lyman Beecher, 
 and a pioneer in the movement for the higher 
 education of women in the United States, was 
 born at East Hampton, Long Island, Sept. 6, 
 1800. She was educated under private tu- 
 tors and at the Litchfield Academy. Her 
 knowledge of domestic science and its educa- 
 tional value was due to the fact that she was 
 " the eldest of 13 children, all but two trained 
 to maturity, and most of them in a good 
 degree under my care through infancy and 
 childhood," as she tells in her reminiscences. 
 She began teaching at 20, and soon worked out 
 and published an arithmetic for beginners. In 
 1828 she founded the Hartford Female Semi- 
 nary, which for many years was the leading 
 institution in America for the higher education 
 of women, and the prototype of many similar 
 institutions of a later date. Mrs. William C. 
 Woodbridge and her sister Harriet, afterwards 
 Mrs. Calvin E. Stowe, were associate teachers 
 in the Hartford Seminary. At a later date she 
 organized a similar seminary at Cincinnati. 
 For many years she traveled through the South 
 and West lecturing upon educational subjects 
 and stimulating interest in the higher educa- 
 tion of her sex. Because of her wide acquaint- 
 ance with the educational conditions of the 
 country she was called upon to supply many 
 teachers for the schools of the West; and at one 
 time she contemplated the organization of a 
 college for the training of teachers at Cincin- 
 nati. Her books on domestic science were the 
 first of their kind published in America. In 
 1852 she organized the Woman's Education 
 Association, " to aid in securing to women a 
 liberal education, honorable position, and re- 
 munerative employment in their appropriate 
 professions by means of endowed institutions 
 on the college plan of organization — these 
 institutions to include all that is gained by 
 normal schools and also to train women to be 
 healthful, intelligent, and successful wives, 
 
 339
 
 BEECHER 
 
 BEGGING STUDENTS 
 
 mothers, and housekeepers." The chief proh- 
 h'ln in tlie education of women, as Miss Beecher 
 saw it, was for the education of the needs of the 
 family, hence tiie large emphasis wliicli she 
 placed on the study of domestic science. She 
 was active in the Western Literary Institute 
 and the American Association for the Advance- 
 ment of Education U/.v.), and was ])rol)ably the 
 first woman who participated in the proceed- 
 ings of national educational associations. She 
 contributed largely to tiie best educational 
 literature of her day. Among her books, 
 besides textbooks on arithmetic and mental 
 philosophy, are Suggestions on Education (1S32), 
 The Moral Instructor (1838), Physiology and 
 Calisthenics (1856), Religious Training of Chil-- 
 dren (1864), and Woman's Profession as Mother 
 and Educator (1871). She died at Elmira, 
 N.Y., on May 12, 1878. W. S. M. 
 
 Reference: — 
 Beecheh. C. E. Reminiscences in Barnard's Ainerican 
 Journal of Education. 1878, Vol. 28, pp. 65-96. 
 
 BEECHER, EDWARD (1803-1895). — Son 
 of Lyman Beecher and brother of Catherine E.; 
 educated at Yale College and the Andover 
 Theological Seminary; for several years he 
 was tutor at Yale, and for 14 years president of 
 Illinois College (1830-1844); subsequently he 
 was professor in the Chicago Theological Semi- 
 nary. W. S. M. 
 
 BEECHER, LYMAN (1775-1863). — Edu- 
 cator, graduated from Yale College in 1797; 
 he was active in the improvement of the rviral 
 schools of Connecticut; was one of the founders 
 of the Connecticut Education Society, and 
 for 20 vears he was president of the Lane 
 Theological Seminary (1832-1852). Four of 
 his children — Catherine E., Edward, Harriet, 
 and Thomas K., — -were also identified with the 
 educational work of their day. W. S. M. 
 
 BEECHER, THOMAS KINNICUT (1824- 
 1900). — Schoolman, son of Lyman Beecher, 
 was graduated from Illinois College in 1845; 
 engaged in secondary school work in Connec- 
 ticut and Pennsylvania for a number of years, 
 and contributed numerous articles to the educa- 
 tional journals. W. S. M. 
 
 BEGGING STUDENTS. — During several 
 of the latter centuries of the Middle Ages it was 
 permissible and even cu.stomary for .students 
 of all grades to support themselves by begging, or 
 at least upon the gifts of food or money given 
 by the people freely or upon solicitation. The 
 sanction of the Church given to mendicancy, as 
 well as its constant approval of generosity as 
 the chief Christian virtue, had much to do with 
 the widespread adoption of this method of life by 
 the student. The custom of begging was closely 
 connected with the migratory customs of the 
 students, again stimulated, if not sanctioned, by 
 the examples set by the Church. Indeed, all 
 
 classes in society were influenced by these same 
 customs. The merchant led a migratory life 
 in pursuit of his business; the craftsman in the 
 completion of his mastery of his trade as a 
 journeyman; the knight went in constant pur- 
 suit of adventure, gain, or warfare; the pilgrim 
 had the blessing of the Church , the monk passed 
 continuously to and fro on official journeys or 
 penances; students were drawn to the centers 
 of learning from most remote (|uarters, and went 
 from school to school in ((ucst of learning, of a 
 more renowned teacher, of scholarships or 
 bursaries, of a patron or a more generous 
 community, of gain, or of the mere love of 
 travel or the knowledge to be gained by it. 
 The wandering ])riest was the forerunner of the 
 wandering and begging scholar. As early as 
 the fifth century, synods and bishops attempted 
 to control the evil of the immber of unattached 
 priests who Uved by begging. The coming of the 
 friars in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries 
 gave great encouragement to these customs, 
 especially among students, who in general 
 shared the favors of Churchmen. 
 
 In the medieval universities all classes were 
 represented, but a large proportion of the stu- 
 dents were very poor. In some universities a 
 special hall or dormitory (the dotnus pavp- 
 erum) {q.i<.) was provided for them. At the 
 Oxford halls a special table was usually pro- 
 vided for them, as they must first wait upon the 
 students at the other tables. Street begging 
 was permitted at Oxford by license of the 
 Chancellor. Frequently university or college 
 statutes provide regulations for this custom. 
 
 Such a life came to be adopted by many 
 through preference, and was often persisted in 
 
 .:ii>fl)rii;ni) '.(Vcn(t> kitrVuf .' 
 
 Ci'mrta? ntir ird.^ oiiffn r'l-.vru.u tf Vtuhn 
 
 ■r.-^vTv>- 
 
 340 
 
 Begging Students of the Middle Ages. 
 
 for years. A secret society known as Goliards 
 iq.v.) was developed. The general character 
 of the life of the wandering student is discussed 
 under these titles. 
 
 The begging customs were carried down into 
 the lower schools as these came to be developed 
 under church or town or later Renaissance iur 
 fluences. Here the older boys, bacchants (q.v.), 
 adopted little boys, shooters (q.v.), as appren- 
 tices, — apprentices not only to learning, but 
 to begging, to the Wandcrlu.-:}, and often to \nce. 
 The number, importunities, and unhcensed
 
 BEGINNING READING 
 
 BELGIUM 
 
 conduct of these students led to the attempt to 
 regulate them by city ordinance in the later 
 medieval centuries. Schools were permitted 
 to send out students or solicitors only at certain 
 hours, in a limited number, and within restricted 
 districts — usually the parish The illustration 
 given is that of the Nuremberger students of the 
 sixteenth century each carrying a huge basket 
 identified bj^ the picture of the patron saint of 
 the school. 
 
 The development of state systems of schools 
 in the Germanic countries, where these customs 
 were most prevalent, tended to eliminate this 
 custom, though survivals of it in the singing of 
 pupils from door to door on given feast or holi- 
 days yet persist. 
 
 See Bacchants; Goliards; Wandeking 
 Students. 
 
 References: — • 
 
 BuTZBACH. Ed. by Becker, D. I. Chronica eines fahren- 
 
 den Schuters oder Waiiderbilchlein des Johannes 
 
 Butzhach. (Regensburg, 1869.) 
 MoNnoE, Paul. Thomas Platter and the Educational 
 
 Renaissance of the Sixteenth Century. (New York, 
 
 1904.) 
 Platter, Thos. Autobiography. (Tr. in Monroe, 
 
 above.) 
 Stmonds. Wine, Women, and Song. (Portland, Me., 
 
 1899.) 
 Rashdall, Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages, 
 
 Vol. II. Pt. 2, rh. xiv. (Oxford, 1895.) 
 Reiche, E. Der Lehrcr in der deutschen Vergangen- 
 
 heit. (Leipzig, 1901.) 
 
 BEGINNING READING. — A term applied 
 to the group of special methods employed in 
 teaching beginners to read, duringthe first school 
 year. Sometimes spoken of as "first year 
 reading" or " basal reading." See Reading, 
 Teaching Beginners. H. S. 
 
 BEHAVIOR. — In its broadest sense the 
 term is applied to all forms of animal activity. 
 There is a tendency, however, to restrict the 
 term to comjDlex organized forms of reaction. 
 Thus we speak of the behavior of an animal in 
 stalking its prey or extricating itself from a 
 trap. The importance of the reactive side 
 of nervous processes has been reiterated in all 
 recent discussions of beha-\aor. Professor James 
 goes so far as to define education as a process 
 of training behavior. C. H. J. 
 
 See Reaction. 
 
 References: — 
 James, \V. Talks to Teachers. (New York, 1899.) 
 JuDD, C. H. Genetic Psychology for Teachers. (New 
 
 York, 1903.) 
 
 BELFAST, UNIVERSITY OF. — Estab- 
 lislied in 1849 as Queen's College, a con- 
 stituent body of the Queen's University, 
 which in 1879 became the Royal University 
 of Ireland, with, power to grant degrees 
 to students not educated at any college. 
 Queen's College, Belfast, was the most success- 
 ful of the three colleges. But an agitation was 
 for a long time continued for the establish- 
 ment of local universities in Ireland, resulting 
 
 in the Irish Univer.sities Act of 1908, by which 
 Queen's College, Belfast, was converted into the 
 Belfast University. Faculties of arts, sciences, 
 medicine, and law are maintained. In 1907-1908 
 there was an enrollment of 406 students, of whom 
 the majority were in the medical school. See 
 Ireland, Education in. 
 
 References: — 
 
 Balfodr, G. The Educational Systems of Great Brit- 
 ain and Ireland. (London, 190.'3.) 
 Journal of Education. (London, 1908 and 1909.) 
 
 BELGIUM, EDUCATION IN. — PoUtical 
 Organization of the Kingdom. — A constitu- 
 tional monarchy. — Area, 11,373 square -miles ; 
 population (census of 1900), 6,693,548; esti- 
 mated 1907, 7,331,756. The executive and 
 legislative powers vested in hereditary King, 
 Senate, and Chamber of Representatives. 
 
 The divisions of the kingdom for local gov- 
 ernment are provinces (9) and communes 
 (2629, census of 1900), both of which enjoy 
 a large measure of autonomy. The affairs of 
 the former are administered by a governor 
 appointed by the King, a provincial council 
 (elected), and a permanent deputation consist- 
 ing of the governor and six members of the 
 council chosen by that body. 
 
 Three distinct authorities participate also 
 in the administration of the commune; an 
 elected council, a burgomaster appointed by 
 the King from the members of the council, 
 and a body of aldermen (college echevinaJ), 
 consisting of the burgomaster and from two 
 to five members of the council chosen by that 
 body. The council, which represents the people 
 directly, is the principal source of authority 
 in communal affairs (law regulating provin- 
 cial and communal organization, March 30, 
 1836, and modifying laws, 1838, 1842, 1848, 
 1860, and 1865). 
 
 In three provinces lying along the border 
 of France, — i.e., Hainault, Luxembourg, and 
 Namur, — and also in Liege, a central province, 
 French or Walloon is the prevailing language. 
 In Antwerp, Brabant, East and West Flanders, 
 and Limbourg, the Flemish or Dutch language 
 prevails. 
 
 Belgium is preeminently a Catholic country. 
 Protestants and Anglicans number only about 
 27,900 and Jews 13,200. The census "of 1900 
 gives 37,905 (men 6237, women 31,608) mem- 
 bers of religious orders. As regards language, 
 the census of 1900 shows that 42 per cent of the 
 population spoke Flemish only and 38.2 per 
 cent French only. 
 
 Underlying Principles of the System. — 
 The history of Belgium as an independent 
 kingdom dates from 1830, and by the constitu- 
 tion promulgated the following year "liberty 
 of teaching " was adopted as a fundamental 
 principle of education in the new kingdom. 
 " Instruction," says Article 17 of the consti- 
 tution, "shall be free, all prohibitory measures 
 are forbidden; the suppression of abuses is 
 
 341
 
 BELGIUM 
 
 BELGIUM 
 
 regulated solely by law. Public instruction 
 given at the cost of the State is equally 
 regulated by law." 
 
 This impartial provision sufficed for the time 
 to prevent conflict between the two opposite 
 forces that sougiit to direct the educational 
 interests of the country. Through all changes 
 of empire, the people of this kingdom had been 
 loyal to the Church of Rome, and submitted, 
 as a rule, to clerical control of education. 
 But from a very early period, individual 
 communes had claimed and secured the right 
 to independent action in this matter. Thus 
 in 1192 the citizens of (Uient secured the sanc- 
 tion of their count for full liberty in the matter 
 of instruction, and about the same time a 
 similar privilege was obtained by Ypres. 
 In 1320, the request of the citizens of Brussels 
 for more schools having been refused by the 
 ecclesiastical authorities, the citizens proceeded 
 without their authorization to open schools 
 and appoint teachers. In 1426 the magistrate 
 of Brussels opposed the establishment of a 
 university in the city, since the students would 
 not be subject to the civil authority, and the 
 university was therefore opened at Louvain. 
 The effects of this freedom were seen in the 
 diffused intelligence and love of learning on the 
 part of the citizens of the chief towns, and even 
 of the villages, as testified by many authorities. 
 
 The writings of Voltaire and Rousseau were 
 published at Brussels in 1774 and freely cir- 
 culated in Belgium, and the Journal Ency- 
 clopedique, founded at Liege in 1756 and pub- 
 lished at Brussels in 1759, had made these cities 
 centers for the discussion and diffusion of the 
 ideas of the French Encyclopedists (q.v.). By 
 the peace of Luneville, ISOl, the province 
 was included within the limits of France, and, 
 after the fall of Napoleon, it was united with 
 the Northern Netherlands. Although this 
 union was hateful to the southern province, 
 it increased therein the spirit of communal 
 independence, and familiarized the leaders, also, 
 with the workings of the admirable education 
 law of the northern province, passed a few years 
 before the Union (1806). By the previous 
 union with France, Belgium had been brought 
 within the operations of Napoleon's University, 
 and was thus supplied with the machinery of 
 an educational system which was modified in 
 important particulars from the relation with 
 Holland. All these currents of influence and 
 authority met in the newly formed kingdom, 
 and have played their part in the development 
 of the present system of education. Many of 
 the administrative features of the system, as 
 in the case of the French system, are derived 
 from the Imperial University. In Belgium, 
 however, there is the form without the spirit of 
 centralization. 
 
 Present Administrative Organization. — The 
 Minister of the Interior was formerly charged 
 with the interests of public instruction, but 
 these have been recently transferred to the 
 
 Minister of Science and Art. The chief edu- 
 cational officials under the minister are 
 two general directors, one for primary instruc- 
 tion, the other for secondary and superior. 
 A corps of inspectors is attached to the 
 central administration comprising, for second- 
 ary in.struction {cnseigncmenl moyen), one gen- 
 eral inspector and two ordinary inspectors, 
 one for the humanities, the other for mathe- 
 matics and the sciences; and for primary in- 
 struction, one or more principal inspectors in 
 each of the nine provinces of the kingdom, 
 under whom are subordinate cantonal inspec- 
 tors. The deliberative councils {conseils de 
 ycrfcclionnemenl), one for each of the three 
 departments of the system, are formed by 
 apjiointment from the official and professional 
 bodies. They deliberate upon scholastic affairs 
 submitted to them by the minister, but have 
 not the judicial functions of the French councils. 
 The minister has little direct authoritj' over 
 schools, but he exercises great influence through 
 the control of the government appropriations 
 for education, the regulation of programs, 
 and the appointing power which he possesses. 
 Under present conditions this influence is 
 naturally used to strengthen the clerical control 
 of education. 
 
 Department of Primary Education. — 
 Legidalive Measures. — The principle of com- 
 munal independence is firmly established 
 in school administration; but on account of 
 the influence of the Catholic clergy in local 
 affairs and the spirit of ecclesiastical sub- 
 ordination, the Church has actual control 
 of primary schools in the majority of the com- 
 munes. Against this powerful monopoly, the 
 Liberals wage incessant warfare. The pro- 
 longed and bitter contest between the two 
 parties has been marked by a succession of 
 laws which have enlarged or restrained clerical 
 control of the schools, according to the purposes 
 of the party in power. 
 
 Broadly speaking, the Clerical party advo- 
 cates a high degree of communal independence 
 in respect to the classes of schools that shall 
 be recognized, and their administration and 
 conduct. This policy shaped the law of 1S42, 
 the first law pertaining to primary education 
 in Belgium, and the laws of 18S4 and 1895, by 
 which the system of primary education is at 
 present regulated; the Liberals, on the con- 
 trary, are earnest advocates of a system of 
 free secular schools under state supervision; 
 the abolition of ecclesiastical inspection of 
 schools; and the restriction of the teaching 
 service to native Belgians trained in state 
 normal schools or possessed of state diplomas. 
 These were the principles embodied in the law 
 of 1S79. The law of September 20, 1884, 
 renewed the main provisions of the law of 
 1842. Religious instruction was, however, 
 left optional with the communes; but the teach- 
 ing service was again thrown open to natural- 
 ized foreigners, thus giving large opportunity 
 
 342
 
 BELGIUM 
 
 BELGIUM 
 
 for the employment of members of the religious 
 orders, irrespective of nationality. The official 
 program of primary studies, though much 
 abridged from that recognized by the law of 
 1879, was not reduced to the meager limits 
 of the earlier law. Finally a law of 1805 made 
 religious instruction once more obligatory. It 
 was ordered that the clergy should have free 
 access to the primary schools and to the normal 
 schools, to give, or to supervise, the religious 
 lessons, arrangements being made for the with- 
 drawal of dissenting children. The provision 
 of the earlier law with respect to the adoption 
 of parochial schools was continued, and a third 
 class of schools was recognized, namel3% private 
 schools not giving religious instruction, and 
 not subject to communal inspection. If such 
 schools meet the government requirements, 
 they may share in the state appropriations. 
 
 The principle of state obligation for the train- 
 ing of teachers upon which the Liberals had 
 insisted was discarded by the law of 1884, 
 which authorized the State, provinces, and 
 communes to establish normal schools in such 
 numbers as circumstances might require, and 
 provided that private normal schools might 
 receive grants from the public treasury upon the 
 condition of submitting to official inspection. 
 
 This extreme measure was ojiposed, not alone 
 by the Liberals, but by moderate Catholics, 
 also, on the ground that it violated the religious 
 neutrality of the State and the rights of con- 
 science, guaranteed by the constitution. Fur- 
 thermore, it was urged that the powers con- 
 ferred upon the clergy by the law infringed 
 upon the rights reserved to the communes 
 by law of March 30, 1836, which antedates all 
 school legislation in Belgium. This law ex- 
 pressly declares that the college des hourge- 
 mestre et echet'ins (mayor and aldermen) in 
 each commune shall "administer, direct, and 
 supervise all communal institutions." The 
 influences in favor of the law were, however, 
 too strong to be overcome, and its passage, for 
 the time being, has transferred the struggle 
 for the control of schools to the communes in 
 which the Liberals are powerful. 
 
 The pa.ssage of the Liberal law of 1879 was 
 followed within two years by the opening of 
 private clerical schools in 1936 communes and 
 the withdrawal of 1500 teachers from the public 
 schools to take positions in the new schools; 
 the law of 1884 was followed by the suppression 
 of about 800 public schools, the reduction of 
 the teaching force in others, the diminution of 
 many salaries, and the serious crippling of the 
 public normal schools. The danger of such re- 
 taliatory measures under a change of political 
 parties has been somewhat lessened by a clause 
 in the law of 1895, providing that no communal 
 school or teaching position shall be suppressed 
 without autliorization from the central au- 
 thority, and, further, that no teacher's salary 
 shall be reduced during his term of office in any 
 one commune. 
 
 Supervision, Central and Local. — The central 
 government simply maintains inspection of 
 primary schools with reference to the condi- 
 tions required for obtaining the annual appro- 
 priation, namely, sufficient acconunodation, 
 approved buildings, and the maintenance of 
 the obligatory program. 
 
 In each commune of the kingdom there is 
 an education board composed of members of 
 the communal councU, the burgomaster, and 
 aldermen (echevins). The board establishes 
 public schools, appoints teachers, determines 
 their salaries subject to the legal requirement 
 as to the minimum, and practically controls 
 the schools. 
 
 The commune has its local inspectors, and 
 a committee on school attendance whose duty 
 it is to ascertain how many children between 
 the ages of 6 and 14 reside within the district, 
 and to take measures for securing their attend- 
 ance. There is no compulsory provision in 
 the school law. 
 
 The governing bodies of the ecoles adoptees 
 are generally formed on the nomination of the 
 chief clergy of the diocese and influential 
 Catholic laymen. These schools preserve their 
 religious character, and perfect freedom re- 
 specting the choice of books and methods and 
 the api)ointment of teachers, subject only to 
 the conditions of the law of 1884 and 1895, and 
 to the assent of the commune, which may at 
 any time cease to recognize the adopted school 
 for satisfactory reasons. A special class of 
 local inspectors is appointed by the ecclesias- 
 tical authorities to supervise the religious in- 
 struction. These inspectors are required to 
 join the other officials and teachers in the quar- 
 terly reunions for interchange of experience 
 and the discussion of methods and principles 
 of education. 
 
 Obligatory Studies. — In addition to re- 
 ligious and moral instruction, the program 
 of obligatory studies for primary schools 
 includes the following subjects: reading, writ- 
 ing, elements of arithmetic, the legal system 
 of weights and measures, the elements of the 
 French language, of the Flemish or the 
 German, according to local requirements, 
 geography, history of Belgium, elements of 
 drawing, singing, and gymnastics, needlework 
 for girls, and for boys, in the rural districts, 
 elements of agriculture. The number of schools 
 omitting any of the above is reported each year, 
 and the statistics indicate a steady increase in 
 the number giving the full course. A fair 
 proportion of primary schools offer in addition 
 one or more optional branches. These are 
 designated as schools with developed pro- 
 grams (ecoles primaires a programme developpe) . 
 The ambition of pujjils is stimulated by the 
 annual public examinations (co7icours) of the 
 higher classes of primary schools, in which 
 both communal and subsidized primary schools 
 mu.st participate. The enthusiasm of teachers 
 is also excited by the hope of the decorations 
 
 343
 
 BELGIUM 
 
 BELGIUM 
 
 conferred hy the government for special merit. 
 These awards are the civie cross, fir.st and second 
 class, and civic medal, iirst and second class. 
 
 Text-Hooks. — The communal councils gen- 
 erally select the text-books to be used in the 
 schools from a list approved by the official 
 council {conseil de perfectionnement) . The se- 
 lection is not, however, absolutely limited to 
 the list. The te.\t-books for religious and moral 
 instruction are selected solely by the ecclesias- 
 tical authorities. 
 
 School Fccx. — The communes arc at liberty 
 to charge fees, and in country places they some- 
 times do so; but in every commune provision 
 must be made by which the ciiildren of indigent 
 parents may be taught gratuitously. There 
 are throughout the country bureaux de bien- 
 faisancc, or local boards for the administration 
 of charity, and the law requires that out of the 
 funds administered by these bodies the fees 
 of jjoor children, wherever fees are exacted at 
 all, siiall be paid. In fact, the primary schools 
 are generally free; in Brussels and other prin- 
 cipal towns, invarialily so. 
 
 Teachers. — The cla.sses of teachers recognized 
 by the law, and the minimum salary for each 
 class, are as follows: — 
 
 
 SAL.\RIES 
 
 CL.tSSE3 OF 
 
 Teachers 
 
 PnmciPALS 
 
 Assistants 
 
 
 Men 
 
 Women 
 
 Men 
 
 Women 
 
 
 Frs. 
 
 f 
 
 Frs. 
 
 J 
 
 Fra. 
 
 $ 
 
 Fra. 
 
 f 
 
 Fifth daa.q. com- 
 munes of 1500 
 inhabitants or 
 less . . . 
 
 Fourth class, 
 
 1200 
 
 240 
 
 1200 
 
 240 
 
 1000 
 
 200 
 
 1000 
 
 200 
 
 communes of 
 
 1.501 to 10.000 
 
 inh.ibitants . 
 
 Third class, com- 
 
 1400 
 
 280 
 
 1300 
 
 260 
 
 1100 
 
 220 
 
 1100 
 
 220 
 
 munes of 
 10.001 to 
 40.000 inhab- 
 itants . . . 
 Second class. 
 
 1000 
 
 320 
 
 1400 
 
 280 
 
 1200 
 
 240 
 
 1100 
 
 220 
 
 communes of 
 40.001 to 
 100,000 in- 
 habitants . . 
 First class, com- 
 
 1800 
 
 360 
 
 1600 
 
 320 
 
 1300 
 
 260 
 
 1200 
 
 240 
 
 munes of 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 more than 
 100.000 in- 
 habitants . . 
 
 2400 
 
 480 
 
 2200 
 
 440 
 
 1400 
 
 280 
 
 1200 
 
 240 
 
 The commune must also provide a residence 
 for the teacher or an indemnity for the same 
 ranging from $40 to .§100 annually. 
 
 Teachers have the right to a pension upon 
 the same terras as members of other branches 
 of the civil service. They may demand the 
 pension at 55 years of age, or be retired with 
 pension at 60. The amount of the pension 
 is calculated for each year of actual service at 
 the rate of one fifth of the average salary 
 received for the last five years in the service. 
 
 Sources of Support. — Primarily the com- 
 mune must bear the cost of elementary edu- 
 cation. The State and the province grant 
 
 subsidies only when the commune has con- 
 tributed a sum equal at least to the proceeds 
 of four centimes additional to the direct tax. 
 Since, however, the poorest communes may 
 receive special assistance, the government 
 appropriation is seldom forfeited. 
 
 Stali.4ics of Primary Education. — In 1907, 
 the latest year covered by an official report 
 on the subject, there were in Belgium 7291 
 primary schools under state inspection, of 
 which 4598 were communal and 2693 adopted. 
 About one third the total nund)er of scliools 
 were coeducational. The enrollment in all 
 primary schools was 897,000 pupils, distributed 
 as follows: in communal schools, 509,418 
 (1319,315 boys; 190,103 girls); in adopted 
 schools, 218,464 (71,535 Isoys, 146.929 girls); 
 in private (chiefly parochial) schools, 169,118 
 (61,419 boys, 107,699 girls). In other words, 
 56.7 per cent of the pupils were in schools 
 maintained and managed directly by the com- 
 munal authorities; at the beginning of the 
 decade the proportion was 63 per cent. Of 
 the total number of pupils 845,793, or 94 per 
 cent, paid no fees. 
 
 The teaching staff of the public primarv 
 schools numbered 19,786 (8904 men, 10,280 
 women, and 602 not classified by sex). Of 
 the total number nearly one third, viz., 6039 
 (745 men; 5294 women) were members of 
 religious orders. 
 
 There were also 2918 school gardens (infant 
 schools) with an enrollment of 266,365 children. 
 The continuation classes for adults were at- 
 tended by 213,045 persons, including 118,904 in 
 the classes for young men; and 94,141 in the 
 cla.sscs for women. Nearly two thirds of the 
 adult pupils were in adopted (i.e. subsidized) 
 schools or classes. These, as a rule, are under 
 clerical management. 
 
 The number of normal schools was 54. Of 
 these, 13 (7 for men; 6 for women) were state 
 schools; 2 were communal, and 41 (12 for men; 
 29 for women) were adopted schools under 
 ecclesiastical control. The number of students 
 in training was 4806, and the number who 
 received diplomas in 1907 was 1018. 
 
 The 16 institutions for the blind and the deaf- 
 mute — 7 for men, 7 for women, 2 for both sexes, 
 all subsidized by the State — had an enrollment 
 of 1746 pupils (869 men; 877 women); the 
 royal institute of Messines for blind women 
 reported 185 students. The children in or- 
 phanages, reform schools, and asylums increased 
 the number of pupils under primary instruction 
 by 5883 (3986 boys and 1897 girls). 
 
 The expenditure for the department of pri- 
 mary education in 1906 was 50,462,708 francs 
 (.?ld,092,547). Of this amount, 30,030,311 
 francs (86,006,062) went for the current ex- 
 penditures of the public primary schools, com- 
 munal and adopted, and 7,694,680 francs 
 (.51,538,936) for school buildings, or a total 
 exi)eiiditure for ordinary primary schools of 
 37,724,991 francs, equivalent to $7,544,998. 
 
 344
 
 BELGIUM 
 
 BELGIUM 
 
 Private subsidized primary schools received an 
 additional sum of 2,385,119 francs (§477,024), 
 which raises the total for primary schools to 
 40,110,110 francs (§8,022,022). 
 
 The expenditure for primary normal schools 
 was 2,987,370 francs, equivalent to S.597,474; 
 expenditure for infant schools, 4,000,983 francs 
 (■SS00,196); for adult schools and classes, 
 2,049,906 francs (8409,980), for prizes, scholar- 
 ships, etc., 547,442 francs (.§109,488); and 
 for direction and inspection, 766,897 francs 
 (•§153,179). The amount expended for the 
 ordinary primary schools was 79 per cent of 
 the entire expenditure for the department, 
 and estimated on the enrollment was eciuiva- 
 lent to .S8.94 per cajiita; estimated on the 
 population to 81.09 per capita. 
 
 The total here considered (50,462,708 francs) 
 was met as follows: Communal appropriations, 
 24,360,982 francs (48.2 per cent of the total) ; 
 provincial appropriations, 2,484,738 francs 
 (4.8 per cent); state appropriation, 20,015,229 
 francs (41.4 per cent); fees, 1,754,731 francs 
 (3.4 per cent). The small balance was derived 
 from private bequests and ajjpropriations from 
 the bureaux de bienfaisance on behalf of poor 
 children. 
 
 Characteristic Features of Primary Educa- 
 tion. — From the high degree of local 
 independence in school affairs, and the 
 absence of a compulsory school law and a 
 well-organized system of state inspection, there 
 follow marked differences in the schools of the 
 2629 communes of the kingdom. The most 
 efficient schools are found in the populous 
 centers where Liberal ideas prevail; but, on 
 the whole, primary education is in a low state, 
 as indicated by the fact, brought out in the 
 census of 1909, that a little more than 19 per 
 cent of the population above eight years of 
 age are illiterate. This is due in part to con- 
 ditions that retard rural schools elsewhere, 
 and in part to the narrow conception of popular 
 education maintained by the authorities, and 
 the prevalence of oral and dogmatic methods 
 of instruction in parochial schools. 
 
 The theory of popular education, however, 
 has been admirably worked out by Belgian 
 educators, and the schools offer many sug- 
 gestions as to aims and methods which are of 
 general interest. In certain rural schools of 
 Belgium the official program of elementary 
 agriculture is well carried out, the theoretical 
 instruction being completed at every stage by 
 work in the garden and fields. In this subject 
 the concentric method of instruction is era- 
 ployed with great success. An important 
 service is rendered also by the practical methods 
 of moral training generally employed. The 
 teaching of tlirift is illustrated by the school 
 savings banks, which, in 1905, numbered 8117, 
 with 431,897 depositors and savings amounting 
 to 11,533,332 francs (S2,306,666). The system 
 extends also to the adult schools, which were 
 represented the same year by 27,719 depositors 
 
 and savings amounting to one and a quarter mil- 
 lion francs. School temperance societies formed 
 in 2597 schools enrolled 103,939 members. 
 
 Brussels as a Type. — The communal schools 
 of Brussels have been brought to a high 
 degree of efficiency through the progressive 
 spirit of the municipal authorities and the 
 direct influence of the Brussels Normal School, 
 which was founded in 1874, and under Director 
 Sluys has become one of the chief centers of 
 educational reform in Europe. 
 
 The public school provision of Brussels 
 consists of 14 communal school gardens, or 
 infant schools, conducted on Froebelian prin- 
 ciples, in which were enrolled in 1907-1908, 
 2823 pupils from 2 to 6 years of age; 21 com- 
 munal primary schools with an enrollment 
 of 13,679 pupils, one royal athenee with 486 
 students; 2 communal secondary schools for 
 boys with 1028 pupils, and one school of the 
 same order for girls, with 849 pupils. Omit- 
 ting the school gardens, the enrollment in the 
 public schools of Brussels for the year named 
 was 16,042 pupils, which is about 8 per cent of 
 the city population (196,882). 
 
 In the regular primary schools an average 
 attendance was maintained ccfual to 86.6 per 
 cent of the enrollment. A force of 546 teachers 
 was employed, comprising 22 head teachers 
 and 66 special teachers of music, gymnastics, 
 languages, household arts, etc. The remain- 
 ing number, 438, was equivalent to one teacher 
 for every 27 pupils in the average enrollment 
 (11,845). This city offers very interesting 
 examples of the adaptation of public schools 
 to the needs of particular classes of children. 
 Among these are: the special classes for back- 
 ward children, courses in articulation for chil- 
 dren having defects of the vocal organs, and 
 the establishment of extra classes termed 
 primary classes of the fourth degree, that is, 
 a stage beyond the three sections into which 
 the primary schools are generally divided. 
 These advanced classes are conducted on the 
 individual principle, with the purpose of incit- 
 ing the pupils to independent, self-directed 
 effort in the subjects upon which they are 
 engaged, and which have immediate relation 
 to the demands of commercial and industrial 
 vocations. The experiment was begun in 
 1907 in three schools, the classes enrolling 
 that year 261 boys. The number of classes 
 has since been increased and the system of 
 instruction more full.y organized. Instruction 
 in foreign languages, following the methods 
 employed with great success in the secondary 
 schools, is a feature of these advanced classes. 
 
 Opportunities for the continued instruction 
 of young people above the school age are af- 
 forded (1) bv the continuation classes, which 
 in 1908 were attended by 2200 pupils (1265 
 young men; 935 young women); (2) by art 
 and trades schools, which are maintained by 
 the combined action of the state, the munici- 
 pality, and private individuals or societies. 
 
 345
 
 BELGIUM 
 
 BELGIUM 
 
 The service of medical inspection of schools 
 is thorouRhly organized, and the city affords, 
 also, notable examples of various forms of 
 social service through the instrumentality of the 
 schools. 
 
 Clothing and food are supplied to the 
 children of the ordinary primary schools by 
 private societies assisted by municipal funds. 
 For the daily distribution of soup and bread, 
 maintained by VCEuvre cle la Buuchee de Pain, 
 and VCEuvre de la Snupe, the municipality 
 contributes about 10,000 francs (S2000) a 
 year. An additional 5000 francs (.'SIOOO) was 
 allowed in 1908 for the same purpose, in the 
 private schools. This beneficent care is ex- 
 tended to the homes of the poorest children 
 through the agency of a society, VCEuvre de la 
 Feuille d'Elain, which distributes coal to the 
 most necessitous families whose children attend 
 the schools. 
 
 Summer colonies for school children are also 
 organized by the combined action of the munic- 
 ipality and private societies. In the summer 
 of 1908 the number of children sent for a time to 
 one or other of these country resorts was 1729, 
 who made a total of 20,698 days of sojourn. 
 About one hundred and eighty creches, con- 
 ducted by private societies, for infants whose 
 mothers are at work, are subsidized by the city 
 and placed under its medical inspection. 
 
 Liberty of instruction in Belgium has been 
 favorable to individual initiative and local 
 activity in the matter, and the absence of official 
 restraints has conduced to freedom of discus- 
 sion and to the vigorous action of educational 
 societies. The Federation genhale des insti- 
 tuteurs beiges maintains a vigorous crusade in 
 behalf of progressive methods and high stand- 
 ards in elementary education. In 1907 the 
 association organized a committee of defense 
 to protect the body of pubhc school teachers 
 in their rights, to expose covert attacks directed 
 against them, and to support the principles of 
 a public secular school system. The Journal 
 des Instituteurs is the organ of the Federation, 
 which maintains also an International Bureau 
 of teachers' federations at Brussels. The 
 educational policies of the Clerical party, as 
 unfolded at the celebration of the twenty-fifth 
 anniversary of their accession to power, which 
 took place at Mahnes in 1909, have given new 
 impetus to the activities of the Teachers' Fed- 
 eration and new vigor to the educational efforts 
 of the Liberal party. 
 
 Opposition to the reactionary policy in school 
 matters is vigorously maintained by the Ligue 
 de Venseignement, which was founded in 1864 
 to promote Uberal and progressive policies 
 in popular education. In 1904 the Ligue 
 ceased active operations, but was reorganized 
 and revived in 1907 under the presidency of 
 M. Charles Buls, one of the most ardent 
 champions of free and liberal education for the 
 people. 
 
 The scientific study of children is carried on 
 
 by the Algemein paedogogisch Gezehchajf, 
 founded at Antwerp in 1902, and at the labora- 
 tory of pedology at the Brussels Normal School. 
 The SociHe beige de Pedolechnic is composed of 
 doctors and educators interested in the ajipli- 
 cation of the results of scientific researches in 
 the school processes. 
 
 The interest of the government in this class 
 of investigations is indicated i)y the foundation 
 of the I iistitut national beige de pidolugie under 
 official patronage. 
 
 Secondary Education. — Secondary educa- 
 tion [enxeignemcnt nioijen), maintained at public 
 expense, is based upon an act of June 1, 1850, 
 modified bv acts of June 15, 1881, June 15, 
 1883, and February 6, 1887. These acts deter- 
 mine the organization and scope of the two 
 classes of schools included in the deixartment. 
 Local hoards consisting of the mayor and 
 aldermen of the city or town in which the re- 
 spective schools are situated, with additional 
 members appointed by the central autiiority, 
 have direct charge of the schools. Tiie iuiild- 
 ings and equipments for the state schools are 
 provided by the local authorities; the current 
 expenditures, including salaries, material, etc., 
 are borne by state appropriations and tuition 
 fees; the latter are low and form a very small 
 part of the income. 
 
 The Royal Athenees. — The higher order of 
 secondary schools include the athenees, the 
 modern representatives of the colleges that 
 formed around the ancient universities, and a 
 few establishments which retain the old name 
 of college. The athenees are day schools and 
 for boys only. The teaching staff consists 
 of a prefect of studies (head-master), profes- 
 sors, and assistants (surveillants). The prefect 
 and professors are appointed by the King, and 
 must be university men who have secured 
 the doctor's degree; the assistants, who must 
 have a university diploma, are appointed by 
 the minister. The salaries are as follows: 
 
 
 
 Sa 
 
 LARIE8 
 
 
 Positions 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Minimum 
 
 Maximum 
 
 Alhfnies 
 
 Pra. 
 
 t 
 
 Pre. 
 
 t 
 
 Inapector of studies ijorifet des 
 
 
 
 
 
 dudes) 
 
 4200 
 
 840 
 
 4600 
 
 920 
 
 Professor of third class , . . 
 
 2600 
 
 .520 
 
 2000 
 
 580 
 
 Professor of senond class . . . 
 
 3200 
 
 640 
 
 3400 
 
 680 
 
 Professor of first class . . . 
 
 3700 
 
 740 
 
 4100 
 
 820 
 
 Master (surveillant) of second 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2200 
 
 440 
 
 2400 
 
 480 
 
 Master (surveiliant) of first class 
 
 2600 
 
 520 
 
 2S00 
 
 500 
 
 The salary of the professor of religion, which 
 does not vary, is fixed at 2500 francs, equiva- 
 lent to .?500. 
 
 In Belgium, as in other countries, the ques- 
 tion of cla.ssical versus scientific training has 
 been earnestly discussed ever since the organ- 
 ization of secondary instruction (law of 1850). 
 
 346
 
 BELGIUM 
 
 BELGIUM 
 
 The movement, however, in favor of science 
 and modern languages has had less opposition 
 than in adjoining countries. The demand for 
 a course of modern subjects of recognized equiv- 
 alence with the estabhshed classical course 
 has been met by organizing parallel courses in 
 the athenees after the French precedent, instead 
 of by separate establishments as in Germany. 
 After repeated experiments the present organi- 
 zation of the athenees was ordered by royal de- 
 cree of August 5, ISSS. In accordance with 
 this decree, the course of study is arranged in 
 three parallel sections as follows: Latin and 
 Greek humanities; Latin humanities; Modern 
 humanities. Each section comprises seven 
 classes or years of study. The subjects and 
 the relative weight given to each in the Latin 
 and Greek section, are shown by the following 
 scheme for the athenees of the Walloon dis- 
 tricts : 
 
 [Figures in parentheses indicate number of hours for 
 optional studies.] 
 
 
 Classes 
 
 
 Studies 
 
 g 
 
 > 
 
 
 
 J3 
 
 1 
 
 a 
 o 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 ToT.iL 
 
 Religion . . . 
 
 Latin .... 
 
 Greek .... 
 
 French .... 
 
 Flemish or Ger- 
 man (obliga- 
 tory) . . . 
 
 German or Flem- 
 ish (optional) . 
 
 English 
 
 History . . . 
 
 Geography . . 
 
 Mathematics 
 
 Natural sciences 
 
 Drawing . . . 
 
 Music (optional) 
 
 Gymnastics (two 
 hours during 
 recreation) . . 
 
 2 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 (1) 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 5 
 
 2 
 1 
 3 
 
 2 
 (1) 
 
 2 
 8 
 5 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 1 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 (1) 
 
 2 
 8 
 5 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 (2) 
 (2) 
 2 
 1 
 3 
 2 
 
 (2) 
 (1) 
 
 2 
 8 
 5 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 (2) 
 (2) 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 (2) 
 (1) 
 
 2 
 8 
 5 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 (2) 
 (2) 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 (2) 
 (1) 
 
 2 
 8 
 5 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 (8) 
 (2) 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 (2) 
 (1) 
 
 14 
 53 
 25 
 28 
 
 20 
 
 (8) 
 (8) 
 14 
 
 7 
 21 
 
 8 
 
 6 +(8) 
 
 (7) 
 
 Total hours 
 of obligatory 
 lessons . . 
 
 23 
 
 28 
 
 29 
 
 29 
 
 29 
 
 29 
 
 29 
 
 
 In the section of Latin humanities the time 
 given to Greek in the above scheme is divided 
 between mathematics and natural sciences. 
 
 The course in modern humanities is also the 
 same, with the exception of Latin and Greek 
 and the addition of commercial sciences. This 
 section consists of a lower division, comprising 
 four years, and of two higher divisions, the 
 scientific and the commercial and industrial, 
 each covering three years. The section of 
 modern humanities is correlated to the course 
 of the lower secondary schools, which form in 
 fact a preparatory stage to the former, leading 
 up from the primary school. It is also per- 
 mitted to introduce Latin into the lower 
 secondaries, and where this is done they prepare 
 for the Latin section of the athenies. 
 
 Students who complete any one of the 
 athenee courses of instruction and pass the final 
 examination receive a diploma [diplome de 
 sortie) which admits them to the universities. 
 This is the goal for which the majority of the 
 students are aiming. The diplomas of the 
 different sections have not, however, the same 
 scholastic values. Graduates from the classical 
 section are admitted to any one of the univer- 
 sit}' faculties; graduates from the Latin scien- 
 tific section to the higher schools of engineer- 
 ing, mining, arts, and manufactures; graduates 
 from the industrial and commercial section to 
 the commercial and consular sections of the 
 universities of Ghent and Liege. 
 
 In 1847 the government created special ped- 
 agogical courses to prepare professors for the 
 athenees, i.e. courses of humanities at Liege, 
 and of science at Ghent. In 1852 these courses 
 were organized as special normal schools, 
 and so continued until 1890, when they were 
 merged into the universities — the former into 
 the faculty of philosophy and letters. Univer- 
 sity of Liege; the latter into the faculty of 
 science. University of Ghent. 
 
 The state secondary schools of the lower 
 order {ecoles moyennes) form a characteristic 
 feature of public education in Belgium. They 
 were created by the government to meet the 
 needs of the higher artisan and commercial 
 classes, and consequently in their programs 
 emphasis is placed upon studies of immediate 
 utility. They include schools for boys, dating 
 from the law of June 1, 18S0, which authorized 
 the government to organize fifty secondary 
 schools for boys, and schools for girls authorized 
 to the number of fifty, by the law of June 15, 
 1881. This law also increased the number of 
 the corresponding schools for boys to one 
 hundred. Every effort is made by the govern- 
 ment to maintain the schools of this class at a 
 high standard of efficiency. The directors and 
 professors are chosen upon the results of special 
 examination, and so far as possible the service 
 is placed on an eciual footing with that of the 
 athenees. 
 
 The salaries in the secondary schools consist 
 of a fixed amount and occasional extra allow- 
 ance for special merit. The fixed salaries in 
 the schools for boys and for the corresponding 
 positions in the schools for girls are as follows 
 (Art. 8, law of August 4, 1881): 
 
 Positions 
 
 
 Sa 
 
 LARIES 
 
 
 Minimum 
 
 Maximum 
 
 Director 
 
 Master (regent) of second class . 
 Master (regf-nt) of first class . . 
 Teacher (.inatituteur) of second 
 
 Frs. 
 
 2sno 
 
 2000 
 2300 
 
 1600 
 2000 
 
 S 
 560 
 400 
 460 
 
 320 
 400 
 
 Fts. 
 
 3300 
 2200 
 2500 
 
 1800 
 2200 
 
 » 
 660 
 440 
 500 
 
 360 
 
 Teacher (ins(i(u(cur) of first class 
 
 440 
 
 347
 
 BELGIUM 
 
 BELGIUM 
 
 The professors of religion receive the fixed 
 salary of 1300 francs (S260). The professors 
 of drawing, music, and gymnastics in the 
 secondary schools for girls have a miiiinuim 
 salarv of 900 francs (S180), and a maxinuun of 
 llOO'francs (S220). Like the professors of the 
 alhenies, those of the lower secondary schools 
 are borne on the civil pension list. 
 
 The tuition fees are low, ranging from IS 
 francs (S3. (JO) to 7'2 francs (S14..50) per annum. 
 They are remitted in special ca.scs, and there are 
 state bourses (scholarsiiijis), open to competi- 
 tive examination, wliicii enable poor but [)romis- 
 ing pu])ils to meet tlieir expenses. The schools 
 are for day students only, but the authorities 
 of tlie towns in which the schools are located 
 may arrange with private persons to board 
 students from a distance. 
 
 The course of the secondary schools covers 
 three years, so that pupils entering at the 
 normal age of 12 years are ready for the 
 final examination at 15 years of age. The 
 diploma of this order of secondary education 
 has value in business life, and also admits 
 the student to the modern section of the 
 athenees. The subjects of instruction and the 
 time assigned to each in the schools for boys 
 and for girls, respectively, are as follows: 
 
 PROGR.\iM OF THE THREE YE.\RS' GENER.\L 
 COURSE 
 
 SCBJECTS 
 
 Religion 
 
 Mother tongue 
 
 Flemish (obiicatory in Flemish districts) . 
 
 Flemish or German (obliRatorj' in Wal- 
 loon districts) 
 
 First optional language, Flemish (Flemish 
 districts) ; Flemish or German (Walloon 
 districts) ; second optional language. 
 English 
 
 Historj' 
 
 Geography 
 
 Natural sciences and hygiene .... 
 
 Bookkeeping and writing 
 
 Mathematics 
 
 Domestic econom.v 
 
 Needlework 
 
 Drawing 
 
 Music 
 
 Gymnastics 
 
 Total number of hours for obligatory 
 lessons 
 
 Schools 
 for Boys 
 
 Hours a 
 
 Week 
 
 2 
 6 
 
 (13) 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 62 
 cl 
 di 
 
 1 
 
 f29H 
 
 Schools 
 for Girls 
 
 Hours a 
 
 Week 
 
 («3) 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 62 
 cl 
 
 3 
 el 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 2J4 
 
 /29M 
 
 cialized programs are adopted the number of 
 hours a week for recitation is increased to 
 31 or 32, and modifications of the prescribed 
 programs are made according to the require- 
 ments. So far, as is shown by the statis- 
 tics, only a limited number of the schools 
 have availed themselves of the privilege. 
 
 In the theory of public education as it has 
 developed in Belgium great stress is placed 
 upon training in habits that make for the gen- 
 eral good of society. Thrift, temperance, 
 mutual assistance, civic obligations, kindness 
 to animals are taught in practical ways in the 
 primary schools; in the secondary schools these 
 methods arc reenforccd by .systematic lessons 
 following excellent official programs. The im- 
 mediate results of this instruction arc seen in 
 the numerous societies of pupils formed to 
 promote the social and moral ends to which 
 the instruction is directed. Such are the chilis 
 of "Little Protectors" for the preservation 
 of birds and animals; societies for the pro- 
 tection of trees and plants; temperance socie- 
 ties, etc. 
 
 Seco7idary Schools vnder Local Authorities. — 
 The law of 18.50 authorized the establishment 
 of secondary schools by local authorities, a pro- 
 vision confirmed by subsequent laws relative 
 to the service ; if subsidized by the general 
 government these schools must conform to the 
 official regulations as to program, textbooks, 
 and the qualifications of professors. Under 
 present conditions the greater numbers of these 
 local institutions are controlled by the Church 
 or by religious orders. 
 
 Secondarij Xormal Schools. — For the training 
 of professors for the lower secondary schools 
 for boys, the State maintains two normal 
 schools, one at Ghent, the other at Xivelles; 
 and for the schools for girls, two similar in- 
 stitutions, situated respectively at Brussels and 
 Liege. 
 
 Statistics of Sccondnry Schools. — The number 
 of secondary schools and the enrollment in each 
 class in 1908 was as follows: 
 
 HIGHER SECOND.\RY SCHOOLS 
 
 a Optional. 6 Not including field and laboratory exercises, 
 r Two hours tlie second year, d Five hours the third year, 
 e Two hours the third year. /30J^ hours the second and third 
 years.. 
 
 The mo.st important modification introduced 
 into the lower order of secondary schools since 
 their establishment was effected by a regula- 
 tion of September 10, 1897, which authorizes 
 the schools to specialize after the first year 
 of the course by the provision of parallel sec- 
 tions, commercial, industrial, or agricultural, 
 as suits the local demands. Where the spe- 
 
 348 
 
 Schools 
 
 STtn>ENT8 
 
 Clasa 
 
 Num- 
 ber 
 
 Total 
 
 Number in each Section 
 
 Higher secondary 
 schools: — 
 
 Alhinles . . . 
 Communal col- 
 leges . . . 
 Private colleges 
 
 20 
 
 7 
 8 
 
 5890 
 
 727 
 1156 
 
 Latin 
 and 
 Greek 
 
 1441 
 
 245 
 1034 
 
 Latin 
 Human- 
 ities 
 
 490 
 40 
 
 Modern 
 Human- 
 ities 
 
 3959 
 
 442 
 122 
 
 Total .... 
 
 35 
 
 7773 
 
 2720 
 
 530 
 
 4523 
 
 Percent of total 
 
 
 
 35 
 
 7 
 
 58 
 
 The number of other schools which are doing 
 work of a secondary character, and the student 
 enrollment in each, is given in the following table:
 
 BELGIUM 
 
 BELGIUM 
 
 INFERIOR ORDER OF SECONDARY SCHOOLS 
 
 Schools 
 
 Stddenis 
 
 Class 
 
 Number 
 
 Total 
 
 Number in Eaclt Section 
 
 Schools for 
 boys 
 
 State 
 Com- 
 munal 
 Private . 
 
 78 
 
 5 
 5 
 
 15,037 
 
 2,460 
 660 
 
 Prepar- 
 atory 
 
 9,306 
 
 1,202 
 375 
 
 Middle 
 
 5,499 
 
 1,258 
 285 
 
 Com- 
 mercial 
 
 213 
 
 Indus- 
 trial 
 
 19 
 
 Total . 
 
 88 
 
 18,137 
 
 10,883 
 
 7,042 
 
 213 
 
 19 
 
 Percent 
 of total 
 
 
 
 60 
 
 38.6 
 
 1.1 
 
 .3 
 
 Schools for 
 girls 
 
 State . 
 Com- 
 munal 
 
 34 
 
 6 
 
 6,256 
 1,983 
 
 4,023 
 990 
 
 1,926 
 891 
 
 174 
 85 
 
 97 
 17 
 
 Total . 
 
 40 
 
 8,239 
 
 5,013 
 
 2,853 
 
 259 
 
 114 
 
 Percent 
 of total 
 
 
 
 60.8 
 
 34.6 
 
 3.1 
 
 1.5 
 
 The public appropriations for secondary 
 education in 1907 were as follows: — 
 
 Athenees and Royal 
 College 
 
 Francs 
 
 United States 
 Equivalent 
 
 From the State . . . 
 
 From the communes . 
 State secondary schools. 
 
 From the State . . . 
 
 From the communes . 
 Communal schools. 
 
 From the State . . . 
 
 From the provinces 
 
 From the communes . 
 
 1,852,544 
 735,349 
 
 2,212,948 
 826,225 
 
 2,199,128 
 
 59,028 
 
 608,630 
 
 $370,509 
 147,069 
 
 442,.589 
 165,245 
 
 439,826 
 
 11,806 
 
 121,726 
 
 Total 
 
 8,493,852 
 
 $1,698,770 
 
 The secondary schools reach a much smaller 
 proportion of the people than the primary 
 schools; but their importance as formative 
 centers of national life brings them also within 
 the circle of political disturbances. Recently 
 they have been affected by the racial antago- 
 nism between the Flemish and the Walloons. 
 Flemish leaders have sought to eliminate the 
 French language from schools of the northern 
 provinces and thus oblige the bourgeois as well 
 as the peasants to return to the use of the 
 Flemish. Even in Antwerp, only one hour a 
 week has been allowed for French, and all other 
 instruction has been given in Flemish, notwith- 
 standing the fact that French is the language 
 of all cultivated people in Belgium. As a 
 consequence, the League for Freedom of Lan- 
 guage has been founded in Antwerp to combat 
 these revolutionary tendencies. 
 
 Considered in its broad aspect, the scheme 
 of secondary education in Belgium illustrates 
 in a striking manner conditions peculiar to the 
 nation. There is no marked social distinction 
 between the secondary and the primary system, 
 
 as in many European countries; for students 
 of ability the road is open from the primary 
 school to the university. At the same time, 
 there is a very distinct recognition of different 
 orders of ability and of their respective relations 
 to different activities in national life. In the 
 athenees provision is made for the training of 
 the intellectual leaders of the nation; never- 
 theless, under the pressure of the highly de- 
 veloped industrial system, utilitarian studies 
 have been raised to equal dignity without the 
 sacrifice of the higher scholastic ideals. 
 
 Higher Education. • — The Universities and 
 their Origin. — The establishments for higher 
 education in Belgium are the two state uni- 
 versities, Ghent in the Flemish section, and 
 Liege in the French; the Independent Univer- 
 sity of Brussels, and the Catholic University 
 of Louvain. The last named is the oldest seat 
 of learning in Belgium, having been founded 
 in 1426 by Jean IV, Duke of Brabant, with the 
 sanction of Pope Martin V. It was famous 
 in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries for the 
 teachings of Erasmus, Justus-Lipsius, Gerard 
 Mercator, Ortelius, Vesale, etc. Like the 
 ancient universities of France, it was sup- 
 pressed during the revolutionary period (Octo- 
 ber 25, 1797). It was temporarily reorganized 
 in 1816, and finally in 1835. 
 
 The University of Brussels was definitely 
 established in 1834. For details see the ar- 
 ticle Brussels, University of. In 1816, the 
 year following the union with the Nether- 
 lands, universities were founded at Ghent 
 and Liege. 
 
 The government organized in 1830 recog- 
 nized, provisionally, the three universities 
 existing at the time, i.e. Ghent, Liege, and 
 Louvain. By a law of September 27, 1835, 
 the two former were constituted state univer- 
 sities. The same law instituted examining 
 juries, to be appointed by the King and the 
 two chambers, for conferring academic degrees. 
 From that time until 1876 the degree confer- 
 ring function remained detached from the uni- 
 versities. 
 
 Constitution of State Universities. — As con- 
 stituted by the law of 1835 and amending law 
 of March 22, 1849, each of the state univer- 
 sities comprises four faculties, i.e. of philoso- 
 phy and letters, of science (mathematics, 
 physics, and natural sciences), of law, and of 
 medicine. In pursuance of the provision that 
 the faculty of sciences at Ghent should offer 
 the instruction necessary for the arts and 
 manufactures, civil architecture, construction 
 of roads and bridges; and the same faculty at 
 Liege the instruction required for the arts and 
 manufactures and mining industries, a school 
 of civil engineers was attached to the former 
 and a mining school to the latter. (Regulation 
 of September 27, 1836.) 
 
 Subsequent laws, especially the law of May 
 20, 1876, and that of April'lO, 1890, have in- 
 creased the authority of the universities by 
 
 349
 
 BELGIUM 
 
 BELGIUM 
 
 according them a roprcscntation in the examin- 
 ing juries, but their constitution and scholastic 
 functions remain substantially as determined 
 by the law of 1849. 
 
 Professors. — The teaching corps com- 
 prises professors, ordinary and extraordinary, 
 appointed by the King. They must have a 
 doctor's degree and must devote themselves 
 exclusively to their university duties. These 
 duties, as also the privileges which professors 
 enjoy, and the penalties to which they arc 
 subject, are prescribed by the law or by royal 
 decrees. The annual salaries are 7000 francs 
 ($1400) for e.xtraorilinary professors and 5000 
 francs (SIOOO) for ordinary, with a possible 
 augmentation of from 1000 to 3000 francs 
 (S200 to S600). Professors are retired as 
 emeriti with an annual pension equal to the 
 average salary of the last five years of service, 
 when they reach their seventieth year, or if 
 disabled by serious and permanent infirmity. 
 
 Special professors, called agreges, are assigned 
 to each university in such numbers and for 
 such courses as circumstances may demand. 
 The conditions of the service have been the 
 subject of many decrees. At present, aspirants 
 must have a doctor's degree and also a special 
 diploma indicating high attainments in some 
 distinct de])artment of knowledge. 
 
 The courses which the agreges give are ad- 
 ditional to the regular courses; they have no 
 salaries, but may receive fees, and may be 
 engaged in other pursuits, as law, medicine, 
 etc. The agreges, naturally, become candi- 
 dates for vacant chairs, so that the service is 
 in a sense a preparation for full professorships. 
 There are also assistants for laboratory exer- 
 cises and clinics. 
 
 Officers of Administration. — The official au- 
 thorities of each university are the rector, 
 the secretary, the deans of faculties, the 
 academic council, and the college d'asscsseurs. 
 The rector is appointed by the King for a term 
 of three years. He is the executive head of the 
 university and has general charge of all its 
 affairs. He may at his will convoke the 
 colUge d'asscsseurs for ad\nce. This body 
 consists of the secretary of the academic council 
 and the deans of faculties. The latter, as also 
 the secretaries, are chosen by the professors 
 themselves and are thus their direct represent- 
 atives. The academic council consists of all 
 the professors of a university who, in their 
 collective capacity, determine the conduct of 
 the scholastic affairs, as the management of 
 courses, time-tables, etc. Through t-hese ad- 
 visory functions the professors have really 
 a voice in the administration of the universities. 
 Their chief importance in this respect, however, 
 lies in the fact that they are represented in the 
 conseil de perfectionnement of superior instruc- 
 tion, which the minister must convoke at least 
 once a month. The constitution of this coun- 
 cil is as follows: eight professors (representing 
 the faculties and special schools of the univer- 
 
 sities), the two rectors, the two government 
 inspectors {administrateur.^->nspeclertrs), and 
 other members of the teaching i)rofession chosen 
 by the minister. This council gives advice 
 upon all matters pertaining to superior instruc- 
 tion. It should be added that, while the 
 rectors have general charge of students, the 
 professors exercise disciplinary authority over 
 those of their respective classes, and may even 
 suspend a disorderly student. 
 
 Fees for Students. — .Students arc received 
 and enrolled by the rector, the fee for enroll- 
 ment being 15 francs (83). After this for- 
 mality is completed, the student takes out a 
 ticket for the studies of the courses he i)roposcs 
 to follow. The fee for the ticket is 250 francs 
 (S50) in philoso|)hy, literature, and law, and 200 
 francs (840) in the other faculties. There are 
 also fees for the use of laboratories, for clinics, 
 etc., and extra fees for special lessons or 
 courses. 
 
 Les.-ions and Courses. — Instruction is given 
 in the French language, except by special dis- 
 pensation from the minister. A lesson occupies 
 at least an hour. Courses must be so arranged 
 that the student has not less than three hours 
 of lessons each day, besides clinics and labora- 
 tory exercises. The minimum duration of the 
 various courses is determined by the require- 
 ments for degrees, which will be considered 
 hereafter. Attendance upon the lessons is 
 obligatory, and every three months the pro- 
 fessors rejDort to the rector students who fail 
 in this obligation. 
 
 Scholar.'ihips and Prizes. — Students of ability 
 who cannot afford the expenses of university 
 education may be assisted by scholarships 
 (bourses), of which the State maintains one 
 hundred and twenty, of the annual value of 
 SSO each. Study in foreign countries is 
 promoted by traveling scholarships, 21 in 
 number, of the annual value of .?400 each and 
 available for two years. Competitive exami- 
 nation for the latter is open only to persons who 
 have received the degree of doctor, of pharma- 
 cist, or of engineer. Annual competitive ex- 
 aminations (conco^irs iinivcrsitairc) are held, 
 at which the successful contestants receive 
 medals, accompanied with prizes of books or 
 money amounting to 880 each. 
 
 Recent University Developments. — The most 
 impressive fact in the recent history of the 
 Belgian universities is the increase in their 
 equipment for scientifie instruction and re- 
 search. The growth in these respects is 
 illustrated by the numerous institutes that 
 have developed as adjuncts to the faculties. 
 Although originally the task of furnishing 
 suitable buildings for the state universities 
 was left to the cities in which they were located, 
 since the passage of the law of 1875, which 
 expressly prox-ided for the extension of the 
 scientific work of the universities, the central 
 government has made large appropriations for 
 new buildings and equipments. Among im- 
 
 350
 
 BELGIUM 
 
 BELGIUM 
 
 portant recent structures are the Institute of 
 Sciences for the University of Ghent, completed 
 in 1889, and the Institute of Chemistry, Uni- 
 versity of Liege. For its magnificent electro- 
 technical institute Liege is indebted to the 
 munificence of a citizen, Mr. Montefiore, whose 
 name it bears. The Institute of Hygiene, Bac- 
 teriology, and Medical Jurisprudence of the 
 University of Ghent is a model of structural 
 adaptations to definite purposes. 
 
 In these modern developments the State is 
 really following the lead of the independent 
 universities. The Catholic LTniversity of Lou- 
 vain was the first to open a school of political 
 and social sciences, which is only one of a group 
 of special schools, institutes, and laboratories, 
 well-equipped for research in the physical and 
 economic sciences. 
 
 University Diplomas. — As defined in a 
 regulation of October 12, 1838, the university 
 diplomas are of two orders — an honorary 
 diploma delivered to persons (native or foreign) 
 possessed of a doctor's degree, and who shall 
 have given proof of superior abilitv, and a scien- 
 tific diploma conferred upon examination. In 
 1853 a special scientific diploma carrying the 
 degree of doctor was created, in the interest of 
 persons who, after having obtained the legal 
 diploma of doctor, should apply themselves 
 successfully to some scientific specialty. 
 
 Until a recent date the universities were not 
 authorized to confer degrees and had no repre- 
 sentation in the examining boards. By an act 
 of February 27, 1890, this limitation was re- 
 moved. Henceforth the degree-conferring au- 
 thorities are the four universities and a central 
 jury in which the state universities and the free 
 universities have equal representation. The 
 degrees specified in the law are of two orders, 
 called, respectively, candidate and doctor. 
 
 The degree of candidate in philosophy and 
 letters, corresponding very nearly to the bach- 
 elor's degree in this country, is a prerequisite 
 for the degree of candidate in law; and the 
 degree of candidate in natural sciences, for 
 that of candidate in medicine, surgery, and 
 midwifery. Moreover, no one can be admitted 
 to the examinations for the lower degree in 
 philosoph}' and letters or in natural sciences 
 unless he produces the certificate of inter- 
 mediate studies, showing that he has pursued, 
 in the one case, a course of classical study for 
 at least six years; in the other case, the modern 
 secondary course for at least five years. In the 
 absence of such certificates the aspirant must 
 submit to a preliminary examination. In 
 general, the degree of candidate is a prerequisite 
 for that of doctor of the same order. 
 
 The degrees conferred by the universities 
 and the examining board have, however, no 
 legal value until they have been registered by a 
 special commission meeting in Brussels. 
 
 The requirements for the regular degrees as 
 regards years of study and examinations are as 
 follows: — 
 
 Debiqnation 
 
 Candidate in philosophy 
 and letters .... 
 
 Doctor of philosophy and 
 letters 
 
 Candidate in law . . . 
 
 Doctor of law .... 
 
 Candidate notary 
 
 Candidate in physical sci- 
 ences and mathematics 
 
 Doctor of physical sci- 
 ences and mathematics 
 
 Candidate in natural sci- 
 ences 
 
 Doctor of natural sciences 
 
 Candidate in medicine, 
 surgery, and midwifery 
 
 Doctor of medicine, sur- 
 gery, and midwifery 
 
 Pharmacist .... 
 
 Candidate engineer 
 
 Civil engineer of mines 
 
 Civil engineer . 
 
 Additional technical di' 
 plomas 
 
 Minimum 
 
 Number 
 OF Years 
 
 OF STtlDY 
 
 al or 2 
 2 
 
 Number 
 OF Exami- 
 nations 
 
 1 or 2 
 
 1 
 
 2 or 3 
 
 3 
 
 1 or 2 
 
 1 or 2 
 
 1 or 2 
 1 or 2 
 
 Degrees, 
 Number 
 
 conferred 
 IN 1907 
 
 238 
 
 22 
 
 ISO 
 
 139 
 
 57 
 
 13 
 
 7 
 
 187 
 6 
 
 158 
 
 130 
 
 47 
 
 88 
 94 
 
 195 
 
 a For candidates who propose a subsequent course in medicine, 
 one year of study required. Aspirants for the degree of doctor 
 of natural sciences or degree of pharmacist must take two years' 
 study. 
 
 The fees for each examination vary from 
 50 francs to 100 francs ($10 to $20). 
 
 The number of students in the universities, 
 and their distribution among the faculties and 
 special schools in 1907-1908, was as follows: — 
 
 
 
 FACDLTIEa 
 
 
 
 
 § 
 
 j^oo 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 h « 
 = 5 
 
 i- g 
 
 
 & £ J 
 ban 
 
 Unitebsi- 
 
 
 
 ED 
 
 X 
 
 
 S S K 
 
 
 
 f- 9 
 
 
 , a S 
 
 
 O < ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 2 
 
 u 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 h «i J 
 
 
 
 < 
 
 & 
 
 s 
 
 H&. 
 
 ■< a 
 
 Hho 
 
 Ghent 
 
 71 
 
 147 
 
 91 
 
 110 
 
 419 
 
 _ 
 
 631 
 
 1050 
 
 Liege . . 
 
 176 
 
 299 
 
 856 
 
 204 
 
 1535 
 
 — 
 
 957 
 
 2492 
 
 Brussels . 
 
 128 
 
 188 
 
 224 
 
 297 
 
 837 
 
 — 
 
 353 
 
 1190 
 
 Louvain . 
 
 310 
 
 482 
 
 285 
 
 471 
 
 1548 
 
 125 
 
 565 
 
 2238 
 
 Total 
 
 685 
 
 1116 
 
 1456 
 
 1082 
 
 4339 
 
 125 
 
 2506 
 
 6970 
 
 The total number of university students was 
 equivalent to 95 for every 100,000 inhabitants. 
 
 The appropriations from the state treasury 
 for higher education for the triennial period 
 covered by the last official report were as 
 follows: — 
 
 
 Amount 
 
 Yeah 
 
 Francs 
 
 Unieed States 
 Equivalent 
 
 1904 
 
 3,342,790 
 3,221,337 
 3,192,483 
 
 $668,558 
 
 1905 
 
 1906 
 
 644.267 
 638,497 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 9,756,610 
 
 $1,951,322 
 
 For the same period, the provincial and com- 
 munal appropriations were as follows: — 
 
 351
 
 BELGIUM 
 
 BELGIUM 
 
 
 AuoDNT OP Appropriations 
 
 t'NIVEBSITT 
 
 Provin- 
 cial 
 
 Commu- 
 nal 
 
 Total 
 
 United 
 States 
 Equiva- 
 lent 
 
 Ghent 
 
 LiJ>ge 
 
 Brussels . . , . 
 Louvain .... 
 
 Fr,. 
 
 26,600 
 100,000 
 
 Fr,. 
 
 57.340 
 
 36.367 
 
 399,842 
 
 47,197 
 
 Fr,. 
 
 57,.340 
 
 62,967 
 
 499,842 
 
 47,197 
 
 S 
 
 11,468 
 
 12,593 
 
 99,968 
 
 9,439 
 
 Total .... 
 
 126.600 
 
 540,746 
 
 667.346 
 
 133,468 
 
 The income of the schools included in the 
 above table iu 1907 was as follows: 
 
 The University of Brussels also received 
 subsidies from neighboring communes as fol- 
 lows: 1904. 9525 francs; 1905, 9325 francs; 
 1906, 9125 francs, or a total for the three j-ears 
 of 27,975 francs (§5595). 
 
 ProviKion for Industrinl, Technical, and Com- 
 mercial Education. — Belgium has made large 
 provision for industrial, technical, and com- 
 mercial education by the combined action of 
 the State, municipalities, and private bodies 
 such as trade unions, syndicates, manufac- 
 turers, etc. The action of the government is 
 generally limited to granting subsidies to the 
 schools, and maintaining the service of super- 
 vision and expert direction, leaving to the pro- 
 moters of the enterprises all the details with 
 respect to programs, conditions of admission, etc. 
 
 The schools receiving state grants must 
 present their accounts, regulations, and reports 
 of operations to the Minister of Industry and 
 Labor, receive his approval for the teachers 
 appointed, and submit to official inspection. 
 The State on its part contributes two fifths 
 of the total current expenditures for the schools 
 and allows a grant equal to one half the cost 
 of material required for the instruction. 
 
 The extent and importance of the system of 
 industrial and technical education are indicated 
 by the following statistics: 
 
 INDUSTRIAL, TECHNICAL. AND HOUSEWIFERY 
 SCHOOLS, 1907-1908 
 
 iNSTITtmONS 
 
 PtTPILS 
 
 Class 
 
 Niun- 
 ber 
 
 Boys 
 
 Girls 
 
 Total 
 
 Apprenticeship schools (ate- 
 
 
 
 
 
 liers d'apprentissage). and 
 
 
 
 
 
 schools of weaving (icotes 
 
 
 
 
 
 pro/eitsionneUes de tiAifage) . 
 
 34 
 
 Ml 
 
 58 
 
 699 
 
 Technical and commercial 
 
 
 
 
 
 schools and classes {icole-.t 
 
 
 
 
 
 el fours pToff,sioneh et com- 
 
 
 
 
 
 merciaux) : 
 
 
 
 
 
 Communal .... 
 
 55 
 
 2048 
 
 2520 
 
 4568 
 
 Private 
 
 162 
 
 13,183 
 
 4871 
 
 18,054 
 
 Industrial schools : 
 
 
 
 
 
 Communal .... 
 
 84 
 
 21,467 
 
 1002 
 
 22,469 
 
 Private 
 
 8 
 
 1499 
 
 
 1499 
 
 Schools and classes of house- 
 
 
 
 
 
 wifer>- iecole, et dosses 
 
 
 
 
 
 minagh-es) : 
 
 
 
 
 
 Communal .... 
 
 99 
 
 
 3329 
 
 3329 
 
 Private 
 
 167 
 
 
 6204 
 
 6204 
 
 
 AcruoriiiATio.xs 
 
 Privnte 
 ftourcrt) 
 
 ToUl 
 
 U.S. 
 
 
 State 
 
 i'rovinccB 
 
 CoiiiniuncH 
 
 alt'Dtfl 
 
 
 Fr». 
 
 Fr,. 
 
 rr,. 
 
 Fr: 
 
 Fit. 
 
 1 
 
 Apprrnticetthip 
 
 BchooU and 
 Bchoots for 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 weaving . . 
 
 30,449 
 
 8,801! 
 
 u.rn 
 
 lil.35!l 
 
 7.1.348 
 
 14,669 
 
 luduetrial, 
 technical and 
 cotiiniercial 
 t^chooU and 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 clii**f!* : 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Coiiiiiiunal . 
 Pnvatv . . 
 
 K«,1B4 
 
 ,'5ir..VM 
 Ul.Uli 
 
 IW1.8a7 
 lis,3»l 
 
 189.13.1 
 738.672 
 
 1,'5).1..V» 
 158,322 
 
 379,107 
 31,664 
 
 Housewifely 
 Bchoold : 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Communal . 
 Private . . 
 
 SS.iSC, 
 i«l,I33 
 
 21.-12 
 
 55.875 
 JI)JiS2 
 
 2..'.ai 
 
 112.15(1 
 
 146.5en 
 
 1111,252 
 
 29,312 
 23.850 
 
 Totol . . 
 
 1,380,115 
 
 ise,eB7 
 
 007.77! 
 
 l.«;i.8«l 
 
 2,3!l1.rai 
 
 478.002 
 
 The accompanying map of Belgium shows the 
 distribution, by provinces, of the technical, 
 commercial, and industrial schools included in 
 the tables. 
 
 In addition to the schools included in the 
 foregoing tables there are higher grade com- 
 mercial and technical schools in nearly all the 
 chief places of Belgium, which derive a large 
 part of their support from public appropria- 
 tions, state, provincial, and nnuiiciijal: such are 
 the commercial institute at Antwerp, the tech- 
 nical school for brewers at Ghent, the provincial 
 school of industry' and of mines at iSIons, Hai- 
 naut. Thirteen technical schools of this higher 
 order reported in 1908 a total income of 90S, 778 
 francs ($181,755). Of this amount the State 
 furnished 28 per cent, the several provinces 
 13 per cent, and the cities 11 per cent. 
 
 The In.stitut Siiperiettr de Commerce at Ant- 
 werp, founded in 1852, was one of the earliest 
 in Europe devoted to the interests of commerce, 
 and has alwaj's been regarded as a model in 
 respect both to organization and equipment. 
 It ranks with the universities, having been 
 authorized in 1877 to confer the diploma of 
 licentiate in commercial and consular sciences. 
 The same year the course of study was extended 
 from two to three years. The third year is 
 divided into four sections, viz.: consular, co- 
 lonial, maritime, and special commercial science; 
 the section taken by the graduate is indicated 
 on the diploma. In 1905 the government 
 created the degree of doctor of commercial 
 sciences, available for graduates of the third- 
 year course, who have completed two years' 
 practical service, after receiving the diploma 
 of licentiate. 
 
 The general government defrays three 
 fourths of the annual expenses of the school, 
 while the cit.y of Antwerp bears the remaining 
 one fourth, and supplies the necessary buildings. 
 In 1898 the school moved into its present 
 imposing edifice opposite the Royal Art Gal- 
 lery. It is thoroughly equipped with library, 
 museum, laboratories, etc. 
 
 352
 
 BELGIUM 
 
 BELGIUM 
 
 The management is in the hands of a board 
 of directors in which the ministry of labor and 
 industry and the city of Antwerp have equal 
 representation. The liberal spirit of the ad- 
 ministration is indicated by the low tuition 
 fees, which include a matriculation fee of 25 
 francs (So) and tuition fees amounting to 200 
 francs ($40) for the first year, and 250 francs 
 ($50) for each succeechng year, and by the as- 
 sistance afforded students by means of scholar- 
 ships awarded upon the results of competitive 
 
 been created under the direction of a principal 
 inspector, who must be a university graduate 
 and provided with a diploma of agricultural 
 engineer. In addition to a lecture sj'stem 
 maintained in the interests of the farmers of 
 the country, and numerous secondary schools 
 of agriculture, there is a high-grade state agri- 
 cultural school at Gembloux, and a state school 
 of veterinary medicine at Cureghem. 
 
 In 1898 the state appropriation for agricul- 
 tural education was 470,500 francs ($94,100); 
 
 ^^T --^ %^ 
 
 >=^, N E T H E R 
 
 
 ■ ■ ~^^^ ^ 1\^ \~~?^^ 
 
 X --^ ^-^ -A. 
 
 
 f^~y ^y:^^ 
 
 ^J .^'U/j^n 
 
 
 1 ■ ' =^\^~^-'—- -^=^ / S^-^^:'^^ 
 
 y^ \ 
 
 
 ^^^— >-' V-'^N.^ ^ 
 
 ^y \ A N V E R S ;"-'""' '\ 
 
 3 5 V. 
 
 < 
 
 F _, - VVEST / EAST 
 
 y T y . "■? 
 
 U 
 
 ^^ V FLANDERS \ FLANDERS S~. T---'— ^-. ^"* f 
 
 
 ) 10 { U 
 
 /' / LIMBOURG / 
 
 ra 
 
 ( 1,417 C 2,658 
 
 
 i 15 \ 24 
 *— V 905 \ 4,707 
 
 --I '• / 
 ,' B R A B A N T ,' •'■'- (^ 
 
 
 tD 
 
 
 4,994 ) [ , _^ --'■ 
 
 -^ 
 
 40 ( -- 
 
 (^ P 
 
 { "" - 
 
 • S,402 . ' 
 
 "'' \ LIEGE 
 
 
 \ 67, ' /V 
 
 '-- ,'' '. 20, 
 
 •^ . 13,;)38 
 
 \ 1.301 
 I 
 
 ■^ ^ \ '~^ 1,6% 
 
 y 
 
 O / ~\ 22 
 
 / 
 
 4m 1 
 
 { ^ 
 
 ^ N ,-' N A M U R J '; \ 
 MAP OF "^ C fl ,'-'' "'"' 
 
 J 
 
 BELGIUM 
 
 / / /-^ r-> 3, 
 
 4^\ ) J i ry ''" s 
 
 5" ; J I \ LUXEMBOURG J 
 
 
 
 GRAND 
 
 PROVINCES.POPULATION, 1907 
 
 DUCHY 
 
 Anvers, 944,350 
 
 \.^■^A•^.^ V ■. / OP 
 
 1 , ' LDXEMBOUEG 
 
 Brabant, 1,434,360 
 
 O i / If 
 
 
 East Flanders, 1,103,930 
 
 
 Hainaut, 1,224,082 
 
 N. 
 
 Liege, 886,847 
 
 A 
 
 Limbourg, 265,304 
 
 4> ^\ ) 
 
 
 
 Luxembourg, 230,794 
 
 
 
 
 
 Namur, 362,566 
 
 >^- — •■ 
 
 
 
 West Flanders, 865,328 
 
 
 
 The Kingdom, 7,317,561 
 
 1 
 
 Figures in Konian tlius: 497. show nuinbei- uf Public Industrial, Prufessiunal, and Commercial Schools iu the Frovince and 
 eurollinent.in same. Figores in Italic thus: yoj, corresponding items for Private Schools. 
 
 examination. A number of traveling scholar- 
 ships are allowed each year for advanced stu- 
 dents, who are thus enabled to pass the long 
 vacation in England or Germany ^ith a view 
 to perfecting themselves in the foreign language. 
 Agricultural Education. — Provision for teach- 
 ing agriculture is made both in the ordi- 
 nary schools and in special schools. The 
 latter pertain to the ministry of agriculture 
 in which a special department of education has 
 
 VOL. I — 2 a 353 
 
 in 1908 it was 755,500 francs ($151,100). _ This 
 was an increase of 60 per cent; but in the 
 same time the appropriation for industrial edu- 
 cation tripled, rising from 650,000 francs 
 ($130,000) to 2,150,000 francs ($430,000). The 
 disparity between the two is emphasized by 
 the fact that the number of people engaged in 
 agricultural pursuits is equal to the number 
 in the industrial vocations. 
 
 Instruction in the Fine Arts. — The acade-
 
 BELGIUM 
 
 BELGIUM 
 
 mics of fine arts subsidized by the State and 
 the provinces exercise an influence over in- 
 dustrial art by tiie ideals which they enibotiy 
 and by the teachers who come under their 
 direct instruction. 
 
 The Royal Academy of Fine Arts at Antwerp 
 had 947 students in 1907, of whom a large 
 proportion were artisans. The eighty-five 
 l)rovincial academies of art enrolled 15,886 
 students. 
 
 Tiie enrollment of students in the four royal 
 conservatories of music the same year (1907) 
 was as follows: 
 
 
 Men 
 
 Women 
 
 Totals 
 
 Antwerp .... 
 Rrussels .... 
 
 Cilient 
 
 Lidgc 
 
 800 
 464 
 
 .il7 
 754 
 
 896 
 425 
 563 
 474 
 
 1696 
 
 8R9 
 lOSO 
 1228 
 
 Total . . . 
 
 2535 
 
 2358 
 
 4893 
 
 Libraries and Learned Societies. — Bel- 
 gium is distinguished by the number and 
 importance of its libraries, which as a rule 
 are of private origin and derive their support 
 from private sources. The government, how- 
 ever, contributes in various ways to their 
 activities. The communal libraries, which 
 owe their diffusion to the efforts of the Ligue 
 de r Enseigneinent, numbered 819 in 1907, 
 distributed in 624 communes, and reported a 
 total of 2,068,333 volumes with a yearly cir- 
 culation of one and a half million. 
 
 The Royal Library at Brussels is celebrated 
 alike for its collections and their admirable 
 classification. The high development of li- 
 brary science in Belgium is illustrated by the 
 work of the Internntional Office of Bibliography. 
 which has for its object the establishment and 
 publication of a Universal Bibliographical 
 Index, the supply of this index to institutions 
 and societies requesting the same, and the study 
 of all questions relating to bibliographical pur- 
 suits. 
 
 Among the many learned societies which 
 offer incentives to literary activity and scien- 
 tific research, the most noted are. The Royal 
 Academy of Science, Letters, and Fine Arts of 
 Belgium, which publishes important memorials 
 by Belgian and foreign scholars and maintains 
 prizes open to general competition; The Flem- 
 ish Royal Academy, which concerns itself par- 
 ticularly with the study and culture of the 
 language, literature, and history of the Nether- 
 lands; The Royal Academy of Medicine, whose 
 objects are to consider questions submitted 
 by the government and to maintain investiga- 
 tions looking to the prevention and scientific 
 treatment of disease. The Royal Museum of 
 Natural History at Brussels and the Zoological 
 Garden of Antwerp are notable institutions. 
 
 To the administration of higher education 
 pertains the charge of public appropriations 
 
 for science and letters. These funds are used 
 in the annual maintenance of two Belgian schol- 
 ars liolding the doctor's diploma at the French 
 school at Athens; for the support of a table at 
 the Zoological Station of Naples, and a second 
 at the Laboratory of Leopoldville (Congo); 
 for the maintenance of a certain number of 
 triennial, quinquennial, and decennial prizes 
 awarded for achievements in dramatic litera- 
 ture (French and Flemish); and for historic, 
 scientific, and philosophical researches. 
 
 The government also maintains commissions 
 charged with historic and scientific investiga- 
 tions, such as The Belgian Royal Cojnmission 
 of International Interchanges and The Central 
 Commission of Statistics. The latter among 
 other duties directs the statistical publications 
 of the various executive departments. 
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 
 
 Bauwens, Leon. Code general ric Venseignement pri- 
 jnaire. Ed. 4. (Frameries, Belgium, 1908.) 1157 
 
 p. 8°. 
 Conscil Buptrieur de I'industrie et du commerce. Ensei- 
 
 gnevicni commercial. (Bruxcllcs, 1904.) 4°. 
 D.^WEs, Thomas R. Bilingual teaching in Belgian 
 
 schook. (Cambridge, 1902.) 63 p. 12°. 
 DES.VGHER. Macrice. L' cnscigncmenl des aveuglea. 
 
 (Bruxellcs. 1909.) 2S p. S". 
 Direotion do I'cnscigncnicnt industriel et professionel. 
 
 Rapport. 1897-1901. (Bru.xellcs, 190.S.) 2 v. 8°. 
 DUCPETIA0X, Edward. Dc I'etat dc I'instmction pri- 
 
 maire et populairc en Belgique. (Bruxelles, 1838.) 
 
 3 V. 16°. 
 Greyson, Emile. Venseignement public en Belgique; 
 
 aperfu hislorique et expose dc la Ugislation. (Brux- 
 elles, 1893-1896.) 3 v. 12°. 
 Levoz, a. La protection de I'enfance en Belgique. 
 
 (Bruxelles.) 
 Ministdre de I'instruction publique. Rapports trien- 
 
 naux sur la situation de Venseignement supirieur, 
 
 dix-neuvihne periode triennale, 1904, 1905, 1906; 
 
 Venseignement moyen dix-huitiime periode triennale, 
 
 1903, 1904, 1905; Vinstruction primaire vingtihne 
 
 periode triennale. 1900, 1901, 1902. (Bruxelles.) 
 Minist^re de I'instruetion publique. Recucil des his et 
 
 arrctes relatifs () V cnseigtiemenl superieur. 
 Ministere de Venseignement des sciences et des lettres. 
 
 13 vols, in 1. 8°. Prepared for the Universal 
 
 Exposition of Saint Louis. 
 Ministfre de I'interieur et de I'agriculture. Annuaire 
 
 stalistiqxie de la Belgique. (Trente-Neuvi^me Ann6e, 
 
 1908.) (Bruxelles.) 
 Ministi^re des sciences et des arts. Le mouvement scien- 
 
 tifique en Belgique. 1830, 1905. Par Dr. Van Over- 
 
 bergh et eoUaborateurs. 2 v. 
 Rapports presentis au conseil communal par le eollige des 
 
 bourgme.Htre et echevins. (Bruxelles.) (The latest for 
 
 the year 1909.) 
 Stasse, a. Code administratif dc Venseignement pri- 
 maire; lois et rkglements. Ed. 3. (Liige, 1884.) 
 
 240 p. 8°. 
 Universit6 catholique dc Louvain. Annuaires. Louvain. 
 VuYST. Paul de. L'en.'ieigncment agrieolc et ses me- 
 
 thodes. (Bruxelles.) 354 pp. 8°. 
 Files of educational journals, in particular, Le journal 
 
 des instituteurs d'enseignement moi/en (Bulletin de la 
 
 f6d6ration de I'enseignement moyen) ; L'iducation 
 
 familiale; La remte pedagogique beige (discontinued 
 
 since 1895). 
 
 354
 
 BELGRADE 
 
 BELIEF 
 
 BELGRADE, UNIVERSITY OF. — See Ser- 
 viA, Education in. 
 
 BELHAVEN COLLEGE, JACKSON, MISS. 
 
 — An institution for the education of girls. 
 English, scientific, and classical courses are 
 offered. Music and commercial departments 
 are also maintained. The requirements for 
 admission are indefinite. Degrees are con- 
 ferred in the classical course. Twelve instruc- 
 tors are on the faculty. 
 
 BELIEF. — 1. The act of affirming (a) the 
 reality of an object, or (b) the nece.ssary con- 
 nection JDetween ideas, or (c) the worth of an 
 object or idea. 2. An idea or body of ideas 
 whose reality or worth is thus affirmed. 
 
 To what it attaches : Belief may be experienced 
 in connection with perceptions, illusions, hal- 
 lucinations, memories, anticipations, judg- 
 ments of fact (as, that water quenches fire), or 
 with abstract relations apart from actual fact 
 {e.g. postulating that parallels meet, I believe 
 it follows that, etc.). From these instances it 
 would appear that belief attaches either to 
 isolated objects or to the relations between 
 them. But it would hardly be doing %'iolence 
 to the truth were we to say, rather, that belief in 
 relations is the normal and, indeed, sole form 
 of befief. When all feeling of relation is either 
 absent or neglected, as in the case of a sensation 
 of yellow that is merely yellow and nothing 
 more, we do not believe in it or disbeUeve, we 
 simply Aai'c it. I may beUeve that "gold is yel- 
 low" or that " gold is real," but I can hardly be- 
 lieve "gold" by itself, or "yellow," or "real" by 
 itself. When, however, we declare that we be- 
 lieve in " honesty " or in "the people," belief seems 
 to attach to an isolated object rather than to a 
 relation. Yet even here, where we are deahng 
 not so much with fact as with value or worth, 
 the connection or relationship of the object may 
 be noticed, though it is in the background. 
 
 In any event, there seems no sufficient 
 ground for holding that befief is always equiva- 
 lent to an affirmation of " reality," at least in the 
 sense of actual existence in nature. Logical con- 
 sistency with certain postulates, the question as 
 to their exact relation to reality being left unde- 
 cided, may be the basis of belief. Likewise re- 
 ligious, ethical, and icsthetic behefs, while 
 often involving questions of existence, yet in an 
 unexpectedly large measure have reference to 
 this other dimension of belief; namely, our sense 
 of the value of certain ideas and ideals. 
 
 Its relation to Judgment and to other forms 
 of connection : Belief would thus seem to be 
 identical with judgment: v/henever we believe, 
 we judge ; whenever we judge, we believe. Yet all 
 forms of mental connection are not hereby in- 
 cluded in befief. For relations are thought of, 
 which wc do not ado])t; as when I consider 
 whether women's voting would be advantageous 
 to society or not, antl drop the question un- 
 decided. Here the mental relation between the 
 
 ideas has not as yet attained that pecufiar quality 
 we caU judgment, or belief. Similarly, with a 
 mere sequence of associated ideas in reverie, we 
 may feel a connection among the successive ideas, 
 but the connection is markedly different from 
 what we experience when judging, or believing. 
 
 Its presence in other processes : Besides enter- 
 ing into aU those intellectual processes where 
 judgment enters, belief is also present in 
 emotion and will. One can hardly purpose to 
 do anji^hing without having, mingled with his 
 purpose, belief of several varieties and degrees. 
 Nor can one hate or love unless the emotional 
 state have some admixture of belief. Thus 
 purpose and emotion tend to create belief; 
 and, again, befief tends to enlarge itself into 
 purpose or emotion. And consequently it is only 
 by a scientific abstraction and artifice that be- 
 lief can be separated from the total fife of mind. 
 
 Causes of belief and of its variations: While 
 for the logician befief always presupposes as its 
 justification an antecedent judgment or system 
 of judgments, yet this is not true psychologi- 
 cally. In actual fife, befief often comes out of a 
 clear sky, and without any logical antecedents. 
 Or if there be antecedents, they may logicaUy 
 require a befief precisely the opposite to that 
 which actually appears. Psychologically, the 
 most potent forces in originating and molding 
 befief are: 1. The beliefs of other persons. 
 2. The innate organization, in the individual, 
 of instinct, impulse, and desire, which seems 
 almost to ordain that special types of persons 
 shall be attracted by certain ideas and doctrines 
 and repelled by others, while opposite types 
 show opposite affinities. The irreconcilable 
 differences of belief shown by opposing schools 
 of philosophy, of pofitics, and of religion seem 
 often to spring from such a contrast in mental 
 constitution. 3. Mood or emotional state, 
 often not innate, and destined to pass away. 
 Thus a profound depression may lead one to 
 the belief that he is persecuted; or joy, to 
 the belief in boundless power and wealth. The 
 delusions of the insane frecjuently thus rest 
 upon emotion, and the befief often clears as 
 soon as the emotion becomes normal. Yet 
 among the sane, too, befief often waits upon 
 emotion. 4. Personal observation of fact. 
 5. The observations of others, communicated 
 as testimony, — a factor closely connected with 
 No. 1, but distinguishable. 6. Voluntary ad- 
 herence to some plan or program. The 
 defiberate practice of set forms of thought, 
 e.g. certain " meditations "; joining an organiza- 
 tion that has some special aim; pubficly testify- 
 ing one's adherence to a cause, perhaps by 
 verbal expression or by wearing a badge or other 
 symbol; the attempt to express one's faith by 
 actual conduct, — the well-known effect of 
 those upon belief will illustrate what is here 
 meant. 
 
 The statement of the factors that cause or 
 influence belief also indicates the means of 
 training belief. Educational efforts make fre- 
 
 355
 
 BELL 
 
 BELL 
 
 quent use of the factors 1, 4, and 5 to influence 
 belief; and in the attempt to arouse, control, or 
 suppress certain emotions — loyalty, disgust, love, 
 fear, and the like — in the presence of definite 
 objects or situations, Xo. 3 becomes important 
 to check or reenforce the effects of \o. 2. It is 
 also possible to strengthen belief by " expres- 
 sing" it in some way (Xo. 5), — a method 
 already employed in education, but capable of 
 far greater use. 
 
 The readiness to act upon a belief has been 
 regarded as the only sure sign that the belief 
 is real. Yet strong emotional expression, or 
 the endurance of excessive pain for the belief's 
 sake, are often as convincing signs. These, 
 therefore, may be regarded as tests, or criteria, 
 in distinction from causes, of belief. 
 
 Disbelief is a special — a negative — form 
 of behef ; and both of these find their opposite in 
 doubt. (See Doubt.) G. M. S. 
 
 References: — 
 
 Bain'. .v. Emotions and the IF i«, 4th ed., pp. 505-538. 
 
 (London, 1875.) 
 Bos, C. Psychologic de la croyancc. (Paris, 1901.) 
 J.4MES, W. Principles of Psychology, Vol. II. pp. 283- 
 
 234, and the refs. there given. (New York, 1890.) 
 Stout, G. M. Analytic Psychology. Vol. I. pp. 99 ff. ; 
 
 Vol. II, pp. 234 £f. (London, 1896.) 
 
 BELL, ANDREW (1753-18.32). — The "in- 
 ventor" of the monitorial system of instruction 
 (q.v.). Born at St. Andrew's, he attended the 
 University of his native town, showing ability 
 in mathematics and natural philosophy. After 
 graduation he accepted a tutorship in Virginia, 
 where he remained for seven years. On his re- 
 turn to England he received the degree of M.D. 
 at St. Andrew's and took orders in the Church 
 of England, and through patronage was sent to 
 India. On his way to Calcutta he was pre- 
 vailed upon to stay at Madras as military chap- 
 lain and superintended the Military Male Orphan 
 Asylum. He devoted himself to the work of the 
 school, which was badly in need of teachers. 
 He was here driven to invent what came to be 
 known as the "Madras system." This was 
 nothing less than mutual instruction among 
 the pupils. From a native .school he adopted 
 the practice of using sand tables for writing. 
 As the teachers of his school refused to carry out 
 this plan he appointed a few boys as head-super- 
 intendents and assistant teachers. Thus in 1791 
 the "system" came into existence. On his re- 
 turn to England he began to di.sseminate the 
 plan which he had " invented." In 1798 he pub- 
 lished An Experiment in Education, made at 
 the Male Asylum at Madras, suggesting a 
 System by which a School or Family may teach 
 itself under the Superintendence of the Master 
 or Parent. The system was adopted in a 
 Protestant parochial school in London. As 
 rector of Swanage in Dorsetshire he contributed 
 to the estabhshment of thirteen schools on his 
 plan. In 1805 he met Lancaster (q.v.), whom 
 he treated patronizingly, and later conceived a 
 
 356 
 
 violent hatred against him. In 1807 the Arch- 
 bishop of Canterbury was interested in the 
 system and it l)egan to be introduced in many 
 schools. In 1805 he had pubhshed ,4 Sketch of 
 a Xational Institution for Training up the 
 Children of the Poor in Moral and Religious 
 Principles, and in Habits of Useful Indu.<itry. 
 But it was not until 181 1 that the Natio7ial 
 Society for Promoting the Education of the Poor in 
 the Principles of the Established Ch urch throughout 
 England and Wales was established. (See article 
 on X.\TioxAL Society.) A central school was 
 estabUshed in Westminster to carry out the 
 system on a large scale. In the same year 
 he had a press controversy with Lancaster which 
 only strengthened the supporters of the Na- 
 tional Society. Bell did not confine his atten- 
 tion to primary education alone. His system 
 w^as adopted in Charterhouse and Christ's 
 Hospital, and in 1815 he wrote Elements of 
 Tuition or Ludus Literarius, a classical gram- 
 mar. In 1816 he met Pestalozzi, without de- 
 riving any benefit from the meeting. He was 
 too full of what he now called " the new organ." 
 In 1818 he preached a sermon on his system 
 at Hereford. In 1819 he was promoted to a 
 stall in Westminster Abbey. In 1827 he pub- 
 lished the Manual of Instruction for the schools 
 using his system. He died in 1832, devoted 
 to the last to his sj'stcm. He left his wealth, 
 which was extensive, to be distributed in grants 
 to small schools in Scotland. In 1872 this 
 money was converted to the estabhshment of 
 Bell Chairs of the Theory, History, and Art of 
 Education in the Edinburgh and St. Andrew's 
 L'niversities. While Bell's influence on EngUsh 
 education was great, for he was influential in 
 reducing the teaching in elementary schools 
 in England to an art, his personality was not cal- 
 culated to attract many admirers. To the last 
 he was blind to any defects in his system, hold- 
 ing that for it alone he would have waited six 
 thousand years. Bell was more uniformly 
 successful than Lancaster, although Lancaster 
 probably had a much better grasp of the prob- 
 lem. But the work of both was marred by 
 remarkable vanity and conceit. For the time, 
 however, they exercised some influence on edu- 
 cation in all parts of the world. Bell in Ireland 
 and Canada; Lancaster on the continent and the 
 L'nited States. But it soon became apparent 
 that the systems of the two men were nothing 
 more than classroom devices and did not con- 
 tain the whole truth of education. But if the 
 actual work of the two men did not live, they 
 were instrumental in calling into existence tW'O 
 societies which laid the foundations of English 
 elementary education. 
 
 See England, Education in; Lancaster, 
 Joseph; Monitorial System; National 
 Society. 
 
 References: — 
 
 FiTcn, Sin Joshua. Educational Aims and Methods. 
 
 (New York, 1900.) 
 Leitch. Practical Educationists. (Glasgow, 1876.J
 
 BELLEVUE COLLEGE 
 
 BEMBO 
 
 Meiklejohn, J. M. D. An Old Educational Reformer, 
 Dr. Andrew Bell. (Edinburgh and London, 1881.) 
 
 SouTHEY, Robert and C. C. Lijfc of Rev. Andrew Bell. 
 {London, 1S44.) 
 
 BELLEVUE COLLEGE, BELLEVUE, NEB. 
 
 ■ — Incorporated in 1880 by the Presbyterian 
 Synod of Nebraska and opened in 1883. It 
 constitutes part of the University of Omaha. 
 The institution, which is coeducational, provides 
 academic, collegiate, normal, and musical 
 courses. Students are admitted into the 
 college by certificate from accredited schools 
 and by an examination requiring 14 units of 
 high school work. Classical, scientific, and 
 philosophical courses leading to their respec- 
 tive degrees are offered. The college may 
 issue the first grade state certificate of the State 
 of Nebraska to all graduates who fulfill the 
 necessary requirements, which is valid for 3 
 years and may then be converted by the State 
 Superintendent into a life certificate. Lower 
 grade certificates are granted in the normal 
 department, to which an eight-grade training 
 school is attached. There are 12 professors 
 and 6 instructors and assistants. Stephen W. 
 Stookey, M.S., LL.D., is the president. 
 
 BELMONT COLLEGE, NASHVILLE, 
 TENN. — A non-sectarian institution for the 
 education of young women. College prepara- 
 torj', collegiate, and musical departments are 
 maintained. There is no definite statement of 
 the requirements of adnii.ssion. Diplomas and 
 degrees are conferred. There are IS instructors 
 on the faculty. 
 
 BELOIT COLLEGE, BELOIT, WISCON- 
 SIN. — A non-sectarian, coeducational institu- 
 tion, owing its foundation to the propaganda of 
 the Society for the Promotion of Collegiate and 
 Theological Education in the West, organized 
 in New York (1843), and united in 1874 with 
 a Boston society in what later (1894) became 
 the Congregational Educational Society. Beloit 
 is one of the 23 colleges fostered or aided 
 by this latter organization. The founders 
 and most of the friends of the college have 
 been Congregationalists and Presbyterians; 
 but it has been warmly supported by other 
 denominations, and has always placed a 
 thorough education on an evangelical and un- 
 sectarian basis above any other considerations. 
 As early as 1843 the need of a college for the 
 region opened to settlement by the Black 
 Hawk war in the Northwest Territory was 
 discussed. In June, 1844, a general conven- 
 tion of Congregational and Presbyterian 
 churches in the Northwest was held at Cleve- 
 land, Ohio. One evening at this convention 
 was occupied by addresses in behalf of the 
 Society for the Promotion of Collegiate and 
 Theological Iviucation in the West; as a result, 
 returning delegates decided to call a convention 
 at Beloit in August, 1844, to plan for the loca- 
 tion of institutions for Wisconsin, Illinois, and 
 
 Iowa. Three more conventions were held m 
 Beloit, and that town was selected as the site 
 of a college for Wisconsin and Illinois, largely 
 because of its position on the border of these 
 two states. The first Board of Trustees met 
 October 23, 1845; a majority of its 8 ministerial 
 members were graduates of Yale, a college 
 whose influence appears often in the subsequent 
 history of Beloit. The charter was approved 
 February 2, 1846. The present Board of 
 Trustees has 30 members, serving 3 years, 
 divided into 3 equal classes, one of which 
 retires each year, the successors being elected 
 by the remaining trustees. The alumni nomi- 
 nate 1 member annually. The first class of 
 4 students began work November 4, 1847, 
 reciting in the basement of the old Congrega- 
 tional Church. The college had only a classical 
 course until 1874, when a philosophical course 
 was added; the science course was established 
 in 1892. Women were admitted in September, 
 1895, but the enrollment of women students is 
 limited by the number which can be accommo- 
 dated in the women's dormitories. The Art 
 Department has a small but valuable and well 
 chosen collection, opened to the public for the 
 first time in 1908. Fraternities have been estab- 
 lished as follows: Beta Theta Pi, Phi Kappa 
 Psi, and Sigma Chi. The degrees given are 
 A.B., B.S., and, for resident graduate studj', 
 M.A.; the undergraduate course of 4 years 
 may also be completed in 3 or 3J years. 
 Beloit College is one of the institutions on the 
 original list of those accepted by the Carnegie 
 Foundation for the Advancement of Teach- 
 ing {q.v.) as participating in its system of 
 retiring allowances to professors. The build- 
 ings, grounds, and equipment are valued 
 (Jan. 1, 1909) at $592,500; real estate held in 
 Beloit, Chicago, and elsewhere, at $14,825. 
 The total productive endowment is $1,06(5,667. 
 The average salary of a professor is .SI 600. 
 Of the 43 members of the instructing staff, 16 
 are full professors. There are 386 undergrad- 
 uate and 5 graduate students. Edward 
 Dwight Eaton, D.D., LL.D., is president. 
 
 C. G. 
 
 BEMBO, PIETRO (1470-1547). — Born in 
 Florence, the son of a nobleman, he received 
 his education in his native town. He later 
 studied Greek at Messina and philosophy under 
 Pomponazzi at Padua. In 1498 he joined his 
 father at the court of Ferrara, where by his 
 polished manners and graceful wit he soon 
 became noticed. Here he met Lucrezia Borgia, 
 to whom he dedicated a dialogue in the ver- 
 nacular on Platonic love {Gli Asolani). After 
 living for some time at the Court at Urbino, he 
 went to Rome in 1512 and was appointed one 
 of the secretaries to Pope Leo X. His col- 
 league in office was Sadoleto {q.v.). In 1520 
 he retired to Padua, where he lived for 19 years, 
 spent in classical study and an attempt to repro- 
 duce the life of the time of Cicero. His home 
 
 357
 
 BENEDICT COLLEGE 
 
 BENEDICTINES 
 
 became the center of the culture of that period. 
 In 1539 he was created Cardinal and died in 
 1547. A typical [jroduct of the Italian Renais- 
 sance, Henibo oarly won a foremost position 
 among the Latin scholars of the day. His 
 writings are marked by attention to purity of 
 style rather than by depth of thought. In 
 prose an imitator of Cicero to the extent that 
 he was pilloried by Erasmus in the Cicero- 
 nianuf!, in verse he showed equal facility in 
 reproducing the qualities of the elegiacs of 
 Propertius and TibuUus or the hexameters and 
 hendcca-syllabics of Catullus. Among his i)oems 
 are the elegiacs Galatea and De Galcso et 
 Maximo, and the hexameter poem, Benacus. 
 For his polished Ciceronian style he found 
 scope in his correspondence. See Ciceuoni- 
 
 ANISM. 
 
 References: — 
 
 Symonds, J. A. Renaissance in Italy, Part II. (New 
 
 York, 1S88.) 
 Sandys, J. E. A History of Classical Scholarship, ch. v. 
 
 vol. II. (Cambridge, 1908.) 
 
 BENEDICT COLLEGE, COLUMBIA, S.C. 
 
 — Foundetl as a coeducational institution for 
 negroes by tiie American Bapti-st Home Mission 
 Society in 1871, and chartered in 1894. Pre- 
 I)aratory, collegiate, normal, college, divinity, 
 and music departments are maintained. The 
 students engage somewhat in industrial work 
 required in the care of the campus and build- 
 ings. The admission requirements for the 
 college course are not definite. Degrees are 
 conferred. The faculty consists of 7 professors 
 and 20 instructors and assistants. Rev. A. C. 
 Osborn, D.D., LL.D., is the president. 
 
 BENEDICTINES, EDUCATIONAL AC- 
 TIVITY OF. — The order of Benedictines was 
 established by St. Benedict, the Patriarch of 
 monasticism in the West, who was born at 
 Nursia in Umbria about the year 480. At an 
 early age (according to some, when he was only 
 16 years old) he fled the corrupt life of Rome 
 and took refuge in a remote spot on the hills 
 of Subiaco, above the Anio, where he devoted 
 himself to prayer and penance. He organized 
 into a " family " those who, like himself, had 
 left the world the better to love and serve God, 
 and in the neighborhood of Subiaco he founded 
 twelve such communities. In 529 he estab- 
 lished the celebrated monastery of Monte 
 Cassino, which thenceforth became the center 
 from which the influence of his Rule spread 
 throughout Europe. The Rule {Regula $ancti 
 Benedicti), which was written about the year 
 530, did not contemplate the establishment of 
 an Order, as the term is understood nowadays. 
 It was intended merely for the communities 
 founded by Benedict himself, each of which 
 was to be a separate family, owing allegiance 
 to the Pope alone. 
 
 Spread of the Be7iedictine Rule. During the 
 sixth and seventh centuries the Rule of St. 
 
 Benedict gradually replaced the stricter Celtic 
 rule established by St. Columban (q.v.) and 
 other Irish monks in parts of France and 
 Switzerland. It was carried to England by 
 St. Augustine of Canterbury ((j-v.), who founded 
 tiie first English Benedictine congregation in 
 597. Thence its influence was extend(Hl during 
 the seventh and eighth centuries to Germany, 
 through the missionary activity of St. Boniface 
 (q.v.). It was introduced into Spain i)robably 
 about the beginning of the ninth century. In 
 the ninth century the Benedictine Rule had 
 extended to all the monastic institutions of 
 Western Europe with the exception of the 
 British Isles, where for a century or two longer 
 the Celtic rule was still maintained in some 
 monasteries. By the beginning of the four- 
 teenth century there were as many as 37,000 
 monasteries extending as far south as Sicily 
 and as far north as Iceland, all following the 
 Rule of St. Benedict or some modification 
 of it. 
 
 The reforms of the Benedictine rule begin 
 with the attempts of Benedict of Aniane in the 
 ninth century to bring all the congregations 
 under one authoritj'. A similar attempt was 
 made by St. Berno of Cluny in the tenth cen- 
 tury, and is known as the Cluniac reform. The 
 first reform which resulted in the foundation of 
 a sejiarate order was that of the Camaldoli in 
 1009. This was followed by the formation of 
 the Cistercians (1098), Cclestines (1254), etc. 
 
 The story of the influence of the Benedictines 
 during the Middle Ages belongs to the general 
 history of Europe, in which they played a very 
 important part. Their educational activity 
 is described farther on. Special mention 
 should, however, be made of the Congregation 
 of St. RIaur, which flourished in France in the 
 seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, and to 
 which belonged D'Achery, Mabillon, Mont- 
 faucon, Ruinart, and Martene, whose names are 
 associated with the beginnings of the scientific 
 study of history and the science of paleography 
 in modern times. 
 
 The Benedictines in the United Stales.— 
 Among the first Catholic missionaries who 
 came with the Spanish explorers were several 
 members of the Benedictine Order. Even as 
 early as 1493, a Benedictine companion of 
 Columbus in his second voyage is said to have 
 labored for a short time among the Indians. 
 The educational work of the Benedictines in 
 this country is, however, of much later founda- 
 tion. In 1846 the Bavarian Congregation 
 founded a mission at Beatty, Pa., out of which 
 grew the Abbey of St. Vincent, formally estab- 
 lished in 1855. Then in succession were 
 founded: St. John's, Collegeville, Minn. 
 (185(5); St. Benedict's, Atchison, Kans. (1857); 
 St. Mary's, Newark, N.J. (1857); Maryhelp, 
 Belmont, N.C. (1885); St. Procopius, Chicago 
 (1887); St. Leo's, Pasco Co., Fla. (1889); St. 
 Bernard's, CuUman Co., Ala. (1891); St. 
 Mary's Priory, Lacey, Wash. (1895). These 
 
 358
 
 BENEDICTINES 
 
 BENEDICTINES 
 
 foundations have 3 seminaries, 14 schools and 
 colleges, and educate about 2000 students. 
 The Swiss Congregation has also several abbeys 
 and priories in the United States: St. Meinrad's, 
 Ind. (founded as a mission in 1854, made an 
 abbey in 1870); Conception, Mo. (1873); 
 New Subiaco, Spielerville, Ark. (1878); St. 
 Benedict's, Mt. Angel, Ore. (1882) ; St. Joseph's, 
 St. Benedict, La. (1889); St. Mary's, Richard- 
 ton, N.D. (1899); St. Gall's Priorv, Devil's 
 Lake, N.D. (1893). St. Meinrad's has both 
 a seminary and a college; St. Benedict's and 
 St. Joseph's have colleges. 
 
 St. Benedict and Education. — A cardinal 
 principle of St. Benedict's Rule was that 
 " Idleness is the enemy of the soul." Conse- 
 quently, he prescribes that the monks should 
 occupy themselves both " in the labor of their 
 hands and in holy reading." Manual labor 
 had already been adopted as a means of spir- 
 itual education by the monks of the East, 
 and in some of the Eastern monastic Rules, 
 notably in that of St. Basil (q.v.), stress had 
 been laid on the importance of reading and 
 study. There was, therefore, nothing novel in 
 St. Benedict's ■ prescription. When, however, 
 Cassiodorus, the former minister of the Gothic 
 kings, founded the monastery of Viviers, in 
 Calabria, about the year 540, he gave a power- 
 ful impetus to the cultivation of learning, and 
 by example as well as precept strove to make 
 the monastery a veritable academy of the sacred 
 and profane sciences. After his time, the daily 
 routine of the Benedictine monastery included 
 teaching, the study of Holy Writ and the 
 classics, and the transcription of books. 
 
 The Benedictine Schools. — The educational ' 
 activity of the Benedictines included in the 
 first place reading and study on the part of the 
 monks themselves. A knowledge of the Scrip- 
 tures was recognized to be an indispensable 
 means of personal sanctification, and for an 
 understanding of the scriptures it was con- 
 sidered necessary to be acquainted with profane 
 literature. In the second place, the monastery 
 received within its walls two classes of boys: 
 those who were offered by their parents (oblati) 
 for the monastic life, and those who were placed 
 there temporarily to be educated and protected, 
 the monastery being the only place where the 
 children of the nobility were not exposed to 
 seizure for ransom whenever their fathers were 
 at war with a neighboring baron or prince. 
 This led to the distinction between the internal 
 and external school of the monastery. Finally, 
 among the external pupils of the cloistral 
 schools were admitted the children of the 
 neighboring village or countryside. For it was 
 part of the beneficent social work of the monas- 
 teries to extend the benefits of education in 
 letters and in the mechanical arts. These 
 developments, however, did not take place at 
 once. They were due to the influence of events 
 which affected monasticism in the course of the 
 seventh, eighth, and especially the ninth cen- 
 
 tury. See articles on Cloister Schools; 
 Middle Ages, Education in; Monastic 
 Schools. 
 
 Curriculum of the Schools. — For the monks 
 themselves the principal subject of study was 
 sacred science; that is, a knowledge of the 
 Scriptures and of the liturgy of the Church. 
 The profane sciences, the seven hberal arts 
 and the classics, were studied as a means to 
 the understanding and exposition of Holy Writ. 
 This, however, did not prevent men like Serva- 
 tus Lupus, Rhabanus Maurus (q.p.), Gerbert, 
 etc., from cultivating an ardent, almost a 
 humanistic, love for the classics, while they 
 acknowledged the principle that all profane 
 learning should be made to subserve spiritual 
 interests. 
 
 The children received in the monastic houses 
 were first taught the Psalter, which they were 
 expected to be able to recite, in Latin, before 
 their seventh year, when they entered the 
 monastic school. There the course of .studies 
 was uniform in all the Benedictine houses 
 from the days of Cassiodorus down to the 
 foundation of the Universities in the thirteenth 
 century. It consisted of the seven liberal arts 
 (9. v.), which included the Trivium, Grammar, 
 Rhetoric, and Dialectic, and the Quadrivium, 
 Arithmetic, Geometry, Astronomy, and Music. 
 In regard to the former, or philological, group, 
 Latin was, of course, the language which re- 
 ceived most attention. During the period of 
 Benedictine educational supremacy, Greek was 
 practically an unknown tongue in Western 
 Europe, except where, as at Laon, St. Gall, 
 etc., the influence of the Irish teachers pre- 
 vailed. As soon as the vernacular tongues 
 began to develop, attention was paid to them 
 in the monasteries, though not to the point of 
 substituting them for Latin. Rhabanus Mau- 
 rus at Fulda, Bede and Alfred in England, and 
 the Notkers and Ekkehards at St. Gall are not 
 exceptions, but rather distinguished examples 
 in this respect. 
 
 The method of teaching was conditioned by 
 the peculiar circumstances of the times. Books 
 were scarce, hence the custom of dictating the 
 te.xt in the classroom. The unsettled condi- 
 tions incident to the almost continuous inva- 
 sions, the need of converting the nations to 
 Christianity before trying to raise them to a 
 plane of intellectual culture, left little time for 
 original constructive work in literature, science, 
 and philosophy. Meantime, it was a matter 
 of paramount ncccssit}' to preserve the heritage 
 of the past. Hence, the activity of teacher 
 and pupil was almost without exception con- 
 fined to commenting on the text, glossing the 
 technical words, and, in general, " marking time 
 without advancing " within the lines laid down 
 by the writers of preceding generations. Vergil 
 among the poets, Cicero among the orators, 
 Boethius, Aristotle, and St. Augustine among 
 the dialecticians and philosophers, were the 
 favorite authors of the Benedictine teachers. 
 
 359
 
 BENEDICTINES 
 
 BENEDICTINES 
 
 and their works, as far as these were known, 
 were the texts in the schools. 
 
 Famous Benedictine Schools. — Among the 
 English schools which owed their foundation 
 directly or indirectly to St. Augustine of Canter- 
 bury, the best known were those of Yarrow, 
 York, Glastonbury, and Westminster. Yar- 
 row was the scene of the literary activity of the 
 Venerable Bede {q.v.), and it was at York that 
 Alcuin {q.v.) acquired the educational training 
 whicii he placed at the disposal of Charlemagne 
 {q.v.) for the revival of learning in the Prank- 
 ish Empire. To the influence of the Carolin- 
 gian revival is due the foundation of the Bene- 
 dictine schools at Fulda (813), Hirschau (830), 
 and New Corbie (822), where the traditions 
 introduced into Germany by St. Boniface were 
 given now life and vigor. The activity of the 
 Irish monks, who generally adopted the Rule 
 of St. Benedict, at least after the CaroUngian 
 revival, was noticeable at Laon, St. Gall, 
 Reichcnau, Bobbio {q.v.), Liege and elsewhere 
 throughout the empire. During the centuries 
 imme(liately following Charlemagne's time 
 these schools underwent various fates. Little 
 by little they , were thrown into the shade 
 by the prestige of the schools at Paris, out of 
 which at the beginning of the thirteenth cen- 
 tury grew the oldest of the medieval univer- 
 sities, the rise of which is coincident with the 
 beginning of the educational activity of the 
 Mendicant Orders. 
 
 Influence of the Benedictine Schools. — Apart 
 from their work in the schoolroom, the Bene- 
 dictines exerted an influence which bore di- 
 rectly on the education of medieval and 
 modern Europe. The preservation of the 
 classics is due to their zeal and industry as 
 transcribers of the ancient codices. Placing 
 as they did the spiritual needs of man above 
 every other consideration, they were not always 
 as appreciative of the beauties of the classics as 
 a humanist or a modern philologist might be. 
 Nevertheless, since they were under no com- 
 pulsion to preserve the literature of antiquity, 
 we may presume that, in their efforts to pre- 
 serve it, they worked in an appreciative spirit. 
 To the Benedictines we owe almost all the famous 
 libraries of the early Middle Ages, some of 
 which now constitute the most cherished 
 treasures of the British Museum, the Bodleian, 
 the Ambrosian, the Vatican, the Bibliotheque 
 Nationale, and the Stadt-Uni versitats-Bibliothek 
 of Munich. To their industry as chroniclers we 
 owe almost everything that we know about 
 medieval history, secular as well as religious. 
 To them, too, the modern world is indebted for 
 much in the department of the liberal and me- 
 chanical arts. The Benedictines were, it is 
 freely admitted, the ci\'ilizcrs of the barbarians. 
 Not only did they in principle maintain the 
 nobility and sanctity of work, but they put 
 their principle into practice, and set the ex- 
 ample of enterprise and thrift in their agricul- 
 tural labors. They drained the marshes. 
 
 rendered fertile the sterile plains, built roads 
 and bridges, introduced new methods of farm- 
 ing, and e.xerted in the social economic order 
 an influence as great as that which they exerted 
 in the spiritual order. In the useful and fine 
 arts, they often led the way. It was at the 
 monastery that the artisan and the artist could 
 see the newest contrivance and study the newest 
 style in architecture, painting, or nictal-work. 
 And these traditions have not entirely died out. 
 The Benedictines are doing a large share, to- 
 day, of the educational work in Catholic 
 countries. They have many flourishing col- 
 leges in England and in the United States. 
 Their efforts to found a new school of Christian 
 art at Beuron are attracting a good deal of at- 
 tention, and until quite recently the printing 
 pres.ses of Solesme and Ligug6 were renewing 
 the best traditions of the medieval scriptorium 
 in the finest kind of bookmaking. 
 
 Literary Activity of the Benedictines. — Since 
 the days of the Venerable Bede {q.v.) in England, 
 Rhabanus Maurus {q.v.) in Germany, and the 
 Notkers {q.v.) in Switzerland, who represent the 
 first era of Bendictine learning, the monks of 
 St. Benedict have maintained their reputation 
 for high scholarship in the profane sciences as 
 well as in theology. The Congregation of St. 
 Maur has already' been mentioned. Its mem- 
 bers were especially distinguished in the depart- 
 ments of history, biblical criticism, and pale- 
 ography. In the same line of work Trithcmius, 
 Abbot of Sponheim {q.v.), led the vanguard of 
 scholarship in Germany in the sixteenth cen- 
 tury. In the recent times Ziegelbaucr (d. 
 1750), Pez (d. 1762), Gams (d. 1892), To.sti (d. 
 1897) and Abbot Gasquet, have attained dis- 
 tinction as historians; the monks of Soles- 
 nies, especially Dom Gueranger (d. 1875), 
 Cardinal Pitra (d. 1889), and Dom Pothier, 
 devoted special attention to Church music and 
 sacred hturgy, and since the expulsion from 
 France in 1901 the same congregation continues 
 its work at Appuldurcombe in the Isle of Wight; 
 Dom Cabrol and Dom Leclerq are among the 
 foremost scholars of the day in the department 
 of Christian archaeology and history, while in 
 Germany Abbot Wolter (d. 1890) has emu- 
 lated in the latter half of the nineteenth century 
 the fame which the Congregation of St. Maur 
 attained in France two centuries ago. W. T. 
 
 References: — 
 
 Az.iRiAS. Bkotheh. Essays Educational. (Chicago, 
 1896.) 
 
 Besse. Le moine binidiclin. (Ligugd, 1898.) 
 
 Dr.ine, a. T. Christian Schools and Scholars. (Lon- 
 don. ISSl.) 
 
 Helmbccher. M. Die Orden und Kongregationen der 
 katholischen Kirche. (Paderborn, 1907.) Vol. I, pp. 
 205 ff. 
 
 Mabillon. Annates 0. S. B. (Paris, 1703-1739.) 
 Traite des etudes monasliques. (Pari.s. 1691.) 
 
 Maitre, Leon. Les icoles ipiscopalcs et monasliques, 
 A.D. 76S-1180. (Paris, 1866.) 
 
 Newman. The Mission of St. Benedict, in Historical 
 Sketches. Vol. IL (London, 1872.) 
 
 Montalambert. Monies of the West. (London, 1896.) 
 
 360
 
 BENEFACTIONS 
 
 BENEFIT OF CLERGY 
 
 Taunton. English Black Monks of St. Benedict. 
 
 (London, 1898.) 
 ZiEOELBAUER. Hist. Rci. Liter. O. S. B. (Augsburg, 
 
 1754.) 
 See also Article in Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. II (New 
 
 York, 1907), and in Catholic University Bull., May, 
 
 1909, Vol. XV, pp. 441 ff. The latter contains a 
 
 more complete bibliography. 
 
 BENEFACTIONS. 
 
 Educational. 
 
 See Philanthropy, 
 
 BENEFIT OF CLERGY. — The privilege 
 known in England and America as the "Benefit 
 of Clergy" played an indirect but a not unimpor- 
 tant part in the evolution of English education. 
 It had indeed its counterparts throughout 
 Europe under the spiritual control of the 
 Roman Church. During very early times 
 various privileges were claimed by and were 
 willingly or unwillingly granted to the secular 
 and monastic clergy. From the date of the 
 Kentish Council of Cloveshoo in 747 to the 
 date of the Black Death (1.348-1349) education 
 was almost exclusively under the control of the 
 Church, and it was not unnatural that those who 
 by virtue of their learning trained the young and 
 nunistered to all should demand and secure 
 certain privileges. It was, indeed, an outward 
 and visible sign of the theocratic movement that 
 lasted in Europe from the eleventh to the thir- 
 teenth century. Our earliest record on the 
 subject seems to prove wide privileges, for it is 
 an enactment of King Alfred that in the case of 
 murder by a priest he is to be unfrocked by the 
 bishop and delivered up from the Church unless 
 his lord will compound for the iccrgeld {Ancient 
 Laws and Institutes of England, p. 34 (1840). 
 It is, however, in the time of King Ethelstane 
 (926) that we obtain the first English specific 
 legal indication of a privileged position of the 
 clergy directly related to education. The law 
 of the King runs as follows: " If a scholar made 
 such proficiency in learning, as that he obtained 
 orders, and ministered to Christ, he was thought 
 worthy of that dignity and protection that be- 
 longed thereto, unless he incurred a forfeiture 
 of his function, and might not exercise it." 
 The latter clause seems to refer to the exception 
 created by King Alfred. By the time of 
 Edward the Confessor and William the Con- 
 queror we find that special privileges are 
 granted to the learned. The laws of Edward and 
 those laws as confirmed by William I (Spelmanni, 
 Concilia, Vol. I, p. 619; Wilkins, Leges Anglo- 
 Sa.ronicae, p. 197; Chronicon Henrici Knighton, 
 (Rolls Ed.), Vol. I, p. 78) ordain de clcricis et 
 possessionibus eorum: "omnis clcricus et etiam 
 scholaris, et omnis eorum res et possessiones 
 ubicunciue f uerint, pacem Dei et sanctae ecclesiae 
 habeant." It has probably not been pointed out 
 before that the general rule of privilege was before 
 the Conquest extended to non-clerical scholars. 
 But in fact, to acquire scholarship was generally 
 recognized, as late as 1350, as a step taken in 
 view of orders, and the very numerous manorial 
 customs by which no villein's cliild (before 1406) 
 
 could go to school except by consent of his lord 
 or on payment of a fine were due to the belief 
 that the scholar was certain to become a priest 
 or monk and would thus pass out of the juris- 
 diction of his lord. The Constitutions of 
 Clarendon (xvi: 1164) forbade a villein's 
 child to be ordained without the consent of the 
 lord (see also Bracton, De legihiis Angliae, 
 Vol. Ill, p. 293). After the Conquest and the 
 separation by William of the secular and spirit- 
 ual courts it seems clear that there was a grad- 
 ual approximation of the status of the priest to 
 that of the layman. It is true that the clergy 
 claimed "that all persons in holy orders should 
 be exempt from secular jurisdiction in all liti- 
 gation, civic and criminal." In criminal cases 
 the exemption was largely maintained despite 
 the struggle between King Henry II and 
 Becket over the third chapter of the Constitu- 
 tions of Clarendon (1164). That clause pro- 
 ■vided that a clerk should be charged before the 
 temporal court, remitted to the ecclesiastical 
 court for trial, and if found guilty degraded 
 from orders and remitted to the temporal court 
 for punishment. This doctrine was adopted 
 by Becket's successor. The King in 1 176 agreed 
 that no clerk should be brought into a temporal 
 court except with respect to forest offenses. 
 But in the case of misdeameanors and civil pro- 
 ceedings the clergy had lost their special pri\n- 
 lege before the year 1300. By the year 1350, 
 despite repeated protests by the clergy, they were, 
 says Bracton, sued every day in the temporal 
 courts, and before the end of the century even 
 the Pope had abandoned the claim (see Pollock 
 and Maitland's History of English Law, Vol. I, 
 p. 424 et seq.). The clergy also had by then 
 lost their privolege in the case of treason. 
 From some time about the middle of the 
 thirteenth century the privilegium clericale was 
 hmited to the cases of felonies committed by 
 the clergy; that is to say, to all capital offenses 
 (in addition to cases of petty treason) other than 
 those created by the law of treason and the 
 forest law. But by this privilege the clergy 
 were saved from the more terrible consequences 
 of a vast range of offenses, and this was no 
 mean privilege, no mean inducement to letters 
 and orders in a singularly brutal age. It must, 
 however, be remembered that learned persons 
 not in orders soon lost this special privilege 
 which they possessed at the date and after 
 the date of the Conquest. In the thirteenth 
 century, before the time of Edward I, the privi- 
 lege was strictly confined to the secular and 
 monastic clergy and nuns. The scholar who 
 was none of these was in the power of the secular 
 arm, since the clerical status in each case had to 
 be proved to the justices. In the fourteenth 
 century the practice grew up of extending the 
 privilege "to all persons eligible for ordination, 
 although not actually ordained; i.e. to all 
 males who could read," thus restoring the prac- 
 tice that obtained in the eleventh century. It 
 will be noticed how important an influence the 
 
 361
 
 BENEFIT OF CLERGY 
 
 BENEKE 
 
 privik'RO must have been from the tenth to the 
 fifteenth century in education, that is, during 
 the very period wlien stimulus to educational 
 movements was most needed. The very fact 
 of [jossessing a moderate amount of learning 
 was for a long period sufficient to remove a man 
 altogetiier from a jurisdiction that was inter- 
 mittent and dilatory and to Ijring him within a 
 jurisdiction that was, at any rate, merciful in 
 the great majority of cases. Even when the 
 privilege was restricted to felony the sudden ex- 
 tension of it to the laity gave it a new stimulus. 
 It was now worth while to learn to read merely 
 to escape mortal responsibilities for otTenses that 
 it was not always po-ssible to avoid. We may 
 indeed believe that until the middle of the 
 fiftcei\th century the privilcgium clericnle was a 
 valuable influence in national education. It 
 had not yet become a formaUty; it was not 
 sufficient to know by heart the " Neck- verse " 
 (Psalm LI V. 1.) in order to save your neck. If 
 man is to plead his privilege he must certainly be 
 a scholar, if he is not a priest. Professor Kenny 
 of Cambridge University gives us {Outlines 
 of Criminal Law, p. 480, n. 3) an instance of 
 modern times that really represents the attitude 
 of the fourteenth century in the matter. He 
 says: "By a singular coincidence even the Arabs 
 of modern Algeria have recognized learning as a 
 ground of criminal immunity. Abd el Kadr 
 said: "'More than once I have remitted 
 sentence of death on a criminal from tiie mere 
 fact of his being a scholar. It requires so long 
 a time in Algeria to become well instructed, 
 that I had not the courage to destroy in one day 
 the fruit of years of laborious study.' " (Church- 
 hill's Life of Abd el Kadr, p. 145.) With the 
 coming of the Renaissance (q.v.) the pri\'ilege 
 became a social danger. The elements of 
 learning were at last more widely spread and 
 the criminal classes found shelter in a privilege 
 intended for a holy or learned class. Bv a 
 statute of 1488-1489 (4 and 5 Henry VII, c."l3) 
 the layman could claim the privilege only 
 once and, in order to prevent an abuse of the 
 privilege, the layman claiming it was branded on 
 the brawn of the left thumb with an " M " 
 for murderer or " T " for any other felony. 
 " Divers persons learned " were thus discouraged 
 from the "presumptuous Ijoldness" of com- 
 mitting crime " upon trust of the privilege of 
 the Church." In 1531-1532 (23 Henry VIII, 
 c. 1) the privilege was taken by statute from all 
 persons not in orders or under the order of sub- 
 deacon and thus once more the learned layman 
 was excluded from Benefit of Clergy. 
 
 The remainder of the history of the privilege 
 is strictly limited to criminal law. The Benefit 
 was revived presumably for the purpose of 
 mitigating a criminal law of great severity. In 
 1532 (23 Henry VIII, c. 1) the privilege was 
 removed in cases of deliberate murder. In 
 Elizabeth's reign the spiritual courts were ousted 
 altogether and the privilege given to all per- 
 sons who could read. To claim it, however, 
 
 involved one year in jail. In the reign of 
 William III it was extended to women, literate 
 and illiterate (we must remember that nuns and 
 perhaps other women who could read had the 
 privilege in the Middle Ages). In the reign of 
 Anne ilfiterate men were allowed to claim 
 the privilege but at the same time the practice 
 grew of excluding many felonies from the Benefit. 
 At the end of the eighteenth century there were 
 160 felonies without Benefit of Clergy. The 
 privilege was abolished in England in 1827 
 (7 and 8 Geo. IV, c. 28) and in Ireland in 1828, 
 nine hundred years after we first hear of it. 
 
 It nmst finally be noticed that the privilege 
 to-day is not absolutely dead. It passed with 
 the English common law to America, and Ameri- 
 can law books mention cases in which Benefit of 
 Clergy was pleaded. It was abolished by stat- 
 ute in Massachusetts in 1784. In the states of 
 Indiana and Mimiesota the courts in more re- 
 cent times have rejected the doctrine. But it 
 apparently still survives in North Carolina and 
 Houth Carolina. In the former state the privi- 
 lege was conceded to women, the court de- 
 claring that " no reason can at this day exist, 
 why females shall not be entitled to the Benefit 
 of Clergy, as well as males." (See the case of 
 the State v. Gray, 1 Murphey 147, J. P. Bishop's 
 New Criminal Law, 7th ed., 1892, Vol. I, sec. 
 938, p. 5(34.) In the same state "it would 
 seem that the statutory pardon, which is an inci- 
 dent to the Benefit of Clergy, does not take 
 effect until the party is burned in the hand and 
 delivered out of prison." If the record acci- 
 dentally omits to set out such execution of the 
 sentence, it may be shown by a witness. 
 (Keith V. Goodwin, fi .lones, N.C. 398.) See on 
 the practice of North and South Carolina the 
 cases of the State v. Bosse (8 Rich. 276) and the 
 State V. Sutcliffe (4 Strob. 372). It may possibly 
 exist in some other states but it has generally 
 been abolished by statute. Dr. Kenny suggests 
 that the survival in the Carolinas "is perhaps 
 connected with the educational gulf between 
 the white and the colored criminal." If so the 
 privilege of Benefit of Clergy has an educational 
 meaning to-day, a thousand years after its 
 first invention. J. E. G. de M. 
 
 BENEKE, FRIEDRICH EDUARD (1798- 
 1854). — A German philosopher and educational 
 theorist. He was born in Berlin and attended 
 the Friedrich-Werder Gjunnasium, which was 
 then under the direction of the excellent peda- 
 gogue Bernliardi Graduating at the early age 
 of fifteen, he enlisted in the German war of 
 liberation, after which he studied theology, 
 first at Halle, then (1817) in Berlin. There 
 he came under the influence of Schleiermacher 
 and, having turned his attention from theol- 
 ogy to philosophy, began to lecture in 1820. 
 Two years later his lectures were stopped by 
 the order of the go\-ernment ; this was probably 
 due to the influence of Hegel, whose "absolute" 
 philosophy Beneke opposed. For three years 
 
 362
 
 BENEKE 
 
 BENTHAM 
 
 he found a refuge in Gottingen, but at length 
 he was allowed to resume his lectures in Berlin. 
 In 1832, after Hegel's death, he was finally 
 appointed assistant professor, but not until nine 
 years later did he receive the meager salary of 
 200 thalers. In March, 1854, when for some 
 time on account of severe mental strain his 
 health had been giving way, he disappeared from 
 home, and it was thought committed suicide. 
 
 Beiieke's most important work, from a 
 pedagogical point of view, is his Erziehungs- 
 uiid Unterrichtslehre (Theory of Education and 
 Instruction, 2 vols., Berhn, 1835-1836). His 
 pedagogy, however, as well as his ethics, logic, 
 and metaphysics, is founded on his psychology, 
 wMch is treated in his Lehrhuch der Psychologie 
 als Naturivissenschaft ( Textbook of Psychology 
 as a Natural Science, 1833). 
 
 Beneke's philosophy takes its starting point 
 in internal sense perception, which he considers 
 the source of all knowledge. According to him, 
 the mind is a concrete psychological organism, 
 a system of primitive immaterial forces, which 
 are capable of development under the stimu- 
 lation of the outside world. These primitive 
 forces [Urvernidgen) differ as to tenacity, 
 energy, and recepti^^tJ^ The psychical prod- 
 ucts caused by the action of external stimuli 
 on the primitive forces persist in consciousness 
 as "traces" (Spuren), which by their mani- 
 fold combinations in groups and series constitute 
 the mental life of the individual. The so-called 
 faculties of the older psychology, such as memory, 
 imagination, etc., Beneke, like Herbart, con- 
 sidered as mere abstractions. Memory, for 
 instance, has no real existence as a faculty apart 
 from concepts, but is simply the fundamental 
 quahty of tenacity inherent in the primitive 
 forces of the soul. Thus the old idea of " for- 
 mal disciphne " was shown to be no longer 
 tenal)le. 
 
 The genetic character of Beneke's psychology 
 made his system especially applicable to peda- 
 gogy, and it is therefore not surprising to find 
 that his influence on German teachers is ranked 
 second only to that of Herbart. Thus, Diester- 
 weg, the foremost Prussian educator of the 
 last century, as well as Dittes, who as director 
 of the Vienna " Paedagogium " did a great 
 work for education in Austria, were both ardent 
 admirers and followers of Beneke. 
 
 Beneke's works include, besides those men- 
 tioned above: Erfahrungseelenlehre als Grund- 
 lage alles Wissens ( Empirical Psychology as the 
 Foundation of all Knowledge, Berlin, 1820). 
 
 Grundlinien des natiirlichen Systems der prak- 
 lischen Philosophic (Principles of the Natural 
 System of Practical Philosophy, 3 vols. 1837-1841), 
 which the author considered as his most success- 
 ful work. 
 
 Grumllegung zur Physik der Silten (Foundation 
 towards a Physics of Morals, 1882) ; Psychologische 
 Skizzen (Psychologiad Sketches, 2 vols. 1833); 
 Grundlehren der Sittenlehre (Foundation of Ethics, 
 1836). 
 
 System der Metaphysik und Religions-philoso- 
 phic (1840); System der Log ik (2 vols. 1842); and 
 Pragmatische Psychologie, oder Seelenlehre in der 
 Anwendung auf das Leben (Psychology Applied to 
 Life, 2 vols. 1850). F. M. 
 
 References : — 
 Baldwin. Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology con- 
 
 taina a full bibliography. Vol. Ill, pt. 1. p. 116. 
 Brandt. Beneke the Man and His Philosophy, New York, 
 
 1895. 
 Hummel. Die Unterrichtslehre Benekes im Vergleich zur 
 
 Didaktik Herbarts. (1885.) 
 Raue, G. Dr. F. E. Beneke's Neue Seelenlehre 
 
 (Mainz, 1876.) 
 
 BENNETT COLLEGE, GREENSBORO, 
 
 N.C. — An institution founded in 1873 under 
 the auspices of the Freedman's Aid Society of 
 the Methodist Episcopal Church and supported 
 by that society and the North Carolina Annual 
 Conference for the education of negro boys and 
 girls. Pupils may enter from the public 
 schools. Primary, preparatory, collegiate, 
 normal, and music departments are maintained. 
 The majority of the pupils are in the primary 
 and preparatory departments. Degrees are 
 conferred. There is a faculty of 12 instructors. 
 Silas A. Perler, A.M., D.D., is the president. 
 
 BENT-IRON -WORK. 
 
 IN THE Schools. 
 
 See Metal Work 
 
 BENTHAM, JEREMY (1748-1832). — Pub- 
 licist, utilitarian philosopher, and reformer of 
 English law and eclucational administration ; son 
 of a wealthy London attorney ; a precocious child ; 
 educated at Westminster and Queen's College, 
 Oxford; called to the Bar at Lincoln's Inn, 1817; 
 devoted himself to the scientific study of 
 jurisprudence; published in 1776 anonymously 
 his Fragment on Government, an attack on the 
 point of view of Sir William Blackstone, whose 
 lectures he had attended at the Univ'crsity of 
 Oxford. The pubhcation of this work led to 
 his intimacy with Lord Shelburne, which intro- 
 duced him to circles of influence and raised 
 him from a depressing feeling of impotence 
 and humiliation. In 1789 he published his 
 Introduction to the Principles of Morals and 
 Legislation, in which he expounded the prin- 
 ciple of utility in its bearings upon conduct 
 and public law. He distinguished himself as a 
 reformer of prison discipline and as an acute 
 critic of obsolete fictions and erroneous psy- 
 chological presuppositions in English law. 
 Indirectly, through the labors of his followers, 
 among whom should be mentioned John Mill 
 (q.v.) and Francis Place (q.v.), he had a penetrat- 
 ing influence upon English politics and upon the 
 spirit of English social legislation, including that 
 which dealt with educational questions. Di- 
 rectly, he helped in achieving three educational 
 changes of great importance in English history: 
 (1) He led the opposition to religious tests 
 at the older universities by a pamphlet, Swear 
 not at all, printed in 1813, published 1817. 
 
 363
 
 BENTON HARBOR COLLEGE 
 
 BERKELEY DIVINITY SCHOOL 
 
 (2) In 1816 he publisliod ChreMamalhia, a plan 
 for secondary education which gave physical 
 science a prominent place and attacked the 
 supremacy of the classical languages. By this 
 work he turned the thoughts of many liberal 
 educational reformers towards a one-sided and 
 narrow conception of secondary education. 
 
 (3) In 1827 he devised a detailed plan for 
 requiring every candidate for an official posi- 
 tion under tJovernment to pass a competitive 
 examination in certain branches of knowledge 
 bearing upon their future work. This plan 
 (many of the details of which are grotesque 
 and disregardful of many important conditions 
 of sound education) led ultimately to the appli- 
 cation of the principle of oi)('n competition to 
 the selection of candidates for the Indian and 
 Home Civil Services under the British Govern- 
 ment. Bentham's ideas on public instruction 
 were to some extent derived from his study of 
 French revolutionary writers. His influence 
 was both destructive and constructive, and 
 from both [loints of view of the highest impor- 
 tance. He and his followers destroyed the 
 prestige of much of the old tradition in English 
 education and government, and by their acute 
 criticisms and administrative industry cleared 
 the ground of much that was obsolete, ineffec- 
 tive, and obstructively incompetent. On the 
 other hand, by challenging many of the prin- 
 ciples which underlay the older plan of English 
 education and government, they forced their 
 opponents to reconsider their position and by 
 internal reform to renew the vitality of much 
 which Bentham would have swept away. 
 Moreover, the inner tendency of Bentham's 
 doctrine was towards a great strengthening of 
 the bureaucratic power of the central adminis- 
 tration in the service of a democratic electorate. 
 This side of Bentham's influence was especially 
 marked in his disciple, Edwin Chadwick. 
 
 M. E. S. 
 References : — 
 Atkinsox, C. M. Jeremy Bcnthmn, His Life and Work, 
 
 (London, 1905.) 
 Be.vtha.m. Jeremy. Chrestomathia. (1816 and 1817.) 
 Constitutional Code. (1827.) 
 Swear not at all. (1813 and 1817.) 
 Dictionary of National Biography. 
 
 Redlich. Jo.seph, and Hirst. F. W. Local Govern- 
 ment in England, esporially Vol. I. (London, 1903.) 
 Stephen, Leslie. The English Utilitarians. Vol. I. 
 (London, 1900.) 
 
 BENTON HARBOR COLLEGE, BENTON 
 HARBOR, MICH. ~- Founded in lNS(i, this 
 institution provides educational facilities from 
 the kindergarten to the college, and includes 
 akso normal, fine arts, and musical depart- 
 ments. Preparation is given for state cer- 
 tificate examination and for the universities. 
 There are 16 instructors on the faculty. 
 
 (1829-1848), and twice state superintendent of 
 public instruction in Iowa (1848-1854 and 
 18.58-1861); he was also prominently identified 
 with the educational associations of Iowa and 
 the professional journals of the State. 
 
 W. S. M. 
 
 BEREA COLLEGE, BEREA, KY. — A co- 
 educational institution founded in 1855 by 
 antislavory Kentuckians wlio favored freedom 
 regardless of sectarian differences. The board 
 of trustees includes representatives of all 
 denominations. Model school, industrial, 
 academic, normal, collegiate, and music de- 
 partments are maintained. The academy 
 course gives instruction in business, farming, 
 and domestic science subjects and prepares 
 for college. The entrance requirements to the 
 college vary somewhat with the course to be 
 pursued, but about 15 units are necessary to 
 take up the classical, 8 the literary, and 12 the 
 scientific courses. Degrees are conferred in 
 the college and normal departments which also 
 prepare for county and state certificates and 
 diplomas. The institution maintains separate 
 work, as required by state law, for colored 
 persons. There are 13 professors and a large 
 number of instructors and teachers. Rev. 
 Wm. Goodell Frost, Ph.D., D.D., LL.D., is 
 the president. 
 
 BERENGARIUS. — Born at Tours c. 1000, 
 a pupil of Fulbert of Chartrcs, who had in turn 
 been the pupil of Gerbert. He was a profound 
 student of logic, and is credited with the dis- 
 tinction between the study of the ar^s■ of gram- 
 mar and logic and the mere study of authors. 
 Accordingly, he spurned the authority of 
 Donatus {q.v.), Priscian [q.v.), and Boethius 
 iq.v.). He entered into a controversy with 
 Lanfranc, Berengarius attacking the doctrine 
 of transubstantiation, and Lanfranc defending 
 it. In this controversy the position of Beren- 
 garius was founded on the nominalistic doctrine. 
 Berengarius became a canon of Tours, and 
 preceptor of the School of St. Martin; and 
 afterwards would ajipear to have been teaching 
 at the cathedral school at Angers as gramma- 
 ticus rather than .sr/io/o.sh'cM.s. He was several 
 times compelled to retract his tenets only to 
 return to them again. The greater number of 
 his works are lost, but the De Sacra Cocna and 
 others mav be found in Migne. Berengarius 
 died on January 6, 1088. P. R. C. 
 
 References : ■■ — 
 Migne. Pat. Lat. CLXXVIII. 
 R.\SHD.\LL, Univer.-iities of Europe in the Middle Ages. 
 
 (Oxford, 1895.) 
 S.iNDYs. History of Classical Scholarship. (Cam- 
 bridge, 1903-190S.) 
 
 BENTON, THOMAS HART, JR. (1816- BERKELEY DIVINITY SCHOOL, MID- 
 
 1879). — Schoolman, educated at Huntington DLETOWN, CONN. — An iu.stitution for 
 Academy and at Marion (Mo.) College; he tiic training of ministers for the Episcopalian 
 was principal of a seminary at Dubuque, Iowa Church. Chartered and located in its present 
 
 364
 
 BERKELEY 
 
 BERKELEY 
 
 position in 1S54 to continue a theological de- 
 partment organized at Trinity College. No 
 student is admitted unless he has become a 
 candidate for holy orders according to the 
 Canons and has satisfied the requirements for 
 admission. The degree of Bachelor of Divinity 
 is granted on the completion of the course to 
 students who fulfill the necessary requirements. 
 There are 6 professors and 4 instructors on the 
 faculty. The Rt. Rev. Chauncey Bruce Brew- 
 ster, D.D., is the president. 
 
 BERKELEY, GEORGE. — Born at Kil- 
 erinin, Ireland, March 12, 1684, a man who 
 stood alone in his day as a tj'pe of the perfect 
 philosophical spirit of calm reasonableness, is as 
 interesting for his sojourn in America and his 
 efforts for the betterment of colonial education 
 as for his system of idealistic philosophy. 
 Educated at the Ormond School in Kilkenny, 
 and later at Trinity College, Dubhn, he became 
 chaplain to the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland and 
 afterwards to the Earl of Peterborough in Italy. 
 He became Dean of Derry in 1724. Seven of 
 the best years of his life and the greater part 
 of his private fortune were devoted to the cher- 
 ished scheme of the establishment of a college 
 in America for the education of the Indian 
 youth. Berkeley's proposals were published 
 in 1725, and their novel and philanthropic 
 character not only attracted great public 
 interest in England but induced 3 Oxford 
 fellows to accompany him on the necessary 
 expedition. A charter was given him for 
 " Erecting a college, by name St. Paul's, in 
 Bermuda, with a president and nine fellows, to 
 maintain and educate Indian scholars, at the 
 rate of ten pounds a year, George Berkeley to 
 be the first president, and his companions 
 from Trinity College the fellows." At this 
 time Swift wrote to the Lord Lieutenant of Ire- 
 land: " I do humbly entreat your excellency 
 either to use such persuasions as will keep one 
 of the first men of the kingdom for learning and 
 genius at home, or assist him by your credit to 
 compass his romantic design." The death of 
 the king before the signature of the charter, 
 and the unwiUingness of Walpole to undertake 
 the proposed expenditure of £20,000 on behalf 
 of so apparently Utopian a venture, at length 
 compelled the philosopher to return, his work 
 unfulfilled. In fact he never reached Bermuda, 
 but the vessel which carried him apparently 
 made Newport, R.I., by mistake. Here in 
 1704 he established himself, his principal duty 
 for two months being to attend on pirates about 
 to be executed. He became connected with 
 one of the Trustees of Yale College, to which 
 he gave generous donations, including a splen- 
 did library of 1000 volumes, until then the best 
 America had known. Berkeley also became 
 interested in the development of Harvard 
 College, and the project of the foundation 
 of Columbia College. His " ideal theory " 
 need not be discussed in this place; but is best 
 
 outlined in his own words. " The behef in an 
 exterior material world is false and inconsistent 
 with itself; those things which are called sensible, 
 material objects, are not external, but exist in 
 the mind by the immediate act of God, accord- 
 ing to certain rules, termed laws of nature, 
 from which He never deviates; and the steady 
 adherence of the Supreme Spirit to these rules 
 is what constitutes the reality of things to his 
 creatures; and so effectually distinguishes the 
 ideas perceived by sense from such as are the 
 work of the mind itself, or of dreams, and there 
 is no more danger of confounding them to- 
 gether on this hypothesis than that of the exist- 
 ence of matter." P. R. C. 
 
 References: — 
 
 Berkeley. Works. (London, 1820; Oxford, 1871 ; 
 London, 1S!:I7-1S98 ; Oxford, 1901.) Treatise con- 
 cerning the Principles of Human Knowledge. (Phil. 
 1890.) 
 
 Fraser. Berkeley. (Edinburgh, 1881.) 
 
 TUCKER.M.1NN. Biographical Essays, p. 238-266, 1857. 
 
 BERKELEY, KATHARINE, LADY (c. 1320- 
 
 1385). — As the first woman who is known to 
 have founded a grammar school, "Katerin," 
 Lady Berkeley, deserves remembrance. The 
 daughter of Sir John Clyvedon, Kt., and the 
 Lady Emma, his wife, who was first married 
 to Sir Peter Veel, a Gloucestershire knight, who 
 died in 1343. Four years afterwards. May 31, 
 1347, she married, as his second wife, Thomas 
 III, Lord Berkeley of Berkeley Castle, Glouces- 
 tershire. " She was fruitful to her husband 
 both in lands and children," bringing him 
 among other manors one called Veelham, alias 
 Ham- Veel, a happy conjunction. In less than 
 five years she had four sons, three of whom, 
 however, died in infancy, but the youngest, 
 John, became the founder of a new family of 
 
 Berkelevs. Lord Berkelev died Oct. 
 
 1361. 
 
 His widow survived him 24 years, dying March 
 13, 1385. She founded the Chantry and Free 
 Grammar School of Wootton-under-Edge, 
 where she mainly lived, on July, 1 1384, about 
 two years after the foundation of Winchester 
 College. Almost in William of Wykeham's 
 words she says that " considering the intention 
 and desire of many to be taught and to study 
 grammar, which is the foundation of the rest 
 of the liberal arts, is too often prevented by 
 poverty, therefore for the exaltation of the 
 Christian faith, which is in no small measure 
 increased by men of deep learning in such 
 sciences," she founded a School-house or House 
 of Scholars of one master and two poor " schol- 
 ars clerks,'' who are to live college- wise together, 
 and incorporated them as a college. Statutes 
 annexed provided that the master should act 
 as chaplain in St. Katharine's Chapel at the 
 manor-house when she was living there, and, 
 otherwise, celebrate mass in the parish church 
 for her and her two husbands' souls and the 
 lords of Berkeley, and also " keep school faith- 
 fully in the school house, and receive kindly all 
 scholars, wherever they come from to learn 
 
 365
 
 BERLIN 
 
 BERNE 
 
 grammar, without exacting, claiming; or taking 
 any advantage or gain for his pains." The 
 two " sciiolars eh-rks " were to be admitted at 10 
 years ohl and stay for 6 years. Liiieral holi- 
 days were provided: a fortnight at Christmas, 
 a week at Easter and Whitsuntide, anil fi weeks 
 from August 1 to September 1.5. At tlio disso- 
 lution of chantries in 1547, the school is called 
 the " Vele Fre Scole," after the founder's first 
 husband, and the endowment was .stated to 
 be £17.15.2, of which the master got £10.1.74, 
 or Is. 7\d. more than the headmasters of 
 Winchester and Eton. The school escaped 
 dissolution by the influence of Lord Berkeley, 
 and still flourishes, the endowment bringing in 
 £330 a year. In 1900 it was, very ai)pro- 
 priately, made a mixed grammar and science 
 school, for girls as well as boys, to the number 
 of 70. A. F. L. 
 
 References: — 
 
 Smyth, John. Lives of IheBerkeleys, Vol.1, p. 346. (10,39.) 
 Victoria Countv History, Gloucestershire Schools, 
 
 Vol. II. p. .306. 
 Worcestrr Kpisr. Register, Wakofiold, f. 4S. 
 
 BERLIN, THE ROYAL FREDERICK WIL- 
 HELM UNIVERSITY OF. — The prelimi- 
 nary history of the University of Berlin goes 
 back to the closing years of the eighteenth 
 century, but no serious steps looking toward 
 the establishment of an institution of higher 
 learning were taken until the beginning of the 
 following century. In 1807 a delegation was 
 sent by the faculty of the University of Halle 
 to Berlin and requested the royal sanction for 
 a removal of their institution to the Prussian 
 capital. Their petition was not granted, 
 however, as the Prussian authorities preferred 
 to establish a new and independent university 
 in the capital. This latter proposal encoun- 
 tered decided opposition at the University of 
 Frankfort-on-the-Oder, which feared the com- 
 petition of so near a rival, as well as, in certain 
 quarters, of the Academy of Science. The 
 opposition was ignored by the authorities, and 
 a series of lectures was inaugurated in the winter 
 of 1809, this being the reason why the latter 
 date is frequently given as the year of founda- 
 tion. The university was not formally opened 
 until the following year, Wilhelm von Hum- 
 boldt (q.v.), at that time Prussian minister of 
 education, being primarily responsible for its 
 earliest development. It was named the Royal 
 Frederick William University, in honor of its 
 founder. King Frederick William III of Prussia, 
 who approved the statutes of the institution in 
 1816. Berlin is, therefore, with the exception 
 of the universities of Bonn (1818) and of 
 Munich (1826), the youngest university in the 
 German Empire. During the first year it had 
 58 instructors and 256 students; to-day it is 
 the largest and most prominent institution of 
 higher learning in Germany, comprising facul- 
 ties of theology, law, medicine, and philosophy, 
 as well as schools of agriculture, pharmacy, and 
 
 dentistry. The Berlin technological school, 
 located at Charlottenburg, is not a part of the 
 university proper. Independent of the uni- 
 versity, but closely associated with it, are the 
 Royal Academy of Science, established in 
 1700, the Institute for Contagious Diseases, 
 a geodetic institute, an astrophysical observa- 
 tory at Potsdam, a meteorological institute 
 with headquarters in Berlin, a meteorological- 
 magnetic observatory in Potsdam, and an 
 aeronautic observatory at Tegel. Tlie library 
 of the university is comparatively small, 
 containing only about 200,000 volumes, the 
 chief facilities in this direction being fur- 
 nished by the Royal Library, which contains 
 over a million volumes as well as a large and 
 valuable collection of manuscripts. No other 
 German university is so richly endowed with 
 " institutes," seminars, clinics, and similar 
 organizations, among which the seminar for 
 Oriental languages (leserves special mention. 
 It was opened in 1887, and performs a practical 
 mission, being intended for the traiinng of 
 young men in preparation for foreign service. 
 The course of study includes instruction in 
 Chinese, Japanese, Arabic, Persian, Turkish, 
 various African dialects, etc. Of special inter- 
 est and of practical value to foreign students 
 is the bureau of information {Akademische 
 AuskunJlxatcUe) under the direction of Professor 
 Wilhelm Paszkowski. The annual expenditures 
 amount approximately to .§1,000,000. In spite 
 of the fact that the university is located in the 
 metropolis of the empire, there is no lack of 
 social student organizations, a considerable 
 number of Corps ((/.!'.), Burschenschaflen (q.v.), 
 Landsnintinschaften Uj.v.), and similar societies 
 being represented. Both Harvard University 
 and Columbia University support exchange 
 professorships at the University of Berlin, that 
 of the latter institution being known as the 
 Theodore Roosevelt professorship of American 
 history and institutions. Among the promi- 
 nent names associated with the university are 
 those of Wilhelm von Humboldt, Jakob and 
 Wilhelm Grimm, Bopp, Scherer, Lachmann, 
 Miillenhoff, Hegel, Fiehte, Trendelenburg, 
 Paulsen, Ranke, Mommsen, Treitschke, Droy- 
 sen, Niebuhr, Gneist, Virchow, Ehrenberg, 
 Helmholtz, Kirchhoff, Dubois-Reymond, and a 
 host of others. During the winter semester of 
 1909-1910 the enrollment included 9242 ma- 
 triculated students, distributed as follows: 
 theology 367, law 2.512, medicine 1646, and 
 philosophy 4717; of these 032 were women. 
 There were also in attendance on the univer- 
 sitv proper 1077 auditors, giving a total 
 registration of 10,319. R. T. 
 
 Reference: — 
 W.\GNER, A. H. G. Die Enlwickelung der Univcrsiliit 
 Berlin 1810-1896. (Berlin, 1896.) 
 
 BERNE, THE CANTONAL UNIVERSITY 
 OF SWITZERLAND. — Established as a uni- 
 versity in 1834, although an institution of higher 
 
 366
 
 BERYTUS 
 
 BESANCON 
 
 learning had been in existence in the Swiss 
 capital for over three centuries. It was as 
 early as 1528 that, through the influence of the 
 Reformation, the Zwingli school in Berne was 
 supplemented by a gj'mnasium, the higher 
 grades of which constituted a sort of philo- 
 sophical and theological academy. During the 
 eighteenth century chairs were also established 
 for law, medicine, and the natural sciences. 
 The work of the institution naturally suffered 
 severe interruptions during the Revolution, 
 but in 1805 a new, albeit modest, start was 
 made with all four faculties, resulting ultimately, 
 in 1834, in the formal establishment of the 
 university. During the years from 1846 to 
 1854 the life of the institution again hung in the 
 balance, but it issued safely from its period of 
 storm and stress, and has since experienced 
 a gradual and healthy development. As at 
 present constituted, the university includes 
 faculties of Protestant and Catholic theology, 
 law, medicine and veterinary medicine, and 
 philosophy. In 1905 the library of the univer- 
 sity was consolidated with that of the muni- 
 cipality, numbering at present 200,000 volumes 
 and a number of valuable manuscripts. The 
 Swiss national library {Landesbibliothek), 
 founded in 1895 and located in Berne, contains 
 a valuable collection of Helvetica from the time 
 of the foundation of the new confederation in 
 1848, the earlier material being deposited in 
 Lucerne. The expenditures of the university 
 amount to about $175,000 annually. During 
 the winter semester of 1909-1910 there were in 
 attendance 1626 men and 345 women, among 
 whom there were a considerable number of 
 Russians; 536 auditors were enrolled. R .T. 
 
 BERYTUS, THE SCHOOL OF. — " Berytus, 
 the foster-mother of law," was from thethird cen- 
 tury A.D., if not earlier, the seat of a celebrated 
 school of law. Originally the training of the 
 orator and the training of the advocate were the 
 same. The general principles of argumentation 
 and the power of effective pleading were at finst 
 the things most necessary for the lawyer to 
 acquire. These were provided in the sophistic 
 (i.e. oratorical) school, in which the prepara- 
 tion of fictitious cases based on those of actual 
 occurrence formed an important part of the 
 school discipline. For the rest, for the actual 
 citation of the clauses of the law, the orator 
 depended upon the services of one versed in the 
 law books. Gradually the technical side of the 
 suijjcct came to the fore, and then schools of 
 law arose. The fir.st mention of Berytus as a 
 law school' dates from the fourth decade of the 
 third century. Until well into the fourth cen- 
 tury, however, the prospective law .student 
 often took a preliminary course in sophistry. 
 In the second half of the fourth century this 
 practice probalily became less and less common. 
 
 When .Justinian, in 529, issued his rescript 
 closing the schools of philosophy and law at 
 Athens, he restricted the study of jurisprudence 
 
 in the East to Constantinople and Berytus. 
 At about the same time he reorganized the 
 course of study in the schools, and, apparently, 
 changed the length of the course from four j'ears 
 to five. Before this time the instruction had 
 been in considerable confu.sion. For the most 
 part selections only from a limited number of 
 books had been read, and these often with little 
 regard for the proper order of the subjects 
 studied. The instruction had been based in the 
 main on the Institutes of Gains, Hadrian's 
 Perpetual Edict, the Responsa of Papinian, 
 and the Responsa of Paulus. In the fourth 
 year the student had attended no lectures, but 
 had been supposed to read by himself. From 
 the time of Justinian, the new codifications of 
 that emperor were made the basis of study, 
 while much more was read, and read in logical 
 sequence. In the first year the Institutes and 
 the so-called Trpwra (Bks. I-IV) of the Pan- 
 dects were read; in the second, third, and 
 fourth years the Pandects were continued, and 
 in the third year the Responsa of Papinian were 
 also taken up; the fifth year was devoted to the 
 Codex. Each of the 5 classes of students had 
 a distinctive name: the Freshmen, called up to 
 this time Dupondii (" Two-Pounders "), now 
 received the name of Justiniani novi (New 
 Justinians) ; second-year men were Edictales 
 (students of the Edict); third- year men, Papi- 
 nianistae (students of the works of Papinian) ; 
 fourth-year men, AvVat (a name of uncertain 
 signification) ; fifth-year men, Prolijtae. The 
 duty of seeing that the new regulations of the 
 school were carried out was assigned to the 
 Governor of Phoenicia, the Bishop of Berytus, 
 and the professors of the school. 
 
 According to a regulation of Diocletian, stu- 
 dents were not allowed to attend the law school 
 at Berytus beyond the age of 25. The hazing 
 of students, especially of newcomers, and 
 the playing of practical jokes upon the profes- 
 sors, had been of common occurrence up to the 
 time of Justinian, but that emperor forbade all 
 such practices for the future. The number of 
 professors at Berytus was probably 4, but 
 there were, besides these, several assistants. 
 In 554 Berytus was destroyed by an earthquake, 
 and the law school was demohshed, many 
 students perishing in the ruins. While the 
 city was being rebuilt, the professors lectured 
 in the neighboring town of Sidon. 
 
 J. W. H. W. 
 
 See L'xivERSiTiES. 
 
 Reference: — 
 
 Walden, J. W. H. The Universities of Ancient Greece, 
 (New York, 1909.) 
 
 BESANgON, UNIVERSITY OF. — This 
 institution had a chequered history. A bull 
 was obtained in 1450 for the erection of a 
 stadium generate in arts only, owing to the exist- 
 ence of other faculties at the neighboring 
 University of Dole. The bull was, however, 
 not carried out. In 1480 the King issued 
 
 367
 
 BESANT 
 
 BETHANY COLLEGE 
 
 letters patent transferring the University of 
 Dole to Besangon, but revoked them in 1483. 
 The University of Dole was revived, and another 
 attempt was made in the next century by 
 Besan<;on to secure the privilege. It was not 
 until 1091 that this met with success. In 1793 
 the University of Besangon was supjiresscd and 
 was not reestablished until 1896. The univer- 
 sity includes faculties of sciences, letters, medi- 
 cine, and pharmacy. In 1909 285 students 
 were enrolled in the various faculties. 
 See Fr.wce, Education in; Uni\'eksities. 
 
 BESANT, SIR WALTER (1836-1901).— 
 English novelist and ])hilanthropist, born in 
 1836 at Portsea, England. He attended a 
 small private school at Southsea, on leaving 
 which he says, " I had less Latin and Greek than 
 at twelve, but I suppose I knew more real gram- 
 mar." Mathematics was the only subject 
 well taught. From this school he went to 
 King's College. During this time he took great 
 pleasure in walking round London. His chief 
 impression at this period was of the tempta- 
 tions which beset the lonely students. In 1855 
 he entered Christ's College, Cambridge, which 
 had all the advantages of a small college in 
 offering opportunities for forming friendships, 
 but on the educational side was subjected to 
 severe criticism. One of his intimate friends was 
 the classical scholar and wit, C. S. Calverley. 
 At Cambridge he studied mathematics, and 
 obtained a place among the wranglers. He left 
 the university with the intention of taking or- 
 ders, and on this condition accepted an appoint- 
 ment to teach in Leamington College. As the 
 period of ordination came near, he grew restless, 
 and accepted the offer of a professorship in 
 Mauritius, where he remained from 1861 to 
 1867. On his return he was appointed Secre- 
 tary of the Society for the Systematic and 
 Scientific Exploration of Palestine. He now 
 entered on that career which has given him a 
 place in English literature. His contribution 
 to education and philanthropic causes are not 
 so well known. He renewed his interest in 
 London at this time, and particularly with the 
 East End. Out of this grew his book. All Sorts 
 and Conditions of Men (1880-1881), which 
 led to the foundation of the People's Palace 
 (q.v.), an institution, as Besant hoped, where 
 organized recreation, orderly amusement, and 
 intellectual and artistic culture might be 
 offered to the poor. When a polytechnic was 
 added and the original objects were not being 
 carried out by the Draper's Company, who 
 took over the in.stitution, Besant resigned 
 from the committee. In another book, the 
 Children of Gibeon, the author drew attention 
 to the widespread evils of sweating, and may in 
 some measure have contributed to ameliora- 
 tion. He further took a strong and abiding 
 interest in girls' and lads' clubs in the East 
 End. At the suggestion of Charles G. Leland 
 (Hans Breitmann) (q.v.), who had organized 
 
 evening manual arts schools in Philadelphia, 
 Besant formed the Home Arts Association, 
 which attracted considerable attention and 
 support. Under its able secretary, Miss Annie 
 Dymes, the association soon had 500 schools 
 at work. The organization of employment 
 bureaus for women, ragged schools, and con- 
 tinuation schools received the support of 
 Besant, who contributed articles on the last 
 two movements to the Contemporary Review. In 
 one of these articles, " From Fourteen to 
 Seventeen," he strongly advocated the estab- 
 lishment of evening continuation schools, but 
 deprecated the provision of free education in 
 all subjects at the expense of the ratepayers. 
 In that great educational movement which 
 took place in England during the last 20 years 
 of the nineteenth century Besant took his part 
 as the stanch friend of the poor and submerged 
 classes. 
 
 References: — 
 
 Besant, Sir Walter. Autobiography. (New York, 
 
 l'J02.) 
 Forum. Vol. 34, p. 150. 
 Nineteenth Century, 27, 344. 
 
 BESSIE TIFT COLLEGE, FORSYTH, GA. 
 
 — Founded in 1847 as Monroe College, an insti- 
 tution for girls and young women. Prepara- 
 tory, college, musical, and industrial depart- 
 ments are maintained. About three years' high 
 school work is required from those who enter 
 by examination; certificates of accredited 
 schools arc accepted. Degrees in the literary 
 and musical courses are conferred. There are 
 22 instructors on the faculty. 
 
 BETHANY COLLEGE, BETHANY, WEST 
 VIRGINIA. — A coeducational institution, es- 
 tablished in 1841 by Alexander Campbell, the 
 founder of the sect known as the " Disciples of 
 Christ," " Christian Church," or " Campbel- 
 lites." The college claims to be the parent of 
 the other educational institutions of this sect, 
 including Kentucky University (q.v.), Lexing- 
 ton, Kentucky. The catalogue of 1907 urges 
 Disciples of Christ to support Bethany Col- 
 lege as a Disciples' College; but that of 
 1909 omits this statement and describes the 
 institution as " nonsectarian but broadly 
 Christian." Besides the usual undergraduate 
 courses, the college maintains a preparatory 
 school, a normal school giving the degree of 
 Bachelor of Pedagogy, a commercial depart- 
 ment, departments of music and art, and a 
 Department of Ministerial Education, giving 
 degrees of M.A., and Bachelor of Biblical 
 Literature. The college is said to have been for 
 a long time the only one in the United States 
 using the Bible as a textbook. The Board of 
 Trustees, of 33 members, is self-perpetuating; 
 the trustees go out of office each year, the 
 remaining trustees choosing the successors. 
 Twenty-eight of the trustees were (1906) mem- 
 bers of the Disciples of Christ. There are 6 
 
 368
 
 iiHiiliiiiiiiiiliiiiiim:!:' 
 
 l iVI I I I I I II'TT Tlii^riiiMl mm^iii ||ii |||| i 
 
 (/ : luMi .n:y,irLi> ,.1, ...i .■...-.... 
 
 E.^ I .1/1.1 i-.ii iittf- t.-j /'.-.niA- ^.'f^itt.. 
 
 ''^^^^TIIIflTIg'' 
 
 ,ny 
 
 ThoiiKis Aciuitias (c. 1225-1274J. (.See p. 102.) 
 
 Autoiuo .\ruuuld (1012-1G94). (.See p. 21S.; 
 
 Tbi-odurc Beza (1519-10U.5). (,Seu p. iiU'J.) Thomas Campanella (1508-1639). (See p. 512.) 
 
 A Group of Theologi.a.ns — Leaders in Education.
 
 BETHANY COLLEGE 
 
 BHASKARA 
 
 buildings, valued (1906), with grounds and 
 equipment, at $345,000. The total annual 
 income was $24,500. The average salary of a 
 professor is $975. A mine on the campus pro- 
 vides coal. There are (1909) 17 members on 
 the instructing staff, of whom 14 are full pro- 
 fessors; the college has 296 students. Thomas 
 E. Cramblet, LL.D., is president of both College 
 and Board of Trustees. C. G. 
 
 BETHANY COLLEGE, LINDSBORG, 
 KA.NS. — A coeducational institution, founded 
 in 1881 and placed under the charge of the 
 Kansas Conference of the Augustana Synod in 
 the following year. Beginning as an academy 
 and passing through the stage of a normal 
 institute, the present title was adopted a few 
 years ago. Graduate, collegiate, normal, fine 
 arts, business, law, academic, and model school 
 departments are maintained. Students are 
 admitted to the college cither by certificate 
 from an accredited high school or by examina- 
 tion requiring approximately 12 points. The 
 school of education or normal department is 
 open to those who already hold a state certificate, 
 or by an examination in the common school 
 subjects. A three years' state certificate is 
 given to graduates who complete the 4-year 
 course in the school of education. Degrees 
 are conferred in the collegiate and graduate 
 departments. There are 10 professors, 27 
 in.structors, and 5 assistants on the faculty. 
 
 BETHEL COLLEGE, NEWTON, KANS. — 
 
 Founded in 1893 by the Meunonites of North 
 America. Students of good character are ad- 
 mitted and graded according to their qualifica- 
 tions. Academic, collegiate, fine arts, and 
 commercial departments are maintained. Two 
 years of college work are given at present. 
 There are 8 professors and 5 instructors on the 
 faculty. Rev. David Goerz is the president. 
 
 BETHEL COLLEGE, RUSSELLVILLE, 
 
 KY. — Organized as the Bethel High School in 
 1852 by the Baptists Association of South- 
 western Kentucky, becoming a college in 1854. 
 It is now part of the Baptist Education Society 
 of Kentucky. Preparatory and collegiate work 
 is given. Approximately 10 points of high 
 school work are necessary for admission to the 
 college. Courses leading to the degrees of 
 Bachelor of Arts and Bachelor of Science are 
 offered. In 1908-1909 there were 26 students in 
 the college. There are 7 professors, 2 assist- 
 ant professors, and 1 instructor on the faculty. 
 Florian David Perkins, A.B., is the president. 
 
 BETHEL FEMALE COLLEGE, HOPKINS- 
 
 VILLE, KY. — Founded in 18.54 as the Bethel 
 Female High School; present title adopted 
 in 1890. The majority of the trustees are 
 members of the regular Baptist Church. Liter- 
 ary, scientific, and music courses are offered. 
 Primary and preparatory departments are 
 
 maintained. Admission requirements to the 
 college are not definitely stated. Degrees are 
 conferred. There is a faculty of 9 in.structors. 
 Edward Harrison, LL.D., is the president. 
 
 BEVAN, BRIDGET. — See Circulating 
 Charity Schools and Charity Schools. 
 
 BEZA, THEODORUS. — A reformer who 
 shared with Calvin the burden of the Reforma- 
 tion movement in Geneva. Born in 1519 at 
 Vezclay, in Burgundy. He was carefully edu- 
 cated by his uncle, first at Paris, and afterwards 
 under Melchior Wolmar at Orleans and Bourges. 
 He studied law at Orleans, and took his degree 
 as licentiate, although his own tastes were 
 more literary than legal. A subsequent life 
 in Paris, not free from irregularities, but not 
 marked by gro.ss excesses, was terminated by 
 an illness which recalled the teachings of his 
 tutor, who had been a member of the Reformed 
 Church. Beza then departed to Geneva, 
 married, and adopted the Reformed faith. He 
 became professor of Greek at Lausanne, and 
 attracted a large following by his lectures on 
 the Epistle to the Romans and the Epistles of 
 Peter. Beza did signal service to the cause of 
 reform by his wonderfully successful transla- 
 tions of the Psalms, as well as his editions and 
 translations of the New Testament; and his 
 noble birth caused him to be repeatedly chosen 
 as an ambassador for the Reformed Church. 
 He approved of the punishment of heretics as 
 civil offenders, and in particular of the mon- 
 strous execution of Servetus, which was engi- 
 neered by his friend and ally Calvin, whose 
 biographer he became. On Calvin's death in 
 1564 the conduct of the church at Geneva 
 devolved principally on Beza, who retained his 
 full energies to the year 1600, and died in 1605, 
 at the age of 86. In addition to his purely 
 theological works, Beza may have been the 
 author of an admirable Ecclesiastical History 
 of the Reformed Churches of France, which 
 appeared at Antwerp in 1580. He presented 
 an uncial manuscript of the New Testament 
 known as the Codex Beza: to the University 
 of Cambridge, and published short treatises 
 on the correct pronunciation of the Greek and 
 Latin languages in 1580 and 1587, and on the 
 pronunciation of French in 1584. P. R. C. 
 
 See Calvinism and Education. 
 
 References: — 
 
 Baird, H. M. Theodore Beza. (New York, 1899.) 
 Brieje. In Friedlander, Comp. Beitrdgc zur Reforma- 
 
 lionsgeschichte. pp. 125-203. (18-37.) 
 DouEN. Clement Marot et le psautier Huguenot, Vol. 1. 
 
 (1878-1879.) 
 Sandys. History of Classical Scholarship, (Cambridge, 
 
 1903-19US.) 
 
 BHASKARA (often called BHASKARA 
 ACARYAor BHASKARACARYA, i.e. Bhaskara 
 the Wise). — The fourth and best known of 
 the great Hindu teachers of mathematics. He 
 was born in 1114 a.d., at Biddur, or Bidae, a 
 
 vol. I — z B 
 
 369
 
 BIBELESWORTH 
 
 BIBLE IN THE SCHOOLS 
 
 city in the Decean, probably the modern 
 Bidar. He wrote several works on mathe- 
 matics and astronomy, the best known being 
 the Lilavali on arithmetic, the Rija Ganita on 
 algel)ra, and the Siromani on astronomy. The 
 Lilnmli was a profound work for its time, and 
 is still used in the East. By direction of Akbar 
 it was translated into Persian by Faizi in 1587, 
 and it has appeared in print in various editions. 
 It was translated into English bv Tavlor in 
 1816 and by Colebrooke in 1817. ' D. E. S. 
 
 BIBELESWORTH, WALTER DE (./?. 1270). 
 — We know little of this writer, who appears 
 to have been a Xorman tutor of children of 
 noble birth in England in the last quarter of the 
 thirteenth century. His name is, however, 
 important in the history of English education, 
 as he was the author of a textbook for teaching 
 Anglo-Xorman to children of the nobility. 
 This work was composed at the request of 
 Lady Dionysia de Monchensy of Swanscombe 
 in Kent. It was written in Anglo-Xorman, 
 with an interUned gloss in Latin and English. 
 This metrical work marks a stage in the use of 
 Anglo-Xorman in English schools. The use of 
 the tongue in the schools had begun to decay at 
 this date, as is known from the Oxford Univer- 
 sity Statute printed by Dr. H. Anstey in his 
 Muniinenta Acadcmica Oxon. (see pp. Ixx 
 and 438). The te.xt of Bibelesworth's book is 
 given in Mayer's Library of National Antiq- 
 uities (volume of vocabularies i, 142), edited by 
 Thomas Wright in 1857. There is a manu- 
 script of the work in the librarv of All Souls' 
 College, Oxford (Ms. 182), which (see Did. 
 Nat. Bing.) differs from the printed text both 
 in the Anglo-Xorman verse and in the accom- 
 panying English gloss. J. E. G. de M. 
 
 See Anglo-Xorm.\x Dialects. 
 
 BIBLE IN THE SCHOOLS. — England. — 
 
 Miles Coverdale's Translation of the Bible 
 into English was published in 1535. In 1536, 
 King Henry ^'IH was made Head of the Eng- 
 lish Church, and in 1.538 his Injunctions re- 
 quired a large copy of the Bible to be placed in 
 every church and exhorted every person to read 
 it. But it must not be supposed that Bible 
 reading reached the schools till much later. 
 There are the two instances of Winchester and 
 East Retford. In the Injunctions of the 
 Commissioners to Winchester College in 1547, 
 it was ordered that the Bible be read daily in 
 English "distinctly and apertly in the midst of 
 the hall after dinner every Sunday and Holy 
 Day" — for the space of one hour. Moreover, 
 the warden and schoolmasters in all lectures 
 and readings of profane authors were to " con- 
 fute by allegation of scriptures " all " sentences " 
 and opinions contrary to the Word of God. 
 The Statutes of East Retford grammar school 
 (15.52) require in the .second form the teaching 
 of the Scriptures old and new. 
 
 In the reign of Queen Mary (1553-1558) an 
 
 Inhibition prevailed against the Scriptures, 
 and no copies of an English Bible were allowed 
 to be printed. It is clear that the English 
 Bible had no position in the English schools till 
 after 1559, when Queen Elizabeth revived the 
 Injunction of 1547 authorizing the Bible and the 
 Paraphrases of Erasmus in English on the Gos- 
 pels to be placed in every church. It was after 
 the return of the exiles from Strassburg, Frank- 
 fort, and Geneva, that the veneration forthe Eng- 
 lish Bible set in, and affected the English schools. 
 English knowledge was brought into direct con- 
 tact with the Biblical education of the Continent, 
 which had gone on continuously from the pub- 
 lication of Luther's translation of the Bible 
 into German, the Xew Testament in 1522, and 
 the whole Bible in 1534. Similarly in Switzer- 
 land the Bible had become a schoolbook. The 
 Colloquies of Sebastian CasteUion (1543-1551) 
 were entirely devoted to a literary presentation 
 of Biblical stories for the schools, and the Col- 
 loquies of Corderius (q.v.) (1564) were per- 
 meated ii\ith a scriptural atmosphere, and the 
 introduction of both these Colloquies (q.v.) into 
 English schools served the double purpose of 
 teaching Latin and familiarizing pupils with 
 the Holy Scriptures. 
 
 Direct requirement of Bible teaching in the 
 schools must be traced in school orders and 
 statutes. Thus at Hartlebury (Worcestershire) 
 grammar school, 1565, the statutes require the 
 master and usher to instruct pupils in the 
 knowledge of God and His Holj- Word. At Riv- 
 ington (Lancashire) grammar school (1566), the 
 Bible was to be read on holidays and the long 
 winter nights and other idle times (the school 
 was to contain boarders). At St. Bees (Cum- 
 berland), 1583, the Xew Testament was to 
 be taught. At Heath (near Halifax, Yorkshire) 
 grammar school, c. 1600, the statutes require 
 chapters from the Bible to be read publicly, 
 daily. Thus the schools were directly in accord 
 viith the national consciousness, and as Puritan- 
 ism advanced in the seventeenth century, the 
 grammar schools were at their best as pronoun- 
 cedly religious and scriptural in aim as they were 
 classical. These two aims were easily com- 
 bined by the usage of the Latin and Greek Tes- 
 taments side by side with the English version. 
 For the illustration of the authoritative re- 
 quirements of Bible teaching, it is only necessary 
 to add that the Church Canons (1604) re- 
 quired schoolmasters should take the boys to 
 church on Sunday and Holy Days, where the 
 Bible was read, and on every other day to in.still 
 "such sentences of Holy Scripture as shall be 
 most expedient." Since every schoolmaster, 
 public or private, had to possess the Bishop's 
 license before he was allowed to teach, the 
 teaching of the Bible and catechism (q.v.) and 
 other Biblical instruction was officiallj'^ fully 
 provided for. John Brinsley (q.v.) in the 
 Ludus Literarius (1612) (chap, xxii) describes 
 the method of teaching Bible history in schools, 
 and recommends a textbook, — Eusebius 
 
 370
 
 BIBLE IN THE SCHOOLS 
 
 BIBLE IN THE SCHOOLS 
 
 Pagit's History of the Bible (briefly collected by 
 way of question and answer). The boys were 
 to read a page every night and to be exercised in 
 it in the manner of catechism teaching, and he 
 speaks of the "delight" children took in it. 
 
 Charles Hoole (in 1 660) , inevery form through- 
 out the grammar school, prescribes the read- 
 ing of a Latin or Greek chapter of tJie New 
 Testament. Every boy should take his turn in 
 reading in English a chapter before the whole 
 school. Questions are to be asked on what 
 has been read, and the boys are to be encouraged 
 to "pose " one another on it. The boys of the 
 whole form should carry a Mcmoriale Bihlicum 
 in their pocket, by which they may know in 
 what chapters to find any passage. 
 
 When the charity schools {q.v.) were estab- 
 lished at the beginning of the eighteenth century, 
 a textbook was designed for the multitudi- 
 nous schools (said to have reached later to 
 2000) by Dr. Talbot, called The Christian 
 Schoolmaster. The Bible curriculum included 
 the learning by heart of select Psalms. In- 
 stead of hymns they sang Psalms 95, 100, 98, 
 and 67. From the Psalter they proceeded to 
 the New Testament. Those who are " pretty 
 perfect " in reading are to learn, " in convenient 
 portions," the Sermon on the Mount. Some 
 are to be called on to give accounts of Christ's 
 miracles and parables (with the moral appli- 
 cations), and the "remarkable stories in the 
 historical books of the Old Testament. They 
 may read the Old Testament and learn by heart 
 select chapters of the Proverbs or Ecclesiastes 
 and other historical passages as chosen by their 
 masters." 
 
 In the nineteenth century the elementary 
 schools of England and Wales were chiefly 
 under the influence of the National Society 
 for Promoting the Education of the Poor in the 
 Principles of the Eistablished Church (q.v.) 
 (incorporated in 1817) and the British and 
 Foreign School Society (q.v.) (founded in 1813), 
 which was nonsectarian, but religious. Both 
 types of schools taught the Bible. In 1870, 
 the " School Board " system (q.v.), consisting of 
 members elected by the ratepayers ad hoc, 
 supplemented the previous supply of schools by 
 requiring schools to be erected by public author- 
 ities wherever the accommodation was deficient. 
 In schools established by "school boards" no 
 denominational religious teaching could be 
 given, but the Bible could be and ordinarily was 
 taught, though a child could claim exemption. 
 By the education act of 1902, which consolidated 
 the whole system of voluntary schools with 
 those established by the old school boards, so 
 as to bring all Public Elementary schools under 
 the county and municipal councils, substan- 
 tially the general teaching of the Bible in all 
 elementary schools is left untouched. A sec- 
 tion of the population is in favor of a solely 
 secular system (excluding the Bible from the 
 curriculum), whilst another section favors the 
 teaching of the Bible as a literary collection of 
 
 371 
 
 books. Meantime, the teachers as a v/hole, in 
 the English secondary and elementary schools, 
 continue Bible instruction, whilst the schools 
 which were formerly voluntary schools con- 
 tinue their denominational teaching (including 
 the Bible), but with a conscience clause in opera- 
 tion. 
 
 Germany. — Although religious instruction 
 formed part of the school curriculum in Ger- 
 many from a very early date, there is no evi- 
 dence that the use of the Bible was included. 
 The Commandments, the Creed, and the Pater- 
 noster, with a catechism, made up the religious 
 instruction. To this was added some knowl- 
 edge of the essentials of the church service. 
 In fact, it is very probable that the majority of 
 the priests had little knowledge of the Bible. 
 In the sixteenth century George of Anhalt 
 (1507-1553) was able to say, "So far as the 
 pastors and priests are concerned, it (the Bible) 
 would have been extinguished." At a later 
 period it became the policy of the Church to 
 restrict the Bible only to the priests. (See 
 fourth rule of Councifof Trent.) The Breth- 
 ren of the Common Life (q.v.) were perhaps 
 among the first within the folds of the Church 
 who attempted to bring the Bible to the people. 
 Gerhard von Ziitphen (1367-1398), a friend of 
 Gerhard Groote and himself one of the Brethren, 
 says, " This is the beginning and foundation of 
 Christian public education, that the people 
 read the Bible in the vernacular." In the schools 
 with which the Brethren were connected the 
 Scriptures were taught, according to Sturm (q.v.), 
 in the following order: Gospel of St. Matthew, 
 Acts, St John, Pauline Epistles, the Old and 
 New Testaments. But it remained for the Re- 
 formed churches to extend the use of the Bible. 
 Long before Luther's days the Hussites had 
 insisted on the importance of a knowledge of the 
 Bible. But it was through the services of 
 Luther and his collaborators that the study of 
 the Bible ultimately became identified with pub- 
 lic education. The essence of Luther's ideas 
 on the subject is contained in his Letter to 
 the Nobles, "Above all in schools of all kinds the 
 chief and most common lesson should be the 
 Scriptures, and for young boys the Gospel. . . . 
 But vyhere the Holy Scrijjtures are not the rule, 
 I advise no one to send his child." The process 
 of introducing the Bible was, however, slow, 
 for it was difficult in many cases to secure 
 copies, and in most instances the chief emphasis 
 continued to be placed on the Catechism. The 
 numerous school and church ordinances of the 
 period took up Luther's call, and a reference 
 to religious instruction and the teaching of 
 the Scriptures is contained in nearly aU. The 
 Brunswick church ordinance (1528) prescribes 
 vernacular schools with two teachers to give 
 religious instruction; according to the Liibeck 
 church ordinances (1531) teachers in vernacular 
 schools must teach religion; the Pommeranian 
 church ordinances (1538) permit the councils to 
 approve writing schools, provided the Psalms,
 
 BIBLE IN tHE SCHOOLS 
 
 BIBLE IN THE SCHOOLS 
 
 passages from the Bilile, and the Catechism 
 are taught. The Schh'swig-Hol.stein churcli ordi- 
 nances (1542) contain the following, "Schools arc 
 places where children should be taught antl their 
 souls he converted to the (lospel." But it is 
 rare to find the study of the Bible as a whole in 
 schools of any type. This century is remark- 
 able for the apjjearance of " [)riniers " and 
 ''selections from the Bible." Thus Melanch- 
 thon's Handbook for Children contained the 
 A, B, C, the Paternoster, Ave Maria, IMatthew 
 v.vii; Romans xii, John xiii, and Psalm cxxvii. 
 Trotzendorf (q.v.) issued a Rosarium contcxlum 
 ex rosLS deceplis ex Paradiso Domini pro])osituin 
 pueris calechumenis in schola (loldhergenn (a 
 rose-garden of roses culled from the garden of the 
 Lord for the religious instruction of boys at the 
 Goldberg School). Neander ((/.!'.) also issued a 
 similar selection of Biblical jiassagcs — Epi- 
 tome Chronicorum. In 1577 there appeared a 
 Biblischer Auszug oder Historien mit liildern 
 {Biblical selections or Histories with pictures) 
 by H. Beyer of Frankfort, a type of book which 
 soon gained in popular favor. Thus the schools 
 rather employed the selections than the Bible 
 itself, except in the upper classes of Latin schools, 
 where, however, it was studied in Latin rather 
 as a medium of language instruction in ac- 
 cordance with the suggestions of Melanchthon. 
 The selections most frequently made included 
 a few Psalms, the Proverbs of Solomon, and 
 parts of the Gospels which would lend them- 
 selves to easy memorization and would serve 
 to inculcate moral lessons. 
 
 If the sixteenth century saw the introduction 
 of biblical selections, the next two centuries 
 were periods in which biblical histories with- 
 out number flourished, with and without illus- 
 trations. Duke Ernst of Gotha {(j.i>.) had a 
 pictorial biblical historv published, and the 
 School Method provided "that " If the Bible or 
 biblical histories can be had in schools," then 
 the older children should read in them, but 
 only those chapters which are read in church." 
 Spener (q.v.) also advocated the use of pictures, 
 and particularly the reading of the Old Testa- 
 ment. Francke ( Kurzer und Einfaltiger 
 Untcrricht) would teach the Bible as soon as 
 children could read, while Gomenius (Great 
 Didactic, chap. 29) regarded " the Holy Scrip- 
 tures as the alpha and omega for all Christian 
 schools." Among the most popular biblical 
 histories were those of Gesenius (Biblische 
 Historien des alien und neuen Testaments, 
 1658, 3d ed. 1719), and Hiibner (Zu-eimal zwei 
 nnd fiinfzig auserlcsene biblische Historien, 1714). 
 The Bible itself did not become a common 
 reading book for any class of society until the 
 foundation at Halle of the Canstein Institu- 
 tion, 1712. The condition of things at the 
 beginning of the eighteenth century is illu- 
 minated by the statement in the Wiirttemberg 
 School Ordinance of 1729 that " many children 
 never see a Bible in their lives or know what 
 it is." 
 
 The period of enlightenment saw a continu- 
 ance of the issue of bil)lical histories but of a 
 new type. While the okler histories had aimed 
 to reproduce the tone and language of the Bible, 
 the newer jiublications tended to be either 
 extremely rationalistic or mere theological 
 disquisitions. Dinter (q.v.) objected to both 
 types, and insisted on the personal appeal of 
 the Bible, which he regarded as the source of 
 Christian faith, moral advice, as good practice 
 in reading, excellent for formation of taste, 
 and as a center round which to group other 
 subjects. Edicts were not wanting to intro- 
 duce the teaching of the biblical histories in 
 schools. Thus edicts were issued in Prussia 
 in 1716, Saxony 1724, Brunswick 1733. Bib- 
 lical maps and pictures were used, and all man- 
 ner of subjects were grouped round the instruc- 
 tion in Scripture. The Prussian Gencral- 
 landschulrcglemcnt, 1763, decreed that the 
 teacher should tell stories from the Bible and 
 should make the necessary applications. This 
 measure was reinforced in 1773, and the New 
 Testament was to be taught in the lower and 
 the Old Testament in the upjier grades. In 
 1814 a Prussian Ordinance put a check to the 
 use of the rationalistic histories, and insisted 
 that all children in elementary schools should 
 know the New and the Old Testament by the 
 time of confirmation. The histories, however, 
 continued to be used until the Regulations of 
 1854 put an end to the use of anything but the 
 Bible. In 1872 the decree enforced the teach- 
 ing of stories from Genesis, the lives of Moses, 
 David, and Jesus, and interesting parts of the 
 Bible as a whole in biblical language in the 
 lower grades, and of the Bible itself in the upper 
 grades. Similar provisions were made in 
 Saxony in 1874. The ability with which 
 children of 14 can repeat passages from the 
 Bil)le, and quote very frequently chapter and 
 verse, is adccjuate testimony to the care and 
 attention which are now paid to the teaching 
 of the " only and peculiar Book " of Luther 
 in the elementary schools. Four hours a 
 week are given to religious instruction in the 
 elementary schools of Prussia, and these include 
 Bible teaching. In the high schools a similar 
 distribution of the work, scriptural stories in 
 the lower sections, parts of the Old and New 
 Testament in the middle, and an intensive 
 study of the whole Bible in the upper sections, 
 is made, but only 2 hours a week are devoted 
 to religious instruction as a whole in each 
 class. 
 
 France. — As in all other countries, so in 
 France, education in the Middle Ages was on a 
 religious basis, and remained under clerical 
 control down to modern times. The Statutes 
 of the University of Paris of 1598 contain an 
 article to the effect that " all the heads of 
 colleges shall see to it that the children and 
 youth be instructed in religion by capable 
 teachers and clergy, and that on each day at the 
 usual hour according to the custom established 
 
 372
 
 BIBLE IN THE SCHOOLS 
 
 BIBLE IN THE SCHOOLS 
 
 by our ancestors divine service be performed 
 and the scholars assist thereat not only on 
 Sundays and festival days, but also on other 
 days." So much of the Bible was taught as 
 was thought proper by the Catholic hierarchy. 
 In the eighteenth century began the discussions 
 on the value of religious instruction for moral 
 training. The strongest advocate for the 
 retention of religious instruction was Rollin 
 in Traite des Etudes (1726), who originated 
 the expression, representative of the opinion 
 of the university at that time, " no instruction 
 without education, no education without 
 religion." In 1762, at the time of the agitation 
 against the Jesuits, the Parliament asked the 
 universities to frame a course of study embody- 
 ing religion, morals, and sciences. The Revo- 
 lution tended to exclude religion entirely from 
 the schools and put in its place " morals and 
 natural law " (1792) and " republican morals " 
 (1794). As soon as public opinion could 
 express itself freely, it appeared that many 
 parents refused to send their children to " irre- 
 ligious " schools. In 1816 a royal ordinance re- 
 introduced religion into the school. Biblical in- 
 struction was included under the term "sacred 
 history " (hixtoire sainte). In another decree of 
 1816 it was demanded that all primary teachers 
 must know sacred history, including the Old 
 and New Testaments. In 1833 the same 
 provision was renewed, and the importance 
 attached to the subject may be realized from 
 the following statement, " geography and his- 
 tory are necessary ideas and form part of 
 religious instruction which necessarily supposes 
 some acquaintance with this field " (1834). 
 In 1836 it was emphasized in an ordinance of 
 June 23 that religious education forms part of 
 primary instruction. Similar decrees and ordi- 
 nances were reported in 1850 and 1851. On 
 Aug. 17, 1851, religious instruction was de- 
 fined as including catechism and elements of 
 sacred history and the reading of the gospel. 
 By the secularizing law of Mar. 28, 1882, 
 moral and civic instruction replaced religion. 
 The public primary schools are open to all, and 
 ought to be independent of all denominations. 
 Thursday, however, was to be free, and on that 
 day children could be sent to their several de- 
 nominational institutions for religious instruc- 
 tion. Private schools were still permitted to 
 give religious instruction. In 1887 teachers be- 
 longing to religious corporations were excluded 
 from the pulilic schools. About the same time 
 the references to God were eliminated from the 
 programs for moral instruction. In secondary 
 schools religious instruction was removed from 
 the class time in 1880, but by a decree of 1881, 
 the wishes of i)arents were allowed to regulate 
 the system by which the clergy were admitted 
 to give instruction in religion outside school 
 hours. 
 
 By the associations law of July 1, 1901, 
 religious orders had to apply for special author- 
 ization from the government for the continuance 
 
 of their existence and work, and the govern- 
 ment exercised its power to refuse authorization. 
 By the law of July 8, 1904, all teaching orders 
 were to be suppressed within ten years. The 
 result is that the State now has a monopolj^ in 
 schools, and religious instruction, including the 
 Bible, is entirely eliminated. 
 
 United States. — The reading of the Bible 
 in the public schools either by the teacher or 
 the pupils, usually as a form of opening or clos- 
 ing exercise, has long been a common feature 
 of American public education. In a number 
 of the colonies the ability to read the Bible 
 was the standard of efficiency, and one of the 
 evident aims of public instruction as expressed 
 in legislative enactments. (See Colonial Pe- 
 riod IN American Education.) Usually the 
 King James version has been employed for 
 this purpose, and frequently in addition thereto 
 or in lieu thereof specially prepared texts con- 
 taining extracts therefrom have been used. 
 
 Since about 1840 considerable objection has 
 been raised to this practice, especially by those 
 who have not belonged to the dominant religious 
 faith of given communities. The opposition has 
 been strongest in our larger cities. Frequently 
 individual communities have attempted to 
 settle such controversies on a purely political 
 or majority basis. Again, various forms of 
 compromises have been resorted to, by city, 
 county, and district boards of educational 
 control. From the local communities the con- 
 test has been carried to the state legislatures, 
 to the voice of the people of entire states. 
 
 Two general lines of policy can be detected in 
 the state legislation dealing therewith. One 
 forbids the use of any books in the public 
 schools calculated to favor the religious tenets 
 of any particular religious sect, leaving it to 
 the courts to determine in any particular case 
 whether or not a book was sectarian. To this 
 class belong the enactments as noted of the 
 following states: Alabama (Act Mar. 4, 1903), 
 Arizona (Se.ss. Laws 1879, No. 61, sec. 38), 
 Arkansas (Act Apr. 29, 1873, sec. 52), Califor- 
 nia (Act May 3, 1855), Colorado (Gen. Stat. 
 1883, ch. xc\Ti), Idaho (Sch. Laws 1907, 
 p. 82), Indiana (Acts 1880, p. 74), Kansas 
 (Mar. 19, 1897, ch. 179, sec. 4), Kentucky 
 (Apr. 1, 1872), Massachusetts (Mar. 10, 
 1827), Mississippi (Sch. Laws 1906, sec. 4595), 
 Montana (Act Jan. 12, 1872), Nevada (Com- 
 piled Laws 1900, sec. 1323), New Hampshire 
 (Rev. Stat. 1842, ch. 73, sec. 12), New York 
 (Apr. 18, 1843), North Carolina (revisal 1873, 
 ch. 68, sec. 59), North Dakota (Pol. Code 1899, 
 sec. 694), Oklahoma (Laws 1908, No. 331), 
 South Carolina (Revised Stat. 1873, ch. xxxv, 
 sec. 5), Tennessee (Act Apr. 13, 1899), Vir- 
 ginia (certain counties) (Act Mar. 20, 1847), 
 Washington lAct Nov. 28, 1883), Wisconsin 
 (Act Mar. 31, 1883). 
 
 The other policy, while forbidding the use 
 of sectarian books, has left the way open for the 
 use of the Bible, either by declaring that it 
 
 373
 
 BIBLE IN THE SCHOOLS 
 
 BIBLE L\ THE SCHOOLS 
 
 should not be considered a sectarian book nor 
 excluded, or by leaving its use to the oi)tion 
 of individual communities. Sometimes it has 
 made the use of the Bible inamlatory, but has 
 provided that the reading; tiicrcfrom shall not 
 consume more than a s|)ecilied number of min- 
 utes daily, and shall not i)e accompanied by 
 any comments. Sometimes it has |)rovi(led 
 tiiat those who object to reading the jjarticular 
 version emi)loyed, or being present while it is 
 being read, because of conscientious scrui)les, 
 shall be excused therefrom. No law has ever 
 been passed by any state legislature, si)ecifically 
 excluding tiie Hible by name from use in the 
 public schools. 
 
 The following states have declared by law 
 that the Bible should not be excluded, or have 
 made its use mandatory in the schools: Florida 
 (Act Jan. 30, 1869)", Georgia (Code 1895, 
 see. 1365, Indiana (Act Mar. 6, 1865), Iowa 
 (Revised Stat. 1873, sec. 1764), Louisiana 
 (Revised Stat. 1870, sec. 1288), Massachusetts 
 (Gen. Stat. 1859, ch. 38, sec. 27), Mississippi 
 (Act July 4, 1870), New York (city) (Act May 
 7, 1844), North Dakota (Pol. Code 1899, sec. 
 754), West Virginia (Act Feb. 26, 1866). 
 
 The following states have made the use of the 
 Bible optional or permissive, according to the 
 wishes of each community: Kansas (Act 
 Apr. 7, 1876), New Jersey (Act Apr. 30, 1844), 
 North Dakota (Pol. Code 1899, sec. 754), 
 Oklahoma (Act Feb. 19, 1895), South Dakota 
 (Pol. Code 1903, sec. 2423). 
 
 The following states have provided by law 
 for excusing those who have objections on 
 conscientious grounds from attendance on the 
 reading of the Bible: Florida (Act Jan. 30, 1869), 
 Iowa (Rev. Stat. 1873, sec. 1764), Louisiana 
 (Rev. Stat. 1870, sec. 1288), Massachusetts 
 (Act Mar. 6, 1862), North Dakota (Sess. Laws 
 1890, ch. 62, sec. 134). 
 
 The above lists of citations to legislation in 
 various states are given to illustrate the various 
 ways in which legislatures have sought to deal 
 with a common problem. The lists are typical, 
 not entirely complete, nor do the citations 
 represent the present status in all cases. 
 
 Not only the laws but the constitutions as 
 well of a large majority of the states have felt 
 the influence and show the effects of this opposi- 
 tion to the reading of the Bible in the public 
 schools. And it is to the constitutions, together 
 with the judicial decisions interpretative thereof, 
 rather than to the laws, that we must look in 
 order to discover the final attitude of the Amer- 
 ican states upon this question. For questions 
 involving, as this one does, the religious element, 
 individual religious rights, are so fundamental 
 in their nature that nothing short of an appeal to 
 the fundamental law of the land can afford a 
 solution. The laws represent as it were an inter- 
 mediate step, an attempt to deal with a new 
 problem. The culminating stage has been the 
 incorporation of provisions in our state consti- 
 tutions dealing therewith. 
 
 These constitutional provisions are much 
 less specific than are those contained in the laws. 
 Only one state, Mississi|)pi, mentions the Bible 
 specifically in this connection, in her constitu- 
 tion. The constitution of 1890, Art. 3, sec. 10, 
 reads as follows: " No religious test as a quali- 
 fication for office shall ever be required; and no 
 preference shall be given by law to any reli- 
 gious .sect or mode of worshii); but the free 
 enjoyment of all religious sentiments and the 
 different modes of worshi]) shall be held sacred. 
 The rigiits hereby secured shall not be construed 
 to justify acts of licentiousness injurious to 
 morals or dangerous to the peace and safety of 
 the state, or to exclude the Holy Bible from use 
 in the public schools of this state." Only one 
 state constitution, that of Idaho, specially men- 
 tions sectarian textbooks. In the constitution 
 of 1899, Art. IX, sec. 6, states: "No religious 
 test or qualification shall ever be required of 
 any person as a condition of admission into 
 any public, educational institution of tlie state, 
 either as teacher or student; and no teacher or 
 student of any such institution shall ever be 
 required to attend or participate in any religious 
 service whatever. No sectarian or religious 
 tenets or doctrines shall ever be taught in the 
 public schools, nor shall any distinction or clas- 
 sification of pupils be made on account of race 
 or color. No books, papers, tracts, or docu- 
 ments of a political, sectarian, or denomina- 
 tional character shall be used or introduced in 
 any schools established under the provisions 
 of this article, nor shall any teacher in any 
 district receive any of the public school moneys 
 in which the schools have not been taught in 
 accordance with this article." 
 
 All of our state constitutions, however, guar- 
 antee religious freedom; 11 directly forbid 
 sectarian instruction m the public schools; 28 
 forbid the appropriation of public money 
 to religious or sectarian schools. So the ques- 
 tion as to whether the Bible shall be used in 
 or excluded from the public school becomes 
 in all the .states but Mississippi a question for 
 the courts to determine, on constitutional 
 grounds. If its use constitutes sectarian reli- 
 gious instruction, if its contents favor the tenets 
 of any particular religious faith, or if its use 
 in a public school constitutes such school a place 
 of religious worship, or a religious semmary, 
 or if such use violates the principle of religious 
 freedom, then under the e-xisting constitutions 
 the Bible, as well as any other book so violating 
 the fundamental law of the land, must be ex- 
 cluded from the public schools. 
 
 The court decisions in this matter are nu- 
 merous and conflicting. The most important 
 ones upholding the reading of the Bible are the 
 following: — 
 
 In the case of McCormiek v. Burt decided in 
 Illinois in 1880, a Catholic child was suspended 
 from school for non-observance of a rule of the 
 board of trustees requiring all pupils to lay 
 aside their books and remain quiet during 15 
 
 374
 
 BIBLE IN THE SCHOOLS 
 
 BIBLE IN THE SCHOOLS 
 
 minutes in the morning while the teacher read 
 as a morning exercise from the King James 
 version of the Bible. Pupils were not re- 
 quired to be present during the reading, but 
 if present must observe the rule. The action 
 of the board in suspending the child was upheld 
 by the court. (95 lU. p. 263.) 
 
 In the case of Moore u. Munroe and another 
 it was held by the Supreme Court of Iowa in 1SS4 
 that a parent having two children in a public 
 school, where the Bible was read by the teachers 
 every morning along with other religious exer- 
 cises, but whose children were not required to 
 attend such reading nor take part therein, was 
 not entitled to an injunction preventing such 
 reading and religious exercises. (N. W. Rep. 
 20, p. 475.) 
 
 The supreme court of Kansas decided a some- 
 what similar case in 1904 in the case of Billard 
 V. Board of Education (76 Kan. p. 422). In 1905 
 the Supreme Court of Kentucky held in the case 
 of Hackett c. Brockville Graded School District 
 that a public school opened with prayer and the 
 reading without comment of passages from 
 the King James translation of the Bible, during 
 which pupils were not required to attend, was 
 not a place of worship nor were its teachers 
 ministers of religion within the meaning of con- 
 stitution. Par. 5, providing that no person 
 should be compelled to attend any place of 
 worship or contribute to the support of a minis- 
 ter of religion. 
 
 In Donahue v. Richards et al. the Supreme 
 Court of Maine held in 1S54 that the power to 
 select books and require them to be read was 
 vested by law in the school committee. That 
 the use of the Bible as a reading book was 
 not interference with rehgious belief any more 
 than was reading the mythology of Greece or 
 Rome. Furthermore the requirement of uni- 
 formity in reading books was a reasonable 
 request. A Catholic child therefore who was 
 expelled from school by the school committee 
 for refusing to read from the Protestant version 
 of the Scriptures, alleging conscientious scruples 
 as the grounds of refusal, and who offered to read 
 from the Douay version, was not entitled to 
 any redress. (Me. 38, p. 379.) 
 
 The police court of Boston in the case of 
 Commonwealth v. Cook decided in 1859 that 
 a teacher in the public schools of Boston had 
 a right to enforce a regulation of the school 
 committee requiring jjupils in the pubhc scliools 
 to learn the Ten Commandments and repeat 
 them once a week, and was justified in inflicting 
 corporal punishment upon a child who refused 
 to repeat the Ten Commandments, even though 
 the refusal was based on conscientious objec- 
 tion on the part of the child to the version of 
 the Bible used, and even though he acted under 
 the direction and with the authority of the 
 father in making such refusal. (7 Am. L. Reg. 
 p. 417.) 
 
 In PfeifTer v. Board of Education of Detroit, 
 1898, it was held that the use in the public 
 
 schools for 15 minutes at the close of each 
 day's session, as a supplemental textbook on 
 reading, of a book entitled " Readings from the 
 Bible," emphasizing the moral precepts of the 
 Ten Commandments, when the teacher is for- 
 bidden to make any comment upon the matter 
 therein contained, and is required to excuse 
 from that part of the session any pupil upon 
 application of his parent or guardian, is not a 
 violation of the state constitution. (118 Mich. 
 560.) A somewhat similar decision was given in 
 Pennsylvania in 1885 in Hart v. School District 
 of Sharpsville; and in Texas in 1908 in Church 
 y. Bullock. (109 S. W. p. 115.) 
 
 In Nessle r. Hunn el al. the Mahaning County 
 Court of Common Pleas of Ohio decided in 1894 
 that, as the legislature had placed the manage- 
 ment of the public schools exclusively in the 
 control of directors, trustees, and boards of 
 education, the courts had no authority to inter- 
 fere against a regulation duly adopted by the 
 board of education requiring portions of the 
 Bible to be read in the schools of the district 
 as an opening exercise. It was not in violation 
 of the constitution of Ohio nor of the United 
 States. {Nisi Prius Repts. Vol. 1, 1894-1895, 
 p. 140.) 
 
 The most notable decisions opposing the read- 
 ing of the Bible in the public schools are the 
 following: — 
 
 In Pfeiffer v. The Board of Education of 
 Detroit, a decision which we have already 
 referred to as sustaining the right of the Board 
 of Education to introduce into the public 
 schools a book called " Readings from the Bible," 
 there was a dissenting opinion filed by Judge 
 Moore which reads in part as follows: "The 
 elements of our population are so diverse, com- 
 prising as it does Protestants, Roman Catholics, 
 Hebrews, atheists, orthodox Christians, heter- 
 odox Christians, and all shades of religious 
 belief — that no system of religion can be taught 
 which would not be objectionable to many of 
 them. It is said that the school board has 
 removed all objection to the religious exercises 
 embraced in the stated reading of this religious 
 book by excusing those children, whose parents 
 may request it, from joining in it. If it is the 
 duty of the schools under the ordinance of 1787 
 to teach religion, it is not easy to see how this 
 duty can be abdicated: how some can be ex- 
 cused from it. Cliildren should be taught to 
 fear God and to love their fellow men. They 
 should be made familiar with the truths of the 
 Bible. They should be instructed to remember 
 their Creator in the days of their youth, and to 
 observe his commandments. But this is a 
 branch of education which is not within the 
 province of the State. It belongs to the parents, 
 the home, the Sundav school, the mission, and 
 the church." (118 Mich. p. 560.) 
 
 In State ex rel. Freeman v. Scheve, a decision 
 
 rendered by the supreme court of Nebraska in 
 
 1903 is contained the following: " The point where 
 
 the courts may rightfully interfere to prevent 
 
 75
 
 BIBLE IN THE SCHOOLS 
 
 BIBLE IN THE SCHOOLS 
 
 the use of the Bible in a puhhc school is where 
 legitimate use has degenerated into alnise, — 
 where a teacher employed to give secular instruc- 
 tion has violated the constitution by becoming 
 a sectarian propagandist. The Bible was not 
 read as mere literature. The reading, the 
 prayers, and the hymns w'erc intended to be 
 devotional. The teacher felt it was not right 
 to open school in any other way. It was a 
 matter of conscience with her. It was an act 
 of worship. The court holds this to be sec- 
 tarian instruction. E.xercises by a teacher in 
 a public school, in a school building, in school 
 hours, and in the presence of the pupils, con- 
 sisting in the reading of passages from the Bible, 
 singing of songs and hymns, and offering prayer 
 to the Deity, in accordance with the doctrines, 
 beliefs, customs, or usages of sectarian churches 
 or religious organizations are forbidden by the 
 constitution of this state. The law does not 
 forbid the use of the Bible in either version in 
 the schools. Because its use may be abused is 
 no reason for shutting it out. The alleged 
 violation must in every case be proved. En- 
 forced attendance upon religious ser\-ice is for- 
 bidden by the constitution, and pupils in a 
 public school cannot be required either to 
 attend such services or to join in them. A 
 teacher in a public school being vested during 
 school hours with a general authority over his 
 pupils, his requests are practically commands. 
 The right of the relator has been infringed. 
 Without his consent and over his protest, his 
 children have been compelled to attend Divine 
 worship, and to participate in it." (93 N. W. 
 p. 109.) 
 
 In Stevenson v. Hanyen, a Pennsylvania 
 case decided in 1895, objection had been made 
 to the alternate reading of the Bible as a morn- 
 ing exercise, the reciting of Bible passages and 
 the singing of Gospel hymns, on the grounds 
 that this constituted sectarian instruction. 
 The objection was upheld by the court. (Penn. 
 Co. Court Repts., Vol. XVI, p. 186.) 
 
 A lengthy decision rendered by a Wisconsin 
 court in 1890 in the case of State ex rel. 
 Weiss and Others v. The District Board of 
 Edgerton, is probably the most important, or at 
 least the most quoted, of these decisions. The 
 court found as follows: — 
 
 The use of any version of the Bible as a textbook in 
 public schools and the stated reading thereof in such 
 schools by the teachers, without restriction, though un- 
 accompanied by any comment, has a tendency to in- 
 culcate sectarian ideas within the meaning of Sec. 3, 
 ch. 152. of the Laws of 1SS.3, and is sectarian instruc- 
 tion within the meaning of Sec. 3, Art X, of the consti- 
 tution. The fact that the children of the petitioners 
 are at liberty to withdraw from the schoolroom dur- 
 ing the reading of the Bilile does not remove the 
 ground of complaint. The stated reading of the Bible 
 as a textbook in the public schools may be worship, and 
 the schoolhouse thereby become, for the time being, a 
 place of worship within the meaning of .Sec. IS, Art. I, 
 of the constitution, and to such use of the schoolhouse 
 the taxpayers, who are compelled to aid in its erection 
 and in the maintenance of the school, have a legal right 
 to object. Children of poor parents who are by law 
 practically obliged to attend the public schools would. 
 
 if such reading were permitted, be compelled to attend 
 a plai'e of worship contrary to Sec. IS, .\rt. I, of the con- 
 stitution. Such reading being religious instruction, 
 the money drawn from the state treasury for the sup- 
 port of a school in which the Bible is so read is for the 
 benefit of a religious seminarj' within the meaning f>f said 
 section. In considering whether such reading of the Hilile 
 is sectarian instniction. the book will be ri'garded as a 
 whole, because the whole Bible, without exception, has 
 Ijeen designated as a textbook for use in the Edgerton 
 schools, and the claim of the school board is, substantiall.v. 
 that the whole contents thereof may he so read therein 
 if the teachers so elect. This being so. it is quite im- 
 material if the portions thereof set out in the return as 
 the only portions thus far read are not sectarian. The 
 term sectarian instruction in the constitution mani- 
 festly refers exclusively to instniction in religious doc- 
 trines, and the prohibition is only aimed at such instruc- 
 tion as is sectarian; that is to say, instruction in reli- 
 gious doctrines which are believed by some religious sects 
 and rejected by others. Hence to teach the existence 
 of a Supreme Being of infinite wisdom, power, and good- 
 ness, and that it is the highest duty of all men to adore, 
 olie.v, and love him, is not sectarian, because all reli- 
 gious sects so belie\-e and teach. The instruction be- 
 comes sectarian when it goes further and inculcates 
 doctrines or dogma concerning which the religious sects 
 are in conflict. This we understand to be the mean- 
 ing of the constitutional pro\nsion. Furthermore, there 
 is much in the Bible which cannot be characterized as 
 sectarian. There can be no \'alid objection to the use 
 of such matter in the secular instruction of pupils. 
 Much of it has great historical and Utcrar>' value which 
 ma.v be thus utilized without violating the constitutional 
 prohibition. It may also be used to inculcate good 
 morals — that is, our duties to each other — which may 
 and ought to be inculcated by the district schools. No 
 more complete code of morals exists than is contained 
 in the New Testament which reaffirms and emphasizes 
 the moral obligations laid down in the ten conmiand- 
 ments. Concerning the fundamental principles of moral 
 ethics, the religious sects do not disagree. (7G Wis. 
 p. 177.) 
 
 The most recent decision, tliat of the supreme 
 court of Illinois in June, 1910, in granting a writ 
 of mandamus to the Roman Catholic petitioners 
 of Winchester, Scott County, the Court said, in 
 granting the WTit denied by the lower court, — 
 
 The exercises mentioned in the petition constitute 
 worship. They are the ordinarj' forms of worship usu- 
 ally practised by Protestant Christian dcnomination.s. 
 Their compulsory performance would he a violation of 
 the constitutional guaranty of the free exercise and 
 enjoyment of religious profession and worship. One 
 does not enjoy the free exercise of religious worship 
 who is compelled to join in any form of religious wor- 
 ship. If these exercises of reading the Bible, joining in 
 pra,\*er, and the singing of h>'nuis were performed in a 
 church, there would be no doubt of their religious char- 
 acter, and that character is not changed by the place 
 of their performance. If the petitioners' children are 
 required to join in the acts of worship, as alleged in the 
 petition, they are deprived of the freedotn of religious 
 worship guaranteed to them by the Constitution. The 
 wrong arises not out of the particular version of the 
 Bible or form of prayer used, but out of the compulsion 
 to join in any form of worship. The free cnjo.\'ment of 
 religious worship includes freedom not to worship. 
 
 In general then we may say that the Bible is 
 read in the public schools of most of our states, 
 but usually only as an opening or closing 
 exercise, in which no comment may be made 
 by the teacher; that whether it shall be read 
 or not is largely determined by the local au- 
 thorities; that those children who object to 
 attendance on such reading are excused there- 
 from; that in some states the court decisions 
 
 376
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL INSTRUCTION BIBLIOGRAPHIES OF EDUCATION 
 
 prohibit its use in the schools, and that in those 
 where the decisions allow it, the purely formal 
 manner in which it is compelled to be used has 
 detracted from its use a considerable portion, 
 if not all, of the religious and moral value once 
 commonly attributed thereto, and that the 
 tendency is to reduce it more and more to a 
 purely literary level. 
 
 F. W., I. L. K., AND S. W. B. 
 See Moral Education; Religious Educa- 
 tion'; Reformation, Education and the. 
 
 References : — 
 
 BnissoN, F. E. Dictionnaire de Pedagogie et d'lnslTuc- 
 
 tion Primairc. Vol. I, Pt. I. (Paris, 1887.) 
 Dix, Fr. Geachichle der Schulhibel. In Padagogische 
 
 Zcil- und Streitjragcn, Vol. 4. (Gotha, 1892.) 
 Ddruy, a. L' I nstniction Publique cl la Revolution. 
 
 (Paris, 1882.) 
 Greard. La Legislation de V I nstruclion Primairc en 
 
 France. (Paris, 1900.) 
 Journal of Education. (London.) April, 1910. The 
 
 French Schools Debate. 
 Mertz, G. Das Schulwesen der deutschcn Reformation. 
 
 (Heidelberg, 1902.) 
 POINTER, F. V. N. Luther on Education. (Philadel- 
 phia, 1S89.) 
 Report of U. S. Commissioner of Education, 1888-1889; 
 
 1890-1891 ; 1905. 
 Sadler, M. E. Moral Instruction and Training in 
 
 iichools: Essay on the Biljle in Elementary Schools, 
 
 Vol. I. (London, 1908.) 
 Schumann, G. Geschiehte des Religionsunlerrichts in 
 
 Kehr, C. Geschiehte der Methodik des deutschen 
 
 Volksschulunierrichts, Vol. VI. (Gotha, 1890.) 
 SiCARD, L'Abbe. V kdueation Morale et Civique avant 
 
 et pendant la Revolution. (Paris, 1884.) 
 W.^TSON, Foster. The English Grammar Sehooh up 
 
 to 1660. (Cambridge, 1908.) 
 The literature concerning the American experience is 
 chiefly controversial in character, and is found widely 
 scattered in periodicals (see Poole's Index). Among 
 these may he noted the following : — 
 Atlantic Monthly, Vol. 25, p. 638. H. James. 
 Forum, Vol. 7, pp. 52-66. H. E. Manning. 
 Fomm, Vol. 7, pp. 119-133. G. P. Fisher. 
 N. E. A. Proceedings: 1858, p. 10 ; 1869, p. 19 ; 1872, 
 
 p. 20 ; 1875, p. 122 ; 1886, p. 141 ; 1888, p. 67 ; 
 
 1889. p. 143 ; 1891, p. 168. 
 The additional references of legal character are given 
 in the text of the article. 
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL INSTRUCTION. — 
 
 The history of systematic bibliographical 
 instruction begins with the recommendation 
 made in 1870 by Ralph Waldo Emerson that 
 professorshijjs of books should be established in 
 colleges. The first institution to act upon this 
 suggestion was the University of Michigan, 
 where a cour.se in " historical, material, ancl 
 intellectual bibliography " was finst offered 
 one hour a week during the second semester iu 
 . 1SS2. 
 
 Instruction in this subject has been more 
 fully develojiod at Cornell University than 
 elsewhere. Tliere the following three courses 
 are offered (1900-1910). 
 
 L I nlrodudiun to the Use of Book-'i. — A 
 systematic study of bibliographies, indexes, 
 dictionaries, cyclopedias, etc.; including the 
 principles of classification, cataloguing, index- 
 ing and preparing manuscript for printing. 
 Lectures and exercises. First term. One hour. 
 
 2. Laboratory Work. — Covering the same 
 subjects as course 1, intended for students 
 wishing more of the practical work. Open 
 to students who have had course L Second 
 term. One hour. 
 
 3. General Bibliography. — The materials and 
 forms of books in ancient times; books in 
 the Middle Ages; block books, early printed 
 books, illustrated by examples of manuscripts 
 and incunabula; book illustration, book 
 bindings; form notation; systems of classifi- 
 cation and cataloguing; general bibliographical 
 aids. Lectures. Second term. One hour. 
 
 The object of this instruction is to give 
 (1) elementary instruction regarding the use 
 of books, — reading, reference books, library 
 methods; (2) advanced instruction regarding 
 the history of books and libraries. Professional 
 and technical instruction in this subject relates 
 specifically to hbrary science (q.v.), printing, etc. 
 
 The need of instruction regarding the use of 
 books in secondary schools, especially for those 
 pupils who will not enter college, has been 
 recognized in several urban schools. The 
 course given in the Detroit Central High 
 School since 1903 may be regarded as typical. 
 This provides for S 40-minute lessons during 
 the 4 years' course upon the following subjects: 
 (1) Simple indexes. (2) More complex indexes. 
 (3) Dictionaries and simple handbooks of refer- 
 ence. (4) Encyclopedias, general and special, 
 together with a few valuable collections of 
 encyclopedic arrangement. (5) Magazine in- 
 dexes. (6) Annuals and a few special indexes. 
 (7) A very few reference books published by the 
 United States Government. (8) A review of 
 the whole subject, with carefully selected 
 reference questions for practice. W. D. J. 
 
 References : — 
 
 Ames, Anne S.,and Josephine A. Rathbone. Instruc- 
 tion in the use of reference books and libraries, in 
 High Schools. Library Journal, Vol. 23; C 86-91, 
 Aug., 1898. 
 
 Davis, R. C. Teaching bibliograjihy in colleges. Li- 
 brary Journal, 11; 2S'.l-2ii4, Aug. -Sept., 1886. 
 
 Hopkins, Florence M. Methods of in.struction in 
 the use of High School Libraries. Proc. N. 
 E. A., 1905, pp. 858-864. The place of the 
 library in High School education. Library Journal, 
 35 ; 55-60, Feb., 1910. 
 
 KoopMAN, H. L. College instruction in bibliography. 
 Library Journal, 22 ; C 165-166. 
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHIES OF EDUCATION. — 
 
 In addition to the references cited at the end 
 of each article of this cyclopedia on which there 
 is literature of importance, a few general bib- 
 liographies of education should be mentioned. 
 A few of these are of first importance, and are 
 very useful to the student. Many of the books 
 and articles cited at the end of the general arti- 
 cles also contain special bibliographies of impor- 
 tance. Reference to such special bibliographies 
 is given whenever one exists. For additional 
 references, some of the following general 
 bibliographies, and in particular the annual 
 bibliographies, will prove very useful. 
 
 377
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHIES OF EDUCATION 
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHIES OF EDUCATION 
 
 I. General Hidliographies of Education : 
 
 1. Hall, G. Stanley. Bibliographi/ of Education, 
 
 309 pp. (Boston, 1886.) A elas.sified list of 
 books uud articles, in English, German, and 
 French. 
 
 2. Monroe, Will S. Bibliography of Education, 
 
 202 pp. (New York, 1897.) International 
 Educational Series. No. 42. A list of 3200 
 books and pamphlets in the EnRlish language 
 only, classified under about 125 topics with 
 author and subject index. 
 
 3. Lawrence, Isabel. Classified Reading, 405 pp. 
 
 (St. Cloud, Minn., 1898.) Divided into SQven 
 sections, as foUow.s : — 
 
 A. Pedagogy and Psychology, 36 pp. 
 
 B. ChUd Study, 40 pp. 
 
 C. Geography, 88 pp. 
 
 D. History, 132 pp. 
 
 E. English. 50 pp. 
 
 F. Nature Study, 55 pp. 
 
 G. Miscellany. 
 
 Very full and useful on some subjects ; very incom- 
 plete on others. (Reviewed at length in School 
 Review, Oct., 1899, p. 478.) 
 
 4. BUIS.SON, F. Dictionnaire de pidagogie el d' 
 
 instruction primaire, Pt. I, t. 1, pp. 194-251. 
 (Paris, 1886-1887.) List of French educational 
 works, 1491-1878. 
 
 5. Arndt, Otto. Verzeichnis der padagogischen 
 
 Zeitschriften, Jahrbilcher, und Lehrcrkalender 
 Deutschlands. (Berlin, 1893.) 
 
 6. Loos. Joseph. Encyklopadischcs Handbuch der 
 
 Erziehungskunde. 2 vols. (Leipzig, 1906-1908.) 
 Numerous citations to books follow each article. 
 
 7. Rein. W. Encyclop&disches Handbuch der Pdda- 
 
 gogik, 2d Ed.. 10 vols. (Langensalza, 1903-1909.) 
 Numerous citations to German literature at the 
 close of each article. 
 
 II. Special Catalogues op Important Educational 
 
 Libraries: — • 
 
 1. Books on Education in the Libraries of Columbia 
 
 Uniivrsily. 435 pp. (New York, 1901.) 
 A classified list of about 13,000 titles, and a very 
 useful bibliography. 
 
 2. MacDowell. Lillian Ione. Catalogue of the 
 
 Pedagogical Library of the Board of Education 
 of Fhiladrlphia. 525 pp. (Philadelphia, 1907.) 
 An analytical dictionary catalogue of a library 
 of over 10,000 volumes of almost entirely 
 English works. 
 
 3. MusEE Pedagogique. Catalogue des ouvrages 
 
 et documents. 2 vols., 1886 ; supplement, 1889. 
 (Paris.) 
 
 4. Catalogue de la bibliolhtque centrale du minislire 
 
 de I'inli'rieur et de rinstruclion publigue, t. 2, 
 Enstigncmcnt, 1105 pp. 4to. (Brussels, 1905.) 
 A list of 6742 titles, closely classified, with a 
 good general index. 
 
 5. CoMENius Stiftung. Katalog der padagogischen 
 
 Centralbibliolhek. List of 60,000 titles, mostly 
 (5erman. (Leipzig, 1S92.) 
 
 6. HuNziKER, O. Katalog der Bibliothek des Pesta- 
 
 lozzianums zu Zurich. (Zurich, 1894.) 
 
 III. Annual Bibliographies of Educational Litera- 
 
 ture : — 
 1. Das gcsamte Erziehungs- und Unterrichtswesen 
 in den Ldndern deutscher Zunge. (Berlin.) 
 A monumental work of which only 4 vols, were 
 
 issued. 
 Everything issued in German included ; notes 
 very full. 
 
 Lssued in 1896. 113 + 1242 pp. 
 Issued in 1900. 47 + 1100 pp. 
 Issued in 1902. 35 + 799 pp. 
 Issued in 1903. 38 -I- 823 pp. 
 Year Book and Directory. 
 Since 1900 this has become the mo.st useful 
 British reference book on educational topics. 
 The bibliography of " Books of the Year " is 
 a useful list. 
 3. Wyer, J. I. Recent Educational Bibliography. 
 An annual list of published bibliographies, 1897- 
 1907. Published as follows : — 
 
 Vol. 
 
 I, for I.S96. 
 
 Vol. 
 
 II. for 1S97. 
 
 Vol. 
 
 Ill, for 1898. 
 
 Vol. 
 
 IV, for 1899. 
 
 2 
 
 Schoolmasters 
 
 For Yeah 
 
 Published in 
 
 Pages 
 
 1897 
 
 School Review, Oct. 
 
 1898 .... 
 
 4 
 
 1898 
 
 School Review, Oct. 
 
 1899 .... 
 
 5 
 
 1899 
 
 School Review, Oct. 
 
 1900 .... 
 
 10 
 
 1900 
 
 School Review, Oct. 
 
 1901 .... 
 
 9 
 
 1901 
 
 School Review, Oct. 
 
 1902 .... 
 
 10 
 
 1902 
 
 School Review, Oct. 
 
 1903 .... 
 
 8 
 
 1903 
 
 School Re\'icw. Oct. 
 
 1904 .... 
 
 9 
 
 1904 
 
 School Re\'iew, Oct. 
 
 1905 .... 
 
 6 
 
 1905 
 
 School Review. Oct. 
 
 . 1900 .... 
 
 7 
 
 1906 
 
 iSchool Review, Oct. 
 
 1907 .... 
 
 7 
 
 1907 
 
 Bull. No. 3, 190.S, 
 
 J.S. Bureau of 
 
 
 
 Education . . 
 
 
 2 
 
 To be published annually hereafter by the United 
 States Bureau of Education as a part of the Bibliography 
 of Education for each year. Valuable lists, and should 
 be consulted. They form a supplement to the list of 
 300 bibliographies of educational topics in the report of 
 the U. S. C<immissioner of Education, 1893-1894, Vol. 2, 
 pp. 1701-1722. 
 
 4. Wyer, J. I., assisted by Miss I. E. Lord the 
 first 6 years ; by Miss M. E. Leonard the 
 seventh year; Miss M. G. Brown the eighth 
 year; and Miss M. L. Phelps the ninth year. 
 Annual Bibliography of Education, for each 
 year 1899-1907. To be continued by the 
 United States Bureau of Education, begin- 
 ning with 1908. The most valuable annual 
 list published, and should be consulted in all 
 cases. Arranged and classified according to 
 the Dewey decimal system, with a good index. 
 Published as follows : — 
 
 For 
 Year 
 
 Published m 
 
 Size 
 
 Titles 
 
 1899 
 
 Edue. Review, April, 1900 . 
 
 69 pp. 
 
 618 
 
 1900 
 
 Educ. Review, April, 1901 . 
 
 40 pp. 
 
 481 
 
 1901 
 
 Educ. Review, June, 1902 . 
 
 25 pp. 
 
 319 
 
 1902 
 
 Educ. Re\-icw, June, 1903 . 
 
 42 pp. 
 
 3()7 
 
 1903 
 
 Educ. Ri'vicw, June, 1904 . 
 
 52 pp. 
 
 423 
 
 1904 
 
 Educ. Review, June, 1905 . 
 
 62 pp. 
 
 406 
 
 1905 
 
 Educ. Review, Sept. and Oct., 
 
 
 
 
 1906 ... 
 
 89 pp. 
 
 665 
 
 1906 
 
 Educ. Review, June, 1907 . 
 
 46 pp. 
 
 417 
 
 1907 
 
 Bulletin No. 3, 1908, U.S. 
 
 
 
 
 Bu. Educ 
 
 65 pp. 
 
 459 
 
 1908 
 
 Bulletin No. 9, 1909. U.S. 
 
 
 
 
 Bu. Educ 
 
 134 pp. 
 
 1209 
 
 The scope of these annual bibliographies may be 
 shown by reference to the classification given in the 
 article on Library Classification (q.v.). 
 
 IV. Special Indexes to Important Publications : — 
 
 1. Index to Barnard's American Journal of Educa- 
 
 tion. Published bv the Bureau of Education, 
 Washington. (1892.) 
 
 2. Index to the Proceedings of the National Educa- 
 
 tional Association, 1S57'1906. 211pp. (Win- 
 ona, Minn.. 1907.) An index by authors, titles, 
 and sulijects. Supersedes the Index of 1897. 
 
 3. Nelson, C. A. Analytical Index to Volumes 
 
 1-25 of the Educational Review, 218 pp. (New 
 York, 1904.) 
 A valuable subject and author index. 
 
 4. Index to the Reports of the V. S. Commissioner of 
 
 Education, 1867-1907, 103 pp. (Washington. 
 1909.) Bulletion No. 7, 1909, of the Bureau 
 of Education. 
 
 5. PooLE, W. F., and Fletcher, W. I. Annual 
 
 Literary Index. Annual since 1892. Years 
 before 1892 collected in the Index to Periodi- 
 cal Literature, by the same editors. (Inde_x 
 to all current magazine articles since 1907. 
 the Annual Library Index by W. I. Fletcher.) 
 
 378
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHIES OF EDUCATION 
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHIES OF EDUCATION 
 
 V. A Few Special Bibliographies of Importance : — 
 (a) Child Study. 
 
 1. Wilson, L. N. Antiual Bibliography of 
 Child Study. 
 Very full and complete lists, published in the 
 Pedagogical Seminary each year, beginning 
 with 1898, as follows : — 
 
 Fob Yeab 
 
 
 Number Published in 
 
 Titles 
 
 1897 
 
 April 
 
 1898; 
 
 V, 
 
 pp. 541-589 
 
 c. 600 
 
 1898 
 
 Sept. 
 
 1899; 
 
 VI, 
 
 pp. 386-410 
 
 333 
 
 1899 
 
 Dec, 
 
 1900; 
 
 VII, 
 
 pp. 526-556 
 
 441 
 
 1900 
 
 Dec, 
 
 1901 ; 
 
 VIII, 
 
 pp. 515-537 
 
 331 
 
 1901 
 
 Dec, 
 
 1902; 
 
 IX, 
 
 pp. 521-542 
 
 307 
 
 1902 
 
 Dec, 
 
 1903 ; 
 
 X, 
 
 pp. 514-536 
 
 344 
 
 1903 
 
 July, 
 
 1904; 
 
 XI, 
 
 pp. 83-118 
 
 486 
 
 1904 
 
 Sept. 
 
 1905; 
 
 XII, 
 
 pp. 304-334 
 
 429 
 
 1905 
 
 Sept. 
 
 1906 ; 
 
 XIII 
 
 pp. 374-397 
 
 305 
 
 1906 
 
 Sept. 
 
 1907 ; 
 
 XIV, 
 
 pp. 329-351 
 
 362 
 
 1907 
 
 Sept. 
 
 1908; 
 
 XV, 
 
 pp. 400-429 
 
 442 
 
 2. Rhoades, Lillian Ione. Bibliography of 
 
 Child Study. 128 pp. (Philadelphia. 1901.) 
 A list of 1 100 titles in English. Arrangement 
 very good. Selections made ^ath care. 
 A very useful list. 
 
 3. Smith, T. L. Bibliography of Articles relat- 
 
 ing to the Study of Childhood mid Adolescence 
 which have been published i?} the Pedagogical 
 Seminary and the Anicricnn Journal of 
 Psychology. In the Pedagogical Seminary 
 for Sept., 1907, Vol. XIV, 203 titles. 
 
 (b) School Hygiene. 
 
 1. BuRNHAM, W. H. Bibliography of School 
 
 Hygiene; in Proceedings of the N. E. A. 
 1898, pp. 505-523. (436 titles, mostly 
 foreign.) 
 
 2. Wehmer, R. Emyklopddisches Handbuch 
 
 der Schulhygiene. (Leipzig, 1904.) 
 
 (c) History of Education. 
 
 1. Cubberley, Ellwood p. Syllabus of Lec- 
 tures on the History of Education, with 
 Annotated Bibliographies. (2d ed.. New 
 York, 1904.) 
 A classified and annotated bibliography of 
 the history of education. The second edi- 
 tion contains suggestions as to reading and 
 the use of the books. The most complete 
 bibliography of the history of education in 
 English. 
 
 (d) Industrial Education. 
 
 Richards, C. R. Selected Bibliography on 
 Industrial Education. Bull. No. 2 of the 
 National Society for the Promotion of Indus- 
 trial Education. 32 pp. (New York, 1907.) 
 
 (e) State School Systems. 
 
 Elliott, Edward C. Slate School Systems. 
 
 Vol. I. for 1904-1906, Bull. No. 3, 1906, Bureau 
 of Educ. 
 
 Vol. II. for 1906-1908, Bull. No. 7, 1908, Bureau 
 of Efluc 
 
 A biennial digest of all legislation and judicial 
 decisions of importance ^ith reference to 
 state school administration. Published by 
 the Bureau of Education, Washington. 
 (J) Psychology. 
 
 Psychological Review, Annual Index to Current 
 Litcrnture. Published annually. Indexes of 
 all current psychological Uterature. (New 
 York.) 
 (g) Secondary Education. 
 
 Lexis, W. Reform des Hoheren Schulwesens 
 in Preussen. (Halle, 1902.) Literaturver- 
 zeichniss, pp. 424-436. 
 
 Locke, George H. A Bibliography of Second- 
 ary education (a classified index of the 
 School Review, Vols. 1-9). (Chicago, 1903.) 
 
 (Ji) Philosophy and Psychology. 
 
 Baldwin's Dictionary of Philosophy and Psy- 
 chology, Vol. Ill, Pts. 1 and 2. Contains a 
 very complete bibliographical list of many edu- 
 cational topics, and especially of those relat- 
 ing to educational philosophers. (New York, 
 1905.) 
 (i) Professional Lists. 
 
 The Teachers' Professional Library. A classified 
 list of one hundred titles. U. S. Bureau of 
 Education, Washington. D.C. Bull. No. 8 
 for 1909. A serviceable selected list for 
 teachers who have not access to large libraries, 
 (y) Phj'sical Education and Physical Training. 
 
 McCuRDY, J. H. A Bibliography of Physical 
 Training, a verv full classified list. (New 
 York, 1005.) 
 Euler, C. Encyklopddisches Handbuch des 
 gesamten Turnwesens. (Vienna, 1896.) 
 
 VI. Annual Trade Bibliogr.^phies and Publishers' 
 Lists Containing, Cl.issified or Unclassified, all 
 Current Books on Education. 
 
 A. American. 
 
 (1) Ajinual American Catalogue: and The 
 
 Publishers' Weekly. Contains annota- 
 tions of most books from the various pub- 
 lishers' announcements. (Since 1886.) 
 (New York.) 
 
 (2) P)iblishers' Weekly, consisting both of a 
 
 weekly edition and an annual summary. 
 A reference list of all new publications 
 under author, title, and subject. (Since 
 1872.) (New York.) 
 
 (3) The Cumulative Book Index. Both annual 
 
 and monthly issues. Author, title, and 
 subject catalogue in one alphabet. (Since 
 1900.) (Wilson, Minn.) 
 
 (4) Catalogue of Copyright Entries, U. S. Copy- 
 
 right Office, Wa.shington, D.C. Issues 
 weekly and quarterly. The most com- 
 plete record of current American publica- 
 tions. (Since 1S91.) 
 
 (5) Publishers' Trade List Annual. The pub- 
 
 lishers' weekly. This gives a list of all 
 books carried on the current trade lists 
 as well as the latest publications. Ar- 
 ranged by publishers' catalogue. (Since 
 1873.) There is issued each summer a 
 special educational number. 
 
 (6) The Readers' Guide. Periodical literature. 
 
 A monthly and annual index to all peri- 
 odical literature. Educational articles 
 classified and also listed bv title. (Since 
 1900.) (Wilson, Minn.) 
 
 (7) The Book Rcuicw Dige.'it. Monthly. Con- 
 
 tains brief annotations or evaluations of 
 leading current book publications. (Since 
 1904.) 
 
 B. English. 
 
 (1) English Catalogue of Books. Author, title, 
 
 and subject index under one alphabet. 
 (Since 1837.) (Low, London.) 
 
 (2) The Bookseller. Monthly. Contains a list 
 
 of the publications each month. (.Since 
 185S.) (Whitaker, London.) 
 
 (3) Publishers' Circular and Booksellers' Rec- 
 
 ord of British ajid Foreign Literature. 
 Contains index of subject, author, and 
 title under one alphabet. (Since 1837.) 
 (Low, London.) 
 
 C. French. 
 
 (1) LoRENZ, O. H. Catalogue general de la 
 
 lihrairie frangaisc. Author and ,Subject 
 index of French publications from 1840 to 
 1908. (Volumes issued every five or ten 
 years.) 
 
 (2) Bibliograph ie franQaise. 
 
 Continuation of above. Gives author, subject, 
 and title classification for five-vear peri- 
 ods. (1908.) 
 
 (3) Catalogue niensuel de la lihrairie franqaise. 
 
 The annual volume of the following. 
 
 379
 
 BIDDLE UNIVERSITY 
 
 BILLINGSLEY 
 
 (4) Monthly. Catalogue mensuel de la librairie 
 
 fraiifaise. A classified list of nioutlily 
 publications by authors, titles, and sub- 
 jects. 
 
 (5) Biblwgraphie dc la France. 
 The weekly journal of the French publica- 
 tions. From 1811 to 11)0^. 
 
 (6) Memorial de la librairie franfaisc. 
 The complement of the above annual. 
 
 (7) Hibllvyraiiliie fran^aise. 
 Tile publishers' eataloyue, composed of trade 
 
 lists of nearly 200 publications. 
 
 D. Gerniau. 
 
 (1) Heinsius, Wilhelm. Allgemeines Bilclor- 
 
 lexicon. An alphabetic author catalogue 
 from 1700 to 1S'J2. 
 
 (2) K.^Y.SER, Chkistun Gottlob. V'oll- 
 
 stt'i n(ti(jt's Biicher'lexicon. 
 .Similar to above, covering period from 1750 
 to date. Volumes every four years. 
 
 (3) HiNKioHS, J. C. Fiinfjahrs-katalog der im 
 
 deutschen Buchhandcl erschienenen Bilcher, 
 Zeilsehriflen, Lamlkarlen, etc. .Similar 
 to above, covering period from 1851 to 
 1905. 
 
 (1) Halhjahrs-katalog der im deutschen Biich- 
 
 hamlrl erschienenen Bilcher, Zeilsehriflen, 
 Landkarlen, etc. 
 
 The semi-annual edition of the above. 
 Gives ample author and title lists and an 
 index by subject. 
 
 (5) WOchentliches Verzeichnis der erschienenen 
 urul der vorhereiteten Ncuigkeiten des deut- 
 schen Buchhandels. 
 The weekly edition of the above. 
 
 E. Belgian. 
 
 (1) Bibliographic nationale, dictionnaire des 
 
 ecrioains beiges, 1830-1880. (Brussels, 
 1886.) 
 
 (2) Revue bibliographique beige. A monthly 
 
 record, with author index to each yearly 
 volume. Since 1S89. (Brussels.) 
 
 F. Danish. 
 (1) Dansk hogfortegnelse. From 1841 to 1900. 
 
 Continued by lii-monthly numbers with 
 an annual alphabetic index. 
 
 G. Dutch. 
 (1) Brinkmun's Catalogue der boeken. From 
 
 IS.jO to 1891. Continued yearly by Brink- 
 man's Alphabclischc lijst va?i boeken, 
 landkaartcn, and by the monthly Neder- 
 landsche bibliographic. 
 H. Italian. 
 
 (1) Bollillino delta pubblicazioni italianc. A 
 classified monthly record with author 
 index published by the Biblioteca nazi- 
 onale centrale di Firenze. 
 I. Norwegian. 
 
 (1) .Vorsk bogfortegnelse. From 1814 to 1900. 
 Continued by the Norsk bogfortegnelse 
 annual^'. 
 J. Spanish. 
 
 (1) Bibliograjta eapafiola. Since 1900. Bohlln 
 de la libreria. Since 1873. Monthly 
 records. 
 K. Swedish. 
 
 (1) Scensk l,„kkatalog. From 1866 to 1900. 
 
 (Sto(klii>lni, Svenska bokforliiggare- 
 
 foreningen.) Continued yearly by the 
 
 Arskahdog for svenska bokhandeln. 
 
 VII. Ge.veral Biblioohaphical Guide. Kroeger, 
 
 Alice B. Guirte to the Study and Use of Reference 
 
 Books. (Boston, 1908.) 
 
 See En' CYCLOPEDIA ; Official St.\te Publica- 
 tions ON Education; Periodicals, Educa- 
 tional. 
 
 BIDDLE UNIVERSITY, CHARLOTTE, 
 N.C. — An institution for the education of 
 negroes, founded in 1S(J7. Theological, colle- 
 giate, industrial, and preparatory departments 
 
 380 
 
 are maintained. Approximately 6 or 7 points 
 of higii scliool work are re(|uircd for entrance 
 into the college, which offers classical and 
 scientific courses leading to the degree of B.A. 
 and B.S. Those who complete the 2 years' 
 preparatory course may teach in the jjublic 
 schools of the state. AH students in the ])ie- 
 paratory school must take work in the industrial 
 department, where a choice is i)ermittcd. 
 Carpentry, i)rinting, shocmaking, and tailoring 
 are among the chief kinds of labor provided. 
 There are 13 professors on the faculty. 
 
 BILLINGS POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE, 
 BILLINGS, MONT. — Opened in Sept., 19(19, 
 to fit the boys and girls for the jjractical 
 duties of vocational life in the state; indu.strial 
 training is to be the leading feature of the 
 institute. Science and liberal arts, engineer- 
 ing, commerce, industrial arts, normal, academic, 
 and music courses are offered. Candidates 
 for admission to the first two of these covu'scs 
 must present a diploma from an accredited 
 high school or its equivalent. Only 2 years of 
 regular college work and engineering will be given 
 for the present. Lewis T. Eaton, M.S., is the 
 educational director and president of the faculty. 
 
 BILLINGSLEY, SIR HENRY. — At one 
 
 time Lord Mayor of London. He entered as 
 a scholar of St. John's College, Cambridge, in 
 1.5,51, and is said to have studied also at Oxford. 
 Billingsley had been an apprentice and after- 
 wards merchant in London, was Sheriff in 
 1584, and in 1596 Lord Mayor, and in 1604 
 Meml)er of Parliament for London. In 1570 he 
 published the first tran.slation into English of 
 Euclid's ElcmcnU. John Dee, the famous astrol- 
 ogist and mathematician of Queen Elizabeth's 
 reign, contributed notes and a learned preface on 
 mathematics. It has been suggested that John 
 Dee wrote the translation, but there does not 
 seem to be sufficient ground to doubt that 
 Billingsley is the tran.slator, as he claims to be, 
 and has been traditionally esteemed. The 
 title-page is as follows: The Elements of Gcome- 
 trie of the mod aiincicnl Phihmrphcr EucUde of 
 Megara, Faithfully {now first) translated into 
 the Englishc tonng, by H. Billingsley, Citizen 
 of London. Whereunlo are annexed certaine 
 Schoiies, Annotations, and Inventions of the 
 bc-ft Mathcmatieians, both of lime past, a7id in 
 this our age, with a very fruitful Prnefaee made 
 by M. J. Dee, specifying the chitf Mathematicall 
 Sciences, what they are, and whereunto commo- 
 dious ; where also are disclosed cerlaine new 
 Secrets Mathematicall and Mechanicall, vntill 
 these our daies, greatly missed. Imprinted at 
 London by John Daye. (Preface dated Feb. 
 9, 1570.) The book was a translation from 
 the Oreek, not merely a translation of the cur- 
 rent Latin text of Campanus which was taken 
 from the Arabic version. F. W. 
 
 Reference : — 
 Dictionary of National Biography.
 
 BILLION 
 
 BINOCULAR VISION 
 
 BILLION. — A number name used with 
 two meanings, (1) to indicate a thousand 
 million (or 10'), and (2) to indicate a million 
 million (or 10'-). The former is the usage in 
 the United States and France, the latter in Eng- 
 land and on most of the continent of Europe. 
 The word is found in Chuquet's Tripariij (1484) 
 with the second meaning (10'^): "On qui 
 veult le premier point peult signiffier million. 
 Le second point byllion." Trenchant, who 
 wrote at Lyons in 1566, used the word with 
 the first meaning (10'). It was not a common 
 word in Italy in the sixteenth century, but 
 Cataldi (1602) uses it for 10°, in the form of 
 bilioni, with didUoni as a synonym. The 
 Dutch arithmeticians adopted the meaning of 
 10'- at an early date, Vander Schuere (1600) 
 gi\nng the word in the form of bimillioen, but in 
 a later edition giving himillion and billion. 
 The word does not seem to have been used by 
 German writers before the close of the seven- 
 teenth century. The American usage came 
 from the influx of French textbooks early in 
 the nineteenth century. The double meaning 
 offers few practical difficulties, because the word 
 is rarely used in speaking or writing. 
 
 D. E. S. 
 
 BINAURAL HEARING. — The two ears 
 are used in the recognition of sounds as a single 
 complex organ. Each ear of a normal indi- 
 vidual sends to the central nervous system a 
 series of sound sensations, whenever a sound is 
 produced in the presence of such an individual. 
 When these streams of sound sensations reach 
 the central organs, they do not flow together 
 into a single stream of sensory excitation, but 
 are utilized in some complex way to give rise 
 to a single perceptual process. That the two 
 streams of sensory excitation do not flow to- 
 gether is shown by the fact that important 
 phases of our auditory perception depend upon 
 the slight differences that may exist between 
 the intensities and qualities of the two streams 
 of sensor}' excitation. Thus when a sound is 
 produced on the right side of an individual the 
 right ear receives a somewhat more intense 
 sensory excitation, and the individual tends to 
 turn his ej^es in the direction of this more intense 
 stimulus. The result is that the sound is 
 perceived as lying on the right side, although 
 the two streams of sensations are so combined 
 that only one sound is heard. The importance 
 of these differences between the impressions 
 received by the two ears is clearly recognized 
 when a sound is produced in the median plane 
 of the body. A sound in this plane, especially 
 if it is of neutral quality, cannot be located 
 with accuracy, sometimes a position directly 
 in front of the face being confused with a posi- 
 tion immediately behind the head. Such con- 
 fu.sions of sounds from in front and behind are 
 less likely to arise when the sound has complex 
 tonal quality. The quality of a sound is 
 somewhat different according as it enters the 
 
 381 
 
 ear from in front or from behind. This is due 
 to the form of the external ear or pinna which 
 cUrects the sound into the ear. The fact that 
 such slight differences in quahty affect the lo- 
 calization of sounds indicates the complexity of 
 the perceptual process. In fact the distinc- 
 tion and relation between sensations and per- 
 ceptions is nowhere better illustrated than in 
 the complex relation between the two ears. 
 
 C. H. J. 
 See Sensation ; Perception ; Binocular 
 Vision ; Space ; and Fusion. 
 
 References: — 
 
 Pierce. A. H, Studies in Auditory and Visual Space- 
 Perceplion. (New York, 1901.) 
 
 Starch. Psychological Review, Monograph Supple- 
 ment No. 29. 
 
 BINGHAM, CALEB (1757-1817). — The au- 
 thor of several of the earliest American school- 
 books, was born at Salisbury, Conn., Apr. 15, 
 1757, and was graduated from Dartmouth 
 College in 1782. For 2 years he was master 
 of Moor's Indian Charity School at Dart- 
 mouth, which was under the same manage- 
 ment as the college. In 17S4 he opened a 
 school for girls in Boston, and 4 years later took 
 charge of one of the reading schools in that 
 city. He was the author of many of the 
 earliest American textbooks, including Young 
 Ladies' Accidence (a grammar), American 
 Preceptor and Columbian Orator (a reader). 
 Child's Companion (a speller), a set of copy 
 slips for teaching penmanship, and Juvenile 
 Letters, a collection of familiar epistles between 
 children, calculated to introduce them to the 
 forms of letter writing and English composition. 
 He was one of the original promoters of a public 
 library in Boston. He died at Boston Apr. 6, 
 1817. W. S. M. 
 
 BINOCULAR VISION. — The images re- 
 ceived in the two eyes from a solid object differ 
 slightly from each other. The image in the 
 right eye is somewhat more complete for the 
 right side of the object, while the image in the 
 left eye is somewhat more complete for the left 
 side of the object. The slight differences 
 between the two images do not under ordinary 
 circumstances lead up to a double perception of 
 the objects. There are cases where the dif- 
 ferences in form of the two images and the 
 differences in the positions which they occupy 
 on the two retinas may become so unusual 
 that the observer will be confused by the double 
 images. (See Double I.mages.) If the dif- 
 ferences between the two images are of the 
 usual tj'pe, they are fused in perception in a 
 single, undivided recognition of a solid object. 
 Sherrington (I titegrative Activity of the Central 
 Nervous System) has shown experimentally 
 that the two streams of retinal excitations do 
 not flow together in the central nervous system. 
 The process of fusing these two streams of 
 sensory excitations is a complex one wherein
 
 BINOMIAL THEOREM 
 
 BIOGRAPHY 
 
 the two streams each retain their independence 
 and make a definite contribution to the com- 
 plex perceptuiil process. (See Fusion; Percep- 
 tion.) The problem of the recognition of 
 solidity through tlic fus on of two retinal images 
 wa.s early recognized as a problem of large 
 psychological importance. 13crkeley, in his 
 Est:(iy Toward a Xeiv Theory of Vision, pub- 
 lished in 1709, pointed out the difficulty of 
 giving any simple explanation of perception of 
 solidity and depth. Since the retinal image is 
 on a surface, all three dimensional character- 
 istics of this image must be regarded as reduced 
 if not entirely eliminated, llow a solid object 
 can be recognized by a human being through 
 a flat retinal image was the problem which 
 Berkeley discussed. He answered this ques- 
 tion by calling attention to the sensations of 
 movement that are always present in visual 
 perception. These sensations of movement do 
 not, however, comjiletely explain the perception 
 of solidity, and the whole problem has been one 
 of the most productive subjects of experimental 
 study. 
 
 About a century after Berkeley, Wheat- 
 stone, an English physici.st, described the 
 stereoscope. The instrument which he de- 
 scribed was modified by later students of the 
 problem of binocular vision, and is now known 
 as a popular toy and as a means of instruction. 
 The stereoscope is an instrument which throws 
 into each eye the special image which would 
 naturally come into that eye, if the observer 
 were looking at a solid object. When these 
 two images are presented through the stereo- 
 scope, they fuse into a single percept of a solid 
 object. 
 
 The development of binocular vision is 
 observed in young children through a study 
 of the movements of their eyes. At the begin- 
 ning of life the two eyes do not coordinate 
 exactly in their movements. In later life the 
 coordination is more complete, though never 
 absolute. In certain cases the lack of coordi- 
 nation is so marked that vision is not fully 
 developed even at a late period. C. H. J. 
 
 References : — 
 
 JuDD, C. H. Laboratory Equipment for Psychological 
 
 Experimnitx. 
 Le Conte. Sight. 
 Wheatstone. Philosophical Transactions. (1829.) 
 
 BINOMIAL THEOREM. — A theorem in 
 algebra relating to the powers of an expression 
 of two terms, a binomial. It asserts that 
 
 , n(n~ l)(n — 2) n-^ t , 
 + ^ 1.23 ^ "^"■' 
 
 for all values of n, positive, negative, integral, 
 fractional, or complex. In particular, if n = 2, 
 we have 
 
 a fact possibly known to the Babylonians, and 
 certainly well known to the Greeks. If n = 3 
 we have 
 
 {x+ay = x''+3x-a+3xa'+a', 
 
 a fact also known to the Greeks. 
 
 It will be seen that the coefficients of the 
 
 various powers of the binomial can be arranged 
 
 thus: — 
 
 power 1 
 
 1st power 1 1 
 
 2il power 1 2 1 
 
 3d power 13 3 1 
 
 4th power 14 6 4 1 
 
 and so on. The first knowledge of this arrange- 
 ment of these coefficients is usually attributed 
 to Stifel (q.v.), since they appear in his Arith- 
 metica Integra of 1544. This is not correct, 
 however, for they appear in triangular array 
 on the title-page of the first edition of Apianus 
 (Bienewitz), Eyn Newe Vnnd 'WolgegrUndte 
 vnderu'cy.'^ung niter Kaiiffman.'^z Rechnung, 1527, 
 and were probably known even earlier. They 
 were afterwards studied in this form by Pascal 
 (g.r.), and hence the triangular array has long 
 been known as Pascal's triangle. 
 
 The general, or )th, term of the binomial 
 scries has for its coefficient 
 
 n(w-l)(w-2)--(?i-r-|-l) 
 r 
 
 D. E. S. 
 
 BIOGRAPHY, USE OF IN INSTRUCTION. 
 
 — The ancient Greeks made nmch use of 
 biograjihy as a means of education. Yet the 
 Grecian heroes were too intimately related to 
 the gods to rank fully as mortal men and direct 
 objects of imitation. Odysseus in the Ody.'tscy 
 is a good example. The Romans made far 
 more use of biography, presenting actual his- 
 torical characters. Plutarch's Lives, for in- 
 stance, although written by a Greek, seems to 
 have formed the basis for much of Roman 
 education. At the present time biography 
 plays a very prominent part in the education 
 of youth, both in our own country and at)road. 
 In many of our schools it begins in the lowest 
 grades in the form of stories about Washington, 
 Lincoln, and other eminent men; ami while 
 most emphasized in the middle grades of our 
 elementary schools, it receives much attention 
 in our more advanced study, and in liti'rature 
 for adults. 
 
 This prominence of biography is probably 
 due, primarily, to the strong interest in person- 
 ality. So long as the objects about a child, 
 for example, lack human characteristics, they 
 may be wanting in interest; but endow them 
 with personality, and they are loved. The 
 little girl feels affection for her doll to the extent 
 that it is imagined to see, hear, feel, and suffer. 
 If boys and girls were asked to tell how a man 
 might live, if he were placed on an island by 
 himself, the problem might arouse little interest. 
 
 382
 
 BIOGRAPHY 
 
 BIOLOGY 
 
 But when the situation is personified, as in the 
 story of Robinson Crusoe, it becomes thrilling. 
 Boys and girls regularly weep when Crusoe 
 suffers, and they rejoice when he meets with 
 good fortune. Thus life and feeling are greatly 
 dependent upon the introduction of personality. 
 
 Biography possesses other merits, also. 
 With some person as the center of interest, 
 most of the facts narrated must be concrete, 
 since they happen at a particular time and 
 place, or at least are given a particular setting. 
 Thus the great advantage of concreteness is 
 gained. 
 
 Further than that, the advantages of good 
 organization are to some extent assured; for 
 the central personality tends to establish a 
 unity among the ideas presented and to secure 
 a close sequence among them. These merits 
 help to explain the popularity of such books as 
 The Story of At) — often used in the study of 
 primitive life in the lower primary school; of 
 The Sci'en Little Sisters — used as an introduc- 
 tion into geography; of Pilgrim's Progress; 
 Uncle Tom's Cabin ; Hiawatha ; and also 
 Carlyle's Heroes and Hero-Worship, and Emer- 
 son's Representative Men. 
 
 There are serious limitations to the use of 
 biography, however, that should be noted. In 
 centering attention upon the individual hero, 
 the mass of humanity is in danger of being 
 neglected; and so long as the social point of 
 view is accepted as one of the great aims of 
 instruction in history, this is a vital defect. 
 This objection does not fully apply to the study 
 of the Hebrew race through biography, for such 
 men as Joseph, Moses, and Joshua lived for 
 their people, and the problems of these individ- 
 uals were the problems of their race. Nor, 
 perhaps, is this objection so serious, if one be- 
 lieves with Carlyle that " the history of what 
 man has accomplished in this world is at bottom 
 the history of the great men who have worked 
 here." (See Carlyle's Heroes and Hero-Worship, 
 Lecture 1.) Yet there is little doubt but that 
 most biography so isolates its hero that the 
 individualistic, rather than the social, habit of 
 mind is thereby inculcated. 
 
 Furthermore, while biography establishes 
 a certain very desirable unity among a large 
 body of facts, it does not secure the highest kind 
 of organization. While different biographies 
 may constitute individual units, taken together 
 they may not form a unity. An organization 
 based on the growth of great ideas, rather than 
 that of great men, is of a higher kind, although 
 more abstract. In the minds of many students, 
 the history of the world, if presented solely 
 through biographies, would be wanting in many 
 important facts, would lack organization, and 
 would offer a wrong viewpoint. 
 
 Owing to such objections the biographical 
 method, both in the United States and in Ger- 
 many, has been largely confined to the ele- 
 mentary school age, and even there it has been 
 much supplemented by other history. It is 
 
 at least a question, however, whether it could not 
 be advantageously followed to a greater extent 
 than now prevails, both in religious instruction 
 in our Sunday schools, and in our elementary 
 schools and our high schools. It is certainly 
 superior, both in interest and in organization, 
 to much so-called history that consists only of 
 facts related in chronological order. 
 
 F. M. McM. 
 See History, Methods of Teaching. 
 
 References : — 
 
 C.iRLYLE. Heroes and Hero-Worship. 
 
 Emerson. Representative Men. 
 
 Kehr. Geschiehte des deutschen Volksschulunterrichis. 
 
 McMuRRY, Frank M. A Chapter in U.se of Biography 
 
 in Rehgious Instruction, in Principles of Religious 
 
 Instruction. 
 Monroe, P.iul. Text-book in History of Education, 
 
 p. 187, et seq. 
 
 BIOLOGY (/3('os, life, and Aoyiu, discours- 
 ing). — (1) This word was first proposed in- 
 dependently by Lamarck {q.v.) and by Tre- 
 viranus to designate in a broad way the science 
 of life or of living things in general, its original 
 significance being clearly defined in the title 
 of the chief work of Treviranus, Biologie, oder 
 Philosophie der lehenden Natiir, published in 
 1S02. With this primary significance the word 
 slowly made its way into general use to denote 
 the study of life phenomena in the widest 
 sense, that is, of the properties of living as 
 opposed to nonliving things. Biology was 
 thus differentiated from the much older term 
 "natural history," employed in the seventeenth 
 century in the sense of " natural science," 
 and later applied in a rather vague way to the 
 "observational sciences," including the history 
 of plants and animals, and also physical geog- 
 raphy, geology, and mineralogy. Even as thus 
 limited, biology covers far too wide a field for 
 any single science. Practically, therefore, the 
 word has become a collective term for a large 
 group of biological sciences, such as botany, 
 zoology, physiology, and their many subdivi- 
 sions, each of which deals with a particular 
 aspect of biological phenomena. 
 
 " The term Bioloqy, which means exactly what we 
 wish to express, the Science of Life, has often been used, 
 and has of late become not uncommon among good 
 writers." — Whewell, Philosophy of the Inductive 
 Sciences, 1847. 
 
 " That is how it has come abovit that all clear thinkers 
 and lovers of consistent nomenclature ha\'e substituted 
 for the old confusing name of ' Natural History,' which 
 has conveyed so many meanings, the terra 'Biology,' 
 which denotes the whole of the sciences which deal with 
 li\'ing things, whether they be animals or whether they 
 be plants." — Hu.xley, On the Study of Biology, 1876. 
 
 In addition to its original significance, the 
 word "biology" has acquired a number of 
 secondary and more restricted meanings, as 
 follows. 
 
 (2) In technical usage it is often employed 
 to denote the " life histories " of plants or 
 animals — i.e. their modes of development, 
 habits, and often also their physiological inter- 
 
 383
 
 BIOLOGY 
 
 BIRKBECK 
 
 actions with one another and with their environ- 
 ment. This usage is a survival of an earlier 
 period, especially in entomology, when it was 
 desired to contrast the living external activi- 
 ties of the organism with its mere structural 
 relations and position in the system of classi- 
 fication. By a later extension of meaning it 
 was made to apply not only to the normal 
 organism as a whole, but sometimes also to its 
 constituent parts, and even in some eases to 
 diseases. In this sense we speak of the " bi- 
 ology " of plants, of fishes, of parasites, of 
 cells, of bacteria, of tumors, etc. A distinction 
 is often drawn, accordingly, between " bio- 
 logical " investigation and that which is merely 
 morphological (anatomical, liistological, and 
 the like); thougii in the original broader sense 
 both are alike biological. This use of the word 
 is perhaps most frequent in the continental 
 countries of Europe. 
 
 (;}) In academic practice the term "biology " 
 is variously and not very consistently employed. 
 It is very often applied, particularly in England 
 and the United States, to general elementary 
 courses of instruction in which both plants and 
 animals are considered in their relation to each 
 other, as illustrative of principles that hold 
 true for living things generally. Such courses 
 are often divided into a botanical and a zoo- 
 logical part, the two being so coordinated as 
 to form a coherent whole. This use of the word 
 is largely due to the example of Huxley, who 
 was one of the first to put such courses into 
 effect and to urge their educational value in 
 themselves, as introductory to more specialized 
 courses in zoology, botany, or physiology, or as 
 preparatory to the study of medicine. Huxley 
 and Martin's textbook of Practical Biology, 
 the first of its kind, was followed by many others 
 of similar type. It set a deep and lasting 
 impress on biological teaching in the English- 
 speaking countries, but its method has been 
 less generally followed elsewhere. Courses of 
 this type in " elementary biology " or " gen- 
 eral biology" are now offered in a large number 
 of the educational institutions of England and 
 America. In many schools and academic 
 institutions departments of " biology " are 
 maintained, in which instruction is often given 
 in botany, zoology, and physiology as well as 
 in the general elementary subject. In the 
 larger universities, where the biological sub- 
 jects are distributed among several or many 
 instructors, the tendency has been to maintain 
 separate departments of zoology, botany, 
 physiology, anatomy, embryology, paleontol- 
 ogy, bacteriology, etc., retaining the name 
 "biology" only for general introductory courses 
 given in one or more of the special departments 
 or by cooperation between them. 
 
 There are indications, however, that it may 
 be found desirable in the academic practice of 
 the larger universities to recognize biology as an 
 independent subject. The rapid extension of 
 experimental and analytical methods in bio- 
 
 logical inquiry is causing zoology and botany to 
 converge toward the study of many general 
 problems that are common to both, and in 
 which the traditional line of separation between 
 these sciences is of little or no significance. 
 Such problems are everywhere encountered, for 
 instance, in the study of growth, development, 
 heredity, evolution, and cell phenomena. . A 
 large and influential group of biologi-sts are 
 devoting themselves to studies of this ty])e, and 
 in a very few cases {e.g. at the University of 
 Cambridge) separate chairs of " liiology " 
 have been established for the promulgation of 
 such studies as distinguished from those in 
 botany or zoology in the narrower sense. It 
 is not unlikely that this usage will be more 
 widely employed in future. At jiresent, how- 
 ever, the most representative institutions in 
 Germany, England, and the United States have 
 only chairs in the different branches which go 
 to make up the biological studies. K. B. W, 
 
 For selected references and more detailed 
 information, see Bot.\ny, Academic Status of; 
 Physiology, Academic Status of; Zoology, 
 Academic Status of. 
 
 BIOMETRY. — The science which deals 
 with the methods and results of measurement 
 of animals both in their anatomical parts and in 
 their functional activities. It has been shown 
 by careful measurement that certain species of 
 animals are undergoing changes which would 
 have escaped ordinary observation unsupported 
 by accurate measurement. Again it has been 
 shown that variations can be accurately defined 
 only by securing some standard through careful 
 measurements of a large number of specimens. 
 A deviation in size from the average of the 
 species may be significant in explaining the 
 preservation or destruction of a given animal 
 in the struggle for existence. Such a deviation 
 can very frequently be detected only through 
 accurate measurements. Measurements of 
 the type which have been made on animals 
 and their functions can be carried on statisti- 
 cally for many of the activities of the school- 
 room. (See Statistics.) Individual varia- 
 tions (q.v.) appear among children, and are of 
 importance in determining educational activi- 
 ties. These can be measured by methods simi- 
 lar to those employed in general biometry. 
 
 C. H. J. 
 
 BIRCH. — See Punishment. 
 
 BIRD DAY. — See Special Days. 
 
 BIRD STUDY. — See Special Days; Hu- 
 mane Education. 
 
 BIRKBECK. GEORGE, M.D. (177r>-1841). 
 — Founder of Mechanics' Institutions; born 
 at Settle, Yorkshire (1776); son of a merchant 
 and banker; studied medicine at Edinburgh, 
 where among his fellow students were Brougham 
 
 384
 
 BIRMINGHAM SEMINARY 
 
 BISCOP 
 
 (q.v.) and Jeffrey. In 1799 Birkbeck was 
 appointed Professor of Natural Philosophy 
 and Chemistry at an educational institution in 
 Glasgow called Anderson's Universit.y, which 
 had been founded by Dr. John Anderson (q.v.), 
 Professor of Natural Philosophy in the Univer- 
 sity of Glasgow. Anderson, for some years 
 before his death occurred in 1796, had been in 
 the habit of giving a course of lectures on e.xperi- 
 mental physics, to which some workingmen, 
 among others, were invited. When Birkbeck 
 began his first course of lectures at Anderson's 
 University, he found it necessary to make a 
 good deal of apparatus, and as no scientific 
 instrument maker resided at that time in the 
 city, he was obliged to apply to the workshops 
 which were best able to meet his needs. In this 
 way he made the acquaintance of a number of 
 Glasgow artisans. He found them so anxious 
 to acquire knowledge and so full of intelligence, 
 that he resolved to give a course of experimen- 
 tal lectures upon mechanics, " solely for persons 
 engaged in the practical exercise of the mechani- 
 cal arts, men whose situation in early hfe has 
 precluded the possibihty of acquiring even the 
 smallest portion of scientific knowledge." His 
 lectures to workingmen became very popular, 
 and were continued until his removal from 
 Glasgow to London in 1804. During the early 
 years of his residence in London, Birkbeck was 
 absorbed in his duties as a physician, but the 
 development of his Glasgow mechanics' class 
 in 1823 into the Glasgow Mechanics' Institu- 
 tion led him once more to occupy himself with 
 the questions of popular education. He took 
 the lead in the establishment of a Mechanics' 
 Institution for London, lent a large sum for 
 the building of a lecture room, and was elected 
 the first president of the society. In this 
 work he was associated with Lord Brougham. 
 Throughout the rest of his life, Birkbeck was 
 the leading figure in the movement for the exten- 
 sion of popular scientific instruction for working- 
 men. He was also one of the founders of 
 University College, London (1827), and vigor- 
 ou.sly advocated the repeal of the taxes on 
 newspapers (1835-1836). M. E. S. 
 
 References: — 
 GoDDABD, J. D. Life of Dr. Birkbeck. (1884.) 
 Sadleu, M. E. Continuation Schools in England and 
 
 Elsewhere. (Manchester. 1907.) 
 Dictionary of National Biography. 
 
 BIRMINGHAM SEMINARY, BIRMING- 
 HAM, ALA. — Founded in 1S97 for the educa- 
 tion of girls and young women. Primary, 
 academic, collegiate, and fine arts departments 
 are maintained. The college courses are based 
 on about 2 years of high school work. Degrees 
 are conferred. The faculty consists of 14 
 instructors. 
 
 BIRMINGHAM, UNIVERSITY OF. — 
 
 Founded in 1S7() as the Josiah Mason's College 
 for the Study of Practical Science, changed in 
 
 VOL. I — 2 c 385 
 
 1881 to the Mason Science College, and in 1897 
 to the Mason University College. The insti- 
 tution was established to promote the practical 
 mechanical and artistic requirements of the 
 Midlands of England. In 1900 Mason L'niver- 
 sity College was merged by the Birmingham 
 University Act in the university, which had 
 received a Royal Charter in the same year. At 
 that time, by the public-spirited efforts of its 
 citizens who raised the endowments, the future 
 progress of the university was assured. Like 
 all the northern universities of England, its 
 success depends on its adaptation to local 
 needs. Since receiving the Royal Charter, 
 considerable additions have been made to the 
 buildings and equipments, which were opened 
 in 1909. The university maintains faculties of 
 science, arts, medicine, and commerce, in all of 
 which degrees are given. The university has 
 power to inspect schools and hold school-leav- 
 ing examinations which it may accept in lieu of 
 the Matriculation Examination. Alany local 
 authorities maintain scholarships at the uni- 
 versity and give financial support. The teach- 
 ing staff in 1908-1909 consisted of 113 members, 
 and the enrollment of students was 910. The 
 Right Hon. Joseph Chamberlain, to whose 
 efforts the university was largely due, is the 
 first Chancellor. 
 
 References: — 
 
 Birmingham University Calendar. 
 
 English Board of Education. Reports from Universities 
 and University Colleges. (Annual.) 
 
 BISCOP, BENEDICT (628-689). — Biscop 
 may with sound reason be called the Father of 
 English Culture. He was of noble stock (prob- 
 ably bearing the patronymic " Baducing "), a 
 theyn of Oswy, King of Northumbria, the 
 seventh Bretwalda. Soon after the year 650 
 he made his first \dsit to Rome. On his way 
 he stopped at Canterbury, and was entertained 
 by the Archbishop Honorius, the companion 
 and successor of Augustine. There he met 
 Wilfrid, afterwards the famous Bishop of York, 
 and the two traveled Romeward together. Wil- 
 frid .stopped for a time at Lyons with Bishop 
 Dalfinus, but " Biscop hastened on to Rome." 
 Bede tells that Biscop visited Rome in all five 
 times, and each time returned with a great store 
 of books and pictures. We know that he was in 
 Rome in 668, because in that year, at the request 
 of Pope Vitalian, he accompanied Theodore to 
 Britain as guide and interpreter, and was placed 
 in charge of the monastery of St. Peter and 
 Paul (St. Augu.stine's) at Canterbury unjfil the 
 Abbot Adrian arrived. In 674 he founded the 
 famous Northumbrian Monastery of Wear- 
 mouth. After this work was accomplished he 
 went again to Rome, this time with his fellow 
 worker Ceolfrid (who succeeded him as Abbot 
 of Jarrow). Bede tells us {E. H. IV, 18) with 
 respect to the visit that he had been there 
 " several times before," so presumably he had 
 visited Rome once at least between the visit of
 
 BISCOP 
 
 BISHOPS' SCHOOLS 
 
 650 and that of 668. This particular visit was 
 to find a teacher in music and sound doctrine, 
 and Pope Agatho sent back with him John, 
 Abbot of St. Martin's at Rome, that he miglit 
 teach in his monastery the system of singing 
 throughout tiie year, as it was practiced at St. 
 Peter's in Rome. John's educational work is 
 rccorileil in tlie same chapter (A'. //. IV, IS). 
 He taught " the singers in the said monastery 
 the order and manner of singing and reading 
 aloud." He also committed to writing " all 
 that was requisite throughout the whole course 
 of the year for the celebration of festivals." 
 His fame as a teacher extended through the 
 North: "such as had skill in singing resorted 
 from almost all the monasteries of the same 
 province to hear him, and many invited him to 
 teach in other places." He examined into the 
 condition of the faith in England, and reported 
 it sound. But John died on his homeward 
 journey, and was buried in St. Martin's Church 
 at Tours. He may have been one of the 
 teachers of the boy Bede, who tells us that he 
 (Bede) was, in the year 680, " given by the care 
 of kinsmen, at seven years of age, to be educated 
 by the most renowned abbot Benedict, and 
 afterwards by Ceolfrid " (E.H.V, 24). The 
 ne.xt year (681) Benedict founded the Monastery 
 of Jarrow (which forms the second part of the 
 twin monastery presided over by Benedict), 
 and appointed Ceolfrid as Abbot. Bede passed 
 to Jarrow with Ceolfrid, and spent the rest of 
 his life there. Of Benedict's fourth journey to 
 Rome we are told, eum innumerabilem libro- 
 rum omnis generis copiam apportasse. He 
 also brought books from Vienne. Miss Sellars 
 tells us (in her edition of the Ecclesiastical 
 History, p. 257) that he enriched his twin 
 monasteries, " with furniture, vestments, relics, 
 pictures, and a library of valuable books 
 which he brought from the Continent. The 
 rule which he framed for his monasteries was 
 Benedictine, compiled from seventeen different 
 monasteries which he had visited." His fifth 
 journey to Rome must have been between 681 
 and 685, when he made a sixth visit to the Con- 
 tinent, " almost entirely devoted to the collec- 
 tion of books, including classical books" 
 (Sandys' History of Classical Scholarship, 
 Vol. I, 2d ed., p. 468). In 688 he was succeeded 
 at Wearmouth by Ceolfrid, who ruled over both 
 monasteries and added to Benedict's library. 
 In the Codex Amiatinus of the Latin Bible, 
 written at Wearmouth or Jarrow, and now at 
 Florence, we have extant evidence of the culture 
 introduced into Northern England by Biscop 
 and Ceolfrid. Moreover, some remarkable and 
 beautiful vestiges of both abbeys remain as 
 parts of the parish churches of North Wear- 
 mouth and Jarrow. Benedict Biscop died on 
 Jan. 10, 689, while his fellow worker Ceolfrid 
 survived till 716, in which year he resigned his 
 office and died at Langres on his way to Rome. 
 These workers are definite links in the educa- 
 tional line connecting Augustine {q.v.) through 
 
 386 
 
 Theodore and Adrian with Bede {q.v.), Egbert 
 of York, and Alcuin {q.v.). J. E. G. de M. 
 
 References : — 
 
 Bede. Vitnv Ahhatum and Ecclesiastical History. 
 Du.\NE, .v. T. Christian Hchools. (London, ISSl.) 
 
 BISHOP, NATHAN ( 1 SOS- 1 880). — School- 
 man, educated at Hamilton Academy and at 
 Brown University; tutor in Brown University 
 (1837-1838); superintendent of the schools of 
 Providence, the fir.st city supcrintendency 
 established in the United States, from 1838 
 to 1854, and first superintendent of the schools 
 of Boston (1854-1855). W S. M. 
 
 BISHOP, ROBERT HAMILTON (1777- 
 1855). — Educator and textbook writer, was 
 educated in the schools of Scotland and at the 
 University of Edinburgh; he was professor at 
 the Transylvania University from 1S03 to 1824; 
 at Miami University from 1824 to 1845, and 
 president of Farmers College, near Cincinnati, 
 from 1845 to 1855; author of a series of text- 
 books in logic, ci\ics, etc. W. S. M. 
 
 BISHOPS' COLLEGE, UNIVERSITY OF, 
 LENNOXVILLE, QUEBEC. — A coeduca- 
 tional institution fountled in 1845 and admin- 
 istered by a Corporation consisting of the 
 bishops of the Anglican Church of the Province 
 of Quebec and the tru.stees and college council 
 appointed by them. Preparatory, college, and 
 theological courses are offered. For the degrees 
 3 years' residence is required. There is a 
 faculty of 3 professors and 5 lecturers. 
 
 BISHOPS' SCHOOLS. — The importance 
 of the part played by bishops in the history of 
 modern education, since Christianity became 
 the established religion of the Roman Empire, 
 can hardly be exaggerated. Whether on the 
 whole that part has been for the advancement 
 of education or the reverse may perhaps be 
 questioned. Indeed, in one view the history of 
 education may be considered as the history of 
 the elimination of episcopal authority from a 
 sphere with which it has no proper concern. 
 But of the importance of the influence of the 
 bishop on the school there can be no question. 
 When the history of modern schools begins, 
 the bishops were the only, and they remained 
 for many centuries by themselves or their 
 officials the chief, educators and directors of 
 educators, and their schools the chief seats of 
 education throughout Western Europe. At 
 what exact date the public schools of grammar 
 and of rhetoric, maintained either by the central 
 authority of the Emperor out of the fiscus, or by 
 the local authority, the municipium, out of 
 local funds, died out and were superseded bj' the 
 episcopal schools it is hard to say with cer- 
 tainty. In Gaul the public schools still flour- 
 ished in the fourth century, when Auisonius gives 
 a poetical account of the school of Bordeaux,
 
 BISHOPS' SCHOOLS 
 
 BISHOPS' SCHOOLS 
 
 while St. Sidonius ApoUinaris, consul and then 
 bishop, speaks of the schools of Vienne, P6ri- 
 gueux, and Lyons as late as 483. 
 
 In Italy it is certain that they flourished in 
 the first half of the si-xth century, for Ennodius, 
 a native of Gaul, Bishop of Ticinum (Pavia) 
 from 513 to 521, has preserved 28 speeches com- 
 posed for the schools of rhetoric at Pavia and 
 for Milan school when a nephew was admitted 
 to it. Venantius Fortunatus, author of a 
 poetical life of St. Martin of Tours in 570, a 
 native of Italy born at Treviso, tells how 
 he had in his youth licked up the small 
 stream of the water of grammar and taken 
 a slight drink out of the deep pools of rhetoric. 
 But in France public schools had apparently 
 disappeared by the sixth century. For Greg- 
 ory of Tours himself is recorded to have been 
 brought up at Clermont, not in the public 
 school, but by bishops Gallus and Avitus. 
 
 The identification of the episcopal office 
 with that of the schoolmaster was not effected 
 without opposition. Pope Gregory the Great 
 (Ep. XI, 54), who had himself been in 595 so 
 " well-grounded in grammar, logic, and rhetoric 
 that no one in Rome was even second to him " 
 (Greg. Tur. Hist. Franc. X, i), rates Dcsiderius 
 Bishop of Vienne, because, " as we cannot 
 relate without shame it has come to our knowl- 
 edge that your brotherhood teaches grammar 
 to certain persons, which we take all the worse 
 as it converts what we formerly said in your 
 favour to lamentation and woe, since the praise 
 of Christ cannot lie in one mouth with the 
 praise of Jupiter. Consider yourself what a 
 crime it is for bishops to recite what would be 
 improper for religiously-minded laymen." This 
 letter is doubly interesting, as it shows not 
 only that episcopal education was an innova- 
 tion and that things were in a transitional 
 stage, passing from the lay, and indeed 
 heathen, public school to the episcopal school, 
 but also that the episcopal school was a 
 grammar school in which the " heathen " 
 classics, and we may infer Vergil's Eclogues, — 
 A Jove principium Musae, Jovis omnia plena, — 
 still formed the principal part of the curriculum. 
 Gregory the Great, indeed, wished to kick 
 down the ladder by which he had risen. 
 Though he had been Nuncio at Constantinople 
 for 6 years, he glories that he knows no Greek 
 and has written nothing in Greek; and says he 
 despises the art of speaking taught by the 
 rhetoric school masters. He equally con- 
 temns the art of grammar, and does not try to 
 avoid the confusion of cases, " because I am 
 strongly of opinion that it is an indignity that 
 the words of the oracle of Heaven should be 
 restrained by the rules of Donatus " (q.v.), 
 the great grammarian who was St. Jerome's 
 schoolmaster, whose grammar reigned without 
 a rival in the schools till 1.540. Isidore of 
 Seville, some 30 years Gregory's junior, who had 
 to fight for the Catholic faith with an Arian 
 king, though he forbade the monks to read the 
 
 387 
 
 classics, thought grammar schools necessary for 
 clerks. " Better grammar than heresy," and 
 he himself taught and produced his Origines, 
 which was the chief encyclopedia of the Middle 
 Ages. Gregory himself, in the very letter to 
 Desiderius above mentioned, commanded the 
 missionary monk Augustine (q.v.) on his way 
 to England to abandon his monkish life and 
 live with his clerks as other bishops did. He 
 had to teach the English converts Latin, so 
 that they might understand the very elements 
 of their new creed and be able to read its sacred 
 books. It did not apparently occur to any one 
 to do what the modern missionary does and 
 translate the sacred books into the barbarian 
 dialect. For its very words, though themselves 
 only a translation, had accpiired a superstitious 
 sanctity. Hence, Augustine must have set up 
 a school soon after his arrival in England. For 
 some 30 years later, in 631, when East Anglia 
 was Christianized under King Sigebert, who had 
 been baptized while in exile in Gaul, he, " wishing 
 to imitate what he had seen well done in Gaul, 
 founded a grammar school (scholam in qua 
 piieri litleris erudirentur) with the assistance of 
 Bishop Felix, whom he had received from Kent, 
 also provided them with ushers and masters 
 after the manner of Canterbury " {more Can- 
 tuariorum) (Bede, Eccl. IX, iii, 18). This is 
 proof positive that there was such a school at 
 Canterbury, of already established reputation 
 such that Felix, though a Burgundian who had 
 been some three or four years only in Canterbury, 
 thought it enough to staff his school thence and 
 not from France itself. This passage, while it 
 demonstrates the existence of the episcopal 
 school at Canterbury and the foundation of one 
 at Felix's see of Dunwich, also conveniently 
 annihilates the thesis of Dr. Paul Roger 
 ( L' Enseignement d'Auso7ie et Alcuin, 1905), 
 who attempts to show that in France at this 
 time there was no real learning, and only 
 monastic schools where the inmates were 
 taught to hobble through their grammar so as 
 to read the psalms they spent their, time in 
 singing. Clerval has shown (Les Ecoles de 
 Chartres au Moyen-Age, 1895) that St. Bethaire, 
 who was Bishop of Chartres (c. 594-614), had 
 been made doctor divinanim litierarurn et 
 magister totius civitatis when a clerk under 
 Bishop Peppol, whom he succeeded in the 
 bishopric. The life of St. Leufroy (ASS. 21 
 June, IV, 04) pictures him going to school 
 first at St. fivreux, near Chartres, then at 
 Rouen. 
 
 In England, we find in 635 the first Bishop of 
 York, Paulinus, had introduced a song school 
 (which it can hardly be doubted was in addition 
 to a grammar school) and James the Deacon, the 
 teacher of this school, stayed when Paulinus 
 fled from a heathen reaction. When Chris- 
 tianity was restored, James " became master of 
 ecclesiastical singing to many, after the fashion 
 of Rome and Canterbury." At Rome, the song 
 school {schola cantorum) had been instituted by
 
 BISHOPS' SCHOOLS 
 
 BISHOPS' SCHOOLS 
 
 Pope Gregory himself. So that besides its gram- 
 mar school, Canterbury had its song school, and 
 these two schools are found in every secular 
 cathedral down to the Reformation. Canter- 
 bury School has hitherto been wrongly im])uted 
 to the (Jreek archbishop, Theodore, who came to 
 Canterbury in 069. His learning and that of his 
 pupils have been celebrated by 15ede, who .says 
 that even to his day (735) some survived, 
 " who knew Latin and Greek as well as their 
 own language in which they were born." 
 Theodore went all over I'^ngland preaching and 
 teaching. His pupil, Tobias, who died Bishop 
 of Rochester in 726, is especially said to know 
 not only Latin and Greek but to have " a 
 knowledge of literature ecclesiastical and 
 general." The celebrated poem of Alcuin 
 On the Bishops and Saints of the Church of 
 York, written about 780, says that Archbishop 
 Egbert (q.v.), who has often, but wrongly, 
 been claimed as Bede's pupil and Alcuin's own 
 master, was an eminent teacher {egrcgius 
 doctor) there. Of his successor, Ethelbert, or 
 Albert Uj-i'.), Alcuin records how he was him- 
 self educated in York Minster and was made 
 " advocate of the clergy and master in the city 
 of York." Here he taught everything, the 
 whole seven liberal arts, grammar, rhetoric, 
 logic, music, astronomy, geometry, arithmetic, 
 especially how to find Easter, — the order is 
 probably due to the exigencies of meter rather 
 than design, — and law and theology to boot. 
 When he became archbishop, he did not cease 
 to teach, " being made both a wise teacher and 
 a pious priest, increasing the sense of his pupils 
 and the morals of his clergy." But at Albert's 
 death, the offices of bishop and teacher were 
 separated. Eanbald became archbishop, " but 
 to his other son," Alcuin himself, " he gave the 
 dearest treasure of his books. To the one the 
 rule of the church, its treasures, its lands, its 
 funds, to the other, the search for wisdom, the 
 school, the master's chair and the library." 
 When Eanbald H, the successor of Alcuin's 
 fellow pupil, was archbishop, Alcuin wrote to 
 him to suggest a further division of labor, and 
 the establishment of separate masters for sing- 
 ing and writing. 
 
 From the end of the eighth century, then, 
 here, as was also the case in France, the bishop 
 himself ceased to teach, at all events in the 
 secular cathedrals. Where, as happened in 
 England only (except for a few sporadic cases 
 abroad in later centuries), the bishop's council 
 of clerks, the secular canons, was turned out to 
 make way for monks, it would appear that the 
 bishop himself continued to teach. Thus 
 Aldhelm of Malmesbury (rj.v.) is said to have 
 been taught by Bishop Elphege at Winchester. 
 But the monastic lives must be received with a 
 great deal of caution. It is certain, however, 
 that in the secular cathedrals by the eleventh 
 century, the duty, not only of teaching, but of 
 supervising schools and ap])ointing masters, had 
 been devolved on the schoolmaster, or, as he 
 
 came to l)e called, chancellor of the church, and 
 tlu^ cathedral schools {(/.v.) became more or less 
 independent of the bishops. In the monastic 
 cathedrals the bishop retained the power in his 
 own hands, the monks, as unlearned persons, 
 (idiotae), not being considered capable appar- 
 ently of exercising the duty properly, and 
 the masters were always secular clerks. Thus 
 at Winchester we find the bishop in 1155 being 
 apijcaled from on a decision as to the right to 
 the school between two of his clerks; at Can- 
 terbury we find a rescript of Archbishop Peck- 
 ham in 1289 as to the powers of the master to 
 determine cases between his scholars and out- 
 siders; and in 1295 we find the same archbishop 
 appointing a master of the school of the city of 
 Norwich on behalf of the bishop, when that see 
 was vacant. A whole series of appointments of 
 the grammar school masters of Canterbury 
 made by the archbishop are preserved in the 
 archiepiscopal registers at Lambeth, ranging 
 from one of Mar. 11, 1310, to the end of the 
 fifteenth century, when the prior writes to tell his 
 " gude faderhood " that he has found a master 
 who had taught grammar at Winchester and 
 St. Anthony's, London, for " your grammar 
 scole at Caunterbury." At Worcester in 1312 
 the bishop appoints a master to the school of 
 that city, " whether the appointment belongs to 
 my episcopal or my archidiaconal authority. " 
 Similar apiiointments are found at Ely and 
 Carlisle. At the Reformation these schools 
 were made part of the new cathedral founda- 
 tions, and passed from the bishops to the new 
 chapters. 
 
 But the Reformation brought the bishops 
 again into direct connection with all the schools. 
 Henry VIII, Queen Mary, and Queen Eliza- 
 beth, each in turn, though from opposite points 
 of view, directed the bishops to examine all 
 schoolmasters, and, finding them suspect, to re- 
 move them. The canons of the Church and the 
 orders of the Privy Council on successive occa- 
 sions in 1559, 1580, and 1603 forbade any 
 schoolmaster to teach without the license of the 
 bishop, while it was made the duty of the 
 liishop, duly carried out at every visitation, to 
 inquire whether any schoolmaster of suspected 
 religion or tenets licensed to teach by him, 
 doth teach in any public or private place within 
 his diocese. This extended even to elementary 
 schools. After the eomnionw'calth successive 
 decisions of the Courts of Law, founded on bad 
 history and law but good policy, gradually 
 restricted the bishop's jurisdiction to grammar 
 or classical schools. It was not till the En- 
 dowed Schools Act, 1809. directed the commis- 
 sioners under that act, afterwards the Charity 
 Commissioners, to insert in all schemes a clause 
 abolishing the jurisdiction of the ordinary, 
 that the bishops ceased to have the right 
 to interfere with secondary schools. The right 
 still prevails theoretically in those schools 
 which have not yet been made the subject of 
 schemes under the act. 
 
 388
 
 BLACK AND WHITE WORK 
 
 BLACK DEATH 
 
 Since, however, the powers under the act 
 were in 1902 transferred to the Board of Educa- 
 tion, and that Board was enabled to make 
 grants of public money to all schools, and they 
 have made it a condition of the grant that no 
 denominational restrictions shall be imposed, 
 the schools have become free from even this 
 shadowy right of episcopal government. 
 
 A. F. L. 
 
 See Church Schools; Cloister Schools; 
 Cathedral Schools; Refobmation and 
 Education; etc. 
 
 BLACK AND WHITE WORK. — A term 
 usually applied to illustrations, and refers to 
 sketches and drawings made in ink, charcoal, 
 pencil, or black and white oil paint. It is 
 significant in school work usually in connection 
 with drawing and design (qq.v.). 
 
 BLACK DEATH AND ENGLISH EDUCA- 
 TION, THE. — The Black Death of 1348-1349 
 
 — known in chronicles as the " Great Death " by 
 reason of the fearful destruction that it wrought 
 among man and beast, and also called the 
 " First Death " because it was the first of a 
 series of outbreaks that lasted into the sixteenth 
 century and possibly only ended with the out- 
 break of 1665 — was a turning point in the 
 history of English education. Indeed, the 
 economic changes that it brought about affected 
 the whole counse of English history. Society 
 was disintegrated, and the clergy who under- 
 took the bulk of the educational work were 
 either destroj'cd or disorganized. We have 
 direct evidence as to this. In a letter from 
 Pope Clement V, to Archbishop Zouche of 
 York, dated from Avignon Oct. 12, 1349, 
 it is noted that " in consequence of the Plague 
 there are not enough priests to administer the 
 sacraments " in the province of York, and the 
 archbishop is directed to have additional ordi- 
 nations to supply the need ( Historical Papers 
 and Letters from the Northern Registers, Rolls 
 cd., p. 401). By a statute of 1362 (36 Edw. 
 Ill, c. 8) the Commons petitioned for relief 
 since the " priests be become very scant after 
 the pestilence to the great grievance and oppres- 
 sion of the people," and the King promised a 
 remedy by fi.xing the wages of the parish priests. 
 In the south it was as bad. In the Constitu- 
 tion of 1362, issued by Simon Islip, Archbishop 
 of Canterbury, we read that " the priests that 
 now are, not considering that they have escaped 
 the danger of the pestilence by divine provi- 
 dence, not for their own merits, but that they 
 might exercise the ministry committed to them 
 . . . have no regard to the cure of souls . . . 
 so that . . . many churches, prebends, and 
 chapels of our and your diocese, and of the 
 whole province, will lie destitute of priests to 
 serve them." And again in the Prologue to 
 Piers Plowman [Passus Primus, 11. 81-84) we 
 read : — 
 
 *' Persones and parish priestes pleynede to the bishop 
 That here parishenes weren pore sith the pestilence tyme, 
 To have a licence and leve at London to dwell 
 And singe there for simonye while silver is so sweet." 
 
 We must now notice another phenomenon 
 arising from the Great Death, and will then be 
 in a position to estimate the influence of the 
 plague on education. This phenomenon is the 
 almost total disappearance of the Anglo-Nor- 
 man tongue. It is true that the tongue was 
 weakening before 1348. In a late thirteenth- 
 century or early fourteenth Oxford University 
 Statute it is directed that boys shall be taught 
 to construe in French as well as in English in 
 order that the former tongue might not be for- 
 gotten (see Munimenta Acadcmica Oxon., pp. 
 LXX, 438). But on the other hand we know 
 from Higden's Pohjchronicon (Vol. II, pp. 159- 
 160) that about the year 1327 " children in scole 
 agenst the usage and manere of alle othere 
 naciouns beeth compelled for to leve hire owne 
 langage, and for to construe hir lessouns and 
 here thyngs in Frensche, and so they haueth 
 seth the Normans come first in to Engelond." 
 That was the rule twenty years before the Great 
 Death. In 1362, twelve years after the Great 
 Death, we find that pleas were ordered (36 
 Edw. Ill, c. 15) to be pleaded in the English 
 tongue, defended, answered, debated, and 
 judged in Enghsh, and enrolled in Latin. The 
 same statute tells us the reason by referring to 
 " the French tongue, which is much unknowen 
 in the said realm." As we shall see directly, by 
 1385 French was generally excluded from Eng- 
 lish schools. The sudden birth of English as 
 an educational and literary fact after the Great 
 Death proves clearly enough that the school- 
 masters of the country had ceased to be French. 
 We know, in fact, that the very numerous vacan- 
 cies in churches caused by the Black Death 
 were not filled up by the alien priories in 1349- 
 1350, because of the war with France. The 
 temporalities of the priories were in the hands 
 of the King, and in a great number of cases 
 (see Patent Rolls for these years) we find 
 appointments by the King such as the following: 
 " Translation of John de Clone to the Church 
 of Bisshopcshowe in the diocese of Salisbury, 
 in the King's gift by reason of the Priory of 
 Farlej'e being in his hands on account of the 
 war with France." Moreover, the sudden rush 
 for orders that followed the letter of Pope 
 Clement V of 1350 was made not by foreigners 
 but by Englishmen, and a very mixed company 
 of Englishmen, too. The chronicler tells us 
 that the vacancies caused by the mortality 
 and flight of priests were filled up by men of all 
 kinds, fit and unfit, ignorant and learned, 
 including many who had lost their wives 
 through the pestilence. This was a new Eng- 
 lish influence in education, and it is therefore 
 not with any great sur|)rise that we read what 
 John de Trevisa in his edition (concluded in 1387) 
 of Higden's Polychronicon has to sa}- on the sub- 
 ject of the exclusion of French from the schools. 
 
 389
 
 BLACK DEATH 
 
 BLACKBOARDS 
 
 After the passage al)ovo, Higdcn dwells on 
 the use of French in schools and good society 
 in the year 1327. Trevisa (writing in Eng- 
 lish, be it noted) adds the following comment: 
 " This manere was moche i-used to for firste 
 dcth, and is sith-the sumdel i-chaungcd; for 
 John (Sir Johan Cornwaile,) a niaistcr of grani- 
 mer, chaunged the lore in granier scole and 
 construccioun of Frenschc in to Englisclie; 
 and Richard Pencriciie Icrned the manere tech- 
 yngc of hym and of othere men of Pencrich; 
 so tliat now, the ycre of our Lorde, a thowsand 
 thre hundred and foure score and fyve, and of 
 the secounde Richard after the Conquest 
 nyne, in alle the gramere scoles of Eiigelond, 
 children leveth Frenschc and construeth and 
 lerneth an Englische, and haucth thereby 
 auauntage in oon side and disauauntage in 
 anotiier side; here auauntage is, that they lerneth 
 her gramer in lasse tyme than children were 
 i-woned to doo; disauauntage is that now chil- 
 dren of gramer scole conncth na more Frensche 
 than can hir lift heele, and that is harme for 
 them and they schulle passe the see and trauaille 
 in straunge landes and in many other places. 
 Also gentil men haueth now moche i-left for 
 to teche here children Frensche." Here we 
 have a document of the first importance in the 
 history of English education. It tells us 
 definitely that French was used in the schools 
 up to the date of the Great Death, and that 
 within 12 years the use was abolished from 
 " all the grammar schools of England." Such 
 a sudden change can only have arisen by the 
 death or departure of the class who had always 
 taught in French. The educational system 
 may have been affected by the fact that the 
 pestilence particularly attacked old men and 
 boys {Chronicon a Monacho Sancti Alhani, 
 Rolls ed., p. 49). We are especially told that 
 the disease selected males {idem., p. 50). But 
 what is more important to note is that the 
 new departure in education was really a 
 Wiclifite movement. J\lr. W. H. Stevenson 
 appears to have identified the priest John 
 Cornwaile, the author of the movement, as a 
 teacher of grammar at Oxford in connection 
 with Merton College in 1347. Now it also 
 appears that Cornwaile's pupil Richard Pen- 
 criche was a student at Merton in 1367, a con- 
 temporary of Wiclif and also of John de 
 Trevisa, then at Exeter College, who tells 
 the story of the change. It is pretty clear 
 that Trevisa obtained his information direct 
 from the old fellow students. But from 
 Trevisa's narrative it is not easy to see how a 
 change in one school, the school of a Collegiate 
 Church in Staffordshire, could so rapidly have 
 effected the change throughout the country. 
 But when we realize that the whole movement 
 was an Oxford movement, springing from 
 Merton and related to Wiclif, it can be uniler- 
 stood at once. The rapidity with which the 
 Wiclif movement spread is in itself astonishing. 
 A statute of 1382 (5 Ric. II, c. 5) tells us that 
 
 the Wiclif preachers " in certain habits under 
 dissimulation of great holiness " preached 
 daily in churches, churchyards, fairs and mar- 
 kets," and drew va.st crowds. They preached 
 in English, their Bible was in English, their 
 action, until 1382, was perfectly legal. From 
 the point of view of the history of education it is 
 necessary to couple their work with the influ- 
 ence of the Black Death in accounting for the 
 total disappearance of the French tongue from 
 England. Nor must we forget the French 
 war and the import duties and tolls which 
 (Patent Rolls 1348-50, p. 488) in 1350 kept 
 foreign merchants out of Oxford and, ijro- 
 suinably, out of other places. The expulsion 
 of the Alien Priories in 1415 gave the last 
 blow to the French tongue. That the Wiclif 
 movement was definitely related to the move- 
 ment that ejected P'rcnch from the schools 
 we can scarcely douljt, when we see that the 
 originators of the latter movement were contem- 
 poraries of Wiclif at Merton. But apart from 
 this the rapid change of teaching in the gram- 
 mar schools must also be attributed to the uni- 
 versity origin. The grammar schools in the 
 fourteenth century were closely related to the 
 universities, and this fact combined with the 
 Wiclif movement and the Great Death is 
 responsible for the extraordinary rapidity of 
 the change and the Great Plague is for this 
 reason a turning point in English education. 
 
 J. E. G. DE M. 
 References : — 
 JE.S.SUP. Corning of the Friars. 
 
 Montmorency, J. E. G. dc. Stale Intervention in 
 English Education. (Cambridge, 1!)()2.) 
 
 BLACKBOARDS. — Historical Sketch. — 
 
 Blackboards were evidently a modification of the 
 waxen taljlets of the Romans and the hornbook 
 (q.u.) of the Middle Ages. Probably the earliest 
 evidence of this character is found in a manu- 
 script of Sacrobosco in 13th century where 
 a child is represented as holding up a large 
 blackboard in the form of a hornbook hanng 
 figures written upon it. Numerous cuts in 
 early printed books exhibit boards hung 
 on the wall of a schoolroom, having music 
 notes, catechism, or figures written upon 
 them. These are usually modified hornbooks 
 in shape, hung loosely by an eye in the 
 handle, but being very much larger than any 
 board which could be held conveniently in the 
 hand. The earliest of these definitely located 
 is in the title-page illustration of a schoolbook 
 {Compendium octo partium orationum) pub- 
 lished in Basel in 1499. (Michael Furtes.) 
 A similar one dated 1500 from Nuremberg is 
 reproduced in the accompanying illustration. 
 The Nuremberg school-regulation of about this 
 time was to the following effect: — 
 
 "For the 'intermediate' boy in Nuremberg 
 there should be written ' towards night,' that is 
 in the evening before leaving school, ' with chalk 
 on the board,' — which board was then found in 
 
 390
 
 BLACKBOARDS 
 
 BLACKBOARDS 
 
 every schoolroom — 'in Latin, a Latin verse or 
 a maxim from a complete oration or from the 
 proverbs of Solomon, Cato or others like them, 
 and with it two German verses, rhymed or un- 
 rhymed, according to the Latin meaning' — the 
 German translation was thus in verses, that 
 
 they might better stick in the memory." (See 
 Monographien zur deutschen Kulturgeschichle, 
 Band IX, Der Lehrer in der deutschen Vergang- 
 enheil p. 53.) 
 
 In the first edition of Comenius' Orbis Pictus, 
 published in 1658, he shows a schoolroom, on 
 the wall of which there hangs a blackboard, 
 and in the tabulated description of the things 
 in the room, he says Quaedam pracscribi(ntur 
 illis Creta in Tahclla. (Certain things are 
 written down before them with chalk on a little 
 board.) Hoole translates yaftfWfi by the English 
 word " table " and this in spite of the fact that 
 the figure 6 designating this object is placed 
 alongside of the board hanging on the wall. 
 Besides, the primary meaning of this word is not 
 table, but little board or plank. 
 
 From this it is entirely safe to say that the 
 blackboard was, if not a customary thing, not 
 an unusual thing to be found in the schoolroom 
 in the days of Goinenius. We have further 
 evidence in Brin.slev's Ludus Liicrarius, pub- 
 lished in 1660. 
 
 When we come to the educational literature 
 of our own country, it is exceedingly difficult 
 to find much information about the kinds of 
 blackboards used in the schools prior to 1820. 
 About this time, if we niav relv on .Joseph B. 
 Felt in his Annuh of Salem (see p. 469), Vol. I, 
 " blackboards were used in our common schools, 
 for arithmetical calculations. Manuscripts of 
 sums, set for [jujiils by their masters, which had 
 continued for a long period, began to be laid 
 aside." Blackboards were introduced into the 
 
 Military Academy at West Point in 1817 by Mr. 
 Claude" C'rozel, a graduate of the Polytechnic 
 School of Paris. A blackboard was intro- 
 duced into Bowdoin College by Instructor, 
 afterward Professor, Smyth in 1824. The 
 account runs: " That novelty, let me say, made 
 a sensation. When he had tested the experi- 
 ment in the Sophomore algebra, and with great 
 success, a considerable portion of the Juniors 
 requested the privilege of reviewing the algebra 
 under the new method at an ex-tra hour, — a 
 wonder in college experience; and that black- 
 board experiment, I am sure, led to his appoint- 
 ment as assistant professor of mathematics a 
 year later. . . . The blackboard caused an im- 
 portant change in the manner of teaching gen- 
 erally, but especially in mathematical branches. 
 In arithmetic, a Freshman study, and algebra, to 
 which we were introduced at the opening of the 
 Sophomore year, each student had his slate, 
 and when he finished his work, he took the va- 
 cant chair next the teacher's and underwent 
 examination of process or principle involved. 
 In geometry we kept a manuscript in which 
 we drew figures, and demonstrated from them." 
 ( HiMorij of Bowdoin College, by Cleveland and 
 Packard, pp. 90-91.) 
 
 In the Report of the School Committee for 
 Boston in 1823 (p. 54), the following reference 
 to the use of a blackboard is made: " In learn- 
 ing Geometry the diagrams of Euclid are taken 
 off, first on paper, with figures instead of letters, 
 that nothing may be committed to memory 
 without being understood. When they have 
 been demonstrated from the paper, they are 
 afterward drawn by the pupil on the black- 
 board, with figures; when the proposition is 
 demonstrated without a book, or any aid to the 
 memory whatever." In William A. Alcott's 
 famous prize essay presented to the American 
 Institute of Instruction in August, 1831, he gives 
 a floor plan of an ideal school, with its furniture 
 in place. In this are shown two large black- 
 boards on movable frames, and they are placed 
 immediately behind the rear row of seats, and 
 serve the double purpose of a blackboard and 
 a screen from the front door. In 1839 Dr. 
 Henry Barnard wrote in his First Annual Re- 
 port to the School Commissioners of Connecticxd. 
 " Blackboards are not uncommon, but are but 
 little resorted to by the teacher." 
 
 Construction and Hygiene of. — When we 
 come to a consideration of the construction of 
 blackboards, we find that up to pretty well 
 toward the middle of last century they were 
 almost invariably of wood painted or stained 
 black, and were generally on movable frames 
 or so fashioned as to be hung on the walls where 
 need dictated. 
 
 If easy vision were the only matter for con- 
 sideration, blackboards would be condemned 
 outright, and in their places would be substi- 
 tuted some form of unglazed white or cream- 
 colored surface, upon which black crayons would 
 be used; for investigation has made it clear 
 
 391
 
 BLACKBOARDS 
 
 BLACKBOARDS 
 
 that a, black letter on a white background is 
 much more easily read at a distance than white 
 letters upon a black surface. Cohn, in his 
 Hygiene of the Eye, quotes Horner with ap- 
 proval, who says: " The hygiene of the eye 
 demands the banishment of slates and black- 
 boards from our schools and the use of pen and 
 ink in their place. Compliance with this de- 
 mand will do something to diminish the danger 
 of short sight, a danger which becomes more and 
 more menacing to each successive generation." 
 There is now no (juestion in our country con- 
 cerning the use of slates. They have gone from 
 almost all the schools, even in the mountain 
 regions of the South and West. Cheap clean 
 paper and lead pencils have displaced the slate, 
 but we have the blackboard still with us, and 
 undoubtedly will continue to have. The slate 
 disappcareci not chiefly because of eyestrain, 
 but because it was so dirty, unhandy, and noisy. 
 While there can be no doubt that for the sake of 
 acuity of vision words written in black on a 
 white surface have the advantage, it must not 
 be forgotten that the large white surface ex- 
 posed to the eye is likely to stimulate the retina 
 unduly over a large field or else to fatigue the 
 ciliary muscles of the eye in its efforts to accom- 
 modate to the field of vision. 
 
 Taking it all in all, it may be laid down that 
 the blackboard, when made of proper material, 
 properly colored, properly placed with reference 
 to light and the convenience of the pupils, and 
 when used in a legitimate way, does not offer 
 a serious menace to the eyes of our pupils. 
 
 The proper material for blackboards. — (a) 
 Reasonably good blackboards can be made 
 by thoroughly mixing with cement plaster a dull 
 black coloring matter very slightly tinged with 
 dark green, and then spreading the mixture on 
 the laths carefully so as to get a level, even sur- 
 face. In constructing this form of black- 
 board, which is one of the cheapest, the best of 
 cement ought to be used, and so thoroughly 
 mixed with the coloring matter that it would 
 make the color uniform and even. It is best 
 also to use metal lath fastened firmly on a 
 solid sheathing of lumber. 
 
 Before applying the cement the sheathing 
 should be kept slightly damp for at least half a 
 day in order that the dampness from the wet 
 plaster would not cause a sudden expansion of 
 the boards, and hence have a tendency to crack 
 the plaster before it is thoroughly set. By 
 having the boards of the sheathing slightly 
 expanded before the plaster is applied, the 
 shrinkage comes slowly, and tends to prevent 
 the premature setting of the plaster, and also 
 causes the pla.ster to cling to the wood as well as 
 to the metal lath. Blackboards so constructed 
 arc more solid, firmer, and less noisy than when 
 laid on wooden lath. Care will be needed, 
 however, to make sure that the surface of the 
 board will be neither too smooth nor too rough. 
 
 The advantages of this kind of a blackboard 
 are its comparative cheapness, its opportunity 
 
 for proper coloring, its ready adjustment to the 
 building, and the readiness with which the 
 material may be obtained. The disadvantages 
 are, the absorption of moisture from within or 
 without, the tendency to become oily from 
 contact with the hands of the children, the 
 liability to crack or chip, the diffioilty of get- 
 ting a surface which will take the chalk readily, 
 evenly, but not wastefully, and the more or less 
 inevitable alteration in the color of the board 
 through washings and uneven use. 
 
 (6) Recent years have seen the rapid develop- 
 ment of so-called hyloplate blackboards, and 
 these, when thoroughly made, serve their pur- 
 pose for a time satisfactorily. In general this 
 style of blackboard is constructed of several 
 layers of heavy speciallj' jirepared paper so 
 fastened and pressed together as to make a 
 solid " board " which can be cut to suit the 
 needs and requirements of any schoolroom. 
 The outside layers, or, in some cases, to a greater 
 depth, are colored thoroughly and evenly to 
 suit requirements. The advantages of this 
 style of blackboards are these: there are no 
 joints, the surface is even, they are easily ad- 
 justed, they are temporarily inexpensive, are 
 not easily broken, and take the chalk fairly 
 well. The disadvantages in general are these: 
 they are likely to absorb moisture from the 
 walls, especially if placed close to brick walls, 
 and therefore to buckle or warp and draw away 
 in places from the backing; thej- often wear un- 
 evenly; they are most frequently noisy; they 
 absorb oil and dirt from the hands, especially 
 after use has rendered them pervious; they 
 often reflect high lights when clean, and are 
 rather easily injured by washings with a wet 
 sponge or rag. They are not permanent, and 
 therefore in the long run are perhaps more ex- 
 pensive than most forms of blackboards. 
 
 (c) Slate blackboards, as indicated above, 
 have been used in this country since the early 
 part of the last century, but expensiveness and 
 the difficulty of getting tablets sufficiently 
 large and properly set prevented the use of this 
 material from becoming at all common until 
 comparatively recent years. 
 
 The following are the advantages of slate for 
 blackboards: it has in general a dull black 
 color, reflects no high lights, or at least not to 
 any troublesome degree, will last indefinitely, 
 takes the chalk easily and yet sparingly, gives 
 a regular and clear mark from the crayon, does 
 not absorb moisture readily, can be set solidly 
 and firmly, is not injured by washings or scrub- 
 bings, and is not noisy when properly set. The 
 disadvantages are these: it is expensive when 
 the initial cost is considered, but not so when 
 its permanency is taken into account; on 
 large walls there are often troublesome joints 
 owing to the impossibility of economically ob- 
 taining and handling slabs of the required 
 length and width; hence long blackboarcls 
 must be made of several slabs set together; it is 
 not always easy to get slabs of identical color. 
 
 392
 
 BLACKBOARDS 
 
 BLACKBOARDS 
 
 owing to the variations in the different layers 
 and even in different parts of the same stratum; 
 it in time will absorb enough oil from the hands 
 of the children to render it somewhat variable 
 in its reflection of the light and the readiness 
 with which it will cut the crayon; it is fre- 
 quently a very difficult matter to get the exact 
 shade of coloring in slate most suitable to the 
 hygienic requirements of vision; it is rather 
 difficult to set so that the joints will fit closely 
 and evenly, and remain so, as the building 
 settles and shrinks into its permanent form. 
 
 Still it is for general conditions one of the 
 most satisfactory materials to use in the con- 
 struction of blackboards, and school boards 
 rarely made a mistake when supplying it. It is 
 doubtless no exaggeration to say that it is the 
 best material now generally available, and 
 should be used for all brick, stone, or concrete 
 buildings, for in the long run it will prove least 
 expensive and most satisfactory. 
 
 (d) Glass blackboards were introduced into 
 England a decade or two ago, and on the whole 
 are proving; very satisfactory. As these are as 
 yet rarely found in our country, it seems well 
 to explain briefly how they are made, as well 
 as to set forth their advantages and defects. 
 The glass, which has been cut into sheets to 
 suit the specific requirements of the surface set 
 apart for the blackboards, is ground on one 
 side evenly, but lightlj', so that it is translucent, 
 and yet as smooth as possible. It is necessary 
 for this grinding to be done carefully, otherwise 
 the surface will be too rough, or will not take 
 the chalk evenly, and hence render the writing 
 variable and troublesome. This ground surface 
 when correctly prepared gives to the finger tips 
 when passed over it no great sense of roughness, 
 but a sort of smooth, hard, velvety feehng. The 
 opposite, or unground side, is then painted a dull 
 dead black or a dull black slightly tinged with 
 green. When this color is dry the glass is then 
 ready to set. The ground side is the outside, 
 while the black or painted side is set into the 
 wall. Because of the fact that the glass is 
 translucent, the color shows through from be- 
 hind and seems to be a part of the glass. The 
 ground surface cuts the crayon or talc suffi- 
 ciently well to leave a clear even mark, and 
 yet, if correctly ground, does not release an 
 undue amount of chalk dust in the room. 
 If the plates of glass are unusually large, the 
 expense is increased; but it does not seem 
 necessary to make them anj^ larger than 
 the slabs of slate ordinarily used, for, with 
 the proper care in setting, the joints of the 
 glass can be made to fit so closely that they are 
 scarcely noticeable. 
 
 Since the painted side is wholly out of con- 
 tact with dirty hands, crayons, erasers, and 
 sponges, the color of the board remains perma- 
 nent, uniform, and undisturbed in any way. 
 Naturally the glass ought to be set solidly and 
 evenly against a well-prepared back of wood or 
 cement so that there will be no giving, nor 
 
 hollow sound when the chalk is used. When so 
 prepared they give forth very little noise, 
 occasion no unpleasant scratchy sensations, 
 and seem almost ideal surfaces for blackboard 
 exercises. The advantages of glass black- 
 boards are: the color can be made to suit 
 the most exacting demands of the hygiene of 
 vision; no high lights are possible from any 
 part of the room; they will not absorb the oil 
 from perspiring hands; they arc impervious to 
 moisture, and can be set against outside brick ' 
 walls if the conditions demand it; they are easilj' 
 and safely cleaned ; they will last indefinitely and 
 seem to grow more satisfactory through use, 
 owing doubtless to the fact that the ground sur- 
 face becomes more finely and evenly roughened ; 
 they are not noi.sy, and display a plain uniform 
 mark; they vnti in time become inexpensive, and 
 can be adjusted to the wall space as readily as 
 hyloplate. The disadvantages which were 
 noticed in the London schools, where they are 
 commonly used, are these: the joints are 
 slightly noticeable, and, if they separate a 
 little, gather chalk dust; some teachers of art 
 claim that they do not give an " artistic line." 
 These objections seem comparatively insignifi- 
 cant when the main use of the blackboard is 
 taken into the consideration. Clay, who doubt- 
 less had considered all materials carefully, says, 
 "The best material for a black-board is probably 
 roughened glass coloured black or dark green at 
 the back, though the objection to this (glass) 
 is that it wears away the chalk so quickly that 
 it is difficult to keep a point for writing." 
 (See Felix Clay, Modern School Buildings, 
 p. 99, Botsford, London, 1902.) In the Report 
 of the Schoolhouse Commission made to the 
 Senate of the United States in 1908 relative 
 to consohdation of schools in the District of 
 Columbia, we are told, " The black-glass board 
 is the ideal board, remaining permanently 
 black, never needing repair, and being practi- 
 cally indestructible. It is, however, extremely 
 expensive." (See p. 26.) 
 
 In addition to the kinds of boards here men- 
 tioned, there are a number of patented composi- 
 tion mostly made of paper or pulp compressed 
 and coated with so-called liquid slating. They 
 are rather inexpensive, and on inner walls free 
 from moisture they serve very well for a number 
 of years. But they will not stand much washing, 
 and will in time buckle and warp and lose their 
 color. 
 
 Position of Blackboards. — Naturally black- 
 boards ought to be located where the pupils 
 will have ready access to them, where they can 
 be seen easily from the desks, and where they 
 will receive "plenty of light. With unilateral 
 lighting, the teacher's board should be at the 
 front end of the room, with preference given to 
 the center and right half, as the children sit at 
 their seats. This board should be higher from 
 the floor than any other board in the room, in 
 order that whatever may be placed thereon 
 can be read easily from all parts of the room. 
 
 393
 
 BLACKBOARDS 
 
 BLACKSTONE 
 
 The bottom of the teacher's board should be 
 4 feet from the floor and the width of the board 
 should be at least 3 feet. The bottom part of a 
 teacher's board set lower than this is rarely if 
 ever used, and the upper part, if higher than 
 7 feet above the floor, is usually out of reach of 
 the average teacher, and therefore seldom used. 
 
 The blackboards especially designed for the 
 use of the pupils should be placed on the wall 
 opposite the windows, and also on the wall in 
 the rear end of the room. All the available 
 space of the proper height on these walls should 
 be used for lilackboards. In rooms designed 
 for the children of the primary grades (from 
 grade I to III, inclusive) the bottom of the 
 blackboard should be set 26 inches above the 
 floor, and the width of the board from bottom 
 to to]) should be 30 inches. In the rooms de- 
 signed to accommodate children of the inter- 
 mediate grades (IV to VI inclusive), the bottom 
 of the blackboard should be 30 inches from the 
 floor, and the width of the board from bottom 
 to top shouUl be 36 inches. In rooms designed 
 for children of the seventh and eighth grades and 
 high school grades, it is best to set the board 
 3 feet above the floor and make it 3 feet 6 
 inches wide from bottom to top. 
 
 It will be well for school authorities to insist 
 that their builders follow these figures closely, 
 for by so doing the expense of blackboards will 
 be diminished, less light-absorbing surface will 
 be introduced, and, best of all, blackboards will 
 be situated within the easy and normal reach of 
 the children. There are many school buildings 
 in our country, in which they are set so high 
 above the floor that the children of the primary 
 grades cannot reach them unless they stand on 
 foot benches; and there are a multitude of 
 others in which the boards are set so high as to 
 render the upper half useless because out of 
 reai'h of the pupils. In the two upper grades 
 and the high school there are greater differences 
 in the height of the children, and therefore all 
 cannot be so evenly adjusted to the blackboard 
 as in the lower grades. In high school the 
 boys are often much taller than the girls, and 
 hence there must be more room for adjustment 
 than in the lower grades. 
 
 Chalk trays so placed as to catch all the 
 chalk dust and to hold the crayons and erasers 
 should be fastened immediately beneath the 
 blackboards. These trays should be rounded 
 on the inside and out; inside, to make it easy 
 to collect and remove the chalk dust and any 
 other dirt accumulating therein; outside, to 
 get rid of sharp-cornered projections in the 
 room. 
 
 It is helpful to set a wire screen in the chalk 
 trough so as to prevent the crayons and the 
 erasers from coming in contact with the dust 
 which has fallen from the board. This wire 
 must be set sufficiently below the level of this 
 trough to prevent erasers and crayons from 
 falling out. It can be hinged or clasped to the 
 sides so that it will not get warped, or knocked 
 
 out, and yet be easily removed when necessary 
 to clean the dust out of the trough. 
 
 Under no condition, in old buildings or new, 
 should there ever be a blackboard between 
 windows, as it is impossible to read from a 
 distance anything written on a board so placed. 
 
 Value. — Blackboards have become so 
 much of a factor in our methods of work that 
 we really wonder how old-time teachers did 
 without them. They are not only valuable 
 aids in our methods of presenting many subjects; 
 they serve as a socializing agent of no smaU 
 moment. They bring the individual pupil 
 and his work directly before the whole class, 
 stimulate him to self-dependence, and furnish a 
 splendid opportunity for that democratic give- 
 and-take criticism which he must meet in real 
 life. They save the teacher much time, and 
 furnish a ready means of giving daily drill 
 and daily tests. It is entirely safe to say 
 that American teachers and pupils get more 
 help from blackboard work than do the 
 teachers and students of any other nation. 
 
 F. B. D. 
 
 BLACKBURN UNIVERSITY, CARLIN- 
 VILLE, ILL. — A coeducational institution 
 organized in 1864-1865. Academic, collegiate, 
 and musical departments are maintained. 
 Admission to the college is by certificate from 
 an approved high school or by examination 
 reciuiring about 15 units of high school work. 
 Degrees are conferred in arts, philosophy, and 
 science. There are 7 professors on the faculty. 
 Walter Hensill Bradley, Ph.D., is the presi- 
 dent. 
 
 BLACKSTONE, SIR-WILLLAM (1723-1780). 
 — The author of the famous Commentaries has 
 a certain importance in the history of education 
 as one who strengthened the drift of theoretical 
 or philosophic thought in the direction of com- 
 pulsory education. He was indeed one of its 
 earliest advocates, and gave expression to his 
 \'iews before the same position was adopted by 
 Adam Smith and Jeremy Bentham. Writing 
 on the subject of education {Commentaries, 
 Book I, ch. 16) in 1765 he says, " As Puffendorf 
 (Laiv of Nations, Basil Kennet's translation, 
 3d ed., 1717; Bk. VI, c. 2, 3, § 12, p. 379) very weU 
 observes, it is not easy to imagine or allow, 
 that a parent has conferred any considerable 
 benefit on his child, by bringing him into the 
 world; if he afterwards entirely neglects his 
 culture and education, and suffers him to grow 
 up like a mere beast, to lead a life useless to 
 others, and shameful to himself. Yet the 
 municipal laws of most countries seem defec- 
 tive in this point, by not constraining the 
 parent to bestow a proper education upon his 
 children. Perhaps they thought it punishment 
 enough to leave the parent, who neglects the 
 instruction of his family, to labor under those 
 griefs and inconveniences, which his family, 
 so uninstructed, wiU be sure to bring upon 
 
 394
 
 BLAIR 
 
 BLIND 
 
 him." This school of thought did in this way 
 scarcely less than the practical energy of Bell 
 (q.v.) and Lancaster {q.v.) or the political energy 
 of Whitbread (q.v.), Brougham (q.v.), and Roe- 
 buck to produce a revival in English elementary 
 education. The Cummentaries of course are also 
 a useful guide to some historical questions relat- 
 ing to education (such as Benefit of Clergy (q.v.), 
 and tell us much as to the history of legal 
 education. J. E. G. de M. 
 
 BLAIR, JAMES (1656-174.3). — The first 
 president of William and Mary College (q.v.) 
 was born in Scotland and graduated at the 
 University of Edinburgh in 1676. He was 
 sent to America as a missionary by the Bishop 
 of London in 1685. He became deeply inter- 
 ested in the educational needs of the colonists, 
 and was the moving spirit in the organization 
 of William and Mary College, and the president 
 of this institution from 1692 to 1743. He was 
 also interested in the education of the Indians, 
 and endeavored to secure a special endowment 
 for this purpose. Blair cooperated with H. 
 Hartwell and Chilton in writing The Present 
 State of Virginia and the College (London, 1727). 
 
 W. S. M. 
 References : — 
 Adams, H. B. College of William and Mary. In 
 
 U.S. Circulars of Information, 1887, No. 1. 
 History of the College of William and Mary from its 
 
 Foundation, 16li0 to 1874. 
 Life of Commissary James Blair, Founder of WiUiatn 
 
 and Mary College. Johns Hopkins University 
 
 Studies, Ser. 9, No. 10. (Baltimore, 1904.) 
 
 BLAIRSVILLE COLLEGE FOR GIRLS, 
 
 BLAIRSVILLE, PA. — Founded in 1857 as 
 the Blairsville l^eminary; present title dates 
 from 1893. Preparatory, collegiate, and musi- 
 cal departments are maintained. Girls 12 
 years of age are admitted to the preparatory 
 course. Admission into the college is by cer- 
 tificate from a high school or academy or by 
 examination requiring about 10 points of high 
 school work. Degrees are given in classical 
 and literary courses. There are 12 instructors 
 on the faculty. 
 
 BLANKS, FORMS AND USE OF. — See 
 Reports and Records. 
 
 BLAURER, AMBROSIUS (1492-1564).— 
 A German schoolman of the Reformation 
 period. He was born in Constance and edu- 
 cated at the University of Tubingen. Having 
 emijraced the new faith, he introduced the 
 Reformation in Constance, Ulm, and a numlier 
 of other cities in Southern (Jermany. While 
 drawing up church regulations for these, he 
 always had special regard for the schools. In 
 1535 he reorganized the University of Tubingen. 
 
 BLEDSOE, ALBERT TAYLOR (1809-1877). 
 — Educator, graduated from the United States 
 Mihtary Academy, 1830; instructor in Kenyon 
 
 College and Miami University from 1833 to 
 1836; professor in the University of Mississippi 
 from 1848 to 1854, and m the University of Vir- 
 ginia from 1854 to 1861; author of F'hilosophy 
 of Mathematics. W. S. M. 
 
 BLIND, EDUCATION OF THE. — Bhnd- 
 ness varies through all degrees of defective 
 vision to absolute blindness, which is inability 
 to perceive dayhght. In a practical sense 
 any one is bhnd who cannot distinguish common 
 objects, and a child who cannot see ordinary 
 print is admitted to our schools for the bhnd. 
 It has been calculated that there is one sightless 
 person in every thou.sand. The census of 
 England and Wales for 1901 shows one blind 
 person in 1285. The prevalence of blindness 
 is greatest in Eastern countries, where little is 
 done toward healing the diseases of the eye or 
 improving the unsanitary conditions that cause 
 them. In Western countries blindness is di- 
 minishing, especially among the more prosperous 
 classes, which receive the benefits of advanced 
 medical and surgical knowledge. Probably 
 two fifths of all bhndness is preventable by the 
 application of modern medical treatment to 
 defects and diseases of the eye and by the appli- 
 cation of simple hygienic principles to domestic 
 and industrial life. The Massachusetts Com- 
 mission for the Blind issues a bulletin on the 
 prevention of blindness from ophthalmia neona- 
 torum, and various agencies in other states 
 distribute similar bulletins; but many of our 
 commonwealths have done nothing to check 
 the needless waste of human eyes. A large por- 
 tion of the blind are stricken in adult years in 
 the midst of active lives; many of them are 
 blinded by unnecessary accidents in mines and 
 factories. IMuch blindness is but one result 
 of disease which has caused other weaknesses of 
 mind and body. M. Sizeranne (1887) finds 
 that of the 40,000 blind in France and Algiers 
 4000 are minors, and that of these, after the 
 feeble-minded and otherwise incapable are 
 deducted, there remain from 1500 to 2000 from 
 5 to 15 years of age fit to benefit by the schools 
 for the blind. He also believes that nearly all 
 of the capable blind children find their waj^ to 
 the schools, and this is probably true in all the 
 more progressive countries. It has been esti- 
 mated that in Germany (1900) there were 
 3000 blind of school age and fit for instruction, 
 and of these 2500 were in the schools. In 
 America calculations based on the special 
 census of Massachusetts and on that of New 
 York State show that there are about 100,000 
 sightless in a population of over 80,000,000. 
 A proper American census of defectives has not 
 yet been taken. About 4.500 pupils are enrolled 
 in the schools of the United States. It may be 
 that the thin distribution of our people over 
 a great area tends to isolate some of the blind 
 and deprive them of the opportunities which 
 the state in.stitutions offer; but this condition, 
 if it exists, must yield before the increase of 
 
 395
 
 BLIND 
 
 BLIND 
 
 popular knowledge about the blind and a more 
 thorough registration of defective classes. 
 
 Historical. — Until near tlie beginning of the 
 nineteenth century it was not deemed necessary 
 or possible to teach the siglitless. Here and 
 there an educated blind person distinguished 
 himself by remarkable ability, usually one who 
 had lost his sight after his education had been 
 completed, and who continued work with which 
 he had long been familiar. The masses of the 
 blind remained in utter ignorance, neglected, 
 shunned. They sat by the roadside and begged 
 alms, and they were looked upon with supersti- 
 tious pity. The gospel which Christianity had 
 brought to the inflicted was strangely misin- 
 terpreted. BUndness, deafness, and mental 
 defects were regarded as signs of the wrath of 
 God against sinful man, to be patiently borne. 
 Only two institutions for the sightless were 
 founded during the Middle Ages, one in Mein- 
 mingen, Bavaria, in 1178 (the story of this 
 foundation is not well authenticated), and the 
 other at Paris, the Quinze-Vingts, an asylum 
 established by St. Louis in 1260 for 300 soldiers 
 who had been blinded in war. This in.stitu- 
 tion in a modified form is still in existence. 
 
 The deeper humanitarianism and more 
 scientific spirit of modern times has replaced 
 the idea of forlorn endurance with the nobler 
 idea of alleviation and cure. In 1771 at a 
 fair in Paris an innkeeper exhibited for the 
 edification of the pubUc a group of blind men 
 attired in ridiculous garb, including pasteboard 
 spectacles. They gave a " concert " for the 
 benefit of their employer; and the people 
 laughed, as the Elizabethans laughed at mad- 
 ness, thoughtlessly, good-naturedlj'. One of 
 the spectators was Valentin Haiiy, the Moses 
 of the blind. He cast about for some means to 
 make the lot of the bhnd less miserable, to 
 J teach them self-respect and usefulness. He 
 bribed a bright-faced blind boy, Lesueur, to 
 cease begging and submit to instruction. His 
 success led to the founding, in 1784, of L'lnsti- 
 lulion Nalionale des Jeunes Aveiigles, the first 
 school for the blind in the world. 
 
 When the possibility of teaching the blind 
 was once demonstrated, the public was filled 
 with wonder, and philanthropists and teachers 
 were filled with joy and ambition; they took 
 up the new work for humanity, and carried 
 Haiiy's ideas to other countries. Under the 
 most adverse economic and political circum- 
 stances — it was the period of the Revolution 
 — money was raised, and schools for the sight- 
 less sprang up in rapid succession. One was 
 founded in Liverpool, 1791, another in Bristol, 
 1793, another in London, 1799; Norwich 
 Asylum and School, 1805, Richmond National 
 Institution in Dublin, 1810, an asylum in 
 Aberdeen, 1812. New institutions have been 
 founded in Great Britain every year or two 
 during the last century. The early rapid 
 development of the work for the blind in Great 
 Britain is due partly to the admiration of the 
 
 British for the great blind men of their 
 race, Milton, Saunderson, the mathematician, 
 Thomas Blacklock, the Scottish poet and 
 preacher, and John Metcalf, the road builder, 
 a man of astonishing energy and self-reliance. 
 In Austria the first school was ojiened at Vienna 
 by Johann Williclm Klein in 1S04. Au.stria has 
 been called the cradle of the education of the 
 blind, for it w^as the Austrian singer, Maria 
 Theresa von Paradis, herself blind, whose 
 accomplishments inspired in Haiiy and Klein 
 the belief that the sightless can be raised not 
 merely out of misery, but to high planes of 
 culture and achievement. Klein's splendid 
 energy resulted in the establishment of other 
 institutions in Austria during the first half of 
 the nineteenth century, and his influence 
 contributed to the foundation of institutions 
 in Germany and other parts of Europe. In the 
 midst of bitter war — Napoleon was in the 
 city! — the Royal Institution for the Blind 
 was founded in Berlin in 1806. The institu- 
 tion at Dresden followed in 1S09. Nine years 
 later work for the blind began in Brcslau, and 
 from 1826 to 1830 schools were opened at 
 Munich, Stuttgart, Bruchsal, Braunschweig, 
 Hamburg. Holland made haste to begin the 
 work of educating the blind, in 1808; Sweden 
 followed in 1810, and Denmark, in 1811. 
 
 Most of the early institutions for the blind 
 were enterprises undertaken by generous indi- 
 viduals and philanthropic societies. But grad- 
 ually civil authorities came more and more to 
 feel it their duty to extend the education of the 
 blind as well as of the seeing. To-day most 
 institutions for the blind in Europe and America 
 receive aid from the proAince or state, and are 
 under the control of the government. 
 
 The work for the blind in America began a 
 generation later than the work in Europe. Dr. 
 Howe in Boston, Ackerly and Russ in New 
 York, Fricdliinder in Philadelphia, were the 
 pioneers in this country, and entered upon their 
 labors in the early thirties. Other states fol- 
 lowed, until now there are 42 schools in America, 
 roughly speaking, one for each commonwealth. 
 Pennsylvania and New York have 2 each. 
 Some .states, such as New Jersey, Vermont, and 
 New Hampshire, have none, but make provi- 
 sion to send blind pupils to neighboring states. 
 
 Most of the institutions in America are sup- 
 ported wholly by the State, though several, 
 notably the Perkins Institution at Boston, the 
 Pennsylvania Institution near Philadelphia, and 
 the institution in New York City, are sup- 
 ported also by endowments. Only 4 of these 
 institutions for the instruction of the young 
 blind were founded within the last 10 years. 
 When it is remembered that of the 17 or 18 
 industrial establishments for the blind of the 
 United States more than half came into exist- 
 ence within the la.st decade, it will be seen that 
 during the first 75 years of w^ork for the blind 
 in America, attention was almost exclusively 
 confined to the teaching of the young bhnd. 
 
 396
 
 BLIND 
 
 BLIND 
 
 Almost all the schools offer some sort of indus- 
 trial training or business course. But with one 
 or two exceptions they have no adequate 
 records of the careers of their graduates in after 
 life, so that their efficiency is hard to measure. 
 In this they do not differ from our common 
 schools for the seeing. 
 
 Some Principles in the Education of the Blind. 
 — The institutions for the blind in the several 
 countries reflect the educational ideals of the 
 schools for the seeing. In France, where the 
 public is artistic and music lo\ang, there seem 
 to be more successful blind musicians than in 
 any other country, though Dr. Campbell's 
 great school in England, the Royal Normal 
 College and Academy of Music for the Blind, is 
 inferior to none in the world. The effort in 
 Germany is to fit each individual, seeing or 
 blind, to be an independent workman contribut- 
 ing to the national welfare; Germany therefore 
 has built up the best balanced system of intel- 
 lectual and industrial training, and, as would 
 be expected, the work for the blind in Germany 
 embodies a similar ideal of balance, unity, and 
 completeness. It should be noted, too, that 
 in Germany the teachers of the blind are al- 
 most all normal school graduates with teach- 
 ing experience in the elementary schools, and 
 are therefore, as a class, superior to the average 
 teacher in other countries. In Great Britain 
 the tendency has been to keep the blind, who 
 are mostly from the poorer classes, in the ranks 
 of the lower-grade workman, and England and 
 Scotland have been remarkably successful in 
 carrying out the sensible and practical idea 
 of providing manual occupation for as many 
 of the blind as possible. Intellectual edu- 
 cation has not, until recently, been ex- 
 tended to so many of the sightless in Great 
 Britain as in America, and yet a generation 
 ago no country in the world would have equaled 
 the readiness with which the English people 
 recognized and promoted to high position such 
 a blind man as Henry Fawcett, who became 
 postmaster-general. In America the preva- 
 lent educational ideal has been to offer to every- 
 body a common school education, and to trust 
 that the individual, following his own inclina- 
 tions and plunging into practical work, will 
 find in the work itself the special training needed 
 to prepare him for it! A beginning to provide 
 trades schools even for the seeing is only just 
 being made. Few states have correlated and 
 unified the education of the seeing into an 
 effective system. But under any system, if it 
 is as generous and free-for-all as the American, 
 the seeing person will find himself, whereas the 
 blind man is left unguidcd. Almost any Ameri- 
 can blind child can go to a school and learn 
 geometry and Latin. But with our 40 schools 
 for the blind we have only a score of indu.strial 
 establishments, of which only 10 are state insti- 
 tutions or receive state aid. In them about 
 000 men and women are eini)loye(l. In Great 
 Britain, which has half the population and so 
 
 about half the number of blind of this country, 
 there are 50 workshops employing some 20(30 
 men and women. Twelve of the state schools 
 in America are combined institutions for the 
 deaf and the blind, — a combination which is bad 
 for both classes. As a whole, the work for the 
 blind in America is generous, energetic, and dis- 
 orderly, and yet several of the schools taken by 
 themselves are wonderfully fine. What a recent 
 writer says about the work done for the deaf 
 by " the receptive and thorough American " is 
 true of the work for the blind: the blind person 
 " is being experimented with on a colossal 
 scale. More money is being spent on him 
 than in any other country in the world, and 
 although not the shortest, nor the cheapest, 
 nor in any sense the best way, this is one way 
 of getting at the truth — and the Americans 
 will get at the truth whatever it costs." Any 
 comparison of the work done in the various 
 countries becomes untrue even as it is written. 
 Every country is trying to find out what other 
 countries are doing, and to import the best. 
 Industrial education for the blind and other 
 systematic effort to prepare the blind to take 
 their rightful places in the social scheme is 
 advancing rapidly in America. Several states 
 have recently created commissions, and volun- 
 teer associations are being formed in many 
 cities. Though the new work does not always 
 merge economically and without friction into 
 the work that is already established and tra- 
 ditional, all streams of education and enterprise 
 in behalf of the blind must in time find their 
 beds, unite, and flow increasingly together. 
 Besides the wealth and energy brought to bear 
 on the problems of the blind in America, there 
 is in the American system one principle which is 
 fundamentally established, and more than any- 
 thing else insures success in the end, that is, the 
 principle that the sightless are not objects of 
 willful charity, to be set outside of the social 
 scheme, but they have a right to the best 
 education that can be devised, and the State 
 must provide it. 
 
 When the education of the blind was a new 
 enterprise in Europe and America, philanthro- 
 pi.sts and teachers were enthusiastic idealists 
 — if they had not been, the work would never 
 have been started. They dreamed that the 
 sightless, because of their freedom from the 
 distractions of the outer world, would be able 
 to concentrate their minds upon lofty themes 
 and become brilliant poets, mathematicians, 
 musicians. For a while this belief seemed to 
 be justified; only the brighter, more enter- 
 prising blind went to the new institutions. 
 But later the mediocre and the inferior came in 
 large numbers, and teachers found themselves 
 confronted with a class of people below the 
 average in general health and therefore in 
 ability. The disappointment, however, had a 
 steadying effect; it led teachers to study the 
 nature of blindness and put the work on a 
 practical basis. The labor of lifting the sight- 
 
 397
 
 BLIND 
 
 BLIND 
 
 less out of niispry becaino more and more 
 rational without losing all of its initial enthu- 
 siasm, and the history of it is a touching record 
 of disintcrestt'd cITort, patience, and devotion. 
 
 Present Position. — The education of the 
 blind child does not differ essentially from that 
 of the child who sees. Both are taught to 
 8tu<ly, to work, to live with other people. They 
 are etiually susceptible to lessons and discipline, 
 provided the blind child has no other disability 
 than lack of siglit. Differences in the methods 
 of teaching the blind and the seeing arise from 
 differences in their sense experience. The 
 blind learn through hearing and touch; they 
 read raised letters instead of flat. They are 
 not shut out from the richest source of civi- 
 lized knowledge, the spoken words of men, 
 and they make the same identity between the 
 the embossed letters and the spoken word that 
 the seeing person makes between oral language 
 and flat letters. For the blind person the pro- 
 cess of reading the world of objects, and the 
 printed letters that symbolize them, is slower 
 than the corresponding process of the sighted 
 person. Sight surveys, includes, makes rapid 
 and sweeping comparisons. The sense of touch 
 perceives points and assembles disjointed im- 
 pressions; it constructs, measures, and synthe- 
 sizes. It conveys to the mind very much more 
 than the seeing person is wont to believe 
 possible unless he has read Berkeley and other 
 philosophers and psychologists. The blind 
 man who suddenly recovers his sight cannot 
 recognize by sight alone objects with which his 
 fingers are familiar. He has to learn to see, 
 to interpret visual impressions in the light of 
 tactual experience. Touch is the fundamental 
 sense. With the sight shut off, the intellect 
 is still amply nourished. The gravest ill con- 
 sequences of blindness are not intellectual, but 
 physical. 
 
 The normal child constantly sees others 
 move, work, and play. He imitates, and so he 
 grows. He is active, eager to do, to explore, 
 to investigate. The incentive of things without 
 stirs the inner impulse to action and exercise. 
 He romps and dances through his first years, 
 daily aroused by the friendly, challenging rays 
 of light. He revels in the freedom of play- 
 ground, the woods, the fields, or the alley and 
 the crowded street. Attracted by bright 
 colors from afar, by the bustle and the thousand 
 sights of the city and the country, he is ever 
 in motion. The elastic movements of his bod}', 
 which he unconsciously learns from others, 
 keep him straight, graceful, and vigorous. 
 
 The blind child who is not taught falls into 
 ill health, which is far more damaging to his 
 mind than mere blindness. Cut off from the 
 swirl and rush of life in the outer world, the 
 frolics of other children, and the cheerful work 
 of men, he is deprived of stimidi that not only 
 enliven the brain, but stir the body to action. 
 He sees nothing to imitate, and he is easily dis- 
 couraged from imitating the activity that he 
 
 can hear. Unused muscles relax and degen- 
 erate, and the whole organism is enfeebled. 
 A similar degeneration can take place in one 
 who loses sight in adult years, who sits and 
 mopes and takes no exercise. But the case of 
 the blind child is more heartbreaking because 
 he cannot help himself: he is dependent on his 
 parents, who may spoil him with misdirected 
 kindness or selfishly keep him ''tiuiet" and 
 "out of the way." Intelligent care can put 
 a blind child on almost equal terms with the 
 seeing liy deliberately supplying the stinndi 
 that blindness cheats him of. He should be 
 taught to walk at the same age as a seeing child. 
 He should be encouraged to touch a great 
 variety of objects, and should have plenty of 
 simi)Ie toys to throw around, to hunt for, to 
 put into his mouth if he chooses. He should be 
 led into the habit of quick, sjirightly movements, 
 so that he will skip and run like other children, 
 regardless of bumps and falls. The merry 
 spirit should be awakened in him, so that he 
 will play games alone. He should be per- 
 mitted to handle common household articles 
 and turn the house into a playroom, act the 
 sailor, the soldier, the carpenter, and Mowgli 
 in the jungle. He can model in clay or putty, 
 spin tops, beat a drum, make chains of spools, 
 peel potatoes, shell peas, and play at other 
 useful occupations. He can work at a bench 
 with hammer and saw, nails, and pieces of wood. 
 He will not cut himself any oftener than the 
 seeing child. Interesting tasks occupy his 
 mind, keep him in health, render his fingers 
 firm, flexible, jirecise, and cultivate a habit of 
 observation. 
 
 It is important for success and happiness in 
 life that a blind person should have an atti'ac- 
 tive face, natural gestures, and good carriage. 
 The blind child should be allowed to touch the 
 faces of others, so that he can perceive the smiles, 
 the varying motions of the head, the looks of 
 sorrow or delight, and so imitate them. If he 
 is left too much alone, he falls into nervous 
 habits called " blindisms," habits which bring 
 debility and unhappiness. He makes faces, 
 uses his fork wrongly, sniffs, sticks his fingers 
 in his eyes, and sways from one foot to the 
 other. Such habits are too frequent among 
 .sightless children at the institutions, and the 
 schools are thus needles.sly burdened with the 
 task of overcoming timidity, ungraceful man- 
 ners, and disagreeable gestures that should have 
 been corrected at home. Since the average 
 home cannot be counted on as a fit school for 
 the blind child, there is need of nurseries and 
 kindergartens in every large town. 
 
 There are 3 nurseries for blind babies in 
 America, at Hartford, Boston, and Brooklyn. 
 The first kindergarten for the blind was estab- 
 lished in jMoritzburg, Germany, in 1861. Simi- 
 lar kindergartens have since been opened in 
 Copenhagen, Bennekom (Holland), Diiren 
 (Germany), Kdnigsthal, Leipzig, Miinchen, 
 Neukloster, Niirnberg, Steglitz, Kleefeld, and 
 
 398
 
 a 
 
 b c 
 
 • • • • • 
 
 d 
 
 e 
 
 f 
 
 • • • 
 
 g h 
 
 • • ■ 
 
 • • • • • • 
 
 m 
 
 n 
 
 • • 
 
 t 
 
 • • • • • • 
 
 P q 
 
 • • • • • 
 
 u 
 
 V 
 
 z 
 
 • • • 
 
 w 
 
 r 
 
 • • • 
 
 New York Point, Lower Case 
 
 E 
 
 • • • 
 
 I 
 • ■ • • 
 
 M 
 
 • • • 
 
 Q 
 
 U 
 
 • • • 
 
 B 
 
 • • • 
 
 F 
 
 • • • 
 
 J 
 
 • • • 
 
 • • 
 
 N 
 
 R 
 
 • • • 
 
 V 
 
 C D 
 
 • • • • • • 
 
 G 
 
 • • • 
 
 K 
 • • • • 
 
 O 
 
 
 H 
 • • • 
 
 L 
 
 P 
 
 T 
 
 • • • 
 
 X 
 
 • • • 
 
 Y Z 
 
 • • • • • • 
 
 • • • • 
 
 New York Point, Capitals 
 
 A 
 
 H 
 
 • • 
 
 O 
 
 a 
 
 B 
 
 P 
 
 C 
 
 • • 
 
 J 
 Q 
 
 D 
 K 
 
 E 
 
 F G 
 
 M 
 T 
 
 V 
 
 X 
 
 Y 
 
 Z 
 
 English Braille 
 
 P 
 
 
 q 
 
 
 r 
 
 m 
 
 • • • 
 
 • • • • 
 
 American Bkaillb 
 
 N 
 
 U 
 
 g 
 
 u 
 
 To capitalize a letter prefix to it points 3 and 6 
 (• •) leaving a space before the letter to be cap- 
 italized.
 
 BLIND 
 
 BLIND 
 
 Vienna. Some German schools have a kin- 
 dergarten department. In America there are 
 2 kindergartens, one in Boston, connected with 
 the Perkins Institution, and tlie other a depart- 
 ment, in a separate building, of the Pennsyl- 
 vania Institution. The functions of these 
 nurseries and kindergartens are (1) to furnish 
 the blind child with many ideas and experiences 
 that come to the normal child without special 
 instruction, (2) to correct the evils that result 
 from his being coddled at home, (3) to conquer 
 nervous habits and avert their bad effects, 
 
 (4) to sharpen and train hearing and touch, 
 
 (5) to strengthen the body by means of exercise. 
 Curricula and Apparatus. — The curricula 
 
 of the ordinary institutions for the young blind 
 are about the same as those of the common 
 schools for the seeing, — reading, writing, 
 arithmetic, geography, history, etc. The chief 
 difference in method lies in the apparatus, and 
 is at once suggested by a study of the apparatus 
 itself. 
 
 The first embossed book for the blind was 
 printed at the Paris Institution in 1786. The 
 early books were expensive, not easy to read, 
 and were used chiefly for exhibition purposes. 
 The type was a form of Roman letter. RIany 
 persons experimented with variations of our 
 common letters and arbitrary arrangements of 
 lines and curves. In 1836 about twenty line 
 alphabets were submitted to the Society of Arts 
 for Scotland. That by James Gall was chosen, 
 and books were printed in it. The Boston line 
 letter, later improved by Dr. Howe, persisted 
 for long in America. But except for the very 
 useful ^loon type for the elderly blind and those 
 whose fingers are insensitive, all line alphabets 
 have been abandoned (the Perkins Institu- 
 tion only recently discontinued the printing of 
 Roman line) in favor of point systems, braille 
 and two variants of it. . . 
 
 The base of braille is a cell of 6 points, thus I ', 
 The characters consist of various combinations 
 of these 6 points. For instance, 3 points in a 
 vertical line form the letter L. If the middle 
 dot is struck out and another placed at the 
 right of the lower dot, the letter is U, and so on. 
 There are 62 characters. Each represents a 
 letter, a punctuation mark, or a contraction 
 standing for several letters. This point system 
 was made by Louis Braille in 182.5, and bears his 
 name. It is used all over the world. American 
 braille embodies some changes, not in the form 
 of the letters, but in the assignment of the 
 letters to the various combinations. The idea 
 was that the letters which occur most frequently, 
 such as E, O, R, S, T, should be made with the 
 fewest dots. The changes do not alter the 
 mechanical structure of the type any more 
 than the mechanical structure of this ink type 
 would be altered if it should be agreed to print 
 s for e and e for s. New York point differs 
 from braille in that the characters are not 3 
 points high and 2 wide, but 2 points high and 3 
 wide. It has no advantages, and some disad- 
 
 INTERLral^^o Bkaillb SLATS- 
 
 vantages as compared with braille. The 
 
 variety of prints has caused some confusion 
 
 and has resulted in reduplication of books. 
 
 Some American institutions are provincial 
 
 enough to cling to New York point when other 
 
 American institutions and the whole of Europe 
 
 use braille both for literature 
 
 and for music. But any 
 
 enterprising blind person who 
 
 knows one print can easily 
 
 learn another. The point 
 
 systems can be written for 
 
 notes, correspondence and 
 
 manuscript books, on special 
 
 writing machines and also bj- 
 
 means of small hand frames 
 
 and a stylus to indent the 
 
 points. To write ink print 
 
 the blind can use any kind of typewriter, and 
 
 typewriting is taught in the best schools. The 
 
 blind also write pencil script, and there are 
 
 several ingenious devices to guide the pencil. 
 
 For arithmetic the best instrument is the 
 brain, in which figures can be written on the 
 memory and combined and erased with ease. 
 There are several mechanical devices to assist 
 the pupil. Ballu's calculator consists of a 
 rectangular board divided by raised metal 
 lines into equal squares. Each square is pierced 
 with 9 holes. Each hole corresponds to a 
 figure, and a pin in one of the holes indicates 
 which figure that square stands for. A special 
 pin gives zero in one position and 8 alge- 
 braic signs in the other positions. Taylor's 
 frame is a metal plate filled with holes shaped 
 like 8-pointed stars, the holes equidistant. 
 A square peg, with a ridge on the side of one 
 end, and 2 points on the side of the other end, 
 will obviously take 16 positions in the octagonal 
 hole, and so represent the 10 figures and the 
 signs of multiplication, addition, etc. Some 
 of the blind become rapid and accurate in 
 mental calculations. The principles of geom- 
 etry can be learned without visible or tangible 
 diagrams. To assist the blind student there 
 are several devices. One is a cushion with 
 curved and straight wires, the ends of which are 
 pointed and cling to the cushion. Construction 
 lines can be drawn with strings and pins, and 
 the points of the diagram can be lettered with 
 pins, the heads of which form braille characters. 
 
 In studying geography the blind explore 
 raised maps and globes with the land raised and 
 the seas depressed, the rivers represented by 
 fissures, the capital cities by large points, and the 
 other cities by small points. If the globe is 
 large enough, the names of the countries, seas, 
 rivers, and cities are printed in embossed type. 
 Dissected maps make a pleasant game and con- 
 vey useful lessons. The physical sciences are 
 taught the blind by laboratory methods, with 
 the same models and apparatus that are used bj' 
 the seeing. Manikins that can be taken apart 
 are used to teach anatomy. Some of the 
 institutions have museums of stuffed birds, 
 
 399
 
 BLIND 
 
 BLIND 
 
 aninuils, and other objects. The institution at 
 Illzach, Germany, nianufaetures embossed i)ic- 
 tures of birds and animals. In history, hin- 
 guages, and literature, all the humanities that 
 are embodied in printed words, the resources of 
 the blind are all but equal to those of the see- 
 ing, as win become evident from a glance at the 
 catalogues of books printed for the blind in 
 Europe and America. The United States has 
 printed more books than any other country, and 
 the invention of special pres.scs to emboss type 
 has so cheapened and multiplied books for the 
 sightless that in the last ten years probably 
 more books have been printed here than in all 
 the years before. The institutions have good 
 libraries, and they lend their books to blind 
 persons for the asking. The Post-office De- 
 partment carries them free. There is no other 
 class of people in the world that have books 
 delivered at their doors for nothing. The 
 American Printing House for the Blind at 
 Louisville receives SIO.OOO a year from the 
 United States Government; the books paid 
 for by this fund are distributed to the various 
 institutions. The Congressional Library in 
 Washington maintains a spacious reading room 
 for the blind, containing about 2500 volumes. 
 The public libraries in several of the larger cities 
 have embossed books which are taken out on 
 cards hke the books In ink. The Public 
 Library of New York City has a branch for the 
 use of the blind containing about 2500 volumes; 
 it maintains a teacher who visits the blind that 
 cannot read and gives them free instruction. 
 The state of Massachusetts and several of the 
 private organizations for the blind employ 
 teachers to give instruction to the sightless 
 at their homes. The Pennsylvania Home 
 Teaching Society provides books in Moon type, 
 and sends teachers to the blind who Hve in 
 Philadelphia. 
 
 There are special schools or departments 
 for the instruction of weak-minded and back- 
 ward blind children in Vienna, Kiel, Chemnitz, 
 (in Saxony), Lausanne, Paris, and Copenhagen. 
 In America the feeble-minded blind are not 
 properly provided for. They should not be in 
 the regular school for the blind, and the ordinary 
 institutions for the feeble-minded are not 
 fitted to cope with the double infirmity and 
 mitigate it so far as mitigation is possible. A 
 unique in.stitution is that in Venersborg, Sweden, 
 for deaf-blind children. In other countries the 
 education of the deaf-blind has been conducted 
 in the schools for the deaf and the schools for 
 the blind and by private teachers (see Deaf- 
 Blind, Edic.\tio.\ of). 
 
 Industrial Training. — The education of the 
 sightless does not end wth their graduation 
 from the ordinary institutions. It remains for 
 them to be trained so that they can earn all or 
 part of their support. The manual departments 
 of the institutions give elementary training in 
 handicrafts, and special industrial establish- 
 ments are multiplying, but this work for the 
 
 blind has not advanced far enough in any coun- 
 try, certainly not in America. Blind workmen 
 need not only instruction in the crafts, but com- 
 petent supervision and assistance after they 
 have begun to produce articles for sale. Many 
 of the blind in America have been encouraged 
 to make useless and ugly things by the patron- 
 age of kindly persons who were sorry for the 
 workmen. The productions of blind workmen 
 should compete fairly in the markets, and the 
 handicap of the workers should be recognized 
 and reUeved by assistance in the processes of 
 manufacture and of distrii)ution and sale. 
 
 The chief indu.stries of the blind are basketry, 
 weaving, cordage, mattress nuiking, brush mak- 
 ing, and chair caning. At the shops of the 
 Massachusetts Commission are manufactured 
 not only an excellent patented mop, but very 
 beautiful curtains and rugs. At the trade 
 school in Marseilles tlie l)lind engage in fine 
 beadwork and cabinet work with the aid of 
 seeing persons. A few of the blind are em- 
 ployed in copying braille books for the libraries 
 and their more prosperous brothers. The prac- 
 tice of massage is steadily gaining ground among 
 the blind of France, Germany, England, and 
 America. In Japan massage has long been a 
 recognized monopoly for the blind. Retail 
 trade is a fruitful field for the blind, and busi- 
 ness courses and training in salesmanship are 
 legitimate branches of education for our in- 
 stitutions to develop. In Great Britain the 
 Blind Tea Agency sells tea, coffee, and cocoa, 
 and employs only blind salesmen. A number of 
 successful American salesmen are blind. Sev- 
 eral expert blind typists have found employ- 
 ment with business firms. Efforts are being 
 made to find more and more profitable occupa- 
 tions for the sightless. Since trades and in- 
 dustries vary in different communities the find- 
 ing of suitable work for the blind, and in large 
 part the preparation of the blind for the work 
 must be a local matter. 
 
 The most talented of the sightless are edu- 
 cated as musicians, organists, piano tuners, 
 teachers. There have been blind men on both 
 sides of the Atlantic eminent in intellectual 
 work, Rodenbach the Belgian statesman, 
 Fawcett, the English statesman. Senator Gore 
 from Oklahoma, Huber, the naturalist, Pres- 
 cott, the historian, and others. The Royal 
 Normal College in England and LTnstitution 
 Nationale in Paris have educated many blind 
 musicians and helped them to positions of self- 
 support; but only a few of the blind are capa- 
 ble of becoming competent musicians, and 
 in order that the hard-won reputation of the 
 blind may be sustained, care must be taken not 
 to encourage sightless persons of mediocre 
 ability to appear before the public as products 
 of the musical departments of the schools. 
 
 In order to help the adult blind, both the 
 graduates of the schools and those who have 
 lost their sight in maturity, there must be 
 increasing cooperation between the institutions 
 
 400
 
 BLIND 
 
 BLIND 
 
 and the public, between the schools and their 
 graduates, and among the blind themselves. 
 There are several organizations at work bring- 
 ing about this cooperation; notably the British 
 and Foreign Blind Association, the Valentin 
 Haiiy Association of France, the New York 
 Association, and the Massachusetts Association. 
 State commissions working together with local 
 volunteer organizations and the already estab- 
 lished schools could and should form such unified 
 systems as have grown up in Massachusetts 
 and in Saxony. In Massachusetts the State 
 Commission, the Perkins Institution, and the 
 volunteer association, with its valuable paper. 
 The Outlook for the Blind, are working together. 
 In Sa.xony the work for the sightless centers in 
 the multiple institution at Chemnitz. This 
 institution comprises, in separate depart- 
 ments, a kindergarten, a common school, a trade 
 school, a school for feeble-minded bhnd, homes 
 for aged and incapable blind, and houses for 
 capable blind men and women. It has a fund 
 from which sums are lent to blind men who set 
 up as artisans, and the institution supervises 
 the work that the graduates are doing in their 
 homes throughout Saxony. A bond of unity 
 and a strong practical educational force among 
 the bhnd of America is the Zicgler Magazine, 
 printed in point, which, through Mrs. Ziegler's 
 generosity, is distributed free to the sightless. 
 The American blind are beginning to know 
 each other, to know the merits and defects of 
 existing institutions, and to learn what is being 
 done in Europe. 
 
 Several recent experiments in behalf of the 
 blind deserve mention, though the results are 
 not yet known. The good Queen of Roumania 
 has founded a colony for the blind, the Vatra 
 Luminosa, where persons of all races and 
 rehgions may work side by side at profitable 
 occupations and live in separate houses with 
 their families. The principle of segregation 
 involved in this plan is contrary to the prevail- 
 ing effort in other countries, which seeks to dis- 
 tribute the bhnd among the seeing, to teach the 
 public to take the capabihties of the blind for 
 granted, and to give them a place in the midst 
 of normal life. Experiments are being made in 
 Milwaukee, Chicago, and New York City to 
 teach the bhnd in the public schools. There 
 are 30 sightless children in the Chicago 
 schools, and the reports of their progress are 
 encouraging. The average cost is 817.5 a year, 
 whereas the average cost per pupil in the in- 
 stitutions is S270. But the institutions are 
 boarding schools, and the per capita cost in- 
 cludes food and shelter. If the necessary 
 books and apparatus are provided, and a special 
 teacher is maintained to prepare the pupils to 
 take part in regular classroom work, there is no 
 reason why the blind child should not keep up 
 with his seeing fellow pupils, learn much from 
 them, and be a means of teaching the rising 
 generation the needs and the capabilities of the 
 sightless. A considerable number of blind 
 
 VOL. I — 2d 
 
 students have graduated from our universities, 
 and there have been several bhnd professors in 
 colleges for the seeing. It has been proposed 
 to found a national college for the blind, but 
 this would be a costly and superfluous institu- 
 tion. A better plan is to give scholarships 
 to sightless students, as is done in New York 
 State, which offers subsidies of $300 each to 
 blind students in the colleges of the state. 
 Further assistance to the sightless who are work- 
 ing for a higher education might be given in the 
 form of braille transcripts of such textbooks 
 as are not to be found among the books printed 
 in embossed type. 
 
 The present hopeful tendency in the educa- 
 tion of the blind is, like the tendency in the 
 education of the seeing, to relate instruction to 
 the uses of life. The methods, the available 
 forces, the types of institutions have been in- 
 dicated. The work of the future is to strengthen 
 and intensify the institutions already estab- 
 lished, to add others that are lacking in the 
 various communities, and to bring about full 
 cooperation between the institutions in the 
 several states and nations. The collective 
 functions of the agencies at work for the blind 
 are: (1) to prevent blindness and disseminate 
 a knowledge of the methods of prevention; 
 (2) to teach the pubhc about the bhnd; (3) to 
 found adequate nurseries, kindergartens, and 
 schools, and improve such as exist; (4) to 
 open workshops in populous centers and to 
 systematize the marketing of the products 
 of the sightless; (5) to help the blind worker 
 over the days when he is establishing himself 
 in business, and to provide the materials of his 
 work at minimum cost; (6) to seek out the 
 blind in their homes and teach them read- 
 ing, writing, and handicrafts; (7) to find a 
 greater variety of paying occupations in which 
 the sightle.ss can engage; (8) to register all 
 blind children and see that they find their way to 
 the institutions provided for them; (9) to 
 reach the blind in their isolation and inform 
 them of the possibilities of their blindhood in 
 order that they may a\'ail themselves of the 
 advantages already provided and of the enlight- 
 ening experience of other blind persons. 
 
 H. K. 
 
 References: — 
 
 AR.MITAGE, Thom.\s. Education and Employment of 
 
 the Blind, 2d ed. (London, 1SS6.) 
 Illingwokth, W. H. History of the Education of the 
 
 Blind. (London, 1910.) 
 J.WAL, Emile. On Becoming Blind. Eng. tr. by 
 
 Carroll E. Edson. (New York, 1905.) 
 Lexis, W. Das Unterrichtswesen im deutschcn Reich, 
 
 Vol. III. (Berlin, 1904.) 
 Massachusetts Commission, Anmial Reports. 
 Mell, Alexander. Eficykloiiddisches Handhuch des 
 
 Blindwctens. (Vienna and Leipzig, 1900.) 
 New York Slate Commission, Report of, to Investigate 
 
 the Condition of the Blind, 1906. 
 Perkins Institution and Massachusetts School for the 
 
 Blind. Special Reference Library of Books 
 
 Relating to the Blind. Part I : Books in English. 
 
 (Boston, 1907.) 
 Perkins Institution, Annual Reports. (Boston.) 
 
 401
 
 BLIND-DEAF 
 
 BLUNDEVILLE 
 
 SizERANNE. Maurice de la. Mca Nolrs, — Lc.i 
 Arcuylis I'liles, — Lis Aveugles par un Ai'tugle. 
 Tnnic Ans D'bltudes et de Propayandc en Faveur 
 lies Aveuglfs. (Moutbrison, 1908.) 
 
 Wilson, Henry J. Information with Regard to Insti- 
 lutions, Societies, and Classes for the Blind in Eng- 
 land and Wales. 4th ed. (London, 1907.) 
 Periodicals : — 
 
 DcT Blindcnfreund, monthly, pub. in Diircu, Germany. 
 
 Le Valentin Haiiy. Revue Universelle des Questions 
 Relatives aux Aveuoles, monthly, pub. by Valentin 
 Hai'iy Assn., Pari.s. 
 
 The Blind, quarterly, pub. by Gardner's Trust for Blind, 
 London. 
 
 The Braille Review, monthly, pub. by British and Foreign 
 Blind .\ssooiation, London. 
 
 The Outlook for the Blind, pub. by Mass. Association, 
 Cambridge. 
 
 BLIND-DEAF, EDUCATION OF. — See 
 
 Db.\f-Blind, Education ui-. 
 
 BLIND SPOT. — Draw two small circles 
 on a piece of jniper (5 or 8 inches apart; close 
 the left eye, and fi.xate with the right the left- 
 hand circle, moving the paper slowly back and 
 forth from the eyes. At a certain distance 
 from the eyes (dependent on the distance be- 
 tween the circles) the right-hand circle will 
 disappear from vision. For the left eye the 
 right-hand circle must be fi.xated. The given 
 circle disappears because the light rays from it 
 have fallen on that area of the retina where the 
 optic nerve leaves the eye. This is called the 
 blind spot, therefore, because the optic nerve 
 is not directly sensitive to light. The influence 
 of the blind spot is not usually felt even in 
 monocular vision — a printed page or the wall 
 of a room appears as a uniform surface. This 
 is partly due to the fact that our significant 
 reactions to an object are elicited by the sensi- 
 tive retinal points stimulated and not by the 
 insensitive ; partly, too, to the substitution of 
 other e.xperience with the object (e.g. binocular 
 vision iq.v.), eye movements iq.v.), etc.). The 
 existence of a blind spot shows, however, that 
 we cannot always rely upon the results of intro- 
 spection in interpreting a given phenomenon. 
 
 R. P. A. 
 
 References: — 
 Baldwin's Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology : 
 
 Art. Blind Spot. 
 Howell, VV. H. American Textbook Physiology. 744 
 pp. (Philadelphia, 1901.) 
 
 BLINDNESS. — Inability to see normally. 
 There are all degrees of blindness. These are 
 due either to defects of the organ of sense 
 (peripheral blindness) or to defects in the 
 central organs (mental blindness). There are 
 also defects in ability to discriminate visual 
 qualities. (See Color Blindness; Deaf- 
 ness.) 
 
 BLINDNESS, PSYCHICAL. — Also called 
 rtiind or mental blindness; involves an inability 
 to recognize the nature and significance of objects 
 by means of vision. The visual sensations are 
 not lost; they may exist in their full variety; 
 they arc simply incorrectly interpreted, or not 
 
 interpreted at all. This defect is doubtless 
 due to the disintegration of the rich network 
 of associative relationshijis into which visual 
 elements must enter before they signify com- 
 plete objects. Support is given such a view 
 by the character of the cortical lesions which 
 cause psychical blindness. Tiiey appear to 
 occur chiefly in the posterior portion of the 
 parietal association area just in front of the 
 occipital lobe, which includes the cortical 
 centers for visual sensation. Psychical blind- 
 ness has been artificially produced in dogs 
 by extirpating certain parts of the occipital 
 lobe. Word blindness (inability to grasp 
 the significance of printed words) is a special 
 variety of psychical blindness. Analogous to 
 psychical blindness is inental deafness. 
 
 R. P. A. 
 References : — 
 Baldwin. Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology. 
 Bastian. Aphasia, pp. 210-213. 
 Collins. The Faculty of Speech, p. 302. 
 
 BLINN MEMORIAL COLLEGE, BREN- 
 HAM, TEX. — Founded in 1SS2 by the South- 
 ern (jerinan Conference of the Methodist Epis- 
 copal Church, and opened in 1883. Prejiaratory, 
 academic, normal, commercial, and music 
 courses are offered. No degrees are given. 
 A theological course conducted in Cierman is 
 also included. There are 13 instructors on 
 the faculty. John Pluennekc, B.S., D.D., is 
 the president. 
 
 BLUE MOUNTAIN COLLEGE, BLUE 
 MOUNTAIN, MISS. — A proprietary insti- 
 tution for the education of young ladies, opened 
 in 1873. Preparatory, collegiate, and mu.sical 
 departments are maintained. The 4 years' 
 course for the degree is based on about 4 points 
 of high school work. 
 
 BLUE RIDGE COLLEGE, BLUE RIDGE, 
 
 GA. -i- A coeducational institution organized 
 as a college in 1904. Primary, academic, col- 
 legiate, normal, and business courses are main- 
 tained. The college course of 4 years, on the 
 completion of which degrees are given, is based 
 on approximately 3 years of high school work. 
 
 BLUNDEVILLE, THOMAS. — A country 
 gentleman in (jueen Elizabeth's reign; trans- 
 lated in 1570, from the Italian of Alfonso 
 D'Ulloa, the Spanish treatise of Federigo 
 Furio on the training of a prince, which con- 
 tains much educational matter. In the same 
 year (1570), it was possibly Blundeville who 
 translated John Sturm's book on the education 
 of princes under the title, A Rich Storehouse 
 or Treasurie, for the Nobilitie, etc. He also 
 translated, in 1574, from the Italian, Pa- 
 trizi's True order and Methode of wryting 
 and reading Hystories. In 1589, he wrote 
 A Brief e Description of universal Mappes and 
 Cardes and of their use ; and also the use of 
 Ptholemy his Tables. Having thus translated a 
 
 402
 
 BLUSH 
 
 BOARDING ROUND OF TEACHERS 
 
 work on education generally, on history study, 
 on geography study, he wrote a work on the 
 Art of Logike, 1599, in English, founded on 
 Aristotle "and all other best account Authors 
 thereof." In 1594 appeared his Exercises, con- 
 taining six Treatises, viz. on Arithmetic, Cosmog- 
 raphy, Description of the Globes, description of 
 the Universal Map of Plancius, of the Astrolabe 
 of Mr. Blagrave, and of the Principles of Nari- 
 gation. In this work, Blundeville established 
 himself as the first introducer into England of 
 plane trigonometry. The Exercises were issued 
 in augmented editions in 1597, the fourth edi- 
 tion in 1613; the sixth edition m 1621-1622; and 
 the seventh edition, enlarged by R. Hartwell, ap- 
 peared in 1636. Blundeville may be said to be 
 the representative writer of Queen Elizabeth's 
 reign on the encj'clopedic education of the 
 nobleman. In addition to writings on the 
 above subjects of instruction, he is perhaps 
 even better known by his treatise on the Four 
 chiefcst Offices belonging to Horsemanship, in 
 editions 1565-1566, 1570, and 1609. F. W. 
 
 BLUSH. — The peripheral blood vessels, 
 especially of the face and neck, react in certain 
 emotional states so as to bring a large blood 
 supply into the skin. This is an instinctive 
 reaction. See Darwin's Exprei^sion of the 
 Emotions for an interesting general discussion of 
 its significance. It is a typical emotional reac- 
 tion, without adaptive value at the present time. 
 
 BOARDOFEDUCATION, CONVENTIONS 
 
 OF. — See Conventions, School Boards. 
 
 BOARD OF EDUCATION, ENGLAND 
 
 AND WALES. —See Great Britain, Educa- 
 
 TIO.N IN. 
 
 BOARD OF EDUCATION OF THE METH- 
 ODIST EPISCOPAL CHURCH. — See Col- 
 lege Boards in Education, Denomin.i- 
 
 TIONAL. 
 
 BOARD OF EDUCATION OF THE METH- 
 ODIST EPISCOPAL CHURCH, SOUTH. — 
 
 See College Boards of Education, De- 
 
 N0.MIN.\TI0NAL. 
 
 BOARD OF EDUCATION OF THE RE- 
 FORMED CHURCH IN AMERICA. — See 
 
 Collei;e Boards of Educatio.\, Denomina- 
 tional. 
 
 BOARD OF GOVERNORS. — See Boards 
 OF Control. 
 
 BOARD OF REGENTS. — A term applied 
 to the governing bodies of a number of our uni- 
 versities. For this see Boards of Control. 
 The term is also used for what is virtually tlie 
 State Board of Education of the State of New 
 York. For this see the article on New York, 
 State of. 
 
 BOARD SCHOOLS. 
 
 Education in. 
 
 See Great Britain, 
 
 BOARDING ROUND OF TEACHERS.— 
 
 The first reference to the movement, of teachers 
 from house to house and school to school ap- 
 pears in the Commonwealth Act of 1649 "for 
 the better propagation and preaching of the 
 Gospel in Wales," in which provision is made for 
 the appointment of schoolmasters in parochial 
 charges or in " itinerary " courses, " for the keep- 
 ing of schools and education of children." Itin- 
 erant teachers there were in England in the 
 Middle Ages, members of the universities of 
 Oxford and Cambridge, who took the license 
 of their university and the letters testimonial 
 of their chancellor, and under the protection of 
 the Statute Law of the Realm wandered from 
 place to place and were paid with bed and board 
 for the diffusion of scholarship and the encour- 
 agement of learning. The history of these 
 wandering scholars has been traced elsewhere 
 (see Special Reports of the Board of Education 
 (England), 1908, Vol. 21), and it is sufficient to 
 say that the universities seem to have issued 
 licenses as late as 1640, when a man was arrested 
 at Malton in the North Riding of Yorkshire for 
 begging with a counterfeit university pass. 
 (See Quarter Session Records, North Riding 
 Record, Vol. IV, p. 183.) Apart from these 
 wandering scholars, who at last degenerated into 
 common beggars, there do not appear to have 
 been in England proper any itinerant teachers. 
 But such teachers were common in Scotland 
 as well as in Wales. The Welsh Circulating 
 Schools (q.v.) were started by Griffith Jones 
 (1683-1761) in 1730, and were at first entirely 
 supported out of church offertories. The 
 teachers stopped in each town or college for a 
 few months only at a time, and were supported 
 locally. The movement was supported by 
 Mrs. Bevan (q.r.), and in 1752 there were 134 
 schools, with 5118 scholars. In 1760 there were 
 10,000 children in the schools, while the evening 
 schools were still more extensively attended. 
 The schools ended through a chancery suit soon 
 after Mrs. Bevan's death in 1779, but they were 
 revived under a decree of the Court of Chancery 
 in 1807. These circulating schools numbered 
 34 in 1836. The teachers remained at each cen- 
 ter from 6 to 12 months. In each center there 
 were from 50 to 140 children, who were taught 
 the alphabet, spelling, reading, writing, arith- 
 metic, and Scripture. By this date, however, 
 presumably the teachers paid for board, as 
 they received £25 annual salary. In Scotland 
 during the eighteenth and early nineteenth 
 centuries the teachers were very often " boarded 
 round." Mr. Brougham in his famous speech 
 of .June 28, 1820, in the House of Commons, 
 said on this point: "In Scotland there were 
 parishes fifteen miles in length, and six in 
 breadth. It was easier for an adult to go to 
 church than for a child to go to school in such 
 cases. But what was the expedient suggested by 
 
 403
 
 BOARDING ROUND OF TEACHERS BOARDING ROUND OF TEACHERS 
 
 their zeal and ingenuity? The schoolmaster 
 was taken into houses successively, and was 
 boarded as remuneration for his trouble in 
 teaching the children. Scotland was not re- 
 markable for abundance of animal food, but 
 the parents gave him some kind of subsistence, 
 probably better suited to their means than his 
 appetite." Probably much the same principle 
 was adopted in Ireland. Mr. Brougham went on 
 to point out that the same prin('ii)le of "board- 
 ing round of teacher " prevailed in the Pj'renees. 
 " It was observed in a Report of the French 
 commissioners that ' happy was the school- 
 master who lived in the rugged districts of the 
 Pyrenees; there he was at least sure of not dying 
 of hunger,' for those havuig no money boarded 
 him by rotation." Exactly the same principle 
 seems to have been introduced into the Cape by 
 de Mist, the Commissioner-General sent to 
 South Africa by the Batavian Republic in 1S04 
 to take over the colony from England. In 
 thinly populated districts itinerant school- 
 masters were introduced by Sir John Cradock, 
 who had put himself, in 1807, into touch with 
 de Mist's Education Commission after the 
 resumption of the Colony by England. The 
 method was mdeed the obvious method in any 
 half-developed rural area, and forms a definite 
 stage in the early history of rural education. 
 
 J. E. G. DE M. 
 In Germany the practice of boarding round 
 of teachers {Frcitisch, Reihetisch, Wandcltisch) 
 was quite common until the thirties of the 
 nineteenth century. In many cases this sys- 
 tem of part payment of salaries was preferred 
 to payment in foodstuffs, which the teacher 
 would have to cook himself. The practice of 
 boarding round was particularly frecpient in 
 the case of the peripatetic teacher (Wandcr- 
 lehrer) and the teacher of the winter school 
 (Wintcrschule), for in both cases the local 
 community possessed no schoolhouse or accom- 
 modation for the teacher other than the homes 
 of the members. But boarding round is found 
 also in city school systems; thus at Zwickau 
 in 1521 the Council makes an agreement that 
 the teacher and his assistants shall be boarded 
 by the citizens. In 1545 an agreement was 
 made at Hildburghausen that the schoolmaster 
 should receive his meals at the pastor's house. 
 In 1753 it was found by the school visitors in 
 the county of Wildstein that the parents had 
 withdrawn their children from the local school, 
 leaving the teacher without his regular meals 
 for fourteen days. In Potsdam as late as 1771 
 the members of the Reformed Church refused 
 to board the teachers; the rest of the school 
 community appealed to the King, who dis- 
 missed the matter with a joke, with the result 
 that all refused to be responsible for the main- 
 tenance of the teacher. At the beginning of the 
 last century a class of provisional teachers was 
 appointed in Saxe-Mciningen, and received part 
 of their salary in board. Wilberg, a contem- 
 porary of Diesterweg, records that the practice 
 
 of boarding round was common in Westphalia in 
 his day, the teachers moving round from house 
 to house daily or weekly. In the administra- 
 tive county of Magdeburg it was necessary in 
 1818 to issue an ordinance that no teacher 
 should be engaged for any period less than one 
 year, and that until satisfactory schoolhouses 
 would be built teachers must be boarded round. 
 An ordinance had, however, been passed in 1811 
 in Prussia al)olisliing the practice of boarding 
 round in part payment of salary; in future 
 teachers had the option of retaining or giving 
 up the custom. But in Saxony it was found in 
 the course of an inquiry that as many as 224 
 teachers received part of their salary in board in 
 1833. The law of 1835 abolished this practice 
 in that state. The rise of state systems of 
 elementary education with fixed minima of 
 salaries put an end to a practice which was never 
 satisfactory to either of the parties concerned, 
 and always served to keep the teachers in deg- 
 radation. 
 
 In the United States. ■ — The practice of 
 " boarding round " is a very natural makeshift in 
 any poor and rural frontier community wlierc 
 a group of neighbors maintain a school by agree- 
 ing among themselves to be responsible for 
 the schoolmaster's salary, in whole or in part. 
 Wherever such conditions exist, we may well ex- 
 pect to find the practice. And we do, in fact, 
 find it in America from early colonial days to 
 within recent times. Of Delaware in 1720, 
 for example, we read that "some schoolmasters 
 are hired by the year, by a knot of families who, 
 in their turn, entertain him monthly, and the 
 poor man lives in their houses like one that 
 begged an alms, more than like a person in credit 
 and authority." The same seems to be in 
 existence on Long Island in 1728, where we read 
 that "the usual custom is for a set of neighbors 
 to engage a schoolmaster for one year. . . . 
 The common rule for payment is by subscrip- 
 tion, £20 with diet or "£30 without." The 
 evidence is more abundant for the early nine- 
 teenth-century period. Barnard states that 
 " the district system required of the instructor 
 to itinerate among the different families of the 
 district." One who taught in Connecticut about 
 ISOO says, " It was an almost universal custom 
 for the teacher to board round." A writer 
 in Barnard's Journal saj's of his experience in 
 New York State in 1839, " It was the uniform 
 custom there, as now in many quarters, for 
 the teacher to ' board around.' " Wickersham 
 says of Pennsylvania during the same general 
 period, " It was customary, in most sections of 
 the state, for the master to board around among 
 the patrons of his school, remaining with each 
 a stipulated time." Even in the last decade 
 of the nineteenth century the custom prevailed 
 in some isolated rural regions, as no doubt it 
 does yet. 
 
 The conclusion seems warranted that the 
 practice of " boarding around " was general 
 throughout the more rural regions of America 
 
 404
 
 BOARDING SCHOOLS 
 
 BOARDING SCHOOLS 
 
 until well into the nineteenth century. Since 
 that time with the rise of state systems it has 
 gradually passed away. 
 
 See Begging Students; Circulating 
 Schools; Moving Schools; Traveling Teach- 
 ers; Wandering Schox^rs. 
 
 References: — 
 
 Bahnard, H. American Journal of Education, Vol. 22, 
 
 p. 466. 
 Fischer, K. Geschichte des deutscken, Volksschulleh' 
 
 rerstandes. (Hannover and Berlin, 1S98.) 
 Grant, T. The Burgh Schools of Scotland. (London 
 
 and Glasgow, 1S70.) 
 Montmorency, J. E. G. de. State Intervention in 
 
 English Education, pp. 102, 151, 203, 263-264. 
 
 BOARDING SCHOOLS. — A term applied 
 
 to a type of educational institutions in which 
 the pupils have been surrendered by their 
 parents or guardians to the care and super- 
 vision of the teachers of the school, and in which 
 they receive not only instruction, but board 
 and lodging. In England, where they have 
 received their greatest development, the large 
 majority of such schools are under private 
 management and range from the great public 
 schools to the private estabhshmcnts, where only 
 a few pupils arc taken. From the fact that such 
 schools are under private management and the 
 pupils are constantly under the care of the 
 teachers, they have afforded important centers 
 for educational experimentation, so that in this 
 respect the boarding schools on the purely 
 educational side do represent a wide variety 
 of types, ranging from the traditional classical 
 schools to the new school {q.v.) of the present 
 day (see ExpERniEXTAL Schools). For a 
 long time the boarding schools were a tool for 
 meeting the educational needs of the upper 
 cla.sses, although in their origin most of the 
 early English boarding schools were intended 
 for the education of the poor. 
 
 The main line, however, of boarding school 
 growth is a matter of upper class interests. 
 At an early day the problem of the division of 
 lal)or lietwecn the home and some other edu- 
 cational institution demanded attention. We 
 find the range extending from schooling entirely 
 in the hands of members of the family to such 
 complete isolation in boarding schools as led to 
 questioning the advisability of vacations at 
 home. Between these extremes arc found the 
 tutor the day school, boarding for convenience 
 in the i.eighborhood of a school, the dormitory, 
 and the boarding school proper, in which the 
 headmaster or some representative stands in 
 loco parentis. The advocates of these various 
 systems have presented their claims in both 
 practical and theoretical forms. In Ebcrs' 
 I'arda is given an account of schooling away 
 from home for the youth of the better class in 
 Egypt about 1500 B.C. The Book of Daniel 
 tells of an institution connected with the court 
 at Babylon. In (Ireece the Spartan boy at the 
 age of 7 was taken from his home and placed 
 under charge of assistants to the padonomus, anil 
 
 was maintained at state expense in public bar- 
 racks. In Plutarch, 0/ the Training of Children, 
 we find the assumption that schoohng be done in 
 the home, while Quintilian considers the moral 
 conditions of the home to be such as to make 
 preferable attendance upon a school. The 
 monasteries and courts of the Middle Ages 
 found it necessary to provide places where 
 students might live while they were training 
 for clerical or court life. In a similar way the 
 homes of the master workmen were opened to 
 their apprentices. The utilitarian aspects of 
 the former as well as of the latter forms of the 
 school are sometimes lost sight of. They were 
 all in a very real sense vocational schools. The 
 conditions of the life into which pages or bower 
 maidens were placed called for a training in 
 manners that meant serviceableness as well as 
 courtesy; " it included for these children knowl- 
 edge how to carve and wait at table, how to 
 serve their lord both at the board and in his 
 chamber; the pouring of water for his hands, 
 the handing of napkins,"aiid how all these things 
 should be done with urbanity and grace." 
 (Godfrey, 84.) 
 
 The rise of the universities produced a variant 
 upon the existing forms. The boarding houses 
 in which students congregated (somewhat 
 similar to the "clubs" found near colleges 
 and normal schools to-day) became convenient 
 units for the purposes of both teachers and 
 students. These hospitia (q.v.) were at first 
 self-governing, and later were reduced to con- 
 trol. In England the colleges were frequently 
 at first places in which poor students could 
 live, but their convenience in school adminis- 
 tration and teaching soon led to a change of 
 function and to an inclusion and predominance 
 of well-to-do students. In Germany in the 
 fifteenth century the college or boarding house 
 succeeded the nation as the chief unit of organ- 
 ization. In this connection may be noted 
 some of the recent criticisms of the American 
 College, and also the tendency to the utilization 
 of the fraternity organizations and their club- 
 houses. 
 
 The most distinct form of the boarding school 
 is found in the English public schools (q.v.) be- 
 ginning in Winchester (q.v.) (1387) and Eton 
 {q.v.) (1440), and becoming well established in 
 the time of John Colet's day school, St. 
 Paul's (1512). In the seventeenth century 
 appeared one of the most potent influences in 
 making these the significant tool wliich they 
 have become in Anglo-Saxon civilization. 
 This was formulated in the work of John 
 Locke, despite the fact that he was prejudiced 
 in favor of home education, which while ac- 
 counted by him inconvenient, even under the 
 direction of the tutor, who looms large in his 
 system and in that of Rousseau, yet offered 
 less dangers than were met where the influence 
 of the schoolmates was greater than that of 
 the schoolmasters. He feared the "prevailing 
 infection of his fellows the greater part of the 
 
 40.J
 
 BOARDING SCHOOLS 
 
 BOARDING SCHOOLS 
 
 four-and-twenty hours," also the " malapert- 
 ness, trickery or violence learnt amongst school 
 boys." 
 
 A somewhat different type of boarding school 
 is set forth in Milton's Tractate (q.v.). This 
 had much influence, although at a considerable 
 distance, upon that form of the school called 
 the academy. He is an advocate of travel as 
 a factor in schooling, as is Montaigne. Under 
 another form this need is taken account of by 
 the new schools of Europe in the exchange of 
 students, and by insistence upon residence in 
 foreign schools in order to secure a foundation 
 in other languages than the mother tongue. 
 
 In the sixteenth century Mulcaster had 
 carefully discussed the merits of private and 
 public education, and had decided that the 
 " difficulties of upbringing are too serious for 
 all the responsil)ilities to be thrown into the 
 hands of one alone." (Note the hesitation of 
 the .Jesuits to burden themselves with all these 
 cares.) 
 
 In Germany in the sixteenth century there 
 emerged the Filrstenschulen (q.v.), or schools for 
 princes. These were similar to the court 
 schools of Italy, the best known of which was 
 that of Vittorino da Feltre (q.v.) at Mantua, 
 1438. As modern representatives may be 
 taken St. Afra in Meissen (15-13), Schulpforta 
 (1543), and Rossleben (1554). The boarding 
 school was found serviceable by Basedow (q.v.) 
 in the Philnnthropinum at Dessau (1774). 
 This was intended to bring together both rich 
 and poor, and as in all the more democratic 
 ventures, there was here strong emphasis upon 
 Reallen as object lessons, and even forestalling 
 more recent work in manual training. (Note 
 the relations of Francke's work to the es- 
 tablishment of the Reahchule.) Basedow's in- 
 fluence was wide-reaching, but even more so 
 in manv ways was that of Fellenberg (q.v.), 
 whose school at Ilofwyl (1806-1844) stirred 
 people to new endeavors in education from 
 Russia to America. 
 
 The schools of Pestalozzi are too well known 
 to require more than reference in this statement 
 of the general movement. Another boarding 
 school of importance is Keilhau, founded by 
 Froebel in 1S17, and still in operation. There 
 is a delightful simplicity in its atmosphere 
 to-day, which recalls the charm of the days 
 spent there by George Ebers and described by 
 him in The Story of my Life. 
 
 The most definite outcome of the Hcrbartian 
 movement in this line is the Stoy'.sche Erzieh- 
 ungsan.italt in Jena (1843). (See Russell's Ger- 
 man Higher Schools, ch. x.) 
 
 In the earlier days of the boarding school we 
 find them termed " closed " schools in distinc- 
 tion from those " open " to day pupils. The 
 name Internal is extensively used, and one still 
 finds doors in seminars for the training of 
 teachers marked Convict. The verb intcrnare 
 from which the former term was derived re- 
 tained the significance suggested in English by 
 
 the second term, " to put into jail." It is to 
 France, however, that we must turn to find 
 the extreme forms of seclusion and restraint. 
 This nation has made extensive use of the 
 boarding school in the form of the Lyc6e of the 
 internal type. Much of the seclusion so gen- 
 erally deprecated came from the dominance of 
 the Church, and the opportunity thus given to 
 control the situation sufficiently to make 
 possible withdrawal from supiioseiUy objec- 
 tionable influences. Yet we find that the 
 society which has left its mo.st definite impress 
 upon French schools, the Jesuits, opened board- 
 ing colleges reluctantly. This, however, came 
 about sooner and with less difficulty in the south 
 and in France than in Germany. 
 
 The problems of boarding schools for girls 
 have not differed essentially from those for boys. 
 On the one hand, there has been a tendency 
 toward the life of seclusion for a young woman, 
 particularly in troubled times w'hen homes were 
 unsettled and fathers away on public business. 
 The court gathered in its bower maidens to be 
 trained for court life, but the Church has done 
 the larger work. On the other hand, there has 
 always been a stronger tendency to keep the 
 girls within the home circle. F^nelon and 
 many others in various countries have urged 
 education for them at home. 
 
 We find the Carow Nunnery near Norwich, 
 England, with boarders from its foumlation in 
 1146. Dartford Nunnery dates from 1355 (see 
 GiKLS, Education of). The Reformation closed 
 many nunneries, but was slow to offer a substi- 
 tute. Excepting the convents, we have little 
 record of schools for girls before the seventeenth 
 century. We find ]\Irs. Bathsua Makyns in 
 charge of a school at Putney, and others can be 
 traced by means of Pepys' Diary and similar 
 writings of incidental reference. Occasionally 
 a modern girls' school lays emphasis ujion train- 
 ing for home duties, but these are apt to be 
 reduced as social advancement and recognition 
 is secured. The old type of " finishing " school 
 is essentially vocational in the sense of preparing 
 for the conventions of society, and this phase is 
 still evident, even though the preparatory func- 
 tion is taking a leading place. This change 
 marks an advance, but there is room for more 
 definite experimentation in the working out of 
 schools for girls which will frankly recognize the 
 home and Ijusiness activities of women as worthy 
 of study upon a scientific liasis. (Sec Bed.\les.) 
 In Japan practical gardening and kitchen classes 
 are included in the courses. 
 
 In America conditions had prevented crys- 
 tallization along older lines, and the main 
 current during the century was public educa- 
 tion, and that of the external rather than the 
 internal type. The latter, however, for reasons 
 of convenience, has at all times held an impor- 
 tant place. From the group of boys collected 
 in the home of a New England clergyman has 
 come in time a boarding school. One type has 
 followed, often at a considerable distance, the 
 
 406
 
 BOARDING SCHOOLS 
 
 BOARDING SCHOOLS 
 
 English public school. Another has developed 
 with many important changes from the acad- 
 emy of the Puritans; this is best seen in some 
 of the town academies (q.v.) of New England. 
 A third type was seen in the manual labor 
 institutions (q.v.) following the lead of Fellen- 
 berg. These usually took especial account of 
 the partial or entire self-support by the students 
 found to some extent even to-day in some of the 
 other types and e.xpected to bring about a 
 thorough phy.sical development in connection 
 with it without the sacrifice of scholastic attain- 
 ments. The Atlantic coast saw many of these 
 institutions rise and fall. Their failure was 
 due, in part, to inability' to recognize the far- 
 reaching consequences of their schemes if suc- 
 cessful, and the groat amount of time needed to 
 make efficient machinery equal to forwarding 
 the task. It is interesting to note in such a 
 school as Hampton how the self-support idea 
 tends to move to the background as academic 
 standards are raised. 
 
 When the industrial aspect was thus for the 
 time abandoned, the " return to nature " tend- 
 ency, with its appreciation of the importance 
 of recognition of the physical nature, led to the 
 establishment of schools in which self-support 
 and productive industry were frankly given up. 
 Especial effort was made to provide more ade- 
 quate physical training. 
 
 The work of Jahn (q.v.) and others in Europe 
 had made progress in this direction much less 
 difficult. It is not strange that the military 
 training given to youth in many countries should 
 have led to the adoption of the form of the 
 military school (q.v.). 
 
 In Adams, Some Famoii.s American Schools, 
 will be found a somewhat popular account of 
 nine representative boarding schools, extending 
 from New England to the Pacific Coast. The 
 tendency toward schools of this type has in- 
 creased with the growth of wealth. Adams 
 states that " where one such institution existed 
 prior to 1865 twenty may be counted now." 
 Among the earlier were Nazareth Academy 
 (17.50), Phillips Andover (1778), Phillips Exeter 
 (1781). 
 
 It i.s not strange that social reformers have 
 in all periods planned to use the boarding school 
 to accomplish their purposes. Nazareth Hall 
 in Pcnn.sylvania was founded in 1759, and for 
 a few years exemplified some forms of Mora- 
 vian Communism. One of the most interest- 
 ing plans of this kind is that advocated by 
 Lepelletier, a Jacobin, and put forward after 
 his death in 1793 by Robespierre in the Assem- 
 bly. Among other provisions was the following: 
 " Let us ordain that all children, girls as well 
 as boys, girls from five to eleven, and boys 
 from five to twelve, shall bo educated in com- 
 mon, at the expense of the state, and shall 
 receive, for six or seven years, the same educa- 
 tion." Similar schemes were advocated by 
 Fourier and others. Coethe's Pedagogic Province 
 is much less known than it deserves for its sug- 
 
 407 
 
 gestiveness in other school fields as well as that 
 of the boarding school. 
 
 The more recent discussions concerning the 
 community care of little children, by Mrs. 
 Charlotte Perkins Oilman and others, also the 
 increasing tendency for the community to 
 take account of the need of more adequate 
 feeding of school children, open up phases of 
 the subject which may well require more ade- 
 quate consideration before long. 
 
 Fichte had called for a complete separation of 
 children from their home (Works, Vol. 3, pp. 406- 
 407). In fact, he seemed to think that by the 
 isolation of children from the society of their 
 day a new start could be made by which we 
 should be freed from many of the defects that 
 now trouble us. This, with his interest in 
 physical welfare and vocation, has been a factor 
 in the development of the Deutsche Lander- 
 ziehungsheime (q.v.). A further application of 
 these ideas to the training of apprentices is 
 suggested in Grtindfragcn der Schidorganisation 
 of Dr. Georg Kerschensteiner (p. 14). 
 
 One of the most significant developments 
 during the last quarter of a century in this 
 department of the school has been that chain 
 of schools beginning in Abbotsholme (q.v.) in 
 1888 under Dr. Cecil Reddie, and carried into 
 Germany by Dr. Herman Lietz in the Deutsche 
 Landerziehungsheime (q.v.) and into France 
 by M. Edmund Demolins in L'Ecole des Roches 
 (q.v.). One of the most important of these 
 schools is the coeducational institution estab- 
 lished by J. H. Badley at Bcdales (q.v.). Others 
 have been established in France, Germany, 
 Switzerland, and Poland. Interlaken at La 
 Porte, Ind., is the American representative. 
 There are in all over 20, for the most part inde- 
 pendent of each other and showing remarkable 
 adaptation to national conditions, yet unified 
 by the common attempt to afford to the stu- 
 dents opportunities to meet real problems with- 
 in their range in school organization and life. 
 There is a marked emphasis upon simplicity 
 of life, and in nearly all cases a real interest in 
 outdoor life by means of sports and participa- 
 tion in various forms of productive labor. 
 
 The problems of the boarding school are many 
 and complex. By no means least is that of the 
 immoral customs appearing oftentimes in a so- 
 ciety of boys of various ages. The fagging sys- 
 tem has been at times involved in this. Some 
 headmasters have separated the school into 
 sections according to ages. Discussion of some 
 of the moral problems will be found in Fitch's 
 Arnold, p. 77; Dublin Review, October, 1878, 
 p. 294; and the preface to the sixth edition of 
 Hughes' Tom Brown at Rugby. 
 
 There is in the boarding school an oppor- 
 tunity, too little recognized, to accomplish ex- 
 perimental work (see ExPERi.^tEXTAL Schools). 
 On the whole, however, the men engaged in 
 this work pay too little attention to education 
 outside their fields, and, with a few notable 
 exceptions, as the work of Arnold and Thring,
 
 BOARDING SCHOOLS 
 
 BOARDING SCHOOLS 
 
 their contribution to educational literature has 
 been much less than the opportunities justify. 
 Especially is there much to be learned concern- 
 ing a closer relation between the school and 
 other parts of society from these institutions. 
 The isolation from certain aspects of social 
 life has led to a greater development of student 
 societies and other social tools. These are 
 recognized to a greater extent as important 
 factors in training and not merely as difficulties 
 to be controlled or gotten rid of. Dr. Findlay 
 has written much upon the corporate life of the 
 school, and has shown the advantages of mak- 
 ing use of the house system and other devices, 
 even for day pupils as at Cardiff. The devel- 
 opment of more effective cooperative super- 
 vision in secondary schools by means of class 
 teachers, session masters, advisers, social secreta- 
 ries, etc., has the same end in view. The house 
 system, however, gives a permanence by bring- 
 ing the student into definite, responsible, social 
 relations with the head of the house throughout 
 his entire course. Perhaps nowhere to-day 
 is this lifelong function so well seen as in the 
 relation of the best type of English head or 
 house ma.ster to the "old boys" of the school. 
 The English college tutor and the preceptor in 
 the recent experiment in Princeton make use of 
 the same need. 
 
 Apart from the advantages arising from op- 
 portunity for intimate, stimulating, and in many 
 cases permanent, relations with men, the main 
 arguments for the boarding school have been the 
 effects upon a boy of a system of customs and 
 traditions on a plane which has meaning to 
 him, and the belief, as Quick puts it, that, "As 
 far as our character depends upon others, it 
 is formed mainly by our companions at every 
 age. Men have not enough in common with 
 boys at every age to be their companions, even 
 when they are never out of their company." 
 These are both seen at their best in England, and 
 have given rise to the prefect system, to fagging, 
 etc. 
 
 In many countries the boy is not a part of the 
 household until he is a man. Where initiative 
 is not counted an advantage, the habit formation 
 possibilities of the boarding school are urged. 
 Where citizenship is progressive, there is the fur- 
 ther opportunity for an epochal development in 
 the society of his peers. Dc Quincey says {Au- 
 tobiographical Skdchen, Works, Vol. I,p. l.'jO) : "At 
 nine or ten the masculine energies of the char- 
 acter are beginning to develop themselves; or, 
 if not, no discipline will better aid in their 
 development than the bracing intercourse of a 
 great classical school. There is not in the 
 universe such an Areopagus of fair play and ab- 
 horrence of all crooked ways as an English mob, 
 or one of the time honored English foundation 
 schools." The value of this experience at so 
 early an age is less urged now than formerly. 
 " I think this is a gain where boys can be kept 
 at home, but very much the reverse where they 
 are sent as boarders to private schools. What 
 
 we stand urgently in need of is good day schools 
 for the younger boys of all classes." (Quick, 
 Educational Reformers, p. 117.) There are two 
 marked tendencies in this development. These 
 are well seen in the works from which we get 
 our impressions of the English public school 
 which is best known in America — Rugby under 
 its great headmaster Thomas Arnold. From 
 Tom Brown at Rugby by Hughes one gets what 
 is sometimes referred to as the "Spartan" 
 view, while Stanley's Life of Arnold gives the 
 "Athenian." The former is deprecated by 
 some who feel that the physical interests are 
 given entirely too much consideration. An- 
 other view is that of those who object to the 
 physical training in a formal sense as subversive 
 of adequate development. These problems are 
 coming up for further consideration in Conti- 
 nental and American schools, and also in the 
 summer camp (q.v.), that modern device for 
 affording the opportunities of the boarding 
 school for a part of the year. 
 
 A critic of the work A Famouis Eton House 
 {Quarterly Review, Vol. 208, pp. 399-416) makes 
 an "attempt to criticize frankly the whole 
 boarding school system from an idealistic point 
 of view." The dangers he sees have as much 
 bearing in other countries as in England. They 
 are "(1) An atmosphere unfavorable to intel- 
 lectual pursuits. (2) The withdrawal of home 
 influences. (3) The dangers of encouraging 
 and increasing class prejudices." The problems 
 are " how to raise the intellectual tone without 
 inducing a precocious self-consciousness; how 
 to fortify the moral standard without develop- 
 ing a premature and oppressive sense of respon- 
 sibility; how to direct energy into the right 
 channel without sacrificing the sense of personal 
 liberty; how to govern effectively yet leave 
 the community its conscious independence." 
 
 F. A. M. 
 
 See Athletics ; Dormitories ; Experi- 
 mental Schools ; Military Schools ; Out 
 Door Schools ; Public Schools, English ; 
 Private Schools ; Summer Camps ; and the 
 special articles on the various institutions, Eton, 
 Winchester, etc. 
 
 References : — 
 
 Adams, O. F. Some Famous American Schools. (Boston, 
 1903.) 
 
 B-^UMEisTER. Handbiich der Erziehungs- und Unter- 
 richtslehre filr hohere Schulen; Art. tjber Inier- 
 Tiais-Erzich u n(j. 
 
 Bishop of Hereford. Educational Problems, Popu- 
 lar Science Monthly. (.Ian., 1905.) 
 
 Browk, E. E. The Making of our Middle Schools, 
 chs. XV, xviii, pp. 44S ff., also index and bibliog- 
 raphy. (London, 190.3.) 
 
 BuissoN, Diclionnaire dc Pedagogic. Articles by Cadet, 
 Pensionnal Primaire: and Surveillance ; Gasf r^s, Pen- 
 sionnals; Jaconlet, Aorma/cs (Jfcote); Steg, Inlernat. 
 
 Eber.s, George. Story of my Life. (Keilhau, New 
 York, 1893.) 
 Vnrda. (Egyptian Boarding School, ch. ii.) (New 
 York.) 
 
 Edwards, Geo. C. The Private School in American 
 Life, Educnlional Review. Vol. 23. p. 264 (discussion 
 Vol.23, pp. 503 and 511). 
 
 408
 
 BOARDS OF CONTROL 
 
 BOBBIO 
 
 Ellis, W. T. Misa' Japan, the School Girl. Outlook, 
 
 Vol. 88, pp. 447^55. 
 FiNDLAY, J. J. Uber d. Entwickelung des hoheren 
 Schulwesens Englands (Doktor Dissertation, 
 Leipzig, 1893) ; Corporate Life of School, School 
 Review, Vol. 15, pp. 744-753, Vol. 16, pp. 601-608. 
 GiLM.AN, Arthur, and Others. What is the place and 
 function of the endowed academy or of the private 
 high school for boys and girls in our present system 
 of education? In National Conference on Second- 
 ary Education, 1904, pp. 17—48. 
 Godfrey, Elizabeth. Enalish Children in the Olden 
 Time, chs. iii, vi, ix, xiv, xvi, xvii. (New York, 
 1907.) 
 Great Britain. Special Reports on Education, Vol. VL 
 Preparatory Schools for Boya ; their place in English 
 Education. 
 HnuHES, R. E. The Making of Citizens, pp. 15 £f., 
 
 218 ff. (New York, 1902.) 
 Hughes, Thomas. Loyola, eh. vii. (New York, 1899.) 
 
 Tom Brown at Rugby. 
 Hull, L. C. Private Schools for Boys, Ed. Rev., Nov., 
 
 1900. 
 Jackman, W. S. Notes on Foreign Schools, Ed. Rev., 
 
 Vol. XXI, p. 2 ; Vol. XXII, p. 50. 
 Jamin, Georges. Life in a French Lycfe, Ed. 
 
 Rev., Vol. V, pp. 266-277. 
 Keilhau in Wort und Bild. (Leipzig, 1902.) 
 Kipling, Rudyard. Stalky and Co. 
 MiJNCH, W. Zukunftspddagogik, pp. 304-316. (Berlin, 
 
 1908.) 
 Niemeyer, a. H. Grundsdtze der Erziehung und des 
 
 Unterricht^, Bd. Ill, pp. 118 ff. 
 Norwood, C, and Hope, A. H. The Higher Education 
 
 of Boys in Englfirui. (London, 1909.) 
 Owen, Robert D. Autobiography (Hofwyl), in Afian- 
 
 tic. Vols. XXXI-XXXV. 
 Parry, G. Review of Annals of an Eton House, Rev. 
 Quar.. Vol. 208, pp. 399-416. LitlelV a Living Age, 
 Vol. 40. pp. 152-163. 
 Pe.vbody, E.ndicott. Aims, Duties and Opportunities 
 of the Headmaster of an Endowed Secondary School, 
 Sch. Rev., Oct., 1909. 
 Public Schools from Within. (London, 1906.) 
 Quick, R. H. Educational Reformers, chs. \'iii, x, xi. 
 Rein. Encyclopddischcs Handhuch der Pddagogik. 
 Arts, on Internal and Alumn^t by Rud. Menge ; 
 also Interiuite, hygienisch, by O. Janke ; etc. 
 Russell, J. E. German Higher Schools, ch. x. Student 
 Life in the Higher .Schools. (Same material in Ed. 
 Rev., Vol. VIII. pp. 240-257.) (New York. 1905.) 
 S.ADLER, M. E. Moral Instruction and Training in 
 
 Schools. See index. 1908. 
 Sanford, D. S. Two Foreign Schools, New England 
 
 Magazine, May,. .1902. 
 ScHiMMELPFENG. UbcT Intemalaerziehung. (Munich, 
 
 1895.) 
 ScHMiDT-ScHRADER. Encyclopodie des gesamlen Erzieh- 
 ungs- und Unterrichtswesens. Alt. onl n^tituterziehung 
 by Bauer. 
 Scott, Colin. Social Education, chs. iii-iv. 'Boston, 
 
 1908.) 
 Seabury, C. R. Endowed Boarding Schools, Outlook, 
 
 Vol. 86, pp. 67-69. 
 Sheldo.n, He.vry D. Student Life and Customs. (New 
 
 York, 1901.) 
 Snedden, D. S. Administration and Educational Work 
 of American Juvenile Reform Schools. (New York, 
 1907.) 
 WiLLMANN, O. Didaklik, Vol. I, pp. 132-136 and 179. 
 
 (Braunschwirg, 1882.) 
 Woodward. Viltorino da Feltre. (Cambridge, 1897.) 
 ZiEULER. Gesch. d. Plldagogik. (Munich, 1895.) 
 
 BOARDS OF CONTROL. — A somewhat 
 gciienil tenn ajiplied to luaii.v kinds of official 
 boards. Ordinarily a Hoard of Control means 
 a Board of Trustees, or Managers, or Governors, 
 having charge of linances and the management 
 of some puhlio or jirivatc institution estab- 
 lished for some educational, charitable, or 
 
 philanthropic purpose, such as a Board of Con- 
 trol for a state university, or an agricultural 
 and mechanical college; a Board of Control- 
 for a home for friendless children, or a school 
 for the blind or deaf; or a Board of Control for 
 a fund for the aid of negro schools. Boards 
 of Trustees, Boards of Regents, and Boards of 
 Governors are Boards of Control, and these are 
 the terms commonly used. Sometimes official 
 state boards are ex officio Boards of Control for 
 certain state institutions, as, for example, the 
 Massachusetts State Board of Education is 
 ex officio a Board of Control for the State 
 Normal Schools of Massachusetts. Any official 
 body which has charge of the administration of 
 a trust, a foundation, or an established in- 
 stitution may be called a Board of Control, 
 though the term is less frequently used than 
 the others given above. E. P. C. 
 
 BOARDS OF EDUCATION, CITY. — See 
 
 City School Administration. 
 
 BOARDS OF EDUCATION, COUNTY. — 
 
 See County Boards of Education. 
 
 BOARDS OF EDUCATION, DISTRICT. — 
 
 See District System of Education. 
 
 BOARDS OF EDUCATION, LOCAL.— 
 
 See City Schools, Local Boards. 
 
 BOARDS OF EDUCATION, STATE — 
 
 See State Boards of Education. 
 
 BOARDS OF EXAMINATION. — See Ex- 
 amination Boards. 
 
 BOARD OF SCHOOL LAND AND 
 SCHOOL FUND COMMISSIONERS. — See 
 
 School Fund, and Co.mmissioners. 
 
 BOARDS OF TRUSTEES, DISTRICT. — 
 
 See District Bo.\rds of Trustees. 
 
 BOBBIO. — A town situated on the Trebbia, 
 37 miles northeast of Genoa, famous for its 
 ancient monastery founded by St. Columban 
 about 615. Some of the most important of the 
 earliest Mss. of classical works originated from 
 this monastery. The first catalogue, which 
 was made in the tenth century and was printed 
 by Muratori, contained nearly 700 Mss., and 
 included Terence, Lucretius, Ovid, Virgil, 
 Lucan, Persius, Martial, Juvenal, Claudian, 
 Cicero, Seneca, and the elder Pliny. A second 
 catalogue was made in 14C1. The library en- 
 joyed a great reputation during the Renaissance 
 period, and was visited by many of the earlier 
 humanists. Most of the Mss. were dispersed 
 in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, and 
 are now located chiefly in the Ambrosian 
 Library in Milan, the Vatican Library in Rome, 
 and the Royal University Library in Turin. 
 Some of the oldest palimpsests belonged to this 
 40'J
 
 BOCCACCIO 
 
 BODY AND MIND 
 
 collection, and were found to contain writings 
 of Cicero, Fronto, Synuiiachu.s, and the Theo- 
 dosian Code. The most famous relic was a 
 Ms. (known as the Muratorian fragment in the 
 Anibrosian Library), containing the earliest 
 extant catalogue of New Testament books, 
 which is probalily of eighth-century origin and 
 is a copy of an older Ms. of the second century. 
 
 References : — 
 Sanuvs, ,1. E. .1 History of Classical Scliolarshii). 
 
 (Cambridge, 1903.) 
 Stokes, M.\rg.\het. Six Months in the Apennines. 
 
 (London and New York, 1892.) 
 
 BOCCACCIO (1313-1375). — Next to Dante 
 and Petrarch the most important of the 
 Italian writers immediately preceding and 
 . influencing the Renaissance. Apart from his 
 position as a remarkable prose writer and the 
 founder of the Italian novel, Boccaccio played 
 an important part in the restoration of classical 
 studies. A mixture of skepticism and super- 
 stition, Boccaccio allowed himself to be terri- 
 fied into a conversion in 1361, but although 
 he gave up literature of the type of the Decam- 
 eron, his love for the ancient classics did not 
 wane nor his studies and researches relax. Like 
 Petrarch, he hoped for immortality through his 
 Latin w'orks, but though these hopes were not 
 fully realized, he contributed largely to the 
 awakening which soon followed. Many valuable 
 Mss. owe their preservation and discover}- to 
 him. He made a copy, still preserved in the 
 Laurentian Library, of all the writings of Ter- 
 ence; he was the first to quote Varro; he was 
 the earliest of the humanists to study Tacitus. 
 Influenced by Petrarch, Boccaccio was the 
 first modern scholar in Europe to study Greek; 
 that he did not learn much was due rather to the 
 ignorance of his teacher, Leontius Pilatus, 
 whom he kept for three years in his home in 
 Florence. With his assistance he managed to 
 give to Europe the first modern tran.slation of 
 Homer into Latin. He seems to have read 
 something of Plato and of Aristotle. His 
 Latin writings are numerous; the majority 
 are based on ancient sources: On Famous 
 Women, On the Falls of Pritices, On the Geneal- 
 ogy of the Gods, a book of mythology, On 
 Mountains. Woods and Waters, a reference hand- 
 book to the geographical names in ancient 
 literature. For the future of the revival of 
 classical study Boccaccio's defense of pagan 
 poetry through an allegorical interpretation was 
 an important factor in disarming the opposition 
 of the Church. At his death Boccaccio was in 
 the possession of 106 Mss. of classical works. 
 He was, indeed, as Symonds said of him, "a 
 painstaking pioneer of antiquarian research." 
 
 References : — 
 
 Boccaccio. Decameron, in Morley's Universal Library. 
 
 (London, 1889.) 
 BuRCKH.iRDT. .J. Civilization of the Renaissance in 
 
 Italy. (London, 1890.) 
 Cambridge Modern History, Vol. I. (London and New 
 
 York, 1902.) 
 
 Landau, M. Giovanni Boccaccio, Sein Leben und Seine 
 
 Werke. (.Stuttgart, 1.S77.) 
 Owen, J. Sceptics of the licriaissance. (London, 1893.) 
 Sanoys, J. E. A History of Classical Scholarship, Vol. 
 
 n. (Cambridge, 1908.) 
 Sy.MONDs, J. .\. The Renaissance in Italy. Vol. II, 
 
 The Rceival of Learning. (New York, 1888.) 
 
 BODLEIAN LIBRARY. — The first public 
 library in Europe, founded at Oxford in 1597, 
 tlirough the gift of Sir Thomas Bodley (1545- 
 1613). A library had already existed at 0.\- 
 ford through the benefaction of Duke Hum- 
 phrey of Gloucester, but this had been destroyed 
 in Edward VI's reign. Thus the foundation of 
 1597, the year in which Bodley conveyed his 
 offer to the Vice-Chanccllor, was in reality a 
 restoration. Bodley was a graduate of O.x- 
 ford and a scholar of repute. He had intro- 
 duced the study of Greek into his college, and 
 was a well-known Hebrew student. He spent 
 several years in the diplomatic service. A 
 marriage with a wealthy widow enabled him 
 to carry out his project. He himself presented 
 a large number of books to the library, and en- 
 gaged a bookseller to make purchases on the 
 Continent. In addition he induced his friends 
 to make similar gifts to the library, and their 
 example was followed in all parts of England. 
 The library was officially opened in 1603, and 
 received its charter and name, Bodleian Library, 
 in 1604. In 1610 the Stationers' Company 
 agreed to present the library with a copy of 
 every book which appeared. In 1611 Bodley 
 gave the library a permanent endowment, and 
 at his death in 1613 left the greater part of his 
 wealth to it. From time to time the library 
 has received valuable gifts. Thus Archbishop 
 Laud presented it with 1300 Mss. in different 
 languages, ^'aluable additions were obtained 
 by purchase. The strength of the library is in 
 its collection of Oriental, Greek, Latin, and 
 Hebrew M.S.S., and material for British history 
 and literature. A collection of marbles and 
 portraits is also included. The more general 
 and common books are now located in the 
 Radcliffe Camera, which is used as a reading 
 room. 
 
 References : — 
 
 Life of Sir Bodley Written by Himself, with the First 
 Draft of the Statutes of the Public Library at Oxford. 
 In Literature of Libraries in the Seventeenth and 
 Eighteenth Centuries. Vol. III. (Cliieago, 1900.) 
 
 M.iCRAY. Annals of the Bodleian Library. (Oxford, 
 1868.) 
 
 BODY AND MIND. — This subject has been 
 discussed by writers on both philosophy and 
 psj'chology. The former have been interested 
 inthe question of the relation of mind to the 
 material universe, and may be roughly divided 
 into materialists, who hold that mental pro- 
 cesses are to be explained as manifestations of 
 bodily activity, and into spiritualists, w-ho hold 
 that "all true reality is mental rather than 
 physical in character. Intermediate forms 
 of these theories and the various compromises 
 
 410
 
 BODY AND MIND 
 
 BOETHIUS 
 
 between them have constituted the major sub- 
 ject matter of philosophical discussion. 
 
 Psychologists have been interested in the re- 
 lation between body and mind in their efforts to 
 explain the origin of sensations and the relation 
 between conscious processes and bodily activi- 
 ties. One group of writers has held that there 
 is a causal relation between mind and body, 
 that the physical processes which take place in 
 the nervous system are the causes of mental pro- 
 cesses and that conscious processes are in turn 
 the causes of motor activities. The difficulty 
 with this causal view of the relation between 
 mind and body is that it introduces into the 
 conception of the universe an element which 
 does not seem to comport with the doctrine of 
 the conservation of energy. The physical sci- 
 ences through which the doctrine of the conser- 
 vation of energy has been established recognize 
 the transformation of energy from one form 
 into another. Thus, light may be transformed 
 into heat, and heat may be transformed into 
 motion. Throughout all these transforma- 
 tions, however, there is an uninterrupted, 
 quantitative equivalence and a fundamental 
 similarity in character. When now the ner- 
 vous processes that arise in one of the organs 
 of sense are supposed to be carried to the cen- 
 tral nervous system and from this point to be 
 carried back down along a motor nerve to a 
 muscle, there seems to be no easy formula 
 whereby consciousness can be included in the 
 descriptive series. If the nervous energy is 
 even for a single moment transformed into con- 
 sciousness, it would seem to lose its character as 
 a physical force, and thus the principle of the 
 conservation of energy would be violated. 
 Because of these difficulties in maintaining 
 a causal relation between mind and body, a 
 general formula has been very commonly used 
 in current psychological writing which evades 
 the difficulty. This principle is known as 
 the principle of psychophysical parallelism. 
 
 According to this doctrine, phj'sical processes 
 are not in any wise interrupted by mental 
 processes. The physical series has a causal 
 character entirely in keeping with the principle 
 of conservation of energy. Mental processes 
 on the other hand unite in an independent 
 parallel series. Mental processes constitute a 
 cycle of causal relations in no wise interrupting 
 the cycle of physical relations. This doctrine 
 of p.sychophysical parallelism has been widely 
 accepted as the simplest solution for the pur- 
 poses of psychology of the difficult problem of 
 the relation of mind and body. One who is at 
 work on a problem which deals with sensations 
 must assume a relation between mind and body, 
 but since he cannot assume the validity of causal 
 relations without involving himself in protracted 
 discussions, he may be satisfied with a recognition 
 of mere parallelism, which serves his temporary 
 purposes without in any wise committing him 
 to any of the radical philosophical positions. 
 
 See Nervous SvsTEiM. 
 
 References: — 
 
 J.4.MES, W. Principles of Psychology. (New York, 
 
 1S90.) 
 Stout, G. F, A Manual of Psychology. (New York, 
 
 1S'J9.) 
 TiTCHENER, E. B. Text-book of Psychology. (New 
 
 York, 1909.) 
 
 BODY, CARE OF THE. — See Hygiene, 
 Pehsonal. 
 
 BOETHIUS, ANCIUS MANLIUS SEVE- 
 RINUS. — Born about 480 a.d. and executed 
 by Theodoric the Ostrogoth in 525. Gibbon 
 says of Boethius, that he was " the last of the 
 Romans whom Cato or Tully could have ac- 
 knowledged for their countryman." At the .same 
 time, he stands at the opening of the Middle 
 Ages, and summarizes for that period the learn- 
 ing of the past. Boethius was a favorite coun.sel- 
 lor of Theodoric, and assisted in interpreting the 
 cla.ssic past to its Teutonic conquerors, politi- 
 cally as well as intellectually. He was a man 
 of great influence, was elected to the consulship 
 in 510, and later saw his two sons attain the 
 same height, chosen at the same time. Later, 
 however, he was unjustly accused of conspiring 
 against the King to restore the ancient Roman 
 government, and was imprisoned and executed. 
 During his imprisonment he wrote his Conso- 
 lations of Philosophy, one of the most widely 
 circulated and frequently published books of 
 all times. It summarizes the pagan ethics, and 
 gave to the Middle Ages its best account of the 
 ancient philosophy. So thoroughly did its 
 spirit harmonize with the teachings of Chris- 
 tianity that during the ages in which it was a 
 great favorite the Consolations came to be re- 
 garded as a Christian work and its author as a 
 Christian martyr. As the opposition to the 
 Arian heresy, with which views Theodoric 
 sympathized, gave occasion for the false charges 
 against Boethius, the legend of martyrdom 
 early found credence. Though it is yet a dis- 
 puted point whether Boethius had any connec- 
 tion with the Christians (certainly none is 
 shown in the Consolations), he soon came to be 
 regarded as one of the great Christian teachers, 
 and his writings acquired authority other than 
 that of their own merit. 
 
 But a greater influence was exerted by Boe- 
 thius through his summaries of the logical 
 work and the scientific knowledge of the ancients 
 than through his Consolations. As the latter 
 interpreted the ethics of the ancient world to 
 the medieval, so his other works interpreted 
 their learning. The most important of these 
 were his summaries of Aristotle. He trans- 
 lated into Latin the first and second Analytics, 
 the Sophistici Elenrhi, the Topica, and the 
 De Interpretatione, though the first three of 
 these were seemingly unknown until the 
 twelfth century. He wrote extensive com- 
 mentaries on the De Interpretatione and the 
 Categories of Aristotle, also on Porphyry's 
 Isagoge, and on Cicero's Topica. 
 
 411
 
 BOIS 
 
 BOLIVIA 
 
 It is from these sources that the Middle Ages 
 had their knowledge of Plato and Aristotle until 
 the direct translation of the hitter's work in the 
 thirteenth century. Boethius also composed 
 treatises on dialectic and on music, and wrote 
 a compendium of the other liberal arts. In his 
 own day ("assiodorus wrote of him: "Through 
 your tran.slations the music of Pythagoras and 
 the astronomy of Ptolemus are read by the 
 Italians; the arithmetic of Nicomachus and 
 the geometry of Euclid are heard by the 
 Westerners; the theology of Plato and the 
 logic of Aristotle dispute in the language of 
 Quintilian; the mechanical Archimedes also 
 you have restored in a Latin dress to the 
 Sicilians, and whatever discipline or arts fer- 
 tile Greece has produced through the efforts of 
 individual men, Rome has revived in her own 
 language through your single instrumentality." 
 
 These services indeed were performed not only 
 for his own but for six succeeding centuries, dur- 
 ing which Boethius was recognized as the great 
 educational authority. And indeed his work 
 continued to be used as the te.xt in music in 
 the English universities until recent times. 
 From his logical writings the great struggle be- 
 tween the nominalists and the realists of the 
 Middle Ages took rise, and from it the combat- 
 ants of both sides drew their materials or at 
 least got their fundamental ideas. 
 
 Boethius helped materially to give permanent 
 form to the seven liberal arts (q. v.). 
 
 See Arithmetic, History of. 
 
 References: — 
 
 Abelson. P.tuL. The Seven Liberal Arts. Columbia 
 Univ. Teachers College, Contributions to Educa- 
 tion. 1006. 
 
 Sandys, J. E. A History of Classical Scholarship, Vol. I. 
 (Canibridge, 1903.) 
 
 Taylor, H. O. The Classical Heritage of the Aliddle 
 Ages. (New York, 1901.) 
 
 BOIS, JOHN (1561-1644).— A Greek scholar 
 who was Fellow of St. John's College, Cam- 
 bridge, and Greek lecturer 1584-1595. The 
 father of .John Bois, William Bois, was brought 
 up at school at Halifax, and " according to 
 the custom of the time and place, instructed 
 in music and singing. His mother, Mirabel 
 Bois, had read the Bible over twelve times and 
 the Book of Martyrs twice, besides other books 
 not a few." Between the years five and six, 
 it is said John Bois could read the Hebrew 
 Bible and write the Hebrew characters "ele- 
 gantly." His father instructed him in Greek. 
 It is said that when John Bois entered the 
 University of Cambridge at St. John's College, 
 only one other student there could write Greek. 
 " In so short a time afterwards came that gen- 
 eral perfection, which would have made the 
 Grecians blush." In five weeks, it is stated, 
 Bois was so well prepared that he was able to 
 get himself in touch with lectures only usually 
 reached after three years' residence. "He was 
 a most exact grammarian, having read near 
 sixty grammars, Latin, Greek, Hebrew, Syriac, 
 
 etc." Bois was one of the translators of the 
 Authorized Version of the Bible (1604-1611). 
 The "Company" to which he was admitted 
 held their sittings at Cambridge, over the 
 translation of the Apocrypha, and of Bois his 
 biographer (Harleian Ms. 7053, |)rintcd in Peck's 
 Dcsid. Curiosa, Vol. II, p. 326 et seq.) stated 
 that he worketl all the week at his post, as well as 
 discharged his cure on Sunday, and took up the 
 part assigned to another. " Four years he spent 
 in this service . . . and then a new choice 
 was made, of 6 of the 47 translators, to re- 
 view the whole work. Bois and the Cam- 
 bridge Professor of Greek, Andrew Downes 
 ((J.V.), were two, and with the others went to 
 Stationers' Hall, and in three quarters of a 
 year fulfilled their task. All which time 
 they received duly 30 shillings each of them by 
 the week, — from the Company of Stationers, 
 though before they had nothing." Bois also 
 contributed to another great undertaking, the 
 preparation of notes to the Greek text of St. 
 Chrysostom. Both the Greek professor, An- 
 drew Downes, and John Bois prepared notes 
 for Savile's wonderful edition of St. Chrysos- 
 tom published at Eton in 8 folio volumes in 
 1610-1613. Dr. Thomas Baker stated that 
 Bois' notes were incorporated in the Benedictine 
 (1636) Paris edition of St. Chrysostom's work, 
 w'hilst those of his teacher Downes were omitted. 
 Bois published a treatise on Greek Accents in 
 1630, and his critical notes on passages in the 
 Greek Testament were issued in 1655. F. W. 
 
 BOLIVIA, EDUCATION IN. — Bolivia Re- 
 public: area, 605,400 square miles; population, 
 1,953,916 (estimated, 1906). Of this number 
 about 50 per cent are Indians and 27 per cent 
 metis; the white population, about 14 per cent; 
 remainder negro and unclassified. Capital, 
 Sucre; population, 67,235. 
 
 Public instruction is represented in the central 
 government of Bolivia by a ministry combined 
 at present with that of justice. The i)olitical 
 divisions form a graded series of which the munic- 
 ipalities represent the final unit. The various 
 divisions are administered by prefects, subpre- 
 fects, etc., all appointed by the president of 
 the republic, a plan which affords, as it were, 
 a guarantee of political solidarity. The system 
 of public instruction comprises primary schools 
 and secondary and higher institutions. The 
 primary schools are under the direct control 
 of the municipaf authorities. Secondary and 
 higher education forms a united system ad- 
 ministered through a university organization, 
 resembling that of France. 
 
 While the system of public instruction has 
 a somewhat elaborate official organization, the 
 political and industrial conditions of the country 
 have precluded its practical development, and 
 education is almost entirely under the control of 
 the Church and the religious orders. According 
 to the latest official statistics (1906), there were 
 710 primary schools, with 1126 teachers and 
 
 412
 
 BOLOGNA 
 
 BONAVENTURA 
 
 48,560 pupils. Outside of the cities the instruc- 
 tion is of the most elementary character, and 
 even in the cities the primary schools have a 
 very limited range, as children of the better 
 classes enter the secondary schools at an early 
 age. The public expenditure, government and 
 municipal, for primary education amounts to 
 about 550,000 bolivianos annually, equivalent 
 to $214,000, United States currency. The 
 official regulations governing admission to the 
 higher institutions, and the requirements for 
 professional diplomas, determine the scope of 
 secondary education, which is specially ex- 
 tended on the literary side. In 1906 there 
 were reported 8 public colleges, 5 clerical 
 establishments, and 5 private hjceos, with 126 
 teachers and 2530 students. 
 
 In addition to the secondary schools for liberal 
 culture, there are schools of arts and trade, and 
 schools of commerce, maintained at La Paz, 
 Sucre, and at the departmental capitals. The 
 training of teachers is a subject that receives 
 much attention in Bolivia, and the city of Sucre 
 can boast a well-organized normal school whose 
 director. Dr. G. Rouma, is recognized as a leader 
 in those researches which are giving scientific 
 precision to the methods of modern education. 
 
 There is no organized university in Bolivia, 
 but nearly every civil department is provided 
 with schools of law, medicine, and theology. 
 The standards of professional training and of 
 the diplomas that entitle the holders to practice 
 the liberal and technical professions are high. 
 
 A. T. S. 
 
 BOLOGNA, UNIVERSITY OF. — One of 
 
 the earliest institutions of higher learning in 
 Europe, whose history can be definitely traced 
 back to a period before that of Irnerius (q.v.), 
 under whose influence it gained a European 
 reputation. The earliest legal charter was 
 given to the university in 1158 by Emperor 
 Frederick Barbarossa, which, however, con- 
 tains nothing more than an official recognition 
 of the scholars, and grants them some privileges. 
 The early history of the University of Bologna is 
 the early history of the universities (q.v.). It 
 was here very largely that an organization was 
 evolved which served as a model for numerous 
 other institutions. The earliest statutes, which 
 are now in part available, date from 1317. 
 The faculty of law was the earliest and most 
 famous. Faculties of medicine and arts were 
 added. A faculty of theology existed, but 
 never attained much popularity. Women were 
 admitted not only as students, but as in- 
 structors and professors, as early as the be- 
 ginning of the eighteenth century. The uni- 
 versity has been reorganized in the last century. 
 Faculties of arts, sciences, law, and medicine are 
 maintained, as well as schools of agriculture, 
 pharmacy, and veterinary medicine. In 1009 
 there was an enrollment of about 2000 students. 
 See Canon Law; Italy, Education in; Uni- 
 versities. 
 
 References: — 
 Denifle, H. Die EnUtehung der UniversiUiten des 
 
 Mitldaltcrs bis 1400. (Berlin, 1885.) 
 Rashdall, H. Universities of Europe in the Middle 
 
 Ages. (Oxford, 1S95.) 
 
 BOLTON, or BOULTON, EDMUND.— 
 
 An English poet and historian, who in James 
 I's reign proposed a scheme for an academy of 
 letters and science which in 1620 was referred to 
 a Committee of the House of Lords on the 
 motion of Lord Admiral Buckingham. The 
 idea of an academy (q.v.) was in the air. Prince 
 Henry (son of James I) had supported such an 
 institution, in which all the King's wards and 
 others should be educated in England, with- 
 out the necessity of going abroad to complete 
 their training. (Cf. Sir Humphrey Gilbert's 
 Queen Elizabeth's Acadeviy.) But Prince Henry 
 died in 1618. The project was also in Lord 
 Bacon's mind. James I seems to have pro- 
 ceeded so far as to grant a seal, badge, and es- 
 cutcheons for the members of the academy. The 
 College was to be in or near London. " Finally 
 His Majesty . . . graciously added that the 
 censure of all books, which handled not things 
 divine, should belong to the officers." (See on 
 this and other projects for academies, Oxford 
 Hist. Society, Collectanea, l.st Series, Part VI, 
 Dr. Wallis's Letter, article by T. W. Jackson, 
 pp. 269-307.) In 1629 Bolton wrote the 
 Citks Advocate, justifying the importance of 
 apprenticeship, and showing that in the past 
 youths of good family had been "apprentices," 
 and arguing that apprenticeship did not ex- 
 tinguish the "claims to gentry." This is 
 significant, as showing the decadence of the old 
 idea of apprenticeship bj^ Charles I's reign. 
 
 F. W. 
 
 BOMBAY, UNIVERSITY OF. — Organized 
 in 1857, and reconstituted in 1904 under the 
 India Universities Act. It is an examining 
 body, consisting of a Syndicate in the faculties 
 of arts, law, medicine, and engineering. The 
 teaching colleges organized under this university 
 are Elphin.stone, Wilson, St. Xavier's, Grand 
 Medical, and Sir Jamsetji Jijibho y Zarthoshti 
 Madrassa, the last for Parsee students. 
 
 See British India Education in. 
 
 BONAVENTURA, or JOHN OF FIDANZA. 
 
 — Born at Bagnarca in Italy in 1221, and 
 died while in attendance at the Council of 
 Lyons in 1274. In 1242 he entered the order 
 of the Franciscan friars, and afterwards studied 
 at the University of Paris, where in 1253 he 
 became a teacher and in 1255 doctor. His .sobri- 
 quet " seraphical " is no better witness to his 
 fame than the fact that in 1256 he became prin- 
 cipal of the Order of St. Francis, and might have 
 been, had he wished it. Archbishop of York. One 
 finds him persecuting the eminent and Hberal- 
 minded Roger Bacon, helping to elect Pope 
 Gregory X, and being appointed a cardinal 
 and Bishop of Albano. His works include 
 
 413
 
 BOND 
 
 BONIFACE 
 
 Sermons, Lives of the Saints, expositions of the 
 Scriptures, and of the Book of Sentences. 
 Boiiavcntuni was a realist, and somewhat of a 
 mystic, tiie hitter tendency being beautifully 
 expressed in his Itinerary of the Soul to God. 
 "In brother Bonaventura," said Alexander of 
 Hales, "the sin of Adam does not seem to have 
 had place." 
 
 BOND, JOHN (1550-1612). — An English 
 scholar and teacher, described by Anthony b, 
 Wood as " a most noted critic in Greek and 
 Latin learning," is an instance of the times 
 when a man could easily change from one 
 learned profession to another, or indeed prac- 
 tice both. He was born at a village (Trull) 
 2 miles from Taunton in Somersetshire (Eng- 
 land), educated at Winchester College, and 
 from thence passed to New College, Oxford, 
 where he was one of the " clerks." He took 
 his degree about 1575. About 1579 he became 
 master of the Free (Grammar) School of 
 Taunton, a post conferred upon him by his 
 Oxford college. The rest of his story is best 
 given in the words of Anthony a Wood {Athen. 
 Oxon., ed., 1815, Vol. II, col. 115). "At 
 which place continuing many years, he did 
 exercise such an admirable way of teaching, 
 that many departed thence so excellently well 
 grounded in humane learning, that they proved 
 afterwards eminent either in church or state. 
 At length, being in a manner worn out with the 
 drudgery of a school, he did for diversion, I 
 cannot say profit, practice phy.sic, though he 
 has taken no degree in that faculty in this 
 (Oxford) University, and became at length 
 eminent therein." As for his writings, they 
 "are used by the juniors of our universities, 
 and in many Free Schools, and are more ad- 
 mired and printed beyond the seas than in 
 England." The classical works edited by 
 John Bond were: (1) Quinti Horatii Flacci 
 Poemata, scholiis sive annotationibus, quae 
 brevis Commentarii vice esse possint, iUustrata, 
 Lond., 160G (with editions published also at 
 Leyden, Frankfort, Hanover, Amsterdam, 
 Leipzig). The British Museum Library con- 
 tains 17 different editions. (2) Auli Persii 
 Flacci Satyrae sex, cum posthumis Commen- 
 tariis Johannis Bond, London, 1614 (editions 
 also published at Paris, Amsterdam, Nurem- 
 berg). Of John Bond's notes on Horace, 
 John Brinsley in his Ludus Literarius says: 
 " He hath by his brains made that difficult 
 Poet so easy that a very child which hath him 
 well entered and hath read the former school 
 authors in any good manner, may go thorough 
 [i.e. through] it with facility, except in very 
 few places." F. W. 
 
 BONDED INDEBTEDNESS FOR 
 SCHOOLS. — Indebtedness incurred for the 
 purchase of sites, and for the erection and 
 repair of school buildings. Compared with 
 other forms of indebtedness, this is small in 
 
 amount, but it has increased faster than either 
 the municipal or the state debt during the 
 past two decades. This is due to the new 
 interest in providing school buildings of the 
 best type, which has called for a large outlay 
 of money. 
 
 The usual form of this indebtedness is serial 
 bonds, running for from 10 to 20 years, a cer- 
 tain i)roportion of the bonds being retired each 
 year after their issue. Sometimes, in cities, 
 the issue is for more than 20 years, but in rural 
 districts 10 years is the common period. The 
 school laws of the different states provide in 
 detail for the bonding of school districts, and 
 for the collection of taxes to provide for the 
 interest and the gradual retirement of the 
 bonds. 
 
 In rural districts, towns, and small cities, 
 and not infrequently in large cities also, all 
 such bonds are issued only after the question of 
 bonding the school district has been submitted 
 to the voters, and authorized by them by a 
 two thirds majority vote. In a few of the 
 Eastern states, the voters, assembled in annual 
 or special school meeting, may vote to bond the 
 district for building purposes. In large cities, 
 particularly in the East, a general vote is not 
 required, the bonds being issued by the city 
 council on the request of the school authorities. 
 
 E. P. C. 
 
 BONIFACE, ST., or WINFRID. — The 
 
 apostle of Germany, as he was known, was 
 born at Crediton in 675, and after an education 
 at Exeter and Nursling, became a missionary 
 in Thuringia and Friesland. His mission 
 among the Saxons and Hessians was fraught 
 with the greatest danger, but also the greatest 
 success. In 723 he became a bishop, and in 
 745 Archbishop of Mainz. The great monas- 
 tery of Fulda, for long the home of the highest 
 learning in Germany, was erected with his 
 approval in 744. Boniface himself wrote 
 textbooks on meter and on grammar, founded 
 on the classical originals of Charisius, Diomedes, 
 and Donatus, together with sermons, letters, 
 and moral acrostic poems, typical of the spirit 
 of the day and its inferior Latin and scholarship. 
 According to the standards of his day, however, 
 Boniface was a purist in literature and an ardent 
 friend of education. One finds him asking an 
 abbess for a copy of St. Peter's Epistles in 
 letters of gold, and writing to England for 
 books. Boniface resigned his high ecclesiastical 
 preferment in 753, to return to Friesland, where 
 in 754 he met the death of a martyr, his body 
 being taken for burial to the monastery of 
 Fulda. P. R. C. 
 
 References: — 
 
 KuRTH. .S(. Boniface. (Paris, 1902.) 
 
 Opera in MiRne, Pal. Lat. (186.3, v. 89.) 
 
 Sandys. History of Classical Scholarship. (Cam- 
 bridge, 190:J-1908.) 
 
 Werner. Bonifacius, der Aposlel der Deutschen. 
 (Leipzig, 1875.) 
 
 414
 
 BONITZ 
 
 BOPP 
 
 BONITZ, HERMANN (1814-1888). —A 
 prominent German schoolman and classical 
 philologist. He was born in Langensalza, and 
 received his secondary education at the famous 
 school in Pforta, then studied philology at the 
 University of Leipzig under Gottfried Hermann, 
 and in Berlin under Bockh and Lachmann. In 
 1836 he became a teacher at the Blochmann 
 Institute in Dresden, and in 1838 he received 
 a position at the Friedrich-Werder Gymnasium 
 in Berlin. In 1848 he was called as professor 
 of classical philology to the University of 
 Vienna, with the special view of assisting 
 E.xner in the reorganization of the Austrian 
 secondary school system. The two men 
 worked out the famous Organisaiioiisenlwurf 
 (Plan of Organization), "the Magna Charta of 
 Austrian secondary schools," which inaugu- 
 rated a new era in the history of higher edu- 
 cation in Austria. The Organisalionsenlwurf 
 was promulgated by the Minister of Educa- 
 tion, Count Leo Thun, in 1849, and in its 
 main outlines is still in force at the present 
 day. It contained instructions for the teaching 
 of the various subjects, most of which were 
 written by Bonitz. These instructions are 
 permeated by the Herbartian spirit, and are 
 full of the finest pedagogical insight. In 
 the philological seminary which he conducted 
 in the university, he trained capable teachers 
 for the newly reformed higher schools, and 
 through the Zeitschrifl fiir die osterreichischen 
 Gymnasien (Journal for the Austrian Gymna- 
 siums), which he edited for 17 years, he infused 
 life and activity throughout the whole body of 
 Austrian secondary teachers, and defended the 
 work of reform against the attacks of the reac- 
 tionary parties. In 1867 he accepted an ap- 
 pointment as director of the " Graue Ivloster " 
 Gymnasium in Berlin, and in 1875 he became 
 a councilor in the Ministry of Education, a 
 po.sition in which he was very influential, and 
 which he filled almost up to the time of his 
 death. Although a classical philologist him- 
 self, Bonitz maintained that the time was past 
 when the classical languages were destined to 
 perform the exclusive, or even the leading, part 
 in higher education. His published writings 
 arc chiefly studies of the Greek classics, espe- 
 cially of Plato and Aristotle, with whose philoso- 
 phies he had a profound acquaintance. 
 
 F. M. 
 
 BONN, THE RHENISH FREDERICK 
 WILLIAM UNIVERSITY OF. — Founded by 
 King Freilerick William III of Prussia in 1818, 
 being, with the exceijtion of the University of 
 Munich, the youngest in the German Empire. 
 In .spite of its youth, it is the fourth largest 
 institution of higher learning in the country, 
 Berlin, Munich, and Leipzig alone exceeding 
 it in enrollment. The Elector Maximilian 
 Frederick founded an academy at Bonn in 
 1777, which in 1784 was transformed into an 
 institution of university rank; but ten years 
 
 later the French occupied the city, and the in- 
 stitution was disorganized. The final estab- 
 lishment of the university in 1818 reflects the 
 political conditions of the time, inasmuch as the 
 institution was intended to constitute the 
 center for higher education in the new western 
 districts of Prussia after the war of the libera- 
 tion. The university to-day includes faculties 
 of Protestant and Catholic theology, law, medi- 
 cine, and philosophy, there being about four 
 times as many students of Catholic as of Prot- 
 estant divinity. An agricultural school is asso- 
 ciated with the university. The library contains 
 325,000 volumes and almost 1500 manuscripts, 
 while the annual expenditures amount to 
 approximately 8400,000. Among prominent 
 faculty members may be mentioned Niebuhr, 
 Welcker, Brandis, Ritschl, Diez, Ernst Moritz 
 Arndt, A. W. von Schlegel, Helmholtz (1855- 
 1858), Karl Simrock, and Dahlmann. A num- 
 ber of German princes, including the present 
 Emperor and the Crown Prince, and Emperor 
 Frederick III, studied at Bonn. During the 
 winter semester of 1909-1910, there were in 
 attendance 3598 students, distributed as fol- 
 lows: Theology 403, law 807, medicine 370, and 
 philosophy 2018. In addition there were 282 
 auditors enrolled. R. T. 
 
 BONNET, CHARLES (1720-1793). — An 
 eminent Swiss naturalist and psychologist. 
 Appointed at the age of 20 a corresponding 
 member of the French Academy. In 1742 he 
 discovered the method of the respiration of 
 caterpillars and butterflies. The failure of his 
 eyesight led him to substitute the study of the 
 reflective sciences for that of experimental 
 science. He adhered to the doctrine of the 
 empirical origin of knowledge through the 
 senses, and the dependence of mental life on the 
 nervous organism, but he believed in the immor- 
 tality of the soul, and held a metaphysical 
 theory, based on Leibnitz, of the organic unfold- 
 ing of the countless germs of which the universe 
 is composed, in regular and continuous order, 
 through successive stages. He is accordingly 
 counted among the precursors of Lamarck and 
 Darwin. 
 
 His works include, Traile d'lnsedologie, 
 1745; a Traite de I'usage dcs fcuilles, 1754; an 
 Essai de psychologic, 1754; Essai analytiqtie 
 sur les facidtes de I'dme, 1760; Contemplation 
 de la Nature, 1764-1765; La palingenesie philo- 
 sophique, 1769. S. W. 
 
 BOOKKEEPING, INSTRUCTION IN. — 
 
 See Accountancy Education; Commercial 
 
 Education. 
 
 BOPP, FRANZ (1791-1867.) — A German 
 scholar who was the founder of the compara- 
 tive study of language. Born at Mainz, he 
 studied for about 3 years at Paris, when he had 
 an opportunity of learning Arabic and Persian. 
 Through the medium of grammars and trans- 
 
 415
 
 BORDEAITX 
 
 BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA 
 
 lations he tauRht himself S;inskrit. In 1821 
 he became an extraordinary professor in Berlin, 
 and full professor in 1S35. His most important 
 work, Comparative Grammar (1833), aimed at 
 an explanation of the grammatical forms of the 
 Indo-Clcrmanic languages. Like most jjioneers 
 in the field of knowledge, Bopp was discredited, 
 and it remained for his successors to secure 
 recognition for the study of i)hilology. 
 
 BORDEAUX, UNIVERSITY OF. ~ Founded 
 in 1441 by papal bull on tiie iietition of the 
 representatives of the English King and the 
 municiijality. A dudiiim generate was estab- 
 lished, tiiougii little work was done in medicine. 
 The university had no endowment, with the 
 result tluit at times professors could not be 
 oljtaiued to lecture. Under Louis XIII, the 
 right of giving the doctorate was taken away 
 from the university for a time. The decline of 
 Bordeaux was even more rapid than that of the 
 other French universities, until it was suppressed 
 in 1793. Early in the nineteenth century a 
 faculty of letters and sciences was established 
 at Bordeaux, to which were added in 1870 a 
 faculty of law and in 1878 a faculty of medicine 
 and pharmacy. The 4 faculties mentioned are 
 now maintained. There were enrolled in 1909 
 2780 students, of whom 984 were in law, 1121 
 in medicine, 319 in sciences, and 316 in letters. 
 See Fr.\nc'e, Education in; Universities. 
 
 BORGO, LUCAS DI. — See Paciuolo. 
 
 BOROUGH ROAD TRAINING COLLEGE, 
 LONDON, ENGLAND. — One of the earliest 
 English normal schools for the training of 
 teachers for the elementary schools. It was the 
 original school where Lancaster (q.v.) began to 
 put into practice his monitorial system, prob- 
 ably in 1798. In 1812 the school was handed 
 over to the committee which developed later 
 into the British and Foreign Bible Society (q.v.), 
 in whose control the school has remained up 
 to the present. In the early years boys and 
 young men from all parts of the United King- 
 dom, Europe, and other parts of the world were 
 trained. A practicing school, which the super- 
 intendents endeavored to maintain as a pro- 
 gressive model school, was associated with the 
 institution from the first. The monitorial 
 system was retained until 1847, when the pupil- 
 teacher system was adopted, accompanied by a 
 government grant. The effect of this financial 
 assistance was an almost immediate extension 
 of the school. Grants were also paid in aid of 
 trained Queen's scholars. The institution was 
 further enlarged in 1871-1872. In 1888 the col- 
 lege was removed to Lsleworth, a few miles west 
 of London; the old practicing school which had 
 been in existence for 90 years at Borough Road 
 was closed, and local schools were used for prac- 
 tice teaching. Throughout its career the 
 Borough Road Training College has, like the 
 society which controls it, stood for undenomi- 
 
 nationalism. In 1908-1909 there were enrolled 
 Episcopalians, Congregationalists, Methodists, 
 Baptists, Unitarians, Roman Catliolics, and 
 Mohammedans. The enrollment is about 145. 
 On the general relation of the college to the 
 English system of training teachers, see the ar- 
 ticle on Training of Teachers. 
 
 Reference: — 
 BiNNS, H. B. A Century of Education. (London, 
 1908.) 
 
 BOSCOBEL COLLEGE, NASHVILLE, 
 TENN. — An institution for the education of 
 young women. Kindergarten, intermediate, 
 academic, and musical departments are main- 
 tained. 
 
 BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA, EDUCA- 
 TION IN. — Bosnia and Herzegovina are 
 under the sovereignty of Austria-Hungary. 
 Laws enacted by the provincial government 
 {Landesregierung) must be sanctioned by the 
 Austro-Hungarian government. The admin- 
 istration of schools is vested in a provincial 
 ministry of instruction. Area: 19,702 square 
 miles. Population: 1,568,092 (1905). 
 
 Historical. — The schools of Bosnia and 
 Herzegovina have for several centuries been 
 divided into 3 fairly distinct classes. First, 
 those maintained by the Croats, who are ad- 
 herents of the Roman Catholic Church; second, 
 those maintained by the Serbs, who arc ad- 
 herents of the Greek Orthodox Church; and, 
 third, those of the Turks, who are followers 
 of Mohammed. 
 
 The provinces were subject to Turkey from 
 1503 to 1882, and during this period, while 
 each nationality maintained its own schools, no 
 uniform system existed, and, excepting as 
 regards a few Turkish schools, the State gave 
 no support to education. 
 
 Previous to 1882 the schools maintained by 
 the Turks were chiefly for religious instruction. 
 In the mosque schools {dhian mekteh) children 
 were taught to read, to recite in Arabic some 
 verses from the Koran, and to write in Turkish 
 characters. There were also religious schools 
 (tnedresse), of a high grade. The number of 
 religious schools in Bosnia (1882) was 719. 
 Secular schools (18) were maintained at public 
 expense, and provided elementary instruction in 
 those subjects usually taught in public or 
 national schools. In addition, there were a 
 Turkish normal school, a military school, and 
 a technical school, all of secondary grade and 
 supported by the State. 
 
 Franciscan monks and nuns of the order of 
 St. Francis conducted schools for children of 
 the Catholic faith. They were taught reading, 
 writing of the Serbo-Croatian language in 
 Latin characters, arithmetic, geography, and 
 the Roman Catholic catechism. 
 
 Serb schools for those of the Orthodox 
 Greek Church gave instruction in reading 
 (Serbo-Croatia printed in Cyrillic character), 
 
 416
 
 BOSSUET 
 
 BOSTON 
 
 writing, and arithmetic. These schools, which 
 were maintained by gifts and by taxes of the 
 communicants, numbered over 100 in 1882, with 
 about 3400 pupils. As a rule they admitted 
 only children of the Serbs belonging to the 
 Orthodox Greek faith. 
 
 The revolution of 1875 resulted in the 
 Austro-Hungarian sovereignty of Bosnia and 
 Herzegovina (1SS2), and in the readjustments 
 that followed education was brought under 
 government direction. The transition was 
 marked by the passage of a law making pri- 
 mary instruction obligatory in both provinces. 
 State control of schools has been assumed 
 gradually by extending aid to existing schools 
 antl by opening new schools. In the case of 
 aided schools the State reserves the right to 
 assist in the nomination of teachers, and, in 
 some cases, to prescribe the course of study. 
 The law specifics that all instruction shall be 
 given in the Serbo-Croatian language. 
 
 Primary Schools. — There are now four classes 
 of primary schools: The national schools, con- 
 sisting of those which have been opened recently 
 by the government, and reorganized religious 
 schools; Turkish confessional schools, of which 
 58 have been brought into conformity with 
 state regulations; Catholic schools; and schools 
 of the Orthodox Greek confession similar in 
 character to the national schools. The number 
 of schools in the first two classes in 1907 was 
 1063, and in the last two was 98. The subjects 
 of instruction in the national schools correspond 
 to those for the elementary schools of Austria- 
 Hungary. Much attention, however, is given 
 to agriculture. Eleven higher primary schools 
 for girls are maintained, and a normal school 
 for the training of teachers, located at Sarajevo. 
 The secondary schools for boys consist of 5 
 gymnasia and 1 realschule. There are also 
 9 lower commercial schools, a Greek oriental 
 school, and a Catholic seminary for priests 
 of the respective denominations. L. D. A. 
 
 Reference : — 
 Jeanxot, M. Bosnia-Herzegovine. In Paris, Expo- 
 sition universelle, 1900. Rapports du jury inter- 
 national, Classe I ; Kducation de I'cnfant ; en- 
 seignemcnt primaire ; enseignement des adultes, 
 pp. 681-711. (Paris, 1001.) Prepared from official 
 documents exhibited at the Paris Exposition, 1900. 
 
 BOSSUET, JACQUES BENIGNE. — 
 
 French prelate and orator, born at Dijon, 
 Sept. 27, 1627; educated at the Jesuit Col- 
 lege of Dijon and the University of Paris, Col- 
 lege of Navarre; promoted to the priesthood 
 and obtained his doctorate in 1652, and estab- 
 lished as priest in Metz. He removed to Paris 
 in 1659, and at once gained a reputation for 
 eloquence, and was in great demand as a 
 preacher for special occasions. In the year 
 1669 he was appointed Bishop of Condom, and 
 in 1670 he was chosen by Louis XIV as pre- 
 ceptor of the Dauphin. For 10 years he 
 devoted himself to his appointed task, but 
 
 VOL. I — 2e 417 
 
 with indifferent success. The prince lacked 
 ability, and the aim was too high for the mark. 
 The pedagogical plan was imposing, and the 
 range of studies comprehensive. Bossuet him- 
 self assumed immediate direction of the instruc- 
 tion in ancient languages, in history, and in 
 philosophy. He composed his Discours sur 
 I'histoire universelle, a logic, and a treatise upon 
 the Knowledge of God a)td of One's Self, for the 
 benefit of his pupil. He undertook to fashion 
 the character, develop the judgment, and refine 
 the mind of his pupil, while preparing him for 
 his future profession as king. 
 
 Bossuet was appointed Bishop of Meaux in 
 1681. His scholarship and his eloquence made 
 him the actual leader of the clergy in France. 
 He was almost constantly engaged in some 
 form of religious controversy. He defended 
 the liberty of the Gallican Church, but he ar- 
 dently opposed the Protestants. His attacks 
 upon the Quietistic heresy led him into a bitter 
 conflict with Fenelon, which resulted in the 
 condemnation of the latter. His long life was 
 intensely active throughout. His death oc- 
 curred Apr. 12, 1704. S. W. 
 
 References : — 
 
 Sainte-Beuve. C. A. Monday Chats. (Chicago, 1890.) 
 Stephen, Sir J. F. Horae Sabbaticae, Vol. II. (Lon- 
 don, 1892.) 
 
 BOSTON, CITY OF. — The largest city 
 and the capital of the state of Massachusetts, 
 and the chief commercial city of New Eng- 
 land. Incorporated as a city in 1822. In 1900 
 the total population of the city was 560,892, 
 and its estimated population in 1909 was 622,- 
 970. Its school census, 5-15 years of age, was 
 104,150 in 1909, and its total school enroll- 
 ment was 111,450 in day schools, and 21,409 
 in night schools. The enrollment in private 
 and parochial schools was 16,563 additional. 
 Of the total population in 1900, 35 per cent 
 were foreign born, and 2 per cent colored. 
 Of the foreign-born population in 1900, 35 per 
 cent were Irish, 2.5 per cent Canadians, 8 
 per cent Russians, 7 per cent Italians, and 5 
 per cent Germans. 
 
 History. — On Apr. 13, 1635, the beginnings 
 of the public school system of Boston were 
 made by the passage of the following order by 
 the freemen of the town: " Likewise, it was 
 then generally agreed upon, that our brother 
 Philemon Purmont shall be entreated to become 
 school-master for the teaching and nurturing 
 of children with us." The school thus set up 
 has maintained a continuous existence up to the 
 present, and has long been known as the Boston 
 Public Latin School. Its chief function, from 
 the first, has been to prepare boys for entrance 
 to Harvard College. In 1641 the income from 
 Deer Island was set aside for the support 
 of schools, and in 1660 the General Court of 
 Massachusetts gave Boston 1000 acres of 
 land for the same purpose. By 1682 the school 
 established in 1635 had become so crowded that
 
 BOSTON 
 
 BOSTON 
 
 two others were established, " to teach children 
 to write and to cipher." These two schools 
 really mark the beginning of general education 
 in IBoston. These, and others established 
 later, became the so-called Grammar Schools 
 of Boston, wherein masters taught reading, 
 spelling, grammar, geography, and the " higher 
 branches." Boys under 7 years of age were not 
 admitted to them, and children over 7 only if 
 they " could read the English language by 
 spelling the same." Ciirls were not admitted 
 at all until 1789, and from 1789 to 1828 they 
 were admitted only between Apr. 20 and 
 Oct. 20. In 1828 girls were finally ad- 
 mitted to the grammar schools on the same 
 terms as boys. In 1830, the process of segre- 
 gating the sexes was begun. 
 
 For more than half a century the schools 
 were under the control of the selectmen of the 
 town, the clergy being invited to visit them and 
 to report. In 1789 they were put under the 
 control of a board composed of the select- 
 men and 12 additional committeemen, elected 
 annually by the town meeting. On the incor- 
 poration of the city of Boston in 1822, this 
 board was displaced, and the control of the 
 schools was given to the 8 aldermen of the 
 new city. In 1835 this was again changed, and 
 the control of the schools was given to a School 
 Committee, consisting of 2 persons elected 
 annually from each of the 12 wards, with the 
 Mayor, and the President of the Common 
 Council, ex officio, as additional members. 
 
 In 1818 the town appropriated $5000 for 
 Primary Schools, and directed the School 
 Committee to elect annually a certain number 
 of persons in each ward to manage its expendi- 
 ture. The general School Committee ap- 
 pointed what was virtually a subcommittee, 
 consisting of 3 citizens from each of the 12 
 wards, constituted them a Primary School 
 Committee, and assigned to them the task of 
 providing primary schools. These schools were 
 to be taught by women all the year round, 
 were to admit children as early as 4 years of 
 age, and were to prepare them for admission to 
 the grammar schools. Primary schools were 
 accordingly opened in 1819, and this primary 
 board, by the institution of new schools and 
 the addition of territory, rose so rapidly in 
 importance and in numbers, that by 1849 it 
 had increased from 36 to 190 members, and 
 Boston had, in effect, two school committees, 
 one for grammar schools and one for primary 
 schools. This condition continued until 1854, 
 when the Primary School Committee was 
 abolished, the schools consolidated, and a new 
 school committee took charge of the schools. 
 This new committee consisted of the Mayor 
 and the President of the Common Council, 
 ex officio, and of 6 members from each of the 
 12 wards, one third to be elected annually, and 
 to hold office for 3 years each. The organiza- 
 tion of the schools into districts, and the board 
 into district committees, soon followed. By 
 
 1875 this board, by the annexation of territory, 
 had increased in number from 72 to 116, and 
 was then displaced by a board of 24, elected at 
 large and for 3-year terms, and with the Mayor 
 and the Chairman of the Council as ex officio 
 members. In 1851 the election of a Superin- 
 tendent of City Schools was authorized by law. 
 In 1876 the appointment of a board of 6 assist- 
 ant superintendents was authorized. Since 
 that time the progress of the schools has been 
 rapid. In 1901 a Schoolhouse Department 
 was established by law, to consist of 3 salaried 
 Commissioners, who have charge of all school 
 buildings and repairs. In 1905 the School 
 Commission was entirely reorganized by law 
 and reduced to 5 members, elected at large and 
 for 3-ycar terms, not more than 2 going out of 
 office at any one time. In 1906 further legis- 
 lation gave a modern business organization to 
 the system, with authority and responsibility 
 properly placed. 
 
 In 1821 a new high school for boys, known as 
 the English High School, was organized for the 
 benefit of those not intending to go to college. 
 This is usually regarded as the first public 
 high school in America. In 1852 a normal 
 school for girls was established, in which a 
 2-years' course of training was offered, designed 
 to prepare girls to become teachers in the 
 public schools of Boston. In 1855 a third 
 year of instruction was added, and the school 
 was made into a girls' high school as well as a 
 normal school. In 1872 the school was divided 
 into two schools, — a High School for girls, and 
 Normal School for girls. By the annexation of 
 adjacent territory, and by the establishment of 
 new high schools, the city now maintains 14 
 high schools, 7 of which are coeducational. 
 The Mechanic Arts High School, established 
 in 1889, is one of the best of its kind. A High 
 School of Commerce for boj's was established 
 in 1906, and a High School of Practical Arts 
 for girls was established in 1907. In 1907 a 
 Department of School Hygiene was created, 
 to take charge of all work in athletics, play, 
 health, medical inspection, nurses, military 
 drill, etc. In 1908 a city pension fund was 
 created by law. 
 
 Present School System. — The school system 
 of Boston, as organized and conducted in 1908, 
 is as follows: — 
 
 At the head is a School Committee of 5 
 members, elected from the city at large. A 
 Schoolhouse Department, consisting of 3 
 Commissioners appointed by the Mayor, has 
 charge of the construction and repair of school 
 buildings. The School Committee elects a 
 Secretary, Business Agent, Auditor, and a 
 Schoolhouse Custodian, who hold office during 
 good behavior and efficiency, and who appoint 
 their own assistants, subject to the approval of 
 the School Commissioners. The School Com- 
 missioners also appoint a Superintendent and 
 6 Assistant Superintendents, who form a 
 Board of Superintendents, and who hold office 
 
 418
 
 BOSTON 
 
 BOSTON 
 
 for 6 years each. The Secretary keeps all 
 records of the School Commissioners and of the 
 Board of Superintendents; compiles all reports 
 and edits all publications; issues all notices 
 and certificates; has control of the offices; 
 and, in general, oversees all clerical work 
 connected with the general administration of 
 the schools. The Business Agent keeps a 
 complete set of books, showing in detail all 
 receipts and expenses of the schools; prepares 
 all payrolls; examines all bills presented for 
 payment; approves all requisitions; submits a 
 monthly statement of appropriations and e.x- 
 penses to the School Committee; and prepares 
 an annual financial report. The Auditor acts 
 as the executive officer of the School Committee 
 for the purchase, storage, and distribution of 
 all supplies required by the schools; furnishes 
 all supplies as needed and takes a receipt for 
 the same; obtains bids for all articles needed; 
 certifies as to the correctness of aU purchases 
 and bills; and submits an annual report of his 
 work and an annual estimate of needs to 
 the School Committee. The Schoolhouse Cus- 
 todian acts for the School Committee in the 
 care and custody of the lands and buildings 
 used for school purposes; with the approval of 
 the School Committee appoints, transfers, 
 suspends, and removes all janitors and engi- 
 neers; inspects all buildings; i.ssues requisitions 
 for fuel and all janitors' supplies; and keeps on 
 file a complete record of the business of his 
 department. The Superintendent of Schools 
 is the executive officer of the School Committee 
 with reference to all matters relating to in- 
 struction and discipline in the public schools; 
 may make supplemental regulations, as he 
 deems necessary; acts as Chairman of the 
 Board of Superintendents and instructs them 
 as to their work; appoints and removes all 
 teachers, subject to the approval of the Com- 
 mittee; may transfer or suspend teachers as 
 he sees fit; has oversight of the work of the 
 truancy department; and submits an annual 
 report to the School Committee. The Board 
 of Superintendents has control of the course of 
 study; passes on all books and apjiaratus pro- 
 posed to be purchased; awards all diplomas; 
 conducts all examinations for certificates of 
 qualification to teach in any of the schools of 
 the city; issues all certificates; and arranges 
 the lists of eligible teachers. 
 
 The school system consists of 1 normal 
 .school, 14 day high schools, 64 day elementary 
 school.s, 100 kindergartens, a parental school, 
 and a school for tiie instruction of the deaf, 
 6 evening high schools, 14 evening elementary 
 schools, and .") evening drawing schools. Prac- 
 tically no children are excluded from school 
 because of lack of school accommodation. 
 The system employed 2673 teachers in the day 
 schools, 408 teachers in the special and evening 
 schools, and 148 special teachers, — 78 of 
 whom were in household science and arts, and 
 49 in drawing and manual training. 28 play- 
 
 419 
 
 grounds were opened, and 30 school nurses 
 were employed in 1908. A Truancy Depart- 
 ment and a Department of School Hygiene are 
 maintained. A city pension system, sabbati- 
 cal vacations, years of rest for long service on 
 pay, and a plan of promotion based on edu- 
 cation and training, are provided. Free text- 
 books and supplies are provided in all schools. 
 The high school system is especially complete, 
 there being a Boys' Latin School, a Girls' 
 Latin School, a Boys' EngHsh High School, 
 a Girls' English High School, a Boys' High 
 School of Commerce, a Boys' High School of 
 Mechanic Arts, a Girls' High School of Prac- 
 tical Arts, and mixed high schools in Brighton, 
 Charlestown, Dorchester, East Boston, Rox- 
 bury. South Boston, and West Roxbury. A 
 city Normal School, open since 1904 to both 
 sexes, completes the system at the top. 
 
 The cost of the system for the financial year 
 1908-1909 was $3,957,551, not counting new 
 school buildings constructed, which cost $774,- 
 920 additional. This amount is all raised by local 
 taxation, the rate of which was fixed by law 
 in 1901. The total tax allowed must not exceed 
 34 cents on the SlOO of the average valuation 
 of the city during the 3 years immediately pre- 
 ceding. Of this, 4 cents must be appropriated 
 for new buildings, lands, and furniture, and 2.5 
 cents must be used for repairs and alterations. 
 This leaves 27.5 cents with which to conduct the 
 entire school system, an amount lower than 
 any other Massachusetts city. Though the 
 maximum amount is levied, the increase of 
 pupils in the schools and the increased school 
 facilities provided far outrun the increase in 
 valuation of the city. Between 1901 and 1908, 
 the a.ssessed valuation of the city increased 
 18.7 per cent, the enrollment in the day and 
 evening schools increased 24 per cent, and the 
 net cost per pupil increased from $32.96 to 
 $34.52. During the same period, the enrollment 
 in the high schools, where the per capita ex- 
 pense is double the average for the system, in- 
 creased from 7.48 per cent of the total enrollment 
 to 10.88 per cent. The result is that the School 
 Committee has been forced to adopt the most 
 rigid economy to enable it to conduct the schools 
 within the appropriations available. The even- 
 ing lecture system has had to be abandoned; 
 the reduction of the number of pupils per 
 teacher from 50 and 60 to 44, as proposed, has 
 had to be postponed; floors and windows are 
 cleaned less frequently than they should be; 
 the day industrial schools, as proposed, cannot 
 be started; and the salary schedule for teachers 
 is endangered. It is probable that legislative 
 relief will soon be granted. E. P. C. 
 
 References: — 
 
 Among the more useful articles and books are the 
 following : — 
 Anmtal Reports of the School Committee of Boston, 
 
 18.35 to date. 
 Annual Reports of the Primary School Committee of 
 Boston, 1818-1854.
 
 BOSTON COLLEGE 
 
 BOSTON UNIVERSITY 
 
 Boston School Administration. Educational Review, 
 April luui June, li)06. Early efforts for reform, 
 (mil 1(105 reorganization. 
 
 Jenk.i, Hknhy 1''. Catalogue (aiui History) of the Bos- 
 ton I'uhlic I.iitin ^School (ISSC). 
 
 Rules anrt Regulations of the School Committee of Boston. 
 (1'.I08.) 
 
 Spencku, D.wid. Srhool Reform in Boston. Atlantic 
 Monthly, July, 1907. 
 
 BOSTON COLLEGE, BOSTON, MASS. — 
 
 A t';itholi(' institution for higher education, 
 chartered in ISiV,], and controlled by the Society 
 of Jesus. Students are admitted on graduation 
 from the Boston College High School, which is 
 connected with the institution, on certificate 
 from approved high schools, or by examination, 
 the requirements for which are equivalent to 
 16 units. The degree of B.S. is conferred. 
 There is a faculty of 14 professors. 
 
 BOSTON EVENING LAW SCHOOL, 
 Y.M.C.A., BOSTON, MASS. — Established 
 in 1895 to provide employed men with an 
 opportunity of obtaining a legal course equiva- 
 lent to that of university schools of law. In 
 1904 the school was incorporated and em- 
 powered to grant the degree of Bachelor of 
 Laws at the end of a 4 years' course. The 
 school admits without examination graduates 
 of colleges, scientific, and 4 years' courses in 
 high schools over 18 years of age. 
 
 BOSTON UNIVERSITY, BOSTON, MASS. 
 
 — A coeducational institution chartered May 
 26, 1869. The first department was the 
 School of Theology, projected in 1839 by 
 graduates and friends of Wesleyan University 
 as a commemoration of the first centennial of 
 Methodism; after 25 years at Newbury, Vt., 
 and Concord, N.H., the school was removed 
 to Boston and called the Boston Theological 
 Seminary. Adopted by the university in 
 1871, it was the first seminary in the United 
 States to introduce the .study of comparative 
 religion, and the first in New England to 
 include members of other denominations among 
 its public lecturers. The School of Law was 
 opened in October, 1872 ; it offered a 3 
 years' course from the outset. The School 
 of Medicine (Homeopathic), opened in 1873, 
 adopted the New England Female Medical 
 College and occupied its building. The first un- 
 dergraduate department, the College of Music, 
 established in 1872, had a fairly succe.s.sful career, 
 but was taken over in 1891 as a graduate 
 department by the New England Conserva- 
 tory of Music, ceasing to be part of the univer- 
 sity. In spite of the depreciation in the re- 
 sources of the university consequent upon the 
 Boston fire of 1872 and the panic of the follow- 
 ing year, a seconfl undergraduate department, 
 the College of Liberal Arts, was established in 
 1873; this school grew rajjidly, and the re- 
 quirements for admission were soon advanced 
 until they were a year in advance of those in 
 force at other classical colleges. Provision for 
 
 a College of Agriculture was made in the original 
 charter of the university, but the financial 
 difficulties of the early seventies delayed its 
 organization. In January, 1875, the Massa- 
 chusetts Agricultural College at Amherst was 
 affiliated with the university as an agricultural 
 department. A graduate school, overlapping 
 in its activities the work of several schools, and 
 intended ultimately to crown the whole univer- 
 sity structure, was projected at the founding of 
 the university, and for a number of years was 
 ambitiously styled the School of All Sciences. 
 The iilan of the university involved a com- 
 bination of English and (ierman university 
 ideas; provision was made for a group of under- 
 graduate colleges, not necessarily in one place, 
 and for several professional and nonprofessional 
 graduate schools. In organization, the univer- 
 sity is sectarian; two thirds of a self-perpetu- 
 ating corporation, of not less than 10 or more 
 than 30 trustees, must be members of the 
 Methodist Episcopal Church. Each trustee 
 serves 5 years. The full professors constitute 
 a Senate, with the usual powers of a university 
 faculty. In theory, graduation from a school 
 is held to admit to membership in the university; 
 the entire body of graduates, about 6000, is 
 styled the University Convocation, and has 
 (1909) 16 representatives in the Corporation, 
 3 in the Council (which comprises the ])resi- 
 dent and heads of the schools), and 25 in the 
 Senate. 
 
 Fraternities have been established as follows : 
 Beta Theta Pi ; Theta Delta Chi; Sigma Al- 
 pha Epsilon; Kappa Kappa Gamma; Al|iha 
 Phi; Gamma Phi Beta; Delta Delta Delta; 
 Pi Beta Phi; Phi Delta Phi; Epsilon Tau; 
 Sigma Kappa; Phi Alpha Gamma; and Gamma 
 Eta Alpha. 
 
 The bachelor's degree is given in arts, law, 
 science, medicine, and surgery; the master's 
 degree in arts and law; and the doctor's degree 
 in medicine, philosophj', sacred theology, and 
 law. This last degree (LL.D.) is given to 
 holders of a master's degree, upon presentation 
 of a thesis after 2 years of approved advanced 
 work. 
 
 The establishment of Boston University fol- 
 lowed the bequest for this purpose by Isaac 
 Rich of the bulk of his estate; originally ap- 
 praised at 81,700,000, it had depreciated in 1S72 
 to .§700,000. In 1900 the productive endow- 
 ment was .'51,031,365; the total annual income 
 was .$155,365.47. Grounds, buildings, and 
 equipment were valued at .$886,776. The aver- 
 age salary of a professor is $2466. The 
 instructing staff numbers (1909) 158; there 
 are 1459 students, divided as follows: College 
 of Arts, 314; Specials, 275; College of Agricul- 
 ture, 500; School of Theology, 196; School of 
 Law, 319; School of Medicine, 102; Graduate 
 School, 104. Of the students, 419 are women. 
 Sixteen foreign countries and 31 states and 
 territories in the United States are represented. 
 
 CO. 
 
 420
 
 BOTANIC GARDENS 
 
 BOTANIC GARDENS 
 
 BOTANIC GARDENS, EDUCATIONAL 
 WORK OF. — The botanic garden as au edu- 
 cational institution is a comparatively modern 
 development, but may be traced backward 
 through a series of gradual stages to the time 
 when man first began to cultivate wild plants. 
 The first gardens were cultivated for useful 
 rather than ornamental purposes, and the 
 earliest Greek gardens were httle more than 
 olive orchards. The Greeks also developed 
 ornamental flower gardens, and this idea was 
 borrowed from them by the Romans. 
 
 The remote ancestry of the true botanical 
 garden is to be found in the earliest attempts 
 to cultivate medicinal plants. Pliny (23-79 
 A.D.) mentions such a garden owned by An- 
 tonius Castor, in Rome, and, early in the 
 Christian era, the monks in Italy began to 
 grow medicinal herbs in the monastery gardens. 
 This practice was subsequently undertaken by 
 the early apothecaries, giving rise to the so- 
 called " physick gardens," for the growing of 
 " simples." Such gardens were naturally uti- 
 lized to forward the work of instruction in 
 materia medica, in connection with the medical 
 schools. 
 
 About the sixteenth century occurred a 
 renaissance of the scientific study of plants, 
 and the early herbalists began to cultivate liv- 
 ing specimens for botanical study. Thus the 
 modern botanic garden may be traced from 
 the vegetable garden and orchard, through the 
 ornamental garden, the physic gardens, and 
 the private gardens of the herbalists, an inter- 
 esting and very natural parallel to the devel- 
 opment of the science of botany itself; for 
 plants were first studied as articles of diet, 
 then as the source of remedies for disease, and 
 only subsequently for their own sake, from the 
 standpoint of the modern botanist. 
 
 There are to-day over 200 so-called botanical 
 gardens in various parts of the world, 36 of 
 which are in Germany, 23 in Italy, 22 in France, 
 16 in Ru.ssia, 13 in Austria-Hungary, and 12 
 each in Great Britain and Ireland, and in the 
 United States. 
 
 Formal instruction was undertaken by bo- 
 tanical gardens as early as 1545, in the garden 
 at Padua, where lectures on plant life were 
 given, and a crude form of laboratory work 
 undertaken in the form of ostencio simplicium, 
 or demonstrations of medicinal herbs. Even 
 before this date the public study of botany was 
 inaugurated at the garden of Pisa (1543), by 
 order of the Grand Duke Cosmo I, and the 
 second director of this garden was the cele- 
 brated botanist Caesalpino, the successor of 
 Ghinus, who, in 1547, founded the garden at 
 Bologna. 
 
 The educational work of botanic gardens falls 
 naturally under six heads: 1. Information by 
 means of well labeled specimens. 2. Popular 
 lectures. 3. Research work. 4. Periodical and 
 other pulilications. 5. Courses of lectures 
 and instruction to organized classes. 6. Uo- 
 
 centry. These various phases of botanical 
 education developed in connection with gar- 
 dens approximately in the order here named. 
 
 1. Information by means of well labeled 
 specimens. A museum has recently been 
 described as a collection of attractive labels 
 well illustrated by specimens. The earliest 
 educational work of botanic gardens was con- 
 fined almost entirely to what might be accom- 
 phshed by such means. In other words, the 
 garden was a place where any one sufficiently 
 interested could go and " educate " himself, 
 i.e. secure without the aid of a teacher a cer- 
 tain limited amount of information about 
 plants. From the nature of the case, this must 
 always remain a prominent and valuable phase 
 of botanical instruction by gardens. In the 
 early gardens the labels gave only the scien- 
 tific name of the plant, but subsequently there 
 were added the common name, the geographic 
 distribution, and the place of the specimen in 
 the system of classification — the family to 
 which it belongs. So long as no attempt was 
 made to illustrate any phase of botany but 
 classification, such labels indicated the limits 
 of information one might obtain; but, as a 
 rather modern development, appearing first 
 in this country in the Missouri, Harvard, and 
 New York gardens, plantations were organ- 
 ized on other bases, such as geographical dis- 
 tribution, relation to environment (ecology), 
 modification of parts (morphology), economic 
 use both for food and medicine, plant breed- 
 ing, and the history of botany. Thus the 
 range of information to be obtained from labels 
 was greatly extended. But after all, and at 
 best, the result was for the most part only in- 
 formation about plants, more or less detached 
 and uncorrelated; not botanical education. 
 The general public visit a botanical garden for 
 recreation rather than information, and while 
 these well labeled plantings do a real service, 
 and meet with a genuine and widespread appre- 
 ciation, they leave much to be desired. They 
 would be justified, however, from the stand- 
 point of education, if they did no more than 
 extend the interest of the public in things 
 botanical, or serve to give an added interest in 
 life. 
 
 2. Popular lectures. As an educational 
 force in botanic gardens, popular lectures are 
 only second, in time of development, to the 
 labeling of specimens. They were introduced 
 as early as 1545 at the Padua garden. At first 
 they were no doubt largely confined to the 
 medicinal ])roperties of plants, illustrated by 
 living specimens from the garden and green- 
 houses and by dried specimens from the her- 
 barium. Later they have been extended to all 
 phases of scientific botany, from the early spring 
 flowere to botanical exploration and theories of 
 heredity. The introduction of the stereopticon 
 has here, as elsewhere, done much to increase 
 the interest in such lectures. At the free 
 weekly lectures given every Saturday after- 
 
 421
 
 BOTANIC GARDENS 
 
 BOTANIC GARDENS 
 
 noon throughout the year at the New York 
 Botanical Garden, the attendance varies from 
 50 to 500, depending upon the weather, the 
 topic, and somewhat upon the time of the year 
 and the extent of the lecturer's reputation. 
 The average attendance, however, is increasing. 
 
 3. Research. Botanical Oardens, in the true 
 sense of the word, have alwaj-s been centers 
 of investigation, otherwise they tend to become 
 merely [)leasure i)arks. The educational work 
 of the early physic garden.s was very largely 
 research, wliile practically no attention was 
 given to jjopularining. Thus, when John 
 Gerarde, in the latter part of the seventeenth 
 century, acting for Lord Burleigh, prepared the 
 letter to C"aml)ridge University, recommending 
 that a physic garden be established there, the 
 purpose stated was to encourage " the facultie 
 of simpling"; and the gardens of Bologna, 
 Montpellicr, Lcyden, Paris, and Upsala (the 
 seat of Linn6's labors), flourished in the middle 
 of the seventeenth century for the primary 
 purpose of aiding teaching and research. 
 Well equipped garden laboratories for research 
 are becoming more and more common, espe- 
 cially in gardens organically connected with or 
 affiliated with colleges and universities. 
 
 4. Publications. At first these were mainly 
 confined to catalogues of the living plants, then 
 were introduced guides to the grounds, seed 
 lists, lists of plants offered in exchange, guides 
 to the museum and conservatories, and finally 
 montlily and other periodicals, embodying the 
 results of research, and other matters pertain- 
 ing to the advancement of botany or the organ- 
 ization of the institution. 
 
 5. Courses of lectures and instruction to 
 organized classes. This is one of the latest 
 and most important educational developments 
 of botanical gardens. Regular courses were 
 offered to medical students as early as 1829 
 in the Chelsea Physic Garden, and this has now 
 become an important phase of activity, espe- 
 cially of all gardens connected in any way with 
 educational institutions. In fact, didactic in- 
 struction by botanic gardens has developed 
 parallel with the growing tendency to establish 
 them in connection with universities or other 
 educational institutions. In the earliest and 
 later private gardens, practically no attention 
 was given to teaching. In the physic gardens 
 of apothecaries' societies and schools of medi- 
 cine, the teaching was confined to the nature 
 and properties of medicinal plants; but, with 
 the organization of university gardens and 
 gardens closely articulating with institutions of 
 learning, was introduced formal instruction to 
 classes in various phases of pure and applied 
 botany. The public school system of Pitts- 
 burg furnishes what is doubtless a unique in- 
 stance of a botaidc garden and laboratory as 
 part of the equipment for science teaching in 
 high schools. The new Botanic Garden, estab- 
 lished by the Brooklyn Institute of Arts and 
 Sciences, while not organically connected with 
 
 any school, and while planning ample provision 
 for research, was inaugurated primarily as a 
 tea('hing institution. The plan involves a 
 staff of teachers, as well as of investigators, and 
 the organizing of classes of both elementary 
 and advanced grade. 
 
 6. Doccntry. Docentry is a comparatively 
 new idea in education, and is confined to in.stitu- 
 tions devoting a considerable portion of time 
 to the popularizing of knowledge. So far as 
 the writer knows, the New York Botanical 
 Garden was the first, and is to date (1910) the 
 only botanical garden employing docentry. 
 The former system, here as in most other gar- 
 dens, was that of personal guides for visitors 
 who apply, and aids and gardeners were detailed 
 for this purpose. Under the new system there is 
 a regularly appointed " docent," who leaves 
 the front door of the museum building every 
 week day afternoon at 3 o'clock, with a defi- 
 nite route for each day. Parties may start 
 with the docent, or he may in turn meet with 
 two or three interested visitors, volunteer inter- 
 esting information concerning the trees and 
 other plants of the collections, and thus assem- 
 ble an extempore class. The Saturday trip 
 is confined to the museum, herbarium, and 
 library (containing many rare and historically 
 interesting volumes), and is completed in time 
 to permit those who wish to attend the weekly 
 public lecture at 4 o'clock. 
 
 There is outlined below the educational work 
 of various gardens, in the order of their age. 
 The date indicates the year in which the 
 garden was established. 
 
 1. Jardin des Plantes, Paris (IGIO). As is 
 well known, the Jardin des Plantes is only 
 partially devoted to plants, the botanical work 
 being, in fact, quite overshadowed by the 
 zoological. On Sunday afternoons public lec- 
 tures on botanical subjects are given in the 
 amphitheater of a special building. These 
 lectures, locally called " conferences," are illus- 
 trated by lantern slides, museum specimens, 
 and living plants from the conservatories, and 
 admission to each course is by ticket. 
 
 2. Tokyo, Japan (1638). This garden, now 
 the garden of the Imperial University, was 
 established by Tokugana the Third, at Shino- 
 gawa, on the southern side of Yedo (modern 
 Tokyo). After the revolution of 18G8 it was 
 taken over by the Meji government, and was 
 again transferred to the Imperial University 
 in 1869. At this last tran.sfer its old name, 
 Oyakuycn (" The Medical' Plant Garden ") 
 was changed to Igakkoyakuyen (" The Medical 
 School Garden"). In 1871 it came under the 
 supervision of the Educational Department of 
 the Empire, and in 1875 its name was again 
 changed to Kaishikaira, Botanic Garden. In 
 1876 it became part of the College of Science of 
 the University. Instruction is given to uni- 
 versity students in botany, entomology, and 
 pharmacy, while the grounds are open to the 
 general public. 
 
 422
 
 BOTANIC GARDENS 
 
 BOTANIC GARDENS 
 
 3. Chelsea, England (1673). Chelsea is 
 almost unique, among the early gardens, in the 
 extent to which it organized instruction in 
 various branches of pure and applied botany. 
 The garden was established by the Society of 
 Apothecaries of London, on lines similar to the 
 private gardens of the herbalists, differing from 
 them in being supported by a public society. 
 It was the first public institution of its kind in 
 London, and is now the oldest. As early as 
 1633 the Society of Apothecaries inaugurated 
 an annual " herbarizing," which was discon- 
 tinued after a short period; but after the open- 
 ing of the Chelsea garden these herbarizings 
 were renewed, and soon took the form of a 
 demonstration of plants to the members, bv 
 the " Demonstrator of Plants." In 1829 
 weekly demonstrations were begun, confined 
 largely to the specimens in the materia medica 
 department of the garden, followed by a lec- 
 ture. The successive lectures were planned to 
 form a summer cour.se of study in botany. The 
 titles of the lectures in one course were as 
 follows : (1) the different sy.stems of botany, 
 both natural and artificial, particularly those 
 of Linnaeus and Jussieu; (2) the structure 
 and growth of plants; (3) the different parts 
 of plants, with their description and uses in 
 the process of vegetation; (4) the natural 
 and chemical analyses of vegetable matter ; 
 (5) the medicinal u.se of the most important 
 articles in the materia medica, etc. These lec- 
 tures were well attended by medical students, 
 and when Lindley was made Director of the 
 Garden (Praefectus Horli), and Professor of 
 Botany, the lectures were held twice a week 
 at 8:30 a.m. in May, June, and July, instead 
 of weekly at 10 a.m. from May to September. 
 At the close of this course an examination was 
 given, optional to the students, and a gold 
 medal, worth ten guineas, awarded to the candi- 
 date attaining the highest grade. The award- 
 ing of prizes began in 1830, was discontinued in 
 18.53, but subseciuently renewed. It is interest- 
 ing to note that among the successful competi- 
 tors were Huxley, Masters, and H. C. Bastian. 
 
 In the " Rules and Regulations as to Admis- 
 sion to the Garden, Lecture Room and Labora- 
 tory," issued Nov. 20, 1902, it was stated 
 that: " I. The purpo.ses for which the Chelsea 
 Physic Garden is maintained are: (1) To 
 render assistance in the teaching of botany ; 
 (2) To provide material and opportunity for 
 Botanical investigations; ... (4) Teachers 
 holding tickets of admission will be allowed 
 to introduce their students to the Garden for 
 purposes of study, but each teacher will be 
 held responsible for any damage that may be 
 committed by his or her students whilst in the 
 Garden." Individual students and classes with 
 teachers take advantage in large numbers of 
 the opportunities offered, and in addition speci- 
 mens arc furnished to teachers for class use. 
 
 4. Kew (1759).' The famous Kew gardens 
 date from the appointment of William Alton, 
 
 a pupil of the Chelsea Garden, to organize a 
 physic garden for the Princess Augusta, of Saxe- 
 Gotha, Dowager Princess of Wales. The orna- 
 mental garden around the royal residence was 
 utilized for this purpose. The only formal 
 educational work at Kew is the training of 
 gardeners, but this is thoroughly organized, and 
 very important, for Kew is the source of gar- 
 deners for most of the colonial gardens. Five 
 years of practical experience are required for 
 entrance upon the course, which includes lec- 
 tures in physics, chemistry (as related to bot- 
 any and geology) , general botany, economic bot- 
 any, and geographical botany. Each student 
 is required to collect a herbarium of 250 named 
 and mounted specimens, and, if his work is 
 satisfactory, he receives a Kew certificate at 
 the end of two years. Kew remained a private 
 possession of the Crown until 1840, when it was 
 made a public garden, with Sir William Hooker 
 as the first director. 
 
 5. Edinburgh (1763). This garden is a part 
 of the LTniversity of Edinburgh. It has museums, 
 classrooms, and laboratories, where most of the 
 instruction in botany in the university is given. 
 
 6. Harvard (1805). Established and con- 
 tinued primarily to further botanical teaching 
 and research in Harvard LTniversity. 
 
 7. Buitenzorg, Java (1817). The 's Lands 
 Plantentium, at Buitenzorg, is the finest botan- 
 ical garden in the world. It has well equipped 
 laboratories for research, a botanical library of 
 over 40,000 volumes, and one large building 
 devoted exclusively to laboratories for visiting 
 botanists from other countries. Certain Euro- 
 pean governments send annually a student to 
 Buitenzorg, and other countries are repre- 
 sented at irregular intervals. The work is 
 almost entirely research. 
 
 8. Missouri^ St. Louis, Mo. (1859). These 
 gardens are known locally as " Shaw's Gar- 
 dens," in honor of the founder, Henry Shaw. 
 Among the objects named in the enactment 
 that established the garden is the dissemination 
 among men of a knowledge of plants, " by hav- 
 ing a collection thereof easily accessible; by 
 the establishment of a museum and library in 
 connection therewith, and also by the estab- 
 lishment of public lectiures and instruction upon 
 botanj' and its allied sciences." In 1885 the 
 same benefactor endowed the Henry Shaw School 
 of Botany, at Washington University, St. Louis, 
 and provided for the cooperation of this school 
 with the botanical garden. The professor in 
 the Shaw School of Botany is the director of the 
 garden. In addition to serving the needs of 
 the students and staff of the Shaw School of 
 Botany, the garden grounds are open to the 
 public, and the founder's will provides that 
 there must be preached an annual sermon on 
 the power, wisdom, and goodness of God as 
 shown in the growth of flowers, fruits, and other 
 products of the plant world. The collections 
 are freely used by the teachers with their 
 classes in nature study. 
 
 423
 
 BOTANIC GARDENS 
 
 BOTANIC GARDENS 
 
 9. Montreal (1885). It was the intention 
 of the founders of this garden to make ample 
 provision for formal instruction in botany, 
 pure and applied, but the institution was under 
 munii'ii)al control, and finally " killed by po- 
 litical differences in the city council." 
 
 10. The New York Botanical Garden, Bronx 
 Park, N. Y. City (1894). The forerunner of 
 this garden was the " Elgin Botanic Garden," 
 of Dr. David Hosack, in New York City (the 
 present borough of i\Ianhattan). The garden 
 was successively transferred to New York 
 State anil then to Columbia Universitj', but 
 was finally abandoned for lack of money. The 
 present garden has a cooperative agreement 
 with Columbia University. The herbarium 
 and botanical library of the university are 
 deposited with the garden, and the university 
 students and staff in botany enjoy, \\'ithout any 
 additional fees, all the privileges of the garden. 
 The undergrailuate courses are all given at the 
 university, but much of the research is carried 
 on at the garden. Weekly lectures on " popu- 
 lar " and semi-popular botanical subjects are 
 given on Saturday afternoons throughout the 
 year. The system of docentry, inaugurated 
 in 1910, has been referred to above. 
 
 Probably the most elaborate attempt ever 
 made on the part of an institution of this char- 
 acter to cooperate with and aid the nature- 
 study work of public schools, are the courses of 
 spring and fall lectures given to the teachers 
 and pupils of grades 4 B and 5 B of the city 
 schools. In the Annual Report of the Director- 
 in-Chief for 1904, it was recommended that 
 " lectures designed with special reference to the 
 need of teachers and their pupils might be 
 given with advantage," and, on March 29, 
 1905, the Board of Education of the city passed 
 resolutions empowering the principals to ar- 
 range for the lectures. At the close of the first 
 course the District Superintendent reported 
 that the results were most gratifying, the chil- 
 dren, in some instances, being stimulated to 
 make collections of fungi, ferns, and mosses, 
 and to cultivate window boxes further illus- 
 trating the subjects of the lectures. 
 
 There were two courses arranged; one of two 
 lectures and demonstrations to grade 4 B, and 
 one of three lectures and demonstrations to 
 grade 5 B. After a lecture, illustrated with the 
 stereopticon, and given by a regular member of 
 the garden staff, the pupils are taken out on the 
 grounds in groups of 30 to 40, where demonstra- 
 tions are given on the subject of the lecture. 
 This work is followed up during the next week 
 in the cla.ssroom. 
 
 During the first year the lectures were given 
 to the pupils of Bronx borough only, but in 
 1906 the privilege was extended to the public 
 schools of Manhattan, and the afternoons of 
 four days of each week were given over to the 
 lectures. The pupils, accompanied by their 
 teachers, come on trolleys, elevated roads, and 
 subway, each paying his own fare, and, notwith- 
 
 standing this fact, and the further fact that 
 attendance is optional with the pujiils, the 
 attendance increased from about 501)0 jnipils 
 in 1905 to nearly 13,000 (9378 from the Bronx, 
 and 3391 from ^lanluittan) pu|)ils and teachers 
 in 1900. During 1900 the work was inspected 
 by many teachers, including several from 
 Europe, and the course was repeated on Satur- 
 day mornings for teachers uiuible to be present 
 on the afternoons regularly scheduled. The 
 attendance of pupils from Manhattan was not 
 continued, owing partly to the long ride on the 
 elevated railroad. It should be stated that 
 there is no record of any mishap to the pupils 
 in going to and from the garden. In 1909 
 7273 pupils and 235 teachers from grade 4 B, 
 and 9622 pupils and 341 teachers from grade 
 5 B, or a total of 16,895 pupils and 576 teachers, 
 attended these lectures. 
 
 11. The Brooklyn Botanic Garden (1910). 
 This garden was established by the Brooklyn 
 Institution of Arts and Sciences, in eoiiperation 
 with the municipal government of greater New 
 York. It is the primary purpose of the garden 
 to combine instruction in botany to ela.sses with 
 research work, and to assist in every practicable 
 way the botanical work of local schools, both 
 public and private. The plans provide for the 
 organization of a staff consisting, not only of 
 investigators to have charge of research, but 
 also of members whose primary duty will be 
 the conducting of classes in various branches of 
 the science, including courses for beginners. 
 Ample provision is made for carrying out this 
 purpose in the plans for the laboratories, green- 
 houses, and plantations. 
 
 In addition to the institutions referred to 
 above, there should be mentioned the gardens 
 at Oxford and at Cambridge (England), at 
 Munich, Amsterdam, Berlin, Vienna, Geneva, 
 St. Petersburg, and lilontreal (McGill Univer- 
 sity), nearly all of which are affiliated with 
 universities and are centers of botanical instruc- 
 tion and research, while well organized gardens 
 are found at the IVIichigan Agricultural College 
 (Lansing, Mich.), the University of California 
 (Berkeley), the University of Pennsylvania 
 (Philadelphia), Jolm Hopkins University, and 
 Smith College. The educational work of the 
 Royal Botanic Society's Gardens, at Regent's 
 Park, London, is also extensive, covering popu- 
 lar lectures, the supplying of materials to classes 
 in schools, and the organization of a practical 
 school for the training of gardeners. Educa- 
 tional exhibits are also held here from time to 
 time to illustrate the nature study of the local 
 public schools. C. S. G. 
 
 References: — 
 Beal, W. .1. Botanic Gardens. Botanic Gazette, Vol. 
 
 2.3. p. 51. (1897.) 
 Blakeslee, a. F. The Botanic Garden as a Field 
 
 Museum of Agriculture. Science, N. S. Vol. 31, p. 
 
 6S5. (1910.) 
 Bhitton, N. D. Botanical Gardens. Science, N. S. 
 
 Vol. 4, p. 2,S4. (1896.) BuUetin New York Botanic 
 
 Garden, Vol. 1, p. 62. (1S97.) Proc. American 
 
 424
 
 BOTANIC GARDENS 
 
 BOTANY 
 
 Association for the Advancement of Science, Vol. 
 
 45, p. 171. (1.S97.) 
 Brixton, N. D. Report on a Trip to Europe. Journal 
 
 New York Botanical Garden, Vol. 6, p. 123. (1!»05.) 
 Report of the Secretary and Director-in-Chief for 
 
 the year 1904. Bulletin New York Botanic Garden, 
 
 Vol. 4, p. 1. (1905.) 
 Nature Study Work of the Public Schools. Jour- 
 nal New York Botanic Garden, Vol. 7, p. 275. 
 
 (1906.) 
 Relations of Botanical Gardens to the Public. Science, 
 
 N. S., Vol. 31, p. 641. (1910.) 
 CowELL, John F. The Buffalo Botanic Garden. 
 
 Journal New York Botanic Garden, Vol. 2, p. 24. 
 
 (1901.) 
 Falkenberg, Paul. Der Garten und seine Entwick- 
 
 lung. (Rostock, 1899.) Smithsonian Annual 
 
 Report, Appendix, issued 1901. 
 Fawcett, William. The Public Gardens and Planta- 
 tions of Jamaica. Botanic Gazette, Vol. 24, p. 345. 
 
 (1897.) 
 Gager, C. Stuart. The Garden and the Public Schools. 
 
 Journal New York Botanic Garden, Vol. 7, p. 156. 
 
 (1906.) 
 Ganong, W. F. The Place of Botanical Gardens in Col- 
 legiate Instruction. Science, N. S., Vol. 31, p. 044. 
 
 (1910.) 
 HAR.SHBERGER, JoHN W. John Evans and his Garden. 
 
 Garden and Forest. Vol. 10, p. 1S3. (1.897.) Bul- 
 letin Torrey Botanic Club, Vol. 24, p. 274. (1897.) 
 American Botanical Gardens. II. The Botanical 
 
 Gardens of Jamaica. Plant World, Vol. 5, p. 41. 
 
 (1902.) 
 J0HN.SON, Duncan S. A University Botanical Garden. 
 
 Science, N. S., Vol. 31, p. 048. (1910.) 
 King, George. A Guide to the Royal Botanic Garden, 
 
 Calcutta. Chapter II. History of the Garden. 
 
 (Calcutta, 1895.) 
 MacDougal, D. T. Botanic Gardens. Popular 
 
 Science Monthly, Vol. 501, p. 72. (1897.) 
 The Now York Botanical Garden. Science, N. S., 
 
 Vol. 11, p. 955. (1900.) Popular Science Monthly, 
 
 p. 171. (1900.) 
 Nash, George V. Cooperation in Nature Study with 
 
 Public Schools. Journal New York Botanic Gar- 
 den, Vol. 0. p. 103. (1905.) 
 New York Botanical Garden, Act of Incorporation of. 
 
 Bulletin New York Botanic Garden, Vol. 1, p. 1. 
 
 (1896.) 
 Notes, News and Comment. Journal New York Botanic 
 
 Garden, Vol. 9, p. 119. (1908.) 
 Notes, News and Comment. Journal New York 
 
 Botanic Garden. Vol. 10, pp. 143, 273. (1909.) 
 Olsson-Seffer, Pehr. Visits to Some Botanic 
 
 Gardens Abroad. Plant World, Vol. 10, p. 27. 
 
 (1907.) 
 Penhallow, D. p. Montreal Botanic Garden, First 
 
 Amiual Report. (1885.) (Montreal, 1.S86.) 
 Perrede.s, Pierre Elie Felix. London Botanic 
 
 Gardens. American Journal Pharmacy, Vol. 77, 
 
 pp. 451, 523, 562. (1905.) Vol. 78, pp. 1, 68, 113, 
 
 172, 224, 270, 317, 353. (1906.) 
 Public Lessons on Trees. New York Evening Post, 
 
 July 16, 1910. Journal New York Botanic Garden, 
 
 Vol. 11. August, 1910. 
 Ramalet, Fra.n'cis. The Botanical Gardens at Bui- 
 
 tenzorg, Java. Popular Science Monthly, Vol. 67, 
 
 p. 579. (1905.) 
 Rydberg, P. A. The ScamlinaWan Botanical Gardens. 
 
 Journal New York Botanic Garden, Vol. 2, p. 129. 
 
 (1901.) 
 Sievekinc:. a. Forbes. Gardens, Ancient and Modern. 
 
 (London, 1899.) 
 Tissandieb, Albert. The Botanical Garden of Bui- 
 
 tenzorg, Java. Translated from La Nature. Pop- 
 ular Science Monthly, Vol. 48, p. 335. (1S96.) 
 Trelease, W. The Mis.souri Botanical Garden. 
 
 Popular Science Monthly. Vol. 62, p. 193. (1903.) 
 The Administration of Botanical Gardens. Science, 
 
 N. S., Vol. 31, p. 681. (1910.) 
 Some American Botanical Gardens. I. The Mis- 
 souri Botanical Garden. Plant World, Vol. 5, p. 1. 
 
 (1902.) 
 
 425 
 
 Underwood, L. M. The Royal Botanic Gardens at 
 Kew. Science, N. S., Vol. 10, p. 65. (1899.) 
 
 Vail, A. M. An Old Physic Garden in New Amster- 
 dam. Journal New York Botanic Garden, Vol. 2, 
 p. 183. (1901.) 
 
 Watson, W. Cambridge Botanic Gardens. Garden 
 and Forest. Vol. 9, p. 443. (1896.) 
 Edinburgh Botanic Garden. Garden and Forest, Vol. 
 9, p. 483. (1896.) 
 
 BOTANY. — The science of botany has had a 
 peculiar historj' as a subject of university study, 
 chiefly because its purpose has Ijcen misunder- 
 stood even by the university public to the 
 present day, and also because its numerous 
 aspects have prevented anything approaching 
 uniformity in presentation. There are still 
 thousands of intelligent people, intelligent 
 enough to be patrons of universities, who think 
 of botany as the science that gives names to 
 flowers, and this deadening conception has 
 proved a most effective obstacle to the recog- 
 nition of botany as a university subject. As 
 a result, botany was the last of the major 
 sciences to attain a position of first rank in the 
 universities. Even when established, the sub- 
 ject is so many-faced that it presents a different 
 aspect in each university. Especially is this 
 true if either a teacher with initiative or a strong 
 tradition dominates the situation. For such 
 reasons it is impossible to give an account of 
 the development of the subject as a university 
 study, or even its present status, which will 
 include any considerable number of universities. 
 The following statements, therefore, must be 
 understood to apply to those institutions in 
 which botany has had a history and has made 
 progress. 
 
 History of Botany as a University Study. — In 
 the sixteenth century, the study of plants was a 
 recognized part of medical training in Europe. 
 This study had only in view a knowledge of the 
 products of plants useful in medicine. This 
 was the first phase of botany, and it was long 
 recognized as natural that botanists should 
 come by way of a degree in medicine. This 
 same conception dominates in the provision for 
 botanical instruction in the German univer- 
 sities to-day, where the oidy required work in 
 botany is a course for students of medicine 
 and pharmacy, a course which includes most 
 of the students of botany in the universities, 
 and involves most of the income of the instruc- 
 tor. For the same reason, the university text- 
 books are compelled to devote a large proportion 
 of their pages to a classification of "medicinal 
 plants." 
 
 The second phase of botany followed of 
 necessity. It was necessary to classify medic- 
 inal plants, and this classification began to 
 assume scientific form toward the close of the 
 sixteenth century. The classification or tax- 
 onomy of the higher plants gradually became a 
 university .study, and dominated botanical in- 
 struction until the latter half of the nineteenth 
 century. This long preeminence of taxonomy 
 is responsible for the persistent popular mis-
 
 BOTANY 
 
 BOTANY 
 
 conception of the purpose of botanical instruc- 
 tion. In fact, there are even yet universities 
 that represent only this second phase of botany. 
 It must be understood that the appearance of a 
 new phase of botanical instruction did not in- 
 volve the abandonment of the older phases, 
 for they have been carried forward continu- 
 ously. 
 
 Since what may be called the taxonomic era 
 of botanical instruction in American universi- 
 ties was a notable one, it may be used as an 
 illustration. The dominating influence in this 
 instruction was that of Asa Gray, whose text- 
 books and manuals were models of clearness 
 and convenience. The texts were intended to 
 make students familiar with those facts and 
 their terminology which would enable them to 
 use the manual in the identification of plants. 
 Usually the student was required to collect and 
 identify a certain number of the plants of the 
 neighborhood, and occasionally to preserve 
 these plants in what was called a "herbarium." 
 This kind of instruction appealed to very few 
 colleges and universities of 50 or even 30 
 years ago as deserving the recognition of a dis- 
 tinct professorship. In case it was recognized 
 at all, it was given as a short course by some 
 instructor whose chief subject was something 
 else. Naturally the subject was more conspic- 
 uous among the Eastern colleges and universi- 
 ties than among the Western, and perhaps for 
 this reason the more modern phases of botany 
 have not been recognized so rapidly by the 
 former institutions as by the latter. 
 
 The modern phase of botany was introduced 
 by the work of Hofmeister, which 10 years 
 later (1859) was supplemented by the stimulat- 
 ing effect of Darwin's Origin of Species. In 
 fact, modern biology in the universities may 
 be said to date from the appearance of Darwin's 
 book. Laboratories supplied with compound 
 microscopes and their accessories became an 
 essential part of the equipment of universities, 
 and biological work from the new point of view 
 became established. This movement was felt 
 first in the German universities, and was devel- 
 oping there for at least 30 years before it 
 became noticeable in American universities. 
 The method of introduction of modern botany 
 into American institutions was unfortunate, in 
 the sense that it long delayed a proper recog- 
 nition of the subject. It came in as a part of 
 general courses in biology (q.v.), the texts and 
 laboratory guides for which were always written 
 by zoologists. As a consequence, zoologj" (q-v.) 
 received so much the greater emphasis that to 
 this day it is thought of as synonymous with 
 biology, and botany lagged behind in develop- 
 ment and in recognition. The real segregation 
 of botany from animal biology in university 
 courses began with the appearance of Bessey's 
 Botany (1880), which was in effect the introduc- 
 tion of Sach's Lehrhuch into American labora- 
 tories. Since that time botanical laboratories 
 and texts have multiplied; in one institution 
 
 after another botany has emerged from its zoo- 
 logical submergence; and, although delayed, it 
 has now become established in most universities 
 as one of the major subjects. 
 
 Present Academic Status of Botany. — In 
 the German universities botany is an established 
 subject of the first rank, with its staff of in- 
 structors, and usually its separate buildings. 
 To these laboratories for many years the 
 American student went for the special training 
 he could receive in no other country. As a 
 consequence, the type of botanical instruction 
 in American universities has the spirit, if not all 
 the methods, of that given in German univer- 
 sities. There are very few general courses in the 
 German universities except those given to the 
 large groups of medical and pharmacy students, 
 the other university students electing botany 
 being set at research almost at once. It should 
 be remembered, however, that such students 
 have had rigorous elementary training in botany 
 in the gymnasium, which is perhaps more than 
 equivalent to the average amount of undergrad- 
 uate instruction in botany in American col- 
 leges. 
 
 In the British universities the full recognition 
 of botany has developed very slowly, apparently 
 often being tolerated rather than encouraged. 
 The enormous body of British conservatism, 
 especially in education, has given botany a 
 chance in the universities, but hardly what 
 could be called an opportunity. There are 
 two or three notable exceptions to this state- 
 ment, and they are the promise of a more gen- 
 eral recognition. There are botanical instruc- 
 tors in the universities, but the equipment and 
 the structure of the curricula do not encourage 
 and sometimes do not permit students to enter 
 courses in botany. In spite of this, and per- 
 haps because of this, the British botanists, un- 
 hindered by large groups of students, have 
 been doing notable work in the advancement 
 of the science. 
 
 In the French universities botany has a 
 definite place, but it is taken cliiefly by students 
 of medicine and pharmacy. The classification 
 and medicinal uses of plants are taught with 
 great completeness and skill, but the modern 
 phases of botany have made slow progress. 
 The peculiar relation of the French universities 
 to the University of Paris has repressed indi- 
 vidual initiative in develo|)ing botanical instruc- 
 tion, which is more a matter of prescribed form 
 than of personal opinion. 
 
 In American universities the newer phases 
 of botany are well represented in instruction, 
 and in most institutions well developed de- 
 partments of botany are organized. There are 
 great variations in the amount of undergraduate 
 work offered, in the phases of the subject 
 emphasized, and in the requirements for gradu- 
 ate work, but there is always evident the at- 
 tempt to keep pace in instruction with the 
 growth of the science. In the organization of 
 botanical work in American universities there 
 
 426
 
 BOTANY 
 
 BOTANY 
 
 are two distinct theories, as evidenced by the 
 results. One theory is to select some particu- 
 lar field of botanical activity for investigation, 
 to appoint to the staff instructors trained in this 
 field, and to make all instruction in other phases 
 of the subject elementary and incidental. In 
 such a university the botanical student secures 
 very superior instruction in one phase of botany, 
 instruction of an inferior grade in the other 
 phases of his subject, and a distorted perspec- 
 tive of botany in general. The other theory is 
 to appoint to the staff representatives of all of 
 the major fields of activity, to put all of these 
 phases of the subject upon an equal footing in 
 instruction and in opportunity for research. 
 In such a university, the botanical student se- 
 cures superior instruction in several phases of 
 botany, and a fairly true perspective of botany 
 in general. From the standpoint of research, 
 the former organization has some advantages, 
 but even in such conditions research lacks the 
 checks that other phases of the subject always 
 supply. From the standpoint of the student, 
 to be instructed and guided into research, the 
 latter organization has distinct advantages. 
 
 The mo-st striking contrast between Euro- 
 pean and American universities in equipment 
 for botanical instruction is the botanical garden. 
 Every European university has such a garden 
 as an essential part of its equipment. It is 
 true that the botanic garden was developed 
 before the laboratory, and in a sense it is an 
 inheritance from the older phases of botany. 
 But none the less it is regarded also as a sine 
 qua non in botanical instruction and investiga- 
 tion of the most modern kind. In American 
 universities the laboratory developed first, 
 and it seems impossible as. yet for boards of 
 control and patrons to appreciate that a botan- 
 ical garden is any more than an .-esthetic ap- 
 pendage. A university department of botany 
 without laboratories is now inconceivable, but 
 with the more recent developments of the sub- 
 ject a botanic garden is equally necessary, and 
 its absence ought to be equally inconceivable. 
 It is the lack of such equipment that has 
 become a serious menace to the standing of 
 American universities in botanical instruction 
 and investigation. 
 
 The Differentiation of Botany. — Reference 
 has been made to the many aspects of botany, 
 and since these aspects differentiate university 
 instructors and sometimes universities, it is 
 important to indicate them. This modern 
 development of the subject began about 1860, 
 following a period of revolutionary ideas that 
 culminated in Darwin's Origin of Species. 
 Before that time, th(! taxonomy of plants formed 
 the dominant part of botanical instruction 
 and research, and taxonomy was in the grip 
 of the dogma of the constancy of species. 
 The establishment of organic evolution as 
 a working hypothesis not only transformed 
 taxonomy, but also gave rise to new phases of 
 botany. 
 
 427 
 
 The new taxonomy faces the problem of 
 variable species, whose fluctuations often baffle 
 the attempts to define their boundaries. It is 
 attempting to arrange these inconstant species 
 into natural groupings, which now mean group- 
 ings on the basis of common descent. While 
 in a certain sense, therefore, the old subject of 
 taxonomy persists in the modern period, and 
 must continue to persist, in a very real sense it 
 is a new subject, with immensely more diffi- 
 cult problems and a different purpose. 
 
 Even more significant, however, is the rise 
 and development of modern morphology, 
 which has dominated botanical instruction and 
 research for much of the modern period. It is 
 distinctly an evolutionary subject, its control- 
 ling purpose being to investigate those large 
 relationships which will permit the construction 
 of an account of the evolution of the plant king- 
 dom. In brief, its topic is the evolution of 
 plants. Morphology obtained its testimony 
 first from a comparative study of the structures 
 of living plants, and most seriv'iceable among 
 these structures were found to be those con- 
 nected with reproduction. Therefore, through 
 much of its history, morphology has been the 
 comparative study of reproductive structures. 
 
 There have been at least three notable expan- 
 sions of morphology, which have made very 
 extensive and very important additions to its 
 material, and which have resulted in the differ- 
 entiation of as many subjects and groups of 
 investigators. First in order was the develop- 
 ment of cytology, which is morphology at the 
 limit of technique. The older morphology 
 used the cell as the unit of structure, but it 
 discovered that the structure and behavior of 
 the cell itself was more fundamental. This led 
 to the development of microscopes and of 
 methods which would reveal the intimate 
 structure of living cells, and since the use of such 
 technic demands special training, there have 
 been developed morphologists who are called 
 cytologi-sts. Later there developed, in connec- 
 tion with the vascular groups, such a com- 
 parative study of the vascular system that these 
 tissues became as prominent in furnishing 
 evolutionary data as had been the reproductive 
 structures. As a consequence, there have 
 developed morphologists who are known as 
 vascular anatomists. The development of 
 vascular anatomy made it possible to inter- 
 pret the structures and relationships of fossil 
 plants in a way that had been impossible before, 
 and thus actual history was made to contribute 
 its testimony to the evolution of the plant 
 kingdom, and such morphologists are known as 
 paleobotanists. There are thus four principal 
 divisions of morphology to-day, divisions that 
 distinguish instructors and often institutions, 
 namely, morphology dealing with reproductive 
 structures (often spoken of simply as mor- 
 phology), cytology, vascular anatomy, and 
 paleobotany. 
 
 Early in the modern period of botany the
 
 BOTANY 
 
 BOTANY 
 
 subject of plant physiology began to assume 
 proiniiiencc in instruction and in investigation, 
 its purpose being the study of the activities 
 of plants. This phase of botany has devel- 
 oped with such rapidity and is assuming such 
 importance that it may be regarded as the 
 dominant phase at present. It has developed 
 in several directions, which differentiate in- 
 structors and institutions, but its closest con- 
 nections are with chemistry and physics. In 
 fact, plant physiologists have just now more in 
 common with organic chemists than with plant 
 morphologists. Although physiology includes 
 all activities of plants, a natural cleavage of the 
 subject has developed. All those activities 
 which may be comprised under the head of life 
 processes of plants constitute the subject of 
 physiology proper, while the responses of plants 
 to their environment have been made the basis 
 of ecology. 
 
 It is impossible to separate ecology from 
 physiology proper, except by arbitrary con- 
 vention, for the two subjects overlap at many 
 points. Such ecological topics as the plant 
 a.ssociations (known as societies or formations), 
 or their succession, or geographic distribution, 
 are the most distinct, dealing with plants in 
 the mass, and demanding field work rather 
 than laboratory work in the ordinary sense; 
 but the responses of individual plants to such 
 environmental factors as light, heat, and mois- 
 ture are a part of the ordinary life processes. 
 Ecology shares with physiology proper the 
 present dominant interest in plant activities 
 as contrasted with plant structures, and in some 
 of its aspects has overlapped the science of 
 geography. One of the conspicuous practical 
 expansions of ecology has been forestry iq.v.). 
 Forestry had long existed as a sentiment and 
 as an empirical practice, but it has become a 
 science by being put upon an ecological basis. 
 Another notable development of the physio- 
 logical (including ecological) aspect of plants 
 is the immensely practical subject of agronomy. 
 The name, perhaps, is not a happy one, but it 
 stands for the scientific basis of agriculture, 
 involving chiefly a study of the relation of 
 soils and soil treatment to various plants. 
 This subject is being investigated on a large 
 scale by the government, but it is also a promi- 
 nent field of investigation in the university 
 laboratories of plant physiology. 
 
 The overlapping of the various fields of 
 botanical activity is due to the increasing tend- 
 ency to attack the most fundamental prob- 
 lems. This is illu.strated not only by the over- 
 lapping of the morphological topics and of the 
 physiological topics, but also by the necessary 
 combination of morphology and physiology in 
 attacking certain problems. This has resulted 
 in a further differentiation of investigators and 
 institutions. 
 
 One of these differentiated combination sub- 
 jects is experimental morphology, which is an 
 experimental study of the factors that deter- 
 
 mine the form and structure of plants or of 
 their various organs. The idea that form and 
 structure are predetermined entirely by what 
 is called heredity has ceased to be useful; it 
 is known that much is determined by conditions 
 of growth and that much that is called heredity 
 is the passing on of similar conditions rather 
 than of similar structures. 
 
 Another combination of morphology and 
 physiology has develoi)ed the exceedingly im- 
 portant subject of plant breeding. This has 
 proved to be not only of fundamental scientific 
 value in connection with the [jroblcms of evolu- 
 tion and heredity, but also of immense practical 
 importance in agriculture, horticulture, etc. 
 Naturally the universities are interested chiefly 
 in the scientific aspects of plant breeding, as 
 shown by the multiplication of instructors and 
 courses, but they lack sadlj- the necessary 
 equipment of botanic gardens. On the other 
 hand, the agricultural colleges are just as 
 naturally pressing the jiraetical aspects of plant 
 breeding, and their equipment always includes 
 ample space for such experimental work. It 
 should be remembered, however, that in this 
 subject, as in all others, intelligent advance in 
 practice is only made po.ssible by advance in 
 scientific knowledge. 
 
 A third combination of morphology and 
 physiology is plant pathology. In its original 
 development the study of plant diseases was 
 mainly a morphological study, attempting first 
 to discover the parasitic plant causing the 
 disease and then to trace its life history. This 
 knowledge was followed by suggestions as to 
 treatment, most of which were empirical. It 
 is recognized now that these diseases involve 
 not only the presence of a parasite, but also a 
 derangement of the functions of the plant body. 
 In other words, they are phj-siological condi- 
 tions induced by the presence of a parasite. 
 This new aspect of plant pathology has appealed 
 strongly to university interest, for it represents 
 a thoroughly scientific attack upon problems 
 of immense practical importance. 
 
 Related to plant pathology, and in certain 
 aspects a part of it, is the wide-ranging subject 
 of bacteriology. The bacteria are plants of 
 such peculiar powers, are so closely connected 
 with human interests, and demand such a 
 special tcchnic for their investigation, that 
 bacteriologists represent an unusually distinct 
 group of botanists. In fact, the subject of 
 bacteriology is so broad that it has been sub- 
 divided into several special topics; for example, 
 bacteria inducing human diseases, bacteria 
 inducing animal diseases, bacteria inducing 
 plant diseases, bacteria inducing fermentation, 
 bacteria fixing nitrogen, bacteria in general, 
 wdthout reference to their economic relations, 
 etc. This has resulted necessarily in more or 
 less overlapping with other subjects, as, for 
 example, in the case of pathological bac- 
 teriology in its relation to human diseases, 
 which is thought of chiefly as a medical subject. 
 
 428
 
 BOTANY 
 
 BOTANY 
 
 In the same way, the study of nitrogen-fixing 
 bacteria is naturally associated with soil in- 
 vestigations. 
 
 The foregoing outline, insufficient because 
 it neglects many important subdivisions of 
 botany which differentiate instructors and in- 
 stitutions, will serve to indicate the great 
 range of the subject as represented in universi- 
 ties. It is evident that there does not exist 
 any uniform presentation of botany in univer- 
 sities, except in some of the fundamentals of 
 morphology and physiology. Each univer- 
 sity is a type by itself, and impresses its own 
 interests and its own perspective upon its 
 botanical students. J. M. C. 
 
 Botany in the Schools. — United Slates. — In 
 the elementary schools plant life is used very 
 generally in some part of the instruction. 
 Where organized courses in nature study exist, 
 plants sometimes constitute the dominant part 
 of the materials for work, and in i)lans for 
 nature study plants are never omitted entirely. 
 Even in schools where there is no organized 
 course in nature study, plants receive atten- 
 tion that is more or less casual in its nature. 
 In some elementary schools the work consists 
 solely in answering didactically the pupils' 
 intermittent questions about the specimens 
 that they chance to encounter. Usually, how- 
 ever, such topics as seed distribution, germina- 
 tion, types of leaf forms, and the local trees 
 receive some attention. In schools in which 
 an attempt is made to arrange an organization 
 of nature-study material that is coherent and 
 sequential throughout the grades, plant topics 
 appear in all or nearly all the grades, the topics 
 of one grade being more or less related to 
 those which follow. By means of schoolroom 
 experiments, field observations, and garden 
 studies some schools develop acquaintance with 
 common vegetables and flowering plants, their 
 ways and conditions of growth, their methods 
 of establishing succeeding generations, plants 
 as means of decoration and as food for man and 
 other animals. The school garden as an out- 
 door laboratory for the study of plants by 
 elementary school pupils is now found in con- 
 nection with every school in Austria, in most 
 schools in France, Germany, and other European 
 countries, and is becoming common in the 
 United States and Canada. In some elementary 
 schools in the central and southern United 
 States (Michigan, Ohio, Illinois, Wisconsin, 
 Iowa, Minnesota, Texas, Georgia, and others) 
 consideralile study is made of plants under the 
 title of elementary agriculture, in which the 
 plants of the farm and home are studied. 
 
 Few of the secondary schools included 
 botany until within the past .50 years, and 
 most of them not until within the past 30 years. 
 The subject is usually elective, but throughout 
 the central, southern, and western United 
 States is now almost universally taught. In 
 the eastern United States it is taught in the 
 better high schools. The subject constitutes 
 
 a year's course in some schools, while in others 
 the course is a half year in length, the remainder 
 of the year usually being given to zoology or 
 human physiology. The number of full-year 
 courses is constantly increasing, the majority 
 of teachers believing that it is better to have 
 a full year of one science rather than half 
 years of two. 
 
 In some parts of this country, notably in 
 New York State, a combination course is 
 presented under the title of general biology 
 (q.v.). The advocates of this course are readily 
 classified into two groups: first, those who or- 
 ganize a year's course consisting of two smaller 
 courses, one in botany and one in zoology, or 
 tlu-ee courses, botany, zoology, and human 
 physiology; and secondly, those who organize a 
 course of biological topics such as nutrition and 
 reproduction, using illustrative material from 
 plants or from animals, or from both. The latter 
 point of view is extremely difficult to apply in 
 secondary education, since at the outset the 
 pupil has no knowledge of the plants and 
 animals selected for illustration, and more or less 
 confusion must result. Few secondary schools 
 follow this plan. The first plan is adopted by a 
 larger number of schools, but the courses are too 
 fragmentary to give the best educative results. 
 Almost without exception the advocates of 
 courses in general biology are specialists in 
 zoology, rather than in botany. 
 
 The year of the high school in which botany 
 is taught varies greatly, but most schools give 
 the subject in the first or second year, some in 
 the third, and a few in the fourth. This varia- 
 tion in the length of the course and in the year 
 in which it is given is evidence of the striking 
 absence of generally accepted standards con- 
 cerning botany as a high school science, and of 
 an organized plan of science instruction based 
 on a determined relationship of the sciences to 
 one another. These considerations and others 
 to be mentioned later suggest the acute need 
 of the most careful scientific investigation of 
 the best organization for efficiency of instruc- 
 tion, not only in botanj', but in all the sciences 
 that appear in the secondary school curriculum. 
 
 In most of the state normal schools botany is 
 universally recognized as one of the subjects 
 requisite for the education of those who are 
 preparing to teach in elementary schools or 
 ui high schools. The length of the course 
 varies from one term of three months to two full 
 school years. Not only is botany thus recog- 
 nized as an important factor in a teacher's 
 preparation while in the normal school, but in 
 some of the states the normal schools require 
 that prospective students shall present botany 
 as one of the entrance subjects. All Central 
 and Western, and most Southern and Eastern 
 colleges and universities will accept botany as 
 an entrance subject, but they do not specifi- 
 cally require it. 
 
 Germany. — In the elementary schools botany 
 is grouped under and included in Naturkunde, 
 
 429
 
 BOTANY 
 
 BOTANY 
 
 Naturheschreihung — a conglomerate of all 
 branches of the sciences. Such botany as is 
 taught does not go beyond description and 
 names of local plants and their morphology. 
 In the secondary schools the subject is similarly 
 grouped with the other sciences and includes a 
 knowledge of the more important families in 
 the natural system, the commonest diseases of 
 plants and their causes, and the essentials of 
 morphology, anatomy, and physiology of plant 
 life. Generally closer attention is paid to the 
 local and native forms, followed by some ac- 
 count of the geographical distribution and the 
 elements of foreign plants. Classroom work 
 is supplemented by sketches and excursions. 
 In the Prussian gymnasium about two hours 
 a week are given in each class to Naturkunde, 
 which includes zoology, physiology, and anat- 
 omy; in the realschule the subject receives 2 
 hours in the first 4 classes, then 5 hours in the 
 next 2, followed by 6 hours a week in the 
 three classes of the oberrealschule. 
 
 England. — A study of plants is not included 
 in the curriculum of all elementary schools in 
 England. Where it is found, botany is a part 
 of either nature study or object lessons, which 
 rarely receive more than one hour of instruction 
 each week. In the rural schools an attempt in 
 made to teach botany in the form of elementary 
 agriculture. In the Suggestions to Teachers 
 issued by the Board of Education simple ex- 
 periments, sketches, labels, an avoidance of 
 technical terms where possible, school walks and 
 excursions are recommended, while the difficulty 
 of teaching the subject in town schools is rec- 
 ognized. 
 
 The higher schools for boys, however, give 
 very little, if any, attention to botany, the 
 science studies including generally only physics 
 and chemistry. Most large schools have 
 natural history clubs or societies, but these are 
 extra-class and are voluntary. Botany has, 
 however, for a long time been a favorite sub- 
 ject in girls' schools, where the extent of the sub- 
 ject has been very much like that given for the 
 German schools above. About two hours a 
 week are usually given to this subject. 
 
 France. — Very little attention is given to 
 botany in the French primary schools. Some 
 attempt has been made to relate the "first 
 scientific notions" with agriculture, and it is 
 probable that developments will take place in 
 this direction. For the present such elements 
 of botany as are taught seem to be purely names 
 of plants which the pupils do not see. 
 
 In the higher schools the scientific studies 
 apart from physics and chemistry are grouped 
 under the title of "natural history," but even 
 in the modern schools only IJ hours per week 
 are given to the subject in the first 2 years 
 and in the last, the division of science. 
 
 Botany, Methods of Teaching. — Botany 
 was formerly taught in European colleges 
 and universities from the points of view- 
 that were then dominant in botanical study, 
 
 which were first medicinal and then sys- 
 tematic. Quite naturally, when physicians 
 were the only persons who were particularly 
 interested in plants, and the only students 
 who studied plants were those who expected to 
 be physicians, the medicinal aspects of botany 
 received attention, and the teacher was a 
 physician who was supposed to be versed in the 
 "virtues of plants." At the present day, when 
 there are frequent claims that the practical 
 values of plants should be recognized in educa- 
 tion, it is interesting to note that botany as a 
 subject of education originated as an applied 
 subject and was taught almost exclusively to 
 students directly interested in a vocational 
 pursuit. 
 
 The study of plants with real or supposed 
 medicinal values naturally led to attempts to 
 classify plants; and accompanying this work 
 were many endeavors to collect, name, and 
 preserve specimens of all available plants. 
 Acquaintance with plants of the world and 
 work with systems of classification became 
 foremost, and these furnished the whole of 
 botanical materials that were used for instruc- 
 tion. That the purpose of teaching botany 
 was still related to medicine is clearly shown 
 in the introduction to Lindley's Text-Book of 
 Botany, written in 1830, an unusually success- 
 ful book which passed through several editions 
 and greatly influenced the educational develop- 
 ment of the subject in England. Addressing the 
 preface to " The Court of Examiners of The 
 Society of Apothecaries, London," the author 
 says : "As guardians of the education of a very 
 considerable part of the Medical Profession, the 
 subject of the following pages cannot be other- 
 wise than interesting to you. If a knowledge 
 of the plants, from which medicinal substances 
 are obtained, is in itself an object of importance, 
 as it most undoubtedly is, the science which 
 teaches of the art of judging of the hidden 
 qualities of the unknown vegetables by their 
 external characters is of still greater moment. 
 To what extent this can be safely carried, it is 
 not, in the actual state of human knowledge, 
 possible to foresee; but it is at least certain, 
 that it depends entirely upon a careful study 
 of the natural relations of the vegetable king- 
 dom." This book, as others of its time and 
 those immediatelj' following it, presents first 
 the principles of classification, then a discussion 
 of the characteristics of each of the families of 
 plants. To the latter discussion are appended 
 remarks upon affinities, geography, and proper- 
 ties, and in a sense these may be interpreted as 
 prophesies of the recent development and use in 
 education of morphology and physiology. 
 
 During this same period numerous attempts 
 were made to put botanical material into form 
 for use in education of pupils below the college 
 age. These usually took the form of talks or 
 conversations on botany,' in which the writer 
 
 ' A type of these books is. Conversations on Botany 
 with Platen, 4th ed.. Improved.- (London, 1S23.J 
 
 430
 
 BOTANY 
 
 BOTANY 
 
 attempted, in the form of conversation or dia- 
 logue, to present the structures of common plants 
 used in classification. The most successful 
 attempt to present for young students the pre- 
 vailing notions of botany of this period was 
 made by Dr. Asa Gray (q.v.) who began in 
 1S42 the publication of a remarkable series 
 of textbooks which in the United States were 
 the means of giving botany a place in the sec- 
 ondary school. Furthermore, these books pre- 
 sented to beginners not only the sj'stematic 
 point of view of botany, but as physiology and 
 morphology began to develop, the series was 
 so revised and augmented as to include these 
 aspects. 
 
 During the earlier influence of Dr. Gray in 
 this country there appeared in Germany 
 Schleiden's Principles of Scientific Botany, or 
 Botany as an Inductive Science, which was later 
 translated into English. This book, which was 
 intended for students of college age, illustrates 
 by its chief divisions the growth of botanical 
 knowledge and the accompanying change in 
 point of view of botanical instruction. There 
 are treated. The Chemistry of Plants (30 pages), 
 The Plant Cell (92 pages). Morphology (330 
 pages), Organology, (chiefly physiology, 116 
 pages). The characteristics of the great groups 
 are presented under the section of morphology, 
 and the usual systematic presentation of the 
 great groups is omitted. 
 
 Slowlj' there came a change in the point of 
 view in secondary botany, and cla.ssificatory 
 studies gave way to anatomj', morphology, 
 and physiolog3^ So completely was systematic 
 work omitted in some places that not infre- 
 quently pupils in secondary schools and stu- 
 dents in colleges did detailed laboratory work 
 upon plant parts concerning whose gross out- 
 door appearance they were entirely ignorant. 
 Then came ecology as the asjiect of plant study 
 that combined outdoor study and acquaintance 
 with plants with an investigation of the dy- 
 namic factors that have to do with the life of 
 plants in various regions. This point of view 
 in its turn became recognized by some as the 
 dominant one for use in secondary and element- 
 ary education. Similarly, as the science of 
 botany has grown through a study of applied 
 botany in agriculture, horticulture, forcstrj', 
 bacteriology, plant diseases, plant breeding, etc., 
 there have been attempts to accept one or more 
 of these points of view as the one to determine 
 the educational use of botanical material. It 
 is natural perhaps that, as the science has devel- 
 oped, each newly recognized aspect, by virtue of 
 its fresh attractiveness and significance, should 
 seem most useful in education. Textbooks 
 for secondary schools and colleges have been 
 prepared with each of the aspects of botany 
 as the determining feature. It is at about 
 this period that writers of textbooks began to 
 differentiate high school textbooks from those 
 for colleges. It was not uncommon to find a 
 book written "For High Schools and Colleges," 
 
 and even to-day there are occasionally seen 
 vestigial remains of this old idea, which rested 
 upon a failure to differentiate the two fields of 
 instruction. 
 
 At the present time most teachers 'of botany 
 in the secondary schools believe that the course 
 should be sj'nthetic, including an introduction to 
 all the important aspects of plant study, without 
 treating plants under any of the rather arbitrary 
 divisions — morphology, phj'siology, agriculture, 
 etc. — that are recognized in more advanced 
 study of the subj ect. This point of view has no w 
 been adopted by the two leading organizations 
 in the United States that have considered the 
 question. The Botanical Society of America, 
 through its committee on education, consist- 
 ing of three college teachers of botany; and 
 the North Central Association of Colleges 
 and Secondary Schools, through its committee 
 on the unit in botany, consisting of twenty- 
 two college and secondary teachers of botany, 
 have adopted a .synthetic unit course in 
 the subject for the secondary schools. It 
 is also believed by these committees that 
 the science of botany has grown to such 
 proportions that it is not wise in secondary 
 education to attempt to keep abreast of bo- 
 tanical research. There is now a fairly well- 
 defined body of botanical knowledge that should 
 be organized for use in elementary and second- 
 ary education, almost regardless of what may 
 happen in the research development of botany. 
 It is assumed of course that elementary, second- 
 ary, and college instruction in the subject will 
 avail itself of every opportunity to correct its 
 body of knowledge in the light of the most 
 recent botanical research. 
 
 Method of Work. — In present-day practices 
 in teaching botanj' in the secondary schools, 
 laboratory work is general, though not universal. 
 The quantity, kind, and purpose of the labora- 
 tory work varies so greatly as to force upon our 
 attention again the great need of a careful 
 scientific study of the teaching of the subject. 
 In some schools laboratory work is intermittent, 
 being used when favorable material is encoun- 
 tered, and then for only part or all of a single 
 recitation period. In other schools one or two 
 recitation periods per week are regularly given 
 to laboratory work, while in the best schools 
 two doubled periods each week (occasionally 
 more) are given to work in the laboratory. 
 The purpose and kind of work done in the labo- 
 ratory are closely a.ssociatcd. A comparatively 
 small number of teachers use laboratory mate- 
 rials as means for an inductive study of plants. 
 Some make no attempt at an inductive study, 
 using materials to demonstrate statements 
 previously made by the textbook or teacher. 
 Not infrequently physiological experiments are 
 performed by the teacher in the presence of the 
 class entirely' as demonstration. As such they 
 are useful and commendable in case first-hand 
 contact and first-hand inference has preceded, 
 so that there is a basis for interpretation, other- 
 
 431
 
 BOTANY 
 
 BOTANY 
 
 wise the instruction is wholly didactic and not 
 experimental. In many schools the [nipils are 
 given independent laboratory work, and are 
 required to make definite statements in draw- 
 ings and notes concerning their inferences, 
 which inferences are to be made entirely from 
 this study of materials. Following this kind 
 of laboratory work, text assignments, recitations, 
 and additional discussions from the teacher 
 have a basis for interpretation and organization 
 by the student because of his contact with 
 plants in the laboratory. Field work and the 
 greenhouse are important factors in the effi- 
 ciency of the laboratory side of the study of 
 which they are a part. They are increasing 
 with commendable rapiditj'. 
 
 The types of textbooks in most general 
 use are those by Coulter and by Bergen. In 
 the former it is assumed that laboratory work 
 is to be a part of the course, and the textbook 
 materials are presented so as to constitute an 
 elaboration of information that the pupil is 
 expected to secure from a first-hand study of 
 plants. These books do not include laboratory 
 directions, which are given apart in a separate 
 booklet in order that there may be independence 
 in the study of materials. The books by Ber- 
 gen also are designed for use with laboratory 
 work, but are not so arranged as to demand as 
 much laboratory work as the other type. The 
 latest book by each of these authors represents a 
 synthetic course in the subject. There are 
 numerous laboratory manuals, ranging in plan 
 from those that include a relatively few topics 
 and present them in such a way as to leave the 
 pujjil to liis own resources in interpretation, 
 to those that present an impossible array of 
 topics and by thoroughly detailed questions 
 attempt to inform the student about all that 
 botanical knowledge possesses regarding these 
 topics. 
 
 The Teacher of Botany. — In its outline of 
 the unit in botany the committee of the North 
 Central Association of Colleges and Secondary 
 Schools makes the following statement regard- 
 ing the qualifications of the teacher: "It is be- 
 lieved that the teacher of botany in the high 
 school should have a minimum preparation in 
 botany equivalent to two years of college work. 
 This work should include the general morphology 
 of the lower and higher groups, elementary plant 
 physiology and ecology, some knowledge of plant 
 diseasesand acquaintance wit hlocal plants; phys- 
 iography, zoology, and a course in general bac- 
 teriology are also desirable. The teacher should 
 have some knowledge of the purpose of botany 
 in high school education and of current and de- 
 sirable practice in teaching botany. Since the 
 teacher of botany usually teaches other sciences, 
 each demanding somewhat similar preparation, 
 obviously to maintain this standard more gen- 
 eral and more extended preparation needs to be 
 urged. This standard of preparation is deemed 
 highly desirable to give botany its proper 
 place in secondary education, but it may not 
 
 always be practicable. It is the standard that 
 should be met by those who are now preparing 
 to teach the subject." 
 
 It is generally recognized that the determin- 
 ing factor in botany, as in other science teach- 
 ing, is the teacher. In subjects that are more 
 completely organized for educational purposes 
 less depends upon the qualitj^ and preparation 
 of the teacher. When dcfiniteness or organiza- 
 tion of material is fairly general, somewhat 
 less is required of the teacher. This dcfinite- 
 ness is directly helpful in secondary school 
 teaching; but in the college preparation of the 
 teacher it is helpful in that in some subjects the 
 part of the body of knowledge that has proved 
 good for secondary school use maj' be made 
 distinct from the parts that are for college use, 
 or for specialists in research. The usual course 
 of preparation, if such it may be called, of a 
 high school teacher of botany carries him 
 through a series of courses that are planned 
 primarily for students who eventually may do 
 research in botany. Possibly some may argue 
 that preparation for research is the best prepa- 
 ration for teaching, but this is not yet proved. 
 Furthermore, colleges and universities empha- 
 size different aspects of botany, some agricul- 
 tural, some cytological, some morjihological, 
 and since young teachers naturalh' wish to 
 teach the things that they are most interested 
 in, this leads to unbalanced courses, determined 
 not by what are the educational, social, and 
 industrial needs of high school boys and girls, 
 but by the particular line of botany in which 
 a particular college or university is doing its 
 research work. 
 
 In England botany is not elected generally 
 by secondary school students, but by those 
 who expect to take a medical course. It is 
 said that the subject is not elected by more 
 pupils because it is taught so that it seems sig- 
 nificant only to those who are going to study 
 medicine. This suggests a very real difficulty. 
 Botany mu.st be taught so that, while having 
 educational values, it has appreciable signifi- 
 cance to those who are studying it. In this 
 country and in England it is not uncommon for 
 university teachers of botany and zoology to 
 say that these subjects would better be omitted 
 from secondary schools until adequately pre- 
 pared teachers are at hand. It is true that an 
 altogether too large number, fortunatelj' a de- 
 creasing number, of secondary school teachers 
 are teacliing botany without any academic prep- 
 aration; but, besides these, the teachers are the 
 college and university product, and the univer- 
 sities and colleges are getting the result of their 
 own students' work. If the schools omit these 
 subjects, pending the further preparation of 
 teachers, the situation is likely to be reached 
 where " biology is not taught because there are 
 no teachers; there are no teachers because 
 biology is not taught." Rather it must be 
 frankly recognized that the adequate prepara- 
 tion of the teacher of botany is a piece of work 
 
 432
 
 BOTANY 
 
 BOURNE 
 
 commensurate in importance with the adequate 
 preparation of the research botanist. Botany 
 as a research subject depends much upon the 
 quality of the teaeliing of those general students 
 who may perhaps become special research 
 students of the subject. The teacher and the 
 research man, or the prospective teacher and 
 the prospective research student, may be com- 
 bined in the same person, but, if so, the condi- 
 tion is a fortunate by-product and by no means 
 a regular occurrence. O. W. C. 
 
 References : — 
 
 B.\iLEY, L. H. On the Training of Persons to Teach 
 Agriculture in the Public SchooU. Bull. No. 1, 
 190fS, Whole No. 3S0. Bureau of Ed. 7, U.S. Dept. 
 of the Interior, 1908. 
 
 Barnes, CH.tRLES R. Sciences in the High School. 
 School Review, Vol. 6, 1898. 
 The Progress and Problems of Plant Physiology. 
 Presidential Address, Section G., Proc. A. A. A. S., 
 1899. Science. Vol. 10, p. 316, 1899. 
 
 Bergen, J. Y. Plant Physiology in Secondary Schools, 
 Education. Vol. 27, pp. 409-419, 1907. 
 Botany as an Alternative in College Admission 
 Requirements. Ed. Rev.. Vol. 11, 1.890. 
 
 BoRzi, A. (Tr. by J. Y. Bergen.) On Giving a Bio- 
 logical Trend to Botany and Zo61og>- in Secondary 
 Schools. Jour, of Ed.. Feb. 20, 1908. 
 
 Brendel, F. Historical Sketch of the Science of 
 Botany in North America from 1635-1840. Am. 
 Nat.. Vol. 13. Dec, 1897. 
 
 Caldwell, Otis W. Essentials of High School Botany. 
 Sch. Rev.. Jan., 1904. 
 An Investigation of the Teaching of Biological 
 Subjects in Secondary Schools. Sch. Sci. and 
 Math.. June, 1909. 
 and Committee. The Unit in Botany. Report 
 of the Commission on Accredited Schools of the 
 North Central Association of Colleges and Second- 
 ary .Schools, 1910. J. E. Armstrong, Englewood 
 High School, Chicago, Secretary, 
 ami Committee. A Consideration of the Principles 
 that Should Determine the Courses in Biology in 
 Secondary Schools. Sch. Sci. and Math., Mar., 
 1909. 
 
 Clements, F. E. Greek and Latin in Biological No- 
 menclature. Published by the University of 
 Nebraska, Vol. 3, No. 1, 1902. University Studies, 
 1902. 
 
 Cook, O. F. On Biological Text-books and Teachers. 
 Science. Vol. 9, pp. 541-545, 1899. 
 
 ConLTER, J. G. Opportunities for Young Men in 
 Botany. Sch. Sci. and Math.. 1908. 
 
 Coulter, J. M. The Influence of the Teacher's Re- 
 search Work upon his Teaching of Biology in 
 Secondary Schools. Sch. Sci. and Math., Feb., 
 1905. 
 Report of the Sub-Committee on Botany in 
 Secondary Schools. Proceedings of the N. E. A., 
 Dept. of Science, 1898. 
 Botany as a Factor in Education. Sch. Rev.. Vol. 
 
 12. Oct., 1904. 
 The Future of Systematic Botany. Proc. A. A. 
 
 A. S. Science. Vol. 18, p. 127, Sept. 4, 1891. 
 The Botanical Outlook. An address delivered 
 before the Botanical Seminar of the University 
 of Nebraska, May 27, 1895. 
 
 Crosby, D. J. Plant Production. Exercises in Ele- 
 mentary Agriculture. Bull. No. 186, Office of Ex. 
 Stations. U.S. Dept. of Agr.. 1907. 
 
 Davis, H. M. The .Soil and its Relation to Plants. 
 Teachers' Bull. No. 1, Dept. of Nat. Hist, and 
 Elc. Agr., Miami University, Oxford, Ohio. 
 
 Galloway, B. T. Applied Botany, Retrospective and 
 Prospective. Science. Vol. 16, pp. 49-59, July 11, 
 1902. 
 
 Galloway, T. W. The Function of Biological Sciences 
 in Education. Sch. Sci. and Math.. Oct.. 1908. 
 An Appreciation of the Pedagogical Possibilities of 
 VOL. I — 2 F 
 
 the Biological Laboratorj-. Sch. Sci. and Math., 
 
 Feb., 1908. 
 Ganong, W. F. Cardinal Principles in Morphology. 
 
 Bot. Gazette, Vol. 31, pp. 426-434, June, 1901. 
 The Teaching Botanist. Revised and Enlarged. 
 
 (New York, 1910.) 
 Some Reflections upon Botanical Education in 
 
 America. Science, New Series, Vol. 31, pp. 321- 
 
 334, 1910. 
 The Erroneous Physiology of the Elementary 
 
 Text-books. Sch. 'Sci. and Math., Apr. 1908. 
 and Committee. Fourth Report on the College 
 
 Entrance Course in Botany. Sch. Rev., Vol. 16, 
 
 1908. 
 Hunter, G. W. The Methods, Content, and Purpose 
 
 of Biological Science in the Secondary Schools of 
 
 the United States. Sch. Sci. and Math., Vol. 10, 
 
 Jan. and Feb., 1910. 
 Linville, H. R., and Committee. Practical Uses of 
 
 Biology. Sch. Sci. and Math., Vol. 9, 1909. 
 Lloyd, F. E. The Courses in Botany in the Horace 
 
 Mann School. Teachers' College Record, Vol. 2, 
 
 No. 1, Jan., 1901. 
 and BiGELOW, M. A. The Teaching of Biology. 
 
 (New York, 1904.) 
 LocY, W. A. Biology and Its Makers. (New York, 
 
 1908.) 
 Newcombe, F. C. Equipment and Administration of 
 
 the High-school Botanical Laboratory. Sch. Rev., 
 
 May, 1899. 
 Russell, J. E. Natural Sciences in the Higher .Schools 
 
 of Germany. Sch. Rev., Jan. and Feb., 1907. 
 W.iGER, H. The Teaching of Botany in Schools. 
 
 School World. Vol. 3, 1901. 
 Walter, H. E. The Nature and Amount of Biological 
 
 Work that can Profitably be attempted in Second- 
 ary Schools. Sch. Rev.. March, 1900. 
 Whitford, H. N. Physiography and Botany. Sch. 
 
 Rev., Vol. 45, Jan., 1902. 
 Wilson, E. B. Teaching and Research in Natural 
 
 Sciences. Columbia University Quarterly. Vol. 11, 
 
 Mar., 1909. 
 
 For the place of botany in the schools, see — 
 Hughes, R. E. Making of a Citizen. (London, 1902.) 
 Lexis, W. Das Unterrichtswesen im deutschen Reiche, 
 
 (Berlin, 1904.) 
 Payne, R. E. The Elementary School Curriculum. 
 
 (New York, 1905.) 
 Russell, J. E. German Higher Schools. 
 
 BOTTA, VINCENZO (1818-1894.) — Edu- 
 cator and writer on education, educated in the 
 schools of Italy and at the University of Turin; 
 served on the educational commission in Sar- 
 dinia; was professor in New York University 
 for many years; author of Education in Pied- 
 mont and of numerous articles in Barnard's 
 American Journal of Education. W. S. M. 
 
 BOURNE, STURGES (1769-1845). -- A 
 member of Parliament who played an active 
 part in the English House of Commons between 
 1798 and 1831, and frequently held office. He 
 was Home Secretary in 1827. He is known 
 in the history of English education in connec- 
 tion with Mr. Whitbread's famous Education 
 Bill of 1807 (.see Whitbre.^d). Mr. Bourne 
 objected to the compulsory establishment of 
 parochial schools, and in committee on July 21, 
 1807, proposed as a substitutional clause, 
 " that it shall be lawful for the church wardens 
 and overseers in any parish, township, or place, 
 with the consent of the major part of the 
 parishioners or inhabitants in vestry or other 
 parish or public meeting for that purpose, 
 433
 
 BOUTWELL 
 
 BOWDOIN COLLEGE 
 
 after one month's notice assembled, or of 
 so many of them as shall be so assembled, 
 to estal)lish, if they think fit, within their 
 respective ])arishes, a school or schools for 
 the instruction of the children of the poor, 
 and to purchase or hire any buildings, or 
 to purchase any land for the erection of any 
 buildings, and to erect any buildings which may 
 be found requisite for that purpose, and to 
 employ or contract with any person or persons 
 to be approved by the minister of such parish, 
 to instruct the children of the poor, under such 
 rules and regulations as they may think it expe- 
 dient to adopt." This clause was adopted on 
 August 4 and power given to the parish officers 
 to build schools. The bill thus amended 
 passed the Commons, but was thrown out by 
 the House of Lords. J. E. G. de M. 
 
 BOUTWELL, GEORGE SEWELL (1S15- 
 1905). — Educated in the common schools of 
 Massachu.setts; Secretary of the Massachusetts 
 State Board of Education (1S53-1S5S); author 
 of Educational Topics and Institutions and of 
 several historical and political works. 
 
 W. S. M. 
 
 BOWDOIN COLLEGE, BRUNSWICK, ME. 
 
 — A nonsectarian institution, incorporated 
 June 24, 1794, by the General Court of Massa- 
 chusetts, to meet the demand for a college in 
 the district of Maine, since Harvard College, 
 the nearest institution, was accessible only to 
 the richer inhabitants. The location at Bruns- 
 wick was selected as a compromise, that town 
 being midway between Portland and small 
 towns along the Kennebec that had offered 
 sites for the new college. The name was chosen 
 in honor of James Bowdoin, Harvard 1745, an 
 important figure in the Revolution, and twice 
 Governor of Massachusetts; he died in 1790. 
 His son, also James Bowdoin, the first minister 
 to Spain, besides gifts in money and land, 
 willed to the college his library and a valuable 
 collection of drawings. Owing to the fact that 
 the resources consisted largely of inactive wil- 
 derness land, no building was erected until in 
 1802 the " House " (now called Massachusetts 
 Hall) was completed. In September, 1802, 
 the Rev. Joseph McKeen, Dartmouth 1774, 
 was installed as first president, and a class of 
 8 students was matriculated. In 1806 a dor- 
 mitory was built; in 1814 the general court 
 appropriated $3000 a year to Bowdoin. In 
 1821 the first college commencement in the 
 state of Maine was marked by the erection of 
 a new hall and by the entrance of the largest 
 class so far received; among its members were 
 Longfellow and Hawthorne. By 1837 the 
 endowment had increased to $100,000, and 
 Bowdoin had gained a widespread reputation 
 for scholarly thoroughness; during this panic 
 year, however, the trustees appealed for aid and 
 received gifts amounting to $70,000, most of 
 the sum coming from members of the Congre- 
 
 gational churches, a denomination with which 
 the college had been in sympathy from the out- 
 set. In 1908 the removal of sectarian restric- 
 tions accompanying the funds for certain pro- 
 fessorships and the transfer to the Andover 
 Theological Seminary of the fund for the Stone 
 professorships, led to the admission of Bow- 
 doin by the Carnegie Foundation for the ad- 
 vancement of Teaching {q.v.) as participating 
 in its system of retiring allowances to profes- 
 sors. (See the Third Ileport of the Founda- 
 tion, 1908.) 
 
 Bowdoin has the student life of a t3'pical 
 " small college." Membershii) in fraternities 
 included (1908) 302 students, 86.8 per cent of 
 the total number, in chapters averaging 38 
 members each; most of the chapters occupy 
 houses. The following fraternities have been 
 established: Alpha Delta Phi, Psi Upsilon, 
 Delta Kappa Epsilon, Theta Delta Chi, Delta 
 Upsilon, Zeta Psi, Kappa Sigma, Beta Theta 
 Pi, Alpha Kappa Kappa (medical), and Phi 
 Chi (medical). The president in several 
 reports has called attention to the need of a 
 new gymnasium, plans for which were drawn 
 in 1901. Athletics are regulated by the Ath- 
 letic Council of the General Athletic A.ssocia- 
 tion, consisting of two members of the faculty, 
 and five members each from the alumni and the 
 students. According to tables ( Bowdoin College 
 Bulletin, New Series, No. 10) based on returns 
 from 200 undergraduates, a typical low expense 
 account is $273.86 a year; a liberal account, 
 $388. In 1906-1907, 167 students earned on 
 the average $283.51 each. 
 
 Bowdoin has a remarkable list of distin- 
 guished alumni, including President Franklin 
 Pierce, Chief Ju.stice Fuller, John P. Hale, 
 and Thomas B. Reed; not many years ago the 
 Senate, House of Representatives, and Supreme 
 Court, were all tliree presided over by Bowdoin 
 graduates. 
 
 Degrees given by the college are A.B., and 
 M. A. for one year's graduate study in residence. 
 Admission is by examination and certificate 
 of an approved high school. The institution is 
 a member of the New England Association of 
 Colleges and Preparatory Schools and the New 
 England College Entrance Certificate Board (see 
 College Entrance Boards). In 1907-1908 
 the entrance requirements were advanced. 
 After the freshman year, the studies are nearly 
 all elective. The ^ledical School of Maine, 
 established in 1820 by the fir.st legislature of 
 the state, was by its charter made the Medical 
 Department of Bowdoin College; the work of 
 the first two years is given at Brunswick and of 
 the last two in Portland, on account of clinical 
 advantages in that city. Nearly all the teach- 
 ers in this school are officers of the Maine 
 General Hospital in Portland. 
 
 The corporation is a self-perpetuating body, 
 styled The President and Trustees of Bowdoin 
 College, the membership of which is never 
 less than 7 nor more than 13 (in 1909, 13); in 
 434
 
 BOWDOIN COLLEGE 
 
 BOY BISHOP 
 
 addition there is a self-perpetuating Board of 
 Overseers, which has only a veto power and 
 which has a membership of not less than 
 25 nor more than 45 (in 1909, 42). For half 
 of its vacancies, the Board of Overseers 
 accepts nominations of alumni. This bicameral 
 system of government was modeled originally 
 on that of Harvard College. 
 
 The campus of 40 acres is 1 mile from the 
 Androscoggin River, and about 1 mile inland 
 from Casco Bay. The library contains (1909) 
 92,000 volumes. Grounds, buildings, and 
 equipment are valued (1909) at about $'900,000. 
 In 1897 the income-bearing funds amounted to 
 $500,000; in 1909, to .S2, 000,000. For the year 
 1908-1909 gifts, many of small amounts, from 
 alumni amounted to S542,552.16, includ- 
 ing $20,595.64 from the General Education 
 Board {q.v.), $23,812.50 from the Elizabeth 
 D. Cummins bequest, $20,000 from Mr. 
 Andrew Carnegie, $33,187 from an anonymous 
 donor, .$50,000 from Mr. W. R. Porter, and 
 $310,000 the bequest of J. E. Merrill. The 
 total annual income is about $80,000. The 
 average salary of a professor is $2000; the presi- 
 dent has urged the application of part of 
 the new endowment to an increase in salaries. 
 There are (1909) 23 members on the academic 
 instructing staff and 38 members on the medical ; 
 the total instructing staff is 57 (deducting for 
 names counted twice). There are 419 students, 
 divided as follows: academic department, 346; 
 medical school, 74. Willam DeWitt Hyde, 
 D.D., LL.D., is president. C. G. 
 
 References: — 
 
 Cleaveland, Nehemiah. History of Bowdoin Col- 
 lege. (Boston, 1882.) 
 
 History of Bowdoin College in the Biographies of its 
 presidents. National Encyclopedia of American 
 Biography, Vol. I, pp. 417-419. 
 
 Little, G. T. Historical Sketch of Bowdoin College 
 during the first century — in General Catalogue 
 for 189J,. Pref., pp. 9-112. 
 
 BOWDON COLLEGE, BOWDON, GA. — 
 
 A coeducational institution opened in 1856 
 and chartered in the following year with power 
 to confer degrees. The primary and prepar- 
 atory departments give the work of the eight 
 grades, which is continued in a four years' 
 academic course. 
 
 BOXING. — Since the fist forms a natural 
 means of offense and defense, bo.xing appeared 
 early. Among the Greeks its invention was 
 attributed to Theseus. References to it are 
 found in Homer, and some of the gods, e.g. Apollo 
 and Hercules, were credited with great skill in 
 it. Boxing was introduced into the Olympic 
 games about 684 b.c, and was always included 
 in the pentathlon. It was also found at other 
 national contests. The contestants fought 
 naked, and their hands were covered with 
 boxing gloves, of which there were several 
 varieties, according to the severity of the blow 
 which it was desired to inflict. Thus these 
 
 gloves varied from the light rawhide thongs 
 wrapped round the fingers to the heavy leather 
 covering studded with iron and lead, or knots 
 and nails. The latter were frequently used at 
 Rome. The aim of the boxing match was to 
 fight until one of the contestants declared him- 
 self conquered. It was against the rules to 
 use the feet. The blows were inflicted on the 
 head and upper part of the bodj'. The ears 
 were usually heavy sufferers, so that in lighter 
 practice ear protectors were used. If both 
 sides were agreed, pauses might be arranged for 
 a rest. Severe wounds were common, and death 
 was not infrequent. Boxing was introduced 
 into Rome at an early date, and continued into 
 the daj's of the Empire. 
 
 In modern times boxing is practiced chiefly 
 in America, Great Britain, and the British 
 Colonies. It is known also under the terms 
 "sparring," "the Manly Art," and "the Art 
 of Self-Defense." The particii)ants wear large 
 padded gloves to eliminate the danger of in- 
 jury from blows. The rules of the sport permit 
 only blows given with the hands and delivered 
 on the parts of the body above the waist 
 line. Boxing affords all-round vigorous exer- 
 cise and serves to develop strength, agility, 
 and endurance. The combative element in 
 this exercise makes it valuable for the develop- 
 ment of self-control and manliness, but when 
 not properly supervised, it may degenerate 
 into brutal fighting with disa.strous results 
 physically and morally. Boxing is taught in 
 most American colleges and in many pre- 
 paratory schools. The instruction is usually 
 given individually, but in a number of col- 
 leges the principal blows and guards are taught 
 to large classes by the same methods as are used 
 in teaching calisthenics or dancing steps. 
 
 The association of boxing with prize-fighting 
 has interfered materially with its general use 
 as a legitimate branch of the physical education 
 curriculum, but with the better organization 
 and supervision of physical activities in educa- 
 tional institutions, boxing will undoubtedly 
 come to be recognized as a valuable form of 
 exercise in the physical education of boys and 
 young men. G. L. M. 
 
 See Athletics, Educational. 
 
 BOY, PROBLEM OF THE. — See Ado- 
 lescence; Adolescence, Hygiene of; Boys' 
 Clubs. 
 
 BOY BISHOP. — The boy bishop, " barne- 
 bishop," " httle bishop," " youths' bishop," 
 " scholars' bishop," " Bishop Nicholas," was 
 one of the most curious of medieval institu- 
 tions. The creation of a sham bishop to 
 perform mock masses was one of the oldest 
 methods of holiday making for those in statu 
 pupillari. In the cathedral and collegiate 
 churches, there was no going home for the holi- 
 days for the schoolboys, any more than there 
 was for the boys in the monasteries already 
 
 435
 
 BOY BISHOP 
 
 BOY BISHOP 
 
 devoted (oblati) to become monks. But human 
 nature must have relief, and the ecclesiastics 
 reproduced under a religious, or rather a Chris- 
 tian, disguise, the holidays of the Roman popu- 
 lar and religious winter feasts of the Saturnalia, 
 New Year's Day (the Kalends of January), and 
 the Feast of Fools on Feb. 17. The older 
 members had their 000s as they were called, 
 beginning on Dec. 16, the day of O Sapicnda, 
 from which day to Christmas Day the an- 
 thems began with " O," O radix Jesse for the gar- 
 dener, and the like, in which in turn each officer 
 of a catiiedral or monastery gave a dinner and 
 wine to his colleagues, days still commemo- 
 rated in the Bursar's dinner at All Souls' Col- 
 lege, Oxford, held till 10 years ago on Dec. 19. 
 These days corresponded with the Roman 
 Saturnalia, which also began on Dec. 16. 
 After Christmas there were four tripudia, or 
 dancings, says a canon of Amiens c. 1182, in the 
 church, of the deacons (on St. Stephen's Day, 
 he being accounted the first deacon), of priests on 
 St. John's Day (he being a priest), of boys on 
 Innocents' Day, and of subdeacons. Innocents' 
 Day reproduced the Juvenalia, which concluded 
 the Saturnalia at Rome. License was of the 
 essence of the Saturnalia, the slave sat in his 
 master's place, public gambling was permitted, 
 there were public feasting, processions, and 
 giving of presents. On the eve of Innocents' 
 Day, in like manner, at Vespers when the Mag- 
 nificat was sung, at the verse " He hath put 
 down the mighty from their seats and hath 
 exalted the humble and meek," the deposuit, 
 as it is shortly called, the real bishop vacated 
 his throne in favor of a bishop elected by the 
 boys, the precentor handed over his staff of 
 office, with which he ruled the choir, to a boy 
 precentor, and the other dignitaries and canons, 
 such as the schoolmaster or chancellor, gave 
 place to boys that took their titles and 
 duties. The boy bishop for the whole of 
 Innocents' Day performed the services, includ- 
 ing the mass itself, clad in full pontificals, 
 preached a sermon, and gave the solemn 
 episcopal blessing to the people. One bishop 
 at least gave his own miter, by will, for 
 the use of the boy bishop, while gorgeous 
 capes and albs were provided for his com- 
 panions. They went round the town in pro- 
 cession, the boy bishop riding, and ended with 
 a great supper. We first hear in England of 
 the tripiidia in a letter of Aldhelm to Hoeddi, 
 Bishop of Winchester, about 999, excusing him- 
 self from coming to the Christian tripudia with 
 his old companions, because of his immersion 
 in his studies. In 911, when Conrad I of Ger- 
 many was staying with the Bishop of Constance, 
 he visited the monastery of St. Gall on purpose 
 to see the Christian tripudia, especially the 
 Procession of the Infants, which was then so 
 solemn that the boys' ranks were not broken 
 even when apples were rolled on the pavement of 
 the church close by them. This decorum was by 
 no means general in later times. At St. Paul's, 
 
 London, c. 1190, a statute prescribed that a 
 new residentiary canon was to escort the boy 
 who represented him on Innocents' Day back 
 to the Almonry with dances and songs and 
 torches and to give the boy bishop supper on 
 the octave of the day, and if he waited for him 
 till late at night, was excused Matins in the 
 morning. 
 
 In the eleventh century the boy bishop's 
 feast was combined with that of St. Nicholas 
 of Myra, lately translated to Bari in Italy. He 
 was made the patron saint of scholars and 
 schoolboys, because of the tale of his raising to 
 life again tliree boys on their way to school at 
 Athens, who had been murdered and pickled by 
 a greedy innkeeper. In many places, the elec- 
 tion of boy bishop took place on St. Nicholas' 
 Day, Dec. 6. At York in 1396 the boy 
 bishop was elected on that day, and his episco- 
 pacy lasted to Candlemas Day (Feb. 2), 
 during which time he rode about the country 
 with five attendants, including a tenor and a 
 middle voice singer, and performed plays be- 
 fore, and levied contributions on, neighboring 
 magnates, especially the heads of religious 
 houses. An account roll for this year is at 
 York, and shows that the Countess of Nor- 
 thumberland contributed no less than £1 and 
 a gold ring, and the boy bishop had a surplus 
 of over £30, £600 of modern money, after 
 paying all expenses. Various fulminations 
 were aimed at abuses of the ceremony. In 
 1263 at St. Paul's, a statute especially forbade 
 the real dean and canons from being made to 
 perform services for the Boy, and limited his 
 immediate attendants to sup with the Dean to 
 15 and those of the boy dean to 3; and in 
 1319 at Salisbury, statutes were aimed at pre- 
 venting the crowds and disorderly processions. 
 Yet the school-founders specially recognized it. 
 In 1300 we find Merton College paying for 
 the dica or offering of Blessed Nicholas for 
 one of the Founder's kin boys in the grammar 
 school attached to the college. A century 
 later, William of Wykeham's Statutes for Win- 
 chester College in 1400, while providing that 
 the Warden and fellows were to officiate on 
 feast days, says," We allow however that on 
 the Feast of Innocents the boys may perform 
 the divine offices after the use of Sarum," and 
 he gave a miter of cloth of gold, and a crozier 
 of coppergilt for the boy bishop: who is called 
 the Scholars' Bishop in 1406, when men from 
 Ropley came and danced {tripiidiajitibvs) be- 
 fore him. The Eton Statutes of 1443 in the 
 same connection, allowed the bishop of the boy 
 scholars to be yearly elected on the feast of St. 
 Nicholas and not on Innocents' Day, to do all 
 services except the secret of the mass. This 
 last qualification was in consequence of a dead 
 set made at this and the kindred Feast of 
 Fools by the Council of Basle in 1435. In 1464 
 a monk of Canterbury records as a notable 
 event that there was no boy bishop in the gram- 
 mar school there, through the master's default. 
 
 436
 
 BOY SCOUTS 
 
 BOYS' BRIGADES 
 
 Archbishop Rotherham says in his will in 1495 
 that he had given to his college at Rotherham 
 with its schools a miter of cloth of gold with 
 silver enameled " knops " to be used by the 
 Barne-bishop. The Puritanical Colet, who 
 did not allow the boys of St. Paul's School 
 " remedies," i.e. casual hoHdays, did not allow 
 them a boy bishop of their own, but directed 
 in 1518 that they should attend St. Paul's 
 Church, " euery Childermasse day . . . and 
 here the Chylde Bisshopes sermon . . . and 
 offer Irf. to the childe bisshop." In 1541 Henry 
 VIII, by Proclamation, put down throughout 
 his dominions the boy bishop as childish and 
 superstitious. It is odd to find the Aberdeen 
 Town Council the very next year ordering that 
 the " maister of thair grammar scuyll sail have 
 4s. Scotch of the sobirest persoun that resaives 
 him and the bischop at Saint Nicolace day." 
 The boy bishop was revived under Queen 
 Mary, which is remarkable, as, even at Catholic 
 Sens in France, the boy bishop was suppressed 
 in 1547. He died in England under Queen 
 Elizabeth, though what is probably his last 
 sermon was preached in Gloucester Cathedral 
 on Childermass day, 1558, and has been printed. 
 At Noyon in France, he was suppressed in 
 1622, at Cologne in 1662. In the Catholic 
 part of Germany, the Schul-Bischopp of Mainz 
 survived to 1779. It is said that at Sens the 
 choir boys still elected an Ane or ass archbishop 
 in the nineteenth century. Santa Claus (Saint 
 Niklaus) is his modern survival. A. F. L. 
 
 References: — 
 Cha.mbers, E. K. The Medioecal Stage, Vol. I, 336. 
 
 (1903.) 
 Leach, A. F. The Schoolboys' Feast. Fortnightly Re- 
 view, Jan., 1896. 
 
 BOY SCOUTS. — See Boys' Brigades. 
 
 BOYHOOD. — See Adolescence. 
 
 BOYLE, ROBERT (1627-1691). — A promi- 
 nent English man of science. A nobleman by 
 birth, the son of the Earl of Cork, he was in a 
 position to attract general attention and lend 
 dignity to the study of science. After spending a 
 few years at Eton, he traveled on the Continent 
 and visited France, Switzerland, and Italy. 
 He early showed a bent for study, particularly 
 scientific, combined with a strong religious 
 temperament. In 1854 he settled in O.xford, 
 and soon became an influential member in a 
 small coterie of men interested in science. The 
 group had already met earlier in London at 
 Gresham College under the title of Philosophic, 
 or, as Boyle calls it, the Invisible College, in 
 1645. Out of these meetings grew the Royal 
 Society (q.v.) in 1662, with which Boyle was 
 connected until shortly before his death. At 
 O.xford Boyle established a laboratory and 
 experimented on the air pump and the elas- 
 ticity of gases, the permanent contribution of 
 which is embodied in Boyle's Law. His other 
 
 interests were mainly religious. For many 
 years he was Governor of the Society for^the 
 Spread uf the Gospel in Nerv England, and spent 
 much money on the circulation of Bible trans- 
 lations. He also left money for the payment 
 of a stipend for eight sermons to be preached 
 each year in London in defense of Christianity 
 against all other beliefs. He consistently 
 refused to take orders, as a consequence of 
 which he was unable to accept an offer of the 
 provostship of Eton. I. L. K. 
 
 References : — 
 
 Ad.uison, J. W. Pioneers of Modern Education. 
 
 (Cambridge, 1905.) 
 Dictionary oj National Biography. 
 
 BOYS' BRIGADES. — Organizations which 
 began in Great Britain to provide a definite 
 kind of moral and civic training and a high 
 ideal of conduct to boys in the adolescent stage 
 who have been compelled in most cases to 
 complete their education with the elementary 
 schools. Nearly all the brigades are organized 
 on a military basis, and a large number are 
 connected with religious bodies. In addition 
 to military drill, athletic clubs, gymnastic 
 exercises, games, rambles, as well as Bible classes, 
 Sunday services, and church parades, are em- 
 ployed as means of training. The brigades have 
 served to popularize summer camps, which 
 form a strong and important feature in their 
 organization. The oldest association of this 
 type is the Boys' Brigade, founded in 1883 
 with headquarters at Glasgow with definite 
 religious motives, although on undenominational 
 lines. In 1891 was organized the Church 
 Lads' Brigade, a Church of England association. 
 The Jewish Lads' Brigade was formed on sirni- 
 lar lines and with similar aims on the disciplin- 
 ary and moral side. Apart from the organiza- 
 tions with a religious motive, there arose other 
 associations with a purely patriotic aim, and 
 these have been fostered by the influences 
 which came out of the Boer War. They aim 
 not only at moral training of adolescent boys 
 through athletics and recreation, but at the 
 preparation of a military organization and 
 education without the necessity of resorting 
 to conscription. Of these the earliest was the 
 Lads' Drill Association, which was founded in 
 1899 and was incorporated in 1906 with the 
 National Service League, which frankly aims at 
 military preparation, not even excluding con- 
 scription. The League includes among its 
 objects the popularizing of rifle shooting and 
 the establishment of rifle clubs. Of a similar 
 type organized with a similar aim but without 
 definite military drill is the recent association 
 known as the Boy Scouts, which aims to train 
 boys to quick and ready action, to self-reliance 
 as well as cooperation, to serve as an intelligent 
 subsidiary force to the army in case of necessity. 
 This year the organization received permission 
 to send a detachment of Scouts to the annual 
 military maneuvers. The moving spirit in 
 
 437
 
 BOYS' CAIMPS 
 
 BOYS' CLUBS 
 
 the association is Ooiicral Sir R. S. S. Baden- 
 Powell. The pledge taken by the members 
 of the association is: " I will do my duty to 
 God and my country. I will do my best to 
 help others, whatever it costs me. I know 
 the scout law and will obey it." 
 
 The Botjf:' Life Brigade definitely excludes 
 military drill, but makes life-savins its central 
 object as a means to religious and moral train- 
 ing. The physical instruction is given with a 
 view to train a spirit of heljifulncss to others. 
 The association insists that its members should 
 attend Sunday school or Bible classes. To 
 inculcate the same jirinciples and to provide 
 the same training for girls a Girls' Life Brigade 
 was organized. In addition to marching, 
 gymnastics, and stretcher drill, life-saving from 
 fire and water, hvgiene and first aid, the girls 
 are also taught sick nursing. 
 
 On the whole these movements represent a 
 healthy tendency. In connection with and sup- 
 plementing the work of the boys' clubs they are 
 all combining to teach principles of discipline, 
 helpfulness, courtesy, obedience, and self- 
 reliance and to provide that comradeship and 
 healthy recreation which are essential to ado- 
 lescence and which otherwise could not be 
 attained by the class of boys who are thus 
 reached. Of the excellent moral and social 
 influences and the training afforded to make 
 healthy citizens it is not necessary here to speak. 
 
 I. L. K. 
 
 See BoTs' Clubs; Moral Training. 
 
 Reference: — 
 
 Sadler, M. E. Continuation Schools in England and 
 Elsewhere. (Manchester, 1907.) 
 
 BOYS' CAMPS. — See Camp Schools. 
 
 BOYS' CLUBS. — The formation of boys' 
 clubs represents a phase of preventive phi- 
 lanthropy, which has developed during the last 
 quarter of a century in the larger cities of Eng- 
 land and the United States. Many varieties 
 have been experimented with, ranging from 
 industrial classes to groups whose chief objects 
 are athletics, or young people's work in religion. 
 
 As early as 1878 the famyus St. Marks 
 Place Boys' Club was started in New York, 
 as a means of combating the neighborhood 
 gangs which had grown up. In subsequent 
 years numerous other boys' clubs have been 
 foundedi some by churches, some by settle- 
 ments, and many quite unconnected with exist- 
 ing institutions. A form of club activity now 
 exists under the direction of the public school 
 in the so-called evening play centers, where 
 instructors are provided for groups of boys in 
 athletics, etc. 
 
 A well-known boys' club in San Francisco 
 has developed as a special feature an annual 
 walking and camping trip, which may extend 
 hundreds of miles, and which is made partly 
 self-supporting through entertainments given 
 on the way. The summer outing or camp for 
 
 two or more weeks has become a common feature 
 of boys' clubs in Eastern cities, and in some cases 
 land for camping purposes is owned or rented 
 by the club, and its management rests on a 
 self-governing basis. 
 
 In 1900 some 8000 or 9000 boys were enrolled 
 in the clubs of London. Many of these have 
 no connection with the churches. Apparently 
 the London and other English clubs make less 
 of self-government and [nirliamentary law than 
 do the American, but in other respects they are 
 quite similar. 
 
 The theory underlying the formation of 
 boys' clubs is that children from 14 or earlier, 
 whose homes are crowded and unattractive, 
 gt-eatly need social life, and, if left to them- 
 selves, will find it in the " gang " life of the 
 streets, and rapidly drift toward immorality 
 and crime. Most of the boj'S reached are 
 already wage earners, and their need of social 
 relaxation and physical exercise in the evening 
 is especially great. Some clubs have developed 
 features of industrial education, leading even to 
 trades teaching, but this work is effective only 
 with selected groups of boys. Games, gymnas- 
 tics, debating, and reading are the activities 
 usually found successful, but the fundamental 
 object of the club is not so much to get definite 
 results in these as to employ them as a whole- 
 some environment to keep adolescent children 
 off the street or away from disreputable resorts. 
 Of late, theatricals, interclub contests, and 
 history classes have become prominent means 
 of developing the kind of activity needed to 
 attract and improve members. 
 
 In practice boys' clubs are still in the experi- 
 mental stage; the successful ones owe their 
 permanence often to magnetic leaders rather 
 than to any particular systems yet developed. 
 Some make a feature of hard work and firm, 
 though kindly, discipline; others allow much 
 freedom, and strive to secure control largely 
 through self-government. In forming clubs in 
 congested quarters of cities, racial differences of 
 considerable importance have been encountered, 
 the most marked contrasts being between the 
 Irish and the Hebrews. Irish youth have a 
 fondness for sports and athletics, caring little 
 for the more intellectual or purposeful pursuits; 
 while Hebrews care most for these latter 
 activities. 
 
 From the standpoint of social economy, 
 the preventive or constructive significance of 
 boys' clubs is very great, and it is believed that 
 the movement is too important to be left to 
 private philanthropy. In a few cities public 
 school buildings are now utilized for club pur- 
 poses, and paid leaders employed. This de- 
 velopment is still experimental, since it is 
 not possible here to procure the same degree 
 of personal devotion as has been found in the 
 philanthropic developments. Gymnasium work 
 and swimming have proved most successful. 
 
 D. S. S. 
 
 See School Buildings, Extended Use of. 
 
 .438
 
 BOYS 
 
 BRAIDLEY 
 
 References: — 
 
 Bock, W. Boys' Self-Goveming Clubs. (New York, 
 
 1903.) 
 Calkins, R. Substitutes for the Saloon, pp. 314-321. 
 Commons, J. R. George Jr. Republic. Am. Jour, of 
 
 Soc. Vol. 3, pp. USl, 433. 
 FoRBUSH, W. B. The Boy Problem. (Boston, 1901.) 
 The Social Pedagogy of Boyhood. Ped. Sem. 
 
 Vol. 7, 307. 
 GuNCKEL, J. E. Boyville, a History of Fifteen Years' 
 
 Work Among Newsboys. (Toledo, 1905.) 
 Lee, J. Preventive Philanthropy, Ch. XIII. 
 Neuman, Paul. The Boys' Clubs. (London, 1900.) 
 Riis, J. Children of the Poor, Ch. VIII. 
 Russell, C. E. B. Working Lads Clubs. (London, 
 
 190S.) 
 Sadler, M. E. Continuation Schools. (London, 1906.) 
 Sheldon, H. D. The Institutional Activities of Ameri- 
 can Children. Pad. Sem., Vol. 9, p. 425. 
 Stelze, C. Boys of the Streets — How to Win Them. 
 
 (New York, 1904.) 
 
 BOYS, ELIMINATION FROM SCHOOL. 
 
 • — See Eli.minatiox of Pupils from School. 
 
 BRACE, JULIA (1807-1884). — A blind, 
 deaf mute, who, at the age of 4 years and 5 
 months lost her sight and hearing and shortly 
 afterwards her speech, was taken to the School 
 for the Deaf at Hartford when she was 18 years 
 old, and attempts were made to train her mind. 
 She acquired some skill in the performance of 
 household duties, and her sense of smell grew 
 remarkably acute, but it was not found possible 
 to train her by means of the manual alphabet 
 as was later done with Laura Bridgman (q.v.). 
 
 W. S. M. 
 
 See Deaf-Blind, Education of. 
 
 BRADLEY, GEORGE GRANVILLE (1821- 
 1903). — One of the great English school- 
 masters of the nineteenth century who contrib- 
 uted to the reorganization of sccondarj' educa- 
 tion. Born in 1821 in London, he attended 
 a local school until the age of 16, when he 
 went to Rugby and came under the personal 
 influence of Arnold (q.v.). In 1840, he went 
 up to Oxford, where upon graduating he be- 
 came a fellow of University College. Two 
 years later he entered upon his career as a 
 teacher at Rugby. In 1858 he was appointed 
 headmaster of Marlborough College. This 
 school, then in its sixteenth year, had suffered 
 largely through laxness of discipline, but was 
 just beginning to recover. Bradley brought 
 with him the ideals of Arnold, and fearl&ssly 
 devoted himself to the work before him, with 
 the result that Marlborough came to rank with 
 the leading public schools in scholarship and 
 spirit. Bradley was an excellent teacher of 
 the classics, and knew how to inspire all around 
 him with his own untiring energy. Scathing as 
 his criticism often was, he had that personality 
 which could inspire fear without losing the affec- 
 tions of those with whom he came into contact. 
 But his influence was not confined to his school ; 
 his works on Latin prose composition soon won 
 an established place in all iMiglish schools and 
 contributed to a reform in the teaching of the 
 
 subject. In 1870 Bradley was elected master 
 of tfniversity College, and in 1881 received the 
 appointment of Dean of Westminster, which 
 he held until within a year of his death. 
 
 Reference: — 
 How, F. D. Six Great Schoolmasters. (London, 1904.) 
 
 BRADLEY POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE, 
 PEORLA, ILL. — Opened in 1897 by the gift 
 of Mrs. Tobias S. Bradley. A 6-year course 
 is provided in the following 2-year divisions, 
 lower academy, higher academy, and the college 
 where freshman and sophomore work is done. 
 Courses are arranged to prepare for business, 
 trade, or technical work, for advanced study 
 in college, university, or school of engineering, 
 and for teaching manual training, domestic 
 science, and drawing. On students who com- 
 plete the 6-year courses the degrees of Asso- 
 ciate in Science, Arts, or Literature are con- 
 ferred. There are 9 professors, and 25 
 instructors and assistants. Theodore Chalon 
 Burgess, Ph.D., is director of the institute. 
 
 BRAHMAGUPTA. — The second great Hin- 
 du writer on mathematics whose works have 
 come down to us, and the founder of the cele- 
 brated mathematical school at L'jjain. He 
 was born in 598 a.d., and spent his life in teach- 
 ing, in writing, and in astronomical observa- 
 tions at Ujjain. His work on arithmetic and 
 algebra was translated into English and pub- 
 lished by Colebrooke in 1817. D. E. S. 
 
 BRAIDLEY, BENJAMIN (1792-1845). — 
 Braidley, the famous pioneer in the north of 
 England of "Week-evening Sunday schools," was 
 born at Sedgefield near Durham in 1792. He was 
 apprenticed to a firm of linen importers in Man- 
 chester. In 1813, the year in which the Sunday 
 School Teachers' Magazine atjd Journal of Educa- 
 tion was started, Mr. Braidlej-, then 21 years of 
 age, became an active worker in the Bennett 
 Street Sunday Schools. In 1815, 1635 Sunday 
 scholars from this school received prizes, while 
 in 1816 there were 2020 pupils on the roll. 
 Working as a commission agent he became very 
 wealthy and occupied various positions of 
 importance in Manchester. In 1834 he gave 
 evidence as to his Sunday school before the 
 Select Committee on Education. In 1835, he 
 twice stood (unsuccessfully) for the Manchester 
 Parliamentary seat. In 1837 he went to Amer- 
 ica, and was deeply interested in American prob- 
 lems of slavery and education. In his later 
 years he lost, through the failure of a bank, his 
 ample fortune. He died of apoplexy in 1845. 
 His evidence before the Select Committee of 
 1834 (pp. 174-187) and his notes on Sunday 
 schools are valuable documents in the history of 
 nineteenth century education. His school had 
 2700 scholars who were taught by 120 unsal- 
 aried teachers, all, save two or three, former 
 scholars. The secular instruction given in 
 
 439
 
 BRAIN 
 
 BRAY 
 
 Sunday schools played a vital part in the 
 growth of the nobler aspects of life in Manchester. 
 Mr. Braidley told the committee that Sunday- 
 schools in Manchester were open for secular in- 
 struction for 51 hours on Sundays and for 2 
 evenings in the week. The age of the scholars 
 varied from 5 to 25 years. Many of the chil- 
 dren were too worn out, when the evening 
 came, to think: "I have frequently seen some 
 of them asleep before they have gone home 
 at half-past nine." Mr. Braidley considered 
 that in 1834 the manufacturers were (at last) 
 favorable to the instruction of children, "and 
 many of them the most liberal contributors to 
 our Sunday and other schools." But Mr. Braid- 
 ley, with prophetic mind, considered that a 
 compulsory measure of education would not 
 be unpopular among the operatives of Man- 
 chester. But that was not to come for nearly 
 forty years. J. E. G. de M. 
 
 See SuxD.w Schools. 
 
 References: — 
 
 Bennett St. Memorials (Manchester, 1880) with a 
 
 memoir by Rev. H. Taylor. 
 Report of the Select Committee on Education. (London, 
 
 1839.) 
 
 BRAIN. — This term is used in ordinary 
 parlance to cover all of the higher parts of the 
 nervous system, especially those encased in the 
 skull. In technical language, the term is little 
 used because it is better to describe the portions 
 of the nervous system to which reference is 
 made with precision, using the definite names 
 of parts. 
 
 See Nervous System. 
 
 BRATHWAITE, RICHARD (1588-1673).— 
 Poet antl author of several books of interest in 
 educational history. The two books on The 
 English Gentleman (1630) and The English 
 Gentlewoman (1631) belong to the type of 
 educational literature which was called out by 
 the demand for courtly training. In the 
 former of these books Brathwaite defines educa- 
 tion as "the seasoner or instructresse of youth 
 in the principles of knowledge discourse and 
 action." But the Engli.<ih Gentleman is note- 
 worthy for a remarkable characterization, at its 
 close, of a gentleman, " a man of himselfe with- 
 out the addition of either Taylor, Millener, 
 Seamster or Haberdasher." The whole chapter 
 is as remarkable for its literary style as for the 
 excellent portrayal of the ideal man. Brath- 
 waite was also the author of an interesting 
 history, the Schollers' Medley, later changed to 
 A Survey of History or a Nursery of Gentry 
 (1638), m which he gives several reasons for the 
 study of the subject. He points out its value 
 for social training, for enabling one to " live in 
 all ages" and to reconcile "the future and the 
 present tense." 
 
 References : — 
 
 Dictionary of National Biography. 
 
 Raleigh, W. Hoby's Translation of the "Courtier," 
 Introduction. (London, 1900.) 
 
 BRAUNSBERG, EAST PRUSSIA, THE 
 CATHOLIC THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY OF. 
 
 — Known astheL(/fe«w Hosianum, wasfounded 
 in 156S, owing its name to Stani.slaus Ilosius, 
 Bishop of Ermland, who established a Jesuit 
 college at Braunsberg in 1565. The institution 
 died out early in the nineteenth century, but 
 was reestablished in 1818 at the instigation of 
 Prince Joseph of Hohenzollern by a cabinet 
 order of King Frederick William III of Prussia. 
 The faculties of theology and philosophy alone 
 are represented, the institution numbering only 
 a dozen instructors and about 40 students. 
 The library contains 25,000 volumes, and the 
 annual expenditures amount to about .§15,000. 
 
 R. T. 
 
 BRAY, THOMAS (1656-1730). — Founder 
 of charity schools and parochial libraries in 
 England and the British colonics; born in 
 Shropshire (1656) and educated at Oswestry 
 School and Oxford; took orders in the Church 
 of England; in 1695 appointed by the Bishop 
 of London (Compton) as his Commissary for 
 church business in Maryland. While en- 
 gaged in seeking for missionaries for work in 
 Maryland, he found it necessary to equip 
 selected candidates with books, and obtained 
 the help of several bishops in providing libraries 
 for the clergy in that colony. He ne.xt pro- 
 jected a scheme for establishing similar paro- 
 chial libraries in every rural deanery through- 
 out England and Wales. Bray's first colonial 
 library was established at Annapolis in 1697- 
 1698. He advocated the establishment of 
 a Protestant congregation for the Propaga- 
 tion of the Faith in North America, i.e. an 
 Anglican organization for missionary work, 
 with purposes analogous to the congregation 
 de propaganda fide of the Roman Catholic 
 Church. State aid not being forthcoming for 
 this enterprise. Bray laid a plan for the estab- 
 lishment of a voluntary society, which became 
 the Society for Promoting Christian Knowl- 
 edge (q.v.). The first sketch of the objects of 
 this Society — which included charity schools, 
 the establishment of parochial libraries at home 
 and abroad, and missions both to colonists and 
 natives — was submitted bv Brav to a small 
 meeting. Mar. 8, 1698-1699. In 1699 Bray 
 sailed for Maryland, but subsequently returned 
 to England to carry out his larger plans for 
 missionary work. In 1701 he obtained from 
 King William a charter for the incorporation of 
 the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel 
 (q.v.). He was thus the father of the two oldest 
 societies of the Church of England. In 1709 his 
 efforts led Parliament to pass an Act "for the 
 better preservation of Parochial Libraries in 
 England." He devoted himself till his death 
 in 1730 to the organization of charity schools in 
 England, the foundation of clerical libraries, 
 and the provision of schools for the negroes in 
 North America. The charity schools (q.v.) 
 which Bray was chiefly instrumental in estab- 
 
 440
 
 BRAZIL 
 
 BRAZIL 
 
 lishing in England were the outcome of a wave 
 of educational enthusiasm which especially 
 influenced the High Church party in the Church 
 of England. During the first 30 years of 
 the eighteenth century, they rapidly increased 
 in number, and received the warm support of 
 Joseph Addison {q.v.) and other friends of reli- 
 gious toleration and social reform. The prog- 
 ress of the movement, however, was arrested, 
 partly by the collapse of the political in- 
 fluence of the High Church partj' after the 
 death of Queen Anne, and partly by the igno- 
 rance and incompetence of many of the teachers 
 chosen for service in the schools. A large 
 number, however, of the charity schools estab- 
 lished at this period have continued their work 
 to the present day, though all of them have been 
 reorganized and placed upon a new financial 
 and educational basis, through the reforms in 
 English elementary education since 1848. 
 
 M. E. S. 
 References : — 
 Allen, W. O. B., and McCluke, E. Two Hundred 
 Ye4irs, The Hititi'ry of the Society fur Promoting 
 Christiitn KimwUdijr. 1698-1898. (London, 1898.) 
 Dictionary of National Biography. 
 
 Pascoe, C. F. Two Hundred Years of the S. P. G., 
 A Historical Account of the Society for the Propa- 
 gation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts, 1691-1900. 
 (London, 1901.) 
 Secretan, C F. Memoirs of the Life and Time of 
 Robert Nelson. (London, 1860.) 
 
 BRAZIL, EDUCATION IN. — Brazil, re- 
 public; population, 19,910,640 (estimated 1907). 
 Capital, Rio de Janeiro; population, 811,265. 
 In 1890 the population was composed as fol- 
 lows: 6,302,198 whites; 4,638,495 M6tis ; 
 2,097,426 negroes; 1,295,796 Indians. 
 
 Historical. — The history of Brazil as a depend- 
 ency of the crown of Portugal covers a period of 
 three centuries, beginning with the arrival of 
 Pedro Alvarez Cabral, who took possession of 
 the country in the name of the Iving of Portugal 
 in 1500, and ending with the declaration of inde- 
 pendence in 1822. During this colonial period, 
 the Church and religious orders established 
 schools and missions of the same character as 
 those in the neighboring Spanish colonies. A 
 few zealous missionaries penetrated to the 
 interior of the country, but, as a rule, the efforts 
 of missionaries and teachers were limited to the 
 coast region. 
 
 A memorable event in the later hi.story of the 
 colony was the arrival of King John of Portugal, 
 who with the royal family fled before the ad- 
 vancing army of Najjoleon and sought refuge 
 in his American possessions. The presence of 
 the Portuguese court gave peculiar prestige to 
 Rio de Janeiro, and the influence of the Iving 
 excited an interest in intellectual pursuits. 
 Recalled to his kingdom in 1812, he left his 
 historical library as a souvenir of his exile, and 
 this became the nucleus of the great library at 
 Rio de Janeiro. 
 
 When the Iving returned to Portugal he left 
 his eldest sou Dom Pedro as regent of Brazil, 
 
 441 
 
 and the following year the independence of the 
 country was proclaimed with Dom Pedro as 
 constitutional Emperor. In 1831 he abdicated 
 in favor of his son Pedro, then a child of 6 
 years of age. A regency was formed, but the 
 majority of the prince was early declared, and 
 in 1840 he began his reign, which continued till 
 the Republic was proclaimed. Under the 
 leadership of this remarkable sovereign a law 
 was passed (1871) providing for the gradual 
 emancipation of the slaves. The final extinc- 
 tion of slavery was due to an irresistible popular 
 movement; above 200,000 slaves were freed by 
 private owners; two states, then called provinces, 
 Maranhao and Ceara, emancipated their slaves 
 before the system was abolished throughout 
 the land by a unanimous vote of Parliament, 
 May 13, 1888, and the nation made a grand 
 forward movement in the cause of humanity 
 and liberty. 
 
 By the constitution adopted in 1824 Brazil 
 was organized as a confederacy of twenty states 
 and one federal district in which the capital, 
 Rio de Janeiro, is situated. Each state was 
 given control of elementary and secondary 
 education, but the direction of higher education 
 tliroughout the country and the entire control of 
 education in the federal district were reserved to 
 the federal government. 
 
 In 1827 a law was passed authorizing the 
 e.stablishment of public primary schools in all 
 the cities and towns and most populous places 
 in the country. But little progress was made 
 in the application of the law, even in the cities. 
 The first decisive step in the matter was taken 
 in 1851, when the Chamber of Deputies gave 
 full power to the government to reorganize the 
 system of elementary education in the federal 
 district. This action was rendered effective by 
 a decree of Feb. 18, 1854, and from this 
 time public education has made progress in the 
 capital and in the coast states, and has been 
 gradually extended in the states of the interior, 
 following the lines of railroads, of which the first 
 was opened to traffic in the year the decree was 
 issued. 
 
 Present System. — The transition from a 
 monarchy to a republic was followed by the 
 adoption of a new constitution (1890) which 
 reaffirmed the existing provisions regard- 
 ing education and declared further that pri- 
 mary education should be free and secular. 
 The central administration of education was 
 organized under a cabinet oflScer, at present 
 the Minister of the Interior, who bears also 
 the title of Minister of Public Instruction. 
 During this revolutionary and organizing period 
 there was a strong centralizing tcndenc3' or 
 disposition to increase federal control, but the 
 states jealously guarded their constitutional 
 rights. While, however, each state acts inde- 
 pendently in respect to primary education, 
 there is theoretically, at least, an approach to a 
 common school system throughout the republic. 
 State control is exercised by a superintendent
 
 BRAZIL 
 
 BRAZIL 
 
 or director, assisted by general inspectors; local 
 school committees are formed for cities and 
 districts; local inspectors are generally em- 
 ployed; courses of study and the qualifications 
 of teachers and the mode of their appointment 
 are determined by official regulations; and in all 
 the states primary schools are supported by 
 state and municipal appropriations. Several 
 of the states have made education compulsory, 
 and in St. Paul a law was passed in 1895, 
 fixing penalties for failure to comply with this 
 requirement. On account, however, of the 
 widely scattered population, the inditference 
 of parents, and the consequent inability to 
 enforce the compulsory provision, it has been 
 generally disregarded. At present efforts are 
 being made to give effect to the principle in the 
 federal district and in the states of St. Paul 
 and Minas. 
 
 The primary school where fully organized 
 comprises two divisions, the elementary pri- 
 mary for pupils 7 to 13 years of age, and the 
 higher primary for pupils 13 to 15. The course 
 of study for the elementary primaries includes 
 the Portuguese language; the metric system, 
 elements of geography and history, especially 
 of Brazil; introductory lessons in physical 
 science and natural history; moral and civic 
 instruction; drawing, elements of music; gym- 
 nastics and militarj' exercises; maimal training 
 for boys, and needlework for girls; practical 
 ideas of surveying. The course for the higher 
 primaries adds to the above studies elements of 
 French; higher arithmetic; elementary algebra; 
 geometry and trigonometry; elements of physi- 
 cal science and natural history as applied to 
 industries, agriculture, hygiene, elements of 
 national law and political economy; drawing, 
 ornamental, mechanical, and topographical. 
 
 This wide range of studies must be regarded 
 rather as the expression of a liberal purpose in 
 respect to popular education than of actual 
 achievements in the brief period of primary 
 instruction. The higher primary schools, and 
 the trade and commercial schools, which are 
 usually correlated with the primary schools, 
 afford opportunity for adapting the programs 
 to the age and mental capacity of pupils. 
 
 It was undoubtedly the intention to make 
 the school system of the federal district a model 
 for the several states, and to a certain degree 
 this purpose has been realized. The capital 
 city has many elementary primary schools, 
 well graded and admirably equipped. In a 
 few schools, which are maintained as models, 
 boys and girls are taught together, but, as a rule . 
 the schools are for boys exclusively or for girls 
 exclusively. The latter number 140 as against 
 52 schools for boys, a difference probably 
 arising from the fact that the majority of boys 
 begin their education in the preparatory clas.scs 
 of secondary schools. The race prejudice 
 apparently does not exist, as both white and 
 colored children are found in the same classes. 
 The chief difficulty in the conduct of the schools 
 
 even in the capital arises from the vcrj' irregu- 
 lar attendance which it seems impossible to 
 prevent, notwithstanding the fact that 15 school 
 inspectors are engaged in the city service. 
 
 A somewhat marked feature of this municipal 
 system is the absence of higher primary schools 
 which are flourishing in several other cities and 
 especially so at St. Paul. This is an impor- 
 tant matter because the higher primary schools 
 afford pupils an adequate preparation for the 
 primary normal schools to which candidates 
 are admitted at 15 years of age. While want- 
 ing in this important intermediate grade, Rio 
 is well supplied with secondary schools, public 
 and private, and there is also a highly developed 
 professional or trade school maintained by the 
 city. The latter is a boarding school with 
 separate departments for boys and girls, and 
 is completely gratuitous. The boys are ad- 
 mitted at 12 years of age, after passing through 
 the primary school, and are taught cabinet 
 making, carpentry, and printing. Girls are 
 admitted at 7 j'ears of age, and receive primary 
 instruction before entering upon the indu.strial 
 training, which includes dressmaking, embroid- 
 ery, and cooking. From the fact that prefer- 
 ence is given to orphans in selecting from 
 applicants for vacancies in the girls' depart- 
 ment, the latter has become a kind of orphan 
 asylum. 
 
 Training of Teachers. — Normal schools are 
 maintained in all the states of Brazil and, as a 
 rule, are situated in the chief cities and pro- 
 vided with truly palatial buildings. The 
 theory of professional training is highly devel- 
 oped, and the normal schools are progressive 
 and thorough. The course of instruction and 
 training covers 4 years, including work in 
 the practice school. The normal school at 
 St. Paul comprises a maternal school, a 
 primary school for both sexes, complementary 
 or higher primary schools, and two normal 
 sections, one for men, the other for women. 
 The normal school at Rio was limited to women 
 until 1900, when the examination was thrown 
 open to young men also. 
 
 The pedagogium is a national institution 
 created primarily to carry out the reforms in 
 education initiated by Benjamin Constant, 
 but it has become a general center of influence 
 comprehending in its scope all doctrines and 
 grades of education. The institution pub- 
 lishes a magazine entitled Reiii^ta Pedagogica, 
 and other works relating to educational matters. 
 It holds evening ses.sions for disseminating 
 information respecting agricultural science, 
 pedagogy, natural history, and moral and civic 
 education, as well as conventions of literary 
 men and well-known professors. It is located 
 in the building of the Academia Braziliera do 
 Letras, founded to foster the national language 
 and literature. 
 
 Auxiliary Agencies. — Besides the public 
 schools maintained by the states, there are 
 many schools established by the religious orders, 
 
 442
 
 BRAZIL 
 
 BRAZIL 
 
 which have exercised a marked influence upon 
 public education. In St. Paul the official 
 regulations for the conduct of the schools and 
 the programs of instruction bear the impress 
 of the Paulist fathers, who have been active in 
 the general cause of education. In the same 
 state there are many foreign schools, espe- 
 cially Italian, some of which are independent 
 and others are supported by Italian societies. 
 Their main object is to preserve and foster 
 devotion to Italy, but except for a slight sur- 
 veillance by the Brazilian authorities, they are 
 not interfered with. 
 
 Secondary Education. — Secondary schools 
 maintained by public funds and controlled by 
 public authorities are found in the chief cities 
 of Brazil, but priyate secondary schools, secular 
 and clerical, are preferred by the majority 
 of the people who are able to give their children 
 liberal education. This is due in part to reli- 
 gious sentiments but more particularly to the 
 fact that the private colleges are boarding 
 schools, generally situated in the country, 
 and therefore they attract the patronage of 
 the great rural proprietors. 
 
 The national gymnasium of Rio de Janeiro, 
 which is under the direction of the federal gov- 
 ernment, and the state college of St. Paul 
 are the highest types of public secondary schools 
 in Brazil. They are well organized, and offer 
 extensive courses of study. The program 
 of the national gymnasium, which may be 
 taken as a model, is arranged for 7 years, and 
 includes two modern languages, i.e. French and 
 either German or English, which are pursued 
 throughout the course; 6 years' study of 
 Latin, and 3 of Greek. The Portuguese 
 language and Hterature are studied from the 
 first to the seventh year. The program is 
 equally extensive on the side of mathematics 
 and the sciences. Pupils may enter the insti- 
 tution between the ages of 11 and 14, and those 
 who finish the course and successfully pass the 
 required examinations receive the diploma of 
 graduation which admits them to the higher 
 institutions. This is a privilege of all the pub- 
 lic secondary institutions and of the private 
 colleges that submit to government inspection. 
 The public commercial school of Rio de Janeiro 
 corresponds to the modern secondary or com- 
 mercial high schools of the United States. 
 
 The General Situation. — In general it may 
 be said that the basis of a comprehensive system 
 of education has been laid in every state of the 
 republic. At the same time, little progress 
 has been made outside of the chief cities and 
 the surrounding ilistricts. This is indicated 
 from the fact that only about 3 per cent of 
 the total pojiulation of Brazil attend school. 
 The causes of this backward condition are to 
 be found in the vast extent of the country, the 
 tropical climate of the larger portion, and the 
 mixed character of the population. The 
 Portuguese present the extremes of high culture 
 and apathetic ignorance, and the Indians and 
 
 negroes show the same traits in Brazil as in 
 the United States. The latter are represented 
 in the list of graduates from secondary schools 
 by some really brilliant students ; but, in gen- 
 eral, they help to swell the mass of the illiterate. 
 Thus far the provision for popular education 
 has been the work of leaders unsupported by 
 public sentiment or customs; at the present 
 time there are indications that the people 
 themselves are awakening to the importance 
 of the subject. One sign of this interest is 
 found in the recent endeavor on the part of 
 the bureau of general statistics to secure com- 
 plete returns of primary and secondary educa- 
 tion throughout the republic. 
 
 From the report of this investigation it 
 appears that in 1908 there were: 1815 public 
 municipal schools, 7089 public schools under 
 state control and mostly in the smaller towns 
 and villages, and 2243 private schools, most of 
 which were in the larger towns and cities. 
 The state schools had a total enrollment of 
 348,327 and an average attendance of 240,690; 
 the public municipal schools had an enroll- 
 ment of 106,754 and an average attendance of 
 69,432. Private primary schools had a total 
 enrollment of 110,841 and an average attend- 
 ance of 81,066. Of the 327 institutions of 
 secondary education 29 were public and 298 
 private as to control ; the former had an enroll- 
 ment of 4031 and the latter 26,258. 
 
 Commenting on these returns, the report 
 says : — 
 
 "In the case of the Federal District, where the popu- 
 lation is almost entirely urban, there is a population of 
 858,000 and a school enrollment of 61,933 [7.2 per cent], 
 while the State of Alagoas, with a population almost 
 as great and ^\nth the exception of a few coast towns 
 altogether rural, has a school enrollment of 14,092 
 [1.6 per cent]. The State of Pernambuco, with a popu- 
 lation almost entirely rural, with the exception of the 
 capital, Recife, has a school enrollment of 22,852, the 
 total population being 1,310,000." 
 
 Higher Education. — There is no university 
 in Brazil, and higher education is represented 
 by specialized faculties and technical schools, 
 following the sj-stem advocated by the French 
 revolutionary leaders and long perpetuated in 
 France by the Napoleonic System. 
 
 The principal faculty or school of medicine 
 and jjharmacy is located at the capital, and has 
 the additional advantage of connection with 
 the magnificent hospital of the Misericordia, 
 which offers unsurpassed advantages for clin- 
 ical study and practice. The two remaining 
 schools of medicine and pharmacy are situated, 
 respectively, at Bahia and Porto Alegre. The 
 law faculties are at St. Paul and Pernam- 
 buco. The diplomas conferred by these sev- 
 eral faculties entitle the recipients to practice 
 the professions to which they pertain in any 
 part of Brazil. 
 
 The Polytechnic Institute at Rio de Janeiro 
 offers a general course, which all students 
 must attend, and five special courses ; students 
 who pursue these and pass successful e.xamina- 
 
 443
 
 BREATHING 
 
 BREATHING EXERCISES 
 
 tions may receive a degree of bachelor in physi- 
 cal or mathematical science, or certificates as 
 civil, mining, industrial, mechanical, or agri- 
 cultural engineers. The school of mines, situ- 
 ated at Ouro Preto in the state of Minas 
 Geraes, educates engineers for mining and 
 metallurgical works and for the various 
 branches of civil engineering. The plan of 
 studies comprises a fundamental course and a 
 special course. For admission to the latter, 
 the candidates must present a certificate of 
 efficiency in the studies of the fundamental 
 course of this school or proof of similar studies 
 in the polytechnic, military, or naval schools, 
 or in foreign schools whose grade is similar. 
 From the most distinguished graduates in the 
 special course the government is empowered 
 to send one or two, at the cost of the nation, 
 to perfect their studios in the United States or 
 Europe. The government also provides for 
 the training of military and naval officers 
 by a graded series of institutions including 
 preparatory and secondary schools, and mili- 
 tary and naval colleges. The national academy 
 of fine arts and the national institute of music 
 at Rio de Janeiro and the school of fine arts at 
 Bahia are liberally supported from the public 
 treasury. The distinction which Rio de Ja- 
 neiro enjoys as a center of scientific activity 
 is due, primarily, to the influence of Dom 
 Pedro II. The Astronomical Observatory at 
 the capital and the Historical, Geographical, 
 and Ethnological Institute bear witness to the 
 breadth of the Emperor's scientific interests, 
 and have kept Brazil at the front in the scien- 
 tific movement of the age. In like manner the 
 national institute for the education of the deaf 
 and dumb and the national institute for the 
 blind established at Rio testified to the Em- 
 peror's practical solicitude for the welfare of 
 his subjects, and early brought Brazil into the 
 humanitarian movement that is a distinguish- 
 ing mark of modern states. A. T. S. 
 
 References : — 
 Ados e parcccs do Congresso do instruc(do, 188.3. 
 Almeida, Pere»de. U I nstruclion Puhlique au Brisil, 
 
 Histoirc, Legislation. (Rio de Janeiro, 1889.) 
 Anntml Reports of the Minister of Public Instruction. 
 Associagao do Quarto Ccntenario do Dcscohrimanto 
 
 do Br.isil. Livio do Ccntenario (1500-1900). (Rio 
 
 de Janeiro, 1900.) 
 Brazilian Year Book, compiled and ed. by J. P. 
 
 AVilenian. (Rio de Janeiro, First Issue, 1908.) 
 Martinez, Albert B. Baedeker de la Repuhlique 
 
 Argentine. Includes accounts of Brazil, Uruguay, 
 
 Chile, and Bolivia. 
 Regimento Interno das Esciielas publican primarias. 
 
 (Rio do Janeiro. 1902.) 
 RoDRiQUEZ, JosE Ign.\cio. American Constitutions. 
 
 Brazil, Vol. I. Complete for all Soiith American 
 
 Republics and United .States, .Spanish and English 
 
 version in parallel columns. 
 Santa-Ann.\ Nery, Baron de. The Land of the 
 
 Amazons. Tr. by George Humphreys, F.R.G.S. 
 
 (London, 1901.) 
 Verissi.mo de Mattos. Jose. A educa^ao nacional. 2d 
 
 ed. (Rio de Janeiro, 1906.) 206 pp. 12°. 
 
 BREATHING. — Changes in the rate and 
 intensity of respiration are important as emo- 
 
 tional expressions {q.v.). The sj'stem of mus- 
 cles controlling the processes of respiration are 
 variously affected in various individuals by 
 different degrees of emotion. Furthermore, 
 there are great individual differences in the 
 habits of respiration. Some persons respire 
 through the use of their intercostal muscles, 
 while others employ chiefly the muscles of the 
 diaphragm. Such activities as laughter and 
 articulation are intimately related to the mus- 
 cular processes involved in respiration. 
 Breathing is an involuntary form of activity, 
 and consequently not ordinarily considered as 
 an appropriate subject for educational dis- 
 cussion. As an important form of emotional 
 expression it deserves more attention than it 
 has had, and as a form of activity which is 
 readily modified by individual training it 
 should be treated as worthy of definite cultiva- 
 tion and control. 
 
 References : — 
 Behnke, E., and Browne, L. The Child's Voice; its 
 
 Treatment in Regard to After Development. (New 
 
 York.) 
 Bresgen, M. Ueher die Bedeutung hehinderfer Nasen- 
 
 atmung vorzuglich bei Schulkindcrn. (Hamburg, 
 
 1890.) 
 Curtis, E. C. Children's Voices, How Harmed and 
 
 How Helped. (New York, 1895.) 
 Mackenzie, Sir Morell. Hygiene of the Vocal Organs. 
 
 (New York, 1899.) 
 TnBBs, F. H. Science and Art of Breathing. (New 
 
 York.) 
 
 BREATHING EXERCISES. — Speci.il ex- 
 ercises designed to increase lung cajiacity have 
 occupied a large place in the various systems 
 of light gymnastics. Among the many forms 
 of breathing exercises advocated, the most 
 commonly used are (a) simple breathing with 
 emphasis upon costal or diaphragmatic move- 
 ments; (6) deep inspiration followed by hold- 
 ing the breath as long as possible; (c) deep 
 breathing accompanied by arm movements, 
 mainly elevations; (rf) deep breathing prac- 
 ticed with small tube held lietween the lips 
 for the purpose of raising intrapulmonic pres- 
 sure and thereby dilating all the air vesicles; 
 (e) forced inspiration followed by forced expira- 
 tion into spirometer. 
 
 The advantages claimed for breathing exer- 
 cises are increased lung capacity, chest develop- 
 ment, and fortification against consumption 
 and other diseases of the lungs. A better 
 understanding of the physiology of exercise 
 has brought about a change of methods in 
 teaching breathing exercises. The labored 
 breathing resulting from vigorous or even 
 moderate exercise in untrained persons gave 
 the impression that this condition was caused 
 by insuflRcient lung capacity, but the difliculty 
 lies chiefly in the heart, which fails in such cases 
 to adapt itself quickly to the need for rapid 
 circulation of blood through the lungs. Res- 
 piratory efficiency is best secured by general 
 vigorous exercise which increases the functional 
 activitj' of the heart and lungs. 
 
 444
 
 BREMEN 
 
 BRESLAU 
 
 Under these conditions the amplitude and 
 rapidity of respiration are augmented auto- 
 matically in response to a physiological need 
 for increased absorption of oxygen and elimi- 
 nation of carbon dioxide. Very little benefit 
 results from the practice of voluntary deep 
 breathing exercises unless accompanied by 
 fairly vigorous exercise, because the blood will 
 not absorb more oxygen from the air in the 
 lungs unless more oxygen is needed in the 
 muscles as a result of increased activity. The 
 greatest value in breathing exercises is in aid- 
 ing the gradual readjustment of the respiration 
 and circulation after vigorous exercise which 
 ceases abruptly. G. L. M. 
 
 References: — 
 Bishop, E. M. Americanized Physical Cullure. (Mead- 
 
 villc, Pa., 1S92.) 
 Call. \. P. Power through Repose. (Boston, 1892.) 
 
 Motion for Health and Grace. 
 
 BREMEN, FREE TOWN OF, EDUCA- 
 TION IN. — See Ger.m.\n Empire, Educa- 
 tion IN. 
 
 BRENAU COLLEGE — CONSERVATORY, 
 GAINSVILLE, GA. — Founded in 187S as 
 the Georgia Baptist Seminary for Young 
 Ladies. In 1886 it became a private pro- 
 prietary school for girls. Primary, prepara- 
 tory, collegiate, and fine arts departments are 
 maintained. Students are admitted by cer- 
 tificate of an approved school or by examina- 
 tion with requirements equivalent to about 
 8 points of high school work. Eight 
 degrees are conferred on the completion of 
 the appropriate courses. The college has a 
 faculty of 14 instructors. 
 
 BRENZ, JOHANN (1499-1570). — A prom- 
 inent educator of the German Reformation 
 period. He was born in Weil in Suabia and 
 educated for the priesthood, but as early as 
 1.522 joined the party of Luther. His work 
 for the erection and reorganization of schools, 
 both lower and higher, in Wiirtemberg was 
 of great value. He wrote a large catechism 
 (Catechismus pin cl iitiU crpUrationc illuKtratus, 
 1551), and helped to draw up the Wiirtemberg 
 School Regulation of 1559, one of the most 
 important and most widely imitated German 
 school regulations in the sixteenth century. 
 It provided for a complete school system under 
 state control. (Consult bibliography in Mcrtz, 
 Das Schulwesen der deutsclten Reformation, 
 p. 82.) 
 
 BREREWOOD, EDWARD (d. 1613).— 
 Matiiematician and :uiti(iuary, was the son 
 of a wet glover at Chester, and was educated 
 in grammar learning in that city. He was of 
 Brasenose College, Ox'ford, and took his M.A. 
 degree in 1590. In 1596 Brerewood was 
 appointed First Professor of Astronomy in 
 Gresham College, London. Wood {Allien. Oxon. 
 
 ed. 1815, Vol. II, col. 139) says: " He was ever 
 mo.st ready in private, either by conference or 
 writing, to instruct others, repairing unto them, 
 if they were desirous of his instruction in any 
 doubtful points of learning, within the ample 
 circuit of his deep apprehension." 
 
 Brerewood wrote a number of books, which 
 relatively to the times may count as considerable 
 research. Amongst these were treatises on the 
 Sabbath (1630) and a Declaration of the Patri- 
 archal Government of the Ancient Church (Oxford, 
 1641). He wrote Latin commentaries on the 
 first four books of Aristotle's Ethics (Oxford, 
 1640). His more educational works were the 
 following : — 
 
 1. De Ponderihus et pretiis veterum num- 
 morum, eorumque cum recentioribus coUatione. 
 (London, 1614.) This had the honor of being 
 incorporated in the great Polygot Bible of 
 Brian Walton, 1657, and also in the Critici 
 Sacri, 1660, edited by John Pearson, Anthony 
 Scattergood, and Francis Gouldman. 
 
 2. Enquiries touching the Diversities of Lan- 
 guages and Religions through the chief parts of 
 the World. (London, 1614.) 
 
 3. Elementa Logicae in gratiam studiosa£ 
 iuventutis in academia Oxoniana. (London, 
 1614.) 
 
 4. Tractatus duo: quorum primus est de 
 meteoris, secundus de vento. (Oxford, 1631.) 
 
 F. W. 
 
 BRESLAU, SILESIA, THE ROYAL UNI- 
 VERSITY OF.— One of the few German univer- 
 sities that does not include in its title the name 
 of a ruler; it owes its present status to a consoli- 
 dation effected in 1811 under King Frederick 
 William III of Prussia of the Universityof Frank- 
 fort-on-the-Odor, established in 1506, and the 
 Leopoldinische Universitdt in Breslau, founded in 
 1702 by a "golden" bull of the Emperor Leopold 
 I. The latter institution owed its origin to a 
 Latin school organized in the city of Breslau in 
 1638 in connection with a Jesuit mission, the 
 school being in the course of time transformed 
 into a gj'mnasium. Before its consolidation with 
 the University of Frankfort-on-the-Oder and its 
 consequent reorganization, the L'niversity of 
 Breslau performed the functions of a Catholic 
 theological seminary, but later became the 
 first university in Prussia to include faculties 
 of both Catholic and Protestant theology. In 
 addition it comprises the remaining traditional 
 faculties of law, medicine, and philosophy, de- 
 riving much of its importance from the fact 
 that it is located in the intellectual center of 
 eastern Germany. Breslau is especially well 
 supplied with clinics, and also devotes consider- 
 able attention to instruction in agriculture. A 
 technological school is being organized in the 
 city. The university library includes 350,000 
 volumes and 3700 manuscripts, while the city 
 library contains 160,000 volumes and 4300 
 manuscripts. The university is also closely 
 associated with the Roval Archives, the official 
 
 445
 
 BRETHREN OF THE COIMMON LIFE BRETHREN OF THE COMMON LIFE 
 
 depository for the records of Silesia, coiitaiuiiiK 
 at present about 85,001) documents. The an- 
 nual budget approximates $475,000. Among 
 former professors of eminence may be mentioned 
 Stobbe in law, Purkinje, Cohnheini, and Foerster 
 in mcilicine, Stenzel and Neumann in history, 
 Westphal in classical philology, von der 
 Hagen, Hoffmann von Fallersleben, Gustav 
 Freytag (q.i'.), Heinrich Rlickert in Germanic 
 ])hilology, Kcilbing in English philology, Bun- 
 sen in chemistry, Kirchhoff (q.v.) in phj'sics, 
 Goppert in botany, C'ohn in bacteriology. 
 From the standpoint of student attendance 
 it is the fifth largest university in Germany, 
 being exceeded only by Berlin, Munich, Leip- 
 zig, and Bonn. During the winter semester 
 of 1909-1910 there were enrolled 2359 students, 
 distributed as follows: theology 349 (of these 
 there were about three times as many in Catho- 
 lic as in Protestant theology), law 560, medicine 
 414, philosophy 1036. In addition there were 
 400 auditors enrolled. R. T. 
 
 BRETHREN OF THE COMMON LIFE. 
 
 — An organization which originated in Hol- 
 land in the fourteenth century, and had the 
 greatest influence in religious and educa- 
 tional reform. The order arose as a reaction 
 against the decline and moral laxness of the 
 clergy and the begging orders. Its orig- 
 inal purpose was to unite together men of piety 
 in one house in order to reduce the expenses 
 of living by contributing to a common fund. 
 The members were not bound by vows or rule. 
 They were clerics extra religioncm (not bound 
 by religious vows). Self-restraint, humility, 
 and love were demanded from all, but any 
 member could leave when he pleased. The 
 man who inspired the establishment of the 
 ' order was Gerhard Groote. Born at Deventer 
 of wealthy family in 1340, he studied at Paris, 
 and on returning to his home was intrusted 
 with a mission to the Pope at Avignon. As a 
 reward he was presented with two rich pre- 
 bends at Cologne, which he used to live the 
 ordinary irresponsible life of the clergy of the 
 time, and became known more for his foppish- 
 ness than anything else. In 1374 he was sud- 
 denly converted, and sought the advice of the 
 mystic Ruysbroek. As a result he renounced 
 his worldly possessions, surrendered his house to 
 the use of poor women who wished to conse- 
 crate themselves to the service of God, and, re- 
 serving but one room for himself, he retired to 
 a life of inward spiritual meditation. In 1380 
 he came out from his retirement and began to 
 preach throughout Holland in the vernacular, 
 attacked the abuses of the clergj', and soon 
 gained a large spiritual following. His labors, 
 carried on amid great opposition, were cut 
 short by his death in 1384. During his retire- 
 ment Groote had read assiduously. It was in 
 order to satisfy his need of material that he 
 exchanged Mss. and hired poor scholars who 
 flocked to the school at Deventer to copy them, 
 
 and was also assisted by men "of good will," 
 lay and ecclesiastic. Among these was Florcn- 
 tius Radewynius, himself a graduate of the 
 University of Prague, and attached to the 
 Church of St. Lebuinus at Deventer. In 1371 
 Florentius made the suggestion that the copyists 
 should place their earnings in a common fund 
 and live together. With some reluctance, since 
 he feared the opposition of the mendicant 
 orders, Groote agreed, and a trial was made. 
 Florentius gave his house for this purpose, and 
 soon another was added. Here the copyists 
 lived together and followed a regular routine, 
 dividing their time between writing and praying 
 and discussing questions of religious moment. 
 To these discussions (collationes) many citizens 
 resorted, until it became necessary to hold them 
 in the open. The greatest ability was shown 
 in the copying of Mss., not only of sacred but 
 of literary and classical content, with the re- 
 sult that the price of Mss. went down at that 
 period. Gregory XI approved of the order, 
 and soon many houses were established in the 
 Netherlands and Germany. 
 
 To this account, as so far given, all authorities 
 agree. Some doubt was, however, cast on the 
 educational work and influence of the Brethren. 
 It was claimed for a time that the order under- 
 took educational activity from its origin. But 
 K. Hirsch in the Realenzyklopadie fur Protes- 
 ianUsche Theologie und Kirche (2d ed.) not 
 only attacked this view, but denied that the 
 Brethren exercised any influence at all on 
 education. His argument, however, rests on 
 but one authority, who has been proved to be 
 incorrect. Hirsch points out that the mis- 
 take arose through the confusion of Florentius 
 Rodoginus, who had charge of the school at 
 Deventer, with Florentius Radewynius, the 
 friend of Groote. It is highly probable, how- 
 ever, that the two were one and the same man. 
 In any case there is the authority of Erasmus, 
 Melanchthon, Badius, Buschius, and many 
 others, as well as the title Fratres Scholnres, by 
 which the Brethren were also known, to prove 
 that they were associated with the education 
 of northern Europe; but this connection was a 
 late development. 
 
 At the time of the foundation of the order 
 the schools in the Netherlands and Germany 
 were of three types, monastic or cathedral, 
 parish, and municipal schools. Poor scholars 
 came from a distance, and had to endure the 
 greatest hardships to maintain themselves 
 by begging and menial work. Among them 
 were many who could make no progress in the 
 scholastic disciplines and abstruse disputations 
 of the time through inabilitj' to read or write. 
 Furthermore, the school made no attempt to 
 exercise anj' moral control over their pupils, 
 with the result that they ran riot. It was in 
 the latter direction that the Brethren first 
 turned their attention. In order to enable the 
 poor scholars to maintain themselves, they pro- 
 vided them with the work of copying Mss., 
 
 446
 
 BRETHREN OF THE COMMON LIFE 
 
 BRIDGES 
 
 and hostels (q.v.) were opened for them; they 
 looked carefully after the moral welfare of their 
 charges. To the backward they gave tuition to 
 enable them to benefit by the school work. 
 Many of these tutors became so able that they 
 were invited to teach in the schools, with the 
 result that their influence among the pupils was 
 extended. Thus, while they had no schools of 
 their own, the Brethren took a deep interest in 
 the schools at Deventer, Zwolle, Utrecht, 
 Groningen, Gouda. At Deventer, for example, 
 Sinthius, the teacher of Erasmus, was a member 
 of the order; at Zwolle, Cele, the rector, while 
 not a member, stood in intimate relations with 
 the Brethren. At the latter place the Brethren 
 had two houses, one for older boys who taught 
 in the lower school, and one for poor boys whose 
 studies and moral training they supervised. 
 Soon the success of the Brethren attracted 
 attention, and they were invited to take full 
 charge of schools or to open new institutions. 
 Thus the Brethren were summoned from Delft 
 to Utrecht, from Herzogenbusch to Nijmegen, 
 while the school at Herzogenbusch was taught 
 by Brethren called from Zwolle; in 1460 they 
 opened a schoo at Brussels. Standonkh, 
 at one time rector of the University of Paris, 
 opened 4 schools under the charge of the 
 order (Louvain, Mechlin, Cambray, and Valen- 
 ciennes). Thus by the end of the fifteenth 
 century the whole of the educational system 
 of northwestern Europe was under the in- 
 fluence of the Brethren. Buschius enumerated 
 50 schools in 1470. 
 
 The educational influence of the Brethren 
 cannot be too highly valued. In their work 
 were blended together the strivings of northern 
 Europe for religious reform and the literary 
 renaissance of the South. From them came 
 the ideal of the "cultured Christian gentlem n," 
 who combines a love for literature with mystic 
 devotion (pietas literala). In place of the old 
 scholastic domination they introduced a more 
 liberal curriculum; in place of the previous un- 
 organized and uncontrolled assembly of pupils 
 under constantly changing teachers, they estab- 
 lished the school as it is now known. The best 
 account of a school under the management of 
 the Brethren comes from Sturm's report to the 
 Magistrates at Strassburg in 153S. Sturm had 
 himself been a pupil at the school in Liege. 
 The school had a rector who divided the scholars 
 into classes which were placed under class 
 teachers; the upper classes usually were taught 
 by specialists; he prescribed the readings for 
 each class, and looked after the general progress, 
 moral and intellectual, of the pupils. The 
 classes were further subdivided into dccuries or 
 groups of ten under the charge of monitors. 
 The masters were among the best teachers of 
 the day. In addition to the Brethren, men 
 of distinction were summoned from Paris and 
 Prague universities, and, since the schools were 
 always well attended and the salaries were good, 
 there was introduced a stai)ility and continuity 
 
 in the lives of teachers and taught. Among 
 these teachers may be mentioned Hcgius, 
 Sinthius, Cele, Macropedius, and Despauterius, 
 the author of a grammar which for two cen- 
 turies superseded that of Alexander de Villa 
 Dei (q.v.). The lower classes were sometimes 
 taught by senior students. The schools were 
 divided into two sections, elementary, for 
 reading, writing, arithmetic, and grammar, and 
 classical, for Greek, rhetoric, dialectic, and 
 other humanities. Even modern subjects, 
 such as history and geography, were introduced. 
 There were from six to eight classes in each 
 school. The discipline was rigorous, but good 
 work and conduct received recognition in the 
 shape of prizes. Demosthenes, Plato, and 
 Ari-stotle in Greek, Cicero, Cfesar, Vergil, and 
 Horace in Latin were included in the readings, 
 while considerable attention was paid to the 
 Scriptures. A play of Terence was performed 
 by the pupils. "Nor do I see," says Sturm, 
 "how that infrequency of studies can be avoided 
 and removed throughout Germany except by 
 an education of this type in early youth." And 
 the Brethren were successful in inaugurating 
 a reform which is comparable to that of Arnold 
 at Rugby, and certainly had a greater influence. 
 Scarcely a name can be mentioned among the 
 northern European scholars who was not af- 
 fected directly or indirectly by them — Thomas 
 a Kempis, Rudolf Agricola, Buschius, Erasmus, 
 Sturm, to mention only the more important. 
 From Holland their schools spread to West- 
 phalia, and thence over the Rhine to Alsace, 
 where the flourishing towns of Schlettstadt and 
 Strassburg became important centers of cul- 
 ture on a religious basis (pietas lilerata). 
 
 To sum up, the Brethren cared for the poor 
 scholars, introduced grading of schools, new 
 textbooks, the Renaissance studies, copying and 
 later printing of books, the elements of modern 
 subjects, and more or less permanent instruction 
 in the schools. The introduction of printing 
 took away a considerable source of revenue from 
 the houses of the Brethren, while the Refor- 
 mation dealt a deathblow to their activities. 
 Their houses were shut up, their schools either 
 declined or were taken over by municipalities. 
 By the seventeenth century nearly all had 
 disappeared; the last of all, the house of the 
 Brethren at Emmerich, continued until 181 1. 
 
 I. L. K. 
 References : — 
 Bonet-Maurt. G. Gerard dc Groote. (Paris, 1878.) 
 De Opera Scholastica Fratrum Vitae Communis. 
 
 (Paris, 18S9.) 
 Heimbucher, M. Die Orden und Koyigregaiionen der 
 
 Kalholischen Kirche. (Padreborn, 1908.) 
 Herzog. Realenzyklopddie fiir Protestantische Theo- 
 
 logie und Kirche, 2d ed., s.v. Briider dcs gcmein- 
 
 samen Lebens. 
 
 BRIDGES, NOAH. — A schoolmaster of the 
 seventeenth ccnturv. He had studied at Bal- 
 liol College, Oxford". Took B.C.L. in 1646, and 
 was Clerk of Parliaments at Oxford, 1643-1644. 
 In 1653 he kept a private school at Putney, 
 
 447
 
 BRIDGEWATER COLLEGE 
 
 BRIGHTLAND 
 
 where, he says in his prospectus, " is taught the 
 Greek and Latin tongues; also arts and sciences 
 Mathematical!, viz., Aritlimctique, Fair Writing, 
 Merchants' Accounts, Geometry, Trigonom- 
 etrj', Algebra, etc." His school was there- 
 fore a private grammar school, with a leaning 
 to what are called the "modern subjects." 
 In the earlier private schools, ordinarily the 
 subjects taught were those excluded from the 
 good public grammar school, e.^. writing, 
 arithmetic. The value of the private school 
 for these subjects apparently' induced good 
 teachers to increase the curriculum, so as to 
 encroach on the curriculum of the public gram- 
 mar school, and eventually to become com- 
 petitors of the endowed schools, and it is notice- 
 able that many of the improvements in teaching 
 of method in the English schools were initiated 
 in these private schools. In 1653 Bridges 
 published his Vulgar Arithmclique " peculiarly 
 fitted," as he claimed, " for merchants and 
 tradesmen, made useful for all men, famihar 
 to the meanest capacity; and for the public 
 good laid down in a school method." De ]Mor- 
 gan praises Bridges' book especially for its ex- 
 plicit account of the modern method of division. 
 Bridges also wrote on stenography and crj-p- 
 tography. F. W. 
 
 BRIDGEWATER COLLEGE, BRIDGE- 
 WATER, VA. — A coeducational institution 
 owned and controlled by the Church of the 
 Brethren. Academic, collegiate, normal, musi- 
 cal, and commercial departments are main- 
 tained. The college courses leading to de- 
 grees are based on about 12 points of high 
 school work. There is a faculty of 16 profes- 
 sors and instructors. 
 
 BRIDGMAN, LAURA (1829-1889). — The 
 first deaf and blind person in the United 
 States to receive a formal education. At the 
 age of 18 months she lost sight and hearing. 
 When 8 years old she was taken to the Per- 
 kins Institution for the Blind, and by means of 
 the embossed letters she received, under 
 the direction of Samuel G. Howe, a general 
 literary education. She acquired some skill in 
 piano playing, and considerable dexterity in 
 needlework and other household duties. 
 
 W. S. M. 
 
 See De.\f-Blind, Education of. 
 
 References: — 
 Lamson. M.\rt Swift. Life and Education of Laura 
 
 Bridgman. (Boston, 1879.) 
 Elliott, Maude Howe. Laura Bridgman. (Boston, 
 1903.) 
 
 BRIGGS, HENRY (1561-1630). — A dis- 
 tinguished mathematician, born at Halifax in 
 Yorksliire, England, 1561. He was a scholar 
 of St. John's College, Cambridge, and took his 
 M.A. degree in 1585. He became First Pro- 
 fessor of Geometry in Gresham College on its 
 foundation in 1596 and in 1620 became First Sa- 
 vilian Professor of Geometry. He was thus the 
 
 first professor in the first two professorships 
 in geometry, established in England. Briggs is 
 noteworthy as an opponent of astrology in 
 days when the subject was currently ac- 
 cepted. He recognized the value of Napier's 
 work on Logarithms, in the making of prac- 
 tical computations, and in 1016 urged Napier 
 to use a decimal base, on which Napier 
 acted. The Arithmetica Logaritliniica of Briggs 
 and of Vlacq in extension of Napier's tables 
 has held a unique position. Mr. Ball is of 
 opinion that the introduction of the decimal 
 notation was due to Briggs. See the article on 
 Logarithms. P. W. 
 
 BRIGHAM YOUNG COLLEGE, LOGAN, 
 UTAH. — Opened in 1S7S as a coeducational 
 institution controlled by the Church of the 
 Latter-Day Saints. Preparatory, collegiate, 
 normal, musical, business, domestic science, 
 and mechanical arts courses are offered. The 
 work of the college is open to graduates of the 
 state district schools, or those who pass the 
 necessary examination in the common school 
 branches. No degrees are given. 
 
 BRIGHTLAND, JOHN. — The writer of A 
 
 Grammar of the English Tongue . . . jnaking a 
 complcat System of an English Education for 
 the Use of the Schools of Great Britain and Ire- 
 land. (London, 1712.) The significance of 
 Brightland's book consists in the recognition 
 that the study of Latin grammar was not con- 
 sidered by him as necessary to the knowledge 
 of English. If Greek and Latin are assumed 
 as necessary to the study of English grammar, 
 Brightland argued that the greater part of 
 mankind would be doomed to " spare ten or 
 eleven years in learning dead languages," before 
 beginning their own. Our language is indebted 
 to Greek and Latin, but it is also indebted to 
 Spanish, Italian, High and Low Dutch, French, 
 Old (i.e. Anglo-Saxon), Welsh, Runic, Gothic, 
 and Icelandic, but no one thinks it is necessary 
 to acquire these before we can begin English. 
 The effect of the Port Royalists (q.v.) can be 
 traced on Brightland. He not only treats of 
 English grammar, but is also able to include a 
 treatise on the Art of Poetry, so as to open up 
 to Englishmen the art of poetry, " as the 
 Greeks and the Romans did and the French 
 nation does at present." So, too, the English 
 scholar, who has English grammar as his center 
 instead of Latin and Greek, may be led to 
 rhetoric and logic, and Brightland provides 
 him with treatises on these subjects. The poet- 
 laureate of Queen Anne's reign, N. Tate, sup- 
 plies a prefatory poem on the excellence of Mr. 
 Brightland's suggestions for an English educa- 
 tion. Tate suggests: — 
 
 " To Grecian Hills our Youth no more shall roam, 
 Supply'd with these Castalian Springs at Home." 
 
 And Isaac Bickerstaff, Esq., declares in an 
 Approbation that Brightland's English Gram- 
 
 US
 
 BRIGHTNESS 
 
 BRINSLEY 
 
 mar has done that justice to our language 
 which " till now, it never obtained." F. W. 
 
 BRIGHTNESS. — By the brightness of a 
 color sensation is meant technically its equality 
 to a particular gray of the achromatic .series 
 (q.v.), when its special color tone is abstracted 
 from. An increasing degree of brightness of 
 any color would correspond, therefore, with 
 grays progressively approaching white, a 
 decreasing brightness with grays progressing 
 toward black. One may have, thus, different 
 colors of the same brightness or the same color 
 with different brightnesses. The physical cause 
 of brightness is amplitude or extent of vibration 
 of the ether particles that give rise to the par- 
 ticular color (see Color Intensity). Change 
 in brightness is usually accompanied by change 
 in saturation (o.t'.). 
 
 R. P. A. 
 References: — 
 Baldwin's Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology 
 
 p. 146 : also Art. on Vision. 
 Howell, H. \V. American Text-book of Physiology. 
 
 (Philadelphia, 1901.) 
 ScHAEFER, E. A. Textbook of Physiology. (Edin- 
 burgh, 1S98-1900.) 
 
 BRINSLEY, JOHN (date of birth and 
 death unknown). — The educational writer; to be 
 distinguished from his son, John Brinsley, the 
 well-known Yarmouth Puritan divine. He was 
 educated at Christ's College, Cambridge, and 
 gradifated M.A. in 1588. He was headmaster 
 of Ashby-de-la-Zouch school (Leicestershire). 
 William Lilly the astrologer was entered as a 
 pupil in 1613 and records that the authors 
 taught bj' Brinsley were: Scntentiae Pueriles, 
 Cato, Corderius, ^Esop's Fabler, TuUy's Offices, 
 Ovid's de Tristibus, Vergil, Horace, Camden's 
 Greek Grammar, Theognis, Homer's Iliad, and 
 an entrance into .John Udall's Hebrew Grammar. 
 
 Brinsley 's chief work was the Lndus Litera- 
 riiis, or The Grammar School, published, first 
 edition 1612, second edition 1627. This work 
 contains a complete account of the educational 
 methods practiced in the English grammar 
 schools of the time, from the lowest to the 
 highest forms, and is the most important state- 
 ment of the details of school arrangements and 
 organization for the study of Latin grammar, 
 reading of authors, and composition of the 
 (Ircek language, and school study of Hebrew 
 for the first iialf of the seventeenth century. 
 A noteworthy feature of the Ludux Litcrarius 
 is the insistence on the teaching of English as 
 well as Latin. Brinsley's reasons are (1) be- 
 cause it is the language which all sorts and 
 conditions of men amongst us mu.st use in 
 speech and writing; (2) purity and elegancy of 
 our own language is a chief part of the honor 
 of our nation; (3) because of those who are 
 for a time trained up in schools, there are very 
 few who proceed in learning, in comparison of 
 them who follow other callings. The outstand- 
 ing feature of Brinsley's method for the teach- 
 
 VOL. I — 2 G 
 
 ing of Latin is a thorough drilling in the pre- 
 paratory steps for construing. Pupils must 
 always be familiarized with the subject matter 
 of the Latin or Greek which they are to be 
 required to construe. The " hard words " are 
 to be given the pupils by the ma.ster. Then 
 the pupil is to inquire (with regard to the 
 passage to be translated into English) " who 
 speaks, in what place, what he speaks, or to 
 what end, when he speaks it, at what time it 
 was, what went before in the sentences nearest, 
 what foUoweth next after?" Then the pupil 
 is to arrange, or to have arranged for him by 
 the master, the Latin irords in the grammatical 
 order ichich is required by English construction. 
 This is Brinsley's distinctive doctrine of trans- 
 lation, though it is not original to him, for he 
 himself acknowledges he took it from Martin 
 Crusius, a German grammarian. He calls the 
 order in Latin, an " artificial " order, i.e. an 
 order determined by the standards of the " art " 
 of the Romans. He insists that the pupil must 
 transpose the Latin words to make them take 
 the order of English grammatical construction. 
 This he calls the " natural " order (natural, 
 that is, to the pupil). Having obtained the 
 " natural " order, translation then can proceed 
 verbatim. He maintains that this method 
 makes parsing easy and quickly develops trans- 
 lation at sight. To help the pupil Brinsley 
 devised " grammatical translations " for the 
 Latin books read by the pupil in the earliest 
 stages, viz.: Pueriles confabulatiunculae, Sen- 
 tcntiae Pueriles, Cato, Corderius' Dialogues, 
 ^sop's Fables, Tully's Epistles, TuUy's Offices, 
 together with the De Amicitia, De Seneclute, 
 Paradoxes, Ovid's de Tristibus, Ovid's Meta- 
 morphoses, Vergil. Of these, at any rate, the 
 Cato, ^'^ergil's Eclogues, Corderius' Dialogues, 
 Tully's Offices (Book I), Ovid's Metamorphoses 
 (Book I), are still extant. He further requires 
 the pupil to be well acquainted with the best 
 commentators on Vergil, Horace, Persius, 
 Juvenal. Brinsley omits from his list the 
 classical historians. In Greek, Brinsley began, 
 as was usual, with the Greek Testament, with 
 which a translation was to be used, Latin or 
 English. He then proceeded to Isocrates, 
 Theognis, Hesiod, or Homer. Elementary He- 
 brew was also required. Disputations (q.v.) 
 were to be conducted in the Latin language on 
 grammatical questions. Religious instruction 
 must be given in the histories of the Bible and 
 on the grounds of religion. Pupils must go to 
 church and take down the substance of the 
 sermon, which must afterwards be written out 
 in good Latin style, and, further, a brief repe- 
 tition of the whole sermon be made, " without 
 book." Brinsley also supplies chapters on 
 school government, punishments, school times 
 and recreations, diversity of grammars, the 
 relation of the schools to the universities, and 
 a very (juaint chapter on " discouragement of 
 Schoolmasters by unthankfulness of parents." 
 Besides the Ludus Literarius, Brinsley wrote: 
 449
 
 BRISTED 
 
 BRITISH ETC. SCHOOL SOCIETY 
 
 A Consolation for our Grammar Schnolcs: or 
 A failhfull and most comfortable incouragcmcnt, 
 for laying of a sure foundation of all good learn- 
 ing in our Schooles, and for prosperous building 
 thereupon. More especially for all those of the 
 inferiour sort, and all ruder countries and places, 
 namely for Ireland, Wales, Virginia ivith the 
 Summer Islands, and for their more speedie attain- 
 ing of our English tongue by the same labour, 
 that nil may speahe one and the same language. 
 And u'ithnll, for the helping of all such as are 
 desirous speedily to recover that ivhich they had 
 formerlie got in the Grammar Schooles, and to 
 proceed aright therein, for the perpetuall benefit 
 of these our Nations and of the Churches of 
 Christ. London, printed by Richard Field for 
 Thomas Man, dwelling in Paternoster Row, 
 at the sign of the Talbot, 1622. (4to.) 
 
 This is a vigorous appeal to all who have 
 charge of schools to read the author's Ludus 
 Literarius, and goes over much of the same 
 ground. But it contains an important Appen- 
 di.x, which gives a list of the school textbooks 
 which Brinsley considers the best in each 
 subject. F. W. 
 
 References: — 
 
 ADAM.SON, J. W. 'Pioneers of Modem Education. 
 
 (Cambridge, 1905.) 
 Watson. Foster. The English Grammar Schools up 
 
 to 1600. (Cambridge, 1908.) 
 
 BRISTED, CHARLES ASTOR (1820-1874). 
 — Author, educated at Yale College and at 
 the University of Cambridge in England; 
 author of Letters to Horace Mann and Five 
 Years in an English University. W. S. M. 
 
 BRITISH AND FOREIGN BIBLE SO- 
 CIETY. — This organization was founded in 
 1804 on the suggestion of a member of the 
 Committee of the Religious Tract Society, 
 when the subject of the want of Bibles in 
 Wales was brought up by a Welsh clergyman. 
 Rev. Thomas Charles. The Society at once 
 succeeded in obtaining support for its object, 
 to bring the Bible within the reach of the 
 destitute of all lands. For this purpose the 
 society has issued translations of the Bible 
 into about 350 languages and dialects of the 
 world. This society was the parent of many 
 others in Europe and the United States. 
 
 Reference: — 
 
 Canton, VV. History of the British and Foreign Bible 
 Society. (London, 1904.) 
 
 BRITISH AND FOREIGN SCHOOL SO- 
 CIETY. — .'\.n organization which arose out of 
 a society founded by Jo.seph Lancaster (q.v.) 
 and two of his supporters in 1808 " for the pur- 
 pose of affording education, procuring emplo}'- 
 ment, and as far as possible to furnish clothing 
 to the children of the poorer subjects of King 
 George III." This society was organized for 
 two other purposes, which were, however, soon 
 dropped. There were soon attracted to it 
 
 men who had an earnest and intense interest 
 in education and who were liberal in their 
 religious views. They combined to support 
 and spread the monitorial schools of Lancaster. 
 Capital was raised, and subscriptions came in 
 from all parts. Lancaster was relieved of his 
 duties at his school, and made a successful 
 propagandist tour of the British Isles. In ISIO 
 the financial support was increased, and men 
 who were then prominent in all walks of life 
 joined the society. In 1811 the National 
 Society for Educating the Poor in the Prin- 
 ciples of the Church (q.v.) was established 
 on a denominational basis, but failed to 
 withdraw any support from the other society. 
 From 1812 to 1814 the society was involved in 
 quarrels with the shiftless Lancaster, and in 
 1814 the final separation with Lancaster took 
 place. In the same year the title The British 
 and Foreign School Society was adopted. The 
 society had now the patronage of the Crown, 
 and enjoyed the active assistance of members 
 of the Royal Family. The aim of the society 
 was to encourage the formation of local com- 
 mittees to found schools, to train teachers for 
 all parts of the world, to maintain the volun- 
 tary basis, and above all to teach the Bible in 
 the schools on undenominational lines. The 
 Society took over the Borough Road School 
 which Lancaster had founded; a girls' school 
 and an institution for women teachers were 
 opened, and work was done in foreign parts. 
 When a committee reported on the unsatis- 
 factory nature of the training of teachers, 
 which was entirely mechanical and very 
 limited in scope, reading, writing, history, and 
 geography were ordered to be taught. Local 
 subcommittees sprang up in many places, but 
 large parts of England remained untouched. 
 Auxiliary societies were established to obtain 
 information as to local needs, the population, 
 the number of the poor, and the educational 
 facilities. Schools were to be established for 
 which the central society promised aid. For 
 the purpose of propaganda work a Manual was 
 published in 1816 and w-as soon tran.slated into 
 foreign languages. New textbooks were pub- 
 lished, and a depository was maintained from 
 which books and school materials were sold at 
 cost price. At the Borough Road School, 
 teachers from all parts of the world were being 
 trained. The Society had its agents and 
 representatives in Scotland, Ireland, Canada, 
 India, all parts of Europe, and in Washington 
 (Robert Ould). It was only in Catholic coun- 
 tries that the Society failed to meet with con- 
 tinued success. In 18.30 the Society was in a 
 position to appoint propaganda agents and 
 inspectors of schools. The Reform Bill riots 
 still further emphasized the need of increasing 
 schools in the agricultural districts, and the 
 Society offered assistance to rural teachers. 
 In 1834 state aid was given for the first time, 
 but the method of allotment was so poor that 
 support was not given where the needs were 
 
 450
 
 BRITISH COLUMBIA 
 
 BROOKBANK 
 
 greatest. In 1842 the normal school at Borough 
 Road was rebuilt under the inducement of an 
 offer of aid from the Treasury to training 
 schools for teachers. About this time great 
 anxiety was caused to the Society by the un- 
 satisfactory report made on the British schools 
 by the government inspector. In 1847 the old 
 monitorial system was abolished, and pupil and 
 assistant teachers were appointed. In 1847- 
 1849 the Society was torn by disputes concern- 
 ing the acceptance of state aid, since it was 
 feared that this might endanger the voluntary 
 principles and the undenominational Bible 
 teaching for which the Society stood. Between 
 1855 and 1880 the Society established five 
 normal schools at Bangor, Stockwell, Darling- 
 ton and Saffron Walden and Swansea. In 
 1875 the Society contributed largely to the im- 
 provement of the education of infants by doing 
 propaganda work for the Froebelian System 
 and establishing a kindergarten. The Educa- 
 tion Act of 1870 was a vindication of the prin- 
 ciples for which the Society stood, and was 
 brought about largely through the efforts of 
 men who then or later became members of the 
 Society. 
 
 With the increase of national and popular 
 control of education the function of the Society 
 is gradually disappearing. For English educa- 
 tional development it did a great service through 
 collecting reports and through general propa- 
 ganda work. The Society, which was incor- 
 porated by Letters Patent in 1906, still supports 
 about 1500 schools, but its chief work is in 
 the training of teachers for elementary schools. 
 Apart from serving as a rallying point for 
 those who desire to retain the Bible in the 
 schools, the Society by a resolution of 1907 
 proposed to employ its funds for the " propa- 
 gation and encouragement of agencies for the 
 education and training (physical, social, and 
 moral) of youths of both sexes during the 
 period of rapid development which succeeds 
 the age of childhood and primary school." 
 This will provide the society with a sphere of 
 work as important as that which it so success- 
 fully undertook at its inception a century ago. 
 Sec Lancaster, Joseph; Training of 
 Teachers in England; Bible in the 
 Schools. 
 
 Reference : — 
 BiNNs. H. B. A Ci-nlurij of Education. 1808-1908. 
 (London, 1908.) 
 
 BRITISH COLUMBIA, EDUCATION IN. 
 
 — See Canada, Education in. 
 
 BRITISH GUIANA, EDUCATION IN. — 
 See Guiana, Education in. 
 
 BRITISH INDIA, EDUCATION IN. — See 
 India, Edccation i.n. 
 
 BRITISH SCHOOLS. — A term formerly 
 applied in England to the elementary schools 
 
 provided and maintained by the British and 
 Foreign School Society {q.v.). It stiU survives 
 in the names of a few schools. 
 
 BROCKETT, LINUS PIERPONT (1820- 
 1893). — Educated at Brown University and 
 Yale College; several years professor in George- 
 town College; author of History of Educa- 
 tion, which was published under the pseudonym 
 " Philobus." W. S. M. 
 
 BROCKLESBY, JOHN (1811-1889).— 
 Educator and textbook writer, educated at 
 Yale College; tutor at Yale College (1838- 
 1840) ; professor in Trinity College at Hartford 
 (1842-1874); author of textbooks on physical 
 geography, astronomy, and meteorology. 
 
 W. S. M. 
 
 BROOE^BANK, JOSEPH (b. 1612). — A 
 schoolmaster and educational writer. Little 
 is known of his life except a few facts. He 
 was a minister and private schoolmaster. (See 
 Dictionary of National Biography.) For his 
 parishioners at West Wycombe, 13uckingham- 
 shire, he wrote a catechism entitled Vitis 
 Salutaris, or the Vine of Catechetical Divinitie 
 and Saving Truth. His educational works are 
 deserving of notice. Among the most im- 
 portant of these are his translations of Joh. 
 Amo.s Comenius, His Last Porch of the Latin 
 Tongue, etc. (the title is both in Latin and 
 English). The translation was made from the 
 Low Dutch translation of the original by 
 Henry Schoof. The work appeared in 1647 
 and 1657. 
 
 Brookbank in his address to' the Candid 
 Reader urges that there are Three Forms or 
 Ranks of Teachers. "Worth and ability in 
 school-teachers; set them as their scholars in 
 their forms, or ranks; in the highest thereof, 
 are those who have been long approved for 
 their skill, experience and success, in their 
 praiseworthy labours; unto whom here I have 
 nothing to say but x°^V"^- The next are 
 those, who as yet have not either studied, or 
 made trial of school travels, though otherwise 
 able and deserving; but either upon occasion, 
 or otherwise, desire and endeavor to overtake 
 or exccde the former; unto whom my advice 
 is, That they would advance their judgment 
 and experience, By the Reading of Authors for 
 that Purpose; such as are Plutarch, irtpt 
 ■TraiSwv aywyrj^, Quintilian, Hen. Schori spe- 
 cimen, Martinius (Ejus praefationem ante fun- 
 danunta Graecae Linguae), Ascham his School- 
 master, Brinsley his Ludus Literarius, and 
 Consolation to Grammar Schools, the Preface to 
 our Latin Grammar, Mr. Robotham's Epistle 
 before his translation of Janua Linguaruvi, 
 Mulcaster his Elementary, and Positions, and 
 his EpLstle before his Calo, Christianus, Vossius, 
 Dc Arte Grammatica, Hugonis Grotii et aliorum 
 dissertotiones de sludiis instituendis, J. A. 
 Comenii Prodromus, The ready way to the Latin 
 
 451
 
 BROOKLYN 
 
 BROOKLYN INSTITUTE 
 
 Tongue, etc., attpstcd by Mr. Hartlib. Ami 
 those who inteiul to fit themselves for the educa- 
 tion of Noble Youth, I commend them to the 
 reading of Sir Thomas Eliot his Governour, .Stur- 
 mius De Frincipibus Institueridis, Orosius 
 de Principibus Instituendis, Clerk de Aulico, 
 Mulcaster his Positions, More's Principles, 
 the Institidion of a Gentleman, Mr. Braith- 
 wait's English Gentleman, rjpiu-iraiBtia, or the 
 Institution of a Young Gentleman by James Cle- 
 land, Pctrus Truellius de Xoutechnia, Possevinus 
 de Cidtura Ingeniorum, Hcroick Education; 
 which books, well weighed and digested, will 
 enable an ordinary genius to find out the best 
 way and method for the teaching of this book 
 or any other; unto which, and their own 
 parts, I leave them. The last sort are those of 
 meaner parts, learning, abilities, and experience, 
 unto whom the direction ensuing may be of 
 great use." (Brookbank then proceeds to give 
 good, practical, detailed rules of learning the 
 books.) In addition to this work, Brookbank 
 also published class textbooks on spelling 
 {An English Syllabary, London, 1651) and 
 directions on the use of this book and A 
 Breviate of our King's whole Latin Grammar, 
 Vulgarly called Lillie's, etc., 1660. 
 
 Brookbank gives detailed directions for using 
 his Breviate. He mentions Two books to be 
 read with the Breviate " for the perfecting (of 
 pupils) in Quae Genus and the Syntaxis, let 
 them learn to say without book, and to con- 
 strue and parse Mr. Leech's Dialogues at the 
 end of his Grammar Questions or in Mr. Clark's 
 Dux Grammaticus, whereby they may be per- 
 fected, in the understanding and practice of all 
 that they have learned in grammar, and in the 
 whole Syntaxis." Brookbank has not been 
 given the attention which is merited by his 
 importance as a textbook writer and his in- 
 terest in school education. F. W. 
 
 Reference : — 
 Dictionary of National Biography. 
 
 BROOKLYN, CITY OF. — Formerly an 
 independent city, but now a part of the City 
 of Greater New York (q.r.). Church and pri- 
 vate schools were established here early by 
 the Dutch. In 1813, public school district, 
 No. 1 was organized, and in 1816 a Lancas- 
 terian school was opened. Other districts were 
 organized, and by 1843, 10 districts had been organ- 
 ized. In that year the legislature consolidated 
 these districts, and established a Board of 
 Education for the city of Brooklyn. In 1853, 
 a city superintendent of schools was elected. 
 In 1854, the city of Williamsburg and the 
 village of Bushwick were consolidated with 
 Brooklyn, and the Board of Education was 
 increased to 45 members. In 1898 Brook- 
 lyn united with New York City to form the 
 Borough of Brooklyn in the City of Greater 
 New York. 
 
 References: — 
 
 Auiuial Reports, Superintendent of Public Instruction to 
 the Board of Education of llic City of Brooklyn, 
 1854-1S97. 
 
 Palmer, A. E. The New Yorlc Public School, chs. 23- 
 29. (New York, 1905.) 
 
 BROOKLYN INSTITUTE OF ARTS AND 
 SCIENCES, THE. — Founded and incor- 
 porated by the legislature of the state in 1824, 
 under the name of the Brooklyn Apprentices' 
 Library Association. On July 4, 1825, the 
 cornerstone of the first building owned by the 
 Association was laid by General Lafayette, at 
 the junction of Henry and Cranberry streets. 
 In 1835 the Association changed its quarters 
 to a more commodious building in Washington 
 Street. Its scope was broadened under an 
 amended charter in 1S43, and the name hence- 
 forward was the Brooklyn Institute. Among 
 the speakers from its platform were heard 
 " such eminent scientific men as Agassiz, 
 Dana, Gray, Henry, Morse, Mitchell, Torrey, 
 Guyot, and Cooke; such learned divines as 
 Doctors McCosh, Hitchcock, Storrs, and Bud- 
 dington; and such defenders of the liberties of 
 the people as Phillips, Sumner, Garrison, Emer- 
 son, Everett, Curtis, King, Bellows, Chapin, 
 and Beecher." From 1843 to 1867 the work 
 of the Institute was brilliant and remarkable, 
 being largelj- expanded by two important 
 donations from Mr. Augustus Graham. From 
 1867 to 1887, however, the work of the Institute 
 was unfortunately crippled for want of funds, 
 so that " the most that it was able to do was 
 to circulate its library, to keep up its classes 
 in drawing, and to provide for the annual ad- 
 dresses on the 22nd of February." The debt 
 was finally paid in 1887; when the assets of 
 the Institute amounted to a value of S136,000 
 and a library of 12,000 volumes. 
 
 During the year 1887-1888 the new policy 
 was adopted of forming an Institute of Arts 
 and Sciences worthy of the wealth and culture 
 of Brooklyn; and by the unions of learned 
 bodies with the Institute, and in other ways, 
 there were formed in 1888-1889 the depart- 
 ments of microscopy, astronomy, entomology, 
 photography, physics, chemistry, botany, 
 mineralogv, geologv, zoology and archaeology. 
 In 1888-1889 were added the departments of 
 architecture, electricity, geography, mathe- 
 matics, painting, philology, political science, 
 and jjsychology; and in 1891-1892 the scope 
 of the Institute work was still further broad- 
 ened by the establishment of the departments 
 of music and pedagogy. The rapid growth of 
 the new Institute of Arts and Sciences, which 
 was completelv amalgamated with the old 
 Brooklyn Institute in 1891-1892, may be indi- 
 cated bv the fact that its membership grew 
 from 350 in 1888-1890 to 3457 in 1893-1894; 
 while in 1908 it stood at 6703. The number 
 of lectures and meetings open to all members 
 in 1907-1908 was 488, and the total attend- 
 ance for the year amounted to 497,445. The 
 
 452
 
 BROOKLYN POLYTECHNIC 
 
 BROUGHAM 
 
 receipts of the Institute for the same 3'ear, in- 
 cluding only moneys available for the payment 
 of current expenses and the purchase of objects 
 for the museum, amounted to $209,894 ; while 
 the permanent funds stood at S388,541. 
 
 The ramifications of the work of the Institute 
 are so many and various that it is impossible 
 to enumerate them. The motto of the insti- 
 tution is " For the people by the people "; 
 and it endeavors to be to Brookl3'n what 
 the Lowell Institute, Society of Natural His- 
 tory, and Art Museum are to Boston, what the 
 Franklin Institute, Academy of Science, and 
 Gallery of Fine Arts are to Philadelphia, what 
 the Metropolitan Museum and the American 
 Museum are to New York. P. R. C. 
 
 BROOKLYN POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE, 
 BROOKLYN, N.Y. — An institution founded 
 in lS5:j, which gives college preparatory train- 
 ing and a college engineering course. The 
 latter course is given during the day and 
 evening, and affords a training for engineers 
 and chemists. About 12 points of high 
 school work are required for admission; cer- 
 tificates of proficiency from the public high 
 schools of New York and other accredited 
 schools are accepted in lieu of examinations. 
 Courses are given in chemistry, chemical, me- 
 chanical, civil, and electrical engineering, lead- 
 ing to appropriate degrees. A graduate depart- 
 ment is also maintained. There is a faculty of 
 14 professors, and 27 instructors and assistants. 
 Fred W. Atkinson, Ph.D., is the president. 
 
 BROOKS, CHARLES (1795-1872). — One 
 of the coworkers of Horace Mann (g.v.) in 
 the revival of the Massachusetts school sys- 
 tem, was born at Medford, Mass., Oct. 30, 
 1795. He was educated in the common 
 schools of Massachusetts and at Harvard 
 College, and engaged in the work of the minis- 
 try. He became acquainted with the sy.stem 
 of normal schools in Prussia, and devoted 
 several years to the attempts of James G. 
 Carter (q.v.) and others to secure the necessary 
 appropriations from the legislature of Massa- 
 chusetts to establish such institutions. For 
 several years he was professor of natural his- 
 tory in New York University, and he was one 
 of the founders of the American Association 
 for the Advancement of Education iq.i'.). He 
 was the author of two textbooks on ornithol- 
 ogy. Peace, Labor, and Education in Europe, 
 and .several pamplilets on normal schools. 
 He died at Lancaster, Mass., on the 7th of 
 July, 1872. W. S. M. 
 
 BROOKS, NATHAN COVINGTON (1819- 
 189S). — Educator and author of textbooks, 
 graduated from St. John's College in 1837; 
 l)rincipal of the Baltimore High School (1839- 
 1848) and first president of the Baltimore 
 Female College (1848); author of a number of 
 Latin and Greek textbooks. W. S. M. 
 
 453 
 
 BROOKS, PHILLIPS (1835-1893). —Noted 
 divine and preacher, educated at the Boston 
 Latin School and at Harvard College; instruc- 
 tor in the Boston Latin School (1855-1860); 
 entered the ministry and became Bisho]j of 
 Massachusetts in 1891; author of Oldest School 
 in America and of several theological works. 
 
 W. S. M. 
 Reference : — 
 
 Allen, A. \'. G. Biography of Phillips Brooks. (New 
 York, 1901.) 
 
 BROUGHAM, HENRY, BARON 
 BROUGHAM AND VAUX, 1778-1868. — Lord 
 Chancellor and educational reformer; born in 
 Edinburgh of an English North Country family; 
 educated at Edinburgh High School and Uni- 
 versity; one of the founders of the Edinburgh 
 Review. In 1805 Brougham came to London 
 and studied law. He was an active writer in 
 the Whig interest. He became M.P. for Camel- 
 ford in 1810, and quickly won a great reputa- 
 tion as a Parliamentary orator. In 1816 he 
 secured the appointment of a Parliamentary 
 Committee on the education of the lower 
 orders in the metropolis, the Report of which 
 drew public attention to the educational desti- 
 tution of London and prepared the way for 
 subsequent Parliamentary action. In 1818, 
 on the reappointment of the Committee, he 
 extended its inquiry into the administration of 
 educational charities, provoking bitter resent- 
 ment, but paving the way for later reorgani- 
 zation of charitable endowments by a state 
 department. Brougham was untiring in his 
 advocacy of adult education for workingmen 
 by means of mechanics' institutions. For 
 many years he took a leading part in Parlia- 
 ment in pressing questions of educational re- 
 form upon the thoughts of the nation. In 
 1820, basing his proposals upon the results of 
 his Committee's investigations, he introduced 
 a bill, the object of which was to establish 
 elementary schools wherever needed, to give 
 the magistrates the right to establish schools 
 the cost of which was to fall upon local rates, 
 to secure efficient teachers, to establish religious 
 instruction upon a nondenominational basis, 
 and to utilize obsolete charities in aid of ele- 
 mentary education. The bill was opposed by 
 Nonconformists and Roman Catholics, who 
 thought that their interests were imperiled by 
 it. 
 
 In 1825 Brougham published his Observations 
 upon the Education of the People, which ran 
 through 20 editions in one year. In 1833 he 
 recanted in the House of Lords his former 
 views in favor of compulsory education. In 
 1835 he addressed the House of Lords on the 
 education of the people, and urged that the 
 elementary schools then in existence were too 
 few in number and that they gave a kind of 
 instruction exceedingly scanty and imperfect. 
 In order to relieve the educational destitution 
 of the large towns, he urged that the State
 
 BROWTs^ GEORGE 
 
 BRO\\'N, JOHN 
 
 should furnish funds, but should apply its aid 
 in such a manner as not to interfere with the 
 exertions of individual zeal or to cut off the 
 supplies of private munificence. He recom- 
 mended that government grants should be 
 offered on condition that they were met by 
 an equal amount of local contributions. He 
 strongly urged the establishment of infant 
 schools and a reform of the treatment of 
 juvenile offenders, fie advocated state aid to 
 normal seminaries for training teachers, and 
 reforms in the administration of educational 
 charities bj' means of the establishment of a 
 Hoard of Commissioners to be appointed by 
 Parliament. All Brougham's recommenda- 
 tions were subsequently adopted by the gov- 
 ernment, though after considerable delay. He 
 was a man of nervous temperament, vain, elo- 
 quent, profoundly convinced of the need of 
 educational reform, but distrusted by his con- 
 temporaries on the ground of defects of char- 
 acter and some instability of political judg- 
 ment. He stands out, however, as one of the 
 great advocates of educational improvement 
 in England during the years 1816-1835, and 
 on the whole his policy was sound in view of 
 the complex conditions of English life. His 
 early experience of Scotland had convinced 
 him of the value of popular education; his 
 knowledge of Continental systems made him 
 realize how indispensable was the action of 
 the State in any extensive development of 
 popular education; but he appreciated the 
 services which the clergy of the Church of 
 England and the various religious bodies had 
 rendered to English education and saw that 
 it was necessary to secure their continued co- 
 operation in any plan designed for the further 
 development of educational work among the 
 poor. M. E. S. 
 
 References : — 
 Brodgh.\-M, H. Life and Times of Henry. Lord Brougham, 
 
 written by him.self. (3 vols., 1S71.) 
 Dictionary of Xational Biography. 
 Montmorency, J. E. G. de. State Intervention in 
 
 English Education. (Cambridge, 1902.) 
 
 BROWN, GEORGE (1823-1891). — Edu- 
 cator, attended Phillips Academy at Andover, 
 the University of Vermont, and Jefferson ]\Iedi- 
 cal College; organized a private school for 
 feeble-minded children at Barre, Alass., 18.51, 
 and conducted it for 40 years; active in the 
 movement for providing schools for feeble- 
 minded and idiotic children, and the author of 
 several addresses and pamphlets on the care 
 and training of the feeble-minded. W. S. M. 
 
 BROWN, GEORGE PLINY (1836-1910). — 
 Superintendent of schools at Richmond, Ind., 
 from 1860 to 1871; principal of the high school 
 at Indianapolis during the next 3 years, 
 and superintendent of schools at Indianapohs 
 from 1874 to 1879. During the next 7 
 years he was principal of the Indiana state 
 normal school at Terre Haute. From 1887 
 
 until his death he was the editor of School and 
 Home Education (formerly the Public School 
 Journal). He was the author of a textbook 
 on grammar and numerous essays on the 
 philosophy of education. W. S. M. 
 
 BROWN, GOOLD (1791-1857). — School- 
 man and textbook writer, educated in the 
 public and private schools of Rhode Island; 
 teacher in the Friends' schools (lSlO-1813); 
 principal of a private school in New York City 
 (1813-1833); author of a long series of gram- 
 matical textbooks, including Institutes of Eng- 
 lish grammar, Fir.H Lines of English Grammar, 
 and Grammar of English grammars. W. S. M. 
 
 BROWN, JOHN (171.5-1766). — Son of a 
 clergyman in Northumberland; educated at 
 Wigton Grammar School and St. John's, Cam- 
 bridge; in 1756 became rector of Great Horkes- 
 Icy near Colchester. Brown pubhshed in 1757 
 An Estimate of the Manners and Principles of 
 the Times. In 1765 he published Thoughts on 
 Civil Liberty, on Licentiousness and Faction. 
 In tliis work he advocated the establishment 
 of a national system of education under the 
 authority of the State. He argued that " For 
 want of a prescribed code of education to which 
 all the members of the community should 
 legally submit, the manners and principles upon 
 which alone the State can rest are in England 
 ineffectually instilled, and are vague, fluctuat- 
 ing, and self-contradictory." In an appendix 
 to this essay, Brown made more detailed pro- 
 posals for a code of education, defining it as 
 " a system of principles, religious, moral, and 
 pohtical, ... to be instilled effectually into 
 the infant and gromng minds of the com- 
 munity for the great end of pu'olic happiness." 
 These proposals indicate the existence of a 
 body of opinion in England at that time favor- 
 able to the establishment by the State of a 
 system of national education analogous to 
 those set up in different parts of Germany 
 during this period of philanthropic monarchy. 
 In England, however, the existence of the Non- 
 conformist interest, unflinchingly opposed to 
 the inculcation of Anglican doctrines by means 
 of a S3'stem of state schools, prevented the 
 realization of Brown's hopes, and caused the 
 social and educational development of England 
 to be entirely different from that of the Ger- 
 man states. Brown's pamphlet derives its 
 great importance in the history of English 
 education from the fact that it provoked 
 Joseph Priestley iq.v.) to write and publish in 
 the same year (1765) his Remarks on a Pro- 
 posed Code of Education, in which he states 
 with passion the arguments against any attempt 
 to organize education by government. Priest- 
 ley's essay is the locus classicus in English 
 literature of the eighteenth century for Non- 
 conformist arguments against national organi- 
 zation of education by the State acting in 
 concert with the Established Church. 
 
 454
 
 BROWN, MATTHEW 
 
 BROWN UNIVERSITY 
 
 In the last years of his Hfe Brown, in corre- 
 spondence with Dr. Dumaresque, who had been 
 consulted about the provision of a school sys- 
 tem for Russia, submitted to him an ambitious 
 plan for the civilization of Russia. This was 
 laid before the Empress, Catharine II, who 
 suggested Brown's undertaking a journey to 
 St. Petersburg for consultation. At the last 
 moment, in fear of the Russian climate. Brown 
 canceled the arrangements. 
 
 Brown suffered constitutionally from severe 
 depression of spirits, and in September, 17G6, 
 committed suicide. M. E. S. 
 
 References: — 
 
 Brown, John. Thoughts on Civil Liberty, with an Ap- 
 pendix relative to a proposed Code of Education. 
 (1765.) 
 
 Dictionary of National Biography. 
 
 Priestley, Joseph. Essay on a Course of Liberal Edu- 
 cation for Civil and Active Life, to which are added 
 Remarks on a Code of Education proposed by Dr. 
 Brmim in a late Treatise. (London, 1765.) 
 
 BROWN, MATTHEW (1776-1853). — 
 Educator, graduate of Dickinson College; 
 teacher in the schools of Pennsylvania (1794- 
 1796); instructor in Washington College (1S05- 
 1S1.5); president of Jefferson College (1822- 
 1S45). W. S. M. 
 
 BROWN, SAMUEL OILMAN (1813-1885). 
 — Educator and author, educated in private 
 schools and at Dartmouth College; teacher 
 in the high school at Ellington, Conn. (1832- 
 1834) ; principal of Abbot Academy at Andover 
 (1835-1838); professor in Dartmouth College 
 (1840-1867); president of Hamilton College 
 (1867-1881); author of Spirit of the Scholar. 
 
 W. S. M. 
 
 BROWN UNIVERSITY, PROVIDENCE, 
 
 R.I. — An institution chartered under the 
 name of Rhode Island College, by the General 
 Assembly of Rhode Island in 1764, and owing 
 its foundation to a proposal made in 1762 to 
 the Philadelphia Baptist Association by the 
 Rev. Morgan Edwards, pastor of the First 
 Bapti.st Church in Philadel])hia, looking toward 
 the establishment of a Baptist college. Rhode 
 Island was selected as the location because it 
 recognized religious liberty and was Baptist in 
 origin and attachment. The president, 8 of 
 12 members of the Board of Fellows, and 22 of 
 tiie 36 members of the Board of Trustees, 
 must be niemijers of Baptist churclies; 4 tru.s- 
 tees must belong to Congregational churches, 
 and 5 each to the Episcopal Church and to the 
 Society of Friends. The Chancellor, Secre- 
 tory, and Treasurer, however, are chosen with- 
 out denominational restriction; in adminis- 
 tration the university is strictly nonsectarian. 
 Both governing boards are self-perpetuating. 
 There is a .sentiment among the alumni in 
 favor of removing the denominational provi- 
 sions from the charter. 
 
 The first president was the Rev. James 
 
 Manning, elected Sept. 4, 1765, a graduate 
 of Princeton (1762). In 1769 the first class of 
 Rhode Island College was graduated at Warren; 
 in 1770 the present University Hall, modeled 
 after Nassau Hall, Princeton, was erected on 
 the college grounds in Providence, chiefly by 
 subscriptions from residents of that city. The 
 first college funds, amounting to $4500, were 
 collected in England and Ireland in 1767-1768. 
 In 1804 the name was clianged to Brown 
 University, in honor of Nicholas Brown, 1786, 
 a benefactor. The successors of president 
 Manning, all of them Baptist clergymen, have 
 been: Jonathan Maxcy, 1792-1802; Assa 
 Messer, 1802-1826; Francis AVayland, 1827- 
 1855; Barnas Sears, 1855-1867; Alexis Cas- 
 well, 1868-1872; Ezekiel G. Robinson, 1872- 
 1889; ElLsha B. Andrews, 1889-1898; and 
 William H. P. Faunce, 1S99-. President 
 Wayland reorganized the studies on an elective 
 basis, established a 3-year course for the bacca- 
 laureate, encouraged graduate research, and 
 made the sciences prominent in the curriculum. 
 During the administration of President An- 
 drews, the number of students increased from 
 286 to 860, the number of graduate students 
 rose from 3 to 101, all the old departments were 
 reorganized and new departments added, the 
 funds reached §1,125,685, and important addi- 
 tions were made to the buildings and grounds. 
 One year after the inauguration of President 
 Faunce, the endowment was increased by 
 $1,000,000, a second million being added a year 
 later. The sudden increase in the number of 
 students coincident with the accession of the 
 new president made both internal and external 
 reorganization necessary. In the 10 years 
 since 1899, the faculty has been reorganized; 
 6 new chairs of instruction have been created 
 and filled, and the number of courses offered 
 has increased from 83 to 119. The graduate 
 department has been fully organized. The 
 departments of Civil and Mechanical Engi- 
 neering have been installed in a fully equipped 
 engineering building. A summer experiment 
 station for biological study has been opened 
 at Warwick, R.I. Under an arrangement 
 with the Rhode Island School of Design, 
 the university sends its art students to the 
 School of Design for instruction in drawing 
 and painting, in return for which privilege the 
 School of Design uses the university's machine 
 shops. A system of visiting committees, 
 similar to that in force at Harvard University, 
 involves the appointment of about 150 men 
 from business or professional life, 5 to 10 for 
 each department, who annually inspect the 
 courses of study, laboratories, and equipment. 
 Brown University maintains undergraduate 
 courses for men, in arts, pure science, and 
 electrical and mechanical engineering, leading 
 to the appr()])riate degrees; admis.sion is by 
 examination and certificate from approved 
 high school. The university is a member of 
 the College Entrance Examination Board, of 
 
 455
 
 BROWN UNIVERSITY 
 
 BRUSSELS UNIVERSITY 
 
 the New England Certificate Board, and of 
 the New England Association of Colleges and 
 Prcparatorj' Schools (see College Entrance 
 Boards). Graduate courses for men and 
 women lead to the doctor's and master's de- 
 grees. In October, 1891, a women's college was 
 founded, which at fir.st gave only admission to 
 university examinations and awarded certificates 
 of proficiency; in June, 1892, all degrees and 
 graduate courses were opened to women, and 
 the college was designated the Women's College 
 of Brown University. The Women's College 
 is housed in a separate building; there are also 
 a women's dormitory and a gymnasium. This 
 college is separately endowed with about 
 $85,000. A system of student self-government 
 is maintained. All teaching in the Women's 
 College is by members of the instructing staff 
 of the university. E.xtension courses enrolling 
 annually from 2.50 to 400 teachers are given in 
 the university buildings, and give credit toward 
 a university degree. A medical school was 
 established in 1811, which existed until 1828 
 and had 87 graduates. 
 
 Student life at Brown partakes of the char- 
 acteristics of both the traditional " small col- 
 lege " and the large university; this state of 
 affairs is due to the rapid growth of the student 
 body. The fraternities are an important ele- 
 ment, and still occupy a position somewhat like 
 that which they hold in smaller New England 
 colleges. Their membership includes a large 
 proportion of the students, and their life centers 
 in chapter houses, 5 of which have been erected 
 or leased in recent years, a development which 
 has been criticized as tending to draw men from 
 college dormitories and refectories. The fol- 
 lowing fraternities have chapters at Brown: 
 Alpha Delta Phi, Delta Phi, Psi Upsilon, Beta 
 Theta Pi, Delta Kappa Epsilon, Zeta Psi, 
 Theta Delta Chi, Chi Psi, Delta Up.silon, Phi 
 Delta Theta, Alpha Tau Omega, Chi Phi (local). 
 Delta Tau Delta, Phi Kappa (organized by 
 Roman Catholic students, local). Kappa Sigma, 
 Phi Gamma Delta, Phi Kappa Psi, and Kappa 
 Alpha Theta (women). In 1889 the old play- 
 ground of the university, now known as Lin- 
 coln Field, was graded for athletic purposes; 
 in 1898 a new athletic field was laid out on 
 Camp Street, a mile and a half from the uni- 
 versity. The Brown Union, a social club for a 
 majority of the students, occupies a building 
 in which are the headquarters of all the student 
 enterprises. There is a Supervisor of Athletics; 
 stringent eligibility rules have been established 
 by the faculty, but all other questions concern- 
 ing athletics are settled by the students them- 
 selves. 
 
 The library dates from 1767. In 1842 it 
 contained 1000 volumes; it has now (1909) 
 about 100,000 volumes. In June, 190S, there 
 were enrolled 6681 graduates of the university, 
 of whom 457 were women and 617 had received 
 honorary degrees. In April, 1908, the funds of 
 Brown University, exclusive of those pertaining 
 
 to the John Carter Brown Library, amounted 
 to $.':!, 305, 390. The average salary of a pro- 
 fessor is $2680. There are (1909) 91 members 
 on the instructing staff, of whom 29 arc full 
 professors. The students number 967, divided 
 as follows: undergraduate men, 681; Women's 
 College, 183; graduate students, 111. C. G. 
 
 References: — 
 
 General Catalogue for 1908-1909 (historical sketch). 
 
 Guild, R. A. History of Brown i'niversilu. (Provi- 
 dence, 1S97.) 
 
 History of Brown University in the biographies of ita 
 presidents, in National Cyclopedia of Biography. 
 Vol. VIII, pp. 20-26. 
 
 BRUNI, LEONARDO D'AREZZO. — A 
 
 humanist of the fourteenth century, born at 
 Arezzo, whence he was known as Aretino. He 
 studied civil law at Forence and Ravenna. 
 While at Florence he was attracted to the new 
 movement by Chrysoloras (q.v.), and became 
 an ardent student of Greek. He translated 
 Plato, Aristotle, Demosthenes, and Plutarch. 
 He also wrote Hisloriannn Florentiarum, Libri 
 XII, and lives of Dante and Petrarch. He was 
 Papal Secretary under four popes, and at 
 Florence enjoyed the patronage of the Medici. 
 
 BRUNSWICK, DUCHY OF, EDUCATION 
 
 IN. — See German Empire, Education in. 
 
 BRUSH WORK.— See Art in the Schools; 
 
 Design. 
 
 BRUSSELS, UNIVERSITY OF. — This 
 
 institution for higher learning owes its origin 
 to the faculties established at Brussels under 
 the control of the Imperial University (1806), 
 although the university as such was not created 
 till 1834. The university is independent, and is 
 not an incorporated body. It is maintained 
 by nmnicipal grants and the liberal gifts of 
 wealthy manufacturers. Among the special 
 schools supplementing the work of the four 
 faculties (law, science, medicine, and philosophy) 
 are several scientific institutions with ample 
 laboratory facilities, a higher commercial school, 
 and the school of political and social sciences. 
 The last named, created in 1889, soon after 
 took possession of the Solvay Institute, the 
 gift of the citizen whose name it bears, a unique 
 structure admirably arranged for the researches 
 carried on by the professors and students of the 
 specialties to which it pertains. The activity 
 of this free center of learning and research is 
 indicated by the Revue de rUniversite, the organ 
 of the institutions, the Union des ancicns 
 Etudianls, which extends aid to young and needy 
 students, and the university extension work, of 
 which Brussels is the inspiring center. In 
 1907-1908 the students were distributed as 
 follows: philosophy and letters, 128; law, 188; 
 sciences, 224; medicine, 297; special schools, 
 353. 
 
 See Belgium, Education in. 
 
 456
 
 BRYN MAWR COLLEGE 
 
 BUCHANAN 
 
 BRYN MAWR COLLEGE, BRYN MAWR, 
 
 PA. — A college for women situated in the 
 suburbs of Philadelphia, founded by Dr. Joseph 
 W. Taylor in ISSO. The college was opened 
 for instruction in the autumn of ISSo. The 
 college grounds cover 52 acres, on which are 
 located 3 buildings, which include the library, 
 lecture rooms and laboratories. Six dormi- 
 tories are provided for the students. The 
 students are divided into 3 classes — graduate, 
 undergraduate, and hearers. A large number 
 of fellowships and scholarships are offered in 
 the graduate school. For entrance into the 
 undergraduate department candidates must 
 pass the matriculation examination of the 
 college, the requirements for which are equiva- 
 lent to 17.5 units. The examination of the 
 College Entrance Examination Board (q.v.) 
 is accepted as an equivalent. Courses are 
 offered leading to the degree of B.A., but candi- 
 dates must elect their courses in accordance 
 with the Group System (g.v.). The hearers 
 are admitted to the courses under certain condi- 
 tions, but may not proceed to a degree. In 
 1909-1910 there was an enrollment of 425 
 students, of whom 88 were graduates. The 
 faculty includes 10 professors, 14 associate 
 professors, and 33 associates, readers, lecturers, 
 and demonstrators. The president is M. Carey 
 Thomas, Ph.D., LL.D. 
 
 BUCHANAN, GEORGE (1506-1582).— 
 A humanist and educationist of eminence, who 
 was placed by his contemporaries in the very 
 front rank as a scholar and a poet. Born at 
 Killearn in the county of Stirling, Scotland, he 
 became at the age of 14 a student at the 
 University of Paris, and his life from that time 
 till its end was devoted, almost without a 
 break, to education and letters. He responded 
 at an early period to the new spirit that was 
 fa.st spreading over Western Europe, and as a 
 humanist attacked the barren teaching of the 
 schoolmen and the ignorance and superstition 
 of the Roman priesthood. His native country 
 was unaffected by the Renaissance, and even 
 the Univcrsitj' of Paris, to which he returned 
 after spending a few years (1522-152()) in Scot- 
 land, was dominated by scholasticism. Bu- 
 chanan, however, introduced genuine classical 
 studies into the College of Ste. Barbe, of which 
 he was regent, and signalized his rupture with 
 the Church of Rome by writing three satires 
 on her clergy, the Somnium, Pnlinodia, and 
 Franciscatius. He also advocated in his De 
 Jure Rcgni the rights of subjects, and hold that 
 kings who ruled tyrannically should be de- 
 throned. Buchanan's humanism did not take 
 the form of mere verbal scholarship. He used 
 the Latin tongue as a man of letters to convey 
 to educated p]urope his views on public affairs 
 and his criticisms on human life. His real work, 
 however, was that of an educationist. This 
 was not so clearly recognized by his contempo- 
 raries, who were impressed chiefly by his scholar- 
 
 ship and his poetic gifts. But it is now gener- 
 ally admitted that tiie impetus which he gave 
 to the cause of education in Scotland has been 
 of more value to his countrymen than his great 
 reputation as a poet. The chief business of his 
 life from his twentieth year to his death was the 
 teaching of youth. He was a professor, suc- 
 cessively, at the College of Ste. Barbe, Paris; 
 the College de Guyenne, Bordeaux; again in 
 Paris in the College du Cardinal Lemoine; 
 and in the LIniversity of Coimbra in Portugal. 
 His last scholastic appointment was the prin- 
 cipalship of St. Leonard's College, St. Andrews, 
 Scotland. He acted also as tutor to the son of 
 the Earl of Cassillis, to an illegitimate son of 
 James V of Scotland, to the son of the famous 
 Mar6chal de Brissac, and to King James VI of 
 Scotland. This last post he nominally held 
 till his death in 1582, for in his Testament 
 dative he is described as " preceptour to ye 
 Kinge's majestye the tyme of his deceis," so 
 that he may be said to have died teaching. 
 This indeed is literally true, for James Melville 
 records that visiting him in his last illness, 
 along with his uncle Andrew Melville, and 
 Thomas Buchanan, they found him sitting in 
 his chair " teaching his young man that scrvit 
 him in his Chalmer to spell a, b, ab; e, b, eb; 
 &c. After salutation Mr. Andro sayes, ' I sie, 
 sir, ye are nocht ydle.' ' Better this,' quoth 
 he, ' nor stelling shicp or sitting ydle quilk is 
 alsill.' " Indeed, it is the spirit that underlies 
 this act and pervades these words that has done 
 more for education in Scotland than any special 
 scheme of reorganization of school or university 
 teaching with which Buchanan's name may be 
 associated. It is true that he translated Li- 
 nacre's Latin grammar and was one of the Com- 
 missioners appointed to prepare a plan for the 
 reconstruction of St. Andrews Lhiiversit.y. He 
 was also instrumental in securing several bene- 
 fits for Glasgow University, but his enduring 
 worth as an educationist after all lies in the 
 inspiration which he gave to Scottish youth and 
 in presenting to them an ideal in the world of 
 literature and learning which it has been their 
 aim to realize. D. McM. 
 
 References : — 
 
 Autobiography included in his History. 
 
 Brown, P. H. George Buchanan, Humanist and Re- 
 former. (Edinburgh, 1S90.) 
 
 Dictionary of National Biography. 
 
 Irving. Memoirs of the Life and Writings of George 
 Buchanan. 2d ed. (Edinburgh, 1817.) 
 
 Macmill.vn, D. Life of George Buchanan. (London, 
 1906.) 
 
 Millar, D. A. George Buchanan, A Memorial. (Lon- 
 don, 1907.) 
 
 Quartcrccntenar\- Studies : George Buchanan, Glasgow. 
 (GlasKow, 1906.) 
 
 Sandys, J. E. .4 History of Classical Scholarship, Vol. 
 II. (Cambridge. 1908.) 
 
 Wallace, R., and Smith, J. C. George Buchanan. 
 (New York, 1900.) 
 
 BUCHANAN, JAMES. — The firstr teacher 
 of the first infant school in Great Britain. Al- 
 though a poor weaver who at first could scarcely 
 
 457
 
 BUCHAREST 
 
 BUDAPEST 
 
 read, write, or spell, Robert Owen {q.v.) selected 
 him in 1815 to take charge of the infant school 
 at New Lanark on account of his love of children 
 and his readiness to be instructed. In ISIS 
 Buchanan was appointed by a committee of 
 the most prominent leaders of the time in Eng- 
 land, including Lord Brougham and James Mill, 
 to take charge of a similar school in London. 
 But removed from the influence of Owen he 
 failed. In 1S40 he left for South Africa, where 
 two of his children were infant teachers. It is 
 very probable that Wilderspin ((j.v.), who came 
 to be regarded as the leader of this infant school 
 movement, gained his inspiration from Bu- 
 chanan. 
 See Infant Schools. 
 
 References: — 
 
 Owen, Robert. Life. 
 
 Salmon, D., and Hindshaw, W. Infant Schools. (Lon- 
 don and New York, 1904.) 
 
 BUCHAREST, UNIVERSITY OF. 
 
 RouM.\.\i.\, Education in. 
 
 See 
 
 BUCHTEL COLLEGE, AKRON, OHIO. 
 
 — A coeducational institution, founded in 1870 
 by the Ohio Universalist Convention, and 
 opened in 1872. Academic, collegiate, and fine 
 arts departments are maintained. In the 
 college classical, scientific, and philosophic 
 courses are offered, leading up to the appropriate 
 degrees. The requirements for admission are 
 15 units. Admission is by certificate from an 
 approved high school or academy or by exami- 
 nation. The college stands on a campus com- 
 prising 6 acres, on which there are 8 buildings, 
 valued, together with the equipment, at about 
 $130,000. There are on the faculty 10 profes- 
 sors and 12 instructors and assistants. There 
 were enrolled in 1909-1910, 132 students in the 
 college, 120 in the academy, and 57 in the fine 
 arts department. Rev. A. B. Church, D.D., 
 LL.D., is the president. 
 
 BUCKNELL UNIVERSITY, LEWISBURG, 
 
 PA. — Incorporated as a nonsectarian insti- 
 tution in 1846. The administration is in the 
 hands of a self-perpetuating board of trustees. 
 The property of the institution exceeds one 
 million dollars, and the productive investment 
 amounts to over .5700,000. This money is 
 largely the gift of several hundred persons. 
 An academy, an institute for young women, 
 and a school of music are maintained in addi- 
 tion to the college. Pupils are admitted to 
 the institute for young women at the age of 
 12, and receive courses extending over 5 
 years, at the end of which they are admitted 
 to the sophomore year in the college. Students 
 are admitted to the college either on certificate 
 from approved high schools, Pennsylvania 
 state normal schools, the College Entrance 
 Examination Board, and New York State 
 Board of Regents, or by examination. The 
 requirements for admission are approximately 
 
 15 units. The college offers 8 courses, 
 each of 4 years, leading to the appropriate 
 degrees. The buildings of the college proper 
 are 9 in number. The enrollment in 1909- 
 1910 was 527. There are 21 professors, 2 
 assistant professors, and 11 instructors and 
 lecturers. John Howard Harris, Ph.D., LL.D., 
 is the president. 
 
 BUDiEUS, OK BUDE, GUILLAUME (14fi7- 
 1540). — Probably the most renowned French 
 scholar of his time, and largely instrumental in 
 the revival of interest in the study of the Greek 
 language and literature in Paris. He not only 
 wrote extensively on philology, philosophy, and 
 jurisprudence, but was also a man of public 
 affairs under Louis XII and Francis I. The 
 foundation of the College dc France was largely 
 the result of Buda^us' continued pleadings with 
 Francis I, and it was doubtless at his suggestion 
 that his friend Erasmus was invited to come to 
 Paris as director of that institution. Most im- 
 portant works: Annotatioiics in XXIV libros 
 pandectorum (1508); De asse et partibits ejus 
 (1514), a treati.se upon ancient coins; and the 
 Commentarii linguae graerae (1519). His con- 
 tribution to pedagogy was a French treatise, De 
 rinstitutioii'du Prince, written in 1516, but not 
 printed until 1547 in order to avoid comparison 
 with a similar work by Erasmus. Besides the 
 Renaissance plea for humanistic learning, the 
 work is remarkable for the emphasis attached 
 to the importance of a study of history. 
 
 F. E. P. 
 
 References: — 
 BuDE, E. DE. Vie de GuiUaume Bude. (Paris, 1884.) 
 
 Lcttrcs inediles. (Paris, 1S87.) 
 
 8.\NDTS, .1. E. A History of Classical Scholarship, Vol. 
 
 II. (C'ambridgi'. 1903.) 
 Woodward, W. H. Studies in Education during the 
 Age of the Renaissance. (Cambridge, 1906.) 
 
 BUDAPEST, THE ROYAL HUNGARIAN 
 UNIVERSITY OF. — The lineal descendant 
 of the institution established at Ofen in 1390, 
 which had a somewhat checkered career. It 
 was disorganized, reestablished at Tyrnau in 
 1635, moved back to Ofen in 1777, removed 
 to Pest in 1783, and finally placed on a level 
 with the other Austrian universities in 1850. 
 The university includes the four traditional 
 faculties of theology, in which instruction is 
 given in Latin, law and political science, medi- 
 cine, and philosophy. The city also boasts of 
 a technological school, including among others 
 departments of mechanical engineering, archi- 
 tecture, and chemistrj'. Other institutions of 
 the city are a school of veterinary medicine, 
 founded in 1786, the Reformed Theological 
 Academy (1855), the Jewish Theological Semi- 
 nary (1877), the Hungarian Academy of Science 
 (1825), the Royal Hungarian Geological Insti- 
 tute (1869), the Hungarian National Museum 
 (1869), etc. The library of the latter institution 
 contains over 400,000 volumes, 16,000 manu- 
 scripts, and 500,000 documents, while the uiii- 
 
 458
 
 BUDDHA AND BUDDHISM 
 
 BUDDHA AND BUDDHISM 
 
 versity library, established in 1635, contains 
 275,000 volumes and over 2000 manuscripts. 
 The annual budget amounts to about $500,000, 
 half of which sum is approi)riated by the govern- 
 ment. About 7000 students and 796 auditors 
 were in attendance on the university during the 
 winter semester of 1909-1910. R. T. 
 
 See AusTRiA-HuNG.\RY, Education in. 
 
 BUDDHA AND BUDDHISM. — The word 
 " Buddha " means " the Enlightened One," 
 and was used in ancient India as a religious 
 title. Buddhists call a Buddha him who has 
 solved the i)roblem of existence, who knows 
 and preaches the truth, and thereby becomes 
 the teacher and the savior of mankind. Hav- 
 ing attained the highest goal of life. Nirvana, 
 he is no longer born again, and his death is 
 called a final entry into Nirvana, leaving 
 behind nothing mortal of a continued bodily 
 existence. 
 
 According to the statements in the Buddhist 
 Sacred Books, Buddhas appear from time to 
 time, and their doctrine flourishes for a certain 
 period, but when its light has been dimmed a 
 new Buddha ri.ses who preaches the self-same 
 eternal truth that is briefly formulated in the 
 Dhammapada thus: " Not to do wrong, but 
 to do good, and to keep the heart pure. That 
 is the religion of all Buddhas." 
 
 There is but one historical Buddha, the 
 founder of Buddhism as it now exists in Burma, 
 Ceylon, Siam, Tibet, China, and Japan. His 
 name is Siddhartha Gautama of the Shakya 
 tribe, a son of Shuddhodhana and his wife Maya. 
 All previous Buddhas are legendary. It has 
 been calculated that Gautama was born 622 
 B.C., attained to Buddhahood in 588, and died 
 in his eightieth year, in 543 B.C. Buddhist 
 chronology counts the years after the Bud- 
 dha's Nirvana, 543 b.c. 
 
 Religious zeal has so overlaid Buddha's life 
 with legend that Professor Wilson, of Oxford, 
 and later on Senart, found suflScient argument 
 for the theory that Siddhartha Gautama had 
 never existed and that Buddha's life was origi- 
 nally a solar myth. This hypothesis has never 
 been taken very seriously by scholars, and the 
 rclial)ility of Buddhist tradition, leaving out 
 the obvious accretions of myths, has rather 
 been strengthened with increasing information 
 througii the discovery of ancient monuments, 
 relics, and inscriptions. 
 
 The Shakya constituted a small republican 
 state of Indo-Scythians who had settled at the 
 foot of the Ncpalese Himalaya. Shuddhodhana 
 api)('ars to have been a wealthy and powerful 
 nobleman, a chief or even rajah of the Gautama 
 clan, and Siddiiartha enjoyed a good educa- 
 tion. He was married to his cousin, Yasho- 
 dhara of Koli, who bore him a son whom they 
 named Rahula, i.e. " fetter," because the child 
 was likely to serve as a tie which would bind 
 Siddhartha to the worldly interests of life. 
 
 Siddhartha was of a religious turn of mind, 
 
 459 
 
 and (as tradition most dramatically tells), 
 having beheld the sight of the three ills of life 
 to which all flesh is heir, — disease, old age, 
 and death, — he left his comfortable home and 
 renounced the world. He first sought salva- 
 tion in the ways of Brahman philosophy and 
 asceticism. But he rejected the traditional 
 doctrines, the authority of the Vedas and the 
 means of salvation by prayer and sacrifice, 
 and founded a school of his own which rapidly 
 developed into a powerful religious movement 
 distinguished by the rare combination of philo- 
 sophical depth and a popular mode of presen- 
 tation. 
 
 The canonical books of Buddhism are written 
 in Pali, a language which bears the same rela- 
 tion to the older Sanskrit that Italian bears 
 to Latin. However, during the first century 
 of the Christian era, at a time when Buddhism 
 began to assimilate some of the most popular 
 traditions of the past, Sanskrit came into 
 vogue again, and almost simultaneously a dis- 
 tinction was made between this new, the 
 broader and more popular church, the Maha- 
 yana, i.e. the " large vessel " (viz. of salvation) 
 and the older and more austere school, now 
 called Hinayana (or " small vessel "). At 
 this juncture Buddhism spread over Tibet, 
 China, and Japan, and so it happened that in 
 Northern Buddhism the terms and names 
 assume the Sanskrit form, while in Southern 
 Buddhism the original Pali prevails. 
 
 According to the dualistic notions of ancient 
 India, all material existence was deemed evil, 
 and the soul, called atman, or self, was supposed 
 to be a being by itself. Deeply religious people 
 therefore sought salvation through self-morti- 
 fication, which should serve as a means for the 
 liberation of the soul from the body, and for 
 the attainment of Nirvana, the state of perfect 
 spiritual bliss. 
 
 Nirvana is characterized as a state of perfect 
 peace where there is no pain, no sorrow, no 
 tormenting desires, nor wants, and this was 
 to be attained by extinguishing or blowing 
 out the flame of passion — hence the name 
 for Nirvana (Pali, Nibbana) means " extinc- 
 tion." 
 
 Among the Western people the notion pre- 
 vails that Nirvana means " annihilation," and 
 this view was originally held also by Professor 
 Max Muller until he investigated the question 
 and settled it by collecting all the passages in 
 the Buddhist books which refer to Nirvana, 
 when he discovered to his own astonishment 
 that there was not one passage which described 
 this state of highest bliss. Nirvana, as annihi- 
 lation. His book on the subject, entitled 
 Nirvana (first edition, 1869) should have put 
 an end to the dispute, and j-et even such 
 scholars as Oldenberg are found" upholding the 
 old view. The difficulty lies in the inability 
 of some people to comprehend the significance 
 of Buddhist [ihilosophy and psychology. 
 
 Buddhists distinguish between two states:
 
 BUDDHA AND BUDDHISM 
 
 BUDDHA AND BUDDHISM 
 
 Samsara, which is the restless and stormy ocean 
 of life with its troubles, and Nirvana, the hliss 
 of eternal rest. The former is pictured as a 
 wheel, the eternal circuit of which consists 
 of the twelve Nidanas, — a chain of twelve 
 links. Nirvana is called the immortal, the 
 uncreate, the refuge, the happy island, etc. 
 Buddha taught that Nirvana can be attained 
 in this life, and its attainment constitutes 
 Buddhaliood. 
 
 Buddha's main doctrine is the nonexistence 
 of the atinan (self). Since there is no separate 
 ego-being, there is no soul-transmigration. In 
 its place Buddha teaches the doctrine of 
 rebirth or reincarnation based on the observa- 
 tion of the persistence of life forms. As the 
 banana seed changes into a tree and finally 
 reappears in the ripe fruit, so the character 
 of men is preserved and transmitted. There 
 is no entity that migrates, but the type persists. 
 There is no alman (self), but there is mana 
 (mind). The translation of atman by " soul " 
 has given rise to the idea that Buddha teaches 
 the nonexistence of the soul. His conception 
 is monistic, not, like that of the Brahnians, 
 dualistic. 
 
 Buddha's explanation of the problem of 
 existence is dynamical. While the existence 
 of the ego is an illusion, he teaches the persist- 
 ence of action, or Karma. Every creature 
 is the product of its previous Karma, and its 
 Karma will continue according to the law of 
 causation. Karma therefore is the root of 
 existence, of particularity, and of individuality, 
 and Karma is perpetuated by clinging to one's 
 individuality. The result is suffering, but he 
 who has attained enlightenment cuts off the 
 thirst for existence (tanha). He lives in the 
 world, but he clings no longer to his self. When 
 the ego is recognized as a sham, egotism loses 
 its meaning. These views are formulated in 
 the four noble truths: (1) existence is suffering; 
 
 (2) the cause of suffering is desire (tanha); 
 
 (3) the cessation of suffering is brought about 
 by cutting off desire (clinging to individual 
 existence); and (4) the cessation of suffering 
 is brought about by the eightfold noble i)atli 
 which consists of (1) right comprehension, 
 (2) right resolution, (3) right speech, (4) right 
 acts, (.5) the right way of earning a livelihood, 
 (6) right efforts, (7) right thoughts, and (8) 
 the right state of a peaceful mind. 
 
 Truth, or religion, or the doctrine of religion, 
 is called Dharma, and the congregation of the 
 followers of Buddha, the brotherhood, is called 
 Sangha. Thus the formula which is repeated 
 three times upon joining the Buddhist faith, 
 reads: " I take my refuge in the Buddha; I 
 take my refuge in the Dharma; I take my 
 refuge in the Sangha." 
 
 There is no prayer in Buddhism; but there 
 are vows, and all Buddhists are expected to 
 avoid the ten evils, which are three of the body, 
 four of the tongue, and three of the mind: 
 (1) killing, (2) stealing, (3) impurity; (4) lying. 
 
 (5) slander, (6) abuse, (7) gossip; (<S) greed, 
 (9) malice, and (10) ignorance. Five trades are 
 forbidden to monks: (1) traffic in arms, (2) the 
 slave trade, (3) traffic in flesh, (4) the sale of 
 licjuors, and (5) the sale of poisons. 
 
 Further, there arc five precepts for laymen: 
 
 (1) not to destroy life, (2) not to take what is 
 not given, (3) not to tell lies, (4) not to drink 
 intoxicating liquors, (5) not to commit adultery. 
 And there are three adilitional precepts for 
 monks: (1) not to eat food at night, (2) not 
 to use perfumes, (3) not to sleep in high beds 
 but on mats. 
 
 A remarkable institution is the Uposatha or 
 confession, which is however not to be made 
 privately to a imtcr confefisor (as in the Ronnin 
 Catholic Church), but publicly before the as- 
 sembled brotherhood. 
 
 There are indications that in the day of 
 Buddha there were several teachers who taught 
 more or less different ways of salvation, but 
 Siddhartha Gautama is the one who alone is 
 called the Buddha. He eclipsed all others, and 
 his formulation of the doctrine pro\ed fittest 
 for survival. We know that Buddha's cousin 
 and disciple Devadatta tried to form a schism 
 by outdoing Buddha in severity, but he failed. 
 Outside of Buddhism a certain Mahavira 
 preached the doctrine of the Jainas and founded 
 a religion which is still in existence, though 
 limited to a small community of followers. 
 While Buddha's religion indicates a strong 
 monistic tendency, Mahavira was a dualist 
 who claimed to have conquered materiality 
 and all evil, and was therefore worshiped by 
 his disciples as the Jaina or conqueror. The 
 title Jaina was an equivalent for the name 
 Buddha, and is still used bj^ Buddhists as a 
 synonym for Buddha. 
 
 While other religious teachers limited their 
 field of activity to their immediate disciples, 
 to monks who had retired from the world, 
 Buddha spread the seeds of his religion broad- 
 cast, and accepted also lay disciples who did 
 not renounce the world, but remained with their 
 families and carried on their trades. 
 
 Buddha is called Bhagavat, the Blessed One; 
 or Shakyamuni, the Sage of the Shakya; or the 
 Tathagata, a term not quite clear. It is 
 mostly translated the " Perfect One," and has 
 been explained to signify one who has fulfilled 
 all the requirements of being a Buddha. 
 
 Buddha was an educator of the first rank. 
 His personality must have been possessed of 
 an unusual imprcssiveness, and most of the 
 doctrines held by Buddhists to-day were 
 formulated by himself; nor is it improbable 
 that he composed many of the verses of the 
 Dhammapada. He has impressed his spirit 
 upon a good half of mankind, and may be 
 called a reformer on the largest scale possible. 
 How did he succeed? (1) He lived the religion 
 which he taught and set the example to others. 
 
 (2) He endeavored to make every one of his 
 disciples independent, claiming no authority 
 
 460
 
 BUDDHA AND BUDDHISM 
 
 BUDGET 
 
 except that of a teacher and adviser. " Be 
 ye lamps unto yourselves," he said in his fare- 
 well address to his disciples. (3) He was 
 clear in his statements, and practiced the 
 method of enumerating the several points 
 he wanted to impress on his followers. (4) He 
 illustrated his doctrines bj' allegories, parables, 
 and stories. (5) Though he rejected the Brah- 
 man doctrines (belief in the Vedas as inspired 
 books, the Brahman ritual, sacrifice, praj'er, 
 and the caste sj'stem), he did not antagonize 
 either Brahmanism or any other religion. 
 Certain criticisms of Brahmanism have been 
 attributed to Buddha, one in which the Brah- 
 mans are compared to a string of blind men 
 (not unlike Christ's parable of blind leaders of 
 the blind), and another ridiculing the preten- 
 sions of the god Brahma to omniscience and om- 
 nipotence, but even these are more humorous 
 than satirical. (7) Buddha points out error 
 and its consequences, but he does not chide, nor 
 does he assume the authorit}' of a Lord. In 
 this sense even the code of moral precepts are 
 not called the ten commandments, but " avoid- 
 ing the ten evils." (8) He thrilled his hearers 
 by pointing out the blessedness, the beauty, 
 and the glory of his ethics. He called his 
 religion the " glorious doctrine " (an analogy to 
 the Christian " gospel "). (9) He presented 
 the truths he taught in poetical form, which 
 added the euphony of Pali verse to a convincing 
 appeal to truth. 
 
 The many striking similarities between 
 Buddhism and Christianitj' suggest historical 
 connections, but the influence of Buddhism on 
 Christianity must have been indirect; there 
 was no direct borrowing. On the other hand, 
 the influence of the Christian Xestorians on 
 the formation of Lamaism (the hierarchic 
 Buddhism of Tibet), is undeniable. A most 
 curious coincidence is the accidental similarity 
 in sound of names, such as Maria — Maya, 
 Johannes — Ananda, Petros — Shariputra, Ju- 
 das — Devadatta, etc. 
 
 The literature on Buddhism is very extensive. 
 The ancient canonical books are collected in a 
 library called Tripitaka, the " three baskets," 
 consisting of the Dharina (doctrine), the Vinaya 
 (precepts and rules), and the Ahhidharma 
 (philosophy). 
 
 The best known and most characteristic 
 books of the Buddhist canon are the Dham- 
 mapada, a book of stanzas, religious poems of 
 deep earnestness; the Sutla Nipala, a collec- 
 tion of discourses; the Dhamma-Chakka-Pra- 
 valana Sutla, or the Foundation of the Kingdom 
 of Righteousness, and the Mahaparinibbana 
 Sulta, a story of the last days of Buddha. 
 
 Further there are several biographies. The 
 Buddhacharita is a life of Buddha by Ash- 
 vaghosha. Another life of Buddha, in the 
 original Sanskrit, has been lost, but exists still 
 in a Chinese translation under the title Fo Sho 
 Hing Tsan King. The best known of the later 
 biographies and the most fantastic story of 
 
 Buddha's life is the Lalila Vistara. The 
 Jataka, or " birthstories," contain the folklore 
 of Buddhism. They are popular tales with a 
 moral. P. C. 
 
 References: — 
 
 Ar.N'OLD, E. Light of Asia. (London, 1882.) 
 
 Buddhism. (Rangoon.) 
 
 C.\RUS, P. Dharma. (Open Court, Chicago, 1907.) 
 The Gospel of Buddha. 
 
 Clarke, J. F. Nineteenth Century Questions. (Bos- 
 ton, 1897.) 
 
 Davids, T. W. Rhys. Buddhism, Its History and 
 Literature. (New York, 1896.) 
 Buddhist Birth Stories. (London, 1899.) 
 
 MoNiER-WiLLi.uiis, Sir Monier. Buddhism and Its 
 Conneetion with Brahmanism. (London, 1S8S.) 
 
 MxJller, F. Max. Buddhist Nihilism. (London, 
 1869.) 
 
 Oldenberg. Buddha, Sein Leben, Seine Lehre, etc. 
 (Berlin, 1897, 3d ed.) Tr. by W. Hoey. (Lon- 
 don, 1882.) 
 
 Pali Text Society. Publications, ed. by T. W. Rhys 
 Davids. (London.) 
 
 Senart. Essai sur la legendc de Bouddha. (Paris, 
 1882.) 
 
 The Mahabodhi Journal. (Calcutta.) 
 
 The Buddhist. (London.) 
 
 Warren. Buddhism, In Translations. (Cambridge, 
 Mass., 1896.) 
 
 BUDE. — See Bud.bus. 
 
 BUDGET, SCHOOL. — National. — The lack 
 
 of any national educational plan and the 
 absence of any direct federal control of or- 
 ganized public education in the United States 
 serves to reduce education to a position of very 
 minor importance as a factor in the federal 
 budget. Nevertheless, each of the executive 
 departments of the national government directs 
 and carries on enterprises of an educational or 
 quasi-educational character, the expenditures 
 for which are authorized and approved by 
 Congress. Consequently, while the annual 
 amount of such expenditures is insignificant 
 in comparison with the total national outlay for 
 all purposes, it does contain items of signal 
 importance to the educational welfare of the 
 nation. The appropriations of the Sixtieth 
 Congress (1907) in behalf of education may be 
 citecl as typical of the existing fiscal position of 
 education as a federal undertaking. The total 
 assembled from the several departmental 
 budgets amounted to more than fourteen and 
 one half millions of dollars. This included 
 funds for the pubhc schools of the District of 
 Columbia, the Smithsonian Institution, the 
 Library of Congress, international scientific 
 congresses, military and naval academies and 
 training institutions, Indian education. Bureau 
 of Education, and the continuing appropria- 
 tions for colleges of agriculture and mechanic 
 arts. Excepting the last-named item, the 
 appropriations were in every case for the benefit 
 of special institutions and for extraordinary 
 purposes having little or no relation to the 
 general system of public schools. Numerous 
 proposals have been made in Congress for the 
 enlargement of the sphere of federal influence 
 
 4G1
 
 BUDGET 
 
 BUDGET 
 
 through appropriations to the several states for 
 various general educational purposes, the most 
 significant of which have been those providing 
 for national appropriations in aid of element- 
 ary and secondary industrial and commercial 
 schools. Until, however, there is a more logical 
 organization of the educational activities carried 
 on under national auspices, the importance of 
 education in the federal budget will be uncertain 
 and varying. (See Federal Aid to Educa- 
 tion.) 
 
 State. — The fiscal administration of pubHc 
 education in the different states of the Union 
 presents the greatest diversity. Practically 
 speaking, elementary and secondary schools 
 receive their major support from local taxation, 
 supplemented by an animal apportionment 
 from the income of permanent state funds 
 established for schools by general state taxes, 
 and by various special aids. (See articles on 
 Apportionment; Funds; Taxation.) Higher 
 and professional institutions, and schools for 
 special classes, being administered directly by 
 state boards and officers, arc dependent entirely 
 upon the state as a supportmg unit. Very 
 frequently the state constitution renders it man- 
 datory upon the legislature to maintain these 
 institutions. They are, therefore, of consider- 
 able importance in general state finance. 
 
 Two general policies are to be observed with 
 reference to the ordinary support of special 
 state educational institutions. Under the first, 
 a more or less stable amount of support is 
 granted to each, through either continuing 
 appropriations, or specified state taxes. As 
 typical of ^he principal different budgetary 
 methods whereby a fixed portion of support 
 is attempted may be cited such instances as 
 the special state taxes levied in California, 
 Colorado, Indiana, Iowa, Kentucky, Michigan, 
 Minnesota, Nebraska, Ohio, and Wisconsin, 
 for the university, agricultural colleges, normal 
 schools, etc.; the special state tax (one mill) 
 in North Dakota (apportioned as follows: 
 thirty-three one hundredths of a mill to the 
 state university and school of mines, twenty 
 one hundredths of a mill to the agricultural 
 college, fifteen one hundredths of a mill to one 
 state normal school and thirteen to another, 
 six one hundredths of a mill to the state school 
 for the deaf, two one hundredths of a mill to the 
 state school of forestry, /ot(r one hundredths of a 
 mill to the academy of science, seven one hun- 
 dredths of a mill to state industrial school) ; and 
 the general education fund in Tennessee, con- 
 sisting of 25 per cent of the gross revenue of 
 the state (61 per cent for general apportion- 
 ment to local communities for elementary and 
 secondary education; 10 per cent for special 
 apportionment to local communities; 8 per 
 cent for special aid to county high schools; 
 I per cent for school libraries; 13 per cent for 
 state normal schools; and 7 per cent for the 
 university). These fixed funds are usually 
 augmented through appropriations for build- 
 
 ings and sundry special purposes at each legis- 
 lative session. 
 
 Under the second, and more widely adopted, 
 policy, the responsibility of providing for the 
 support of the several state educational insti- 
 tutions and interests is committed to each 
 annual or biennial legislative session. In 
 practically every instance controlling boards 
 and officers are required to i)resent at the close 
 of each financial period (annual or biennial) 
 proper reports containing among other things 
 an account of fiscal operations. These pub- 
 lished reports become the medium of direct 
 communication between institutions and legis- 
 lature. Theoretically they are the basis for 
 the legislative determination regarding sup- 
 port for the next fiscal period. Practically, 
 however, the needs and claims of the institu- 
 tions are presented by their officers directly, 
 or indirectly through special committees of the 
 legislature, to the legislative budget committee 
 (committee on finance, committee on claims), 
 which is under the necessity of adjusting the 
 total of appropriations to the estimated rev- 
 enues. While this second policy is the more 
 flexible, and enables the readier adaptation of 
 financial means to educational needs, it un- 
 doubtedly leads to competition among institu- 
 tions for financial preferment, and frequently 
 permits the sacrifice of education in the interests 
 of party expediencj'. The contemporary trend 
 is toward the first policy in order to insure to 
 institutions a support consistent with normal 
 development and to remove the details of this 
 feature of public finance from the uncertain 
 action of political forces. 
 
 Whichever of the foregoing policies as to 
 ordinary financial support of special and higher 
 institutions is followed, two methods are em- 
 ployed for the general legislative control of 
 expenditures. Bj' the one, the limit of expen- 
 diture for each purpose — salaries, repairs, 
 library, etc. — is specifically indicated; by the 
 other, no detailed prescriptions are imposed, 
 the distribution and expenditure of the appro- 
 priations being left to the discretion of the 
 controUing boards. 
 
 Originally the financial policy of the states 
 toward higher and special schools was one of 
 decentraUzation; that is, each was treated 
 independently of the other. The marked 
 tendency of the last decade has been to bring 
 public expenditures for these purposes more 
 and more within the control of special admin- 
 istrative boards, thus preventing to a large 
 degree unnecessary institutional competition 
 and duplication of effort, and establishing a 
 basis for the best development in so far as this 
 is dependent upon support. The well-defined 
 movement for the more thorough auditing of 
 the finances of all public institutions has also 
 introduced a factor calculated to produce more 
 economical financial administration. 
 
 From a fiscal point of view, the relation of the 
 state to local systems of elementary and sec- 
 
 462
 
 BUDGET 
 
 BUDGET 
 
 ondary schools is of much larger significance 
 than that involved in the mere mechanical 
 distribution of state school funds. The appor- 
 tionment of general state taxes for education 
 and the distribution of the income from per- 
 manent school funds are made in accordance 
 with some general plan that assumes to dimin- 
 ish to some extent the differences in educational 
 facilities existing between local communities, 
 especially differences primarily due to the in- 
 sufficiency of the local sources of support. 
 The establicshment of the various forms of 
 special aids aims, in addition, to stimulate 
 localities to larger effort in behalf of education. 
 In consequence, the state jilays a not unimpor- 
 tant part in the making of the local educational 
 budgets; chiefly through the attachment of 
 conditions to the funds distributed and apjior- 
 tioncd. The requirement that local communi- 
 ties shall raise by taxation for the support of 
 their common schools a sum proportional to 
 that received from the state is quite uniformly 
 found in constitutions or statutor.y enactments. 
 The acceptance of special aids commonly 
 imposes proportional financial obligations upon 
 the community. As further channels of in- 
 direct state influence upon local finances may 
 be mentioned the prescriptions of maximum or 
 minimum tax levies for schools, the segregation 
 of certain proportions of funds for special 
 purposes (California, 60 per cent of county 
 school money exclusively for the payment of 
 teachers' salaries in elementary schools), and 
 minimum salary laws. 
 
 Local. — In those states in which the district 
 is the unit for local educational administration, 
 the details of fiscal policy are largely prescribed 
 to the local board of control by the electors 
 at the annual meeting, at which the amount of 
 the local tax is determmed and levied, expendi- 
 tures authorized, and accounts audited for the 
 preceding fiscal period. All of the financial 
 powers and duties of the district meeting are 
 exercised and performed within the general 
 provisions of the state code. If the district 
 meeting should fail to comply with the state 
 prescriptions concerning school support and 
 funds, authority for such compliance is usually 
 delegated to the district school officers. The 
 question of the issuance of bonds or certificates 
 of indebtedness must be submitted to the elec- 
 tors of the district for decision. Under the 
 township and county system of school control 
 the financial affairs are under the immediate 
 supervision of the town or county school officers. 
 
 Tlie expansion of the accepted duties and 
 functions of government in recent years has 
 multiplied many fold the expenditures for pub- 
 lic purposes. This increase has been most 
 noticeable in the budgets of urban communi- 
 ties. Of the items responsible for the increase 
 that for public education has been conspicuous. 
 Traditionally the democratic conception of 
 education has impelled local governments to 
 provide, if not generously, at least first, for 
 
 the support of the public school. The double 
 position occupied by the public school System 
 of the city (a) as the instrument of the state 
 in carrying out the state policy, (6) as the 
 means for the satisfaction of local needs and 
 the realization of community ideals, compli- 
 cates in many ways such questions as those 
 involved in the budget and the conduct of 
 financial operations. To the extent that it 
 shares in the apportionment of .state school 
 funds and the allotment of special aids to 
 education, the city falls within the scope of the 
 general control of the state. These appor- 
 tionments and aids constitute but a relatively 
 small part of the necessary resources for the 
 public schools. The supporting funds, to a 
 much larger extent than in the case of non- 
 urban areas, are derived from voluntary local 
 property taxation and various forms of special 
 taxes and licenses. On this account, the 
 agencies and methods for the control of revenues 
 and expenditures are of immense importance. 
 Fiscally, American cities may be divided into 
 two principal classes: those in which the local 
 board of school control possesses (within the 
 limitations imposed by the State through 
 charter or general statute) authority over the 
 raising and expending of funds necessary to 
 carry on the public schools and other activities 
 under its control, independent of the general 
 municipal government; and those in which the 
 board of school control is treated as a depart- 
 ment of the municipal government and conse- 
 quently mu.st submit its annual financial esti- 
 mates for approval and revision to that au- 
 thority of the municipal government (board of 
 estimate and apportionment, or council) which 
 ultimately determines the budget. Evidence 
 based upon the experience of cities in different 
 sections of the country leads to the conclusion 
 that each of these financial methods has its 
 advantages. By reason of the distinctive 
 character of education as a municiiial function, 
 and in order to safeguard the puljlic schools 
 from those partisan influences that have in the 
 past characterized municipal government in 
 the United States, the quite uniform judgment 
 of those competent to pass upon the situation 
 is that municipal boards of education should 
 have the power to make tax levies, within the 
 limits set by the State, without being subject 
 to review or supervision by other municipal 
 authority. (See City Bo.\rds of Education ; 
 City School Admi.nlstration.) 
 
 The magnitude of the public expenditures 
 for the various social undertakings of the 
 modern citj' is causing not only a careful 
 scrutiny of the various factors that make up 
 the total annual outlay for the .system of 
 public schools, but also a scientific comparison 
 of this outlay with those for other public pur- 
 poses. Obviously, cities will present wide 
 differences with respect to the educational 
 budget. Diversity in the various state sy.s- 
 tems of education, as well as difference in size 
 
 463
 
 BUDGET 
 
 BUFFALO 
 
 and in environmental conditions render difficult 
 the standardization of urban expenditures. 
 On the other hand, public welfare requires 
 the application of those iirinciplcs of financial 
 procedure that contribute most directly to the 
 efficiency as well as the economical adminis- 
 tration of municipal enterprises. This pre- 
 supposes a scientific analysis of the public 
 budget; such an analysis as has not yet been 
 made. American cities do not know within an 
 even reasonable certainty the real cost of their 
 public schools. No reliable measurements have 
 yet been made to determine the actual cost of 
 elementary education, secondary education, 
 and the several forms of special education. 
 The numerous published statistics of per capita 
 cost of public education are valueless as a 
 basis for administrative procedure. In so far 
 as the facts are known, and considering all 
 cities in the United States having a popula- 
 tion of 30,000 and above, from 6 to 46 per 
 cent of the total amount annually expended 
 for the maintenance and, operation of all mu- 
 nicipal activities is devoted to public schools. 
 The central tendency is that 25 per cent of 
 the total annual budget goes for education. 
 That this wide variability is due in some 
 degree to the present inadequate systems of 
 public accounting there can be no doubt. In 
 the main, however, it may be attributed to the 
 influences of differing municipal ideals of the 
 importance of the educational function. Fur- 
 ther and more detailed investigations are 
 needed as a basis for determining the proper 
 budgetary position of public education. 
 
 Trustworthy conclusions, concerning the eco- 
 nomic effectiveness of urban expenditures for 
 education arc made impossible, owing to the 
 wide differences among cities in the methods 
 of accounting and reporting resources and 
 expenditures. These differences preclude ready 
 comparison and the establishment of normal 
 units of expenditures. Efforts have been 
 made to bring about greater uniformity in the 
 financial reports of city school systems. The 
 principal recent movements in this direction 
 were the report of the Committee on Uniform 
 Financial Reports of the National Educational 
 Association in 1899, and the reports of the 
 United States Commissioner of Education since 
 1907. The studies by Strayer (see bibliography) 
 on the school budgets of cities indicate not only 
 the method of analysis, but the need of con- 
 tinued investigation. E. C. E. 
 
 See City School Administration ; City 
 Boards op Education; Cost of Education 
 and the various articles on National School 
 System.s. 
 
 References : — 
 
 Eliot, C. W. More Money for the Public Schools. 
 (New York, 1903.) 
 
 Elliott, E. C. .Some Fiscal Aspects of Public Education 
 in Ameriain Cities. (New York, 190.5.) 
 
 National Education -Association. Report of the Com- 
 mittee on Uniform Financial Reports, Proceedings, 
 1899, pp. 344-352. 
 
 Report of Committee of Twelve on Rural Schools 
 — Sub-Coniniittce on School Maintenance, Pro- 
 cccdiuas, 1897. pp. 399—134. 
 
 RowE, L. S. The Financial Relation of the Depart- 
 ment of Education to the City Uovcrnment, An. 
 Am. Acad, of Pol. aiul Soc. Science, Vol. XV, pp. 
 186-203. 
 
 Snehden, D.S., and Allen, W. H. School Reports and 
 School Efficiency. (New York, 1908.) 
 
 Stbayer, G. D. City School Expenditures. (New 
 York, 1905.) 
 
 United States (Commissioner of Education. Report, 
 1909. Statistical Summary, pp. 1327-1349. 
 
 buena vista college, storm lake, 
 
 lA. — Opened in 1891 under the ausjiices of 
 the Synod of Iowa as a coeducational institu- 
 tion. Academic, normal, and business depart- 
 ments are maintained. Admission is by cer- 
 tificate from an accredited high school or 
 examination requiring about 12 units of work. 
 Degrees are conferred. There are 13 profes- 
 sors and 4 assistants. 
 
 BUENOS AIRES, UNIVERSITY OF. — See 
 
 Argentine Republic, Education in the. 
 
 BUFFALO, CITY OF. — The second largest 
 city in the state of New York, and the chief 
 commercial city of western New York. Incor- 
 porated as a city in 1832. In 1900 the city 
 had a population of 352,387, and its estimated 
 population in 1909 was 396,535. Of the total 
 population of 1900, 30 per cent were foreign 
 born, and but one half of 1 per cent were of 
 the colored race. Of the foreign born in 1900, 
 36 per cent were Germans, 23 per cent English 
 and English Canadians; 19 per cent Poles; 
 11 per cent Irish; and 6 per cent Italians. 
 The school census, 4 to 18 years of age, was 
 90,515 in 1909, and the total school enrollment 
 was 62,217 in day schools, and 7874 in evening 
 schools. In addition, 23,510 were enrolled in 
 private schools. 
 
 History. — The first schoolhouse was built 
 in Buffalo in 1806. The first school tax was 
 levied in 1818, to rebuild the schoolhouse, 
 which had been burned in the fire of 1813. 
 At the time of the incorporation of the city 
 in 1832, there were 6 school districts, each 
 with one small schoolhouse and one teacher. 
 In 1836-1837 a law was passed authorizing the 
 appointment by the City Council of a Super- 
 intendent of Schools for the city, to act under 
 the direction of the Council. As there were 
 but 7 school districts, with one teacher each, at 
 the beginning of 1836, the duties of this super- 
 intendent must have been but nominal. 
 
 The free school system of Buffalo practically 
 originated in 1838, in a general movement of 
 prominent citizens to consider the educational 
 welfare of the city. At that time, the district 
 and private schools together failed to reach 
 one half the children of the city. Public meet- 
 ings were held, much interest was awakened, 
 and a committee of 5 was appointed " to 
 inquire into the condition of the schools, both 
 pubhc and private; to ascertain the number 
 
 464
 
 BUFFALO 
 
 BUFFALO 
 
 of cliildren who attend school, and the expenses 
 attending their education; and to report the 
 same, together with some phin for the improve- 
 ment of our schools." The report, when pre- 
 sented, was discussed at length, adopted, and 
 sent to the Council. It recommended that the 
 Council "take the necessary steps to cause the 
 city charter to be so amended . . . as to enable 
 them to carry into full effect the recommenda- 
 tions of the report of the committee," . . . viz.: 
 " an entire free school system, under the au- 
 thority and government of the Common Coun- 
 cil." The report also recommended the estab- 
 lishment of a central high school, as soon as 
 the resources of the city would permit. On 
 Feb. 14, 1839, the city charter was amended 
 by the legislature so as to contain substantially 
 what the citizens' report had recommended, 
 and the free school system of Buffalo had its 
 beginning. The school districts were sub- 
 divided so as to increase the number to 15 ; 
 schools were ordered established in each dis- 
 trict; and tuition was ordered to be free to all. 
 
 In 1843 primary and higher departments 
 were provided for, and in 1846 a " Third 
 Department " was organized, which, in 1853, 
 became the " Central School." In 1853-1854 
 the city charter was revised. The control of 
 the schools of the city by the City Council was 
 continued. Colored children were to be ad- 
 mitted to any school, but one colored school 
 must be maintained. The cost of sites and 
 schoolhou.ses was to be paid by each school 
 district, but the expense for maintenance was 
 to be paid by general taxation. The city 
 Superintendent was to be elected by the people 
 of the city, on the general city ticket, and for 
 a 2-year term, instead of being appointed by 
 the City Council. 
 
 In 1873 the city Superintendent endeavored 
 to secure the pa.ssage of a law providing for a 
 city Board of Education, who should manage 
 the schools, but the plan elicited little popular 
 favor, and the bill failed to pass. In 1891 a 
 revised charter was granted by the legisla- 
 ture, which, in addition to reauthorizing the 
 previous form of government of the schools, 
 provided for the appointment of a Board of 
 Examiners to examine teachers and to inspect 
 the schools. In 1895 an amendment increased 
 the term of the Superintendent of Education 
 to 4 years. A committee is now (1909) at 
 work on a complete revision of the charter, and 
 may change the form of educational organiza- 
 tion for the city. 
 
 For many years no marked progress was 
 made in the schools, the city suffering largely 
 from the lack of leadership in educational 
 matters. Since 1893, however, when the present 
 Superintendent was first elected to office, much 
 has been done toward bringing the schools of 
 the city up to a modern standard. New 
 modern buildings have been erected, and the 
 use of rented rooms decrea.sed. Two new high 
 schools have been opened, and have been filled 
 
 VOL. I — 2 H 
 
 to overflowing almost from the first. Since 
 1893 manual training, sewing, and domestic 
 science have been introduced; kindergartens 
 established; and the grammar school course 
 reduced from 10 years to 9, and the ninth year 
 made virtually a high school year. Educational 
 standards for admission to the examinations 
 for teachers' certificates have been set up; 
 teachers' meetings have been introduced; and 
 a training class for future teachers established. 
 Supervisors have been employed to assist the 
 Superintendent in the introduction of the 
 special branches; antiquated textbooks have 
 been discarded; a new course of study has 
 been adopted; free textbooks and supplies 
 have been provided; promotions have been 
 made more flexible; and a truant school has 
 been established. 
 
 Present School System. — There is no Board 
 of Education in Buffalo, the nearest approach 
 to it being the Committee on Schools of the 
 Board of Aldermen. The functions of this 
 committee are to consider and report on ordi- 
 nances relating to the public education in the 
 city. All matters relating to education not 
 determined by the general law of the state 
 are fixed by the city charter or by ordinances 
 of the Council. Such matters as changes in 
 textbooks have to be approved by the Coun- 
 cil, and it is also within their power to deter- 
 mine the Course of Study. All executive 
 functions are given to the Superintendent of 
 Public Instruction for the city, who is elected 
 by the people for 4-ycar terms. He recom- 
 mends the Course of Study, changes in text- 
 books, salary schedules, and other legislation; 
 selects new teachers and appoints them for the 
 period and at the salary determined by the 
 Council; may dismiss teachers by preferring 
 charges, and after a hearing before and with 
 the approval of the Mayor; and prescribes the 
 subjects and the nature of the examinations 
 for teachers' certificates. He appoints the 
 Secretary of the department, who must be 
 educated in the German language, and who 
 also acts as supervisor of the teaching of Ger- 
 man in the schools. The Superintendent is 
 further assisted by a Supervisor of Primary 
 Grades, and a Supervisor of Grammar Grades. 
 
 The Mayor appoints a city Board of E.x- 
 aminers of 5, 1 being appointed each year 
 and for a 5- year term. They conduct all 
 examinations for the position of teacher in the 
 schools, which are in the nature of Civil Service 
 tests. Certain educational prerequisites have 
 recently been laid down for admission to these 
 tests, and four grades of city certificates pro- 
 vided. Those who pass are arranged in order 
 on eligible lists by the Board of Examiners, 
 and the Superintendent can appoint teachers 
 only from these lists. This board and its 
 work stands as a check on political pressure. 
 The Board of Examiners acts also as a Board 
 of Visitors, being required to visit each school 
 in the city at least once each year, and to re- 
 
 465
 
 BUFFALO, UNIVERSITY OF 
 
 BUGENHAGEN 
 
 port on its educational, hygienic, and material 
 condition. 
 
 The school system consists of 1 city normal 
 training class, 3 high schools, elementary 
 schools, and kindergartens. In 1908-1909 the 
 city employed 79 supervisory officers, 1399 
 teachers in day schools, and 92 teachers in 
 evening elementary and high schools. A term 
 of 192 days was provided in day schools and 
 62 evenings in evening schools; 27 kindergarten 
 teachers were employed. The total expense 
 for day schools was $1,537,414. E. P. C. 
 
 References : — 
 
 Annual Reports, Superintendent Public Instruction to the 
 City Council, 1838-datc. The 36(/i AnmmlReport 
 (1873) contains a history of the Central School, 
 pp. 73-100. 
 
 Jewett, F. R. Public School System of Buffalo, in 
 Education. Vol. 24. pp. 596-602. (June, 1904.) 
 
 BUFFALO, UNIVERSITY OF, MEDICAL 
 DEPARTMENT, BUFFALO, N.Y. — Opened 
 in lS4(i. A 4-year medical course is given. 
 Candidates are admitted under the regulations 
 contained in the laws of Xew York, 1893, and 
 as amended to June 1, 1906, providing for the 
 preliminary education of medical students. 
 There is a faculty of 38 professors and 69 in- 
 structors. 
 
 BUFORD COLLEGE, NASHVILLE, TENN. 
 
 — A proprietary institution for the higher cul- 
 ture of young women. Collegiate and fine 
 arts departments and schools of journalism 
 and library training are maintained. There 
 are no definite requirements for admission. 
 Degrees are conferred. 
 
 BUGENHAGEN, JOHANNES (1485-1558). 
 
 — A German reformer and friend of Luther 
 and Melanchthon, called also Dr. Pomeranus. 
 He was born in Wollin, and educated at 
 the University of Greifswald. He entered 
 the priesthood and became at the age of 20 
 rector of the town school in Treptow, where 
 his excellent humanistic teaching widely at- 
 tracted attention. He became deeply interested 
 in biblical study and delivered lectures on the 
 various books of the Bible and on the Church 
 Fathers, which were attended by the towns- 
 people and the clergy. Inspired with the zeal 
 of the Reformation through the writings of 
 Luther, he went, in 1521, to Wittenberg, where 
 he soon was api)ointed professor in the uni- 
 versity, as well as pastor of the city church. 
 One of his first actions in this capacity was 
 the restoration of the town school, which had 
 fallen into decay. Bugenhagen'.s most im- 
 portant activity, however, began when he was 
 called to the north of Germany to establish 
 the Reformation and to regulate the affairs of 
 churches and schools. In 1528 he drew up a 
 church and school constitution for the city of 
 Brunswick, in 1529 for Hamburg, in 1530 for 
 Liibeck, in 1534 for his native Poqierania ; and 
 
 these church constitutions became the models 
 of many others. In 1537 he was called by 
 King Christian III to Denmark, where he was 
 -received with great honors and remained until 
 1539, being occupied with the reorganization 
 of the University of Copenhagen and of the 
 Danish church. The last years of his life 
 were embittered by political and theological 
 strife; he became partially blind, and died at 
 Wittenberg, where he is buried in the city 
 church. Bugenhagcn mu.st he considered as 
 one of the foremost men of the German Refor- 
 mation. His importance for the religious and 
 educational development of the north of Ger- 
 many is equal to that of Melanchthon for the 
 south. But while Melanchthon's interest was 
 
 Johannes Bugenhagen. 
 
 chiefly directed toward the higher schools, 
 Bugenhagen's work was especially fruitful in 
 the field of popular elementary education, both 
 for boys and girls. He was the first, not only 
 to insist upon, but actually to introduce, ele- 
 mentary schools in cities and villages in which 
 all children should receive instruction in cate- 
 chism and in the reading and writing of the 
 mother tongue. Thus he maj' be called the 
 father of the Protestant Volks.'ichuk, especially 
 of the rural elementary school. His interest in 
 female education is especially remarkable. He 
 considered the training of mothers the most 
 effective means for the moral elevation of the 
 people. He did, however, a great deal also for 
 higher education, and even planned a system 
 of adult education in the so-called Lektorien, a 
 kind of people's universities. In all his work 
 Bugenhagen showed great tact, a genius for 
 
 466
 
 BUILDING MATERIALS 
 
 BULGARIA 
 
 organizing, and practical insight into the real 
 needs of the people. F. M. 
 
 References: — 
 Hering. Doktor Pomeranus, Johannes Bugenhagen, ein 
 
 Lebensbild aua der Zeit der Reformation. (Halle, 
 
 1888.) 
 Mertz. Das Schulwescn der d< ulnrlirn Reformation im 
 
 leien Jalirhundert. (Hoid.-llicrs;, 1902.) 
 RosT. Die pddagogische Bedeutintg BugenJiagens. 
 
 (Leipzig, 1S90.) 
 
 BUILDING MATERIALS FOR SCHOOL- 
 HOUSES. — See Architecture, School. 
 
 BUILDINGS, SCHOOL. — See Architec- 
 ture, School. 
 
 BULGARLA, education in. — Bulgaria, 
 
 constitutional monarchy: area including Ea.stcrn 
 Runielia, 38,080 square miles; population, 
 4,035,623; capital Sofia, population 82,621; 
 divisions for local administration, districts, 12 
 in number. 
 
 Historical. — In 1878 when Bulgaria entered 
 upon its career as an autonomous jirincipality 
 under the suzerainty of the Sultan, the functions 
 of government and nearly all other activities 
 of a modern state were yet to be organized. 
 Education formed an exception, for although 
 the Turk had exploited the country, the work 
 of instruction as carried on by Christian 
 churches was not interfered with. The in- 
 fluence of the Greek Church, which comprises 
 about 80 per cent of the population, was over- 
 powering, and its ecclesiastics had long con- 
 trolled local institutions of every kind in Bul- 
 garia. Thus a system of clerical schools existed 
 which was national in extent. But within the 
 Church were two antagonistic elements: on 
 the one side, the Greeks, numbering le.ss than 
 70,000 people; on the otlier, the Bulgarians, a 
 peasant people forming the great majority of 
 the population. The small, compact body of 
 Greeks, superficial but brilliant and proud of 
 their historic culture, monopolized the higher 
 offices of the Church and controlled the schools. 
 They regarded the sturdy natives as barbarians, 
 and eliminated their language from the school 
 programs; thus pupils were taught the Greek 
 exflusively. and through the insidious influence 
 became converts to Hellenism. 
 
 The efforts on the part of the Bulgarians to 
 free themselves from Turkish rule awakened 
 also the desire for national expression through 
 social institutions, and the movement for 
 liberty was marked from the beginning liy 
 efforts to free education from the moral in- 
 fluence of the Greeks. To the few Bulgarian 
 schools that had escaped destruction other.s 
 were added, in which at first only the merest 
 elements of the native language and history 
 were taught. In 1835 two wealthy Bulgarian 
 merchants founded, at Gabrovo, a small city 
 in the Balkans, a secondary school of the 
 modern European type, and furnished with 
 modern appliances, globes, maps, etc. This 
 
 school became the center from which similar 
 schools that came later into existence drew their 
 teachers. These Bulgarian schools, primary 
 and secondar}', depended wholly upon private 
 resources, and had not really the sanction of 
 law for their existence. Each school had to 
 secure a special license from the authorities, 
 and although the applications were seldom 
 refused, the institutions were under constant 
 surveillance and were closed on the slightest 
 pretext. It was in these schools, maintained 
 at great sacrifices and in the face of bitter 
 opposition, that the national spirit was formed 
 which supported the patriot leaders in their 
 final struggle for freedom. 
 
 The constitution of 1878 recognized primary 
 education as an essential factor in the State, 
 and declared it to be obligatory and gratuitous. 
 A ministry of public instruction was created; 
 but no provision was made for the support of 
 the schools. A law of 1881, the first dealing 
 with primary instruction, left the matter en- 
 tirely to the individual communes, which re- 
 tained as a lasting effect of Turkish rule an 
 inherent passion for autonomy. Only in the 
 case of very poor communes was the State 
 authorized to aid in the support of schools. 
 
 Under the leadership of Ferdinand I, who 
 was ambitious to create a solid and permanent 
 nation, the policy with respect to primary 
 education was completely changed. In the 
 first year of his reign, 1887, the state expendi- 
 ture for this interest was doubled, and the 
 next year it was still further increased. In 
 1891 the organic law of public instruction was 
 passed which gave the supreme control in this 
 matter to the State. 
 
 Present System. — The direction of all public 
 enterprises having for their purpose the moral 
 and intellectual development of the people was 
 confided to the minister of public instruction, 
 and an administrative system was created after 
 the model of the French system, though less 
 elaborate. Two departments were formed in 
 the ministry, the one pertaining to primary, the 
 other to secondary, education, and each underits 
 own chief or director. The minister is assisted 
 by a corps of general inspectors who are his 
 personal representatives in their circuits; in 
 each district there are subordinate inspectors. 
 The official authorities are completed by dis- 
 trict councils, which exercise advisory and 
 judicial functions in regard to education, and 
 l)y local school committees. These committees 
 are formed by election, and women may be in- 
 cluded in the number, provided they have taken 
 the course of secondary instruction. The com- 
 mittees have direct charge of the schools, select 
 the sites and arrange for the buildings and 
 equipments, and nominate the teachers, who 
 must, however, be approved by the minister. 
 
 The State supplies two thirds the amount re- 
 quired for the support of the schools; the com- 
 munes furnish the balance. The school pro- 
 grams and the qualifications for admission to 
 
 467
 
 BULGARIA 
 
 BULGARIA 
 
 the teaching service are regulated by official 
 orders. Thus, without destroying the cherished 
 local autonomy, the State enters as a regulat- 
 ing and supporting factor into the work of 
 national education. Not only has the spirit 
 of local independence been safeguarded in the 
 organization of the schools, but the present 
 interests and capacities of the people are care- 
 fully considered in the arrangement of the 
 school programs. Besides the native language 
 and literature, the primary school course in- 
 cludes religion, the history and geography of 
 Bulgaria, elements of natural science, and in- 
 dustrial training. The industrial training is 
 of the most practical character; the girls are 
 taught to sew and to cut and make garments; 
 the boys learn the use of ordinary tools. As 
 agriculture is the chief industry of the people, 
 a special law provides for the support of school 
 gardens, of which more than 500 were main- 
 tained the present year, all cultivated by 
 school children. 
 
 The course of study for the primary schools 
 is restricted, as the period of compulsory school 
 attendance is very brief, comprising only 4 
 years, the age limits being 8 to 12. The 
 annual school term is 10 months in the cities, 
 reduced to 6 months in the country. The 
 minister has therefore authorized the establish- 
 ment of complementary courses of 3 years, 
 and in many places these are already organized. 
 Continuation classes are also maintained in 
 cities and villages. These are conducted in the 
 evening and on Sunday, and offer to young 
 people and adults a chance to review ele- 
 mentary subjects and even to extend their 
 knowledge. 
 
 The greatest obstacles in the way of the 
 practical development of this system of primary 
 instruction, which has been carefully planned 
 to meet the present condition of the people, 
 are: (1) the lack of schoolhouses; (2) the 
 difficulty of obtaining competent teachers. 
 
 Many villages have no schoolhouses, and re- 
 course is had to old mosques and barns; often 
 even this poor accommodation is wanting. 
 The government has therefore authorized com- 
 munes to contract for loans to meet the ex- 
 pense of providing the necessary school build- 
 ings. 
 
 As regards teachers, it can be readily under- 
 stood that those who were employed in the 
 Bulgarian schools maintained by private effort 
 before 1878, had been taken without regard to 
 any special preparation for the work. In its 
 early endeavor to create a system of primary 
 instruction, the government left all arrange- 
 ments in respect to teachers to the individual 
 communes (cities and villages). But as a rule 
 these were not fitted to meet this responsibility. 
 By the law of 1891 the State took upon itself 
 the payment of three fourths of the annual 
 salary of teachers, and subsequently assumed 
 the entire charge of this particular. As a con- 
 sequence, the salaries are paid promptly, and 
 
 have also been considerably augmented. In 
 1887 the average annual salary was only $120, 
 at present it ranges from S264 to $384. 
 
 While it has not been possible to maintain 
 definite standards of ([uahfication for primary 
 teachers, this purpose is kept steadily in view. 
 Normal schools have been established, 5 for 
 boys and 4 for girls, having a 4 years' course 
 of study. The number of normal students is 
 rapidly increasing; but the graduates do not 
 yet suffice for the needs of the service, and the 
 one test that can be universally applied to 
 candidates for employment is that of a very 
 simple examination; the great improvement 
 that has taken place is indicated by the fact 
 that whereas, in 1878, of the whole body of 
 teachers employed, 93 per cent had only re- 
 ceived a primary education ; in the present year 
 (1910) only 12 per cent represent this low 
 stage of attainment. Moreover, the teachers 
 show great enthusiasm in their work, they 
 carry on evening classes for illiterate adults; 
 organize popular lectures; interest themselves 
 in local industries, and are especially active in 
 promoting improved agricultural processes. 
 
 Where complementary, or higher, primary 
 schools are established, the}' have developed a 
 tendency toward technical training, and thus 
 form a basis for higher trade and industrial 
 schools; among schools of this special class 
 may be noted a commercial school at Sofia; 
 there are also reported high-grade agricultural 
 schools, and 4 industrial schools in which 
 theoretic instruction is combined with voca- 
 tional training. 
 
 Statistics. — According to the official statis- 
 tics, there were 45S1 primary schools in 1907, 
 with 8771 teachers and 400,308 pupils; of 
 these 251,937 were boys; 148,371 girls. The 
 number of children of the compulsory school 
 age was 436,000, and of these 328,000, or 75 per 
 cent, were enrolled in the schools; in 1903 the 
 corresponding proportion was onlj' 51 per cent. 
 A bill is now pending which provides for the 
 stricter enforcement of the compulsory school 
 law. This is a matter, however, depending 
 largely upon the supply of school buildings, and 
 hence the communes are urged and assisted by 
 the government to provide this fundamental 
 condition. 
 
 Secondary Education. — In the endeavor to 
 create a system of public education as the 
 source of national strength and perpetuity, the 
 first efforts of the government were directed to 
 the primary school, which alone affects the 
 entire population. But the importance of 
 the higher orders of education, and especially 
 the need for infusing into them the national 
 spirit, have not been ignored. In 20 years the 
 state expenditure for secondary education has 
 increased threefold. There were 3 state 
 gymnasia in 1878; at present there are 11. 
 Meanwhile there has been marked increase in 
 the number of incomplete gymnasia maintained 
 by the communes with the aid of the State. 
 
 468
 
 BULGARIA 
 
 Instead of the full 7 years' course, the 
 schools of this inferior order have 2, 3 or more 
 classes. The entire registration in secondary 
 schools has tripled during the last 20 years. 
 
 Of still greater importance than the mcrease 
 in numbers is the improvement in the teaching 
 service: whereas in 1888 only 27 per cent of 
 the professors in the secondary schools had 
 received a university education, at present the 
 proportion is above 50 per cent. As a rule 
 these men have studied in German universi- 
 ties; consequently they have introduced Ger- 
 man methods and standards in the secondary 
 schools of their ovm country. At the sanie 
 time the spirit of the Bulgarian people, which 
 is eminently practical, has determined the 
 general trend of secondary education. The 
 German realschule has been taken as the 
 model rather than the German gymnasium. 
 Thus the classics have little place in the second- 
 ary programs; in fact, they are taught only in 
 5 "out of the 11 gymnasia, and, even in this 
 number, to a limited extent. In their present 
 stage of development Bulgarians have more 
 need of practical chemists and engineers than 
 of highly accomplished scholars. The modern 
 spirit of the new secondary education is em- 
 phasized by contrast with that of the older 
 Greek schools which still maintain the hu- 
 manistic studies. 
 
 The bill for the further development of the 
 system of public instruction, which was intro- 
 duced into the legislature in 1909, provides for 
 a complete revision of the scheme of secondary 
 education. Under the proposed plan three types 
 of secondary schools would be recognized: 
 schools offering Latin and Greek; Latin only; 
 and neither Latin nor Greek. The scheme in 
 detail indicates the purpose of the government 
 to maintain classical studies and high scholastic 
 standards in the state schools. 
 
 One of the most important measures of the 
 present government has been the creation of 
 secondary education for young women. This 
 work is still in an experimental stage; the 
 programs are rather feeble copies of those in- 
 tended primarily for the schools for young 
 men, and the instruction is committed to men 
 professors, pending the preparation of women 
 for this service. But the work has begun, and 
 the subject of its improvement and proper 
 adaptation engages earnest consideration. 
 
 
 s: 
 
 Teachers 
 
 PnpiLS 
 
 Schools 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 1 
 
 a 
 
 3 
 
 o 
 
 1 
 
 — 
 O 
 
 •a 
 
 Gymnasia .... 
 
 20 
 
 518 
 
 129 
 
 647 
 
 6393 
 
 5925 
 
 12318 
 
 Lower middle 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 schools .... 
 
 li)» 
 
 7»H 
 
 i;i6 
 
 !)2!l 
 
 15087 
 
 6685 
 
 21772 
 
 Special and 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Technical . . . 
 
 Hh 
 
 H« 
 
 HI 
 
 1X6 
 
 3.'i32 
 
 2S23 
 
 6357 
 
 Other schooU . . 
 
 86 
 
 165 
 
 63 
 
 228 
 
 2567 
 
 1176 
 
 3743 
 
 BULLOKAR 
 
 The official statistics for 1907 give the fol- 
 lowing particulars under the general head of 
 secondary education without distinction be- 
 tween public and private institutions : — 
 
 Higher Education. — The University of Sofia 
 comprises a faculty of history and philosophy, 
 organized in 1888; faculty of mathematics and 
 physical science, organized in 1889; and faculty 
 of law, organized in 1902. In 1908 the univer- 
 sity was attended by 1589 students, of whom 
 248 were hearers only. A few women are 
 registered annually. 
 
 There is no provision as yet for medical 
 studies, and theology is left to denominational 
 seminaries. 
 
 The expenditure by the State for public in- 
 struction amounted in 1908 to 11,878,947 leva, 
 equivalent to $2,292,637 United States cur- 
 rency. A. T. S. 
 
 References : — 
 
 Files of the Bulletin Mensuel de la Direction generate de 
 Statistique du Royaume de Bulgarie. 
 
 Golly, Stephane. L'instruction publique en Bulgane. 
 Revue Pedagogique, T. LVI, No. 2 (15th Feb.), 
 1910, pp. 155-171. 
 
 La reforme de I'enseignement en Bulgarie. Revue Iri- 
 ternational de I'enseignement, Feb. 15, 1909, pp. 
 124-126. 
 
 Official correspondence relative to Bulgaria, Bosnia- 
 Herzegovina, and Croatia-Slavonia. 
 
 BULKLEY, JOHNW. (1802-1888).— School- 
 man, educated in the common schools of Con- 
 necticut and at Hamilton College; teacher 
 and principal of schools at Troy (1832-1838); 
 principal of schools at Albany (1838-1851); 
 principal of the Williamsburgh schools (1851- 
 1855); superintendent of schools at Brooklyn 
 (1855-1873); assistant superintendent at Brook- 
 lyn (1873-1885) ; active in the early educational 
 associations in the United States. W. S. M. 
 
 BULLETINS, SCHOOL. — Official publica- 
 tions appearing periodically, sometimes called 
 " teachers' bulletins." Bulletins are usually 
 issued by normal schools and city school systems. 
 They are designed to diffuse intelligence as to 
 the methods and materials to be utilized in 
 teaching according to the courses of study laid 
 down in the particular locality. They repre- 
 sent one of the means for the supervision and 
 improvement of teaching. See Supervision 
 OF Tb.ichers. H. S. 
 
 BULLOKAR, WILLIAM. — A phonetist 
 who served in the army in Queen Mary I's 
 reign, studied agriculture and law, and engaged 
 in teaching. He then became convinced of the 
 necessity of phonetics as a basis for teaching 
 English! and in 1580 published his book with 
 the astoundingly long title: BuUokar's Booke 
 al large, for the Amendment of Orthographic 
 for English Speech; wherein a mod perfect 
 supplie is made, for the irantes and double munde 
 of letters in the aide Orthographic, with Examples 
 for the same, icith the easie conference and vsc 
 of both Orthographies to save expences in Bookes 
 
 469
 
 BULOW-WENDHAUSEN 
 
 BURGERSCHULE 
 
 for a time, uiitill this amendment grow to a generall 
 use, for the eiisie, speedie, and perfect reading and 
 writing of English, (the speech not changed, as 
 some untruly and maliciously or at least ignorant- 
 lie blowe ahroade) by the which amendment the 
 said Authour hath also framed a ruled Grammar, 
 to be imprinted hereafter, for the same speech, 
 to no small cominoditie of the English Nation, 
 not only to come to easie, speedie and perfect 
 use of our oicne Language, but also to their easie, 
 speedie and readie entrance into the secretes of 
 other Languages, and easie and speedie pathway 
 to all Striiungers, to use our Language, heretofore 
 very hard unto them, to no small profile and 
 creditc to this our Nation and stay thereunto in 
 the weightiest causes. There is also imprinted 
 irith this Orlhographie a short Pamphlet for all 
 learners atid a Primer agreeing to the same, and 
 as learners shall go forward therein, other neces- 
 sarie Bookcs shall speedily he provided with the 
 same Orthographic. Hereunto are also joyned 
 written copies icith the same Orthographic. 
 
 Give God the praise, thai teaclteth alwaies. 
 When truth trielh, errour fliclh. 
 
 Seene and allowed according to order. (Imprinted 
 at London by Henrie Denham, 1580 (4to, 59 
 pp.). . 
 
 This treatise is of unusual importance not 
 only for its advocacy of phonetics and a perfect 
 Alphabet, but also for BuUokar's experience 
 with regard to the teaching of his own children, 
 making the book a pioneer work in language 
 study and also in the method of child study. 
 William Bullokar also published: /E.sop's 
 Fables in tru Ortography with Grammar notz 
 (translated into English from a Latin Text), 
 1595. 
 
 John Bullokar, possibly a son of above, a 
 doctor of physics of Chichester, published an 
 English dictionary, entitled. An English Ex- 
 positor; teaching the interpretation of the hardest 
 words used in our Language, 1616. F. W. 
 
 See Phonetics; Spelling. 
 
 Reference : — 
 
 Dictionary of National Biography. 
 
 BULOW-WENDHAUSEN, BERTHA VON. 
 
 — See M.\RENTHOLTZ-BuLow- Wendhausen, 
 Bertha von. 
 
 BULWER, JOHN. — A physician in the 
 time of Charles I, who styled himself Christo- 
 pher. He wrote his Chirologia in 1644. This 
 he explains as " the natural language of the 
 hand, composed of the speaking motions and 
 discoursing gestures thereof." In the same 
 volume, he adds Chironomia, or " the art of 
 manual rhetoricke, consisting of the natural 
 expressions digested by art in the hand, as the 
 chiefest instrument of eloquence." In 1648 
 Bulwer published his Philocoph us, or the Deaf and 
 Dumb ^Ian's Friend. In this important trea- 
 tise Bulwer proves that a man born deaf and 
 dumb may be taught to "hear the sound of 
 
 words with his eye, and thence learn to speak 
 with his tongue." Bulwer says he had made 
 the subject his " darling study." He discourses 
 of " ocular audition," and suggests " the model 
 of a New Academy for those originally deaf and 
 dumb, with an edifice and gymnasium, and all 
 kinds of materials reciuisite." Bulwer plain- 
 tively remarks that when he mentioned the 
 idea to some " rational men," they only re- 
 garded it as so " paradoxical, prodigious, and 
 hyperbolical," that they professed they must 
 renounce their reason " before they could have 
 faith to assist such an undertaking." Bulwer 
 claims that he was the first to make the subject 
 a close study. He was not, however, the first 
 to draw attention to the possibiUty of training 
 the deaf and dumb. It had been suggested in 
 the De Invenlione Dialectica of Rudolph Agri- 
 cola iq.v.) (died 1485), by Juan Luis Vives (q.v.) 
 in his Dc Anima (1539), and in 1590 Franciscus 
 Vallesius in his Philotiophia Sacra mentions that 
 his friend Petrus Pontius, a Benedictine monk 
 in Spain, had taught the deaf to speak. J. P. 
 Bonnet in 1620, printed at Madrid in Spanish 
 an account of the method of Pontius, and Sir 
 Kenelm Digby, an Englishman, gave an account 
 of what he had seen of Pontius' method in 
 Spain, when he returned from that country 
 after accompanying the Prince Charles in 1620. 
 See Deaf, Educatio.n of. F. W. 
 
 Reference : — 
 
 Sir William Hamilton. Essay on the History of the 
 Institutions of the Deaf and Dumb, in his Discis- 
 sions on Philosophy and Education, 1853. 
 
 BUREAU OF EDUCATION, UNITED 
 STATES. — See Commissioner op Education, 
 
 United States. 
 
 BURGERSCHULE, — A term which was 
 used at an early period in Germany to denote 
 schools maintained b.y municipalities. (See 
 Middle Ages, Education in.) The signifi- 
 cance of the term changed somewhat in the 
 last century, and was applied to a tj'pe of school 
 " which aims to educate those classes of citizens 
 who without being scholars should still be 
 cultured." (Mager, K., 1810-1858.) Under the 
 term hohere Biirgerschide such schools afforded a 
 higher Latinless education. When the different 
 types of higher Latinless schools were differ- 
 entiated, the need for another class of schools 
 in which the education of children up to 15 
 could be carried on was felt, and led to the 
 establishment in Prussia and Austria of what 
 came to be known under the special term of 
 Biirgerschule or Mittelschulc {q.v.). These 
 schools treat the subjects of the elementary 
 schools more completely and broadly, in some 
 cases adding French. They are usually main- 
 tained by municipalities and tuition fees, and 
 receive no state aid. Nor arc there specific 
 state-regulated curricula, so that local adap- 
 tation is possible. The teachers, however, 
 must have passed special state examinations. 
 
 470
 
 BURGH SCHOOLS 
 
 BURSAR 
 
 The Bilrgcrschule is thus a school which stands 
 out independently from the rest of the state 
 system. Frequently the lower grades in a 
 complete middle school of this type are pre- 
 paratory to the higher schools, particularly 
 when these are overcrowded. 
 
 See Germany, Educational System of; 
 jMittelschule. 
 
 BURGH SCHOOLS. 
 
 CATION IN. 
 
 - See Scotland, Edu- 
 
 BURKE, EDMUND (1729-1797). — States- 
 man and writer on political philosophy; son 
 of a Dublin attorney; his father being a Protes- 
 tant, his mother a Roman Catholic, a circum- 
 stance which led him to sympathize with the 
 older traditions of religious life, and to cherish 
 them as a factor in national well-being. He 
 was educated at a school kept by Abraham 
 Shackleton, a member of the Society of Friends, 
 at Ballitore, County Kildare, and ever afterwards 
 spoke in the warmest terms of the training he 
 had received there. He afterwards was entered 
 at Trinity College, Dublin, and studied there 
 1743-1748. Burke's political career does not 
 fall within the purview of this notice; but his 
 influence is important in the history of educa- 
 tion because of his eloquent defense of the 
 ancient educational institutions of England 
 against Jacobinical attacks. He interpreted 
 to Englishmen the significance of their own 
 traditional forms of higher education, and 
 showed how closely intertwined they were with 
 the social and political institutions of the 
 country. The most striking passage on this 
 subject is found in the Reflections on the Revo- 
 lution in France. Burke impressed his point 
 of view upon the most thoughtful among con- 
 servatively minded Englishmen, and caused 
 them to see that, in order to secure the safety 
 of the older institutions of learning, it was 
 necessary to bring about searching reform from 
 within. Burke's influence, together with the 
 lessons drawn from the French Revolution, 
 may be traced in the work of Cyril Jackson, 
 Dean of Christ Church, to whom was chiefly 
 due the reform of studies at the University of 
 O.xford in tiie year ISOO. Burke was also the 
 I)rogenitor of the view of national education 
 taken by Wordsworth, S. T. Coleridge, and Dr. 
 Thomas Arnold of Rugby (q.v.). M. E. S. 
 
 References; — 
 BuiiKK. KuMfND. RrJIcclions on the Revolution in 
 
 Frnncc. (IT'.IO.) 
 Dielionary of National Biographij. 
 MoHi.KY, .loiiN. Edmund Burke. (English Men of 
 
 I.ittiTS SiTics. 1,S70.) 
 
 BURLESON COLLEGE, GREENVILLE, 
 TEX. — • A coeducational in.stitution belong- 
 ing to the Baptists of Texas. Preparatory, 
 normal, collegiate, musical, and commercial 
 departments are maintained. The college 
 courses, which are liased on approximately 5 
 points of high school work, lead up to degrees. 
 
 There is no division into classes by years, but 
 the certificates, diplomas, and degrees are given 
 for actual work done. There is a faculty of 9 
 instructors. 
 
 BURR, AARON (1716-1757). — Educator, 
 graduated at Yale College 1735; principal of 
 private school at Newark, (1737-1748); presi- 
 dent of the College of New Jersey (now Prince- 
 ton) from 1748 to 1757; author of the Newark 
 Grammar. W. S. M. 
 
 BURRITT COLLEGE, SPENCER, TENN. — 
 A proprietary coeducational in.stitution. Pri- 
 mary, intermediate, preparatory, and collegiate 
 courses are given. 'The last course is based on 
 approximately 4 points of high school work. 
 
 BURRITT, ELIHU (1811-1879). — Self-edu- 
 cated, and devoted a large part of his life to 
 movements intended to promote self-education; 
 active in the American L.yceum and other 
 popular educational movements; author of 
 numerous works calculated to aid in self-educa- 
 tion. W. S. M. 
 
 BURROWES, THOMAS HENRY. — School- 
 man and author, born at Strasburg, Lancaster 
 Co., Pa., Nov. 16, 1805; educated by private 
 tutors and at Trinity College, Dublin, and Yale 
 College; private tutor; state superintendent of 
 public instruction in Pennsylvania (1860-1863); 
 superintendent of the Soldiers' Orphans Schools 
 in Pennsylvania (1864-1869) ; president of the 
 Pennsylvania State College (1869-1871) ; author 
 of Pennsylvania School Architecture, and editor 
 of the Pennsylvania School Journal (1851-1870). 
 
 W. S. M. 
 
 BURSAR, BURSARY. — A term derived 
 from the Greek, originally " hide," Latin bursa, 
 English purse. The word soon took on the 
 meaning of a " chest " or box where money was 
 deposited for the support of students. Such 
 sums of money were applied to the maintenance 
 of halls of residence at the University of Paris 
 and the German universities. The halls were 
 known as Bursch and the students living in 
 them as hursarii or hoursiers. The halls of 
 residence were under the charge of a Rector 
 bursae. The term bursarii came to be applied 
 to all students who received support from the 
 university chest. In the monasteries the 
 monk who had charge of financial matters was 
 called bursarius. Both meanings have been 
 retained in the modern use of the word bursar. 
 In universities and colleges in England and the 
 United States the official who has charge of the 
 financial management is called a bur.<<ar. In 
 Scotland, however, the bursar is a scholar at 
 school or at the university who holds a bur.'iary 
 or scholarship, although it was only until 
 recent times that bursaries were restricted to 
 poor scholars and not thrown open for compe- 
 tition. In England the terms bursar and bur- 
 
 ill
 
 BURSCHENSCHAFT 
 
 BURY 
 
 sary have recently been introduced in the 
 Scotch sense to refer to " those boys or girls 
 who intend to become in the future elementary 
 school teachers and arc attending full time at 
 a secondary school . . . but require assistance 
 in order to render their continuance at the 
 School financially possible." 
 
 See Scholarships and Fellowships; Train- 
 ing OF Teachers in England. 
 
 Keferences: — 
 
 Barnard, H. Superior Instruction in Different Coun- 
 tries, 1.S7.3, pp. 32, IfiO. 
 
 Board of Education, EiiRlaiid. Regulations for the Pre- 
 limintiry Education of Elementary School Teachers. 
 § 2, 190'.). 
 
 Rashdall, H. Universities of Europe. See Index. 
 (Oxford, 1895.) 
 
 BURSCHENSCHAFT. — The name of a 
 student organization in German universities. 
 It was formed in Jena in 1815 in opposition to 
 the Corps {q.v.) or Landsmannschafkn, which 
 had got into bad repute through their luxury 
 and excesses. Its aim was to establish a 
 Christian, national character in the universities 
 of Germany. The Burschenschaften quickly 
 won favor with a large section of the professors 
 and students, and spread to other universities. 
 Politically these organizations rallied to the 
 call of Fichte and Jahn for a national revival. 
 They opposed the foreign influences in Germany 
 at that time and the police control. This op- 
 position found expression at the festival on the 
 Wartburg in commemoration of the Reforma- 
 tion, 1807. As a result of this meeting the 
 Allgemeine deulschen Burschenschaften was 
 formed in 1818. The political activity of some 
 irresponsible members brought down the sus- 
 picion of the government and led to such ex- 
 treme measures as press censorship, the disso- 
 lution of student associations, and supervision 
 of the universities (Karlsbad Decree). But 
 . the associations continued in secret or un- 
 der different names. In 1840 the Burschen- 
 schaften were split into two sections, — the 
 Arminia and the Germania — the one stand- 
 ing only for national freedom, the other for 
 larger political activity. Since 1848 these asso- 
 ciations have had a good influence in fostering 
 national feeling among the students in the 
 universities. A third division was formed — • 
 the Teutones — which combined the principles 
 of the Burschenschaften and the Landsmann- 
 schaften. In 1874 the Allgeriieine Deputierten- 
 Konvent was formed as a central executive 
 body for the Burschenschaften. Since 1883 
 another student society has developed under 
 the title of Die deutschc Burschenschaften to 
 put down excessive luxury and dueling among 
 the students. The central executive body for 
 this organization is the Allgemeine deutsche Bur- 
 schenverband. 
 
 As distinguished from the Landsmann- 
 schaften, the Burschenschaften recruit their 
 members from the masses of the student body, 
 and nominally are not so narrow or exclusive 
 
 as the older organization. The service of the 
 Burschenschaften has been to abolish the un- 
 clean and dissipated student life of the early 
 nineteenth century and to develop a strongly 
 loyal and patriotic body among the educated 
 classes. 
 See Corps. 
 
 References: — 
 Barnard, H. Atneriean Journal of Education, 1859, 
 
 pp. 161 S. 
 Hendbr.son, E. F. a Short History of Gertnany. (New 
 
 York, 1908.) 
 Meter's Konvcrsations-Lexicon. (Leipzig, 1908.) 
 Paulsen, F. The German Universities. (New York, 
 
 1900.) 
 
 BURTON, ROBERT (1577-1640). — Author 
 of the Anatomy of Melancholy. Educationally 
 this book is remarkable not only as a storehouse 
 of classical learning, but as an indication of the 
 state of knowledge and attitude toward modern 
 subjects which prevailed at Oxford, long the 
 home of the author. There is displayed a good 
 acquaintance not onl.y with the early but the 
 contemporary foreign geographers and cartog- 
 raphers. On geography as a subject — " to 
 charm the mind with sweet delight, to stir it 
 by the incredible variety and pleasantness of 
 the world to a fuller knowledge of itself " — he 
 grows eloquent. Burton shows equal enthu- 
 siasm, and displays an equal amount of knowl- 
 edge of the contemporary state of biology and 
 mathematics. A man of wide interests he is 
 well described by Anthony a Wood as " an 
 exact mathematician, a curious calculator of 
 nativities, a general read scholar, a thorough- 
 paced philologist, and one that understood the 
 surveying of land well." 
 
 References: — 
 Burton's Anatomy of Melancholy, ed. by Shilleto. 
 
 (London, 1893.) 
 Dictionary of National Biography. 
 
 WAT.SON. Foster. The Beginnings of the Teaching of 
 Modem Subjects iti Englarui. (London, 1909.) 
 
 BURTON, WARREN (1800-1866). — Ac- 
 tive worker in the lyceum and other popular 
 educational movements; was graduated from 
 Harvard College in 1821. He was directly 
 interested in the notions of domestic educa- 
 tion advocated by Pestalozzi. Author of 
 District School as it Was and Helps to Home 
 Education. W. S. M. 
 
 BURY, RICHARD DE (1281-1345). — Born 
 at Bury St. Edmonds, the son of Sir Richard 
 Aungerville, in 1281, this sole English repre- 
 sentative of humanism in the early Renaissance 
 adopted as his name the name of his birthplace. 
 His intellectual gifts marked him out for orders 
 and for great distinction. He passed from 
 Oxford to Durham, when he became a Benedic- 
 tine monk. He was selected as tutor for the 
 prince who was to become King Edward III. 
 On the accession of his pupil he received many 
 honors, was ambassador to Pope John XXII in 
 
 472
 
 BURY 
 
 BUSBY 
 
 1333, was made Dean of Wells, Bishop of Dur- 
 ham, and (in 1336) High Chancellor and 
 Treasurer of England. He traveled largely 
 in France and Germany as English ambassador. 
 But he managed to carry out his episcopal 
 duties with great assiduity, and his Chancery 
 Rolls at Durham (the earliest e.xtant) show 
 him to have been capable, good, and a father of 
 the poor. But above all things he was a lover 
 of books (though not a great scholar) and a 
 patron of learning. He surrounded himself 
 with learned men, such as Thomas Bradwardine 
 (subsequently Archbishop of Canterbury) and 
 Fitzralph, and he possessed more books than 
 were owned by all the other bishops together 
 {quam omnes Ponlijices Angliae, Surtees Society, 
 Vol. 9, Historiae Dunelmensis, p. 130). He 
 overhauled the neglected monastic libraries, and 
 saved many priceless Mss. from destruction. 
 He founded a library at Durham College, 
 O.xford, and drafted rules for the library based 
 on those of the Sorbonne at Paris. He w.ns a 
 successor of the school of Greek and Hebrew 
 learning created by Grosseteste and Bacon, and 
 provided his Oxford library with Greek and 
 Hebrew grammars. We may surmise that 
 these were the grammars written by Roger 
 Bacon. He laid great stress on the literary 
 side of education, and declared that he preferred 
 literary studies to the study of law and he urged 
 the reading of the poets. He is known to 
 literature by his great work, Philobihlon, which 
 was completed on his birthday, Jan. 24, 1345. 
 Less than three months later he died. This was 
 his famous work, " written as a sort of hand- 
 book to his library at Durham College. It is an 
 admirable treatise in praise of learning, at times 
 rhetorical, i)ut full of genuine fervor. ' No one 
 can serve books and Mammon,' he exclaims, 
 and he urges the refining influence of study. 
 He gives an interesting description of the 
 means by which he collected his library; he 
 examines the state of learning in England and 
 France. He speaks of books as one who loved 
 them, and gives directions for their careful use. 
 (' They are masters who instruct us without rod 
 or ferule. If you approach them they are . . . 
 not asleep ; if j-ou inquire of them, they do not 
 withdraw themselves; they never chide, when 
 you make mistakes; they never laugh if you are 
 ignorant.') Finally, he explains his rules for 
 the management of the library which he 
 founded. The work is an admirable exhibi- 
 tion of the temper of a book lover and a libra- 
 rian " (Creighton). Toward the end of the work 
 he declares that he had long " clierished the 
 fixed resolve of founding in perpetual .charity 
 a hall in the revered University of Oxford, the 
 chief nursing mother of all liberal arts, and of 
 endgwing it with the necessary revenues, for 
 the maintenance of a number of scholars, and, 
 moreover, to furnish the hall with the treasures 
 of our books." He never fvilfilied this purpo.se, 
 hut he built a library for his books, and this sur- 
 vived the Tudor destruction of the monastic 
 
 CoUege of Durham, and still remains beside the 
 Trinity College that arose on the ruins of Dur- 
 ham College. At the Dissolution " some of the 
 books went to the Bodleian, some to Balliol Col- 
 lege, and some to Dr. George Owen of Godstow, 
 who purchased Durham College from Edward 
 VI." (See Camden's Britannia, 1772, p. 310.) 
 The catalogue has not survived. Richard de 
 Bury died Apr. 14, 1345, before the Black Death 
 {q.v.) had come to revolutionize English educa- 
 tion; but his life and scholarly ambitions show 
 that even before the Black Death, in days when 
 the Anglo-Norman dialect (q.v.) was still the 
 medium of instruction in the schools, education 
 had passed out of the purely medieval stage and 
 was bending toward humanism and general 
 culture. Unless we appreciate the intellectual 
 attitude of Richard de Bury, we shall fail to 
 appreciate the later tendencies of medieval 
 education in Europe. J. E. G. de M. 
 
 References: — • 
 Creighton, Bishop. Art. Bury, R. de, in Dictiotmry of 
 
 National Biography. 
 Sandys. Dr. Art. in Cambridge History of English Lit- 
 erature, Vol. II., pp. 213-216. 
 
 BUSBY, RICHARD (1606-1695). — Head- 
 master of Westminster School; the great 
 schoolmaster of the seventeenth century. He 
 was born at Sutton, Lincolnshire, Sept. 22, 1606. 
 His father removing to Westminster soon after, 
 he went to Westminster School, and was elected 
 thence to a studentsliip at Christ Church, 
 Oxford, where he matriculated Feb. 10, 1625- 
 1626. His parents were evidently poor, as when 
 he took his B.A. degree in 1628, the vestry 
 of St. Margaret's gave him £5 toward his 
 expenses, and another £6. 13. 4 to enable him 
 to take his M.A. degree on June 18, 1631. He 
 spent some 7 years as a tutor at Christ Church. 
 In 1638 he was appointed temporarily Master 
 of Westminster by the canons to fill the place 
 of Osbaldiston, deprived for calling Archbishop 
 Laud " a meddling Hocus-pocus." On Dec. 14, 
 1640, he was confirmed in " the office and room 
 of Schoolmaster " with £20 a year stipend and 
 20 marks (£13.6.8) in lieu of " diet," that is, 
 his commons at the common table of the 
 " College " of Westminster. In this office 
 Busby staj'cd for no less than 55 years. He 
 duly conformed to all the changes of regime 
 and religion which the Civil War, the Restora- 
 tion, and the Great Revolution of 1689 produced. 
 He must have taken the Presbyterian Cove- 
 nant in 1644 and the Engagement to the 
 Commonwealth in 1649, and nmst have been 
 more than passively Parliamentarian in his 
 utterances, or he would not have kept his place. 
 For in 1642 the Chapter was sequestered. An 
 ordinance of Nov. 18, 1645, made a joint com- 
 mittee of Lords and Commons governors of the 
 school in place of the Chapter; and when the Com- 
 monwealth was established an Act of Parliament 
 of Sept. 26, 1649, incorporated a Governing 
 Body of 56 persons. It was during the Com- 
 
 473
 
 BUSINESS ADMINISTR.\TION 
 
 BUSINESS IVIANAGEMENT 
 
 monwealth, thanks probably to the disappear- 
 ance of the Chapter, that Busby raised the 
 numbers and prestige of the school to heights 
 unknown before. Tlie earliest known school 
 list of Westminster is that for Ifioo-UioO, and 
 shows 241 boys, though the statutes restricted 
 the school to 120. Busby, having no less than 
 170 under himself, set up the first assistant 
 master, besides the usher, at £40 a j'ear, and 
 gave him the fourth form to teach. The in- 
 sufficiencj- of stipend was made up by fees from 
 boarders, of whom, the statutory ma.ximum 
 being 4, Busby had 40. One of his account 
 books, which has been preserved, shows that 
 he made some £1200 a year; an enormous 
 sum for those days. His reputation seems to 
 have been due rather to the intellectual activity 
 he awoke in the boys and to their social status 
 than to any system of teaching. " He had 
 the power," says Steele, " of raising what the 
 lad had in him to the utmost height in what 
 nature designed him. . . . His scholars were 
 the finest gentlemen or the greatest pedants in 
 the age." A famous contemporary master, 
 Charles Hoole (q.p.), reports that Westminster 
 scholars made orations and verses, not only in 
 Hebrew, but in Arabic and other oriental 
 languages. A list of 13 bishops educated by 
 him has been produced; and Dryden, Locke, 
 Atterbury, and Prior were his pupils. His 
 reputation as a mighty flogger rests on no very 
 sure foundation. He left few writings behind 
 him: a Greek grammar wh'ich long held sway, 
 a Hebrew grammar published after his death, 
 and an Arabic grammar never published.' The 
 general public still know his name because of 
 the story of his refusal to uncap in the presence 
 of Charles II, when visiting the school, because 
 it would never do to let the boys believe there 
 was a greater man in the world than himself. 
 
 A. F. L. 
 References: — 
 
 Barkb;r, G. F. Russell. Memoir of Richard Busby. 
 
 (lS9o.) 
 Hoole, Charles. Xew Discovery of the Old Art of 
 
 Teaching School. (1660.) 
 
 BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION. — See 
 
 CoM.MERci.\L Education. 
 
 BUSINESS COLLEGES. — See Commer- 
 cial Education. 
 
 BUSINESS EDUCATION. 
 
 mercial Education. 
 
 See CoM- 
 
 BUSINESS MANAGEMENT AND MANA- 
 GER. — The office of Business Manager in 
 our city school systems is one of relatively 
 recent creation, and one that has arisen because 
 of the absolute inability of Boards of Education 
 properly to attend to the city school business, 
 which has developed as our cities have increased 
 in size. School Board committees, no longer 
 able to handle the business of the system in an 
 acceptable manner, are being forced by neces- 
 
 sity to delegate it to officers selected becau.sc of 
 expert ability. The Superintendent of Instruc- 
 tion, too, to whom business affairs were fre- 
 quently delegated, has seen a great increase 
 in his duties along the educational side, and 
 can no longer look after business interests, 
 except at a great educational sacrifice. 
 
 A Secretary, or Clerk for the Board, is usually 
 the first appointment in small cities, and he 
 assists both the Board and the Superintendent. 
 In a number of our larger cities good business 
 methods have been introduced into the man- 
 agement of the school system, and a differen- 
 tiation of official functions has taken place 
 within recent years which has resulted in the 
 appointment of a number of new officials. 
 To these officials have been assigned definite 
 executive functions; they have been paid a 
 good salary, and they have been placed under 
 heavy l)onds for the faithful performance of 
 their duty. The Board of Education has then 
 withdrawn from the work of management, and 
 has become a legislative rather than an execu- 
 tive body. Under these new conditions, the 
 Board decides ])olicy, fixes appropriations, and 
 determines lines of action. Once this has been 
 done, it is then the duty of the different officials 
 to follow the line of procedure or policy deter- 
 mined upon by the Board. This makes the 
 Board of Education a unifying legislative body, 
 and delegates the executive work to officials 
 selected because of special ability along those 
 lines. 
 
 The Business Manager is one of the new 
 officials evolved. To the Business Manager, or 
 Business Agent, is usually assigned the duty of 
 keeping a complete set of books or accounts, and 
 an itemized record of all income and expendi- 
 tures; of issuing all warrants for the payment 
 of regular employees, and for all labor and 
 materials furnished; of approving all requisi- 
 tions for supplies and material; and of classify- 
 ing and recording all expenditures of whatever 
 kind. Under close direction of the Board, he 
 acts as its financial agent, and is permitted to 
 incur a limited indebtedness, and to act in 
 emergencies without previous authorization. 
 Where no other officials exist for the special 
 purpose, he handles the purchase and distribu- 
 tion of all school supplies; emploj-s and over- 
 sees the janitor and engineering force in the 
 care and management of the school property; 
 executes all contracts for the Board; and over- 
 sees the construction and repair of school 
 buildings. 
 
 The original Cleveland Plan (q.v.) was for 
 the Business Manager (there called School 
 Director) to appoint all other officials and 
 employees, even including the Superintendent 
 of Instruction and the recommendation of the 
 Chicago Educational Commission (g.v.) was that 
 the Business Manager should appoint and 
 control all employees except the members of the 
 Department of Instruction. The plan followed 
 within recent years, in the reorganization of 
 
 474
 
 BUSINESS OFFICER 
 
 BUTLER 
 
 city school systems, however, has been for the 
 Board of Education to appoint all heads of 
 departments, define the duties of each, and then 
 hold each responsible for efficient and coopera- 
 tive service. The result of the creation of these 
 new executive officials is that the Board of 
 Education has been freed from all executive 
 functions, and now acts much as a board of di- 
 rectors for the management of a large corpora- 
 tion. The Superintendent of Instruction and 
 his assistants, too, have been freed from all 
 business affairs, and now have only the educa- 
 tional work of the schools to look after. 
 
 The separate articles on the different city 
 school systems in cities of 100,000 inhabitants 
 or over, as well as the article on City School 
 Organization (q.v.), give detailed information 
 as to the differentiation of functions, and the 
 officers provided, in the different cities. See, 
 in particular, the articles on Boston, Cleve- 
 L.\.\D, Chic^vgo, and St. Louis, and on City 
 School Admi.'^istr.\tion. E. P. C. 
 
 References: — 
 
 Re/m-l of the Committee of Fifteen, National Educational 
 
 Association, Part III. (1895.) 
 Report of the Educational Commission of the City of 
 
 Chicago, ch. ii. (Chicago, 1899.) 
 Rules and Regulations of Various City School Systems. 
 
 BUSINESS OFFICER. — See 
 
 M.\X.\GE.ME.\T AND MANAGER. 
 
 Business 
 
 BUSS, FRANCES MARY (1827-1S95).— 
 A leader in the movement for the higher educa- 
 tion of girls and women in England. Like Miss 
 Beale (q.v.), with whom she had much in com- 
 mon, she contributed to an awakening in the 
 education of girls, departing from the tradition 
 then prevailing of teaching only " the accom- 
 plishments." To her the ideal education for 
 girls was to include the same subjects as were 
 taught to boys. Miss Buss began teaching at a 
 very early age as a pupil teacher. At the age 
 of 18 she assisted her mother in a private school 
 which they opened in partnership. She con- 
 tinued to teach and study in day and evening 
 classes at Queen's College, London, which was 
 opened in 1848. The school grew rapidly in 
 numbers, and developed into the North London 
 Collegiate School for Ladies. In 1865 through 
 the efforts of Miss Buss, girls' .schools were per- 
 mitted to take the papers set for the Cambridge 
 Local Examinations, which were thrown open 
 to girls in 1807. Miss Buss' success was recog- 
 nized by her election in 1873 to an honorary 
 fellowship in the College of Preceptors. In 
 1874 she became the first president of the Head 
 Mistresses' Association. Miss Buss took an 
 active part in the movement to establish kinder- 
 gartens and training colleges for women for 
 secondary sciiools. In the establishment of 
 Girton and Newnham Colleges at Cambridge, 
 she took a strong interest, and many of the 
 students there came from her scliool. She was 
 influential in securing permission for women 
 
 to proceed to degrees in the University of Lon- 
 don. In 1870 she surrendered the property in 
 her school, which was placed in trust as a public 
 foundation. The new institution received the 
 title of the North London Collegiate and 
 Camden School for Girls, including two schools, 
 an upper and lower, the latter charging lower 
 fees and only carrying the pupils up to 16 
 years of age. In all contemporary movements 
 for the higher education and emancipation of 
 women Miss Buss' influence was felt. Miss 
 Buss was a woman of great personahty and 
 untiring energy, endowed with remarkable 
 organizing ability. Like Miss Beale her influ- 
 ence on education of girls in England was exer- 
 cised through the number of headmistresses 
 who came from her school and the readiness 
 with which she was ever ready to advise. 
 
 Reference: — 
 Ridley, Annie E. Frances Mary Buss and her Work 
 for Education. (London and New York, 1895.) 
 
 BUSY WORK. — A term applied by ]5ri- 
 mary teachers to the activities assigned to one 
 group of young children, still incapable of 
 reading or writing, during the period when the 
 teacher is busily engaged in teaching another 
 group. The work is usually designed to keep 
 the children pleasantly engaged until the 
 teacher is able to reassume personal direction of 
 them. The need for " busy work " occurs in 
 large "receiving " or " first grade " classes, and 
 usually consists of some form of activity at the 
 desks, such as drawing, arranging of blocks or 
 forms, selecting familiar words, word building, 
 etc. The term is less used now than formerly. 
 It is becoming more clearly recognized that 
 profitable educative activities may be assigned 
 to the youngest children, hence there is less need 
 for mere " bu.sy work." H. S. 
 
 BUTLER, CHARLES. — An English school- 
 master and grammarian w-ho was the master 
 of Basing,stoke Grammar School, 1593-1600, 
 and afterwards master of the Song School of 
 IMagdalen College, Oxford. His Rhetoricae Duo 
 Llbri (Oxford, 1598), though written in Latin, 
 introduced specimens of English verse from 
 S])enser's Faerie Qiteene. Butler's Rhetoric 
 was written for the use of schools, and ran 
 through 11 editions. He wrote in English, 
 Principles oj Music for Singing and Setting; 
 with the twofold vse thereof { Ecclesiasticall 
 and Civic) (London, 1636). In the Dedication 
 to Prince Charles he considers grammar and 
 music should never be separated in the teaching 
 of children, for each needs the other. Butler, 
 further, wrote the English Grammar (O.xford, 
 1633), which is of particular interest from the 
 etvmology of the index. The book is a genuine 
 accidence" of the English Language. He main- 
 tains that the uncertainty of our writing in 
 English is due to the imperfection of our alpha- 
 bet. He utilizes Anglo-Saxon signs for the 
 475
 
 BUTLER COLLEGE 
 
 BUTZBACH 
 
 different sounds of (/miiuI makes other innova- 
 tions. He quotes a passage from Sir John 
 Price, Remains, tiiat four secretaries writing in 
 EngHsh from dictation differed in the letters 
 used, while the same number of Welshmen 
 " varied not in any letter." In 1609 Butler 
 had published a book at Oxford on the Feminine 
 Montirchie, or a Treatise concerning Bees. In 
 1034 this was reproduced so as to illustrate the 
 phonetic spelling advocated in the English 
 Grammar of 16.'53: the Feminin ' Monarciu' 
 or the Histori of Bees, etc. In 1029 Butler 
 published Oratoriae Libri duo (Oxford) for the 
 use of schools. This was reprinted in 1033, 
 and in a new dedication it is stated that Butler's 
 Rhetoric was used in the chief schools of the 
 kingdom. F. W. 
 
 BUTLER COLLEGE, INDLA.NAPOLIS. IN- 
 DIANA. — A coeducational institution, founded 
 as the Northwestern Christian University, and 
 legally styled Butler University, chartered by 
 the Indiana legislature Jan. 15, 1850, and 
 opened Nov. 1, 1855. The original funds 
 were subscribed by members of the ilenomina- 
 tion known as the Disciples of Christ, the 
 " Christian Church," or " Campbellites." The 
 institution at first occupied the buildings of the 
 old Northwestern Christian University, Indian- 
 apolis. The College of Liberal Arts has had 
 an uninterrupted existence; other schools have 
 from time to time been affiliated \nth Butler 
 University or established by its directors. 
 Butler University (the corporate name) is a 
 stock company controlled by a Board of Direc- 
 tors, the 21 members of which are elected 
 by the stockholders. The trustees elect their 
 president from their own number, and choose 
 a secretary and a treasurer either from among 
 themselves or from the stockholders. In 1875 
 the institution was removed to Irvington, a 
 suburb of Indianapolis; the name was changed 
 on Feb. 28, 1877, from " Northwestern Christian 
 Universitv " to the present title, in recognition 
 of the benefactions of Ovid Butler. By resolu- 
 tion of the Board of Directors the name " Butler 
 College " was adopted Apr. 8, 1S9G, to designate 
 the undergraduate department. In connection 
 with this school, there are maintained a prepara- 
 tory department, courses in music and art, a 
 summer session (established 1908), a Teachers' 
 Training Course (1909), extension courses for 
 teachers, and graduate courses leading to the 
 degree of M.A. The institution plans to 
 establish a Graduate Divinity School; mean- 
 while, a number of courses of importance to 
 ministers are grouped under the head of a 
 " School for Ministerial Education." Asso- 
 ciated with Butler College are the Indiana Law 
 School and the Indiana Dental College, both in 
 Indianapolis. In 1898 Butler College affiliated 
 with Chicago University, the latter institution 
 granting privileges to students of the college, 
 candidates for a Chicago degree; this affilia- 
 tion will be dissolved in 1910. Benefactions 
 
 recently (1909) received are: from Mr. Joseph 
 I. Irwin, §100,000; from Mr. Marshal T. 
 Reeves, .S25,000; from Mr. Charles T. Whit- 
 sett, .?12,500; and from Mr. Andrew Carnegie. 
 .S25,000, this last donation completing the fund 
 of .§250,000 called for by the conditions of Mr. 
 Whitsett's gift. In 1900, the grounds, buildings, 
 and equipment were valued at 8227,000. The 
 total annual income is 519,702. The average 
 salary of a professor is .§1250. There are 
 (1909) 25 members on the instructing staff, 
 of whom 13 are full professors. The students 
 number 507, divided as follows: college, 190; 
 graduate students, 6; sub-freshmen and spe- 
 cials, 32; extension, 141; department of Art, 
 26; Teachers' Training Course 28, Summex 
 Session 101. Thomas Carr Howe, A.M., is 
 
 president. 
 
 C.G. 
 
 BUTZBACH, JOHANN (1477-1526). — 
 Prior of the monastery at Laach. He was 
 born in 1477 at ]\Iiltenberg, whence he called 
 himself Piemontanus. At an early age he 
 joined a wandering student (q.v.) as an A-B-C 
 shooter (q.v.) in the hope of obtaining an edu- 
 cation in that way. His ambitions were, how- 
 ever, frustrated, and although he gained con- 
 siderable worldly experience from his wander- 
 ings and hardshi])s in Bohemia and the south 
 of Germany, he failed to learn anything. After 
 returning to his home he turned his attention 
 to tailoring. On entering the monastery at 
 Johannisberg as tailor, his desire for knowl- 
 edge was again kindled, and he was sent at the 
 age of 21 to the famous school at Deventer iq.v.), 
 where he made very rapid progress. At the 
 request of the Abbot of Laach he was with some 
 other pupils recommended to enter the monas- 
 tery there, which he did in 1500. Butzbach 
 is "chiefly of interest for a delightfully naive 
 account of his wanderings and his life up to the 
 time of his entry into the monastery at Laach. 
 The Hodoporicon, or Little Book of Wandering, 
 like the Autobiography of Thomas Platter (q.v.), 
 gives an excellent picture of the life of the 
 wandering student, and differs from it in the 
 simplicity of the descriptions of the country, 
 people, and manners ^nth which Butzbach 
 came into contact. Butzbach was a prolific 
 writer in prose and verse, but with exception of 
 the Hodoporicon, the majority of his works have 
 remained unedited in the Bonn Library. 
 Among his other works is an Atictuarium (or 
 Supplement) to the De Scriptoribus Eccle.'<ias- 
 ticis of Abbot Trithemius of Sponheim, con- 
 taining 1155 biographies. 
 
 See B.\ccHANTS. 
 
 References : — 
 
 Becker, D. I. Chronica eines fahrenden Schiilers oder 
 Wandcrhuchlein des Joltattnes Butzhacti. (Regeiis- 
 bcrg. l.SfiO.) . 
 
 Whitcomb. M. Source-book of the Renaissance in Italy 
 and Germany: contains some extracts in English 
 from Butzbach's Hodoporicon. (Philadelphia, 
 1S99-1900.) 
 
 476
 
 CABANIS 
 
 C^SAR 
 
 CABANIS, PIERRE JEAN GEORGE — 
 
 A distiiiKuished French physician, psychologist, 
 and poUtician, born at Cosnac in the year 1757, 
 died at ]\leulan in 180S. As a youth he was 
 dismissed from the College of Brives on account 
 of his independent spirit. Later he studied 
 at the University of Paris. After spending 
 two years as a private secretary at Warsaw 
 he returned to Paris and devoted himself to 
 literature, but at the request of his father 
 renounced his literary aml)ition and took up 
 the study of medicine. In 17S9 he was ap- 
 pointed administrator of hospitals in Paris, and 
 later Professor of Hygiene, and in 1797 Pro- 
 fessor of Clinical Medicine. He became a 
 member of the Institute in 1796. He was a 
 member of the Council of Five Hundred and 
 later a member of the Senate. 
 
 His chief work, Rapports (hi physique et du 
 moral de I'homme, was in reality a treatise on 
 physiological psychology. All higher intel- 
 lectual activities he derived from sensation, 
 which, in turn, was dependent on physiological 
 and physical conditions. 
 
 Among the papers of his intimate friend, 
 Mirabeau, was found the manuscript of a 
 Travail sur rinstruction publique, which expert 
 opinion has attributed to Cabanis, by whom 
 it was also edited and published. There are 
 four discourses in the collection. The first 
 treated of public instruction and the organi- 
 zation of the corps of teachers; the second 
 concerned public festivals, civil and military; 
 the third discussed the estaljlishment of a 
 national Lycee; the fourth dealt with the 
 education of the heir to the crown. Cabanis 
 favors general education under state authority, 
 but does not go so far as to make education 
 compulsor\f or gratuitous. Instruction in the 
 national Lycee, or university, might be free 
 to a limited number of chosen youth. There 
 should be a clas.sical secondary school in each 
 department, with instruction in Greek, Latin, 
 oratory, science, and philosophy. These propo- 
 sitions were made at a time when France had 
 no system of public instruction. The later 
 years of the Revolution brought forth plans of 
 a much more radical character. S. W. 
 
 CAEN, UNIVERSITY OF. —Founded in 
 1432 b}' Henry \T, when Normandy was under 
 English control, in opposition to the L'^niver- 
 sity of Paris. The faculties which were gradu- 
 ally established were in law, theology, and 
 medicine. The Papal bull was obtained in 
 1437, in spite of much opposition from Paris. 
 A new charter was received from Charles VII 
 in 1452, giving the same privileges as those en- 
 joyed by Paris. The history of the university 
 down to the Revolution was one of decline, and 
 at that period it was closed. It was reestab- 
 lished in 1894, and received the status of 
 state university in 1890. At present the uni- 
 versity includes faculties of law, letters, sci- 
 ences, and a preparatory school of medicine 
 
 and pharmacy. In 1909 there were enrolled 
 719 students, of whom 384 were in the faculty 
 of law. 
 See France, Education in. 
 
 CiESAR, GAIUS JULIUS.— The greatest of 
 the Romans, the " perfect man," according to 
 Mommsen's exaggerated tribute, is famous as 
 a warrior, a statesman, and a man of letters. 
 As a warrior he conquered and added to the 
 Roman dominion the province of Gaul, which 
 he subdued so thoroughly that it remained an 
 integral part of the Roman Empire without 
 disturbance for centuries. He also in the 
 civil war against the dominant parties at Rome 
 obtained the headship of the Roman world, and 
 made himself the founder of a dynasty which 
 in various forms lasted for a thousand years. 
 As a statesman he reorganized a moribund 
 government and laid the foundations for mod- 
 ern civilization. As an author he wrote an 
 account of his campaigns in Gaul and in the 
 civil war which have taken rank as important 
 historical sources and one of which at least has 
 been one of the chief reading books in schools 
 for centuries. 
 
 The life of Csesar was written by Suetonius 
 in his Lives of the Twelve Cwsars and bj'' Plu- 
 tarch. There are also numerous references 
 to him in the literature of his period and later. 
 On these sources modern discussions of the 
 events of his life have been based. The most 
 available and practical for teachers is that by 
 Warde Fowler (New York, 1892). The sketch 
 by Froude (New York, 1884) suffers from the 
 faults of Froude's historical method, but is 
 well worth reading. A short sketch by TroUope 
 (New York, 1885) adds nothing to the subject. 
 Baring-Gould's chapter (The Tragedy of the 
 Cffisars, New York, 1907) is popular, but not 
 of great value. There are, of course, other 
 treatments in French and German, etc. An 
 analysis of his character is given also in IMomm- 
 sen's History of Rome and in IMerivale's History 
 of the Romans, both of which are well worth 
 careful study. Those who are interested in the 
 military side of Caesar's career will find this 
 treated at great length in Colonel Dodge's 
 Coesar (New York, 1892). To the compre- 
 hension of his work in Gaul much has been con- 
 tributed by the work carried on under the 
 auspices of Napoleon III, entitled Histoire de 
 Jules Cesar (Paris, 1865). This great work is 
 particularly valuable for the detailed surveys 
 and plans of the various battlefields, and has 
 rendered further investigations in this line 
 almost superfluous, though occasional studies 
 have since been made of individual campaigns. 
 The subjugation of Gaul has been made the 
 subject of a very extensive study l\v Holmes. 
 Ca:sar's Conquest of Gaul (London, 1899), 
 which, in addition to a paraphrase of the narra- 
 tive of the Gallic War, contains in a series of 
 appendices exhaustive treatment of all ques- 
 tions of ethnology, trustworthiness, and mihtary 
 
 477
 
 C^SAR 
 
 CAIRD 
 
 management. This book has been supple- 
 mented for Britain l)y a similarly exhaustive 
 treatment by the same author, entitled Ancient 
 Britain and the Invasion of Julius Cwsar 
 (Oxford, 1907). 
 
 During the la.st two centuries the Gallic War 
 has Iseen a household word anions all who have 
 had the advantages of a high scliool or college 
 education. This is due to tlie fact that accord- 
 ing to the .system of in.struction in vogue during 
 this period the Commentaries on the dallic 
 War have been the first Latin work with which 
 students of Latin have become acciuainted. 
 This was not always the case, for in the improve- 
 ment in teaching which began with the Revival 
 of Learning when Latin was studied as a living 
 tongue, the chief model of .style was Cicero, and 
 outside of Cicero only authors of a distinctly 
 literary character, such as Vergil, Horace, 
 Terence, Seneca, were read. Ca>sar was read 
 in courses in history, which need not surprise 
 us when we remember that in the Middle Ages 
 most of the textbooks on all subjects were 
 written in Latin. In the course of time other 
 authors than Cicero came to be used in the 
 schools, but it was not until the latter part of the 
 eighteenth century that Caesar came to be re- 
 garded as the main author for early reading. 
 The first actual mention of Csesar's Commen- 
 taries in the statement of requirements for 
 admission to college is found in the announce- 
 ment of Columbia College for the year 1786, 
 where it is provided that the candidates for 
 admission must be able to render into English 
 CiEsar's Commentaries on the Gallic War, 4 
 orations of Cicero against Catiline, the first 4 
 books of Vergil's Mneid. In the requirements 
 for admission to Princeton in 1794 we find 
 Sallust and Caesar's Commentaries substituted 
 for Tally's Orations. Since that time the 
 curriculum in Latin has fluctuated more or less, 
 but Cajsar's Commentaries on the Gallic War 
 have held their place. 
 
 The early editions of C^sar were not dis- 
 tinguished particularly for critical accuracy. 
 The commentaries of the Middle Ages and later 
 turned particularly on matters of content. 
 Tlie first attempt to settle the text of Ceesar on 
 a scientific basis was made by Nipperdey in his 
 edition (Leipzig, 1847). In an exhaustive 
 study of the various manuscripts of Csesar, Nip- 
 perdey discovered evidences of two families of 
 Mss. which had come by separate transmission 
 from an archetype of perhaps the third or fourth 
 century. We have no manuscripts of Cajsar 
 earlier than the ninth or tenth centuries, but 
 we have a large number of good ones from this 
 period. Nipperdey came to the conclusion 
 that altogether the manuscripts of one family 
 (a.) were to be preferred to those of the other {(3), 
 and this view was dominant until the edition 
 of Meusel (Berlin, 1894). Meusel, after another 
 exhaustive study of the manuscripts, eame to 
 the conclusion that the second family of manu- 
 scripts (j8) was the more trustworthy, and his 
 
 authority was regarded as preeminent for 
 some years. In the edition of the Oxford 
 t( xt by Du Pontet (O.xford, 1900), however, we 
 find the first family again regarded as the more 
 important. Practically both families are of 
 e(iual value, and in a ditTercnce of reading it is 
 often im]30.ssiblc to i)refcr the one to the other. 
 
 The fact that during the last two centuries 
 Caesar has been read particularly in the 
 schools has probably been the reason why no 
 extensive editions of the Commentaries with 
 notes have appeared. Stock'.s edition of the 
 Gallic War (Oxford, 1898) has a pretentious 
 but not very valuable introduction, and a poor 
 commentary. Numerous school editions have 
 been published in all the European languages, 
 and great efforts have been made to ini])rove 
 these editions by maps and illustrations of 
 every conceivable variety. The majjs have been 
 taken largely from Napoleon, the illustrations 
 from Trajan's column, but often photographs 
 of the battlefields as they appear to-day have 
 been inserted. Oehler's Bilder Atlas (Lei|)zig, 
 1890) is important in this connection, as well 
 asGurlitt's Anschauungstafeln (Ocharts; Gotha), 
 while the best collection of lantern slides (about 
 400 in number) may be obtained from George R. 
 Swain, Bay City, Mich. A small but serviceable 
 book is Judson's Ccesar's Army (Bo.ston, 1894). 
 
 The language of Ca'sar has been made the 
 subject of careful study, particularly in the lexi- 
 cons of Meusel (Berlin, 1887), Merguet (Jena, 
 1886), Mcnge, and Preuss (Leipzig, 1885). 
 Studies in the syntax from the point of view of 
 teaching have been made by Heynacher (Bcr- 
 Un, 1886). 
 
 A complete bibliography may be found in the 
 books above quoted and in Teuffcl's History of 
 Latin Literature (translation by Warr, London, 
 1891). For Methods of teaching Caesar, see 
 Latin, Teaching of. G. L. 
 
 CiESAREA, SCHOOLS OF. — See Cate- 
 chetical Schools. 
 
 CAGLLARI, UNIVERSITY OF. — Founded 
 by Papal bull in 1606, receiving the sanction 
 of Philip of Spain in 1620. It was inaugurated 
 in 1626. The institution met with very little 
 success until it was restored in 1764 by the 
 rulers of the House of Savoy. Its statutes have 
 been frequently revised since then. Faculties 
 of law, medicine, and pharmacy, and sciences 
 are maintained. In 1908-1909 there were in 
 attendance 24.5 students, almost half the number 
 being in the faculty of law. 
 
 See Spain, Education in. 
 
 CAIRD, EDWARD. — Born at Greenock, 
 Scotland, 1835, and died at Oxford, England, 
 1908. After being a Fellow at Balliol and at 
 Merton colleges, he was appointed to the profes- 
 sorship of moral philosophy in the University 
 of Glasgow. After 27 years' service at this 
 post, he succeeded, in 1893, Benjamin Jowett 
 
 478
 
 CAIUS 
 
 CALCULATE 
 
 as Master at Balliol. Ill health led to his 
 resignation in 1907. His whole life was devoted 
 to the educational interests in teaching and 
 writing, representing the full claims of modern 
 idealism. He early began a study of the specu- 
 lative philosophy of the Continent of a century 
 ago. He philosophized for himself by inter- 
 preting and criticizing the views and systems 
 of others. In seeking to make secure the foun- 
 dation of an idealistic, spiritual conception of 
 the world, he became one of the sharpest critics 
 of recent empiricism in English thought. His 
 intellectual powers were tempered by the uni- 
 versal element of fairness which ever sought 
 to bring to light the truths which might lie 
 imbedded in the views of those he criticized. 
 He also wrote on religion, literature, and politics. 
 As a teacher as well as an author he sought for 
 an expression of a philosophy which would 
 reconcile and unify all the aspects of experience. 
 His chief works are The Philosophy of Kant 
 (1878), Hegel (1883), Social Philosophy and 
 Religion of Cointe (1885), Critical Philosophy 
 of Immanuel Kant (1889), Evolution of Reli- 
 gion (1893), Fundamental Ideas of Christianity 
 (1899), and Evolution of Theology in the Greek 
 Philosophers (1903). E. F. B. 
 
 CAIUS. — A learned priest of the Church of 
 Rome, and a disciple of Irenceus, born about 
 A.D. 180. At a time when there was but 
 little learning in the Roman Church he won a 
 high reputation as an eloquent and erudite 
 teacher of religious truth. For information 
 about his life and work we are dependent al- 
 most entirelj' upon the Ecclesiastical History 
 of Eusebius (II, 25 and VI, 20). Like the 
 other leaders of the Roman Church in his day, 
 he wrote in Greek. His chief literary work was 
 The Disputation, a dialogue in which he argued 
 with Proclus, the leader of the Phrygian heresy. 
 Fragments of this have been preserved by Euse- 
 bius, a tran.slation of which is given in the 
 Ante-\icene Fathers, Vol. V. He also com- 
 bated the JNIillenarian theories, but his writings 
 on this subject have been lost. To him has 
 been ascribed the authorship of the celebrated 
 Muratorian. Fragmerd, discovered in the Ambro- 
 sian Library at Milan in 1740, and of great value 
 as a summary of the opinion of the Western 
 Church on the Canon of Holy Scripture shortly 
 after the middle of the second century. It 
 is translated in Vol. V of the Ante- Nicene 
 Fathers, and the original is given (with valuable 
 critical comments) in Westcott on the Canon, 
 pp. 521-538. To him also were formerly attrib- 
 uted tlu'ee works — .1 Treatise Against all Here- 
 sies, The Little Labyrinth, and A Treatise on 
 the Universe — but these are now assigned by 
 almost universal consent to his contemporary, 
 Hippolytus. W. R. 
 
 References: — 
 Farrar, F. W. Lives of the Fathers. (New York, 1907.) 
 Roberts, A., and Donaldson, J. The Anle-Nicene 
 Fathers, Vol. V. (New York, 1890-1897.) 
 
 CAIUS, JOHN (1510-1573). — Physician 
 and scholar. After studying at Gonville Hall, 
 Cambridge, he became fellow of that institu- 
 tion. At first he devoted himself to the study 
 of theology, but later changed his mind and went 
 to Padua in 1539, where he studied medicine. 
 In 1541 he lectured at the University of Padua 
 on the logic and philosophy of Aristotle. After 
 leaving Padua he traveled in Italy, and in his 
 work De Libris propriis Liber he gives an 
 account of the educational conditions of the 
 time and of the libraries. He also traveled in 
 France and Germany, collating Mss. of Galen 
 and Hippocrates. As a result of his investiga- 
 tions he added to the Cambridge controversy 
 on the question a work De Pronuntiatione 
 Graecae el Latinae, supporting the old school. 
 On his return to England he gained eminence 
 as a physician in London, Norwich, and Shrews- 
 bury. He was royal phj'sician to Edward VI, 
 Mary, and Elizabeth. In 1557 he devoted his 
 wealth to the endowment and refoundation of 
 his old college, which came to be known as 
 Gonville and Caius College. In 1559 he 
 became Master of the institution, but was 
 never happy there, owing to friction with his 
 colleagues. Always suspected of adherence to 
 Catholicism, he could not survive the burning 
 of vestments and ornaments which were found 
 in his rooms. Caius took a deep interest in 
 everything that affected his university and 
 college. For the former he entered into a 
 controversy with an Oxford namesake on the 
 comparative antiquity of the two universities, 
 and published in 1568 De Antiquitate Caidabrigi- 
 ensis Academiae, libri duo, and in 1574 he wrote 
 Historiae Cantabrigiensis Academiae ab urbe 
 condita, libri duo. He also wrote the Annals 
 of Gonville and Caius College from the founda- 
 tion, but this is only preserved in Ms. 
 
 References: — 
 
 Dictionary of National Biography. 
 
 Venn, J. Caius College. (Cambridge University 
 College Series. (London, 1901.) 
 
 CALCOTT, LADY MARY (1785-1842).— 
 Wife of Sir Augustus Wall Calcott, the painter. 
 In addition to descriptions of her many travels, 
 which included India, South America, and 
 Southern Europe, she is best known for her 
 children's books. The most famous of these 
 is Little Arthur's History of England, 1835. 
 In 1841 she published The Little Bracken- 
 burners and Little Mary's Four Saturdays. 
 While in Valparaiso she acted as tutor to 
 Donna Maria, who later became Queen of 
 Portugal. 
 
 CALCULATE. — From the Latin calculare, 
 to compute; from calculus, a pebble, pebbles 
 being used by the Romans in computation on 
 the abacus (q.v.). The word is used in elemen- 
 tary teaching particularly with reference to 
 mensuration, as to calculate the volume of a 
 cylinder. It has of late been replaced in the 
 
 479
 
 CALCULI 
 
 CALCULUS 
 
 schools by the simpler word " find," although 
 the latter is not so expressive of the numerical 
 work to be done. D. E. S. 
 
 See also Calculus. 
 
 CALCULI. — See Abacus. 
 
 CALCULUS. — The Latin word for pebble, 
 used Ijy the Romans to designate the small 
 counters used on the abacus (q.v.). At pres- 
 ent it is loosely used to mean various methods 
 of analysis, but is commonly taken to desig- 
 nate the differential and integral calculus, a 
 branch of mathematics that has developed from 
 the infinitesimal calculus founded chiefly by 
 Newton and Leibnitz. 
 
 Differential and Integral Calculus. — That 
 branch of analysis which studies differentials 
 and integrals. If a function of x be given, as 
 y = fix), and if we take some arbitrary value 
 of X as Xo, we have yo = f (xo)- If, now, we let 
 Xo take an increment Ax, we may say that 
 Xo + Ax = x'. Then y' will equal /(x'), and 
 we shall have ?/ = 2/o + ^ !/• Then 1/0 + A;/ 
 = /(xo + ^x), whence, by subtracting and di- 
 viding, 
 
 ^y ^ f(xo+ A.t) -/(xn) 
 Ax Ax 
 
 Then as Ax approaches as a limit, we shaU have 
 
 bmit of ^ = limit of -^-^^-^ t^ — 1±-^, 
 
 Ax Ax 
 
 and this limit is called the derivative of y with 
 respect to x and is written /),?/. From this is 
 derived the relation dy = D^y dx, in which dy 
 is the differential of y and dx is the differential 
 of X. 
 
 It is impossible within reasonable limits to 
 give any satisfactory description of the subject. 
 For this the reader must refer to standard 
 works on the calculus. 
 
 The following is a typical problem in maxima 
 and minima, as solved by the calculus: Find 
 the most advantageous length for a lever by 
 means of which to raise a weight of 100 pounds, 
 if the distance of the weight from the fulcrum 
 is 2 feet and the lever weighs 3 pounds to the 
 foot. If the weight of the lever is not considered, 
 the longer the lever the less the power recpiired, 
 but soon the lever becomes too heavy to be 
 used advantageously. ■ The result is found by 
 the calculus to be 11.4 feet, the power then being 
 34.6 pounds. (Osgood.) 
 
 The reverse of differentiation is called inte- 
 gration. That is, if the differential of x" is 2 x dx, 
 
 then the integral of 2x dx, written \2xdx, is x', 
 or X- + some constant. The following is a 
 typical problem in the integral calculus: A 
 water main 6 feet in diameter is half full of 
 water. Find the pressure on the gate that 
 closes the main. The pressure is found to be 
 
 * Jo ^^ 9 ~ 2;^ dx, where k is the weight of a cubic 
 
 foot of water. The result is found to be 1120 
 pounds. (Osgood.) 
 
 The general nature of the calculus as now 
 considered is that of a particular form of analy- 
 sis dealing with differentials (the differential 
 calculus) and integrals (the integral calculus). 
 Of these the former is usually considered first, 
 although a kind of integral calculus historically 
 preceded the differential. Teachers often find 
 it economical to take n\> the simplest forms of 
 integration along with differentiation, reserv- 
 ing the more difficult cases until later in the 
 course. The tendency at the present time is to 
 make much more of the applications of the 
 calculus than was formerly the case, owing to 
 the extensive demands of technical education 
 and the corresponding increase in apijlied prob- 
 lems. This movement owes much to the works 
 of Perry and Greenhill in England, Autenhcimer, 
 Nernst, and Schonflies in Germany, and Osgood 
 in the United States. 
 
 History. — An initial step may be said to 
 have been made in the calculus when Antiphon 
 (c. 420 B.C.) attempted to find the area of a 
 circle by considering it as the limit of a regular 
 inscribed polygon of n sides as n is indefinitely 
 increased. Bryson of Heraclea, his contem- 
 porary, proceeded in an analogous fashion, and 
 to these writers is due the ancient method of 
 exhaustions, the exhausting of the difference in 
 area, for example, between a rectilinear and a 
 curvilinear figure, which is essentially what is 
 done in quadrature problems in the integral 
 calculus. About the same time Democritus 
 (460-c. 370 B.C.) suggested the atomistic philos- 
 ophy and hinted at the infinitesimal in mathe- 
 matics. Archimedes (q.v.), in the third century 
 B.C., extended the method of exhaustions and 
 applied it to the quadrature of the parabola. 
 Practically no steps were taken in the calculus 
 from this time until about 1600, when Kepler 
 (q.v.) laid down his principle of continuity in 
 geometry and suggested the use of infinitesi- 
 mals, as in the considering of a circle as a poly- 
 gon of an infinite number of sides. He was 
 followed by an Italian writer, Cavalicri (1598- 
 1647), who developed his method of indivisibles 
 in 1629, and published it in 1635. In this he 
 considered a fine as composed of an infinite 
 number of points, a surface as composed of an 
 infinite number of lines, and a solid as com- 
 posed of an infinite number of planes. Al- 
 though he subsec|uently improved his theory, 
 the foundation was not solid enough for perma- 
 nence. The theory is interesting as a connect- 
 ing link between the Oreek method of exhaus- 
 tions and the calculus of Newton and Leibnitz. 
 It influenced men like Wallis and Barrow in 
 England, and Fermat, Roberval, Pascal, and 
 Descartes in France, to consider the possibili- 
 ties of using the infinitesimal in mathematical 
 investigation. 
 
 Newton (1642-1727, q.v.) was a pupil of 
 Barrow's, and was by him made acquainted with 
 the work of his predecessors. He sought to 
 
 480
 
 CALCULUS 
 
 CALENDAR 
 
 justify the use of the infinitesimal, but by a 
 different line of approach. He considered 
 X, and y as flowing quantities, and x and y as 
 their velocities, and called the new science by 
 the name of Fluxions. He worked out his 
 theory about 166.5, but published nothing upon 
 it until considerably later. 
 
 Meantime Leibnitz (1646-1716) (?.v.) had 
 probably heard of Newton's efforts, if not of his 
 method.s in detail, and had set to work upon the 
 same problem. He developed a theory that 
 was independent of Newton's, and suggested 
 the notation dx and \xdx. His theory was 
 
 worked out by 1676, and he published it in 
 1684, thus antedating Newton's publication. 
 
 It is now generally considered that Newton 
 worked out his theory of Fluxions (essentially 
 the calculus based upon the theory of rates) at 
 least 10 years before Leibnitz worked out his; 
 that Leibnitz knew that Ne%vton had developed 
 a theory; that Leibnitz worked out a new 
 theory with a new symbolism, publishing his 
 results before Newton. The Leibnitz notation 
 finally supplanted the Newtonian, and the 
 foundations of both theories have been replaced 
 by the works of later writers. The subsequent 
 development of the subject has led to making 
 the fundamental principles more secure, to 
 improving the symbolism, and to increasmg the 
 range of applications. 
 
 Methods of Presenting. — There are four gen- 
 eral methods of presenting the calculus. The 
 first is the Method of Infinitesimals, which 
 started with Kepler and Cavalieri and culmi- 
 nated in the work of Leibnitz. This assumes that 
 dx is a very small quantity, not zero, such that 
 
 dr 
 
 -j- is measurable, but such that dx is negligible 
 dy 
 
 with respect to x, and that f/.r dy is negligible 
 with respect to ydy. This method, while hav- 
 ing the advantage of simplicity of treatment, 
 has generally been discarded as entirely lack- 
 ing in mathematical rigor. 
 
 The second general method is that of Flux- 
 ions, due to Newton, which has developed into 
 the Method of Rates. This defines a differ- 
 ential of a function or variable, at any value, 
 as what would be its increment m any interval 
 of time, if at that value its change became uni- 
 form. One of the leading American exponents 
 of this method is the textbook of Rice and 
 Johnson. The method is not, however, as 
 popular as the one ne.xt mentioned, although 
 it has certain advantages in the way of con- 
 creteness. 
 
 The third method is what is now called the 
 Method of Limits, suggested by Newton and 
 used by him in his work on the quadrature of 
 curves. This is the method used in the intro- 
 duction of this article, and is the one generally 
 followed in modern textbooks. 
 
 A fourth method, suggested by Lagrange in 
 his Thiorie des Fonctions (1813), depends upon 
 the expansion of a function into a power series. 
 
 This offers a number of obstacles, however, in 
 the matter of convergence, and has not been 
 considered usable for beginners. 
 
 Bibliography. — Such an extensive subject 
 should be investigated by reference to the 
 literature. An excellent bibliography is given 
 in an article by Meyer in the Encyklopddie der 
 matheinatischen Wis.^en.'ichaften, \''ol. II (Leip- 
 zig, 1900). The best history of the rise of the 
 calculus is given in Cantor, Geschichte der 
 Mathematik, Vols. Ill and IV (Leipzig, 1908), 
 and in Zeuthen, Geschichte der Mathematik im 
 16. and 17. Jahrhundert (Leipzig, 1903). 
 
 CALCUTTA UNIVERSITY. — See India, 
 Education in. 
 
 CALDWELL COLLEGE, DANVILLE, KY. 
 
 — An educational institution for young women. 
 Chartered in 1854 as the " Henderson Female 
 Institute "; the present title adopted in 1904, 
 though the work is chiefly preparatory in 
 character. The school is under the control of 
 the Second Presbyterian Church. Degrees 
 are conferred. There are 23 instructors on the 
 faculty of the institution. 
 
 CALDWELL, JOSEPH (1773-1835). — Edu- 
 cator, graduated at Princeton in 1791 and was 
 4 years a tutor in that institution. He was 
 professor of mathematics in the University of 
 North Carolina from 1795 to 1804, and presi- 
 dent of that institution from 1814 to 1835. 
 In 1824, he made an educational tour through 
 Europe, and in 1827 he built an astronomical 
 observatory for the University of North Caro- 
 lina, the first of its kind in the United States. 
 Author of Elementary Geometry (1822) and of 
 addresses on educational subjects. W. S. M. 
 
 CALDWELL, MERRITT (1806-1848). — 
 Educator and textbook writer, graduated at 
 Bowdoin College in 1828. He was principal 
 of the Wesleyan Seminary, Me., for 4 years, 
 and professor in Dickinson College for 14 
 years. He was the author of textbooks on 
 grammar and elocution and of numerous 
 essays on religious subjects. W. S. M. 
 
 CALDWELL, SAMUEL LUNT (1820-1889). 
 
 — Was graduated from Waterville College (now 
 Colby University) in 1839. He was several 
 years principal of academies in New Hamp- 
 shire and Massachusetts, and was president of 
 Vassar College from 1878 to 1889. W. S. M. 
 
 CALENDAR. — The computation of the 
 calendar played a very important part in 
 medieval ecclesiastical education. (See Com- 
 putus.) The word is from the Latin Kalen- 
 darium, a list of interest payments due upon 
 the kalends {kaknd(s) of every month. The 
 Romans did not, therefore, use the term in 
 the present sense, using Fasti to indicate a list 
 of days in which the holidays were marked. 
 
 VOL. I ■ 
 
 -2i 
 
 481
 
 CALENDAR 
 
 CALIFORNIA 
 
 In medieval Europe Fasti was changed to 
 Kalendarium, and the Spanish- Arabic Almanac 
 (q.v.) was also used in the same sense. The 
 earliest known Christian calendar dates from 
 354 A.D., and the comimting of this, as of other 
 reUgious calendars, expressed the higlu^st mathe- 
 matical attainments of the early religious 
 schools. 
 
 The primitive unit of time was the day, and 
 this was doubtless looked upon by early 
 peoples as unvarying. With the development 
 of the race, however, various kinds of day 
 were distinguished. First from the standpoint 
 of invariability came the sidereal daj', the 
 length of time of revolution of the earth as 
 shown by observations on the fixed stars, 23 
 hours, 56 minutes, 4.09 seconds of our common 
 time. First from the standpoint of the casual 
 observer was, however, the true solar day, the 
 length of time between two successive passages 
 of the sun across the meridian, varying 51 
 seconds with the change of seasons, but answer- 
 ing the purposes of the world for thousands of 
 years, and measured by the dial. As clocks 
 of one kind or another came into use, a third 
 kind of day became recognized, the mean solar 
 day, equal to 24 hours, 3 minutes, 56.56 seconds, 
 of sidereal time, and still other kinds of day 
 are recognized by writers on chronology. The 
 next obvious division of time was the month, 
 originally the period from one new moon to 
 the next. This served as the greater unit for 
 a long time, but with increased accuracy of 
 observation it was seen that there were several 
 kinds of month as well as several kinds of day. 
 Thus the sidereal month has 27 days, 7 hours, 
 43 minutes, 12 seconds, while the synodical 
 month, from one conjunction of the sun and 
 moon to the next one, averages 29 days, 12 
 hours, 44 minutes, 3 seconds. The next longer 
 period is naturally the year, a period observ- 
 able only about j^ as often as the month and 
 only j^5 as often as the day, and hence not 
 so easily fixed. It took the world a long time 
 to find the length of the year with any accuracy, 
 and the struggle of the mind to harmonize the 
 reckoning of time by days and months and 
 years has given rise to as many different 
 calendars as there have been different races 
 and religions, and has rendered the subject a 
 difficult one for the schools to treat. There 
 are several kinds of year, the sidereal of 
 365.256358 days, the tropical of 365.242204 
 days (in 1800), the anomalistic, about 26 
 minutes longer than the tropical, the lunar 
 year of 12 .synodical months, and so on. 
 In addition to these obvious periods there is 
 the cycle, as in the lunar cycle of 19 years, 
 the solar cycle of 28, and so on, besides the 
 longer unit of the " period," compounded of 
 cycles or other units. An artificial unit is also 
 the era, the Byzantine beginning Sept. 1, 
 5509 B.C., the Alexandrian in 5502 B.C., the 
 era of the Exodus in 1486 b.c, the Olympiad 
 era in 779 B.C., the Roman in 753 B.C. (Varro) 
 
 or 752 B.C. (Cato Censorius), and many others. 
 The Christian era was introduced by the Abbot 
 Dionysius Exiguus, c. 500 a.d., recognized by 
 the Church in the sixth century, and brought 
 into general use largely through the influence 
 of Bede in the eighth century. 
 
 In elementary textbooks the two calendars 
 usually mentioned are the Julian and the 
 Gregorian. The first derives its name from 
 Julius Ciesar, who reformed the Roman calen- 
 dar by decreeing that the year 46 b.c. should 
 have 445 days (the annus confusionif:), and 
 that subsequent years should have 365 days, 
 with one leap year in every four. He changed, 
 or attempted to change, the old custom of 
 having the year begin with March, a custom 
 that accounts for such names as September, 
 and for the names Quintilis (the fifth month, 
 changed to JuHus because C»sar was born in 
 that month), and Sextilis (afterward changed 
 by Augustus). The Julian calendar remained 
 in u.se in Christendom until its reformation 
 under Gregory XIII in 1582, and is still in 
 use by the Greek Church, including the Rus- 
 sian branch. The Julian calendar now differs 
 from the Gregorian by 13 days. 
 
 The development of printing and the easy 
 distribution of almanacs naturally led to drop- 
 ping the study of the calendar from the schools 
 and monasteries, although the adoption of the 
 Gregorian calendar in England in 1752 necessi- 
 tated the retention of the chapter upon the 
 subject in the arithmetics until the new system 
 became generally understood. That it per- 
 sisted in the American arithmetics for a century 
 after it had served this purpose, until well 
 toward the close of the nineteenth century, 
 is an illustration of the conservatism of the 
 schools and of the effect of tradition. 
 
 D. E. S. 
 
 CALHOUN, WILLIAM BARRON (1796- 
 1865). — Statesman, graduated at Yale in 1814. 
 He was one of the founders of the American 
 Institute of Instruction (q.v.) (for 7 years its 
 president), and was prominently associated 
 with Horace Mann (q.v.) in the reform move- 
 ment in Massachusetts. W. S. M. 
 
 CALIFORNIA COLLEGE, OAKLAND, 
 CAL. — Organized in 1870 at Vacaville and 
 transferred to its present position in 1887. It 
 is under the auspices of the Baptists of Cali- 
 fornia. Sub-academic, academic, collegiate, 
 fine arts, and business departments are main- 
 tained. The college courses are based on about 
 12 points of high school work. Degrees are 
 conferred. Very few of the students, however, 
 remain for the college course. There is a fac- 
 ulty of 5 professors and 2 assistants. 
 
 CALIFORNIA, STATE OF. — Acquired by 
 conquest from Mexico, and admitted to the 
 Union in 1850 as the 31st state, and without 
 any previous organization or existence as a 
 
 482
 
 CALIFORNIA 
 
 CALIFORNIA 
 
 territory. It forms a part of the Western 
 Division, and has a land area of 156,172 square 
 miles. In size it is the second largest state in 
 the Union, is about three fifths of the area of 
 Texas, and about as large as the New England 
 states. New York, Pennsylvania, and New 
 Jersey combined. For administrative pur- 
 poses the state is divided into 58 counties, and 
 these are in turn di\-ided into cities, towns, 
 and school districts. In 1900 California had 
 a population of 1,485,053, or about one half 
 that of the state of Massachusetts, and a den- 
 sity of population of 9.5 persons per s(iuare 
 mile. Its estimated population in 1910 was 
 1,756,708. 
 
 Educational History. — Under the Mexican 
 occupation the few schools which existed were 
 church or mission schools. The foundation of 
 the public school system was laid in the first 
 constitutional convention, held at Monterey 
 in 1849, when, after a long debate, the 500,000 
 acres of new land, granted to the states for 
 internal improvement by Congress, was set 
 aside for education by a majority of one vote. 
 The legislature was then directed to provide 
 for a State Superintendent of Public Instruc- 
 tion; to encourage " intellectual, scientific, 
 moral, and agricultural improvement '"; to 
 devote to schools the proceeds of all gifts of 
 lands; to provide for a 3 months' school in 
 every school district in the state: and to 
 protect and preserve the lands given for the 
 support of a university. The first school in 
 the state, other than mission schools, had been 
 organized in San Francisco the year before. 
 In 1847 a schoolhouse had been ordered to be 
 built by the town council, and in 1848 a school 
 board was elected and a teacher employed. 
 The school was a tuition school, under public 
 control, and was free only to indigent pupils. 
 This school began with 6 pupils, soon increased 
 its numbers to 37 pupils, and then, after the 
 discovery of gold, dwindled to 8 pupils and 
 was closed. In 1850 the first school ordinance 
 in California was passed, and the first free 
 public school was opened in San Francisco under 
 its provisions. The first state school law was 
 enacted in 1851. It ordered a survey of the 
 school lands; the apportionment of the interest 
 on the school fund to the counties on the basis 
 of the school census, and to districts on actual 
 attendance; and provided for the establish- 
 ment of schools, and the making of school 
 reports. Religious and sectarian schools, as 
 well as almshouses and orphan asylums, were 
 to share in the school fund distribution on the 
 sani(" basis as other schools. The first schools 
 organized under the new law were those of 
 San Francisco, which at once provided for a 
 City Hoard of Education and a Superintendent 
 of Schools, and organized a town school system. 
 
 In 1852 a revised school law was adopted, 
 which contained the main outlines of the i)res- 
 ent system. A State Board of Education was 
 provided for; constables were appointed as 
 
 school census marshals; the duties of County 
 Superintendents were laid down; a state school 
 tax of 5 cents on the SI 00 was ordered, and 
 all state money was directed to be used only 
 for teachers' salaries; an optional countj' 
 school tax of 3 cents and an optional city 
 school tax of 3 cents were allowed; and aid to 
 denominational and sectarian schools was for- 
 bidden. In 1853 county Assessors were di- 
 rected to act ex officio as County School Super- 
 intendents; the county school tax was changed 
 from optional to mandatory and raised to 5 
 cents; and the limit of taxation for cities, and 
 the prohibition of aid to sectarian and de- 
 nominational schools, were removed. In 1855 
 County Superintendents of Schools, City Super- 
 intendents of Schools, and City Boards of 
 Education were provided for in the law; and 
 aid to denominational and sectarian schools 
 was finallj' cut off. In 1860 the State Board 
 of Education was authorized to adopt a series 
 of textbooks, and in 1870 this series was made 
 uniform for the whole state. State and County 
 Boards of Examination were also provided for. 
 
 In 1861 the question of what to do with the 
 16th and the 36th section school lands was 
 finallj' settled by ordering them to be sold 
 and the proceeds to be jjaid into the state 
 school fund. In 1862 the first .state normal 
 school was established, and in 1869 the state 
 university was established. In 1863 state aid 
 for teachers' institutes w-as provided; new 
 regulations were made regarding the certifica- 
 tion of teachers; and the funding of the state's 
 debt to the school fund was begun. In 1864 
 the county school tax was changed to the new 
 basis of not less than S2 per census child, and 
 a 5 months' school ordered. By 1865 more 
 than half of the schools were free from " rate- 
 bills," and in 1867 the " rate-bill " was defi- 
 nitely abandoned and the schools made free 
 to every child. In 1866 the state school tax 
 was raised to 8 cents and the county school 
 tax to S3 per census child, and in 1874 the 
 state school tax also was changed to the new 
 basis and made not less than $7 per census 
 child. In 1884 the county school tax was 
 further raised to $4 per census child; in 1893 
 to .S6; and in 1905 to $7. 
 
 In 1879 a new and a reactionary state con- 
 stitution was adopted, the educational section 
 of which did away with the State Board of 
 Education and the Boards of Examiners, and 
 provided for County Boards of Education, with 
 power to certificate all teachers and to adopt 
 all textbooks for the schools of the county. 
 This soon proved unsatisfactory, and in 1884 
 an amendment to the state constitution was 
 submitted and adopted which provided for an 
 ex-officio State Board of Education, and made 
 it their duty to edit and compile a state series 
 of textbooks, and to have them printed and 
 published by the state. Beyond this the new 
 board was given no duties of any consequence. 
 State authorship proved so extremely unsati.s- 
 
 483
 
 CALIFORNIA 
 
 CALIFORNIA 
 
 factory that it was finally abandoned in 1903 
 for the purchase of copyrights, though state 
 publication is still retained. 
 
 The first high school in the state was organ- 
 ized in San Francisco in 1858, but the num- 
 ber of high schools had increased to only 12 
 by 1885, and few others were organized up to 
 1891. The constitution of 1879 had included 
 high schools as a part of a possible state school 
 system, but had forbidden the use of any part 
 of the state school fund for their support. In 
 1891 the Union High School Act was pa.sscd, 
 whereby a number of districts might unite to 
 maintain a free high school for their children, 
 and after the pas.sage of this act the develo])- 
 ment of high schools was rapid. In 1902 the 
 state constitution was amended and a state 
 high school fund created, to be raised by general 
 taxation. Since 1903 the high schools of the 
 state have been placed on a good financial 
 basis. The inspection and accrediting of the 
 high schools, begun by the state university in 
 
 1884, has done much to stimulate and stand- 
 ardize the schools. From 12 high schools in 
 
 1885, the number rose to 24 in 1890, 98 in 
 1895, 105 in 1900, 143 in 1903, and 187 in 1909. 
 
 Present School System. — The school system 
 of California as at present organized is as 
 follows: At the head is a Superintendent of 
 Public Instruction and a State Board of Edu- 
 cation. The superintendent is elected by 
 popular election for a 4-year term, and 
 receives a salary of .S5000. He has general 
 oversight of the schools of the state; prepares 
 all blanks; apportions all state school money 
 to the counties; visits the schools of the state; 
 hears appeals from the decisions of the County 
 Superintendents and County Boards; and com- 
 piles a biennial report. He is also ex officio a 
 member of the State Board of Education, the 
 Board of Regents of the state university, and 
 of the different boards of trustees of the 5 
 state normal schools. The State Board of 
 Education consists, ex officio, of the Governor, 
 State Superintendent, president and professor 
 of education in the state university, and the 
 presidents of the 5 state normal schools. 
 The chief functions of this board are to adopt 
 a series of uniform textbooks for the schools of 
 the state; to determine the credentials upon 
 which certificates to teach in the high schools 
 may be issued; to accredit normal schools in 
 other states for teachers' certification; to 
 designate an educational journal for the state; 
 and to grant life diplomas on the recommenda- 
 tion of the County Boards of Education. 
 
 For each county there is a County Superin- 
 tendent of Schools, devoting all of his time to 
 the work, and a County Board of Education. 
 The County Superintendent superintends the 
 schools of his county; is required to visit 
 every school at least once a year; apportions 
 all school money to the districts; passes on all 
 requisitions; conducts an annual teachers' 
 institute; approves all plans for new school 
 
 buildings; issues temporary certificates to 
 teach; fills all vacancies in boards of district 
 trustees; and makes an annual report to the 
 State Superintendent. Each County Board 
 of Education consists of the County Superin- 
 tendent as secretary, and 4 others appointed 
 by the Board of County Supervisors, a majority 
 of whom mu.st be experienced teachers. This 
 board is paid S5 per person per day and 
 mileage for its services. It examines all can- 
 didates for teachers' certificates; grants certi- 
 ficates to teach to those who are successful, 
 and to those who present proper credentials; 
 adopts rules and regulations and a course of 
 study for the schools of the county; deter- 
 mines what books and apparatus district boards 
 of trustees may purchase, and fixes the prices 
 that may be paid for the same; and examines 
 the schools of the county and issues diplomas 
 of graduation to the pupils. 
 
 Cities are governed by Boards of Education, 
 as provided for in their charters, but in other 
 respects are governed l)y the provisions of the 
 general school law of the state. Each employs 
 a Superintendent of City Schools, as provided 
 for by law, for a 4-year term. For a more 
 detailed statement as to the form of city school 
 government, see special articles on Los An- 
 geles, 0-\KLAND, and San Francisco. 
 
 School districts, of whatever size, are gov- 
 erned by boards of 3 school trustees, elected 
 by the people of the districts for 3-year 
 terms. The powers of school tru.stecs in dis- 
 tricts, and of Boards of Education in cities, 
 are about the same, and include the emjjloy- 
 ment of teachers; the building and repairing 
 of schoolhouses; the preparation of an annual 
 school census; the admission and exclusion of 
 certain children; furnishing free textbooks to 
 indigent children; and making an annual re- 
 port to the County Superintendent of Schools. 
 Neither board can employ as teachers any 
 one not regularly certificated by the County 
 Board of Education, acting in accordance with 
 the laws of the state. Cities may make their 
 own course of study, may examine and pro- 
 mote their own children, and are exempt from 
 county supervision, but school districts under 
 boards of district trustees do not have such 
 privileges. 
 
 Kindergartens, evening schools, high schools, 
 and technical schools are definitely incorporated 
 by the state constitution as a part of the state 
 school system, and provision has recently been 
 made in the law for careful and thorough 
 health supervision, though all of these special 
 advantages are as yet provided only in the 
 larger cities. The school system of the state 
 is essentially a series of county systems, as the 
 County Boards of Education possess large 
 powers, while the State Board of Education 
 and the State Superintendent possess little 
 real power. At the same time the county 
 system is as yet only imperfectly developed, 
 as the school districts still retain large powers. 
 
 484
 
 CALIFORNIA 
 
 CALIFORNIA 
 
 The publication of school textbooks by the 
 state, which is a feature of the California 
 system, has proved to be a very expensive 
 undertaking, and has never been satisfactory 
 to the schoolmen of the state. 
 
 School Support and Expenditure. — The 
 state originally received from Congress for 
 schools the 500,000 acres of land granted to 
 new states, and in 18.5.3 was granted in addition 
 the IGth and the 36th sections, amounting to 
 6,719,324 acres of land for schools. All of this 
 was devoted to education, but so far has 
 brought in but little to the state, the fund 
 amounting to but .81, 737, .500 in 1876, and to 
 but 85,314,050 at the time of last report. 
 The large increase in the fund within recent 
 years has been due to the receipt of about one 
 million of dollars from Congress in 1907, in 
 payment of the 5 per cent of sales of j)ublic 
 land within the state. The annual state fund 
 for the maintenance of elementary schools 
 within the state comes from the interest on 
 this permanent fund; the proceeds of a general 
 state tax, which must be equal to not less 
 than .S7 per census child, 5-17 years of age; 
 about $250,000 received annually from the 
 collateral inheritance taxes; and all poll taxes. 
 All of this must be used only for the payment 
 of teachers' salaries in elementary schools. 
 High schools are maintained out of separate 
 funds, partly derived from local taxation, and 
 partly from an additional state tax, which 
 must be equal in amount to .S15 per pupil in 
 average daily attendance in the high schools 
 of the state during the preceding year. About 
 53 per cent of all school money expended comes 
 from state sources. The elementary school 
 fund is apportioned to the counties on the 
 basis of S250 for every teacher allowed to the 
 districts, towns, and cities by the County 
 Superintendent, and the balance (.S10.13 per 
 census child in 1908-1909) on the school census. 
 The high school tax is distributed to the 
 different approved high schools by first divid- 
 ing ^ of the total amount equally among the 
 schools, irrespective of size (.S639.90 in 1908- 
 1909), and then the remaining f of the total 
 on the basis of the number of pupils in average 
 daily attendance in the high schools during the 
 preceding year (89.37 in 1908-1909). 
 
 Each county must also raise, in addition, a 
 county tax for elementary schools of not le.ss 
 than $7 per census child. In making the 
 county apportionment of elementary school 
 funds to the different districts, the California 
 plan is particularly noteworthy in that it en- 
 sures a good school in every school district in 
 the state, and in that it favors the small and 
 needy district. The state and the county 
 school money, for elementary schools, are added 
 together, and are then apportioned by the 
 County Superintendent to the cities, towns, 
 and districts on the basis of 8550 for every 70 
 school census children, or fraction thereof of 
 20 or more (this is called the teacher appor- 
 
 tionment) ; and the remainder is then appor- 
 tioned to all on the basis of the number of 
 children in average daily attendance during the 
 preceding year. The result of this apportion- 
 ment plan is that California can pay good 
 salaries to the teachers in all of its schools, 
 has an 8 months' school practically every- 
 where, and no better rural schools are to be 
 found in any state in the Union. Local taxa- 
 tion is employed for both elementary and high 
 schools to secure any additional funds that may 
 be needed. About 40 per cent of all school 
 money expended comes from state sources, 
 about 55 per cent comes from county taxation, 
 and the remainder from local taxation. There 
 are no township or county permanent school 
 funds in the state, all having been placed in 
 the state fund. 
 
 The total expended for all kinds of public 
 schools in 1908-1909 was 815,985,2.56. Based 
 on the total population of the state this was 
 equal to a per capita expenditure of 88.47 as 
 again.st 87.49 for the Western Division, and 
 84.27 for the United States as a whole. The 
 average daily expenditure per pupil was 8.303, 
 and the yearly expenditure per pupil in aver- 
 age daily attendance was 854.93, expenditures 
 which were exceeded only by Montana and 
 Nevada. Nevada and Washington alone 
 among the states raise more money (.832.34) 
 per child (.5-18 years of age) in the population, 
 but so great is the per capita wealth of Cali- 
 fornia that $.62 from each adult male will 
 produce $1 for each census child, as against 
 an average of 8.71 for the Western Division 
 and $1.02 for the United States as a whole. 
 The total expenditures for all purposes are 
 large. Only 60.5 per cent of the total expense 
 is for teachers' salaries, yet salaries in California 
 are comparatively high. 
 
 Educational Conditions. — Of the total popu- 
 lation of 1900, 24.7 per cent were foreign born, 
 these being distributed widely among the 
 different nationalities. Japanese and Chinese 
 constituted 4 per cent. Of the total population, 
 but 22.8 per cent are children between the 
 ages of 5 and 18 years, California ranking with 
 New England in this respect. By sex, 55.3 per 
 cent are males. Less than 1 per cent of the 
 population are of the colored race, so that the 
 state has no negro problem to deal with. 
 While agriculture is one of the great resources 
 of the state, only 47.6 per cent of the popula- 
 tion live in country districts, and 43.8 per cent 
 live in cities of 8000 inhabitants or over. 
 
 The average length of term provided was 
 172 days in elementary schools and 194 days 
 in high schools; the average for all schools was 
 183 days. Both the percentage of the school 
 population enrolled in the schools (89.68 per 
 cent) and the percentage of attendance based 
 on enrollment (75.43 per cent) arc high. This 
 was equal to an average daily attendance of 
 122.4 days per year for each child between 5 and 
 18 years of age in the state, and 136.5 days for 
 
 485
 
 CALIFORNIA 
 
 CALIFORNIA 
 
 each child enrolled, as against 76.1 and 100. S 
 for the United States as a whole. The long 
 term provided is a result of the wise taxation 
 and school apportionment laws of the state, 
 hut the attendance is due to the quality of the 
 schools and to the strong sentiment in favor 
 of education which exists among the peoi)le, 
 as the state has as yet practically no means of 
 enforcing its compulsory attendance laws. 
 Parental schools are provided for in the laws, 
 but they have as yet been established in only a 
 few cities. The cities generally have local 
 truant officers, and juvenile courts and pro- 
 bation officers exist in a few of the larger 
 cities. The state has a good child-labor law, 
 which is well enforced, the school principals 
 issuing the permits to work, and the inspection 
 of factories and packing establishments being 
 under the charge of the state labor bureau. 
 There is little illiteracy in the state, except 
 among the foreign-born population. The total 
 illiteracy for the state in 1900 was 4.8 per cent, 
 of which 1 per cent was among the native 
 whites (mostly the Spanish and Portuguese ele- 
 ments) and the remainder among the foreign- 
 born whites. 
 
 In material conditions the schools make an 
 excellent showing. The school property of the 
 state was estimated as worth about .$38,666,761 
 in 1909, and the estimated average value of 
 the schoolhou.ses is about $10,000 each. Many 
 of the town elementary school buildings, and 
 nearly all of the high school buildings, are the 
 best of their kind. The rural schools are well 
 graded, and are taught by good teachers. A 
 good school librarj^ everywhere is a feature of 
 the California school system. Nature study 
 in some form is taught in nearly all of the 
 schools, agriculture in many of the rural 
 schools, manual training and domestic science 
 in the city schools, and manual training in 
 many of the town schools. Kindergartens and 
 evening schools, and special cla.sses for the 
 instruction of the deaf, are to be found in the 
 cities. Health and development work, under 
 the care of trained men, is to be found in the 
 larger cities. Little has been done as yet 
 toward the consolidation of rural schools, 
 though this has been authorized by law, 
 chiefly because the state has as yet so few 
 people per square mile. All schools of the 
 state are equally open to negro children, 
 though in cities Boards of Education may 
 establish separate schools for Indian and Mon- 
 golian children. Under this provision San 
 Francisco maintains separate schools for the 
 Chinese, and has tried to establish them for 
 the Japanese. 
 
 Secondary Education. — The State assists in 
 the maintenance of an excellent system of 
 high schools, of which there were 187 entitled 
 to receive aid in 1909. To be entitled to 
 receive state aid a school must have a reason- 
 ably good equipment of building, laboratories, 
 and library; must employ at least 2 teachers; 
 
 must maintain a 4-years' course of instruc- 
 tion, and for at least 9 months; and must have 
 had at least 20 pupils in average daily attend- 
 ance during the preceding year. Provision has 
 recently been made by law for 2-year and 
 for 6-year high schools. In addition to the 
 public high schools, 49 private high schools 
 and academies are reported, though most of 
 these are small in.stitutions. The universities 
 of the state depend directly upon the high 
 schools, and do not maintain preparatory 
 departments. 
 
 Teachers and Training. — The state em- 
 ployed 10,737 teachers in 190S-1909, of whom 
 about 13.5 per cent were men. Of this number 
 179 were employed in kindergartens, and 1480 
 in high schools. The average monthly salary 
 paid to teachers in high schools is about SI 10, 
 and in elementary schools about -580 per month, 
 for a term of 194 and 172 days respectively. 
 
 Of the teachers cmplo3'ed in the elementary 
 schools of the state, 47 per cent arc graduates 
 of a California normal school or of some normal 
 school accredited as of equivalent rank, and 
 about 15 per cent of all the teachers employed 
 are graduates of some college or imiversity. 
 Something of the training required of teachers 
 may be ascertained from the requirements for 
 teachers' certificates. For a kindergarten cer- 
 tificate the applicant mu.st have had a high 
 school training, and be, in addition, a graduate 
 of some kindergarten training school. For a 
 grammar grade certificate (the only certificate 
 issued for elementary work) the applicant must 
 be a graduate of a California state normal 
 school, which requires graduation from a 4- 
 years' high school course for admission, and 
 2 years of training; must possess similar 
 credentials from some accredited normal school 
 elsewhere; or must take an examination lasting 
 5-6 days, held semi-annually, and embracing 
 all of the elementary school subjects, most of 
 the high school subjects, and professional sub- 
 jects. For a high school certificate, which is 
 required of all teachers in any kind of a high 
 school, the applicant mu.st be a graduate of a 
 college or university requiring 8 j'cars of high 
 school and college work, and in addition must 
 spend 1 year in graduate work in one of the 
 two large California universities, or in some 
 university elsewhere accredited as of equal 
 rank. For normal graduates and teachers of 
 sufficient experience half of the graduate year 
 is waived. All certificates are valid for 6 years, 
 and credentials of graduation from normal 
 schools and universities, upon which certifi- 
 cates may be granted, are valid until revoked 
 for cause. 
 
 For some years the state has maintained 
 5 normal schools for the training of teachers, 
 located at San Diego, Los Angeles, San Jos^, 
 San Francisco, and Chico; and in 1909 it estab- 
 lished a sixth school at Santa Barbara for the 
 training of teachers in manual training and 
 domestic science and art. The state also fuUy 
 
 4S6
 
 The Hearst Greek Theater at the University of California. 
 
 View of University of C'amfokma and of Berkeley looking towards the Golden Gate.
 
 CALIFORNIA 
 
 CALIFORNIA 
 
 accredits the work done in about 60 normal 
 schools located elsewhere in the United States 
 and in Canada. The two large universities 
 act as training schools for high school teachers 
 for the state, though the state also equally 
 accredits the work done in about 20 institutions 
 of high rank in the United States. In the 
 matter of interstate recognition of credentials 
 and certificates, California is one of the most 
 liberal states in the Union, and offers an ex- 
 ample to other states well worthy of imitation. 
 Higher and Technical Education. — The 
 University of California at Berkelej^ opened 
 in 1869, stands as the culmination of the public 
 school system of the state. The agricultural 
 and mechanical college, provided for by the 
 Morrill Act, is combined with the state uni- 
 versity. The Leland Stanford, Jr., University, 
 located near Palo Alto and opened in 1891, 
 though endowed by private funds, shares the 
 work of higher technical and professional in- 
 struction with the state university, and may 
 be classed as a semi-public institution. Be- 
 sides these two, both of which are coeducational, 
 there are a number of colleges in the state, 
 nearly all denominational, which offer collegiate 
 instruction, as follows : — 
 
 COLLEOB 
 
 Location 
 
 Control 
 
 Opened 
 
 For 
 
 Univ. of the 
 
 
 
 
 
 Pacific . , 
 
 San Josfi 
 
 Meth. 
 
 1S51 
 
 Both sexes 
 
 Santa Clara 
 
 
 
 
 
 College 
 
 Santa Clara 
 
 E.G. 
 
 1851 
 
 Men 
 
 St. iKiiatiua 
 
 
 
 
 
 ColloEe 
 
 San Francisco 
 
 R. C. 
 
 1855 
 
 Men 
 
 St. Mary's 
 
 
 
 
 
 CoIlcRe _ . 
 
 Oakland 
 
 R. C. 
 
 1863 
 
 Men 
 
 St. Vincent's 
 
 
 
 
 
 Colleiie . 
 
 Los Angeles 
 
 R. C. 
 
 1865 
 
 Men 
 
 California 
 
 
 
 
 
 College 
 
 Oakland 
 
 Bapt. 
 
 1870 
 
 Both sexes 
 
 Mills College 
 
 Oakland 
 
 Non-Sect. 
 
 1871 
 
 Women 
 
 Univ. of So. 
 
 
 
 
 
 California 
 
 Los Angeles 
 
 Meth. 
 
 1880 
 
 Both sexes 
 
 Occidental 
 
 
 
 
 
 CollcKe 
 
 Los Angeles 
 
 Presb. 
 
 1888 
 
 Both sexes 
 
 Pomona Col- 
 
 
 
 
 
 lege . . 
 
 Claremont 
 
 Congr. 
 
 1888 
 
 Both sexes 
 
 Throop Poly- 
 
 
 
 
 
 technic Inst. 
 
 Pasadena 
 
 .Non-Sect. 
 
 1891 
 
 Both sexes 
 
 The state also maintains, in addition to the 
 work of the state university, an agricultural 
 and mechanical high school at San Luis 
 Obispo, known as the California Polytechnic 
 School. This institution was established in 
 1901 " to contribute to the industrial welfare 
 of tlic State of California." A farm school, 
 connected with the state university, was estab- 
 lished in 190G at Davis, a farm of 700 acres being 
 purchased, with the intention of developing a 
 large agricultural experimental farm and school. 
 The state also maintains the Institution for the 
 Deaf and Dumb, at Berkeley; the Whittier 
 State (reformatory) School, at Whittier; the 
 Preston School of Industry (for boys only; re- 
 formatory), at lone; and the California Home 
 for the Care and Training of Feeble-minded 
 Children, at Eldridge. E. P. C. 
 
 References : — 
 
 Monographs on Education in California. (San Fran- 
 cisco, 1904.) Four monographs on the history and 
 present status of the California schools, as follows : 
 
 1. SwETT, John. The Elementary Schools of 
 California, 16 pp. 
 
 2. McChesney, J. B. Secondary Education in 
 California, 2S pp. 
 
 3. Van Liew, C. C. The California System of 
 Training Elementary Teachers, 23 pp. 
 
 4. OvERSTREET, H. A. The University of Cali- 
 fornia, 20 pp. 
 
 Numbers 1-3 reprinted in Rep. Supl. Pub. Instr. Cal., 
 
 1903-1904. 
 Faulkner, R. D. The California State Text-hook Sys- 
 tem ; Educ. Rev., Vol. XX, pp. 44-bO. (June, 
 
 1900.) 
 Reports of the Superintendent of Public Instruction of 
 
 California, Annual, 1852-1863 ; biennial, 1864- 
 
 1865 to 1907-1908. 
 School Law of California, 1909 ed. 
 Shinn, Chas. H. Spanish-California Schools ; in 
 
 Educ. Rev. (June, 1893.) 
 Sweet, John. History of the Public School System of 
 
 California, (San Francisco, 1876.) 
 Statistics based on Rep. U. S. Com. Educ, 1909, and 
 
 Rep. Supt. Pub. Inst., 1910. 
 
 CALIFORNIA, UNIVERSITY OF, BERKE- 
 LEY, CAL. — A state university forming 
 part of the system of education of the state 
 of California. The university is the out- 
 growth of two inistitutions, one the College of 
 California, established in 1855 in a suburb 
 of Oakland, which later received the name of 
 Berkeley, and the other the Agricultural, Min- 
 ing, and Mechanical Arts College projected by 
 the state in 1866 in accordance with the re- 
 quirements of the Morrill Act {q.v.),and located 
 a httle to the north of the College of California. 
 As the result of an agitation to establish an 
 institution of broader scope than the Agricul- 
 tural College, the College of California in 1867 
 agreed to cede its property to the state for 
 the foundation of an institution " at least 
 equal to those of eastern colleges and universi- 
 ties." The proposal was accepted, and the legis- 
 lature passed an act to organize the Univer- 
 sity of California in 1868 in accordance with 
 the requirements of the constitution. The 
 union of the two institutions thus afforded a 
 means of providing a thorough general educa- 
 tion in the humanities, and courses of instruc- 
 tion in accordance with modern professional 
 and industrial needs. The university was 
 opened in 1869, and instruction was given tem- 
 porarily at Oakland until new buildings were 
 completed in 1873 at Berkeley. No tuition 
 fees were charged, and in 1870 the institution 
 was made coeducational. Professor Durant 
 was the first president, and was succeeded in 
 1872 by President Daniel Coit Gilman. The 
 maintenance of the university is derived from 
 income from invested funds obtained from the 
 sale of lands, private endowment, and state 
 appropriations of 2 cents on each $100 
 of taxable property. In 1896 an open 
 competition was announced for plans for a 
 system of buildings to be erected at Berkeley, 
 the cost of which was borne by Mrs. Hearst. 
 
 487
 
 CALIGRAPHY 
 
 CALISTHENICS 
 
 The first prize in the competition was awarded 
 to M. Emile B6nard of Paris, and a beginning 
 was at once made to carry out the plans. 
 The first structure was an open-air Greek 
 Theater, the gift of Mr. W. R. Hearst. Four 
 other buildings were added within the next few 
 years. 
 
 The government of the university is in the 
 hands of the Regents of the University of 
 California. The university comprises 10 de- 
 partments at Berkeley, — colleges of letters, 
 social sciences, natural sciences, commerce, 
 agriculture, mechanics, mining, civil engineer- 
 ing, chemistry, and the first 2 years of a 
 medical department. Five other institutions 
 more or less closely affiliated with the univer- 
 sity are located at San Francisco. At Mount 
 Hamilton is situated the Lick Astronomical 
 Department, with the famous Lick Observatory. 
 The university was one of the earliest in the 
 country to introduce in 188-1 a system of ac- 
 crediting high schools, which in 1908 numbered 
 147. A highly important part of the work of 
 the university is carried on by the Depart- 
 ment of University Extension in Agriculture, 
 which assists farmers through visits, bulletins, 
 advice, and instruction. The university has a 
 farm of 775 acres for purposes of experiment in 
 agriculture. In 1908, 70,000,000 pages of 
 literature were published by the agricultural 
 department for the instruction of farmers, and 
 15,000 personal letters were written in answer 
 to inquiries. 
 
 Students are admitted by passing the ex- 
 amination of the university or the College 
 Entrance Examination Board, or on recom- 
 mendation from an accredited high school. 
 The undergraduate course is divided into 
 lower and upper divisions. A junior certifi- 
 cate is given on the completion of the work 
 of the lower division, after which they con- 
 tinue the work of the upper division over at 
 least 2 years, except in the College of En- 
 gineering, which requires 3. A graduate 
 school is maintained granting the higher degrees 
 on the completion of the appropriate courses 
 to candidates who hold the bachelor's degrees. 
 In the year 1908-1909 there were enrolled 3396 
 students in the university, distributed as fol- 
 lows: letters, sciences, and engineering graduate 
 students, 396; undergraduate, 2680; San Fran- 
 cisco Institute of Art, 139; Hastings College 
 of Law, 100; medical and dental departments, 
 88; California College of Pharmacy, 67. The 
 officers of instruction and administration in 
 1908 numbered 525. Benjamin Ide Wheeler, 
 Ph.D., LL.D., is the president. 
 
 Reference: — • 
 
 Slossox, E. E. University of California. The Inde- 
 pendent, May 6, 1909. 
 
 CALIGRAPHY. — See Writing. 
 
 CALISTHENICS (Gr. koAXo?, beauty + 
 arOivo^, strength). — A term originally applied 
 
 to forms of exercise designed to impart grace of 
 movement and physical strength. This term 
 is now applied to practically all forms of free 
 movements of arms, neck, trunk, and legs, 
 executed with or without hand ajjparatus. In 
 modern phj'sical education, calisthenic exer- 
 cises are used to impart not only grace of move- 
 ment and muscular strength, but also good 
 posture and organic vigor. 
 
 These objects are not attained uniformly and 
 in equal proportions from the practice of calis- 
 thenics. The specific effects produced are 
 determined by selection of movements and the 
 method of their execution. Grace of move- 
 ment is secured mainly from rhythmic move- 
 ments executed to the accompaniment of 
 music; muscular strength is acquired most 
 quickly from vigorous localized contractions 
 of muscular groups against the resistance of 
 antagonistic muscles or weight — either of the 
 body alone or augmented by holding weights 
 in the hands; good posture results from the 
 execution of selected movements with emjihasis 
 upon intermediate and terminal positions; 
 organic vigor is gained in greater or less 
 measure from all kinds of body activity — the 
 degree of organic vigor gained being propor- 
 tional to the number of large muscles brought 
 into play and the quantity of work done. 
 
 In Greek physical education calisthenics 
 were practiced in the form of free movements 
 and poses in connection with dancing and sing- 
 ing at the feasts of Apollo. Plato advocated 
 calisthenics in preference to athletic exercises 
 because of their sesthetic value. 
 
 Calisthenics, like other kinds of formal 
 physical training, were neglected entirely during 
 the long period between the fall of Athenian 
 education and the beginning of modern physical 
 education in Europe during the latter part of 
 the eighteenth and the opening of the nine- 
 teenth century. To Salzmann (q.v.), Guts 
 Muths iq.v.), and Jahn (q.v.) in Germany; Ling 
 (q.v.) in Sweden; Amoros in France; and Clias 
 in Switzerland, is due the credit of restoring 
 physical training to a place in educational 
 procedure. 
 
 The methods developed by these pioneers 
 were based very largely upon the old Greek 
 exercises and games, such as running, jumping, 
 throwing, riding, and wrestling; they also 
 introduced new forms, such as fencing, dancing, 
 ball games, vaulting, and climbing. Calis- 
 thenics occupied a very small place in these 
 early methods of physical training, except in 
 the Swedish system originated by Peter Henry 
 Ling, which accords a prominent place to free 
 movements. 
 
 Organized physical training was first intro- 
 duced in American schools about 1823 by a 
 German, Dr. Follen, who taught jum))ing, 
 climbing, and gymnastic feats on the horse, 
 parallel and horizontal bars at the Round 
 Hill School, Northampton, Mass. A few 
 schools and colleges followed the example of 
 
 488
 
 CALISTHENICS 
 
 CALVIN 
 
 the Round Hill School, but the interest was of 
 short duration. 
 
 The real beginning of the modern physical 
 education movement in the United States 
 occurred in 1848, when a group of German 
 political exiles introduced Jahn gymnastics in a 
 number of colleges. This method consisted 
 in the main of jumping, vaulting, and exercises 
 on the wooden horse, parallel and horizontal 
 bars, usually described as heavy gymnastics. 
 These exercises were suited best to robust 
 young men, and for that reason did not find a 
 place in the schools. 
 
 In 1860 Dr. Dioclesian Lewis, a school 
 teacher and physician born in New York State, 
 developed a simple system of calisthenics and 
 opened a gymnasium in Boston. 
 
 In August, 1860, Dr. Lewis was invited to 
 explain and illustrate his new system of physi- 
 cal training before the convention of the Ameri- 
 can Institute of Instruction {q.v.) at Boston, Mass. 
 At this meeting attention was drawn to Dr. 
 Lewis' methods, and a committee was appointed 
 to visit his gymnasium. The report of the 
 committee was entirely favorable. Dr. Lewis 
 was also invited to give an illustration of his 
 system before the Institute. A resolution was 
 passed advocating the introduction of his 
 system into general use in schools. 
 
 In 1861 Dr. Lewis established the Normal 
 Institute for Physical Education in Newton, 
 Mass. President Cornelius C. Felton, of 
 Harvard College, readily consented to serve as 
 its president, and continued to take an active 
 interest in the enterprise until his death, a year 
 later. The Institute graduated 421 men and 
 women teachers, in about equal numbers, dur- 
 ing the 7 years of its existence. 
 
 The influence of Dr. Lewis in securing recog- 
 nition for physical training in the school curric- 
 ulum is shown in a letter from Weld to Henry 
 Barnard, which was published in the Arnerican 
 Journal of Education for June, 1865. After 
 giving expression to his changed view regarding 
 the manual labor system, he speaks as follows: 
 " That systematic physical training should be 
 made a part of the daily routine of every school 
 is with me an abiding conviction, and tliat this 
 should not be made optional, but be made 
 imperative. The change in public opinion during 
 the last thirty years is a most hopeful sign of the 
 times. The introduction into hundreds of 
 schools of Dr. Lewis's Light Gjmmastics is 
 already achieving large results, and its promise 
 for the future is most auspicious." 
 
 During the 30 years following their introduc- 
 tion into public and jirivate schools, calisthenics 
 constituted practically all that was attempted 
 in school physical training. Since the early 
 90's, physical education has developed very 
 rapidly; trained specialists are employed to 
 teach the subject in nearly all city schools; and 
 gymnasiums are being provided in new school 
 buildings. Calisthenics still occujiy a very large 
 place in the physical education curriculum. 
 
 although other forms of exercise, such as gym- 
 nastics on apparatus, athletics (q.v.), and danc- 
 ing iq.v.), are now considered essential in any 
 complete scheme of physical education. 
 
 G. L. M. 
 References: — • 
 
 Be.^le, Alfred. Calisthenics and Light Gym?iastics. 
 (New York, 1888.) 
 
 Beecher, Catherine E. Physiology and Calisthenics. 
 (New York, 1858.) 
 
 Bornheim, Carol. Song and Calisthenic Roundel for 
 Girla of Eight Years. Mind and Body, August, 
 1903. 
 
 De Graff, E. V. Calisthenics and Disciplinary Exer- 
 cises. (Syracuse, New York, 1884.) 
 
 Gill, G. Calisthenic Song Book. (Boston.) 
 
 CjRIFfin, Lillian B. New Calisthenics for Children. 
 Puritan Magazine, 1900. 
 
 Lewis, Dio. The New Gymnastics for Men, Women, 
 and Children. (Boston, 1868.) 
 
 NoAKES, Sergeant-Major, S. G. Free Gymnastics and 
 Liglil Dumb Bells. (London, 189.3.) 
 
 PAR.SONS, F. T. Calisthenic Songs. (New York.) 
 
 Pratt, Dr. M. L. AVhj Calisthenic-Manual of Health 
 and Beauty. (Boston and New York, 1889.) 
 
 Watson, J. M. Handbook of Calisthenics and Gym- 
 nastics. (New York, 1882.) 
 
 CALKINS, NORMAN ALLISON (1822- 
 
 1895). — Schoolman, born at Ciainesville, N. Y., 
 on Sept. 9, 1822. He was educated in the dis- 
 trict schools and at local academies. He was 
 for several years teacher in the schools of 
 Gainesville, and later Superintendent. He 
 became interested in the natural science move- 
 ment which had been introduced in America by 
 the New Harmonj^ community and the Lyceum 
 Association, and for many years he lectured on 
 object teaching at teachers' institutes in New 
 York, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and Connec- 
 ticut, at the same time editing the Student and 
 Schoolmaster. In 1862 he became assistant 
 superintendent of schools in New York City, 
 which position he held until the time of his 
 death. He was greatly interested in the 
 scientific study of educational subjects, and 
 for 20 years he conducted Saturday teachers' 
 classes in New York City. He was active in 
 educational a.ssociations, and was one of the 
 founders of the N.E.A. Author of Primary 
 Object Lessotis (1861), Phonic Charts (1869), 
 Manual of Object Teaching (1881), From Black- 
 board to Books (1883), and (jointly with Henry 
 Kiddle and Thomas F. Harrison) How to Teach. 
 He died in New York City, Dec. 22, 1895. 
 
 W. S. M. 
 
 CALVERT HALL COLLEGE, BALTIMORE, 
 
 MD. — See Christian Brothers, Schools of 
 
 THE. 
 
 CALVIN, JOHN (1509-1564).— Although 
 he called himself " a man of the people," 
 Calvin shared in the home life of the noble 
 famih' of Hangest, with whose children he 
 attended school at Noyon and the University 
 of Paris. His father, who had married into one 
 of the best burgher families of Noyon, devoted 
 his income from lucrative positions of tru.st in 
 church and commune to the education of his 
 
 489
 
 CALVIN 
 
 CALVIN 
 
 sous. At 14 Calvin came under the sound 
 graniiuatical training of Cordier (q.v.). After 
 liis course in arts (chiefly at the college of Eras- 
 mus and Loyola), he took his degree in law 
 after 3 years at Orleans and Bourges under de 
 I'Estoile and Alciati {q.v.), meanwhile studying 
 Greek witii Wolniar. His father's death left 
 him free to follow his preference for humanistic 
 studies. His first book, a commentary on 
 Seneca's De dementia, displayed keen interest 
 in morals and classics. In 1532 or 1533, 
 through God's " secret providence," Calvin 
 experienced " a sudden conversion," " received 
 some taste and knowledge of true piety," and 
 turned to the study of theology. When barely 
 26 he completed his Institutio Christianae 
 
 John Calvin (1509-1569). 
 
 Tteligioyiis, thenceforth the textbook of Protes- 
 tant theology and arsenal for opponents of loose 
 discipline or arbitrary government. His fun- 
 damental premises from which all his teachings 
 sprang were the absolute sovereignty of God 
 and the authority of his " Word." A brilliant 
 and laborious student, winning distinction in 
 debate and lecture room in the university, he 
 early acc|uircd habits of labor at Paris, where 
 he was bred to 1 1 hours of school work, and at 
 Orleans, where after a light supper he studied 
 until midnight, waking early to think over what 
 he had learned the previous day. Genius and 
 incessant labor enabled him to accomplish a 
 prodigious amount of statecraft and writing, 
 his printed Opera filling 59 ciuarto volumes. 
 Calvin and his followers had no sympathy for 
 "idle bellies who chirp sweetly in the shade." 
 Obedient to " the calling laid upon him by 
 
 490 
 
 God," he twice abandoned scholarly life to 
 remodel Protestant but unrcformed Geneva. 
 The Articles of 1537 submitted by Farel and 
 Calvin to the magistrates outline the states- 
 manlike program of a reformer working on long 
 lines. The " Word of God " rather than the 
 canon law should be observed. The Church 
 has a right to scriptural creed, worship, and its 
 own organization, involving discii)line and 
 excommunication. Children must be carefully 
 trained " to give a reason for their faith " and 
 pass an examination on a catechism. Calvin's 
 French catechism (1537), briefly restating the 
 teaching of the Institutes, formed the basis of 
 the Sunday noon catechism which every child 
 nmst attend punctually under civil penalties 
 imposed upon parents, who were also obliged 
 to train their children at home. Revised 
 (1542) in the form of question and answer, 
 it went through 70 editions in nearly all 
 languages of Europe (14 in English) before 
 1630, and was among the four, one of which 
 was required of all Oxford undergraduates 
 in 1578. ■ The children were trained in sing- 
 ing the psalms an hour daily in school, that 
 under their lead the whole congregation 
 might learn to " lift their hearts to God." 
 Calvin's successful insistence upon trained 
 congregational singing, his use of stirring melo- 
 dies, and the translation of psalms by himself, 
 Beza (q.v.), and Marot introduced an invaluable 
 democratic and emotional clement into public 
 worship. On Jan. 12, 1538 (before Sturm's 
 Stra.ssburg program), Calvin, Cordier, and 
 Saunicr published a prospectus of the Genevan 
 elementary schools, marked by three progressive 
 features: careful grammatical drill before 
 rhetorical display; a substantial place for 
 teaching the vernacular and practical arith- 
 metic; training for civil as well as ecclesiastical 
 leadership. The principle that " the liberal 
 arts and good training are aids to a full knowl- 
 edge of the Word," reasserted in Calvin's 
 Ecclesiastical Ordinances adopted by Geneva 
 in 1541, necessitated instruction in " languages 
 and humane sciences " and " the organization 
 of a college for instructing the children to pre- 
 pare them for both the ministry and civil govern- 
 ment." Education was a logical necessity for 
 both layman and minister in Calvin's Piijlical 
 Commonwealth, and Calvin was both teacher 
 and pastor. He began his work at Geneva as 
 " Professor of Sacred Letters," lectured in 
 theology throughout his ministry, sometimes 
 to an audience of a thousand (Opera, XIX, 20), 
 and worked out his programs of 1538 and 1541 
 into a unified .system of primary, secondary, and 
 university education through the College and 
 University (Academic) established in 1559, 
 which served as a training school and model 
 for Protestants, and whose laws, as Richer and 
 Kampschulte have shown, were utilized by the 
 Jesuits in their Ratio Studiorum. The stren- 
 uous moral training of the Genevese and the 
 peoples who studied Calvin's Institutes and his
 
 CALVIN 
 
 CALVINISTS AND EDUCATION 
 
 Genevan institutions was an essential part of 
 Calvin's work as an educator. All were trained 
 to respect and obey laws based upon Scripture, 
 but enacted and enforced by representatives 
 of the people, without respect of persons. 
 How fully the training of children, not merely 
 in sound learning and doctrine, but also in 
 manners, " good morals," and common sense 
 was carried out is pictured in the delightfully 
 human Colloquies of Cordier, Calvin's old 
 teacher, whom he twice established at Geneva. 
 Luminous and majestic in his theology, con- 
 vincing in his reasoning, if we grant his prem- 
 ises, Calvin was far more than a theologian. 
 Even the Institutes, especially in the remark- 
 able book on civil government, suggest the wide 
 range of his activity. Calvin's memorials to 
 the Genevan magistrates, his drafts for civil 
 law and municipal administration, his corre- 
 spondence with reformers and statesmen, hia 
 epoch-making defense of interest taking, his 
 growing tendency toward civil, religious, and 
 economic liberty, his development of primary 
 and university education, his intimate knowl- 
 edge of the dialect and ways of thought of the 
 common people of Geneva, and his broad under- 
 standing of European princes, diplomats, and 
 politics mark him out as a great political, eco- 
 nomic, and educational as well as a religious 
 reformer, a constructive social genius capable 
 of reorganizing and molding the whole life of 
 a people. He had the intense aggressiveness 
 of the unflinching reformer. Though he won 
 the undying affection of those who really knew 
 him, his temperament was essentially masculine, 
 and there was a lack of sentiment, humor, and 
 those gentler qualities which win the affections 
 of the world. In St. Peter's and the consis- 
 tory, in the city hall and the streets of Geneva, 
 he was the terror of evil-doers and heretics, the 
 prophet of righteousness, with a majesty of 
 conviction and a clearness of sound reasoning 
 which convinced magistrate and common man, 
 and won their awe and admiration, if not their 
 affection. However men may differ in their 
 estimates of the theologj' and personality of 
 John Calvin, the outstanding facts regarding 
 his historic work are not its narrowness, but its 
 breadth of range and its fecundity of influence 
 in two continents. H. D. F. 
 
 References: — 
 
 B.iu.M. J. W., CuNiTZ. E., Reuss, E., loannis Cahini 
 Opera quae supersunt omnia. (59 Vols. Braun- 
 schwciE, 1803-1900.) Especially Vols. I-IV. 
 Insliiutio ; Vol. VI, CalSchisyne el Forme desprihes 
 el chants ecclexiasliqiirs ; Vol. X, Artie hs. 1.^3 7, 
 Ordonnaiiees, 1.541, Lrr/ef Academiae, 1559, etr. ; 
 Vol. XXI. Annates Calviniani. extracts from docu- 
 ments maiiil.v from Genevan Rcgistres du Conseil. 
 
 Caloin's Works, Calvin Translation Societj-. (52 vols., 
 Edinburgh, 1843-1855.) 
 
 Bo.v.VET, J. Letters of John Calvin. (Translated in 
 part. 2 vols., Edinburgh, 1854; 4 vols., Pliilad.l- 
 phia, 1858.) 
 
 Don.MERaUE. E. Jean Cahin: les hommes et les 
 choses de son temps. (To be complete in 5 vols., 
 3 vols. [iul>lished, 1899, 1902, 1905, Lausanne.) 
 The fullest life ; by an ardent admirer of Calvin. 
 
 401 
 
 Foster, H. D. Geneva before Calvin, the antecedents 
 of a Puritan State. Anier. Hist. Review, Vol. VIII, 
 pp. 217-240. Calvin's Programme for a Puritan 
 State in Geneva, 1536-1541. Harvard Theological 
 Review, Vol. I, pp. 391^34. 
 
 Herminj.\rd, a. L. Corrcspondance des reformateurs 
 dans les pays de langue frauQaise. (19 vols. 1512- 
 1544, Geneva, 1866-1S97.) School program of 
 Jan. 12, 1538, is in Vol. IV, pp. 455-460 (cf. F. Buis- 
 son, Sebastien Castellion, \ ol. I, pp. 145-149). 
 
 Kampschdlte, F. W. Johann Cahin, seine Kircke nnd 
 sein Staat in Genf. (2 vols. Leipzig, 1869, 1899). 
 On Jesuits' indebtedness to Calvin, Vol. II, p. 337 
 foll.i cf. Richer, Obsletrir Animorum.ch. vi, p. 80. 
 
 Lefranc, a. La Jennesse de Cahin. (Paris, 1888.) 
 
 Walker, W. John Cahin. (New York, 1906.) The 
 best brief life of Calvin and the most judicious. 
 Contains a discriminating bibliography. 
 
 CALVINISTS AND EDUCATION,— One 
 
 of the fairest and most permanent influences of 
 Calvinists in Geneva, France, Holland, Scotland, 
 England, and America was their contribution 
 to education. Calvin and his followers empha- 
 sized intellect and ■will more than feeling in the 
 religious and moral life. 
 
 1. Calvin's Institutes taught that " God 
 has furnished the soul of man with a mind 
 capable of discerning good from evil and 
 just from unjust; and of discovering, there- 
 fore, by the light of reason what ought to 
 be pursued or avoided. ... To this he has 
 annexed the will" (I, xv, 8). Reason, " being 
 a natural talent, could not be totally de- 
 stroyed but is partly debilitated," and 
 " smothered by ignorance." Yet " not only 
 the Divine Word but also the experience of 
 common sense" enables us to "perceive in 
 the mind of man some desire of investigating 
 truth." The capacity for such investigation 
 was especially strong in " civil polity, domestic 
 economy, all the mechanical arts and liberal 
 sciences." (II, ii, 12, 13). Calvin in his inter- 
 pretation of " the Word of God " did not hesi- 
 tate to appeal to reason and equity. In his 
 epoch-making refutation of the Mosaic prohibi- 
 tion of interest, he held that " the law of Moses 
 (Dcut. x.xiii, 19) is political, and constrains us 
 no further than is demanded by equity and 
 human reason " {Opera, X, 246). Calvin did 
 more than make the appeal to reason; his 
 Institutes and catechism are marvellously cogent 
 pieces of reasoning which taught the Protestants 
 of western Europe and the colonists of America 
 to test and revise Calvin's own premises in the 
 effort toward a larger freedom of thought than 
 he dreamed of. " Although we yield the first 
 place to the Word of God, we do not reject 
 good training . . . the Word of God indeed is 
 the foundation of all learning, but the liberal 
 arts are aids to the full knowledge of the Word 
 and not to be despised." With these premises, 
 ^Tz. : the light of reason, man's desire and capac- 
 ity for investig.ating truth, the need of training 
 and the arts to understand the Word and the 
 fundamental authority of that Word, the Cal- 
 vinist, with his logical temjier, saw that learning 
 was not merely possible and desirable as " an 
 ornament and no small private gain," but also
 
 CALVINISTS AND EDUCATION 
 
 CALVINLSTS AND EDUCATION 
 
 a public noRossity in order to secure " political 
 ailinini^tration, sustain the church unharmed, 
 and maintain humanity among men." The 
 quotations in the two preceding sentences, taken 
 from the school program drawn up for Geneva 
 by Calvin, Cordier Iq.v.), and Saunier in 1538, 
 are typical of the aims and reasoning of the 
 Calvinist. This education was moreover for 
 laymen as well as for ministers. Calvinism 
 with its teaching of the political rights and 
 duties of " popular magistrates " appealed to 
 peoples who believed in representative govern- 
 ment. Its emphasis of the rights of laymen 
 in the Church, and its systematic provision for 
 the exercise of these rights through local con- 
 sistory or kirk session, provincial synod and 
 national assembly, not only trained .James I's 
 " Jack and Tom, and Will, and Dick," Mornay, 
 Aldegonde, or William the Silent, in the exercise 
 of judicial and legislative and administrative 
 functions, but also showed them the need of 
 education in order to train up an intelligent 
 laity to serve in " church and commonwealth." 
 
 2. Added to his intellectual love of premise 
 and conclusion, the Calvinist developed a 
 strength of will, moral intensity, and practical 
 temper which compelled him to put principle 
 into practice, to enforce his ideals upon himself 
 and others and embody them in concrete work- 
 ing institutions. " It is stupid to feel in one's self 
 the capacity to do something well and not to 
 seek out the means of doing it," wrote Mornay, 
 leader of the Huguenots, counselor of Henry IV, 
 and founder of the University of Saumur. 
 " We dar and will," was the spirit of Melville, 
 reorganizer of Glasgow and St. Andrews Uni- 
 versities. " One of the next things we longed 
 for and looked after was to advance learning and 
 perpetuate it to posterity," wrote one of those 
 Puritans who were the founders of Harvard and 
 the New England common schools. Not to 
 be content to feel or long for things, but to 
 dare, to will, to seek out, to look after things, 
 these were characteristics of the Calvinists 
 which impelled them to found school and 
 college. 
 
 3. The funds for maintaining education were 
 forthcoming through a productive economic 
 policy and habit of giving based on a sense of 
 social obligation. " He who will not work 
 shall not eat " was the motto of Geneva and of 
 Calvinists of all lands. Six days of productive 
 labor was quite as much a part of the Fourth 
 Commandment, according to the Calvinist, as 
 resting on the seventh. His catechism taught 
 the Calvinist that one object of Sunday rest 
 was " to get men into the habit of working the 
 rest of the time " {Opera, XXII, 41). 
 
 God himself, according to the Calvinistic 
 teaching of Providence, is " not idle and almost 
 asleep, but vigilant, efficacious, operative and 
 engaged in continual action " (7«.s/. I, xvi, 3). 
 " Christianity is a busy trade, the estate of a 
 Christian is a working estate," wrote the 
 Puritan Sibbes, widelv read and honored in old 
 
 and New England, whose books went from 
 •John Harvard to the founding of Harvard 
 College. In Geneva, " everj' one was obliged 
 to work without observing holidays, save on 
 Sunday." In England, Christopher Goodman 
 and Robert Fills, former exiles in Geneva, the 
 authors of the Admonition to Parliament, 
 William Crawshaw of the Virginia Company 
 (1609), Cromwell's Major-Generals, and in Plym- 
 outh Governor Bradford illustrate the Puri- 
 tan objection to idleness on both scriptural and 
 economic grounds. Baird has shown that the 
 HugiTcnot's non-observance of ecclesiastical holi- 
 days gave him an advantage of about one day a 
 week over his Catholic neighbor. " Some 
 handycraft," "some trade," "some verteousc 
 industrie," " learning and labor," " idleness 
 and lack of education," — these phrases from 
 the records of school legislation among Scotch, 
 Huguenots, and New England Puritans suggest 
 the close relation between education and indus- 
 try which lay in the minds and the jiolicy of 
 Calvinists. The teaching of the lawfulness of 
 interest spread by Calvin, Francis Junius of 
 Leyden, William Perkins of England, James 
 Spottiswoode of Scotland, and Salmasius, 
 Huguenot teacher of Leyden, and by Huguenot 
 synods, gave Dutch, Huguenots, Scotch, Eng^ 
 lish, and American coloni-sts a great advantage 
 over peoples who still clung to the canon law 
 prohibition of interest. The Calvinist's firm 
 belief in Providence increased his economic 
 efficiency, because it lessened his worry about 
 his future, which lay in God's hands, and in-, 
 creased his devotion to his daily task, his, 
 " calling," which equally' with his future life was, 
 a part of God's plan. 
 
 4. With thrift and " gainful occupations " 
 the Calvinist combined to a remarkable degree 
 the habit of generous giving. Fortunately 
 these men who acquired and had enough to 
 give had also the sense of social olaligation, 
 Genevan, Scotch, and English Calvinist offered 
 this " Prayer to be said before a man begin 
 his work " : " Strengthen us with thy Holy 
 Spirit that we may faithfully travail in our 
 state and vocation without fraud or deceit. . . . 
 And if it please Thee, Lord, to iirospcr our 
 labor, give us a mind to help them that have 
 need, according to that ability that Thou of 
 Thy mercy shalt give us." Knit together by- 
 the common allegiance to the higher law of the 
 Word of God to which high and low were alike, 
 subject, loyal to this Word of their " Com- 
 mander-in-Chief," " before whose royal sceptre 
 every head must bow and every knee must 
 bend," facing common dangers, yielding com^ 
 mon subjection to the moral discipline exer-i 
 cised by their own chosen representatives, 
 acknowledging daily to Divine Providence their 
 common responsibilities as His instruments and 
 as children of one Father, the citizen soldiers 
 of the Calvinistic commonwealth, the Puritan 
 State, had a compelling sense of corporatn 
 unity and responsibility. " I am master," 
 
 492
 
 CALVINISTS AND EDUCATION 
 
 CALVINISTS AND EDUCATION 
 
 wrote Calvin in his discussion of freeing ser- 
 vants, "but not tyrant; I am master, but it 
 is on this condition that I be also brother; I 
 am master, but there is a common master in 
 heaven both for me and for those who are sub- 
 ject to me: we are all here like one family" 
 (Comm. on Deut. xv, 12, in Opera, XXVII, 351). 
 " This world," said Paul Baynes, Calvin's in- 
 fluential Puritan follower in the next century, 
 " is a piece of God's household." Such a 
 commonwealth, lircd on such teaching, logically 
 demanded compulsory common schools so that 
 " neathir the sonis of the riche, nor yit the 
 sonis of the poore, may be permittid to reject 
 learnyng; but must be chargeit to continew 
 thair studie, sa that the Commoun-wealthe 
 may have some confort by them" (Buke of 
 Discipline, Knox, Works, II, 211). Such a 
 social sense illuminates the records of the 
 Genevan councils and consistory, the synods 
 of the Huguenots of France and their friendly 
 societies in London, Dublin, and Charleston, 
 the Kirk Sessions, presbyteries, general assem- 
 blies, and the burghs of Scotland, the New 
 England towns, churches, general courts, and 
 " the Commissioners of the United Colonies of 
 New England," with a story of systematic and 
 self-sacrificing provision for better social con- 
 ditions, improvement of health and morals, 
 care of the sick in hospitals, fire protection, 
 sewage, and notably for diffusion of knowledge 
 and the training of youth in " knowledge of 
 God and his ways " and in " gainful occupa- 
 tions." Intellectual liberty and freedom of 
 inquiry were not the chief aims of the Genevan 
 reformers or their Puritan followers, but they 
 were tiie priceless by-products of what may be 
 called in the larger sense of the word the 
 Puritan commonwealths of England, Scotland, 
 Holland, the American colonies, and of the 
 attempted Puritan republic in France. 
 
 5. However intolerant toward what he 
 believed error, the Calvinist was " not fearful of 
 Knowledge." He felt rather that " the fearful 
 estate is to flee from Knowledge." Therefore 
 he " did not mislike all new inventions nor sus- 
 pect all new discoveries and hold that what- 
 ever is new is nought." Such was the attitude 
 of the Puritan minister, William Crawshaw in 
 a sermon to his fellow members of the Virginia 
 Company of London. Another Puritan minis- 
 ter, Paul Paynes, who influenced the New 
 England clergy both directly and through 
 Siblies and Cotton, wrote in a book owned by 
 Elder Brewster: " God hath not stinted us to 
 any certain degree of knowledge but would 
 have us seeke to be filled with all knowledge 
 and wisdom." "Truth is strong next to the 
 Almighty: she needs no policies, nor stratagems 
 nor licensings to make her victorious " was the 
 fine defense of the liberty of the press by the 
 Puritan poet in politics. Most appropriately 
 did the first two New England universities 
 take truth as their mf)tto. Harvard with its 
 Veritas, Yale with its Lux et Veritas. " \'igor- 
 
 ous free thought " was stimulated by the appeal 
 to reason and the consequent " desire to in- 
 vestigate truth." It was applied and tested 
 because of a strong will, moral sense, and 
 practical bent. It was possible to " advance 
 it and perpetuate it to posterity," because of 
 the social insight which founded and the 
 economic productiveness which maintained 
 the college and common school. 
 
 As one follows the writings, statutes, and 
 practices of the Genevans, Dutch, Huguenots, 
 and the Scotch, English, and American Puritans, 
 it becomes clear that in their educational 
 system they had a common method and aim, 
 and a common motive power behind these. 
 Furthermore, it is clear that these methods, 
 aims, and motives were developed through a 
 remarkable international exchange of ideas 
 through books and teachers. The common 
 aim of training men for both civil and religious 
 service, for " church and commonwealth," is 
 recorded repeatedly in the enactments of aU 
 these Calvinistic peojiles. Bourehcnin has 
 shown that 40 Scotch teachers taught in the 
 Huguenot institutions: while the men trained 
 in the University of Geneva who went forth 
 to teach and preach are numbered by the 
 hundreds rather than by the scores. The dis- 
 tribution of Calvinistic books was reniarkalile. 
 Of Calvin's Institutes 74 full editions and 14 
 abbreviated editions had been published before 
 the Puritan exodus to New Englantl in 16.30; 
 and by the same date 77 editions of his cate- 
 chism. Each of these works was jirinted in 
 9 languages by 1630. His catechism was 
 adopted by the Scotch, Huguenot, French- 
 Swiss, and Walloon churches, and accepted and 
 widely used in Holland, England, and America. 
 The scholarly editors of the standard Opera 
 noted 394 titles of works by Calvin published 
 by 1618. Even this is incomplete. An ex- 
 amination of the Stationers' Registers and of 
 Dibdin reveals in the sixteenth Centura' alone 
 not less than 41 additional titles not included 
 by Calvin's editors. Of Beza's Latin text of 
 the New Testament no fewer than a hundred 
 editions are said to have been published. Of 
 Beza and Marot's tran.slation of the Psalms, 
 at least 25 editions were published the first 
 year and more than 60 in the first 4 years, 
 1561-1565. Nearly a score of writers who had 
 shared in the reform at Geneva or come under 
 the influence of its leaders are to be found in 
 one or more of the seven early American libraries 
 of Harvard, Winthrop, Bellingham, Brewster, 
 Rev. John Goodborne, and the \'irginia Com- 
 pany of London and the "provincial library" 
 of Edcnton, N.C. To the influence of Hugue- 
 not writers upon English thought Sidney Lee 
 in his recent Oxford lectures has called atten- 
 tion. The influence of this intellectual net- 
 work of Calvinistic men and books upon the 
 teaching and thinking of the sixteenth and 
 seventeenth centuries is enormous. 
 
 England. — The educational activity of the 
 
 493
 
 CALVINISTS AND EDUCATION 
 
 CALVINISTS AND EDUCATION 
 
 English Puritans manifested itself in the found- 
 ing of colleges and the control of the teaching of 
 the universities. Of the founding of Emmanuel 
 College, Cambridge, 158-4, the Puritan oak that 
 grew from Walter Mildniay's acorn, Fuller wrote, 
 " Sure I am at this day it hath overshadowed 
 all the University, — more than a moiety of 
 the present Masters of Colleges being therein." 
 From this college manned by the most rigor- 
 ous Calvinistic thinkers in England came about 
 50 of the first generation of New England 
 clergymen. Puritans from Emmanuel and from 
 Scotland, friends and probably i^upils of 
 Andrew Melville, the Scotch reformer trained 
 in Geneva, founded and manned Trinity Col- 
 lege, Dublin, which for the first generation, 
 1591-1630, remained a stronghold of Puritan- 
 ism and gave to the Church of Ireland a strong 
 and lasting Calvinistic character. 
 
 On the university and intellectual life of 
 England a strong influence was exerted through 
 exiles, students, and professors from Geneva, 
 and through the voluminous writings of Calvin, 
 Beza, and their Huguenot and Dutch followers 
 like Mornay, Hotman, Chevallier, Scaliger 
 (q.v.), and Isaac Casaubon (q.v.). Of the 
 exiles at Geneva some gave England the 
 Genevan version of the Bible, the version 
 which Carter has shown was used by Shake- 
 speare, and which was the popular edition up 
 to the Puritan exodus to New England, over 
 100 editions being issued 1560-1617. Four 
 exiles became heads of colleges, and two were 
 professors of divinity at Oxford and Cam- 
 bridge. Thomas Bodley, son of the printer of 
 the Genevan version and student under Calvin 
 and Beza, founded the Bodleian (q.v.), said to 
 have been the first practically public library 
 in Europe. One hundred and thirty-four of 
 Calvin's writings were issued in English 
 alone in the last half of the sixteenth century 
 by 52 English publishers, no fewer than 40 
 in London. Of Beza's works at least 110 
 were issued in English or in England and Scot- 
 land by 1611; and on his Latin text of the 
 New Testament the Genevan version in Eng- 
 lish was largely based. Calvin's Institutes con- 
 tinued to be the ordinary book of divinity for 
 theological students, both Anglican and Puri- 
 tan, well into the seventeenth century, as was 
 testified by Sanderson, Charles I's chaplain 
 and the nominee of Laud. Archbishop Laud 
 studied it as an undergraduate at Oxford, and 
 as late as 16.36 felt it necessary to complain 
 to the Bishop of Winchester that " the proba- 
 tioner fellows at New College were examined 
 how diligently they had read Calvin's Insti- 
 tutes." Moreover for over 50 years (1575- 
 1604, 1611-1633), whatever may be held as to 
 the exact amount of Calvinism in the Thirty-nine 
 Articles, the sympathies of the primates of the 
 English church, Grindal, Whitgift, and Abbot, 
 were with " the Calvinistic theology " (Gar- 
 diner; cf. Creighton on Grindal, Diet. Nat. 
 Biog.). In the controversies of the sixteenth and 
 
 seventeenth centuries, Anglican as well as Puri- 
 tan, Whitgift and Hooker, as well as Cartwright 
 and Travers, quoted Calvin's theology with 
 approval. It was over the questions of disci- 
 pline and worship that Anglican and Puritan 
 differed. The remarkable predominance of 
 Calvinistic and Genevan books in England is 
 indicated in the Stationers' Registers for the 
 sixteenth century and in the list of early gifts 
 to the Bodleian (1600-1610), the printed cata- 
 logue of the Bodleian for 1605 and of Mag- 
 dalen College, Oxford, for 1611, the catalogue 
 "of approvctl divinity books " for 1655 and 1657, 
 and of " the most readable books in England " 
 for 1657 and 165S. By vote of the University 
 of Oxford in 1578, Calvin's Catechism and In- 
 stitutes were included in the list of books which 
 had to be studied by all undergraduates. The 
 conclusions of Gardiner and Sidney Lee that 
 the CalvinLstic theology was dominant not 
 only in Cambridge, but also in Oxford, in the 
 closing years of Elizabeth's reign is corrobo- 
 rated by the books owned or prescribed by 
 the university, and by the views of the profes- 
 sors of divinity or heads of colleges. So far as 
 its theological thinking was concerned, Oxford 
 was in line with Cambridge, Heidelberg, 
 Trinity College, Dublin, and the Scotch, Dutch, 
 and Huguenot universities well into the seven- 
 teenth century. 
 
 Palatinate. — The University of Heidelberg 
 became a strong Calvinistic center in the 
 Rhine region under the teaching of Tremellius, 
 Olevianus, Ursinus, Pareus, all of whom had 
 come into personal relations with Calvin at 
 Geneva, and all of whom published translations 
 or defenses of Calvin's writings. Of the writ- 
 ings of these four Heidelberg Calvinistic 
 teachers there are at least 14 in the Bodleian 
 Library catalogue in 1605; 12 were in the 
 libraries of Elder Brewster, Governor Belling- 
 ham of Massachusetts, Rev. John Goodborne 
 in Virginia, and the library of Harvard College 
 at its founding. English and New England 
 Puritans preserved also books about the 
 Palatinate, and evinced keen interest in its 
 fortunes. 
 
 Holland. — The universities of Leyden, 
 founded bv William of Orange, 1575, Gronin- 
 gen (1614)', Utrecht (1636), Amsterdam (1630), 
 and 10 other universities or higher institutions 
 of learning in the century following Lej'den 
 had an international reputation, maintaining 
 close relations with Geneva, France, and Eng- 
 land, through teachers like Scaliger and Junius 
 Brutus, who had been at Geneva, or Salmasius, 
 a Huguenot. Of the list of famous men of 
 Leyden, published in 1625, more than one 
 fourth had been students in the University of 
 Geneva. 
 
 Popular education was cared for by both 
 Church and State. The Synod of Dort re- 
 solved that " Schools in which the young shall 
 be properly instructed in piety and funda- 
 mentals of Christian doctrine shall be insti- 
 
 494
 
 CALVINISTS AND EDUCATION 
 
 CALVINISTS AND EDUCATION 
 
 tuted not only in cities, but also in towns 
 and country places where heretofore none have 
 existed. The Christian magistracy shall be re- 
 quested that honorable stipends be provided 
 for teachers, and that well-qualified persons 
 may be employed and enabled to devote them- 
 selves to that function; and especially that 
 the children of the poor may be gratuitously 
 instructed by them and not be excluded from 
 the benefits of the schools." (Sess. XVII, 
 Nov. 30, 1618.) The Synod also directed the 
 pastors to exercise careful supervision of schools 
 by frequent visits, encouragement and examina- 
 tion of religious instruction, advice to teachers, 
 and report of failures in their duties to magis- 
 trates. Drenthe (1030) ordered that for all 
 children over 7 years, whether attending school 
 or not, a school tax should bo paid, and 
 later endeavored by withholding of poor relief 
 to stimulate school attendance. Overyssel 
 (1666) had an obligatory school tax for chil- 
 dren between 8 and 12. Amsterdam and 
 many other cities demanded an examination 
 of teachers; and Groningen required the pastors 
 to bring the children to school. Provision for free 
 education of poor became general, sometimes 
 by special schools for the poor, at the begin- 
 ning of seventeenth century. The Dutch, with 
 their native intelligence and thrift stimulated 
 under Calvinistic ideas and directed under 
 Calvinistic leadership, in the sixteenth and 
 seventeenth centuries founded noted univer- 
 sities, and made elementary education acces- 
 sible to the poor as well as to the rich. 
 
 The Reformed Church of Holland sent minis- 
 ters not only to the Dutch Reformed Church 
 in America, but also to the German Re- 
 formed Church in the United States, made 
 up largely of refugees from the Palatinate; and 
 for the Germans in the United States it " raised 
 nearly -560,000 for the erection of churches and 
 schoolhouses and the support of ministers." 
 (See Holland, Education i.\.) 
 
 Scotland. — The history of the influence of 
 Calvinism in Scotch education is so nearly 
 identical with the educational history of Scotland 
 from the time of the Reformation that only a 
 general summary need here be given. For a 
 detailed treatment the reader is referred to the 
 article, Scotl.\n'd, Education in. 
 
 On Knox's return from Geneva to Scot- 
 land he and his colleagues incorporated in 
 the first great nationalized epitome of Calvin- 
 ism, The B like of Discipline (1560), a plan for 
 a comprehensive national system of compul- 
 sory eilucation. 
 
 The scheme for compulsory national educa- 
 tion could not be carried out in its entirety, 
 because of lack of funds. Yet the records of 
 the Calvinistic church and commonwealth 
 show a notable development of general educa- 
 tion in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. 
 (1) The Church laid down a program, giving 
 reasons and methods for the coinjiulsory edu- 
 cation of rich and poor alike. (2) The acts of 
 
 general assembly, synods, presbyteries, kirk 
 sessions, and of the national Parliament show 
 that the Church exercised supervision over 
 schoolmasters, scholars, and schools. (3) " The 
 ecclesiastical records abound with acts of 
 charity toward the sustentation of the ill-paid 
 master and the free education of poor scholars " 
 (Grant, History of the Burgh Schools of Scot- 
 land). (4) The Church not only gave money 
 itself, but stirred up its various bodies to in- 
 cite Crown, Parliament, and town councils to 
 restore or applj' old funds, or to create new 
 ones for schools. 
 
 In 1641 the General Assembly requested Par- 
 liament to establish a school for instruction in 
 reading, writing, and the rudiments of religion 
 in every parish, and a grammar school in every 
 considerable place including all presbyterial 
 seats. The assembly also appealed to Parlia- 
 ment for support of the poor in school; and it 
 directed all ministers to report to their pres- 
 bytery whether a school existed in his parish. 
 Five years later Parliament enacted that the 
 heritors of every parish lacking a school should 
 provide a schoolhouse and a stipend for the 
 master, or it would be done by 12 men nomi- 
 nated by the presbytery with power to tax 
 the heritors. In 1696 Parliament ordered that 
 schools be established and that landlords 
 should build schools and master's house and 
 provide his salary, the pupils paj-ing a small 
 fee. The minister and landlord were to ap- 
 point the teacher and determine the fees, while 
 supervision was left to the presbyteries, which 
 could censure and dismiss schoolmasters, sub- 
 ject, however, to the control of the synod. 
 Through the persistent efforts of ministers, 
 assemblies, synods, kirk sessions, town coun- 
 cils, and Parliament, there was gradually 
 worked out in Scotland in the sixteenth and 
 seventeenth centuries a system of education 
 which was religious, democratic, making edu- 
 cation necessary and possible for rich and poor 
 alike, from elementary school to university, 
 and probably as near to deserving to be called 
 national as any system of the same period in an 
 equal area. 
 
 France. — The Huguenot educational insti- 
 tutions grew out of (1) the logical need of 
 " those of the religion " for institutions to 
 give moral and intellectual training to both 
 laymen and clergymen; (2) the Calvinistic 
 spirit of putting principles into practice at 
 any cost; (3) the carefully knit organizations 
 of the reformed churches of France; (4) the 
 existing model at Geneva. 
 
 Coligny founded and maintained a college 
 at Chatiilon (1.560) because he believed that 
 " ignorance of letters has plunged the republic 
 and the church into thick darkness," and that 
 education was a " singular gift of God." " In 
 order that the youth of our land may be better 
 instructed that they may be able to serve the 
 ))ublic better," the Queen of Navarre founded 
 the Academic of Orthez " to teach letters, good 
 
 495
 
 CALVINISTS AND EDUCATION 
 
 CALVINISTS AND EDUCATION 
 
 morals, and discipline to the children " (1566). 
 " To preserve learning, the sure and certain 
 foundation of the true religion," and to " ad- 
 vance the public good " were the motives for 
 the founding of the Academie at Sedan urged 
 upon the Duke of Bouillon by his Huguenot 
 mother. So the church synods established 
 schools not only " that our churches may be 
 always furnished wnth a sufficient number of 
 pastors," but also that they should have 
 " other persons fit to govern them," i.e. lay- 
 men. The laymen, who regularly formed a 
 majority of consistory and sometimes of the 
 synods (never being in a minority), necessitated 
 a high standard of lay education. " The 
 Huguenots will be instructed," wrote the 
 Catholic Marquis d'Aguessau, governor of 
 Languedoc ; " it is certain that one of the 
 things which hold them to their religion is the 
 amount of information they receive from their 
 instructors." Even a common Huguenot sailor 
 like Tare Chaillaud thought it folly to " be- 
 lieve everything which the church says wdth- 
 out informing yourself of other things through 
 conscience." The national synod of 1612 
 petitioned their majesties " to grant leave unto 
 us, in all cities and towns where there be a 
 number of families of our Religion, to keep 
 lesser schools for the education of our children 
 . . . this being a matter which can never be 
 dismembered nor severed from our liberty of 
 conscience." " Universities and colleges are 
 the workshops where the spirits of men are 
 formed and fashioned, the springs and foun- 
 tains of power, discipline, and art " (Laws of 
 Montauban, 1600). " Virtue and learning are 
 the seeds and the fruits of universities; the 
 university is the nursery of future members of 
 society " (Laws of the University of Nimes, 
 1582). " I desire to excite myself to the love 
 of virtue and the hatred of vice, and to aid the 
 studious youth in the same endeavor, an 
 object which has been too little regarded by 
 former commentators," declared Isaac Casau- 
 bon iq.i'.), child of Geneva and Professor at 
 Montpellier. The charmingly human and 
 naive " little grammarians " of Cordier's Collo- 
 quies show how the boys were taught to think 
 and practice a sound morality of boyhood, 
 and to prize " virtue and the knowledge of 
 honest things." The boy unfit for scholarship 
 was recommended " to learn some trade suit- 
 able to his capacity " (.32d Colloquy). Such 
 expressions of founders, rectors, professors, and 
 pupils reveal the purpose to give both ele- 
 mentary and universitjf training not merely to 
 clergymen, but also to laymen, so that all 
 might be brought up in sound morality as well 
 as sound learning to serve " the republic and 
 the church." The education of Huguenots 
 was not merely ecclesiastical, but civil; not 
 only intellectual, but also moral and economic. 
 The Calvinistic spirit of putting principle 
 into practice, of turning principles and possi- 
 bilities into actualities, enabled the Huguenots 
 
 to carry out their educational ideals at the cost 
 of groat sacrifices on the part of municipalities, 
 churches, individual founders, and ill-paid 
 .rectors and professors. The Calvinistic genius 
 for organization furnished effective channels 
 for founding, maintaining, and supervising edu- 
 cation, through the consistory of the local 
 church, colloquies of neighboring churches, 
 and the lay and ministerial deputies gathered 
 in provincial and national synods. Elemen- 
 tary schools, teaching reading, writing, the 
 catechism, and elements of arithmetic founded 
 and supported by local consistory or Huguenot 
 nobles were numerous, usually one for each 
 church and evidently sometimes more, for the 
 decree of 1671 restricted the reformed to one 
 school in each place where their public worship 
 was tolerated. Even the lower classes came 
 to have an astonishing knowledge of Scripture. 
 
 Careful provision was made for the education 
 of the poor. " In every colloquy one poor 
 scholar at the least was to be maintained . . . 
 in the Universities, and rather than this design 
 should miscarry, the fifth penny of all our 
 charities shall be set apart ... to be employed 
 in this service," was the provision of the Hugue- 
 not Discipline. Each colloquy was obhged to 
 report on this matter " unto their provincial 
 synod, and the provincial synods shall give an 
 account thereof unto the National " (Synod, 
 1594). Scholarships for poor scholars were also 
 established by individuals who usually en- 
 trusted the administration to the local consis- 
 tory. Each province was " to do its utmost 
 that a college be erected in each of them " 
 (Synod, 1596). This provision was so well 
 carried out that in each of the 15 provinces, 
 wdth the possible exception of Provence, one or 
 more colleges were founded by municipality, 
 nobles, or princes or churches, and supported by 
 endowment, tuition fees, and subsidies from the 
 national or provincial synods, the " helping 
 hand " of colloquies, or grants from consistory. 
 Thirty-two of these Huguenot colleges were in 
 operation between the reform and the Revoca- 
 tion of 1685 (Bourchenin, 66 ff.). The National 
 synods also urged the founding of Academies 
 or universities, and granted funds for their 
 support. Eight of these Huguenot universities, 
 with degree granting powers, were established 
 between 1561 and 1604; by consistory at Nimes 
 and Montpellier; by the local church and the 
 provincial synod of Dauphin^ at Die; by na- 
 tional synod at Montauban; by joint actions 
 of Duplessis Mornay and the national synod 
 at Saumur; by the Queen of Navarre at Orthez, 
 erected into a royal university by her son Henry 
 IV; at Orange by Louis of Nassau, who had 
 come under the influence of Calvin and Beza at 
 Geneva; by the Duke of Bouillon at Sedan. 
 These universities (save Orthez and Orange, 
 which were outside the kingdom) received 
 moneys and laws from the national synod. 
 
 The businesslike quality of the Huguenot is 
 seen in the handling of the funds. Each pro- 
 
 496
 
 CALVINISTS AND EDUCATION 
 
 CALVINISTS AND EDUCATION 
 
 vincial synod had to account to the national 
 synod for subsidies for universities and colleges. 
 A province or university tardy in its accounts 
 had its award delayed for satisfactory account- 
 ing and auditing. Each of the synods from 
 1598 to 1644 appropriated from 3000 to 16,000 
 livres to the universities, the amount from 1607 
 not falling below 12,000 livres (Tables in 
 Bourchenin, 302-303). " Scholars received by 
 the Provinces as pensioners shall give in good 
 security for repaying the sums received by 
 them ... in case that through their default 
 they do not serve the church in the ministry 
 of the Gospel" (Synod, 1607). 
 
 The university councils " were to see that 
 the synod's laws were obeyed " and " that the 
 scholars do carry themselves with all mod- 
 esty." In order that " the said statutes may 
 be better observed," the national synod directed 
 the provincial synods to depute annually two 
 pastors to inspect the universities " and make 
 enquiry whether the professors and scholars 
 both of them do faithfully and diligently intend 
 and mind their duties." The finding of these 
 inspectors was to be reported by provincial 
 deputies to the national synod (Synod, 1617). 
 " These inspectors," says Loret (Rev. Frartc. 
 1856,jVol. VI, p. 404), " are proof of a remarkable 
 organization and direction of the divers reformed 
 institutions, not to be found in the Catholic 
 universities, either Jesuit or others." While 
 there was in all the Huguenot universities and 
 colleges the same spirit, there was also, as 
 Bourchenin has shown, a large amount of 
 initiative and spontaneity in each college. 
 
 The acts of synods show that the measures for 
 the education of the poor were well carried out. 
 Education, as in Geneva, Holland, and Scotland, 
 was for all classes, poor and rich alike. Casau- 
 bon was struck in England by the absence of 
 " what we call poor scholars." Equality of 
 subjection to law was maintained for both pro- 
 fessor and scholar, both of whom were subject 
 to the annual inspection. Cordier's Colloquies 
 suggest wholesome relations between master 
 and pujiils, with a simple sort of self-govern- 
 ment among monitors and boys who are taught 
 to avoid tale-bearing and to distinguish be- 
 tween serious faults and little things honestly 
 repented. According to Cordier, even in choice 
 of monitors the opinion of " the better pupils " 
 was consulted. The discipline was careful and 
 rigorous, and much attention was jxiid to both 
 manners and morals, but apparently the regu- 
 lations were tempered with some humor and 
 common sense. To the English observer. 
 Quick, the boys seemed to be too little restricteil 
 and on too familiar terms with teachers. 
 Pupils lived not in an internat, but in homes, 
 often of regents or professors in the city. They 
 were taught reverence for parents, and fathers 
 were corresponded with as to their sons' welfare. 
 Neglectful students were dropped and posted. 
 From Geneva tliey adopted the idea of censures 
 at the close of daily session, and the annual 
 
 VOL. I 2 K 
 
 497 
 
 examination for promotion at end of year. Some 
 attention was paid to music, and pupils were 
 taught the words and music of Marot and Beza's 
 translation of the Psalms. Cordier's Colloquies 
 indicate that there was some regard for e.xercise 
 and relaxation, but the provision seems to have 
 been less systematic than with the Jesuits. 
 There was more emphasis on the vernacular, 
 arithmetic, and Greek, and less prescription of 
 Latin to the exclusion of French than in the 
 schools of Sturm and the Jesuits. " M. Nisard 
 says that after the definitive triumph of Cathol- 
 icism in France, Greek became offensive as the 
 language of heresy. This is perhaps to say 
 too much. But it is certainly true that more 
 strenuous efforts were made at this moment to 
 keep up Greek and Hebrew in the Protestant 
 Academies, poor as they were, than in the 
 Catholic and Jesuit Colleges and Universities" 
 (Pattison, Co.som6o?!, p. 113). Huguenot colleges 
 and universities, says Bourchenin, put texts 
 more fully into pupils' hands, discussed context 
 and history more fully, and developed the spirit 
 of inquiry and investigation more than did 
 the Jesuits. This spirit of inquiry, so essential 
 a characteristic of Calvinism, subjected Calvin- 
 istic theology to reexamination and restatement 
 after conflicts. It also gave a larger element of 
 spontaneity and progress to Huguenot institu- 
 tions. 
 
 The universities were urged " to do their 
 utmost in getting a public library," and the 
 churches to " get libraries for the service of their 
 ministry." The synods followed up their 
 recommendations, and all the universities se- 
 cured libraries. The library at Die was created 
 by the Academic Council through gifts from 
 notables, synod, and candidates for degrees; 
 at Nimes by the consistory; at Sedan by a 
 fund established by the university, supple- 
 mented by Henry of Bouillon; at Saumur by 
 Duplessis Mornay's gift of his library. Sedan 
 and Samur had collections of European repu- 
 tation. 
 
 At the opening of the seventeenth century the 
 Huguenot universities, according to the testi- 
 mony of the Catholic historian, de la Fond, 
 " held their place among the most learned of 
 Europe" (Essai sur Loiidun, 93). The long 
 list of famous teachers reveals the international 
 character of Calvinistic teaching: Gomar of 
 Leyden, later the opponent of Arminius, was 
 called to Saumur, 1614; John Robert Chouet 
 of Geneva, an admirer of Bacon and a follower 
 of experimental research, the first to teach the 
 philosophy of Descartes in the Huguenot univer- 
 sities, professor of philosophy at Saumur and 
 future master at Geneva of Pierre Bayle; 
 Pierre Viret and Nicholas des Gallars, pastors of 
 Geneva, at Orthez; Isaac Casaubon, born and 
 educated at Geneva, teacher there, at Mont- 
 pellier, Paris, and in England; Lambert Daneau 
 of Geneva and Leyden, at Orthez; Tremellius, 
 a converted Jew, and ardent Calvinist, teacher 
 of Hebrew in Cambridge and Heidelberg, at
 
 CALVINISTS AND EDUCATION 
 
 CALVINISTS AND EDUCATION 
 
 Sedan; Andrew Melville of Geneva and Scot- 
 land, jirofcssor of theology at Sedan, 1611-1622; 
 John Cameron of Glasgow, Geneva, and Heidel- 
 berg, at Sedan and Saumur; and nearly 40 
 other Scotchmen given by Bourchenin (p. 403). 
 
 The significant characteristics of Huguenot 
 education were: an emphasis on education of 
 laity; training for "the republic" and "so- 
 ciety " as well as for the Church; insistence 
 upon virtue as well as knowledge; the wide- 
 spread demand for education and a view of it as 
 essential to liberty of conscience; a compre- 
 hensive working system of elementary, college, 
 and university training for all, poor as well as 
 rich; an astonishing familiarity with Scripture 
 even among the lowest classes; utilization of 
 representative church organization for found- 
 ing, supporting, and unifying education; readi- 
 ness to sacrifice for education, a spirit of carry- 
 ing a thing through at any cost; businesslike 
 supervision of money, and systematic super- 
 vision of both professors and students; a notable 
 emphasis on vernacular, arithmetic, Greek, 
 use of full texts and libraries; and finally a pro- 
 gressive spirit of inquiry and investigation. 
 
 The Huguenots in e.xile show their character- 
 istic care for education and social welfare. In 
 London they established a famous hospital. 
 In Dublin they founded a Huguenot Charitable 
 Society to educate poor children and put them 
 out as apprentices, " being persuaded that idle- 
 ness and the lack of education are the greatest 
 of evils." The Huguenot refugees established 
 schools also in Holland. England would have 
 had schools for the poor in every parish in 1807, 
 had Parliament passed a bill supported by 
 Romilly, a grandson of a Montpellier Huguenot 
 exile of 1685, and an observer himself of Gene- 
 van and Swiss institutions. (See France, 
 Education in.) 
 
 America. — Perhaps the most remarkable, 
 because the most widespread and complex, 
 illustration of its educational genius is to be 
 found in the American colonies, where the 
 various European streams of Calvinism so 
 converged that the seventeenth-century colo- 
 nists were predominantly Calvinists, not merely 
 the Puritans of New England, but the Dutch, 
 Walloons, Huguenots, Scotch, and Scotch-Irish, 
 with a considerable Puritan admixture in 
 Anglican Virginia and Catholic Maryland. 
 
 The Calvinistic founders of New England 
 who brought over the Institutes and books of 
 Calvin and his followers, and who read, quoted, 
 and bequeathed them, led the Puritan exodus 
 with the intent to establish a Biblical Com- 
 monwealth, one of whose logical corner stones, 
 like that of Geneva and Scotland, was education. 
 " One of the ne.xt things we longed for and looked 
 after was to advance learning and perpetuate 
 it to posterity," wrote the Puritan author of 
 New England's First Fruits. In pursuance of 
 this ideal the General Court of Massachusetts 
 Bay, composed entirely of members of the 
 Calvinistic churches of the colony, voted 
 
 X'400 for a school or college 6 years after the 
 coming of the Puritan exodus under Winthrop. 
 Forty men educated in Cambridge, England, 
 were in New England in that year, according to 
 Savage. Dexter estimates that " of the early 
 emigrants to New England about 60 were from 
 Cambridge and about 20 from Oxford "; but, 
 as has been shown, even Oxford at the opening 
 of the century was Calvinistic in its theology, 
 and the New England ministers were from the 
 Calvinistic Puritan element in both universi- 
 ties. Among the books which went to the found- 
 ing of Harvard College library were Calvin's 
 Institutes and his commentaries on 26 of the 
 books of the Bible, and works by seven other 
 Huguenot, Palatine, English, and Dutch Calvin- 
 ists associated personally with Calvin at Geneva. 
 Governor Winthrop owned and gave to Har- 
 vard Calvin's Institutes and books by two 
 Geneva-trained men; and Governor Bellingham 
 gave books by four such men. Elder William 
 Brew-ster's library contained 7 volumes of 
 Calvin and 18 by followers of Calvin who had 
 studied at Geneva. The remainder of the books 
 in the libraries of these four men were over- 
 whelmingly Calvini.stic. The Massachusetts 
 Bay Act of 1647 requiring reading and wTiting 
 schools in every town of 50 families and gram- 
 mar schools preparing youth for the univer- 
 sity in towns of 100 families, reflects the same 
 premises and conclusions of the Calvinist that 
 have been noted among the Genevans, Scotch, 
 and Huguenots. Not merely in New England, 
 but wherever Calvinistic colonists settled in 
 America, they founded schools and colleges. 
 The earliest permanent settlers of New Amster- 
 dam, the Walloons of 1623, were guaranteed by 
 their leader as being of la religion n'fonnee, i.e. 
 Calvinistic, and were granted permission by the 
 States-General of Holland on this basis. Not 
 only the Puritan founders of Boston and New 
 Haven, of Harvard, Yale, Dartmouth, and 
 Brown, but also the Walloon and Dutch founders 
 of New York, Brooklyn, and Albany, and of 
 Rutgers College, and likewise the Scotch-Irish 
 founders of Princeton and the pioneer schools 
 and colleges of Pennsylvania and the South were 
 all Calvinists, not merely in dogma and disci- 
 pline, but also in the wider features of the 
 Calvinistic program and temper. In New 
 Netherland, Peter Minuit, the second Director, 
 had been a refugee from religious persecution, 
 and a deacon in a Walloon church, and became 
 an elder of the church in New Amsterdam. 
 Peter Stuyvesant, of wooden leg and tinderlike 
 temper, Director-General of the colony, had 
 married the daughter of a Huguenot clergyman, 
 and became one of the elders of the Dutch 
 Reformed church of New Amsterdam. 
 
 The Scotch and Irish, or " Scotch-Irish," 
 Presbyterians in America developed the impetus 
 received from Knox and the parish and high 
 schools of Scotland and from the influence 
 of Trinity College, Dublin. Wherever they 
 settled they established schools. Of 317 peti- 
 
 498
 
 CALVINISTS AND EDUCATION 
 
 CALVINISTS AND EDUCATION 
 
 tioners from North Ireland to Governor Shute 
 in 1718 for land in New England, 9 ministers 
 and 3 others were graduates of Scotch univer- 
 sities. Four years after they settled in London- 
 derry, N.H., these Scotch-Irish built a school- 
 house on the Common near the meeting house, 
 and 2 years later were employing 5 school 
 teachers and expending £36 4s. annually. In 
 the 95 years from 1753 to 1848, Londonderry 
 had 55 college graduates. 
 
 S. S. Green states that the Scotch opened the 
 first classical school in the central and western 
 part of New York (1741), and furnished many 
 of the schoolmasters in provinces south of New 
 York prior to the Revolution. In Penn.syl- 
 vania, William Tennent, a graduate of Edin- 
 burgh, pastor of the Presbyterian church at 
 Neshaminy, founded a log college to prepare 
 men for the ministry (1726). Pupils of Tennent 
 established other colleges. Three other Pres- 
 byterian ministers started churches and log 
 colleges in Western Pennsylvania, from which 
 developed Washington, later Washington and 
 Jefferson College. Scotch-Irish Presbyterians 
 also established Princeton, which absorbed the 
 forces of Tennent's log college. Hampden 
 Sidney (1776), incorporated 1783, the second 
 oldest college in the South, was founded through 
 the e.xertions of the Presbytery of Hanover, 
 Va., which collected subscriptions of £13,000 
 in 1774-1775. One of the members of the first 
 faculty was Samuel Doak, who about 1780 
 founded Washington College, Tenn., " the first 
 literary institution in the Mississippi valley." 
 North Carolina owed her first classical schools to 
 the Scotch-Irish Presbyterians, mainly graduates 
 of Princeton, itself a product of Scotch-Irish 
 Calvinism. Missionaries sent by the New York 
 and Pennsylvania Presbyterian Synods estab- 
 lished churches, and, says Foote, " wherever a 
 pastor was located, in that congregation there 
 was a classical school " (Sk-ctches, N.C., 513). 
 Tate's Academy, Wilmington (1760); Crow- 
 field Academy, Aleeklenburgh County (1760); 
 the famous log cabin academy school and 
 seminary of David Caldwell (pupil of Tennent's 
 log cabin), Guilford County (1766-1767); Alex- 
 ander's classical school (1767) at Sugar Creek 
 Presbyterian Church, out of which grew Queen's 
 College (1770), later Liberty Hall Academy, 
 under supervision of the Orange presbytery, are 
 examples of such schools. 
 
 In South Carolina the most famous academy 
 was founded (1793-1794) by Moses Waddel, a 
 Presljytcriaii minister, a graduate of Hampden- 
 Sidney ('oUege, who etlucated a remarkable 
 numijcr of South C\irolinians eminent in na- 
 tional affairs, including Calhoun, Crawford, 
 and a score or more of senators, judges, and 
 cal)inet m('inl)crs. 
 
 The \'irginia Company, while under the con- 
 trol of men in symiKithy with Puritan and 
 "Genevan ideas" (1618-1625), made a vigo- 
 rous attempt to found a college, unfortunately 
 checked by the Indian massacre and James' 
 
 annulling of the company charter. Sir Edwin 
 Sandys, an admirer of Genevan republican 
 ideas, secured a grant of 10,000 acres for an 
 Indian college and English seminary, and the 
 company sent Thorpe over to superintend them. 
 
 A detailed discussion of the educational ac- 
 tivities of the American colonists is given in 
 the article Coloni.\l Period in American 
 Education, and further details in the historical 
 section on the educational system of the several 
 original states. See also the article on Acad- 
 emies for the educational influences of the Scotch- 
 Irish. 
 
 The remarkable development of colleges and 
 compulsory free schools among Calvinists was 
 not entirely due to any single theological tenet; 
 but the historic working Calvinism of Calvin, 
 Genevans, Huguenots, Scotch, Dutch, English 
 Puritans and the American colonists was far 
 more than a theological dogma. Calvin and 
 all these Calvinists had a common program 
 of broad scope — not merely doctrinal, but also 
 political, economic, social — and similar ideals 
 and institutions. Their common program and 
 their social insight demanded education of all as 
 instruments of Providence for church and com- 
 monwealth. Their industrious habits and produc- 
 tive economic life provided funds for education. 
 Their representative institutions in both church 
 and commonwealth not only necessitated general 
 diffusion of knowledge, but furnished the or- 
 ganization necessary for founding, supervising, 
 and maintaining in wholesome touch with the 
 common man both elementary and higher insti- 
 tutions of learning. Their disciplined and 
 responsive conscience, their consequent inten- 
 sity of moral conviction and spirit of self-sacri- 
 fice for the common weal, compelled them to 
 realize in concrete and permanent form their 
 ideals of college and common school. 
 
 H. D. F. 
 See also references under articles on Calvin, 
 and Geneva, University of. 
 
 References : — 
 
 England: — 
 
 Admonition to Parliament: three editions, 1571 ; 
 Thomas Cartwrijiht, Second Admonition to Parlia- 
 ment, 1572; Wliit^ift's -liisuier, 1573 : Cartwright's 
 Reply, 1573 ; Wiiitgift's Defence of his Answer, 
 1573 (Parker Society) ; Cartwright's Second Reply 
 to WhitgifVs Second Ansy^er, 1575, 1577 (two parts). 
 
 Ames, Joseph. Typographieal Antiquities . . . Regis- 
 ter of books Printed, 1471-1600. etc. (London, 
 1749.) Augmented bv W. Herbert, 3 vols. (Lon- 
 don, 1785-1790.) Enlarged, etc., by J. F. Dibdin, 
 4 vols. (London, 1SI0-1S19.) 
 
 Arber, Edwin. A Transcript of the Registers of the 
 Company of Stationers of London, 1554-1640. 
 
 Baynes, Paul. CoJnmentary on Ephesians. (London, 
 1618.) (Cf. Mather, Magnolia, Bk. Ill, ch. i. 
 sec. 5.) 
 
 Carter, Thomas. Shakespeare and the Holy Scripture^ 
 with the Version he used. (London, 1905.) 
 
 Catalogue of Books. Bodleian Library, 1605. 
 
 Frere, W. H., and Douglas, C. E. Admonition, re- 
 printed in Puritan Manifestoes. (London, 1907.) 
 
 Heyer, Thom.\s. Notice sur le Colonic Anglaise h 
 Geneve, de 1555 A 1560,- in Memoires et Documents 
 de la Soci^t^ d'Histoire et d' Arch^ologie de GenHe, Vol. 
 IX, pp. 337-390. The list of names with notes also 
 
 499
 
 CALVmiSTS AND EDUCATION 
 
 CAMBRIDGE 
 
 printed by A. F. M. in Livre des Anglais or Register 
 of the English Church at Geneva, (n.d., n.p.) 
 
 Ladd, Archbishop, William. Works, ed. by Scott and 
 Bliss. 7 vols. CO.\ford, 1847-1800.) 
 Remains, ed. by Wharton (Vol. II, p. 82). (London, 
 1900.) 
 
 Sanderson, Robert. Works, cd. by W. Jacobson, with 
 Life by Izaak Walton. vols. (Oxford, 1854.) 
 
 SiBBES, Richard. Complde Works, ed. by A. B. Grosart. 
 6 vols. (Edinburgh, 1862-1863.) 
 
 Wilkinson, H. Catalogue of Books in Litirary of Mag- 
 dalen College, {Gil. 
 
 Wood, Anthony a. Fasti or Annals of Oxford, added 
 to various eds. of Athenae Oxonienses, e.g. 1721, 
 1813-1820. 
 
 Holland : — • 
 
 Acta Synodi Nationalis . . . Dordrechti Habitae Anno 
 MDCXVIII et MDCXIX. Dordrechti, Bercwout, 
 1620, cum privilegio. (,See especially session XVII, 
 Nov. 30, 1G18.) For acts of Synods see also : A. H. 
 Kuyper, De Post Acta . . . Dordrecht, Amsterdam, 
 1899; W. P. C. Knuttcl (South Holland), Hague, 
 1908 ; J. Reitsman en S. D. Van Veen, 8 vols., 
 Groningen, 1891-1899 ; F. L. Rutgers (Marnix 
 Vereenigung), Utrecht, 1889 ; Livre synodal . . . des 
 iglises Wallonnes, Vol. I, pp. 1563-1685. (Hague, 
 1896.) 
 
 Prinsterer, G. Van. La Hollande et I'Influence de 
 Calvin. (Hague and Amsterdam, 1864.) 
 
 Vos, G. J. Amstel's Kerkelijk Leven. (Amsterdam, 
 1903.) 
 
 WiCKsTEED, P. H. Ecclesiastical Institutions of Hol- 
 land. (London, 1875.) 
 
 Scotland : — 
 
 Bkown, p. Htjme. John Knox, 2 vols. (London, 
 1895.) George Buchanan. (Edinburgh, 1890.) 
 
 Extracts from burgh records of Edinburgh, Glasgow, 
 Aberdeen, etc., have been published by the Scottish 
 Burgh Records Society ; of Old Aberdeen by the 
 New Spalding Club ; of Presbytery Book of Strath- 
 bogie and of Kirk Session, Presbytery and Synod of 
 Aberdeen (1562-1681), by the Spalding Club; 
 Records of the Presbyteries of Inverness and Dingwall 
 in Vol. 24 of Scottish Historical Society. 
 
 Grant, James. History of the Burgh Schools of Scot- 
 land. (London, 1876.) 
 
 Knox, John. Works, ed. by David Laing. 6 vols. (Edin- 
 burgh, 1846-1864.) For schools see Vol. II, pp. 198- 
 199, 208-221; the Buke of Discipline is less accu- 
 rately reprinted in Calderwood, History of the Kirk 
 of Scotland, Vol. II, pp. 51 ff. 
 
 Mathieson, W. L. Politics and Religion, a Study in 
 Scottish History. 2 vols. (Glasgow, 1902.) 
 
 Peterkin, a. The Booke of the Utiiversall Kirk of 
 Scotland, etc.. Acts and Proceedings of General 
 Assembly, 1560-1616. (Edinburgh, 1839.) 
 
 Pitcairn, T. The Booke of the Universall Kirk of 
 Scotland, Acts, 1638-1842. (Edinburgh, 1843.) 
 
 .Sprott, G. W., and Lelshmann, T. TheBook of Com- 
 mon Order of the Church of Scotland. (Edinburgh, 
 1868.) 
 
 The Acts of the Parliament of Scotland, 1421-1707, Vols. 
 II-XI (1814-1824.) 
 
 Urwick. William. Early History of Trinity College, 
 Dublin, 1591-1560. as told in Contemporary Records. 
 (London, 1892.) Mahaffy.in his History of Trinity 
 College, Dublin, speaks of this as of "real and in- 
 dependent value," "a notable contribution." 
 
 France: — 
 Aymon, Jean. Tous les Synodes Nationaux des Eglises 
 
 R6fonnees de France. (La Haye, 1710.) 
 Baird, C. W. Huguenot Emigrationto America. 2 vols. 
 
 (New York, 1885.) 
 B.AiRD, H. M. History of the Rise of the Huguenots of 
 
 France. 2 vols. (l^Iew York, 1896.) 
 BonRCHENiN, p. D. Etude sur les Academies Protes- 
 
 iantes en France au XVIe et au XVIIe Sihle. 
 
 (Paris, 1882.) 
 Bulletin de la Society de VHistoire du Protestantisme J^ran- 
 
 Cais: Vol. IV, pp.497ff., 582ff., M. Nicolas, rffs Bcoi&s 
 
 Primaires et des Colleges chez les Protestants Fran- 
 
 cois, 1538-1685; Vol. XV, pp. 317 fF., Journal d'un 
 Marin Protestant du XVIIe Sihle (Tarfe Chaillaud) ; 
 Vol. XVII, pp. 449 ff., J. Bonnet, Mathurin Cordier; 
 VoJ. XXV, pp. 481 ff., M. J. Gaufr^s, Histoircdu Plan 
 d'Eludcs Protestants; cf. also Gaufrfes in ibid., Vols. 
 XXII, XXIII. XXIV. 
 
 Corderii, Mat. Colloquiorum Scholasfieorum Libri 
 IV. 1st ed. (Lyons, 1564.) Frequently printed 
 in various countries ; 29 editions with Latin ac- 
 comjiaiiied by English translation are noted in 
 the British Museum Catalogue, the 29th published 
 in Edinburgh, 1806. 
 
 Plessis Mornat, Phillippe du. Mimoires et Corre- 
 spondance. Vol. Ill, p. 497. 12 vols. (Paris, 1824- 
 1825.) 
 
 Quick, John. Synodicon in Gallia Reformata, or the 
 Acts, etc., of National Councils of the Reformed 
 Churches in France . . . out of Ms. Acts of those 
 T&n&wned Synods. 2 vols. (London, 1692.) 
 
 American Colonies: — 
 
 For references on American Colonies, see article on 
 Colonial Period in American Education. 
 
 CAMBRIDGE, CITY OF. — A city in Mas- 
 sachusetts, fourth from the largest in point of 
 size. Harvard University and Radcliffe Col- 
 lege are located in the city. In 1900 Cam- 
 bridge had a total population of 91,886, and 
 in 1909 its estimated population was 101,872. 
 Its school census, 7 to 14 years of age, was 11, 500 
 in 1909; and its total school enrollment was 
 17,135 in day schools, and 2652 in night schools. 
 In addition the enrollment in private and paro- 
 chial schools was 4014. Of the population of 
 1900, 94 per cent were native born, and the 
 foreign born were chiefly English and Cana- 
 dians. The city is essentially residential. 
 
 History. — The first school in Cambridge 
 was opened in 1642. This was a privately 
 supported school until 1654, when a small 
 " rate " was levied to help to support the 
 teacher. For 150 years after this time the 
 schools in the town had a struggle for existence. 
 During the first half of the nineteenth century 
 a number of schools was opened, and a School 
 Committee was appointed. In 1840 the first 
 printed school report was issued. This shows 
 that Cambridge was one of the earliest cities to 
 grade its schools, there being 19 schools in 
 existence, divided into alphabet, primary, 
 middle, grammar, and high school grades. In 
 1838 a central classical high school was estab- 
 lished, but this met with much opposition, and 
 in 1843 it was abandoned, and 3 classical teach- 
 ers were put into 3 different grammar schools 
 in the town. In 1847 the central high school 
 was reestablished, and in 1848 the classical 
 teachers in the grammar schools were discon- 
 tinued. In 1846 the city was incorporated, 
 and a School Committee of 7 was provided 
 for in the new city charter. In 1858 the num- 
 ber of committeemen was raised to 10, and in 
 1868 to 15, at which number it remained for 
 40 years. In 1851-1852 a private evening 
 school was established, which in 1868 was taken 
 over by the city. In 1871 evening schools of 
 drawing were established, and in 1889 an even- 
 ing high school was provided. In 1845 a super- 
 visor of music was employed; in 1869 drawing 
 
 500
 
 CAMBRIDGE PLAN 
 
 CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY 
 
 was introduced; and in 1877 sewnng was in- 
 cluded in the curriculum. In 1868 the first 
 city superintendent of schools was employed; 
 and in 1873 the first city truancy officers were 
 appointed. In 1870 a city training school was 
 opened, which in 1884 was transformed into 
 the present Wellington Training School. In 
 1885 free textbooks and supplies were pro- 
 vided. In 1886 the English and the classical 
 departments of the high school were divided, 
 and 2 high schools created. In 1889 the kin- 
 dergartens of the city, which had been under 
 private control for 11 years, were adopted by 
 the city school department. In 1896 medical 
 inspection was introduced. In 1898 the Cam- 
 bridge Manual Training High School, estab- 
 lished and equipped by Mr. F. H. Ringe, was 
 given to the city and became a third high school 
 known as the Ringe Manual Training High 
 School. In 1909 a reorganization was effected 
 and a new School Committee of 5, elected 1 
 from each of 5 wards, displaced the old Com- 
 mittee of 15. A Superintendent of Schools, 
 elected annually, acts as the executive officer of 
 the new committee in all matters of instruction. 
 Present System. — In 1909 the school system 
 of Cambridge consisted of 52 schools, and em- 
 ployed 430 teachers and 25 supervisory officers. 
 Of these 71 were in the 3 high schools. Sixteen 
 kindergartens are maintained, employing 30 
 teachers. The city school department employs 
 supervisors of music, drawing, physical train- 
 ing, and primary work; a corps of truant offi- 
 cers; and a school nurse. The Wellington 
 Training School, maintained by the city, is 
 an apprentice school for future elementary 
 teachers. Only graduates of approved high 
 schools and a state normal school are ad- 
 mitted. The term of service is 1 year. The 
 first 7 grades of the school are taught by the 
 apprentice teachers, under the supervision of a 
 master and 3 assistants. About one third of a 
 regular teacher's salary is paid to an apprentice. 
 The object of the school is to initiate new 
 teachers under conditions likely to insure 
 their becoming successful teachers in the schools 
 of Cambridge. A school term of 188 days was 
 provided in 1908-1909. The 8 evening schools 
 employed 93 teachers, and enrolled 2780 
 pupils. Four of these were elementary schools, 
 2 were drawing schools, 1 an industrial school, 
 and 1 an evening high school. Vacation 
 schools were opened in 6 buildings in 1908. 
 Summer playgrounds, with organized play and 
 occupations, are maintained in the schoolyards 
 and public parks. The total cost of maintain- 
 ing the schools of Cambridge in 1908-1909 
 was S499,585.61. E. P. C. 
 
 Reference: — 
 
 Annual lii-porU's of the School Committer, Cilu of Cambridoe, 
 l!*40~iy08. Thp Atmunl Report for 1892 contains 
 a historical sketch of the school system. 
 
 CAMBRIDGE PLAN OF ELEMENTARY 
 EDUCATION. — See GK.\Dii\G .\nd I'uomotio.v. 
 
 CAMBRIDGE," UNIVERSITY OF. — The 
 
 early history of the University of Cambridge 
 and that of the town is so closely interwoven 
 that a few words about the latter are necessary 
 in order to render the former intelligible. The 
 town of Cambridge has been proved by recent 
 research to be of dual origin. (The view taken 
 by the historian E. A. Freeman, that the whole 
 town stood originally on the northern bank, is 
 now abandoned; the late Professor Maitland 
 having conclusively proved the contrary. See 
 his Township and Borough, p. 99.) There was a 
 town that grew up round the castle on the north 
 or left bank of the Grant or Cam, and there was 
 an older town that had grown up on the south 
 bank round the church of St. Benet. The 
 latter church belonged to pre-Norman times, 
 and from its towers the townsmen may have 
 marked, not without misgiving, the toil of the 
 workmen employed by William the Conqueror 
 to build the castle. In the expanse that lay 
 between St. Benet's and the river, there was 
 also a hospital of Augustinian canons, dedicated 
 to St. John the Evangelist, whose employment, 
 as distinguished from that of secular canons, 
 was mainly to say masses and to visit and tend 
 the sick. In Domesday, the town had borne 
 the name of Grantbrigge, and, standing, as it 
 did, at the point of junction of two great Roman 
 roads, must always have been a place of some 
 importance. In the early part of the twelfth 
 century, Ely was made the seat of a bishopric, 
 and as Cambridge lay in the newly created 
 diocese, it continued from that time to be sub- 
 ject to the jurisdiction of the Bishop of Ely. 
 In 1280, Hugh Balsham, Bishop of Ely, and a 
 distinguished patron of learning, introduced into 
 the hospital a body of secular scholars, at the 
 same time providing for the maintenance of the 
 latter by an augmentation of the revenues. 
 The regular canons and the seculars proved, 
 however, to be incongruous elements, and in 
 the year 1284 (shortly before his death), Hugh 
 Balsham transferred his scholars to two hostels 
 near the Church of St. Peter, outside Truinping- 
 ton Gates, and here the scholars held their reli- 
 gious services. The gates opened on to a 
 bridge over what was known as the King's 
 Ditch, — a narrow confluent of the Cam which 
 represented the southern boundary of the 
 town, — and within the town, near the gates, 
 stood St. Botolph's Church. St. Botolph was 
 the patron saint of the traveler, and in the 
 chapels of 'the church travelers, on setting 
 out from the town or arriving from the south, 
 would offer up their prayers for their protection 
 or their thanks for a journey safely accom- 
 plished. It is in these primary conditions that 
 we have the key to the original relations be- 
 
 ' The writer of this artiole is under obligation to Pro- 
 fessors Sir Clifford Allbutt. Liveing. Hughes, James 
 Ward, and Shiple.v and to Mr. Rouse Ball for valuable 
 assistance ; also to Messrs. Longmans & Co. of Lon- 
 don for permission to use his own shorter History 
 of the Unicersity (1888), now out of print. 
 
 501
 
 CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY 
 
 CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY 
 
 twoen the town and the university, — for it is 
 evident tliat tlie students of Peterhouse, who, 
 when the gates at the bridge were closed at 
 night, found themselves practically shut out 
 from communication with the town, must have 
 considered the risks attendant upon a chance 
 attack by marauders in the open preferable, 
 on the whole, to the chronic molestation of the 
 townsmen. In the thirteenth century, how- 
 ever, we find both the Franciscan and the Do- 
 minican friars establishing themselves within the 
 town boundaries, soon to be followed bj' the 
 Carmelites and the Augustinians. Then, in 
 1229, the student body received a considerable 
 accession in the migration of a number of stu- 
 dents from the University of Paris, and in 1240 
 by a like migration from Oxford. On the other 
 hand, there are instances of emigration of stu- 
 dents, as, for example, from Cambridge to North- 
 ampton in 1261 and from Oxford to Stam- 
 ford in 1333; such secessions, however, were 
 systematically discouraged both by the Crown 
 and by the ecclesiastical authorities; and no 
 third university was actually founded until the 
 time of Cromwell, by whom the foundation of 
 Durham University (q.v.) was sanctioned in 
 1658. In Cambridge itself collisions often 
 took place between the students and the towns- 
 men, the hostels in which the former lived 
 being frequently attacked, and hence, partly, 
 the recognized necessity for colleges. But even 
 colleges were not secure, and in 1381 Corpus 
 Christi lost all its books, charters, and other 
 writings. Similar attacks about the same 
 time were made upon the house of the Carmel- 
 ites, and also upon St. Mary's (the university 
 church), where the university chest was rifled 
 and numerous official documents destroyed, — 
 events whicli further attest the difficulties and 
 dangers amid which the university developed, 
 and to be regarded as partly attributable to 
 the less stringent discipline of either the Friary 
 or the College, when compared with that of 
 the monastery, where the inmates were isolated 
 from the outside world. The rule of Peterhouse 
 — as the modest foundation outside the gates 
 was now called — was little more than a simple 
 adaptation of that given by Walter de Merton 
 to his scholars at Oxford (1274), and a better 
 model could not have been found in any univer- 
 sity in Europe. Forty years later, Michael- 
 house (afterwards merged in Trinity College) 
 was founded, with statutes of its own; and the 
 foundations of Pembroke Hall (see Col- 
 lege; H.\ll), in 1347, bj' Marie St. Paul, a 
 warm friend of the Franciscans, and that of 
 Gonvillc Hall, in the following year, by Ed- 
 mund Gonville, an equally warm friend of the 
 Dominicans, afford satisfactory evidence that 
 the college was not, as yet, necessarily regarded 
 as an institution hostile to the religious orders. 
 It is in connection with Pembroke that we have 
 the earliest example (1366) of an original col- 
 lege rule at Cambridge, and the statutes are 
 consequently of considerable interest. Among 
 
 these we may note that of the 30 scholars for 
 which the college was designed, 6 at least were 
 required to be in holy orders, and the whole 
 body were to apply themselves to the faculty of 
 arts or of theology; that, of the two rectors ap- 
 pointed, one was a Franciscan and the other a 
 secular priest, both of whom were required to 
 have graduated in the university. A fellow 
 might be of any nation or realm, but preference 
 was to be given to a native of France; prior to 
 his admission, he was required to pledge himself 
 by oath to vacate his fellowship as soon as he 
 was appointed to any more lucrative place; 
 and in the choice of scholars on admission, 
 preference was to be given to duly qualified 
 candidates from the parishes pertaining to 
 the college rectories. 
 
 Clare Hall, founded in 1359, adopted with 
 little modification the rule of Walter de Merton; 
 but King's Hall, founded in 1337 by Edward II, 
 was designed by him to encourage the study of 
 the civil and the canon law. The execution of 
 his design, however, devolved upon Edward 
 III, while the statutes were given by Richard II. 
 With the fifteenth century other influences 
 come into play. Lollardism, while it had been 
 productive of increased mental activity, had 
 also been a source of much contention at both 
 universities, and was now repressed by Arch- 
 bishop Arundel (1396-1413) with a strong hand. 
 By virtue of his authority as metropolitan, he 
 cited the chancellors of both universities be- 
 fore him to take the oath of obedience on as- 
 suming office. He was, however, confronted 
 by a display of ultramontane feefing alike at 
 Oxford and at Cambridge, which led them not 
 only to refuse compliance, but to appeal to the 
 Roman pontiff; and in 1430 Pope Martin V 
 was induced to appoint a commission to in- 
 quire into the whole question, and the prior of 
 the Augustinians in Barnwell (an ancient 
 suburb of Cambridge) acted as president. 
 Certain documents were produced in evidence 
 which were unquestionably spurious, but which 
 the prior accepted as of good authority; and 
 the chancellor, accordingly, was able to obtain 
 formal exemption from all ecclesiastical juris- 
 diction within the realm, that of the Bishop 
 of Ely not excepted. The foundation of Eton 
 College and King's College in 1441 by Henry 
 VII afforded occasion for a similar display of 
 church feeling. In each case the endowment 
 was derived from the confiscated estates of the 
 alien priories (q.v.), — " cells," as they were 
 termed, of different religious orders in Eng- 
 land which represented dependencies of foreign 
 monasteries, — and the revenues thus appro- 
 priated to King's made it the wealthiest of all 
 the existing Cambridge colleges. Its code was 
 little more than a reproduction of that given 
 by William of Wykeham — Archbishop of 
 York, and a noted opponent of the monks — to 
 New College, Oxford; but just as the chancellor 
 of the university had been made independent 
 of episcopal authority, so the community of 
 
 502
 
 CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY 
 
 CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY 
 
 King's College was declared, by papal bull, 
 independent, not only of the Bishop of Ely, but 
 also of the university authorities, in all matters 
 of discipline as distinguished from instruction. 
 For four centuries, accordingly, the society, 
 although it remained subject to the university 
 as far as regarded keeping of scholastic acts, 
 exercises, lectures, and disputations, was noted 
 as one in which the primary designs of academic 
 life were, to a great extent, ignored. 
 
 Queens' College, founded under the name of 
 the " Queens' College of St. Margaret and St. 
 Bernard," and endowed in 1448 through the 
 good offices of Margaret of Anjou, remained 
 (owing probably to the Civil War) without 
 statutes until 1475, when Elizabeth Woodville, 
 the consort of Edward IV, took the new society 
 under her protection and gave it statutes. The 
 credit of creating the college having been thus 
 shared by two queens, the name is written 
 Queens' College, as distinguished from Queen's 
 College, Oxford, founded by Queen Philippa. 
 The statutes of St. Catherine's Hall, founded in 
 147.5, are chiefly to be noted for the fact that 
 the society was to be composed exclusively of the 
 secular clergv. In the three foundations of Jesus 
 College (1497), Christ's College (1505), and St. 
 John's (1511), we have successive illustrations 
 of the great revolution then in progress, — Jesus 
 College rising on the site of the extinct nunnery 
 of St. Rhadegund, St. John's on that of the 
 former hospital of St. John the Evangelist, while 
 Christ's College was the first to represent the 
 learning introduced by Erasmus (q.v.). That 
 great scholar, while in Cambridge, " kept " in 
 Queens' College; and there it was that he 
 carried on his labors on the Novum I nstrumen- 
 tum and on his edition of Jerome. Bishop 
 Fisher, his patron, was confessor to the Lady 
 Margaret, the mother of Henry VII, and also a 
 distinguished benefactor of the university; 
 and he-also drew up successive codes of statutes 
 for Christ's College and St. John's. But while 
 the studies which he especially patronized were 
 partly new — for it was now that Hebrew and 
 Greek first began to be recognized — his stat- 
 utes cannot be defended from the reproach of 
 embodying much that was becoming obsolete. 
 In 1521 a translation of the De Tcmperamentis 
 of Galen by Thomas Linacre was printed apud 
 pratdaram Cantiibriginm, at the press of John 
 Siberch, most probably a native of Cologne. 
 Siberch printed also other books about the same 
 time, but it was not until more than half a 
 century had elapsed, in 15S.3, that Thomas 
 Thomas was appointed University Printer. 
 
 The Reformation ushered in a series of 
 changes to which Cambridge, from its geo- 
 graphical position, was especially open, — the 
 commercial intercourse between Xorthern Ger- 
 many, on the one hand, and King's Lynn, Nor- 
 wich, and Ipswich, on the other, being in those 
 days already considerable. Under the auspices 
 of Thomas Cromwell, Henry VIII's chief 
 minister, the movement acquired great force in 
 
 the university, which was, however, partly saved 
 from the hands of the courtiers who sought 
 to plunder it by Henry's personal interven- 
 tion, an occasion on which he is said to have 
 observed that he thought he had not, elsewhere 
 in his realm, " so many persons so honestly mayn- 
 tayned in lyvyng bi so little lond and rent." 
 By the Royal Injunctions of 1535, provision 
 was further made for instruction in logic, rheto- 
 ric, arithmetic, geography, and music; while the 
 study of Aristotle was rendered more intelli- 
 gent by the substitution of the commentaries 
 of the humanists for the obscure glosses of the 
 schoolmen. An additional stimulus was im- 
 parted by the presence of some distinguished 
 scholars as teachers, — among them Sir John 
 Cheke {q.v.), John Redman, and Roger Ascham 
 {q.v.). Ascham was appointed Reader in Greek 
 at St. John's, where he received a liberal salary, 
 and consequently was emboldened to make a 
 timely protest against a crying abuse, — the 
 indiscriminate admission of the sons of the 
 wealthy, who had come up with no intention of 
 serious study and with correspondingly small 
 attainments. His protest, addressed to Cran- 
 mer, reached the ears of Henry VIII, and in the 
 new statutes given to St. John's in 1545, it was 
 expressly provided that no pensioner should be 
 admitted who did not already possess a suffi- 
 cient knowledge of Latin to enable him to profit 
 by the course of instruction. This proviso 
 may be regarded as ushering in a more general 
 and highly important enactment, whereby the 
 university formally renounced the function of 
 teaching " grammar " {i.e. Latin), thereby 
 recognizing the instruction given in the gram- 
 mar schools throughout the country as pre- 
 paratory to its own. 
 
 Magdalene College, founded in 1542, affords 
 another illustration of the change in progress, 
 as it rose on the site of an ancient foundation 
 designed by the Benedictines for the housing 
 of members of their order studying in the uni- 
 versity. Sir Thomas Audley, the founder, — 
 himself enriched by the plunder of the mon- 
 asteries, — provided an ample endowment; but 
 it was not until the year 1554, in the reign 
 of Philip and Mary, that the college received 
 its statutes, which consequently reflect com- 
 paratively little of that regard for classical 
 learning to be noted in the original statutes of 
 Christ's and St. John's. 
 
 During the Reformation, moreover, the li- 
 braries throughout the university had sus- 
 tained irreparable losses. " At the present 
 time," says Dr. James, " only 19 of the Uni- 
 versity Library books are known to exist out 
 of 330. At Corpus Christi, 3 out of 75; at 
 Queens', I believe, none; at King's, 1 out of 176; 
 at Trinity Hall, 1 ; at St. Catherine's, none out 
 of 100." (See "The Foundation of Libraries," 
 in Vol. IV, pp. 422-425, of Cambridge History of 
 English Literature, 1909.) To Matthew Par- 
 ker (Archbishop of Canterbury 1559-1575) 
 belongs the credit of being almost the first to 
 
 503
 
 CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY 
 
 CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY 
 
 introduce into the university, not only the dis- 
 crimination of the bibliophilist, but also an ade- 
 quate sense of the duties that devolve on the 
 librarian. On succeeding to the mastership of 
 Corpus Christi College in 1554, he had drawn 
 up a series of regulations designed to protect 
 the collection which he ultimately bequeathed 
 to the college from like spoliation; and in a 
 small chamber over the ante-chapel the famous 
 Parker Mss. were safely housed for some 250 
 years. As archbishop, again, he had the first 
 pick of the whole of the plunder of the libraries 
 and muniment rooms of the dissolved religious 
 houses; and his suffragans were only too ready 
 to gain his favor by almost forcing upon him 
 the treasures of the cathedral libraries. 
 
 Of the transition from the medieval to the 
 modern conception of education and learning. 
 Trinity College (1546) affords a striking exam- 
 ple. The original society was composed exclu- 
 sively of members of the university; while 
 several distinguished Greek scholars from St. 
 John's were among those elected to the first 
 fellowships. It was also a promising sign, 
 that the only limitation imposed in such elec- 
 tions, with respect to counties, was that not 
 more than 3 fellows at any one time should be 
 natives of the same county. 
 
 The enforced exile of a large number of 
 Protestant scholars, during the reign of Mary, 
 must be looked upon as marking a period of 
 reaction; and the burning of Cranmer, Latimer, 
 and Ridley at Oxford and that of John Hullier, 
 a Protestant scholar of King's College, at Cam- 
 bridge, brought home to both those com- 
 munities the stern realities of the religious 
 crisis. The administrative changes that were 
 introduced, however, along with the new 
 statutes, given in 1557, generally known as 
 those of Cardinal Pole, proved almost inopera- 
 tive; and from the acceptance of the chancellor- 
 ship of the university by Sir William Cecil in 
 1559 we may date the commencement of a new 
 era; but on the other hand, the political effects 
 of the rigorous measures that characterized the 
 preceding reign were long and severely felt. 
 The Marian exiles, as they were termed, had 
 encountered abroad privations and sufferings 
 which gave peculiar intensity to their sense of 
 wrong; and during their intercourse with the 
 Protestant theologians of Germany and Swit- 
 zerland, they had exchanged views and arrived 
 at conclusions which materially modified their 
 own former theological opinions. On their 
 return to England, many of them, again, came 
 before long under the influence of the Scotch 
 School of Presbyterian doctrine, and out of 
 these several phases of Protestantism, English 
 Puritanism was, in turn, developed. Eliza- 
 beth, however, who had a genuine predilection 
 for the Anglican ritual, was distinctly opposed 
 to these foreign influences; and, assisted by 
 Cecil, did her best to hold the new movement 
 in check, while it also soon became evndent 
 that it was her design and that of most of her 
 
 ministers, at once to make the universities more 
 efficient training schools for the clergy and also 
 to bring them into closer relations with the 
 Crown. It was thus that, out of the 5 faculties, 
 of which Henry Xlll had founded professor- 
 ships, — theology, civil law, medicine, Hebrew, 
 and Greek, — only those which subserved the 
 clerical profession continued to flourish. The 
 study of the civil law almost died out, disso- 
 ciated as it was alike from the canon law and 
 from English law ; wliilc that of medicine, which 
 generally formed ])art of the education of the 
 cleric, maintained its ground, and was adorned', 
 in the seventeenth century, by names such as 
 those of Dr. Caius (q.v.), Gilbert, Harvey, and 
 Glisson. Theology, however, remained the 
 predominant study ; and to train and send 
 forth well-equipped divines, possessing a com- 
 petent knowledge of the original tongues of the 
 Old and the New Testament, adequately read 
 in the most authoritative Patristic literature, 
 and fitted by practice in the art of disputation 
 to hold their own against the assailants of their 
 Church's doctrines, became almost the sole pro- 
 fessed aim of the instruction imparted and the 
 exercises required either at Oxford or at Cam- 
 bridge. 
 
 Enough, however, still remained of Roman 
 observance, ritual, and adornment in the serv- 
 ices of the Church to afford the Puritan a 
 pretext for the manifestation of serious discon- 
 tent; and the repression of such feeling seemed 
 to the compilers of the Elizabethan Statutes of 
 1570 a foremost necessity. The new Code, 
 accordingly, while still retaining earlier enact- 
 ments (known as the Statuta Antiqua, and 
 medieval alike in their conception and their 
 origin), also embodied new provisions with re- 
 spect to the constitution of the Cap^il and the 
 conditions of graduation, which tended to place 
 the administration of affairs in the hands of a 
 virtual oligarchy. The Caput — so called 
 from its being composed exclusively of the 
 Heads of Colleges — not only became the 
 supreme authority, but the annually elected 
 Proctors, who, from the opportunities they had 
 before possessed, had represented, to some 
 extent, the views and aims of the academic 
 body at large, were so far deprived of their 
 privileges that their office lost much of its 
 original importance. The process of gradua- 
 tion was not only made more stringent, as re- 
 garded the times of "proceeding," from matri- 
 culation to each subsequent stage of the aca- 
 demic career, but the requirement of taking a 
 solemn oath, on each such occasion, served to 
 render the ceremony, afterwards known as 
 "subscription," a powerful weapon in the asser- 
 tion of a spiritual authority, owing to the terrors 
 with which the guilt of perjury was in those 
 days invested. 
 
 The foremost promoter of the new Statutes 
 was John Whitgift, master of Trinity College 
 (1567-1577), whose services were recognized by 
 his promotion in 1583 to the Primacy of Can- 
 
 504
 
 CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY 
 
 CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY 
 
 terbury, — an event which roused the Puritan 
 party to renewed efforts. His foremost oppo- 
 nent at Cambridge had been Thomas Cart- 
 wright, formerly Lady Margaret's Professor of 
 Divinity, who iii 1584 printed at the University- 
 Press a translation of Walter Travers' Disci- 
 plina, — a treatise propounding an improved 
 system of Church discipline, and aimed alike 
 at the Church and at the Royal Supremacy. 
 Whitgift forthwith caused the whole impression 
 to be seized and burnt ; but before the year had 
 closed, the foundation of Emmanuel College 
 gave significant proof of the determination of 
 the Puritan party not to be driven from the 
 university. Its founder was Sir Walter Mild- 
 may, one of Elizabeth's most trusted ministers, 
 who was openly taxed by Elizabeth, at the time 
 of granting the charter, with the design of 
 founding a Puritan college. The justice of the 
 royal comment was soon attested by an agita- 
 tion which took its rise at Emmanuel; and 
 before long, William Whitaker, the eminent 
 master of St. John's (1586-1595), evinced his 
 sympathy with the movement; while the 
 foundation of Sidney Sussex College in 1596, 
 with .statutes which were little more than a 
 transcript of those of Emmanuel, proved an 
 additional accession. Sidney is also to be noted 
 as the first Cambridge college which opened 
 its fellowships to Scotchmen and Irishmen. 
 
 In 1604 both the universities received the 
 right of each returning two burgesses to Parlia- 
 ment, whose special function was to be that 
 of giving regular information to the House 
 " of the true state of the University and of 
 every particular College." The Caput who 
 made an injudicious effort to arrogate to them- 
 selves the right of selecting the candidates were 
 defeated, — Sir Francis Bacon (q.v.) and Sir 
 Miles Sandys being returned by a large major- 
 ity of the qualified voters in the university. 
 The great name of Bacon thus stands associated 
 with the earliest assertion of the political rights 
 of the academic body; of his subsequent loyalty 
 to Cambridge and his zeal for her interests there 
 can be no question. The Puritan movement 
 also continued to gather force, and John Pres- 
 ton, who succeeded to the ma.stership of Em- 
 manuel (1622-1628), and William Perkins, 
 fellow of Christ's College, alike famed as learned 
 divines and eloquent preachers, gave powerful 
 aid both by their teaching and example. Laud 
 himself was so dissatisfied with the aspect of 
 affairs that he announced his intention of visit- 
 ing the university in his capacity of metropoli- 
 tan, — a design which he was never able to 
 carry into effect. In April, 1641, the House of 
 Commons resolved that a statute passed in 
 1603, imposing subscription upon young schol- 
 ars, should be rescinded, and that neither grad- 
 uates nor undergraduates should in future be 
 called upon to subscribe the customary oaths. 
 In the meantime Laud's coercive policy, in 
 which he was actively supported by some of 
 the heads of colleges, drove not a few distin- 
 
 guished graduates into exile both on the Conti- 
 nent and in America; and the foundation of 
 Harvard College (q.v.) in 1638, • — a measure 
 dictated by the dread on the part of the 
 founders of having an illiterate ministry in the 
 churches, — is a well-known episode in the 
 history of education in the New World. As 
 the result, Massachusetts can claim to have 
 presented the earliest example of a system of 
 public education supported by the contribu- 
 tions of the citizens and imposed as obligatory 
 on their children. It may also be noted (a fact 
 less generally known) that it was at Cambridge 
 in England that a meeting was held, in 1629, 
 of the ]\Iassachusetts Company, which resulted 
 in their final resolve to cross the Atlantic and 
 settle in the New World. 
 
 In the course of the Civil War and through- 
 out the period of the Commonwealth, the domi- 
 nation of the strictly Puritan party was super- 
 seded by that of the Presbyterians, who, during 
 the Protectorate, were, in turn, displaced to 
 a great extent by the Independents; and both 
 universities were anticipating further measures 
 of reform, especially in relation to the colleges, 
 when the restoration of monarchy took place. 
 With regard to the state of either university 
 during the years 1649 to 1660, it appears to 
 be undeniable, that the influence of the aca- 
 demic authorities was on the whole successfully 
 exerted in promoting sound learning and the 
 maintenance of discipline; and even Claren- 
 don, who succeeded at the Restoration to the 
 Chancellorship of Oxford, was fain, notwith- 
 standing his royalist sympathies, to admit that 
 such was the case. In the great reaction that 
 accompanied the Restoration, loyalty to the 
 Crown and conformity to the liturgy of the 
 Church became, however, almost inseparably 
 blended in political theory; and in 1662, the 
 Act of Uniformity made it imperative that all 
 those who held office in the university should 
 subscribe a declaration of compliance with the 
 principles enunciated in the said Act. At 
 Cambridge, during the years that immediately 
 followed, the chief symptoms were those of 
 lethargy with regard to learning and laxity 
 with regard to discipline. The Cartesian, or 
 " new " philosophy, as it was termed, gave rise 
 to a considerable controversy which distinctly 
 traversed the divisions of party, — John 
 Pearson, master of Trinity, for example, being 
 among its opponents, and his successor, Isaac 
 Barrow (master, 1673-1677), one of its sup- 
 porters. In mathematics it produced almost 
 a revolution; and it also found favor with some 
 of the leading " Cambridge Platonists," who 
 hailed the prospect of attaining by its method 
 to greater certainty in questions both of mental 
 and natural philosophy than could be reached 
 by the mere dialectician. 
 
 This remarkable school, — also designated 
 as the " Latitude-men," on account of their 
 advocacy, not only of a less narrow standard 
 of religious orthodoxy than that prescribed 
 
 505
 
 CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY 
 
 CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY 
 
 by the Creed and Articles of the Chiireh, luit 
 also of the recognition of a certain genuinely 
 religious element in philosophic teaching prior 
 to the Christian era (see, in connection with 
 this subject, Sihler, Testimonium Animae, 
 or Greek and Roman before Jesus Christ, 
 New York, 1909), — attracted to itself no 
 small attention both at the university and 
 abroad, and continues still to engage the notice 
 of investigators in the same field. Chief among 
 its teachers was Whichcote, Provost of King's 
 College (1644-1660), famous both as a tutor 
 and a preacher, but especially distinguished 
 by the catholic spirit and enlightened jutlgment 
 which characterize his celebrated Aphorisms, 
 — a collection of pregnant utterances, — the 
 outcome of his observations on some of the 
 moot questions of his day, and especially on 
 certain aspects of Cambridge life and thought, 
 — still not unfrequently quoted, and more 
 particularly the aphorism wherein he asserts 
 that there is nothing more unnatural to religion 
 than contentions about it. Whichcote, indeed, 
 may be best described as the Socrates of this 
 new philosophy; he published nothing; while 
 at Christ's College, which became the center of 
 the movement, — as originating partly in the 
 teaching of Joseph Mede, a famous teacher of 
 that society, — Cudworth, the master (1654- 
 16S8), and Henry More, a fellow, were volumi- 
 nous writers. Other notable members were 
 George Rust, John Smith, and Nathaniel Cul- 
 verwel (all three distinguished as authors), 
 and John Worthington (the master of Jesus 
 College), who undertook the labor of editing 
 Mede's works. 
 
 The Cambridge Platonists were by no means 
 free from the credulity, the superstition, and 
 the mysticism of their age, but at the same 
 time they rose considerably above the average 
 standard of both belief and sentiment, and 
 were themselves united b}' one common con- 
 viction, which may be described as the key- 
 note of their discourse, that the aims of 
 religion and philosophy being alike directed 
 toward the attainment of truth, it was im- 
 possible to believe that the results of each would 
 not ultimately be found in harmony. This 
 belief it was that led them to look with sym- 
 pathy on the rise of the Royal Society (q.v.), 
 which was regarded with no little apprehension 
 by many of the defenders of orthodoxy. The 
 society, although it took its rise at Oxford, 
 included from the first a considerable Cam- 
 bridge element, represented by the names of 
 Seth Ward, Walter Pope, John Pell, Lawrence 
 Rooke, William Croone, and Henry Power. 
 By the Church, on the other hand, the Pla- 
 tonists were at first gladly hailed as virtual 
 champions of its cause; and Henry More 
 especially distinguished himself by the ability 
 with which he exposed the prevailing tendency 
 to what was then known as " enthusiasm," or 
 the right of unrestrained private judgment in 
 the enunciation and declaration of religious 
 
 belief. The multiplication of sects during the 
 Commonwealth had in fact been accompanied 
 by so much dangerous speculation with regard 
 to the relations of Church and State, and also 
 by such sweeping projects of reform — includ- 
 ing, it is to be noted, the abolition of the uni- 
 versities themselves — that More here found 
 himself in sympathy with the great majority 
 of educated divines throughout the realm. 
 And down to the time of Charles Simeon (1759- 
 1836) the word " enthusiasm " became a cus- 
 tomary expression with those who held it to 
 be their duty to discourage all attempts to 
 establish theories of theology as a progressive 
 science, or of church history as admitting of a 
 mode of treatment whereljy it might be ren- 
 dered susceptible of illu.stration by the study 
 of the history of other religions, and the Chris- 
 tian belief itself thus receive more adequate 
 application as a rule of individual belief and 
 practice. " Religion," said John Smith, one of 
 the ablest of the Platonists, " though it hath 
 its infancy yet it hath no old age." 
 
 On the other hand, such works as Pearson 
 On the Creed (1662) and Tillotson's Rule of 
 Faith (1666), the latter written against Roman 
 Catholicism, were designed to define and, to a 
 certain extent, stereotype the outlines of ortho- 
 dox belief, — the suppression of " Dissent " 
 and of Catholicism alike having now become 
 a primary object with the Church. In relation 
 to the former, indeed, the efforts of the clergy 
 were attended with so much success that in 
 some parts of the country the " meeting house " 
 almost disappeared. In 1681 the university, 
 in an address presented to King Charles at 
 Newmarket, made formal declaration of the 
 theory that the Kng derived his title, not from 
 the people but from God, " by fundamental 
 hereditary right of succession "; and when, 
 nine years later, a large body of Episcopalian 
 divines throughout the country refused to 
 violate the oath that they had taken to James 
 II by swearing allegiance to William and Mary, 
 a fresh source of contention and disunion was 
 created in the university. At St. John's Col- 
 lege no less than 20 of the fellows were ulti- 
 mately ejected as Nonjurors, among whom 
 was Thomas Baker, the antiquary (1656- 
 1740), who continued notwithstanding to reside 
 in college, his high character and eminent 
 services to learning pleading effectually in his 
 favor. During his lifetime he presented 23 
 volumes of his manuscript collections to Har- 
 Icy, Earl of Oxford, which are included in the 
 Harleian collection now preserved in the 
 British Museum; eighteen others were be- 
 queathed by him to the university library in 
 Cambridge, and the whole series is of the highest 
 value in relation to the hi.story of the uni- 
 versity and the colleges at large. His History 
 of St. John's College, edited by the Rev. Professor 
 J. E. B. Mayor (2 vols., 1869), is especially to be 
 recommended to all students of the literature 
 relating to learning and education in England. 
 
 506
 
 CAMBRroGE UNIVERSITY 
 
 CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY 
 
 Although a certain spirit of individual self- 
 assertion and independence continued to mani- 
 fest itself in Cambridge, and Whiston, the 
 successor of Ne\vton in the Lucasian profes- 
 sorship (1702-1710), and Conyers Middleton, 
 Bentley's leading assailant at Trinity College, 
 who from 1721 to 1750 filled the office of Pro- 
 tobibliothecarius,' were distinguished by the bold- 
 ness with which they assailed the traditions 
 of religious belief, after the accession of the 
 Hanoverian dynasty the controversial spirit 
 to a great extent died out; and throughout the 
 nation at large, as well as in the universities, 
 the study of theologj' itself ceased to attract 
 the same attention. "Latitudinarianism," says 
 Lecky, "had spread widely, but almost silently, 
 through all religious bodies, and dogmatic 
 teaching was almost excluded from the pulpit." 
 Montesquieu, indeed, on this very account, 
 commended the English Church of his time, 
 as an institution "that was divested of some of 
 its worst prejudices and was the source of many 
 practical advantages." It was not surprising, 
 therefore, that an apathy which pervaded the 
 nation should have extended to the universities. 
 
 In the meantime the genius of Bentley, who 
 had succeeded to the mastership of Trinity 
 College in 1700, and that of Isaac Barrow 
 and of Isaac Newton, served to sustain the 
 reputation of Cambridge as a seat of exact 
 learning and scientific research. In the 
 time of Nc\\'ton and his school the special 
 characteristic of Cambridge mathematics was 
 its application to astronomy and phj'sical prob- 
 lems, and in the latter notably to the theory 
 of light. In 1747 the first examination for the 
 Mathematical Tripos was held, and occupied 
 at first only two and a half days; while through- 
 out the latter half of the eighteenth century 
 the study itself made little advance. In 1836, 
 however, the examination was prolonged to 6 
 days, and subsequently to 8. The interest it 
 now excited invested mathematics with an 
 importance which cannot but be regarded as 
 excessive, it being required that even candi- 
 dates for classical honors should previou.sly 
 have obtained the like distinction in mathe- 
 matics, — Whewell himself defending this re- 
 quirement on the ground that the latter study 
 was " the principal means in the cultivation of 
 the reasoning faculty." On the other hand, 
 Adam Sedgwick and Sir William Hamilton 
 (q.v.) gave an opinion unfavorable to the main- 
 tenance of the restriction thereby placed on 
 classical studies, and in 1850 it was abolished; 
 and since 1885 French or German have been 
 admitted as alternatives in what is known as 
 the " Previous " or simple pass examination. 
 In the Tripos itself, moreover, changes and 
 
 ' An office created on the occasion of the presentation 
 of the magnificent librarj- of Moore, Hishop of Ely, to 
 the university by George the First in 171.5; as this 
 collection was in itself more than double the then 
 existing university lil)rar>', another officer was appointed 
 to provide for its adequate surveillance. 
 
 modifications have been introduced; and in 
 1906 it was generally admitted that the system 
 in force was unsatisfactory, that the subjects 
 of advanced study were not suitable for com- 
 petitive examinations, and that it was desir- 
 able to give facilities to students for first 
 pa.ssing through a vigorous course on the 
 broad principles of mathematics, and then 
 passing an examination in the same, — after 
 which the}' might devote themselves to special 
 departments in mathematics, or to new sub- 
 jects, such as physics, engineering, and other 
 branches of science. Eventually the Tripos 
 itself was remodeled for what was essentially 
 a new system, the order of merit in each divi- 
 sion being abolished, and candidates being 
 allowed to take the examination as early as 
 the second term of residence, although not 
 thereby obtaining a degree. Throughout the 
 greater part of the nineteenth century to the 
 present time the Cambridge school has enjoyed 
 a wide and well-deserved reputation, adorned, 
 as it has been, in mathematical physics by 
 the names of Sir George Stokes, Lord Kelvin, 
 Professor Clerk-Maxwell, Lord Rayleigh, Sir 
 J. J. Thomson, and Sir Joseph Larmor, — in 
 astronomy by Professor Adams and Sir 
 George Darwin, -^ in pure mathematics by 
 Professors Cayley and Sylvester. In the last- 
 named branch it has acquired greatly increased 
 vigor within the last twenty years under the 
 teaching of Professors Forsyth and Hobson 
 and Dr. Baker. 
 
 As early as 1815 examinations were held 
 for the civil law classes, but were limited to a 
 modicum of Roman law. With the institution 
 of the Downing Professorship of the Laws of 
 England, however, regulations for the Act in 
 Law were drawn up and the degree of Master 
 of Laws instituted,' and the first Law Tripos 
 list was published. Temporarily merged in 
 1868 in a Law and History Tripos, this ex- 
 amination was again recon.stituted in 1873 as 
 that of the Law Tripos only, — the Historical 
 Tripos being started as a separate examina- 
 tion. In 1800 Downing College received its 
 charter as designed for students in " law, 
 physic, and other useful arts in learning"; 
 but at the present time the examination for 
 minor scholarships is restricted to mathematics, 
 law, hi.story, and natural science. The diffi- 
 culty presented in connection with the new 
 Triposes of adequately recognizing not only 
 their increasing literature, but also their rela- 
 tions to strictly cognate fields of research, 
 gradually brought home alike to teachers and 
 
 ' Down to 1535, the term legum denoted the Roman 
 or Civil Law as distinguished from Canon Law, degrees 
 at that time being gi\-eM in both; but from 15.'15 to 1854, 
 although the plural was retained, it denoted onl>' the 
 Roman Law as the sole subject of legal degrees, a usage 
 defended by Sir Henn,' Maine, on the ground that the 
 plura lefim is, in fact, equivalent to the singular ji/s (in 
 which the Cambridge degree is conferred), and thus 
 covers all the law which may be studied in the univer- 
 sitj', or any part of it. 
 
 507
 
 CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY 
 
 CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY 
 
 examiners the necessity of dividing; the Tripos 
 itself into two parts, such parts being distinct 
 from each other and having different examiners. 
 In ISSl the Classical Tripos (which dated from 
 1824) was thus divided, — the First Part 
 representing the original examination; the 
 Second, the cognate sulajects of literature, 
 ancient philosophy, history, arclueology, and 
 language (of which only two could be taken). 
 In the First Part composition in Latin and 
 Greek prose and verse continued, as before, 
 to be obligatory, and the candidate who passed 
 the examination was thereby qualified for an 
 honor degree. At the same time it was de- 
 clared permissible for those who had passed 
 in the First Part of some other Tripos to take 
 the Second Part of the Classical Tripos; and 
 in this manner candidates not possessing the 
 required competency in composition were en- 
 abled to obtain recognition of their attainments 
 in any two of the five above-named sections. 
 Thus, although in the opinion of many there is 
 reason to apprehend a decline in exact scholar- 
 ship, the recognized area of classical learning 
 has undoubtedly received considerable exten- 
 sion, and its utility in relation to the history of 
 the past has been correspondingly increased. 
 
 The Moral Sciences Tripos, in.stituted in 
 1851, mainly through the efforts of Dr. Whewell, 
 has similarly undergone material alteration. 
 Originally, like the Law Tripos, it incorporated 
 subjects from which it has since been disso- 
 ciated, — that of ancient philosophy, which 
 now l)elongs to the Classical Tripos, and that 
 of political economy, which was transferred in 
 190.5 to the Economics Tripos. On the other 
 hand, the creation of a lectureship in logic 
 (1884), of a professorship of mental philosophy 
 and logic (1897), and of a lectureship in ex- 
 perimental psychology, have afforded further 
 facilities for similar or cognate studies. In 
 1902 a moral science lectureship was founded 
 in memory of the late Professor Henry Sidg- 
 wick, a distinguished benefactor to the uni- 
 versity in not a few relations. At the present 
 time the encouragement held out by the colleges 
 to the study may be regarded as adequate, 
 while the standard of examination is un- 
 doubtedly high. And although the number of 
 students is small, the number of professors of 
 philosophy at present holding chairs in the 
 United Kingdom, who have received their edu- 
 cation in Cambridge, is at least equal to that 
 of those who have been educated at Oxford. 
 
 The recognition extended to history has 
 kept pace with the great development of the 
 conception and literature of the subject during 
 the last 30 years. Associated in the first 
 instance as a Tripos subject with Law, it was 
 regarded as concerned chiefly with institu- 
 tions and with textbooks such as Waitz of 
 Gottingen, Stubbs, Freeman, and Sir Henry 
 Maine. In 1875, however, as the result of a 
 series of discussions presided over by the late 
 Henry Sidgwick, the study was placed on an 
 
 independent footing; and since that time its 
 exi)ansion, both as regards the number of stu- 
 dents and variety of studies, has been remark- 
 able, and it was found necessary to divide the 
 Tripos into two parts. In 1908-1909 the num- 
 ber of those who passed the examination had 
 risen to 99 men and 9 women (respectively), 
 in Part I; and to 72 men and 8 women in Part 
 II. The contributions subsequently made to 
 historical scholarship and learning by not a 
 few of those who have thus acquired distinc- 
 tion, and the manner in which some, both by 
 promise and performance, have acquitted them- 
 selves in English public life, is also noteworthy 
 as evidence of the value of their training. It 
 is in this connection, indeed, that some differ- 
 ence of opinion has manifested itself with re- 
 gard to the moot question of the extent to 
 which a university may, with advantage, adjust 
 its training so as to render it directly prepara- 
 tory for a profession; and some exception has 
 been taken to the bias imparted by the late 
 Sir John Seeley (Regius Professor, 1869-1895), 
 to his generally admirable teaching, as calcu- 
 lated to create a school rather for the training 
 of statesmen and pulilic officials than for stu- 
 dents proposing to devote their energies to 
 prolonged original research. Such a tendency, 
 however, has been partially rectified by the 
 relegation of political science, political economy, 
 and international law to Part II of the Tripos; 
 although a yet more recent innovation, 
 whereby general modern history has been 
 similarly deferred, may be regarded as at least 
 questionable, seeing that in England it is not 
 often that any public schoolboy comes up to 
 the university possessing, like a German 
 Abituric7is, a fair knowledge of the outlines 
 not only of modern, but also of ancient and 
 medieval, history. The introduction of essaj'S 
 in both parts of the Tripos appears to have been 
 attended with excellent results. 
 
 In connection with medicine the question of 
 the direct relevancy of university instruction 
 to professional practice forces itself still more 
 prominently on the attention. Somewhat more 
 than half a century ago it began to be argued 
 that a university, as contrasted with a tech- 
 nical school, finds its function in the training 
 of the mind as an instrument, and in the foster- 
 ing and developing of sound knowledge from a 
 disinterested point of view; and tliat in the 
 university, as such, the practical calling can- 
 not be learned, but that it must be learned 
 among practitioners actually engaged in the art. 
 " When accordingly the theory of education 
 was thought out afresh," says Sir Clifford All- 
 butt, " it was perceived that in neglecting to 
 provide, in the University itself, a preliminary 
 training ground and proceeding directly to 
 apprenticeship in the hospitals, physicians had 
 been guilty of a great error. Students so 
 educated would be mentally untrained and un- 
 progressive, although they might prove good 
 craftsmen." Under the influence of Paget and 
 
 508
 
 CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY 
 
 CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY 
 
 Humphry in Cambridge, and of Acland and 
 Rolleston in Oxford, the faculty of medicine 
 sprang again into fertility and began to flourish 
 as of yore. In the first half of the nineteenth cen- 
 tury, medical graduates were rare, and in some 
 years there were none. At the present date 
 the school in Cambridge numbers some 400 
 students, — "all of whom are well aware that 
 in the University, whether the branch of study 
 be medicine, or any other field of disinterested 
 research and sound learning, they are being 
 educated, not with the immediate intention 
 of practice, but of mental enlargement and cul- 
 ture." This done, they proceed to the great 
 technical schools in large cities to be instructed 
 in the art of medicine. 
 
 Chemistry has been studied at Cambridge 
 from very early times, and was the first special 
 branch of natural philosophy for which a pro- 
 fessorship was founded (1702). Newton had a 
 laboratory in a small garden behind his rooms 
 in Trinity College; and it may here be noted, 
 as one of the advantages afforded by the colle- 
 giate system, as distinguished from the mere 
 " hostel " or lodging house (so common in 
 Continental universities), that the preexisting 
 arrangements for scientific instruction in the 
 colleges often enable them to supplement the 
 work of the univcrsitj' professor or lecturer. 
 There are, for example, at the present time, 
 among the 18 existing colleges, 15 duly ap- 
 pointed teachers of zoology (most of them spe- 
 cialists) whose instruction is available by all 
 members of colleges. In Newton's time, 
 and down to about the middle of the last 
 century, chemistry was held to include all 
 branches of molecular phj-sics, such as the 
 sciences of heat, electricity, and magnetism; 
 and a candidate for a degree in " Arts " (under 
 which term " sciences " were often included) 
 could make a chemical problem the subject of 
 his exercise, or " act." After the middle of the 
 eighteenth century, however, the only avenue 
 to honors in natural philosophy was by its 
 mathematical treatment, and students of 
 chemistry, other than those taking up medicine, 
 were very few. A new era dawned in 1850, 
 when the Natural Sciences Tripos was insti- 
 tuted. The professor of chemistry had, how- 
 ever, to work in his own laboratory, equipped 
 and maintained entirely at his own cost, with one 
 or two " advanced " students as his assistants. 
 St. John's, indeed, in 1853 equipped a labora- 
 tory for its own students; and 12 years later 
 the university fitted up an old building for a 
 like purpose; but it was not until 1887 that the 
 present commodious building was created and 
 fitted in accordance with modern requirements. 
 Since then the work of the school has gone on 
 apace; the buildings have been extended, the 
 appliances largely increased (with special pro- 
 vision for those engaged in research), and there 
 is a very extensive spectroscopic equiiiment, 
 including one of Rowland's largest gratings and 
 an echelon spectroscope on Michelson's plan. 
 
 There are now 600 students, including a fair 
 number of researchers who have the oppor- 
 tunitj' of communicating their investigations to 
 the Cambridge Philosophical Society, thereby 
 profiting by the criticisms of experts, and being 
 enabled to publish the results in the Proceed- 
 ings of the Society. Advanced students from 
 other laboratories, duly recommended, as well 
 as graduates from other universities, are ad- 
 mitted to share the advantages for study which 
 the chemical laboratory affords. By the foun- 
 dation of the Cavendish Professorship of E.x- 
 perimental Physics (1871) the Professor of 
 Chemistry was relieved from the duty of lec- 
 turing on heat, electricity, and magnetism. 
 
 The following enumeration of scientific 
 chairs founded within the last half century 
 marks the steadj' advance of the university in 
 this direction: professorship of zoology and 
 comparative zoology (1866); mechanism and 
 applied mechanics (1S75); physiology and 
 surgery (1883); pathology (1 884); agricul- 
 ture, with special reference to protozoology 
 (1899); biology (1906); agricultural botany 
 (1908); biology, with special reference to eugen- 
 ics (1908); astrophysics (1909). Laboratories, 
 where required, have also been erected, which, 
 with their adaptation to modern method, 
 entitle the university to be considered a pioneer 
 in this respect. Among the newly erected 
 buildings, that appropriated to geology is per- 
 haps the most palatial; while to trace the 
 commencement of the study it becomes neces- 
 sary to revert to the seventeenth century and 
 to note the observations made and the collec- 
 tions formed by Martin Lister (1638-1712), 
 Agostino Scilla, and Dr. John Woodward, the 
 founder of the professorship, who died in 1728. 
 Woodward stipulated in his will that the uni- 
 versity should provide for the safe keeping and 
 proper display of his collections and such addi- 
 tions as might be made to them, while the occu- 
 pant of his chair was especially charged to 
 guard the reputation of the fossils from the 
 assertions of those who maintained them to be 
 mere lusus naturae. One Thomas Nichols, of 
 Jesus College, also published at the University 
 Press in 1652 a curious old treatise by De Boot 
 (1609) grounded on the treatise of Theophrastus 
 (B.C. 374-286), and containing many quaint 
 conceits respecting stones, both precious and 
 common. A century later, the great contro- 
 versy between the Wernerian and Huttonian 
 schools set men observing and collecting with 
 renewed energy, but although valuable material 
 was added to the Woodwardian Museum, little 
 was done in the way of research until the time 
 of Adam Sedgwick, whose tenure of the profes- 
 sorship lasted from 1818 to 1873, and who 
 carried on a memorable controversy with 
 Murchison. Sedgwick drew sections across his 
 typical regions, collected largely, and employed 
 such skilled paleontologists as McCoy, Salter, 
 and Morris to name and arrange his collec- 
 tions and to illustrate his works. On his death 
 
 509
 
 CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY 
 
 CAMDEN 
 
 a meeting was held in the Senate House to 
 consider what steps shouhl be taken to do lionor 
 to his memory, and ultimately a fund was 
 raised which, including value of old prem- 
 ises and buildings, amounted to more than 
 £50,000, wherewith the Sedgwick Museum has 
 been erected and partly fitted up. The Museum 
 contains many private collections especially 
 valuable from their association and from the 
 collector's name. Among others, there is one 
 of ox skulls from the neighborhood of Cam- 
 bridge, which illustrates the line of descent of 
 our modern breeds of cattle, — the bison, the 
 urus (of which there is a specimen from the 
 peat, with a polished stone implement sticking 
 in its skull), and finally the Celtic .shorthorn, 
 which, crossed with the Roman breed, is the 
 origin of all our domestic cattle. The liLstory 
 of the Fens themselves, carrying us back to the 
 beginning of the age of Neolithic man, is also 
 well illustrated. Last term (Lent, 1910) there 
 were 8 lecturers and demonstrators engaged, 
 along with 246 students, in carrying on the work 
 of education and research. 
 
 The matriculation in the universitv for the 
 academic year 1909-1910 was 1217. The 
 Council have recently published a Report on the 
 Constitution and Government of the Univer- 
 sity, in which a material alteration is proposed 
 with respect to the fees now payable in order 
 to entitle the payer to life membershi)) of the 
 Senate; and also, in place of the present 
 Electoral Roll, the establishment of a " House of 
 Residents," the composition of wliich is to be 
 more strictly limited to residents who are actively 
 participant in the work of the university and the 
 colleges, but from whose decisions provision is to 
 be made for appeal to the Senate under certain 
 specified conditions. J. B. M. 
 
 The following table gives the date of the foun- 
 dation, the enrollment of students, and the mem- 
 bers of the Senate of each college: — 
 
 Founded 
 
 1546 . 
 1511 . 
 1348 . 
 1347 . 
 1441 . 
 1505 . 
 1584 . 
 1326 . 
 1350 . 
 1496 . 
 1448 . 
 1352 . 
 1284 . 
 1596 . 
 1860 . 
 1473 . 
 1519 . 
 1582 . 
 
 Mem- 
 bers 
 
 OP THE 
 
 Sen- 
 ate 
 
 Trinity College 
 
 St. John's College 
 
 Caius College 
 
 Pembroke College 
 
 King'.s College 
 
 Christ's College 
 
 Emmanuel College 
 
 Clare College 
 
 Trinity Hall 
 
 Jesus College 
 
 Queens' College 
 
 Corpus Christi College .... 
 
 St. Peter's College 
 
 Sidney College 
 
 Downing College 
 
 St. Catharine's College .... 
 
 Magdalene College 
 
 Selwyn College 
 
 Non-ColleKiate Students .... 
 Members not on the College Boards 
 
 2156 
 
 H47 
 
 401 
 
 423 
 
 455 
 
 412 
 
 375 
 
 309 
 
 242 
 
 215 
 
 168 
 
 247 
 
 217 
 
 164 
 
 96 
 
 113 
 
 89 
 
 66 
 
 22 
 
 154 
 
 7331 
 
 Under- 
 OR.\nu- 
 
 ATE8 
 
 700 
 2.53 
 313 
 256 
 175 
 208 
 229 
 219 
 145 
 187 
 184 
 106 
 
 79 
 
 91 
 140 
 104 
 
 91 
 122 
 
 97 
 
 See Engl.\nd, Education in; University; 
 and the articles on the various subjects of 
 study, Chemistry, Greek, etc. 
 
 References: — • 
 
 Breul, K. Students' Life and Work in the University 
 of Cambridge. (Cambridge. 190S.) 
 
 Bristed, C. a. Five Years in an English University. 
 (London, 187.'}.) 
 
 Cambridge University. College Histories Series, 18 vols. 
 (London, 1898-1904.) 
 
 Cambridge University. Students' Handbook. (Cam- 
 bridge, 1902.) 
 
 Clark, J. W. Architectural History of Cambridge. 
 3 vols. (Cambridge, 1886.) 
 Cambridge, a Brief History and Descriptive Notes. 
 
 (London, 1890.) 
 Concise Guide to the Town and University of Cam- 
 bridge. (Cambridge, 1900.) 
 
 Macalister, D. Advanced Study and Research in the 
 University of Cambridge, a Guide to Students. 
 (Cambridge, 1903.) 
 
 MuLLiNGER, .J. B. The University of Cambridge. 
 2 vols. (Cambridge, 1873-1884.) 
 Cambridge Characteristics in the Seventeenth Cen- 
 tury. (London, 1807.) 
 History of the University of Cambridge. (London, 
 1888.) 
 
 Ra.'shd.^ll, H. Universities of Europe in the Middle 
 Ages. (Oxford, 1895.) 
 
 Wordsworth, C. Scholae Academicae: Studies at the 
 English Unii^crsities in the Eighteenth Century. 
 (Cambridge, 1877.) 
 Social Life at the English Universities in the Eight- 
 eenth Century. (Cambridge, 1874.) 
 
 CAMDEN, WILLIAM (1551-1623). — An 
 English schoolmaster and historian who was 
 educated at Christ's Hospital and St. Paul's 
 School and was in residence at Oxford, though 
 he apparently left without the ordinary de- 
 grees. From 1575 to 1593 he was usher at 
 Westminster School, and in 1593 succeeded 
 Edward Grant as headmaster. In 1597 he 
 published his famous Greek Grammar, which 
 in the first half of the succeeding century be- 
 came as much the standard textbook for Greek 
 as Lily was for Latin grammar. In 1647, 
 however, Camden's Greek Grammer was super- 
 seded by that of the famous Dr. Busby {q.v.). 
 Elsewhere, however, Camden's book was re- 
 tained. There had been 40 editions by 1691, 
 and it is said altogether has run through over 
 100 editions. John Brinsley, in his Ludus 
 Literarius (1612), says he would have scholars 
 use Camden's Grammar for Greek, " notwith- 
 .standing the faults in the print (as indeed there 
 are very many) and what other exceptions can 
 be taken; because, as it is one of the shortest, 
 as yet, so it is most answerable to our Latin 
 Grammer, for the order of it. Whereby schol- 
 ars well acquainted with our common gram- 
 mar will be much helped both for speedy 
 understanding and learning it. Also the words 
 of art set down in it in Greek, as well as Latin, 
 wiU be a great help for reading commentaries 
 in Greek; as upon Hesiod and Homer." In 
 1660 Charles Hoole, in his New Discovery of 
 the Old Art of Teaching School, says: "I prefer 
 Camden's Greek Grammar, before any that I have 
 yet seen, though perhaps it be not so facile or so 
 complete as some later printed, especially those 
 
 510
 
 CAMERARIUS 
 
 CAMP SCHOOLS 
 
 that are set out by my worthy friends, Mr. 
 Busby of Westminster and Mr. Dugard of 
 Merchant Taylor's School." Camden at West- 
 minster School had to share with one other 
 master, the teaching of 120 boys, though he 
 would use the services of monitors and the 
 custos. In his time the Dean of Westminster 
 (Launcelot Andrewes) " would send for the 
 older boys of the school to the Deanery and 
 teach them Greek from 8 till 11 o'clock." It 
 must have been in the vacations (1578-1600) 
 that Camden made his tours of antiquarian 
 discoveries, which he eventually published in his 
 Britannia (5th edition, 1600). It may reason- 
 ably be suggested that his researches into early 
 British history must have brought an influence 
 of a practical kind into the boys' studies. Any- 
 way, his close interest in Westminster Abbey, 
 the epitaphs in which building he edited in 
 1600; his collection of old chronicles in 1603; 
 his Remains concerning Britain, 1605; his An- 
 nales of Queen Elizabeth's reign, published, 
 first part 1589, second part 1628, represent the 
 new spirit of historical research, and mark 
 Camden as the great historian-schoolmaster of 
 Queen Elizabeth's reign. Finally, in 1622, 
 Camden endowed a readership in the Univer- 
 sity of Cxford for a lecturer in history, thus 
 showing himself, educationally, a pioneer in the 
 university teaching of history as a differentiated 
 subject. F. W. 
 
 CAMERARIUS, JOACHIM. — The friend 
 of Melanchthon at Wittenberg, and a prolific 
 writer and editor of classical texts; was born at 
 Bamberg, in 1500, died in 1574. He is inter- 
 esting in the history of education as an editor 
 
 
 
 ^l^^pf " "^^^^^^H^^L 
 
 
 w^ "^^S^^^^^^P^ 
 
 
 P ~'f^^-~n""^|^H|^B 
 
 
 j^Kt IkmM^. -^c/^^- ~'>^^Pt^H9r 
 
 
 j^f^S^<^^ <^VBm 
 
 
 ^^Bim^^^-'-'^^^m 
 
 
 Jp7 ^I^kIp^^u 
 
 l. 
 
 
 m 
 
 
 '■ m 
 
 w/''/0^Wr" ^^^\' 
 
 'Wi 
 
 7/Jfe##|- ^^Stt 
 
 / '^^Ml 
 
 k-^s 
 
 Joachim Camerarius (loOO-loil). 
 
 511 
 
 of Homer, the Greek Elegiac Poets, Theocritus, 
 Sophocles, Thucydides, Herodotus, and Aris- 
 totle's Ethics, Politics, and Economics, the 
 Aristotelian editions being posthumous. His 
 Plautus, edited in 1552, is an important link in 
 the chain of the collation of classical Mss., 
 which at length resulted in the restoration of the 
 ancient literature to a worthy form. Camera- 
 rius wrote several works directly upon educa- 
 tion, including a Dialogue on the Proper Life 
 of Boijhood, annotations on the first and second 
 books of Quintilian's Institutes, Precepts of 
 Honor and Behavior in Boyhood, and a di- 
 dactic work which he called the School of the 
 Wise, or the Seven Wise Men. P. R. C. 
 
 References: — 
 Camerarius : Dialogus de vita decente aetatem puerilem 
 
 quodque hoc stadium Deo placeat; Ludus sapientum; 
 
 Praecepta honestatis. 
 Sandys, History of Classical Scholarship. (Cambridge, 
 
 1903-1008.) 
 
 CAMP SCHOOLS. — Summer camps for 
 boys and girls constitute an interesting phase 
 of educational development in the United 
 States. The long summer vacation and the 
 remarkable changes in the character of the 
 home resulting from the growth of cities and 
 the specialization of commerce and industry 
 have created a need for new forms of education. 
 The home, particularly in the city, no longer 
 affords opportunities for boys to secure that 
 physical, mor.al, and mental training that our 
 fathers received from participation in the 
 manifold activities which were carried on in 
 the homes of our grandfathers. The work of the 
 world has been removed from the home to the 
 factory, the office, and the store, where it is being 
 done better than ever before by specialists, 
 each in his own class. All-round manly develop- 
 ment demands sturdy work and manly play, each 
 with its own special contribution of moral power, 
 physical vigor and experience in social relations. 
 The summer camp supplements the city school 
 and the home by furnishing certain educational 
 advantages, which the home no longer affords, 
 and the city school cannot provide in adequate 
 measure. In the summer camps, which are 
 usually conducted for from 4 to 10 weeks, the 
 boy has the companionship of boys of his own 
 age, and of men of strong character who under- 
 stand boys; he lives a simple outdoor life in 
 close touch with nature; he develops his latent 
 powers for inventing and making things; he 
 acquires valuable physical accomplishments in 
 land and water sports; and, through intimate 
 social relations, learns how to play, work, and 
 live with others. 
 
 In some of the summer camps regular instruc- 
 tion in school subjects is given, mainly to assist 
 boys who have failed of promotion in school or 
 who wish to prepare for the September college 
 entrance examinations. Study is usually limited 
 to 3 or 4 hours a day, the rest of the time being 
 devoted to outdoor physical activities. In
 
 CAMPAN 
 
 CAMPANELLA 
 
 other camps there is no formal study of school 
 subjects, but instruction is provided in nature 
 study, manual training, photography, music, 
 etc., besides the usual activities in land and 
 water sports. In addition to the formal in- 
 struction, summer camps afford valuable train- 
 ing in health habits, discipline, and self-reliance. 
 The boys sleep in tents, eat simple wholesome 
 food, exercise, play, and rest under the most 
 favorable conditions for health and normal 
 development. Habits of order and self-reli- 
 ance are fostered by compelling each boy to 
 make his own bed, keep his clothing and belong- 
 ings in order for daily inspection, and perform 
 simi)le duties, such as waiting on tal.ilc, gathering 
 wood for the camp fires, etc. There are camjjs 
 for all classes of boys. The camps for the 
 children of wealthy parents are owned and 
 conducted by private individuals, the tuition 
 ranging from SIO to .825 a week. Other 
 camps are conducted by philanthropic institu- 
 tions like the Young lien's Christian Associa- 
 tion, Institutional Churches, and City Settle- 
 ments. In these camps the tuition ranges 
 from $3 to S8 a week, and there are some 
 camps for very poor boys where no charge is 
 made, even for transportation to and from the 
 camp. 
 
 The beginning of this movement dates back 
 to about 1885. In 1900 there were about 100 
 camps, with a membership of between four and 
 five thousand boys. During the last 10 years 
 the movement has developed with great 
 rapidity. It is estimated that in 1910 there were 
 seven or eight hundred camps, with an enroll- 
 ment of about 40,000 boys. Since 1900 sum- 
 mer camps have been organized for girls on the 
 same general plan as the camps for boys. In 
 1910 there were more than 100 camps for girls, 
 with a membership of about 5000 girls. 
 
 See Excursions, School. G. L. M. 
 
 References : — 
 Balch, .-v. Oulina. Vol. 14, pp. 122, 203. 
 FiNDLAY, J. J. Fichlcn Demonstration School Record. 
 
 (Manchester, Eng., 1907.) 
 Robinson, E. M. Summer Camps, Association Boys, 
 
 Vol. I, pp. 65-109. 
 Sandys, E. W. Camps and Camping, Outing, Vol. 
 
 30, p. 373. 
 Seton, Ernest Thompson. The Birch-Bark Roll of the 
 
 Woodcraft Indians. 
 Shield, G. O. Camping and Camp Outfits. (Chicago, 
 
 New York.) 
 SwiVELLER, Dick. Outing, Vol. .38, p. 411. 
 Talbot, W. T. Summer Camping for Boys, American 
 
 Physical Education Review, \'oI. IV. pp. 30-33. 
 
 CAMPAN, MME. JEAN-LOUISE-HEN- 
 RIETTE GENEST (1752-1822). — Lady-in- 
 waiting to Marie Antoinette, and friend of 
 Napoleon; one of the few women that 
 deserve a place in French educational history. 
 Her reputation as a teacher, as head of the 
 Institut Saint-Germain, led Napoleon , to ap- 
 point her directress of the school at Ecouen, 
 which was founded for the daughters and sisters 
 of the members of the Legion of Honor. She 
 
 was persecuted most cruelly by the Bourbons 
 on account of her indirect relationship to Mar- 
 shal Ney. She maintained that the punish- 
 ment of the child should be proportional to the 
 offense, and should not be too often repeated. 
 She was one of the first to speak seriously of the 
 education of women, enlarging its scope from 
 the elements of reading and writing so as to 
 include history, geography, arithmetic, elemen- 
 tary science, and especially modern languages, 
 not only for reacUng, but also for a speaking 
 knowledge. Among her writings are De 
 Veducation ; Conseils aux jeunes filles ; Theatre 
 pour les jeunes pcrsonnes ; Qiielques essais 
 dc morale. F. E. P. 
 
 CAMPANELLA, THOMAS.— Student, poet, 
 and reformer, born in the village of Stegnano, 
 a small town on the coast of Calabria, in 
 1568. Though of humble birth, at the age of 
 5 he impressed all who saw him by his prodi- 
 gious abihties, memory, and imaginativeness; 
 and at 13 he was already an ardent student 
 and a poet. He soon mastered all the known 
 sciences, and even entered upon the studj' of the 
 occult branches in wliich the Hebrews excelled, 
 alchemy, astrology, and magic. But the 
 scholastic philosophy did not satisfy his spirit. 
 " We," he wrote, " with our souls attached to 
 dead books and temples, prefer these to the 
 divine book of nature, to which through trouble, 
 strife, ignorance, grief, and fatigue we should 
 return through the knowledge of God." At 
 the age of 30 Campanella began to apply his 
 principles in the sphere of politics and religion, 
 by encouraging the people of Calabria to a 
 revolt against the dominance of the Spaniards 
 and the order of the Jesuits. Betrayed, cap- 
 tured, and delivered to the vengeance of the 
 Spaniards, he was seven times subjected to the 
 most extreme tortures, which on the la.st occa- 
 sion endured 40 hours and left the heroic sufferer 
 apparently lifeless, without having exacted a 
 single word " unworthy of a philosopher." 
 Having conquered torture, he was doomed to 
 permanent seclusion; but being allowed the 
 use of paper, pens, and ink, he wrote poems, 
 pleas for unhappy Calabria, Atheism Con- 
 quered, the City of the Sun, and a number of 
 other works, including a defense of Galileo. 
 After 26 years he received his liberty, cleared 
 himself before the Inquisition, and was smug- 
 gled by friendly aid mto France. Welcomed 
 and pensioned by Richeheu and Louis XIII, 
 consulted in matters of state policy, and vene- 
 rated by the monks of the Dominican convent 
 of St. Honore, Campanella passed his old age 
 in peace and honor. He enjoyed the reputation 
 of a prophet, and died on Alay 21, 1639, a few 
 davs before the time he had predicted for him- 
 self. 
 
 The City of the Sun is the most important of 
 the works of Campanella from the point of 
 view of education. The supreme magistrate 
 is a grand metaphysician who is most skilled 
 
 512
 
 CAMPBELL 
 
 CANADA 
 
 in the knowledge of the city, and who must 
 retire if at any time another is found to have 
 more knowledge than he. The magistrates act 
 under his advice. Instruction is said to be the 
 best guarantee of capacity, and the people of 
 the sun have a higher degree of instruction 
 than Europeans. Universal knowledge is possi- 
 ble to them, because they disdain scholasticism, 
 and behold on the walls of the great central 
 temple the representation of aU human knowl- 
 edge. Each act is with them a scientific 
 step, and accordingly they learn in a single 
 year what human beings may in ten. The three 
 chief assistant magistrates are chosen as the 
 most skilled in the several departments of the 
 arts over which they are to preside; and lesser 
 magistrates are to be elected on the same 
 principle. 
 
 References : — 
 Camp,\nell.\. Cily of the Sun. in Ideal Common- 
 wealths, cd. by Morley, pp. 2 15-203. 
 Di.icourse Touching the Spanish Monarchy. (London, 
 1054.) 
 CoLET. (Euvres Choisies de Campanella. 
 
 CAMPBELL. ALEXANDER (1786-1866). 
 
 — An educator who attended schools of Ire- 
 land and the University of Glasgow. For 
 several years he was principal of an academy 
 at Buffalo. He was the founder and the first 
 president of Bethany College (1841-1866). 
 Campbell was the founder of the sect known as 
 the " Disciples of Christ " or the " Campbell- 
 ites." In 1823 he established the Christian 
 Baptist, a periodical which under the title of the 
 Millennial Harbinger continued to appear until 
 1866. Campbell was the author of several 
 doctrinal works, a number of hymns, a tran.s- 
 lation of the New Testament, and Memoirs of 
 Thomas Campbell, his father (1861). W. S. M- 
 
 Reference : — 
 
 RicH.\RDsoN. Memoir of Alexander Campbell. (Phila- 
 delphia, 1808.) 
 
 CAMPBELL COLLEGE, HOLTON, KANS. 
 
 — A coeducational institution formed in 190.3 
 by the amalgamation of Lane University, 
 Lecompton, Ivans., and Campbell University, 
 Holton, Kans. It is under the auspices of the 
 United Brethren Church. Academic, colle- 
 giate, educational, musical, and business depart- 
 ments are maintained. The work of the col- 
 lege is based on about 12 points of a high school 
 course. Students arc admitted on graduation 
 from an accredited high school. Degrees are 
 conferred in the college and educational depart- 
 ments. There are 6 professors and 9 instruc- 
 tors and assistants on the faculty. 
 
 CAMPBELL-HAGERMANN COLLEGE, 
 LEXINGTON, KY. — A proprietary school 
 for girls and young women. Preparatory, 
 collegiate, fine arts, domestic science, and busi- 
 ness departments are maintained. English 
 and classical courses are offered, on the com- 
 
 voL. I — 2l 513 
 
 pletion of which diplomas are conferred. There 
 is a faculty of 22 instructors. 
 
 CAMPBELL, WILLLAM HENRY (1808- 
 1890). — Educator, studied at Dickinson Col- 
 lege and Princeton. He was principal of Eras- 
 mus Hall (1833-1839); principal of Albany 
 Academy (1848-1851); professor of moral 
 philosophy in Rutgers College (1851-1862), and 
 president of that institution from 1863 to 1882. 
 Author of System, of Catechetical Instruction, and 
 of several religious works. W. S. M. 
 
 CAMPE, JOACHIM HEINRICH (1746- 
 1818). — One of the best known representa- 
 tives of the Philanthropinist movement, author 
 of many books for children, German lexicog- 
 rapher. He was born at Deensen in Bruns- 
 wick, and studied theology at the University 
 of Halle. In 1777 he was called to the charge 
 of the Dessau " Philanthropinum," which had 
 been nearly ruined by the erratic management 
 of its founder, Basedow (q.v.). Unable to agree 
 w'ith Basedow, he left rather precipitously after 
 a few months, and established an educational 
 institute of his own at Triton, near Hamburg. 
 From there he went (1786) as " Councillor of 
 Education " to Brunswick, where Duke Karl 
 Wilhelm Ferdinand attempted to make the 
 school system independent of the Church. 
 Owing to the opposition of the clergy, the plan 
 failed, and from 1790 on Campe devoted him- 
 self to a very prolific literary activity, espe- 
 cially in the field of juvenile writings. His 
 most popular work was Robinson der Jiingere 
 (1779), based on Defoe's story, but interspersed 
 with numerous remarks of commonplace moral- 
 ity which are exceedingly tedious. His most 
 important educational work is his Allgemeine 
 Revision des gesamten Schul- und Erziehungs- 
 wesens {General Revision of the Whole Systern 
 of Schools and of Education) , a pedagogical jour- 
 nal in 16 volumes (1785-1791), in which he pub- 
 lished translations of the works of Locke and of 
 Rousseau, besides numerous original articles 
 by himself and other adherents of the Philan- 
 thropinist school. In his Dictionary of the 
 German Language (5 vols., 1807-1812) he tried 
 to introduce native equivalents for many of the 
 foreign words which had gradually crept into 
 German. Some of the new words created by 
 him have become firmly established in the 
 language. 
 
 References : — 
 Arnold. K. J. H. Campe als Jugendschriftsteller. 
 
 (Leipzig, 1005.) 
 Cassan, C. Joachim Heinrich Campe, in Die Klassiker 
 
 der Padogooik, Vol. 7, 1889. 
 
 CANADA, EDUCATION IN. — Historical 
 Development. — By the British North America 
 Act of 1867 the control of pul)lic education was 
 left to the governments of the four provinces 
 (Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia, and New Bruns- 
 wick) which were then united under the
 
 CANADA 
 
 CANADA 
 
 general name of Dominion of Canada. The 
 same right has been assured also to the prov- 
 inces that have since entered the confedera- 
 tion (Prince Edward Island, Manitoba, British 
 Columbia, and the Provinces of Alberta and 
 Saskatchewan, formerly included in the North- 
 west Territories. Prior, however, to the feder- 
 ation, education had become a matter of general 
 interest. Ontario, " the core of the confedera- 
 tion," had at the time of its adoption a well-or- 
 ganized system of public schools. Quebec had 
 brought its parochial schools under public 
 supervision, and the smaller maritime prov- 
 inces had proved their interest in the cause 
 both by legislation and bj' grants for schools 
 from public funds. From the beginning two 
 forces wore at work directing the educational 
 activities of the people. Both the English and 
 French settlers brought with them traditional 
 respect for parochial schools and for ecclesias- 
 tical control of education; but the English 
 settlers, of whom many came from the United 
 States after the Declaration of Independence, 
 were also imbued with the idea of public respon- 
 sibility in this matter. Before the union of the 
 two older provinces, which took place in 1841, the 
 legislature of Upper Canada had passed meas- 
 ures providing for the establishment of town- 
 ship " common schools " and of district gram- 
 mar schools of the English type, throughout the 
 province. The need of higher seats of learning 
 was also recognized, and as early as 1797 a grant 
 of 500,000 acres of land was secured as an 
 original endowment for a university and sec- 
 ondary schools. In 1821 a royal charter was 
 obtained authorizing the establishment at or 
 near York (now Toronto) of a college " with 
 the style and privilege of a university." The 
 institution was organized and the erection of the 
 college buildings begun in 1842; the next year 
 the first class of students matriculated. An 
 equal regard for the higher learning was shown 
 in the province of Lower Canada, where the 
 Church directed the educational work. Laval 
 University was founded by the Seminary of 
 Quebec (ecclesiastical body) in 1852, and the 
 same year a royal charter was granted to the 
 institution. These institutions fi.xed the stand- 
 ards for the colleges and seminaries which 
 multiplied around them, and gave leaders of 
 learning and ability to the cause of popular 
 education. In the opening address before the 
 first Parliament of the united provinces, which 
 convened in 1841, the Governor-General em- 
 phasized the need of adequate provision for 
 public instruction. A school law for the United 
 Provinces was passed the same year, which, 
 although it proved futile, served to settle the 
 policy of provincial independence in school 
 affairs. 
 
 The Ontario System of Public Instruction. — 
 In 1843 measures were adopted looking to the 
 organization of the elementary schools of Upper 
 Canada (now Ontario), and in 1846 the Com- 
 mon School Act for that division was passed, 
 
 upon which is based the system of elementary 
 education for which the province is distin- 
 guished. This Act was inspired by Dr. Eger- 
 ton Ryerson, who had been appointed Chief 
 Superintendent of Education in 1844 and had 
 made careful study of European systems of 
 education and those of Massachusetts and New 
 York. The measure, therefore, embodied the 
 best elements of several systems, to which were 
 added a number of important original features. 
 Dr. Ryerson held his official position for 30 
 years, and thus was able to develop and perfect 
 the work of which he was founder. The 
 Ontario school law of 1871, passed 4 years after 
 the Dominion federation was formed, embodied 
 the principles upon which Dr. Ryerson had 
 steadily insisted, viz., free tuition, compulsory 
 education of children of school age, county 
 inspection by qualified persons, and uniform 
 examinations for promotion from elementary to 
 high schools. 
 
 Central Authority. — In 1876 the office of 
 chief superintendent was abolished, and its 
 duties tran.sfcrred to a Minister of Education, 
 who included within his province all the public 
 agencies of education. Thus, the " common " 
 or " public schools " were brought into closer 
 relation with the secondary schools and higher 
 institutions, although they continued to be 
 separately administered. As a member of the 
 government council, the Minister's powers 
 greatly exceed those formerly devolved upon 
 the Superintendent. He initiates and largely 
 directs school legislation. His annual report to 
 the Lieutenant-Governor comprises all the public 
 agencies of education and such statements and 
 suggestions for promoting the interest, gener- 
 ally, as he may deem useful and expedient. 
 He has power to decide upon all disputes and 
 complaints laid before him, the settlement of 
 which is not otherwise provided by law, and 
 upon all appeals made to him from decisions of 
 subordinate school officers. The education 
 department includes the minister's official 
 staff, professional assistants, advisers, and 
 special inspectors, all selected with regard to 
 their professional competency. The ever-in- 
 creasing scope and complexity of the sy.stem is 
 indicated by the development of the depart- 
 ment. The most recent illustrations of this 
 growth arc the creation in 1906 of an Advisory 
 Council of Education, comprising representa- 
 tives of the universities, of the various classes 
 of public schools, of the inspectorate and local 
 tru.stees; and the appointment of a superin- 
 tendent who acts as the minister's representa- 
 tive in the council. The incumbent of this 
 office is necessarily an educational specialist, 
 his duties being not executive, but advisory. 
 The department comprises within its province: 
 kindergartens, public schools, and night schools, 
 high schools, and collegiate institutions per- 
 taining to secondary education, and special 
 schools for training teachers, artisans, etc. 
 
 Local A uthorities. — The municipal system 
 
 514
 
 CANADA 
 
 CANADA 
 
 of Ontario affords an admirable basis for the 
 local control of school affairs. The province 
 is divided into counties, vfhich are subdivided 
 into minor municipalities. These are town- 
 ships, which for school matters are subdivided 
 into sections, and incorporated villages, towns, 
 and cities. The responsibilities and privileges 
 of each of these divisions, as regards education, 
 are clearly defined by law. They are exercised 
 through school trustees elected by the rate- 
 payers (men and women) of the respective 
 communities. The public or common schools 
 based upon the laws of 1846, 1871, and subse- 
 quent measures, and the complementary high 
 schools and collegiate institutes as provided 
 for by the High Schools Act of 1885, form 
 together a unified system of public education 
 leading up to the university matriculation. 
 The system is marked by the judicious balanc- 
 ing of central and local control. The central 
 authority determines the scholastic standards 
 by official requirements; the local authorities 
 establish schools, appoint teachers and inspec- 
 tors, regulate expenditures, etc., but are 
 governed at every step by the ministerial 
 mandate. Thus are secured equality of pro- 
 vision and uniform standards throughout the 
 province, professional training to some degree 
 for all teachers, careful adjustments of courses 
 of study, uniform textbooks, and an inspection 
 service, strictly professional in its personnel. 
 The Public Schools. — The establishment of 
 the " common " or " public " schools is man- 
 datory upon the local school boards, which 
 must meet certain prescribed conditions as 
 regards sites, buildings, and equipment; for 
 instance, in the case of rural schools, the build- 
 ing must be at least 30 feet from the public high- 
 way: where the average attendance of the sec- 
 tion for the previous year exceeds 50, the school- 
 house must contain 2 rooms, an additional room 
 and teacher being required for each additional 
 50 pupils in average attendance; there must 
 also be scjiarate entrances with covered porches 
 and suitable cloakrooms for boys and girls. 
 Conditions as to lighting, heating, sanitation 
 are all included in the official requirements. 
 The schools are classified or graded in 5 forms, 
 promotions being made twice a year. Exami- 
 nations conducted by the teachers determine 
 in part the fitness of the pupil for promotion; 
 but the record of his class work has greater 
 weight in this respect. The official program, 
 which is followed by all schools, includes read- 
 ing and literature, geography, grammar and 
 composition, history, arithmetic, writing, draw- 
 ing, temperance and hygiene, music, drill and 
 calisthenics, moral and religious instruction; 
 in the fourth form agriculture is introduced. 
 The fifth form was intended as a sort of high 
 grade division in rural schools, and from it has 
 (h'veloped a system of continuation classes or 
 schools which have rapidly increased since 
 1905. The purpose of the Department in 
 fostering these classes is not to serve the par- 
 
 ticular interests of the rural population as 
 opposed to other sections, but to meet the 
 larger interests of the State as a whole while 
 contributing to the best development of the 
 individual pupil. The complete plan for the 
 continuation schools includes: (1) a fixed 
 course for general culture; (2) an elementary 
 course in agriculture or allied subjects; (3) a 
 course in the economics of the home. Two 
 teachers are really required to carry on the 
 work, but at present, as a rule, only one teacher 
 is engaged in each school for the special duties 
 of the continuation class. These classes, or 
 schools, if organized as such, are under the 
 charge of a special inspector. They are care- 
 fully distinguished from the regular high schools, 
 and the law prescribes that they shall not be 
 opened within the high school districts. 
 
 Separate Schools. — • The law provides that 
 any number of heads of families, not less than 
 five, residents of the place and Roman Catho- 
 lics, may unite and establish a separate school. 
 Supporters of such schools are exempt from the 
 payment of local taxes for the support of the 
 public schools. The separate schools are all 
 under government inspection, and are gener- 
 ally conducted in accordance with the same 
 regulations as the public schools. Like the 
 latter, they are managed by boards of trustees, 
 who are elected by the separate school sup- 
 porters. The teachers, except those who are 
 members of certain religious orders, are required 
 to comply with the official regulations in order 
 to receive certificates. The course of study 
 pursued by the pupils is nearly the same as that 
 for the public schools, and the textbooks, except 
 those for religious instruction, are in many 
 instances the same. The provision as to sepa- 
 rate schools applies to Protestants and to colored 
 persons as well as to Roman Catholics; but as 
 a rule only the latter avail themselves of the 
 privilege. Efforts have been made from time 
 to time to do away with this feature by the 
 establishment of a system of purely secular 
 schools; but this purpose has little popular 
 support, and nonsectarian religious exercises, 
 i.e. selected Bible readings and the Lord's 
 Prayer, are required in all public schools. 
 
 Compulsory School Attendance. — The law 
 not only requires the establishment of public 
 schools by local authorities, but obliges parents 
 and guardians to secure the education of the 
 children under their charge, between the ages 
 of 8 and 14 years, either by public or private 
 agencies. The legal school age, it may be 
 observed, is longer, i.e. 7 to 21 years. Children 
 are required to conform to the rules and disci- 
 pline of the school, and vicious or incorrigible 
 children are remanded to industrial schools. 
 The compulsory school provision is supple- 
 mented by labor laws which forbid the employ- 
 ment of children under 14 years of age with 
 penalties for violation of the same. The con- 
 ditions under which exemption from school 
 attendance may be granted are carefully de- 
 
 515
 
 CANADA 
 
 CANADA 
 
 fined. Truant officers must be appointed for 
 every city, town, and incorporated village, 
 and may be appointed for every school section. 
 These officers are invested with public powers 
 and large authority for the investigation of 
 truant cases. As a consequence the compul- 
 sory law is well enforced in the cities; in the 
 rural sections, in Ontario as elsewhere, it is 
 little regarded. 
 
 The Legislative Grant. — The apportion- 
 ment of the legislative grant to public schools 
 is made with special reference to stimulating 
 local support. Formerly the grant to each 
 school was based ujion the average attendance 
 of pupils. Under legislative acts of 1907 the 
 grant to rural public and separate schools is 
 apportioned on the basis of the salaries paid to 
 teachers, the value of the equipment, the char- 
 acter of the accommodations, the grade of the 
 teachers' professional certificates, and the 
 amount of the local expenditure. Special 
 grants are also payable to schools in new or 
 poor districts. To meet the increased expendi- 
 ture thus incurred the grant for rural schools 
 in 1907 was raised to .1380,000, as against 
 $120,000 in 1906. The grants to schools in 
 urban municipalities are apportioned as hereto- 
 fore on the basis of the average attendance of 
 pupils for the previous year. County and 
 township authorities are required to make addi- 
 tional grants up to a specified minimum for 
 each school, and local taxes supply whatever 
 may be required to make up the remaining 
 expenditure. The effort for improving the 
 conditions of rural education by the changed 
 basis and increased amount of the usual legis- 
 lative grant is supplemented by a special grant 
 of .$5000 made in aid of libraries for the rural 
 schools. The increased grants for continua- 
 tion classes, and for the encouragement of 
 school gardens, although applicable also to 
 cities, are specially helpful in the rural com- 
 munities. 
 
 The Professional Guarantees. — In respect to 
 the two main conditions of an efficient school 
 system, namely, qualified teachers and compe- 
 tent inspectors, the Ontario system is unrivaled. 
 No person can enter the service who does not 
 hold a government certificate, and no teacher 
 secures a permanent certificate " who does not 
 possess 'qualifications of a threefold nature: 
 (1) scholarship, (2) a knowledge of pedagogical 
 principles, and (3) success shown by actual 
 experience." 
 
 Training nf Teachers. — Provision for train- 
 ing teachers is afforded by kindergarten train- 
 ing classes; county model schools; normal 
 schools; teachers' institutes, and university 
 faculties of education. 
 
 The County Model School. — In each county 
 one public school, at least, is set apart by the 
 Education Department for the purpose of 
 training intending teachers for the third or 
 lowest grade certificate. The training covers 
 a session of 4 months, and each school receives 
 
 a grant of .$150 from the legislature and an 
 additional .$150 from the county council to 
 insure an adequate staff for the work. This 
 provision is regarded as a purely temporary 
 expedient, but it has saved the rural schools of 
 Ontario from the evil of totally incompetent 
 teachers. Every effort is made, however, to 
 provide normal schools, even in the remote 
 and newly settled portions of the country. 
 Two normal schools, with large model or prac- 
 tice schools as adjuncts, were early established, 
 one in Toronto and the other in Ottawa. • Four 
 additional normal schools have recently been 
 organized, and 2 others have been provided for. 
 The course of the model schools is the same as 
 that of the ordinary i)ublic schools. The course 
 of instruction in the normal schools is strictly 
 professional, including history of education; 
 science of education; school organization and 
 management; methods of teaching each sub- 
 ject on the program of the public schools; 
 practice in managing cla.sses and in teaching in 
 the model school; also instruction in the special 
 subjects of the public school course, such as 
 temperance and hygiene, agriculture, etc. In 
 order to obtain a permanent license to teach in 
 the public schools, a teacher must hold a second- 
 class certificate, which is awarded only to stu- 
 dents who have attended a regular normal 
 school and passed the final examination. Can- 
 didates for admission to the normal school 
 must have obtained the junior high school cer- 
 tificate and have had one year's experience in 
 teaching. The highest positions in the teach- 
 ing profession are open only to persons holding 
 a certificate of qualification awarded on the 
 results of examinations held by the university 
 faculty of education. 
 
 The Inspectors. — School inspectors are ap- 
 pointed by the local authorities, but the law 
 determines the conditions on which the inspec- 
 tor's certificate shall be issued. These are as 
 follows: (a) 5 years' successful experience as a 
 teacher, of which at least 3 years shall have 
 been in public schools; and (b) a specialist's 
 certificate obtained on a university examination 
 or a degree in arts from the University of 
 Toronto with first-class graduation honors in 
 one or more of the recognized departments in 
 said university, or an equivalent from any other 
 university of Ontario, with a certificate of 
 having passed the final examination in peda- 
 gogy. Once appointed, the inspector has a life 
 tenure, unless he forfeits his position by mis- 
 conduct or inefficiency. 
 
 High Schools and Collegiate rnstitules. — 
 The high schools of Ontario, which were organ- 
 ized under their present title by the law of 1871, 
 are a development from the grammar schools 
 of the early colonial period. With the colle- 
 giate institutes, which are high schools of an 
 advanced type, they offer very full provision 
 for secondary education. The province of the 
 high schools is carefully distinguished from 
 that of the public schools, and while the courses 
 
 516
 
 CANADA 
 
 CANADA 
 
 of study in the two form a continuous scheme 
 of education, pupils from the public schools 
 who wish to enter the high school, as well as 
 all other candidates for admission, must pass 
 an examination prescribed by the Department 
 and uniform throughout the province. The 
 ideal of secondary education which these schools 
 illustrate may be inferred from their program, 
 which is arranged for 4 forms. In forms 1 and 
 2, special attention is paid to reading, EngHsh 
 grammar, composition and rhetoric, English 
 poetical literature, modern history, especially 
 that of Canada and the British Empire, and 
 geography; the mathematical course includes 
 arithmetic, algebra through simple equations 
 of one unknown quantity, and the first book of 
 Euclid; the sciences taken up are physics and 
 botany; as regards languages, option is al- 
 lowed between Latin, flench, and German. 
 To these branches are added drawing and what 
 is called a commercial course, which is obliga- 
 tory for all pupils. At the close of form 2, 
 pupils may take the high school primary exam- 
 ination, which has special value in the business 
 world. The studies of forms 3 and 4 are ar- 
 ranged with special reference to the high school 
 leaving examination or the universitj' matricu- 
 lation examination. These examinations, there- 
 fore, determine the standard of secondary 
 education, and the latter also regulates the 
 course of private schools that prepare students 
 for the university. The subjects comprised 
 in the matriculation examination are; Latin, 
 mathematics, English history and geography, 
 and choice of one of the following groups: 
 (a) Greek; (b) French and German; (c) French 
 and either physics or chemistry; (d) German and 
 either physics or chemistr,y. The high school 
 certificate is recognized for admission to univer- 
 sities and various professional courses. The man- 
 agement of the secondary schools is intrusted 
 to local trustees whose duties are similar to those 
 of public school trustees. A .special corps of high 
 school inspectors is maintained Isy the education 
 de|)artment. The current expenses of public 
 secondary schools are met by (1) government 
 grants, (2) county grants, (3) district or munici- 
 pal grants, (4) fees of students. The amount 
 of the government grant is based on the efforts 
 made by the locality. As a minimum each high 
 school receives a fixed grant of .1375, and each 
 collegiate institute an additional grant of .S275, 
 the grants in fuU varying from about .S500 to 
 $1800. The county council supplements this 
 grant by an equal amount to each school, 
 which is intended to meet the co.st of instruc- 
 tion for the county pupils who do not reside 
 in the municipality or district where the high 
 school is situated. Tuition fees are small, and 
 may be and often are remitted. 
 
 The practical result of the training in the 
 commercial course of the high schools has led 
 to the establishment of special courses in agri- 
 culture. In 1900 the cxi)erinient was made of 
 instituting a special department of agriculture 
 
 in 6 selected high schools and appointing to 
 the charge 6 graduates of the agricultural 
 college. In 1907 two schools were added to the 
 original group. 
 
 Departmental Examinations. — The high 
 school entrance examination begins the series 
 wliich the department conducts as a means of 
 maintaining scholastic standards, and at the 
 same time of rewarding earnest students by an 
 oflScial diploma. In addition to the two high 
 school certificates, primary and leaving, and 
 teachers' certificates, there are examinations 
 for specialists' certificates which have equal 
 value with a university diploma. 
 
 Statistical Summary. — The number of 
 schools of each class comprised in the Ontario 
 system, for the latest year reported (1908), 
 the distribution of pupils among them, and the 
 expenditure for each class so far as the item 
 is separately reported, are shown in the follow- 
 ing table : — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 En- 
 
 Number 
 
 Expendi- 
 
 Cost 
 
 Class 
 
 Num- 
 ber 
 
 MENT 
 
 Teachers 
 
 ture 
 
 Pupil 
 
 Kindergartens . 
 
 \m 
 
 16,477 
 
 288 
 
 
 
 Public schools . 
 
 5SG9 
 
 .399,670 
 
 9020 
 
 $7,182,234 
 
 $17.97 
 
 Separate Ro- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 man Catholic 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 schools . . 
 
 465 
 
 53,551 
 
 1065 
 
 761,592 
 
 14.22 
 
 High schools 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 and collegiate 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 institutions . 
 
 145 
 
 .31,912 
 
 793 
 
 1,385,832 
 
 43.42 
 
 Night schools , 
 
 10 
 
 SS9 
 
 18 
 
 
 
 Normal schools 
 
 (j 
 
 1.149 
 
 62 
 
 
 
 The total enrollment in public and separate 
 schools was 453,221, and the average daily 
 attendance in the same 272,190, or 60 per 
 cent of the enrollment. More than half the 
 whole number of pupils, viz., 53.47 per cent, 
 were in rural schools. Of the teachers em- 
 ployed in the schools named, 1842, or 18 per 
 cent were men, as against 30 per cent in 1897. 
 As regards certificates, it appears that 767 
 teachers, or 7.6 per cent, held finst-class certifi- 
 cates; 3979, or 39.4 per cent, second-class; and 
 3565, or 35 per cent, third class. The small 
 number remaining were temporary appointees. 
 The average annual salary for men teachers 
 in the province was .S624; for women teachers, 
 $432; the average salary in cities was for men, 
 $1350; the highest salary $2000. The influ- 
 ence of the university matriculation examina- 
 tion is indicated by the choice of languages 
 on the part of high school pupils. In 1909 
 the number taking Latin was 21,928; Greek, 
 680; French, 18,960; German. 4009. It is ob- 
 servable further that the number taking Latin 
 has steadily increased during the decade; French 
 and German show slight increase, and Greek 
 slight decline. 
 
 The following tables show the progress of 
 the sc'hools in respect to salient conditions for 
 the two decades 1887 to 1907: — 
 
 517
 
 CANADA 
 
 CANADA 
 
 SCHOOL POPULATION AND ATTENDANCE 
 
 
 
 Total Number 
 
 Percentage of 
 
 
 School 
 
 OF Enrolled 
 
 Average At- 
 
 Yeah 
 
 POPT7LATION 
 
 Pupils in Pub- 
 
 tendance TO 
 
 
 5 TO 21 
 
 lic AND Separate 
 
 Total Number 
 
 
 
 Schools 
 
 Enrolled 
 
 1887 
 
 611,212 
 
 493,212 
 
 49.71 
 
 1897 
 
 590.055 
 
 482,777 
 
 [56.66 
 
 1907 
 
 590.285 
 
 448.218 
 
 59.45 
 
 1908 
 
 596,713 
 
 453,221 
 
 60.05 
 
 With the development of continuation 
 schools, the growth in the enrollment of high 
 schools and collegiate institutes, which was very 
 marked in the decade 1887 to 1897, — i.e. from 
 17,459 to 24,390, or an increase of nearly 40 
 per cent, — has naturally somewhat declined; 
 still, a normal growth is maintained, as is shown 
 by the increase from 24,390 high school pupils 
 in 1897 to 31,912 in 1908, a gain of 30 per cent. 
 
 RECEIPTS AND EXPENDITURES (Public Schools 
 Only) 
 
 Year 
 
 Total 
 Receipts 
 
 Total 
 Expenditure 
 
 Cost Per 
 Pupil 
 
 1887 
 1897 
 1907 
 1908 
 
 $4,.33 1,357 
 
 4,988,1,55 
 9,257,928 
 9,972,181 
 
 $3,742,104 
 4.015,670 
 7.556.179 
 7.943.826 
 
 $7.59 
 
 8.73 
 
 16.85 
 
 17.52 
 
 The sources of the school income and the 
 proportion from each source, for the years 
 considered, were as follows: — 
 
 Legislative grants . 
 Municipal grants 
 
 taxes 
 Other local sources 
 
 and 
 
 1887 
 Per 
 
 Cent 
 
 71.2 
 22.6 
 
 1897 
 Per 
 
 Ce.vt 
 
 67.1 
 25.6 
 
 1907 
 Per 
 
 Cent 
 
 7.07 
 
 66.4 
 26.53 
 
 1908 
 Per 
 Cent 
 
 7.7 
 
 66. 
 26.3 
 
 Rural versus City Schools. — The very com- 
 plete provision for supervision and inspection 
 by the central department has brought the 
 rural schools of Ontario to a comparatively 
 high standard. At the same time the highest 
 possibilities of the system are realized in popu- 
 lous centers. In Toronto, for example, a city 
 of 208,000 inhabitants, the legal requirements 
 of the system are not only fully met, but they 
 are often anticipated by the action of the local 
 school board, which, it may be said, sets the 
 pace for the province. The school provision is 
 very complete, and comprises the entire range 
 of institutions from kindergarten to high 
 schools, classical and technical. The teachers 
 are well trained, and the system is maintained 
 at a high degree of efficiency through the devo- 
 tion and energy of the chief inspector, a posi- 
 tion long held by Mr. James L. Hughes, who 
 has achieved wide reputation as an educational 
 
 leader. The official staff of the board includes 
 also an assistant inspector and a senior high 
 school principal whose experience is utilized 
 in the adjustment of courses of study. The 
 current expenditure for the maintenance of 
 the city schools in 1908 amounted to 1853,230, 
 equivalent to S32.23 per capita of average 
 attendance. 
 
 Quebec, System of Education. — The 
 public school system of Quebec had its origin 
 in parochial schools and schools maintained by 
 the religious orders, the Jesuits, RecoUets, 
 Christian Brothers, etc., from the time of the 
 earliest settlement of the colony. The basis 
 of the system was laid in 1845 by a law which 
 made the parish the unit of school administra- 
 tion. Government inspectors of schools were 
 appointed in 1852, and in 1859 the form of an 
 organized system was completed by the ap- 
 pointment of a council of pubUc instruction. 
 This council, which has general charge of the 
 dual system of Catholic and Protestant schools, 
 as provided for by a law of 1875, comprises: 
 
 (1) The Roman Catholic bishops or adminis- 
 trators of the dioceses in the province, and an 
 equal number of Roman Catholic laymen ap- 
 pointed by the Lieutenant Governor in council; 
 
 (2) a committee of Protestant members ap- 
 pointed in like manner. The two committees 
 sit separately, and administer the affairs of 
 the Catholic and Protestant schools respec- 
 tively. The superintendent of public instruc- 
 tion appointed by the Governor is e.r-officio 
 chairman of the joint council of public instruc- 
 tion, but is entitled to vote only on the com- 
 mittee to which he by religion belongs. Each 
 committee makes its own list of textbooks, 
 and all regulations for the course of in.struction 
 in its own schools; and on the presentation of 
 the two committees the Lieutenant Governor 
 is bound to appoint Catholic and Protestant 
 inspectors to visit the several schools. The 
 proceeds of the special tax, of the general public 
 school fund, and of any legacies which may be 
 bequeathed for the purpose of education, are 
 divided between the two committees in the 
 proportion of the number of Catholic and of 
 Protestant inhabitants. In regard to the spe- 
 cial tax of one fifth of a cent per dollar. Cath- 
 olic and Protestant ratepayers may elect to 
 which fund their contributions shall be paid. 
 The statutes of the province contain provisions 
 allowing dissentients in any district, if of 
 suflBcient number, to demand a school of a 
 religious character different from that of the 
 majority of the inhabitants; but practically 
 it is found that the two classes of schools 
 satisfy the wants of the inhabitants, and that 
 no private schools exist outside the general 
 system of public instruction. In the Catholic 
 schools the catechism is taught. In the 
 Protestant schools the Bible is the textbook 
 for religious instruction. Scripture history is 
 taught, and the school exercises begin with 
 the reading of the Scriptures and prayer. 
 
 518
 
 CANADA 
 
 CANADA 
 
 A few of the rural schools are mixed, but in tary schools accords with the traditions of 
 
 them religious instruction is generally given 
 in accordance with the views of the majority, 
 the children of the minority being exempted 
 from the obligation to attend the religious 
 lesson. 
 
 Local Authorities. — The local unit of school 
 administration in Quebec is a school munici- 
 pality, i.e. " any torritorj^ erected into a mu- 
 nicipality for the support of schools under the 
 control of school commissioners or of trustees 
 elected by those who pay a property tax (rate- 
 payers)." The commissioners are empowered 
 to divide a municipality into school districts 
 and to maintain one or two schools in each 
 district. The commissioners, or trustees, 
 elected as provided above constitute what is 
 technically termed a school corporation. These 
 officers have full control of the public schools 
 in their respective areas, subject only to the 
 general requirements of the council. They 
 engage the teachers, determine their salaries, 
 provide the schoolhouses and equipments, 
 and in general discharge the same duties as 
 the school trustees of Ontario. The separa- 
 tion of the schools in each district by religious 
 differences completes the policy begun by the 
 division of the central council into two auton- 
 omous committees. 
 
 Classification of ScJwols. — In addition to the 
 schools under control, that is, schools in charge 
 of the elected school commissioners or trustees 
 of each municipality, there are many Roman 
 Catholic schools, in charge of the clergy or of 
 the religious orders, characterized as inde- 
 pendent or partly independent schools, which 
 receive grants either from provincial or from 
 local funds. The public schools of Quebec, 
 whether Roman Catholic or Protestant, are 
 distinguislied as elementary schools compris- 
 ing five grades, model schools, and academies. 
 The Roman Catholic model schools and 
 academies do not include the classics in their 
 course, these studies being reserved for clas- 
 sical colleges founded and maintained for the 
 most part by the Church or by the religious 
 orders; the Protestant model schools and 
 academies include courses in Latin and Greek. 
 
 In general it may be said that the schools 
 under the charge of the Protestant committee 
 are similar in their classification and conduct 
 to the public schools of the other provinces. 
 In the system under the charge of the Catholic 
 committee, the tendency is to draw sharper 
 distinctions between schools for the children 
 of the poorer classes and those that will nat- 
 urally attract the patronage of men in business 
 and profes.sional life. On the other hand, it 
 should be remembered that the clerical teach- 
 ing orders, especially the Christian Brothers, 
 have always paid great attention to the indus- 
 trial training of the young, combining it with 
 the instruction in elementary branches. Thus 
 the recent effort for promoting manual training 
 and gardening through the agency of elemen- 
 
 Catholic educators. What was formerly done 
 in a few schools is simply becoming general 
 under the new impulse. The inspector of 
 horticulture in primary schools under the 
 Catholic committee reports that while in 1907 
 gardening was carried on in 20 counties and 
 60 schools in respect to 12.58 pupils, in 1908 
 it was extended to 27 counties, 97 schools, 
 and 2200 pupils. It is worthy of note, also, 
 that of the total pupils in the Catholic elemen- 
 tary and model schools and academies, 94 per 
 cent are French; whereas in the corresponding 
 schools under the Protestant committee, 95 
 per cent of the pupils are of English origin. 
 In many schools both languages are employed 
 as media of instruction. The Catholic model 
 schools have, as a rule, preparatory depart- 
 ments for the elementary instruction of pupils 
 who will presumably continue their education 
 up to 16 or 18 years of age. The model school 
 course is continuous with that of the academies. 
 Many of the classical colleges also have pre- 
 paratory divisions. For these reasons a classi- 
 fication of the schools of Quebec on the basis 
 of grades is quite misleading. 
 
 Training and Qualifications of Teachers. — ■ 
 Besides the schools above enumerated, the ' 
 law makes provision for the establishment of 
 one or more normal schools with attached 
 model or practice schools. Boards of Exam- 
 iners appointed by the Lieutenant-Governor 
 upon the recommendation of either committee 
 of the Council of Public Instruction are author- 
 ized to examine candidates for teachers' posi- 
 tions and to i.ssue diplomas to those who pass 
 the tests. The examining boards for Montreal 
 and Quebec are provided for by special statutes. 
 
 Sources of Support. — The support of the 
 various classes of schools comprised in the 
 system is derived from legislative grants, local 
 taxes, and fees. The fees are low, not exceed- 
 ing 50 cents a month, and they may be and 
 often are remitted. 
 
 Montreal as a Type. — The system has in it 
 elements of friction as well as of power, both of 
 which are most active in the cities. Montreal, 
 with a population of 268,000, has practically a 
 triple sj^stem of schools, i.e. public schools 
 under the Protestant board, public schools 
 under the Catholic board, and subsidized pri- 
 vate schools. The Protestant schools, which 
 in 1008 enrolled 11,956 pupils, including 50S in 
 kindergartens and 1431 in the 3 high schools, 
 resemble schools of the United States. The 
 enrollment in the Catholic schools the same 
 year was 27,154, of whom 5858 were in private 
 subsidized institutions. The teaching force 
 numbered 822, of whom 411 were members of 
 religious orders for women and 196 of religious 
 orders for men. The total expenditure on the 
 part of the Catholic school board was 8373,050, 
 of which .S43,250 were supplied by fees. These 
 particulars indicate the deep distinction be- 
 tween the two parts of the dual system; the one 
 
 519
 
 CANADA 
 
 CANADA 
 
 wholly modern in its spirit and aims; the other 
 freighted n-ith ecclesiastical traditions. 
 
 Stalistical Summanj. ~ In 19()7-li)()8, the 
 latest year covered by an official report, there 
 were 210,543 pupils enrolled in clcnientary 
 schools; 97,032 in model schools; 45,309 in 
 academies; total, 352,944. Of this number 
 88 per cent were in schools under Catholic 
 control. The number of teachers in the schools 
 was 1 1,774, of whom 10,830 were in the Catholic 
 schools. The latter included: lay teachers, 
 264 men, 53()9 women; and clerical teachers, 
 1831 men, 330() women. Of the total number 
 of Catholic lay teachers, 4713 had obtained a 
 teacher's diploma. The Protestant teachers 
 numbered 1173, viz. 34 men, 1139 women. 
 Of these teachers 23 men and 725 women had 
 secured diplomas. In addition to the above- 
 named schools, corresponding to the public 
 and high schools of Ontario, there were reported 
 under the head of special schools, 11 schools of 
 arts and manufactures, 4 schools for defectives, 
 and 62 night schools, with a total attendance of 
 9352 pupils; 4 normal scliools, with 526 stu- 
 dents in training, and 699 pupils in the attached 
 model schools. The classical colleges subsi- 
 dized by the State numbered 19, with 6274 
 pupils, of whom the majority were preparing 
 for matriculation at some one of the univer- 
 sities. The total expenditure for this system 
 of schools and colleges was .$5,148,887, which 
 was derived as follows: Provincial apjiropria- 
 tion, S6S3,350, or 13.2 per cent; local taxes, 
 $2,624,438, at 51 per cent; fees, chiefly in sub- 
 sidized institutions, 81,841,099, or 35.8 per 
 cent. 
 
 Other Provincial Systems. — Apart from 
 the great interest which the Ontario system of 
 public and high schools has excited by its com- 
 pleteness and results, it is of importance be- 
 cause it has served as a model for the other 
 provinces, Quebec alone excepted, in the devel- 
 opment of their systems. All the provinces 
 have sought to secure uniformity of school 
 provision and educational standards by means 
 of government control; but no other province 
 has invested the chief officer of education with 
 such extensive powers as those exercised by the 
 head of the Ontario system. In Xova Scotia, 
 British Columbia, and Manitoba the central 
 educational authority is the Executive Council 
 of the respective province. The chief officer 
 of education in each, who is appointed by the 
 provincial Governor, bears the title of Superin- 
 tendent. The central control of public educa- 
 tion in New Brunswick is vested in a Board of 
 Education, comprising the Lieutenant Governor, 
 the members of the Executive Council, the presi- 
 dent of the University of New Brunswick, and 
 the chief superintendent of education. The 
 last named is the secretary and chief executive 
 officer of the board. The local control of school 
 affairs in all the provinces is vested in elected 
 boards of trustees. 
 
 An interesting feature of the local orgauiza- 
 
 i20 
 
 tion in Nova Scotia is the annual school meeting 
 in each rural school section, wiiich the law 
 requires to be held on the last Monday of June, 
 just before the close of the schools for the year, 
 and 7 or 8 weeks, or more, before the opening 
 of the schools in the new school year. It is 
 the annual parliament of the section, where the 
 taxpayers assemble to discuss the educational 
 administration, elect the new trustees, and 
 vote the amount of supply to be levied ujion the 
 section for the support of the schools for the 
 following year. 
 
 Nova Scotia, British Columbia, and Prince 
 Edward Island, in common with Ontario, have 
 compulsory school laws. Separate schools for 
 Roman Catholics are provided in the recently 
 formed provinces. Alberta and Saskatchewan. 
 The public schools of all the provinces except- 
 ing Quebec are free schools, their support being 
 derived from provincial grants, local (municipal) 
 appropriations, and school taxes. While the 
 mode of appropriating the legislative grant 
 among the school districts differs in the different 
 provinces, the principle is generally followed of 
 making the grant a means of stimulating local 
 effort in behalf of the schools. In determining 
 the basis of distribution, the tendency is to pay 
 increased regard to the grade of certificate or 
 license held by the teachers and to the length 
 of the school session. 
 
 The Manitoba Law of 1890. — Prior to the 
 passage of the education law of 1890 Manitoba 
 maintained separate schools for Roman Catho- 
 lic and for Protestant children. The bitter 
 contest to which this law gave rise, the appeal 
 to the Dominion government, and subsequently 
 to the English Privy Council, the remedial order 
 issued b)' the Dominion government, and the 
 refusal of the Manitoba people to submit to 
 this dictation, recall the struggle over the same 
 question which from time to time agitated 
 Ontario until the passage of the Separate School 
 Act of 1863. On account of the contest over 
 the question in ^Manitoba, the provisions of the 
 law of 1890 are of unusual interest. The 
 general control of schools was vested in a Depart- 
 ment of Education, consisting of the Executive 
 Council, or a committee thereof, appointed by 
 the Lieutenant Governor in council, and an 
 Advisory Board composed of 7 members, 4 of 
 whom are appointed by the Department of 
 Education, 2 by the teachers of the province, 
 and 1 by the university council. Among the 
 duties of the Advisory Board is the power " to 
 examine and authorize textbooks and books of 
 reference for the use of the pupils and school 
 libraries; to determine the qualifications of 
 teachers and inspectors for high and public 
 schools; to appoint examiners for the purpose 
 of preparing examination papers; to prescribe 
 the form of religious exercises to be used in 
 schools." The law provides " for the forma- 
 tion, alteration, and union of school districts 
 in rural municipalities, and in cities, towns, 
 and villages "; for the election of trustees in
 
 CANADA 
 
 CANADA 
 
 each district; for the maintenance and control 
 of the schools. It is further ordered that: — 
 
 All public schools shall be free schools, and every 
 person in rural municipalities between the age of 5 and 
 16 years, and in cities, towns, and villages Ijetween the 
 age of 6 and 16, shall have the right to attend some 
 school. 
 
 Sec. 6. Religious exercises in public schools shall be 
 conducted according to the regulations of the advisory 
 board. The time for such religious exercises shall be 
 just before the closing hour in the afternoon. In case 
 the parent or guardian of any pupil notifies the teacher 
 that he does not wish such puijil to attend such religious 
 exercises, then such pupil shall be dismissed before 
 such religious exercises take place. 
 
 Sec. 7. Religious exercises shall he held in a public 
 school entirely at the option of the school trustees for 
 the district, and upon receiving written authority from 
 the trustees it shall be the duty of the teacher to hold 
 such religious exercises. 
 
 Sec. 8. The public schools shall be entirely non- 
 sectarian, and no religious exercises shall be allowed 
 therein except as above provided. 
 
 General Statistical Stixvey. — The follow- 
 ing tables bring into comparative view the 
 principal data pertaining to the several systems 
 of the Dominion. 
 
 STATISTICS OF PROVINCIAL NORMAL 
 SCHOOLS — 1908 
 
 Pbotince 
 
 Number 
 
 OF 
 
 Schools 
 
 Number op Students 
 
 Men 
 
 WoTtien 
 
 Total 
 
 Ontario .... 
 Quebec .... 
 
 Nova Scotia . . . 
 New Brunswick 
 Manitoba .... 
 British Columbia . 
 Prince Edward Is- 
 land 
 
 Alberta .... 
 Saskatchewan . . 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 1 
 
 1 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 128 
 400 
 
 45 
 
 44 
 39 
 
 1021 
 518 
 
 304 
 
 96 
 92 
 
 1149 
 918 
 161 
 349 
 131 
 45 
 
 285 
 140 
 131 
 
 Provinces 
 
 Ontario 
 
 Quebec 
 
 Nova Scotia . 
 New Brunswick . . 
 Manitoba . . . . 
 Prince Edward Is- 
 land 
 
 Alberta 
 
 Average Annual Salahies 
 OF Teachers 
 
 Male 
 
 $624 
 
 289 
 
 ■ 218-924 
 
 ' 262-641 
 
 ' 154-460 
 » 635-899 
 
 Female 
 
 $432 
 
 167 
 
 ' 194-598 
 
 ' 218-395 
 
 590 
 
 ' 151-281 
 ■ 625-696 
 
 • The average salar>' in these provinces is given in the official 
 reports for each class of teachers. The amounts tabulated are 
 the highest and lowest averages reported. 
 
 Special Schools. — In addition to the ele- 
 mentary, liigh, and normal .schools, all the 
 provinces maintain sjiccial schools for deaf 
 mutes and for those deprived of sight, on the 
 principle that the State owes such children 
 
 
 g 
 
 
 CDOO>dt^iOt^h-.-< 
 •^ ^N C^ W l-^ CD ^ -* -** 
 
 
 II 
 
 comciTfoowcoc-. r>.oj 
 
 (NCD-'JJ'Nt^t^-S'i-tOoO 
 
 ci C-i CS oi CD oi M w oi 
 « _ ,-1 ,-. CS CO w«co 
 
 
 
 »co t^ t-_iciM t* (^J 00 
 ci" 'CM c: Cl'o ci c: ■-' oi 
 
 £5" "r """ 
 
 
 to 
 
 K 
 
 < 
 
 10,878 
 
 11.774 
 
 2,264 
 
 1,942 
 
 2,526 
 
 911 
 
 .595 
 
 1.468 
 
 1,298 
 
 1,011 
 
 
 s 
 
 ■J 
 
 = 
 
 485,133 
 352,944 
 100,105 
 67,785 
 71,031 
 30,098 
 18,073 
 39,0.53 
 31.275 
 25,1(11 
 
 
 ° O H 
 H O « 
 f- S H 
 
 K Oi Oi 
 
 1 t 1 
 oot^aooOQOoomoooio 
 oocoooccoo 
 
 
 o 
 
 CO (J 
 
 : 
 < 
 
 1 
 ;5 
 
 8-14 
 7-12 
 
 7-12 
 8-13 
 
 7-12 
 
 
 J 
 
 5-21 
 5-16 
 5-15 
 5-15 
 5-21 
 5-16 
 
 5-16 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 1. 
 
 Ontario 
 
 Quebec 
 
 Nova Scotia .... 
 New Brunswick . . . 
 Manitoba .... 
 British Columbia . . 
 Prince Edward Island 
 
 Alberta 
 
 Sa.'*katchewan . . . 
 Northwest Territories 
 
 
 o 
 
 .So, 
 3 a" 
 .11 
 
 equal facilities with those provided for normal 
 children. The courses of instruction in these 
 institutions are analogous, so far as the capac- 
 ity of the pupils will allow, to those of the 
 elementary schools. The industrial depart- 
 ments are well equipped and the training care- 
 fully adapted to the aptitudes of the pupils. 
 Movement for Manual Training and Rural 
 Education. — The Macdonald movement, per- 
 taining to both manual training and rural 
 education, affects every province of Canada. 
 
 521
 
 CANADA 
 
 CANADA 
 
 It dates from 1899, when Sir William C. Mao- 
 donald furnished funds to establish manual 
 training centers in connection with the jjublic 
 schools in 21 places from Prince Edward Island 
 to British Columbia, and to maintain them 
 without cost to the pupils or the public for a 
 period, in most cases, of 3 years. At first special 
 teachers of ability and experience were brought 
 in from outside, mostly from England. Some 
 27 manual training teachers were thus secured. 
 As time went on Canadian teachers were trained 
 and became duly (lualified. Before the end of 
 the period of maintenance by the Macdonald 
 fund, there were 45 manual training teachers 
 on the salary roll at a cost of some S3G00 per 
 month, and more than 7000 boys were taking 
 the courses. As a rule the work thus begun 
 was taken over by the education authorities 
 when the initial period closed, and in such cases 
 the equipment was presented free to the school 
 boards, and in the case of the normal schools 
 to the provincial governments. In 1907 over 
 20,000 boys and girls in Canadian schools were 
 receiving the benefits of manual training in 
 their regular course under the school authorities. 
 The Macdonald rural school fund made pro- 
 vision for a school garden at each of 5 rural 
 schools in each of .5 provinces. A trained in- 
 structor was placed in charge of each group of 5 
 gardens and of the nature-study work at them, 
 the e.xpenscs being met from the fund. The 
 educational purpose has been kept clearly in 
 view in the conduct of the gardens. They are 
 attached to the ordinary rural schools, owned 
 by the school corporations, and conducted 
 under the authority of the school trustees and 
 with the express approval of the ratepayers. 
 The work is recognized as a legitimate part of 
 the school program, and it is interwoven as 
 far as possible with other studies. The garden 
 is merely an outer classroom of the school. 
 This relation has been in good part established 
 by the traveling instructors whom Professor 
 Robertson appointed to supervise the work in 
 each province. The instructors were chosen as 
 teachers of experience in rural schools, and were 
 sent for special preparation, at the expense of 
 the Macdonald fund, to Chicago, Cornell, 
 Columbia, and Clark universities in the United 
 States, and to the Ontario Agricultural College, 
 Guelph. The movement, which has thus pro- 
 gressed on two distinct lines, is intended to 
 bring the education provided for the people at 
 public expense into more immediate relation 
 to the industrial demands which they must 
 meet when the period of school training is 
 closed. The work is pa.ssing now from the 
 experimental stage to that of an integral part 
 of the general scheme of education. Marked 
 advance has been made in this respect in New 
 Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Ontario. The 
 first-named province presents several examples 
 of consolidated rural schools with admirable 
 equipment for both manual training and gar- 
 den culture. In Nova Scotia manual training 
 
 centers have been organized both in cities and 
 rural districts which are attended for 2 hours a 
 day by pupils on the public school registers of 
 their respective sections. The schools are 
 divided into two groups, mechanic science and 
 domestic science. In 1908 the former were 
 attended by 1824 pupils, and the latter by 1610, 
 or a total of 3434. 
 
 In Ontario the entire scheme of technical 
 education, including manual training, household 
 science, and -art instruction, is under the direc- 
 tion of a special inspector on the official staff 
 of the Education Department. This officer 
 has made an exhaustive study of the industries 
 of the province with a view to adapting the 
 technical training to the actual conditions sur- 
 rounding the pupils. After the preliminary 
 training in manual work and drawing in the 
 lower grades of the public schools, he advises 
 that a system of vocational training be organ- 
 ized parallel with the last 2 years of the public 
 school course and the high school course, as a 
 means of fitting the boys industrially inclined 
 for entrance upon the trades of their respective 
 localities. The permanencj' of the work is 
 assured by the provision of two centers amply 
 equipped for the dou]:)le purpose of training 
 special teachers for the new service and afford- 
 ing models of its methods and purposes. The 
 first of these centers is the Macdonald Institute, 
 an adjunct of the Ontario Agricultural College 
 at Guelph. Sir William Macdonald gave the 
 sum of .'5182,500 to provide buildings and equip- 
 ment for the institute, which has become the 
 headquarters for manual training, for house- 
 hold science, and for providing short courses 
 of instruction and training for farmers' daugh- 
 ters and others in cooking, sewing, domestic 
 art, and other branches of domestic economy. 
 Short courses of instruction in nature study and 
 school gardens were provided without fees to 
 teachers, and the governments of 4 eastern 
 provinces where consolidated schools were 
 established gave scholarships to enable teachers 
 to attend. Over 200 teachers have already 
 taken these courses. The second center is 
 Macdonald College, which occupies a beautiful 
 site overlooking the Ottawa River at Ste. Anne 
 de Bellevue, 20 miles west of Montreal. The 
 college comprises 3 departments: the School 
 for Teachers, which provides practical and 
 thorough training for teaolicrs in the art and 
 science of teaching; the School of Agriculture, 
 which aims to provide a thorough theoretical 
 and practical training in the several branches 
 of agriculture; and the School of Household 
 Science, in which young women receive training 
 in household economy. The school for teach- 
 ers takes the place of the McGill Normal 
 School of Montreal, and is amply equipped for 
 the more extended training which teachers must 
 receive to meet the larger requirements of the 
 service. Macdonald College has been incor- 
 porated with McGill University, and thus the 
 courses of instruction leading to degrees are 
 
 522
 
 CANADA 
 
 CANADA 
 
 planned under the advice and w-ith the approval 
 of the university authorities. In addition to 
 donating the whole property without incum- 
 brance, Sir William RIacdonald placed a sum 
 of over 82,000,000 in the hands of the trustees 
 of McGill University as an endowment for the 
 maintenance of the new college. 
 
 Higher Education. — The agencies of higher 
 education in the Canadian provinces are uni- 
 versities and affiliated colleges which have 
 preserved through a long history the scholastic 
 traditions and standards of the universities of 
 the Old World. The colleges as a rule have been 
 established and are maintained by the various 
 religious denominations. The greater number 
 date from the last half of the nineteenth cen- 
 tury, but a few have a history covering two or 
 more centuries; among these are: in Ontario, 
 Knox College, Toronto (founded 1504), Albert 
 College, Belleville (1757); in Quebec, Tucker 
 Seminary (1665), St. Sulpice, Montreal (1767). 
 Sixteen institutions bear the title of university, 
 and of these 13 situated in the older provinces 
 bear witness by their numbers to early political 
 and denominational antagonisms. At pres- 
 ent there is a strong tendency toward the con- 
 centration of the resources of higher education 
 b)' means of the federation of the colleges and 
 higher technical schools with the universities. 
 In view of a scheme for promoting agricultural 
 education under discussion in the Senate of 
 New Brunswick, in the session of 1908-1909, 
 the Chancellor of the University of New Bruns- 
 wick urges in his report for the same year that 
 any action that might result should keep the 
 matter in close affiliation with the technical 
 work already carried on by the university. 
 
 In Nova Scotia the importance of a common 
 standard for universities has long been rec- 
 ognized, especially in respect to professional 
 diplomas, which the government has declined to 
 recognize because there was no guarantee of 
 equivalence in those of the different institutions. 
 In connection with plans for promoting higher 
 technical education in the province, which 
 were brought to completion in 1908, the repre- 
 sentatives of the three universities agreed to an 
 arrangement whereby the Nova Scotia Techni- 
 cal College is affiliated with the other colleges 
 of the province. By this agreement the estab- 
 lished colleges will insist on a uniform matricu- 
 lation retiuirement, and a uniform first 2 years' 
 engineering course. The general training in 
 matiiematics, physics, chemistry, English, for- 
 eign language, shopwork, drawing, etc., which 
 constitute the basis for any engineering course, 
 will be given in the older colleges, leaving the 
 professional finisiiing 2 years' course to the 
 technical college. 
 
 Laval University, established at Montreal in 
 1878, a Ijranch of the ancient university whose 
 seat is at (Quebec, is the center of an important 
 group of colleges and schools including the 
 polytechnic, dentistry, and pharmacy schools, 
 the agricultural school of Oka, founded in 1893 
 
 by the Reverend Trappist Fathers of Notre 
 Dame du Lac, and the school of superior edu- 
 cation for girls founded by the Sisters of La 
 Congregation de Notre Dame, which was sol- 
 emnly inaugurated in 1907. As an immediate 
 result of the relation with the university, the 
 agricultural school has arranged for a superior 
 course in its specialty. The university affilia- 
 tion of the school of Notre Dame raises the 
 standard of higher education for women in 
 Catholic circles of Quebec. 
 
 The most striking illustrations of the uni- 
 versity federation movement are afforded by 
 recent measures affecting the University of 
 Toronto and McGill University of Montreal. 
 The federation of the University of Toronto 
 was proclaimed bj' the Lieutenant Governor 
 Nov. 18, 1903, and came into effect Nov. 1, 
 1904. Among the affiliated institutions are 
 the University College, Victoria College, Trin- 
 ity College, the Toronto School of Practical 
 Science, the Toronto College of Music, and the 
 Agricultural College at Guelph, Ontario, each 
 of which has a representation in the university 
 Senate. The university comprises a faculty 
 of arts, faculty of medicine, faculty of law, and 
 a faculty of applied science and engineering. 
 In addition to the customary degrees in arts, 
 in medicine, and in law, the university offers 
 in applied science the degree of Bachelor of Ap- 
 plied Science, and the degrees of Civil Engineer, 
 of Mining Engineer, of Mechanical Engineer, and 
 of Electrical Engineer, also the degree of Bache- 
 lor of the Science of Agriculture. Graduates in 
 the course of pedagogy who hold a degree in 
 arts or a first-class diploma from the Education 
 Department are admitted to the examination 
 for the degree of Bachelor of Pedagogy. Candi- 
 dates for the degree of Doctor of Pedagogy must 
 have obtained the former degree, or have had 
 7 years' successful experience as teacher or 
 school inspector in Ontario. The university 
 also offers a 2-year course leading to the 
 diploma in commerce, and one of 4 years lead- 
 ing to the degree of Bachelor of Household 
 Science. By the liberality of a private donor, 
 the university has been recently provided with a 
 special building for home economics. The 
 educational work of McGill University is 
 carried on in McGill College, the Royal Victoria 
 College for Women, and other university build- 
 ings in Montreal; and also in Macdonald 
 College at Ste. Anne de Bcllevue; the McGill 
 University College of British Columbia, Van- 
 couver, B.C., and in the affiliated college at 
 Victoria, B.C. Thus it will be seen that the 
 standardizing influence of this university 
 reaches to the newer provinces. Macdonald 
 College is the latest addition to the federation 
 of which McGill University is the center. By 
 this relation the school for teachers which has 
 taken the place of the McGill Normal School 
 of Montreal, and the two schools pertaining to 
 the latest developments of education in the 
 Province namely, the School of Agriculture and 
 
 523
 
 CANADA 
 
 CANADA 
 
 the School of Household Science, are brought 
 under the direction of committees composed of 
 representatives of the university and the college. 
 At the same time the university is broadening 
 its own scope by the inclusion of faculties of 
 agriculture and education. 
 
 The creation of faculties of education in the 
 leading universities increases their relations to 
 the public school systems which began with 
 provisions for the inspection and affiliation of 
 high schools, and for the training and certifica- 
 tion of teachers aspiring to the highest positions. 
 All the colleges within the borders of Alanitoba 
 are affiliated with the universitj' of the province, 
 which has the exclusive right to confer degrees. 
 
 Among the universities of the Dominion 
 three distinct types may be recognized. Laval 
 University is ecclesiastic in its origin and con- 
 trol. The Archbishop of Quebec is visitor and 
 apostolic chancellor, the Archbishop of Montreal 
 is the vice-chancellor; the rector, the executive 
 head of the university, is assisted by a council 
 in which the several faculties and the Seminary 
 of Quebec (ecclesiastical institution) are repre- 
 sented. The university comprises the profes- 
 sional faculties of theology, of law, and of medi- 
 cine, and the faculty of arts, all of which are 
 duplicated in the liranch university at Montreal. 
 The latter, as already stated, comprises affili- 
 ated technical schools. The general organiza- 
 tion and the degrees conferred, i.e. bachelor, 
 licentiate, and doctor, follow French precedents. 
 McGill University, a Protestant institution in 
 Montreal, presents the highest type of a private 
 foundation to which imperial character has 
 been given by the amended charter of 1855. 
 This charter constituted " the Governors, 
 Principal and Fellows " of the university a 
 body politic and corporate, but at the same 
 time vested supreme authority in the Crown, 
 the same to be " exercised by His Excellency 
 the Governor General of Canada, for the time 
 being, as visitor." The development of the 
 university has kept pace with the ever grow- 
 ing diversity of public interests, which depend 
 for their forceful direction upon trained intel- 
 ligence. Toronto University is the highest 
 type of a .state institution. It was endowed 
 originally by land grants, and began its active 
 operations in 1843 under the predominant 
 influence of the Church of England. It was 
 brought under state control and completely 
 secularized by the act of 1849. Originally the 
 university was merely an examining and legis- 
 lative body, the teaching function being re- 
 served for University College. The first event 
 in the devcloijing history of the university was 
 the formation of a teaching faculty, the uni- 
 versity professorate, by the federation act of 
 1887. The crowning event is the act of 1906 
 reorganizing the university on a comprehen- 
 sive plan. This measure, already foreshad- 
 owed by the federation act of 1903, was re- 
 quired to meet a crisis in university education 
 arising from the advance of science. The 
 
 Commissioners, upon whose recommendations 
 the i)lan is based, did not pretend to forecast 
 antl regulate the future. " We could do no 
 more," they say, "than provide a home for 
 culture and science, under the same academical 
 roof, uniting them as far as possible, yet leav- 
 ing each in its way untrammeled by the union." 
 The federation of the Ontario Medical College 
 for Women with the university and the admis- 
 sion of women to the examinations for the 
 university degrees in medicine are significant 
 facts in the recent development. It may be 
 noted that women are admitted to the arts 
 faculties of nearly all the Canadian universities. 
 
 UNIVERSITIES OF CANADA 
 
 
 Date 
 
 Endow- 
 
 Approx- 
 imate 
 
 Namb 
 
 OF 
 
 Foun- 
 
 ment AS 
 Reported 
 
 Number 
 
 
 dation 
 
 IN 1904 
 
 OF 
 
 Stddents 
 
 University of King's College. 
 
 
 
 
 Windsor, Nova Scotia . . 
 
 1790 
 
 $140,000 
 
 25 
 
 University of New Brunswick, 
 
 
 
 
 Fredericton, New Bruns- 
 
 
 
 
 wick 
 
 1800 
 
 ' 8,964 
 
 150 
 
 McGill University. Montreal, 
 
 
 
 
 Quebec 
 
 1821 
 
 2,074,504 
 
 1500 
 
 Dalhousie College and Uni- 
 
 
 
 
 versity, Halifax, Nova Sco- 
 
 
 
 
 tia 
 
 1818 
 
 420,000 
 
 360 
 
 University of Toronto and 
 
 
 University College . . . 
 
 1827 
 
 3,700,000 
 
 2500 • 
 
 University of Acadia College, 
 
 
 
 
 Wolfville, Nova Scotia . . 
 
 1838 
 
 241,970 
 
 115 
 
 University of Queen's Col- 
 
 
 
 
 lege, Kingston, Ontario . . 
 
 1841 
 
 500,000 
 
 800 
 
 University of Bishop's Col- 
 
 
 
 
 lege, Lennoxville. Quebec . 
 
 1843 
 
 192,918 
 
 51 
 
 University of Ottawa, Otta- 
 
 
 
 
 wa, Ontario 
 
 1848 
 
 — 
 
 500 
 
 University of Trinity Col- 
 
 
 
 
 lege, Toronto 2 
 
 1852 
 
 490.000 
 
 3 
 
 Laval University, Quebec and 
 
 
 
 
 Montreal * 
 
 1852 
 
 None 
 
 1390 
 
 University of Mount Allison 
 
 
 
 
 College, New Brunswick . 
 
 1862 
 
 120.000 
 
 125 
 
 University of Manitoba, Win- 
 
 
 
 
 nipeg 
 
 1877 
 
 5 150,000 
 
 461 
 
 Victoria University, Toronto, 
 
 
 
 
 Ontario ' 
 
 1836 
 
 487,455 
 
 3 
 
 Mc Master University, Toron- 
 
 
 
 
 to, Ontario 
 
 1887 
 
 900,000 
 
 200 
 
 University of St. Joseph's Col- 
 
 
 
 
 lege, St. Joseph, New Bruns- 
 
 
 
 
 wick 
 
 1864 
 
 — 
 
 200 
 
 University of Alberta, Strath- 
 
 
 
 
 cona 
 
 1906 
 
 — 
 
 50 
 
 University of Saskatchewan, 
 
 
 
 
 Regina 
 
 190^" 
 
 
 
 • Government grant. 
 
 2 Federated with University of Toronto. 
 
 3 Included in total of University of Toronto. 
 
 * Quebec Seminary, an ecclesiastical organization, defrays all 
 
 expenses. 
 
 s Acres of land. 
 
 The latest estimates give S3, 315,900 as 
 the endowment of Toronto University and 
 $7,000,000 as the endowment of the federated 
 university. Recent donations and bequests 
 have brought the endowment of McGill Uni- 
 versity, with inclusion of Macdonald College, 
 up to" 30,000,000. A. T. S. 
 
 For educational condition in Newfoundland, 
 see Newfoundland, Education in. 
 
 524
 
 CANFIELD 
 
 CANON LAW ON EDUCATION 
 
 References: — 
 
 Board of Education, England. Special Reports, Vo]. I. 
 The history of the Manitoba school system, and the 
 issues of the recent controversy, by R. L. Morant. 
 
 Board of Education, England. Special Reports on 
 Educational Suhjects, \'ol. IV. 
 
 Chauveau, M. L'instruction pnhliqxie au Canada. 
 Precis historique et stalisiique. (Quebec, 1876.) 
 
 Coleman. H. T. J. Public Education in Upper Canada. 
 (New York, 1907.) 
 
 Commissioner of Agriculture and Dair>-mg. Canada, 
 The Macdonald Funds fur Manxud Training and 
 the Improvement of Rural Schools. Evidence of James 
 W. Robertson, Commissioner of Agriculture and 
 Dairying, before the .Select Standing Committee on 
 Agriculture and Colonization, 1903. (Ottawa, 1904.) 
 
 CouBERTiN, Pierre de. Universiles transatlantiques. 
 (Paris. 1890.) 
 
 EwART, John S. The Manitoba School Question. 
 (Toronto, 1894.) 
 
 HoDGiNS, J. G. Documentary History of Educatmn m 
 Ontario, Vols. 1-27. Printed by order of the 
 Legislative Assembly of Ontario. (Toronto, 1894- 
 1903.) 
 The Legislation and History of Separate Schools in 
 Upper Canada, 1841-1876. (Toronto, 1897.) 
 
 Laurent, O. Les Uniivrsites des Etats-Unis et du 
 Canada, et specialement leurs institutions medicalcs. 
 (Paris, 1894.) 
 
 Millar. John. Educational System of the Province of 
 Ontario. (Toronto, 1893.) 
 
 Official Reports of the systems of public instruction in 
 the several provinces. Laws relating to the systems 
 of public instruction in the several provinces. 
 
 Ontario. Annu/d Reports of the Inspector of Technical 
 Education, 1907, 1908. (Toronto, 1908, 1909.) 
 
 Ontario Educational Association. Anmtal Reports. 
 
 Ontario. Report of the Text-book Commission. (To- 
 ronto.) 
 
 Ontario School of Agriculture and Experimental Farm. 
 Annual Reports. 
 
 Proceedinys of the Dominion Educational Association. 
 (Ottawa, 1909.) 
 
 Ross, George W. The School System of Ontario. 
 International Education Series, Vol. XXXVIII. 
 (New York. 1896.) 
 
 Ryerson, Egerton. Report on a Systern of Public 
 Elementary Instruction for Upper Canada, 184(5- 
 1847. (Montreal. 1846-1847.) 
 
 Smith. Goldwin. Canada and the Canadian Question. 
 (London. New York. 1891.) 
 
 University of Toronto and its Colleges, 1827-1906. 
 (Toronto. 1906.) 
 
 University of Toronto. Report of the Royal Commis- 
 sion. (Toronto. 1906.) 
 Files of educational journals, especially : — 
 
 Canadian Teacher, Toronto. 
 
 Journal of Education. Nova Scotia. 
 
 Educational Record of Quebec. (Quebec, 1910.) 
 
 Educational Review, St. John, New Brunswick. 
 
 CANFIELD, JAMES HULME ri 847-1909). 
 — Ivliu-itor, Kraduated from Williams Col- 
 lege in 1.SG8. For .several years he was engaged 
 in railway building and the practice of law, 
 during which period he served for 3 years, 
 without i)av, as sui)erintendent of schools at 
 St. Joseph," Mich. From lS77to 1891 he was 
 professor of history in the University of Kansas; 
 for the ne.xt 4 years president of the University 
 of Nebraska, and from 189.5 to 1899, president 
 of the Ohio State University. During the last 
 10 years of his life lie was librarian of ('(jlumbia 
 University. Author of College Student and 
 his Problems (1902). W. S. RI. 
 
 CANISIUS COLLEGE, BUFFALO, N.Y. — 
 See Ji-;su.s, Society of. 
 
 CANON LAW ON EDUCATION. — The 
 
 Canon Law, in the sense in which that term is 
 used in this article, is that body of law which 
 arose in the Middle Ages from ecclesiastical 
 legislation, derived its authority from the 
 Church, and was enforced in the tribunals of 
 the Church. It was composed of the enact- 
 ments of local and of general councils, extracts 
 from the Fathers of the Church, rules and ordi- 
 nances of individual bishops, and decretals of 
 the Popes; the last were by far the most im- 
 portant of its constituents, as they were the 
 decisions of the supreme pontiff on points of law 
 arising in cases actually before ecclesiastical 
 courts, and were embodied in directions to those 
 before whom the cases were being heard. In 
 the Canon Law, as it was ultimately codified, 
 all these laws derive their authority from the 
 fact that they were officially promulgated in 
 the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, as the 
 authoritative body of law to be usecl in all 
 courts. These oiBcial collections make up, 
 together with the Deeretum of Gratian, which 
 appeared between 1140 and 1150 a.d., what is 
 known as the Corpus Juris Canonici. In 
 addition to this law, the jus commune of the 
 Church, there was in every part of the Church, 
 especially before 1200 a.d., much law enacted 
 by local synods, holding good in the district 
 in which they were enacted and of force so far 
 as they did not contravene the jus commune. 
 This distinction is necessary in stating the 
 bearing of the Canon Law upon education, as 
 there was always much local canon law bearing 
 on the subject, though there was little that be- 
 longed to the general legislation of the Church, 
 and none before the twelfth century. 
 
 The importance of a study of the C'anon Law 
 for the history of education can hardly be over- 
 estimated. For every educational institution 
 from the elementary school to the university 
 and every form of instruction from the ABC to 
 astronomy and divinity was regulated by the 
 Canon Law. For nearly 1100 years, from the 
 year 600 to 1700, the Church Courts had exclu- 
 sive jurisdiction over schools and scholars, the 
 school being regarded as an adjunct of the 
 Church iq.v.), and the scholar and those who 
 ministered to him were a branch of the great 
 clerical profession, or body of clerks (q.v-). 
 The earliest legislation for education or schools 
 to be found in the Canon Law appears to be in 
 the Sixth Council of Constantinople, held in 
 680. Canon 5 directs that priests shall keep 
 schools in towns {rillas) and in villages (ficos) 
 and if any of the faithful wishes to commend his 
 little ones to them (the priests) to learn gram- 
 mar {litteras), they shall not refuse to take 
 them, but they shall not demand any fees for 
 them or accept anji^hing from them, except 
 what their parents in their zeal for charity shall 
 voluntarily offer. This was an attempt, prob- 
 ably premature, to utilize the parocliial clergy 
 as schoolmasters and establish through them 
 a system of free elementary schools in the rural 
 
 525
 
 CANON LAW ON EDUCATION 
 
 CANON LAW ON EDUCATION 
 
 districts. Canon 4 of the same Council apply- 
 ing to the greater schools in the large towns 
 provided that if any priest wanted to send his 
 nephew (we maj' guess that the word was orig- 
 inally son) or other relation to school in the 
 churches of saints {i.e. the secular cathedrals or 
 collegiate churches) or in the monasteries, " the 
 government of w^liich is committed to us, we 
 give them leave to do so." The Sixth Council 
 of Constantinople was accepted by Pope Adrian 
 as ecumenical, and therefore authoritative. 
 These Canons have been usually attributed to 
 Charlemagne and Theodulph of Orleans, from 
 their appearance among their Capitularies in 
 771 and 797, but were of course only revived 
 by them. As usual, the law only crystallized 
 and extended practice. For, long before this, 
 at least in France and England, the bishops 
 (see Bishops' Schools) had assumed the con- 
 trol and furnished the supply of schools. The 
 Council of Aix, in 7S9, under the influence of 
 Alcuin and Charlemagne, ordered that boys' 
 schools should be kept in every monastery and 
 bishop's see, to teach the psalms, singing, arith- 
 metic, and grammar, and Catholic books well 
 corrected should be kept, but the boys should 
 not be allowed to spoil them either in reading 
 or writing, and if gospels, psalters, or missals 
 were wanted, grown-up men should be em- 
 ployed to write them. A later council, 
 assembled at the same place in 813, closed the 
 monastic schools to externs, if they had ever 
 been opened, decreeing, " No schools shall be 
 kept in monasteries except for oblates." So 
 that when the injunction of 780 was repeated 
 at the second Council of Chalons it was confined 
 to bishops' sees. " It is desirable that, as the 
 Lord Emperor ordered, they should establish 
 churches in which the scholastic learning and 
 the proofs of holy scripture should be learnt." 
 In 826, a General Council, under Pope Eugenius 
 II, treated the provision of schools by bishops 
 as a matter of course, and complaining that 
 "of some places we are informed that neither 
 masters are kept nor any care taken for a 
 grammar school (studio litterarum)," decreed, 
 " Therefore let all care and diligence be exhibited 
 by all bishops and their subjects and in other 
 places where necessary, that masters and teach- 
 ers shall be established to teach assiduously 
 grammar schools and the principles of the liberal 
 arts, because in them especially God's com- 
 mands are made clear and explained." The 
 council under Pope Leo IV in 855, treating of 
 schools " of human as well as divine learning," 
 confirmed this, and reenacted it, because " by 
 long intermission many of God's churches had 
 been invaded by ignorance of the faith and a 
 complete want of learning." A council at 
 Rome held by Gregory VII in 1078 contained 
 a chapter headed " That all bishops shall 
 cause the art of grammar (artes litterarum) to 
 be taught in their churches." Almost exactly 
 a century later, in the Lateran Council of 1179 
 (DecretaksGreg. IX, toin.V, tit. de Magislris), the 
 
 requirement was made more stringent and ef- 
 fective by being particularized. It was now 
 provided that, to prevent the opportunity of 
 reading and becoming proficient being denied 
 to the poor, who could not be assisted by their 
 parents' means, a competent benefice should be 
 given in every cathedral church to a master to 
 teach the clerks of the church and poor scholars 
 gratis; while at the same time the taking of fees 
 for granting licenses to teach was forbidden. 
 Alexander III in a rescript (c. 1160), said to be 
 addressed (ibid., 2, 3) to the Bishop of Win- 
 chester, but wliich, as it speaks of the Gallic 
 Church, seems more likely intended for the 
 Archbishop of Vienne, reiterates the last order 
 on the ground " Freely (gratis) ye have received, 
 freely give," and directs that if anywhere 
 masters have not been appointed because of 
 the demand of fees, proper persons shall be 
 appointed at once. If this was really addressed 
 to a Bishop of Winchester, it may be the result 
 of the appeal in the case of Fantosme v. JekeU, 
 referred to the Pope by John of Salisbury (Hist. 
 Winchester College, p. 37). 
 
 In the next Lateran Council in 1215 Inno- 
 cent III added to the requirement of a master 
 " in the faculty of grammar," in every cathe- 
 dral, a similar requirement in every church 
 whose means allowed it, the master to be ap- 
 pointed by the Chapter, and also in every 
 mother church a theological school. Honorius 
 III, in 1219, in highly rhetorical language, 
 repeated the last decree, and, to prevent the 
 scarcity of masters being alleged as an excuse, 
 directed that teachable persons should be sent 
 to a university to be trained up for the purpose, 
 so that they might shine in God's church like 
 stars in heaven; and tliat students should for 
 five years receive the profits of their canonries 
 and Uvings as if they were resident. It does 
 not seem to have been necessary to repeat these 
 injunctions again. Grammar and theology 
 were well provided for. But in 1311 we find 
 Clement V at the Council of Vienne insisting 
 on the necessity of having for bishops and mis- 
 sionaries men learned in every language, par- 
 ticularly those used by infidels. So he ordered 
 that at Paris for France, Oxford for England, 
 Scotland, Ireland, and Wales, Bologna for Italy, 
 and Salamanca for Spain, the universities should 
 provide teachers in Hebrew, Arabic, and Chaldee 
 to teach and translate books into those lan- 
 guages, and that funds should be found by con- 
 tributions from prelates, monasteries, chapters, 
 and collegiate churches. For some years this 
 was actually carried out. At the same council 
 (Clem, iii, t. 10, c. I), at the end of a long 
 statute as to the disorders of monks in dress, 
 conduct, and worldliness, especially in abandon- 
 ing their conventual life " to wander at large in 
 the courts of princes and magnates," an attempt 
 was made to introduce learning into the monas- 
 teries, by providing that ■ in every monastery 
 whose means were sufficient, a fit master should 
 be kept to instruct the monks in the primitive 
 
 526
 
 CANON LAW 
 
 CANON LAW 
 
 sciences, i.e. grammar and rhetoric. Pope 
 Benedict XII took this question up, and in 
 1335 made elaborate constitutions for the Bene- 
 dictine monks, which were followed by similar 
 constitutions for the Augustinian or regular 
 canons, providing not only for a grammar 
 master in the monasteries, but for sending a 
 certain proportion of the monks of each monas- 
 tery to the university. The Canon Law, the 
 Corpus Juris Canonici, seems to have been 
 crystallized at this time and ceased to grow, 
 one canon only of Benedict's two successors, 
 Clement VI and Urban V, being incorporated 
 in the Exlravagantcs, or extra series. The schism 
 in the Papacy, no single Pope being recognized 
 by the whole of Christendom, accounts for this. 
 But education was still governed by Canon Law. 
 The Pope's sanction was still required for the 
 establishment of universities or colleges. An 
 attempt was made in England in 1410 in the 
 Gloucester School case to bring grammar schools 
 under the cognizance of the Common Law. But 
 it failed, the judges holding that schools and 
 education were a spiritual matter, for the 
 ecclesiastical courts only. 
 
 Even after the Reformation, when the 
 Canon Law was repudiated and its study at the 
 universities forbidden, it still governed educa- 
 tional institutions. The Canons of 1603 con- 
 tained provisions with regard to schools and 
 schoolmasters. Not till the time of Lord Coke 
 was it held that universitj' colleges, though 
 composed of ecclesiastical persons, were lay 
 corporations amenable to the Common Law. 
 Not till after the Revolution of 1688 did a 
 series of decisions of the courts emancipate the 
 lower branches of education from ecclesiastical 
 control, (irammar schools still remained sub- 
 ject to the jurisdiction of the " Ordinary " until 
 the Endowed Schools Act of 18G9 enabled the 
 Commissioners under that Act by scheme to 
 abolish it. A. F. L. 
 
 See Benefit of Clergy; Bishops' School.s; 
 Cathedr.'vl Schools; Church and Educa- 
 tion; Middle Ages, Education in. 
 
 CANON LAW, TEACHING OF. — The 
 
 teaching of Canon Law may be dividetl into 
 two periods, marked by the appearance of Gra- 
 tian's Dccretiim between 1141 and 1150. With 
 that work Ix'gan the systematic and scientific 
 study and teaching of Canon Law. Some 
 study of tliis sul)jcct had always been a practical 
 necessity for the clergy in their administration 
 of the diocesan institutions and in the cure of 
 souls. For the Canon Law was not only public, 
 or constitutional law, but also a sort of criminal 
 law administered in the ordinary penitential 
 discipline of the Church. In the East, how- 
 ever, during the patristic period, the great 
 councils dealt cliiefly with theological and con- 
 stitutional questions. Though many of their 
 enactments became imperial laws, neitlier tiiey 
 nor the works that appeared on tlie penitential 
 discipline seem to have given rise to any sys- 
 
 527 
 
 tematic study or teaching. In the subsequent 
 development of the Eastern churches the rela- 
 tion of the Church and the State prevented 
 an independent treatment of ecclesiastical law. 
 In the West the course of development of 
 Canon Law was different. A multitude of 
 local sjTiods elaborated the penitential disci- 
 pline and endeavored to adapt the Church to 
 the changed social conditions of the new king- 
 doms. The Church lived according to Roman 
 Law in the midst of the conflicting Barbarian 
 codes, and this independent position of the 
 Church and its law was developed as it became 
 more and more the international organization 
 of Western Christendom. We tlierefore find 
 a tendency even at the beginning of the sixth 
 century to make collections of canons of coun- 
 cils and papal decretals, of which by far the 
 most important was that of the monk Diony- 
 sius Exiguus, before 526. Other collections 
 soon appeared, among them the Capitula of 
 Martin of Braga in 572, and the Colledio 
 Hispana ascribed to Isidore of Seville (d. 636) 
 (q.v.). The next step maj' be marked by the 
 revised code of Dionysius presented by Pope 
 Hadrian to Charles the Great in 772, which was 
 adopted for the Prankish Church at the Council 
 of Frankfort in 802. A body of Canon Law 
 came into circulation in this way which might 
 serve as a basis for further developments, and 
 which was itself carefully studied and even 
 glossed. To it should be added the Pseudo- 
 Isidorean decretals, about .^.d. 847, which after 
 some use in the ninth century drop from sight 
 as important factors in ecclesiastical law, to 
 come forward in the later development of the 
 ecclesiastical constitution. 
 
 There met this stream of Canon Law founded 
 upon conciliar enactments and decretals an- 
 other stream founded directly upon the peni- 
 tential discipline, and of private origin. This 
 appears to have arisen in the monastically or- 
 ganized Irish Church, and to have been carried 
 to the Continent by the wandering Irish monks, 
 the Scoti peregrinanie.'i, of whom Columban 
 (d. 615) {q.v.) was the best representative. 
 This was embodied in penitentials, or handbooks 
 prepared for the use of the clergy in administer- 
 ing penance, and containing lists of sins with 
 appropriate penalties. These books had no 
 official authorit_y, and owed their reception to the 
 reputation of their authors, real or reputed. 
 Among these books the penitential of Theo- 
 dore of Canterbury, in its various forms, seems 
 to have been the most famous, but there were 
 also widely used penitentials by, or attributed 
 to. Belle, Egbert of York, Halitgar of Cambray, 
 and Rhabanus Maurus. In time almost every 
 diocese had its own penitential, which was 
 studied by the diocesan clergy as a part of 
 their necessary training for their office. 
 
 These two lines of development may be said 
 to have joined in the collection of Regino of 
 Pruin, Lihri duo de synodalibus causi.t el dis- 
 ciplinis ecclesiasticis, a.d. 906, a work of great
 
 CANON LAW 
 
 CANON LAW 
 
 practical utility, summing up the actual law 
 as it then existed and giving an impetus to new 
 study. During the next 200 years the system- 
 atic arrangement of the material was followed, 
 and several important collections appeared, 
 e.g. the worlds of Burchard of Worms, between 
 1012 and 1023, Anselm of Lucca (d. 1086), 
 Deusdedit, about 1086, and Ivo of Chartres 
 (d. 1117). During this period we have no 
 information as to methods of instruction in 
 Canon Law. The clergy must have used these 
 or similar books, especially the pcnitentials, 
 and were expected to be familiar with them. 
 But there is no trace of systematic instruction. 
 Canon Law had not .yet become a scientific 
 study, and there were no institutions where it 
 could have been taught as such. Students there 
 were of Canon Law, but the whole subject was 
 in the prescientific stage. 
 
 In the course of the twelfth century a revolu- 
 tion took place in the teaching of Canon Law, 
 as, indeed, of all other branches of knowledge, 
 and it became one of the principal subjects taught 
 at Bologna and later at all universities. In 
 addition to the general intellectual revival of the 
 twelfth century, which had made itself felt 
 first at Bologna and Paris, there were several 
 causes for the change that came over the study 
 and teaching of Canon Law. There was, in the 
 first place, the revival of a scientific study of 
 Roman Law, whereby under the lead of Irnerius 
 (q.v.) and his followers that law became the 
 leading subject studied at Bologna. There 
 had never been a time when Roman Law had 
 not been studied and taught to some extent, 
 and since the latter ]iart of the ninth century its 
 connection with Canon Law was constant. 
 Secondly, there was the new dialectical method 
 used by Abelard (q.v.) in his Sic. et Non, with 
 its fascinating task of balancing and reconciling 
 conflicting authorities, tlie method first em- 
 ployed in the new teaching of Canon Law. 
 Thirdly, there was the new interest given to the 
 study of Canon Law by the great development 
 of the constitutional and legal sides of the 
 Church in the great struggle which had been 
 inaugurated by Hildebrand and brought to a 
 preliminary triumph in the Concordat of Worms 
 in 1123. The work with which the new method 
 was introduced was the production of a monk 
 of the Convent of St. Felix at Bologna, Gratian 
 by name, who appears to have taught Canon 
 Law and to have published, between 1141 and 
 1150, his Concordia Discordantium Canonum, 
 later known as the Decretum. The importance 
 of the work was that it introduced a method 
 of handling the great mass of Canon Law which 
 had grown up, of ridding it by a dialectical 
 method of its innumerable contradictions, and 
 building up from it a consistent body of legal 
 doctrine. Teaching Canon Law was now 
 po.ssible as a scientific pursuit. The reform 
 Gratian introduced was due to his careful dis- 
 tinction as to the force of canons and other 
 legal material, based upon the authority of the 
 
 528 
 
 councils in which they were respectively enacted 
 and the date at which they were issued, and, 
 what is more important for the advance in 
 method of teaching, to the thoroughgoing em- 
 ployment of the scholastic method of logical 
 distinctions. The effect of the work was in- 
 stantaneous. Although the Decretum never 
 became authoritative in courts of law, and the 
 force of a citation was merely that of the cita- 
 tion in its original form, yet the book was hardly 
 the less influential, for it became at once the 
 recognized textbook, displacing aU rivals, and 
 for a time serving as the sole basis of instruc- 
 tion in the same way that the almost exactly 
 contemporaneous Sentences of Peter Lombard 
 became the basis of instruction in theology. 
 The relation between these books was therefore 
 well expressed in the fable that these two 
 natives of Lombardy were twin brothers. 
 
 The method of teaching Canon Law became 
 at once that which had been inaugurated in the 
 University of Bologna in teaching Civil Law, 
 that of glossing. There was this difference: 
 the text of the Pandects was itself authoritative; 
 the Decretum was at once a text, not always 
 authoritative, and a gloss upon that text. We 
 have therefore in the work of the glossators, 
 who begin even in Gratian's time, an advance 
 in the interpretation of the law, not always in 
 exact accordance with Gratian's theories. The 
 first of these glossators was Paucapalea, some of 
 whose glosses, marked as Paleae, have been 
 incorporated in the text of the Decretum. He 
 was followed by a host of other teachers, 
 several of whose summae have been published, 
 among them jNIagistcr Rolandus, at once a 
 pupil of Abelard and of Gratian, and afterwards 
 Pope Alexander III, the first of the long line of 
 great lawyer popes, Magister Rufinus, Stephen 
 of Tournay, and still others. Bazianus (d. 1197) 
 was the first Doctor utriusqne juris. 
 
 The next development in Canon Law arose 
 out of the study begun by Gratian's work. 
 The leaders of the Church for more than a cen- 
 tury were either professors of Canon Law or 
 students of that science, and several, holding 
 pontificates of relatively long periods, produced 
 a mass of legislation which rapidly antiquated 
 the collection of Gratian, though conceived in 
 his spirit. These great legislators were Alex- 
 ander III (1159-1181), Innocent III (1198- 
 1216), Honorius III (1216-1227), Gregory IX 
 (1227-1241), and Innocent IV (1243-1254), who 
 was one of the greatest canonists of the Church. 
 There were also held three great councils, the 
 Lateran Councils of 1179 and 1215, intro- 
 ducing throughgoing reforms in the adminis- 
 tration and law of the Church, and the Council 
 of Lyons, a.d. 1245. This became, therefore, a 
 period of new compilations of which the most 
 important, the Quinque compilationes antiquae, 
 have been published (ed. by Friedberg, Leipzig, 
 1SS2). They were all arranged after a new 
 system devised by the author of the first com- 
 pilation, Bernhard of Pavia, who arranged his
 
 CANON LAW 
 
 CANON LAW 
 
 material, not under the logical divisions of a 
 legal system, but under five general heads, ac- 
 cording to the verse, Judex, judicium, derus, con- 
 nubia, crimen, with the canons and decretals 
 under various titles. In this first compilation 
 were gathered the decretals of the popes since 
 1139 and the canons of the councils. The first 
 official compilation was one of the five, known as 
 Tertia, made at the command of Innocent III 
 by Petrus Collivacinus in 1210, and sent to the 
 University of Bologna, as the great legal uni- 
 versity of the Church, that it might be used 
 tam injudiciis quain in scholis. Thenceforward 
 the teachers of Canon Law commented upon 
 the decretals in this new collection along with 
 the Decrel n m , and a distinction between Ordinar)' 
 and Extraordinary lectures was built up .similar 
 to that which had become established in Civil 
 Law between the portions of the Pandects 
 known as the Digestiim Vetus, the Infortiatiim, 
 and the Digestion Novum. Another compila- 
 tion, the Quinln, was sent by Honorius III in 
 1226 to tha canonist Tancred who had been 
 made Arclidoacon of Bologna, the official who 
 since 1219 had taken the leading part in the 
 conferring of degrees at Bologna and so acted 
 in place of Chancellor, and also to the Univer- 
 sity of Paris, which had been rapidly forging to 
 the front. The last step in this development 
 took place in 1234, when Gregory IX sent to 
 these two universities his great collection drawn 
 up by the distinguished canonist, Raymund 
 of Pennaforte, and designed to be of exclusive 
 authority. In this collection we have for the 
 first time a code similar to the Codex of Ju.s- 
 tinian, a complete collection of laws of general 
 authority comprising all the law up to the date 
 of issue that was to retain its force. Tliis code, 
 known as the Decretales Gregorii IX, was to 
 serve as the authoritative text not only in 
 courts but in schools. (Volcntes igilur, ut hoc 
 tantum compilatione universi utantur in judi- 
 ciis et in scholis, districtius prohihentes, ne 
 quis praesumnt aliam facere absque auctoritale 
 sedis apostolicae speciali, BuUar. Taur. Ill, p. 
 48.5.) But this was understood as not displac- 
 ing the Decrelum of Gratian as the basis of in- 
 struction as well, for on the Dccretum the more 
 important lectures, the Ordinary, were long 
 after still delivered. Two subsequent collec- 
 tions were officially pronnilgated, the Liber 
 Scx^us, compiled under Boniface VIII and pub- 
 lished in the same way as the Decretals of 
 Gregory IX, and the Constitutioncs CIcmentis, 
 or Clementina, of Clement V, published in 
 1317 by John XXII, after the death of Clement 
 at Avignon. To these were added two un- 
 official collections, the Extramgantes Johannis 
 XXII and ti>c Extravagnntes communes, decre- 
 tals which, because of their general use in uni- 
 versities as the basis of lectures, were brought 
 together for convenience. 
 
 The method of treating these official collec- 
 tions, the genesis of which has been stated, 
 was that of glossing or commenting upon the 
 
 -2m 
 
 529 
 
 text. The teacher read a portion of the text, 
 analyzed it, pointed out the significance of the 
 legal principles involved, and showed their 
 application. The task which Gratian had set 
 the teacher of treating the whole mass of law 
 so as to effect the reconciliation of inconsisten- 
 cies by means of distinctions fell into the back- 
 ground. The aim now was to ascertain the 
 exact meaning and implication of each state- 
 ment. To this no little assistance was drawn 
 from the Civil Law. The contrast between 
 the two methods can be seen at a glance by 
 comparing such a work as the Sttmma of Hos- 
 tiensis with the Su7n7na of Rufinus, the former 
 based upon the Decretals, the latter upon Gra- 
 tian. The new method was carried to the 
 highest pitch of refinement by the great Canon- 
 ists, the first who composed a commentary or 
 Apparatus to the five books of the Decretals being 
 no one less than Sinibaldus Fliscus, or Innocent 
 IV, who wrote his Comwentaria in quinque 
 libros dccretalium, one of the best ever written, 
 about the time he held the Council of Lyons, 
 A.D. 1253. The number of the commentators 
 is legion. One of the most important was Hen- 
 ricus de Segusio (d. 1271), later known as 
 Hostiensis, having become Bishop of Ostia. 
 iEgidius Fuscarius (d. 1289) was the first 
 layman to teach Canon Law with distinction, 
 but what is of more importance for the his- 
 tory of the teaching of Canon Law at Bologna 
 was the honor paid to his memory and later to 
 all the other teachers of Canon Law in Bologna, 
 of burial with the same honors as the Doctors 
 of Civil Law, for before his death there had been 
 some disparity between the Canonists and 
 Legists. Prominent as teachers were Wilhelmus 
 Durantis, Guido de Baysio, known as the Arch- 
 deacon, because holding that position at 
 Bologna, appointed by the city professor of the 
 Decretum, with a special salary, Johannes 
 Andrea, " fons et tuba juris canonici" (d. 1314), 
 and many others, all at Bologna. Among the 
 later canonists were Nicolaus de Tudeschi 
 (d. 1443), known as Panormitanus from his 
 diocese, Palermo, and Johannes Turrecremata 
 (d. 1468). But the list of teachers of the first 
 rank is very long, for there was no more profit- 
 able employment for legal talent than practice 
 in the ecclesiastical courts, where important 
 cases were constantly being tried, and no more 
 promising ground for rapid advance in prefer- 
 ment than a reputation for canonical learning. 
 For this reason the study of Canon Law was 
 carried on more industriously than even that 
 of theology, for the proficient in theology 
 obtained little advantage in the struggle for 
 ecclesiastical patronage. The parish priest 
 needed little theological training, and obtained 
 even less. The ecclesiastical lawyer held the 
 key to all the high offices. 
 
 The University of Bologna set the example 
 to be followed by the other institutions in the 
 method of teaching. In the first place, the in- 
 struction was divided into two groups of lee-
 
 CANON LAW 
 
 CANON LAW 
 
 turcs, the Ordinary, or the more important, and 
 tlie Extraordinary. The Ordinary covered at 
 Hoh)gna was very probably at first the Decretuin, 
 but afterwards it came to cover tiie Decretals 
 of Gregory IX. The Extraordinary covered 
 the Liber Sextus, the Clementina, and the 
 Extravagantes. The division between the two 
 groups became less important than in the Civil 
 Law because of the great difference in extent 
 between the two groups, and Ordinary subjects 
 were necessarily treated in Extraordinary 
 lectures. At Paris the division was also some- 
 what uncertain. The principal difference be- 
 tween the two classes of lectures, apart from 
 subject matter, was that the Ordinary lectures 
 could be delivered only by the doctors or ma- 
 gisters (the names are synonymous) and in the 
 morning hours, but the Extraordinary lectures 
 might be delivered by advanced scholars as a 
 part of their training for the doctorate, and 
 were in any case delivered in the afternoon. 
 The Ordinary lectures were formal and covered 
 long passages, but the Extraordinary lectures 
 were frequently in the form of discussions of 
 special points, were less formal, and admitted 
 questioning on the part of both instructor and 
 student. 
 
 In teaching Canon Law the importance of the 
 glo.ss was hardly less important than in teaching 
 Civil Law. The glossa ordinaria to the Decre- 
 tuni was composed by Johannes Teutonicus in 
 1215, and had the advantage of giving a sum- 
 mary of all the best opinion on the text to that 
 date. This gloss was henceforward copied with 
 the text and used both in the lectures and in 
 the courts. In this way the lecture room was 
 kept in touch with the jiractioal application of 
 the law. The disadvantage was that the com- 
 ment of the teacher was upon the gloss even 
 more than upon the original text, a failing which 
 characterized the teaching of the Civil Law 
 even more when a glossa ordinaria to that had 
 been composed by Accursius in 1260. Glossae 
 were also provided for the official collections 
 of decretals, which acquired recognition in the 
 schools and courts as having a sort of authority 
 as glossae ordinariae. They in turn were sub- 
 jected to the same use in lectures as the basis of 
 instruction. These glossae do not api)ear in 
 the modern editions of the Canon Law, of 
 which the best is that of Friedbcrg, Leipzig, 
 1879-1881. The last edition with the glossae 
 such as was used in instruction throughout 
 the Middle Ages was that published at Lyons 
 in 1671. 
 
 Up to the time of the Reformation the center 
 of the study of Canon Law was undoubtedly 
 Italy, and the University of Bologna was the 
 fountainhead. In the sixteenth century the 
 lead was taken by France, and Paris and Tou- 
 louse became more prominent than Bologna. A 
 little later Germany began to take a new inter- 
 est in the subject. At the Reformed and 
 Protestant universities generally, in the cen- 
 turies following the Reformation, the study of 
 
 Canon Law undoubtedly fell off. The study of 
 the Civil Law, however, flourished because of 
 the official introduction of the Roman Law on 
 the basis of the fiction that the Holy Roman 
 Empire of the German people was the con- 
 tinuation of the Roman Empire of Constantine 
 and Justinian. With this large parts of the 
 Canon Law had become closely connected, 
 especially in matters treating of marriage and 
 in the civil processes of the courts, the latter a 
 matter in which the Canon Law stood in closer 
 connection with the German practice of the 
 courts than did the Civil Law. Thus in spite 
 of the repudiation of the Canon Law by the 
 Reformers (cf. Luther's burning the Book of 
 the Decretals along with the Pope's Bull, Dec. 
 10, 1520), the Canon Law so far as it did not 
 touch the hierarchical system and the doctrines 
 of the Church continued to be taught in the 
 legal faculties of the German universities 
 under non-Roman control. In the Roman 
 Catholic institutions attention contiimed to be 
 given, the subject was indispensable, but there 
 were no longer the same brilliant prospects 
 open to the canonist. 
 
 On account of the importance of Canon Law 
 for the scientific and historical study of many 
 legal topics, it is still studied in the universities 
 of continental Europe, and of other countries 
 where the Roman and the Canon laws have 
 been subsidiary laws. Every term courses are 
 announced in the legal faculties of the larger 
 of these universities on the Canon Law as a 
 whole and upon special topics. It is due to 
 this interest that new textbooks constantly 
 appear in French, German, Italian, and Latin, 
 and the liveliest interest is taken in all topics 
 connected with its history. Thus some of the 
 best textbooks liave been written by Protes- 
 tants, e.g. Richter and Friedberg, and the 
 standard edition of the Corpus Juris Canonici 
 is by Friedberg, and the eminent historian of 
 French law, Esmein, has written a masterly 
 work on Mariage en droit canonique. Canon 
 Law is also studied in all seminaries of the 
 Roman Catholic Church as an essential part of 
 the professional training of the clergy. In 
 English-speaking countries the professional 
 study and teaching of the Canon Law has al- 
 most disappeared among Protestants, even 
 where, as in the case of the Anglican Com- 
 munion, a very large part of the ecclesiastical 
 law of the various branches of that communion 
 is derived from the Canon Law. This is due 
 largely to the attitude taken by Henry VIII 
 toward the Canon Law. He abolished its 
 study at the universities in 1535, encouraging 
 Roman or Civil Law in its place. Though 
 Canon Law remained in force in England after 
 the breach with Rome, it did so only so far as it 
 did not contravene the King's prerogative, a 
 very vague term, or the statutes of the realm. 
 This was further limited by the understanding 
 that only so much was to retain the force of 
 law as could be shown to have been observed in 
 
 530
 
 CANON LAW 
 
 CAPELLA 
 
 England prior to the breach with Rome. The 
 fiction was invented that the Canon Law had 
 never been binding in England propria vigore, 
 but had been received by the English people and 
 only in parts. Abortive attempts were made 
 in the sixteenth century to revise the law, but 
 with judges violently opposed to the Canon Law 
 on religious grounds and accepting the pre- 
 ambles to Henry's statutes as historical truth, 
 much of the law was set aside by judicial inter- 
 pretation. Still there was enough to \yarrant 
 serious study, if only in the matter of wills and 
 marriage. Yet here a body of law, known as 
 the King's Law ecclesiastical, had grown up, 
 and much study of the decretals would have 
 been regarded as antiquarian research savoring 
 of popery, e.g. Ayliffo's Parergon. To this 
 condition should be added as a cause for the 
 disappearance of the teaching of Canon Law 
 the disappearance of all legal professorial teach- 
 ing, for until recently law was read entirely in 
 chambers. There have not yet appeared, so 
 far as can be ascertained, any courses in Canon 
 Law in England, and the study has been con- 
 fined to the .students of history largely. In theo- 
 logical seminaries of the Anglican Communion, 
 the study has been revived to a slight degree, 
 especially in the United States. In American 
 universities some courses have been announced 
 in connection with the study of Medieval and 
 Chtirch History, as at Harvard by Professor 
 E. Emerton. The writer has also lectured at 
 Harvard on Canon Law. There are at present 
 no courses now being given in the subject so far 
 as can be discovered. In the law schools 
 of America, Canon Law fares even worse than 
 the Civil or Roman Law. In these schools, in 
 spite of their great advance in methods of teach- 
 ing English and American Law, a subject so 
 slightly connected with actual practice of law 
 has obtained no recognition. 
 
 The literature bearing on the teaching of 
 Canon Law is scanty and fragmentary. In 
 addition to the textbooks of Canon Law, of 
 which some of the most important are those 
 of Schultc, Friedberg, Richter, Vering, von 
 Scherer, and Walter, all of which contain large 
 sections devoted to the history of the science, 
 the following works may be consulted, but the 
 list is merely suggestive. There is as yet no 
 history of the Teaching of Canon Law. But 
 in addition to the works cited much information 
 may be obtained from the histories of univer- 
 sities in Europe in the Middle Ages, such as 
 tho.se of Rasiulall, Denifle, and Kaufmann. 
 The modern method of instruction has taken the 
 form of systems of Canon Law corresponding 
 to the elements of jurisprudence which have 
 been popular in all countries, or to the Pandec- 
 tenrechl of the Germans. Among the more 
 notable textbooks in use at present are those of 
 Friedberg, Richter, Vering, and Devoti. More 
 elaborate treatises have appeared by Hinschius, 
 von Scherer, and Phillips, which, although 
 planned upon the form of a textbook, are very 
 
 elaborate and profound treatises in several 
 volumes. J. C. A., Jr. 
 
 References : — 
 
 Hinschius. System des Kalholischen Kirckenrechts, mit 
 besonderer Rucksicht auf Deutschland. (1869-1888.) 
 
 LoENiNG. Geschichte des deutschen Kirckenrechts (1878.) 
 
 Massen. Geschichte der Quellen iind Literatur des 
 canonischen Rechts. (Gratz, 1870.) 
 
 Maitland. Ro7nan Canon Law in the Church of Eng- 
 land. (Cambridge, 1899.) 
 
 Madrus Sarti et Maukus Fattorini. De Claris archi- 
 gyvnuisii Bononiensis professoribus. (17G9.) 
 
 Rashd.\ll, H. Universities of Europe. (Oxford, 1895.) 
 
 Savigny. Geschichte des romischen Rechts im Mittel- 
 alter, 1834. 
 
 ScHULTE. Geschichte der Quellen und Literatur des 
 canonischcn Rechts. (Stuttgart, 1875.) 
 System und Lehrbu^h. 
 
 Actual textbooks used in the twelfth century are the 
 Summae of Paucapalea (1891), Rufinus (1892), 
 StephanusTornacensis (1891), all edited by Schulte ; 
 the Summa of Rolandus, ed. by Thaner, 1874 ; 
 Summa Decretaliuni of Bernardus Papicnsis, ed. by 
 LaspcjTes, 1860. 
 
 CANTOR. — See Precentor; also. Cathe- 
 dral Schools; Church Schools. 
 
 CAPE COLONY, EDUCATION IN. — See 
 
 South Africa, Education in. 
 
 CAPELLA, MARTIANUS MINEUS FELIX. 
 
 — Flourished in North Africa probably in the 
 late fourth and early fifth Christian century, 
 though some have placed him a century earlier. 
 He was a lawyer, possibly also a teacher, but 
 little is known of him personally. He lives as 
 the author of a curious allegorical treatise on the 
 Seven Liberal Arts, entitled De Nuptiis Philo- 
 logiae et Mercurii (Concerning the Marriage of 
 Philology and Mercury). This work consists 
 of 9 books, the first 2 of which contain the 
 allegory of the marriage, which takes place 
 before the assembly of all the gods of Latin 
 mythology. ApoUo presents as gifts to the 
 bride seven maidservants, the seven arts. Gram- 
 mar, Dialectic, Rhetoric, Geometry, Arithmetic, 
 Astronomy, and Music. As each maid is led 
 forward she relates her parentage and expounds 
 the substance of her arts. These speeches 
 constitute the last 7 books of the treatise. 
 The entire work is extremely pedantic, formal, 
 and involved; the allegorical parts fantastic, 
 the expository ones extremely tasteless and 
 clumsy. But the treatise forms an encyclo- 
 pedia of the various subjects, displays much 
 learning, and served as text on the entire range 
 of culture as known during the Middle Ages. 
 The book on astronomy clearly foreshadows the 
 heliocentric theory of the universe, but its 
 significance to the Middle Ages was as a con- 
 venient summary of the past. With Boe- 
 thius representing logic, and Donatus and 
 Priscian grammar, Capella completed the 
 authoritative curriculum of the Middle Ages; 
 though objection was often raised to the Mar- 
 riage of Philology and Mercury as being the 
 work of a pagan. 
 
 531
 
 CAPITAL UNIVERSITY 
 
 CARLETON COLLEGE 
 
 References : — 
 
 Abelson, p. The Seven Liberal Art^. Columbia Univ. 
 
 T. C. Contrib. to Educ. (New York, lil06.) 
 Cole, P. Later Roman Education in Auxoniwi, Capella, 
 
 and the Theodosian Code. (New York, 1909.) 
 Sandys, J. E. A History of Classical Scholarship, Vol. 
 
 I. (Cambridge, 190.3.) 
 Taylor, H. O. The Classical Heritage of the Middle 
 
 Ages. (New York, 1901.) 
 
 CAPITAL UNIVERSITY AND THEOLOG- 
 ICAL SEMINARY, COLUMBUS, OHIO.— 
 
 The university was cstalili.shed in IS.jO to pro- 
 vide academic preparation for the seminary 
 which had been founded in 1830 by the Evangel- 
 ical Lutheran Joint Synod of Ohio and other 
 states. Classical and scientific courses leading 
 up to the appropriate degrees are offered. 
 A two years' department preparatory to the col- 
 lege is also maintained, to which students who 
 have completed the eighth grade of a common 
 school are admitted. A tliree years' course is 
 given in the theological seminary, in wliich both 
 German and English are used in instruction. 
 There is a faculty of 11 professors. 
 
 CAPS AND GOWNS. — See Academic 
 Costume. 
 
 CARBON DIOXIDE. — See Air of the 
 
 Schoolroom. 
 
 CARDAN. — Girolamo Cardano (Latin, Hier- 
 onymus Cardanus; English, Jerome Cardan), 
 was one of the foremost algebraists of the 
 sixteenth century. He was born at Pavia in 
 1501, and died at Rome in 1576. He was pro- 
 fessor of mathematics at Bologna and at Padua. 
 Of his numerous works the most important is 
 the Ars Magna, first published at Nurnberg 
 in 1545. (See Algebra.) In this is contained 
 the first printed solution of the cubic equation, 
 a solution that he seems to have obtained from 
 Tartaglia (q.v.) under pledge of secrecy, but the 
 proof of which he claims to have supplied. 
 The solution usually goes by the name of 
 " Cardan's method." D. E. S. 
 
 CAREW, RICHARD (1555-1620). — An 
 English scholar who was educated at O.xford, a 
 country gentleman, Justice of the Peace, mem- 
 ber of ParUament for Saltash, translator of part 
 of Tasso, and writer of an antiquarian book on 
 Cornwall, 1602. Educationally Carew is im- 
 portant as the translator (1594) under the title 
 of The Examination of Men's Wits of the Span- 
 iard Juan Huarte's Examen de Ingenios para 
 las Ciencias (1557) (see Huarte, Juan), a 
 book advocating the education of youth in 
 accordance with the mental characteristics 
 which they showed before and during the time 
 of instruction, thus really the pioneer of educa- 
 tional psj-chology. Carew also wrote a short 
 but valuable essay on The True and Ready 
 Way to Learn the Latine Tongue; expressed 
 in an Answer to a Queri (query), whether the 
 ordinary way oj teaching Latine by the Rules of 
 
 Grammar, he the best Way for Youths to Learn 
 it. This was reprinted by Samuel Hartlib in 
 1654, along with the views on the same subject 
 of Eilhardus Lubinus, the German, and Mon- 
 taigne, the Frenchman. Carew gives an ac- 
 count of his own education. He spent at 
 school 9 or 10 years over the rules of Lily's 
 Grammar. For 3 years he was at Oxford, and 
 3 further years at the Middle Temple. He 
 then traveled in Poland and Sweden, and had 
 to attempt to use the Latin language as the 
 medium of communication, and found his 
 grammar training fail him. He then went into 
 France, and in three quarters of a year learned 
 more French than he had learned Latin in 13 
 years. He thence argued that Latin should be 
 taught by " usual talking and much reading 
 and writing." He maintains that the rules of 
 grammar arise from the common practice of 
 speech, and not vice versa. Finally, he says; 
 " I hold it likewise very necessary for every 
 teacher to be as diligent in observing the ex- 
 ceeding different nature of all their scholars, 
 according to the dispositions of their person 
 and age, rather than according to their common 
 rules; for some can learn the same thing better 
 at 7 than others at 14; and yet those at the 
 14 years' end will many times overturn and 
 outgo the same persons, who so much outwent 
 them before." F. W. 
 
 CARIES. — See Teeth, Hygiene of. 
 
 CARLETON COLLEGE, FARMINGTON, 
 
 MO. — A coeducational institution founded in 
 1S54 as an academy. It is now under the 
 auspices of the Methodist Episcopal Church. 
 Preparatory, academic, collegiate, and musical 
 departments are maintained, though the work 
 given is chiefly preparatory. Degrees are 
 conferred. 
 
 CARLETON COLLEGE, NORTHFIELD, 
 
 MINN. — A coeducational institution founded 
 as Northfield College, which received its first 
 class in 1870. The first trustees, nominated in 
 1866 by the State Association of Congregational 
 Churches, adopted articles of incorporation and 
 became a self-perpetuating body of 24 mem- 
 bers, free from denominational control; each 
 trustee serves 4 years. A preparatory school 
 was opened in 1867 and discontinued in 1906. 
 Upon the location of the college in Northfield, 
 its citizens gave 820,000, and the Congregational 
 churches of the state 810,000, toward the 
 establishment of a "Founder's Fund." The 
 college is one of 23 institutions fostered 
 by the Congregational Educational Society. 
 In recognition of the first large donation, 
 S50,000 from Mr. William Carleton of Charles- 
 town, Mass., the name was changed to Carle- 
 ton College, Jan. 16, 1872. Other gifts 
 formed the nucleus of the General Endowment 
 Fund, including .'550,000 from Dr. D. K. Pear- 
 sons of Chicago. The largest single gift has 
 
 532
 
 CARLYLE 
 
 CARLYLE 
 
 been $100,000 from Mr. William H. Laird of 
 Winona, in 1905. Tlie college is endeavoring 
 to complete an endowment of $500,000. 
 Carleton College is one of the institutions 
 originally accepted by the Carnegie Founda- 
 tion for the Advancement of Teachmg (q.v.). 
 Besides the usual undergraduate courses, 
 admission to which is by examination or cer- 
 tificate, the college maintains a school of music 
 and graduate courses; the degree of M.A. is 
 given for 1 year's study in residence, or 2 
 years' study in absentia, in each case requirmg 
 a thesis, the department of mathematics and 
 astronomy offers courses leading to the Ph.D. 
 By arrangement with the University of Minne- 
 sota, students intending to study medicine may, 
 during their senior year, take professional stud- 
 ies in the university. Women must reside 
 in Gridley Hall, the women's dormitory, or in 
 other buildings exclusively for their use; the 
 supervision of the women is comniitted to a 
 dean, and regulations governing social relations 
 between men and women are strict. There are 
 no fraternities: Phi Kappa Psi maintained a 
 chapter from 1883 to 1888. The college owns 
 the Laird Athletic Field, situated on the bank 
 of the Cannon River. There are no dormi- 
 tories for men. The library has 23,000 volumes. 
 Grounds, buildings, and equipment were valued 
 (1906) at $232,000; the total annual income 
 was $33,000. The average salary of a pro- 
 fessor is $1400. The instructing staff (1909) 
 numbers 21, of whom 8 are full professors. 
 There are 340 students, divided as follows: 
 College, 310; School of Music, 30. Donald J. 
 Cowling is president. C. G. 
 
 CARLYLE, THOMAS, AS AN EDUCATOR. 
 
 — The chief events in the life of Carlyle, em- 
 phasizing especially those related to his career 
 as a teacher, a teacher in the technical sense 
 of the word, are as follows: Thomas Carlyle 
 (born Dec. 4, 1795, at Ecelcfechan in southern 
 Scotland) learned the alphabet, he says, at his 
 mother's knee. At the age of 5 he was in the 
 village school. At about 7 he was reported 
 " complete in English, ... I must go on to 
 Latin or waste my time." To Latin then he 
 went, and soon " made rapid and sure \yay." 
 At ten he entered Annan Academy, May 26, 
 1806. After three years of gerund-grinding he 
 could read Latin and French " with fluency," 
 and he knew something of geometry, algebra, 
 and geography. On Nov. 9, 1809, while he 
 was yet 1.3, he entered Edinburgh, having 
 w^alked from Ecclefechan in three days. The 
 earliest reference to Carlyle as engaged in teach- 
 ing is apparently the following, from the earliest 
 letter from his father that has been preserved: 
 Ecclefechan. 27th April, 1814. 
 Dear Sir, — I received yours yesterday, 
 and was very glad to hear that you were well 
 and was teaching, for we did not know what to 
 do, whether you were coming home or going to 
 stop at I'xlinburgh; . . . 
 
 In the summer of 1814 — in June — Carlyle 
 was appointed mathematical master in his old 
 school at Annan, " salary about £70." Here he 
 remained about two and one half years, " a clear 
 and correct expositor," but doing violence to 
 educational doctrine in that he did not mingle 
 freely in the social life of the place. In late 
 autumn of 1810 he became parish schoolmaster 
 at Kirkcaldy, a few miles beyond Edinburgh, 
 where he and Edward Irving (later a distin- 
 guished London preacher and founder of a sect) 
 became fast friends. On Nov. 20, 1818, Carlyle 
 left for Edinburgh with no definite prospects, and 
 with perhaps £100 of his savings. On Dec. 17 
 he wrote to his mother, reassuringly, that he had 
 three hours of private teaching at two guineas 
 a month for each hour. But by the middle of 
 January these particular engagements had come 
 to an end. In Feb., 1819, he spoke of " a slight 
 tincture " of the German language, which he is 
 receiving in return for an equally slight tinc- 
 ture of the French, which he is communicating. 
 On Mar. 29 he is " still at the German," and is 
 able to read books now, with a dictionary. As 
 late as 1834, when Carlyle was 38 years of age 
 and had written Sartor Resartus and his Essay 
 on Burns, and had been for years in intimate 
 correspondence with Goethe, he was exchang- 
 ing lessons in geometry for lessons in Greek. 
 " Began Homer two weeks ago. . . . Poor 
 Glen is my very sufficient help here " — though 
 this exchange was doubtless largely for his 
 friend's sake, a man of genius, whose mind 
 was sinking into eclipse. 
 
 The three years following the resignation of 
 his Kirkcaldy school, that is, 1819, 1820, 1821, 
 were years of sore trial to himself, for many 
 reasons, and of disappointment to his family. 
 Tom would neither go on into the ministry nor 
 remain in the respectable rank of the profes- 
 sional schoolmaster. He spent the winters at 
 Edinburgh, the summers at home. He was 
 earning something writing articles for Brew- 
 ster's Encydopcedia, and there are occasional 
 references in the correspondence with friends 
 and family to private teaching. In Sept., 1820, 
 he refused a (Yorkshire) traveling tutorship, 
 and again in 1821 a tutorship offered by his 
 Kirkcaldy friend, Provost Swan. But in Jan., 
 1822, he accepted an offer that came to him 
 through his friend Irving, now in London, of a 
 tutorship to two promising youths — one of 
 whom, Charles Buller, in after years had a 
 share in giving responsible government to Eng- 
 land's greatest colonv, " Our Lady of the 
 Snows"; the other, Arthur Buller. later "Sir 
 Arthur and Indian Judge " (on the opposite 
 side of the w^orld from Canada), both to the 
 last " always generously grateful " to their re- 
 markable tutor. The £200 per annum " and 
 good accommodations in the house " was to 
 him opulence. He sent for his brother John — 
 later translator of the Inferno — to come to the 
 university at his expense, and in various ways 
 came to the support of the family. This tutor- 
 
 533
 
 CARLYLE 
 
 CARLYLE 
 
 ship he held until July, 1824. By this time he 
 had translated Legendre's Geomeluj from the 
 French, Goethe's WUhclm Meister's Apprentice- 
 ship from the German, and had written a Life 
 of Schiller for the London Magazine. And he 
 had wooed and won the beautiful and brilliant 
 Jane Baillie Welsh. 
 
 After their marriage on Oct. 17, 1826, there 
 were at various times attempts made to secure 
 for Carlyle a university professorship. In the 
 latter part of 1827 one of the new London pro- 
 fessorships was talked of — English literature 
 or moral philosophy. In the early part of 
 1828 a concerted attempt was made to secure 
 for Carlyle the vacant professorship of moral 
 philosophy in St. Andrews University. " Equal 
 testimonials," says Froude, " viewed by the 
 intrinsic quality of the givers, to those which 
 were collected or spontaneously offered on this 
 occasion, were perhaps never presented by any 
 candidate for a Scotch professorship." Goethe 
 wrote a magnanimous testimonial. Carlyle 
 wrote to his brother John at Munich that such 
 praise as this one " ought to value more than 
 any Professorship in these parts." This tes- 
 timonial from Goethe was, as a matter of fact, 
 probably not presented to the St. Andrew elec- 
 tors — not that it would have affected the deci- 
 sion. " Dr. Cook is as good as appointed; . . . 
 Goethe's certificate arrived while I was in the 
 country: mustard after dinner; which these 
 rough feeders shall not so much as smell! " 
 — Letter to Dr. John Carlyle, Munich, Apr. 16, 
 1828. As to a possible appointment to a pro- 
 fessorship in Glasgow University, Carlyle 
 writes to his brother Aleck in January, 1833: 
 " We shall see. My own private impression is 
 that I shall never get any promotion in this 
 world." 
 
 In the early part of 1834 a professorship in 
 astronomy was about to be established in 
 Edinburgh. Carlyle had always excelled in 
 mathematics, and was qualified for the post. 
 But this time Jeffrey could not help — his in- 
 fluence having already, perhaps, been given to 
 another. He, however, embraced the occasion 
 to read Carlyle a lecture. There was another 
 professorship, viz. rhetoric, to which he might 
 have conscientiously recommended Carlyle, 
 had not Carlyle made the mention of his name 
 in such a connection ridiculous. (Sartor Re- 
 sartus was now appearing in Fraser's Magazine, 
 and was being received with universal execra- 
 tion.) This was the last time Carlyle looked 
 for such appointment. Before the middle of 
 June, 1834, he was established at No. 5 Cheyne 
 Row, Chelsea, London — his home for the rest 
 of his life. In 1841 he received an invitation 
 from a body of Edinburgh students to stand 
 for a professorship. Carlyle was touched, but 
 could not now accept. In 1844 he declined a 
 professorship at St. Andrews. But in 186.5, 
 after the publication of the last volume of 
 Frederick the Great, he received by so large a 
 majority the nomination to the Lord-Rector- 
 
 ship of the University of Edinburgh, his own 
 university, that he could not decline. It was 
 the highest tribute his countrymen could pay 
 him — it was Scotland's recognition of her 
 gifted son. 
 
 The " perfect triumph " of the Inaugural 
 Address, Apr. 2, 1866, and the subsequent uni- 
 versal acclaim were followed, while Carlyle was 
 still detained among his kinsmen, by the shock 
 of the sudden death of his wife, and the light 
 of his life was gone out. On Feb. 5, 1881, 
 Carlyle died, and according to his wish was 
 buried with his people in Ecclefechan kirkyard. 
 
 Carlyle was thus a teacher, in the technical 
 sense of the word, for years. Furthermore, he 
 wrote much on strictly educational themes. 
 And inasmuch as the readers of this peasant- 
 born writer of magnificent, rhythmical, vivid, 
 vital, imperishable English prose have been 
 numbered by the million and are found in 
 every corner of the English-speaking world and 
 in other lands as well, his influence on educa- 
 tional thought and practice, but especially on 
 educational ideals, cannot easily be overesti- 
 mated. 
 
 Carlyle's recognition by his own generation 
 was long delayed, but it came at last in a flood. 
 That immortal work of genius. Sartor Resartus 
 (which appeared in book form first in America, 
 thanks to Emerson), could not for a time find 
 a publisher in England, except the author pay 
 the publisher £150 to guarantee him against 
 loss; but before the author's death a popular 
 edition of 30,000 copies was printed and sold. 
 Sartor Resartus from beginning to end is full of 
 ideas of educational significance. And inas- 
 much as the education of the hero, Teufels- 
 drockh, is described in detail, large parts of this 
 wonderful book are in fact as , strictly educa- 
 tional in interest as Rousseau's Emile. Stimu- 
 lating and suggestive comment on educational 
 matters is found in all of Carlyle's work, for 
 Carlyle himself was greatly interested in educa- 
 tion. 
 
 This interest in educational problems and 
 theories doubtless arose partly out of his ex- 
 perience in the classroom, but it was assuredly 
 greatly stimulated by the study which Carlyle 
 made — as no English-speaking man before 
 him had made — of German literature and 
 German philosophy. He read Goethe's Faust 
 in 1820, and in 1822 published an account of it 
 in the New Edinburgh Revieiv. In 1823 and 
 1824 he was at work on Goethe's greatest 
 novel, Wilhelm Meister. Wilhelm Meister's 
 Apprenticeship, translated by Thomas Carlyle, 
 was published in 1824. This one book — so 
 wise, so rich a storehouse as it is of philosophic 
 discussion, of illuminating comment on life 
 and art — must in itself have suggested to so 
 gifted a reader as Carlyle a wide range of ideas 
 concerning education and concerning life. But 
 by the time he began on Sartor Resartus he 
 had ranged over the whole field of German 
 thought, and in silence had meditated and 
 
 534
 
 CARLYLE 
 
 CARLYLE 
 
 grown wise in the stillness of his moorland 
 Craigenputtock home. As it was manifestly 
 unprofitable for Carlyle to attempt " to state 
 the Philosophy of Clothes without the Philoso- 
 pher, the ideas of Teufelsdrockh without some- 
 thing of his personality," there are in Sartor 
 ResaHus, as a matter of course, chapters on 
 Genesis, Idyllic (childhood days), Pedagogy, 
 Getting under Way, Romance, etc., with com- 
 ment on heredity, environment, the creative 
 instinct in children (and their apparently wan- 
 ton breakages as due to this instinct), the gre- 
 garious sports by which the youth trains himself 
 to cooperation, good passivit> , and good activity, 
 the village schoolmaster, who pronounces Teu- 
 felsdrockh a genius and sends him on to the 
 gymnasium — whore, also, his teachers are 
 " hide-bound pedants without knowledge of 
 man's nature or of boy's," " inanimate, me- 
 chanical gerund-grinders," who cram into their 
 pupils " Innumerable dead Vocables," and call 
 it " fostering the growth of mind." They 
 " know syntax enough; and of the human soul 
 thus much: that it had a faculty called Memory, 
 and could be acted-on through the muscular 
 integument by appliance of birch-rods." 
 " Alas, so is it everywhere, so will it ever be; 
 till the Hodman is discharged or reduced to 
 hod bearing; and an Architect is hired, and on 
 all hands fitly encouraged: till communities 
 and individuals discover, not without surprise, 
 that fashioning the souls of a generation by 
 Knowledge can rank on a level with blowing 
 their bodies to pieces by Gunpowder; that with 
 Generals and field marshals for killing, there 
 should be world-honoured Dignitaries, and, were 
 it possible, true God-ordainod Priests, for 
 teaching." Through contact with such true 
 God-ordained priests is the mind of youth 
 fostered, which grows " like a Spirit by mysteri- 
 ous contact of Spirit; Thought kindling itself 
 at the fire of living Thought." 
 
 Before Sartor Rcsarlus was published, Car- 
 lyle, in Corn-Law Rhymes (1832), had asked, 
 " But what, after all, is meant by uneducated," 
 in these unhappy times, " when he that is the 
 least educated will chiefly have to sa}' that he 
 is the least perverted " — a question and an- 
 swer " significant of much." " As if it were 
 by universities and libraries and lecture-rooms, 
 that man's Education, what we call Education, 
 were accomplished." The first sentence of 
 Latler-Day Pamphlets (1850) is, " The Present 
 Time ... to know it, and what it bids us 
 do, is ever the sum of Knowledge for all of us." 
 " I foresee," he says, " that our Etons and 
 O.xfords with their nonsense-verses, college- 
 logics, and broken crumbs of mere speech, . . . 
 will be found a most astonishing seminary for 
 the training of young English souls to take 
 command in human Industries, and act a 
 valiant part under the sun! " 
 
 Garlyle's chief service to the cause of edu- 
 cation perhaps is the persistence with which 
 he insisted upon England's duty to provide 
 
 education for all. In 1831 no English publisher 
 could be found for this noble passage: " Two 
 men I honour and no third. First, the toil- 
 worn Craftsman that with earth-made Imple- 
 ment laboriously conquers the Earth, and makes 
 her man's. . . . Hardly-ontreated Brother ! 
 For us was thy back so bent, for us were thy 
 straight limbs and fingers so deformed: thou 
 wort our Conscript, on whom the lot fell, and 
 fighting our battles wort so marred. For in 
 thee too lay a god-created Form, but it was not 
 to be unfolded; ... It is not because of his 
 toils that I lament for the poor: . . . But 
 what I do mourn over is, that the lamp of his 
 soul should go out; that no ray of heavenly, 
 or even of earthly knowledge, should visit 
 him; . . . That there should one Man die 
 ignorant who had capacity for Knowledge, this 
 I call a tragedy, were it to happen more than 
 twenty times in the minute, as by some com- 
 putations it does. The miserable fraction of 
 Science which our united Mankind . . . has 
 acquired, why is not this, with all diligence, 
 imparted to all ? " 
 
 Why is not this, with all diligence, imparted 
 to all ? To this challenge Carlyle returns again 
 and again. Who would suppose, he cries in 
 Chartism (December, 1839), that education 
 were a thing which had to be advocated f This, 
 one would imagine, was the first function that 
 a government would set about discharging. 
 
 " Were it not a cruel thing to see, in any 
 province of an empire, the inhabitants living 
 all mutilated in their limbs, each strong man 
 with his right arm lamed ? How much cruder 
 to find the strong soul, with its eyes still sealed, 
 its eyes extinct so that it sees not ! Light has 
 come into the world, but to this poor peasant 
 it has come in vain. . . . Heavier wrong is 
 not done under the sun. It lasts from year to 
 year, from century to century; the blinded 
 sire slaves himself out, and leaves a blinded 
 son; and men, made in the image of God, con- 
 tinue as two-legged beasts of labour; and in 
 the largest empire of the world, it is a debate 
 whether a small fraction of the Revenue of one 
 Day . . . shall, after Thirteen Centuries, be 
 laid out on it, or not laid out on it. . . . Dis- 
 senters call for one scheme of Education, the 
 Church objects; this party objects, and that. 
 . . . Pity that difficulties exist; that Religion, 
 of all things, should occasion difficulties." 
 
 To Carlyle as to Sterling it is " monstrous " 
 that the State is prevented from " teaching 
 Roman Catholic children to read, write and 
 cipher, merely because they believe in the 
 Pope." " How dare any man, especially a 
 man calling himself minister of God, stand up 
 in any Parliament or place, under any pretext 
 or delusion, and for a day or an hour forbid 
 God's light to come into the world, and bid 
 the Devil's Darkness continue in it one hour 
 more! " 
 
 In successive volumes, Carljde continued to 
 call for a right Educational Bill, for an efficient 
 
 535
 
 CARMINA BURANA 
 
 CARNEGIE PHILANTHROPIES 
 
 teaching service, for a captain general of 
 teachers, a minister of education, whose work 
 would he to provide a feasible plan whereby 
 the alphabet should get itself taught and 
 God's light should come into the world. He 
 lived to see the work entered upon, in the 
 Education Act of 1870. No small part in the 
 awakening of the conscience of England to this 
 duty was taken by Thomas Carlyle. R- J- 
 
 References: — 
 Carlyle, Alex.^nder. Love Letters of Thomas Car- 
 lyle and Jane Welsh. 2 vols. (London. 1909.) 
 New Letters of Thomas Carlyle. 2 vols. (Loudon, 
 
 1904.) 
 
 New Letters and Alemorials of Ja?ie Welsh Carlyle. 
 
 2 vols. (London, 1903.) 
 
 Carlyle, Alexander, and Crichton-Browne, .Sir 
 
 James. The Nemesis of Froude. (London, 1903.) 
 
 Froude. Life of Thomas Carlyle. 4 vols. (London, 
 
 1882-1884.) 
 Garnett, Richard. Brief Life of Thomas Carlyle, in 
 the Great Writers Series. Contains a bibliography 
 by John P. Anderson of the British Museum. 
 (London, 1887.) 
 Norton. Charles Eliot. Correspondence between 
 Goethe and Thomas Carlyle. (New York, 1887.) 
 Letters of Thomas Carlyle. (New York, 1888.) 
 Reminiscences of Thomas Carlyle. 2 vols. (New 
 York, 18S7.) 
 
 CARMINA BURANA, CARMINA VAGO- 
 RUM. — Student songs, whose origin may be 
 referred back to the end of the twelfth and 
 beginning of the thirteenth centuries. The 
 first title is given to a collection of such songs 
 contained in a Ms. of the thirteenth century 
 found in the monastery of Benedictbeuern in 
 Bavaria and now preserved at Munich. The 
 second title contains the reference to the wan- 
 dering life of the students of that period. (See 
 Bacchants.) As the productions of a class 
 which stood outside the general life of the times, 
 they present pictures of the student attitude 
 to the Church and people. The songs may be 
 separated into two main divisions according 
 to content. One type deals with the wander- 
 ing life, with the delights of spring and nature, 
 with the pleasures of love and wine, and with 
 gambling and the students' struggle for exist- 
 ence. The other type includes satires on 
 society and the Church, and moral and religious 
 disquisitions. A sense of brotherhood among 
 the students marks the songs, which were so 
 widespread that it is difficult to locate their 
 origin. The student brotherhood soon de- 
 veloped into a so-called guild with Golias as 
 the patron saint. Who Golias was, into whose 
 mouth most of the songs are placed, is not 
 known. Probably he was a mythical person- 
 age created by the students to serve their pur- 
 pose. Hence the songs are the songs of a class 
 and not individual, so that it is hopeless to 
 attempt to trace the author in each case. The 
 songs are written in a great variety of meters, 
 but are all marked by a lilt and swing which 
 was demanded by the purpose which called 
 them forth. Though written in Latin, the 
 classical meters are rarely found. Instead, 
 
 accent and rhythm are given first place. In 
 many cases the measures are borrowed from 
 church hymns, which are frequently parodied. 
 In their boldness and freshness, and freedom 
 from conventional restrictions, in the pagan 
 view of life and the opposition to the Church, 
 Symonds traces the beginnings of the early 
 Renaissance and a revolt against the limitations 
 and restraints of the time. 
 
 In addition to the Ms. of the Carmina 
 Burana, which Symonds has translated in 
 Wine, Women and Song, another series of 
 student songs is collected in a Harleian Ms. 
 written before 1264. This series, whose author- 
 ship is attributed to Walter Mapes, was edited 
 in 1841 by Thomas Wright. 
 
 References: — 
 
 Symonds, J. A. Wine, Women and Song. (Portland, 
 Me., 1899.) This book contains a good bibliog- 
 raphy on the subject of student songs. 
 
 Wright, T. Walter Mapes. Camden Soc. Publ., Vol. 
 50. (London, 1850.) 
 
 CARNEGIE EDUCATIONAL PHILAN- 
 THROPIES. — Among the many remarkable 
 gifts for education and for the various forms 
 of social betterment which have marked the 
 present generation, none have been more note- 
 worthy because of the principle involved or the 
 vast sums contributed than those of Andrew 
 Carnegie. 
 
 Andrew Carnegie was born in Dunfermline, 
 Scotland, in 1837, and was brought to this coun- 
 try when twelve years of age. After a boyhood 
 passed in a variety of occupations, as with many 
 American boj^s, the close of the war found 
 him as government superintendent of military 
 railways and telegraph lines in the East. The 
 foundations of his great wealth were laid in his 
 introduction of the Bessemer steel process into 
 the United States. Mr. Carnegie's entire life 
 is identified with the upbuilding of the steel 
 industry in this country, until he retired in 1901, 
 with a colossal fortune, with the formation of 
 the United States Steel Corporation. 
 
 Mr. Carnegie's name will ever be associated 
 with one particular form of philanthropy and 
 one particular instrument of educational work, 
 — the free library. His father before him was 
 interested, with five fellow weavers, in the es- 
 tablishment of a library in his native Scotch 
 town. In 1865 Mr. Carnegie became a life 
 member of the Mercantile Library and Me- 
 chanics Institute of Pittsburg. In 1886 the 
 firm of Carnegie Brothers and Company pre- 
 sented to each of their office employees an 
 annual membership in the same library, and an 
 alcove was added for the purchase of appro- 
 priate books, and was named by the authorities 
 " the Carnegie Alcove." Some years after this 
 the gifts for the notable Carnegie libraries of 
 Pittsburg were begun. And from there grew 
 the general scheme for library encouragement 
 all over this country, and in fact over the 
 English-speaking world. 
 
 536
 
 CARNEGIE PHILANTHROPIES 
 
 CARNEGIE FOUNDATION 
 
 The principle underlying practically all of 
 these gifts is that the community must agree 
 to devote to the annual support of the library 
 a sum approximately one tenth of the sum 
 given for the building ; for Mr. Carnegie's 
 benefactions are usually given for the building 
 itself. The motives leading to this form of 
 benefaction are summarized thus by the 
 founder; " (1) The library gives nothing for 
 nothing. The youth who is improved by it must 
 cooperate. If he does not read and study, he 
 finds no reward. (2) The library supported 
 by taxation is owned by the community. It 
 is no gift to the poorer classes. They must 
 also contribute their mite. It is the library 
 of the people, and within its walls the poorest 
 citizen has all the rights of the Mayor. _ (3) Free 
 public libraries are the cradles of triumphant 
 democracy. (4) The donor does not pauperize 
 the community; he gives the building, the 
 community furnishes the site and maintains 
 the library." 
 
 To Jan. 1, 1910, Mr. Carnegie had given 
 $54,000,000 to more than 2000 libraries. The 
 circulation per year for these libraries is esti- 
 mated to be over 180,000,000 volumes or more 
 than there are English-speaking people in the 
 world. The gifts are distributed as follows: — 
 
 THE TOTAL OF MR. CARNEGIE'S LIBRARY GIFTS 
 
 United Stat«a . . 
 
 1029 buildings 208 branches 
 
 $36,160,035 
 
 Canada .... 
 
 96 buildings 
 
 5 branches 
 
 2,240.715 
 
 England and Wales 
 
 344 buildings 
 
 59 branches 
 
 8,935,380 
 
 Ireland .... 
 
 45 buildings 
 
 21 branches 
 
 767.347 
 
 Scotland .... 
 
 115 buildings 
 
 18 branches 
 
 2,142,143 
 
 New Zealand . . 
 
 17 buildings 
 
 
 167,062 
 
 British West Indies 
 
 5 buildings 
 
 
 119,000 
 
 Australia and Ta-'^ma 
 
 nia 4 buildings 
 
 
 69.280 
 
 South Africa . . 
 
 4 buildings 
 
 
 31,244 
 
 SevchcUea Islands . 
 
 1 building 
 
 
 10,000 
 
 Fiji Islands . . . 
 
 1 building 
 
 
 7,500 
 
 College Libraries . 
 
 
 
 3,660,753 
 
 
 Total . 
 
 
 $54,310,459 
 
 The distribution of these gifts in this country is as 
 follows : — ■ 
 
 Alabama 15 libraries, 
 
 Arizona 3 libraries, 
 
 Arkansas 3 libraries, 
 
 California 76 libraries, 
 
 Colorado 21 libraries, 
 
 Connecticut 7 libraries, 
 
 Delaware 1 librarj', 
 
 Florida 4 libraries, 
 
 Georeia 18 libraries, 
 
 Hawaii I library, 
 
 Idaho 7 libraries, 
 
 Illinois 87 libraries, 
 
 Indiana 69 libraries, 
 
 Iowa SO lilirariea, 
 
 Kansas 41 libraries. 
 
 Kentucky 15 libraries, 
 
 Louisiana 5 libraries, 
 
 Maine 19 libraries, 
 
 Maryland 5 libraries, 
 
 Massachusetts 29 libraries, 
 
 MichiRan 42 libraries, 
 
 Minnesota 43 libraries. 
 
 Mississippi 3 libraries. 
 
 Missouri 20 libraries, 
 
 Montana 1 1 libraries, 
 
 Nebraska 24 libraries, 
 
 Nevada 2 libraries, 
 
 New Hampshire . . . . 12 libraries, 
 
 New Jersey 21 libraries, 
 
 S306,.300. 
 
 54,000. 
 
 125,600. 
 
 1,832,787. 
 
 528,443. 
 
 65,840. 
 
 6,000. 
 
 100,000. 
 
 398,200. 
 
 100,000. 
 
 95,500. 
 
 3,279,430. 
 
 4.687,680. 
 
 1,303,906. 
 
 600.840. 
 
 776..300. 
 
 340.000. 
 
 210,550. 
 
 555,500. 
 
 747,500. 
 
 1,486.700. 
 
 573.400. 
 
 35.000. 
 
 1,389.000. 
 
 1.^4.200. 
 
 350.000. 
 
 35,000. 
 
 159,000. 
 
 651,405.50 
 
 New Mexico 2 
 
 New York 48 
 
 North Carolina 9 
 
 North Dakota 8 
 
 Ohio 71 
 
 Oklahoma 10 
 
 Oregon 7 
 
 Pennsylvania 39 
 
 South Carolina 6 
 
 South Dakota 6 
 
 Tennessee 9 
 
 Texas 29 
 
 Utah 4 
 
 Vermont 3 
 
 Virginia 4 
 
 Washington 21 
 
 West Virginia 
 
 M'isconsin 
 
 Wyoming 
 
 District of Columbia 
 
 Indian Territory 
 
 Porto Rico . . 
 
 libraries, 
 libraries, 
 libraries, 
 Ubraries, 
 libraries, 
 libraries, 
 libraries, 
 Ubraries, 
 libraries, 
 libraries, 
 libraries, 
 libraries, 
 libraries, 
 libraries, 
 libraries, 
 libraries, 
 libraries, 
 libraries, 
 libraries, 
 libraries, 
 libraries, 
 library. 
 
 20, 
 
 6,545, 
 
 147, 
 
 117, 
 
 2,509 
 
 163 
 
 180, 
 
 3,179 
 
 71 
 171 
 252 
 604 
 
 58, 
 
 73 
 211 
 741 
 
 91 
 849, 
 186 
 725 
 
 30 
 100 
 
 000. 
 ,873. 
 945.71 
 700. 
 783.04 
 000. 
 000. 
 ,215.65 
 200. 
 ,000. 
 500. 
 .200. 
 ."jOO. 
 000. 
 ,000. 
 500. 
 .500. 
 861. 
 .500. 
 ,000. 
 .000. 
 000. 
 
 Besides the library benefactions, Mr. Car- 
 negie's generosity has been directed toward 
 the improvement of educational facilities in 
 other ways. Most notable among these are 
 The Carnegie Foundation for the Improve- 
 ment of Teaching, founded in 190.5 bv the gift 
 of $10,000,000, to which S5,000,000 were added 
 in 1908 ; and the Carnegie Institution of Wash- 
 ington for the encouragement of research, by 
 the gift of 810,000,000 in 1902. These are dis- 
 cussed under the appropriate captions. 
 
 In addition to these Mr. Carnegie has given 
 generously to various colleges and universities 
 at various times. Chief among these is the 
 Carnegie Technical Institution of Pittsburg, 
 which has received over S4, 000, 000. One 
 other form of Mr. Carnegie's benefactions 
 which looks toward the education of the people 
 is the frequent gift of church pipe organs — 
 more than 4000 in all — for the purpose of im- 
 proving the musical tastes of the people. 
 
 References: — 
 
 Library Journal: an early number, usually January, 
 each year gives a summary of Mr. Carnegie's gifts 
 for the preceding year. 
 
 CARNEGIE FOUNDATION FOR THE 
 ADVANCEMENT OF TEACHING. — An 
 
 organization established Apr. 16, 1905, by Air. 
 Andrew Carnegie, having for its primary pur- 
 pose the establishing of retiring allowances in 
 the colleges, universities, and technical schools 
 of the United States, the Dominion of Canada, 
 and Newfoundland. On this date Mr. Car- 
 negie expressed his wish in a letter addressed 
 to 25 men whom he had selected as trustees 
 of the fund. A part of this letter follows : — 
 
 New York, April 16, 1905. 
 
 Gentlemen : — 
 
 I have reached the conclusion that the least rewarded 
 of all the professions is that of the teacher in our higher 
 educational institutions. New York City generouf^ly, 
 and verj* ^\'isely, pro\'ides retiring pensions for teachers 
 in her public schools and also for her policemen. Very 
 few, indeed, of our colleges are able to do so. The 
 consequences are grievous. .\ble men hesitate to adopt 
 teaching as a career, and many old professors, wlios* 
 places should be occupied by younger men, cannot be 
 retired. 
 
 537
 
 CARNEGIE FOUNDATION 
 
 CARNEGIE FOUNDATION 
 
 I have therefore transferred to you and your sue- 
 cessors, as Trustees, $10,000,000, 5 per cent First 
 Mortjiage Bonds of the United States Steel Corpora- 
 tion, the revenue from which is to provide retiring 
 pensions for the teachers of Universities, Colleges, and 
 Technical Schools in our country, Canada, and New- 
 foundland under such conditions as you may adopt 
 from time to time. Expert calculation shows that the 
 revenue will lie ample for the purpose. 
 
 The fund applies to the three classes of institutions 
 named, without regard to race, sex. creed, or color. 
 We have, however, to recognize that State and Colonial 
 Governments, which have established or mainly sup- 
 ported Universities, Colleges, or Schools, may prefer 
 that their relations shall remain exclusively with the 
 State. I cannot, therefore, presume to include them. 
 
 There is another class which States do not aid, their 
 constitution in some cases even forbidding it, viz.. 
 Sectarian Institutions. Many of these, established 
 long ago, were truly sectarian, but to-flay are free to 
 all men of all creeds or of none — such are not to be 
 considered sectarian now. Only such as are under the 
 control of a sect or require Trustees (or a majority 
 thereof). Officers, Faculty, or Students, to belong to 
 any specified sect, or which impose any theological test, 
 are to be excluded. 
 
 Gratefully yours, 
 
 Andrew Carnegie. 
 
 The trustees were erected into a corporation 
 by an act of Congre.ss approved Mar. 10, 1906, 
 and the first retiring allowances granted went 
 into effect on July 1 of that year. Colleges, 
 universities, and technical schools maintained 
 by state and colonial governments had not 
 been included by the original letter of gift. 
 The state and colonial institutions having 
 formally requested that the benefits of the 
 Foundation be extended to them, Mr. Carnegie, 
 on Mar. 31, 1908, expressed his willingness to 
 provide for their inclusion in the retiring allow- 
 ance system, by offering an additional 
 $5,000,000 to the fund, making the total gift 
 $1.5,000,000. On May 7, 1908, the trustees 
 of the Foundation accepted this additional 
 trust. To render the Foundation a more in- 
 tegral part of higher education in America, 
 the trustees desire, as far as may be, to have 
 their relations with the institutions of higher 
 education rather than with the individual pro- 
 fessors. For this purpose the Foundation re- 
 ceives applications from institutions to be 
 placed upon the list of colleges, universities, 
 and technical schools designated as the accepted 
 list. To be placed upon this list the educa- 
 tional standard, the plan of government, and 
 the endowment of the institution must conform 
 to certain definite regulations. In the adminis- 
 tration of the fund, therefore, the task of the 
 board has been not to pass upon the merits 
 of individuals, but of colleges. Each such ap- 
 plication involves a study of the method of 
 government, the educational value of each in- 
 stitution as a center of in|;ellectual and moral 
 influence, the financial resources, the equip- 
 ment, and the standards of academic work. 
 Once an institution is placed upon the accepted 
 list, the teachers and executive officers may re- 
 tire under fixed regulations for the granting of 
 retiring allowances. The allowance comes as 
 a right, not as a charity; as a thing earned in 
 
 the regular course of service, not as a courtesy. 
 Sixty-seven institutions are on the accepted 
 list, and about 320 life allowances have been 
 granted. At the beginning of the year 1910 
 about $850,000 had been paid in retiring 
 allowances. 
 
 A summary of the data concerning retiring 
 allowances in force at the end of the fiscal 
 year, Oct. 1, 1909, is given in the following 
 table: — 
 
 
 ^.h% 
 
 o 
 
 »o 
 
 iC 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 r^. 
 
 r- 
 
 (N 
 
 
 CJ 
 
 fO 
 
 t-- 
 
 c; 
 
 CO 
 
 
 O CO 
 
 t6 
 
 8 
 
 ei 
 
 **• 
 
 
 sj 
 
 CO 
 CO 
 
 
 
 ?? 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 MW 
 
 
 fijijtqvstp fo 
 
 5P 
 
 ffi 
 
 
 
 c-^ 
 
 a 
 
 sisvq tio OitijiiJ^ 3soi{i JQ 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 ■|o 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 O -1* 
 
 h 
 
 
 0» 
 
 W 
 
 
 
 «» 
 
 
 
 
 <% 
 
 H 
 
 
 ■^ 
 
 ■^ 
 
 c^ 
 
 o 
 
 "o • 
 
 93tau3S fo 
 
 «5 
 
 h- 
 
 04 
 
 o 
 d 
 
 s • 
 
 sysvq uo Owuypj, ssoifj )q 
 
 £ 
 
 g 
 
 c; 
 
 00 
 
 § 
 
 
 H J 
 
 
 w 
 
 w 
 
 w 
 
 w 
 
 s; £ 
 
 §< 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 < a 
 
 O 
 
 s 
 < 
 
 sBv /a 
 
 
 cri 
 
 
 
 1 = 
 
 
 sisvq uo dut2ij3i asoy] /q 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 s 
 
 /Ijijiqvsyp fo 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 Sisvq uo ffuiAj9u'9soi{'} /q 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 93WJ38/0 
 
 « 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 sisvq uo BUIJIJ9U 9s6i{j /q 
 
 CO 
 
 n 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a o 
 
 gSv /o 
 
 U3 
 
 « 
 
 
 
 
 > 
 < 
 
 stsvq uo &UIJ1192 asoyj /q 
 
 d 
 
 d 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 %i> 
 
 ftjtltqvstp fo 
 
 -: 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 
 sisvq UO duuipx asoy) fg 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 93VU3S fo 
 
 h- 
 
 q ' 
 
 
 
 
 a a 
 
 stsDq uo Suuijid 3so-qf fQ 
 
 s 
 
 to 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 aOv fo 
 
 StSVq uo ffUUtpJ. 9S0\fJ fQ 
 
 
 ® 
 § 
 
 
 
 
 
 aOJOf Ut S93UV 
 
 -aiojjv fo uaqtanu jvjoj, 
 
 g 
 
 S 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 00 
 CO 
 
 njijiqosip fo sisvq vQ 
 
 lo 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 « O 
 
 90VU38fo Sisvq U0 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 b- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 E< 
 
 
 00 
 
 m 
 
 
 
 co 
 
 Z 
 
 90v fo sisvq UQ 
 
 « 
 
 -* 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 F 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 d 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 .9 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 **j 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 n 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 n 
 
 o 
 
 a 
 
 ■d 
 S 
 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 3 
 
 T3 
 
 a. 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 .2 
 
 '3 
 
 1 
 
 V 
 
 a 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 < 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 a 
 
 i 
 
 < 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 o. 
 
 u 
 o 
 
 < 
 
 E 
 
 a 
 
 m 
 O 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 a» 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 < 
 
 *? 
 
 £ 
 
 o 
 
 g 
 
 
 
 .3 
 
 o 
 a 
 
 Ch 
 
 i^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 "o 
 
 "o 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 tn 
 
 
 tn 
 
 
 
 S 
 
 S 
 
 & 
 
 & 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 "S 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 £ 
 
 
 T3 
 
 c 
 
 
 538
 
 CARNEGIE FOUNDATION 
 
 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION 
 
 As a matter of fact, the chief work of the 
 Foundation is that of an educational agency, 
 dealing with institutions of higher learning in 
 America. The viewpoint is national ; it in- 
 cludes the interests not alone of a community 
 or of a section, but of a continent. From time 
 to time the Foundation publishes in pamphlet 
 form studies in education. The' annual report 
 of the president also deals with various educa- 
 tional problems in addition to those which con- 
 cern only the administration of the trust. 
 These publications are distributed among col- 
 lege teachers and officers and those interested 
 in education. The fund does not provide 
 allowances for teachers in secondary school 
 work or in the grades. The following rules give 
 the bases on which allowances are computed : — 
 
 Rule 1. Any person sixty-five years of ace who has 
 had not loss than fifteen years of service as a professor, 
 or not less than twenty-five years of service as instructor 
 or as instructor and professor, and who is at the time 
 a professor or an instructor in an accepted institution. 
 shall be entitled to an annual retiring allowance com- 
 puted as follows : — 
 
 (a) For an active pay of twelve hundred dollars or 
 less, an allowance of one thousand dollars, provided no 
 retiring allowance shall exceed ninety per cent of the 
 active pay ; 
 
 (6) For an active pay greater than twelve hundred 
 dollars the retiring allowance shall equal one thousand 
 dollars, increased by fifty dollars for each one hundred 
 dollars in excess of twelve hundred dollars ; 
 
 (c) No retiring allowance shall exceed four thousand 
 dollars. 
 
 Rule 2. Any person who has had twenty-five years 
 of service as a professor or thirty years of servdcc as 
 professor and instructor in an accepted institution, 
 Bhall, in the case of disability unfitting him for the work 
 of a teacher as proved by medical examination, be en- 
 titled to a retiring allowance computed as follows : — 
 
 (a) For an active pay of twelve hundred dollars or 
 less, a retiring allowance of eight hundred dollars, pro- 
 vided that no retiring allowance shall exceed eighty 
 per cent of the active pay ; 
 
 (h) For an active pay greater than twelve hundred 
 dollars, the retiring allowance shall equal eight hun- 
 dred dollars, increased by forty dollars for each one 
 hundred dollars in excess of twelve hundred dollars ; 
 
 (c) For each additional year of .service above twenty- 
 five for a professor, or above thirty for an instructor, 
 the retiring allowance shall be increased by one per 
 cent of the active pay : 
 
 (d) No retiring allowance shall exceed four thousand 
 dollars. 
 
 Rt;LE ,3. A widow who has been for ten years the 
 wife of a teacher, who at the time of his death was in 
 receipt of a retiring allowance, or who at the time of 
 his death was eligible to a retiring allowance, or who 
 had had twenty-five years of ser\'ice as a professor, or 
 thirty years of service as an instructor and professor, 
 shall receive as a pension one-half of the retiring allow- 
 ance to which her husband was entitled under Rule 1 
 or would have been entitled under Rule 2 in case of 
 disability. 
 
 The administrative officers are Henry S. 
 Pritchett, president; Robert A. Franks, trea- 
 surer ; .John (1. Bowman, .secretary. The offices 
 are at 576 Fifth Avenue, New York City. 
 
 J. G. B. 
 
 Reference : — 
 
 Annual Reports of the President and Treasurer of the '"'^P' t i-x i.- ^ i j i j i 
 
 Carneoie Foundation for the Advancement of Teach- . '-^^'^ Institution, too. has developed along 
 ing. (New York, 190G to date.) lines somcwhat different from what was at first 
 
 539 
 
 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION. — An in.stitu- 
 tion founded and endowed by Mr. Andrew 
 Carnegie, of New York City, and organized as 
 a quasi-national institution by a special act of 
 Congress. The purpose of the institution ig 
 to aid and encourage investigation, research, 
 and discovery, and the application of knowl- 
 edge to the improvement of mankind. On 
 Jan. 28, 1902, Mr. Carnegie executed a deed of 
 trust, tran.sferring S10,000,000 of 5 per cent 
 bonds to 26 trustees, named by him in the 
 trust, to found the Carnegie Institution of 
 Washington, D.C., for the purpose of improv- 
 ing and extending the opportunities for study 
 and research in this country. The aims of the 
 institution, as set forth by Mr. Carnegie, were 
 to promote original research ; to discover the 
 exceptional man in every department of study; 
 to increase the facilities for higher education; 
 to increase the efficiency of the universities of 
 the country; to enable students to enjoy the 
 advantages of the governmental institutions 
 in Washington; and to publish the results of 
 important scientific investigations. The found- 
 ing of the institution came as a culmination of 
 efforts which had been made to secure the en- 
 dowment of a George Washington Memorial 
 University in Washington, which should be a 
 national university. It was thought at the 
 time that the creation of this Institution would 
 meet all such national needs, and these ideas 
 are in part expressed in Mr. Carnegie's deed of 
 trust. The Institution was originally organ- 
 ized as a corporation in the District of Colum- 
 bia, but, in 1904, it was reincorporated as a 
 quasi-national institution by Congress. In 
 1907, Mr. Carnegie added $2",000,000 in 5 per 
 cent bonds to the endowment. 
 
 The Year Books tell the history of the 
 Institution and its work. At first there was 
 much uncertainty as to what the work of the 
 Institution should be. Committees were ap- 
 pointed in the different fields of knowledge, 
 and reports as to needs were made. The pro- 
 posals for investigation far exceeded the income 
 of the Institution, and, pending further inquiry, 
 a number of small grants were made to indi- 
 vidual investigators. Gradually " larger proj- 
 ects " were decided upon and inaugurated, 
 though the smaller individual grants have been 
 continued, in slowly decreasing numbers. The 
 experience of the Institution seems to be, how- 
 ever, that the best returns are to be obtained 
 by expending the income on a few larger 
 projects, rather than in scattering it in aid of 
 many smaller ones, and to connect with these 
 larger projects a number of capable investi- 
 gators as associate investigators. Gradually a 
 few larger projects have been decided upon, 
 chiefly of a scientific nature, and these have 
 now been advanced sufficiently to use up the 
 resources of the Institution for some time to
 
 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION 
 
 CARNEGIE TECHNICAL SCHOOLS 
 
 expected, and what was indicated in Mr. Car- 
 negie's deed of trust. It lias gradually evolved 
 into a distinctively research institution of the 
 highest rank, giving up any attempt to fulfill 
 the functions of a national university at Wash- 
 ington. Its present purpose is to aid in the 
 investigation of the more difficult problems in 
 the better organized fields of knowledge; to 
 use the income in providing facilities for such 
 investigation; and in pulilishing the results. A 
 few small individual grants are still made, but 
 the tendency is to diminish these. The present 
 scope of the work of the Institution is indicated 
 by the nature of the permanent investments 
 for the departments now supported, and by the 
 work they are doing. The figures are for the 
 year 1909-1910, and are taken from the Year 
 Book published in February, 1910. (1) De- 
 partment of Administration, located at Wash- 
 ington, D.C. Permanent central offices. In- 
 vestment in buildings, site, and eciuipment, 
 $254,419; maintenance for year, $45,000. 
 (2) Department of Botanical Research. Head- 
 quarters, Desert Botanical Laboratory, at 
 Tucson, Ariz. Investment in plant, $34,706; 
 appropriation for year, $32,000. (3) De- 
 partment of Experimental Evolution. Head- 
 quarters, Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island, 
 N.Y. Investment in plant, $46,006; ap- 
 propriation for year, $29,000. (4) Geophys- 
 ical Laboratorj', Washington, D.C. Invest- 
 ment in plant, $173,223; appropriation for 
 year, $45,000. Work, — a systematic study 
 of the origin and transformation of the rocks 
 of the earth's crust. (5) Department of 
 Marine Biology. Headquarters, Tortugas Is- 
 land, Fla., Investment in plant, $23,344; ap- 
 propriation for year, $15,000. Also supports 
 two research tables at Naples. (6) Depart- 
 ment of Meridian Astronomy. Headquarters 
 have been at the Dudley Observatory, Albany, 
 N.Y. A temporary observatory is now being 
 established in the southern hemisphere, at San 
 Luis, Argentina. Investment in plant, $15,599; 
 appropriation for year, $30,000. (7) Depart- 
 ment of Terrestrial Magnetism. Investment 
 in ship and equipment, $138,960; appropria- 
 tion for year, $60,000. Work, — preparation 
 of a catalogue of standard* star positions. (8) 
 Solar Observatory, Mt. Wilson, and Pasadena, 
 Cal. Investment in plant, $403,611; ap- 
 propriation for year, $104,000. Work, — in- 
 vestigation of solar phenomena. (9) Nu- 
 trition Laboratory, Boston, Mass. Investment 
 in plant, $117,030; appropriation for year, 
 $25,000. (10) Department of Economics and 
 Sociology. Appropriation for year, $17,500. 
 Investigations in population, agriculture, min- 
 ing, manufactures, transportation, commerce, 
 money and banking, labor movement, industrial 
 organization, social legislation, taxation and 
 finance, and the status of the negro. (11) 
 Department of Historical Research. Appropri- 
 ation for year, $20,500. Preparation of cata- 
 logues of documents relating to American 
 
 history in the libraries of the world. (12) Pub- 
 lication of Investigations. Annual appropria- 
 tion, $50,000. 118 volumes had been issued 
 up to the close of 1909. (13) Minor grants 
 to investigators and institutions to assist in 
 carrying on researches in: archaeology, astron- 
 omy, bibliography, botany, chemistry, mathe- 
 matics, meteorology, paleontology, physics, 
 and zoology. Appropriation for all of the 
 above, $43,000 for the year. E. P. C. 
 
 References: — 
 
 Year Books of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, 
 1902-1909. 
 
 CARNEGIE TECHNICAL SCHOOLS, 
 PITTSBURG, PA. — A coeducational institu- 
 tion founded by Mr. Andrew Carnegie with an 
 endowment of $1,000,000, increased at the dedi- 
 cation exercises of the schools to $4,000,000. 
 The schools are ultimately to be housed in 5 
 buildings, all of which, with the exception of a 
 new building for the School of Applied Design, 
 are now completed. Four departments — the 
 School of Applied Science, the School for Appren- 
 tices and Journeymen, the School of Applied 
 Design, and the Margaret Morrison School for 
 Women — are maintained. The United States 
 Geological Survey has established in Machin- 
 ery Hall the main laboratory of the Chemical 
 Division, Technologic Branch, where investiga- 
 tions of fuels from all parts of the country are 
 conducted. The courses in the schools are 
 arranged for day and night students. 
 
 In the School of Applied Science no student 
 is permitted to take up any specialty until he 
 has completed a preliminary training in English, 
 mathematics, physics, chemistry, drawing, and 
 shop practice. On completion of this training 
 students may concentrate on their particular 
 branch within the fields of engineering and 
 chemical practice. The time to be taken over 
 any course is not fixed, but depends on the apti- 
 tude and application of the individual students. 
 Candidates over 16 who have had a high 
 school or equivalent preparation arc admitted 
 on certificate from high schools and an entrance 
 examination in fundamental subjects. Courses 
 are given in the night similar to those given dur- 
 ing the day, and admi.ssion requirements are the 
 same. In 1907-1908, 571 students were en- 
 rolled in the day and night courses of this de- 
 partment. 
 
 The School for Apprentices and Journeymen 
 aims to give general training to supplement the 
 usual apprenticeships in order to counteract the 
 dangers of specialization and over-emphasis of 
 the practical as opposed to the theoretical sides. 
 A day industrial course is offered to meet the 
 demand for proficient men in the machinery 
 and building trades. Here an opportunity is 
 given to men to enter the course for part of the 
 year only and to take up employment for the 
 rest of the year. The admission requirements 
 are very elastic. No definite period for com- 
 pleting the course is assigned. In the same 
 
 540
 
 CARPENTER 
 
 CARPENTER 
 
 department night trade courses are offered for 
 apprentices and journeymen already engaged in 
 a trade, preferably that which they wish to 
 study. In 1907-1908, 641 students were en- 
 rolled in the different courses of this depart- 
 ment. 
 
 Two courses — architecture and interior 
 decoration — are offered in the School of Ap- 
 plied Design. A valuable adjunct to the de- 
 partment is the Carnegie Library and Institute. 
 Candidates are admitted b.v certificate of a high 
 school or equivalent preparation and an en- 
 trance examination in subjeet.s fundamental to 
 the courses. Others are admitted to take the 
 courses after the preliminary training in the 
 applied school of science, or on account of ma- 
 turity, practical experience, or other satisfactory 
 reasons. Night courses are provided. In 
 1907-190S, 114 students were enrolled in this 
 department. 
 
 The ^Margaret ^Morrison Carnegie School for 
 Women is designed primarily to give training in 
 the home-making arts and secondh' in technical 
 subjects. A general course of one year is given 
 as a foundation for specialization. The special- 
 ized courses include household arts, dress- 
 making, costume design, and secretarial work. 
 Candidates over 18 j'ears of age are ad- 
 mitted on a personal interview and entrance 
 examination, those under 18 only on giving 
 evidence of having had at least 2 years of 
 high school or equivalent training, and an en- 
 trance examination. Night courses are also 
 offered. Four hundred and six students were 
 enrolled in this department in 1907-1908. 
 Tuition fees are charged in all departments, 
 being in all cases lower for residents of Pitts- 
 burg than for others. Arthur A. Hamerschlag, 
 Sc.D., is the director. 
 
 CARPENTER, MARY (1807-1877). — Phi- 
 lanthrdpist and educator. Her father, Dr. Lant 
 Carpenter, was a Unitarian divine and school- 
 master, and Miss Carjienter not only studied 
 under him, but taught in his place when occa.sion 
 demanded. After acting as governess for some 
 years Mi.s.s Carpenter returned to Bristol and 
 opened, in conjunction with her mother, a school 
 for girls, and superintended a Sunday school. 
 In 1840 she turned her attention to tlie educa- 
 tion of poor children, for whom she opened a 
 ragged school (q-v.), and to the condition of 
 juvenile offenders. A book which she wrote 
 in 1S57 on the need of reformatories led to a 
 conference in Birmingham in the same year. 
 This movement resulted in legislation in 1854. 
 In 18.50, in order to test the system which she 
 had formulated, she opened a reformatory. 
 Throughout this period she did not relax her 
 interest in ragged schools, but urged on the gov- 
 ernment the need of grants for such schools. 
 In 1859 she opened a day industrial school 
 (q.v.). From 1800 to her death Miss Carpenter 
 devoted the great part of her efforts to female 
 education in India and prison reform in England 
 
 541 
 
 and Canada. She made several visits to India, 
 and always made reports to the government. 
 During one of these visits she superintended a 
 normal school in Bombay. In 1873 she visited 
 America, where she spoke on and interested 
 herself in prison reform. Before her death she 
 had the satisfaction of knowing that Parlia- 
 ment had sanctioned the jn-ovision of day in- 
 dustrial schools by school boards. Miss Car- 
 penter died in 1877. The most important of 
 her numerous writings deal with ragged schools 
 and the treatment of juvenile offenders. In 
 1849 she published Ragged Schools, their princi- 
 ples and modes of operation hrj a u'orker; in 1859, 
 The Claims of Ragged Schools to pecuniary ed- 
 ucational aid from the annual parliamentary 
 grant; in 1861, What shall we do with our Pauper 
 Children? On the other subject of her interest 
 there appeared in 1851 Reformatory Schools 
 for the Children of the perishing and dangerous 
 classes and for juvenile offenders; in 1853, 
 Juvenile Delinquents, their condition and treat- 
 ment; in 1864, Our Convicts, how they are made 
 and shoxdd be treated. 
 
 References: — 
 
 CARPENTER, J. E. Life and Worlc of Mary Carpenter. 
 
 (London, 1869.) 
 Dictionxiry of National Biography. 
 Tlie Times, June 18, 1877. 
 
 CARPENTER, NATHANIEL (1589-c. 1627). 
 — An English schoolmaster who was ]\I.A. and 
 D.D. of O.xford University (Exeter College) 
 and is described as a " noted philosopher, poet, 
 mathematician, and geographer." He was ap- 
 pointed, through Archbishop l^ssher, school- 
 master of the King's Wards in Dublin, children 
 of Roman Catholic parents. Wood, in the 
 Athenae O.Ton., states that on his deathbed 
 Carpenter regretted that he "had so much 
 courted the maid instead of the mistress," 
 meaning that he had spent his chief time in 
 philosophy and mathematics instead of in di- 
 vinity. Carpenter's important work on Geog- 
 raphy, " containing the sphericall and topicall 
 Parts thereof," was published at Oxford in 1625 
 (4to, 285 pp.). The first is mainly mathemati- 
 cal geography, but the second is largely what 
 we now call human geography. For instance, 
 he points out that the " natural bounds are 
 more certain than artificial," and discusses the 
 " qualities of a region," " the disposition of 
 inhabitants in respect of the site," of the effect 
 of education in overcoming geographical limita- 
 tions, of " the mixture of colonies in the same 
 nation." Carpenter has interesting criticism 
 on the value of navigation in the increase of 
 knowledge and riches and the comparison of 
 the East and the West in learning. He is 
 especially eloquent in speaking of the people of 
 his own native country of Devon, as illustra- 
 tive of the effect of the hill countries on the de- 
 velopment of warlike and generous qualities, 
 and speaks of Gilbert, Hawkins, Frobisher, 
 etc. " whose names live with the Ocean."
 
 CARPENTER 
 
 CASAUBON 
 
 The date (1625) makes much of the subject 
 matter significant. P. W. 
 
 CARPENTER, STEPHEN H. (1831-1878). 
 
 — Educator, graduated at the University of 
 Rochester in 1854. He was 6 years instruc- 
 tor in the University of Wisconsin, and 2 
 years assistant superintendent of public instruc- 
 tion in Wisconsin (under Henry Barnard). 
 He was subsecjuently professor in St. Paul's 
 College, Mo., and from 1871 to 1878 president 
 of the University of Kansas. Author of Moral 
 Forces in Education and of several textbooks on 
 English grammar. W. S. M. 
 
 CARROLL COLLEGE, WAUKESHA, WIS. 
 
 — A coeducational institution founded as a high 
 school in 18-16 and reorganized in 1903 for full 
 college work. It is under the auspices of the 
 Presbyterian Synod of Wisconsin. Academic, 
 collegiate, and musical departments are main- 
 tained. Admission to the college is by certifi- 
 cate of an accredited high school or by an ex- 
 amination requiring 15 units of high school 
 studies. Degrees are conferred in arts and 
 science courses. There is a faculty of 12 
 professors and 10 instructors and assistants. 
 Rev. Wilbur Oscar Carrier, M.A., D.D., is the 
 president. 
 
 CARSON AND NEWMAN COLLEGE, JEF- 
 FERSON CITY, TENN. — A coeducational 
 institution since 1889, established, in 1851, 
 under Baptist control. Preparatory, collegiate, 
 musical, and business departments are main- 
 tained. The college courses are based on ap- 
 proximately 8 points of high school work. 
 Degrees are conferred. There are 12 pro- 
 fessors and 10 instructors and assistants. 
 
 CARTER, JAMES GORDON (1795-1849). 
 
 — One of the originators of the normal school 
 movement in America, was born at Leo- 
 minster, Mass., on Sept. 7, 1795, and was 
 graduated from Harvard College in 1820. He 
 engaged in private school work, and in 1S2I 
 published Letters to the Hon. William Prescolt 
 on the Free Schools of New England, with Re- 
 marks on Principles of Instruction, in wliich he 
 pointed out the defects in education which 
 were later made the basis of the reforms of 
 Horace Mann. In 1827 he presented a peti- 
 tion to the Massachusetts legislature asking for 
 an appropriation for the establishment of a 
 state normal school. The bill was presented by 
 William B. Calhoun (q.v.), and was lost in the 
 senate by one vote. He then opened a private 
 normal school at Lancaster, and for several 
 years did what he could to arouse an interest in 
 the professional training of teachers. He was 
 chosen a member of the Massachusetts legisla- 
 ture in 1835, and drafted the bill that established 
 the State Board of Education. He was active 
 in the organization of the American Institute 
 of Instruction (q.v.) and contributed numerous 
 
 articles on education to the Literary Gazette. He 
 died at Chicago on July 21, 1849. W. S. M. 
 
 CARTHAGE COLLEGE, CARTHAGE, 
 ILL, — Founded in 1870, and conducted under 
 the auspices of the General Synod of the Evan- 
 gelical Lutheran Church in the United States. 
 The constitution is coeducational, and main- 
 tains academic, collegiate, Bible training, and 
 fine arts departments. Admission is on certifi- 
 cate of accredited high schools or by an exami- 
 nation requiring about 14 units of work. Clas- 
 sical, scientific, and literary courses are given 
 in the college, and lead to the appropriate de- 
 grees. There are six professors and eight in- 
 structors. 
 
 CARTHUSLANS. — See Abbey Schools; 
 Convent Schools; Middle Ages, Educa- 
 tion in; AIonastic Schools; Monastic 
 Rules, Educational Provisions in. 
 
 CASAUBON, ISAAC (1559-1614). — A clas- 
 sical scholar of some note. He was born in 
 Geneva, the son of a Huguenot pastor, who 
 supervised his education. Casaubon received 
 no organized education until he was 19, when 
 he entered upon studies at Geneva, learning 
 Greek from a Cretan, Franciscus Portus, who 
 recommended him as his successor. He was 
 appointed professor of Greek at Geneva in 1582. 
 But although holding a public appointment, his 
 interests were mainly in private study, to which 
 he devoted every minute that he could spare. 
 He was connected by his first marriage with 
 the printer, Henri Estienne, who, however, re- 
 fused to give him access to his Mss. His 
 editions of classical writings won for him the 
 friendship of the most famous scholars of 
 Europe, including Joseph Scaliger. In 1596 
 he accepted an appointment in Montpellier, 
 where he lectured on a great variety of subjects 
 connected with the classical studies. In 1600 
 he moved to Paris, where he held the position 
 of a Lecteur du Roi and received a pension, but 
 could not obtain a chair in the university owing 
 to his Protestant leanings. In 1604, however, 
 he received an appointment in the Royal 
 Library, where he lost no time in untiring study 
 of the Mss. to be found there. Attempts were 
 made throughout this period to convert him, 
 for political and personal reasons, to Roman 
 Catholicism, but without success. But on the 
 death of Henri IV he lost his patron, and, be- 
 cause his religious views now inclined to Angli- 
 canism, he accepted a call to England, where 
 he received a prebcndal stall in Canterbury 
 and was received with great kindness every- 
 where. He won the interest of the King, 
 James I, who bestowed a pension on him and 
 frequently emplo\'ed him as his companion. 
 Casaubon became naturalized in England, 
 which he called the " island of the blest." He 
 died in England four years after his arrival. 
 His early death was hastened by a neglected 
 
 542
 
 CASE METHOD OF INSTRUCTION 
 
 CASSIODORUS 
 
 constitution due to untiring devotion to his 
 studies. 
 
 He left some 25 publications on classical 
 subjects. His interests were mainly in the his- 
 torical and biographical. History and biog- 
 raphy he regarded as sources of political and 
 ethical philosophy. The work which first 
 brought him a European reputation was his 
 edition of Theophrastus (1592), although his 
 earliest work on Strabo, of which he said he 
 was ashamed, is still unsurpassed. Among 
 his other editions are those on Athenceus, Sue- 
 tonius, Persius, and Polybius (unfinished). It 
 was a ma.xim with Casaubon that one only 
 knows so much as one remembers; hence he 
 made short notes of all that he read, and the 
 result is contained in 60 volumes of Adversaria. 
 In 1597 he began an interesting diary, Ephe- 
 merides, which he continued until shortly before 
 his death, and which was edited by his son. 
 
 References: — ■ 
 
 Pattison, Mark. Isaac Casaubon. (Oxford, 1892.) 
 Sandys, J. E. .4 History of Classical Scholurship, Vol. 
 II. (Cambridge, 1906.) 
 
 CASE METHOD OF INSTRUCTION.— 
 See Law, Education in. 
 
 CASE SCHOOL OF APPLIED SCIENCE, 
 CLEVELAND, OHIO. — Founded in 1880 as 
 the result of an endowment left by Leonard Case 
 for the purpose of establishing a scientific 
 school, instruction was begun in 1881 in a 
 temporary building, and transferred to new 
 buildings in 1885. The location in an im- 
 portant industrial center offers considerable 
 advantages to an institution which aims to 
 give technical training. Courses are given in 
 physics, chemistry, and engineering (civil, rail- 
 road, structural, mechanical, electrical, mining, 
 and metallurgical). All students take the 
 same studies in the first year, and specialization 
 increases from the second year to the end of 
 the course of 4 years. Candidates for admis- 
 sion must have graduated from a preparatory 
 school with a 4 years' course requiring at least 
 14 units for graduation, and pass an examina- 
 tion in 14 units of high school work. Degrees 
 are conferred on the completion of courses and 
 presentation of a thesis. The institution is 
 accepted by the Carnegie Foundation for the 
 Advancement of Teaching. There are 23 pro- 
 fessors and 16 instructors on the faculty. 
 Charles Sumner Howe, Ph.D., D.Sc, LL.D., 
 is the president. 
 
 CASSIAN, JOHN. — Early Christian theo- 
 logian, born about a.d. 360 and educated in a 
 monastery at Bethlehem, under the tutelage 
 of the Abbot Germanus, in all the learning of 
 the East. In 390 they made a pilgrimage 
 amongst the hermits of Egvpt, and found the 
 life of retirement from the world so attractive 
 that they remained there 7 years. They then 
 went to Constantinople, where Cassian became 
 
 a disciple of St. Chrysostom (q.v.), the greatest 
 preacher and teacher of the day. Under his 
 instruction he became one of the ablest and 
 soundest theologians of the early Church. 
 After the overthrow of St. Chrysostom Cas- 
 sian went to Rome, where he distinguished 
 himself as one of the chief champions of the 
 Christian Faith. One of his pupils, Vincent 
 of Lerins, won a foremost place amongst the 
 Latin fathers, and he himself, at the instance 
 of Leo the Great, \\Tote an important treatise 
 On the Incarnation, in opposition to the Nes- 
 torian and Pelagian heresies. He steered a 
 safe course between the Scylla of Augustinian 
 exaggerations and the Charybdis of Pelagian 
 errors and was regarded as the founder of Semi- 
 Pelagianism. The sack of Rome by Alaric 
 drove him out from the world and back to 
 monastic life. He founded two monasteries at 
 Marseilles (one for men and the other for 
 women), and thus introduced the monastic 
 system into the Western Church. Upon the 
 lines laid down by him monasticism (q.v.) took 
 on a more highly organized form in the West 
 than in the East, and profoundly influenced the 
 life of the Church and the world for many 
 centuries. The Latin fathers fostered educa- 
 tion from this time onward, and became the 
 intellectual leaders of the world. Connected 
 with every cloister was a school where the 
 lamp of knowledge was kept burning and sys- 
 tematic courses of study were pursued. The 
 curriculum was not confined to religious litera- 
 ture, but included all the liberal arts and the 
 classic authors. This great system was based 
 chiefly upon the writings of John Cassian, in 
 which he laid down the fundamental principles 
 of monasticism for all time. Two volumes of 
 these have been preserved: De Coenobiortim 
 Institidis, in 12 books, in which he lays down 
 the external rules of the ascetic life and de- 
 scribes its inner experiences; and Collationes 
 Patrum, in which he relates his observations of 
 monastic life in Egypt, translated in the Library 
 of Greek and Latin Fathers, Vol. XI, Scribners, 
 N.Y. W. R. 
 
 References: — 
 
 Librari/ of Greek and Latin Fathers, Vol. XI. (New 
 
 York. 1890-1897.) 
 Farrar, F. W. Lives of the Fathers. (New York, 
 
 1907.) 
 
 CASSIODORUS, or, more fullv, MAGNUS 
 AURELIUS CASSIODORUS SENATOR. — 
 
 A descendant of a family which had for three 
 generations been distinguished in political 
 circles at Rome, was born, probably at Scylla- 
 cium in Bruttium, about a.d. 477. He was a 
 contemporary of the famous Boethius {q.v.), 
 whom, however, he long survived. His mind 
 appears to have been as practical as that of 
 Boethius was idealistic. Having the advan- 
 tages of the best education that the times 
 could afford, Cassiodorus was able to gain the 
 particular favor of King Theodoric by a pane- 
 
 ')43
 
 CASTELLION 
 
 CASTIGLIONE 
 
 g>Tic which he composed in his honor. At 
 20 he was (lusstor, and afterwards became con- 
 sul. Under the successors of the Gothic king, 
 down to and including; Yitigis, Cassiodorus re- 
 tained his political eminence, which he deserved 
 by reason of his enthusiastic support of the 
 policy of Theodo^ric to weld the Goths and 
 Romans together into a single people. 
 
 But more important to education than his 
 political activities is the period of the retire- 
 ment of Cassiodorus to a cloister which he 
 had himself founded at Mvarium, in Bruttium. 
 It was in 540 that he betook himself to its 
 pleasant gardens and books, and from tliis 
 time forth, to the advanced age of 83, he 
 devoted himself to the endeavor to make the 
 monastery the home of learning. Accordingly 
 Cassiodorus first devised a monastic rule in 
 which the substitution of mental for physical 
 labor was permitted and even encouraged. 
 What literarj' activity was carried on in the 
 western monasteries during the early Middle 
 Ages can trace its inception to Cassiodorus. 
 
 The most influential of his \\Titings was his 
 Instituliotis of sacred and secular learning [In- 
 stiluliones divinarum et saecularium lectionum). 
 The book was intended, as the preface inti- 
 mates, to supply the need of a theological 
 school for the monks. The second part is the 
 more interesting from the standpoint of a stu- 
 dent of education, since it contains an abridged 
 treatment of the seven liberal arts, consisting in 
 part, however, of mere extracts, intended ac- 
 cording to the author for the simple unlettered 
 monks who had not studied the profane 
 sciences. The Institutions, written about the 
 year 544, underwent a later revision at the 
 hands of its author. He wrote also Complex- 
 iones in epistolas et acta apostolorum et apoca- 
 lypsia, and a more important Historia eccle- 
 siaslica tripartita, in 12 books, which became 
 the principal manual of theological history for 
 the Middle Ages, but which is founded upon the 
 three ecclesiastical histories of Socrates, Sozo- 
 menus, and Theodoret. The Variae (epistolae) 
 of Cassiodorus contain a convincing testimony 
 of his political activities. Finally his De Anima 
 completes the circle of his literary activities by 
 an excursion into the field of philosophy. The 
 quality of the soul he determines to Idc light, 
 because it is made in the image of God. Cas- 
 siodorus is one of the few great " transmitters " 
 who kept alive the embers of classical learning 
 for western Europe. 
 
 References: — 
 Cassiodords. Opera, in Migne, Pat. Lat., Vol. 69. 
 
 Letters, tr. by Hodgkia. (London, 1886.) 
 Ebert. Allgemeine Geschichte der Literalur des MMel- 
 
 altcrs im AbendUindc. 
 Sandys. History of Classical Scholarship. (Cambridge, 
 1903-1908.) 
 
 CASTELLION (CASTALIO, CASTELLIO, 
 or CHATILLON), SEBASTIEN (1515-1563). 
 — ■ The successor of Maturinus Corderius (q.v.) 
 as schoolmaster at Geneva in 1541, when Cor- 
 
 derius had gone to Neuchatel. Castellion was 
 the great prophet of the principle of religious 
 toleration. The De Hacreticis was first pub- 
 lished in 1550, and in this work against com- 
 pulsion in religious matters, Castellion was one 
 in a joint authorship about which there is dis- 
 cussion. (See Buisson: Castellion, Vol. II, ch. 
 13.) Castellion edited a number of Greek 
 classics, and made translations of the Bible in 
 Latin and in French, but his educational work, 
 the Dialogi sacri, was most widely known. Its 
 circulation was immense. M. Bui-sson names 
 over 130 editions, of which IS were published 
 in London. These Dialogues or Colloquies are 
 all biblical in subject, and attemjjt to bring 
 into the schools scriptural stories, with the 
 ease and grace of the Latin CoUociuies which 
 dealt with similar subjects. In Huguenot and 
 Puritan schools they were constantly included 
 in the curriculum. In English schools they 
 were often required to be part of the curriculum, 
 by statute, e.g. at St. Saviour's Grammar 
 School, South wark (Orders 1562), Rivington 
 Grammar School (Statutes 1564), Sandwich 
 Grammar School (Statutes 1580), Canibcrwell 
 Grammar School (Statutes 1615), and they 
 were used in 1628 at Westminster School. 
 They are written in a remarkably simple, 
 natural style (in Latin) suitable for children. 
 They thus served the double purpose of the 
 Colloquy as a school method to teach Latin 
 and the subject matter of the Bible at the same 
 time. The first complete edition (4 books) of 
 Castellion's Dialogi Sacri vraa published in 1551 
 at Basle; the first London edition (in Latin) was 
 1573. The first edition in French, Dialogues 
 Sacrcs, was published at Basle in 1555. In 
 1715, 119 of these dialogues were published in 
 English at London. See article on Colloquies. 
 
 F. W. 
 Reference : — 
 Buisson, F. Sebasiien Castellion, sa vie et son ceuvre. 
 (Paris, 1892.) 
 
 CASTIGLIONE, BALDASSARE.— Courtier 
 
 and diplomat, born at Casatico near Milan, 
 Dec. 6, 1478. He studied in Milan under 
 George Merula and Demetrius Chalcondj'las. 
 As a youth he entered the service of Ludovico 
 il Moro; but in 1499, on Ludovico's downfall, 
 he attached himself to the Marquis Francesco 
 Gonzaga, with whom he campaigned until the 
 defeat of Garigliano (1503); after which, to 
 Gonzaga's indignation, he transferred his alle- 
 giance to Guidobaldo di Monte Feltro, Duke 
 of Urbino. After a brief campaign against 
 Cesena in behalf of the Pope, in which Cas- 
 tiglione commanded 50 men, he took up attend- 
 ance at the court at Urbino (1504), remaining 
 there until Guidobaldo's death (1508), except 
 for a trip to London (1506) to receive for the 
 Duke from Henry VII the order of the Garter. 
 By Francesco Maria della Rovere, Guidobaldo's 
 successor, he was appointed Governor of Gub- 
 bio; and after the war of Julius II against the 
 
 544
 
 CASTIGLIONE 
 
 CATALEPSY 
 
 Venetians, in which Castiglione fought under 
 della Rovere, he was rewarded with the castle 
 of Novillara, near Pcsaro, and was made 
 Count (1.513). During nearly the whole of 
 the pontificate of Leo X he was ambassador 
 at Rome. When Leo confiscated the Duchy 
 of Urhino for his own nephew, Lorenzo de' 
 Medici (1516), Castiglione went back to his 
 former patron, now appeased, the Marquis 
 Gonzaga. At Mantua the same year he mar- 
 ried Ippolita dei conti Torelli, who four years 
 later died, leaving him three children. There- 
 after he vibrated between Mantua and Rome, 
 until in 1524 Clement VII sent him as am- 
 bassador to Charles V. While he was at the 
 Spanish court the imperial troops under Bour- 
 bon sacked Rome and imprisoned the Pope 
 (1527). Castiglione was stricken with grief 
 and shame. Though the Emperor accepted 
 him as a Spanish subject and offered him the 
 bishopric of Avila, and though the Pope ab- 
 solved him from blame, he died unconsoled at 
 Toledo, Feb. 7, 1529. His body was taken to 
 Ital}', and buried in the Church of the Madonna 
 dclle Grazie near Mantua. Soldier, courtier, 
 diplomat, poet, Italian and Latin, Castiglione's 
 lasting fame yet rests on The Book of the 
 Courtier, a prose dialogue in 4 books. Accord- 
 ing to himself, the work was written as an 
 In memorimn to Guidobaldo, anil in porhi 
 giorni. Although by 1518 he had submitted 
 the manuscript to Bembo, Sadoleto, and others, 
 he published it only in 1528. 
 
 Ostensibly the book reports certain conver- 
 sations at LTrbino in 1506 (while Castiglione 
 himself was in England) between the Duchess 
 Elizabcta Gonzaga, Emilia Pia, and various 
 gentlemen of note in society and letters. Sub- 
 ject to the criticism of the rest, four chosen 
 spokesmen respectively draw the right courtier 
 as to character and conduct, the right court lady, 
 and the right prince, — and the right relations 
 of the courtier to each. The guiding principle 
 of the resulting social structure is aesthetic. 
 Living is conceived as a fine art. The cour- 
 tier's essential attribute is grace; the court 
 lady's, graciousness. Their only religion is a 
 religion of beauty. Platonic love of beauty 
 motivates the courtier's many-sided accom- 
 plishment; his accomplishment in turn at 
 once adorns the court and serves the State. 
 It is the humanistic rendition of chivalric 
 proucsse with f«»r/oi'.sie. Castiglione's Courtier 
 is the medieval chevalier sans peur et saris re- 
 proche at once subtilized and humanized by 
 the " sweetness and light " of cla.ssical culture. 
 And the Book of the Courtier depicts him even 
 more effcctivelj' dramatically than didactically: 
 it is the first salon picture of modern society. 
 
 Translated into Spanish by Boscan (1534), 
 into French by Colin (1537), into English by 
 Hoby (1561), the book dominated iMiropean 
 culture for the century. In England, praised 
 by Ascham, Castiglione's ideal was emulated 
 by Lyiy in his Euphues, by Spenser in the 
 
 Faerie Queene, by Sidney in his own living. 
 It produced a host of imitative conduct books, 
 from the Governonr (1531) of Elyot (17./') to 
 The Compleat Gentleman. (1634) of Peacham 
 (q.v.), and The Compleat Gentleman (1630) and 
 The Compleat Gentleivoman (1631) of Brath- 
 wait (q.v.). After the Reformation and the 
 Catholic reaction, however, Castiglione's aes- 
 thetic paganism became impossible; and the 
 problem of his imitators and emulators was to 
 reinfuse his system with Catholic or Protestant 
 orthodox piety. Thus Spenser in the Faerie 
 Queene, to " fashion a gentleman or noble per- 
 son in vertuous and gentle discipline," does so 
 by superimposing upon Castiglione's romantic 
 Platonisra a rigid Calvinism. While Spenser, 
 again, formally declares the " court and royal 
 citadell " to be " the great school maistresse of 
 all courtesy " (F. Q. Ill, vi, 1), he really ex- 
 tends the concept of " courtier " into that of 
 " nobleman," as the writers of the following 
 generation, such as Peacham and Brathwait, at 
 least tend to extend it into that of " gentleman," 
 not necessarily attached to any court. 
 
 J. B. F. 
 References: — 
 Ady, Mrs. Julia (Cartwhight) . Baldassare Castigli- 
 one the perfect Courtier, his Life and Letters, 1478— 
 
 1529. (New York, 1908.) 
 CiAN, ViTTORio, II Cortcgiano. (Firenze, 1894.) 
 Hoby, Sir Thomas. The Courtier, reprinted in the 
 
 Tudor Translations. (London, 1900.) The most 
 
 interesting English translation. 
 Opdycke, L. E. The Courtier. (New York, 1901 and 
 
 1903.) 
 Watson, F. English Grammar Schools up to 1660. 
 
 (Cambridge, 1908.) 
 Woodward, W. H. Education during the Renaissance. 
 
 (Cambridge, 1906.) 
 
 CASTING OUT NINES. 
 
 Computations. 
 
 See Checks on 
 
 CASWELL, ALEXIS (1799-1877). — Edu- 
 cator and author, graduated at Brown in 1822. 
 He was two years professor in Columbian Uni- 
 versity at Washington, thirty-five years a pro- 
 fessor at Brown LTniversity, and from 1868 to 
 1872 president of that institution. He was one 
 of the founders of the American Association for 
 the Advancement of Science [q.v.). Author 
 of Life of Francis Wayland, Textbook on As- 
 tronomy, and of numerous scientific papers. 
 
 W. S. M. 
 
 CATALEPSY. — A nervous condition in 
 which the muscles are held tense, so that either 
 a limb or the whole body is motionless, rigid, 
 and immovable, or the parts retain any position 
 in which they may be set. The position w-hich 
 is assumed by the patient or that imposed by 
 a bystander lasts for a much longer period 
 than is possible by any effort of the will in a 
 normal individual, and the patient appears like 
 a manikin with hinged joints. The condition 
 in which the imposed positions are retained is, 
 for obvious reasons, sometimes called jlexi- 
 bilitas cerea (waxy flexibility). The latter con- 
 
 VOL. I — 2 N 
 
 545
 
 CATANIA 
 
 CATECHETICAL SCHOOLS 
 
 dition is found in a number of mental and 
 nervous diseases (dementia precox [q.v.], hys- 
 teria Iq.v.], etc.), and a similar state has been 
 described as one of the stages in hypnotic 
 sleep. Both forms of catalepsy, the rigid and 
 the flexible, have been explained as the effect 
 of abnormal suggestibility, and they appear 
 to be allied to and sometimes accompanied 
 by two other states resulting from an increased 
 suggestibility, viz. (1) echolalia (q.v.), in which 
 there is a repetition of sounds or words or 
 phrases that have been heard by the patient, 
 and (2) cchopraxia, in which the patient repeats 
 movements he has seen. Both in hysteria and 
 in dementia precox the symptom may last for 
 days, but in the former disease it is usual to 
 find it of much shorter duration. The term 
 " catalepsy " is sometimes, but incorrectly, used 
 as the name for abnormal sleep states of the 
 nature of trance, but for the latter the term 
 "narcolepsy" {q.v.) is used. S. I. F. 
 
 References: — 
 Gaubert, L. De la catalepsie chez les mystiques. (Paris, 
 
 1903.) 70 pp. 
 Hecker. Katalepsie bei klcinen Kindern. Centralbl. 
 
 f. Kindcrh., Vol. XII, 1907, pp. 1-7. 
 Kraepelin, E. Psychiatric. (Leipzig, 1904.) 
 
 CATANIA, UNIVERSITY OF. — Estab- 
 lished in 1437, and by a Papal bull of 1444 
 raised to the level of Bologna. It was opened 
 in 1445. Until 1805 it was the only university 
 of Sicily, but at that date the University of 
 Palermo was established. Faculties of law, 
 medicine, arts, and sciences are maintained. 
 In 1909-1910 there were enrolled 1160 students. 
 
 See Italy, Education in. 
 
 CATAWBA COLLEGE, NEWTON, N.C. — 
 Opened in 1857 under the auspices of the North 
 Carolina classis of the Reformed Church in the 
 United States. Academic, collegiate, and nmsi- 
 cal departments are maintained. The college 
 courses — classical, scientific, and literary — are 
 based on about eight points of high school work, 
 and lead to their appropriate degrees. There 
 are 6 professors on the faculty of the college. 
 
 CATECHETICAL METHOD. — See Cate- 
 chism; Catechetical Schools; Soceatic 
 Method; Teaching, Methods of. 
 
 CATECHETICAL SCHOOLS— Those 
 
 schools for religious and general education which 
 were established in various parts of the Christian 
 world in the second and third centuries, and in 
 connection with the Church. In this respect 
 they differed from the private schools conducted 
 by such teachers in the Church as Justin Martyr, 
 Tatian and others. In some cases the Cate- 
 chetical Schools may have been an outgrowth of 
 the courses of instruction given to catechu- 
 mens. But they differed in many respects from 
 so-called Catechumenal Schools (q.v.), in that 
 their aim was general culture as well as religious 
 
 training; heathen as well as Christians were 
 admitted to them; and they were rivals of the 
 secular schools. The name " Catechetical 
 Schools " implies merely instruction, possibly 
 in the form of lectures such as were delivered 
 to catechumens, i.e. persons under instruction. 
 The only connection with the word " cate- 
 chism " is that the latter term has been applied 
 to simple textbooks of religious instruction 
 which happen to be arranged in the form of 
 question and answer. The most important 
 and influential of those schools was undoubtedly 
 Alexandria (f/.f.),but there were other schools, 
 such as the school of the Monarchians at Rome, 
 and the schools of Edessa, Ca?sarea, Antioch 
 (q.v.), and Nisibis. All of these developed a 
 large activity and played an important part in 
 the educational work of the Church, especially 
 in the education of the clergy. 
 
 The School of Alexandria seems to have been 
 the first established. Its foundation is obscure, 
 but it may well be placed in the first half of the 
 second century when the Gnostic schools were 
 still flourishing in that city. It was especially 
 to counteract the heathen schools of Alexandria 
 that it was later fostered by the church of that 
 city. The first teacher whose name is known 
 was Pantienus (c. 180 to 200), a Stoic philos- 
 opher converted to Christianity. He was 
 succeeded by his colleague, Clement of Alex- 
 andria (q.v.) about 200, and he in turn by Ori- 
 gen (q.v.) in 202. Heraclas became head for a 
 short time after Origen, whose assistant he had 
 been, and then followed Dionysius (q.v.) in 232, 
 who remained head after becoming Bishop of 
 Alexandria in 247. The list of later heads of 
 the school is not wholly certain. The tradi- 
 tional list is as follows: Theognostus, Pierius 
 (282 to c. 300), Serapion, Peter, Macarius, 
 Didymus the Blind (c. 340 to 395), and 
 Rhodon. 
 
 The curriculum covered the whole range of 
 sciences as then studied, all branches of rhetoric, 
 and the various systems of philosophy except 
 the Epicurean. The study of the Bible was 
 very thorough, and Origen while head of the 
 school devoted himself especially to that 
 branch. The school broke up in the first Ori- 
 genistic Controversy under Theophilus of 
 Alexandria (385-412) when Rhodon, the last 
 head of the institution, left the city and settled 
 and taught in Sida. 
 
 Contemporaneous with the flourishing period 
 of the School of Alexandria was the School of 
 the Monarchians at Rome, under Theodotus 
 the Leather Worker, a teacher from Byzantium, 
 and Theodotus the Money Changer, his pupil 
 and successor. This was not strictly a catechet- 
 ical school; as it was not officially connected 
 with the Church of Rome, and it seems to have 
 been a private undertaking. It is, however, 
 important in this connection, as it exerted an 
 influence upon the early teachers of the School 
 of Antioch (q.v.) The fortunes of the school 
 of Theodotus after the death of the younger 
 
 546
 
 CATECHETICAL SCHOOLS 
 
 CATECHETICAL SCHOOLS 
 
 teacher of that name are unknown. The school 
 was probably extinct by 250. It was a nursery 
 of thoroughly scientific inquiry. The study 
 of logic and mathematics stood in high favor, 
 and the works of Aristotle, Euclid, and Galen 
 {qg.v.) served as textbooks (cf. Eusebius, H.E. 
 V, 28). Biblical studies were carried on in a 
 critical spirit, and the exegesis was literal and 
 grammatical, all characteristics of the School 
 of Antioch. A catechetical school seems to 
 have been established at Jerusalem by Alex- 
 ander, bishop of that city (212 to 250), who 
 had been a pupil of Clement and a warm friend 
 of Origen. It is barely possibly that both these 
 great Alexandrians taught there for brief periods. 
 
 At Csesarea was a famous school which was 
 probably in existence as early as 215, when Ori- 
 gen taught therefor a short time, and certainly 
 after 232, when, after his quarrel with Bishop 
 Demetrius of Alexandria (189 to 232), he set- 
 tled there permanently. Under Origen the 
 School of Ca'sarea was as flourishing as that of 
 Alexandria, but after his death it rapidly de- 
 clined. It was revived by Pamphilius (d. 309), 
 who had studied at Alexandria under Pierius, 
 the Origenist. Pamphilius especially labored 
 to increase the library of the school. Among 
 his pupils was Eusebius of Caesarea, whose Ec- 
 clesiastical History bears witness on every 
 page to the riches of the library Pamphilius 
 brought together. A certain Thespesius is 
 mentioned by .Jerome (De viris illustrihus, c. 1 13), 
 as teaching in Ca>sarea, probably in the school. 
 His pupil, Euzoius (deposed 379), becoming 
 bishop of the city, tried to restore the library 
 to its earlier condition. Further traces of the 
 school do not appear. 
 
 The importance of the School of Antioch in- 
 creased as that of Alexandria and Caesarea de- 
 clined. Secular schools flourished in the city, 
 and the head of one of these, Malchion, a 
 teacher of rhetoric and a learned presbyter of 
 the Church, took a leading part in the con- 
 demnation of Paul of Samosata. If he was 
 the founder of the school, his successor, Lucian, 
 who gave the lasting trend to the thought of the 
 school, docs not seem to have agreed in Paul's 
 condemnation, for Lucian remained outside the 
 communion of the Church for many years after 
 Paul's downfall in 2GS. With Lucian was as- 
 sociated the presbyter Dorotheus, whose in-, 
 fluencc does not seem to have been very great. 
 Lucian studied at Edessa and at Ca'sarea, 
 where he came under the influence of Origen's 
 scientific spirit, if not of Origen himself ; but 
 traces of tiie theological views sulistHpiently 
 known as Origenism are not found in Lucian's 
 teaching. His labors on the revised text of the 
 Septuagint, based upon a miimte compari- 
 son of the current version with the He- 
 brew, indicate the scientific character of the 
 work done at this school. Lucian's text was in 
 general use throughout the East from Con- 
 stantinople to Antioch. Among his pupils 
 were Arius and Eusebius of Nicomedia, the op- 
 
 ponents of Athanasius. On account of this 
 connection of the school with heresy, it suffered 
 a partial eclipse until the latter part of the 
 fourth centurj', when it was again flourishing 
 and a center of theological study far more im- 
 portant than Alexandria at that time. Among 
 its representatives were Diodorus of Tarsus 
 (d. 394), Chrysostom (q.v.) (d. 407), Theodore 
 of Mopsuestia (d. 429), and Theodoret of 
 Cyrrhus (d. 457). How far the educational 
 work of Lucian was carried on in a permanent 
 institution is uncertain, but the unity of thought 
 in the Antiochene theologians and the similarity 
 of their exegetical principles in the earlier and 
 later periods point to some common instruction 
 and the probable continuity of the school. 
 
 The foundation of the School of Edessa dates 
 from the middle of the third century, and was 
 probably due to Bardasanes, under whom the 
 Christianization of the city took place. Before 
 the end of the century it was one of the leading 
 schools of the Church. Here under a certain 
 Maearius Lucian studied. It was, however, 
 in its earliest period under the Gnostic in- 
 fluences of Bardasanes, whose connection with 
 the Valantinians is very probable. 
 
 The School of Edessa appears to have lan- 
 guished during much of the fourth centur_y, but 
 was revived from Antioch, the center of Nes- 
 torianism, with which its fortunes henceforth 
 became identified. In this way Edessa became 
 the seat of education for the Nestorian clergy 
 of Persia. Rabbulas, Bishop of Edessa (412- 
 435), a fanatical opponent of Nestorianism, 
 broke up the school in 432, but he was succeeded 
 in the see by Ibas, a pronounced Nestorian ex- 
 pelled by Rabbulas ,who restored tlie school and 
 brought it to a high degree of prosperity. His 
 translations of the works of the Antiochenes, 
 Theodore of Mopsuestia and Diodorus, had a 
 marked and lasting influence upon the thought 
 and scientific exegesis of the Syrian Church. 
 In 489 the School of Edessa was destroyed by 
 the Emperor Zeno in his attempt to destroy 
 Nestorianism, but not before it had founded a 
 number of minor schools, among them one at 
 Seleucia on the Tigris. The School of Nisibis 
 was founded by the Nestorians expelled in 489 
 from Edessa, and there were maintained the 
 traditions of their teachers, for its inspiration 
 was drawn from Theodore and Theodoret, and 
 it flourished for centuries. At the beginning of 
 the seventh century under the direction of 
 Rlana it numbered more than 800 students. 
 It is to the School of Nisibis as the center 
 of Nestorianism that much of the honor 
 is due of making the translations of Aristotle 
 (q.v.) and of Greek medical works into Syriac 
 and from that language into Arabic, whereby 
 Greek science was preserved among the Ara- 
 i)ians, and through Spain came into the West. 
 The study of Aristotle, although not in har- 
 mony with the theology which became domi- 
 nant in the Greek and early Latin churches, 
 was peculiar to the School of Antioch and its 
 
 547
 
 CATECHISMS 
 
 CATECHISMS 
 
 transmission to the schools of Edessa and Nisibis 
 was of vast importance for the schools of the 
 Arabians and later Western culture. 
 
 J. C. A. 
 References : — 
 
 Davidson. History of Education. (New York, 1900.) 
 
 DR.tNE, A. T. Christian Schools and Scholars. (Lou- 
 don, ISSl.) 
 
 Hodgson, G. Primitive Christian Education. (Edin- 
 burgh, 1906.) 
 
 MoELLER, VV. History of the Christian Church. (Lon- 
 don and Now York, 1S92.) 
 
 Monroe, P. Hi-story of Education. (New York, 1906.) 
 
 CATECHISMS. — Imply a method of teach- 
 ing, viz. oral instruction. The term i.s now usu- 
 ally restricted to elementary instruction which 
 proceeds by a method of stereotyped cjuestions 
 by the teacher and answers by the pupil — 
 though the term is equally appropriate if the 
 cjuestions are asked by the learner, as is said to 
 have been done in the early Christian Church. 
 The catechetical method is naturally very 
 ancient, and prevailed in oriental countries 
 from antitiuity. It was used by the .Jews, and 
 the early Christians simply continued it with 
 fresh subject matter. In England, it was em- 
 ployed in Anglo-Saxon times, in the de Dinsioni- 
 bu.'i Temporum liber ascribed to Bede in many 
 secular subjects, and throughout the Middle 
 Ages, for religious instruction. It was the 
 method for the teaching of grammar in the well- 
 known Ars Minor of Donatus, the longe.st-lived 
 grammar in history. The catechism was there- 
 fore found ready to hand by the religious sup- 
 porters of Roman Catholicism and of Protest- 
 ant Reformers when the life and death struggle 
 began in competition for attaching the youth 
 to the one side or the other. The catechism as 
 a religious manual is therefore most closely 
 connected with the post-Reformation move- 
 ments in religion. The long Roman Catholic 
 catechism (1566), an outgrowth of the Council 
 of Trent, intended as the manual for the instruisk- 
 tion of the clergy, has been translated from 
 Latin into all the languages of Europe. It has 
 been followed by manj' shorter local and special 
 catechisms, also allowed by authority in the 
 Roman Church. 
 
 The Protestant series of catechisms begins 
 with that of Martin Luther in German in 1529. 
 It is said by Lutheran writers that no book ex- 
 cept the Bible has had a wider circulation. 
 The so-called Calcchi.sm of Erasmus, translated 
 into English in 1533, may be termed Catholic 
 rather than either Roman Catholic or Prot- 
 estant. It is now little known, Ijut it has 
 high value. Its remarkable independence of 
 thought may be judged by the answer to the 
 question, Why in the Lord's Prayer there is not 
 desired everlasting life? The answer is: "Be- 
 cause it belongeth to good .soldiers only to do 
 the offices and businesses which their captain 
 hath commanded and appointed them; taking 
 no thought or care for their reward." In 1547 
 Erasmus' Catechism was required by ordinance 
 to be in the possession of every boy in Win- 
 
 chester College. In 1536 Calvin wrote in the 
 French language the famous Geneva Catechism, 
 which he himself at once translated into Latin, 
 and afterwards Henry Stephens, the great 
 (irecian, translated into Greek. Altogether 
 there are 373 questions. Its circulation was 
 common in France, in the Netherlands, in Bo- 
 hemia, in Scotland, and in England. The 
 English translation is dated 1556, and it was 
 regarded " as the best next book to the Bible." 
 But it was too long to hold its place perma- 
 nently. On it were based two other important 
 Calvinistic catechisms: First, the Heidel- 
 berg Catechism in 1563, composed by Zacharias 
 Ursinus and Caspar Olevianus; for it is claimed 
 the greatest number of versions into other 
 languages after the Bible, the De Imitatione 
 Chrisli, and the Pilgrim's Progress. Secondly, 
 the longer and the shorter catechisms of the 
 Westminster Assembly, 1654. The Shorter 
 Catechism is still the theological heirloom of 
 Scotland, and is, says Dr. Schaff, unequaled 
 " in its brevity, terseness, and accuracy of defi- 
 nition." Thomas Carlyle's opinion is often 
 quoted, " The older I grow — and I now stand 
 upon the brink of eternity — the more comes 
 back to me the first sentence in the Shorter 
 Catechism which I learned when a child, and 
 the fuller and deeper its meaning becomes. 
 'What is the chief end of man? To glorify 
 God and to enjoy him for ever.' " 
 
 In England the first Book of Common Prayer 
 issued in 1549 contains the Church of England 
 Catechism. Its authorship is uncertain. It 
 was probably written either by John Poynet 
 (afterwards Bishop of Rochester) or bj' Alex- 
 ander Nowell, afterward Dean of St. Paul's. 
 Both Poynet and Nowell wrote longer cate- 
 chisms. Poynet's Short Catcchi.sm (1553) was 
 required by royal injunction to be used by all 
 schoolmasters in their schools. But the acces- 
 sion of Queen Mary caused the suppression of 
 the Catechism, and Poynet fled to Strassburg. 
 In 1570 Nowell wrote his Larger Catechism in 
 Latin, which was immediately translated into 
 English by Thomas Norton, the translator 
 of Calvin's Institutes. Nowell's Middle Cate- 
 chism, was published also in 1570, in Latin, 
 and translated also by Norton into English 
 in 1572; and in 1573 Nowell published 
 his Catechisnnis parvus in Latin, translated 
 into Greek in 1574. These catechisms of 
 Dean Nowell are of great importance, in connec- 
 tion with grammar school teaching, in all their 
 forms, English, Latin, and Greek. For Nowell's 
 catechisms were required by the Canons of 
 1571 to be taught in the schools, and the Can- 
 ons of 1604, requiring all schoolmasters to teach 
 in English or Latin the longer or shorter cate- 
 chism, probably contain the reference to the 
 same work, though the author is not named. 
 
 The Grammar School Statutes dated after 
 the return of the exiles from the Marian 
 Persecution lay stress on the teaching of 
 catechisms. Thus the Statutes of Retford 1552, 
 
 548
 
 CATECHISMS 
 
 CATECHISMS 
 
 Caistor 1630, require the Common Prayer 
 Book Catechism. Harrow Rules 1580 and 
 Rivington Grammar School required Cal- 
 vin's or Nowell's Catechism. Many require 
 Nowell only. St. Paul's School in 1678 used 
 Nowell's Catechism, Ursinus', i.e. the Heidel- 
 berg Catechism, translated into Greek by Henry 
 Stephens, and the Church Catechism, " which," 
 we are told, " no other ought to exclude." 
 The universities also required the students by 
 statute to be tested in the catechi.sms, for ex- 
 ample in 1578 in the University of Oxford, the 
 catechisms of Calvin and Bullinger were pre- 
 scribed. Catechisms, then, were used univer- 
 sally in the schools. " Multitudes of little 
 catechisms " were produced, some only local, 
 others more general, in addition to the authori- 
 tative and well-known English and foreign 
 manuals. James I, at the Hampton Court 
 Conference, made the well-known gibe that in 
 Scotland "ignorant" catechisms were devised 
 " by everyone who was the son of a good man." 
 Brinslcy in 1012, in the Lucius Literarius, 
 describes the method of teaching the catechism. 
 It is to be taught every Saturday as a "prepara- 
 tion to the Sabbath" for half an hour or more. 
 Each boy is to learn to repeat half a side of a leaf 
 or more at a time until he can say the whole. 
 The more they say at a time and the oftener, the 
 better. After each has said the task, then a 
 class is formed. Those " suspected to be care- 
 les.s " are then to give the "answers" to the 
 questions. The teacher then makes each an- 
 swer " so plain and easy " that the least child 
 can understand. " Questions " are to be re- 
 made into shorter questions, and all are to be 
 examined " backward and forward." All being 
 answered, " all diligence " must be used " to 
 whet it upon them, to work holy affections in 
 them; that each may learn to fear the Lord and 
 walk in all his commandments." From 
 Charles Hoole's New Discorcrij of the Old Art of 
 Teaching School, we learn that in the third form 
 of the (Jrammar School the boys arc to learn 
 the Westminster Assembly's Catechisms in 
 English and Latin. In the fourth form they 
 use the Assembly's Le.sscr Catecliism in Latin 
 and Dr. Harmer's translation into Greek. In 
 the fifth form, after the boys have gone thrice 
 over the Assembly's Catechism in Greek and 
 Latin, they "may proceed " in Nowell's Cate- 
 chism or the Palatinate (i.e. the Heidelberg) 
 Catechism in Greek. In the sixth form, the 
 boys' catechisms are Nowell and Birkett in 
 Greek and the Church Catechism in He- 
 brew. After the Restoration (1660) the use 
 of the catechism for school purposes in Latin, 
 Greek, and Hebrew gradually gave way to the 
 shorter English Church Catechism in English. 
 The establishment of charity schools in the early 
 years of the eighteenth century, to the num- 
 ber eventually of 2000, led to the absolute 
 supremacy in England of the employment for 
 the school education of the vast bulk of the 
 community, of the Common Prayer Book Cate- 
 
 chism, so that the voluminous and multitudi- 
 nous catechism of the sixteenth and seventeenth 
 centuries fell out of use. 
 
 The catechism in the form of stereotyped 
 questions and answers, whether religious or 
 secular, has been in favor in ages when the culti- 
 vation of the verbal memory was regarded as a 
 matter of great educational importance. And 
 it is a mistake to suppose that the supporters 
 of the method ignored the understanding of 
 the subject matter. They insisted on it, as 
 will be seen in Brinsley's method of teaching. 
 But the closely thought-out exact statements 
 were to the six-teenth and seventeenth centuries 
 the best expressions of theological doctrines, 
 and therefore, it was felt, ought to be known 
 exactly, just as mathematical definitions and 
 chemical formute are usually required nowadays 
 to be learned verbatim. The objections ordi- 
 narily urged against the catechism method 
 amount to this — that the learner docs not form 
 his 0W71 conclusions, \mt learns those arrived at 
 by others on grounds which he does not under- 
 stand, and that therefore he is not encouraged 
 to use his own reason and j udgment ; in other 
 words, his knowledge becomes mechanical and 
 not rational. It is clear, too, that the control 
 exercised by the teacher in having the questions 
 stereotyped gives the lead in the question as well 
 as in the answer, and takes away from the pupil 
 the chances of putting the questions in the forms 
 which would best satisfy his own individual 
 difficulties. On the other hand, theological 
 catechisms were not devised with a view to 
 mental discipline. Their point of view is the 
 communication of absolutely ascertained truth 
 in the most compact, thorough, sound, exact 
 statement of which it is capable. Accordingly, 
 they usually fall into the educational fallacy 
 of supposing that the shorter the statement is, 
 the easier it is to learn. This is true only if we 
 take " to learn " as meaning to repeat the 
 words. Thus it is probably only the theological 
 scholarly man who sees the full significance of 
 the " Short " Catechism. It must, however, 
 be remembered that in the Puritan times the 
 atmosphere was fully charged with theological 
 ideas, and that the catechism as a brief and 
 exquisite statement of what was in the individ- 
 ual consciousness was filled out, even in chil- 
 dren's minds, with a familiarity of knowledge 
 of the Bible and Calvinistic doctrines to a 
 degree which made the catechism much more 
 vivid and real than we can readily understand. 
 In a sense there was a " visualization " of the 
 subject matter to which the modern world has 
 no parallel. The modern attitude of opcn- 
 mindedness, and of search for truth, and the 
 educational doctrine of the value of mental 
 disci])line, are thus on the whole in opposition 
 to catechisms. F. W. 
 
 References: — 
 
 Blunt. J. H. Annotated Book of Common Prayer. 
 (Church Catechism.) (London, 1903.) 
 
 549
 
 CATECHUMENAL SCHOOLS 
 
 CATECHUMENAL SCHOOLS 
 
 Jacobson, W. Co(ecftt«mu^ (Auctore A. Nowcll). (Ox- 
 ford, 1835.) 
 
 The Heidelberg Catechism (with historical Introduction). 
 (London, 1900.) 
 
 Mitchell, A. F. The Catechisms of the Second Reforma- 
 tion. (London, 1SS6.) 
 
 ScH.\FF, Philip. History of the Creeds. (London, 
 1S78.) 
 
 Watson, Foster. The English Grammar Schools to 
 1660. (Cambridge, 1908.) 
 
 For lists of the old Catechisms in England see Andrew 
 Maunsell's Catalogue (159.5) and William London's 
 Catahigue of the Most Vendible Books. (Section 
 on Divinity 1658.) 
 
 CATECHUMENAL SCHOOLS. — A term 
 applied to that intellectual and moral training 
 which candidates for admission to the Christian 
 Church received before baptism. These candi- 
 dates were, accordingly, known as catechumens, 
 or persons under instruction. In the earliest 
 period of the Church persons were often ad- 
 mitted after very brief preparation, but in the 
 second century a period of probation and in- 
 struction became general, and handljooks of 
 instruction, such as the Didache, began to ap- 
 pear. Although not members of the Church, 
 converts not j'ct baptized were regarded as so 
 connected with it as to be subject to ecclesiasti- 
 cal discipline, for they had been formally recog- 
 nized as catechumens by the bishop and ad- 
 mitted to that status by a simple ceremony of 
 laying on of hands. In case, therefore, the 
 catechumen fell into gross sin, he was compelled 
 to undergo a longer period of probation. Thus 
 arose by the midcUe of the third century all the 
 essential features of the system of instruction 
 and discipline. 
 
 The catechumenate commonly lasted three 
 years. There is little ground for making three 
 or four clearly defined classes among the cate- 
 chumens, a mistake made even by Bingham, 
 which seems to have arisen from confusion 
 with the penitonti.al discipline; for persons 
 under penance were often reduced to a position 
 in which they had only the rights of catechu- 
 mens. A natural division, however, was made 
 between the general body of catechumens, 
 commonly called audientes, because allowed to 
 hear the sermon and the readings of the Scrip- 
 ture in the services, and those who, without 
 being admitted to greater privileges as to 
 attendance upon services, had formally applied 
 for baptism, generally at the beginning of Lent, 
 and were looking forward to baptism at the 
 next Easter — Even. These, the competentes, 
 received special instruction in a body. .lu.st 
 before baptism they were taught the words of 
 the Creed or Symbol, with the doctrinal con- 
 tents of which they had been made familiar, and 
 also received the Lord's Prayer. Then, on 
 baptism, they became full members of the 
 Church and were admitted for the first time to 
 be present at the Eucharist and to receive it. 
 There was no special class whose duty it was to 
 instruct the catechumens. The term catechist 
 did not imply an order of the ministry, but a 
 function which might be performed by any 
 
 believer, clerical or lay. In the earliest period 
 persons appear who later figure as sponsors, 
 and these frequently undertook the instruction 
 of the recent convert. Later the work natu- 
 rally fell almost entirely to the clergy. Thus 
 Cyril of Jerusalem (d. 8S0) (q.v.), whose cate- 
 chetical lectures are still extant, acted as cate- 
 chist probably both while a deacon and after his 
 ordination to the presbyterate. The teacher, or 
 doctor audientium, to whom Augustine (q.v.) 
 addressed his textbook on catechetical instruc- 
 tion, belonged to the lower order of clergy 
 known as lector. Bishops frequently took part 
 in the instruction, and did so commonly in the 
 preparation immediately before baptism. On 
 the other hand, Cyril of Jerusalem encourages 
 laymen to undertake the work {Cat. xv, 18). 
 
 As to the course of instruction covered during 
 the catechumenate, there is for the Ante-Nicene 
 period little evidence. The Didache probably 
 served as a manual in various parts of the 
 Church, and as models for other textbooks. 
 Thus much of it appears in the Apostolic Con- 
 stitution (Bk. VII, 1-32). The earliest body of 
 carefully elaborated instruction is the series 
 of Catechetical Lectures delivered by Cyril of 
 Jerusalem in 347, covering the whole scheme of 
 doctrine, as it had been formulated by the 
 Church, and the fundamental points of Chris- 
 tian morality. These lectures are the most 
 important extant document relating to the 
 catechumenate, and are probably in the form 
 in which they were actually delivered. The 
 Great Catechism of Gregory of Nyssa (q.v.) is a 
 highly technical exposition of theology con- 
 ceived in the spirit of Origen (q.v.). It does not 
 seem to have been used in instruction, for which 
 it was hardly suitable, but was intended to 
 serve as a guide to the catechist on the main 
 points of doctrine. On account of its radical 
 Origenism it could hardly have enjoyed great 
 circulation. The work of Augustine, Dc catechi- 
 zandis rudibus, is not a textbook, but a brief 
 treatise on religious pedagogy, giving hi!its for 
 dealing with different classes of pupils, pointing 
 out stumbling blocks in the way of the teacher, 
 setting before him ideals, and even presenting 
 models of discourse. 
 
 The catechumenate attained its greatest 
 development in the fourth and fifth centuries. 
 The Church, free from persecution, then de- 
 .veloped its organization in all points, and the 
 catechumenal system was carefully regulated. 
 Indeed, it is largely from this period that most 
 information regarding the Church's in.stitutions 
 is to be gathered. It still remained the custom 
 to baptize adults almost exclusively, even in the 
 case of members of pious and devoted Christian 
 families. The reason for this was that the for- 
 giveness obtained in baptism applied only to 
 the sins in the past. If baptism came later in 
 life, it would avail for more wrongdoings and 
 delinquencies. Men and women therefore ap- 
 plied for baptism who had never been heathen, 
 and were familiar with the leading points of the 
 
 550
 
 CATEGORICAL 
 
 CATHEDRAL SCHOOLS 
 
 faith. For them the grade of instruction could 
 be much higher than if it were merely for chil- 
 dren. The catechumcnal system declined very 
 rapidlj' with the general introduction of infant 
 baptism. There was no place for it before bap- 
 tism, and the children brought up in the Church 
 and attending its services received their knowl- 
 edge of the faith through the services of the 
 Church. For some centuries the catechumenate 
 remained only as a series of elaborate ceremo- 
 nies connected with bajitism. These were gradu- 
 ally simplified till but few traces remained. 
 The place of this admirable system of instruc- 
 tion was but inadequately filled by preaching, 
 which rapidly declined. And the Middle Ages, 
 it may he said, never developed a system of 
 instruction which approached in effectiveness 
 the catechumenate of the early Church. With 
 the Protestant Reformation and the Council of 
 Trent some provision was made for popular 
 religious instruction, especially of the young, 
 and both among Protestants and Roman 
 Catholics numerous Catechisms were compiled, 
 and the clergy held accountable for suitable in- 
 struction in their cures. J. C. A. 
 
 References: — 
 BiNGH.\M. Antiquities of the Christian Church. 
 D.wiDSON. History of Education. (New York, 1900.) 
 DnANE, .\. T. Christian Schools. (London. ISSl.) 
 Church Histories of Moeller, Leander, Robertson and 
 others. 
 
 CATEGORICAL. — See Judgment. 
 
 CATHEDRAL SCHOOLS. — It has already 
 
 been stated that all schools in western Europe 
 arc derived from the bishops' schools (g.v.). 
 From the time that the bishop's council became 
 a corporation apart from the bishop, with sep- 
 arate possessions, the bishop, being a person 
 whose office necessitated perjDetual movement 
 in his diocese, even if he was not, as was very 
 often the case, traveling in the service of the 
 King, who rarely spent more than a week in the 
 same place, devolved the control of his school 
 on the chapter. They, being bound to statu- 
 tory residence and service in the mother or 
 cathedral church of the diocese, were better 
 able to look after the cathedral school. This 
 in process of time developed into three, and, 
 in some cases, four schools, the theological 
 school, the grammar school (q.v.), the song or 
 music school (q.t<.). and in later times, in .some 
 places, such as Lincoln and Salisbury, the 
 choristers' school (q.v.), a grammar and song 
 school combined. At first the one school had 
 been originally taught by one of the canons, 
 who was known as the schoolmaster (Magistcr 
 Scholanii/i, Scholnnlicus, or Arc/iinrholn). The 
 song school was very early .separated, and by the 
 end of the eleventh century, when the consti- 
 tution of cathedral churches was fixed, or at 
 least became the subject of written statutes, 
 had been placed under a separate officer, the 
 cantor, chanter, or, as he was called from the 
 thirteenth century, precentor. Though sing- 
 
 ing was regarded as quite as important for all 
 cathedral ministers, and was for the services 
 even more important than grammar, and 
 the precentor, though a later creation, gen- 
 erally took precedence ne.xt the dean, yet 
 the song school never was regarded as of the 
 same importance as the grammar school; 
 and the song schoolmaster occupied a much 
 lower position than the grammar schoolmaster. 
 The theological school became separated from 
 the grammar school about the last quarter of 
 the twelfth century. Though theology was 
 the highest faculty, and indeed the ultimate end 
 theoretically of all learning, yet the chancellor's 
 (q.v.) own school never occupied as high a po- 
 sition as the grammar school, which he devolved 
 on his deputy and appointee, the granmiar 
 schoolmaster. The grammar school of the 
 Cathedral Church of N., or, as it was quite often 
 called, the Grammar School of the City of N., 
 was par excellence the Cathedral School. These 
 cathedral schools were the public schools of 
 the Middle Ages, and in England, even after the 
 Reformation, continued to l)e the chief schools 
 down to the eighteenth century. Even now, 
 if they have been eclipsed by the select few of 
 the old grammar schools, which are known as 
 the Great Public Schools, and their modern imi- 
 tators, the cathedral schools still remain among 
 the chief of those public schools of the second 
 rank which still retain the title, dropped by the 
 others, of grammar schools. They were al- 
 ways for the city and county as well as for the 
 members of the cathedral church itself. They 
 taught not only grammar in the strict sense, but 
 the classics in general, together with rhetoric 
 and dialectic or logic, the Irivium {q.v.) of the 
 schola.stic course. The earliest documents 
 extant in connection with the cathedrals show 
 us their importance. There were four principal 
 persons or dignitaries in the cathedrals as or- 
 ganized in France, Spain, and Germany, as well 
 as England, at the end of the eleventh century: 
 the head, called in England dean, the precentor, 
 the chancellor, and the sacrist or treasurer, and 
 they ranked in that order generally. At St. 
 Paul's, London, and perhaps some other places, 
 the chancellor ranked second instead of third, 
 as he had originally been second, before the 
 bishop himself had been superseded by the dean. 
 In England, the earliest of these documents 
 is the In.tlitidion of St. O.ftDund, the foundation 
 statutes of Salisbury Cathedral, which, though 
 they only exist in a thirteenth-century copy, 
 purport to be made in the year 1091, and are 
 substantially, if not in every word, of that date. 
 They state that the chancellor is preeminent 
 in teaching the school and correcting the books, 
 and that the Archischola, apparently the same 
 person, has to hear and determine the lessons, 
 keep the chapter seal, write the chapter letters, 
 and draft the chapter deeds. There is every 
 reason to think that the statutes of Lincoln 
 Cathedral, founded in 1090, and those of York 
 Cathedral, reconstituted in the same year, were 
 
 551
 
 CATHEDRAL SCHOOLS 
 
 CATHEDRAL SCHOOLS 
 
 in identical tornis. At St. Paul's, London, the 
 earliest extant document in which the school 
 appears is in a confirmation, about the year 
 1111, by Bishop Richard to Hugh the school- 
 master (Ma{jistro Scholarum) of the house pre- 
 viously occui)ied by Master Durand to hold 
 it ex officio to him and his successors forever; 
 and as Durand signs deeds as a canon as early 
 as HOG, this brings the school back to that 
 date at least. In about 1120 the same bishop 
 granted to " Henry, my canon, the pupil of 
 Master Hugh, the school of St. Paul's as hon- 
 orably as the church in best and most honor- 
 able wise ever held it," and conferred on him 
 some new endowments. King Stephen about 
 1137 conferred a special endowment, some 
 churches in Hampshire, on the schoolmaster 
 of Salisbury. At York the Archbishop about 
 1189 gave a separate endowment of 100.S. a 
 year out of the "synodals," or fees payable to 
 the archbishop for synods, to the sehoolma.ster. 
 But when the schoolmaster became chancellor, 
 in about 1190 at York and about 1205 at St. 
 Paul's, these endowments remained part of the 
 chancellor's estate, and the grammar sc'hool as 
 such became unendowed. Its master received 
 generally a payment of £2 a year from the 
 chancellor, adequate no doubt in 1190, but as it 
 was never increased, wholly inadequate even by 
 1382, when £10 was the stipend assigned to the 
 headmaster of Winchester. It appears from stat- 
 utes at York in 1307 that the grammar school- 
 master was bound to be a Master of Arts, and 
 held office only for three years, or by special 
 grace for a fourth year. But after the Black 
 Death in 1349, such was the dearth of M.A.'s 
 that the chapter had to infringe the statute or 
 custom and concur in the chancellor's making 
 appointments for life or during good l)ehavior. 
 In the fourteenth century several of the York 
 masters were not in holy orders, and were mar- 
 ried men. The rector, as he is called, of the 
 grammar school of Chichester, Master Thomas 
 Romsey, who had been master there for ten 
 years, became the second headmaster of Win- 
 chester College in 1395 — a sufficient evidence 
 of the high status of that cathedral school. 
 
 In the fifteenth century, the customary sti- 
 pend had become so insufficient, while the canon 
 law directed that cathedral schools should be 
 free at all events to the members of the Church 
 and the poor, that other means were resorted 
 to for paying the master. At Lincoln, in 1402, 
 we find that the master was made a vicar- 
 choral, i.e. one of the canon's choir deputies. 
 At Wells the schoolmaster was also a chantry 
 priest in the cathedral. At Chichester he was 
 in 1460 also parson of St. Olave's Church in the 
 city, a not very satisfactory arrangement. So 
 in 1498 Bishop Story appropriated one of the 
 eanonries, or prebends of the cathedral, to that 
 school, which is in consequence still called the 
 Prebendal School. At Exeter, when the Refor- 
 mation was in prospect, the chapter in 1636 
 proposed to reconstitute themselves as pastor 
 
 and preachers instead of dean and canons, 
 and to augment the grammar schoolmaster's 
 stipend out of the chapter revenues to £20 a 
 year, and establish a number of free scholar- 
 ships. At York 50 free scholars attending the 
 cathedral school were maintained by the neigh- 
 boring abbey of St. Mary's. It was on these 
 lines that, when the monkish cathedrals at 
 Canterbury, Rochester, Durham, Worcester, 
 Norwich, Ely, and Carlisle were abolished and 
 secular canons introduced, and new bishoprics 
 and chapters of canons established in place 
 of the abbeys of Peterborough, Bristol, and 
 Gloucester in 1540, the cathedral schools re- 
 ceived a great accession. To each new cathe- 
 dral chapter a grammar school was attached 
 with master and usher receiving £20 and £10 
 a year respectively, with provision for free 
 scholars to be lodged, boarded, and clothed free, 
 ranging from 50 at Canterbury and 40 at West- 
 minster to 20 at Peterborough, and, apparently, 
 none at Gloucester, with extensive provision of 
 exhibitions to take the best scholars on to the 
 universities. This la,st provision was, however, 
 afterward canceled by Henry VIII himself. 
 While the schools of the cathedrals " of the 
 new foundation," as they are called, benefited 
 enormously by the change of religion, those of 
 the old cathedrals suffered. For the abolition 
 of chantries and the reduction of vicar-choral- 
 ships left them to their old salaries eked out 
 by tuition fees. York was saved by the annexa- 
 tion by Cardinal Pole of an old hospital or 
 almshouse for poor priests to the school. Here- 
 ford received subsequent endowments from a 
 later dean. Lichfield school was removed to a 
 hospital in the city. But Salisbury and Wells 
 cathedral schools gradually died of inanition, 
 and York and Lichfield ceased to be regarded 
 as cathedral schools. So that by an odd re- 
 versal and forgetfulness of history, when the 
 great inquiry into and revival of secondary 
 schools by the Endowed Schools Commission 
 of 1863 took place, it was schools of the cathe- 
 drals of the new foundation which were re- 
 garded as the cathedral schools, and provision 
 was made for assisting them out of the funds of 
 the Ecclesiastical Commissioners, who now 
 administer the estates of the cathedrals, while 
 the others w-cre disregarded. Westminster, 
 which, owing to the abolition of Westminster 
 Cathedral by Queen Mary and its revival by 
 Queen Elizabeth as a collegiate church, is not 
 regarded as strictly a cathedral school, was 
 throughout the seventeenth and eighteenth 
 centuries the largest, most famous, and most 
 successful of the public schools. Of the rest 
 York was long regarded as one of the chief 
 schools of the north; Durham has been the 
 most uniformly distinguished and successful; 
 Canterbury was for many years sadly neglected 
 and decadent, but has, since a new scheme was 
 made for it by the Charity Commission, been 
 revived, and has largely increased quite re- 
 cently; Norwich and Hereford and Ely have 
 
 552
 
 CATHOLICS AND PUBLIC SCHOOLS 
 
 CAUSATION 
 
 been fairly successful as local schools; Bristol 
 has been sadly lowered, and Chichester has been 
 reduced almost to nothingness. A. F. L. 
 
 CATHOLICS AND THE PUBLIC 
 SCHOOLS. — See P.\rochial School Sy.sTEM. 
 
 CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF AMERICA, 
 WASHINGTON, D.C. — A Catholic institu- 
 tion founded for the higher education of the 
 clergy and laity. It was projected in 1866, but 
 not founded until 1884. It received Papal 
 Sanction in 1889, and the first classes were 
 opened in that year. The university comprises 
 five schools — sacred science, law, philosophy, 
 letters, and science, each divided into depart- 
 ments. The majority of the departments are 
 for graduate students only. A collegiate de- 
 partment was added in 1908, admission require- 
 ments to which are graduation from a high 
 school. As a general rule candidates are not 
 admitted to the graduate schools unless they 
 have had a previous college or equivalent train- 
 ing. The degrees are conferred on completion 
 of required courses and examinations. There 
 are 15 professors, 8 associate professors, and 7 
 instructors on the faculty. The Very Rev. 
 Thomas Joseph Shahan, S.T.D., J.U.L., is the 
 pro-rector. 
 
 CATO, MARCUS PORCIUS, MAJOR (called 
 CENSORIUS and SAPIENS) (234-149 B.C.). 
 — Roman statesman famous for his opposition 
 to the aristocracy and the introduction of 
 Hellenic literature and foreign manners. 
 Throughout his life an opponent of literary 
 studies, he characteristically devoted himself 
 to literature in his old ago, took up the study 
 of Greek, and became a prolific author. He 
 laid the foundation for Latin prose literature. 
 Much of what he wrote is now lost. One of 
 the most important of his works was a history 
 [Origines] in seven books, dealing not only with 
 Roman but Italian history and the rise of 
 Italian cities. This work is entirely lost. For 
 his son he composed a work of encyclopedic 
 character on agriculture, health, science of war, 
 and jurisprudence. The only genuine extant 
 work that can be ascribed to Cato is the De Re 
 Rufilicn or De Agri Cultura, a guide to farmers, 
 of which many echoes are found in Vergil's 
 Georgics. Cato's friends atlopted the jiractice 
 of collecting his apothegms and moral say- 
 ings. In Cicero's time these had increased to 
 quite a consideral)le collection, and additions 
 were constantly made. These went by the 
 name of Disticha de Morihus, and were all 
 attributed to C^ato. In the Middle Ages, owing 
 to their content, they were a favorite scliool 
 textbook, and in England were in use during- 
 the seventeenth century. Caxton and Wyn- 
 kyn de Worde botii published editions. Eras- 
 mus published one with notes. One of the 
 earliest English translations was that of William 
 Bullokar (q.v.) in 1585. Hrinsley (q.v.) in 1612 
 
 and Hoole (q.v.) in 1659 issued translations in 
 verse. Mulcaster oljjected to the use of the 
 Distichs as a textbook in school, and with great 
 justification, for they contain moral disquisi- 
 tions and moral judgments on questions which 
 are bej'ond the reach of schoolboys. 
 
 References: — 
 
 Duff, J. Wright. A Literary History o/ Rome. (Lon- 
 don, 1909.) 
 
 TEnFFEL. A History of Roman Literature. (London, 
 1891, 1S92.) 
 
 Watson, Foster. The English Grammar Schools to 
 1660. (Cambridge, 1908.) 
 
 CAUSATION. — Probably no idea or set of 
 ideas has played as imjKjrtant a part in the 
 history of philosophy as those connected with 
 the conception of causation. Aristotle's analy- 
 sis of every subject matter into four primary as- 
 pects or " principles " which exhaust all the 
 points of view from which the subject can be 
 intelligently discussed, was stated in terms of 
 four " causes ": material, formal, efficient, and 
 final. This doctrine was taken up into scholas- 
 tic philosophy and educational procedure, and 
 became part of the common intellectual heri- 
 tage of European culture. Of the four notions, 
 emphasis long fell upon the formal and the 
 final causes, to the comparative neglect of 
 material and efficient. The formal cause was 
 the nature or essence, the universal character, 
 which constituted anything irhat it is; in 
 virtue of this universal character, the star is a 
 star, man a man, etc. The final cause was the 
 end and purpose for which it existed. Scholas- 
 tic philosophy held that true science consists 
 in knowing the end of things, their what for 
 or reason why, and hence culminated in 
 theology, knowledge of God as the final cause 
 and good of the whole universe. Moreover, 
 its method was essentially dialectical; obser- 
 vation and experiment directed upon nature 
 were at a minimum; definition and the plac- 
 ing of rational concepts (i.e. formal causes) in 
 logical relation to one another at a maximum. 
 
 With the Renaissance came a reaction against 
 the scholastic philosophy, and again.st the whole 
 doctrine of formal and final causes, which were 
 either denied in ioto, or else regarded as wholly 
 sterile as respects knowledge of the facts of 
 nature and history. Inquiry turned to efficient 
 and material causation, i.e. an inquiry as to 
 the process(« by which things are brought into 
 existence and the elements or constituents out 
 of which they are made. Motion (or energy) 
 soon became the generic term for efiicient 
 causes, matter (or mass) for material causes. 
 So that it is a commonplace of present-day 
 physical science that strictly scientific state- 
 ments and explanations must be in terms of 
 motion and matter. 
 
 Meantime the notion of efl^cient causation 
 was subjected to criticism, till finally four 
 theories regarding it were evolved: the .skepti- 
 cal, the a priori, the positivistic, and the prag- 
 
 553
 
 CAUTION MONEY 
 
 CENSUS 
 
 matic. The skeptical theory is best represented 
 by Hume. According to him every distinct 
 perception represents separate existence; con- 
 tinuity is thus essentially an illusion. Objec- 
 tively there is no such thing; the mind gets 
 accustomed to certain familiar recurrences and 
 comes to expect that one tiling will follow an- 
 other. This subjective habit of expectation is 
 all there is in causation. Kant, seeing in tliis 
 interpretation of cause the destruction of all 
 science, regarded causation as ati a priori cate- 
 gory in terms of whicli thought construes all 
 the materials of experience, and without which 
 no experience is possible. The positivistic 
 notion eliminates efliciency and necessity from 
 the idea of causation, and reduces it to uniform 
 succession. We do not know and cannot 
 know that the events are intrinsically connected 
 or that one produces the other; but we may 
 know that they are uniformly connected as 
 antecedent and consequent, and this uniformity 
 of sequence constitutes the whole content of 
 causation. Acconling to the pragmatic theory, 
 the justification of the notion of causation is its 
 service in giving control of future exi)erience. 
 Continuity is as much a fact of direct experi- 
 ence as is discreteness or separation. While 
 there is no a priori assurance that any particular 
 instance of continuity will recur, the mind en- 
 deavors to regulate future experience by postu- 
 lating recurrence. So far as the anticipation 
 is justified by future events, the notion is 
 confirmed. So far as it fails to work the as- 
 sured continuity is dropi)ed or corrected. Be- 
 cause of its fruitfulness in regulating the 
 occurrences of exi)eriences, the general notion 
 of causation is justified. 
 
 Of course, it is not necessary for educators 
 to adopt any one of the various philosophic 
 interpretations of causation. Teachers, how- 
 ever, have to take full account of the fact that 
 modern science is based upon the principle of 
 continuity of change, or process, and have to 
 promote in pupils the habit of looking at and 
 interpreting all sulijcct matter from this point 
 of view. The chief obstacles which have to be 
 overcome are the tendencies to look at things 
 as isolated and hence static, and to connect 
 things on grounds of sense rather than evi- 
 dence, and (often encouraged by textbooks, 
 as a survival of the scholastic interest in formal 
 cases) to consider intellectual demands satisfied 
 when definitions and formal classifications have 
 been learned. Insight into processes of causa- 
 tion affords assurance of independent intellec- 
 tual progress, and represents the goal of edu- 
 cational procedure on its intellectual side. 
 
 J. D. 
 
 CAUTION MONEY. — A fee paid by under- 
 graduates at O.xford and Cambridge to the 
 tutors of their colleges, amounting to from £15 
 to £30, to ensure the prompt payment of all 
 dues. The money is retained by the tutor so 
 long as a student keeps his name on the books 
 
 of the college, or until he compounds for his 
 annual dues. 
 
 CEDARVILLE COLLEGE, CEDARVILLE, 
 OHIO. — Chartered in 1887, but not opened 
 until 1894. It is a coeducational institution 
 under the auspices of the General Synod of the 
 Reformed Presbyterian Church. Preparatory, 
 collegiate, normal, and fine arts departments 
 are maintained. Students are admitted to the 
 freshman class of the college at 1.5 years of age. 
 The college courses are based on approximately 
 8 points of high school work. The degree of 
 Bachelor of Arts is conferred. There is a 
 faculty of 10 professors and 3 instructors. 
 
 CENSORSHIP OF PUBLICATION AND 
 OF READING. — See Freedom, Academic; 
 Index uf Prohibited Books. 
 
 CENSUS, SCHOOL. — In many of the states 
 it has long been the custom for the state 
 superintendent or other authority to obtain, 
 among other types of information, statistics as 
 to the number of children between certain ages 
 in the various school districts, townships, and 
 counties. Local authorities have sometimes 
 made a careful census; often they have relied 
 upon estimates or upon school enrollment. In 
 distributing funds from state or county to 
 the local district many states have adopted 
 the plan of apportioning money according to 
 educational need as expressed in the number 
 of children to be educated. This has given 
 rise to the school census in its more exact form. 
 In these states local authorities are required 
 to appoint a special census officer each year, 
 and to provide the means necessarj' for an 
 accurate census. " Padding the census " is 
 sometimes resorted to in order to increase the 
 appropriation. To offset this, names of all 
 families are commonly now recorded : sometimes 
 a descriptive blank must be filled out for each 
 child. Special classifications must usually be 
 made of the Chinese, Indian, or negro children, 
 of the deaf, blind, etc. The " census age " 
 varies among the states, sometimes including 
 all the years, e.g. 5 to 21, during which youths 
 may attend schools; or only the years, e.g. 6 
 to 15 or 17, during which they are most likely 
 to attend. \ot uncommonly the ages 4 and 
 5 are included, in order to get a measure of the 
 numbers likely to attend school in the near 
 future. In some cases the enumerator must 
 also make a record of the school attended, 
 whether the child can read and write, and in a 
 few cases record also, for ages above 14, the 
 kind and place of work followed. The cost of 
 taking the census is fixed by statute in some 
 states, the amount ranging from 2 cents to 10 
 cents for each name taken. The median rate 
 for the 11 states thus fixing the rate is about 
 4 cents. In a variety of towns w-here the enu- 
 merator is paid by the day it is found tliat the 
 median rate is slightly more than 5 cents per 
 name taken. 
 
 554
 
 CENSUS 
 
 CENTRAL COLLEGE 
 
 The original purpose of the school census 
 has been to provide a basis for the distribution 
 of funds. In cities the data thus gathered has 
 also been used to some extent in the endeavor 
 to locate new school facihties, but especially 
 in enforcing the compulsory education laws. 
 Presumably a complete enumeration of chil- 
 dren, with ages, would be quite serviceable in 
 this direction. Practically, however, little use 
 has been made of the census in this direction, 
 owing partly to the fact that it is usually taken 
 at a time of year which renders it unserviceable 
 (often toward the close of the school year), 
 or to the fact that its data are not made acces- 
 sible to the proper officials. This has led to a 
 discussion of the feasibility of enlarging the 
 scope of the census so as to make of it a S3'stem 
 of registration for school children. Obviously, 
 in carrying out not only the laws on compulsory 
 attendance (q.v.), but also those dealing with 
 child labor (q.v.), and with the enforcement of 
 special educational opportunities for defectives, 
 and in carrying into effect the treatment of 
 delinquents through the juvenile court and 
 probation, it is highly desirable to have an 
 accurate registration of all children. Under 
 present circumstances, it is difficult to enforce 
 adequate education in the case of children who 
 attend private or parochial schools, notwith- 
 standing the perfection of the laws. In Phila- 
 delphia such permanent census or registration 
 is in the hands of the attendance officers. For 
 each pupil a card is prepared, and on this all 
 necessary records are kept. It is obvious that 
 such a system of record as this, once made, 
 would involve only a moderate amount of 
 attention to keep it up to date. If the collec- 
 tion of cards for a given district were kept in 
 the school of that area, attendance officers and 
 others could have ready access to them. At 
 the close of each year, amount of school attend- 
 ance, etc., should be recorded. At present we 
 have little satisfactory evidence as to the cost 
 and administration of such a system, but ob- 
 viously it is a logical necessity in proportion as 
 society becomes more solicitous that all children 
 in cities and rural areas shall come within the 
 reach of educational machinery. 
 
 It has been proposed to adopt the German 
 system of police registration for people living 
 in cities, compelling householders to report all 
 arrivals and departures. While the system 
 has its advocates, the consensus of opinion is 
 that it would be impossible of enforcement 
 under American conditions. But the registra- 
 tion of school children by attendance officers 
 is not impracticable. D. S. 
 
 See Attendance, Compulsory; Child 
 Labor. 
 
 References: — 
 
 DuTTON, S. T., and Snei>den, D. Aiiminislration of 
 Public Education. (New York, HKllS.) 
 
 Snedden, D., and Allen, W. H. Schonl Reports and 
 School Efficiency. (New York, 1907.) 
 
 Consult also State and City School Reports. 
 
 CENTENARY FEMALE COLLEGE, 
 CLEVELAND, TENN. — A school for the edu- 
 cation of young women, established in 1854. 
 Primary, preparatory, collegiate, business, and 
 fine arts departments are maintained. Classi- 
 cal and scientific courses are given in the col- 
 lege, leading to their appropriate degrees. 
 Candidates may enter the college freshman 
 year after a school course of seven years; other- 
 wise no definite statement of admi.ssion require- 
 ments is made. There is a faculty of 15 in- 
 structors. 
 
 CENTRAL BAPTIST COLLEGE, CON- 
 WAY, ARK. — A female college founded in 
 1893 and under the auspices of the Baptist 
 State Convention. Primary, preparatory, and 
 collegiate departments, and a conservatory are 
 maintained. Candidates are admitted on cer- 
 tificates from accredited high schools, and must 
 meet requirements demanding about 10 points 
 of high school work. The faculty consists of 
 13 instructors. 
 
 CENTRAL CITY COLLEGE, MACON, GA. 
 
 — An institution for the education of negroes, 
 established in 1899 and conducted under the 
 auspices of the Missionary Baptist Convention 
 of Georgia. Elementary, academic, collegiate, 
 theological, and industrial departments are 
 maintained. The majority of the pupils are 
 in the elementary department. Diplomas are 
 given on completion of the higher courses. 
 There are 14 instructors in the institution. 
 
 CENTRAL COLLEGE, FAYETTE, MO. 
 
 — A coeducational institution chartered Mar. 
 1, 1855. The corporation, stj'led the Board 
 of Curators, has 24 members; one third of 
 this number is appointed by each of the 
 three conferences in Alissouri of the Alethodist 
 Episcopal Church, South (the St. Louis, Mis- 
 souri, and Southwest Missouri Conferences). 
 Though denominational in origin and control, 
 the college announces its purpose to inculcate 
 only a broad, evangelical Christianity. The 
 usual undergraduate courses of four years lead 
 to the bachelor's degrees in arts and science; 
 the degrees of M.A. and M.S. are given for 
 one year's study in residence, with a thesis. 
 Central College is one of the colleges admitted 
 to Class A by the Board of Education of the 
 Methodist Episcopal Church, South (see 
 College Boards in Education, Denomin.4- 
 tional) ; the institution is also a memlier of 
 the Mi.ssouri College Union, an organization 
 which aims to exclude from its membership all 
 colleges of the state which have not facilities for 
 doing creditable college work (see College En- 
 trance Boards). A preparatory school, known 
 as Central Academy, is maintained. Two " cor- 
 related schools," Woodson Institute, Richmond, 
 Mo., and Centenary Academy for Girls, Palmyra, 
 Mo., are also styled Central Academy, their 
 work corresponding to that of the preparatory 
 
 555
 
 CENTRAL COLLEGE FOR WOMEN 
 
 CENTRAL UNIVERSITY 
 
 school managed by the college. Phi Sigma Nu 
 has a chajitiT in the college. The builiiing.s 
 occupy a canipu-s of 25 acres. Grounds, build- 
 ings, and C(|uipnient were valued (I'.KXi) at 
 S197,000; the total annual income was .S1S,0U0. 
 The average salary of a professor is §1350. In 
 1910 there were 99 students in the college and 
 71 in the academy. There are 13 meniliers on 
 the instructing staff, of whom 10 are full pro- 
 fessors. William A. \Vehl) was inaugurated as 
 president at the fiftieth anniversary of the 
 college, Oct. 7, 1907. C. G. 
 
 CENTRAL COLLEGE FOR WOMEN, LEX- 
 INGTON, MO. ~ Kstahlishcd to .succeed (lie 
 Marvin Female Institute in 1S71; under the 
 auspices of the Methodist Epis<'opal Church, 
 South. The present title was adopted in 1906. 
 Preparatory, collegiate, musical, and fine arts 
 departments are maintained. About 6 points 
 of high school work admit to the freshman 
 year of the college. Degrees arc conferred. 
 There is a faculty of 8 professors and 14 
 assistants. 
 
 CENTRAL COLLEGE, HUNTINGDON, 
 IND. — A coeducational institution chartered 
 in 1S97 and under the control of the Church 
 of the United Brethren in Christ. Academic, 
 collegiate, theological, musical, and commercial 
 departments are maintained. The admission re- 
 quirements are equivalent to about eight points 
 of iiigh school work. Degrees are conferred. 
 The tlieological course extends over three years, 
 at the end of which the degree of Baclielor of 
 Divinity is granted. There is a faculty of 6 
 professors and 4 instructors. 
 
 CENTRAL NORMAL COLLEGE, DAN- 
 VILLE, IND. — A coeducational institution 
 organized in 1876, giving preparatory, collegiate, 
 law-, normal, and business courses. The col- 
 legiate courses are academic, scientific, and 
 classic, and are given in three years. The ad- 
 mission requirements are indefinite. Degrees 
 are conferred. There are 22 instructors on 
 the faculty. 
 
 CENTRAL PLAINS COLLEGE AND CON- 
 SERVATORY OF MUSIC, PLAINVIEW, TEX. 
 
 — Founded in 1907 as a coeducational, non- 
 sectarian institution. Elementary, academic, 
 collegiate, commercial, and industrial depart- 
 ments are maintained. The requirements for 
 admission to the college courses which lead to 
 degrees are not definite. There is a faculty of 
 20 instructors. 
 
 CENTRAL UNIVERSITY OF IOWA 
 PELLA, LA. — Established in 1853 by a resolu- 
 tion of Iowa Baptists as a denominational, co- 
 educational institution. Academic, collegiate, 
 theological, fine arts, normal, and commercial 
 departments are maintained. Candidates are 
 admitted on certificate from accredited high 
 
 556 
 
 schools or by examination requiring approxi- 
 mately 12 points of high school work. Degrees 
 are conferred in classical, philosojihical, and 
 scientific courses. There is a faculty of 12 
 professors and 7 instructors. 
 
 CENTRAL UNIVERSITY OF KENTUCKY 
 DANVILLE, KY. — Established in 1901 by 
 the union of Centre College, Danville, with the 
 Central University, Louisville. Centre College 
 was incorporated by the legislature of the state 
 in 1819. Though planned chiefly by Presb.y- 
 terians, the charter forlxide the inculcation "of 
 religious teachings peculiar to any sect of Chris- 
 tians. In order to relieve the financial distress 
 into which the college soon fell because of 
 insuflicient appropriations, the Presbyterian 
 Church offered to secure a sufficient endow- 
 ment provided that the election of trustees 
 should be entirely in its control; this precipi- 
 tated a long struggle, which ended in the amend- 
 ment of the charter, whereby in return for 
 $20,000 the selection of tru.stees was to be 
 made by the Synod of Kentucky. In 1830 
 the financial provision was complied with, the 
 Rev. .John Clark Young was chosen president, 
 and Centre College began a history of valual)le 
 service, interrupted only by the almost com- 
 plete emptying of its classrooms during the 
 Civil War. The close of the war found two 
 Presbyterian General Assemblies (North and 
 South) in existence, each one of which claimed 
 the ownership of Centre College. The result- 
 ing dispute was not decided until the Supreme 
 Court of the United States, in an important 
 opinion known as the Walnut Street Church 
 decision, declared invalid the claim of the 
 Southern Synod based on the allegiance of 
 most of those interested in the college, and 
 continued the legal possession of the northern 
 body. This decision caused the establishment 
 of the Central University. One hundred and 
 fifty thousand dollars were raised, and in 1873 
 the legislature granted a charter to the cor- 
 poration, which was styled the Alumni Asso- 
 ciation of Central University; the institution 
 soon afterward opened its doors at Richmond. 
 The alumni association, which included all the 
 alumni of Centre College graduated previous 
 to the separation and the alumni to be gradu- 
 ated in the future from the Central University 
 itself, was to elect the governing body, the 
 Southern Presbyterian Synod to control the 
 theological school and one of the preparatory 
 schools. In 1884 the charter was so amended 
 that the right of election was conveyed from 
 the alumni association to the Southern Svnod, 
 the synod to elect two thirds of the board of 
 curators, however, from the membership of the 
 association. 
 
 In 1901 all the parties holding any right to 
 either Centre College or Central University 
 agreed to the amalgamation of both institu- 
 tions under the name of the Central University 
 of Kentucky. The College of Liberal Arts, 
 
 1
 
 CENTRAL UNIVERSITY 
 
 CENTRALIZATION 
 
 which was to continue to be called Centre Col- 
 lege, was to remain at Danville. The property 
 at Richmond was to be turned into a good 
 preparator}' school of high grade, while the 
 medical and dental schools established at Louis- 
 ville by the first Central University were to 
 remain as hitherto. The administration of the 
 united university was to be in the hands of a 
 board of 24 trustees, half of whom should be 
 elected by the Presbyterian Synod North and 
 half by the Synod South. Each trustee was to 
 serve 4 years. In 1907 the two synods relin- 
 quished all powers of election or of vetoing 
 the election of trustees, the board becoming 
 self-perpetuating; on May 26, 1908, the uni- 
 versity was placed on the accepted list of the 
 Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of 
 Teaching (q.v.), as a non-sectarian institution 
 participating in its system of retiring allowances 
 to professors. 
 
 Central University maintains Centre College, 
 the classical, scientific, and literary depart- 
 ments, inchuling courses in civil, electrical, and 
 chemical engineering; a graduate department, 
 conferring the M.A. degree; a college of law, 
 suspended early in the history of Central Uni- 
 versity at Richmond, but reestablisiied in 1901 
 as the successor of the school reorganized in 
 1898 by the university, and of the Danville 
 Law School established in 1894; and the 
 Louisville College of Dentistry, established in 
 1S87, of which William E. Grant is president. 
 Admission to the Centre College and to the 
 School of Law is by examination or certificate 
 from an accredited or approved four-year high 
 school. 
 
 Centre College has the life of a small college 
 of the best type; both before and after the 
 Civil War, it numbered among its alumni an 
 unusual proportion of distinguished men, 
 among them 2a college presidents, 29 repre- 
 sentatives in Congress, 5 United States senators, 
 9 governors of states, two Vice-Presidents of the 
 United States, and many other public officers. 
 Fraternities have been established at Centre 
 College as follows: Beta Theta Pi, Phi Delta 
 Theta, Phi Kappa Sigma, Sigma Chi, and 
 Kappa Alpha, Southern. The fraternities estab- 
 lished at ("entral University include : Sigma 
 Alpha Elpsilon, Alpha Tau Omega, Phi Delta 
 Theta, and Delta Kappa Epsilon. The build- 
 ing of tlie Dental College in Louisville is valued 
 at .51 15,000; the grounds, buildings, and eciuip- 
 ment of Centre College were valued (1900) at 
 $257,000; the total annual income was .?,32,.3r)9. 
 The average salary of a professor is .SlfiOO. 
 There are (1909), not including the Dental Col- 
 lege, 17 members on the instructing staff in 
 Centre College, of whom 1 1 are full professors, 
 and 8 members on the instructing staff in the 
 Law School, of whom 4 are full professors. 
 The students number: Centre College, 133; 
 Law School, 32; Dental College, 108; total, 
 233. Frederick William Hinitt, Ph.D., D.D., is 
 president. C. G. 
 
 CENTRAL WESLEYAN COLLEGE, WAR- 
 RENTON, MO, — A coeducational institution 
 founded in 1S64 by the Methodist Episcopal 
 Church. Academic, collegiate, musical, and 
 commercial courses are maintained. Sixteen 
 units are required for entrance into the fresh- 
 man cla.ss. Admission is by examination or 
 on certificate from accredited schools. Degrees 
 are conferred in classical and modern languages, 
 philosophical and scientific courses. There is 
 a faculty of 10 professors and 13 instructors 
 and assistants. 
 
 CENTRALIZATION. — This term is em- 
 ployed to designate the tendency in school 
 administration to concentrate authority and to 
 reduce management by laymen. In the early 
 history of America education was a local and 
 popular function, and it is still largely so in 
 the nonurban comnmnities of most states. 
 But in a marked degree since 1860 the tendency 
 has been toward centralized administration. 
 Localized and democratic administration of 
 public education is characterized by the follow- 
 ing qualities: the con.stitution of the state 
 authorizes and establishes it only in mcst 
 general terms; state legislation is not specific 
 and is largely permissive; schools and school 
 systems are administered and supervised mainly 
 by laymen holding office for short periods 
 and quite responsive to public opinion; the 
 areas of administration for important functions 
 arc small, such as districts or wards of cities; 
 town meetings or public elections are competent 
 to decide a variety of administrative questions, 
 such as appropriating money, selecting tex-t- 
 books, locating schoolhouses, and deciding on 
 new types of education; and state officials 
 have mainly advisory powers, or, at most, cer- 
 tain powers of veto. 
 
 Centralized administration, on the other 
 hand, exhibits these characteristics: the state 
 con.stitution fixes many administrative details, 
 such as types of schools that may be per- 
 mitted, maximum tax levies that may be im- 
 posed, methods to be employed in distributing 
 funds, and (jualifications and compensations 
 for certain offices; the state legislature by 
 statute and by its control of municipal gov- 
 ernment regulates a variety of the details of 
 administration, thus reducing the possibilities 
 of initiative and variation in the local com- 
 munity; administrative functions are trans- 
 ferred from the smaller to the larger area.s, as 
 when certification of teachers, selection of text- 
 books, formation of courses of study, inspection 
 of schools, conduct of institutes, and other ad- 
 ministrative functions become the duties of 
 state officials, or when the district, or the part 
 of the city, has to yield its authority to the 
 county or to the consolidated citj-; popular 
 meetings and elections diminish in numl)er and 
 effectiveness, their powers being conveyed to 
 representative boards; lay boards decrea.se in 
 size, their members are appointed rather than 
 
 557
 
 CENTRALIZATION 
 
 CENTRALIZATION 
 
 elected, and the members' terms of office are 
 prolonged, thus removing them from the im- 
 mediate control of the popular will; under 
 the lay boards appear experts whose functions 
 increase at the expense of the board, whose 
 tenure becomes relatively secure, and who are 
 not necessarily representative of, or informed 
 with reganl to, the local ojiinion and will. 
 Among American states. New York is com- 
 monly regarded as having the largest degree of 
 centralized administration, while Massachu- 
 setts is taken as a type of a decentralized 
 system. But in New York the prevalence of 
 the district system and the election of non- 
 urban superintendents are features of a rela- 
 tively decentralized administration; while in 
 Massachusetts tlie district has been abolished 
 and expert supervision is found over all rural 
 areas. In most American cities centralized 
 administration advances steadily as manage- 
 ment becomes more complex and requires more 
 expert service. 
 
 The system of control and administration in 
 France has been highly centralized, but a 
 marked decentralizing tendency is at present 
 at work. In Germany imperial influence is 
 slight, l)ut in the states administration is highly 
 centralized and professional, except as regards 
 nonurban inspection or supervision, which is 
 still largely clerical. But in Prussia and other 
 states, the tendency in recent years has been 
 toward bringing into existence or stimulating 
 into activity local agencies which, while exer- 
 cising very slight final authority, ne\crtheless 
 become centers of local interest and influence. 
 In Great Britain the modern developments 
 have been steadily away from the excessive 
 local and popular control which formerly 
 existed. But the tenacity of the English for 
 local institutions and democratic control has 
 largely prevented the appearance of the anti- 
 social effects of centralization, and it is prob- 
 able that Scotland and England possess to-day 
 the best balanced systems of combining local 
 and central coiitrol on the one hand, and lay 
 and expert administration on the other, that 
 the world has. 
 
 Centralized administration of public educa- 
 tion may have, at any given period, some good 
 and some bad effects. Other things remaining 
 equal, it promotes efficiency in the following 
 directions: (o) It promotes uniformity over 
 large areas, with the accompanying possibilities 
 of economy. Types of educational effort may 
 be coordinated, official bodies reduced, con- 
 flicting jurisdictions adjusted, and the material 
 means of instruction provided on a large scale. 
 (6) It permits the collective wisdom of the 
 larger area to control the actions of the smaller, 
 to maintain at least a minimum level of cul- 
 tural uniformity, and thus to prevent local 
 developments hostile to the best interests of the 
 state. The state may determine the minimum 
 amount of money to be given locally to public 
 education; it maj* aid weaker localities; it 
 
 may inspect the results of local educational 
 effort: and it ma.y enforce the establishment 
 of new types of education. In a similar way 
 the county as opposed to the smaller areas, or 
 the city as ojjposed to its divisions, may en- 
 force conditions of efficiency better than the 
 more minute divisions, (c) It makes possible 
 the substitution of carefully planned and co- 
 ordinated policies for the vagaries and im- 
 mature schemes of purely local administration 
 with its popular control and inexpert manage- 
 ment. A large city, or county, or other area, 
 or the state, in inaugurating new policies, may 
 have specialists planning the work even for 
 years before the first step is taken. Informa- 
 tion from various sources may be assembled 
 and experiments conducted, before the pro- 
 mulgation of a new policj'. (d) Finally, cen- 
 tralized administration makes possible the in- 
 troduction and development of the expert. 
 UndoubtecUy this is its most important contri- 
 bution to efficiency. In proportion as the 
 primitive art of educational administration be- 
 comes complex and is transformed into a field 
 of applied science, the presence of specially 
 qualified experts becomes indispensable. But 
 the development of the expert seems to be pos- 
 sible only in divisions large either in area or 
 population and under conditions of control 
 which are not purely democratic, as democracy 
 was understood in the primitive social life of 
 America. Among the types of expert service 
 already past the experimental stage of develop- 
 ment in American education may be men- 
 tioned: the architect to plan and supervise the 
 erection of school buildings; the man who is 
 at once physician and educator, to direct the 
 various aspects of physical education, such as 
 medical inspection, and to supervise the 
 hygienic conditions of instruction; the business 
 manager to attend to the financial affairs of 
 the school system; the statistician, who directs 
 the making of school records and reports, and 
 who is able to utilize these so as to derive con- 
 clusions suggestive of new administrative pro- 
 cedures; the specialized supervisor of instruc- 
 tion, whether of some division of the educa- 
 tional system, as kindergartens, rural schools, 
 grammar grades so-called, or high school, or 
 of instruction in some type of subject matter, 
 such as music, or manual arts; or, finally, the 
 superintendent, the earliest of the experts to 
 be developed and the man w-ho must yet stand 
 at the head of any system, expressing its most 
 genuine demands and coordinating the various 
 aspects of its activities in the interest, first, 
 of the individual child, and secondly, of the 
 final welfare of the state. Not only have the 
 most successful attempts at centralization thus 
 far made possible the utilization of these ex- 
 perts; they create in turn new fields of leader- 
 ship, for which we may soon expect able men 
 and women to prepare themselves. American 
 education is rapidly developing the profession 
 of superintendent of schools, an office which 
 
 1 
 
 558
 
 CENTRALIZATION 
 
 CEREBELLUM 
 
 has no exact counterpart elsewhere, but which 
 must become indispensable to educational 
 progress. Other types of specialized experts 
 must soon be provided. The development of 
 physical education in the broad sense of that 
 word must give us yet the man who is physician 
 and educator combined; the direction of voca- 
 tional education will reciuire experts who can 
 devote their lives and a long period of training 
 to this work, and some day we must produce 
 leaders who can strike out plans for moral or 
 social training and superintend their execution. 
 It is in evidence that the finances, the archi- 
 tecture, the selection of textbooks, the educa- 
 tion of defectives and delinquents, and the 
 adjustment of children to practical life through 
 employment bureaus will all in turn demand 
 their experts. These are all conditions of true 
 educational efficiency; and their development 
 through and under experts requires an in- 
 creasingly centralized administration of public 
 education. 
 
 On the other hand, certain evils tend to 
 follow in the train of centralized administra- 
 tion of public education. The most conspicu- 
 ous of these are: (a) Lack of adaptability. 
 Communities vary in their characteristics, 
 needs, and ability to support varying forms of 
 public schools. One portion of a city may 
 differ from another, rural areas may differ from 
 urban areas, and districts populated by for- 
 eigners may present special needs. Uniform 
 schemes administered by central authorities 
 fail in flexibility, and become mechanical. 
 Until we know much better than we now do 
 the genuine aims of public education, uniform 
 schemes may work marked harm through 
 failure to meet local needs. This evil is not, 
 of course, an inherent one in centralized ad- 
 ministration, since expert direction may eventu- 
 ally produce flexibility, if there is intelligent 
 local demand for it: but it is a usual accom- 
 paniment, (h) Akin to this unwelcome result 
 is the waning of popular interest. Localized 
 and popular administration of education has 
 produced in all sections of America a more 
 intense public interest and activity than has 
 any other form of social action. Some forms 
 of political action may thrive and develop 
 without i)oinilar interest; not so public educa- 
 tion. The best of school education must blend 
 intimately with home and community in- 
 terests; the absence or withdrawal of this 
 cooperation cliills and mechanizes school agen- 
 cies. Much of tiie effectiveness of American 
 education has been realized, in spite of its im- 
 perfect administration, largely owing to the 
 popular devotion to its ideals and processes. 
 In the face of centralizing tendencies it is 
 hard to keep alive local interest; for the most 
 genuine reform comes only when the immediate 
 community has enough control of the adminis- 
 trative machinery to make its will felt, 
 (c) Equally serious is the effect of centraliza- 
 tion in diminishing possibilities for variation 
 
 and experiment. Spontaneity is the charac- 
 teristic feature of American education. Not 
 only has the public school itself been indigenous 
 in each state, but to a large extent all the 
 special features of public education have had 
 a local and spontaneous development. Within 
 each state communities have vied with each 
 other, have embarked upon experiments, have 
 developed and fixed variations in new direc- 
 tions. Speaking in biological terms the vari- 
 ability of American education has been enor- 
 mous, which, considering the conditions, has 
 resulted in much progress. Ultimately society 
 will reach the point where, as now in the case 
 of medicine, it will support conscious experi- 
 mentation on a large scale in education, but 
 until then we can hardly afford to surrender 
 the opportunities, however crude and wasteful, 
 which exist in a decentralized form of educa- 
 tional administration, especially when the 
 spirit of experimentation and competition still 
 prevails. Lack of variability as in the case of 
 adaptability is not an inherent evil of cen- 
 tralized administration, but a probable tend- 
 ency in the pre-scientific stages in which public 
 education still exists, (d) Finally, we have to 
 note that administrative centralization tends 
 to involve the evils of bureaucracy, and not 
 less when it is in charge of experts with more 
 or less permanent tenure. These experts must 
 inevital)ly tend toward group solidarity, hav- 
 ing kindred sentiments and interests, both in 
 pursuit of social satisfaction and an endeavor 
 to accomplish mutual improvement. The rela- 
 tions of the experts toward the public tend to 
 become official and formal. In time a bureau- 
 cracy may be formed with distinctively anti- 
 social tendencies. D. S. 
 
 References: — 
 BowMA.v, H. M. The Adminislralion of Imia; a 
 
 Htmhj in Centralizntion. (Col. Univ. Studies. 
 
 New York, 190.3.) Ch. ii, on Eduration. 
 CcBBERLEY, E. P. The Cerlificalioii (// Teachers. 
 
 (Chicago, 1907.) 
 DtTTTON and Snedden. Educational Administration in 
 
 the United States. (New York, 190S.) 
 Fairlie, J. A. Centralizing of Administration in .Veto 
 
 York. (New York, 1898.) 
 Lowell, .\. Lawrence. The Professional and Non- 
 professional Bodies in our Public School Systems 
 
 and the Functions of Each. Proc. Nat. Ed. Assn., 
 
 1898, p. 999. 
 Orth, S. P. The Centralization of Administration in 
 
 Ohio. (Col. Univ. Studies. New York, 190.3.) 
 
 Ch. i, on Education. 
 Rawles, W. a. Centralizing Tendencies in Indiana. 
 
 (New York, 1903.) . . 
 
 Rollins, Frank. School Administration in Municipal 
 
 Government. (New York, 1903.) 
 Webster, W. C. Recent Centralizing Tendencies in 
 
 Slate Educational Administration. (New York, 
 
 1897.) 
 
 CEOLFRID. — Sec Brscop, Benedict. 
 CEPHALIC INDEX. — See Craniometry. 
 CEREBELLUM. — See Nervous System. 
 
 559
 
 CEREBRAL HYGIENE 
 
 CERTIFICATION OF TEACHERS 
 
 CEREBRAL HYGIENE. — See Mental 
 Hygiene. 
 
 CEREBRUM. 
 
 See Nervous Syste.m. 
 
 CERTIFICATE SYSTEM OF ADMISSION 
 TO COLLEGES. — See Accrediting System. 
 
 CERTIFICATES, TEACHERS'. — See Cer- 
 
 TIFIC.\TIO.\ OK Te.\CIIERS. 
 
 CERTIFICATION OF TEACHERS. — 
 United States. — The various systems for 
 the certification of teachers in use in the 
 different states, while varying much in nature 
 and scope, are ncvcrtiieless reducible to a 
 few types. The town system of certification 
 of Massachusetts and Connecticut forms the 
 first and the lowest type; the county system 
 of certification, as found in Illinois or North 
 Carolina, forms the second and a higher type; 
 and the state system, as found in Arizona or 
 Alabama, forms the third and the most unified 
 type. Independent certification by cities forms 
 a fourth type. In certain states, as Indiana 
 and Connecticut, the state and local sj^stems 
 exist side by side, the two overlapping, and 
 may be said to constitute a fifth tj-pe. 
 
 Under the town system of certification the 
 certificating and employing functions are com- 
 bined in the same body of laymen, who are re- 
 quired by law to satisfy themselves as to the 
 moral character of the applicant and as to his 
 or her ability to teach the common school sub- 
 jects. When this has been done, by oral or 
 by written examination, a certificate is granted 
 to the applicant, authorizing him or her to 
 teach in the public schools of the town, so long 
 as desired. This form is a survival of the 
 old colonial system of personal examination, 
 and doubtless will be supplanted by a better 
 system before long. The cities have abandoned 
 it, and Connecticut has instituted a state cer- 
 tification system designed ultimately to sup- 
 plant the local sj'stems. 
 
 Under the strict count}'' system of certifica- 
 tion, the County Superintendent of Schools, 
 or the County Board of Education, prepares 
 the examination questions, examines the appli- 
 cants for certificates, and grants certificates to 
 teach to those who pass; but in a number of 
 states having a county system of certification 
 certain modifications of this system are found, 
 usually of a kind that look toward the sub- 
 stitution of a more general system of certifica- 
 tion than the strict county system provides. 
 In Indiana, for example, the questions are pre- 
 pared by the State Board of Education, instead 
 of by the county superintendents, thus secur- 
 ing state uniformity of questions. In Michi- 
 gan examination papers written in one county 
 may be forwarded to another county to be 
 graded, and for a certificate to teach. In 
 Indiana papers may be forwarded to the state 
 superintendent for grading, and if he approves 
 
 of the answers, a certificate, valid in any 
 county in the state, will be issued. In Cali- 
 fornia a certificate granted on examination in 
 one county is recognized freely in any other, 
 without further examination. All of these are 
 forces operating to break down the strict county 
 system and to establish in its place a more 
 general and a more liberal sj'stem of certifica- 
 tion for the teachers of the state. 
 
 Other forces tending to break down the 
 strict county system are the establishment of 
 coordinate systems of state examination and 
 state certification, with certificates of higher 
 standing and wider validity; the increase in 
 the educational and professional standards, 
 which has led to the abolition of the lower 
 grades of certificates; the recognition of nor- 
 mal school and university documents, in the 
 place of an examination; and the growing force 
 of public opinion, as the teaching force has 
 come to express itself more forcibly on educa- 
 tional questions, and to object to unnecessary 
 and artificial barriers. The freedom of move- 
 ment of good teachers ought to be restricted as 
 little as possible. The strict county system 
 inevitably shields the weak by protecting them 
 from the open competition of the strong. 
 
 Another force tending slightly to break 
 down the strict county system, but tending in 
 particular to elevate the standard of certificates 
 in the state, is the fact that the cities have 
 been unable to use the low-grade teachers cer- 
 tificated under the county systems, and have 
 been forced, for their own protection, to estab- 
 lish independent certificating systems of their 
 own. The larger the city and the more im- 
 portant the school system, the greater the 
 justification for special examination systems 
 and higher .standards to enter the work. The 
 city examinations are of two kinds. In the 
 first the city examination parallels the county 
 or state examination, with perhaps a few more 
 branches added, and frequently certain edu- 
 cational prerequisites are set up for admission 
 to the examination, such as graduation from 
 a high school, or a normal school. In this case 
 the city examination system is a form of local 
 certification, doing the same kind of work as 
 is done by the county or state, and with the 
 same ends in view. The standard is usually 
 higher, and an elevation of standard on the 
 part of the state as a whole would lead in most 
 cases to an abandonment of the local systems 
 and to an acceptance of the county or state 
 certificates. To the second kind of city exami- 
 nation no one is admitted who does not possess 
 a certain grade of county or state certificate, 
 and then the applicants are examined, usually 
 orally as well as by written test, with a view 
 to selecting the most capable and promising 
 for teachers in the city. In this case the city 
 examination is a kind of civil service test of 
 fitness and competency, erected on top of the 
 county or state requirements. Many cities 
 also conduct a series of annual examinations 
 
 560
 
 CERTIFICATION OF TEACHERS 
 
 CERTIFICATION OF TEACHERS 
 
 for the teachers belonging to the city system, 
 using the results of these as a basis for making 
 promotions and salary increases. 
 
 In the strict state system the state examina- 
 tion has completely superseded the local exam- 
 ination, and the state certificate has taken 
 the place of the local certificate. Most state 
 systems, however, are of a modified type. In 
 the strict state system all questions are made 
 out by a central authority, such as the State 
 Superintendent, or the State Board of Educa- 
 tion, or the State Board of Examination, and 
 all papers are graded, and all certificates are 
 issued, by this same central authority. The 
 county superintendents usually act as agents, 
 giving the examinations and forwarding the 
 papers to the central authority for grading. 
 Alabama and Arizona are examples of a com- 
 pletely developed state system, while North 
 Dakota, South Dakota, and Nebraska are ex- 
 amples of a state system in the process of evo- 
 lution, but not as yet completely developed. 
 
 About three fourths of the states of the Union 
 provide some form of a state system of examina- 
 tion and certification for the granting of pro- 
 fessional and life certificates to experienced and 
 successful teachers. The local certificating 
 system here continues its local work, the state 
 system confining its work to the granting of 
 higher certificates and diplomas to those who 
 have served a preliminary apprenticeship under 
 the local system. This constitutes the fourth 
 typo. The theory underlying this higher cer- 
 tificating system is that of rewarding successful 
 teaching experience and professional effort 
 by a certificate of a distinctly professional 
 character. If the attainment of this higher 
 state certificate is based on further study and 
 evidence of growth, as well as teaching experi- 
 ence, it forms one of the best means of certificat- 
 ing teachers for a state that can be devised; but 
 if the attaiimient of a higher certificate is con- 
 tingent only on teaching or keeping school for 
 a certain number of months, then it may be- 
 come a reward for laziness and incompetency 
 as well as for proficiency. To secure the best 
 results those higher and professional state 
 certificates and diplomas should be led up to by 
 a graded system of certificates, each presuppos- 
 ing added knowledge and professional growth, 
 and the higher certificate or diploma should be 
 granted only after a further examination, pro- 
 fessional rather than academic in its nature. 
 Such state credentials should carry interstate 
 recognition, as they should stamp the holder 
 as a person of broad general education, con- 
 siderable professional success, and high personal 
 character. 
 
 In most states a certificate is a certificate 
 qualifying to teach in any school in which the 
 holder can secure employment. Gradually a 
 few states are beginning to erect a new class 
 of certificate for high school work, ba.sed in part 
 upon collegiate training, and in a very few states 
 the beginnings have been made for a super- 
 
 visory certificate, for those who wish to be 
 principals or superintendents. It may be laid 
 down as a safe standard that a teacher is not 
 prepared to teach in a high school who has not 
 had some study beyond the high school or the 
 normal school in an institution where new ways 
 of thinking as well as new subject matter are 
 put before the student. As this standard can- 
 not be secured by an examination on the high 
 school subjects, the only sure way is to require 
 additional study and training for a high school 
 certificate, and to accept credentials and di- 
 plomas of graduation in the place of any aca- 
 demic tests. California, with its high school 
 certificate based on college training only, offers 
 a commendable example in this regard. In a 
 similar manner, there is great need of the intro- 
 duction of a supervisory certificate by which 
 men of training and ability may be singled out 
 from the old successful practitioners. The need 
 is especially strong to-day of men for leadership 
 who have had a good general education, and, 
 in addition, have made a careful study of edu- 
 cational theory and problems. An examina- 
 tion in school law is not enough; a knowledge 
 of administrative theory and practice should be 
 required. The beginnings which Connecticut 
 has made in this direction are commendable. 
 
 The great diversity of the requirements for cer- 
 tificates in the different states, and the general 
 unwillingness of the states to recognize equiva- 
 lents or training, are two of the most marked 
 characteristics of our educational system. A 
 good teacher to-day is unnecessarily ham- 
 pered in his ability to move about, not only from 
 one state to another, but from county to county, 
 and often from city to city or town to town. 
 Many of these restrictions have no educa- 
 tional significance, but are merely a tariff bar- 
 rier levied against brains and training from 
 abroad, and in favor of local teachers and home 
 production. The 81 fee so commonlj- charged 
 teachers for each trial at the examination and 
 commonly used for the institute fund, and the 
 per diem paid to the county superintendent 
 or the examiners so long as they keep busy, are 
 serious temptations to these officials to stand 
 in the way of a better and a more intelligent 
 system of certification. Barriers are fre- 
 quently raised within a state against the train- 
 ing given at the expense of the state. In 
 14 states it is impossible to enter the teach- 
 ing profession except by pa.ssing an ex- 
 amination. No amount of training in any kind 
 of a school or college serves to make one able to 
 enter the work. Tiie graduates of the normal 
 schools maintained by the state are placed on a 
 par with the " graduates " of the county ex- 
 amination. In about one fourth of the states 
 there is no recognition of certificates from one 
 county to anotlier. Many of these barriers 
 are indefensible, as they only serve to keep out 
 brains and training and to greatly restrict the 
 movements of competent teachers, while the 
 defense of others can be removed by simply 
 
 -2o 
 
 561
 
 CERTIFICATION OF TEACHERS 
 
 CERTIFICATION OF TEACHERS 
 
 raising the professional standards. In 19 states 
 absolutely no recognition is given to any kind of 
 a credential or diploma from any other state. 
 
 There is great need of an attemjit to (nolve 
 .some more uniform standards of certification 
 from out of the diversity of re(iuirenients now 
 in e.xistence. Certain educational prercciuisites 
 should be cstalilislietl, certain common re(iuire- 
 ments or norms laid down, options or e<iuiva- 
 lents should be recognized, and certain meaning- 
 less subjects now in the examination lists of 
 some states should be eliminated. So far as a 
 candidate can sujjply evidences of training, 
 certificates obtained, and satisfactory evidence 
 of successful experience, these should be ac- 
 cepted, leaving the candidate to sujjply only 
 the deficiencies by an examination instead of 
 requiring him to pass on the entire examination 
 list. What has been done in the matter of 
 college entrance requirements should be done in 
 the certification of teachers. Each state must, 
 of course, be allowed to set its own standards, 
 and a state cannot be expected to accept cer- 
 tificates coming from .states which represent 
 lower professional standards than its own. 
 This should be recognized and accepted as a 
 matter of cour.se, and reciprocity should not be 
 expected. Instead of striking back by way of 
 retaliation, as certain states do because their 
 low credentials are not accepted in return, 
 they should, on the contrary, welcome the 
 teacher from the state with higher standards 
 than their own. It is po.ssible for every state 
 to evaluate the credentials from other states in 
 terms of its own, if equivalents are accepted 
 and a little flexibility is allowed. If this is 
 done, it is then po.ssible to arrange an accredited 
 list of normal schools in and credentials from 
 other states, which may be accepted by the 
 local certificating authorities in place of an 
 examination. A fundamental principle of ac- 
 tion should be that the certification door should 
 always be kept open for competency, from 
 whatever quarter this competency may come. 
 
 In the matter of examinations, there is great 
 need of decreasing the emphasis now placed on 
 the written test. As fast as this can be done, 
 the examination ought to be decreased in fre- 
 cjuency and in importance as a means of recruit- 
 ing teachers for the schools of the state, and 
 more ways should be provided to secure the 
 educated and the trained teacher instead of the 
 raw recruit. The plan of Arizona and Califor- 
 nia, for example, where normal training ob- 
 tained elsewhere is freely recognized, has done 
 much to help draw to them the best teachers 
 from the eastern states, greatly to the ad- 
 vantage of the schools of Arizona and Cali- 
 fornia. Insuch matters as the validity of certifi- 
 cates, renewals without examination, abolition 
 of the objectionable fees exacted from teachers 
 for examinations, and inter-county and inter- 
 state recognition of certificates, there is con- 
 siderable room for improvement and reform in 
 nearly all of our states. 
 
 See Teachers, Training of; also the special 
 articles on the different state school systems, as 
 Alabama, California, etc., and under the head- 
 ing TcdclwrK and Training, for a statement of 
 conditions and requirements in each of the states. 
 
 E. P. C. 
 
 England. — The Board of Education will 
 recognize as on the staff of an elementary school 
 certificated, uncertificated, provisionally certifi- 
 cated, and student teachers, with a distinction 
 as to the number of pupils for which each type 
 may be responsible. The Certificate of the 
 Board of Education may be obtained either by 
 direct examination, set by the Board, or by the 
 final examination in a training college; there is 
 in addition a liberal recognition of equivalents. 
 The uncertificated teacher must have passed a 
 term of ai)prenticeship and the Preliminary 
 Examination for the Elementary School 
 Teachers' Certificate or any of the number of 
 equivalents. Both examinations confer per- 
 mission to teach for life. The provisional 
 teacher is only recognized up to the twenty- 
 sixth year, and the student teacher only for one 
 year. For employment in secondary schools 
 the Board may insist on a recognized course 
 of training as a qualification where it thinks 
 fit. At present, however, this reciuirement is 
 not insisted upon, nor is there any certification 
 of teachers for secondary schools by the Board, 
 although the question is still under debate. 
 
 Germany. — It is the universal practice in 
 Germany that no person can be permitted to 
 teach who has not passed a state examination. 
 The usual requirements are tliree (Prussia) to 
 six (Saxony) years' training in a normal school, 
 the passing of a state leaving examination from 
 the normal school, two years' service as a proba- 
 tioner, and the passing of another examination 
 for permanent appointment. For appointment 
 in the secondary schools a candidate must pass 
 a state examination in academic subjects, 
 must spend one year in a training department at- 
 tached to a high school, and serve another year 
 as a probationer. 
 
 France. — Two classes of primary school 
 teachers are recognized — the Stagiaires and 
 the Titulaires. Tlie former serve as probation- 
 ers for at least two years and must have passed 
 an examination in the subjects of the highest 
 class of a primary school {brevet eUmcnlaire). 
 The latter are regular teachers appointed after 
 passing the examination for the certificat d'ap- 
 titude pedagogique, for which candidates are 
 eligible after a course at a normal school or the 
 2 years' service as stagiaires. The qualifi- 
 cations of candidates for appointment in sec- 
 ondary schools vary somewhat according to the 
 age of the pupils to be taught, and according 
 as the school is supported by the state (lycee) 
 or by the local authority {college). Teachers 
 of purely secondarj' school subjects must for the 
 lyc^e have had a course at a university or the 
 higher normal school and must have pas.sed 
 the state examination (agregation), which is 
 
 562
 
 CEYLON 
 
 CEYLON 
 
 competitive and very severe. The qualifica- 
 tions for the college are somewhat lower. Both 
 classes of teachers are, however, state servants. 
 See the separate articles on the National 
 Systems, and also the article on Training of 
 Teachers. 
 
 References: — 
 CuBBERLEY, E. P. The Certification of Teachers. 
 The Fifth Year Book of the National Society for 
 the Scientific Study of Education, Part II. (Chi- 
 cago, 1906.) 88 pp. 
 Jack.son, W. R. The present status of the CertiBca- 
 tion of Teachers in the United States, in Rept. U. S. 
 Com. Bduc., 1903, Vol. I, pp. 463-520. 
 
 CEYLON, EDUCATION IN. — Ceylon, 
 which came under British control in 1S15, pre- 
 sents similar social and religious conditions to 
 those of India, but the educational problem of the 
 island is le.ss complicated and difficult because of 
 the smaller area and population. Moreover, since 
 the third century, B.C., when Buddhism was intro- 
 duced into Ceylon, its influence, which is liberal- 
 izing and democratic, has prevailed among the 
 natives. The census of 1891 gave the popula- 
 tion of the island as 3,595,954, of whom 60 per 
 cent were Buddhists, 23 per cent Hindus, 10 
 per cent Christians, and 7 per cent Moham- 
 medans. The Christians numbered 349,239, 
 of whom 287,419, or 82.3 per cent, were Roman 
 Catholics. 
 
 Elementary education, so far as it is under 
 state supervision, is carried on by government 
 schools and aided schools. The former are 
 controlled by local authorities under the charge 
 of the Department of Public Instruction, which 
 appoints and pays the teachers, and provides 
 the schools with books, furniture, and appara- 
 tus, the funds for this purpose being voted 
 annually to the Department from the general 
 revenue. The construction and care of the 
 buildings and the enforcement of school attend- 
 ance are duties which fall upon the village com- 
 mittees. Attendance at school is enforced by the 
 prosecution of delinquent parents before the "Vil- 
 lage Triljunal," which has the power of inflicting 
 small fines. Aided schools are carried on cither 
 by religious bodies or by private individuals. 
 They are inspected and examined by the Depart- 
 ment of Puijlic Instruction, which pays them a 
 grant on the results of an annual examination, the 
 funds for this ])urpose being also voted annually 
 from the general revenue. The managers are 
 responsible for the maintenance and upkeep of 
 buildings, and for all other expen-ses. Ceylon 
 has long been a field of missionary activity, and 
 nearly all the religious denominations of America 
 and Great Britain maintain schools which have 
 been recognized by the go\ernment. There are 
 also many Buddhi.^ schools, which as a rule 
 are under the Buddhist Theosophical Society; 
 a large number of Sivite schools, which arc 
 under private management; and a few Mo- 
 hammedan schools. 
 
 According to the range and nature of the 
 instruction given, schools are classified as ele- 
 
 mentary and secondary, but these terms are 
 very nearly synonymous with vernacular and 
 English. The children attending vernacular 
 schools are a majority, about 85 per cent of the 
 total number under instruction; these schools 
 are free, and provide a good education in Sin- 
 halese or Tamil, in accordance with a syllabus, 
 the range of which corresponds closely with that 
 of English elementary schools as they were a few 
 years ago. In the English schools fees are 
 charged, and these schools provide the higher 
 education of the island. Statistics covering 
 the decade 1875 to 1907 show a steady increase 
 in both government and aided schools. The 
 former cla.ss numbered 479 schools in 1898, with 
 46,279 pupils; in 1907 they numbered 616 
 schools and 75,589 pupils. The corresponding 
 numbers for the aided schools were in 1898, 
 schools 1220, pupils 103,951; in 1907, schools 
 1680, pupils 166,234. There were also in 1898, 
 unaided schools 2330, with 34,805 pupils, and 
 in 1907, unaided schools 1758, with 33,699 
 pupils. Of the total number of government 
 and aided schools in 1907, viz. 2296, the vernacu- 
 lar schools comprised 2051, w-ith an enrollment 
 of 145,639 boys and 60,945 girls; total 206,584, 
 or 85 per cent of the enrollment in the schools 
 of both classes. The number of English schools 
 in 1907 was 195, with an enrolhiient of 27,948, 
 of whom 22,376 were boys, and 5572 girls. 
 Although these schools offer courses of instruc- 
 tion leading up to the college entrance require- 
 ments, the greater part of their work is elemen- 
 tary. 
 
 The increasing number and patronage of 
 the English schools are signs of the advance of 
 the population in prosperity and in the ways 
 of modern civilization. Hence special efforts 
 have recently been made by the Department to 
 systematize the higher work of these schools and 
 to reclassify the elementary sections with a 
 view to meeting the different requirements of 
 young children and of older pupils who have 
 passed through the vernacular scliools. At 
 the present time, therefore, Ceylon is the field 
 of an interesting experiment in adjusting in- 
 struction in a foreign language and in unfamiliar 
 branches to a native people of unusual intel- 
 ligence and occupying a strategic position in 
 the commercial movement of the world. The 
 statistics pertaining to vernacular and lOnglish 
 schools include schools for girls, which arc the 
 subjects of special regulations. The English 
 schools have been placed under a special in- 
 spector, and the director of public instruction in 
 his latest official report emphasizes the need of 
 a body of trained women teachers for the in- 
 struction of girls. In common witli the English 
 schools for boys, those for girls prepare students 
 for the Cambridge University local examinations, 
 which are conducted in the island. In 1907 the 
 number of pupils who took the junior examina- 
 tion was 5(i5, of whom 463 were boys and 102 
 girls. The number who passed was 247 boys (21 
 with honors) and 57 girls (7 with honors). The 
 
 563
 
 CEYLON 
 
 CHALMERS 
 
 number of candidates at the senior examination 
 was 333, viz. 299 boys, 34 girls; the number 
 wlio passed was 100, boys 140, girls 20; 13 boj's 
 and 1 girl secured honors. 
 
 Training of Teachers. — The religious de- 
 nominations have established schools for the 
 training of teachers which are aided by public 
 funds; but the results of the training have been 
 unsatisfactory, and in 1903 a government train- 
 ing college was opened which was intended to 
 set standards for the service. In 1908 the order 
 was issued that after the close of 1909 no one 
 should be admitted to the examination for the 
 second-class teacher's certificate who had not 
 gone through a course of one year at the gov- 
 ernment training college and passed the first 
 year's examination in the theory and practice 
 of teaching. It was also determined to admit 
 women to the English Department of the school, 
 whereas, at first, they were only admitted to the 
 vernacular class. This action has already been 
 justified by the success of the women students 
 at the examinations, and the consequent in- 
 crease in the supply of teachers qualified to 
 teach English to the natives. 
 
 Special Institutions. — One of the most 
 interesting educational works in the island is 
 that of the Maggona reformatory for boys con- 
 ducted by the Roman Catholics. All boys re- 
 manded to the institution are taught some use- 
 ful trade which they are able to follow after 
 their discharge. This suggestive example has 
 had much to do with the development of a gen- 
 eral movement in favor of industrial training. 
 There are already 37 industrial schools, 10 for 
 boys, 23 for girls, and 4 mixed. The preferred 
 industry for boys is carpentry; for girls lace 
 making. The schools of this class received in 
 1907 government grants amounting to 51,175 
 rupees (.516,581). School gardens are rapidly 
 multiplying, above 150 being in operation 
 in 1909. The government encourages the work 
 by special grants. 
 
 Special Problems. — As in British India, the 
 education of Mohammedans offers a special 
 problem in Ceylon. Whereas the children at 
 school represent 1 in 13 of the entire population, 
 for the Mohammedans alone the jjroportion is 
 only 1 in 48. Special measures have been re- 
 cently adopted to overcome the indifference 
 of this part of the population. The needs of 
 the children of laborers on the large estates have 
 also excited attention, and recent regulations 
 make it the duty of the superintendent of every 
 estate to provide suitable premises for the con- 
 duct of a school and order that all plantation 
 schools shall be subject to inspection by a gov- 
 ernment official. 
 
 Higher Education is represented in the island 
 by the technical school and the Royal College 
 at Colombo. The former has admirable equip- 
 ment for civil and chemical engineering; rail- 
 way business, physics, a special chemistry 
 course for medical students, stenography and 
 commercial branches. The average enroll- 
 
 ment in all departments is about 250 students. 
 In 1908 diplomas were conferred on 23 grad- 
 uates. The Royal College, which is within the 
 circuit of Madras University, is conducted on the 
 plan of an English college. It has two scholar- 
 ships available at London University for stu- 
 dents who passed the competitive examina- 
 tion, and its course of instruction prepares stu- 
 dents for matriculation at London University. 
 
 The annual expenditure by Government for 
 education in the island is about 1,300,000 ru- 
 pees, equivalent to $421,200. A. T. S. 
 
 References: — ■ 
 
 Ceylon. Administration reports, 1907. Public In- 
 struction, Report of J. Harvard, Director of Publio 
 Instruction. 
 
 Great Britain. Parliavientary papers. Ceylon. Cor- 
 respondence relating to elementary education in 
 Ceylon. (London, 1906.) (Ed. 2S73.) 
 
 CHADBOURNE, PAUL ANSEL (1823- 
 1883). — Educator; born at North Berwick, 
 Me., on Oct. 21, 1823, and graduated from 
 WiUiams College in 1824. For several years he 
 was engaged in teaching in New Jersey and 
 Massachusetts, and later served as professor 
 at Williams and Bowdoin Colleges. For three 
 j'ears he was president of the University of Wis- 
 consin, and in 1872 he succeeded Mark Hopkins 
 as president of Williams College. The last year 
 of his life he was president of the Agricultural 
 College at Amherst. Author of Relation of 
 the Natural Sciences to the Intellect (1860) and 
 Instinct (1872). He died in New York City on 
 Feb. 23, 1883. W. S. M. 
 
 CHALMERS, THOMAS (1780-1847). — A 
 Scottish theologian and philosopher. He was 
 born at Anstruther in Fifeshire, and studied at 
 St. Andrews University, where he distinguished 
 himself in mathematics, political science, 
 and natural history, studies to which he 
 devoted much of his attention even after 
 being licensed to preach in 1799. In 1802 he 
 was appointed assistant professor of mathe- 
 matics in his university. In 1809 he contrib- 
 uted an article on Christianity to Brewster's 
 Edinburgh Encijclopcedia. In 1815 he was 
 elected minister of Tron Church, Glasgow, where 
 he soon estalilished a reputation for brilliant 
 oratory, which he augmented on a visit in 1817 
 to London. While in Glasgow he interested 
 himself in the moral uplifting of the members of 
 his parish. Mo-\-ing to St. John's Parish, where 
 he found an itinerant population steeped in vice, 
 he divided in into districts for administrative 
 purposes and established week-day and Sunday 
 schools, which were well attended. He em- 
 bodied his experience in his book on Christian 
 and Civic Economy of Large Toirns (1821-1826). 
 In 1823 he became Professor of Moral Philoso- 
 phy at St. Andrews University, and in 1828 
 Professor of Theology at Edinburgh University. 
 In 1833 he wrote the book which attracted 
 considerable attention On the Adaptation oj 
 
 564
 
 CHAMPEAUX 
 
 CHANCELLOR'S SCHOOLS 
 
 External Nature to the Moral and Intellectual 
 Constitution of Man. This work brought him 
 recognition from the Royal Society, the honor- 
 ary degree of D.C.L. from Oxford, and election 
 as corresponding member of the French In- 
 stitute. When the schism m the Church of 
 Scotland took place (1843), Chalmers seceded 
 with a large following, and was instrumental 
 in organizing the Free Church. He was ap- 
 pointed Principal of the Free Church College, 
 and died in 1847. 
 
 References: — 
 
 Hann.\. Memoirs of the Life and Writings of Thomas 
 Chalmers. (Edinburgh, 1850-1852.) 
 
 Henderson, C. R. Education of Christian and Civic 
 Economy uf Large Towns. (London, 1900.) 
 
 Oliph-int, Theo. Life of Thomas Oudmers. (Lon- 
 don, 1893.) 
 
 CHAMPEAUX, WILLIAM OF (c. 1070- 
 1121). — A scholastic philosopher who maybe 
 credited with laying the foundations of the 
 future University of Paris. He was a pupil of 
 Anselm de Laon. He was the Chancellor or 
 Scholasticus of the Cathedral School, and en- 
 joyed a wide reputation as the greatest expo- 
 nent of realism (q.v.). His fame drew students 
 from all parts of Europe, and contributed to 
 place the schools of Paris above those of Tours, 
 Bee, and Chartres (qq.v.). William was, how- 
 ever, rapidly eclipsed by his more brilliant pupil, 
 Abelard (q.v.), who took the nominalistic view. 
 The master retired through mortification to the 
 Abbey and School of St. Victor, the stronghold 
 of realism (1113). Soon after this period he be- 
 came Bishop of Chalons-sur-Marne. William 
 had the reputation of being the first dialec- 
 tician of France, and was known as the "pillar 
 of doctors." 
 
 References : — 
 McC.iBE, J. Peter Abilard. (New York, and London, 
 
 1901.) 
 Rashd.\ll, H. The Universities of Europe in the 
 
 Middle Ages, Vol. I. (Oxford, 1895.) 
 
 CHAMPLIN, JAMES TIFT (1811-1882).— 
 Educator, graduated at Brown in 1834. He was 
 three years instructor at Brown, fourteen years 
 (1841-1857) professor at Waterville (now Colby) 
 College, and fifteen years president of that insti- 
 tution. Author of several Greek textbooks and 
 works on intellectual philosophy, ethics, and 
 political economy. W. S. M. 
 
 CHANCE. — See Probability, Theory of. 
 
 CHANCELLOR OF UNIVERSITY. — The 
 
 chief exocuti\'e officer in Enjilish universities. 
 Originally he was the representative of the 
 bishops in educational affairs of the diocese, his 
 chief function being to issue licenses to masters. 
 When the universities arose, the bishops 
 claimed the right of control, and the chancellors 
 continued to act as their representatives. 
 This system of authority on the part of officials 
 
 who stood outside the universities led to fric- 
 tion, as at Paris. O.xford and Cambridge, how- 
 ever, gained their independence from their 
 bishops at an early date, and obtained the right 
 to elect their own chancellors. The result was 
 to endow the chancellors with the full author- 
 ity of the universities, and they now became the 
 chief executive officers, with power to grant 
 degrees and to maintain order among the stu- 
 dent body and to sanction all university regu- 
 lations. Until 1588, the chancellors were always 
 ecclesiastics, but at that date the Earl of Leices- 
 ter was appointed chancellor at Oxford. The 
 chancellors continued to exercise their powers 
 until the Stuart period, when Laud, as Chancel- 
 lor of Oxford, issued the Caroline Statutes in 
 1636. Since then the function of the chancellor 
 came to be performed by the resident academic 
 vice-chancellor, nominated by the chancellor 
 and approved by Convocation (q.v.). The 
 newer universities adopted the same system as 
 the older. The chancellors are elected by 
 Convocation (q.v.) and the vice-chancellors 
 by the Senate. The chancellors hold office 
 for life; the vice-chancellors either for life or for 
 one year, with the right to be reelected. At 
 present the office of chancellor is largely honor- 
 ary and is given to men who have gained dis- 
 tinction in political life. All the e.xecutive 
 functions are performed by the vice-chancellors, 
 and the presence of the chancellors is only 
 expected on occasions of special importance. 
 In most universities it is the common practice 
 to appoint pro-vice-chancellors to take the 
 place of the vice-chancellor during his absence or 
 illness. 
 
 See UNn'ERSiTiES; also the articles on the 
 leading universities. 
 
 CHANCELLORS SCHOOLS. — The Chan- 
 cellor's Schools are the creation of the latter 
 part of the twelfth century. From the time 
 the schoolmaster assumed the title of chan- 
 cellor he dropped all other teaching and re- 
 stricted himself to theology, and the chancellor's 
 school and the theological school became 
 convertible terms. We can almost see the 
 change taking place. While in 1183 Master 
 Richard of Stortford signed a deed as School- 
 master (Magisler Scholartim) of London, Master 
 Ralph the Theologian, evidently a theological 
 lecturer, signed below him. In 1205 John of 
 Kent (Cantia) signed a deed as chancellor. In 
 1215 a Lateran Council ordered that every' 
 cathedral church should keep, in addition to a 
 grammar school, ordered by several previous 
 councils, a theologician to teach the priests and 
 others the sacred page, and that a prebend 
 should be given him. In 1212 the customs of 
 Lincoln Cathedral were sent for use as a model 
 of the newlv established chapter of Moray 
 (Elgin Cathedral), and written down there. 
 They say that the chancellor — the title first 
 appears at Lincoln about 11()3 — preside 
 over the school. In 1220-1230 in Bishop 
 
 565
 
 CHANCELLOR'S SCHOOLS 
 
 CHANCERY 
 
 Welles' Register there are several instances of 
 clerics being instituted to churches on con- 
 dition that they attended the chancellor's 
 school at Lincoln to learn theology. In 1236 
 the Lincoln customs were written down, and 
 the office of the chancellor is then said to be in 
 the first place to teach the theological school 
 and to preach in the church. At Salisbury, 
 apart from a much suspect deed of 1108, the 
 first api)carance of a chancellor under that name 
 is in a deed of 1175-llSO. In 1240 we find the 
 bishop on the ground of the thin and scanty 
 fruits of the chancellorship, annexing a rec- 
 tory to it, on condition that the chancellor 
 cause theological lectures to be given in the 
 city by duly qualified doctors or do so in person, 
 if they so desire. In 1250 Richard of Graves- 
 end, bishop of London, remarking that in other 
 cathedrals in England the lecturer in theology 
 had always been a member of the chapter, but 
 in St. Paul's they had resorted to outsiders, 
 decreed that the chancellor should always per- 
 form this iluty and that only Masters or Bache- 
 lors in theology should be eligilsle for the office. 
 In 1308, finding the endowment insufficient, his 
 successor, Ralph Baldock, annexed Ealing 
 rectory to the chancellorship with stringent 
 gifts over if the lectures were not given. In 
 1332 a dean gave a piece of land from the 
 " chapter door as far as the school where the 
 chancellor lectured," to build a cloister, which 
 there had never been before, and a chapter 
 house, which was built over the chancellor's 
 school. At York the dignitary, called in 1189 
 schoolmaster, in 1191 is for the first time 
 called chancellor and declared to rank third in 
 the cathedral. In 1293 Archbishop Romanus, 
 desiring to increase the students of theology, 
 gave notice to all rectors of churches in his dio- 
 cese that if they attended the theological lectures 
 of his beloved son the Chancellor of York they 
 should not be disquieted for non-residence. 
 About 1330, Robert of Riplingham, who had 
 been a fellow of Merton College, O.xford, put 
 up a stained glass window in the new nave of 
 York Minster, which contains a picture of him in 
 blue robes teaching in his theological school at 
 York, and by his will in 1332 he bequeathed to 
 his successor as chancellor his chair {cathedram) 
 and desk and £300 to provide exhibitions for 
 JVI.A's. studying theology at Oxford. In 1369 
 another chancellor of York bequeathed a blue 
 gown to the clerk who attended him in his 
 theology school, and his great Brevnary to 
 his successor as chancellor. The bishops' 
 registers in the fourteenth century are full of 
 dispensations for residence to attend schools, 
 and though many of them were expressly for 
 the university and others for grammar schools, 
 the chancellor's schools were certainly included 
 in some cases. These schools were still flourish- 
 ing, in London at all events, in the second half 
 of the fifteenth century, when Doctor Ive, who 
 had been Headmaster of Winchester College, 
 " kepte the scole at Paulys that ys undjT the 
 
 chapter-house and there radde many full nobyll 
 lessenings to prove" against certain friars who 
 had been preaching socialism and communism 
 " that Cryste was lord of all and noo beggar." 
 He did it in state " after the forme of scholys," 
 i.e. the university, for he had his habit and pel- 
 yon (pilciim, the doctor's round cap) and a 
 verger with a silver rod waiting on him. He 
 kept this school more than two years. At 
 York, however, in 1481 and 14S2, complaint 
 was made that the chancellor, who ought to 
 reside and actually lecture and keep school, 
 was non-resident. He was, in fact, also Dean 
 of Hereford. Accunuilation of many jirofer- 
 ments in the same hands was destroying the 
 cathedral and collegiate churches. At St. 
 Paul's, about 1409, the bishop, Fitzjames, found 
 in a visitation that the chancellor's lectures 
 had for many years been neglected and had 
 practically ceased, and when called on to do his 
 duty the then chancellor pleaded that the deed 
 of 1308 required continuous lectures, and to 
 lecture continually was a condition too grievous 
 and hard to perform — a quaint excuse for not 
 lecturing at all. The bishop therefore made a 
 new statute, defining continuous to mean three 
 days a week, or, if there were only two " legible " 
 days in the week, then two days a week. At 
 the Reformation the chancellors seem to have 
 been left untroubled for the neglect of their 
 schools. Edward VI's Injunctions to the cathe- 
 drals rather lessen even their preaching duties; 
 at Lincoln, for instance, limiting them to twelve 
 a year. In Elizabeth's reign, Injunctions is- 
 sued in 1559 provided that the chancellor 
 should appoint a lecturer to read thrice 
 a week in divinity at 9 a.m. They were still 
 maintained at St. Paul's in 1598, but hardly 
 any one, even of the minor canons or vicars- 
 choral, attended them. The lectures were any- 
 how no longer in the Chancellor's Schools. The 
 theological schools of the Chancellor, dying in 
 1480, (lied in 1547. The universities provided 
 all the theology required. Attempts have quite 
 recently, as at Lincoln and Truro, been made to 
 revive them. But the theological colleges of 
 the present day are Bishops', not Chancellors', 
 Schools. A. F. L. 
 
 See Bishops' Schools; Church Schools; 
 etc. 
 
 CHANCERY, COURT OF. — The English 
 Court of Chancery has an importance in the 
 history of, and in the administration of, educa- 
 tion from the fact that this court (and its 
 modern representative, the Chancerj' Division 
 of the High Court of Justice) exercises a juris- 
 diction over trusts, including educational trusts, 
 and possesses, moreover, a certain appellate 
 jurisdiction. In the eighteenth century the 
 dilatory methods of the Court of Chancery 
 had a great deal to do with the inefficiency of 
 the grammar schools of England. The origin 
 of the appellate jurisdiction of the Court of 
 Chancery marks an important stage in the 
 
 566
 
 CHANCERY 
 
 CHANTRY SCHOOLS 
 
 history of English education. By an act of 
 1597 (39 Eliz. c. 6. Rep. 43 Eliz. c. 9. s. 30) 
 Commissioners for Charitable Uses were ap- 
 pointed to inquire into the misemployment 
 of charitable gifts of lands and goods. An 
 Act of 1601 (43 Eliz. c. 4) took the place 
 of this statute, and enacted that, whereas 
 property had been given to (among other ob- 
 jects) schools of learning, free schools, scholars 
 in universities, and the education and prefer- 
 ment of orphans, and that there had been 
 frauds, breaches of trust, and negligence shown 
 by the trustees, for redress and remedy of the 
 same, commissioners be appointed by the Lord 
 Chancellor (and the Chancellor of the Duchy 
 of Lancaster) to inquire into the trusts in the 
 various dioceses and make orders for the exe- 
 cution of the trusts in accordance with the 
 directions of the donors or founders. But the 
 commissioners had no power of inquiry into 
 the endowments of the colleges and Halls at 
 Oxford and Cambridge, or of the colleges of 
 Westminster, Eton, Winchester, or of any 
 cathedral school or of any college or free school 
 which had special visitors or governors or over- 
 seers appointed by the founders. The eighth 
 section provided that all decrees of the com- 
 missioners should be certified into the Court of 
 Chancery (or the Palatine Court as the case 
 might be), and the Lord Chancellor (or the 
 chancellor of the duchy, as the case might be) 
 should undertake the enforcement of the de- 
 crees. The tenth section gave an appeal to 
 any person aggrieved by a decree to the Lord 
 Chancellor (or the chancellor of the duchy in 
 the case of Lancashire). It was fortunate that 
 the above exceptions were made, for it was 
 found in practice during the eighteenth century 
 that the law expenses, appeals, and delays were 
 ruinous. Some 33 schools were, however, re- 
 formed by the commissioners between 1601 
 and the early years of the nineteenth century. 
 The Act of 1601 was repealed in 18SS. But 
 apart altogether from statutes the Court of 
 Chancery (now the Chancery Division of the 
 Higli Court of Judicature) has an inherent juris- 
 diction in relation to educational trusts. Apart 
 from the powers of a " Visitor " of a school (as 
 to which see A. H. H.Maclean's Lain of Second- 
 ary and Preparatory Schoolf, 1909, pp. 109- 
 114), " the court will exercise its jurisdiction to 
 enforce performance and redress breaches of 
 trust on the part of Trustees and Governors 
 even if they are Vi.sitors or the Governors 
 have visitatorial powers." There is no appeal 
 from the exercise of the powers of a Visitor, but 
 the Court will compel him by mandamus to exer- 
 cise his power and exercise it properly. In 
 special circum.stances the Court can appoint 
 Visitors under the Grammar Schools Act, 1S4() 
 (ss. 15, 16). Under the Charitable Trusts 
 Acts (1853 to 1891) and the Education Act, 
 (1899) and the Orders in Council made thereunder, 
 the Court may be called in to decide questions 
 that arise on the trust by way of appeal from 
 
 the Board of Education, while the Court, cither 
 by consent of the Board of Education or in the 
 ordinary course of the construction of docu- 
 ments, may have to deal with educational 
 trusts. Under the Endowed Schools Act (1869 
 to 1889) the consent of the Board of Education 
 is necessary before the Court can make an 
 educational scheme. From the point of view 
 of the history of education the cases decided 
 from about 1670 to 1840 by the Court of 
 Chancery on appeal from the commissioners of 
 charitable uses and by virtue of its inherent 
 jurisdiction are all most important. Some of 
 these cases are discussed in State Intervention 
 in English Education (Cambridge, 1902, by 
 the present writer), but the whole field is by 
 no means fully surveyed, and until this is done 
 the history of secondary education in England 
 remains in part unwritten. Eden v. Foster 
 (2 Peere Williams Reports pp. 325-326) is a lead- 
 ing case. There is a large and valuable collection 
 of references to education cases decided in Chan- 
 cery in Mr. Maclean's recent work referred to 
 above. From some of these chancery cases 
 we learn a good deal about the conditions of 
 education in the eighteenth century. In the 
 case of the King v. Archbishop of York (Term 
 Reports, Vol. VI, p. 490), in 1795 Lord Kenyon 
 in giving judgment said: " Whoever will ex- 
 amine the state of the grammar schools in 
 different parts of this kingdom will see to what 
 a lamentable condition most of them are re- 
 duced, and would wish tliat those who have 
 any superintendence or control over them had 
 been as circumspect as the Archbishop of York 
 (Dr. Markham, formerly Headmaster of West- 
 minster School) has been on the present occa- 
 sion. If other persons had equally done their 
 duty, we should not find, as is now the case, 
 empty walls without scholars, and everything 
 neglected but the receipt of the salaries and 
 emoluments. In some instances that have 
 lately come within my own knowledge, there 
 was not a single scholar in the schools though 
 there were verj' large endowments to them." 
 This is an instance of the value of these cases. 
 Lord Eldon's judgments in Atturncy-Gencral v. 
 Whitehy (Vesey's Chancery Reports, Vol. XI, 
 p. 241) and Attorney-General v. Earl of Mans- 
 field (Russell's Reports in Chancery, Vol. II, 
 p. 501) will be found full of valuable material. 
 
 J. E. O. DE M. 
 
 CHANTER. — See Precentor; also Ca- 
 thedral Schools; Church Schools. 
 
 CHANTRY SCHOOLS. — A chantry \yas 
 an endowment for one or more priests to sing 
 masses and other services for the souls of the 
 dead. In point of fact, except that monks 
 were not necessarily priests, most monasteries, 
 at all events of post-Conquest times, were noth- 
 ing more than large chantries, being ostensibly 
 founded for the same purpose of commemorat- 
 ing their founders and praying for their good 
 
 507
 
 CHANTRY SCHOOLS 
 
 CHANTRY SCHOOLS 
 
 estate when alive and their souls when dead. 
 So too the colleges of Winchester and All Souls, 
 Oxford, which last was particularly to pray 
 for the souls of those who fell in the wars of 
 Henry V with France, have been called large 
 chantries. But the term "chantry" is usually 
 confined to smaller establishments of secular 
 i.e. ordinary priests. The earlier chantries, which 
 begin at the end of the twelfth century, and were 
 generally special endowments for single priests 
 attached to larger foundations, such as the 
 great cathedral churches. There were, for in- 
 stance, 50 chantry jiriests at St. Paul's Cathe- 
 dral, 24 at York Minster, where they were in- 
 corporated into a sejjarate though subordinate 
 college in 1460, 16 at Southwell Minster, and so 
 on. These had nothing to do with education 
 except that it was usual to supplement the 
 miserable stipends of £2 a year or so which 
 were the ancient and accustomed pay of the 
 grammar or of the song schoolmasters of the 
 great and ancient churches by appointing them 
 also to chantries. (See Cathedr.\l Schools.) 
 Thus at Southwell JNIinster in 1504, when St. 
 Cuthbert's chantry fell vacant by the death 
 of William Barthorp, who had for many years 
 been acting master of the grammar school, 
 and one of the canons' vicars by a sort of pre- 
 scriptive right asked to be presented to it, the 
 chapter asked him to waive his claim in order 
 that they might present to it a fit chaplain 
 who would be able to teach the grammar 
 school. The claim was waived and another 
 man appointed who swore voluntarily on ad- 
 mission to teach the grammar school while he 
 held the chantry. 
 
 The fact was that the chantry duties occu- 
 pied a very small portion of the day, and it 
 was soon discovered that in the interests of the 
 morals of the chantry priests themselves it 
 was desirable to find them other work to do. 
 In the thirteenth century and onwards, when 
 these chantries began to be established all 
 over the country, the priests were largely 
 utilized as what are now called curates, 
 properly speaking assistant curates and incum- 
 bents of chapels of case. They had to assist 
 the parish priest in choir and also in parochial 
 work. Among other ecclesiastical employments 
 that of teaching school was early recognized as 
 one of the most useful to which the chantry 
 priest could be put. It is difficult to say which 
 is the earliest case of these chantry priests be- 
 ing directed by the founder to keep a school. 
 As the foundation statutes are very rarely 
 forthcoming, and the license in mortmain, that 
 is, exemption from the Statute of Mortmain of 
 Edward I, which confiscated lands given to 
 religious corporations to the King, hardly ever 
 mentions anji,hing but the chantrj-. Prob- 
 ably among the earliest known are those of 
 Crewkerne in Somerset, founded in 1310, Har- 
 low, Essex, in 1324, of Bolton-upon-Dern in 
 Yorkshire in 132S, Whitwell in Rutland in 1345. 
 In 1384, when Lady Berkeley (g.v.) founded 
 
 her chantry school at Wootton-under-Edge in 
 Gloucestershire, we get perhaps the earliest 
 case in which the license in mortmain specifi- 
 cally mentions the chantry used also for a 
 school. A large number of chantries which 
 were also schools arc reputed to have been 
 founded in 1390 and the immediately succeed- 
 ing years, but a great many of these were pre- 
 viously existing foundations, which had then 
 to take out licenses in mortmain in conse- 
 quence of the inquiry into guilds, which in- 
 cluded many chantry priests, ordered after the 
 Peasants' Revolt. It became a not uncom- 
 mon practice to found in imitation of the col- 
 legiate churches a chantry of two priests, one to 
 teach a grammar school and the other a song 
 school. This was done by Langley, Bishop of 
 Durham, at Durham in 1412, at Alnwick by a 
 Percy, William of Alnwick, Bishop of Lincoln, 
 in 1445, at Towcester by Archdeacon Spone 
 in 1449. There does not seem to be any special 
 epoch more distinguished than another for 
 founding these chantry schools. There was a 
 considerable outburst in the latter daj's of 
 Edward III. Many were founded during the 
 reign of Henry VI, until the Wars of the Roses 
 put a stop to the movement, and it began 
 with renewed vigor as soon as things settled 
 down from about 1475 onwards. The reign of 
 Henry VIII was no more distinguished for the 
 foundation of schools than that of his father 
 or of Henry VI. Only in the latter part of 
 his reign, when dissolution appeared to be im- 
 pending, were many chantries, not schools by 
 foundation, converted into school foundations. 
 The chantry schools were nearly all from the 
 beginning free schools, which means free from 
 tuition fees, and was always so understood 
 until the theory was started by Dr. Kennedy 
 in 1865 that it meant free from ecclesiastical 
 control, which until 1670 (see Church Schools 
 and C.\NON L.\w) no school ever was. Some, 
 such as Langley's foundation at Durham, were 
 free only to poor children whose parents asked 
 for it, some were free only for parishioners, 
 but most were free altogether, the priest being 
 required to " teach gratis, without asking any- 
 thing beyond his stipend for his pains." One 
 singular foundation, that of Gryndour's Chan- 
 try at Newland in Gloucestershire, was to 
 " kepe a grammer scoole half-free, that ys, 
 taking of scolers lerning gramer 8d the quar- 
 ter, and of others lerning to rede, 4d." This 
 was an attempt which has been often made 
 and invariably without success, to combine a 
 secondary school and an elementary school in 
 one. As a rule the song school was the ele- 
 mentary school, and that was why the two were 
 founded in pairs. The chantry grammar 
 schools were intended to do the same work 
 as the great cathedral and coUegiate schools, 
 and prepare boys for the universities, as may 
 be most clearly seen from such instances as 
 W'imborne, where the Lady Margaret, mother 
 of Henry VII, directed (c. 1497) that it should 
 
 568
 
 CHAPPELL HILL FEMALE COLLEGE 
 
 CHARACTER 
 
 be in the form and fashion of Winchester and 
 Eton, as did Mr. John Lecuc, vicar at Saffron 
 Waldcn in Essex and Edward Flower, tailor, 
 at Cuckfield in Sussex, quoted in 1503-1528. 
 By the Act which dissolved chantries in 1547 
 it was stated that their endowments were to 
 be taken from superstitious and devoted to 
 pious uses such as grammar schools. But the 
 chantry schools, about 100 in number, as dis- 
 tinguished from the collegiate church and guild 
 schools, shared the fate of the collegiate church 
 schools iq.v.). The song schools disappeared 
 altogether, save at Newark. Three grammar 
 schools, namely, Pocklington in Yorkshire, 
 Berkhampstead in Herts, and Ratcliffcs School 
 at Stamford, all hardly founded or claimed not 
 to be properly founded, were at once refounded 
 by Act of Parliament. Some 14 were re- 
 founded on a larger scale by Letters Patent 
 of Edward \T with scraps of chantry lands 
 and a few by Letters Patent of Queen EHza- 
 beth and James L Some subsequently re- 
 ceived new endowments from private persons. 
 Those that did not, if they did not perish out- 
 right, gradually perished of inanition. 
 
 A. F. L. 
 Reference : — 
 Le.\ch, a. F. English Schools at the Reformation. 
 (London, 1896.) 
 
 CHAPPELL HILL FEMALE COLLEGE, 
 CHAPPELL HILL, TEX. — A school for young 
 ladies established in 1852 under the auspices 
 of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South. 
 Primary and preparatory, collegiate, normal, 
 and fine arts departments are maintained. 
 Admission requirements to the college are 
 about equivalent to graduation from a public 
 school. Diplomas are conferred. 
 
 CHARACTER. — That formation of charac- 
 ter is the end of education is a commonplace of 
 pedagogical theory, if not of school procedure. 
 Practically the acquisition of various forms of 
 skill and of information in various school sub- 
 jects are usually the conscious and direct aims 
 of the teacher, and character formation an in- 
 direct result. Even discipline, which has ap- 
 parently a more direct relation to character 
 than have skill and knowledge, is often so 
 hemmed in by peculiar school conditions (an 
 unduly large number of pupils, the lack of 
 material and appliances for con.structive work, 
 etc.) as to have only a somewhat remote con- 
 nection with developing the kind of character 
 most efficient in life beyond the school walls. 
 These discrepancies between the universally 
 acknowledged end of education and the means 
 at hand for realizing it have been the occasion 
 of efforts at educational reforms during all 
 periods. Although their causes are too deep- 
 seated to have yielded comijletely to the at- 
 tempts at reform, individual teachers, animated 
 by an adc(iuate consciousness of the nature of 
 character and of the factors of its genetic 
 
 development, can do much to close the gap 
 between the scholastic means and the moral 
 end. 
 
 The elements of character may conveniently 
 be grouped under three heads: (1) discriminat- 
 ing judgment as to relative values, (2) direct 
 emotional susceptibility to values as presented 
 in experience, and (3) force in execution. 
 
 1. Judgment is impossible without knowl- 
 edge, and yet it is so different from knowledge 
 that an individual may possess an extensive 
 amount of the latter and yet be rated low in 
 judgment. Judgment is power to perceive the 
 bearings of what is known. To conceive 
 known facts and laws in terms of what they 
 prognosticate, what they point or lead to, is 
 judgment. Knowledge simply as information 
 is relatively inert and static; it represents learn- 
 ing and the accumulation of memory. Judg- 
 ment takes what is known with reference to 
 what may come out of it, through action, or 
 as amounting to something, and hence as 
 dynamic. Items of information are connected 
 simply with one another; materials of fact are 
 connected with the consequences in which 
 they issue, and never have a dynamic or motor 
 quality. 
 
 Ability to judge implies, moreover, insight, 
 penetration, getting behind the immediate ap- 
 pearance of things so as to see what they inean. 
 This insight is known as discernment, dis- 
 crimination, that is to say, dividing, or parting, 
 matters according to the value of what they 
 stand for, sifting out the significant from the 
 trivial. Judgment is thus opposed to stu- 
 pidity, or failure to pass from immediate fact 
 to the meaning it indicates, and also to foolish- 
 ness or failure to discriminate the relative im- 
 portance of various meanings. Since judgment 
 is a sense of relative values, it is equivalent to 
 valuation, appraisal, estimation on the basis of 
 a principle. 
 
 Judgment is obviously the intellectual ele- 
 ment in character. It has been the fortune of 
 this element to suffer from both over-appre- 
 ciation and extreme depreciation. Among the 
 Greeks, knowledge was often identified with 
 virtue or moral excellence. The will was con- 
 ceived as the intellect in active operation; to 
 know the good was to act in its behalf. That 
 no man does evil voluntarily, but only from 
 ignorance, was almost an axiom with Socrates. 
 And wliile Ari.'^totlc criticized his view on the 
 ground that it ignored the importance of habit- 
 uation through exercise and also the counter- 
 acting force of excessive desire, Aristotle still 
 held that practical judgment or insight is cen- 
 tral among the virtues, since the key to all 
 the others. Later development played havoc 
 with this intellcctualism. The will was sharply 
 severed, in much medieval speculation, from 
 the intelligence, and was regarded as the only 
 essential factor in character and virtue. The 
 excellence of the will is docility, obedience, 
 subordination to law; its deadliest vice, pride 
 
 569
 
 CHARACTER 
 
 CHARACTER 
 
 or the rebellious following of its own law. 
 Knowledge vv;is often looked upon with sus- 
 picion as fostering a questioning and proud 
 spirit hostile to implicit obedience to moral 
 law and authority. Recently, the emotions 
 rather than the will have been set over against 
 intelligence as the central element in character. 
 The feelings have been held to be the only 
 moving springs to action, and certain feelings 
 — pity or sympathy — have been selected for 
 special moral eulogy. The " heart " has been 
 opposed to the " head " as the source of gen- 
 uinely moral activity. Yet an impartial sur- 
 vey reveals that " feelings " a|)art from intel- 
 ligence lead inevitably to scntimentalism, to 
 blind action and reaction, and to social condi- 
 tions in which hard-headed men, who know 
 what they want and who ha\'e made a study 
 of how to get it, easily manipulate other per- 
 sons to their own profit. 
 
 In many respects, the present day is witness- 
 ing a return from arbitrary will and blind 
 emotionality to the Greek principle of intelli- 
 gence, though with a change in the conception 
 of intelligence. It was natural for the Greeks 
 to conceive of a close relation between knowl- 
 edge and conduct because they were acquainted 
 with so little secondhand and bookish knowl- 
 edge. They unconsciously included in their 
 notion of knowledge what we shall call appre- 
 ciation, a realizing sense of the object. Facts and 
 ideas acquired from another person, no matter 
 how certain, were only opinion, not knowl- 
 edge. Abstract conceptions did not constitute 
 knowledge till they were matters of direct in- 
 tuition or insight. Now the whole tendency 
 of modern psychology and logic is to in- 
 stitute a distinction between two types of 
 knowledge, one of which is simply symbolic, 
 while the other is direct. There are many 
 things which we know about through com- 
 munication by others in language symbols, or 
 which we know by elaboration of symbols — 
 such as mathematics and abstract conceptions 
 in general. The influence of such knowledge 
 upon character is very remote and superficial, 
 except as technical or professional skill is an 
 important factor in character. The other type 
 of knowledge consists of direct insight (or dis- 
 cernment), and intimate acquaintance, method 
 of information about things, or ability to manipu- 
 late symbols that represent them. Possession 
 of this sort of knowledge always expresses some 
 modification of character, and is expressed in 
 behavior. 
 
 Wherever intimate acquaintance exists, we 
 know things not simply in their abstract and 
 impersonal relations to one another, but in 
 their connections with ourselves and their 
 bearings on our achievement and well-being. 
 We know them in terms of our own proper 
 adjustments and responses to them. In ab- 
 stract or symbolic knowledge all facts are of 
 equal importance or value; perception of their 
 relation to ourselves as agents and to their con- 
 
 sequences with respect to our success and 
 failure, to our efforts and accomplishments, 
 confer upon objects a scale of relative values. 
 So far as knowledge takes this form of genuine, 
 deep, and intimate sense of values, action fol- 
 lows insight, for this sort of insight is obtain- 
 able only through constant activity in the 
 way of adjustment, response, experimentation, 
 and trial. (See Judgjlent and Knowledge.) 
 The problem of intellectual instruction in refer- 
 ence to character is to lay a deep and firmly 
 united foundation of knowledge of this inti- 
 mate and active sort, and to estal)lish as many 
 lines of association as possible between it and 
 the abstract and symbolic information that is 
 ac<iuired. (See Course of Study.) So far 
 as this result is secured, teachers are quite 
 ju.stified in holding that thej' arc engaged in 
 character building " all the time," irrespective 
 of direct moral teachings. 
 
 2. The discussion of knowledge makes it 
 clear that the distinction between knowledge 
 and emotion is somewhat arbitrary, or at least 
 that it marks only a distinction, not a separa- 
 tion. Not even the more abstract and purely 
 logical knowledge is without its emotional 
 accompaniment, or an immediate reaction of in- 
 clination and disinclination. Its development 
 m any individual depends upon the liveliness 
 and persistence of the emotion of curiosity, 
 love of following matters up to see how they 
 come out, and delight in inquiring for its own 
 sake — what is usually termed love of truth for 
 its own sake. Our intimate accpiaintance with 
 things is even more indissolubly welded with 
 our life of affections and aversions. Attention 
 and interest are cither two phases of the same 
 process, or else always accompanj' each other. 
 The vivacity of instinct and impulse in the 
 child, the newness of things and persons, the 
 absence of the dulling of emotion that arises 
 through long familiarity and drilling, cause the 
 nature of the emotional life to be a much more 
 important con.sideration with respect to build- 
 ing up the child's judgments and ideas than is 
 the case with the adult. What was said about 
 the Greek identification of knowledge with a 
 " realizing sense " of a thing is borne out by 
 the fact that their educational practice and 
 theory laid chief stress upon direct emotional 
 susceptibility to values presented in experi- 
 ence. To lead the young to take pleasure in 
 — to love — the things that are worthy, and to 
 feel pain in — to hate and fear — the things 
 that are unworthy, was considered by both 
 Plato and Aristotle to be the end of education. 
 This reference to the Greeks also indicates 
 the connection of the aesthetic factor — in its 
 broad sense — with direct sensitiveness to differ- 
 ences of worth. While Plato and Aristotle in- 
 sisted upon early habituation and practice 
 preceding conscious reason with reference to 
 distinctions of good and bad, habituation was 
 never understood to mean purely external 
 modes of action, or routine, formed by repeti- 
 
 570
 
 CHARACTER 
 
 CHARACTER 
 
 tion, but an exercise of the affections upon ap- 
 propriate objects so as to form strong and 
 abiding emotional associations. Rhythm in 
 action and in music, melody of song, decorum 
 and grace in posture and gesture, order and 
 proportion in visual objects, — in short, aesthetic 
 qualities, — were the chief instruments, the 
 end being to create a direct feeling of the beauty 
 of good and the ugliness and disgrace of evil. 
 Hence the wide scope of " music " in Greek 
 education. On the same grounds, Plato stands 
 almost alone, till the eighteenth century, in his 
 recognition of the fundamental importance of 
 the very early years of life, before technical 
 skill and conscious reasoning are possible. 
 The earliest years are those in which the emo- 
 tions are most intensely active, and when, 
 being as yet unattached to any particular 
 objects, they may be firmly associated with 
 objects so that later in Ufe some objects will 
 always be attractive and others alwaj's repul- 
 sive. The monastic and ascetic factors in the 
 Christian Church, together with the lack of 
 artistic capacity and opportunity among the 
 northern barbarians, gradually eliminated the 
 asthetic factor (save in ecclesiastical music) 
 from education. At the Renaissance, it was 
 reintroduced, but rather as a work of the cul- 
 ture of a gentleman than as a moral force. 
 Puritanism and the utilitarian spirit of motlern 
 industry have tended to minimize the culture 
 of direct sensitiveness to distinctions of worth 
 in English and American education; and per- 
 haps the greatest deficiency in our educational 
 systems with respect to character building is 
 found in their comparative failure to recognize 
 the fundamental importance of an acute and 
 sensitive direct response, independent of con- 
 scious reflection, of the affections to distinctions 
 of worth in arts and objects. 
 
 3. Force, patience, and persistency in exe- 
 cution are also indispensable factors in char- 
 acter. When it is said of a person, without 
 qualification, that " he has character," inde- 
 pendence, initiative, and energy in pursuit of 
 ends are almost always signified. In Greek 
 education at its best, " gymnastic " was not 
 employed chiefly for athletic results, nor even 
 for health alone, but as a training of executive 
 efficiency. The centuries in which the body 
 was held in contempt were also centuries in 
 which the contemplative life was ranked higher 
 than the active, and an educational tradition 
 was built up opposed to manual and construc- 
 tive activities in education. They formed no 
 part of the .scheme of " liberal arts " which 
 were the true concern of education, but only 
 of the base meclianica! arts which wore learned 
 in the course of routine apprenticeship. When 
 productive activity was encouraged at all in 
 the regular .system of education, it was in ele- 
 mentary schools supported by charity for the 
 benefit of the poor. When, . as frequently 
 happened, these schools were taken over l)y 
 the state or local community, the invidious 
 
 stigma of " charity " attached to manual 
 activity, so that the subjects of woodwork, 
 etc., for the boys and cooking and sewing for 
 the girls were usually eliminated from schools 
 supported by public taxation. 
 
 Various reasons have conspired to effect in 
 the last generation a juster estimate of the 
 moral value of practical activity. The success- 
 ful use of various games, plays, and forms of 
 manual activity in the Froebelian kindergarten 
 naturally occasioned a feeling in favor of the 
 introduction of similar methods and materials 
 in the elementary school. Growth of knowl- 
 edge of hygiene and physiology has tended to 
 restore the body to its proper place as an in- 
 dispensable instrument of right action. Purelj* 
 utilitarian and commercial demands have 
 pressed the claims of practical efficiency as 
 distinct from mere scholarship. Psychology 
 and biology have revealed the basic impor- 
 tance of in.stincts and impulses, the active side 
 of our nature, in one whole mental and moral 
 life. While perhaps the narrower utilitarian 
 motive has often been too conspicuous, at the 
 expense of value in character training, as a 
 motive for the reintroduction of active and 
 constructive work into the schools, still the 
 net effect of the convergence of the different 
 factors mentioned has been to create a grow- 
 ing recognition of the moral onesidcdness of 
 any educational scheme which appeals simply 
 to the absorption of information and its more 
 or less passive reproduction, instead of culti- 
 vating a love of active doing and efTective 
 executive capacity. The social aspect of this 
 phase of character training is exhibited in the 
 demand that education shall prepare students 
 for an intelligent choice of a calling in which 
 they may be most serviceable to the com- 
 munity. It is not to be inferred from the 
 above that the mere introduction of physical 
 activity, manual training, etc., will work auto- 
 matically for the development of force of char- 
 acter. These subjects may of course be re- 
 duced to a mechanical or routine place about 
 as easily as any subjects of the curriculum. 
 But these subjects furnish opportunities and 
 tools for a development of the initiative and 
 executive side of our nature which mere book- 
 ish objects cannot afford, and therefore, with 
 wise treatment, are indispensal)le factors in 
 the formation of a character which is not 
 satisfied with being simply a spectator, or pas- 
 sive absorber, but that strives earnestly to put 
 right intention and good desire into actual 
 and concrete effect. 
 
 The analysis of character into aspects of 
 wise judgment, sensitive emotional responsive- 
 ness, and force in action reveals how largely 
 character forming mu.st be indirect, slow, 
 gradual, and unconscious. The part that can 
 be played in forming character liy direct moral 
 precept, by learning of moral rules and prin- 
 ciples froni others or from books, is compara- 
 tively slight, because the isolation of such 
 
 571
 
 CHARACTEROLOGY 
 
 CHARACTEROLOGY 
 
 precepts and lessons from the general flow of 
 experience (the very fact that they arc taught 
 only on special occasions as special lessons), is 
 unfavorable to their being deeply knit into 
 the body of active tendencies, affections, and 
 ideas that form the substance of character. 
 There is, tiien, no reason for denying that 
 educational methods and materials which, on 
 their face, have little to do with securing 
 moral results, may nevertheless be so treated 
 that character formation is their more abiding 
 and significant end, albeit largely an uncon- 
 scious and indirect end. J. D. 
 
 See Course of Study, Theory of; Cul- 
 TuiiE; Formal Discipline; Moral Instruc- 
 tion'. 
 
 CHARACTEROLOGY. — Scientific study 
 of character according to the established 
 rubrics of psycholog.y is more a program 
 than an available reality. The problems 
 which it proposes relate to the underlying 
 basal traits of human nature and the manner 
 of modification, indeed, of transformation of 
 these by the cumulative and diverse influences 
 of civilization. Accompanying the primary 
 characteristics, which, while present in all 
 normal individuals, yet make possible a con- 
 siderable variation in degree and manner of 
 their effectiveness, is a great array of second- 
 ary and more remotely derivative traits, which 
 in turn in the variety of their blends and com- 
 binations compose the complex sorts and con- 
 ditions of men. The principle is justified that 
 such secondary and tertiary traits have inti- 
 mate relations to the more simple elements of 
 character, and present more refined and indirect 
 as well as more complex modes of their expres- 
 sion. This relation appears nowhere more 
 strikingly than in the varied ramifications of 
 the distinctive traits of the sexes whose differ- 
 entia of an elusive yet real mental type are 
 traceable " to a third and a fourth generation " 
 from their parent origin in the physical and 
 psychological attractions aroused by the re- 
 productive instincts. 
 
 The formulation of the primitively human 
 traits is thus a biological problem, such traits 
 finding their justification in their service for 
 survival and supremacy, and in turn subject 
 to the laws of heredity, while equally adaptable 
 to the needs of the shifting environment. The 
 inherited dispositions must be reducible to a 
 limited group of directly efficient qualities, 
 which in turn are capable of large varieties of 
 expression. Such are the traits of self-assertion, 
 the sex promptings and displays, the social or 
 simply gregarious instincts, the emotional sym- 
 pathies, muscular energizing, creative or in- 
 ventive resourcefulness. Combined with this 
 objective exposition is the attempt to trace 
 such differences of expression back to some 
 types of nervous disposition; and this again 
 with recognition of the blends or combinations 
 of such traits which is comprehended in the 
 
 word " temperament." Historically the types 
 have been recognized as the sanguine, choleric, 
 melancholic, and phlegmatic; but this classifica- 
 tion is interesting mainly as a curious intrusion 
 of crude anatomical distinction into the psy- 
 chological field. The chief distinction in- 
 volved, that of the active, interested, alert, 
 passionate, and fitful, contrasted with the 
 sober, staid, even dull, steady, unemotional, is 
 a real one; and the former must be recognized 
 in all classifications, being more commonly 
 referred to as the nervous type of temperament. 
 Other and more minute classifications have been 
 proposed, but are in the main but variants and 
 derivatives of the distinction between active 
 and sensitive: while quite a number of the 
 systems recognize a threefold division accord- 
 ing to the dominance of feeling, intellect, or irill 
 in the make-up. Thus, great men are classified 
 as men of feeling (poets, musicians, etc.), men 
 of intellect (philosophers, men of science), or 
 men of action (soldiers, men of affairs, or- 
 ganizers), ^'ery significant are the attempts to 
 base fundamental distinctions of character upon 
 their morbid exaggerations in disease. The 
 melancholic temperament of the older writers 
 is substantially such a recognition. The 
 hysterical temperament as a type, which in 
 pronounced hysteria exhibits its abnormal 
 manifestations, suggests a most distinctive and 
 adequate variety of character; while other 
 varieties, though less distinct, are yet related 
 to their exaggerated and morbid counterparts. 
 
 A prominent problem in the study of char- 
 acter is that of correlation; the determination, 
 so far as may be reached, of the groups of 
 traits that readily combine in close correlation, 
 and through such correlation establish the 
 naturalness of the type: while yet within the 
 type the variety of the degrees of possession of 
 the con.stituent qualities leaves room for the 
 more detailed subspecies. Thus within the 
 musical group, the question arises as to the 
 correlation of powers of criticism with those 
 of execution, and of these in turn with original 
 composition. This trio of appreciation (with 
 analysis), execution, and invention may be 
 carried over to the pictorial artist or the literary 
 or other group; while the correlation of the 
 artistic qualities with the scientific is usually 
 regarded as slight or negative. Here, how- 
 ever, as in other fields, it is a program of 
 questions rather than a series of conclusions 
 that is available. 
 
 Psychology has recognized the problem of 
 character in yet another field, that of " indi- 
 vidual psychology," which in turn has given 
 rise to a psychology of social and national and 
 racial groups. Description rather than sys- 
 tematic analysis has been the chief method; 
 and suggestive formulas have been proposed. 
 Individual psychology has for its aim the 
 determination of the superiorities and defi- 
 ciencies of each person. It attempts this partly 
 upon the basis of specially devised tests. 
 
 572
 
 CHARITABLE TRUSTS 
 
 CHARITABLE TRUSTS 
 
 utilizes the methods of correlation, and corrob- 
 orates its principles by studying the achieve- 
 ments as correlated with the qualities analyzed. 
 The group study has been applied to the artist 
 class, to men of science, to men of genius in 
 general, and again to the determination of 
 national traits. The difficulty of separating 
 natural from acquired quality is inevitable; it 
 is but a phase of the conflict of nature and 
 nurture, the difficulty of determining what 
 men are independently of what they do. 
 
 The practical interest in character, and its 
 relation to the delineation of talent and pre- 
 diction of success, has given rise to a great 
 variety of systems, such as palmistry, phre- 
 nology iq-v.), physiognomj', graphology, all of 
 which attempt to read character in outward 
 signs. The confusion and arbitrary classifica- 
 tions and principles thus resulting form the 
 best proof of the need for a thorough recon- 
 struction upon an accepted scientific basis. 
 The educational interest in the training of 
 character and the literary interest in its de- 
 lineation and analysis, support and contribute 
 to the psychological analyses and form one 
 of the most permanently engaging objects of 
 human study. J. J. 
 
 See Ch.^r.vcter; Moral Education; Re- 
 ligious Educatio.\. 
 
 References : — 
 FouiLLEE, .v. J. E. Temperament et caractire. (Paris, 
 
 1901.) 
 HiRT, E. Die Temperamente, ihr Weaen, ihre Bedeu- 
 
 tungfuT das seelische Leben, utid ihre besondere Gestal- 
 
 tung. (Wiesbaden, 1905.) 
 Jastrow, J. The Qxtalities of Men. (New York, 1910.) 
 
 Character and Temperament. (New York, 1910.) 
 Levy, A. Psyckologie du Caractire. (Brussels, 1896.) 
 Malapert, P. Le Caractire. (Paris, 1902.) 
 MuscYNSKi, F. Die Temperamente, ihre psychologisch 
 
 begriindete Erkenntni-is und pUdagogiscke Behand- 
 
 lung. (Padcrborn. 1907.) 
 Paulhas. Les Caractire^. (Paris, 1902.) 
 RiBERG, C. Classification naturelle du Caractire. 
 
 (Paris, 1902.) 
 Stern, L. W. Psychologie der individiiellen Differenzen. 
 
 (Leipzig. 1900.) 
 Whitby, C. S. Logic of Human Character. (London, 
 
 190.5.) 
 Other writings of interest are the Chapter on Ethology 
 
 in Mill's Logic (London, 1872) ; Bain, A., Study 
 
 of Character, 1807. 
 
 CHARITABLE TRUSTS FOR EDUCA- 
 TION. - Thiiui;h we find uuicli earlier than 
 the lifteenth century something that may be 
 called educational trusts, yet that century was 
 the period when the trusts (levelo])ed into a 
 universal institution and cliaritable trusts of 
 lands and moneys became common. Earlier 
 foundations were scarcely trusts in the sense 
 that was used from the fifteenth century on- 
 ward. A grant of land or of a church (as in 
 the case of the Church of Odiham for the 
 schoolmaster of Sarum l)y King Stephen in 
 11.39) was made for an educational i)urposc, 
 and that purpose was fulfilled without any 
 legal question. One of the earliest trusts of 
 the recognized type was the foundation by 
 
 Katherine Lady Berkeley ((?.('.) in 1384 (8 Ric. II), 
 under license of letters patent, of the Wootton- 
 under-Edge Free Grammar School. After this 
 date charitable educational trusts multiply 
 rapidly. Noticeable examples are the Grim- 
 stone Free School in Norfolk founded by deed 
 in 1394; the Higham Ferrers School in North- 
 amptonshire founded by Archbishop Chicheley 
 in 1422; the Sevenoaks Free Grammar School 
 founded under the will of Sir W. Sennoeke in 
 1432 (this school seems to have been incorpo- 
 rated by letters patent of July 1, I.'jOO (2 Eliz.]; 
 see Certiorari Roll, Bundle 8, No. fi" [unprinted] 
 Rolls office; and regulated by statute 39 Eliz.); 
 Kingston-upon-Hull School founded by J. Al- 
 cock. Bishop of Ely in 1486; Stockjiort Free 
 Grammar School (Cheshire) founded by the will 
 of Sir E. Shaa in 1487 (for will see Lysons' Magna 
 Britannia, pp. 780-781); the Chipiiing Camp- 
 den Free Grammar School founded by deed of 
 J. Verby, c. 1487 (see Rudder's Gloucester- 
 shire, p. 324); Burton's school at Loughborough 
 (Leicestershire) founded by deed in 1495; Crew- 
 kerne Free Grammar School (Somerset) founded 
 by John de Combe in 1499; Prestbury School 
 (Cheshire) founded by the will of Sir J. Per- 
 ceval in 1502; Cromer Free School (Norfolk) 
 founded by the will of Sir B. Read in 1505; IMil- 
 ton Abbas School (Dorset) founded by the deed 
 of the Abbot (with the consent of the Convent) of 
 Milton in 1520; Saffron Walden Free Grammar 
 School (Essex) by the deed of Dame J. Bradbury 
 in 1525. Many other instances of pre-Reforma- 
 tion free grammar schools of non-ecclesiastical 
 origin created by way of charitable trust can 
 no doubt be cited. The educational losses of 
 the Reformation were in some measure made 
 up by the acceleration of this Charitable 
 Trust movement. The need for the multipli- 
 cation of grammar schools was generally recog- 
 nized, and the well-known Sir Thomas Smith 
 on becoming Secretary of State in 1548 intro- 
 duced on Jan. 23, 1548, into the Commons a 
 " Bill for making of schools and giving lands 
 thereto," which was at once read the first time, 
 and the second time on Jan. 31, and on Feb. 9, 
 1548, was read a third time and passed. It 
 did not, however, become law. But neverthe- 
 less, in Elizabeth's reign, 108 grammar schools 
 were founded and 27 were additionally en- 
 dowed, while 40 nonclassical schools were 
 founded and 7 additionally endowed, making 
 in all 182 schools (see Digest of Scliouls and 
 Charities for Educatiun presented to Parlia- 
 ment in 1842, and sec ]\Iulcaster's Po.'titions, 
 p. 327). As to charitable trusts for education 
 in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, see 
 de Montmorency's State Iiiteri'ention in English 
 Education, pp. 243-247, and the above Digest. 
 As to Elizabethan and later legislation for the 
 enforcement of educational trusts, see article on 
 Court of Chancery i.n Education; for the 
 extent of such foundations sec also Charity 
 Schools. For the American experience see 
 Colleges, American; the special articles on 
 
 573
 
 CHARITY 
 
 CHARITY SCHOOL 
 
 the older colleges and universities, and Philan- 
 thropy, Educational. J. E. G. de M. 
 
 CHARITY, EDUCATIONAL ASPECTS OF 
 MODERN. — See Philanthropy, Educa- 
 Tio.NAL Aspects of Modern. 
 
 CHARITY SCHOOL. — In its narrower 
 sense a term applied to a particular tj-pe of 
 school which sprang up in England during the 
 latter half of the seventeenth century and 
 flourished throughout the eighteenth century. 
 Such a school was open free to the children of 
 the poor, and usually attended only by such; 
 was supported ordinarily by private contribu- 
 tion; and most frecpieutly was controlled by 
 some ecclesiastical or religious body. The in- 
 stitution itself was common in America and on 
 the Continent during the same period, but the 
 term was not so frequently used. 
 
 It would be difficult to exaggerate the im- 
 portance for England of the history of the 
 educational movement which is always con- 
 nected with the name of the charity schools, 
 for this movement, in association with the 
 school endowment movement that took place 
 between 1670 and 1730, and the Sunday school 
 movement (q.v.), which began soon after 1750, 
 laid the foundations upon which was reared 
 during the nineteenth century the English 
 system of elementary education. It is not 
 easy to indicate the exact origin of the charity 
 school movement. Upon this question opinions 
 differ. It is probable that the establishment 
 of the charity schools that rapidly covered 
 England in the early j-ears of the eighteenth 
 century was only one manifestation of a wider 
 movement which not only includes the school 
 endowment movement of 1670-1730, and 
 extends back to include Griffith Jones' Cir- 
 culating Schools, but stretches back to cer- 
 tain movements in the mid-sixteenth century 
 and forward to the monitorial schools in the 
 early nineteenth century. The medieval sys- 
 tem of elementary education, though not abso- 
 lutely destro.ycd by the Reformation, received 
 shock after shock from the forces that the 
 Reformation set in motion. The destruction 
 of the chantry elementary schools (q.v.) in 
 154S swept away a great educational instru- 
 ment, and though the fundamental idea of 
 parochial education survived the Reformation 
 and survives to this day, yet the organized 
 practice of parochial teaching decayed. It was 
 necessary from the middle of the sixteenth cen- 
 tury to restore the parochial ideal and the 
 parochial schools. Much was done, but the 
 conformity legislation and the system of episco- 
 pal licenses for teachers made it increasingly 
 difficult, as time went on, to find sufficient 
 teachers of sound churchmanship, and this diffi- 
 culty became insuperable when the conformity 
 legislation of 1662 and 1665 instituted an in- 
 quisition into the opinions of teachers at a 
 time when the aftermath of the Great Revolu- 
 
 tion of 1649 made it impossible for thousands 
 of earnest teachers to accept the tenets of the 
 established church. Hence we might expect 
 to find, as we do find, successive efforts, paro- 
 chial in their results, but often extra-parochial 
 in their origin, to create an elementary system 
 of education which should be, at any rate, not 
 less efficient for its time and generation than 
 the elementary system which during the 
 Middle Ages in face of numberless disadvan- 
 tages did such admirable work in the matter 
 both of character forming and of ])reparing a 
 percentage of children for higher education. 
 But these successive efforts were continually 
 checked by political, religious, social, and 
 economic hindrances. In the second half of 
 the sixteenth century substantial results were 
 achieved, but these were largely neutralized by 
 
 Charity ^cIkh.I, ]iun>;iii Meeting House, LonUun. 
 
 the political and religious unrest of England 
 from (say) 1625 to 1660. The conformity 
 legislation of 1662-1665 gave a definite check 
 to all forms of education, and the tremendous 
 efforts of the century that followed, shown in 
 the founding of charity schools, endowed ele- 
 mentary schools and Sunday schools, were un- 
 able to overcome the vis inerliae of a state 
 policy which had denuded the universities and 
 cut off the supply of trained teachers. There 
 was Uttle or no trained teaching in the eight- 
 eenth century in England, and when the great 
 monitorial school revival under Bell and Lan- 
 caster came at the very end of the century 
 there were no teachers available, while the 
 new industrial movement with its vast ag- 
 gregations of population had created social and 
 economic obstacles to progress which have 
 only been quite recently overcome. Thus 
 there was one long, organic, wavelike move- 
 ment from about 1570 to 1870, a succession of 
 impulses which represent the relationship of 
 the Renaissance to elementary education. 
 
 The exact place of the charity schools in 
 this long movement must be described. The 
 barbarism of Wales seems to have been the 
 object lesson which drew men's attention to 
 needs nearer home. When that most learned 
 
 574
 
 CHARITY SCHOOL 
 
 CHARITY SCHOOL 
 
 man, William Salesbury, in 1550 translated into 
 Welsh the Gospels and Epistles as used in the 
 Book of Common Prayer, he gave a new impetus 
 to the old movement which led to the trans- 
 lation into Welsh under the patronage of Parlia- 
 ment (5 Eliz., c. 28) of the New Testament. The 
 evangelization of Wales drew men's minds to 
 the same need in England, and it must be 
 remembered that this whole movement was 
 essentially religious. A complete Welsh Bible 
 was issued from London in 1588 and " a port- 
 ably-sized Bible " was, in 1630, " printed at 
 the expense of one or more citizens of London." 
 The spiritual needs of Wales were very close 
 to the heart of London, and not very long after 
 the time of the Welsh Bible of 1630, Vavasor 
 Powell began active evangelizing work in 
 Wales. This was followed by the Common- 
 wealth Act of 1649, which appointed Church 
 and School Commissioners for Wales to grant 
 (among other duties) certificates to school- 
 masters in order that " fit persons of approved 
 piety and learning may have encouragement to 
 employ themselves in the education of children 
 in piety and good literature"; and lastly we 
 reach the stage in which the evangelization of 
 Wales finally reacts on London and England 
 and creates the imi)ulse which produces the 
 charity schools. This last stage was due to 
 the efforts of Thomas Gouge (q.v.), a clergyman 
 of the Established Church, who, having been 
 ejected from his London living under the Act 
 of Uniformity on St. Bartholomew's Day, 1662, 
 eventually took up in 1672 the Welsh social 
 and educational work, which still attracted the 
 attention of philanthropic Londoners. Gouge 
 in taking up this work was following up the 
 ideas of Joseph AUeine (1636-166S), another 
 nonconforming clergyman of fame. On 
 Gouge's " first journey into the borders of 
 South Wales he inquired in each town how 
 many were willing that their children should 
 learn to read and write English, and to repeat 
 the catechism. He engaged teachers for both 
 sexes, paying them at the rate of Irf. or 2d. a 
 week per scholar " (see Did. of Nat. Biog.). 
 Strype's edition in 1720, of Stow's Survey of 
 London, must now be cjuoted. Writing on the 
 charit}' schools in his time, he says: " This 
 favour of the Londoners towards poor children 
 began divers years ago, in North and South 
 Wales. When, about the year 1670, the 
 Poverty and Ignorance of those Parts raised 
 a compassion in the Hearts of many good 
 citizens, which must be recorded to their 
 Honor: so that they and their Interest con- 
 tributed such sums of Money, as maintained 
 a great number of poor Welch Children at 
 School, to read English, write, and cast Ac- 
 compts; and Schools for that Purpose were 
 erected and settled in many Places in tho.se 
 Countries; and this pious Practice so flourished 
 that in the year 1674, or 1675, ("ertificate was 
 made that, in eighty-six of the chief Towns and 
 Parishes in Wales, 1162 poor children were put 
 
 to School, over and above 200 put to School the 
 last year by the Charity of others. And this 
 Charity had already provoked divers land- 
 lords and Inhabitants of several Towns and 
 Parishes in Wales to put 863 of tlie poorest 
 Welch Children to School, upon their own Ac- 
 counts; so that 2225, in all, were already put 
 to school to learn, as before." Tlie movement 
 did not end with education. Gouge desired to 
 furnish the rest of the Welsh peojjle " with 
 Christian Knowledge." Gouge started the dis- 
 tribution of religious books, and for this pur- 
 pose a famous "Trust was formed in London 
 consisting of Churchmen and nonconformists: 
 Tillotson, Whichcot, Simon Ford, Bates, 
 
 »^^^-^;-g5^t?eg-^^j^c-j?T«^ 
 
 
 "T-T k 
 
 Childruu of the Charity Schools vjtwiny a Ilu\ ai 
 Procession; London, 17i;i. 
 
 Owtram, Patrick, Stillingfleet, and Fowler were 
 the Churchmen; Durham, !Meriton, Hezekiah 
 Burton, Richard Baxter, Matthew Poole, and 
 Gouge were the nonconformists, ^'arious 
 citizens of London, Thomas Firmin, Henry 
 Norton, John DuBois, and others also joined. 
 The committee did excellent work, but after 
 Gouge's death in 1681 the results declined. 
 
 Now the point that is in doubt and which 
 must be considered is whether these charity 
 schools were directly connected with Gouge, 
 his school movement, and the Tru.st of 1674. 
 It is necessary to consider briefly the history 
 of elementary education between this date 
 and the date of the formation of the Society 
 for Promoting Children's Knowledge {q.v.) 
 which was founded by Dr. Bray (^.r.) in 1698, 
 and admittedly controlled in a very large meas- 
 ure the charity schools from about that time. 
 In 1674 Baxter and Tillotson, both signatories 
 to the Trust, drew up a " Healing Bill " for a 
 union between conformists and nonconformists 
 and allowing dissenters in certain cases to be 
 schoolmasters. The proposal fell through in 
 April, as the Bishops wo\il(l not concur. Almost 
 at this very date the Report of the Trust was 
 i.ssued, ancl certainly Gouge and Tillotson re- 
 mained on intimate terms, as in 1681 Tillot- 
 son preached Gouge's funeral sermon in " a 
 strain of fervid eulogy." The Trust con- 
 tinued after Gouge's death, for we know that 
 the distribution of Welsh Bibles, one of the 
 objects of the Trust, continued. There is no 
 real reason to suppo.se that the Welsh schools, 
 which contained 1850 children in 1675, suddenly 
 ceased to exist in 1681 on fiouge's death; 
 especially as they were in part supported by 
 Welsh voluntary subscriptions. The writer on 
 
 575
 
 CHARITY SCHOOL 
 
 CHARITY SCHOOL 
 
 Gouge in the Dictionary of National Biography 
 thinks that they ceased at his death; but this 
 is incredible, thougli they probably soon ceased 
 to bear his name. Now Strype's account of 
 the origin of charity schools, given above, says 
 that these schools began in isolated efforts in 
 particular parishes of London. This was un- 
 doubtedly the case. Fortunately something 
 is known of these early schools (see Stryi)e"s 
 Slow and Maitland's Hixtury of London, 1756, 
 Vol. 2, pp. 1274-1278). The elementary 
 school movement was active in London before 
 Gouge's time and during the period that so 
 much interest was being taken in Wales. But 
 the earliest elementary schools were endowed 
 schools and not subscription schools. Thus 
 we have the All Hallow's Staining elementary 
 school founded and endowed by William Winter 
 in 1658; the Lambeth School founded and en- 
 dowed by Richard Lawrence in 1661; the 
 Parker's Lane School near Drury Lane founded 
 and endowed in 1663 by William Skelton; the 
 Bunhill Fields School, Cripplegate, founded 
 and endowed by Throgmorton Trotman in 1673 
 through the Haberdashers Company; the 
 Almonry School and the Tothill Fields School, 
 both in Westminster, founded by Emery Hill 
 in 1677; the school in the churchyard of St. 
 Saviour's, Southwark, founded by Dorothy 
 Applebee in 1681. We get two schools of pe- 
 culiar interest in 1685 and 1687. " A crafty 
 Jesuit, who in the year 1685 erected a Free 
 School in the suburbs of London," aroused the 
 efforts of Dr. Thomas Tenison (then Vicar of 
 St. ^NLirtin's in the Fields and in later years 
 Archbishop of Canterbury), who erected a Free 
 School in Castle Street " for the educating of 
 divers poor boys of his parish, in opposition to 
 that of the Jesuit." The Archbishop subse- 
 quently (1697) endowed this school with £1000 
 of his own money, and later with £500 which 
 had been left to him and Dr. Patrick for 
 charitable uses. In 1687 one Poulter, a Papist, 
 started a school in Southwark, and thereupon 
 certain members of a Presbyterian congrega- 
 tion, taking advantage (as in the former case) 
 of the liberty allowed by King James II to 
 Dissenters as well as Catholics, built a chapel 
 (in which Bunyan preached) with a school 
 under it known to history as the Zoar Street 
 Gravel Lane Charity School. The first pastor 
 and master was John Chester. This was the 
 first nonconformist school that was openly 
 held. 
 
 This incomplete list of schools, which were, in 
 effect, though not in name (except the last), 
 charity schools, must be concluded by three men- 
 tioned byStrjT)e, the St. Margaret Westminster 
 Boys Bluccoat School founded in 1688, the Nor- 
 ton Falgate Charitj' School founded in 1691, 
 and St. James' Westminster, founded in 1697. 
 These schools existed before the foundation of 
 the S.P.C.K., and most of them come within 
 Gouge's period of activity, though they were 
 not connected with Gouge. They prove that 
 
 there was in London as well as in Wales during 
 the period of the activity of the Trust an active 
 elementary school movement. It was the year 
 after the St. James' School was founded (1698) 
 when the never-to-be-forgotten Dr. Bray in 
 his " plan for the constitution of a protestant 
 congregation for propagating Christian knowl- 
 edge " proposed that the members of the con- 
 gregation should "proceed to set up catechetical 
 schools for the education of poor children in 
 reading, writing, and more especially in the 
 principles of the Christian religion." This 
 proposal undoubtedly stimulated a movement 
 which Londoners already had at heart, a move- 
 ment that had been extended to remote Wales 
 by Gouge. From 1698 the charity schools in 
 London rapidly multiplied. In that year were 
 founded the two schools of St. Anne West- 
 minster, of St. Botolph (Aldgate Within), St. 
 Giles (Cripplegate Without) in Redcross Street, 
 St. Margaret Westminster (Greycoat School), 
 and St. Stephen Walbrook. In 1699 were 
 founded the schools of St. Andrew Holborn, St. 
 Martin in the Fields, St. Paul Shadwell. In 
 1700 we get additional schools in St. Andrew 
 Holborn, St. Alfege Greenwich, St. James 
 Clerkenwell, St. Sepulchre Within. So the 
 number grew year by year, and not only in 
 London, but through the country. The fol- 
 lowing table supplied by Strype marks the 
 growth from 1708 to 1718: — 
 
 But we have to note that it was not until 
 1704 that the charity school system had really 
 secured a grip upon the country. In 1704 
 there were 54 charity schools in London, and 
 35 in the country. Strype. writing in 1720 with 
 respect to the year 1704, tells us that " all these 
 (London) schools were set up within the space 
 of eight or nine years last past, except one or 
 two, which were set up three or four years before ; 
 whereof one was that in Norton Falgalc (1691) 
 and another that in St. Margaret's Westminster 
 (1688)." Thus it is clear that Strype bears 
 witness to the position adopted above, that 
 the charity school movement began some years 
 before Bray took up education. It has already 
 been mentioned that in 1685 a Jesuit set up 
 
 576 
 
 1
 
 CHARITY SCHOOL 
 
 CHARITY SCHOOL 
 
 a school in or about Castle Street and that 
 in 1687 another Papist (Poulter) set up a school 
 in Southwark. These schools respectively 
 awakened the educational energy of the 
 Church and of the nonconformists, and Dr. 
 Tenison's Castle Street School of 1685 and the 
 Presbyterian Zoar Street School were really 
 the formal beginning of charity subscription 
 schools. In 1756 the 128 charity schools of 
 London included 5 Presbyterian schools, 3 inde- 
 pendent schools, 1 Quaker school, 2 French 
 schools, and 1 school for Portuguese Jews. The 
 nonconformist schools educated rather under 
 400 boj's and 100 girls (see ^Maitland's Hmory 
 of London, ed. l756, p. 1277). Technically 
 their origin cannot be connected with Gouge 
 or with Bray, with the Welsh Trust or with 
 the Society for Promoting Cliristian Knowl- 
 edge. But these men and societies were all 
 part of a larger wave of progress which was 
 not limited to England or even to Europe. 
 The Society for Promoting Christian Knowl- 
 edge extended its educational activities even 
 into the far East (see Strype passim), while 
 a German movement analogous to the Eng- 
 lish was in organic relation to it. August 
 Hermann Francke (,q.i>.) (1663-1727) started 
 his free schools for poor children in 1695, 
 and from the first he was m close corre- 
 spondence with the Society for Promoting 
 Christian Knowledge (see J. W. Adamson, 
 Pioneers of Modern Education, p. 242), and 
 his work was definitely based on religion. 
 It strongly supports the view here adopted 
 that the charity school movement was part of 
 a great renaissance wave extending from the 
 middle sixteenth century into modern times; 
 that while on the one hand Francke's methods 
 reach back to Luther, on the other his methods 
 and his schools have to-day a definite place in 
 Prussian education. Francke gave to elemen- 
 tary education a pedagogical significance that 
 it was not to attain in England until the nine- 
 teenth century. In the history of education there 
 are few more significant and far-reaching facts 
 than the revival of elementary education at 
 the end of the seventeenth century, and the 
 outward and visible sign of that revival which 
 is most notable in our eyes is the charity 
 schools of England and Germany, of Gouge and 
 Bray, of Francke and Hccker (q.v.). This re- 
 ligious educational movement had its counter- 
 part in the English colonies of America. In- 
 deed, in some respects the movement began 
 earlier in .Vmerica than even in Wales. The 
 English Parliament in 1640 passed an act for 
 the purpose of " promoting and propagating 
 the gospel of Jesus Christ in New England," 
 and founded a statutory society for the pur- 
 pose of educating native children. A voluntary 
 rate was levied throughout England to pro- 
 vide this society with funds. The action of 
 the society was ratified by the Crown in 1062, 
 and another voluntary rate granted. 
 
 J. E. G. DE M. 
 
 The Society for the Propagation of the Gos- 
 pel in Foreign Parts supported schools in prac- 
 tically all of the colonies, throughout the 
 eighteenth-century colonial period. The edu- 
 cational activities of this society are discussed 
 under Colonial Period IN American Education 
 and in the article on the Society. But charitj' 
 schools, called either by this or other terms, 
 were also of indigenous growth and widely 
 scattered. The school founded by Franklin 
 (q.v.) (1749), which later grew into the Uni- 
 versity of Pennsylvania {q.v.), was first called 
 " The Academy and Charitable School of Phila- 
 delphia in Pennsylvania'"; and the university 
 continued such a scliool for poor children until 
 late in the nineteenth century. Outside of the 
 New England colonies most free schools were 
 of the nature of charity schools until well into 
 the nineteenth century. But with the open- 
 ing of the nineteenth century various organi- 
 zations, such as the Public School Society (q.v.) 
 of New York City, undertook the task of edu- 
 cating the children of the poor. While pre- 
 vious to this period the term " poor school " or 
 " pauper school" was frequently used, — the term 
 " charity school " was .seldom used in America, 
 — such schools were now commonly connected 
 with the Lancasterian or monitorial schools 
 (q.v.), or with various societies interested in the 
 establishment and support of various types of 
 schools for poor children. Tliese, however, 
 are discussed under tlie appropriate captions. 
 
 After the opening of the nineteenth century 
 the greater part of the work similar to that of 
 the charity schools of England was accom- 
 plished in American states, outside of New 
 England, by the levying of rates and the pay- 
 ment of tuition of poor children by the public 
 authorities. In many regions schools thus 
 largely attended were known as pauper or poor 
 schools. In the cities the schools controlled 
 by the various school societies fell under the 
 same prejudice, and escaped it finally through 
 its transfer of all authority over such schools 
 to city school boards, the discontinuance of all 
 tuition fees, and the opening of all such schools 
 to the populace at large. This was commonly 
 accomplished by the middle of the century, — 
 in New York City in 1852; in Best on as early 
 as 1817, though the administration was not 
 unified until 1854. In small towns and rural 
 regions the discontiiuiance of tuition charges 
 and the discrimination between charity pupils 
 and tuition pupils commonly survived until 
 past the middle of the century, and in numer- 
 ous states was not discontinued by law until 
 after the Civil War. 
 
 See Free Schools; and the articles on the 
 various state systems of education. 
 
 References: — 
 Ai).\Ms. F. Hixtiiry o/ Ihc Elementary School Contest in 
 
 England. (London. 1S82.) 
 Allkn, W. R.. and MrOLURE, Ed. History of the 
 
 S.P.C.K. (London. ISOS.) 
 Greookt, R. Elementary Education. (London, 1895.) 
 
 577
 
 CHARKOW 
 
 CHARLEMAGNE AND EDUCATION 
 
 HoLMAN, H. Engluh National Education. (London, 
 
 1S98.) 
 Mandeville. Essay on Charity and Charily-Scliools. 
 
 (1723.) 
 MoNTMouENOY, J. E. G. DE. The Progress of National 
 
 Education in England. (Loudon, 1904.) 
 State Intenention in English Education. (London, 
 
 1902.) 
 Salmon, D. Education of the Poor in the Eighteenth 
 
 Centurt/. (Loudon, 1908.) 
 Welsh Charity ScIku/Is. (Loudon, 1900.) 
 Webeb, S. E. Charity School Movement in Colonial 
 
 Pennsylvania. (Philadelphia, 1905.) 
 
 CHARKOW, UNIVERSITY OF. — An Im- 
 perial IlussiiUi university founded in 1S04 and 
 opened in the next year. Faculties of law, 
 medicine, arts, and sciences are maintained. 
 In 1908-1909 there were enrolled 4537 students 
 and 399 auditors. 
 
 See Russia, Education in. 
 
 CHARLEMAGNE AND EDUCATION.— 
 
 The reign of Charlemagne ushered in the 
 " Benedictine Age " of learning, which lasted 
 from the close of the Dark Ages to the begin- 
 ning of the twelfth century Renaissance. 
 Charles initiated a revival of letters which 
 owed its success partly to his own determined 
 will, partly to the skill of the men whom he 
 called to his assistance. Its main features 
 were four: the gathering of scholars from all 
 parts to make the Frankish Court a model for 
 learned Europe; the rehabilitation of the 
 Palace School; the systematic promotion of 
 clerical education; and the fostering of teach- 
 ing work in both cathedrals and monasteries. 
 As in other matters, so here, Charles' policy 
 was to some extent anticipated under his im- 
 mediate predecessors. Charles Martel, Carlo- 
 man, and Pippin had supported the West- 
 Saxon missionary, Boniface, in reforms which, 
 though primarily moral and ecclesiastical, 
 were an essential condition of any literary re- 
 vival. Under Pippin English and Irish mis- 
 sionaries and other scholars had here and 
 there stirred the dying embers of learning into 
 fresh life, and the Palace School, whose origin 
 is lost in the darkness of the iMcrovingian age, 
 had acquired increased importance, and had 
 even been endowed by Paul I himself with a 
 collection of Greek Mss. But Charlemagne 
 was the first to make a systematic effort at a 
 real restoration of learning. He himself com- 
 bined remarkable intellectual powers with a 
 keen craving for knowledge, — and, if he was 
 never able to write with ease, he was as con- 
 versant with collociuial Latin as with his native 
 tongue ; he knew something of the pure 
 Latinity of scholars; he was not wholly igno- 
 rant of Greek; and he was interested on the 
 one hand in the vernacular poetry of his age 
 and on the other in astronomy and kindred 
 studies. But the realization of his aims de- 
 manded men more learned, if not more able, 
 than himself. Hence he summoned to his 
 court scholars from far and near. Peter of 
 Pisa, the grammarian of Tuscany; Paulus 
 
 Diaconus, the Lombard historian; Arno, 
 the Bavarian Archbishop of Salzburg; Theo- 
 dulph, the Visigothic Archbishop of Orleans; 
 Paulinus, the Patriarch of Aquilcia; Clement, 
 " the Scot," and his fellow Irishmen; and 
 many others, — above all Alcuin of York iq.v.), 
 the representative of that Anglo-Saxon in- 
 fluence which played so large a part in the 
 movement, — came at his call. All these 
 scholars, perhaps, took part in the revival of the 
 activities of the Palace School, where, in Anglo- 
 Saxon fashion, distinctions of age and race 
 and rank were disguised by the general adop- 
 tion of biblical or classical pseudonyms. Al- 
 cuin, when not in England, apparently directed 
 the school from 782 to 796. It seems to have 
 included pupils differing widely in years and in 
 position, and women as well as men, and the 
 instruction must have varied accordingly from 
 the formal class teaching of boys to the indi- 
 vidual tuition of more advanced pupils, the 
 private talks in which Alcuin sought to satisfy 
 his patron's thirst for knowledge, or the general 
 discussions in which the scholars of the Court 
 crossed swords, with the master himself, per- 
 haps, as moderator. In a migratory court, 
 under a warlike monarch, interrupted studies 
 were inevitable, at least for the adult pupils; 
 and it was difficult to carry about a library 
 sufficient for all the branches of study. Yet 
 the school fulfilled effectively two important 
 tasks. It formed the center of intellectual life 
 in the kingdom, encouraging friendly emulation 
 between the scholars who sought Charles' 
 patronage, and bringing all the chief person- 
 ages of Church and State into living contact 
 with the new movement. And it helped to 
 train up a generation of men who, when 
 scattered far and wide throughout the empire, 
 still kept alive the Carolingian tradition in a 
 dark time. 
 
 Charles' insistence on a minimum of educa- 
 tion for the clergy, for which the Anglo-Saxon 
 Church supplied a precedent, was perhaps due 
 to Alcuin. The Admonitio Generalis of 789 
 enjoined an inquiry into the fides et vita of 
 ordinands, — periodical examinations of dioce- 
 san clergy by their bishops, — the establish- 
 ment of reading schools, the correction of cor- 
 rupted Mss., and the restriction of copying 
 work to competent scribes; a circular letter, 
 of uncertain date, to church dignitaries (the 
 extant copy is addressed to Baugulf, Abbot of 
 Fulda from 780 to 802), ordered the -study of 
 letters in all monastic and episcopal establish- 
 ments; while other capitularies defined a 
 minimum of learning to be possessed by every 
 clerk. By confining promotion to educated 
 men, and threatening the ignorant with sus- 
 pension or even deprivation, Charles brought 
 the self-interest of the clergy to the aid of 
 higher motives. His success was remarkable. 
 Cathedral and monastic schools displayed an 
 unprecedented vigor, of which the scholae 
 Icclorum and cantorurn of Leidrad at Lyons, 
 
 578
 
 CHARLEMAGNE AND EDUCATION 
 
 CHARTERHOUSE 
 
 the scripto7-ium of Theodulf at Orleans, Alcuin's 
 model abbey school at Tours, and Angilbert's 
 library for a hundred scholars or more at S. 
 Ricjuier, are only some of the most notable 
 illustrations. Moreover, in the diocese of Or- 
 leans and elsewhere, the order of the Council 
 of Vaison (a.d. 529), that parish priests should 
 aid in the work of education, was revived, and 
 one Bavarian prelate even attempted to com- 
 pel every man to keep his son at school till he 
 was well instructed. And, while Charles' in- 
 sistence on the careful emendation of Mss. — 
 biblical, liturgical, and educational — tended 
 to secure more uniform and accurate texts, a 
 reform of handwriting began which ended in 
 the triumph of the Carolingian minuscule over 
 the uncial script of the preceding age. A 
 general rise in the standard of learning ensued. 
 A correct Latinity — of which Einhard's Sue- 
 tonian prose is the leading example — was re- 
 vived. A knowledge of Greek became com- 
 moner than it had been for a century past. 
 Historical writings, inspired perhaps by the 
 work of Bede, multiplied; monastic clironiclca 
 were written in East and West; Einhard's 
 own life of Charles set a precedent for secular 
 biography. And if, at first, the movement 
 was essentially conservative, remarkable less 
 for originality than for fidelity to venerated 
 models, this ceased presently to be everywhere 
 the case. In the East Prankish realm, it is 
 true, Alcuin's greatest pupil, Rabanus Maurus 
 (g.v.), if more learned than his master, was also 
 still more inclined to prefer acceptance of 
 tradition to discussion and inquiry, and under 
 his successors German learning became in- 
 creasingly barren, and more and more the pro- 
 fessional monopoly of the clergy. Yet in the 
 West the writers of the ninth century — Ago- 
 bard, with his political tracts; Servatus Lupus, 
 whose letters reveal a love of learning which 
 anticipates the Humanism of the Renaissance; 
 Hincmar and the forgers of the false Decretals; 
 above all John the Scot, in his daring philo- 
 sopliical speculations — far excelled the men 
 of Charles' own time in the variety, brilliance, 
 and originality of their work. This intellectual 
 vigor was indeed only transient. Already the 
 Capilitlare Mnnasticum of 817 had tried to 
 shut monastic schools against all except ohlnti, 
 and the political troubles of the time doubtless 
 prevented the fruitfulness of schemes, suggested 
 by bishops and promulgated by synods, for 
 the cstal)lislnnent of " public schools." Danish 
 and Magyar and Saracen invasions, feudal 
 strife and anarchy, the decay of the dynasty, 
 the collapse of the central government, seemed 
 indeeil almost to bring back the Dark Ages. 
 But the work of the Carolingian revival was 
 never wliolly undone; an unbroken succession 
 of teachers — Rabanus Maurus (</.('.), Serva- 
 tus I>upus. Heric of Auxerre, Remigius — 
 linked Alcuin to Odo of Cluny, and the 
 scholars of the twelfth century only reared a 
 more siilendid structure on tlie solid founda- 
 
 tion laid under the eye of Charles the Great, 
 and carried on the speculative movement fore- 
 shadowed at the court of Charles the Bald. 
 
 C. J. B. G. 
 See also article on Alcuin. 
 
 References : — 
 Gaskoin, C. J. B. Alcuin, His Life and His Work. 
 
 (Loudon, 1904.) 
 Masids, H. Die Erziehung im MiltduUer in Schmid, 
 
 K. A., Geschichteder Erziehung, II, Vol. I. pp. 94-333. 
 .. (Stuttgart, 1892.) 
 MuHLBACHER, E. Deutsche Geschichte untcr diTi Karo- 
 
 linger?!. (Stuttgart, 1890.) 
 MnLLiNGER, J. B. The Schools of CharlcK the Great mid 
 
 the Restoration of Learning in the Ninth Century. 
 
 (London, 1877.) 
 Roger, M. L'Enseignement des classiques d'Ausone h 
 
 Alcuin. (Paris, 1905.) 
 Sandys, J. E. A History of Classical Scholarship, from 
 
 the end of the sixth century to tlie end of th(^ 
 
 Middle Ages, Vol. I, 2d ed. (Cambridge. lOOti.) 
 Specht, F. a. Geschichte des Vnterrichtswescns in 
 
 Dcutschland. (Stuttgart, 1883.) 
 See the references given under Alcuin. 
 
 CHARLES CITY COLLEGE, CHARLES 
 CITY, IA. — Founded in 1891 as a coeduca- 
 tional institution under the auspices of the 
 Methodist Episcopal Church. Preparatory, 
 academic, collegiate, normal, fine arts, and 
 commercial departments are maintained. The 
 entrance requirements into the college are 
 about 12 points of high school work. The 
 college offers classical, philosophical, and scien- 
 tific courses, leading to their appropriate de- 
 grees. There are 12 professors and 7 assistants 
 on the faculty. 
 
 CHARLESTON, COLLEGE OF, CHARLES- 
 TON, S.C. — Opened in 1790 and contin- 
 ued as a high school until 1824. In 1837 
 the property, rights, and interests of the col- 
 lege were transferred to the City (^ouncil, 
 which agreed to maintain the institution. Ap- 
 proximately 12 points of high school work are 
 required for entrance into the freshman cla.ss. 
 Degrees are conferred in arts and science. 
 There is a faculty of S professors and 2 assist- 
 ants. 
 
 CHARTER PROVISIONS. — See City 
 School Organization. 
 
 CHARTERHOUSE. — One of the nine great 
 English Public Schools. Founded in ICll by 
 a wealthy merchant. Sir Thomas Sutton. The 
 foundation included a hospital or asylum for 
 old men in addition to the school. The will 
 was contested, but on the advice of Bacon the 
 decision went in favor of the foundation. The 
 site of the school was an old Carthusian mon- 
 astery. The hospital and the school remained 
 under the control of one body of governors 
 and a master until the Public Schools Act of 
 1868. The hospital and the Poor Brethren 
 are described in Thackeray's Xewcnme.t. The 
 school was intended only for foundation scholars, 
 or gown boys, who were nominated by the go\- 
 
 079
 
 CHARTRES 
 
 CHAUNCEY 
 
 ernors, and the nonfoundationer was a late 
 introduction. The career of the school has 
 always been marked by success, as evidenced 
 by the large number of old Carthusians who 
 have won a place in the annals of English his- 
 tory. In 1873 the school was removed from 
 London to Godalming, where the numbers in- 
 creased rajiidly under Dr. Haig Brown, who was 
 headmaster for a period of more than 30 years. 
 In 1897, Rev. George Henry Rendall was ap- 
 pointed to succeed Dr. Brown. The school is 
 divided into classical and modern sides, and 
 arrangements are made for preparation for the 
 army and navy examinations. 
 See GRAMM.iR Schools, E.xgush. 
 
 References: — 
 MiNCHiN, .1. C. Our Public Schools. (London. 1901.) 
 WiLMOT. E. P. E., and Streatfield. E. C. Charter- 
 house, Old and New. (London, 1895.) 
 
 CHARTRES, SCHOOL OF. — One of the 
 
 most famous of the medieval cathedral schools. 
 The title of chancellor in connection with it ap- 
 pears as early as 931, but nothing definite is 
 known of the school until the next century. 
 Fulbert became Bishop of Chartres in 990. 
 He was himself one of the most learned of men 
 in those days, and under his influence the school 
 soon outstripped the schools of Laon and Paris. 
 Its earliest reputation was based on lectures 
 which were given on Hippocrates, Galen, and 
 Sorenus, but Fulbert turned it in the direction 
 of the seven liberal arts. In the twelfth cen- 
 tury, however, under Bernard Silvester of 
 Chartres, who was chancellor from 1119 to 1126, 
 the school acquired a unique position as a cen- 
 ter of classical scholarship. Perhaps the best 
 account of the work of the school is given by 
 John of Salisbury {q.v.), who was at Chartres 
 for three years. The method of Quintilian was 
 introduced by Bernard and was adopted by 
 Theodorie, his brother, and other successors. 
 By this a foundation was laid in grammar and 
 rhetoric for the proper understanding of classi- 
 cal literature, which was widely read. In ad- 
 dition to reading and explaining the grammar 
 and contents of the classics, the pupils practiced 
 writing Latin verse and prose. John's teachers 
 were William of Conches, the grammarian, and 
 Richard I'Eveque, " a man who was master 
 of every kind of learning," and who taught 
 the quadrivium. That Chartres afforded the 
 best opportunity of the time for the study of 
 the seven liberal arts (q.v.) is clear. Theodorie, 
 already mentioned, who was chancellor from 
 1141 toe. 1150, was the author of an Eptateitchoti, 
 a treatise on the seven liberal arts. The door- 
 way of the West Front of the Cathedral was 
 adorned with figures of the seven liberal arts, 
 each represented by some early authority. So 
 far as the studies of the classics are concerned 
 Chartres seems to have been the center of an 
 early Renaissance. Only the new discovery 
 of Aristotle diverted the attention of scholars 
 from the humanities to logic and philosophy and 
 
 from Chartres to Paris. While it flourished, 
 the school of Chartres contributed to purify 
 Latin style, as is represented by the Metalogicus 
 of John of Salisbury. The control of the Cathe- 
 dral Chapter over the higher education of Char- 
 tres continued until the sixteenth century. 
 
 References : — 
 Clerval, a. Les Ecoles de Chartres. (Paris, 1896.) 
 Norton, A. O. Readings in the History of Education, 
 
 Medieral Universities. (Cambridge, Mass., 1909.) 
 Rashdall. H. Cnirersilies of Europe in the Middle 
 
 Ages. Vol. L (O.xford, 1895.) 
 S.4.NDYS, J. E. A History of Classical Scholarship, Vol. 
 
 I. (Cambridge, 1903.) 
 
 CHARTS, SCHOOL.— See Pictures, Use 
 of; Maps; Objective Methods; Visual Aids 
 TO Teaching. 
 
 CHASE, THOMAS (1827-1892). — Educator 
 and textbook writer, graduated at Harvard in 
 1848, and was for 3 years a tutor there. He 
 sub.sequcntly studied in Germany and France, 
 and in 1855 became professor in Haverford 
 College and 20 years later president of that 
 institution. He was senior editor of the Chase 
 and Stuart series of classical textbooks. 
 
 W. S. M. 
 
 CHATTANOOGA.UNIVERSITY OF.CHAT- 
 TANOOGA, TENN. — a coeducational in- 
 stitution under the auspices of the Methodist 
 Episcopal Church, offering collegiate and pro- 
 fessional training. The admission require- 
 ments are equivalent to about 14 or 15 
 units of high school work. Certificates from 
 accredited schools are accepted in lieu of an 
 examination. Degrees in arts, science, and 
 literature are granted in the college. The last 
 year of the college course maj' be taken in the 
 university, which offers training in law, medicine, 
 and theology. The law course extends over 
 2 years, and is open to all students of suffi- 
 cient education to follow the work; but candi- 
 dates for degrees must be over 21 years of age. 
 The school of medicine gives a 4 years' course 
 to students of sufficient qualifications; with 
 the school is associated the Erlanger Ho.spital. 
 The theological course extends over 3 years 
 and is open to members of the Methodist Epis- 
 copal Church and other denominations. The 
 university has a department at Athens, Tenn., 
 in which a preparatory education of high school 
 grade is given. There were enrolled in 1909- 
 1910 in the Athens school 310 students, in the 
 college 107, in the school of law 130, in the 
 school of medicine 108, in the school of theol- 
 ogy 29. There is a faculty of 27 professors, 
 2 associate professors, and 22 lecturers and 
 assistants. Rev. John H. Pace, A.M., D.D., is 
 the president. 
 
 CHAUNCEY, CHARLES (1592-1672). — The 
 second president of Harvard College, was born 
 at Yardleybury, England, in 1592. He was 
 educated at the Westminster School and Trinity 
 
 580 
 
 i
 
 CHAUTAUQUA MOVEMENT 
 
 CHAUTAUQUA MOVEMENT 
 
 College, Cambridge. He was for a time in- 
 structor of Greek in Trinity College. He came 
 to America in 1638 and for 16 years engaged 
 in the work of the ministry. In 1654 he 
 was chosen to succeed Dunster {q.v.) as presi- 
 dent of Harvard College, and tliis i)osition he 
 held until the time of his death. Author of 
 Advaiitagcts uf Schools and of several theological 
 essays. He died at Cambridge, Mass., on 
 Feb. 19, 1672. W. S. M. 
 
 CHAUTAUQUA MOVEMENT.— The meth- 
 ods and ideas of popular education a.ssociated 
 with the name Chautauqua are traceable to the 
 original Cluiutauqua As.sembly, its summer 
 schools, and its home reading circle. In the 
 seventies the economic development of the 
 country had created and distributed a margin 
 of leisure to large numbers of Americans who 
 felt the lack of early educational opportunities 
 and vaguely missed contact with the cultural 
 tradition. The Chautauqua plans were pro- 
 posed at ju.st the right time to give definite 
 stimulus and guidance to thousands of eager, 
 ambitious people. 
 
 The Original Chautauqua. — In 1S74 the 
 Chautauqua Sunday School Assembly was 
 founded by Lewis Aliller, of Akron, Ohio, and 
 Dr. John H. Vincent, now a l)ishop of the 
 Methodist Episcopal Church. The first session 
 was held for ten days in August on the shores 
 of Chautauqua Lake in southwestern New York. 
 The fundamental idea of tlic assembly was to 
 afford a broader training for Sunday school 
 teachers, to combine formal instruction with 
 informal conferences, and to jjrovide recreation 
 and entertainment. Although the founders 
 were members of the Methodist Episcoi)al 
 Church, the assembly was consciously made 
 from the outset unsectarian. Among the 
 speakers were representatives of all the leading 
 denominations. More than 1000 persons in- 
 terested in progressive Sunday school ideas at- 
 tended the first session, which aroused an endur- 
 ing enthusiasm. The next year the plan was 
 continued and extended. Instruction in Hebrew 
 and Greek from a Biblical point of view was 
 begun in 1875. The following year English 
 literature was included. By 1878 French and 
 German had been added to the list of studies, 
 and in the same year courses for public school 
 teachers were inaugurated under the charge of 
 Dr. J. W. Dickinson of Boston. Each succes- 
 sive year saw a lengthening of the session, an 
 enrichment of the popular lecture program, an 
 enlargement of the curriculum of tlie summer 
 schools. In 18S3 the late Dr. William R. 
 Harper became the head of the summer school 
 department of Chautauqua, and for 14 
 years rendered service of the greatest value in 
 building up the distinctively educational side 
 of Chautauciua work. 
 
 The Home Reading Circle. — In 1878 the 
 Chautauqua Literary and Scientific Circle was . 
 founded. William CuUen Bryant gave his 
 
 581 
 
 hearty approval. Lyman Aljbott, Edward 
 Everett Hale, and Henry C. Warren were from 
 the first members of the Council. This plan 
 of home reading extending over four years and 
 offering to mature people what was described 
 as " the college outlook " met with instant 
 succe.ss. The first year over 7000 readers were 
 enrolled, and within a few years 60,000 were 
 pursuing the prescriljcd courses of the circle. 
 Each year is organized about some central idea, 
 e.g. " The English Year," " The American 
 Year," " The Classical Year," " The Modern 
 European Year." The year's course consists of 
 four books and twelve numbers of a special 
 magazine, The Chaidanquan, which contains 
 series of articles related to the main topics of 
 the year, bibliographies, excerpts from standard 
 literature, notes, etc. The extension of the 
 library movement, the growth of study clubs 
 and university extension courses, the organiza- 
 tion of philanthropic effort have all been aided 
 by the widespread influence of Chautau(iua 
 circles. Although the many contemporary 
 forms of jjopular education have modified 
 Chautauqua's unique, pioneer position, the 
 circle counts a steadily maintained member- 
 ship of about 10,000 readers. 
 
 Correspondence Instruction. — In 1883 under 
 the direction of Dr. Harper correspondence in- 
 struction was started. This was continued for 
 several years. At one time, under a charter 
 from the state of New York, Chautauqua was 
 empowered to confer degrees. A few degrees 
 were granted, chiefly to Bachelors of Divinity 
 and to, perhaps, a score of Bachelors of Arts. 
 With the assumption of correspondence in- 
 struction by two or three leading universities, 
 Chautauqua was relieved from work of this 
 type and surrendered the degree-conferring 
 power. In 1902 a new charter issued to Chau- 
 tauqua changed its official name to Chautauciua 
 Institution. 
 
 Control, Organization, etc. — Chautauqua 
 In.stitution is adiftinistered by a board of 24 
 trustees — 20 chosen by the trustees them- 
 selves and 4 by the leaseholders of Cliau- 
 tauqua property. The work of the admin- 
 istrative offices is distributed among the 
 following departments: Instruction, Adminis- 
 tration, Press, and Grounds and Buildings. 
 The property of the Institution is conservatively 
 valued at about .?750,000. The annual income 
 amounts to aliout .5175,000 — the main reve- 
 nue being divided between tuition fees (admis- 
 sions to the grounds, and fees in the summer 
 schools), which api)roximatc $75,000; license 
 fees, rents, and commercial concessions, taxes, 
 and service fees, about .535,000; income from 
 the Press about §50,000; sundrj' income of 
 about S5000. There is no element of private 
 profit connected with the Institution; no stock 
 or dividends; all surplus is devoted to the growth 
 of the work. 
 
 A Summer Community. — ^Chautauciua is a 
 summer community with a maxinmm resident
 
 CHAUTAUQUA MOVEMENT 
 
 CHAUTAUQUA MOVEMENT 
 
 population of 10,000 to 12,000 people. More 
 than 30 public buildings provide accommoda- 
 tious for the educational work. In 1909 95 
 instructors offered 188 courses to 2315 students 
 in 13 different schools. In connection witli the 
 popular program, there were 197 lectures, 64 
 religious addresses, 14 illustrated lectures, 41 
 readings, 6 entertainments, 66 concerts, and 9 
 sermons. The Chautauqua platform is open to 
 representatives of all sane, disinterested move- 
 ments for social betterment, and thus serves as a 
 valuable clearing house of ideas which gain rapid 
 and wide distribution because of the nationally 
 representative character of the summer attend- 
 ance. Chautauqua is more than a summer 
 school and a popular program. It is a commun- 
 ity and an institution. From the very begin- 
 ning the sentiment of loyalty has been fostered 
 by many devices. Ritual, ceremony, proces- 
 sions, anniversaries, songs, have all played their 
 part in developing an esprit de corps which 
 gives the place a distinctive character. The 
 strong religious motive which was present at the 
 beginning has dominated the whole life of the 
 institution. This religious motive has not, 
 however, taken a narrow or sectarian form. 
 The institution recognizes the symmetry of a 
 life which includes intellectual, testhetic, rec- 
 reative, associative, as well as distinctively 
 religious elements. It attempts to combine 
 these in the summer into a stimulating and sane 
 environment, and throughout the year to direct 
 and encourage the reading of thousands of per- 
 sons to whom regular educational opportunities 
 are denied. 
 
 The Spread of Chautauquas. The original 
 assembly has been widely imitated until the 
 word " Chautauqua " has become a common 
 noun. In 1909 reports were received from 554 
 of these Chautauquas, distributed as follows: 
 North Atlantic states 28, South Atlantic 44, 
 North Central 407, South Central 51, Western 
 24. Canada reported one. There is a British 
 Chautauqua, a combination of the National 
 Home Reading Union and the Cooperative 
 Holidays' Association (q.v.) which meets annu- 
 ally at different seaside and country places. 
 It is estimated that in a single season nearly 
 2,000,000 different people attend the Chautau- 
 quas of the United States. These assemblies 
 fall into groups: (a) a half dozen which include 
 all or most of the features of the original As- 
 sembly; (b) a score established 1880- 1895 
 which preserve something of the earlier tra- 
 dition; (c) a hundred or more which add to a 
 popular program a few classes in Bible 
 study, elocution, physical culture, cookery, 
 etc.; (d) a large number which confine their 
 attention solely to presenting celebrities and 
 entertainers; and (e) the remainder, which 
 are doing the same thing on a lower plane. A 
 few of these Chautauquas are managed by 
 trustees as corporations not for profit, many are 
 supported by towns from local pride, others are 
 purely commercial enterprises, and some are 
 
 subsidized by street railway companies and 
 Boards of Trade. Save for a merely fraternal 
 " Alliance " which includes 40 of the older 
 and stronger assemblies, these Chautauquas 
 have no connection with each other. There is 
 no central authority to standardize, censor, or 
 organize the 500 platforms. The lecture bureaus 
 by preempting and distributing the speakers 
 most in demand, as well as the wide influence 
 of imitation, introduce a good deal of uniformity. 
 During the last few seasons certain political 
 leaders have turned the Chautauqua platforms 
 to account, until the "Chautauqua circuit " 
 has become a part of the current political vo- 
 cabulary. These Chautauquas are a character- 
 istic and unique feature of American life. They 
 are susceptible of abuse, are sometimes ex- 
 ploited by demagogues, offer a good deal tliat is 
 commonplace, misleading, and meretricious, 
 but on the whole are centers from which stimu- 
 lating suggestions, important information, and 
 wholesome entertainment are being distributed 
 to hundreds of thousands of men, women, and 
 children. G. E. V. 
 
 The following list contains all the Chautauqua 
 centers reported for 1910. Those prnited in 
 italics are members of the International Chau- 
 tauqua Alliance. 
 
 Alabam.\. — Anniston, Citronelle, Elliott Park, Eu- 
 faula, Florala, Gadsen, New Decatur, Talladega. 
 
 Arizona. — Bisljee. 
 
 Arkansas. — Benton\Tlle, Conway, Eureka Springs, 
 Fayetteville, Fort Smith, Hot Springs, Mammoth 
 Springs, Russellvillc. Searcy, Siloam Springs, Springdale. 
 
 CALiFOENi.i. — Huntington Beach, Long Beach, 
 Millards Canyon, Oakland, Pacific Grove, Placerv'ille, 
 Venice, Yosemite Valley. 
 
 Colorado. — Boulder. Canon City, Fort Collins, 
 Groeloy, Montrose, Palmer, Salida. 
 
 Connecticut. — Canaan, Plainville. 
 
 Florida. — De Funiak Springs, Gainesville, Lake 
 City, Melbourne, Orlando, St. Petersburg. 
 
 Georgia. — Albany, Atlanta, Barnesville, Blue 
 Ridge, Dougla.s, Dublin, Eatonville, Gaines%alle, Haw- 
 kinsvUle, Marictte, Milledgeville, Newman, Sanders- 
 ville, Tcnnelle, Washington. 
 
 Illinois. — Aurora, .\von, Camargo (Patterson 
 Springs), Camp Point, Canton, Charleston, Chautauqua 
 (Piasa), Clinton (Weldon Springs), De Kalh, Dixon 
 (Rock River), EtEngham, Elgin, Eureka, Freeport, 
 Galesburg, Geneseo, Hamilton, Havana (Illinois State 
 Epworth League), Hoopestown, Kankakee, Lincoln, 
 Litchfiiid-Hilhhoro, Lithia Springs, Mechanicsburg- 
 Buffalo, Monmouth, Mt. Vernon, Nokomis, Ottawa, 
 Pana, Paris, Pa.xton, Petersburg (Old Salem), Plainfield, 
 Pontiac, Quincy, Sandwich, SIreator, Sycamore, Urbana. 
 
 Indi.\n.\. — Attica, Batesville, Brooklyn, Columbus, 
 Culver. Delphi, Elkhart, Greenfield, Jefferson\'ille, New 
 Albany, Kokomo, Lafayette, Lake George, La Porte, 
 Madison, Mcrom, Oakland Citj', Princeton, Remington 
 (Fountain Park), Richmotid, Rush\-Ule, Syracuse, Terre 
 Haute, Valparaiso, Vincennes, Waveland, Winchester, 
 Winona Lake, Zionsville. 
 
 Iowa. — AJbia, Algona, Allerton, Ames, Anamosa, 
 Atlantic. Audubon, Bedford, Belle Plain, Benson, 
 Bloomfield, Boone, Carson, Cedar Falls, Cedar Rapids, 
 Charles City, Cherokee, Clarinda, Clear Lake, Clinton, 
 Colfax (Iowa State Epworth League), Columbus Junc- 
 tion, Cresco, Creston, Decorah, Dennison, Des Moines, 
 Dubuoue, Eagle Grove, Eddyville, Emmetsburg, Esther- 
 \i\\v, Fairfield, Farmington, Forest City, Glenwood, 
 Goldfield, Greenfield, Guthrie Center, Hampton, Har- 
 lan, Hedrick, Humboldt, Ida Grove, Independence, 
 Indianola, Iowa City, Iowa Falls, Jefferson, Lake City, 
 
 582
 
 CHAUTAUQUA MOVEMENT 
 
 CHECKS ON COMPUTATIONS 
 
 LeMars, Leon, Malvern, Maquoketa, Marcclinc, Mar- 
 shalltown, Mediapolis, Missouri Valley, Montezuma, 
 Mt. Ayer, Mt. Pheasant, Muscatine. Oakland, Osage, 
 Osceola, Oskaloosa, Ottuinwa. Xrw Hampton. Newton, 
 Northwood, Ptlla. Perr.\-, Ked ( hik, Rockwell City, Sac 
 City, Seymour. Sheldon, Shenandoah, Sibley, Sidney, 
 Sigourney, Spencer, Spirit Lake, State Senter, Stoi^i 
 Lake, Tipton, Toledo Tama (Central Iowa), Vinton, 
 Washington, Waterlim, Waukon, Wavcrly, Webster City, 
 West Liberty, West Union, \\'infield, Wintcrset. 
 
 Kans.^s. — Abiline, Beloit. Blue Rapids, Bonner 
 S]jrings, Cawker City (Lincoln Park), Clay Center, 
 Coffe>-\'iUe, Concordia, Eldorado. Emporia, Fort Scott, 
 Fredonia, Hiawatha, lola, Lawrence, Manhattan, New- 
 ton, Oberlin, Ottawa, Paola, Parsons, Peabody, Pittsburg, 
 Salina, Sobetha, Sterling, Topeka, Wathana, Winficld. 
 
 Kentucky. — Asliland, Glenwood, High Bridge, 
 Kingwood, Lebanon. 
 
 Louisiana. — • Louisville, Monroe, New Iberia, Pres- 
 ton, Huston. 
 
 Maine. — Frj'cburg, Ocean Park. 
 
 Maryland. — Cumberland. Emory Grove, Glj-ndon 
 Park, Mountain Lake Park, Washington Grove. 
 
 Massachusetts. — Northampton. 
 
 Michigan. — Adrian. Battle Creek, Bay View, Ca- 
 dillac, Charlotte, Grand Rapids, Hillsdale, Hudson, 
 Jackson, Kalamazoo, Lake Orion, Lansing, Ludington 
 (Epworth), Marquette, Owasso, Paw Paw, South 
 Haven. 
 
 Minnesota. — Albert Lea, Austin, Blue Earth, 
 Clear Lake, Detroit Lake, Fairmount, Green Lake, 
 Luverne, Mankato, Marshall, Minneapolis, Orton\ille, 
 Redwood Falls, Rochester, Spicer, Waseca, Willniar, 
 Winona, Worthington. 
 
 Mississippi. — Crystal Springs, Gloster, Gulfport, 
 Hattiesburg, Jackson. 
 
 Missouri. — Arcadia, Aurora. Bethany, Bismarck, 
 Burlington, Cameron, Canton, CarroUton, Carthage, 
 Centralia, Chillicothe, Clarnece, Clinton, Columbia, 
 Columbus, Dexter, Excelsior Springs, Fayette, Fulton, 
 Grant City. Hamilton, Hannibal, Holder, Kahoka, 
 King City. Kirksville, Liberty, Louisiana. Macon, Mar- 
 celine, Mar>'ville, NIarshall. Mays\-ille, Mcad\-ille, 
 Memphis, Mexico, Moberly, Monroe City, Montgomery', 
 Mt. Vernon, Neosho, Odessa, Oregon, Paris, Pertle 
 Springs, Pittsburg, Plattsburg, Princeton. Richmond, 
 Rockport. Salisbury, Savannah, Sedalia. Seneca. Spring- 
 field. Stanbcrry. St. Joseph, Trenton, Unionville, 
 Warrensburg, Windsor. 
 
 Nebraska. — Albion, Ashland, Auburn, Aurora, 
 Beaver Cro.ssing, Bellcvue, Broken Bow, Cambridge, 
 Crawford, David Cit.w Elmwood, Fairbury, Fairmont, 
 Falls City, FuUerton, Grand Island. Hastings, Holdredge, 
 Kearney, Lexington, Lincoln (Nebraska Epworth), Ne- 
 braska City, North Platte, Pawnee City, Peru, Red 
 Cloud, Salem, Scott's Bluff, Seward, Takama, Tecum- 
 seh, Wahoo, Wa.vne, York. 
 
 New Hampshire. — Hedding. 
 
 New Jersey. — Atlantic City (Jewish Assembly). 
 
 New Mexico. — Mountainair. 
 
 New York. — Assembly Park, Carmel Grove, 
 Chautauqua, Clarendon, Cliffhaven (Catholic Summer 
 School), East Aurora. Kindlcy Lake, Jamesport, Lake- 
 side, Lily Dale. Onondago, Round Lake, Stony Brook, 
 Syracuse, TuUey Lake. 
 
 North Carolina. — Asheville, Charlotte, Hender- 
 sonville. 
 
 North Dakota. — Devil's Lake. 
 
 Ohio. — Alliance, Antwerp, Arcanum, Attica, Ba- 
 ta\da, Bellefontaine, Bethesda, Bowling Green. BucjTUS, 
 Cadiz, Cambridge, CarroUton, Carthage, Cclina, Chau- 
 tauqua (Minai V'alley), Chillicothe, Clarksliurg, Con- 
 neaut, Coshocton, Covington, Cumberland, Ca.vuhoga 
 Falls, Defiance, Dresden, Epworth Heights, Fayette, 
 Freeport, Galliopf)lis. Georgetown. Greenfield, Hillsboro, 
 Lakeside, Lancaster, Lima, Mansfield. Marj'sville, Mas- 
 sillon, Millersburg, Millersport. McConnellsville, Mt. 
 Gilead, Mt. Pleiusant, Aft. Vermm (Hiawatha Laki'), 
 Montpelier, New Phil.-irlclphia. Newtownville, Orrville, 
 Peebles, Plain City, Portsmouth, Hiigclcs Beach. .Scio, 
 Sidney. Smithville, Somerset. .^Springfield. Steubenville, 
 Van Wert, Tiffin, Urbaua, Wellston, Wilmington, Woods- 
 field, Yellow Springs. 
 
 Oklahoma. — Berlin, Guthrie, Hobart, Lawton, Mc- 
 Alcstcr, Muskogee, Sulphur, Tulsa, Vinita. 
 
 ORE(iON. — Ashland, Astoria. Oregon City. 
 
 Pennsylvania. — Eagles Mere, Ebensb'urg, Mount 
 Gretna (Pennsylvania), Poeomo Pines, Ridgeway Park, 
 Salix. 
 
 South Carolina. — Johnston, Spartanburg, Wil- 
 liamston. 
 
 South Dakota. — Big Stone, Canton, Columbia, 
 Forcstburg, Hot Springs, Madison. 
 
 Tennessee. — Bristol, Jefferson City, MonteagU, 
 Nashville. 
 
 Texas. — Paris. 
 
 Virginia. — Lexington, Purcellville, Petersburg, 
 W'hite Post, Wj'thes\Tlle. 
 
 Washington. — Birch Bay, Puget Sound, Seattle. 
 
 West Virginia. — Elkins, Fairmount, Parkersburg, 
 Roncoverto, Shenandoah, Wellsburg, Wheeling. 
 
 Wisconsin. — Chetak, Delacan, Eau Claire. La Crosse, 
 Manitowoc, Marinette (Northern), Plattcville, Racine, 
 Watertown, Waukesha, Waupaca. 
 
 Wyo.ming. — Cheyenne. 
 
 C.\N.\DA. — Grimsby Park. 
 
 References: — 
 Bray, Frank Ch.^pin. A Reading Journey Through 
 
 Chautauqua. (Chautauqua Press, 1905.) 
 Daily Chautauquan, The (July and August), continuing 
 
 the Assembly Herald (1S75-1906). 
 Chautauquan Magazine. (Meadville, Pa., from 1880, 
 
 now Chautauqua, N.Y.) 
 James, William. Talks to Teachers on Psychology, 
 
 .. Part II. ch. ii. (New York, 1902.) 
 Munsterburg, Hugo. American Traits, ch. xvi. 
 
 (Boston. 1902.) 
 Vincent, G. E. Monographs on Education, No. 16. 
 
 (St. Louis, 1904.) 
 Vincent. J. H. The Chautauqua Movement. (Boston, 
 
 1886.) 
 
 CHEATING. — See Honor System; School 
 
 GoV'ERNMENT. 
 
 CHECKS ON COMPUTATIONS. — In prac- 
 tical computation it is necessary to verify the 
 results, and this is done by various means, 
 known collectively as " checks." In general 
 a theoretically good check is some form of in- 
 verse operation; thus, if we add a column 
 upwards we may check it by adding downwards, 
 or we may check subtraction by addition, and 
 division by multiplication. For example, if 
 1728 -^ 144 is found to equal 12, we may check 
 this result by seeing if 12 X 144 = 1728. 
 Practically, however, the in<-erse operation is 
 often too long to be used easily, and recourse is 
 had to simpler moans, particularly in the 
 cases of multiplication and division. The 
 check most commonly used in tlie early schools, 
 and now coming into use again, is tliat of "cast- 
 ing out nines." It is applied practically as 
 follows : — 
 
 786 
 
 85 
 
 3930 
 
 6288 
 66810 
 
 3 
 
 3 \ 
 
 If we wish to know if 66.810 is the product of 85 
 and 786, we add the digits in 85, thus: 8 -I- 5 = 
 l.S, and add the digits in 13. having 1+3 =4. 
 Tills gives us the remainder that arises from 
 dividing 85 by 9, as is evident in this case inas- 
 
 583
 
 CHEEVER 
 
 CHEKE 
 
 much as 85 = 9 X 9 + 4. Write this 4 at 
 the right of the cross. Proceed in the same way 
 for 78G ; 7 + 8 + 6 = 21, and 2+1 = 3, 
 and this is the excess of nines in 786. It may 
 more easily be found by taking 7 + 8 = 15, 
 and " casting out nine," leaving 6 ; then tak- 
 ing 6 + 6 = 12, and " cast out nine," leaving 
 3. Write this 3 to the left of the cross. Now 
 take 3X4 (the product of the excesses of nine), 
 and this equals 12, of which the " excess of nine " 
 is 3, which write at the top of the cross. The 
 excess of nines in the product, 66,810, must 
 equal this number (3) if the work is correct. 
 This is the case, since 6 + 6 = 12 (excess 3), 
 and 8 + 1 + = 9 (excess 0). The proof of 
 this law is a simple matter, and depends upon 
 two principles: (1) The excess of nines in a number 
 is the excess in the sum of its digits, which 
 is evident inasmuch as anv number may be 
 represented bv o + 106 + 10' c + W d + . . . , 
 or a + 6 + c + rf + . . . + 9 6 + 99 c + 999 rf + 
 . . . , where the only remainder arising from 
 dividing bv 9 must arise from dividing 
 a + b + c + d + . . . hy 9. (2) The excess 
 of nines in a product equals the excess in the 
 product of the excesses of the factors, which is 
 e\'ident because any two numbers may be repre- 
 sented by 9 o + 6 and 9 x + y, and the 
 product will then be 9" ax + 9 (z6 + ay) + by, 
 which is all divisible by 9 except by, and this 
 is the product of the excesses. This check is 
 easily used by children, and a sufficiently simple 
 inductive explanation is easily given. It checks 
 most of the common errors, but of course does 
 not check one that arises through a cause that 
 does not affect the excess of nines, like an extra 
 0, or 9, or a transportation of figures. It 
 evidently applies also to division and to other 
 operations. There is also a check of elevens, 
 and this is better than that of nines in some 
 respects, but it is not so readily applied. 
 
 The check of nines goes back to India. 
 Thence it was introduced into the Arab schools, 
 and thence into Europe. It was almost in- 
 variably found in printed arithmetics before 
 1600, and Paciuolo (q.v.) speaks of it (1494) as 
 corrcnte mercatoria e presla. In the first native 
 American arithmetic (Greenwood, 1729) much 
 use is made of it, and in the eighteenth century 
 it was apparently well known in our schools. 
 
 Educationally the use of checks is to be recom- 
 mended. They detect a large per cent of errors, 
 and the effect on the pupil is salutary. He be- 
 comes more confident of his results and more 
 careful in his work, if he discovers his own 
 errors without waiting to have them pointed out. 
 In the business of computing much use is made 
 of checks, so that the subject has a definite 
 practical value. D. E. S. 
 
 CHEEVER.EZEKIEL (1614-1708).— School- 
 master, born in London on Jan. 25, 1614, 
 and educated at Cambridge University. He 
 came to America in 1637, and a year later he 
 opened a grammar school at New Haven " to 
 
 prepare young men for college." The school 
 was semi-public, the town paying from £20 
 to £ 30 a year, " while parents who were 
 able were assessed a certain rate accord- 
 ing to the time of attendance and number of 
 children." In 1650 he was called to Ipswich, 
 Mass., to take charge of a grammar school 
 which had been established by grants of the 
 town and donations from public-spirited citi- 
 zens. In 1661 " after making the free school in 
 Ipswich famous in all the country and making 
 that town rank in literature and population 
 above all other towns in the county of Essex," 
 he was called to Charlestown to take charge of 
 the free school. He was called to the principal- 
 ship of the Boston Latin School in 1670, and 
 held this post for 38 years. His compensation 
 from the town was " sixtie pounds p. an. for 
 his service in the schoolc out of the towne 
 rates, and rents that belong to the schoole, and 
 the possession and use of ye schoole house." 
 Under Cheever the school became "the princijjal 
 classical school not only of Massachusetts Bay, 
 but of the British Colonies and of all America." 
 Mather says of him, " He had been a skilful, 
 painful, faithful schoolmaster for seventy 
 years, and had the singular favor of heaven, 
 that though he had usefully spent his life among 
 children, yet he was not twice become a child, 
 but held his abilities, in an unusual degree, to 
 the very last." Besides a volume of three 
 essays on religious subjects, he was the author 
 of A short intruduction to the Latin tongue for 
 use in the lower forms in the Latin school, being 
 the accidence, abridged and compiled in the most 
 easy and accurate method, which, for more than 
 a century, was the most popular Latin textbook 
 in use in America. President Josiah Quincy of 
 Harvard College says of an edition of the 
 Accidence which appeared as late as 1838, " It 
 is distinguished for simplicity, comprehensive- 
 ness, and exactness; and, as a primer or first 
 elementary book, I do not believe it is exceeded 
 by any other work." Cheever died Aug. 
 21, 17()8, and " was buried from the school 
 house, the Governor, Councillors, Ministers, 
 Justices, and Gentlemen being there." 
 
 W. S. M. 
 References : — 
 B.^RNARD, H. Ameritan Journal of Education, 1856, 
 
 Vol. I, pp. 297-.314. 
 GonLD. Account of Free Schools in Boston. (Boston, 
 
 1823.) 
 Gould, E. P. Ezekiel Cheever, Schoolmaster. (Boston, 
 
 1904.) 
 
 CHEEVER, GEORGE BARRELL (1807- 
 1S90). — Theologian, graduated from Bowdoin 
 College in 1825 and at the Andover Theological 
 Seminary in 1830. He was chiefly engaged in 
 religious activity, and wrote numerous works 
 on the religious education of children. The 
 mo.st important was Right of the Bible in our 
 Public Schools {IS54). W. S. M. 
 
 CHEKE, SIR JOHN.— One of the chief Greek 
 scholars in England in the sixteenth century. 
 
 584
 
 CHEKE 
 
 CHEMISTRY 
 
 Born in Cambridge in 1514, he proceeded to 
 St. John's College, where he became fellow and 
 tutor. His influence in the college was strong, 
 and Ascham says of him that he " laid the verj- 
 foundations of learning in that College." 
 But he soon attracted attention in the univer- 
 sity. He was appointed university Greek 
 lecturer without a salary, but on the foundation 
 of Regius Professorships in 1540 he was made 
 Professor of Greek at a salary of 40.s. a 
 year. In 1544 he became Public Orator, in 
 which oflScc he was succeeded by Ascham, when 
 in the same year he received a royal summons 
 to undertake the tutorship of Prince Edward. 
 On his departure Ascham regrets the withdrawal 
 of " our most help and furtherance to learning." 
 From this time, with the exception of a few 
 years during the reign of Queen Marj', Cheke 
 
 Sir John Chckc (1514-1557). 
 
 enjoyed ro.yal patronage. In 1540 he was 
 appointed Provost of King's College, Cam- 
 bridge, and in 1552 was knighted. During 
 Mary's reign he was twice imprisoned in the 
 Tower and compelled to return to the Roman 
 Church. The shame of his recantation brought 
 about his death in 1557. His services to 
 the restoration of Greek were great. He not 
 only turned the attention of his students to the 
 best that the classical literature could offer, but 
 contributed largely to save the promiiiciation 
 of Greek from the confusion ami corruption 
 into which it had fallen, .\lthougli his efforts 
 in the direction of reform met with strong oppo- 
 sition from the Chancellor, the reformed pro- 
 nunciation ultimately ))re vailed. Again on the 
 testimony of Ascham, Cheke read Homer, 
 Sophocles, Euripides, Herodotus, Thucydides, 
 
 Xenophon, Isocrates, and Plato with his stu- 
 dents. In addition to his interest in the res- 
 toration of Greek, Cheke directed his attention 
 to the reform of English spelling and the puri- 
 fication of the English language of non-,Saxon 
 elements. For this purpose he translated the 
 Gospel of St. Matthew into this reformed Eng- 
 lish. Although his writings were numerous 
 and consisted mainly of translations from Greek 
 into Latin, Cheke's most important work was 
 the letters to the Bishop of Winchester on the 
 Greek pronunciation controversy; de pronun- 
 liatiune (iraecae pnlissimum linguae dii^putationes 
 cum Stephana Winloni episcopo, seplem con- 
 trnriis cpintolis comprehensac, magna quadam et 
 elegantia et eruditione refertae. (Basle, 1555.) 
 
 References : — 
 
 B-\RNARD, H. American Journal of Education, Vol. 28. 
 Dictionary of National Biography. 
 
 Strype, JoH.v. Life of Sir John Cheke. (London. 1705, 
 Oxford, 1821.) 
 
 CHEMISTRY.— As a University Subject; 
 its History, Scope, and Status. — Probalily 
 no science possesses, in any two institutions 
 of university rank, exactly the same scope 
 and status, and none is therefore taught liy 
 any two men from exactly the same wwpoint 
 or with exactly the same aims. In the case of 
 chemistry, however, the innumerable applica- 
 tions of the science in industry, agriculture, 
 medicine, pharmacy, and the like, introduce an 
 unusual number of po-ssibilities of variation. 
 Hence, it follows that, aside from the art of 
 chemical analysis which is common to all a|> 
 plications, there is much variability in the 
 aspects of the subject which, in different insti- 
 tutions, receive the greatest emphasis. In dis- 
 cussing the place of the science in institutions of 
 learning, it will simplify matters if we treat first 
 the hi.story, scope, and status of pure chemistry, 
 and then take up the same aspects of the various 
 branches of applied chemistry. In connection 
 with the former, we shall consider, in succes- 
 sion, the organization of the instruction anil the 
 content of the chemical curriculum, adding some 
 remarks on the development in each of these 
 respects in different countries. 
 
 Pure Chemistry in the University. — The 
 first courses in chemistry as a distinct subject of 
 study were given to students of medicine and of 
 pharmacy, and in the eighteenth century sepa- 
 rate chairs of chemistry, established for the 
 instruction of such students, became common. 
 Students not of those classes could obtain a 
 knowledge of the science from no other source. 
 The teaching was, however, wholly by lectures. 
 Xo laboratory work was offered, and even such 
 slight practical knowledge of the science as 
 lecture experiments afford was almost nowhere 
 obtainable. Rouclle (1703-1770) was the first, 
 and for long almost the only chemist who 
 exhibited and explained the phenomena of 
 chemistry, instead of merely describing them. 
 Gay Lussac and Th6nard continued the prac- 
 
 585
 
 CHEMISTRY 
 
 CHEMISTRY 
 
 ticc, and Lii'big writes with enthusiasm of the 
 experimental lectures of the former. This great 
 improvement in the mode of instruction was 
 introduced in the beginning of tlie nineteenth 
 century into England by Davy, and was there 
 brought to a high state of perfection by Hof- 
 mann (1845). 
 
 Up to the end of the eighteenth century, no 
 university had provided means or accommoda- 
 tion for the training of chemists, and even after 
 that, progress in this direction was very slow. 
 Many who subseiiuently attained fame, such 
 as Vauquelin, Liebig, and even Frankland (in 
 1840), began their careers as students by the 
 toilsome and relatively barren route of ap- 
 prenticeship to an apothecary. It was Thomas 
 Thomson, the early historian of chemistry, 
 who opened in Edinburgh (1800-1807) the first 
 laboratory for the teaching of the science. After 
 his call to Glasgow, he did a like service for 
 chemistry in the west of Scotland. Far more 
 influential was the laboratory established by 
 Liebig at the University of Giesscn (1824). 
 The example of these early attempts was fol- 
 lowed slowly. In 1833 Graham brought the 
 idea from Glasgow to London. In 1840 Liebig 
 found Berlin still without accommodation for the 
 training of students. In France, even in 1869, 
 Wurtz reported only one laboratory as being 
 properly eciuipped for instruction. In America 
 the first nonprofessional institution to establish 
 a chair of chemistry was Princeton (1795), and 
 the first laboratory for instruction was that of 
 Hor.sford in the Lawrence Scientific School 
 (1848). 
 
 In Giessen, the inspiring personality of Lie- 
 big attracted so many students that the devising 
 of o systematic course of instruction became nec- 
 essary. The learner began by preparing some 
 of the gases, and then underwent a systematic 
 training in qualitative analysis. Exercises in 
 quantitative analysis and in the preparation of 
 chemical substances followed, and the pupil 
 was ready to begin some original investigation 
 under Licbig's direction. As other laboratories 
 arose, this curriculum was everywhere copied, 
 and remains to this day, after the lapse of 
 nearly a century, the universal method for the 
 training of chemists. With the exception 
 of the qualitative analysis, however, little is 
 known of the details of these courses. Will's 
 treatise (1840), embodying the exercises in 
 qualitative analysis, gave to this part of the 
 curriculum a disproportionate publicity. This 
 book was used, in the original or in transla- 
 tion, in every laboratory, and the preliminary 
 training in inorganic chemistry, essential 
 though it was, not having been provided with 
 similar means of transplantation, was ignored 
 and omitted. On the other hand, the exercises 
 in preparing pure substances, which preceded 
 the research, were most necessary at that time, 
 for the chemists had to make their own re- 
 agents, like ferrocyanide of potassium, their 
 own pure mineral acids, and even their own 
 
 "spirits of wine" for burning. In spite of the 
 fact that everysubstance required by the analyst, 
 and almost every substance required for re- 
 search, can now be purchased, a course entitled 
 " Preparations " is still given in every univer- 
 sity. Thus, Licbig's course was first distorted, 
 and then, as distorted, was preserved in stereo- 
 typed form, regardless of reason and of changed 
 conditions. In Germany a few chemists are 
 only now awakening to the situation; in Great 
 Britain preliminary training in inorganic chem- 
 istry is becoming common; in the United States 
 it is practically universal. 
 
 The universities, responding to the develop- 
 ment of the science, have added organic and 
 physical chemistry to the branches recognized 
 by Liebig's curriculum. After the middle of 
 the nineteenth century, the study of the com- 
 pounds of carbon, indeed, was pursued with 
 such vigor that within a few decades separate 
 chairs of organic chemistry were estabhshed in 
 many universities, and the volume of original 
 work in this branch of the science became so 
 great as to exceed that in all other branches put 
 together. 
 
 In most of this work, the physical means of 
 observation and experiment, on which the 
 chemist depends for his information, were very 
 limited. They were such as weighing, filtra- 
 tion, distillation, and observation of melting 
 points, boiling points, and crystalline form. 
 Other methods were not unknown, but the 
 next development, toward the end of the nine- 
 teenth century, consisted in the application and 
 more general adoption of a wider range of 
 methods. Index of refraction, power to rotate 
 the plane of polarization, electrical conductivity, 
 and electromotive relations, were measured and 
 the results received chemical interpretation. 
 Methods of studying speeds of chemical re- 
 action, conditions of chemical equilibrium in 
 gases, in solutions, and in complexes like alloys 
 and steel, were devised. Thermochemistry 
 emerged from the routine into which it had 
 fallen, and thermodynamic chemistry arose. 
 The enlarged experimental machinery and the 
 greatly elalwrated chemical theory, which in- 
 terpreted the results, were so marked a depar- 
 ture from the modes of work and thought of the 
 organic chemist and of the analyst that they 
 constituted a new phase of the science and re- 
 ceived the name " physical chemistry." The 
 greatest single impetus which this new develop- 
 ment received came from the founding of the 
 Zcitschrift fiir physihalische Chcrnie (1887) by 
 Ostwald, and the Leipzig laboratory, although 
 only one of many seats of physico-chemical 
 w-ork, was the most active and influential. The 
 movement quickly affected university policy, 
 and the Prussian Ministry of Education, for ex- 
 ample, decided to establish in every university 
 a separate chair of physical chemistry, with 
 rank equal to the older chairs of inorganic, 
 analytical, and organic chemistry. 
 
 The latest phase of chemistry, dealing with 
 
 586
 
 CHEMISTRY 
 
 CHEMISTRY 
 
 radioactivity and radioactive substances, of 
 which radium is the most familiar example, 
 has already made a large place for itself in many 
 universities, and courses of instruction and op- 
 portunities for research along this line are now 
 offered in many laboratories. 
 
 The chief glory of German university chem- 
 istry has been the unrelaxed devotion to re- 
 search and the ample means which there, as in 
 no other country, has been at the disposal of 
 the investigator. It was this that made Ger- 
 many for years the Mecca of all who desired 
 a complete training in chemistry. In other 
 countries, parts of Liebig's program were 
 adopted, but the stage of research, in the in- 
 terest of which the whole program was origi- 
 nally devised, for lack of men, means, and en- 
 couragement, was seldom reached. In Great 
 Britain, many new laboratories have been 
 erected, new chairs are being founded, and bet- 
 ter facilities for research are therefore being 
 offered. In France, the bureaucratic govern- 
 ment of the universities has hindered develop- 
 ment, but every branch of chemistry, and all 
 stages of advancement in training, are repre- 
 sented. In Italy, chemistry has shared in the 
 general scientific revival, and all phases of the 
 subject are taught in the universities, and re- 
 search is pursued with enthusiasm. In Japan, 
 whether we consider the size and reputation of 
 the chemical staffs, or the facilities which they 
 enjoy, the universities put to shame the ma- 
 joritv of the educational establishments of the 
 Old "World. 
 
 In the United States, prior to the founding 
 of the Johns Hopkins University, students 
 went to Germany for their training. Since 
 that period, the development of the graduate 
 school of Harvard University, and the founding 
 of Clark University and of the University of 
 Chicago, have led to a great development of 
 higher education. In a number of institutions, 
 training in chemistry, which is in all respects 
 equal, and in some respects superior, to that 
 given in Germany, can now be secured. Mag- 
 nificent laboratories arc dotted over the coun- 
 try from coast to coast, chairs in every branch 
 of chemistry are numerous, and facilities for 
 and guidance in research are accessible to all 
 who possess the necessary ability. 
 
 Chemislry related to Medicine. — Medicine 
 is based on three fundamental sciences: chem- 
 istry, physiology, and anatomy. At present, 
 the amount of i)uro chemistry, and esi)ecially 
 of practical chemistry, legally required in the 
 training of physicians in Europe is very small. 
 Usually, a five months' course suffices. In the 
 United States, in the better class of institu- 
 tions, a year of general chemistry, some quali- 
 tative analysis and organic chemistry, and in 
 many cases also quantitative analysis, each 
 with appropriate laboratory practice, with a 
 staff and facilities for giving this amount of 
 work, are considered necessary. But this is 
 only the pure chemistry, introductory to the 
 
 technical courses. The latter may be roughly 
 divided into two kinds. Chemical physiology 
 deals with the chemistry of the normal organism. 
 Chemical pathology deals with the chemical 
 changes connected w-ith disease, with the 
 chemical effects of bacteria within and without 
 the body, and with similar problems. Courses 
 in immuno-chemistry and other subjects are 
 given, and chairs exist for their cultivation. 
 In all these lines, chemical methods of experi- 
 mentation and of reasoning are applied to 
 special classes of substances and processes. It 
 is at present impossible to foretell precisely 
 where the dividing lines will be drawn, and what 
 distinct branches will ultimately crystallize out 
 of the rapidly developing region of biochem- 
 istry. 
 
 Chemistry and medicine come together also 
 in the examination of water and of foods, and 
 in other matters pertaining to the chair of 
 public health or hygiene. Again, pharmaceu- 
 tical chemistry deals with the preparation, 
 analysis, and standardization of drugs, and is 
 represented in all schools of medicine and of 
 pharmacy. 
 
 Agricultural chemistry, which deals with the 
 analysis and chemistrj' of soils, fertilizers, and 
 crops, is taught in comparatively few univer- 
 sities. It is an important part of the work of 
 the schools of agriculture, which are frequently 
 of university rank, however, and is there asso- 
 ciated with instruction in the necessary pure 
 chemistry, and particularly with training in 
 analytical chemistry. 
 
 Chemical Geology, Mineralogy, and Crystal- 
 lography. — In no science does chemistry play 
 a greater isart than in geology. The study of 
 the modes of deposition and transformation of 
 the materials found in veins, including gold, 
 silver, and ores of other valuable metals, is a 
 chemical problem of the greatest economic and 
 scientific importance. The formation of salt 
 deposits and sedimentary rocks, and the origin 
 and constitution of igneous rocks are chemical 
 questions, and are studied in the laboratory as 
 well as in the field. Chemical geology is there- 
 fore a recognized university subject. Again, 
 mineralogy is simply chemistry limited to sub- 
 stances which occur in nature. It treats of 
 the formation, the chemical constitution, and 
 the chemical classification of such substances. 
 Crystallography is by tradition attached to 
 mineralogy, and in the universities is most 
 commonh- taught in connection with it. But 
 all pure substances, when solid, have crystal- 
 line forms, and the study of such forms and of 
 their relations is a branch of the study of the 
 sub.stances themselves, that is to say, it is a 
 branch of chemistry. In a few instances, in- 
 deed, chemical crystallography is a distinct 
 subject of instruction and research. 
 
 Technological Applications of Chemistry. — 
 The appearance of chemistry in connection 
 with instruction in industrial subjects is so 
 constant that onlv a few of the more con- 
 
 587
 
 CHEIMISTRY 
 
 CHEMISTRY 
 
 siiicuous cases can be mentioned. Where the 
 school of technology is not a part of a univer- 
 sity, it is usually of university rank. In (ler- 
 mauy, indeed, technical chemistry was fonncrly 
 a department of most of the universities, but 
 when the separate schools of technology were 
 established, these chairs were given up. In 
 the technical schools, complete liepartments of 
 pure as well as of applied chemistry are main- 
 tained, the former being ccjual in all respects 
 to those in the universities. One of the most 
 important branches of industrial chemistry is 
 metallurgical chemistry, which deals with the 
 extraction, preparation, and application of 
 metals. A special subdivision, known as 
 metallography, applies physical chemistry to 
 the study of alloys and mixtures like steel. 
 Other branches can only be named, although 
 naming them gives little idea to the layman of 
 the great extent of the fields they cover, of 
 their commercial importance, or of the large 
 drafts which the study of them makes upon 
 pure chemistry. They are such as the chemis- 
 try of fuels, natural waters, soda and alkalies, 
 soap and bleaching materials, lime and cement, 
 glass and pottery, pigments, paints, and var- 
 nishes, spirits, oils, gums, and waxes, starch 
 and sugar, brew-ing, wine-making, and distill- 
 ing, explosives, dyes and dyeing, paper, leather, 
 and glue. The manufacture of these sub- 
 stances, from the purchase of the raw ma- 
 terials, to the testing of the finished product, 
 is controlled by the chemist. In composite 
 establishments, like railways and packing 
 houses, where supplies of various sorts are used, 
 the chemist again controls the purchasing by 
 scientific specifications, tests the materials re- 
 ceived, and studies the uses to which they are 
 put. He applies to innumerable ends the dis- 
 cipline, the principles, and facts which he has 
 derived from the university or technical school. 
 
 The number, diversity, and importance of 
 the various divisions of chemistry, of which 
 the chief have been briefly characterized, is, 
 after all, not surprising. Chemistry deals 
 with the changes in composition of matter, 
 and \\^th the conditions which cause or accom- 
 pany such changes. Every one of the physical 
 or natural sciences deals with some aspect of 
 matter or some class of materials, and must 
 therefore present an opportunity for funda- 
 mental chemical work. There is even a 
 chemistry of the stars, which is experimental 
 as well as observational. What wonder then 
 that in the university, while the center of 
 chemical work may lie in the department of 
 pure chemistry, the scope of the science is 
 limited only by the extreme boundaries of all 
 the departments of science, pure and applied, 
 which such an institution ever includes. 
 
 Chemistry in the Schools. — Chemistry 
 gained entrance to the secondary schools as a 
 fragment of a very slight course in physical 
 or in general science. The purpose of the 
 course was informational solely. With the 
 
 establishment of modern, as distinct from 
 classical curricula, chemistry has slowly gained 
 greater recognition. 
 
 The first secondary school to open a labora- 
 tory for individual work of the pupils was the 
 City of London School (Mr. Hill, 1S47). The 
 first of the English Public Schools to take this 
 step was Rugby (Canon Wilson, 18(50). In the 
 United States, the Girls' High and Normal 
 School of Boston (18G5) led the way in this 
 important particular. At the present time, 
 chemistry is taught as a distinct subject, with 
 laboratory work, in the majority of the English 
 Public Schools, in nearly all the local high 
 schools of Great Britain, and in all the larger 
 high schools of the United States. The aim is 
 to teach elementary chemistry, as well as to 
 make the science a means of general education. 
 (See Chemistry, Methods of Teaching.) 
 
 In Germany the teaching of science was 
 introduced into schools toward the end of the 
 sixteenth century with the rise of the Riltcr- 
 akademicn, but was not firmly established until 
 the spread of the Realschulen {q.v.) began. 
 Science, however, was taught as an undiffer- 
 entiated mass covering every branch which 
 comes under that name. Chemistry could 
 not receive separate treatment in the schools, 
 so long as it was kept in the background at 
 the universities. An impetus to the teaching 
 of chemistry in the higher schools was given 
 by the increasing importance of the subject in 
 industry. In 1822 chemistry was introduced 
 definitely in the reorganized konigliche Real- 
 schule of Berlin. The subject did not become 
 generally established in all the secondary 
 schools until the Syllabus of 1882 was passed. 
 The realistic tendency was further confirmed 
 by the Syllabus of 1892, reinforced by the 
 decree of the Kaiser issued in 1900. 
 
 The following numbers of periods are given 
 to natural science in the different types of 
 schools. No definite assignment is made to 
 chemistry, with the exception of that here 
 mentioned. In the gj'mnasium two hours a 
 week are gi\-en; in the real-gymnasium, 2 hours 
 a week in the first 5 years, 4 in the sixth, and 
 5 in the last 3 years. In the real-schools 
 2 hours a week for the first 4 years, 4 in the 
 fifth, and 6 in each of the remaining years are 
 allotted to natural science. In the gymnasiums 
 chemistry is still included in the general sub- 
 ject of natural science. In the real-schools of 
 the three different types the subject becomes 
 differentiated in Sekunda, and is then taught 
 for 2 hours a week. Individual laboratory 
 work is frequently done, but many schools 
 have no laboratories, and some do not use 
 those which they have. The science is taught 
 in all schools in the classroom, but not for its 
 own sake so much as for calling out the powers 
 of observation and of reasoning of the pupils, 
 and for teaching exact expression. Even where 
 laboratory work is offered, the experiments 
 are repetitions of those shown in the classroom, 
 
 588
 
 CHEMISTRY 
 
 CHEMISTRY 
 
 and the work is optional and is usually taken 
 by very few of the pupils. 
 
 In France the interest in modern studies dates 
 from the encouragement given by Sully, the 
 minister of Louis XIV, to trade and industry. 
 Richelieu on one occasion wrote that in a 
 well-regulated state there was a need of more 
 masters of the mechanical arts than of the 
 liberal arts. From that time facilities for the 
 training suitable to industry and agriculture 
 began to be demanded. In 1762 Holland, as 
 the result of an inquiry into secondary educa- 
 tion, found that all pupils of all ages were put 
 through the same course, involving for many 
 waste of time and no benefit. Both Talley- 
 rand (q.v.) (1791) and Condorcet iq.v.) (1792) 
 proposed schemes of education involving ex- 
 perimental chemistry. In 179.3 the subject 
 was included in a decree on secondary educa- 
 tion, and ever since has found a place to a 
 greater or less extent in the program of the 
 secondary school. The attitude toward chcmi.s- 
 try, as to the sciences generally, as subjects 
 of instruction, has been determined by their 
 applicability in industrial, commercial, and 
 agricultural life. Until 1S47 no special facili- 
 ties were offered in the secondary schools for 
 specializing in science. By a statute of that 
 date a bifurcation was introduced in the last 
 three years of the course, so that in one division 
 greater attention was paid to science (cnseignc- 
 ment special). Further emphasis was placed on 
 these subjects after the expositions of 18,55 
 and 1862, as a measure to promote the prog- 
 ress of French industries. In 1880 4 hours 
 a week were given to science in all the classes 
 except the highest, which received 10 hours. 
 In 1886 in the enseignemenl special, 2 hours a 
 week were given to chemistry from the third 
 year. Under the reorganization of 1902 there 
 are assigned 3 to 5 hours to physics and chemis- 
 try, together, in the special modern-scientific 
 course. In the undifferentiated course 2 hours 
 a week are given to classroom work in physics 
 and chemistry, although only one fifth of the 
 time is given to the latter. Only in the upper 
 cycle is laboratory work introduced, and this 
 to the extent of only 2 hours per week for all 
 the sciences together. The aim of the teaching 
 is informational. 
 
 Methods of Teaching Chemistry. — Before 
 methods of teaching are actually disoissed, we 
 must note the fact that the kinds of chemistry 
 taught in the secondary schools of the United 
 States and of (Jreat Britain are, in typical 
 cases, essentially different. Apart from the 
 fact that the lecture method is not generally 
 used in imparting the instruction, the chemis- 
 try of the American high school is, in its 
 essence, simply a lighter university course. 
 In the secondary schools of Great Britain, 
 greater emphasis is laid on mental training 
 and on arousing scientific habits of thought, and 
 less consideration is given to how far a com- 
 plete survey of the outlines of the science is 
 
 accomplished. This difference appears clearly 
 in the books of the two countries, respectively. 
 The books most used in the United States, of 
 which those by Remsen, Newell, McPherson 
 and Henderson, and Brownlee are tyi)ieal 
 samples, offer simply a scientific treatment of 
 the elements of the science. They differ from 
 university books, like Newth, Richter, Rem- 
 sen {College ChemiMry), and Smith, mainly in 
 being much more limited in scope. An Ameri- 
 can syllabus, such as that of the National 
 Education Association, which is identical 
 with the one u.sed by the College Entrance 
 Examination Board of the Middle States and 
 Maryland (q.v.),^ seems to define secondary 
 school chemistry of the same conventional 
 type. On the other hand, some of the Eng- 
 lish books, of which those of McNair, and 
 Perkin and Lean are types, place the chief 
 emphasis on pedagogical qualities. The con- 
 ventional methods of treatment are conspic- 
 uous by their absence. A British syllabus, such 
 as the Alternative Elementary Course of the 
 Board of Education in England and the Irish 
 syllabus, emphasizes training in scientific 
 method rather than the completion of a 
 sj\stematic outline of the science. The science 
 work in the secondary schools of France 
 and Germany presents no distinct types of 
 instructional method, except those which, like 
 the frequent substitution of classroom work 
 for all laboratory work, are generally acknowl- 
 edged to be anachronisms. 
 
 In spite of this difference between the pur- 
 poses of elementary chemistry instruction in 
 the secondary schools of the two English- 
 speaking countries, there are many matters of 
 method which are necessarily in more or less 
 universal use, and which even appear with 
 little change in the elementary course of the 
 university. We proceed, therefore, now to dis- 
 cuss the fundamental methods of all elementary 
 chemistry instruction, noting when we reach 
 them those points in which the treatments in 
 the two countries differ. 
 
 A more complete treatment of all of these 
 subjects, together with references to all the 
 available sources of information and sugges- 
 tion, will be found in The Teaching of Chemistry 
 and Physics by Alexander Smith and E. H. 
 Hall. This general statement will take the 
 place of separate references to various parts of 
 this book, which would otherwise have to ap- 
 pear in almost every paragraph. 
 
 The Means of Instruction. — The Labora- 
 tory Work. — A description of the modern 
 laboratory would be out of place here. The 
 articles by Baskcrville and Gill contain im- 
 portant information not included in Smith 
 and Hall. In general it may he said that, 
 if means are available, the fittings of the 
 laboratory should be as complete as they can 
 be made. At the same time it may be noted 
 
 ' For tlie full titles of some of the books referred to, 
 sec the Bibliography at the end. 
 
 589
 
 CHEMISTRY 
 
 CHEMISTRY 
 
 that a magnificent laboratory does not neces- 
 rarily prove that even passable instruction is 
 boing given. Satisfactory work can be done 
 with simple api)liances and simiile fittings. 
 The completeness of the cquiiimcnt of tlie 
 laboratory alTccts the quantity of work wliich 
 can l)e done by a student in a given time, but 
 not, in anytliing like tlie same degree, tiie 
 quality. Tlie indispensable things are water 
 and gas, or some substitute for the latter, and 
 a sufficient amount of apparatus to enable in- 
 structive experiments to be done. It i.s also 
 important that system and order should prevail 
 in the minutest details of everj'thing con- 
 nected with the laboratory materials and ap- 
 pliances. 
 
 The laboratory furnishes the basis for all 
 the real knowledge of chemistry which the 
 pupil acquires. It is here only that he comes 
 in immediate contact with the subject. The 
 whole course is so arranged in relation to the 
 laboratory work that the other means of in- 
 struction arc subsidiary to it and appear, in 
 relation to it, in the light of subordinate and 
 supplementary agencies. Thus, the discus- 
 sions in the classroom interpret the personal 
 observations; the experimental demonstrations 
 are extensions of them; and the reading in the 
 book is simply for the amplification of the 
 knowledge which the laboratory work furnishes. 
 Those facts and conceptions which are not 
 derived directly from the laboratory work — 
 and they are many — nevertheless depend for 
 their full apprehension, and for the possession 
 of life and reality, on the fact that they are 
 shown to be made up of features encountered 
 in various actual experiments. All real knowl- 
 edge in chemistry is either obtained by experi- 
 ment, or by the application of experimental 
 knowledge througli the use of the imagination. 
 
 That the laboratory work may retain this 
 dominant position in the system of instruction, 
 it must be adequate in scope; it must amply 
 illustrate the facts about each element and 
 compound found in the syllabus; it must con- 
 tain examples of all the classes of facts which 
 are to be represented in the course; and it 
 must deal with every important principle or 
 law in like manner. It is in this last respect 
 that most laboratory outlines are notably defi- 
 cient. Yet the laws and principles, being of a 
 more or less abstract nature, demand illustra- 
 tion more urgently than do the single facts. 
 The quantitative laws of chemical composition, 
 to the discussion of which so much time is 
 applied and the use of which, as they express 
 themselves in formula and equation, is so con- 
 stant, are too often ignored. Quantitative 
 experiments, and the proper utilization of the 
 data which they give, are indispensable parts 
 of the laboratory work. 
 
 The directions for laboratory work should 
 be so simple, clear, and full that the experi- 
 ments can be done with the minimum of indi- 
 vidual supervision. The object of the experi- 
 
 ment, the apparatus, the kind and quantity of 
 the materials, and the method of manipulation 
 should be clearly explained. This part of the 
 directions is imjjortant in order that we may 
 be certain that each separate pupil has before 
 him exactly the desired phenomenon. Ques- 
 tion marks should call attention to the matters 
 to be observed, and direct questions, calling 
 for reflection, should be asked. The questions 
 should be of two kinds, which should be care- 
 fully distinguished. One class includes ques- 
 tions, the answers to which are obtainable by 
 observation and reasoning alone. The answers 
 to the other class of questions will require 
 reference to the book, or some other source of 
 information, as well. The pupil requires to be 
 notified which sort of question he is handling, 
 in order thiit he may not, on the one hand, 
 use the book when he should be employing his 
 own eyes or head, or, on the other hand, en- 
 deavor to answer from his own observations, 
 supplemented by a little speculation, a ques- 
 tion which calls for actual information that he 
 is not in a position to supply. 
 
 The laboratory work should be an intellec- 
 tual occupation. Every device must be used 
 in order to make it impossible for the pupil to 
 feel that he has satisfied the requirements of 
 the course by the mere performance of certain 
 mechanical operations. The outline, and the 
 subsequent treatment of the experimental re- 
 sults hy the instructor, should demand the use 
 of intelligence and should assist in its cultiva- 
 tion. In this connection, the type of labora- 
 tory work prevailing in CJreat Britain has a 
 great advantage over that commonly employed 
 in the United States. In the former case, the 
 pupil cannot help feeling that he is wrestling 
 with a problem and mastering it step by step. 
 He covers a smaller number of topics, but his 
 experience with each is most conspicuously an 
 intellectual effort. In many British schools, 
 the so-called heuristic method (q.».) is employed 
 to a large extent. This method has been placed 
 prominently before the teachers, and has been 
 widely introduced, mainly through the influence 
 of Professor Arm.strong. The principle is 
 that of investigation, with the encouragement 
 and advice of the teacher, the whole being 
 conducted in such a way that the pupil is, 
 as far as possible, held responsible for defining 
 the problem at each step and for devis- 
 ing means of solving it. By this means less 
 ground is covered in a given time than by the 
 conventional method, but interest and enthu- 
 siasm are more easily aroused and educational 
 ends, as distinct from informational ends, are 
 better served. 
 
 In all laboratory work the experimental 
 technique must receive special attention. The 
 pupil should learn to discover when an appa- 
 ratus is air-tight, the difference between the 
 behavior of thick and thin glass when heated, 
 how to fold a filter paper, how to bend glass 
 tubing, and how to weigh. The proper per- 
 
 590
 
 CHEMISTRY 
 
 CHEMISTRY 
 
 formance of these and other operations is 
 necessary to the success of the experiments, 
 and at the same time a consideration of experi- 
 mental precautions furnishes valuable oppor- 
 tunities for mental training. 
 
 The notebook is an important feature of 
 laboratory instruction. It furnishes oppor- 
 tunity for exercise in simple and correct ex- 
 pression, and it enables the student also to 
 practice the technical language of the chemist, 
 and so imperceptibly to acquire some of his 
 habits of thought. The preparation of the 
 notebook is still further educative because it 
 involves analysis of the observations made in 
 the laboratory and organization of the ideas 
 secured from them. The operation necessarily 
 calls attention to gaps in the pupil's knowl- 
 edge, of which before he was unconscious, and 
 furnishes him with definite objects for reading. 
 Reading of this kind is incomparably more 
 profitable than the perfunctory reading of ten 
 consecutive pages, in which no one thing in 
 particular is being sought. Most important 
 also is the reading and criticism of the results 
 by the teacher and the subsequent adjustment 
 of the notes by the pupil. 
 
 The activity of the teacher during the whole 
 laboratory period is required, both to make 
 the work of each student successful mechani- 
 cally, and to maintain the whole work on the 
 plane of an intellectual exercise. The labora- 
 tory work to be valuable must be supervised, 
 just as surely as it must be subsequently tested 
 and applied in the classroom. The teacher 
 should not be distracted from teaching by the 
 necessity for giving out apparatus, and all ar- 
 rangements for the work of the class should be 
 made in advance. 
 
 Textbook-!^. — There are two distinct types 
 of elementary textbooks in chemistry, and an 
 analysis of their respective qualities is desir- 
 able. The first type, in which we can distin- 
 guish two subvarieties, is that of the .systematic 
 description. It resembles the university text- 
 books, and in many respects is not unlike the 
 larger works of reference. The first sub- 
 variety of this kind of book places the theory 
 in the foreground. After the briefest descrip- 
 tion of the properties of one or two gases, the 
 pupil is led as directly as possible to Avogadro's 
 hypothesis, in order that, through the applica- 
 tion of this hypothesis, he may he furnished 
 at the earliest moment and in a strictly logical 
 fashion with the basis for the development and 
 ai)plication of formuLc and equations. There- 
 after, the systematic survey of the science is 
 completed in the conventional manner. In 
 the second subvarietj', the study of chemical 
 substances in a more or less conventional man- 
 ner is placed in the foreground. The theory 
 does not appear so early, is not always in 
 strictly logical order, and is introduced at con- 
 venient intervals. In both these varieties, the 
 arrangement is that which appeals to the 
 mature chemist. The satisfactoriness of the 
 
 591 
 
 performance is measured, rather by the com- 
 pleteness with which the whole science has been 
 outlined, than by the appropriateness of the 
 content or of the arrangement to the purpose of 
 instructing immature minds. 
 
 The second type of textbook, which is quite 
 distinct from the first, places pedagogical prin- 
 ciples in the foreground. Such texts do not 
 endeavor to present chemistry as a science, 
 but attempt simply to use chemistry as a 
 means of general education. They have the 
 air of a laljoratory manual, expanded so as to 
 convey also a considerable amount of informa- 
 tion. The books already referred to by 
 McNair, and by Perkin and Lean are typical 
 examples. Perhaps the qualities of the two 
 distinct types of books may be shown best by 
 contrasting certain of their features. In the 
 former type, formulfr, equations, valence, and 
 other paraphernalia of the science are neces- 
 sarily conspicuous; from the latter variety of 
 book they may be entirely absent: the former, 
 since its contents are arranged to harmonize 
 with the way in which the teacher himself was 
 trained, can be used more or less successfully 
 by a novice; the latter requires a more broadly 
 trained, intelligent, and mature teacher. The 
 former is used almost universally in the United 
 States, the latter very frequently in Great 
 Britain. 
 
 In point of fact, every one of the charac- 
 teristics of the second, or pedagogical class of 
 l)ooks, is an indispensable feature in all sound 
 instruction in elementary chemistry, and should 
 be a part of the course whether conspicuous 
 in the actual textbook or not. These charac- 
 teristics are not stated explicitly in the sys- 
 tematic variety of text, but are presumably to 
 be read by the teacher between the lines. It 
 is to be feared that the author of the systematic 
 book presumes far too much on the intelligence 
 and experience of the great majority of teachers, 
 and that in most cases a book of the second 
 class could usefully he employed, at least by 
 the teacher, as a supplement to the one of the 
 first class. 
 
 The elaboration of the pedagogical side will 
 neces.sarily restrict the ground that can be 
 covered in the .systematic point of view, and 
 it is appropriate to inquire how far this en- 
 croachment may be permitted. The pupil who 
 takes chemistry in the secondary school takes 
 it cither as part of an education to bo used 
 later in teaching in the lower schools, or as 
 part of a preparation for a college or univer- 
 sity course, or, finally, as part of an education 
 for business. In business, mental training and 
 intelligence count for more than a slight knowl- 
 edge of individual facts in chemi.stry. In 
 teaching in the lower schools, systematic chem- 
 istry is of little use, while scientific habits of 
 mind are invaluable as a basis for the develop- 
 ment of pedagogical skill. Finally, the uni- 
 versity should appreciate more highly mental 
 training than a knowledge of a somewhat
 
 CHEMISTRY 
 
 CHEMISTRY 
 
 larger assemblage of facts, since chemistry is 
 only one of a large number of studies which 
 have an equal claim to form part of the attain- 
 ments of the freshman. Without question, 
 less mechanical acquisition of S3'stematic chem- 
 istry and more attention to mental develop- 
 ment would enable the chemistry of the 
 secondary schools better to serve all of tiie 
 purposes for which we may presume it is 
 intended. 
 
 Classroom Work. — Without subsequent 
 treatment, the results of laboratory work 
 would remain largely incoherent and mean- 
 ingless. The discussions in the classroom are 
 largely for the purpose, first, of establishing 
 what were the facts observed. In addition to 
 this, they serve to recall unheeded but sig- 
 nificant phenomena. These exercises are fur- 
 ther useful in exercising the pupils in the 
 language of chemistry, and correcting errors 
 in the use of this language; in the correlation 
 of the observed facts with the contents of the 
 book; and in integrating the separate facts 
 into knowledge. Amongst the special func- 
 tions of the classroom work are the develop- 
 ment of principles from isolated facts, and the 
 rationalizing and explaining of the facts (ob- 
 served and read) by the use of other facts and 
 by the employment of hypotheses. In con- 
 nection with this operation, the pupil receives 
 some training in the conservative use of the 
 imagination. Interest is maintained by con- 
 tinual references to, and apphcations of, every- 
 day phenomena. 
 
 Demonstration experiments are used, in the 
 first place, to initiate the pupils into experi- 
 mental methods, and later for the purpose of 
 showing experiments additional to those per- 
 formed in the laboratory, particularly those 
 which are too difficult for individual perform- 
 ance by the pupils. Written exercises are given, 
 but not so much for the purpose of testing, as 
 for the purpose of instruction. Single ques- 
 tions, susceptible of brief answer, set at the 
 beginning of a number of meetings of the class 
 fulfill the purpose better than a similar num- 
 ber of questions occupying a whole period. 
 The pupil learns much from examination of the 
 papers, after they have been marked and 
 criticized by the teacher. 
 
 The Teacher. — It is unfortunate that no 
 machinery is in existence which is devised 
 specifically for the training of the secondary 
 school teacher in chemistry. He usually ob- 
 tains his training in the college or university, 
 but the courses in such an institution are de- 
 vised primarily for the training of the profes- 
 sional chemist, or rather of the mere analyst. 
 Even if the training has been in the highest 
 degree scientific and to the smallest extent 
 mechanical — a condition which seldom exists 
 — the chemical facts dealt with are limited in 
 their range. The teacher in training should 
 have an extensive, thorough, and eminently 
 modern course in general chemistry. In ad- 
 
 592 
 
 dition, he requires, what no course in analysis 
 ever gives, much more knowledge of the ordi- 
 nary facts of the science and some acquaint- 
 ance with its history. He needs also a greater 
 knowledge of theoretical and physical chemis- 
 try obtained by reading and practical work, 
 more ability to handle the literature of the 
 subject, and a firmer grasp of the ramifications 
 of the science in industry, agriculture, geology, 
 physiology, and hygiene. 
 
 Teaching how to Study. — The student of a 
 foreign language knows by experience some- 
 thing of how to study a foreign language before 
 he begins the new course. As a rule, the stu- 
 dent of chemistry has no idea at all how to 
 study the science, and wastes a great amount 
 of time without making corresponding progress. 
 A feature of chemistry teaching which should 
 never be omitted, therefore, is the repeated 
 instruction of the class in regard to how to 
 study the assigned lesson. Another feature 
 closely related to this is that of insisting upon 
 continual repetition of fundamental ideas and 
 facts. In language work, a prodigious amount 
 of repetition is inevitable, yet never too great 
 for the purpose of thorough mastery. In 
 science, the book usually makes each statement 
 but once, and the repetition and interweaving 
 at every opportunity are left to the initiative 
 of the teacher. 
 
 Illvstralio7is. — Another important feature 
 is the continual reference to illustrations from 
 practical life. Attention should frequently be 
 called to the occurrences and uses of various 
 chemical substances and phenomena. It is 
 possible to teach geometry or algebra as if it 
 were purely an artificial discipline. It is diffi- 
 cult to see how a subject like chemistry, with 
 its innumerable bearings on natural occurrences, 
 its close connection with almost all industries, 
 and its vast commercial importance, could be 
 treated in an equally barren fashion. Yet this 
 marvel is too frequently realized. Similarly, 
 correlation of the chemistry with the previous 
 knowledge of the pupil and with all the sciences 
 included in the curriculum is a pedagogical 
 obligation which must be scrupulously fulfilled, 
 especially in the secondary school. 
 
 Arithmetical Problems. — The solving of 
 numerous arithmetical problems is an exercise 
 too much neglected. No amount of mere ex- 
 planation can confer a mastery of the meaning 
 and use of equations that is anything like as 
 definite or complete as that which is given by 
 the working of such problems. 
 
 Physical Chemistry. — Many teachers in- 
 quire whether modern physical chemistry 
 should be taught in the high school. All 
 chemLstry is studied through phj^sical means 
 of observation, but only those physical proper- 
 ties which are actually used in the laboratory 
 can profitably be discussed in detail. While 
 the more elaborate physical methods cannot 
 themselves be profitably discussed, the general 
 conclusions may often be utilized. Certainly
 
 CHEMISTRY 
 
 CHEMISTRY 
 
 the teacher ought to be familiar with modern 
 views, not necessarily that he may communi- 
 cate them to his pupils, but that they may 
 influence his viewpoint and so guard him 
 against inculcating ideas now known to be 
 erroneous. 
 
 Qualitative Analysis. — A similar question 
 arises in regard to qualitative analysis. In 
 qualitative analysis a beautifully logical ar- 
 rangement of certain physical and chemical 
 facts has been devised, and the study of this 
 system is undoubtedly educative. The facts, 
 however, which are utilized, particularly the 
 facts in regard to solubility and insolubility, 
 are in themselves uninteresting and infertile. 
 If this system, which has been devised for 
 purely investigative and commercial purposes, 
 has good pedagogical qualities also, a similar 
 system should be devised for pedagogical pur- 
 poses and applied to those facts of greater 
 general importance which are alone worthy of 
 the attention of the pupil in the elementary 
 course. 
 
 General Features. — Among the problems 
 which teachers of chemistrj', when they meet, 
 are prone to discuss is, What are the " essen- 
 tials of elementary chemistry"? Sometimes 
 this much-sought entity is designated the 
 " minimum content " of an elementary course. 
 The response to the real need which underlies 
 this question is sought in the wrong direction. 
 Usually a syllabus, containing the names of a 
 number of chemical substances, the titles of 
 several chemical laws and chemical theories, 
 with a very few comments, is all that is offered 
 in answer to the demand. Such a catalogue 
 does not really answer the question at all. 
 For example, bromine may appear in the list 
 of elements, but the question still remains 
 whether this item in the requirement is satisfied 
 if the element bromine is sinijjly named by 
 the teacher as one of the members of the halo- 
 gen family. Another teacher may feel that it 
 is expected that this element will be studied 
 in as nnich detail as is chlorine. Or, again, 
 thermochemistry may be specified, but the 
 writer of the syllabus may not have intended 
 any detailed discussion of this subject, but have 
 aimed simply to indicate that, at some stage, 
 attention should be called to the fact that, in 
 certain chemical actions, heat is evolved. 
 Even when the syllabus has been expanded 
 to the size of a textbook, as has already been 
 done by a very large number of authors, tlie 
 problem seems still to remain. Evidently the 
 problem refers, at least in part, to something 
 which is not contained even in the textbook, 
 and must be sought between the lines and in 
 the methods in wliich the sul)ject is liandled 
 in the classroom. A list of topics tells little, 
 unless we can, in some way, define the aims 
 which are to be kept in view in the instruction 
 and describe tlie viewpoint of the teaclier who 
 handles the matter outlined in the syllabus. 
 Some attempt must, therefore, now be made 
 
 to define, along these lines, the modes of hand- 
 ling the content. 
 
 The Ainif! to be Kept in View in Teaching 
 Elementary Chemistry. — One aim, clearly, 
 should be to utilize the previous knowledge of 
 the pupil. A little consideration will show 
 that a good deal is involved in this statement. 
 We assume that the pupil as he comes to us 
 has thoroughly mastered arithmetic and can 
 employ it without further in.struction. We 
 assume that, in the study of mathematics, 
 language, and history, he has learned to look 
 for the main facts by the processes of observa- 
 tion, repetition, and comparison. We are con- 
 vinced that the pupil has learned to avoid 
 speculation. We assume that he knows how 
 principles or laws are formulated, and how 
 laws and hypotheses are to be used. It is true 
 that these terms may not have been employed 
 in the study of language, but the conceptions 
 and processes underlying them, we judge, must 
 be thoroughly familiar. In other words, we 
 a.ssume the pupil's familiarity with scientific 
 method. 
 
 In addition to this, in many instances we 
 have a right to assume that the pupil has 
 studied physics and knows a good deal about 
 the science. Too often, however, we assume 
 still further that he will be able spontane- 
 ously to apply his arithmetic, his knowledge 
 of scientific method, and his acquisitions in 
 physics to the study of chemistry. It 
 is only gradually that we realize that the 
 habits of mind we are assuming, if they exist, 
 are permanently attached to the subject in 
 connection with which they were acquired, and 
 that as a matter of fact there is not the slightest 
 tendency to apply them to the new subject. 
 The ability to take an idea from its accustomed 
 surroundings and apply it in an entirely new 
 relation is, after all, one of the characteristics 
 of genius, and to assume that the high school 
 pujjil will exhibit any such characteristic, in 
 however small a degree, is undoubtedly assum- 
 ing too much. The teacher of chemistry must 
 do practically the whole of this work over 
 again. The scientific method, as it may exist 
 loosely in the mind of the pui)il when he is 
 studying language or liistory, must be de- 
 veloped, crystallized, and used, until its con- 
 scious application in chemistry becomes spon- 
 taneous. The study of chemical phenomena, 
 by noting jiarticular occurrences and inter- 
 preting them in accordance with jihysical prin- 
 ciples, must be carried out almost with the 
 same care tiiat would be necessary if physics 
 never had been studied before. It must be 
 remembered that many of the parts of physics 
 used in chemistry receive little attention in 
 the course on physics and are in themselves 
 difTicult — the ideas in connection, for ex- 
 ample, with vaporization and condensation. 
 Tiie conceptions by means of wliich we dis- 
 tinguish between the decomposition of a molten 
 substance and mere boiling are not acquired 
 
 593
 
 CHEMISTRY 
 
 CHEMISTRY 
 
 in elementary physics. Then, too, the physics 
 used in chemistry is not presented in tlie same 
 lofjical way as in the textbook on physics. 
 Tlie phenomena turn up unexpectedly, and 
 have to be identified before they can be under- 
 stood. A fairly complete mastery of physics 
 has gradually to be acquired dining tiie work 
 in chemistry, if this work is to be of an intelli- 
 gent description. Chemical phenomena talk 
 to the observer in the language of physics, and 
 a colloquial knowledge of this language, such 
 as the graduate from the course in physics 
 cannot be expected to have, is indispensable in 
 chemical observation. Even arithmetic, es- 
 pecially the rule of proportion, has deliberately 
 to be taught in the class in chemistry, because, 
 although the pupils are familiar with its appli- 
 cation to common objects, they are completely 
 noniilussed when asked to apply it to chemi- 
 cal substances. A very large proportion, there- 
 fore, of the true content of the course in 
 chemistry consists in studj-ing arithmetic, 
 physics, and the scientific method, in their 
 application to chemistrj-. 
 
 In addition to this, we have the more 
 strictly chemical part of the course. This in- 
 volves, among others, the following items: 
 (1) The technique of apparatus and experi- 
 mentation. (2) The chemical facts, which 
 must be neither too many nor too few, and 
 should include, as far as possible, familiar ma- 
 terials, familiar processes, and famiUar phe- 
 nomena. (3) The construction and reinter- 
 pretation of generalizations, which sum up the 
 facts and make them memorable and signifi- 
 cant. (4) The hypotheses, and their use in 
 explaining the facts and laws of the science 
 and in furnishing an interpretation of chemical 
 behavior. (5) The application to daily ex- 
 perience, to common substances, and to com- 
 mercial processes and products, of all that is 
 learned, to the end that interest may always 
 be awakened and maintained. 
 
 By way of limitation, the course is not to 
 be distorted, or in any way affected, by college 
 preparatory ideals. Most emphatically, the 
 course has no relation to preparation for the 
 study of medicine or engineering — it is not 
 pre-professional. Its sole object is preparation 
 for life. 
 
 The test of success in following such an out- 
 line is not what particular facts or how many 
 facts have been acquired, nor whether the 
 laws can be recited with accuracy or the 
 theories expounded, but whether the pupil 
 acquires any ability to think chemically. Can 
 he, in however small a way and within what- 
 ever narrow limits, employ his knowledge in a 
 rational fashion? After studying the necessary 
 facts, could he suggest a method of separating 
 a mixture of hydrogen and carbon dioxide, or 
 of hydrogen and ammonia, or would he be in- 
 clined to say that he could not find the answer 
 in the book? 
 
 Tills sketch is an ideal. It is not a goal 
 
 to be reached, but only an aim to be kept in 
 view; a direction in which to strive; a set of 
 guideposts suggesting the better way; a 
 series of touckstoncs for testing the appro- 
 priateness of every word, printed or spoken, 
 with which the pupil comes in contact during 
 his year of chemistry. 
 
 The program outlined is far from light, and 
 carrying it out may limit the ground covered, 
 as measured by the nundjcr of facts of .system- 
 atic chemistry which can be included; but it 
 emphasizes the fundamental things. Whatever 
 else is omitted, we must not omit those things 
 which alone make the study of chemistry a 
 rational exercise. The study of chemical 
 phenomena as consisting chiefly in the inter- 
 pretation of physical observations is funda- 
 mental; and, in cutting our course to fit the 
 time, we can no more reduce, with reason, the 
 attention given to physics than, in buililing a 
 house, we can save expense by leaving out the 
 foundation. 
 
 The Viewpoint. — The whole cfTect of the 
 instruction may be destroyed if it is presented 
 from a faulty viewpoint. The most important 
 characteristic of the viewpoint is that it should 
 be exjjerimental. The experimental chemical 
 difference between oxygen and ozone is not 
 that the formula of the one is Oj, and of the 
 other Os, but that the latter is more active, 
 and oxidizes silver, for example, while the 
 former does not. The experimental reason for 
 writing the formula of hydrogen H, is not 
 that there are two atoms in this molecule, 
 but that a given volume of hj'drogen contains 
 twice as much of the clement as does an equal 
 volume of hydrogen chloride. The current 
 statements of definitions and laws are usually 
 mixed — some theoretical and others experi- 
 mental. All the laws or definitions that are 
 given should be based on experimental facts 
 and should be finallj- stated in experimental 
 terms. Valency, for example, is an experi- 
 mental fact, and not the theoretical matter 
 that the common definition would lead us to 
 suppose. 
 
 Another characteristic of the viewpoint is 
 that it should be rational, rather than dog- 
 matic. For example, when simply told that 
 matter is a combination of atoms which join 
 to form molecules, we naturally suppose that 
 this fact will explain all the circumstances 
 connected with combination and we may state 
 dogmatically in each particular instance that it 
 does so. When, however, we learn that the 
 atomic theory was suggested originally by 
 Dalton to explain the independent behavior 
 of gases when mixed, and was later applied to 
 account for the fact that each chemical element 
 uses an individual combining weight, by which 
 the proportions of it in all forms of combina- 
 tion can be accurately expressed, and that 
 until recently little more than this amount of 
 use could logically be made of the atomic 
 theory in inorganic chemistry, we see at once 
 
 594
 
 CHEMISTRY 
 
 CHEMISTRY 
 
 that there arc many things in explaining 
 which this theory may not be used. It does 
 not profess to explain the tendency to com- 
 bine (affinity), or the way in which the sub- 
 stances cohere when combined, or the new 
 properties of the compound formed, or, in fact, 
 anything excepting only the quantities of each 
 kind of matter involved in the change. The 
 hypothesis, then, has no experimental applica- 
 tion in chemistry until combining proportions 
 are discussed, and sheds no light on any facts 
 other than those of combining proportions. 
 Recent discoveries, indeed, show, or come very 
 near to showing, that matter is really com- 
 posed of atoms and molecules (see Professor 
 Rutherford's aildress) ; but, unless the opening 
 lessons could deal with the experimental study 
 of radioactive substances, there would be no 
 logical way of introducing atoms and molecules 
 at this stage. 
 
 We may summarize our conclusions under 
 the head of the viewpoint as follows: (1) Ob- 
 servation should be shown consistently to be 
 the sole source of all facts; none being obtained 
 by speculation, by the interpretation of laws, 
 or otherwise. (2) Experimental, literal terms 
 are to be used in stating all facts. (3) Hy- 
 potheses are to be used only in explaining and 
 relating facts, and are to be eliminated from 
 the final statement. 
 
 Needless to say, the point of view is not 
 something to be explained to the pupil, but 
 something that is to be used by the teacher. 
 To study our own viewpoint and correct it 
 is a difficult matter, for we are not even con- 
 scious that we have a viewpoint until it sud- 
 denly shifts in some important particular. 
 The teacher must gradually realize and adjust 
 his own viewpoint. The viewpoint is some- 
 thing not obtainable directly from books, for 
 it is there contained implicitly, and not ex- 
 plicitly. In its details it is an individual pos- 
 session of each chemist. We can observe its 
 importance best by imagining the viewpoint 
 to be entirely removed. A course in chemistry 
 absolutely without a viewpoint would evi- 
 dently be a wholly uninstructive chaos. 
 
 The Aiiiix of Umversity Elementary Chemis- 
 try. — Although in the United States the aims 
 of the high school and university courses are 
 almost identical, this is due, in all probability, 
 not so much to the unanimous and conscious 
 decision that the courses should be identical, 
 as to the fact that the teachers are trained in 
 the university and teach most easily what 
 they themselves were taught. In theory, the 
 two courses might be different. The nature 
 of the secondary school course should depend 
 solely on pedagogical, practical considerations; 
 the nature of the university course is largely 
 predetermined by the fact that many of the 
 graduates of the university become teachers of 
 chemistry or go into medicine or engineering. 
 In either of those three cases the elementary 
 course is followed, cither by more advanced 
 
 courses in chemistry, or by courses in physiol- 
 ogy, physiological chemistry, geology, and other 
 sciences, or by uniting of both kinds, in all of 
 which it will be assumed that the student has 
 a knowledge of chemistry of the conventional 
 description. A course which has for its main 
 purpose mental training will not suffice to fit 
 the student for the study of physiology or 
 analysis. The university course is therefore a 
 pre-professional course. The university course 
 involves education in chemistry, while the pur- 
 pose of the high school course has been simply 
 education through chemistry. The high school 
 course may be admirable without being con- 
 ventional. The university course has no such 
 option. 
 
 One of the most pressing unsettled problems 
 is the proper articulation of high school with 
 college chemistry. The pupil who has studied 
 ' chemistry in the secondary school — where 
 should he be placed if he continues the study 
 in the university? He is not prepared to take 
 up analysis until after he receives further in- 
 struction in general chemistrj', given in a modern 
 way. It is certainly unjust to the instructor 
 in the university, to the pupil himself, and to 
 the previous instructor, to put the pupil in the 
 same class with beginners. Only two solutions 
 are possible: one is to give in the university 
 an exact equivalent of the high school course, 
 followed by a supplementary course in prepara- 
 tion for more advanced work. The other is to 
 have two distinct courses, one for beginners 
 and the other open to those who have studied 
 the science for a year in the high school. Both 
 of these methods are in successful operation in 
 the few institutions in which they have been 
 tried. 
 
 More Advanced Courses in Chemistry. — 
 The subdivision of the science of chemistry for 
 the purpose of instruction is tolerably uniform 
 in all institutions. Elementary general chemis- 
 try is followed by qualitative and then by quan- 
 titative analysis. As taught in the modern 
 way, these courses do not deal simply with 
 routine methods, which might almost as suc- 
 cessfully be imparted to a youth without pre- 
 vious education. They aim to develop the 
 pupil's knowledge of the science in the broader 
 sense, and to prepare him, not for the routine 
 work of the analyst, but for intelligent work 
 in scientific chemistry, industrial chemistry, or 
 chemical engineering. 
 
 The compounds of carbon, on account of 
 their number and rather unusual modes of 
 behavior, are generally taught in a separate 
 course known as organic chemistry. The 
 special physical methocls which have recently 
 been introduced for the ascertainment of facts 
 and for the elucidation of chemical i)lienomena 
 are practiced, and their applications are de- 
 scribed, in special courses in physical chemistry. 
 Finally, in certain instances an attempt has 
 been made to realize in the laijoratory to some 
 extent the conditions of manufacturing clieniis- 
 
 595
 
 CHEMISTRY 
 
 CHESTERFIELD 
 
 try. In such a course, the pupil handles 
 larger masses of material, considers the cost 
 of the original substances, the expense of each 
 operation, and the yield. He considers also 
 the purposes for which the product is employed 
 in commerce, and tests its quality by ciuanti- 
 tative methods in order to learn from practical 
 experience what kind and amount of impuri- 
 ties are permissible in each instance. A course 
 of this kind is not in any sense a substitute 
 for practical experience in a chemical industry, 
 but may plausibly be supposed to diminish the 
 awkwardness of the man of academic training 
 when he suddenly assumes the position of 
 chemist in a factory. A. S. 
 
 References : — 
 
 Academic Status of Chemistry: — 
 
 Long, John H. Early History and Present Conditions 
 of the Tcaehing of Chemistrj' in the Medical Schools 
 of the United States. Science. N.S., Vol. 14. p. 360. 
 
 Perkin, W. H. .Jr. The Modem System of Teaching 
 Practical Inorganic Chemistry and its Development. 
 British Association Report, 1900 : Nature, 62, p. 476. 
 
 VON Meyer, Ernst. History of Chemistry. (London 
 and New York, 1906.) This work contains refer- 
 ences to other sources of information. 
 
 Chemistry in the Schools : — 
 
 CoMPAYRE, Gabriel. The Reform in Secondary Edu- 
 cation in France. Educational Review, Vol. 25 (1903), 
 ,p. 130. 
 
 Greard, O. Education et Instruction. Enseignemenl 
 Secondaire. (Paris, 1889.) 
 
 Lexis, W. Das deutsche U nterrichtswesen. Vol. IL 
 (Berlin, 1904.) 
 
 Plan d'Etudes et Programmes de V Enseignemenl Secon- 
 daire. (Paris.) 
 
 RnssELL, J. E. German Higher Schools. (New York, 
 1899.) 
 See also Bibliography on Chemistry, Methods of 
 
 Teaching. 
 
 Methods of Teaching Chemistry : — 
 
 Allen, C. R. Report of Laboratory Construction. 
 School Science. 1903, p. 471. 
 
 Armstrono, Henry E. The Teaching of Scientific 
 Method and Other Papers on Education. (London 
 and New York, 1903.) 
 
 Baskerville, Charles. Some Principles in Labora- 
 tory Construction. Science, N.S., Vol. 28 (1908), 
 p. 665. 
 
 Dannemann, Friedr. Der naturwissenschafUiche Vn- 
 terrichtauf praktisch-heuristischer Grundlage. (Han- 
 nover u. Leipzig, 1907.) 
 
 Directory, with Regulations for Science and Art Classes. 
 (London, issued annually by the Board of Educa- 
 tion.) The Syllabus of Chemistry may be had 
 separately. 
 
 Gill, A. H. Suggestions for the Construction of 
 Chemical Laboratories. Scierux, N.S., Vol. 30 
 (1909), p. 548. 
 
 McN.uR, D. S. An Introduction to Chemistry. (Lon- 
 don and New York, 1902.) 
 
 Perkin and Lean. An Introduction to the Study of 
 Chemistry. (London and New Y'ork. 1896.) 
 
 Report of the subcommittee on chemistry of the Com- 
 mittee on College Entrance Requirements of the 
 National Educational .Association. Report of the 
 N. E. A., 1899, pp. 26 and 165. 
 
 Rutherford, Ernest W. Presidential Address, sec- 
 tion of Mathematics and Physics of the British 
 Association (1909). A^afurc, Vol. 81. p. 257. Science. 
 N.S., Vol. 30, p. 289. 
 
 Smith. Alexander. Comment on " Another Point of 
 View." School Science and Mathematics, 1907, 
 June. 
 
 Smith, Alexander. The Articulation of School and 
 
 College Work in the Sciences. The School Review, 
 
 Vol. 7, pp. 411, 453, 527. 
 The Experimental View Point in Chemistry. 
 
 School Science and Mathematics, 1908, October. 
 The Point of View in Chemistry. School Science 
 
 and Mathematics, 1907, February. 
 The Pupil Before and After Taking Chemistry. 
 
 School Science, 1903. October. 
 The Rehabilitation of the American College, and 
 
 the Place of Chemistry in it. Science, N.S., Vol. 
 
 30 (1909). p. 457. 
 and Hall, Edwin H. The Teaching of Chemistry 
 
 and Physics. (London and New York, 1902.) 
 
 CHESTERFIELD, LORD. — Philip Dormer 
 Stanhope, fourth Karl of Chesterfield, was born 
 in London, Sept. 22, 1694. Neglected by his 
 father, the third Earl, he was educated under 
 the direction of his maternal grandmother, the 
 Marchioness of Halifax. He had mastered 
 French at 18 with the aid of a foreign tutor, 
 and in 1714 he left Cambridge after a year's 
 stay, convinced that " the classics contained 
 everji;hing that was either necessary, useful, 
 or ornamental to men." He was soon dis- 
 abused of this notion by a tour in Flanders, 
 where he was introduced to the best society, 
 and learned the arts of the polite world. Re- 
 called to England at the death of Queen Anne, 
 he was appointed in 1715 gentleman of the bed- 
 chamber to the Prince of Wales. In the same 
 year he made his first speech in the House 
 of Commons. For some years his political 
 activity was restricted by the friction between 
 the Prince and the King. He employed his 
 leisure pretty gayly in company with the 
 best wits of the day, made friends of Addison, 
 Pope, Arbuthnot, and Swift, and judiciously 
 courted the Prince's mi.stress. On his father's 
 death in 1726 he took his seat in the House 
 of Lords, and soon after the accession of George 
 II he was appointed ambassador at The Hague. 
 During this period he formed a gallant alliance 
 with a Mile, du Bouchet, who in 1732 pre- 
 sented him with a natural son. In 1733, for 
 the sake of money and influence, he married 
 Melusina von der Schulenburg, natural daugh- 
 ter of George I. In the House of Lords he 
 distinguished himself by a brilliant opposition 
 to the government of Sir Robert Walpole, and 
 his part was considerable in tlie downfall of 
 that minister in 1742. Aside from his various 
 important diplomatic missions, his most con- 
 spicuous political services were performed as 
 Viceroy in Ireland in 1745, and as Secretary 
 of State from 1746 to 1748. He resigned in 
 1748, and to his death in 1773 remained in 
 practical retirement from public life. Deaf- 
 ness drove him more and more upon his own 
 resources. He spent his last 25 years largely 
 in reading and writing and in attending to the 
 education of his natural son and his godson, 
 who inherited his title. 
 
 The principal materials for the study of his 
 ideas on education are: the letters to his son, 
 first published in 1774 by the son's widow; 
 the letters to his godson, of which the first 
 
 596
 
 CHESTERFIELD 
 
 CHESTERFIELD 
 
 complete edition appeared in 1S90; and the 
 letters to tlie fatiier of his godson, A. C. Stan- 
 hope, which were published in 1817. It should 
 be constantly borne in mind that none of these 
 letters were intended to reach the [jublic. 
 
 As an educator, Chesterfield is not a ])ropliet, 
 but a representative; his importance consists 
 in the fullness and precision with which he 
 expresses the Gallicized classicism of the 
 eighteenth century. Lord, linguist, diplomat, 
 man of letters, man of fashion, acquainted 
 with the most eminent Englishmen and French- 
 men of three generations, he was perhaps 
 as adequately qualified to formulate the edu- 
 cational ideal of the age as Reynolds to formu- 
 late its ideals in art, Johnson in literature, 
 or Burke in politics. Every one agrees that 
 he embraced some of the vices of his time; 
 it is still necessary to insist that he also 
 embraced most of its virtues. The popular 
 conception of him as merely the master of an 
 exigent etiquette and a licentious heart — the 
 morals of a courtesan and the manners of a 
 dancing master — ridiculously distorts the 
 facts. He has been fiercely attacked for his 
 dissimulation; he has suffered chiefly for his 
 candor. Furthermore, his use of the peda- 
 gogical art of varied repetition, his habit of 
 attending to but one thing at a time, and his 
 power of making the matter in hand seem for 
 the moment paramount, lay him open to the 
 caricaturist. He advocates the cultivation of 
 the graces with such reiterated empliasis that 
 one temporarily forgets how frequently and 
 emphatically he pleads for wisdom and virtue. 
 When he urges attention to the classics, he 
 seems to be all for the ancients; when he sets 
 forth the claims of living literature and lan- 
 guages, he seems to be all for the moderns. 
 For a dozen years he cries, " Approfondissez; go 
 to the bottom of things"; when his son visits 
 Paris, he declares that external finish is every- 
 thing. The exaggeration is pedagogical, timed 
 to the boy's development, carefully adjusted 
 to his particular needs, and confusing or in- 
 consistent only to the inattentive. In his 
 minute regard for detail, Chesterfield himself 
 never loses sight of le lout ensemble. One may 
 dip into the letters here and there, and conclude 
 witli Walpole and .Johnson that this great man 
 was but a maker of bans mots, a profligate lord- 
 among wits; but no person of intelligence can 
 read them through without being impressed 
 by the compreiiensivencss, the passionate 
 unity, mass, and coherence of the writer's 
 thought. He has, indeed, as he often declares, 
 attempted to give his son the best education 
 of any man in England. He has this vast su- 
 periority over many subsequent educators, 
 that he knows exactly what he wants. His is 
 not the role of a Plato or a Rousseau; he has 
 no germinating or visionary ideas, no revolu- 
 tionary dreams. Like the majority of his 
 great English contemporaries, he accepts tlie 
 universe — that is to say, polite London — and 
 
 makes the most of it. His educational ideal is 
 not an experimental theory; it is entirely wliat 
 he regards as the best practice of his time 
 reduced to principles and corrected bj' the ex- 
 perience of a master of the arts of life. 
 
 Chesterfield's sj-stem, as distinguished from 
 that of Rou.sseau and his followers, rests upon 
 an unshaken belief in civilization and a i)ro- 
 fouud distrust of undisciplined human nature. 
 His i)rimary concern is the tran.«lation of man 
 to gentleman. From La Bruyerc, Pascal, and 
 La Rochefoucauld, from intercourse with so- 
 ciety, from looking keenly into his own heart, 
 he has come to believe that natural man is a 
 vain, vicious, and self-interested animal. Hence, 
 he is no individualist. Such maxims as " Be 
 natural," " Trust thyself," " To thine own self 
 be true," epitomize a doctrine anti]5odal to his. 
 For him not the individual man but the most 
 cultivated society is the measure of all things. 
 If he urges conformity, it is not from hypo- 
 critical servility; it is from real humility, 
 genuine faith in the usages established b3' the 
 majority of the well bred. Hence the first 
 step in moral education is the repression of 
 egotism, passion, instinctive impulses. The 
 burden of his counsel of dissimulation is this: 
 Never talk of yourself; do not give way to fits 
 of temper; suppress feelings of boredom, su- 
 periority, and personal antipathy. In short, 
 keep within door those vices which every man 
 ought, so far as is possible, to extirpate. If, 
 on the other hand, he makes little direct 
 attempt to cultivate the heart, it is perhaps 
 because he unconsciously antici])atcs the motlern 
 theory of the emotions — make the right mo- 
 tions and the emotions will be right, or will 
 tend to be right. At anj- rate, Chesterfield is 
 certain that the external l)ehavior is within 
 the control of the reasonable will; it is no 
 part of his scheme to recommend the impossi- 
 ble, and he maj' devote himself to behavior 
 because he believes with Arnold that conduct 
 is the controllable three fourths of life. In- 
 directly, he does provide for the cultivation of 
 the heart through imitation of models. A\'ith 
 indefatigable pains he points out those whom 
 he regards as the masters of manners and 
 morals, and entreats his pupil to sit at their 
 feet; to be true not to the whim of tlic mo- 
 ment, but to the experience of the best men 
 of his own and ancient times: to live as ever 
 in the sight of Aristotle, Cicero, Horace. 
 Moliere, Racine, Addison, Swift, and Boling- 
 broke. So far as he understands the cla.^sical 
 spirit, he aspires to be classical. The entire 
 tendency of his mind is toward a rational but 
 almost impassioned conservation of tliosc 
 things which mark man's i)rogrcss from rus- 
 ticity, barbarism, and animalism to urbanity, 
 civility, and the life of reason. 
 
 He determines the content of education with 
 strict regard to its immediate objects, namely, 
 to prepare a man to move with ease in good 
 society, and to participate with success in 
 
 597
 
 CHESTERFIELD 
 
 CHESTERFIELD 
 
 public life. Hence an apparent paradox: its 
 substance is that of a very liberal culture, 
 while its spirit seems intensely utilitarian. It 
 aims to provide for the whole nature of man 
 as a moral, intellectual, political, and social 
 being; but it subordinates the search for trutii 
 to the pursuit of culture, and culture in turn 
 to success. The external measures of success 
 are: the power to please, dependent on per- 
 sonal charm; the power to exact esteem, de- 
 pendent on character; the power to excite 
 admiration, dependent on abilities. Though 
 friendly to pleasure, Chesterfield is too 
 thoroughly ambitious to propose pleasure as 
 the ultimate end. But though femininely 
 sensitive to opinion and greedy for applause, 
 he, at least, despises the world too much to 
 find the ultimate sanction of effort in political 
 or social power. The solution of the paradox 
 is this: his internal measure of succe.ss is full 
 self-realization under the laws imposed by 
 reason, and the consent of the well bred. He 
 approaches the notion of art for art's sake; it 
 is not life that he loves, but the art of life, the 
 mastery of its technique. In the main features, 
 his plan was molded on his own career, though 
 he has much in common with the ideas of 
 Locke, and, indeed, with the aristocratic train- 
 ing of two hundred years. 
 
 His utterances on religion, perhaps more 
 than on any other topic, were influenced 
 by the Age of Reason. To his godson he 
 avows belief in conscience and in God as the 
 supreme being; he significantly cites Voltaire 
 in support of the mercy and justice of God; 
 on subsidiary points he is not much more or 
 less explicit than Locke. To his son he com- 
 mends the observance of religious forms as due 
 to society, and a tentative faith in religion as 
 collateral security. He is doubtful whether 
 philosophers should permit themselves to shake 
 the social edifice by open declaration of skep- 
 ticism; and he expresses unequivocal detesta- 
 tion for professed atheists. His son's rehgious 
 training, however, he entrusts to a clergyman, 
 for he is invincibly opposed to givang instruc- 
 tion except upon positive knowledge. His 
 deeper conviction on this matter may be sug- 
 gested by the following sentence: " Seneca 
 says, very prettily, that one should ask noth- 
 ing of God, but what one should be willing 
 that men should know; nor of men, but what 
 one should be willing that God should know; 
 I advise you to say or do nothing at Paris, but 
 what you would be willing that I should 
 know." In other words, Chesterfield under- 
 takes to be the voice of good society, which 
 for him is the supreme authority, if not the 
 Vicar of God. 
 
 On moral questions he speaks forcibly, ex- 
 plicitly, and for the most part — contrary to 
 popular opinion — soundly. " For God's sake," 
 he exclaims, " be scrupulously jealous of the 
 purity of your moral character; keep it im- 
 maculate, unblemished, unsullied." In the 
 
 society which he represents, the cardinal points 
 of moral character are justice, benevolence, 
 trustworthiness, veracity, temperance, and 
 self-control; on these points he is inflexible. 
 His duly execrated attitude toward sexual 
 morality he does not himself attempt wholly 
 to justify; he maintains merely that decently 
 conducted liaisons do not in his world damage 
 a man's reputation; and from his own experi- 
 ence he believes that they may be extremely 
 useful. In this opinion it needs to be said 
 that he is not an innovator; he is an eight- 
 eenth-century inheritor of an ancient aristo- 
 cratic tradition of which physical chastity was 
 not a part. The licenses of the aristocratic 
 code were veiled in the sixteenth century under 
 the name of chivalry, and in the seventeenth 
 century under the name of gallantry; in the 
 eighteenth century, they became cynical and, 
 therefore, shocking. But it was rather the 
 spirit than the facts that had changed. Op- 
 probrium attaches to Chesterfield's code, not 
 so much because it permits as because it tries 
 to rationalize, restrict, and utilize vice; so far 
 he would extend the sway of reason. 
 
 In planning his course of studies, Chester- 
 field contemplates a pupil who is to be both a 
 scholar and a gentleman. Ancient and modern 
 languages, history and geography, philosophy, 
 logic, and rhetoric he considers absolutely funda- 
 mental. Nor is he content with a smattering 
 of these subjects. Latin, he declares, it is 
 only a shame not to know perfectly, for every 
 one knows Latin. But for his son he also in- 
 sists upon Greek from the outset to the 
 finishing of his education in Paris, " for to 
 know Greek well is to be really learned." 
 Italian, French, and German — then little 
 known in England — his son must speak, read, 
 and write like a native. Yet he cannot ap- 
 prove the " natural " method of learning 
 languages without grammar advocated by 
 Locke; and in general he is more austere than 
 Locke in insisting upon solid acquisition as 
 well as discipline. History is to be studied 
 with especial diligence, and the future diplo- 
 mat must become perfectly familiar 'with the 
 constitution, and the civil and military state, 
 of every country in Europe. Command of a 
 polished English style both in writing and in 
 speaking must be acquired at all costs; the 
 means are the imitation of models, translating 
 classics, and conistant practice. I'pon mathe- 
 matics and " jimcrack natural history," Ches- 
 terfield lays light stress; yet he would not 
 have a gentleman wholly ignorant of any pos- 
 sible topic of conversation. At the same time, 
 the range of his curriculum precludes eccen- 
 tricity and antiquarianism. " Let blockheads 
 read what blockheads wrote "; " Stick to the 
 best established books in every language." 
 Even in travel there is danger of becoming a 
 mere frivolous virtuoso; to travel with profit 
 one should consider a country " classically and 
 politically." Knowledge of the world is of 
 
 598
 
 CHESTERFIELD 
 
 CHICAGO 
 
 equal importance with knowledge of books; 
 tlie educator's task is not ended till he has 
 shown his charge the value of going much into 
 fashionable society, and has directed his 
 course through the principal courts of Europe. 
 Not for the fouiulation, but for the finishing 
 touches, Chesterfield prescribes courtship, fenc- 
 ing, and the dancing master. 
 
 It is in every one's mouth that he recom- 
 mends sacrificing to the graces; the subtlety 
 of his intentions, however, exposes him to mis- 
 representation. The grace that he worships 
 is in the last analysis no external accompHsh- 
 ment; it is a pervading spirit entering into and 
 controlling every activity of mind and body. 
 It is a vital sense of decorum operating not 
 merely in manners, but also in morals, in re- 
 ligion, in studies, in the whole conduct of life. 
 It is not grace in the abstract, but grace in 
 action that Chesterfield adores — suaviter in 
 modo, fortiter in re. Seldom has attention 
 been called to his unflagging incitement to 
 strenuous living; though rarer than either 
 grace or energy is the union of the two. Of 
 noble rank — he refused a dukedom — and 
 immensely wealthy, he consistently ignores 
 every honor not won by merit. The distinc- 
 tive quality of his educational ideal is the more 
 than traditional ardor with which it fuses solid 
 classical and modern learning with French poli- 
 tesse — the purpose which underlay the found- 
 ing of the French Academy. He abhors equally 
 the uncouth pedant and the empty man of 
 fashion; but he hopes by pouring the virtues 
 of both into one mold to produce I'hornme 
 universel. 
 
 Chesterfield's Letters to his Son were first 
 published in two volumes, 1774. In 1800 the 
 eleventh English edition appeared in four 
 volumes. There was a French translation in 
 1775, a German translation in 1774-1776, 
 and an American edition in 1779. The letters 
 to A. C Stanhope were pulilished in 1817. 
 The Miscellaneous Works were published in 
 1777. two volumes with an important memoir 
 by Maty; in 1778 a third volume of tracts, 
 letters, and poems was added; in 1779 a second 
 edition in four volumes came out with an ap- 
 pendix containing six-teen characters. Innu- 
 merable selections, adaptations, parodies, and 
 burlesques have appeared in many languages. 
 Most of the popular editions on the market are 
 very much abridged. Contemporary comment 
 on Chesterfield may be found widely scattered 
 through eighteenth-century letters; see the 
 memoirs and letters of Lord Hervey and Horace 
 Walpole, Colley Gibber's Apology, Boswell's 
 Life of Johnson. S. P. S. 
 
 References : — 
 
 Adams, C. F. Xorth Ameriean R<Ti>tr. Vol. 82. p. 421. 
 Br.\dsh.\w, J. Lcltrr.1 <)/ P. D. .Stanhope. (London. 
 
 1892.) 
 Brocouam. Lord. Quarterly Rrrirrr. \'ol. 76. p. 459. 
 Carvarvox. Lord. Chetterficltl'a Leiiers to his Godson. 
 
 (London. ISUO.) 
 
 Chanhtng, E. T. Xorlh American Review, Vol. 50. p. 404. 
 Collins, Churton. Essays and Studies. (London, 
 
 1895.) 
 Duff, M. E. G. Fortnighily Review, Vol. 31, p. 824. 
 Er.vst. \V. Memoirs of the Life of Philip Dormer 
 
 Stanhope. (London, 1893.) 
 Hatward. a. Edinburgh Review, Vol. 82, p. 421. 
 Hill. Worldly Wisdom of Lord Chesterfield. (New 
 
 York, 1891.) 
 JoH-vsoN-, R. B. Eighteenth Century Letters, Vol. I. 
 
 (New York. 1898.) 
 Lee, Sidney. Dictionary of National Biography, s.v. 
 
 Stanhope, Philip Dormer. 
 Mahon, Lord. Letters of P. D. Stanhope. (London, 
 
 1845-1853.) 
 More, P. E. Shelbvme Essays. Fifth Series. (New 
 
 York. 1908.) 
 S.un-te-Becve. Letters and Maxims. 
 Sayle. C. Selections from Lord Chesterfield's Letters. 
 
 (London, 1889.) 
 
 CHEVY CHASE COLLEGE AND SEMI 
 NARY, WASHINGTON, DC. — A proprie- 
 tary resident school for girls and young ladies. 
 Academic, coUegiate, fine and domestic arts 
 departments are maintained. Admission re- 
 quirements are not definite. There is a faculty 
 of 18 instructors. 
 
 CHICAGO, CITY OF. — The largest city in 
 the state of Illinois, the second largest in the 
 L'nited States, and the chief commercial city 
 in the North Central states. Organized as a 
 town in 1833, and incorporated as a city in 
 1837, the city has had a wonderful growth. In 
 1900 its total population was 1,698, 575. and its 
 estimated population in 1909 was 2,224,491. 
 Its school census, 6-21 years of age, was 
 517,224 in 1909, and its total school enrollment 
 was 296,427 in day schools and 24.520 in night 
 schools. The enrollment in private and paro- 
 chial schools was 100,862 additional. Of the 
 total population of 1900, 35 per cent were foreign 
 born, and 2 per cent were of the colored race. 
 Among the foreign born every race is repre- 
 sented, the largest percentages of the total 
 foreign born of 1900, being 31 per cent Ger- 
 mans, 13 per cent Irish, 12 per cent Scandina- 
 vian, 10 per cent Poles, 10 per cent English 
 and English Canadians, 6 per cent Bohemians, 
 4 per cent Russians, and 3 per cent Dutch. 
 
 History. — An agent of the fur company 
 opened the first school at Ft. Dearborn for the 
 seven or eight children there in 1816. Records 
 show that private schools were in existence there 
 in 1820 and in 1829. In 1830 the first school, 
 not originating with the parents of the children, 
 was opened. In 1831 Cook County was or- 
 ganized and a commissioner of school lands was 
 appointed, and in 1832 he employed a teacher 
 for a school on the north side of the river. A 
 number of private schools, one of which was for 
 girls, were opened in this year. In 1833, on 
 the incorporation of the town, the less than 100 
 voters petitioned for the sale of the school lands, 
 and, with the income from the money derived 
 from the sale of all but four blocks of the school 
 section (.?36,619.47), grants were made to pri- 
 vate teachers, who in turn certified attendance 
 
 599
 
 CHICAGO 
 
 CHICAGO 
 
 in the proper manner. This form of subsidized 
 private schools continued until 1844. 
 
 In 1835 the legislature passed a special law 
 for Chicago, which established what was in 
 effect a modified form of the New England 
 district system. The voters were to elect 5 
 or 7 inspectors, who were to examine teach- 
 ers, select textbooks, and visit schools. Each 
 city district was also to elect annually a dis- 
 trict board of 3 trustees, who employed the 
 teachers for the district, saw that a sufficient 
 numberof free schools was maintained, and levied 
 district taxes for all expenses except teachers' 
 salaries. The voters were to fix the salaries of 
 the teachers, and vote taxes to pay the same. 
 Two years later, on the incorporation of the city, 
 the control of the schools was given to the City 
 Council, and the immediate management was 
 vested in inspectors, appointed by the Council, 
 and having the same powers as under the 1835 
 law. Each district still elected district trustees 
 to employ teachers, levy taxes, and provide 
 buildings. There were now 5 school districts 
 and 828 census children. Taxes were not pop- 
 ular, and the income from the school fund 
 formed the chief support of the schools. 
 The first city schoolhouse was not built until 
 1845. 
 
 By the close of 1853 the school enrollment had 
 increased to 3086, with 34 teachers employed in 
 7 schools. The schools were ungraded and 
 practically independent in methods, textbooks, 
 and plan. Though the inspectors had adopted 
 five textbooks for use in the schools in 1840, 
 the report of 1854 would indicate that no uni- 
 form usage existed even at that time. The 
 schools were insufficient in numbers, as schools 
 were only opened when the demand was strong 
 enough to ensure taxes being voted, and the 
 district system stood in the way of progress. 
 In 1853 the schools were so crowded that a 
 thousand children had to be turned away be- 
 cause of lack of seats, and the continued rapid 
 growth of the city has kept the schools in this 
 condition almost continually ever since. To 
 secure some relief a coeducational high school 
 was organized in 1856-1857, and in 1858 the 
 minimum age for admission to the schools 
 was raised to 6 years. By 1870, 557 teachers 
 were employed, as against 123 in 1860, 21 in 
 1850, and 9 in 1845. The great fire of 1871 
 destroyed 15 school buildings, threw 135 
 teachers out of work, and seriously crippled the 
 work of the schools through the inability of the 
 city to collect taxes. In 1875 there were 10,000 
 children on half time, and many buildings wholly 
 unfit for school use were rented in an effort to 
 p^o^^de school accommodations to meet the 
 needs of the rapidly growing city. By 1885, 
 1296 teachers were employed, as against 557 
 in 1870. Outlying territory was annexed dur- 
 ing the late eighties, and in 1S90 the number 
 of teachers had risen to 3001, and still 15,773 
 children were in half-time schools because of the 
 
 lack of school facilities. In 1900, 5806 teach- 
 ers were employed, 363 rented schoolrooms were 
 in use, and 16,092 children were in half-time 
 schools. In 1905 the conditions were but 
 slightly improved. Though the school de- 
 partment has erected many excellent modern 
 buildings every year, it has been unable to pro- 
 vide buildings fast enough to keep up with the 
 growth of the city. All buildings built within 
 the past twenty years have been the best of 
 their class, most of them being provided with 
 assembly rooms, baths, gymnasiums, and man- 
 ual training and cooking rooms. 
 
 In 1851 the Council appointed an agent to 
 look after the school lands remaining, and took 
 a step in the direction of centralization by de- 
 priving the district trustees of the right to hire 
 teachers, transferring this function to the cen- 
 tral Board of Inspectors. In 1853 a still more 
 important step was taken by the creation of the 
 office of City Superintendent of Schools, and one 
 of the duties given to this new official was that 
 of introducing order and unity into the work of 
 the schools. The new Superintendent at once 
 graded the schools and established uniform 
 records, and in 1856 he established public oral 
 examinations for candidates for admission to 
 the high schools. These awakened great in- 
 terest in the work of the schools. In 1861 a 
 graded course of study — the first in Illinois — 
 was introduced, the work of both grammar and 
 primary schools being divided into 5 grades. 
 Evening high school classes were formed in 1868. 
 In 1871 an independent normal school was 
 created. In 1875 the Board took over a pri- 
 vate school for the deaf, opened in 1870, and 
 made it a part of the city system. 
 
 In 1857 the legislature granted Chicago a 
 new charter, which did away with the district 
 organization and district boards, retained the 
 inspectors, increased their number to 15, 
 changed them into a centralized Board of 
 Education, and gave them full control of the 
 schools. The Council still elected the Board 
 members and controlled the school property. 
 The revised charter of 1863 contained still more 
 detailed provisions for the management of the 
 schools of the city, with much emphasis on the 
 financial side of the administration of the schools. 
 In 1872, following a new state constitution, a 
 new legislative act proAaded that in cities of 
 100,000 or over the School Board should consist 
 of 15 members, one third going out of office 
 each year; that they should be appointed by 
 the Mayor with the approval of the Council; def- 
 initely transferred all school property from the 
 control of the Council to that of the School 
 Board; and gave the Board power to buy sites, 
 build, and secure loans with the approval of the 
 Council. In 1S79 a city school tax of 5 per 
 cent, three fifths for buildings and sites, was 
 authorized by the legislature. 
 
 In 1874 the first laboratory for the study of 
 science was pro\-ided at the high school, and in 
 
 600
 
 CHICAGO 
 
 CHICAGO 
 
 1S90 laboratories were provided for all of the 
 liigli schools. In 1S75 the schools were re- 
 graded and organized into S grades instead 
 of 10; schools for the deaf were established; 
 and the reading of the Scriptures, which had 
 been practiced since 1841, was proliibited. 
 Woodworking was introduced into the North 
 Division High School in 1SS6; in 1890 the 
 English and Manual Training High School was 
 organized; antl in 1891 manual training was 
 introduced into the grammar schools. In 
 1S92 the Board adopted a number of private 
 kindergartens, and made them a part of the 
 public school s.y.stcm, and since then kinder- 
 gartens have been established in all parts of 
 the city. In 1899 the first truant officers 
 wore appointed. The Board also established 
 the Waifs' Mission School in 189 1, and the 
 Bridewell School in 1894. In 1893 the city 
 normal school, which had practically cea.sed to 
 exist in 1877, was revived, and in 1895-1896 
 the Cook County Normal School was taken 
 over by the city, made a part of the city school 
 system, and substituted for the city normal 
 school. In 1892 teachers were elected on in- 
 definite tenure for the first time. A city teach- 
 ers' pension fund was authorized in 1895. In 
 1895 a school for crippled children was estab- 
 lished, medical inspection was begun, and a 
 department of child study organized. In 1900 
 the legislature ordered Chicago to establish a 
 parental school, and established juvenile courts. 
 In 1903 the first aid was extended to the vaca- 
 tion schools, which had been maintained by 
 private means for a number of years. In 1905 
 promotional examinations for teachers were es- 
 tablished. 
 
 The history of the development of the 
 Chicago schools up to about 1900 dearly indi- 
 cates an impersonal development. Circum- 
 stances, rather than careful planning, have 
 determined what has been done. Unbusiness- 
 like methods have characterized the work of 
 both the Council and the Board of Education. 
 In 1900 the president of the Board of Educa- 
 tion devoted a good portion of his annual report 
 to an arraignment of the unbusinesslike meth- 
 ods of the school sy.stem. An absence of any 
 far-reaching policy is evident. Only since 
 about 1900 has order, system, and policy begun 
 to direct affairs. An effort was made, in 1898, 
 to provide Ciiicago with a thorouglily modern 
 business organization through the work of the 
 Chicago Edvicational Commission {(/.v.), but the 
 movement failed. With the election of Mr. 
 Cooley as .Superintendent of Schools in 1900 in- 
 creased power was given to the superintendent 
 in handling the educational department, and 
 many important changes and reforms were in- 
 troduced, though against serious opposition. 
 Business reforms were also introduced, and the 
 management of the school system was placed 
 on a much better business basis than had been 
 the case before. 
 
 Present System. — The schools of the city 
 
 are governed under the general laws of the state 
 of lUinois, as special legislation is forbidden. 
 The general state school law and the law apph- 
 cable to all cities of over 100,000 inhabitants 
 (Chicago is the only city in the state of this size) 
 form the governing law for the city, except such 
 additional provisions as are contained in the city 
 charter with reference to the size of the Board 
 of Education, manner of appointment, etc. The 
 Board of Education consi.sts of 21 memljcrs, 
 appointed by the Mayor, with the consent of the 
 Council, from the city at large. The term of 
 office is 3 j'cars, one third going out of office 
 each year. This body has control of the schools 
 of the cit}', except that the concurrence of the 
 City Council is necessary if the Board desires 
 to erect or purchase buildings; sell, buy, or lease 
 school sites; issue bonds for buildings or sites; 
 or borrow money for school purposes. The 
 Council also levies the annual tax for schools, 
 but the amount is fixed by the Board of Educa- 
 tion, and is not subject to reduction by the 
 council, if within the legal limit of 5 mills. 
 
 The Board of Education elects all of its exec- 
 utive officers. On the business side there is a 
 Secretary, who attends to all of the clerical 
 business of the Board; a Business Manager, 
 who looks after all contracts, leases, and col- 
 lections, and has charge of the financial side of 
 the work; a Superintendent of Supplies, who 
 has charge of the purchase and distribution of 
 school supplies of all kinds; an Autlitor, who 
 audits all bills, and prepares a statement of ac- 
 counts; a School Architect, who prepares all 
 plans for new buildings and additions, and who 
 supervises all construction and repair work; 
 and a Chief Engineer, who has charge of the in- 
 stallation and upkeep of all heating and venti- 
 lating apparatus, and who acts as a super- 
 visor of engineers and janitors. 
 
 On the educational side the Board elects a 
 Superintendent of Schools, for one-year terms, 
 who has charge of the educational department, 
 and who is given the initiative in the appoint- 
 ment, promotion, and transfer of teachers. The 
 Superintendent is assi-sted by 2 Assistant 
 Superintendents and 6 District Superintend- 
 ents; a Superintendent of Compulsory Educa- 
 tion; a Superintendent of the Parental School; 
 a Director of Scientific Pedagogy and Child 
 Study; and sjjecial supervisors of physical 
 culture, manual training, and household arts, 
 and schools for the blind. 
 
 The school system consisted, in 1908-1909, 
 of 1 normal school, organized as a Teachers' 
 College for the city; 19 high schools, with a 
 large commercial high school under way; and 
 244 elementary schools. Included in the above 
 were a large and well-equipped parental school; 
 a house of correction; a school for crippled 
 children, 11 schools for the deaf, 3 schools for 
 the blind: Gl cooking centers; 147 manual 
 training centers; and a large number of kinder- 
 gartens, 2G2 kindergarten teachers having been 
 employed. A total of 281 supervisory officers 
 
 601
 
 CHICAGO COLLEGE 
 
 CHICAGO THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY 
 
 and 6015 regular teachers were employed in day 
 schools, and 732 additional teachers in evening 
 schools during 1908-1909. The total current 
 expense for maintenance only was 88,517,239 
 in the same year. Of this amount, $339,144 
 came from state sources; .§581,466 from the 
 income from permanent funds, the principal of 
 which amounted to §1,263,190, in June, 1908; 
 and the remainder was raised by local taxa- 
 tion. E. P. C. 
 
 References : — 
 Annual Reports of the Board 0/ Education, 1854-1908. 
 Clark, H. B. The Public Schools 0/ Chicago. (Univ. 
 
 Chic. Pubs., 1U07.) 
 De Weese, T. a. Two Years' Progress in the Chicago 
 
 Schools ; Educ. Rev.. Vol. 24, pp. 325-337. (Nov. 
 
 1902.) 
 Report of the Chicago Educational Commission. (Chicaeo 
 
 1899.) 
 
 CHICAGO COLLEGE OF DENTAL SUR- 
 GERY, CHICAGO, ILL. — See \ alpak.\iso 
 
 U.NIVERSITY. 
 
 CHICAGO EDUCATIONAL COMMIS- 
 SION. — This was a special commission, author- 
 ized by the City Council of Chicago in De- 
 cember, 1897, on the recommendation of the 
 Mayor; appointed by the Mayor and confirmed 
 by Council in January, 1898; and approved by 
 the Board of Education of Chicago in May, 
 1898. The Chairman was AVilliam Rainey 
 Harper, the President of the University of 
 Chicago. Professor George F. James, now 
 Professor of Education in the University of 
 Minnesota, was elected Secretary and compiled 
 the report. The Committee consisted of eleven 
 members, three of whom were members of the 
 Council; two were members of the Board of 
 Education; and two had formerly been members 
 of that body. The opinions of all interested 
 bodies and persons were sought, both in ancl 
 outside of Chicago. After five months of 
 work, with weekly meetings, the Committee 
 met continuously for a week, and then drew up, 
 and had printed, a preliminary report. This 
 was circulated within and without the city 
 and criticism was sought. Continuous ses- 
 sions were held for a time again in November 
 and in December, and finally a detailed printed 
 report was made to the Mayor and Council in 
 December. 1899. This report was widely cir- 
 culated, and was welcomed generally through- 
 out the United States as the most complete 
 and able exposition of proper school manage- 
 ment for a large city that had appeared in 
 print up to that time. The Committee also 
 submitted, with the report, a draft of a proposed 
 law to carry the recommendations into effect. 
 The report awakened much discussion, both 
 favorable and unfavorable, in the city of 
 Chicago, but the recommendations of the Com- 
 mittee were never carried into effect. 
 
 The report was afterwards reprinted by the 
 University of Chicago Press, and has been ex- 
 tensively used as a text in college classes in 
 
 60; 
 
 City School Administration. It is a Report of 
 248 -I- xvi large 8vo pages. The nature of 
 the report may be seen from the Table of Con- 
 tents, wliich is as follows: — 
 
 L The Organization of the Board of Education. 
 II. The Business Management of the Board of 
 Education. 
 
 III. The System of School Supervision. 
 
 IV. The E.xumination, the Appointment, and the 
 
 Promotion of Teachers. 
 V. The Elementary Schools. 
 VI. The High Schools. 
 VII. The Normal School. 
 VIII. Special Studies. 
 IX. Resident Commissioners, 
 X. Text Books. , 
 
 XI. The Evening Schools and a Free Lecture Sys- 
 tem. 
 XII. Vacation Schools and School Playgrounds. 
 
 XIII. Ungraded Rooms and Schools. 
 
 XIV. The Compulsory Attendance Law and a Pa- 
 
 rental School. 
 
 XV. Teachers' Institutes and a Teachers' Library. 
 
 XVI. School Faculties and Councils. 
 
 XVII. The School Census. 
 
 XVIII. School Accommodations. 
 
 XIX. Training for Citizenship. 
 
 XX. School Buildings and Architecture. 
 
 The above constitutes three fourths of the re- 
 port, and the remaining one fourth consists of 
 12 Appendices containing documents and infor- 
 mation supplementary to the above chapters. 
 
 E. P. C. 
 Reference : — 
 
 Report of the Educational Commission of the City of 
 Chicago. (Chicago, 1899.) 
 
 CHICAGO-KENT COLLEGE OF LAW, 
 CHICAGO, ILL. — An amalgamation of the 
 Chicago and Kent colleges of law, made in 
 1900. Courses are offered in the evenings, and 
 extend over thi'ee years. Candidates for a de- 
 gree must furnish evidence of a high school 
 education or its equivalent for admission; other 
 candidates are admitted, provided they have 
 sufficient education to follow the courses. The 
 undergraduate course leads to the degree of 
 Bachelor of Laws. A four years' graduate 
 course is also maintained. There is a faculty 
 of 16 professors and 15 lecturers. 
 
 CHICAGO THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY, 
 CHICAGO, ILL. — A theological college or- 
 ganized in 1854 and offering a three years' 
 course to students of all denominations who 
 have had a collegiate or ecjuivalent education. 
 In addition to the purely professional work, 
 courses are offered in principles and methods 
 of religious instruction. Sunday school work, 
 and social economics. The Chicago Commons, 
 an important social settlement, affords a field 
 for sociological investigations and practical 
 work by the students of the seminary. A 
 school of church music is also maintained in 
 connection with the seminary to afford a 
 musical preparation for musical directors, 
 organists, church singers, pastors' musical as- 
 sistants, and theological students. Ozora Stearns 
 Davis, Ph.D., D.D., is the president.
 
 CHICAGO UNIVERSITY 
 
 CHICAGO UNIVERSITY 
 
 CHICAGO, THE UNIVERSITY OF. —His- 
 torical Outline. — An iii-stitutioii known as 
 Chicago University, founded under Baptist 
 auspices in 1857, surrendered its charter in 
 1SS6. Within two years a grouj) of men began 
 to plan for a new college. The American Bap- 
 tist Education Society interested Mr. John D. 
 Rockefeller, wlio in 1SS9 offered .§600,000 on 
 condition that .S400,000 be raised by June 1, 
 1890, — a requirement which was promptly 
 met. In phuiiiing for the new institution Mr. 
 Rockefeller and tiic officers of the Baptist Edu- 
 cation Society consulted Dr. William Rainey 
 Harper, Professor of Semitic Languages at Yale 
 University. It was due chiefly to Dr. Harper 
 that the original plans for a college were 
 widened to include the founding of a genuine 
 university. On Sept. 10, 1890, the univer- 
 sity was incorporated with a Board of Trustees 
 which included a number of Chicago's most 
 prominent citizens. The charter provides that 
 the Presitlent and two thirds of the trustees 
 must be members of Baptist churches, but it 
 also explicitly declares that no theological test 
 of any kind shall be applied either to members of 
 the teaching staff or to persons who seek admis- 
 sion as students. It also asserts that women shall 
 be admitted to all departments on eciual terms 
 with men. William Rainey Harper was elected 
 the first President of the University of Chicago 
 and entered on his duties July 1, 1891. Further 
 gifts from Mr. Rockefeller followed at frequent 
 intervals. At the .same time citizens of Chicago 
 began to give gencrou.sly for land, buildings, 
 and equipment. In 1892 the Baptist Union 
 Theological Seminary, which held property 
 in the suburb of Morgan Park, was moved to 
 the university grounds and became the Divin- 
 ity School of the university. In 1898 Univer- 
 sity College was established, and for 6 years 
 was largely supported by the gifts of Mrs. 
 Emmons Blaine. It was planned primarily to 
 benefit the teachers of Chicago by providing 
 courses of instruction in the center of the city. 
 In 1901 the Chicago Institute, founded by Mrs. 
 Blaine and presided over by (^olonel Francis W. 
 Parker {q.v.), was combined with the University 
 Laboratory School, established i)y Professor 
 John Dewey, the South Side Academy, and the 
 Chicago Manual Training School into a Scliool 
 of Education with a practice school system 
 which included kindergarten, elementary, and 
 secondary grades. In the same year, by arrange- 
 ment with the Rush Medical College, the first 
 two years of medical work were transferred to 
 the university; the clinical work of the second 
 two years remained in charge of the Rush Medi- 
 cal faculty on the West Siclc of the city. Early 
 in 191)2 a law school was created and law instruc- 
 tion was offered for the first time in tiie autumn 
 of that year. On Jan. 10, 190(), President llar|)er 
 died. Professor Harry Pratt Judson, who had 
 served as Dean of the faculties, was at once 
 appointed Acting President, and in February, 
 1907, was made President of the university. 
 
 Organization. — The university is organ- 
 ized into five divisions: (a) The schools and 
 colleges, including the (Graduate School of Arts 
 and Literature, the Ogden Graduate School of 
 Science, the Divinity School, the School of 
 Education, the Law School, medical courses 
 which in combination with Rush College courses 
 form a School of Medicine, the Colleges of Arts, 
 Literature, Philosophy, and Science, the College 
 of Commerce and Administration, and the Uni- 
 versity College. Each of these colleges, which 
 comprise the four-year untlergraduatc course, is 
 subdivided into Junior (freshmen and sopho- 
 mores) and Senior (juniors and seniors). (6) 
 The University Extension division, which in- 
 cludes lecture-study courses and correspond- 
 ence instruction. (c) University Libraries, 
 Laboratories, and Museums, which includes the 
 general and departmental libraries and all the 
 museum and laboratory resources of the uni- 
 versity. ((/) The University Press, which in- 
 cludes the manufacture and puljlication of books 
 and periodicals, the retail book department, 
 mailing and shipping department, and a depart- 
 ment for the purchase and distribution of 
 laboratory supplies, (e) University Relations, a 
 division which sujjervises secondary schools 
 and colleges with which the university sustains 
 relations of affiliation or cooperation. 
 
 Government. — The Board of Trustees repre- 
 sent the final authority in the affairs of the in- 
 stitution. All appointments to the staff, all 
 promotions from one academic grade to another, 
 all appropriations for salaries and other pur- 
 poses, are made by the trustees on the recom- 
 mendation of the President of the university or 
 committees of the board. Responsibility for ed- 
 ucational policies and ailministration rests with 
 the faculties, organized ujion the following prin- 
 ciples: (a) The autonomy of each faculty in 
 deciding its own problems, subject to (b) the 
 control of a central body, tli(> Senate, charged 
 with considering and furthering the interests of 
 the uni\crsity as a whole, and (c) the definite 
 responsibility of each administrative board to 
 some one faculty or to the Senate. The Senate 
 includes all professors of full rank in all divisions 
 of the university. In case the enactments or 
 policies of two faculties are inconsistent or in 
 actual conflict, the Senate may by a two thirds 
 vote veto the action which has proiluced the 
 difficulty. In a .sense, therefore, the Senate 
 s(Tves as a judicial body. It may also initiate 
 legislation subject to acceptance by the various 
 faculties in so far as their prerogatives may be 
 involved. Executive resiionsibility is intrusted 
 to a series of boards which are either under the 
 different faculties or, in the case of university 
 boards, subject to a general administrative 
 boaril made up of the deans and directors of the 
 different divisions of the university. This gen- 
 eral ailministrative board is responsible to the 
 Senate, and is charged with coordinating the 
 administration of the university as a whole. 
 
 The Faculties. — In organizing the teaching 
 
 603
 
 CHICAGO UNIVERSITY 
 
 CHICAGO UNIVERSITY 
 
 staff of the university in 1891-1892, President 
 Harper sought as heads of the various depart- 
 ments men of academic distinction. In order 
 to offer necessary inducements the ranl-c of Head 
 Professor was created, and the sahiry was fixed 
 at S7000. The original head professors of tlie 
 university were Professor Herman E. von 
 Hoist of Freiburg, Professor John Dewey of the 
 University of Michigan, Professor J. Laurence 
 Laughlin of Cornell University, Professor Harry 
 Pratt Judson of the University of JNIinnesota, 
 Professor Albion W. Small of Colby College, 
 Professor William (larihier Hale of Cornell Uni- 
 versity, Professor William I. Knapp of Yale 
 University, Professor A. A. Michelson of Clark 
 University, Professor T. C. Chambcrlin of 
 the University of Wisconsin, Professor Charles 
 O. Whitman of Clark University, Professors 
 Galusha Anderson and G. W. Northrup of the 
 Baptist Theological Seminary, Professor Ernest 
 D. Burton of Xcwton Theological SeminarJ^ 
 The staff was rapidly recruited from the leading 
 universities and colleges of the country. With 
 the growth of the institution and the passing of 
 pioneer conditions the head professor system 
 became a source of embarrassment. The ex- 
 istence of a special rank of this kind made it 
 difficult to secure additional professors for de- 
 partments which needed more than one man 
 of eminence. At the request of the head pro- 
 fessors themselves the rank was abolished by 
 the trustees, and the title " Professor and Head 
 of Department" was substituted. A movement 
 looking to the organization of departments on 
 a still more democratic basis has recently re- 
 ceived the a])proval of the university Senate, 
 and will doubtless be introduced in the early 
 future. A chairmanship plan which may dis- 
 sociate distinction in scholarship and adminis- 
 trative ability seems likely to meet \\-ith 
 favor. The faculties of the university in 
 1909 numbered 330. This number does 
 not include 18 assistants, and of course leaves 
 out of account all teachers in the practice 
 grades and high school. A large number 
 of men give themselves wholly to research 
 work and to the direction of graduate study. 
 Still others devote themselves almost entirely 
 to undergraduate teaching, while a third group 
 give both undergraduate and graduate courses. 
 From the outset stress has been laid upon re- 
 search and upon scholarly productivity on the 
 part of members of the faculty. 
 
 Degrees. — On the recommendation of the 
 various faculties the trustees of the Univer- 
 sity confer the following degrees: Bachelor of 
 Arts, for an undergraduate curriculum char- 
 acterized by the ancient languages: Bachelor 
 of Science, for studies which are predominantly 
 mathematical and scientific: and Bachelor of 
 Philosophy, for a curriculum in which modern 
 languages and the social sciences form the chief 
 elements; Master of Arts, Master of Philosophy, 
 Master of Science, for advanced work involv- 
 ing at least a year of residence and requiring 
 
 specialization in two or more related depart- 
 ments; Doctor of Philosophy, for a minimum 
 of tlu'ee years of resident work, specialization 
 in two related departments, and the preparation 
 of a thesis which gives evidence of alsility to do 
 original investigative work; Bachelor of Divinity, 
 after approximately two years' graduate work in 
 biblical, theological, and ecclesiastical subjects; 
 Bachelor of Laws, for a professional law course 
 of at least tlu-ee years in which a grade of schol- 
 arship has been achieved 10 per cent higher 
 than that required for the degree of Doctor of 
 Law, which is granted to candidates who have 
 completed a three-year professional course in 
 addition to an undergraduate course in an ap- 
 proved college, or who have combined a three 
 years' professional course with the first three 
 years of the college course in such a way as to 
 secure both the Bachelor's degree and the degree 
 of Doctor of Law. The degree of M.D. is not 
 conferred by the university, but by the faculty 
 of Rush iMedical College after four years of 
 medical studies in addition to the first two 
 years of a regular college course for the Bache- 
 lor's degree. 
 
 Grounds, Buildings, Equipment, and Endow- 
 ment. — The university is .situated on the Mid- 
 way Plaisance (Fifty-ninth and Sixtieth streets 
 on the south side), halfway between Was!,ing- 
 ton Park on the west and Jackson Park (site 
 of the World's Columbian Exposition of 1893) 
 on the east. The institution owns 90 acres, 
 which include a three-quarter mile frontage 
 on each side of the Midway Plaisance. The 
 31 university buildings comprise 3 recitation 
 halls, 2 museums, 7 laboratories, 10 dormitories, 
 2 gymnasiums, an assembly hall, men's com- 
 mons, a men's club, a law school, a College of 
 Education, a Press building, power house, etc. 
 The Harper Memorial Library, under construc- 
 tion in the spring of 1910, will be ready for 
 occupancy early in 1912. AU the buildings 
 of the university, save the Press, are of one 
 tj'pe of architecture — a Tudor Gothic. They 
 are faced with Indiana limestone and roofed 
 with red tile. An architectural scheme drawn 
 up at the outset by the first architect, Henry 
 Ives Cobb, has since been modified in many 
 ways. All buildings, however, have been de- 
 signed in harmony with the original type. A 
 considerable range of variation in details is 
 maintained within the limits of a single archi- 
 tectural scheme. The firm of Shepley, Rutan, 
 and Coolidge of Boston, the official architects 
 of the university, have modeled some of the 
 later buildings after well-known academic halls 
 of the English colleges. Thus at Chicago the 
 L'niversity Tower is something more than sug- 
 gestive of Magdalen Tower at Oxford; the Chi- 
 cago University commons, known as Hutchin- 
 son Hall, is a rather close reproduction of Christ 
 Church Hall, O.xford, while the Chicago Univer- 
 sity Law School brings to mind King's College 
 Chapel, Cambridge. The buildings and grounds 
 of the university were valued, July 1, 1909, at 
 
 604
 
 CHICAGO UNIVERSITY 
 
 CHICAGO UNIVERSITY 
 
 $8,917,708. The university libraries contained, 
 on July 1, 1909, 492,292 volumes; the labora- 
 tory and other equipment of the university 
 was valued at 8670,527, and the productive 
 funds amounted to 814,008,778. The annual 
 budget of expenditures for the year 1909-1910 
 was fixed at 81,431,565. The tuition fees in 
 the colleges and graduate schools amount to 
 $40 per quarter, or 8120 for the academic year. 
 In addition laboratory and incidental fees are 
 required, varying in amounts with the courses 
 taken. In the Law School the fees are $50 
 per quarter, and in the Medical School, $00 
 per quarter. Fellowships in the Graduate 
 Schools are provided to the amount of $21,500. 
 The stipends vary from $450 to $120 each. 
 Tlirough appropriation by the Board of 
 Tru.stees, and from endowment funds given 
 especially for the purpose, the sum of 876,500 
 in honor and service scholarships is available 
 for the aid of aisle and worthy students. 
 
 Distinctive Features of the University. — ■ 
 The university year is divided into four aj)- 
 proximately equal academic periods known as 
 quarters, the autumn, winter, spring, summer. 
 The summer quarter is subdivided into two 
 equal periods or terms. The omi.ssion of a 
 vacation period between the spring and sum- 
 mer quarters gives a free period of about three 
 weeks in September for renovations and re- 
 pairs. Thus the university plant is used al- 
 most continuously. Although students are 
 matriculated and degrees are conferred quar- 
 terly, custom and convenience cause by far the 
 largest number of students to enter in the 
 autumn. Thus, in the academic year 1908- 
 1909, 47 undergraduate students matriculated 
 at the beginning of the summer, 409 at the 
 beginning of the autumn, 24 at the beginning 
 of the winter, and 24 at the beginning of the 
 spring. The quarter system makes each quar- 
 ter a unit of study as well as a unit of time. 
 Regular work consists of 3 courses, which meet 
 5 hours a week, or the equivalent of 5 hours 
 in assigned work. Laboratory courses count 
 at the rate of 2 hours in the laboratory for 
 1 hour in the lecture room. This plan involves 
 concentration upon a few studies for a period 
 of 3 months. The system on the whole has 
 proved a success. The department of English 
 is of the opinion that introductory composi- 
 tion courses might with advantage be distrili- 
 utcd over two or three ciuarters instead of 
 concentrated in one. In the Law School 
 what amounts to a semester system is per- 
 mitted, i.e. certain courses extend over one 
 quarter and a half. Another distinctive feature 
 of Chicago organization is the division of the 
 undergraduates into two colleges, the Senior 
 College, including the third and fourth years 
 of the undergraduate course, and the Junior 
 College, induiiing the first and second years. 
 This division is based u[)on the belief that the 
 first two years of college have more in common 
 with the high school course than with later 
 
 undergraduate pursuits. The transition from 
 the one kind of study to another is fixed at 
 the middle of the college course, and is sig- 
 nalized by the title of Associate, which is 
 granted to students who have completed the 
 work of the Junior College. The undergraduate 
 curriculum puts all the specific requirements 
 in the Junior College, leaving the Senior Col- 
 lege free for election, limited tiy prerequisites, 
 within rather generously defined groups which 
 lead to the three baccalaureate degrees. The 
 University Extension is an organic part of the 
 university. Lecture study courses of the Eng- 
 lish extension type are conducted by the uni- 
 versitj' in cities and towns of the Middle West. 
 Credit is granted to students who, by attend- 
 ance upon these lectures, the reailing of re- 
 quired books, the preparation of written work, 
 and the passing of final examinations reach 
 the necessary standard. Another form of Uni- 
 versity Extension consists of correspondence 
 instruction. This is conducted by members 
 of the regular university staff as well as by 
 members of faculties of other colleges and uni- 
 versities. The work is thorough in its char- 
 acter, is conscientiously guarded, and is a 
 valuable aid to hundreds of earnest students. 
 IVLany ambitious school teachers are combining 
 summer residence with correspondence in.struc- 
 tion, and are thus working gradually toward 
 bachelor degrees. No correspondence instruc- 
 tion is accepted in lieu of the one-year resi- 
 dence requirement for the Master's degree. 
 Only under exceptional circumstances com- 
 pletely controlled by the departments con- 
 cerned is nonresident work credited toward a 
 Doctor's degree. The University of Chicago 
 is unique in including in its organization a Press 
 Department, which, in addition to printing all 
 the official documents of the university, pub- 
 lishes 14 scientific journals and has up to 1910 
 published 400 volumes. The scientific journals 
 of the Press are subsidized to the amount of 
 the income on a half million of dollars. The 
 university regards publication of a scientific 
 character as a legitimate university function. 
 
 Statistics of Registration. — The quarter sys- 
 tem, and especially the constituency of the 
 summer quarter, cause the number of different 
 students connected with the university in a 
 single year to reach a high total, 5659 for the 
 year 1908-1909. The total registration for 
 the different quarters was: summer 3050, 
 autumn 2705, winter 2758, spring 2404. In 
 order to make the total number of 5659 com- 
 parable with the statistics of other institutions 
 it should be reduced to a three-quarter basis, 
 that is, by the use of the unit, one student in 
 residence" for 9 months. Calculated on this 
 basis, the total registration becomes 3639. Of 
 the number in the graduate schools for the 
 year 1908-1909, 90S were men and .508 women. 
 Of the undergraduates the men numi)ered 1038 
 and the women 859. The term " unclassified " 
 is applied to students over 21 years of age who 
 
 605
 
 CHICAGO UNIVERSITY 
 
 CHICAGO UNIVERSITY 
 
 for satisfactory reasons arc admitted to courses 
 in tlic university, but are not candidates for 
 degrees. Many mature and earnest men and 
 women desire to pursue courses for wliicli they 
 have aptitude and need. These applicants are 
 carefully sifted on admission, to eliminate weak 
 students who may be trying to evade require- 
 ments. These unclassified students are there- 
 fore by no means identical with " Special Stu- 
 dents," in the sense in which that term is often 
 used. In the summer quarter many teachers 
 are enrolled as " unclassified," not because 
 they could not present proper credentials, but 
 because they desire to postpone the routine of 
 registration as candidates for degrees. 
 
 Graduate and Professional Schools. — The 
 Graduate Schools are notable for the large 
 amount of research in progress, the cooperation 
 in investigative work of the faculty and ad- 
 vanced students, the number of strong men 
 who arc engaged in research and are also in- 
 terested in teaching. In 1908-1909 the Gradu- 
 ate Schools of Arts and Literature registered S70 
 different .students, of whom 398 were women. 
 The Ogden Graduate School of Science regis- 
 tered S-if) different students, of whom 110 were 
 women. The Divinity School is distinguished 
 by the fact that it gives its degrees only to 
 college graduates; it insists upon the necessity 
 of vocational training; it has an unusually 
 large faculty, and in the academic year 1908- 
 1909 registered 397 different students. No 
 money subsidy is given directly to students of 
 the Graduate Divinity School. This depart- 
 ment conducts a significant work through 
 its Scandinavian seminaries. Its journal, the 
 Biblical World, and the American Journal of 
 Theology, are important organs of publication. 
 The students represent practically all the chief 
 denominations in the country. The school is 
 an integral part of the institution, and enjoys 
 the liberty of teaching which characterizes a 
 true university. The School of Law is note- 
 worthy from the fact that it requires three years 
 of college work for regular admission, that the 
 first year of law may be counted as the fourth 
 year for the bachelor's degree, that the case 
 system of instruction is made a prominent 
 feature of the training, that the three-year 
 course is not local in its scope, but prepares 
 the students to practice in any English-speak- 
 ing jurisdiction. The student body is cosmo- 
 politan; 123 different colleges were represented 
 in the school last year (1908-1909). The 
 school is committed to the princijile that 
 classes shall be small enough to afford thorough 
 individual training. The library, which con- 
 tains about 33,000 volumes, is in size and 
 excellence probably the best library in the 
 Mississippi Valley for the scholarly study of 
 English and American law. Almo.st all mem- 
 bers of the faculty give their entire time to the 
 professional teaching of law. The faculty con- 
 tains at present (1908-1909) 8 men, all profes- 
 sors of full rank. The total registration in the 
 
 606 
 
 Law School for last year (1908-1909) was 303. 
 The School of Education includes four organi- 
 zations — a Graduate Department for the 
 scientific study of educational problems, a 
 College of Education in which students are 
 prepared for positions as high school or grade 
 teachers, a University High School for practice 
 and observation work, and an Elementary 
 School including a Kindergarten Department 
 utilized as a pedagogical laboratory. The 
 College of Education gives through its depart- 
 ments individual attention to various types of 
 constructive work, but at the same time in- 
 cludes all the conventional materials to be 
 found in other schools. Last year (190S-1909) 
 the registration of different individuals in the 
 College of Education was 958, of whom 837 
 were women. 
 
 Student Life. — The urban location, the pre- 
 dominance of graduate ideals, and the early 
 impress of university standards have prevented 
 the development of a strong college spirit 
 among the undergraduates. Sixteen Greek 
 Letter fraternities are represented at the uni- 
 versity. A number of women's societies are 
 also officially recognized. A men's club pro- 
 vides a social center for the male students, 
 while the five women's halls, with their common 
 dining rooms, reception rooms, etc., afford 
 social life for many women students. Nearly 
 2.5 per cent of the students live in the dormi- 
 tories of the university. About 70 per cent 
 of the students have their local residences 
 within a mile and a half of the university 
 buildings. From the outset the standards of 
 the institution have opposed undergraduate 
 boisterousness and hoodlumism. A sane and 
 sound student sentiment supports this tradi- 
 tion. Many undergraduates are interested 
 in athletics, but the university community is 
 by no means dominated by athletic excitement. 
 A department of Physical Culture and Athletics 
 makes it a policy to intere.st the largest possi- 
 ble number of students in many forms of 
 wholesome and recreative exercise. 
 
 Educational Policy of the University. — The 
 University of Chicago occupies a unique posi- 
 tion with reference to higher education in the 
 Middle West. Upon it largely re.sts the respon- 
 sibility of maintaining and extending graduate 
 work of the highest type, and the ultimate 
 establishment of professional schools upon a 
 graduate basis. On the other hand, the loca- 
 tion in a great city throws upon the university 
 the obligation to provide for undergraduate 
 teaching. It is the aim of the university to 
 fulfill both these functions with fidelity to the 
 best standards and without sacrificing either 
 task to the other. If technical and medical 
 instruction as well as other forms of profes- 
 sional work are ever established or extended, 
 it is altogether likely that they will be main- 
 tained upon a graduate basis. There will be 
 no attempt to compete with existing institu- 
 tions of the conventional type. So far as col-
 
 CHICKASAW COLLEGE 
 
 CHILD LABOR 
 
 lege instruction goes, the university will con- 
 tinue the policy recently undertaken of raising 
 steadily the standard of undergraduate scholar- 
 ship with a view to limiting opportunities to 
 students who are able and willing to do work 
 of a thorough character. G. E. V. 
 
 References: — 
 
 Flint, H. The University of Chicago, A Sketch. (Chi- 
 cago, 1904.) 
 
 Harper, W. R. President's Report, 1892-1902. (Chi- 
 cago, 1903.) 
 
 President's Re/wrts. (1903 to date.) 
 
 Slosson, E. E. The University of Chicago. The //»- 
 dependent, Jan. 6, 1910. 
 
 Vincent, G. E. The University of Chicago. Outlook, 
 Aug. 2, 1902. 
 
 CHICKASAW COLLEGE, PONTOTOC, 
 MISS. — An institution for the education of 
 girls and young women, under the auspices of 
 the Presbytery of Mississippi. Preparatory, 
 collegiate, normal, and fine arts departments 
 are maintained. Admission is by certificate or 
 examination, the requirements for which are 
 indefinite. Degrees are conferred. There is a 
 faculty of 8 instructors. 
 
 CHILD, GROWTH OF. —See Growth. 
 
 CHILD, THE INCORRIGIBLE. — See Ab- 
 
 NORM.\LiTiEs; Deli-nquents; Incorrigible 
 Child; Truant Schools; Parental Schools. 
 
 CHILD LABOR. — In the social economy 
 of primitive peoples, children begin to share 
 the labors of the family or clan at a very early 
 age. It is instinctive on the part of even very 
 immature boys and girls to participate in the 
 activities about them, to imitate occupational 
 pursuits, to yield to authority and direction, 
 and through these activities to obtain a certain 
 degree of education on a natural scale. It is 
 also customary, if not instinctive, for their 
 elders to assign them tasks, to encourage their 
 efforts and to contribute to their education. 
 The work done by the children has been com- 
 monl}' of a fragmentary character, like chores, 
 errands, and other minor tasks. There is no 
 evidence that such industrial participation has 
 often been harmful where oversight was exer- 
 cised by those having a family or philanthropic 
 interest in the child. In fact, it is now pretty 
 certain that this sharing of economic activities 
 is (juite essential to the complete development 
 of children from even 5 or 6 years of age on- 
 wards, when constructive workmanship in- 
 stincts begin to appear. The labor of children 
 under humane conditions, therefore, has been 
 traditionally established, and has not been in 
 general an evil. It became rooted in custom, 
 and childish instincts allied themselves with it. 
 It was the changed industrial and educational 
 conditions of the latter part of the eiglitecnth 
 and of the nineteenth centuries which caused 
 a hitherto harmless institution to become an 
 evil of large magnitude. Tiie development of 
 machine manufacture enabled employers to 
 
 use children in gangs, and under systematic 
 divisions of labor it took the children away 
 from the sympathetic control of their parents; 
 because of the simplicity of nmch labor attend- 
 ant on machine production, cmiiloyers were 
 able to substitute children in large numbers for 
 adult laborers. Competition among manu- 
 facturers and the ignorance or greed of parents 
 or guardians steadily reduced the age at which 
 children went into employment. This eco- 
 nomic condition was the primary cause of harm- 
 ful child labor; and except for the influence of 
 prohibitive legislation, these conditions have 
 become steadily more controlling. Production 
 through machine increases; the opportunities 
 for child labor grow; and competition puts a 
 premium on managers who can exact the utmost 
 of production from meagerly paid workers. 
 Along with this the urbanization of peoples 
 opens up a variety of occu[)ations like street 
 trading, messenger service, and minor forms of 
 delivery and distribution, which in themselves 
 become harmful. 
 
 As a basis for the modern attitude of social 
 economy toward child labor, it is commonly 
 accepted that factory labor for children under 
 14 years (1) is almost invariably injurious 
 owing to its routine character, its night work 
 and unhygienic surroundings, its unsympathetic 
 supervision, and the opportunities it opens for 
 immorality; (2) it is socially injurious in that 
 it depresses the wages of adults and diminishes 
 the available number of physically developed 
 workmen for the next generations; (3) it is 
 both socially and individually injurious in that 
 it deprives the child of opportunities for edu- 
 cational development; and (4) it is economi- 
 cally unnecessary. It is on the basis of these 
 principles that humanitarians have for up- 
 ward of a century carried on their campaigns 
 against child labor. 
 
 England. — Naturally, interest in the sub- 
 ject developed first in areas extensively devoted 
 to manufacturing. The ra]iid revolution of 
 industry in England drew attention to child 
 labor as early as the later years of the eight- 
 eenth century. In 1802 the Health and 
 Morals of Apprentices Act, the first factory 
 act, was pa.ssed primarily to protect the 
 pauper orphan children who were being herded 
 into the woolen mills. These pauper children 
 had been taken from parish councils, the manu- 
 facturers often receiving a premium for taking 
 them as apprentices. The helpless children 
 were subjected to most prolonged hours of 
 labor, the death rate was enormous, and the 
 manufacturer had no incentive to give the 
 children adequate care. The Act of 1802 
 limited the work of the children carried on in 
 woolen mills — many of the children being 
 from 7 to 12 years of age — to 12 hours a day, 
 provided that the niglit work of ajiprcnticcs 
 was to be gradually discontinued, and to cease 
 altogether after June, 1804. It reciuircd that 
 apprentices should be instructed in reading, 
 
 007
 
 CHILD LABOR 
 
 CHILD LABOR 
 
 writing, and arithmetic, and a suit of clothes 
 given to each yearly. It provided that factories 
 were to be whitewashed twice a year, and at 
 all times properly ventilated. Separate sleep- 
 ing apartments were to be provided for ap- 
 prentices of different sexes, and not more than 
 two were to share a bed. Apprentices were to 
 attend church at least once a month, and the 
 justices were to appoint two inspectors — one 
 of whom should be a clergyman — to visit the 
 factories. All mills and factories were to be 
 registered annually with the Clerk of the 
 Peace, and justices had power to inflict fines 
 of from £2 to €5 for neglect to observe the 
 regulations. The Act applied to cotton fac- 
 tories as well as to woolen, and the preamble 
 made it applicable not only to apprentices, 
 but to all cotton and woolen factories in 
 which 20 or more persons were employed, 
 although the clause relating to restriction of 
 hours and providing educational facilities 
 expressly applied to apprentices only. (See 
 Hutchins and Harrison's History of Factory 
 Legislation, pp. 16-17). Seventeen years later 
 (1819) a more extensive act aimed at all 
 factory work was passed, but it failed largely 
 of application, owing to imperfect agencies of 
 enforcement. It is suggestive to note that it 
 prohibited the employment in factories of 
 children under 9 years of age and limited the 
 working hours of children from 9 to 16 years 
 of age to 12 hours per day. 
 
 From this time for upward of half a century 
 the humanitarians struggled with the laissez 
 faire prepossession of British life for a protected 
 childhood. The law of 1819 was not enforced, 
 and a Royal Commission in 1833 found chil- 
 dren working as much as 15 hours daily. The 
 following year another act of a more compre- 
 hensive nature was passed, which (1) fixed a 
 working day so as to aboUsh night work; 
 (2) prescribed at least two hours' schooling for 
 children under 13; (3) limited their working 
 hours to 9; and (4) accomplished other reforms 
 like fixing the length of the working week. 
 The required schools, however, were commonly 
 kept up by the factories themselves, and were 
 of little educational value to the children. (See 
 Factory Schools.) 
 
 In 1843 began the system of " half time." 
 This was a compromise between the forces 
 which sought the education of a child and the 
 employers who desired cheap labor. The 
 employment of a child under 13 was made 
 contingent upon his regularly producing a cer- 
 tificate of attendance at school for at least 3 
 hours daily, or for alternate days. The amount 
 of daily factory work was limited to 6^ hours. 
 The half-time sj'stem, it will be seen, had 
 points of correspondence with the situation in 
 which children usually find themselves under 
 primitive economic conditions — a distribution 
 of time between school and work. Luther 
 long before had said: " We must send the 
 boys to school one or two hours a day and have 
 
 them learn a trade for the rest of the time." 
 But the opponents of child labor were not 
 satisfied with the half-time system. The 
 young children still suffered under factory 
 conditions, and the school was often farcical. 
 In 1878 half time was prohibited for children 
 under 10, and this limit was raised to 11 in 
 1891, and to 12 in 1899. In 1904-1905 there 
 were still over 80,000 half-time workers, nearly 
 all in the textile districts in Lancashire, with a 
 few in Dundee. Under existing enactments 
 half-time labor can be corrected either by 
 further parliamentary legislation or by acts of 
 local councils. In 1908-1909 a strong agi- 
 tation began to end half time for children 
 under 14. 
 
 England obtained public education in 1870, 
 and the comprehensive act of 1878 not only 
 restricted child labor and clarified legislation 
 pertaining to it, but also made education com- 
 pulsory. In 1909 the age of exemption from 
 school attendance was raised to 14, and the 
 conditions of employment of children below 
 that age who had completed school work 
 were more regular and stringent. Children 
 under 11 cannot be employed in agricultural 
 work, and over that age must have completed 
 the fourth grade. The next great step was in 
 regulating the employment of children on the 
 basis of the character of the work done. By 
 the legislation of 1901, a variety of employ- 
 ments were prohibited to children under 16; 
 girls and women were exempted from night 
 work; physical conditions of work were safe- 
 guarded; and in factories and many trades 
 youth under 16 must have a certificate of phys- 
 ical fitness. The next point of attack was the 
 occupations of children outside the school 
 hours. The number so employed in carrying 
 milk and parcels in street trades and in home 
 or sweatshop work was very large. So far, 
 legislation has not overcome the evils in this 
 field where work outside of school hours, 
 coupled with school instruction, certainly re- 
 sults in the overtaxing of children. The Em- 
 ployment of Children Act of 1903, the result 
 of the Interdepartmental Committee's report, 
 greatly restricted such employment, and gave 
 local authorities power to still further restrict 
 the employment of children outside school 
 hours. The Act of 1903 regulated street trad- 
 ing by providing for the licensing of children 
 so employed, distinguishing, by the badge worn, 
 children under school age and children above 
 school age, in allowing the former to engage 
 in trade only outside of school hours, but limit- 
 ing the number of hours both with respect to 
 the total number per day and the exact hours 
 between which such employment is legal. (See 
 Victor Clark's Women and Child Wage Earners 
 in Great Britain, Bulletin of United States 
 Bureau of Labor, Washington, January, 1909, 
 No. 80, pp. 27-36.) Since the opening of the 
 twentieth century, owing to a keen realization 
 of the prevalence of physical and indu.strial 
 
 608
 
 CHILD LABOR 
 
 CHILD LABOR 
 
 incompetency among the population, Great 
 Britain has been giving increasing attention 
 to the problems of tlie productive work of 
 children. The trend of recent legislation is 
 along the most advanced lines described here- 
 after in the legislation of the United States, and 
 its comprehensive character is shown in the 
 celebrated "Children's Act" of 1908. 
 
 France. — The late rise of manufacturing in 
 France and the persistence of household in- 
 dustries has deferred develojiment in this field 
 in that country. It is true that laws regard- 
 ing apprenticeship date back many centuries, 
 and that these .still serve to safeguard the ap- 
 prentice; but as a means of meeting the objec- 
 tions to child labor they are now futile. In fact, 
 there are in Paris and other large cities a 
 variety of abuses which in a sense are trace- 
 able to the existence of these laws. E.xisting 
 French child labor legislation is simple. To 
 enter on regular employment children must be 
 13, or must have completed the common school 
 course, exceptions being made in certain cases 
 in favor of seasonal industries like fruit pack- 
 ing. Up to 18, night labor is prohibited, and 
 all labor in certain dangerous or objectionable 
 industries. All youths under 18 must have 
 employment certificates showing schooling, 
 etc., and for those under 16 in many trades 
 certificates of physical fitness may be de- 
 manded. Employment for youths under 18 
 is limited to 10 hours, and to that period for 
 all women. France is still largely agricultural, 
 and many industries are still domestic in char- 
 acter. Families are prevailingly small, the 
 children well cared for, and relatively few 
 tendencies toward exploitation exist. There 
 are found no satisfactory statistics as to em- 
 ployment of children below 14. France has 
 little legislation restricting household or agri- 
 cultural labor, ami this lack, coupled with the 
 inefficiency of factory inspection, is at present 
 attracting the attention of social workers. 
 
 Germany. — Legislation affecting children 
 comes from two main sources — the Empire and 
 separate states. The standard set by the im- 
 perial enactments expresses minimum condi- 
 tions, the chief of which are: (1) All children 
 under 13 must attend school full time, and 
 may not work in industries between 8 p.m. 
 and 8 a.m. (2) Restrictions on employment 
 are greatly affected by the degree of relation- 
 ship borne to the worker by the employer. 
 Hours, time for meals, and rest, etc., are care- 
 fully regulated. (3) Children in school may 
 not labor more than 3 hours per day, and 
 during vacation not more than 4 hours. 
 (4) Night work is prohibited to males under 
 if) and to all females. (5) Under 14 the fac- 
 tory working day is limited to 6 hours, and 
 under lO to lO" hours. In 1898 about half 
 a million children under 14 were employed 
 in industrial establishments which were not 
 factories, and in agriculture. Only 9000 
 children of the above age were in factories. 
 
 Obviously the large number above were in small 
 shops; 58 per cent were reported as working 
 in industries, and 25 per cent in delivery occu- 
 pations. The various Cierman states are at 
 liberty to supplement the above legislation as 
 they see fit. While the standards above set 
 forth seem low, it is probable that a compen- 
 sation exists in the rigid system of inspection 
 which prevails and is carried out by the local 
 police. Between school and shop almost all 
 the time of the German child above 12 is 
 claimed, but the paternal attitude which is 
 adopted seems to contribute much toward pre- 
 venting harmful results. 
 
 United States. — There is no national con- 
 trol of child labor. In 1907 five measures 
 were brought before Congress, the aim of 
 which was to enlist the services of the national 
 government. The first was a bill incorporat- 
 ing a National Child Labor Committee; the 
 second, a model child labor bill for the Dis- 
 trict of Columbia; the third, a lull to provide 
 for a National Children's Bureau; the fourth, 
 providing for an investigation of the labor of 
 women and children under the United States 
 Commission of Labor; the fifth, known as 
 the Beveridge-Parsons Child Labor Bill, .sought 
 to prohibit the transportation in interstate 
 commerce of child-labor-made goods just as 
 con\-ict-made goods are now excluded from 
 foreign commerce under tariff laws. Only 
 the finst and fourth became laws that year, 
 whUe the second was passed in 1908. The 
 Beveridge-Parsons hill aimed to penalize in- 
 terstate commerce where it could be shown 
 that the labor of children had been employed, 
 but the bill did not come to a vote in either 
 house, ow'ing to the conviction that it uncon- 
 stitutionally extended the powers of Congress. 
 Development and enforcement of child labor 
 legislation and stinmlation of public opinion 
 has been for several years under the lead of 
 the National Child Labor Committee. This 
 society, which in 1910 had over 4000 members 
 and a budget for expenses amounting to more 
 than $50,000 per year, holds an annual 
 convention. It keeps agents at work in those 
 regions where the development of manufac- 
 turing industries renders the need most press- 
 ing. A review of its annual Proceedings pro- 
 vides the most complete commentary on recent 
 developments. In its work this committee has 
 laid down certain standard conditions to be 
 met, which are the results of experience in 
 endeavors to secure the kind of administrative 
 machinery which proves effective in enforcing 
 legislation. Then, according to local condi- 
 tions and the state of local opposition, it makes 
 accommodations as far as possible. In the 
 course of this procedure it has become evident 
 that the entire subjcH-t of child labor is vastly 
 complicated, and tlu- somewhat simple prin- 
 ciples, unless adhered to, no longer suffice. 
 
 Standards for Legislation. — The following 
 are the standards now usually sought: — 
 
 -2r 
 
 609
 
 CHILD LABOR 
 
 CHILD LABOR 
 
 L Age or Development of the Child. - No 
 child under 14 ought to work in factories, 
 shops, street trades, etc., and under 16 or 1.S 
 in occupations dangerous to health or morals, 
 in several states the minimum age is yet 12; 
 and even 10 or no age limit at all for orphans, 
 or children of widowed mothers dependent 
 on their earnings. In all states exceptions 
 in age are made for occupations pursued 
 outside of school hours. In some the mini- 
 mum age is changed for vacations, espe- 
 cially where fruit and vegetable packing are 
 important sources of employment. Obviously 
 the age of the child is but a poor index of his 
 development or his capacity for work. Hence 
 physical tests are being imposed, as weight 
 and height standards, like the minimum weight 
 of 80 pounds and the minimum height of 60 
 inches employed in the New York law of 190.3. 
 To the authorities issuing the iiermit to go to 
 work, some of the states allow the option of 
 refusing such certificate if the child seems un- 
 fitted for the employment proposed. 
 
 2. Education. — One of the objects of 
 child labor legislation being to secure to the 
 child his educational rights, all programs en- 
 deavor to secure a minimum education, even 
 when the child has passed the minimum age. 
 Early attempts in this direction simply provide 
 that the child be able to read and write. The 
 objection to this has been not so much on the 
 ground of its insufficiency as of its vagueness, 
 which opens the way to all sorts of evasion. 
 Recent legislation in Massachusetts, New 
 York, Ohio, and other states sets a minimum 
 limit in terms of a school grade, as, for ex- 
 ample, the third in Massachusetts, the 5 a in 
 New York City, and the eighth grade in New 
 Jersey. A different requirement as to the 
 amount of school attendance to be made each 
 year is also aimed at. 
 
 3. Time and Amount of Work. — The ideal 
 of child labor legislation contemplates an 8- 
 hour day for all youths under 16 and a week 
 limit of 48 hours. These conditions are met 
 at present in but few states, a 10-hour day 
 or 56-hour week representing the best condi- 
 tions usually attainable. Night work is op- 
 posed for boys under 16 and for girls under 
 18, and for all women, partly on physical, 
 largely on moral, grounds. Prohibition of night 
 work must usually indicate different hours, e.g. 
 7 P.M. to 7 A..M., during which work may not 
 be done. Frequently exceptions must be 
 made for mercantile business where late work 
 is required on Saturday night or during holi- 
 days. Street trades to be carried on part time 
 or outside of school hours frequently are ex- 
 ceptions. 
 
 4. Poverty of Children. — An old defense of 
 early child labor rested on the fact of necessi- 
 tous parents. Standard legislation now recog- 
 nizes that cases of dependent parents occur, 
 and that their existence should not deprive the 
 cliild of his rights to education, health, physical 
 
 development, and vocational efficiency. Hence 
 private philanthropy or state aid must provide 
 scholarships to assist those children who by 
 virtue of their exclusion from labor are pre- 
 vented from earning money to aid in the support 
 of themselves or their dependent parents. In 
 New York and other states private effort sup- 
 plies scholarships; in Ohio and Colorado the state 
 now provides books, clothing, and even food. 
 
 5. Enforcement. — Child labor legislation is 
 rarely sufficiently supported by public senti- 
 ment and public knowledge to be self-en- 
 forcing. Experience has demonstrated the 
 need of (a) certificates for all youths em- 
 ployed; (ft) the posting of lists of all employees 
 as well as hours of labor; (c) official inspection; 
 id) suitable penalties. The certificate nmst 
 be possessed by each young person employed, 
 showing age, place of birth, educational con- 
 dition, etc. In reaching these standards many 
 obstacles have been encountered, chiefly in the 
 matter of establishing the age of foreigners. 
 Experience demonstrates that the sworn state- 
 ment of parents will not suffice. Birth or bap- 
 tismal certificates or other positive evidence is 
 now required. The recent tendency is to lay 
 responsibility on school authorities for the is- 
 suance of these certificates. Experience also 
 demonstrates that publicity on the part of em- 
 ployers is necessary. This includes the posting 
 in pubUc places of the lists of employees, with 
 evidence as to their possession of the above 
 certificates. All papers must be produced on 
 demand of each truant officer or inspector. 
 Working hours must also be posted. In a few 
 instances it has been found necessary to penal- 
 ize the concealment of child employees on oc- 
 casion of inspection. State agents or inspectors 
 are necessary to the enforcemet of the laws. 
 In practice these are attached to the State 
 Labor Department or division for factory in- 
 spection. These officers should include a 
 number of women inspectors, as indicated in 
 the last law on this subject in Ohio. They 
 must give their entire time to inspection, and 
 should be obliged to keep records of such a 
 nature as to demonstrate the efficiency of their 
 work. 
 
 The trend of public opinion in the United 
 States with respect to child labor is fairly 
 well indicated by a summary of the important 
 details in legislation on this subject during 
 the past 5 years. The Secretary of the Na- 
 tional Child Labor Committee submitted a 
 statement at the end of the year 1909, which 
 showed that during the previous 5-year period 
 13 states and the District of Columbia had es- 
 tablished insjiection departments for the enforce- 
 ment of child labor laws; the S-hour day 
 for children had been established in 10 states 
 and the District of Columbia, and the hours of 
 labor measurably reduced in 13 additional 
 states; 6 states and the District of Columbia 
 passed child labor laws for the first time dur- 
 ing this period, and Nevada is the only state 
 
 J 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 610
 
 CHILD LABOR 
 
 CHILD PSYCHOLOGY 
 
 in the Union without a general and compre- 
 hensive act, although many of tlie laws are be- 
 low what is regarded as a normal standard, 
 both with respect to their prohibitions and the 
 provisions for their enforcement. Some further 
 comparisons are to be noted from the following 
 statement. In 1904 the l-t-year age limit ap- 
 plied to factories, stores, etc., in 12 states, and 
 in 1910 in 19 states, while in the latter year the 
 law usually included offices, laundries, hotels, 
 theaters, and bowling alleys, as well as stores 
 and factories. In 1904 the 14-year age limit 
 in factories only applied in 9 states, in 1910 
 in 11 states. For mines the age limit in 1904 
 was 15 in one state, 14 in 19 states, and 12 in 
 5 states, while in 1910 it was 16 in 6 states, 
 14 in 18 states, and 12 in 8 states. The employ- 
 ment of children was forbidden during school 
 hours in only 14 states in 1904, but in 23 states 
 in 1910. The 13-year age limit in the general 
 law applied in Pennsylvania and Rhode Is- 
 land in 1904, but only in North Carolina in 
 1910, while the 12-year age limit in stores and 
 factories applied in 2 states in 1904, and for 
 factories only in 8 states, while in 1910 we 
 find it in 3 states applying to stores and fac- 
 tories, and to factories only in 12 states, but in the 
 latter instance restricted to vacation periods in 
 the schools. There were no general restrictions 
 of child labor in 6 states and the District of Co- 
 lumbia in 1904, but only in 1 state in 1910. 
 Night work was prohibited in 13 states in 1904, 
 — the age limit varying from 12 to 18, — while in 
 23 states there was no prohibition; but in 1910 
 night work is prohibited in 23 states for chil- 
 dren ur.der 16, in 7 states for children under 14, 
 and in 2 states for children under 12. Special 
 exemptions on account of poverty, orphanage, 
 and the demands of seasonal and privileged 
 industries still exist in many states, but they 
 are gradually being reduced in number, and 
 special evils — such as those of the night mes- 
 senger service — are being more widely rec- 
 ognized, and are gradually yielding to more 
 effective restrictions. 
 
 In 1910 New York passed an act prohibiting 
 the employment of boys under 21 in night mes- 
 senger service jjctween the hours of 10 p.m. and 
 5 A..\i. in all cities of the (ir.st and second class. 
 Ohio pas.sed a similar act, [irohibiting children 
 under 18 from working in the messenger service 
 between 9 p.m. and G .\.m. Other state legisla- 
 tures are discu.ssing similar efforts to suppress the 
 moral evils of night messenger service as lately re- 
 vealed by the investigations of the National Child 
 Labor Committee. During 1910 other significant 
 legislative advances were made in child labor re- 
 strictions in New Jersey, Massachusetts, Mary- 
 land, Virginia, Rhode Island, and Kentucky, the 
 most notaiile of wliich was the victory in New 
 Jersey for the suppression of night work for chil- 
 dren under 15 until July 4, 1911, and after that 
 date under 16, the propo.sal for which for five suc- 
 cessive legislative sessions had been successfully 
 opposed by the glass manufactures of the state. 
 
 The refinements of restriction and protection 
 are not as fully developed in the United States 
 as in Great Britain, but, on the other hand, 
 many of our states show greater boldness in 
 dealing with the evils of cliild labor upon a large 
 and comprehensive plan, while the greatest 
 need in the United States is still, perhaps, the 
 proper coordination of a restrictive policy 
 wth a constructive program for the recrea- 
 tion, training, and education of children, in^- 
 eluding proper provision for industrial and 
 vocational training, without the exploitation 
 of the child for the benefit of others. 
 
 D. S. AND S. M. L. 
 
 See Attendance, Compulsory ; Childhood, 
 Legislation for the Conservation and 
 Protection of. 
 
 References: — 
 
 Agahd, KoNR.tD, and von Schulz, M. Gesetz be- 
 treffend Kiitdcrarheil in Gewerblichen Betrieben, 
 (Jena, 1905,) a.nd Jugendwohl und J ugejidrecht, Halle 
 a. S.. 1907. 
 
 Bry, Georges. Cours Elhncntaire de Legislation In- 
 dustriclle, Paris, 190S. Book II, pp. 306-J34. 
 
 Child L.\bor. Summarj- of Laws in Force, 1910. By 
 Laura Scott. Legislative Rei'ietr, No. 5. American 
 Association for Labor Legislation. (New York. 
 1910.) 
 
 Conrad, J. HandwOTterbuch der Staatswissenschajten 
 3d ed. Jena, 1909, .\rt. Arbeiterschutzgesetzgebung, 
 pp. 591-783, covers leading manufacturing coun- 
 tries and is especially good for Germany, France, 
 and the United States. 
 
 Ddtton, S. T., and Snedden, D. S. Adminietration of 
 Public Education. (New York, 1908.) 
 
 Handbooks on Child Labor Legislation prepared by 
 the National Consumers' League, and published by 
 the American Academy of Political and Social 
 Science. (Philadelphia.) 
 
 HuTCHiNs, B. L.,and Harrison, A. History of Factory 
 Legislation. (New ed., London, 1907.) 
 
 Kelley, Florence. Some Ethical Gains through LegiS' 
 lation. (New Y'ork, 1905.) 
 
 Publications of the National Child Labor Committee, 
 many of which can be obtained upon application 
 to the Conmiittce, United Charities Building, New 
 Y'ork Cit.w Espi'cially sec the annual volumes of 
 Proceedings, published by the American Academy 
 of Political and Social Science, Philadelphia, Vol. 
 XXV, May, 1905. Child Labor ; Vol. XXVI, 
 March, 1906, Menace to Industry, Education and 
 Good Citizenship ; Vol. XXIX, January, 1907, 
 Child Labor and the Republic ; 190K, Child Labor 
 and Social Progress: March, 1909, The Child 
 Workers of the Nation ; 1910. Vol. XXXIV, 
 Child Employing Industries. 
 
 Sewall, H. R. Cliild Labor in the United Stales. 
 U. S. Bureau of Labor, Bui. No. 52, Vol. 9. (Wash- 
 ington. 1904.) 
 
 SPARcio. .John. The Bitter Cry of the Children. (New 
 York, 1900.) 
 
 Wright. C. D. Child Labor in the United Stales. V. S. 
 Bureau of Labor. Bui. No. 62. (Washington, 1906.) 
 
 The Library of Congress issued a Bibliography of Child 
 Labor, including also foreign works on the subject. 
 
 CHILD PSYCHOLOGY. — Childhood is 
 usually considered to cover the period between 
 infancy and puberty, or, roughly, between the 
 ages of 3 and 12. Child psychology nmst 
 then deal with the mental life, the thoughts 
 and feelings, together with their influence 
 on conduct, of children between these ages. 
 Child psychology is a comparatively new 
 
 611
 
 CHILD PSYCHOLOGY 
 
 CHILD PSYCHOLOGY 
 
 study. It is only within the last half century 
 that the need for such a specialized branch 
 of psychology has been realized. The trend 
 of development has been along the line of in- 
 vestigating the differences between children 
 and adults in the various mental states. A 
 science of adult psychology being already well 
 established, when it began to be realized that 
 the child was not the " man writ small," and 
 that there was such a possibility as a study of 
 child psychology, the natural question was, 
 " Just how docs the child differ from the adult 
 in his power of perception, his reasoning, his 
 attention? " The fact that much of the in- 
 terest felt in this new study was for the sake of 
 its relation to adult psychology, together with 
 the fact that the need for such a study was felt 
 primarily in connection with the school education 
 of children account, in some measure for the 
 apparently hit-or-miss, trivial, and irrelevant 
 character of much of the work which has been 
 done. Also the newness of the field, the diffi- 
 culties attending experimental work with chil- 
 dren, and the length of time which it is necessary 
 to carry on investigations in order that the 
 results gained may be reliable, all help to ex- 
 plain the lack of a complete, well-organized, 
 significant body of knowledge. Much of the 
 work in this department of psychology must, 
 therefore, be regarded as tentative and open to 
 further modification, but suggestive for educa- 
 tional application. The chief questions, then, 
 which have been answered by child psychology 
 are, " How do children differ from adults in 
 the various mental states? What are the ma- 
 jor changes which take place in their mental 
 life up to the period of puberty? What are the 
 chief causes of these changes? " 
 
 The difference between children and adults in 
 instinctive equipment is not so much a matter of 
 difference in number of in.stincts, although some 
 of those characterizing late adolescence are lack- 
 ing, as in relative prominence and strength of the 
 various instincts, in their modes of manifesta- 
 tion, and in the degree of their modification 
 through habituation. In childhood, because of 
 lack of experience, the instincts manifest them- 
 selves in very general and indefinite ways, the 
 particular line of manifestation being deter- 
 mined by the environment. The instincts, be- 
 cause of their correlation with the physical 
 gro^i/h and development of the nervous system, 
 tend to follow a rhythmic order of development, 
 one set being prominent for a short period, then 
 another. The phase of each which is prominent 
 at first is associated with the physical well-being 
 of the child. The response is to a concrete, 
 very definite situation, and the result gained 
 is immediate, physical satisfaction. Growing 
 out of this stage is the interest in and the desire 
 for emotional satisfaction. The child acts in 
 such a way as to select those responses which 
 bring him this result. This is the time when the 
 various powers brought out by instinctive 
 action are tested and tried and pitted against 
 
 those of other children. It is the stage of per- 
 sonal competition. First one instinct and then 
 another is experimented with, the emphasis 
 being on motor activity. Still the child's point 
 of view is narrow, the self that is being pleased 
 and satisfied is a very partial one. It is still 
 the individual interests against the group in- 
 terests, or, rather, in spite of the group interests. 
 The next development is the appearance of 
 the " gang " spirit. This phase pervades and 
 influences all the growing and changing in- 
 stincts, paving the way for the more radical 
 changes which take place at adolescence. The 
 child is still interested primarily in his own 
 well-being, but the self has expanded, the so- 
 called social self now becoming prominent, 
 carrying with it a greater emphasis on the intel- 
 lectual elements in the situation. 
 
 The instinctive life of the child follows this 
 plan in development, becoming more complete 
 as more of the instincts emerge, more highly 
 specialized as various phases become differen- 
 tiated, the line of advance being from the physi- 
 cal through the emotional to the more intel- 
 lectual phases of each, and from a narrow, partial 
 viewpoint to a broader, more general one. 
 These phases are not distinctly marked off 
 from each other, even within the development 
 of the same instinct, and as the various instincts 
 develop at different rates and become promi- 
 nent at different ages, there is great complexity 
 and con.stant overlapping. 
 
 The part to be played by education in this 
 development will depend largely upon whether 
 those in control believe that these changes occur 
 primarily as a result of inner growth, or as a 
 result, partly at least, of the influence of en- 
 vironment. The consensus of opinion at 
 present seems to be that both factors count, 
 but that neither has full control. The more 
 the environment presents situations calling for 
 the exercise on the part of the child of the 
 higher and more uniformly useful phases of 
 the various instincts, the better, provided that 
 the demands made begin at the level of devel- 
 opment at which the child is, and gradually 
 change in difficulty, complexity, and character. 
 The various studies made of children's inter- 
 ests all show these general tendencies, and 
 all offer material of value to the educator. 
 Naturally, attention goes hand in hand with 
 interest. The important differences between 
 the attention of the child and that of the adult 
 grow out of, and are caused by, the differences in 
 the interests of the two classes. The interests 
 of the former are determined directly by in- 
 stinct, those of the latter more largely by train- 
 ing, custom, and habituation. The attention of 
 the young child, attracted by the things that 
 interest him, is given at first to brightly colored 
 objects, loud sounds, moving things, good 
 things to eat. Later he attends to new toys, 
 feats of physical prowess, games involving skill 
 of one kind or another. Gradually, as his in- 
 stincts develop, and he finds that he derives 
 
 612
 
 CHILD PSYCHOLOGY 
 
 CHILD PSYCHOLOGY 
 
 personal benefit from so doing, his attention 
 passes to things considered more worth while 
 by people in general, until finally he comes 
 to attend to the symbols of mathematics, the 
 arguments for free tariff, or the methods needed 
 in making a fortune. The kind of situation 
 capable of attracting and holding the attention 
 depends upon the instinctive equipment of the 
 individual, but it also depends upon his experi- 
 ence. The things considered worthy of atten- 
 tion by society at large must in some way be 
 connected with some native interest or instinct. 
 
 Anotiier characteristic of the immature mind 
 is its lack of steadiness. Attention is con- 
 stantly changing, rcanaining focussed on an 
 object or idea for a very short period of time, 
 and then moving on to something else. The 
 child is at the mercy of his surroundings, unable 
 to resist the attractiveness of anything coming 
 within the focus of consciousness. With ex- 
 perience and growtn two changes occur. First, 
 any one line of thought is capable of holding at- 
 tention for an increasingly longer period of time, 
 because of the greater possibilities of associa- 
 tion and elaboration, and second, the child 
 learns that it is to his advantage to overcome 
 the tendency of attention to shift, and to hold 
 it to the task in hand, despite the effort involved. 
 Instead of requiring constant change, the child 
 gradually becomes capable of prolonged periods 
 of activity along one line, and that, perhaps, one 
 formerly of little interest to him. In other 
 words, as the child grows older, his power to 
 give attention increases in breadth, strength, 
 and duration. 
 
 The changes in perception occur along three 
 lines; namely, a decrease in the proportion of 
 mental life that is perceptual, an increase in the 
 clearness of percepts, and a narrowing of the field 
 of perception. The young child is essentially 
 sensory and motor, therefore his mental life 
 must be made up very largely of percepts. As 
 he grows in experience, the higher mental states 
 increase in proportion, for, instead of allowing 
 his attention to be ever drifting from one sen- 
 sory experience to the next, he fixes it on one and 
 holds it there for an increasingly longer period 
 of time. This fixing and holding of attention 
 by one sensory experience to the exclusion of 
 others must involve the use of other mental 
 states and thus decrease the proportion of per- 
 cepts. It is often observed that a young child 
 sees and hears much more of his environment 
 than the adult does, but of necessity the per- 
 cepts gained in this way must be vague, hazy, 
 and often inaccurate. Only by fixing atten- 
 tion, comparing, contrasting, noticing details, 
 is full knowledge of the situation gained and 
 percepts made clear, definite, and accurate. 
 The work of many investigators emphasizes 
 this increase in power of discrimination with 
 advancing age, showing that children of 16 
 do from twice to three times as well as children 
 of 6 in tests of power of sense discrimination. 
 The development of the instinctive interests 
 
 of the child, together with the training which 
 he receives, both tend to discourage and in- 
 hibit general, indiscriminate observation, and 
 instead to focalize it along certain definite lines, 
 so that perception, like all other ])arts of mental 
 life, tends to become specialized and developed 
 in the directions in which it is used. Thus the 
 older child perceives more in some fields than 
 the younger child does, the specific fields de- 
 pending very largely on the training which he 
 receives. From an educational point of view, 
 the need for a broad sense experience for the 
 young child cannot be overemphasized. His 
 proficiency in the manipulation of the more 
 complex mental states is directly correlated 
 with the richness, clearness, and breadth of his 
 early sense perceptions. The need for develop- 
 ing rationally in connection with daily experi- 
 ences, the power to perceive his environment, 
 using all his senses as needed, and then to coor- 
 dinate and correlate these experiences with his 
 life of thought and action, this is of paramount 
 importance, and comprises a large part of the 
 school education of the child under 10. 
 
 In mental imagery the two chief differences 
 between children and adults are in the vividness 
 of the image and in the kind of image used most 
 frequently. It is a common occurrence for the 
 young child to confuse the productive, creative 
 image of his play life with his memories of 
 actual experiences. The numbers of children 
 under 8 years of age who have imaginary 
 companions confirm this tendency. From 
 the adult point of view, the child is often telling 
 a lie, but probably a large projiortion of the 
 lies told by children of this age are due to a 
 real confusion. This confusion arises from two 
 causes, — the great vividness and reality of 
 the child's play life, and the lack on' his )iart of 
 a consciousness of the need of distinguishing 
 between it and the realm of real life. Experi- 
 ence and the training of the percejjtive powers 
 usually correct this difficulty. 
 
 The second difference, that of the kind of men- 
 tal image used frequently, is of more importance. 
 The more immature the mind, tlie greater the 
 likelihood that it will deal with images of con- 
 crete experiences, with possibly the visual im- 
 age in excess of the other types. Maturity 
 plus experience tend to increase the value of the 
 less concrete and faithful images. The child 
 thinks in terms of the concrete object or sound, 
 whereas the adult uses some symbol standing 
 for and representing the experience. A step 
 in this progress from concrete to more abstract 
 image is probal)ly the so-called generic image, 
 which partakes of the nature of each. The 
 ac(iuisition by the child of language, both in its 
 oral and its written form, must condition this de- 
 velopment. The value of the verbal image over 
 the concrete in certain cases is very great. It 
 is more convenient, saves time, is more accurate, 
 and is more universal, but the child only dis- 
 covers this after a prolonged exiicrience with 
 perceptual language. Functionally, the con- 
 
 613
 
 CHILD PSYCHOLOGY 
 
 CHILD PSYCHOLOGY 
 
 Crete image seems of little use, the original ex- 
 perience, and the symbol, verbal or otherwise, 
 which stands for it being the important ele- 
 ments. 
 
 Education, then, should see to it that the 
 child has clear, definite percepts, and then that 
 the most convenient symbols are firmly welded 
 to them, that the images of symbols to be 
 used in later life may have a rich reference to 
 concrete experience. Also it should encourage 
 the natural creative imagery of the child along 
 profitable lines, making possible for him the 
 reconstruction of his environment as well as 
 the adjustment to it. 
 
 The changes which take place in a child's 
 memory with advancing years are unmistak- 
 able. Their cause is probably complex. Power 
 in immediate memory increases up to about 
 15 years of age, and then remains stationary. 
 Power in logical memory increases in a greater 
 proportion than power in desultory memory. 
 The changes taking place in attention, interest, 
 and perception probably account for this im- 
 provement, in spite of the fact that the primary 
 retentive power of the brain increases little or 
 none, or possibly even decreases with age. The 
 ability to concentrate the attention and the 
 repetition of experiences, both of which come 
 with growth, tend to fix the material. The 
 broadening and the correlation of experiences, 
 and therefore the increase in number and in 
 organization of the associations, also tend to 
 hold facts in mind, which in earher years would 
 not have remained. Logical memory is affected 
 more than desultory memory, because all of 
 these changes resulting in improvement of the 
 function influence the former, while only some 
 of them influence the latter. Any change in the 
 kind of experience attended to will necessitate 
 a change in the material remembered. Hence, 
 changes in interests are paralleled by corre- 
 sponding changes in memory, the development 
 being from the concrete, sensory, and motor 
 to the more abstract and relational elements of 
 situations. The methods used in educating the 
 memories of children must take into considera- 
 tion and be molded by these factors. The things 
 worth remembering must be attended to by 
 the child, and associated with other experiences 
 in a systematic way. The emphasis should be 
 on mental activity on the part of the child, 
 resulting in organization, rather than on mere 
 impression from without. The value of corre- 
 lation of subject matter, the need of time for 
 assimilation and reorganization of systems, as 
 well as the varying importance, at different ages, 
 of the other factors influencing memory, all add 
 to the complexity of the problem of education 
 in the field. 
 
 Most students of adult psychology, and prac- 
 tically all students of children, agree that the 
 higher processes of thinking and reasoning are 
 not the exclusive possession of the mature mind, 
 but that children, at least those of school age, 
 also use them. The difference between the two 
 
 is not in the absence of these processes, but in the 
 accuracy of their manipulation and in the fre- 
 quency with which they are used. The inac- 
 curacy of the results of the reasoning of children 
 is due to several causes. Reasoning and think- 
 ing require the use of relationships, meanings, 
 and judgments, as well as feelings of concrete 
 experiences. These mental states are the re- 
 sult of growth and experience, and their num- 
 ber, definiteness, and accuracy will condition 
 the thinking power of the child. Lacking cer- 
 tain knowledge of relationships or meanings, 
 through lack of experience, the child's thinking 
 must be inaccurate, despite the presence of the 
 necessary technique. The characteristics of 
 his attention and memory also help to explain 
 the inaccuracy of results when he reasons. 
 In reasoning and thinking one must follow con- 
 sistently and closely a train of related thoughts. 
 This requires power of concentration of atten- 
 tion and organization of facts. The child 
 lacks ability in both lines. His mind wanders 
 from the problem because of lack of attention, or 
 he gets sidetracked because of lack of organiza- 
 tion, — in either case a wrong conclusion may be 
 the result. His lack of skill in using language is 
 also a drawback, for he mu.st use symbols, not 
 concrete imagery, in much of his reasoning. 
 The fact that he often tends to use the concrete 
 whole, instead of the essential relationship or 
 aspect, results in the reasoning by analogy, 
 which is a characteristic of immature minds. 
 This power to think in terms of parts or ele- 
 ments or aspects of a situation is conditioned 
 by the child's ability to analyze. Power to 
 analyze is a later development than power to 
 associate, and comes only with much practice. 
 The fact that the adult reasons more often than 
 the child is probably not due so much to a dif- 
 ference in power, as to a difference in the de- 
 mands made upon him. His environment does 
 not encourage the child to reason, for usually 
 no responsibility is allowed to rest upon him. 
 In fact, he gets on much more comfortably 
 when he does not attempt to think for himself, 
 but simply does and believes what he is told. 
 The receptive, submissive attitude is tlie one 
 considered to be characteristic of the child mind, 
 and hence everything is arranged to encourage 
 it. The adult, thrown on his own responsibility, 
 forced by circumstances to take the initiative, 
 reasons more frequently, but even he really 
 thinks but seldom, and then only when he is 
 forced to do so by the pressure of some problem 
 whose .solution is vital to his wellbeing. The 
 broader and the more sy.stematized his percep- 
 tual experiences, the greater his control of the 
 higher mental states and language, the greater 
 his power of attention, the greater his practice 
 in dealing with problems pertinent to his every- 
 day life, the greater will he the child's power of 
 reasoning and reasoning well. Education that 
 is definitely planned to do so can aid develop- 
 ment along each of these lines. 
 
 The emotional life of the child differs but 
 
 614
 
 GHILD PSYCHOLOGY 
 
 CHILD STUDY 
 
 little from that of the adult. With the excep- 
 tion of the emotions connected with sexual de- 
 velopment, all the emotions experienced by the 
 adult are experienced by the child, but in a 
 cruder and more elementary form. There is 
 less inhibition by the child of the physical con- 
 comitants of the emotions, and therefore they 
 often appear, probably wrongly, to be more in- 
 tense than those of the adult. They certainly 
 are more transitory, due probably to the rapid 
 change in the focus of attention. The emotions 
 of chiklhood, correlating as clo.sely as they do 
 with the instincts, are less comi)lex tlian those 
 of adult life, with its mixture of motives, in- 
 fluence of custom as well as the presence of the 
 sex emotions. The duty of education is to in- 
 hibit the emotions that are harmful to the in- 
 dividual or to the race; to encourage those that 
 are uplifting, and to connect them strongly with 
 conduct; to develop true self-control on the 
 part of the child rather than mere repression; 
 and to connect an emotional tone with the ideals, 
 which are an outgrowth of productive imagina- 
 tion, in order that they may be of functional 
 value. 
 
 The child cannot be considered as either 
 truly religious or truly moral. His condition is 
 best described b\' the terms "unmoral" and "un- 
 religious," although the basis of true religion 
 and true morality must be laid in childhood. 
 The springs of each are to be found in those gen- 
 eral and indefinite instincts which are pecul- 
 iarly human, and which have to do with the 
 child'.s relation to his fellows and to his God. 
 Lacking the power of effective deliberate 
 choice in matters of conduct, because of the 
 paramount power of the cruder forms of the 
 instinct of self-preservation and the paucity 
 of true ideals, the essential element in both 
 morality and religion is lacking. The child's 
 morality and religion are largely but reflections 
 of the attitude of those around him and the 
 result of actions which have brought him satis- 
 faction. His standards of right and wrong are 
 purely personal, determined by the results of 
 his actions, and therefore dependent on his im- 
 mediate surroundings. 
 
 Education should help the child to form 
 habits that later will have a moral or a religious 
 reference. It should encourage him to act 
 always from the highest possible motive, not 
 from any abstract, adult reason, but because 
 it pays, exercising reason and choice in these 
 directions as truly as in any other. It .should 
 give him definite knowledge of the field of re- 
 ligion and morality which is suited to his stage 
 of devcloiJinent. It should encourage tlie 
 formation of ideals of right conduct which 
 function. From the point of view of conduct 
 the ages from 3 to 12 are preeminently the 
 years for the formation of habits. As men- 
 tal life is of value as it influences conduct, it 
 follows that this too is the i)eriod for the forma- 
 tion of mental habits. The control of instincts 
 means but the formation of habits of inhibi- 
 
 tion of some and of modification and strength- 
 ening of others. The changes in interest and 
 attention are due largely to the formation of 
 habits along certain lines. The development in 
 perception and memory is caused by habitua- 
 tion in directions that result in economy of 
 effort and ability to satisfy the increasing de- 
 mands of environment. Even power to rea- 
 son well is conditioned by habits of thought. 
 The selection and fixation of useful habits 
 along all lines of motor and mental action 
 seems to be the most fruitful line of develop- 
 ment during childhood. And yet care nmst be 
 taken that the habits do not become too iron- 
 bound, but that from them is evolved the princi- 
 ple or ideal needed to make conduct rational in 
 order that adaptation to new conditions lie pos- 
 sible. These principles and ideals, of such vital 
 worth to the adult, are possible only after the 
 concrete indi\'idual habits, whether of thought 
 or action, have been formed. Childhood is the 
 time to lay this foundation. N. N. 
 
 For detailed information on the various topics, 
 see the articles on Acquired C'h.\k.\cteristics; 
 Attention; IVIemory; Moral Education, etc. 
 
 References: — 
 D.twsON, G. E. The Child and his Religion. (Chicago, 
 
 1909.) 
 H.\LL, G. S. Youlh. (New York. 1906.) 
 KiRKPATRicK, E. A. Fundamvnlals of Child Study. 
 
 (New York, 1903.) 
 Genetic Psychology. (New York, 1909.) 
 O'Shea, M. V. Linguistic Development and Education. 
 
 (New York. 1907.) 
 RowE. S. H. The Physical Nature of the Child. (New 
 
 York, 1S96.) 
 The Pedagogical Seminary. 
 The Psychological Clinic. 
 Thorndike, E. L. Notes on Child Study. (New York, 
 
 1903.) 
 Travis, T. The Young Malefactor. (New York, 1908.) 
 Warner, F. The Study of Children. (New York, 
 
 1898.) 
 
 CHILD STUDY. — Sometimes called Pai- 
 dology, or Child Psychology; it is of compara- 
 tively recent origin, although some knowledge 
 of child characteristics has been possessed 
 wherever there have been parents and schools. 
 
 Historical. — Until recent times, however, most 
 parents and teachers have been so occujiied with 
 the adult idea of what children should liecome 
 that they have attached little imiiortance to 
 what they really are. Naturally, therefore, 
 little was done in the way of investigation. In 
 the last quarter of a century knowledge of 
 children has steadily grown under the in- 
 fluence of increased emjihasis by educational 
 leaders upon the dilTerences between children 
 and adults, and the necessity of recognizing 
 the.se differences; and under the influence of 
 evolutionary theory which calls attention to 
 the transitions from lower to higher forms and 
 emphasizes the importance of studying the 
 earlier phases of development in order to 
 understand the later. These two influences, 
 together with increased interest in man and 
 new methods of studying him, especially on 
 
 Cli
 
 CHILD STUDY 
 
 CHILD STUDY 
 
 the mental side, have given a strong impulse to 
 the study of children, and resulted in the ac- 
 cumulation of a large mass of information of 
 greater or less scientific and practical value. 
 
 As knowledge of mental development has in- 
 creased, child study has become differentiated 
 into two branches of knowledge, Child Study 
 and Genetic Psychology (q.v.). The latter 
 represents the broader and more scientific 
 phase of the subject, and includes a considera- 
 tion of the development of mind in animals and 
 in the human race, while the former, though 
 foundeii on the same principles as the latter, is 
 limited to the consideration of the development 
 of human beings from infancy to maturity. 
 Child study has always included a study of facts 
 of physical development, and it is in the knowl- 
 edge of the chilli's physiological development 
 that the most definite results have been at- 
 tained. Of the earlier leaders in child stud_v, 
 the three best known are the following: 
 Darwin {q.v.) in England, who observed his in- 
 fant son with the same interest and accuracy 
 that he showed in studying plants and animals; 
 Preyer in Germany, who with the training of a 
 scientific physiologist and psychologist prepared 
 a two- volume study of the first 3 years' develop- 
 ment of his boy; and G. Stanley Hall in America, 
 who has directed extensive, statistical studies 
 of children and has stimulated others to work 
 in popular and scientific child study, both in 
 America and to some extent in other countries. 
 At one time a wave of popular interest spread 
 over the country and many local and state 
 child study societies were formed and a great 
 variety of outlines prepared for the study of 
 children by teachers and parents for practical 
 and scientific purposes. ]\Iany of these socie- 
 ties have ceased to exist, and it is now generally 
 recognized that parents and teachers cannot be 
 expected to make scientific investigations, but 
 that they can profit greatly by the researches 
 of scientists, and they may with proper direction 
 collect data of value to specialists. Although 
 the societies directly concerned in promoting 
 the study of children are less numerous than 
 formerly, the interest in children as children, 
 and not simply as future adults, is much greater 
 than ever before. This is strikingly indicated 
 by the fact that, whereas a score of years ago 
 stories in which children were the chief charac- 
 ters were almost unknown in popular magazines 
 for adults, they are now found in almost every 
 issue. The subject of child study is now a part 
 of the course of study in every progressive in- 
 stitution engaged in the training of teachers. 
 Physiologists and psychologists are also inter- 
 ested in studying children as a means of de- 
 veloping a more complete knowledge of their 
 particular sciences. In educational adminis- 
 tration and in sociology, problems of childhood 
 are now receiving a great deal of attention. 
 Child labor, compulsory education, truancy, 
 delinquency, playgrounds, defects, deficiencies, 
 and abnormalities of children, juvenile courts, 
 
 health movements, etc., all bring into the fore- 
 ground the importance of more thorough knowl- 
 edge of child nature and the conditions favoring 
 normal, healthful development. 
 
 The educational theories that helped to start 
 child study investigations have been developed 
 into a more definite body of knowledge, which is 
 greatly modifying the science and art of educa- 
 tion. The old idea, that children are to be 
 treated as undeveloped adults, and that they 
 should be made into adults in all their charac- 
 teristics as soon as possible, has given place 
 to the established fact that children are different 
 in all their physical and mental characteristics 
 from adults. The generalizations of child 
 study have materially modified courses of study 
 and methods of teaching. The kind antl amount 
 of work to be done has been modified so as 
 to conform more closely to the child's natural 
 interests and ability at different ages, and more 
 emphasis has been placed upon the child's 
 physical, mental, and moral development at 
 each age, and less upon the acquisition of knowl- 
 edge and skill suited to adult life. 
 
 Methods. — In studying children, one or 
 more children may be studied intensively 
 through a long period of time so as to deter- 
 mine the changes that take place with increased 
 age; or a large number of children of different 
 ages may be compared by means of measure- 
 ments and tests and the common characteristics 
 of each age determined statistically. Neither 
 method alone is sufficient; each suiiplements 
 and corrects the other. To the difficulties 
 attending all psychological investigations are 
 added many others when children are the sub- 
 jects. In obtaining facts by means of obser- 
 vation, parents have the best opportunity to 
 observe children in their various moods under 
 normal circumstances, but the observations of 
 parents are likely to be lacking in definiteness 
 and accuracy. Specialists may make more 
 accurate observation, but their opportunities 
 are not so good and much time is required for 
 the child to become used to the strange ob- 
 server. In studying children by means of 
 tests and experiments like difficulties appear. 
 Children are so suggestible and so easily thrown 
 into unfavorable attitudes by the new situa- 
 tion and the demand that they follow direc- 
 tions, that results vary greatlv with each 
 group with varying conditions and with the 
 personality of the investigator. Even i)hysical 
 measurements, such as determination of chest 
 expansion, vary greatly with the amount and 
 kind of psychological stimulus given by the 
 one making the measurements. No studies 
 carried on bj' means of language can be made 
 in the case of very young children, and even 
 with older ones the chances of understanding 
 what is wanted and of inexact and inadequate 
 expression on the part of the children are 
 much greater where language is involved than 
 in the case of adults. Hence the questionnaire 
 method must be used with great care. 
 
 616
 
 CHILD STUDY 
 
 CHILD STUDY 
 
 The successive changes from infantile char- 
 acter to tliose of cliildhood, youtli, and 
 manhood are not wholly the result of external 
 influences, but depend upon internal tend- 
 encies which lead to development in a cer- 
 tain way only slightly less inevitable than 
 that by which a grain of corn develops blades, 
 stalk, tassel, silk, and ear in the order named, 
 rather than in a reverse order. Just what 
 the order of development in a child is and 
 how far it corresponds to the order in which 
 the race has developed has not as yet been 
 determined in detail. (See Culture Epoch.) 
 
 General Results. — The child has so many 
 characteristics, some of which change at one 
 time and some at another, that it is difficult 
 to sunmiarize clearly the chief facts of his de- 
 velopment. Physically, the child grows very 
 rapidly at first, then from about 5 to 12 at a 
 nearly uniform rate. This is followed by a 
 period of accelerated growth, which after two 
 or three years decreases gradually till maturity 
 is reached. The jjcriod of more rapitl growth 
 is not the same for height as for weiglit, and is 
 not the same for one part of the boily as for 
 another. (See Growth.) In movements, the 
 chief change is not in number, but in definite- 
 ness, accuracy, comple.xity, and coordination of 
 many parts of the body for specific ends. 
 Reflex and instinctive movements arc replaced 
 by habitual mo\'ements, and random move- 
 ments by specific voluntary acts. 
 
 Consciousness is at first an observer rather 
 than a director of behavior, and only gradually 
 do the different mental states become clearly 
 defined. The instinctive emotions are early 
 differentiated, and later the sentiments are 
 developed. All forms of intellectual develop- 
 ment take place at once, but perception of 
 things present is most prominent for the first 
 6 years, then imagination of things not i)rcsent, 
 and finally conceptual thinking. In acquiring 
 the power to gain desired ends there is always 
 shown a great deal more activity than is neces- 
 sary, and only gradually are short-cut methods 
 of doing things acquired. These improved 
 methods develop largely in a negative way, 
 through dropi)ing out of movements and at- 
 tentive acts which do not lead to the end 
 desired. Later, positive development takes 
 place through conscious and voluntary empha- 
 sis upon the more ad\antageous movements, 
 and by imitation. In the transition from play 
 to work, from free, wasteful, .slightly directed 
 activity to restricted, economical direction of 
 activity to the attainment of an end, games 
 which are pleasurable but which retjuire the 
 direction of activity according to rules are an 
 important factor. 
 
 In the early years nearly all the learning of 
 the infant is by the method of trial and success, 
 while the child in the next stage makes his 
 most rapid progress through the more economi- 
 cal method of imitation, in the use of which 
 he profits by the experience of others. After 
 
 the child has learned a language and attained 
 a considerable degree of representative and 
 conceptual development, he readily learns by 
 the ideational methoil wliat he cannot learn by 
 experience or by observation of others. The 
 most conspicuous defect of method in all 
 schools, which child study is correcting, is that 
 of too early and too great emphasis ujjon the 
 ideational method of learning. 
 
 In the light of the general truths already 
 established, it is safe to conclude that the per- 
 son who has the characteristics of each age 
 well brought out will ultimately attain a 
 higher type of adulthood than one who is 
 made to take on as rapidly as possible adult 
 characteristics. 
 
 Physical Defects. — The study of children has 
 establi.shcd very clearly the truth that physical 
 and mental development are closely correlated, 
 and that physical defects, especially of certain 
 kinds, are sometimes more influential than all 
 the mental influences that can be brought to 
 bear upon the child. Aside from general ill 
 health the physical deficiencies that most fre- 
 quently retard or prevent the normal mental 
 clevelopment of children are nervousness, 
 sense defects, and adenoids (q.v.). The nervous 
 child is in general lacking in power to control 
 his movements and his thoughts and emotions. 
 His responses to sensory and emotional stimuli 
 are excessive, so that he is easily made to 
 jump, laugh, or cry. He fatigues easily, 
 partly because he gives out more energy than 
 is necessary, and partly because he has little 
 or no reserve energy. When fatigued, his 
 nervousness increases. A child who is restless 
 before recess and quiet after vigorous play is 
 not nervous, while the one who is more fidgety 
 after recess probably is nervous. Sometimes 
 a child who is simply lacking in nervous force 
 shows no sign of nervousness until he is fatigued. 
 One of the most common and disturbing forms 
 of nervousness, usually known as St. Vitus's 
 Dance (q.v.) is, if properly treated, not serious 
 in its effects upon inent; 1 development. In 
 its milder form there are simplj' irregular 
 twitchings of tongue, lips, facial muscles, or 
 fingers, while in more serious cases there may 
 be violent jerking and twitching in all parts 
 of the body. The disease is common in 
 primary and intermediate grades, and is es- 
 pecially common in girls at 13. Attacks are 
 most fre(iuent in the sjiring, and often last 
 about 8 weeks. The chief remedy is as com- 
 ])lete rest as possible, with nourishing food and 
 no fright or worrv whatever. If home condi- 
 tions are at all favoral)le, the child should never 
 be in school for his own good and still more 
 for the good of the scliool, becau.se all forms 
 of nervousness are as catching as any infectious 
 disease. Stammering, a hesitancy in speech, 
 and stuttering and irregularity in the action 
 of the vocal organs may be regarded as forms 
 of nervousness. Tiiere is lack of coiirdination 
 in the various muscles involved in speech, and 
 
 617
 
 CHILD STUDY 
 
 CHILD STUDY 
 
 sometimes spasmodic contraction of some of 
 them. The condition is increased by excite- 
 ment or self-consciousness, hence these should 
 be guarded against as much as possible. Sing- 
 ing and concert repetition are helpful, but 
 severe cases yield only to special treatment by 
 an e.\pert. Adenoids are more or less ab- 
 normal growths at the back part of the nose 
 where it opens into the throat, that i)artly and 
 sometimes wholly close the openings so that 
 breathing must be carried on wholly or in part 
 through the mouth. This is a very common 
 disease, especially in the primary grades, though 
 if not attended to then, the severer cases will 
 be found in higher grades. It is essentially a 
 children's disease, as the growths dry up and 
 atrophy in most cases before maturity is 
 reached. The effects of adenoids may, how- 
 ever, last all through life. 
 
 Sense defects of any kind place a child at a 
 disadvantage, and unless he is able in spite of 
 this handicap to keep up with his mates in 
 school for the first year or two, they produce 
 increasing retardation. On the other hand, if 
 he is able to acquire the same knowledge as 
 other children during the first two or three 
 years, he is likely to progress as well as normal 
 children after that. This is why children with 
 sense defects, especially auditory, are often 
 either very backward or very bright. After a 
 child has gained a fairly accurate perceptive 
 knowledge of things and has acquired an audi- 
 tory and visual language, his further mental 
 development can proceed quite well, even 
 though the sense organs are defective. Aside 
 from the handicap in manual and intellectual 
 activities, caused by sense defects, they may 
 seriously affect a child's health or his character. 
 The fir-st more often results from defects in 
 sight, and the second from defects in hearing. 
 If the child can see, but only by a much greater 
 effort than normal children, headache, ner- 
 vousness, and other disorders frequently result. 
 The child who cannot hear well is frequently 
 misjudged by the teacher and treated in ways 
 that render him indifferent, stupid, sullen, or 
 resentful. It is unquestionably a fact that 
 even the brightest and most observant teacher 
 in the course of ordinary school work, where 
 her attention is directed toward intellectual 
 rather than sensory activities of children, may 
 fail to discover very pronounced sense defects. 
 Such a teacher, and also others less acute, can, 
 however, by making a special test of the con- 
 dition of sense organs, easily discover all the 
 serious cases. Such tests should be made 
 every year upon all except perhaps first-grade 
 children, and parents should be notified when 
 necessary that an expert should be consulted. 
 
 Child study has led also to increased criticism 
 of the graded system in education, and to 
 numerous attempts to improve it and adapt 
 the work more fully to individual needs. 
 Careful measurements show that from 70 to 
 85 per cent of the pupils in a grade can be 
 
 comfortably seated in standard seats that are 
 not adjustable, but to insure proper seating 
 most progressive schools have the room com- 
 pletely furnished with individually adjustable 
 seats. (See Desks.) About the same pro- 
 portion of children can probably be successfully 
 educated by class methods in regular grades, 
 while the others need cither special classes or 
 individual instruction. 
 
 Instincts. — The instinctive tendencies of 
 children, it is now generally recognized, give 
 them their fundamental characteristics and 
 determine to a considerable extent each stage 
 of their development. 
 
 Children have all the types of instincts com- 
 mon to animals, along with a number of others 
 that arc either absent or of slight importance 
 in animals lower in the scale than man. These 
 instincts may be grouped as follows on the 
 basis of use. (1) Self-preservative or individ- 
 ualistic instincts, which include all native 
 tendencies to action that contribute primarily 
 to the preservation of the individual. These 
 are concerned especially with (a) feeding or 
 getting and taking of food, (6) fearing or avoid- 
 ing and escaping danger, and (c) fighting or 
 struggling with enemies or mates for supremacy. 
 (2) Group or parental instincts, which impel to 
 acts by which the species is propagated and 
 preserved. These are shown in two forms: 
 (a) acts connected with the production of 
 young, and (6) caring for them during a longer 
 or a shorter period. (3) Group or social in- 
 stincts, which include actions that tend pri- 
 marily to the preservation of the group to 
 which the individual belongs. (4) Adaptive 
 instincts, wliich impel the individual to actions 
 that develop him for reacting succes.sfully to 
 whatever situations he may meet. The chief 
 ways in which instincts of this type manifest 
 themselves are in the form of (a) play, {b) imi- 
 tation, (c) curiosity. (5) Regulative instincts, 
 whose function is to dominate and harmonize 
 action so that reactions shall be less prompt 
 and more consi.stent. These instincts, if in- 
 stincts they be (their instinctive character is 
 disputed), are manifested in two principal 
 forms, (a) moral and (6) religious impulses, 
 the first impelling to action in harmony with 
 other persons and the second to acts in harmony 
 with a superior power. The a'sthetic instinct 
 might be placed with these as being norma- 
 tive and to some extent regulative. 
 
 The first two classes of instincts, the indi- 
 vidualistic and the parental, are of the same 
 general character and strength in animal and 
 in man, the third and fourth, the group and 
 adaptive instincts, are much more prominent 
 in man than in animals, while the last cla.ss, 
 the regulative, are shown to only a very slight 
 extent in even the highest animals. The bio- 
 logical value of these instincts in preserving 
 life decreases for the different classes in the 
 order named, while their intellectual value in 
 developing the mind increases in the same order. 
 
 618
 
 CHILD STUDY 
 
 CHILD STUDY 
 
 There are many instincts, such as teasing, 
 collecting, constructing, expressing, that are the 
 outgrowth of other instincts and contribute to 
 several ends. Every instinct gives rise to 
 emotions of a certain type, makes certain as- 
 sociated ideas prominent in consciousness, and 
 impels to certain kinds of acts, even when 
 those acts arc deliberative rather than impul- 
 sive; hence they are im])ortant factors in emo- 
 tional and volitional development as well as iu 
 intellectual. All of these instincts, except the 
 parental, manifest themselves at an early age 
 in children, but some are more prominent at 
 certain ages than at others, and this is one of 
 the chief reasons why children have different 
 interests at different ages. Individual differ- 
 ences in children, not produced by external 
 causes, are due to a large extent to the differ- 
 ences in the relative strength of the various 
 instinctive tendencies as determined by he- 
 redity and by individual native endowment. 
 Slight native differences lead to marked differ- 
 ences in later life, even when the child is sub- 
 jected to nearly the same influences, because 
 all the instincts are readily developed by exer- 
 cise and may easily be associated with differ- 
 ent types of acts. Weaker instincts are also 
 suppressed or dominated by the stronger, 
 hence, those that attain strength are extraordi- 
 narily powerful in determining character. 
 
 Stages of Development. — Many attempts 
 have been made to arrange the development 
 of human beings into stages or periods, but 
 the stages shade into each other and their 
 most prominent phases do not appear at the 
 same time in different children. All naming 
 of stages of development also necessarilj' em- 
 phasizes certain phases of development and 
 partially or wholly ignores others. It is best 
 to emphasize the more distinctly human char- 
 acteristics, which are social and psychic, and 
 trace the development of a conscious person- 
 ality in response to a human environment. 
 This gives us the following periods: (1) the 
 objective and instinctive stage of the first year, 
 in wliii'h social influences play a comparatively 
 small part in the child's development and dur- 
 ing which his behavior is quite comparable 
 with tiiat of animals. At the close of this 
 period, he is inferior to animals in his move- 
 ments, but superior in his intellectual develop- 
 ment to any of the higher animals. (2) The 
 imitative, socializing stage extends from 1 to 
 3 years of age. In tiiis period the child comes 
 through imitation and language to appreciate 
 to some extent the mental states of others, and 
 partially to differentiate his own personality 
 from that of others. (3) The dramatizing, 
 individualizing stage extends from 3 to 6. In 
 this the child develops a very definite conscious 
 individuality, frees liimself from servile imita- 
 tion, and begins to lead an independent con- 
 scious life. (4) The period of competitive 
 socialization extends from 6 to 12. In this 
 the child learns to live among those of his 
 
 619 
 
 own age and to deal with them in order to 
 attain his ends. He learns the simple social 
 laws in the same waj' in which he earlier 
 learned the physical laws governing the move- 
 ments of objects. He is now greatly influenced 
 not only by individuals, but, also, by the pub- 
 lic sentiment of the group to which he belongs. 
 Besides being introduced to a wider environ- 
 ment outside of the home, he also has i)rought 
 to him, through the medium of books, the 
 wider world environment. (5) The pubertal 
 or early adolescent period extends from 12 to 
 IS. During this the powerful race instinct 
 becomes active, and under its influence a new 
 attitude toward others, especially of the op|)osite 
 sex, is produced; and a reorganized personality 
 is developed after a period of more or less 
 erratic behavior, similar to that marking the 
 period immediately following tlie first emer- 
 gence of a self-conscious personality. (G) The 
 post-pubertal or later adolescent period extends 
 from 18 to 24 or 30. In this the work of life 
 begins; individuality is further developed, and 
 personal habits of the adult are formed in the 
 same general way as in the child between 6 
 and 12. The interests of each of these periods, 
 especially the first two and the fifth, are deter- 
 mined in part by the inner laws of de\elop- 
 ment, but the third, fourth, and sixth are more 
 largely directed by outer influences. The 
 common name given to the first two periods 
 is infancy; the third and fourth periods com- 
 prise the childhood of the individual, while the 
 fifth and si.xth periods cover adolescence. (See 
 Adolescence.) 
 
 Infancy. — JNIost of the biographical studies 
 of children that have been made by parents 
 and others include few, if any, observations be- 
 yond the first 3 years. The development 
 after this age is so varied and complex that it 
 is difficult to note its salient and significant 
 features. The child is also less constantly in 
 the presence of the observer, has an organized 
 subjective life which is less adequately repre- 
 sented by ol)jective movements than is that of 
 younger children, and the changes in the rela- 
 tive prominence of the in.stincts are less rapid 
 than at first, so that outer influences become 
 prominent as compared with developmental 
 changes, in making and modifying his mind 
 and character. The development of children 
 during the first 3 years is, therefore, much 
 better and more accurately known than during 
 the succeeding years. 
 
 Although no one can know the exact char- 
 acteristics of an infant's consciousness at birth 
 and during succeeding periods of develop- 
 ment, ojjinions still differ greatly as to its 
 nature and influence; yet during tiie whole 
 period tiiere are so many objective responses 
 in the form of movements, and in the form of 
 words during the second and third years, that 
 objective facts may lie coUecteil in greater 
 nund)ers and used in verifying and interpn-ting 
 the observations made upon any particular
 
 CHILD STUDY 
 
 CHILD STUDY 
 
 child. The observations thus far made indi- 
 cate that consciousness plays little part in 
 directing the child's activities during the first 
 three months. His movements are almost 
 wholly of a reflex, instinctive, or chance char- 
 acter during this period, and only near its close 
 has he attained sufficient control over his 
 head and eyes to be able to look at things. 
 During the next quarter year he obtains con- 
 siderable control over his hands, so that he 
 can reach for things and jerk them about. In 
 the third quarter year he is able to move his 
 whole body by creeping, hitching along, rolling 
 over and over, and sometimes by walking while 
 holding to something. In the last quarter of 
 the first year he often learns to walk alone, 
 and then can do a great many things pre- 
 viously impossible to him, with a certainty 
 and accuracy that gradually increase. The 
 most significant change is not, however, in any 
 one kind of movement, but in the ability he 
 gains to use many parts of the body in such a 
 way as to accomplish now one end and now 
 another. 
 
 The higher classes of instincts are present 
 to only a slight extent during the first year, 
 but many of them become prominent before 
 the close of the third year. The child becomes 
 playful and curious by the middle of the first 
 year, and very imitative near its close. The 
 social instinct develops rapidly during the 
 second and third years, and, in close association 
 with it, the expressive instinct. The child, 
 under the influence of these two in.stincts and 
 of the imitative tendency which is now domi- 
 nant, rapidly learns to act, feel, think, and 
 speak like those around him. At no period is 
 the human environment so influential in deter- 
 mining the direction of instinctive development 
 and in molding mind and character. 
 
 At 3 years of age the infant has become a 
 human personality with considerable power of 
 self-direction and with some individuality. He 
 appears to have a consciousness of mental 
 selves, and of his own as distinct from others. 
 This is indicated by the correct use of pro- 
 nouns, and in various other ways. This de- 
 velopment of self-consciousne.ss has been a 
 gradual one. Its core or background is formed 
 by (a) fairly constant bodily sensations, con- 
 trasted with the more variable special sensa- 
 tions, (h) persisting habits of reacting, and 
 (f) memories as contrasted with present sur- 
 roundings and activities. After he has learned 
 to distinguish his own body from other things, 
 it is some time before he distinguishes between 
 his mental states and those of others. Mental 
 states are to him common to himself and 
 others. This period of common consciousness, 
 in which he shares with others all their experi- 
 ences and in which he wishes them to share in 
 all that he perceives, is indicated (a) by his 
 imitations, (6) by his insistence upon their see- 
 ing and hearing what he sees and hears, and 
 (c) by his desire for their confirmation of the 
 
 words he uses, and it precedes the development 
 of self-consciousness, in which there is con- 
 sciousness of the fact that his mental states 
 are, in i)art, at least, not shared by others. 
 
 Childhood. — Very little has been done in 
 the way of studying children between 3 and 
 6 years of age in a systematic or scientific 
 way. Many interesting and amusing things 
 regarding children of this age are reported, but 
 beyond the fact that it is a period during 
 which individuality develops rapidly, few 
 general statements are justified by the facts 
 that have been collected. The case is quite 
 different for elementary school children of the 
 ages from 6 to 14. They have been weighed, 
 measured, tested, and questioned in great 
 numbers and in a variety of ways according 
 to methods that are more or less scientific. It 
 is not possible, however, to state in brief form 
 and with accuracy the general results of such 
 studies. Most of the studies have been mass 
 rather than individual studies, and in addition 
 to the fact that individuals differ greatly in 
 rate and order development in the same sur- 
 roundings, and the fact that special external 
 influences greatly modify development, there 
 is still much uncertainty as to how far the 
 special measurements, tests, and inquiries have 
 been properly made, and if properly made how 
 far the results indicate a typical develop- 
 ment in the line of being tested. In general 
 there is a gradual improvement in discrimina- 
 tion, motor control, rate of physical and mental 
 activity, in mental grasp, and in memory. It 
 is impossible to say how much of this im- 
 provement is due to incidental practice in 
 doing the things that are tested or those that 
 are similar. The curves obtained from such 
 studies are usually irregular, and in all experi- 
 mental studies as well as in other forms of 
 statistical investigations there are very pro- 
 nounced variations at about 12 years of age. 
 This indicates that internal developmental 
 changes are at this age great enough to modify 
 those due to external influences, and that in 
 some lines the two are in opposition and in 
 others in harmony. The physical and mental 
 changes during the next few years are numerous 
 and profound, but it is impossible, from the 
 statistical data at hand, to formulate accurate 
 statements of the amount and character of 
 the psychical changes. There are slight sex 
 differences shown in all tests at nearly all ages 
 until near the teens, when the differences be- 
 come very marked. To what extent these 
 differences are due to dress, occupation, and 
 special teaching cannot be determined, but from 
 this time on the children rapidly develop mas- 
 culine and feminine characteristics. 
 
 Many studies based on observations and 
 answers to questions, a large proportion of 
 which throw light upon children's capacities, 
 interests, and ideals at different ages, have been 
 made. It appears that the ideas of small 
 children are concerned chiefly with use and 
 
 1 
 
 620
 
 CHILD STUDY 
 
 CHILDHOOD 
 
 action and with speciKc concrete memories, 
 while a httle later, tliough still largelj^ con- 
 cerned with action and use, the ideas are more 
 general in their form. The tendency toward a 
 general form of ideas grows with age, as indi- 
 cated by definitions that more and more give 
 the larger class to which a thing belongs with 
 descriptive terms that identify the class. 
 Children are always interested in new experi- 
 ences, and young children have this interest 
 aroused more easily than the older, while the 
 older, with a larger stock of ideas, are in a 
 better condition for the excitation of appercep- 
 tive interest, which arises when new and old 
 experiences are brought into relation. 
 
 Whatever a child does in play under the 
 stimulus of the instincts that are prominent at 
 the time is an indication of his interests. He 
 is always interested in doing things, and in the 
 early years of school life the mere doing is 
 sufficient, but later the thing must not only 
 represent, but must actually be of the same 
 nature as what it imitates. Later in the 
 higher grammar grades it must actuallj' serve 
 a u.seful purpose. At this time the cliild is 
 more interested in school subjects because of 
 some value he can see that they have than 
 for their own sake. Hence much of the book- 
 work of the school fails to ai)peal to him. In 
 literature stories of animals, fairies, and chil- 
 dren are favored by the younger children in 
 the order named, while older boys arc interested 
 in history and stories of adventure, and girls 
 in romantic stories. 
 
 The ideals of children are at first personal 
 and selected from their environment, but 
 later they are influenced more by characters 
 in history and literature. Their own national 
 heroes usually have a prominent place in their 
 thoughts, and prirls often name men as ideal 
 characters, while boys almost never mention 
 women. Abstract ideals come later. (See 
 Literature, Children's.) E. A. K. 
 
 See Adolescence ; Child Psychology ; Cul- 
 ture Ei'ocH Theory ; Growth of the Child. 
 
 References: — 
 
 Adler. Moral Instruction of Children. (New York, 
 
 1S'.«.) 
 Baldwin. Mental Development in the Child and the 
 
 Race. (New York, lh9o.) 
 Ch.4Mui;ul.*i.v. The Child. (Lundon, 1900.) 
 Hall. Aspects of Child Nature. (Boston, 1907.) 
 Haiikiso.n. a Study of Child Nature. (Chicago, 
 
 1S91.) 
 Kino. Psychology of Child Development. (Chicago, 
 
 1!K«.) 
 KiRKPATRicK. Fundamentals of Child Study. (New 
 
 York, 1903.) 
 Major. First Steps in Mental Growth. (New York, 
 
 I'JOG.) 
 MooRB. Mental Development of a Child. (New York, 
 
 1896.) 
 Oppenheim. The Development of the Child. (New 
 
 York, 1898.) 
 O'SiiEA. Linguistic Development. (New York. 1007.) 
 Preyer. The Mind of the Child. (New York. 1K90.) 
 RowE. The Physical Nature of the Child. (New York, 
 
 1896.) 
 Shinn. Biography of a Baby. (Boston, 1900.) 
 
 Sdllt. Studies nf Childhood. (New York, 1896.) 
 Swift. Mind in the Making. (Now York, 1908.) 
 Tracy. The Psychology of Childhood. (Boston, 1897.) 
 Warner. The Study of Children. (New York, 1898.) 
 
 CHILDHOOD, LEGISLATION FOR THE 
 CONSERVATION AND PROTECTION OF. 
 
 — The child and the rights of childhood have 
 in a very full sense the ])rotection of the law. 
 In all civilized countries they are the object of 
 much legi.'^lative concern. The proper regis- 
 tration of a child's birth, the legal safeguards 
 thrown about its right to live, the attempts to 
 reduce and restrict infant diseases and protect 
 infant health, the prevention of cruelty from 
 parents or others, the compulsory attendance 
 of the child at school, its protection from i)re- 
 mature emjiloyment, its right to suitable sup- 
 port from the State when not provided for by 
 its parents, or when the latter are not living, 
 its punishment for wrongdoing as of one in 
 tutelage rather than as a criminal, all of these 
 and many other aspects of child life and child 
 welfare are dealt with in the legislation of all 
 progressive countries. The purpose of all legis- 
 lation relating directly to children is in the 
 broadest sense the conservation of childhood 
 and the protection of the foundation of the 
 citizenship of the State. The children of a 
 nation are its real capital and the modern State 
 has come to realize that no cajiital investment 
 brings a larger return than that which is put 
 into the rearing of healthy, happy, and intelli- 
 gent children. 
 
 Legislation always means an attempt to 
 define and express rights which society is ready 
 to recognize, guarantee, and make universal in 
 their apjilication. Among the more important 
 rights of childhood that are now generally given 
 legislative protection are: (1) Tiie right to be 
 well born. (2) The right to parental name, 
 support, and protection. (3) The right to lei- 
 sure, play, and recreation. (4) The right to 
 education. (5) The right to exemption from 
 work, until physically and mentally etiuipped 
 for the specific tasks with which the work life 
 may properly begin, and, for a longer period, 
 the right to protection from any teni|)tation to 
 enter upon extra-hazardous or dangerous trades 
 or to work under conditions inimical to health 
 and morals, ((i) The rigiit to protection from 
 inhumane treatment. (7) The right to protec- 
 tion of health and morals. (S) The right to a 
 chance in a decent environment, both physical 
 and social, when guilty of any infraction of the 
 law. 
 
 Such rights are guaranteed for dilTerent age 
 periods, and in many instances beyond the begin- 
 ning of adolescence or even of adult life. The 
 state has full power to legislate in any way it 
 sees fit for minors during their minority, with- 
 out any violation of the constitutional guaran- 
 tees of individual liberty, and the i)resent 
 tendency is decidedly in the direction of ex- 
 tending the protective period to its full extent. 
 In most American states, children between 2 
 
 621
 
 CHILDHOOD 
 
 CHILDHOOD 
 
 and 16 may not be kept in almshouses when 
 supported by the state, because the environ- 
 ment of an almshouse is not regarded as stimu- 
 lating antl helpful to growth. They ma.y not 
 work in some trades (dangerous and unhealthy) 
 or at specified hours (night work) until 16, and 
 in sonic eases, or for girls, uutO IS. Very recent 
 legislation in New York has raised the protected 
 age to 21 for the night messenger service, because 
 of peculiar moral dangers. (See Child L.ibor.) 
 They may not buj' licjuor or frequent places 
 where it is sold, or be sent to, or reside in, 
 disorderly houses during their minoritj'. It is 
 now quite usual to provide a special court for 
 the trial of juvenile offenders, and to sentence 
 such as violate the law in graver offenses to 
 separate institutions or reformatories apart 
 from adult criminals, and also to extend the 
 principle of parole and probation more liberally 
 and generally to children of all ages. (See 
 Juvenile Courts and Juvenile Probation.) 
 England. — Recent Enghsh legislation for the 
 protection and conservation of childhood will 
 furnish the best model for our consideration, 
 because it is the best codified and the most 
 comprehensive law dealing with children and 
 young persons. Nearly the entire English law 
 concerning children can now be found in three 
 great groups of statutes: (1) The Education 
 Acts, 1S70 to 1907. (2) The Factory and Work- 
 shop Act, 1901. The Agricultural Gangs Act, 
 1867. The Chimney Sweepers and Chimney 
 Regulations Acts, 1S40, 1864, 1875. The Coal 
 Mines Regulation Act, 1887, 1896, 1900, 1905. 
 (3) The Children Act, 1908. 
 
 The first group of acts deals with children at 
 school and with respect to their educational 
 rights and duties (see Attend.\xce, Compul- 
 sory); the second group of acts deals with 
 'children at work (see Child L.\bor), and the 
 third, which is the most important and com- 
 prehensive piece of legislation on this subject 
 attempted in any country up to the present 
 time, seeks to bring together practically aU of 
 the other legislative enactments relating to 
 children. It has been called the Children's 
 Charter, and is divided into six parts, as 
 follows : — 
 
 1. Infant Life Protection. This deals with 
 the problems of baby farming, a subject first 
 regulated bj- the Infant Life Protection Act, 
 1872, and again by an amending act, 1897, 
 both of which proved ineffectual, and it seeks 
 to protect the lives of infants put out to nurse. 
 It requires notice to the local authority to be 
 given by persons receiving infants under 7; it 
 provides registration and inspection by the 
 local authority, limits the number of infants 
 to be kept in any one family, requires evidence 
 of moral character, prohibits any insurable 
 interest in the life of the child, and provides 
 severe penalties for the enforcement of these 
 regulations. 
 
 2. Cruelty to Children and Young Persons. 
 This subject was first dealt with in the Pre- 
 
 vention of Cruelty to and Protection of Chil- 
 dren Act, 1889. Prior to that time cruelty to 
 children was not an offense in any well defined 
 sense. Some protection was had under the 
 Poor Law and under minor provisions of other 
 acts. The decisions of courts based on the 
 common law had been variable and conflict- 
 ing. The Prevention of Cruelty to Children 
 Act, 1904, was made the basis for this section, 
 and is still in force in part. Neghgence as 
 well as deliberate cruelty is now an offense, and 
 it is made a criminal attempt to allow the 
 child 4 to 10 to reside in or frequent a brothel, 
 or to cause, encourage, or favor the seduction 
 or prostitution of a giii under 16. Neglect of 
 a child under 7 left in a room with an unguarded 
 fire, if it causes loss of life or serious injury, 
 and the overlaying of infants, which was 
 shown to be the cause of death in London alone 
 in 1600 cases annually, when due to drunken- 
 ness, is an indictable offense. Provision is 
 made for the public inspection of private in- 
 stitutions for poor children, the inspectors to 
 be women, where practicable, for institutions 
 for girls, and to be of the same religious denomi- 
 nation, where practicable, for religious institu- 
 tions. Wilful assault, neglect, ill treatment, 
 abandonment, or exposure of a child (under 14) 
 or young person (14 to 16 years of age), or 
 being a party to conduct that causes unneces- 
 sary suffering or injury to the health of a child, 
 constitutes a misdemeanor. The right of a 
 parent or teacher, however, to administer 
 punishment is expressly reserved. 
 
 3. Juvenile Smoking. The sale of tobacco 
 to children under 16 is prohibited. Cigarettes, 
 cigarette papers, or smoking mixtures used as 
 substitutes for tobacco, when found in the 
 possession of any person apparently under the 
 age of 16, who is smoking in any street or 
 public place, maj' be seized by the police or 
 park keeper, and boys found smoking may be 
 searched. 
 
 4. Reformatory and Industrial Schools. 
 
 5. Juvenile Offenders. 
 
 These two sections codify and amend a num- 
 ber of statutes enacted from 1854 to 1907. 
 The commentators, Mr. Atherley Jones and Mr. 
 Hugh L. Bellot, in their most useful and com- 
 prehensive treatise on The Lair of Children and 
 Young Persons (London, 1909), in speaking of this 
 section of the Children Act say: " The result of 
 the labors of the legislature over this statute 
 is that now within a comparativeh' moderate 
 compass may be found the main portion of the 
 statute law which governs the relation of the 
 child or young person to the state whenever 
 the state may assume for long or short periods 
 the control, custody, or guardianship of chil- 
 dren or young persons, or provides penal meas- 
 ures against those parents or guardians who 
 commit offenses against or are unfit to have 
 the care of the young." A child 14 to 21 is 
 fully responsible for criminal acts, but the 
 English law, which has been quite conservative 
 
 622
 
 CHILDHOOD 
 
 CHILDHOOD 
 
 in permitting any special treatment of juvenile 
 offenders, or any interference with the abso- 
 lute rights of parents over children, has now 
 been seriously modified in these particulars. 
 Part IV of this Act now makes it possible to 
 send truant children to industrial schools, and 
 also permits Poor Law guardians to send re- 
 fractory children to such schools, and parents 
 and guardians may ho re(|uired to contribute 
 to the sui)port of their children in such schools. 
 The provisions for such schools and the laws 
 governing them as well as reformatories are 
 systematized, their proper inspection pro- 
 vided for, provision made for the boarding out 
 of children, and even for their committal to the 
 care of a relative or other fit person named by 
 the court, provided they are placed under the 
 supervision of a probation officer. This sec- 
 tion also provides for the i)lacing out on license 
 of an offender or child to live with any trust- 
 worthy or respectable i)erson as long as the 
 conditions of the license are satisfied, and such 
 time may be counted as part of the time of the 
 child's detention in the school, and the managers 
 of a school of this character may even go 
 farther and apprentice or dispose of a child 
 with his consent with the full powers of the 
 parents in the premises. Neither a child nor 
 young person, unless of depraved character, 
 may be sent to prison, but must be detained 
 in places provided, but not under the same 
 regulations as prisons, and when charged with 
 offenses in courts of summary jurisdiction, ex- 
 cept when they are jointly charged with an 
 adult, must be heard on different days from the 
 ordinary sitting. Children's courts may be 
 established in the metropolis. The death sen- 
 tence may not be passed on any child or 
 young person, but it may be sentenced to de- 
 tention during his Majesty's pleasure, and on 
 such conditions and in such place as the Sec- 
 retary of State may direct when convicted of 
 offenses for which the death sentence would be 
 impo.sed on adults. 
 
 6. Miscellaneous and general provisions. The 
 most important of these relate to vagrant chil- 
 dren, and prohibit any one wandering from 
 place to place with a child above the age of 5 
 unless exemjit from school attendance or it is 
 proven that it is not being deprived of efficient 
 elementary eilucation. It is also prohibited 
 to purchase from a person apparently under 
 the age of 1(5 any old metal, or to take an 
 article in pawn from any person apfiarently 
 under the age of 14. Children arc excluded 
 from the bars of licensed i)renii.ses, and it is a 
 punisiiable offense to give, or to cause to be 
 given, to any child under 5 any intoxicating 
 liquor, except on a physician's order. This 
 section also contains a number of general 
 definitions and the conditions of the applica- 
 bility of the .\ct to Scotland and Ireland, as 
 well as to lOngland and Wales. 
 
 United States. — Legislation for children in 
 the United States has not been systematized. 
 
 nor does it proceed chiefly from any one source, 
 as in the case of England. Except for alien 
 immigrants, who come under the purview of 
 federal legislation, we should have to collate 
 the enactments of 46 state legislatures and 
 several territorial legislatures in addition before 
 we could speak of the American law for chil- 
 dren. This has not been done, and indeed 
 there are only incomplete attempts at the collec- 
 tion or systematic treatment of the laws relate 
 ing to children in any single state. There 
 is now pending before Congress a bill to create 
 a Children's Bureau, whicii will do this very 
 thing, as it is done in jiart already by the Bureau 
 of Education for legislation concerning the 
 school life of the child. (See McCrea, Tlie 
 Humane Morcment, for summarj' of laws for 
 child ])rotection.) 
 
 Historically considered, legislation respecting 
 childhood has its beginnings with dependent 
 children for whom public support in some form 
 is necessary. The English Poor Law, u|)on 
 which our own is founded, had develoiied, as 
 far back as the time of (^ucen Elizabeth, the 
 theory of parental support, and held not oidy 
 parents, but grandparents, responsible for their 
 children or grandchildren; but institutions were 
 early devised everywhere in this countrj' for 
 the care of foundlings and of abandoned, 
 neglected, and destitute and dependent chil- 
 dren. For the most part such children 
 were cared for by the same officials and 
 in the same institutions as adult paujjcrs 
 until public sentiment, aroused by the bar- 
 barities of such treatment, and calculating 
 the cost to the State of the manufacture of 
 paupers, and beginning to realize, dindy at 
 first, the economic value of the child to the 
 State, made its protest felt in Icgi.slation for 
 the better care of dependent children. In 1S74 
 both Michigan and Xew York made a radical 
 move to deal with dependent children in alms- 
 houses; Michigan pro\ided for a state school 
 into which all dependent children eligible for 
 public sui)port were to be placed and from 
 which they were to be put out as fast as prac- 
 ticable in i)rivate families. The parents were 
 deprived of any legal rights to the child as 
 soon as it was admitted to this school. Xew 
 York prohibited children being kept in alms- 
 houses, and provided that they should be com- 
 mitted to an institution of the same religious 
 persuasion as the parents, wherever prac- 
 ticable, the expenses to be paid by the county 
 and the legal guardianship remaining with the 
 parents. The various efforts in several states, 
 and especially in the large cities, to care for 
 destitute children during the early part of the 
 nineteenth century are well summarized by Mr. 
 Homer Folks in his monograpti on The Care of 
 Demiidc, XcglccUd and Delinquent Children. 
 (New York, l'JO'2.) 
 
 "As to do.stituti- ohildrc'ii, the sittintion at the open- 
 ing of the ci'iitiiry |niiiotcpnth| may, thcn-forp. be 
 summed up iu tlie statement tliat ehildren who were 
 
 623
 
 CHILDHOOD 
 
 CHILDHOOD 
 
 public charges were, as a nilc, cared for with adult 
 paupers by the contract system, or in almshouses or 
 by out-door relief, or were bound out as apprentices ; 
 that Charleston had a municipal orphan asylum ; and 
 that private institutions for children had been estab- 
 lished in New Orleans, Savannah. New York. Phila- 
 delphia. Baltimore, and Boston. As to neglected chil- 
 dren, we find in the statutes of the time but few 
 provisions for their rescue and care. As early as 173.5. 
 in Boston, children whose parents were unable or neg- 
 lected to provide for their support and education, might 
 be bound out by the overseers of the poor. The laws 
 of Maryland authorized, in 1797. the binding out of 
 children of beggars. The class of children who are 
 now forcibly removed from the control of unfit parents 
 apparently remained with their families, as a rule, until 
 the latter became destitute, when the children were 
 cared for as pauper children, or until the fruits of neg- 
 lect were reaped, and the children. con\'ictcd of offenses. 
 were sent to jails and penitentiaries along with older 
 offenders." 
 
 Mr. Folks sums up the public systems of 
 caring for destitute children, outside of alms- 
 houses, at the close of the nineteenth century, 
 as follows: (o) The state school and placing 
 out system adopted by Michigan, Minnesota, 
 Wisconsin, Rhode Island, Kansas, Colorado, 
 Nebraska, Montana, Nevada, and Texas. 
 (6) The County Children's Home System, 
 adojited by Connecticut, Ohio, and Indiana. 
 (c) The plan of supporting public charges in 
 private institutions which prevails in New 
 York, California, Maryland, District of Co- 
 lumbia, and to some extent in several other 
 states, (rf) The boarding out and placing out 
 system, which is carried on directly by the 
 public authorities in Massachusetts, through 
 a private organization — the Children's Aid 
 Society — in Pennsylvania, and by the state 
 authorities in New Jersey. This leaves a num- 
 ber of states without any general system ex- 
 cept that of the Poor Law, although many of 
 these, like Illinois, have good general statutes 
 covering the subject of the custodial care of 
 destitute, neglected, and delinciuent children, 
 and recognizing associations for the placing 
 out of children, to whom powers are given to 
 act as guardian, and bringing all such work 
 under some public supervision such as that of 
 the State Board of Charities. The state, rather 
 than the county, system of care for dependent 
 children is likely to prevail. 
 
 The White House Conference on the care of 
 dependent children, which met in January, 
 1909, adopted unanimously resolutions which 
 gave the broadest possible scope to legislation, 
 and urged such as would bring about preven- 
 tive work, having in view the reduction of the 
 number of dependent children as well as their 
 treatment and care. Emphasis was placed on 
 the desirability of reciuiring incorporation, con- 
 ditioned on tiie approval of a state board of 
 charities, of all child-caring agencies, and for- 
 bidding all other than duly incorporated 
 agencies to engage in the care of needy chil- 
 dren. These resolutions also contained the 
 following statements: " The proper training 
 of destitute children being essential to the well- 
 being of the state, it is a sound public policy 
 
 that the state through its duly authorized 
 representatives should inspect the work of all 
 agencies which care for dejjendent children, 
 whether by institutional or by home finding 
 methods and whether supported by public or 
 private funds. In order that this education 
 may be equal to that afforded by the schools 
 attended by the other children of the com- 
 munity, it is desired that the education of chil- 
 dren in orphan asylums and other similar in- 
 stitutions, or those placed in families, should 
 be under the supervision of the educational au- 
 thorities of the state." Every child-caring 
 agency should " exercise supervision over chil- 
 dren under their care until such children are 
 legally adopted, are returned to their parents, 
 attain their majority, or are clearly beyond the 
 need of further supervision. . . . We greatly 
 deprecate the tendency of legislation in some 
 states to place unnecessary obstacles in the 
 way of placing children in family homes in 
 such states by agencies whose headciuarters 
 are elsewhere, in view of the fact that we favor 
 the care of destitute children, normal in mind 
 and body, in families, whenever practicable." 
 The above quotations from the Resolutions of 
 the largest body of experts in child caring work 
 ever assembled in this country, brought together 
 by the invitation of the President of the United 
 States, though without official recognition or 
 authority, will serve to indicate present tend- 
 encies in public opinion and to point out 
 the character of the legislation which has 
 already been had iu the more advanced states 
 of the Union. 
 
 Next to the legislation which deals with 
 dependency comes that which has to do with 
 neglect, cruelty, and offenses against the per- 
 son of the child. Such legislation came some- 
 what later in point of time. From 1790 to 
 1825 many statutes authorized children found 
 begging to be bound out or committed to alms- 
 houses. New York, in 1833, provided that 
 the mayor, recorder, two aldermen, or two 
 special justices, might commit to the alms- 
 house, or other suitable place for labor and 
 instruction, any child found in a state of want 
 or suffering or abandonment, or improperly ex- 
 posed, or neglected by its parents or other per- 
 son having the same in charge, or soliciting 
 charities from door to door, or whose mother 
 was a notoriously immoral woman; Massa- 
 chusetts in 1866 provided for the commitment 
 of children under 16 found under similar cir- 
 cumstances, and in 1882 provided for the com- 
 mitment of neglected children between 3 and 16 
 years of age directly to the custody of the State J 
 Board of Charities. (See Folks, op. at., p. 169.) ^ 
 
 Societies for the Prevention of Cruelty to 
 Animals were started as early as 1866, eight 
 years before similar societies for children were 
 formed. The New York law of 1877, modeled 
 on the Indu.strial School Act in England, and 
 proposed by the New York Society for the 
 Prevention of Cruelty to Children, laid the 
 
 624
 
 CHILDHOOD 
 
 CHILDREN, CRIMINALITY IX 
 
 foundation for such legislation, which, through 
 subsequent amendments, has given large powers 
 to the Society and has been followed in other 
 states where similar societies, also modeled on 
 the New York organization, have been formed. 
 (See article on Humane Education'.) 
 
 Delinquent children have in recent years 
 come in for the larger share of attention in all 
 of our state legislation. Radical changes with 
 a view to recognizing the independence of the 
 child and the desirability of treating it both 
 apart from the usual rules of procedure and 
 punishment applicable to adult criminals and 
 also with a view to holding the parent or 
 guardian responsible for the wrongdoing of 
 the child, as well as to secure better environ- 
 mental conditions by removing it entirely from 
 the custody of the parent, have found a place 
 in the law of most states. (See article on 
 Juvenile Delinquents, which includes a discus- 
 sion of Juvenile Probation and Juvenile Courts.) 
 
 Health legislation has increasingly in recent 
 years dealt with Infant ^Mortality and at- 
 tempted to inaugurate preventive measures to 
 bring under control the diseases of childhood. 
 Thus the prevention of blindness, the proper 
 feeding of infants, the regulation of infectious 
 diseases, and other measures having particu- 
 larly in view the protection of infancy arc 
 sought through provisions for departments of 
 Child Hygiene, the registration of nurses or 
 midwives, the instruction of mothers, and the 
 better enforcement of sanitary regulations, for 
 the most part brought about through munici- 
 pal ordinances and appropriations. (See arti- 
 cles on: Hygiene; Hygiene, School; Nurses, 
 School; Defectives, etc.) 
 
 Child Labor legislation, including the regu- 
 lation of street trades, and the employment of 
 children in theaters and in a great variety of 
 occupations, in addition to their emploj-ment 
 in factories and workshops, has thrown around 
 the child, in most of our states, a very effective 
 wall of protection. (See article on Child 
 Labor.) S. M. L. 
 
 References: — 
 
 A<;auu, Ko-vrad. J ugendwohl xind Jugendrechl. (Halle 
 a. S., 1U07.) 
 
 Barrett, Rose M. Foreign Legislalion on liihnlf of 
 Dislilute and Neglected Children, 2d ed. (Dublin, 
 1890.) 
 
 Ellis, Ceorge H. Report of the Committee on History 
 of Child Saving, pp. 261, 59. (Boiiton, 1893.) 
 
 Folks, Hcmer. The Care of Destitute, Xcglectcd and 
 Delinquent Children. (New York, 1902.) 
 
 Internatio.val C'o.ngress of Charities. Correction 
 AND Bhilanthropy, Hcportnf the Care of Dependent, 
 NegUetid and Wayteard Children, 1893. 
 
 Jo.NEs, L. A. .\therley, and Bellot, Hdoh H. L. 
 The Law of Children and Young Persons, including 
 the Children Act, 1908. (London. 1909.) 
 
 Kelley, Florence. On .Some Chanitps in the Legal 
 Status of the Child sinre Blaekstone. The Inter- 
 national RiTiew, .AuKust. ISS2. 
 
 McCrea. H. C. The Humnrir Treatment of Animah 
 and Children. (New York. 1910.) See Table IL 
 .Summary of State Laws for Child Protection. 
 
 Mackellar, Hon. Chas. K. The Child, the Law, and 
 the State, being a short account of the Progress of re- 
 
 form of the laus affecting children in the New South 
 
 Wales, etc. (Sydney, Gov't Printer, 1907.) 
 
 (This little pamphlet by the President of the State 
 
 Children Relief Board of .\'ew .South Wales gives 
 
 an interesting aeeount of a progressive attempt to 
 
 establish a state authority for the placing out in 
 
 homes and the supervision of dependent children, 
 
 rather than giving them institutional care.) 
 Manual of the .\iw York Sucicty for the Pretention of 
 
 Cruelly to ChiUlren. (Gerry's Manual, 1906, with 
 
 Amendments for 1907.) 
 Proceedinys uf the Conference on the Care of Dependent 
 
 Children. (Govt. Printing OflBcc. Washington, 
 
 .January, 1909.) 
 Report of the Third International Congress for the Welfare 
 
 and Protection of Children. (London, 1902.) 
 Statutes of every Slate in the United Slates, concerning 
 
 Dependent, Neglected and Delinquent Children. 
 
 Compiled by a Committee of the New Century 
 
 Club. (Philadelphia.) 
 Wagner, .\.mos G. American Charities. Rev. ed. by 
 
 Mary R. Coolidge. (New Y'ork, 1908.) 
 
 CHILDHOOD, 
 
 Study. 
 
 STAGES OF. — See Child 
 
 vol.1 2 8 
 
 CHILDREN, CRIMINALITY IN. — Pre- 
 cocity in crime is held by some authorities to 
 be one of the most alarming symptoms ac- 
 companying modern culture progress. Presi- 
 dent Ci. Stanley Hall (.L/oZcsTc/irf, \o\. I, p. 
 324) cites as " two sad and significant facts," 
 shown by statistics in all civilized lands: 
 " First, that there is a marked increase of 
 crime at the age of 12 to 14, not in crimes of 
 one, but of all kinds, and that this increase 
 continues for a number of years. . . . Second, 
 that the proportion of juvenile delimiuents 
 seems to be everywhere increasing, and crime 
 is more and more precocious." For America, 
 in particular, most recent writers agree with 
 Judge Lindsey, who furnishes the introduction 
 to Travis' book on The Young MnUJnHor, in 
 recognizing " the unquestioned increase of 
 crime in this country," and, especially, of ju- 
 venile delimiuency. One of the latest writers 
 to discuss the general subject i)oints out the 
 rather unsatisfactory condition of statistics re- 
 lating to juvenile crime, making it almost im- 
 possible to determine absohitely whether the 
 last few years have indicated a diniinution or 
 an increase in such offenses. For France, Du- 
 prat (p. 48) seems to think that there has been, 
 perhaps, a decrease in the sum total of minor 
 delinquencies, but an increase in graver offenses, 
 particularly those against persons, a view held 
 by other authorities as well. The increase or 
 decrease of criminality among children is, 
 doubtless, more or less intimately connected 
 with the fluctuations of crime among adults, 
 which are so difficult to determine with any 
 degree of accuracy. 
 
 In the history of the race, the limits of re- 
 sponsibility for " crime " committed before 
 attaining the adult status have varied very 
 much. Among many uncivilizeil and some 
 civilized peoples, children under the age of 
 puberty have been held altogether irrespon- 
 sible for such actions. With some others the 
 patria potcslas was so great that there was no 
 
 625
 
 CHILDREN, CRIMINALITY IN 
 
 CHILDREN, CRIMINALITY IN 
 
 need to distinguish between offenses which 
 angered or displeased the parent and those 
 which might he termed " criminal." Up to 
 7 years of age the complete irresponsibility of 
 children has been recognized by ancient 
 Chinese, ancient Irish, modern English, Scotch, 
 American law, etc.; and, as Westermarck 
 (p. 265) points out, " the total or partial irre- 
 sponsibility of childhood and early youth " is 
 conceded in the laws of the civilized races of 
 to-day. A qualified responsibility between 12 
 (and 14), or 16 (and IS) and 21 is sometimes 
 admitted. The age of criminal responsibility 
 begins in Italy and Spain with 9; in Austria, 
 Portugal, and Russia with 10; in Germany 
 with 12; in Sweden and Finland with 14. 
 Special treatment for children between 7 and 
 14 in England, under 16 in France, between 12 
 and IS in Germany, and for even higher ages 
 in some other European countries, is also pro- 
 vided. The powers of judges, probation officers 
 iq.v.), children's and juvenile courts (q.v.) in 
 several of the states of the Union enable them 
 to deal in entirely special fashion with children 
 under 12, and often up to the age of 16, and a 
 common recognition of 14 as such a limit seems 
 t;) be well under way. Some of these pro- 
 visions, however, are of quite recent origin, 
 as may be seen from the history of crimes and 
 their punishment in England in the eighteenth 
 century, to say nothing of other civilized lands. 
 There is noticeable an evident tendency to 
 raise the age limit until it coincides more nearly 
 with actual mental, individual responsibility 
 of a clearly demonstrable kind. 
 
 Criminality in children is a perplexing prob- 
 lem for the scientific world of the twentieth 
 century, as it was for the preceding ages of 
 human mental evolution, exemplified in the 
 development of the complexities of modern 
 urban and rural life. The difficulty of account- 
 ing for it is evident, whether one looks into the 
 folklore of the subject, representing the more 
 or less naive experiences of the mass of man- 
 kind in general, or examines the records of 
 statistics and the results of scientific investi- 
 gations in the most civilized countries on the 
 globe. 
 
 The old theological doctrines of " original 
 sin," " total depravity," " infant damnation," 
 etc., found little difficulty in accounting for the 
 criminal aspects and perversities of childhood, 
 or in assigning to them fitting rebuke and ap- 
 propriate chastisement. All human beings, as 
 a result of the " sin of Adam," were " born 
 not merely corrupt, but in a state of sin, 
 guilt, and liability to punishment." On this 
 basis it was easy to explain any anti-social 
 tendencies and any evil-mindedne.ss whatso- 
 ever on the part of children. The " old Adam " 
 in them and in their parents accounted for all 
 " crimes." The obsession of even very young 
 children by Satan himself, or by some of his 
 minions, was long believed in, and the re- 
 sources of exorcism and punishment were taxed 
 
 to the uttermost to remove the evil spirits or 
 chastise the sinner. The Dark Ages of Chris- 
 tianity were filled with such actions toward 
 children as are now happily impossible in even 
 the most backward of civilized lands, and as 
 never occurred, in all probability, in the most 
 uncivilized. 
 
 Curiously enough, these theological doctrines, 
 so inconsistent, with the spirit of true religion, 
 find a parallel in the history of the evolution 
 of modern scientific thought in the prominence 
 given by certain writers and investigators of 
 the day to the theories of " atavism," and 
 " recapitulation," that, in the extreme forms 
 in which they are sometimes set forth, are pos- 
 sibly as far from being thoroughly scientific as 
 the theological doctrines just referred to were 
 from being genuinely religious. Not much is 
 gained by substituting for the individual Adam 
 and his weakness a primal human race pullu- 
 lating with abnormal or defective physical and 
 psychical characters which swarm periodically 
 in the bodies and minds of all its individual 
 descendants. 
 
 The literature of folklore and proverb, 
 legends, and other material indicate how the 
 lay mind of humanity has wavered with regard 
 to the cause and the cure of crime. " Happy 
 is the child whose father went to the devil," 
 says one English proverb; and the belief is 
 still widespread that the child of a clergyman 
 runs every chance of turning out bad. But 
 the investigations of Welldon prove how little 
 there really is in the theory of clerics degenerat- 
 ing in their sons. For the Scotch saying, that 
 " a daft nurse makes a wise wean," there are 
 no convincing statistics. The " folk " has, in 
 its various beliefs, interpreted heredity enough 
 to show that it could be no out-and-out par- 
 tisan of " atavism " or " recapitulation " pure 
 and simple. The Japanese put the case for 
 environment as strongly as possible, when 
 they say " even the stones in the street are 
 against the child of seven." And the pendu- 
 lum of the thought of to-day seems swinging 
 strongly in a like direction. 
 
 Some authorities regard the " crimes " of 
 childhood as simply, or chiefly, " exaggerations 
 of the characters which, in a less degree, mark 
 nearly all children," and consider the child as 
 being " naturally, by his organization, nearer 
 to the animal, to the savage, to the criminal, 
 than the adult " (Ellis, p. 212). They recog- 
 nize a form of criminality almost peculiar to 
 children, showing itself between the ages of 5 
 and 11, and being " characterized by a certain 
 eccentricity of character, a dislike of family 
 habits, an incapacity for education, a tendency 
 to lying, together with astuteness and extraor- 
 dinary cynicism, bad sexual habits, and cruelty 
 toward animals and companions " (Ellis). 
 With some children, the exaggerated appear- 
 ance of these characters is noted only in con- 
 nection with the pubertal crisis, to which so 
 much importance has been attached by 
 
 626
 
 CHILDREN, CRIMINALITY IN 
 
 CHILDREN, CRIMINALITY IN 
 
 Marro, Hall, and other recent authorities and 
 investigators. President Hall, indeed, seems 
 willing to account for some of the peculiarities 
 of character in children under 8 l)y the hypoth- 
 esis of " a prehistoric early (sexual) ripeness 
 in some pigmoid stage" (Adolescence, Vol. II, 
 p. 103), thus making racial sex experience a 
 factor at this early stage in the life of the in- 
 dividual. The proof of this, however, is not 
 forthcoming; and the less sex is appealed to 
 in explanation of tlie phenomena of childhood 
 the better, — all other |)ossible interpretations 
 should be attempted first. Many of the sexual 
 "crimes" of cliildhood are due to the in- 
 fluence and suggestion of their elders (older 
 brothers and sisters, companions, nurses, 
 parents, etc.), and are rarely naively childish 
 or childlike. 
 
 The evanescent nature and transient char- 
 acter of many of the " faults," " wrongdoings," 
 and even " crimes " of children are indicated 
 by both the verdict of folklore and the results 
 of scientific inquiries. Some of the mental 
 and moral obliquities and abnormalities that 
 " afflict " the child come and go, appar- 
 ently, with no more effect upon the subse- 
 quent life of the individual man or woman 
 than that exerted by certain merely physical 
 and somatic peculiarities of an equally ephem- 
 eral nature. But this transiency can easily 
 be magnified beyond its proper scope. It is 
 going too far, e.g., to hold, as do some recent 
 writers, that every child pas.ses through a 
 " criminal stage," normal to it at that period 
 of development. It is just as unscientific to 
 call every child a criminal, as it is to call every 
 criminal a child. The parallel, often set up, 
 between the child and the criminal, though 
 quite taking in points, is really very ineffec- 
 tive, as must necessarily be all such rapproche- 
 menls in which one party is a grown-up and 
 the other a very young human being. Here, 
 perhaps, more than anywhere el.sc, it should be 
 remembered that a child is a child, and a man 
 is a man. Adulthood always brings with it 
 something sui generis, and childhood retains 
 to the end a certain autonomy of its own. 
 
 To distinguish between these " transient 
 plienomena." which, in passing, leave the 
 child practically normal, and those others, 
 which, by their permanence and intensity later 
 on, show themselves to have been built up on 
 a firm foundation, or to have had some con- 
 stantly advantageous feeding ground, is by no 
 means easy in the present condition of our 
 knowledge of the causes and the stimuli of 
 crime. It is ea.sy to confuse, for example, 
 morbid impulses and actions of adults, explain- 
 able from an adult psychosis, and, as Havelock 
 Ellis remarks (p. 21.'5), " perhaps more closely 
 related to insanity than to criminality," with 
 phenomena of child life having a certain re- 
 semblance to them, and interpret such as " im- 
 pulses of childhood persisting in a more or less 
 subdued form in adult age." An adult with 
 
 retention of " child impulses " must, however, 
 differ from one whose criminal tendencies and 
 actions are motivated by adultism altogether. 
 It is more correct to speak of " child aspects " 
 of the adult criminal than to term him a chUd. 
 
 It has been said that good people are those 
 who have in some way or other sloughed off 
 their criminal tendencies; that " if everyone 
 had his deserts, all would be in jail." This 
 last statement is more witty than truthful, 
 and serves rather as an index of human injus- 
 tice than as throwing any light upon the origin 
 of criminality in young children. That there 
 has been no identity of reaction to crime 
 among children in the same race, people, com- 
 munity, or even family, and, furthermore, no 
 identity in the treatment of such criminal 
 phenomena is an undisputed fact. This means 
 that sometimes the " crimes " of the child have 
 gone unpunished or unrebuked, wliile some- 
 times they have been sternly repressed, and, 
 where possible, extinguished. Class and social 
 differences have undoubtedly been of effect 
 here, especially in those countries where aristo- 
 cratic and other like distinctions have long 
 survived in great strength. The privileges and 
 immunities from punishments allowed to 
 schoolboys and students at educational insti- 
 tutions both in the Old World and in America, 
 as against corresponding age-classes elsewhere 
 in the communities in which they reside, are 
 one notorious example of injustice in the matter 
 of " crime " among young people. If the over- 
 looking and excusing of offenses here is justifi- 
 able at all, it ought to be, in a democracy at 
 least, without favor to class, nationality, etc. 
 The process of education should not be made 
 a promoter of such prejudiced katharsis. 
 There has been also a decided discrimination 
 in favor of the male sex here, as elsewhere in 
 society, for the " crimes " of boys have been 
 condoned and overlooked to a much more 
 serious extent than those of girls. For this 
 reason, statistics make out girls to be, at cer- 
 tain ages, rather more " criminal " than boys, 
 i.e. they were not so well shielded and excused. 
 Mayhew, who wrote about the prisons of Lon- 
 don in 1S62 (see Ellis, p. 213), said, in reference 
 to the " crimes" for which boys were incarcer- 
 ated at TothiU Fields: " For ourselves, we will 
 frankly confess, that, at Westminster school, 
 where we passed some 7 years of our boyhood, 
 such acts were daily perpetrated; and yet, if 
 the scholars had been sent to the hou.se of 
 correction, instead of Oxford or Cambridge, to 
 complete their education, the countrj* would 
 now have seen many of our playmates work- 
 ing among the convicts in the dockyards rather 
 than lending dignity to the .senate or honor 
 to the bench." .Judge Lindsey puts the case 
 for America quite as strongly (see Travis, p. 
 xii): " If a hundred average schoolboys could, 
 under the same condition, be subjected to 
 precisely the same temptation faced by the 
 boy who took the pocketbook from his neigh- 
 
 627
 
 CHILDREN, CRIMINALITY IN 
 
 CHILDREN, CRIMINALITY IN 
 
 bor's kitchen, when he believed no one saw 
 liis act, and that he would not be detected, 
 only God knows liow many out of tlie hundred 
 would not have acted in precisely the same 
 way." These statements are thought to be 
 valid, with regard not merely to the acts of 
 violence, and offenses against the social order, 
 committed by the young, but also the phe- 
 nomena of lying and kindred actions. Those 
 who take this view of the matter overestimate 
 the suggestion of the environment and the 
 "weakness" of the individual, and underesti- 
 mate the possibilities of the early appear- 
 ance of at least the elements of tem]jerament 
 and character which are often noticeably pres- 
 ent among primitive peoples. All the inves- 
 tigations of " children's lies " and the facts 
 adduced by the rapidly increasing literature 
 concerning the nature of the testimony of 
 children (the Aussage data of Meumann, 
 Stern, etc.), while serving to bring out many 
 interesting classifications of children's lies and 
 much new material concerning the behavior 
 of children, while under adult influence and 
 suggestion, have not accounted for the re- 
 markable fact, admitted by the best students 
 of the child, that up to the age of 5 there is 
 practically an entire absence of deliberate 
 lying, — the period of lying proper beginning 
 not before this. The advocates of " recapitu- 
 lation " might score a point here by calling 
 attention to the notable trutlifulness of cer- 
 tain primitive peoples, such, e.g., as the un- 
 spoiled Veddas of Ceylon, etc. Those who 
 have resorted to " imagination " as the source 
 of children's lying, while successful in certain 
 directions, have rather overdone the matter, 
 as so many cases of an early perception of the 
 difference between " the real real " and " the 
 make-believe real," on the part of quite young 
 children, seem to indicate. The utterly false is 
 also often very early distinguished. 
 
 The cruelty of children (La Fontaine said of 
 childhood, " this age is pitiless ") is ascribed 
 by Compayre to ignorance, — " the child is a 
 Cartesian without knowing it, and makes no 
 distinction between his Punch and his dog"; 
 by others to atavism, recapitulation of racial 
 history, etc., or to " psychic rudimentary 
 organs." Havelock Ellis (p. 130) holds that 
 " a certain amount of cruelty is, however, al- 
 most normal in healthy children," and Presi- 
 dent Hall [Adolescence, Vol. 1, p. 359), thinks 
 that " the child torturer is only an extreme 
 and abnormal development from the arrant 
 teaser." To explain the cruelty of children as 
 an inheritance from primitive ancestors is not 
 at all satisfactory, since many primitive 
 peoples are no more cruel than the civilized 
 peoples of the globe, and some of them cer- 
 taiidy less so. The presumption that early 
 man was a sort of ferocious beast, from whose 
 inhumanities all the aberrations and degenera- 
 cies of the child are to be accounted for, is a 
 theory rejected by the newer anthropolog}'. 
 
 It is interesting to cite, at this point, what 
 Kiild {Savage Childhood, pp. 107, 195) says, 
 concerning cruelty among the children of the 
 South African Kaffirs: " At the age of 4 or 
 5 the child often develops a strong lust for 
 killing animals or insects, and rivals the pro- 
 verbial Englishman in Punch. At this stage, 
 there seems to be no definite development of 
 cruelty, for the rage is an obsession, and the 
 child is not deliberately cruel. This sudden 
 outburst seems to be some temporary efflores- 
 cence and soon passes off. Deliberate cruelty 
 is developed at a later period." In spitting 
 caterpillars and roasting them over the fire 
 these children are not intentionally cruel, any 
 more than is the American adult devotee of 
 broiled Uve lobster. Nor, as Kidd again ob- 
 serves, " is there necessarily any intentional 
 cruelty when these children pull off the wings 
 and legs of insects; they do it half unwittingly, 
 wondering what sort of blood the insects have, 
 and being amused to see how they hop with 
 only one leg." As to deliberate cruelty among 
 Kaffir children, we are informed: " But there 
 is deliberate cruelty in the way they torture 
 some insects and animals which they think 
 hurt men and women. They often choose a 
 harmless lizard, under a mistaken idea that it 
 stings human beings; they slowly torture it 
 to death, talking to it all the time, and telling 
 it that it deserves to suffer because it is an 
 enemy of man. Sometimes parents stop boys 
 from doing this, but often they pay no heed 
 to what the boys are doing." One sees from 
 this, how little savage children differ some- 
 times from those of cultured races. The 
 picture drawn by Kidd might, indeed, stand 
 almost for our own day and generation. The 
 reason given for the " deliberate cruelty " is 
 also not unknown among us. The writer of 
 this article has observed cases of stimulation 
 to cruelty of this sort in the wake of the 
 " nature study " denunciation of the English 
 sparrow and the hj'gienic onslaught of adults 
 upon the pestiferous house fly. It is hard to 
 say how much of children's cruelty to animals 
 and insects springs chiefly from such sources. 
 Their immediate, rather than their remote, 
 ancestors arc certainly responsible for a good 
 deal. This fact is important when one con- 
 siders how large a part of the criminality of 
 children is practically a matter of crueltv. As 
 noted by Kidd, with respect to Kaffir children 
 and animals, some of the major crimes of the 
 children of civilized races, including even cer- 
 tain homicides, are motivated by the idea that 
 the victim has injured in some way or other 
 the parents and friends of the child in ques- 
 tion, — a parallel to the case of the Kaffir child 
 and the lizard. Instances are not wanting 
 w-here children under eight or nine years of age 
 have rushed to the defense of the mother, or 
 some other close friend, with the exclamation, 
 " I'd like to kill j'ou! " Here we may meet 
 with a proto-altruistic motive and perhaps also 
 
 628
 
 CHILDREN, CRIMINALITY IN 
 
 CHILDREN, CRIMINALITY IN 
 
 a pseudo-altruistic one. Many of the assaults 
 and kindred expressions of violence on the part 
 of children are susceptible of a like explanation. 
 The deliberate, studied cruelty of adults, 
 savage and civilized, is of another order and 
 not germane to childhood. 
 
 As Uttle as the cruelty and wild outbursts 
 of violence noted in certain children, can some 
 of the other " criminal phenomena " of this 
 age of the individual be accounted for by mere 
 reference to the history of the race. In view 
 of what is known of such uncivilized peoples 
 as the Veddas of Ceylon, some of the milder 
 and gentler tribes of American Indians, the 
 Mentawei Islanders of Sumatra, and others, it 
 is impossible to interpret lying, cynicism, 
 sexual immorality, theft, pyromania, truancy, 
 resistance to family life, selfishness, cunning, 
 and all their manifold ramifications as simply 
 phenomena of ontogenetic recapitulation of 
 phylogenctic experiences. President Hall and 
 his immediate school go, perhaps, as much too 
 far in this direction as does Judge Lindsey in 
 another, when the latter declares (Travis, p. x), 
 that " at least 9.5 per cent of cliildren who are 
 dealt with as delinquents are no different from 
 the average child, but are such because their en- 
 vironment is different," and that " juvenile de- 
 linquency pertains to all children, for all chil- 
 dren are delinquent at some time or other." 
 One school of observers makes altogether too 
 large a draft upon heredity, near and remote, 
 another too large a draft upon environment 
 and the individual's own contact with it. 
 Children, like other humans, are both born 
 and made, and there is something even in 
 childhood that is the forerunner of personality, 
 and must be given some role in the interpreta- 
 tion of the facts. Even a httle girl of 4 or ,5 
 has been heard to say, " I'm not like anybody 
 else; I'm just like my own self." This early 
 " selfhood " is discernible in the abnormal as 
 well as in the normal phenomena of childhood. 
 The element of self-rivalry and self-emulation 
 must also be taken into account. 
 
 Suicide is one of the aspects of " crime " 
 among children that is thought to have in- 
 creased perceptibly with the progress of modern 
 civilization, having been influenced much by 
 the stress of school life, disappointment at the 
 result of examinations, and other similar causes 
 connected with wounded self-feelings, etc. 
 Both in Germany and in America this fact 
 has been brought out, particularly in the last 
 few years. In France, since 1S99, according 
 to Proal (p. 3), there has been a slight tendency 
 toward decrease in child suicides, accompany- 
 ing a similar movement in the suicides of 
 adults. In France, in 18.39, out of a total of 
 2752 suicides, 20 were those of children under 
 16 years of age, and 132 those of individuals 
 between 16 and 21; in 1904 the figures were, 
 respectively, SS76, .")2, and 429. In pathological 
 cases, heredity and alcoholism are assigned the 
 chief roles, but in nonpathological ca.ses the 
 
 same sen.se of " wounded self," so potent in 
 adult acts of self-destruction, is marked in 
 childhood and in youth. Homicides by chil- 
 dren are, in not a few instances, due to similar 
 causes, as are likewise many minor offenses 
 and delinquencies more or less directly con- 
 nected with systems of education. 
 
 Alcoholism in children is a phenomenon 
 occurring with surprising fretjuency in certain 
 regions of Europe and America, as a part of 
 the general alcohol " debauch " of some modern 
 civilized races, rather tlian a harking back to 
 Iirehistoric times. Of the many institutions and 
 other devices for preventing juvenile crime and 
 helping or reforming young criminals and delin- 
 tiuents, — reformatory and industrial schools 
 (q.v.), placing out agencies, the Borstal system, 
 probation officers (</.!'.), children's and juvenile 
 courts ((/.!'.), guardianship-education, emigra- 
 tion, children's colonies, George Junior Repub- 
 lic {q.v.), boys' and girls' clubs (q.v.), — some 
 seem to succeed in certain countries much 
 better than in others, being evidently more in 
 touch with the racial, national, historical, and 
 environmental experience. A method equally 
 effective for English, French, German, Italian, 
 and Slavonic children has not yet been wrought 
 out, although the composite nature of the child 
 population of America almost makes some 
 such expedient necessary. The reasonable 
 success of the " junior republic " points in 
 this direction; also some of the playground 
 and open-air establishments. Children's courts 
 and the probation system, while not uniformly 
 as successful as could be wished, are of great 
 promise. Complete change of environment, 
 with new and lasting family life, is likewise 
 productive of much good. Indeed, whatever 
 can create a home environment, or some- 
 thing closelj' approximating to it, must be 
 beneficial, as it is the most human method of 
 " reform " or " regeneration." In America, 
 much emphasis has been laid upon more or 
 less thorough change of environment, influence 
 of strong personalities (judge and other adults) 
 in the home. Judge I.indsey claims to have 
 cured 96 per cent of all delinquent hoys com- 
 ing before the Juvenile Court at Denver, 
 Col., a result more favorable than reported 
 for the George Junior Hcimblic, or any other 
 known reformatory institution (here the figures 
 are generally, both in America and in Europe, 
 very much lower). The statistics of " reform," 
 however, have not yet been subjected to the 
 keen analysis which they must undergo before 
 they can be taken as undoubted evidence of 
 success. Details also as to special offenses 
 and particular " crimes " are still rather un- 
 satisfactory. This aspect of the subject will 
 be considered in the article on Education and 
 Crime (q.v.). A. F. C. 
 
 References: — 
 
 The more rccpnt and valuable literature relating to 
 eriniinality in eliiklreii will be found r6suni6d or referred 
 to in the following works : — 
 
 629
 
 CHILDREN'S LITERATURE 
 
 CHILE 
 
 Albanel. p., et Legras. M. L'enfance criminelle d 
 
 Paris. (Paris, 1899.) 
 Chamberlain, A. F. The Child, ch. ix. (London and 
 
 Now York, 1900.) 
 Drah.ms, a. The Criminal, his Personnel and Environ- 
 ment, ch. xi. (New York, 1900.) 
 Duprat, G. L. La Criminalile dans V Adolescence. (Paris, 
 
 1909.) 
 Ellis, H. The Criminal. (London, 1880.) 
 Ferriani, L. M inorenni delinquenti . (Milano, 189.5.) 
 Hall, G. S. Adolescence. (2 vols.. New York 1904.) 
 Jolt, H. L'Enfance coupable. (Paris, 1904.) 
 KiDD, D. Savage Childhood. (London, 1906.) 
 Maupate, L. R&chcrches d' Anthropologic criminelle chez 
 
 VEnfant. (Paris, 1893.) 
 Morrison, W. D. Juvenile Offenders. (New York, 1897.) 
 Russell, C. E. B., and Rigby, L. M. The Making of 
 
 the Crimin<fl. (London and New York, 1900.) 
 Proal, L. L' Education et le suicide des Enfants. (Paris, 
 
 1907.) 
 Steinmetz, S. R. Bthnologische Studien zur ersten Ent- 
 
 wickeluiig dcr Strafe. (2 vols., Leiden, 1894.) 
 Tr,a.vis, T. The Young Malefactor. (New York, 1908.) 
 Westermarck, E. The Origin and Development of the 
 
 Moral Ideas, chs. x and xxv. (London and New 
 
 York, Vol. I, 1900.) 
 
 CHILDREN'S LITERATURE. — See Lit- 
 erature, Children's. 
 
 CHILE, EDUCATION IN. — Chile : Re- 
 public comprising 23 provinces; area 307,620 
 square miles; population (census of 1905), 
 3,399,928. 
 
 Historical. — European customs and insti- 
 tutions were originally introduced into Chile, 
 as into other divisions of South America, by 
 Spanish forces from Peru bent upon extending 
 the royal dominion in the New World. When 
 permanent settlements were formed the eccle- 
 siastics and teaching orders of the Roman 
 Catholic Church, who followed the Spanish 
 flag, entered upon the task of proselyting and 
 instructing the natives and of maintaining 
 spiritual and intellectual control over the 
 Spaniards themselves. But the spirit of liberty 
 which in the latter half of the eighteenth cen- 
 tury arose in the distant possessions of Spain 
 soon manifested itself in Chile. Stimulated by 
 the successful revolution in the province of La 
 Plata, the Chilean patriots threw off the 
 Spanishyokein 1810 and organized a provisional 
 government. A period of struggles, anarchy, 
 and internal dissensions followed, and it was 
 not until 1833 that the present constitution 
 was adopted, and Chile entered upon an era of 
 stable government and remarkable prosperity. 
 
 The leaders of the new republic manifested 
 an interest in the cause of public education 
 scarcely less than that which animated the 
 leaders of the Argentine Republic. The con- 
 stitution declared the matter to be one of 
 supreme importance, a ministry of public in- 
 struction was created in the government, and 
 measures were at once adopted for the pro- 
 motion and regulation of secondary and higher 
 education. The importance of primary educa- 
 tion was empha.sized by the establishment at 
 Santiago, in 1842, of a normal school for train- 
 ing primary teachers, and in 1860 the organic 
 law of primary instruction was passed. The 
 
 sy.stem of administration adopted in Chile 
 differs radically from that of the sister repub- 
 lic. The control of public education in all its 
 branches is centralized in the ministry and its 
 support provided from the national treasury'. 
 The teachers of public schools arc appointed 
 and their salaries paid by the central authority, 
 and the school organization, scheme of studies, 
 etc., are controlled by official regulations 
 emanating from the same source. As a con- 
 sequence there is little interest in primary 
 schools on the part of local authorities or on 
 the part of the people in general. But, on the 
 other hand, many influences, in particular the 
 spirit of clerical teachers and of an aristocratic 
 society, have fostered the type of education 
 which in Europe has long been the privilege 
 of the directive classes. These distinctions are 
 reflected in the administration of the system of 
 public instruction in two independent sections. 
 Primary Education. — Primarj^ schools, nor- 
 mal schools, and industrial schools are under 
 the control of an Inspector-General who 
 is subordinate only to the minister. The 
 recent efforts for the improvement of this 
 service were inspired by the educational con- 
 gress and exhibit held at Santiago in 1902. 
 The low state of primary education was the 
 chief topic of discussion in the congress, and 
 its relation to industrial skill was empha.?ized 
 by the exhibits from foreign nations. The 
 interest thus excited was indicated by the 
 marked increase in the number of i)ublic primary 
 schools, in efforts for the improvement of the 
 teaching service, and larger provision for 
 manual training. The official statistics show 
 for 1902 a total of 1821 public primary schools, 
 with an enrollment of 145,0.52 pupils; in 1907 
 the totals were 2319 schools and 197,174 
 pupils. Of the 3977 teachers employed in the 
 latter year only 1415, a little more than one 
 third, had been trained in the normal schools. 
 The importance of such preparation was em- 
 phasized by arrangements for the professional 
 instruction of the untrained teachers in order 
 that they might pass the government examina- 
 tions and obtain diplomas as qualified teachers. 
 Furthermore, by a decree of March 25, 1908, 
 appointments to the directorship of higher 
 grade primary schools were limited to normal 
 graduates who should successfully pass a com- 
 petitive examination conducted by a govern- 
 ment board. The solicitude of the government 
 in regard to popular education was also shown 
 by an increase in the subsidies granted to 
 private primary schools. In 1898 the amount 
 allowed for this purpose was S49,490; in 1907 
 it was 1232,286; or S16.70 per capita of the 
 average attendance (13,898 pupils). In his 
 report for 1908 the Minister of Public Instruc- 
 tion, while admitting that under present con- 
 ditions private (chiefly parochial) schools must 
 be recognized, insists that government aid to 
 the same should not be granted without careful 
 examination; in accordance with the minister's 
 
 630
 
 CHILE 
 
 CHILE 
 
 recommendation, an ordinance was issued re- 
 quiring, as conditions for sharing in the subsidy, 
 that the hygienic surroundings of the schools 
 shall be good; that the teachers shall have 
 diplomas from the normal schools, or have 
 bachelors' degrees in the humanities, or shall 
 pass examinations; that reading, writing, ele- 
 mentary arithmetic, geography and history of 
 Chile be taught; that the schools shall be in 
 operation at least 150 days in the year, and 
 that they shall be subject to inspection by the 
 regular inspector of the i)ublic schools. 
 
 At the opening session of the educational con- 
 gress of 1902, the Chilean Minister of Public 
 Instruction, Senor Don Rivera, dwelt upon the 
 importance of technical knowledge and skill in 
 the new activities of modern life. Tlie subject 
 was prominent in the discussions of the con- 
 gress, and a new impulse was given to the pro- 
 vision for manual and technical training which 
 had already been started in the country. In 
 1S99, 10 carpenter shops had been established 
 in connection with primary schools; in 1907 
 there were 29 carpenter shops, with 908 pupils 
 working in them, 40 shops for working in 
 pasteboard, with 1270 pupils, and 51 shops 
 for needlework, with 5100 girls in them. It 
 was proposed that year to introduce training in 
 trades in the higher primary schools. A special 
 decree of April 27, 1908, provided that candi- 
 dates who have completed the course of the 
 Pedagogical Institute and those who have 
 studied at the Institute of Physical and Manual 
 Training are to be preferred as teachers in 
 normal schools, and if such candidates are not 
 available, then those who have diplomas as 
 teachers in normal schools or university gradu- 
 ates will be accepted, thus precluding the pos- 
 sibility of filling the positions with unciualified 
 persons. 
 
 The purpose of the government to employ 
 only trained teachers in the primary schools is 
 seriously hindered by the want of suflicient 
 normal schools, and further by the low salaries, 
 which offer little inducement to ambitious 
 young people to prepare themselves for the 
 service. In 1907 there were onlv 15 normal 
 schools (6 for men, 9 for women), with a regis- 
 tration of 1977 students (722 men, 1255 women) ; 
 the number of graduates was 120, of whom 66 
 were men and 54 women. A new normal 
 school for women has been opened since 1908, 
 and other schools of the same class are con- 
 temiilated. 
 
 The primary school teachers are graded in 
 four classes, with animal salaries rising from a 
 minimum of 900 pesos (.S240) to ISOO pesos 
 (.§450). After 10 years of service the teacher in 
 any class is entitled to an increase of 20 per cent. 
 Assistants are paid on a lower scale, begin- 
 ning at -SlSOand rising to a maximum of S300. 
 
 The industrial advance of the country and 
 the rising wage scale, even for unskilled labor, 
 make an increase in teachers' salaries an im- 
 perative necessity. It is recognized that the 
 
 631 
 
 central government alone is unequal to the 
 emergency that has arisen. The annual ap- 
 propriation for the entire service, including 
 normal schools, is about .§2,250,000, but this 
 amount is not devoted solely to current ex- 
 penditures. A sj'stem of local school taxation 
 is strongly urged as essential to that extension 
 of primary education which the public welfare 
 requires. 
 
 Secondary and Higher Education. — Al- 
 though secondary schools (Hreos) and higher 
 institutions were established by decrees is- 
 sued in the earliest years of the Republic, 
 the system of secondary and higher educa- 
 tion in Chile was not organized until the pas- 
 sage of the law of Jan. 9, 1879. This law 
 provided that there should be at least one 
 public secondary school in each province of the 
 country, institutions of higher education " nec- 
 essary for the practice of the scientific and 
 literary professions," and special schools to 
 prepare students for the public service and for 
 the conduct of mechanical and industrial enter- 
 prises, all maintained by public funds. The 
 immediate charge of these establishments was 
 committed to the national Council of Education, 
 consisting of the Minister of Public Instruction 
 (presiding officer) ; the rector of the university ; 
 the deans of the university faculties; the rector 
 of the National Institute; three members ap- 
 pointed by the President of the republic, 
 and two members elected by the university 
 faculties. 
 
 The union of secondary and higher education 
 in one department follows scholastic traditions 
 which were perpetuated in the university sys- 
 tem devised by Napoleon. The principal fea- 
 tures of this system have not only survived 
 to the present day in France, but also in the 
 systems of education of the Latin countries 
 generally, which follow French precedents. The 
 Council prescribes the courses of study, the 
 number and (lualifications of the professors, and 
 all details ])crtaining to the conduct of the insti- 
 tutions under its direction. In the scholastic 
 scheme, the term " secondary " implies a course 
 of instruction, intended to educate the directive 
 classes for their role in the social order, and at 
 the same time to furnish a suitable preparation 
 for the professional courses of instruction of- 
 fered in the universities. The courses of study 
 in the liceos are officially designated as " pre- 
 paratory " and the " hunuuiities," the latter 
 including modern languages, mathematics, 
 physics, and natural sciences, to which the new 
 studies of civics, psychology, philosophy of the 
 sciences, and general history of civilization have 
 been recently added. In the full-course liceos 
 the program of studies is arranged to cover 6 
 years. 
 
 From the beginning the effort was made by the 
 Chilean government to avoid the excessive liter- 
 ary tendencies of the older schools and impart to 
 the new institutions a more scientific character. 
 With this purpose in view, the/n«(itMto/'ec(ajopico
 
 CHILE 
 
 CHILE 
 
 was founded in 1S13 for the training of teachers 
 for the liceos. Professors were invited from 
 Germany to form the faculty of the institution, 
 and as a result modern secondary education in 
 the country has been developed under German 
 influences. The Institute has become in fact a 
 university school of education intended to pre- 
 pare special professors for the several branches 
 of the secondary course. The curriculum is 
 therefore divided into seven distinct sections: 
 (1) Spanish, (2) French, (3) English, (4) Ger- 
 man, (5) history and geography, (6) mathe- 
 matics and physics, (7) biology, chemistry, and 
 mineralogy. All students are required to ta,ke 
 pedagogy, experimental psychology, logic, ethics, 
 the history of philosophy, civics, and educa- 
 tional organization and legislation. The full 
 course covers a period of 4 years. At the 
 beginning only young men were admitted to the 
 Institute, but later it was made coeducational, 
 and thus its influence was extended to the public 
 liceos for young women, which are rapidly in- 
 creasing in number and prestige. 
 
 There are at present 39 liceos for young men, 
 with an enrollment of 9302 students, and an 
 average attendance of about 7900; and 31 
 liceos for young women, with 4810 students, and 
 an average attendance of 3S00. The number 
 of students in the course of humanities, or true 
 secondary course, in 190S, was (5334, of whom 
 4555 were young men. The private secondary 
 schools, which have a still larger attendance 
 than the liceos, are in a measure under govern- 
 ment supervision, as the greater number re- 
 ceive publico subsidies. They, also, follow the 
 official programs, since, like the liceos, they pre- 
 pare students for the university examinations. 
 Hence the whole province of secondary educa- 
 tion in Chile is permeated with the modern spirit. 
 
 The provision for secondary education is com- 
 pleted by special technical schools, which are 
 of recent origin, but have already assumed great 
 importance in the industrial and business world. 
 The principal schools of this class are the com- 
 mercial school of Santiago, established in 1908 
 by a group of public-spirited citizens. It was 
 provided with a new buUding by the national 
 government, which also makes an annual ap- 
 propriation toward its support. Similar schools 
 have since been opened in ^'alparaiso, Concep- 
 cion, and other cities. These schools, which are 
 intended for students from 12 to 15 years of age, 
 represent the first stage of a system of commer- 
 cial education. The school of mechanical arts, 
 situated at Santiago, bears the same relation 
 to industrial education. To this school pupils 
 are sent from all parts of the country, and the 
 success of its graduates makes it certain that 
 similar institutions will soon be provided in all 
 the large towns of the republic. Santiago has 
 also led in the provision for the industrial train- 
 ing of girls by the establishment of a school in 
 which the trades open to women, i.e. dress- 
 making and hat making, are taught, as well 
 as bookkeeping, stenography, etc. In all the 
 
 special schools named the courses are eminently 
 practical and are in charge of competent teach- 
 ers. Numerous private societies, both secular 
 and clerical, have been active in promoting in- 
 dustrial and technical training as an indispen- 
 sable part of national education. 
 
 Higher Education. — Higher education cen- 
 ters in the University of Chile, inaugurated at 
 Santiago Sept. 17, 1843. By its represen- 
 tation in the Council of Public Instruction 
 the university bears an important part in shap- 
 ing the entire course of education in the coun- 
 try. As stated by the Minister in his report 
 for 1908, it has not only been the fountain of in- 
 struction and learning as such, but has been the 
 source of the progressive ideas in educational 
 reform, which have so rapidly modified the in- 
 tellectual condition of the people in recent years. 
 The Council of Public Instruction is charged 
 with the duty of conferring degrees and titles 
 which qualify the student to practice professions 
 or enter the public service, and has provided a 
 series of examinations as a condition precedent 
 to granting the degrees. The degree of Bache- 
 lor of the Humanities is evidence that the stu- 
 dent possesses all the ideas which are indispen- 
 sable to a man of culture and a good citizen. 
 The degree of Licentiate in law or medicine or 
 mathematics (engineering) is clear proof not 
 only that its possessor is qualified to practice 
 the corresponding profession, but it also implies 
 that he knows, and knows well, other subjects 
 of study w-hich, although they may not be neces- 
 sary in the practice of his profession, yet give 
 him breadth of view and fixed principles. 
 
 Up to a very recent date the members of the 
 university faculties have been professional men 
 engaged to deliver lectures before the students. 
 This system has secured the interest and co- 
 operation of the principal lawyers, doctors, 
 engineers, etc., of Santiago, liut it has deprived 
 the university of organic unity. Serious efforts 
 were made b_y the former rector of the univer- 
 sity. Dr. Valentin Letelicr, to develop the 
 conditions of institutional life, by the provis- 
 ion of permanent professors and a central build- 
 ing, or clubhouse, for the students. In the 
 transformation which is gradually taking place, 
 the lecture system will, it is believed, be re- 
 placed by class instruction, practical exercises, 
 and close relations between students and pro- 
 fessors. It should be observed, however, that 
 a degree of organic unity has always been main- 
 tained through the agency of the Council, a 
 permanent directive body of which the univer- 
 sity rector is president. The progressive spirit 
 of the Council is indicated by the establishment 
 in 1907 of a special class for the study of the 
 exploitation of saltpeter and analogous salts, in 
 view of the great importance of the saltpeter 
 industry to Chile. Another new chair in the 
 mathematical course is that of seismology and 
 seismic architecture, suggested particularly by 
 the earthquake of 1906. The services of Pro- 
 fessor Montessus de Ballore were secured to fill 
 
 632
 
 CHILE 
 
 CHILPERIC 
 
 this chair and to erect and superintend a seis- 
 mological observatory. The astronomical ob- 
 servatory of Santiago and tlio museums of 
 natural history of Santiago, Valparaiso, and 
 Concepcion, and a botanical garden arc con- 
 nected more or less directly witli the university 
 faculty of physical sciences and mathematics. 
 
 The Council contributes to the general educa- 
 tion of the people through its own puljlications, 
 such as tiic Analcs dc la Universidnd, and by 
 publishing other important works and awarding 
 prizes. The following table indicates the sta- 
 tus of the university in 1908: — 
 
 INSTRl'CTOR.S. STl'DENT.S, AND BUDGET OF THE 
 DIFFERENT FACULTIES OF THE UNIVERSITY 
 OF CHILE 
 
 Faculty 
 
 iNSTRnCT- 
 INQ COBPS 
 
 Stodents 
 
 BlJDQET 
 
 Law and social sciences (includ- 
 ing special course in city of 
 Concepcion) 
 
 Medicine and pharmacy, and 
 nurses' training school 
 
 Dentistry 
 
 Engineering 
 
 Architecture 
 
 Pedagogy 
 
 Fine Arts 
 
 44 
 
 32 
 
 5 
 
 19 
 
 15 
 
 12 
 11 
 
 491 
 
 294 
 89 
 
 149 
 43 
 
 221 
 
 135 
 
 $21,000 
 
 55,360 
 8,800 
 29,646 
 12,075 
 26,CS3 
 7,530 
 
 Total 
 
 138 
 
 1,422 
 
 $161,394 
 
 The provision for higher education in Chile 
 is completed by the Catholic University at 
 Santiago, founded in 1888. In 1908 the regis- 
 tration of students was as follows: law school, 
 185; engineering school, 396; the agricultural 
 scliool, 12; and the school of fine arts, 55. In 
 all of these dei)artments the etiuipment is ex- 
 cellent, and the teadiing corps has been selected 
 with great care. The Catholic University is 
 supported by the wealthier classes of Chile, 
 whose donations and bequests to the institu- 
 tion reach a large total each year. As the de- 
 gree-conferring powers in Chile are confided ex- 
 clusively to the national Council, the graduates 
 of the Catholic University nuist meet the re- 
 quirements of this body for the final sanction of 
 their studies. 
 
 The Spanish-.American countries, following 
 the Latin traditions, maintain schools of art 
 and music as public institutions supported by 
 the State. The studies of the schools of fine 
 arts in Chile include painting, drawing, sculp- 
 ture, engraving, and architecture, and the teach- 
 ers are often European artists who have re- 
 ceived prizes for their work in Paris or Spain 
 Tlicre were 243 jiupils of both sexes at the two 
 schools of fine and decorative art in 1907, and 
 144 male and 439 female students at the na- 
 tional conservatory of music. This institu- 
 tion is of great benefit to the middle class of the 
 population, since the greater part of its gradu- 
 ates become teachers of tiie piano and singing, 
 and are also, if their talents suffice, trained as 
 dramatic and lyric artists. Tlie importance of 
 
 art as an elevating influence in national life 
 is emphasized in Chile at the present time by 
 an international exposition of fine arts, which 
 was held at Santiago, September, 1910, as a part 
 of the Ciiilean centennial celebration. On the 
 oi)ening day, Sept. IS, the Palace of Fine Arts, 
 erected as a permanent memorial of the occasion, 
 was inaugurated. A. T. S. and R. L. P. 
 
 References: — 
 
 A.MnN.\TEQUi Y Solar Domingo, 1860. — Los primeros 
 afios del Instituto Kacionai (1813-1835). (Santiago 
 dc Chile, 1889.) 
 
 Annual and Special Reports of the Minister of Public 
 Instruction. 
 
 Arriau-\o.\, T. RoMULO. Ltyislarion de la tnscfiajiza 
 prituaria dc Chile ipuhlica i privada). iJispit.sii-iunca 
 vijentes en 1"^ de Alarzo dc 19()(). (Santiago de Chile, 
 1900.) 
 
 Ballestieros, Manuel E. Compilacion de leyes t de- 
 crclas vijcnlcn. En Materia de instrucei6n pdblica. 
 Ohra anoglada. (Santiago de Chile, 1872.) 
 
 CoNGREso Naticval Pedacojico. Rcsumcn dc las dis- 
 cusiones, actas, i metnorias prcsentadaa al primer 
 congreso prdagojico. (Santiago, September, 1889.) 
 
 rv Congreso CiENTiFico (1° Pan-Americano). Bosquejo 
 de la insiruccidn publiqua en Chile, 1908. 
 
 Insiruccidji secundaria, Superior i especial; disposiciones 
 vijctdcs, 1905. (Santiago 1905.) 
 
 Letelier, Valentin. 1852. La lucha par la Cidliira; 
 tni^cclanca dc articulos polilicos i estudios pedagojicos, 
 . . . (Santiago de Chile. 1895.) 
 
 Ministerio de instruccidn puhlica. Estadistica escolar, 
 1900. 1908. (Santiago dc Chile.) 
 
 Noel, John Vav.\sodr. Report on the Chilean Edu- 
 cational Congress and Exhibit, 1902-1903. In Re- 
 port of Conirnissiofier of Education, 1904, eh. xxvii. 
 
 MuNEz, Jcse Abelardo, 1840. Organizticidn dc cscue- 
 las nonnales. . . . (Santiago de Chile, 1883.) 
 
 Prendez, Pedro N. Notes on Public Instruction in 
 Chile. (Santiago, 1901.) 
 
 Ros.\LES, Ju.STO Abel. Instruccidn puhlica en su parte 
 secundaria, superior, especial e historica. Recopi- 
 iacidn de Icycs. dccretos suprcTnos, circularcs y acuer- 
 dos del consejo de instruccidn puhlica. (Santiago, 
 1890.) 
 
 CHILE, UNIVERSITY 
 
 Education in. 
 
 OF. — See Chile, 
 
 CHILPERIC I. — Son of King Clothaire; 
 reigned over the Franks from 561 to 584. His 
 rule was rendered precarious by a long strife 
 with his brothers, particularly Sigebert. The 
 assassination of Sigebert in 575 left Chilperic 
 with the King of Hurgundy, Gontran, as his 
 chief ojiponcnt. In the field of eihication, it is 
 to l)c noted that Chilperic had ambitions similar 
 to those which Charlemagne was later more 
 successfully to realize. He extended the royal 
 autluu-ity against the claims of the bishops, was 
 interested in theology and logic, wrote Latin 
 verses in a dark age when literature was al- 
 most unknown, and, not satisfied with these 
 es.says, attempted even to add certain letters 
 to the Roman alphabet. At the same time, he 
 is described by his contemporary and victim, 
 Gregory of Tours, as cruel and vindictive, the 
 Nero and Herod of the times. P. R. C. 
 
 References: — 
 
 CiUEOonY OK Tours. Ecclesiastical History of the Monks. 
 Thieuuy. Ricits des temps Mlrovingiens. (Paris.) 
 
 033
 
 CHINA 
 
 CHINA 
 
 CHINA, EDUCATION IN. — Nothing that 
 one could say would express so concisely the 
 beginnings of the education of Chinese children 
 as a few quotations from their little classics 
 for boys and girls. It is urged upon every 
 woman that she should : — 
 
 Of pro-natal education 
 Be attentive as a mother. 
 For the influence is mutual of each upon the other. 
 Whether walking, standinR, sitting, or reclining, have a 
 
 rule. 
 E'en in eating and in drinking have a care yourself to 
 school. 
 
 In its babyhood the prattling infant is taught 
 rhymes similar to those of our own nursery, 
 when the mother, the nurse, or the elder broth- 
 ers or sisters take hold of its fingers one by one 
 while they repeat: — 
 
 This one's old. 
 
 This one's young. 
 This one has no meat. 
 
 This one's gone 
 
 To buy some hay. 
 And this one's on the street. 
 
 Boys and girls are allowed to play together 
 mitil they are 7 or 8 years of age, when 
 
 For her son she calls a teacher and she places him in 
 
 school, 
 Where he learns to write short ballads, studies how to 
 
 be discreet. 
 Loves his teacher and rewards him both with money 
 
 and with meat. 
 
 The pupil commits to memory, line by line, 
 four primers: The Three Character Classic, 
 The Thousand Character Classic, The Hundred 
 Surnames, and The Rules of Behavior, none of 
 which he understands at the time, as they are 
 written in the classical language, which is to the 
 vernacular what Latin was to ]']nglish 150 
 years ago. In reciting, he stands with his 
 back to the teacher that he may not "cast 
 sly glances " at the book. After these are 
 all "memorized" they are "exjilained" by 
 the teacher, then bj' the child, and from these 
 primers he has obtained the foundation of all 
 Chinese history, philosophy, and social rules, 
 with every proper name that he will ever come 
 across in books, and is able to recognize not less 
 than three to four thousand ideographs. When 
 he began memorizing, to impress the charac- 
 ters more indelibly upon his mind, he began 
 copying them with a Chinese brush (pen) by 
 laying a sheet of translucent paper over the 
 copy. 
 
 When these are completed, he is given a school 
 name and enters upon the study of the Four 
 Books — Confucian Analects, Great Learning, 
 Doctrine of ike Mean, and Mencius — commit- 
 ting them to memory, and " backing " them to 
 the teacher as he did the primers. While he is 
 committing the second, the teacher explains the 
 first; while the third is being committed, he ex- 
 plains the second, and so on, giving the pupil 
 a thorough review, and impressing them upon 
 his mind so firiply that during his whole life 
 
 he is able to quote verbatim any sentence the 
 books contain. His examinations consist in 
 being given catch words by the teacher or 
 examiner, from which he is expected to com- 
 plete the sentences, the meaning of any of which 
 he may be asked to explain. All the while he 
 continues writing, and begins original composi- 
 tion both in prose and verse, though the chief 
 object of his study is to get words at his 
 tongue's end and characters at his pencil's 
 point. 
 
 The school in which he studies may be a 
 room in his father's house, a select school for 
 boys, or a public school in the city, to which he 
 has been admitted (if there be a vacancy), after 
 passing the required examination. No matter 
 where the school is, or what its character or 
 grade, the furniture is always the same, — ■ 
 nigh, plain, oblong tables, at which he must 
 sit straight, on hard, flat chairs or benches, 
 without any depressions to adapt them to the 
 curves of the Isody. On these he sits day after 
 day, and year after year, his head antl body 
 swaying to the rhythm of the book, which he 
 studies aloud, in a singsong tone, that the 
 teacher may know that he is intent upon his 
 work. And the teacher's ear is so well trained 
 that, though he may have twenty or thirty boys 
 all studying aloud at the same time, he is able 
 to detect every mispronunciation made by 
 any one of them. 
 
 When he has completed the Four Books, he 
 continues, without a break, with the FiVe Clas- 
 sics, The Spring and Autumn, and the Books of 
 Poetry, History, Rites, and Changes. All of 
 these are committed to memory, in regular or- 
 der, one being memorized while another is ex- 
 plained, until his entire bible is at his tongue's 
 end, together with the commentary thereof. 
 With the classics he takes up the poetry of the 
 Tang dynasty, the Elizabethan age of Chinese 
 poetry, and it is a pleasure to sit in the class- 
 room on examination day and listen to the stu- 
 dents chanting the odes of Li Tai-po or Tu-Fu, 
 the rhythm of which is quite equal to that of 
 Horace or Anacreon. All the choicest works of 
 the greatest poets of the past are thus stored 
 up in the mind of the student at an age when it 
 will be impossible for him to forget them. 
 
 With the study of poetry he also takes up the 
 study of belles-lettres, or Ku-wcn, — the iven- 
 changs or essays of the ancient masters of litera- 
 ture. This is an interminable task. It seems 
 to be an effort on the part of scholars to em- 
 body the greatest number of references to the 
 most interesting incidents of the past in the 
 choicest possible language and the fewest words. 
 And the student pores over volumes of these 
 essays, committing them to memory, in the 
 hope of absorbing the style of their author, or 
 developing in himself one equally good. It is 
 thought boiled down to its last consistency in 
 words. Take, for instance, the following advice 
 from the great philosopher and statesman Han 
 Yii regardmg the treatment of Buddhist priests: 
 
 634
 
 Interior of an Elementary- School. 
 
 Exterior of an Elementarj' School. 
 
 Exainination Halls, Cheutu. 
 
 Exaiiiiuatiou llail.-^, Chintu. 
 
 General \'k-\v of the Examination Hall.s, Xankint^. Ruined Examination lialU uf the t'nivLi;a\ , i . 
 
 The Old Education in China.
 
 CHINA 
 
 CHINA 
 
 fen ch'ijen, hi ch'i chil, huo ch'i shu, which trans- 
 lated literally is man their men, hoii.te Ihcir tcmple-'i, 
 fire their books. Let the reader try to interpret 
 it for himself before going further. To the 
 Chinese scholar it meant: " Make laity of their 
 priests, make dwellings of their temples, and 
 burn their books." 
 
 Or take the following from Giles' translation 
 of Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio, Vol. I, 
 p. xviii, and observe the references it embodies: 
 "'Clad in wistaria, girdled with ivy,' (1) thus 
 sangSan-lu (2) in his Dissipation of (Irief (3). Of 
 ox-hcadcd devils and serpent Clods (4), he of the 
 long-nails (5) never wearied to tell. Each inter- 
 prets in his own way the music of heaven ((>) ; 
 and whether it be discord or not, depends upon 
 antecedent causes (7). As for me, I cannot, with 
 my poor autumn firefly's light, match myself 
 against the hobgoblins of the age (S). I am but 
 the dust in the sunbeam, a fit laughing stock for 
 devils (i)). For my talents are not those of Yii 
 Pao (10), elegant explorer of the records of the 
 Gods; I am rather animated by the spirit of Su 
 Tung-p'o(ll), who loved to hear men speak of 
 the supernatural." In these few lines of the in- 
 troduction to his book the author has eleven 
 references, the recognition of which is like the 
 meeting of old friends to the Chinese scholar. 
 
 Such in brief is the course of study through 
 which the student must pass. He is now at 
 liberty to range throughout all literature. The 
 history of Clrina he must study minutely, with 
 all the varied biographical incidents of the great 
 men. He must study philosophy, which he will 
 find embodied in the Encyclopedia of Philosophy 
 (Hsing Li Ta Chiian), a compendium of the 
 most brilliant sayings of the saj^s. But in 
 addition to these orthodox philosophers, he has 
 bound up in another set of books the Twenty- 
 four Philosophers, who, in spite of their hetero- 
 doxy, have taken a high place among the think- 
 ers of the past — Chuang-tze, mystic moralist, 
 and social reformer, Yang Chu, the Epicurean, 
 and Motze, who held that " universal mutual 
 love," every one loving every one else as he loves 
 himself, was a panacea for all earthly ills, — 
 though even in his school life he will be com- 
 pelled to take up the study of Chou, Chang, 
 Cheng, and Chu (there being two brothers 
 Cheng), the five great iihilosophcrs of the .Sung 
 dynasty, who made that period as brilliant for 
 its philosophic scholarship as the Tang was for 
 its poetry. 
 
 The student is expected to be familiar with 
 all the scientific books, — falsely so-called, — 
 books on the stars, on the rocks, on flowers, on 
 animals, on the laws of nature; for be it re- 
 membered that, while the Chinese have de- 
 voted much time to the study of all these sub- 
 jects, they have never organized their thought 
 into anything like a science of astronomy, 
 geology, botany, zoology, physics, or chemistry, 
 or any other natural or applied science. Indeed, 
 the Chinese have never origiiuited any science, 
 nor contributed anything to the development of 
 
 science, nor studied any results of scientific 
 thought until it was introduced from the West, 
 so that their ideas of nature and the laws are 
 remarkably simple and in some cases very ab- 
 surd. They have what may be called a system 
 of natural science in their Feng-shua (\Yind- 
 irater) which purports to explain the influence 
 of the occult laws of nature on human life, and 
 which the student is expected to understand; 
 but the final interpretation of these laws is 
 usually left to the soothsayer. 
 
 It will be noticed from what I have given that 
 there is nothing in the Chinese course of study 
 in the way of mathematics or science, or indeed in 
 any line of thought, which will tend to develop 
 the thinking faculties, such as reason or inven- 
 tion, and hence these faculties have lain dor- 
 mant in the Chinese mind. They have never 
 invented anything. They have stumbled upon 
 most of the useful, practical appliances of life, 
 and among these upon the compass, guniiowder, 
 and printing, and, though noted for their com- 
 mercial astuteness, have lacked all power to 
 develop them into a commercial success. 
 
 For more than a thousand years the Chinese 
 have had two great educational institutions — 
 the Kuo Tze Chien, or College for the Sons of the 
 Empire, located at Peking, and the Han Lin 
 Yilan, or Forest of Feneils, also at the capital. 
 They are, however, without any of the charac- 
 teristics of what with us go to make a college. 
 The former is a square building, in close proxim- 
 itj' to the Confucian Temple, surrounded by a 
 series of low sheds which cover granite monu- 
 ments or slabs on wliich are carved the text of 
 the Four Books and Five Classics. There are 
 no dormitories, no professors, and no students, 
 except as students from the provinces come to 
 visit the place during the great triennial exami- 
 nations. The Han Lin Yiian was originally 
 composed of the masters in all departments of 
 learning — philosophy, literature, art, the drama, 
 etc. Tliere was connected therewith a great 
 library, in which there was a single encyclope- 
 dia, which contained as many volumes as there 
 are days in one hundred years. This, however, 
 was burned by the Boxers in 1900, and the 
 buildings and hbrary were all destroyed, and 
 with the development of the new education 
 since that time, there has been no effort to 
 restore the Han-Lin nor to develop the Kuo 
 Tze Chien. 
 
 Civil Service Examinations. — The old 
 examination system in China is the fruit 
 of 4000 years. It began with Shun (2200 
 B.C.), who examined his oflicers every third 
 year, " emphasizing the able and promot- 
 ing the worthy." By the time of the Chou 
 (1115 n.c.) the fitness of an official consisted 
 in his ability to excel in playing a musical in- 
 strument, shooting with the bow, riding 
 horseback, writing, and arithmetic, while at the 
 same time he was expected to understand the 
 rites and ceremonies of jniblic and private life. 
 A thousand years later Confucian morals were 
 
 635
 
 CHINA 
 
 CHINA 
 
 added. He was required to bo filial and honest, 
 and to understand civil law, military affairs, 
 agriculture, the administration of the revenue, 
 the geography of the empire, and the water- 
 ways. During the Tang and Sung dynasties 
 (700-1200 A.D.) he had to be versed in poetry, 
 literature, philosophy, and art, while, during the 
 last seven hundred years, when selections from 
 the best literature have been collected in an 
 encyclopedia which contains as many volumes 
 as there are days in a hundred j-ears, and when 
 one emperor (Chicn Lung) has written as many 
 separate poems as there are minutes in two 
 weeks, one could hardly hope for success, but 
 in a life of unremitting toil. 
 
 They have five degrees, hsiit-ts'ai, chii-jen, 
 chin-^hih, han-lin, and chuang-yuan. The ex- 
 aminations for the hsiu-ts'ai were held in the 
 country seat, conducted by a chancellor who has 
 supervision of an entire province. Here were 
 gathered from one to two thousand competi- 
 tors, from the boy in his teens to the old man 
 in his dotage, from which fifty to one hundred 
 were given the degree of " budding genius." 
 Once in three years the successful candidates 
 were examined in the provincial capital, wlien 
 ten thousand, more or less, shut themselves up in 
 little cells, three times, of three days each, to 
 prepare compositions in prose or verse, and from 
 these one in a hundred might be given the de- 
 gree of chii-jen, or " promoted scholar." The 
 next year he entered the examination at Peking, 
 where three in a hundred were allowed to pass, 
 and if he succeeded he was given the degree of 
 chinshih, "ready for office." Thrice he has con- 
 tested with his peers, and is now a picked man 
 of picked men; and the three hundred who suc- 
 ceed in this last contest might enter the exam- 
 ination for the Han-Lin, or membership in the 
 Imperial Academy, whence each might be sent as 
 chancellor, poet-laureate, or imperial historian. 
 Once in three years these han-Uns were again 
 examined and given the degree of chuang-yuan, 
 a picked man of picked men of the fifth degree — 
 a flower which bloomed but once in three years. 
 
 I. T. H. 
 
 See Buddhism AND Education; Confucianism 
 AND Education: China, Educational Reform 
 in; Taoism and Education. 
 
 References: — 
 
 B.iRD, E., and Twitchell, T. Chinese Life in Town 
 
 and Country. (New York, 1905.) 
 Giles. H. A. Chinaand the Chinese. (New York, 1902.) 
 Headl.ind, I. T. The Chinese Boy and Girl. (New 
 
 York, 1901.) 
 Legge, J. The Sacred Books of China; the Texts of 
 
 Confucianism, in F. Max Milller's Sacred Books of 
 
 the East, Vols. 27 and 28. (Oxford, 1885.) 
 Lewis, R. E. The Educational Conquest of the Far 
 
 East. (New York, 1903.) 
 Martin, \V. A. P. The Chinese, their Education, 
 
 Philosophy and Letters. (New York, 1881.) 
 The Lore of Cathay. (Edinburgh, 1901.) 
 Smith. A. H. Village Life in China. (New York, 
 
 1899.) 
 Chinese Characteristics, (New York, 1894.) 
 Williams, S. W. The Middle Kingdom. (New York, 
 
 1895.) 
 
 CHINA, RECENT EDUCATIONAL RE- 
 FORM IN. — The changes in the Chinese 
 educational system began, as do many great 
 undertakings, in a simple way. To entertain 
 the baby Emperor, Kuang Hsii, the eunuchs 
 secured all kinds of foreign mechanical toys 
 as playthings, in which he became greatly 
 interested. These were supplemented in his 
 boyhood by ingenious clocks and watches. He 
 then obtained a telegraphic apparatus, which 
 was adopted throughout the empire. A small 
 railroad was built in the palace grounds, on 
 which he had two cars and an engine. Steam 
 launches were bought for him, which he used 
 in the lotus lake in the palace and in the lake 
 at Wan Shou Shan. He soon had the telephone, 
 electric light, steam heat, the phonograph, 
 graphophone, cinematograph, bicycle, and in- 
 deed all the useful or unique inventions of 
 modern times, brought to him in the palace. 
 
 He then began the study of English, and in 
 1894, when a New Testament was sent to the 
 Empress Dowager on her sixtieth birthday, 
 he at once secured from the American Bible 
 Society a complete Bible for himself. He 
 studied the Gospel of Luke. This gave him a 
 taste for foreign literature, and he sent his 
 eunuchs to the various book depositories and 
 bought every book that had been translated 
 from the European languages into the Chinese. 
 To these he gave much of his attention, and it 
 soon became noised abroad that the Emperor 
 was studying foreign books and was about to em- 
 brace the Christian faith. This continued from 
 1894 till 1898, during which time his example 
 was followed by young scholars throughout the 
 empire, and Chang Chih-tung wrote his epoch- 
 making book, China's Only Hope, which was 
 sent to the Emperor and led him to enter upon a 
 universal reform, the chief feature of which was 
 the adoption of a new educational system. 
 
 In the summer of 1898 he issued an edict to 
 the effect that " Our scholars are now with- 
 out solid and practical education; our artisans 
 are without scientific instructors; when com- 
 pared with other countries " (Germany, Russia, 
 England, and France, who had just taken Chiao- 
 chou. Port Arthur, Wei-hai-wei, and Kuang- 
 chou-wan) " we soon see how weak we are. 
 Does any one think that our troops are as well 
 drilled or as well led as those of foreign armies; 
 or that we can successfully stand against any of 
 them? . . . Changes must be made to accord 
 with the necessities of the times. . . . Keep- 
 ing in mind the morals of the sages and wise 
 men, we must make them the basis on which 
 to build newer and better structures. We must 
 substitute modern arms and Western organiza- 
 tion for our old regime; we must select our 
 military oflScers according to Western methods 
 of military education; we must establish ele- 
 mentary and high schools, colleges and univer- 
 sities, in accordance with those of foreign coun- 
 tries; we must abolish the Wen chang (literary 
 essay), and obtain a knowledge of ancient and 
 
 636
 
 
 Bi 
 
 ^; ■■• 
 
 
 Hi 
 
 1 
 
 ■1 
 
 d 
 
 Peking Universiti'. Football practice ou the Campus. 
 
 Military Cadets, Cluntu, C hina. 
 
 n , J - 
 
 1 1 
 
 KM fl.^ 
 
 1 
 
 Mlk 'A 
 
 i';;'^^ iS^f'JSf 
 
 ■ p! , vJ 
 
 
 ^. fV^ -f^V^^j 
 
 Sl^ffl 
 
 i 
 
 •'/^ ' 
 
 
 A Class in Trigonometrj' iu a Girl's School. 
 
 A Chinese Kindergarten. 
 
 ■Expluiiiiiis; tin- Seasons." PhysicMl ( ■iihun- I la^- mi a llul - School. 
 
 The New Educ.\tion in Chi.va.
 
 CHINA 
 
 CHINA 
 
 modern world history, and a right conception 
 of the present-day state of affairs, with special 
 reference to the governments and institutions 
 of the countries of the five great continents; and 
 we must understand their arts and sciences." 
 
 The effect of this edict was to cause hundreds 
 of thousands of aspirants for office to put aside 
 the classics, and unite in estabhshing reform 
 clubs in provincial capitals, open ports, and 
 many of the prefectural cities. Book depots 
 were opened for the sale of the same kind of 
 literature as that studied by the Emperor, 
 magazines and newspapers were issued and 
 circulated in great numbers, lectures were de- 
 livered and libraries established, and students 
 flocked to the mission schools, ready to study 
 anything the course contained, literary, 
 scientific, or religious. Christians and pastors 
 were even invited into the palace by the eunuchs 
 to dine with and instruct them. 
 
 On June 11, 1S9S, tlie Emperor issued an edict 
 ordering a great central university to be es- 
 tablished at Peking, the funds for which were 
 provided by the government, his closing words 
 being: " We hope that all will take advantage 
 of the opportunities for modern education thus 
 open to them, that in time we may have many 
 competent helpers in the great work of putting 
 our country on a level with the strongest of the 
 Western powers." Observe the animus of the 
 edict, as well as that of the earlier date. It was 
 to reconstruct the army and make China strong, 
 enabling her to withstand the aggressions of the 
 European powers which were at that time readj' 
 to divide her up among themselves. On the 
 26th of the same month he censured the princes 
 and ministers who were lax in reporting upon 
 the above edict, and ordered them to do so at 
 once without furtlier delay. 
 
 On .July 10 the Emperor ordered that " schools 
 and colleges be established in all the provincial 
 capitals, prefectural, departmental, and district 
 cities," and allowed the viceroys and governors 
 but two months to " report upon the inimber of 
 colleges and free schools within their provinces," 
 saying that " all must be changed into schools 
 for the practical teaching of Chinese literature 
 and Western learning, and become feeders to 
 the Peking Imperial University." He ordered 
 further that " all memorial and other temples 
 erected by the people, and not recorded in the 
 list of the Hoard of Rites and of .Sacrificial Wor- 
 ship, are to be turned into schools and colleges 
 for the propagation of Western learning," a 
 thought which was ([uitc in harmony with that 
 advocated by Chang Chih-tung, but not with 
 the sentiment of the people. The funds for 
 carrying out this work, and establishing these 
 schools, were to be provided by the China Mer- 
 chants' Steamship Company, the Telegraph 
 Administration, and a lottery in Canton. 
 
 On Aug. 4 he ordered tliat numerous ))re- 
 paratory schools be established in Peking as 
 feeders for the university; and on the 0th 
 appointed Dr. W. A. P. Martin as head of the 
 
 faculty, and approved the site suggested by 
 Sun Chia-nai, the president. On the ICth 
 he authorized the establishment of a Bureau for 
 " translating into Chinese, Western works on 
 science, arts, and literature and textbooks for 
 use in the schools and colleges," and on the 19th 
 he abolished the " Palace Examinations for 
 Han Lin as useless, .superficial and obsolete," 
 thus severing the last cord that bound them to 
 the old regime. 
 
 While the Emperor was issuing these reform 
 edicts, the Empress Dowager was spending the 
 hot months quietly resting at the Summer Pal- 
 ace at the Western Hills fifteen miles from the 
 capital, offering neither advice, objection, nor 
 hindrance. But when his reforms became too 
 radical, and promised to bring about a revolu- 
 tion, at the earnest request of two delegations 
 of officials and princes, she felt compelled to 
 once more take the throne, thus placing herself 
 in the hands of the conservative party. All 
 his reforms except that of the Peking University, 
 the provincial, prefectural, departmental, and 
 district schools were countermanded, and the 
 Boxers were allowed to test their strength with 
 the allied Powers. After their failure, and 
 while she was still in Hsiantu, on Aug. 29, 
 1901, the Empress Dowager issued an edict 
 ordering " the abolition of essays on the Chinese 
 Classics in examinations for literary degrees, 
 and substituting therefor essays and articles 
 on some phase of modern affairs. Western laws, 
 or political economy. This same jirocedurc is 
 to be followed in examination of candidates for 
 office," an edict which was quite in harmony with 
 that sent out by the Emperor three years before. 
 
 In this same edict she said, "The old methods 
 of gaining military degrees by trial of strength 
 with stone weights, agility with the sword, 
 marksmanship with the bow on foot or on 
 horseback, are of no use to men in the army 
 when strateg}' and military science are the sine 
 qua non to office, and hence should be done 
 away with forever," again voicing the senti- 
 ments of the Emperor, and indicating the root 
 of the reform, which was the desire to make 
 China a strong military power, able to with- 
 stand any from the West. Sept. 12, 1901, she 
 issued another edict commanding " all col- 
 leges in the Empire to be turned into schools of 
 Western learning; each provincial capital to 
 have a university like that in Peking, whilst all 
 the schools in the prefectures and districts arc 
 to be schools or colleges of the second or third 
 class." On Sept. 17 she ordered " the vice- 
 roj'S and governors of other provinces to fol- 
 low the example of Liu Kun-yi of Liangkiang, 
 Chang Chih-tung of IIuKuang, and Kuei Chun 
 (Manchu) of Szechuan, in sending young men 
 of scholastic promise abroad to .study any branch 
 of Western science or art best suited to their 
 tastes, that in time they may return to China 
 and place the fruits of their knowledge at the 
 service of the Empire." What now was the 
 result? 
 
 037
 
 CHINA 
 
 CHINA 
 
 The Imperial College in Shansi was opened 
 with 300 students, all of whom had the Chinese 
 decree of B.A. It had a Chinese and a Foreign 
 dei)artment, and after the students had com- 
 pleted tlie first they were allowed to pass on to 
 the second, which had six foreign professors who 
 held di])lomas from Western colleges or univer- 
 sities, and a staff of six translators of university 
 textbooks into Chinese, superintended by a 
 foreigner. In 1901-1902, ten provinces opened 
 colleges for which they raised more than 
 $400,000. At the recjuest of Governor 
 Yuan Sliih-kai of Shantung, Dr. W. M. Hayes 
 resigned the presidency of the Presbyterian 
 college at Teng-chou-fu, and accepted the 
 presidency of the new government college at 
 the provincial capital. He drew up a working 
 plan of grammar and high schools for the prov- 
 ince, which were to be feeders for the provin- 
 cial college. This was approved by the Gov- 
 ernor, embodied in a memorial to the throne, 
 copies of which the Empress Dowager sent to 
 the governors and viceroys of all the provinces, 
 declaring it to be a law, and ordering " the vice- 
 roys, governors, and literary chancellors to see 
 that it was obeyed." Dr. Hayes and Yuan 
 Shih-Kai soon split upon a regulation which the 
 Governor thought it best to introduce, viz. 
 " that the Chinese professors shall, on the 
 first and fifteenth of each month, conduct their 
 classes in'reverential sacrifice to the Most Holy 
 Teacher Confucius, and to all the former wor- 
 thies and scholars of the provinces." Dr. Hayes 
 and his Cliristian teachers withdrew, but it 
 was not long until those who professed Chris- 
 tianity were excused from this rite, while the 
 Christian physicians who taught in the Peking 
 University were allowed to dispense with the 
 queue and wear foreign clothes as being more 
 convenient and sanitary. 
 
 When Governor Yuan was made viceroy of 
 Chihli, he requested Dr. C. D. Tenny to draw 
 up and put into operation a similar schedule 
 for the metropolitan province. This was done 
 on a very much enlarged scale, as was also the 
 case in many of the other provinces, and at 
 present (1909) "the Chihli province alone has 
 nine thousand schools all of which are aiming 
 at Western education, while in the Empire as 
 a whole there are not less than thirty to forty 
 thousand schools, colleges, and universities, 
 representing some of the educational changes 
 that have taken place in China during the past 
 eight years." 
 
 The New Education among Women. — As 
 a result of a conversation with certain foreign 
 ladies, the Empress Dowager issued an edict 
 approving of the education of women. Two 
 of the sisters of Prince 8u, one of them the wife 
 of a Mongol Prince, Ka-la-chin, at once set 
 about opening schools for girls, one of them 
 in Peking, and the other in a Mongol village 
 some two hundred miles from the capital. 
 Prince Su opened in his own palace a school for 
 his daughters, his daughters-in-law, his de- 
 
 ceased brother's children, and his concubines, in 
 which they studied Japanese, arithmetic, draw- 
 ing, embroidery, music, and calisthenics, while 
 they drilled to the music of an American organ. 
 In all these schools both Japanese and Chinese 
 teachers were employed, and during the first 
 year after the edict appeared there were not less 
 than eight large select schools for girls opened 
 in Peking, with innumerable private schools 
 like that of Prince Su, while similar select and 
 private schools were opened in all parts of the 
 empire. A lady in Hangchou undertook to 
 open such a school, and appealed to the officials 
 and people for funds for its support. These 
 were readily subscribed the first year, but the 
 second year her appeal met with a less favorable 
 response, and she cut a great gash in her arm 
 and sat in the temple court at the fairs to arouse 
 public sympathy. Failing to secure sufficient 
 funds in this way, she wrote to the officials, 
 saying that " When these letters reach you I will 
 be a corpse, as I propose to take my own life in 
 order to arouse public sentiujent to the impor- 
 tance of the education of girls." This she 
 did, and memorial services were held, and 
 subscriptions taken for her school all over the 
 empire. 
 
 In all these schools — for boys as well as 
 girls — the primers and readers which have 
 been substituted for those of the old regime 
 are prepared in a style similar to our own. 
 Characters most easily recognized are used in 
 the first lessons, simple sentences are constructed 
 which will be easily understood by the child, and 
 each lesson is illustrated by an appropriate 
 woodcut, while the old method of committing 
 to memory is relegated to the educational 
 museum of the past. 
 
 The following are some of the questions 
 given at the triennial examinations of 1901- 
 1902 in 6 of the provinces: — 
 
 1. "As Chinese and Western laws differ, and 
 Western people will not submit to Chinese pun- 
 ishments, what ought to be done that China, 
 like other nations, may be mistress in her own 
 country? " 
 
 2. " What are the Western sources of eco- 
 nomic prosperity, and, as China is now so poor, 
 what should she do? " 
 
 3. " According to international law, has any 
 one a right to interfere with the internal affairs 
 of any foreign country? " 
 
 4. " State the advantages of constructing 
 railways in Shantung." 
 
 5. "Of what important advantage is the 
 study of chemistry to the agriculturist? " 
 
 I. T. H. 
 
 References : — 
 
 Brown. New Forces in Old China. (New York, 1904.) 
 Kemp, E. G. The Face of China. (London, 1909.) 
 Lewis. Eiiucational Conquest of the Far East. (New 
 
 York, 1903.) 
 Reinsch, Paul S. The New Education in China. 
 
 Atlantic Monthly, Vol. 103, p. 515. 
 
 See references to previous article. 
 
 638
 
 CHIVALRIC EDUCATION 
 
 CHIVALRIC EDUCATION 
 
 CHIVALRIC EDUCATION. — The form of 
 education open to the upper or noble classes in 
 the Middle Ages is (despite some modern litera- 
 ture on the subject) still far from clear. The 
 manuscript authorities are still more or less 
 closed, and some modern notions (such for in- 
 stance as the theory that the post- Reformation 
 system of secondary schools owes much to chiv- 
 alric education) are open to great doubt. The 
 present discussion is based on the propositions 
 that feudal lords adopted with various modifica- 
 tions the educational ideas that were elaborated 
 in the Palace Schools of Charlemagne (q.v.) and 
 (perhaps) Alfred (q.v.) and applied them to the 
 condition of things that sprang from the feudal 
 fee and feudal rights of wardships and marriage. 
 It is necessary to remember that the feudal 
 lords who were in the long chain of feudal ser- 
 vice that began with the king and passed down 
 to the smallest knight's fee or tenement, in 
 reality formed, so to speak, a class or caste 
 that had educationally little in common with 
 the dependent free and unfree classes that ren- 
 dered services to the lord of the fee and of the 
 manor. It is of course true that the Hall and 
 the Demesne lands of the manor were the rally- 
 ing center of an entire community, a center that 
 had very largely absorbed the ancient township, 
 though it had not brought within manorial 
 control the parish priest, who with his township 
 or parochial school represented the culture of 
 the people as opposed to the chivalric educa- 
 tion of the Hall. But educationally the noble 
 had little in common with the serf, and that 
 these two aspects of education clashed is 
 known from the manorial regulations limiting 
 the educational facilities of the serf population, 
 regulations which were swept away by the 
 Statute of 1406 that threw open the parochial 
 schools to all boys and girls, whether free or 
 unfree. 
 
 Chivalric education was largely based on the 
 necessities of the old law of wardship and mar- 
 riage, and it is therefore necessary to state, 
 as succinctly as may be, that law. If a man 
 held a tenement by knight's service or military 
 sergeanty of a mesne lord, and died leaving 
 a son under age as heir, the lord had the 
 wardship of the land until the heir attained 
 21 years or died under that age. The lord 
 had the right to the rents and profits of the 
 tenement for his own use, but had to provide 
 for the youth's maintenance and pay the dead 
 man's debts. The lord was also entitled to the 
 custody of the body of the heir, and was en- 
 titled to the boy's " marriage "; that is to say, 
 he could sell him in marriage provided that the 
 marriage was not a disparaging one. In the case 
 of a female heir the lord's rights were much 
 the same. Complicated questions might arise if 
 the tenant held in respect of several tenements 
 of various lords, since of course only one lord 
 could have the custody of the heir. As a rule 
 that lord was preferred "from whom, or from 
 whose ancestors, the most ancient of those 
 
 titles was derived. ... If the dead man held 
 in chief of the Crown by knight's service or by 
 grand sergeanty, the king was entitled to the 
 wardship of the heir's body and to his marriage, 
 no matter how many other lords there might be, 
 and no regard being had to the relative an- 
 tiquity of the various titles by which the tene- 
 ments were held; no one can compete with the 
 king. But further, the king was entitled to the 
 wardship of all the lands which this dead man 
 held, no matter of whom he held them. Such 
 was the right of 'prerogative wardship,' and a 
 section in the Great Charter had been nece-ssary 
 to keep it within these spacious bounds." (Pol- 
 lock and Maitland, History of English Law, 
 before the time of Edward I. Vol. I, pp. 301-302.) 
 In addition to this it must be remembered 
 that the right of wardship and marriage was 
 saleable, and was in fact frequently sold. Bear- 
 ing this in mind, what may be called the bare ma- 
 chinery of chivalric education becomes fairly 
 clear. The fact that a lord had the custody 
 of his ward rendered some educational pro- 
 vision necessary. The fact that he had the 
 right of marrying his ward to some other young 
 person of adequate birth and fortune rendered 
 the advantageous association of suitable young 
 people of both sexes also desirable, if not neces- 
 sary. If a lord was not in a position to give the 
 necessary education and a.ssociation, it was 
 clearly to his advantage to sell his right of ward- 
 ship and marriage to some other lord who could 
 provide both education and opportunities of 
 suitable marriage. Thus by a species of eco- 
 nomic law there was a natural drift of marriage- 
 able wards into the larger Halls and households. 
 The king, with his right of prerogative wardship, 
 undoubtedly provided the best school of chiv- 
 alry, but it may be doubted if the king habitu- 
 ally or indeed often purchased wardships, and 
 thus other great households competed with the 
 Court as a place of training for the gilded youth 
 of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. 
 Girls were, in their earlier years at any rate, 
 not educated in the household. The convent 
 schools received them, and taught them ad- 
 mirably the arts of sewing, weaving, music 
 and song, elements of medicine and first aid, 
 and Latin. There were certain well-known 
 nunnery schools for girls of the highest class. 
 The Dartford nunnery in Kent received girls 
 of royal rank. Carow nunnery, near Nor- 
 wich, was a famous school for girls of high 
 birth, and the same may be said of St. Mary's 
 nunnery school at A\'inchcster. From these 
 schools the girls passed into the " Bower " 
 of the Household, there to receive the final 
 touches of chivalric culture and there to meet 
 the noble youths whom they were destined to 
 marry. The fact that there were in these house- 
 holds marriageable heirs and heiresses drew to 
 the households noble youths and maidens, who, 
 though not in wardship, were sent thither 
 by parents who understood the ways of a world 
 that differed only in form from the world as it is 
 
 639
 
 CHIVALRIC EDUCATION 
 
 CHIVALRIC EDUCATION 
 
 lived to-day. To marry and to be given in 
 marriage in the most suitable fashion was one 
 object, if not the supreme object, of chivalric 
 education. But this is not a cynical criticism of 
 chivalric education, for the words " suitable 
 fashion " imply many things. A high and 
 noble standard of life was set before the young 
 people, and one may doubt if that age or any 
 age could have set to work with nobler ideals to 
 form men and women fit to carry on a particu- 
 lar conception of civilization. The long and de- 
 termined resistance of chivalry and of the feudal 
 system to the inroads of a commercial genera- 
 tion from the late fourteenth century onwards 
 is one of the significant facts of English history. 
 The fact, indeed, of noblesse oblige, which may be 
 said to have been the normal basis of chivalric 
 education, long sur\'ivcd both chivalry and feu- 
 dalism, and is not dead to-day. It is therefore 
 desirable to consider in some detail the ma- 
 chinery, so to speak, of chivalric education, 
 since it undoubtedly gave to national educa- 
 tion in the largest sense a moral undernote that 
 has survived the changes and chances of time. 
 The fact that the universities, after the Reforma- 
 tion and the final disappearance of formal 
 chivalric education, made special provision for 
 and offered special privileges to members of 
 the nobility was not a policy sine nobilitate, but 
 a deliberate and not unsuccessful attempt to 
 graft into the highest stage of national educa- 
 tion the culture and the morale that had been 
 begotten by, and had happily survived, feudal- 
 ism. 
 
 The children of both sexes were brought up 
 with the women of the household until the age 
 of 7 years, but before this age the boys were 
 taught to ride. The children were taught to 
 write quite early, and used wax tablets with a 
 stylus to prevent waste of parchment. Apart 
 from the regular intellectual education, the 
 boys from the ages of 7 to 1.5 years were 
 taught to fence and hunt. Fencing included 
 sword and lance practice and the use of the 
 singlestick. Hunting in the thirteenth century 
 was a regular science of the most complicated 
 kind, involving a knowledge of the forest laws, 
 and was divided into two branches, each of 
 which had to be known in detail, namely (1) 
 vener}', the art of hunting the deer and so 
 forth, and (2) falconry, a most difficult and in- 
 volved business, comprising the knowledge how 
 to fly, feed, call, and hold the various classes 
 of birds such as the Gerfalcon, the Sacre, the 
 P61erin, the Gentil, and the Lavier. When it is 
 realized how much the children had to learn 
 before the age of 1.5 in the way of arms and 
 sports (such as wrestling, boxing, running, rid- 
 ing, tilting at the ring, quintain, bull and bear 
 baiting) it is not at all surprising that in a con- 
 siderable percentage of cases even the arts of 
 reading and writing were forgotten in later 
 years. These arts in the case of many children 
 did not compete in interest with the arts of 
 controlling a horse, a gerfalcon, a lance, a 
 
 sword. The same may be said of music. 
 There were opportunities to learn the use of 
 instruments and to train the voice, and no 
 doubt those boys or young men who had a 
 taste for music took advantage of the oppor- 
 tunities, especially as the gift for minstrelsy 
 was greatly appreciated in the age that was 
 largely dependent on the efforts of the amateur 
 for amusement. The houses where training 
 could be secured were not limited to the halls 
 and castles of the nobility. Some of the great 
 religious houses also maintained schools of chiv- 
 alry (in virtue of tlie fact that they were often 
 lords of manors and had rights of wardship), 
 and no doubt in such schools the teaching of 
 "song" received very special attention. 
 
 But the life of the varlets or damoiseaux (as 
 the young pages were called; the girls of the 
 household were of course the damoiselles) was 
 in many ways a hard one as they grew older 
 and more capable of doing the work of the grade 
 above them, that of the squire. We have seen 
 something of their outdoor training, but the 
 indoor life was even busier. There were the 
 school lessons of which something will be written 
 directly, but assuming (and the assumption is 
 a considerable one) that the arts of reading and 
 writing had been acquired, it is clear that the 
 poor little damoiseau had before him what must 
 have been a dreary vista to many minds. It 
 was essential that the boy should become ex- 
 pert at heraldry, a most involved and compli- 
 cated art, that he should become a competent 
 carver of meat, another almost forgotten art, 
 that he should acquire aU the arts of the valet, 
 the groom, the armorer. Thus at table the 
 squire carved and then handed the wines and 
 dishes and was followed along the table by the 
 pages or varlets carrying the dishes that he is to 
 hand. Then again it was the business of the 
 squires and pages to make the beds, to help the 
 Lord to dress, to groom the horses, scour the 
 armor. Moreover, the squire slept in his 
 lord's room or at the door for the purpose of giv- 
 ing him protection at night. The squire, in- 
 deed, was busy, for the training of the pages was 
 his duty. He had to teach the damoiseau to 
 ride as a squire should ride, to speak tongues 
 (English and German; damoiseaux as well as 
 damoiselles all learned to speak French), to harp 
 and pipe, to sing and dance, and these things 
 (and other forms of culture and courtoisie, 
 such as chess, and the rules of good manners 
 and gallantrj") were impressed on the varlet's 
 mind " with corrections in their chambers." 
 One of the chief manuals of manners was 
 Bishop Grosseteste's Stans puer ad mensam. It 
 was a hard and busy life, and its softer side was 
 (to a boy) arduous enough: the boys and 
 squires had to wait on the ladies of the Bower, 
 to play chess vath them, walk with them, dance 
 with them, harp and sing to them. The free- 
 dom allowed between the two sexes appears to 
 have been great, and deliberately great as part 
 of the education in chivalry. Scandals no 
 
 640
 
 CHIVALRIC EDUCATION 
 
 CHIVALRIC EDUCATION 
 
 doubt occurred on occasions, but such things 
 were rare, and on the whole the freedom justi- 
 fied itself. It must be remembered that mar- 
 riage was alwaysonc end aimed at by the system, 
 and certainly in a hard age that recked little of 
 bloodshed, of pain and suffering, this chivalrous 
 intermingling of the two sexes did much to add 
 a tenderness, a sense of honor, an atmosphere 
 of compassion and religion to the round of daily 
 life. The part played by religion is very im- 
 portant. All through the educational period the 
 boy (first as varlet or page or damoiseaii, then as 
 squire and at last — -at 21 — as knight) has lying 
 before him the impressive religious ceremony 
 of his investiture as knight, his robing with a 
 white tunic for purity, with the red robe to show 
 that he has blood to shed for the faith, the Black 
 Doublet to keep death before his mind, and 
 then the night of watching in the Church, the 
 confession, the Holy Communion, the ritual of 
 the Missa de sancto spiritu, the sermon on the 
 Knightly Life. Betmxt the young boy first 
 learning the art of knightly life and the moment 
 when the armor is put on lay some ten years 
 of continuous training with a definite religious 
 and moral purpose in view. This clearly ap- 
 pears in the ]\Is. evidence on the subject. The 
 following account is taken from a late fifteenth- 
 century Ms. of a thirteenth-century treatise 
 on the subject of this training in the British 
 Museum. The work in question was very 
 popular and its use long outlived the formal 
 schools of chivalry. The Ms. is a translation 
 of De Rcgiinine Principum, written for King 
 Philippe le Bel of France, before his acces- 
 sion in 1285, by his tutor Egidio Colonna, who 
 is known to students of this work as Giles de 
 Romme. This translation into French was 
 executed at the request of Philippe by Henry 
 de Gaud, or Henry de Gauchy, or possiblj' by 
 Gyles de Campus (Desohampes). This Trade 
 de Gouvernement dcs Princes asks early in Part I 
 what is the " soverain bien de cestc niortele 
 vye"? The answer comes that it is not " dclit 
 du corps" nor riches nor" honneur mondaine," 
 nor glory and renown nor force of courage ; 
 nor does it lie in " force sante et beaute do 
 corps,"but in (cap. 11) " euvres de largesse" 
 and in governing according to law and 
 reason. The second part goes on to discuss 
 " La vertue de sagcsse," and declares that " Ics 
 rois ct princes doivcnt cstre sages," that 
 " sans justice et saus droiture les Roiaulmcs 
 ne peuvent durer," lays stress on the im- 
 portance of force and courage, and on the virtues 
 of temperance and largesse. The second part of 
 the second book directs the teacher (cap. 5) to 
 instruct children " en la foy catholique do sancte 
 eglise," (0) " instruire en jeunesse a bonnes meurs 
 et bonnes maneres avoir," (7) " aprendre en jeu- 
 nesse les sciences de lettre et de dcrgic." The 
 crown of all is Courtoisie, coupled with good laws 
 for the people. Something more must be said 
 about the seventh chaiiter, as it deals with the 
 question that has up till now been left undis- 
 
 voL. I— 2t 641 
 
 cussed in this article, the intellectual training 
 of the pages, or damoiseaux. The chapter 
 covers ten pages (folios 198o-2086). It is en- 
 titled " les enfans des gentilz homes et des rois 
 et i)rinces doivent aprendre en jeunesse les 
 sciences de lettre et de clergie." Not only 
 must Latin, but all other things that are to be 
 well learned be learned in youth. We get on this 
 point the striking phrase, " aussi pour ce que les 
 sciences sont longues et la vye de I'Homme est 
 brief, ne il convient commence de aprenre ene 
 jeunesse." We are very sharply made to see 
 that the intellectual training of the court school 
 was certainly not behind that of the grammar 
 school. " Les philosophes dirent que ils font 
 sept sciences francos et liberaulz a scavoir: — 
 Gramaire, logicque, Rethoricque, musicque, 
 arithmeticque, geometric et astronomic, les 
 quelles sciences les philosophes apelent liberaulz 
 pour ce que les enfans des princes les souloicnt 
 aprendre. Et aprendoicnt premierement gra- 
 maire. . . ." We are told that rhetoric is neces- 
 sary for the children of princes, that arithmetic, 
 the science of numbers, is learned by the children 
 of the gentry, for without arithmetic they can- 
 not know music perfectly, that geometry 
 teaches " les mesures et les quantity " of things, 
 and is necessary to astronomy, which teaches 
 the quality, distance, and number of the stars. 
 But Giles de Romme, court teacher in the late 
 thirteenth century, does not limit the range of 
 study to the Trivium and Quadrivium {q.v.). 
 There are other sciences of peculiar value to 
 the kingly, that are more noble than the seven 
 hberal arts. There are (1) natural science, 
 which deals with the nature of things; (2) la 
 science mctaphysic(pie, which gives knowledge 
 of God and of his angels; (3) Theology; (4) 
 Ethics — the science of governing yourself; 
 (5) Yconomicgue — the science of governing 
 your house ; (6) Polliticque — the science of 
 governing cities and kingdoms. Truly the 
 curriculum in the school for princes was ad- 
 vanced enough in the thirteenth century, and it 
 must be remembered that the lesser courts of 
 Prince and Duke and Earl and Baron and 
 wealthy Knight were modeled on the Court of 
 Philippe or of Edward III. Nodoubt the teachers 
 varied in quality and the standard varied from 
 Hall to Hall, and a good deal dcjiendcd on the 
 warlike activity of the time and the opportuni- 
 ties for sport, for the use of the bow and the 
 gerfalcon, but the fact remained that these 
 boys had as an ultinuite ideal the above curricu- 
 lum, and also had to learn French (out of books 
 svich as that written by Walter de Bibelsworth 
 iq.v.) for the House of Lady Dionysia dc Mon- 
 chensy of Swanscombe in Kent towaril the end 
 of the thirteenth century), heraldry, and all 
 the other arts and graces of which mention has 
 been made. It was certainly a very complete 
 education ; not less complete in its way than that 
 given by the grammar school and the univer- 
 sity combined. 
 
 One word in conclusion must be said as to the
 
 CHIVALRIC EDUCATION 
 
 CHOREA 
 
 decay of chivalric education. When we enter 
 the fiftoontli century its days of glory are over, 
 though the greater schools lasted on. But the 
 century itself did much to complete that rout of 
 feudalism which commerce had already begun. 
 In the Gloucester Grammar School Case of 1410 
 it is spoken of as a common thing for a man to 
 " retain a ma.ster in his house to teach his chil- 
 dren." The private teacher, who for the four 
 succeeding centuries was to play so large a part 
 in the education of the nobility, had begun to 
 take the place of teachers like Alcuin, who taught 
 (of course in one sense in a private house) the 
 children of various families, a common and high 
 standard for the nobility being the end aimed 
 at. After the Renaissance books poured forth 
 dealing with the education of the sons of the 
 nobility and gentry, but it is doubtful if any of 
 them were better or even as good as the De 
 Rcgimine Principum of Egidio Colonna, on 
 which indeed many of them were based. Co- 
 lonna's book was world-famous. The Ms. cata- 
 logue of the library of the parson of King's 
 Swinford in 1432 (Rolls, Early Chancery 
 Proceedings, Bundle 12, 250) contains a work 
 called Dc Rcgimine partnilorum iiohilium, vflnch. 
 is possibly Egidio Colonna's book, but the fact 
 that a book of this name was in use in 1432 
 shows that at that date the special education 
 of the nobility still continued. An excellent 
 collection of works on the subject of courtly 
 training from the fifteenth and sixteenth 
 centuries is to be found in the Bahces Book 
 edited by the late Dr. F. J. Furnivall. In 
 the sixteenth century there appears a series 
 of books dealing with the education of the 
 children of the nobility, works such as Castig- 
 lione's (q.v.) Cortegiano, Elyot's (q.v.) Gou- 
 vernour (1531), the rnslitulion of a Gentleman 
 (1555), Rnrnphrey'sOpti males. But by this date, 
 except perhaps to some extent in Italy, the me- 
 dieval .system of chivalric education had gone, 
 and private tutors superintended the education 
 of single pupils. The courisc of education was 
 largely guided by books of the type named. 
 In England the practice had arisen in the fif- 
 teenth century for young men of noble birth to 
 join one of the Inns of Court, and these Inns in 
 some fashion become a university or Studium 
 Generals for noble youths (see Fortescue's 
 de Laudihus Lcgum Angliae). At the same time 
 or a little later the same class began to attend 
 Oxford and Cambridge with special privileges, 
 and a gradual assimilation of the type of educa- 
 tion given to the noble and to other scholars 
 took place. Professor Watson finds in the 
 sixteenth and seventeenth century curriculs 
 usual in the case of the children of the nobility 
 one of the sources that enlarged the curricula 
 of ordinary schools. Mulcaster in the late 
 sixteenth century advocated a special training 
 for princes. They need Courtoisie more than 
 do ordinary men, and the knowledge of tongues, 
 of theology, political science, and religion. Thus 
 the ideals of the old chivalric education still 
 
 swayed the minds of teachers in days when the 
 old education itself was passing away. The same 
 ideals prompted the advocacy and establish- 
 ment of academies in the seventeenth century. 
 If the educational forces that were at work 
 translating the medieval into the modern world 
 are to be understood, the history of cliivalric edu- 
 cation cannot be neglected. J. E. G. de M. 
 
 See Academies ; Gentlemen, Education 
 of; Middle Ages, Education in ; Renais- 
 sance, Education in the ; Social Realism. 
 
 References: — 
 
 B.^TTY. John. The Spirit and Influence of Chivalry. 
 (Londou, 1890.) 
 
 Cornish, F. Wakren. Chivalry. (London, 1901.) 
 
 FuHNiv.\LL, F. J. The Babces Book. Published for the 
 Early English Text Society. (London, 1868.) 
 Italian and German Books of Courtesey, etc. Early 
 English Text Society, Extra Series, Vol. 8. (Lon- 
 don, 1869.) 
 IntToditction to Knowledge, etc. Early English Text 
 Society, Extra Scries, No. 10. (London, 1870.) 
 
 Gautier, Le'on. Chivalry. Tr. by Henry Firth. 
 (London, 1891.) 
 
 MoNTMORENCT, J. E. G. DE. State Intervention in Eng- 
 lish Education. (Cambridge, 1902.) 
 
 Oliph.\nt, J.vmes. Educational WritiTigs of Richard 
 Mulcaster. (1903.) 
 
 Pollock and M.4Itl.\nd. History of English Law. 
 
 Watson, Foster. The Beginnings of the Teachings of 
 Modern Subjects in England. (London, 1909.) 
 
 Welton, James. The Historj- of Physical Education, 
 in Principles and Methods of Physical Education and 
 Hygiene. (London, 1908.) 
 
 CHOICE. — When volition takes place under 
 conditions such that the reactor is conscious 
 that he might have followed either one of two 
 or more courses, the process is called a choice. 
 
 See Volition; Will. 
 
 CHOICE REACTIONS. — See Reaction 
 
 Experijients. 
 
 CHORD. — A combination of more or less 
 simple musical tones, usually such as produce 
 harmony, e.g. the major chord, the minor 
 chord, the dominant seventh, the diminished 
 seventh, etc. In scientific works it is often used 
 broadly to include any combination of tones, 
 whether consonant or dissonant. The former 
 are called concords or harmony, the latter dis- 
 cord. C. S. 
 
 CHOREA. — This name is given to a symp- 
 tom, and at the same time to certain definite 
 diseases of the nervous system in which the 
 symptom is prominent. The choreic symptom 
 is a rapid, uncontrollable twtching of a muscle 
 or group of muscles, which may be slight or 
 severe, and momentary or continued. The 
 symptom is found in hysteria (q.v.), in the so- 
 called choreas of Friedreich, of Morvan, of 
 Bergeron, and of Dubini, in Huntington's 
 chorea, and in Sydenham's chorea. The 
 choreas of Friedreich, of Morvan, of Ber- 
 geron, and of Dubini are more properly called 
 myoclonias, and need not be discussed here. 
 Huntington's chorea is an incurable nervous 
 
 642
 
 CHOREA 
 
 CHOREA 
 
 disease occurring in adults, but is so rare as to 
 warrant description only in textbooks of ner- 
 vous diseases. 
 
 The chorea of Sydenham, or chorea minor, is 
 the most common and the most important of 
 these diseases, and is almost exclusively found 
 in children. From an examination of the his- 
 tories of over two thousand such patients 
 treated in his clinic Starr shows that only one 
 third of the cases are boys and young men, and 
 that the disease occurs most frequently between 
 the ages of 6 and 15. Only 5 per cent of 
 his cases began before the age of 6, 45 per 
 cent began between the ages of 6 and 10, 
 38 per cent between 11 and 15, 10 per cent be- 
 tween 16 and 20, and only 2 per cent began after 
 the age of 20. It will be noticed that this is a 
 disease coincident in time with school life. A 
 seasonal variation has been noted by some 
 observers, the greatest number of cases begin- 
 ning in the spring months, from March to July. 
 In most of the cases the twitchings are bilateral, 
 but about one third of the total show only 
 unilateral disturbance. 
 
 The disease is chiefly found among excitable 
 and nervous children, usually of neurotic par- 
 ents, and especially among those who are ab- 
 normally bright and precocious. It is said to be 
 brought on by emotional shocks, such as those 
 of fright or of grief, and by mental strain. The 
 emotional shock may precede by only a few hours 
 or by as long a period as several weeks the 
 beginning of the motor disturbances. Lack of 
 exercise, improper food, and bad air help to 
 undermine the system and predispose to an 
 attack. The latter conditions, associated with 
 mental strain from the continued work of the 
 school year is taken to explain the increased 
 morbidity during the spring and early summer 
 months. 
 
 The average duration of the disease is about 
 three months. During the first month the 
 symptoms usually increase in severity, and then 
 gradually diminish. There is a tendency to 
 the recurrence of the attacks at the same season 
 each year, and this may also be accounted for 
 on the ground of bad hvgienic conditions during 
 the winter months and the strain of continued 
 school work. Starr states that chorea is not a 
 direct sequela of the acute infectious diseases 
 which children have, and that heredity plays 
 only a small part. 
 
 The choreic movements are irregular twitch- 
 ings of certain muscles, usually those of the face 
 and of the arms and legs, although in severe 
 cases the muscles of the neck and of the trunk 
 may be involved. In the face region the lips, 
 nose, tongue, and jaws are most often affected, 
 and protrusions of the tongue, snapping or bit- 
 ing movements of the jaws, and grimaces are 
 common. If these movements cannot be con- 
 trolled, the speech becomes explosive in charac- 
 ter and there is at times a decided hesitancy. In 
 many cases one of the earliest signs is an inac- 
 curacy in the movement of the hands and arms. 
 
 evidenced by an inability to properly perform 
 acts that are even habitual. Liquids carried 
 to the mouth may be spilled, the clothes and the 
 shoes may be buttoned or laced inaccurately 
 and only with great difficulty. In the involve- 
 ment of the legs the gait is unsteady and there 
 is a staggering due to the irregularity in force 
 with which the feet are propelled and placed 
 upon the floor. Muscular weakness and ir- 
 regularity in the force of movements accompany 
 the involmitary motor disturbances. When the 
 child is told to grasp your hand firmly and 
 steadily, inequalities in the grip will be no- 
 ticed, and similar changes in the strength of 
 other muscle groups can be determined by suit- 
 able tests. 
 
 The differences in the occurrence of the con- 
 vulsive movements arc marked, and this has 
 been taken as a basis of da.ssification. It is 
 sufficient, however, to know that most cases 
 show an absence of choreic movements during 
 rest and sleep, that in some there is an increase 
 in the movements if they are attended to and if 
 motor tasks are to be performed, but that in 
 some patients the involuntary movements 
 cease upon the beginning of voluntary move- 
 ment. 
 
 Chorea is to be differentiated from convulsion 
 iq.v.), from the various kinds of tic (q.v.), and 
 from the false chorea which is found in hysteri- 
 cal people. (See Hystekh.) In the latter 
 case the motor phenomena are not accompa- 
 nied by weakness and by the mental changes, 
 and the movements can readily be stopped for 
 a time by suggestion or by forcible command. 
 The term St. Vitus's Dance has been used to in- 
 clude all forms of chorea, but this wide use is 
 now limited to the laity, and restricted in a 
 medical way to the chorea associated with and 
 caused by hysteria. 
 
 In true chorea there are mental changes co- 
 incident with the motor disturbance. Irri- 
 tability, forgetfulness, at times a moral obliquity, 
 disturbances in sleep, and occasionally visual 
 hallucinations have been noted. If the eye 
 muscles become involved, diplopia, with its 
 mental effect, may be present. 
 
 From the educational standpoint all children 
 with chorea of whatever form should be treated 
 aUke. They should be removed from school 
 and placed under proper medical care and 
 treatment, both for their own benefit and for 
 the sake of the other children in the class and in 
 theschool. If sufferingfrom Sydenham's chorea, 
 the child is unable to properly perform his 
 school work, and it is harmful to him to permit 
 him to continue. Rest, proper food, good air, 
 and suitable exercises are advisable, but often 
 a simple change in environment will cause the 
 symptoms to subside. On the other hand, on 
 account of the marked suggestibility of many 
 children, it is essential that the choreic child be 
 removed, else his movements may be taken as 
 an example and copied. In this way many 
 cases of hysterical chorea, or St. Vitus's dance, 
 
 643
 
 CHORISTERS' SCHOOLS 
 
 CHORISTERS' SCHOOLS 
 
 may be produced, and there may result a real 
 epidemic similar to the dancing manias of the 
 Middle Ages. S. I. F. 
 
 References : — 
 
 AuBRY, P. Des rapports de la chorie avecV hysteric et en 
 particuUcr de la choree rylhmie consicutive de la 
 chorie de Sydenham. (Toulouse, 1908.) pp. 65. 
 
 Flatau. G. Die chorea. (Leipzig, 1905.) pp. 32. 
 
 Starr, M. A. Nervous Diseases, Organic and functional, 
 pp. 713-728. (New York, 1907.) 
 
 CHORISTERS' SCHOOLS. — The origin 
 of our modern schools has often been attributed 
 to choir or choristers' schools, but without any 
 reason. It is doubtful whether there were, 
 and almost certain that there were not, any 
 choristers before the middle of the eleventh cen- 
 tury, if then. There is, for instance, no trace of 
 choristers in the Institution of St. Osmund of 
 Salisbury in 1091. Their number in medieval 
 churches was so small, the highest being 12, 
 that a school for them was not needed. When, 
 in the thirteenth century they first appear in 
 documents, we find only 8 at St. Paul's, 
 7 at York and Beverley, 12 at Lincoln, and 
 so on, though the number of canons was 
 then 30 at York, 50 at St. Paul's, and 60 at 
 Lincoln. They were at first merely regarded 
 as charity boys, and looked for their food to the 
 broken meats of the residentiary canons, and 
 did errands in the choir. At St. Paul's an Al- 
 monry was first established about 1180, and in 
 it the boys, afterwards called riuiresters or 
 choristers (choristae) who had previously lived 
 where they could, were housed together. (See 
 Almonry Schools.) These boys stood in pairs 
 at each corner of the choir, and it would appear 
 that their main duty was not that of singing, but 
 of carrying candles and incense-burners. They 
 are not called choristers till the fourteenth cen- 
 tury, when they were increased to 10. 
 
 At Lincoln the first mention of choristers 
 is in 12.54, when the monastery of Caldwell 
 granted two marks a year rent charge to the 
 Precentor of Lincoln for the 12 boys minis- 
 tering in Lincoln church, viz., the candle 
 bearers and incense bearers {ciroferariis et 
 lurribulariis) elected if fit in the office of singing 
 and serving. The Choristers' Register begins: 
 " For perpetual remembrance of the matter be it 
 known that the boys of the choir of Lincoln used 
 to live on the alms of the canons. But Bishop 
 Richard of Gravesend," who came from London 
 and introduced the St. Paul's arrangement, 
 " ordained that they should be twelve in num- 
 ber, of whom two should be incense-bearers 
 and five together in common in one house under 
 a master." He bestowed upon them separate 
 endowments, relieving the precentor of the 
 rcsponsibihty for their admission and discipline, 
 and gave it to the dean and chapter, one of 
 whom was appointed supervisor or cuslos of their 
 house. The Neiv Register of Dean Lexington 
 (1263-1272) under the duties of the precentor 
 mentions that of presenting to the dean and 
 chapter a master to teach the choristers song 
 
 and grammar, and if he cannot find one able to 
 do both, separate masters for each. This mas- 
 ter is shown by the chapter records to be dis- 
 tinct from either the general grammar school- 
 master appointed by the chancellor or the 
 general song schoolmaster appointed by the 
 precentor. It is probable that at first he was 
 merely a private tutor, or housemaster to teach 
 and look after the Ijoj's in their house, and 
 that they still attended the general grammar 
 school and song school. 
 
 From 1477 the choristers learned singing 
 and music from a special master, who was 
 also the organist. In Edward VI's reign, the 
 old school of the city was made a Free School, 
 the Chapter being made to pay a salary of 
 £20 to the master, whereas formerly he had 
 lived on tuition fees. During the reign of 
 Queen Mary, the Bishop of Lincoln, White, 
 who had been Headmaster of Winchester Col- 
 lege, erected this choristers' school into a New 
 College of 30 poor clerks who were, like those 
 of Winchester and Eton, from all over the 
 country. There had long been a body of 12 
 poor clerks attached to the cathedral, who 
 looked after its various altars, and were fre- 
 quently warned to attend the Grammar School. 
 This New College represented an attempt to 
 make them a regular Public School. It was 
 suppressed again with the altars in Elizabeth's 
 reign. In 1570 the old Grey Friars' church 
 was given for a schoolhouse to the city grammar 
 school. The competition of this school proved 
 too nmch for the Choristers' Grammar School, 
 and in 1583 the two were reunited, the city 
 paying the master, and the Chapter the usher, 
 and so remained till 1850. 
 
 At York the choristers were first brought 
 under one roof when, on May 6, 1307, the 
 Chapter contracted with one Richard of Craven 
 to maintain the 7 choristers in table and learn- 
 ing for 4s. 8rf. a week, or 8rf. a week each; 
 centuries after the School of York made its 
 appearance. On Aug. 23, 1346, the chaplain 
 of one of the canons was appointed to look after 
 them and live with them. No choristers' school 
 as a separate institution seems to have been 
 developed at York. The Hospital of St. Leon- 
 ard at York had, at the Dissolution, an inde- 
 pendent choristers' school for its 12 choristers, 
 who were taught grammar as well as singing, 
 and its right to this school had been asserted 
 by a royal writ in 1340, because, being a royal 
 foundation, it was exempt from the Chapter's 
 jurisdiction. At Beverley Minster, in 1312, a 
 dispute was settled by the Chapter between the 
 grammar schoolmaster and the succentor, a vicar 
 choral, who looked after the choristers, the lat- 
 ter claiming that they ought to be admitted to 
 the grammar school free, while the former 
 claimed that only 7, the ancient number, should 
 be admitted free, and the rest should pay 
 fees. The Chapter found that all choristers 
 ought to be free, but the succentor was not to 
 admit choristers nominally to the choir merely 
 
 644
 
 CHRISTIAN BROTHERS 
 
 CHRISTIAN BROTHERS 
 
 to get free admission to this school. This suffi- 
 ciently shows that the school was not by founda- 
 tion a choristers' school. At Salisbury in the 
 fourteenth century, c. 1314, the choristers' 
 grammar school was endowed and developed 
 into a rival of the old Glomery or Grammar 
 School, and both these schools were still 
 going on during the Commonwealth. But the 
 grammar school died out in the nineteenth cen- 
 tury before the competition of its better en- 
 dowed rival, which, however, is now a mere 
 choristers' school, not a grammar school. The 
 choristers at Winchester College, founded in 
 1382, were more numerous than in any cathe- 
 dral, being 16 in number, and the same at 
 Eton. In both colleges they attended the gram- 
 mar school equally with the scholars, and at 
 Eton were given a preference to election for 
 scholarships. This seems to have been the 
 case at other collegiate and chantry schools, 
 which embraced a grammar as well as a song 
 school. For the scholars attended both, a 
 famous sixteenth-century headmaster, first of 
 Eton, then of Winchester, William Horman 
 (,q.v.), laying down probably from Quintilian 
 (g.v.) that without music grammar cannot be 
 perfect. Since the end of the seventeenth cen- 
 tury the choristers' schools at Winchester and 
 Eton, as at most of the cathedrals, have been en- 
 tirely separate. The choristers were regarded as 
 of a lower class and the grammar school educa- 
 tion as unsuitable for them; the difficulty of 
 making their hours suit ordinary school hours 
 being even greater now than in the Middle Ages. 
 
 A. F. L. 
 See Almonry Schools: Bishops' Schools; 
 Church Schools; Reformation, Education 
 
 IN. 
 
 CHRISTIAN BROTHERS, or THE 
 BROTHERS OF THE CHRISTIAN 
 SCHOOLS. — The Institute of the Brothers 
 of the Christian Schools is a society com- 
 posed of religious teachers, founded at Rheims, 
 France, June 24, 1682, by St. John Baptist 
 de la Salle {g.v.). The members of this 
 Institute are not priests and may not aspire to 
 the priesthood. By the Bull of Approbation, 
 granted by Pope Benedict XIII, Mar. 20, 
 1725, the Institute was raised to the dignity 
 of a religious congregation and an authorita- 
 tive teaching bodv. Its founder was canonized 
 by Pope Leo Xill, May 24, 1900, and i)r()- 
 claimed as the Patron of Youth. 
 
 The object of the Institute is the Christian 
 education of youth, the cultivation of letters, 
 the diffusion of knowledge. This is indicated 
 in the preamble of the Bull of Approbation, 
 In apostulicac dignitalis solio, as follows: " We, 
 to fulfill the duty imposed upon us, cheerfully 
 devote ourselves to the furtherance of institu- 
 tions who.sc object is the cultivation of letters, 
 and the diffusion of knowledge." 
 
 The scope of the educational system in use 
 in the Institute includes colleges, technical and 
 
 industrial schools, academies and high schools, 
 elementary and grammar schools, commercial 
 colleges, asylums, and protectorates. It is 
 evident that De la Salle planned his work upon 
 a broad scale and adapted his methods to the 
 varied conditions of time and place. Thus he 
 devised a system complete in all its details from 
 the elementary grades to the collegiate curricu- 
 lum. 
 
 The government of the Institute is admin- 
 istered by a Superior General and twelve Assist- 
 ants. The former is elected for life, while the 
 latter are also elected, and hold office for a period 
 of ten years. For administrative purposes the 
 several communities in the different countries 
 are grouped into districts or provinces under 
 the supervision of Brothers Visitors, who are ap- 
 pointed to office by the General for a term of 
 three years. The individual communities arc 
 also governed by the appointees of the General, 
 and are called Brothers Directors. The center 
 of administration is at Lcmbecq-lez-Hal, Bel- 
 gium. Brother Barthelemy was the finst Su- 
 perior General, and was elected in 1717. The 
 present incumbent is Brother Gabriel Marie, 
 elected in 1897. 
 
 The growth of the Institute from its origin 
 is evidenced by the foUowiug statistical table: — 
 
 Yeab 
 
 HOOSES 
 
 Brothers 
 
 P0PILS 
 
 1682 
 
 6 
 
 30 
 
 1,100 
 
 1700 
 
 18 
 
 165 
 
 5,000 
 
 1750 
 
 95 
 
 662 
 
 24.000 
 
 1700 
 
 125 
 
 920 
 
 36,000 
 
 ISOO 
 
 3 
 
 20 
 
 500 
 
 1825 
 
 210 
 
 950 
 
 60,000 
 
 1860 
 
 986 
 
 8.385 
 
 :i:i5.iioo 
 
 1880 
 
 1309 
 
 12,000 
 
 380,000 
 
 1903 
 
 1569 
 
 15,457 
 
 340,000 
 
 Educational Reforms. — De la Salle origi- 
 nated, perfected, and applied several educa- 
 tional reforms which have wrongly been at- 
 tributed to, or claimed b.y, later pedagogical 
 reformers, viz.: — 
 
 (1) The organization and management of 
 the elementary school, 1684-1688. (2) The 
 perfecting and apphcation of the simultaneous 
 method of teaching. Tliis method, in opposi- 
 tion to the traditional method, g.'ive prominence 
 to the vernacular as the basis of instruction, and 
 grouped the pupils of each class according to 
 their mental capacity, 1688. All the pujiils of 
 the same grade receive the same lesson at one 
 and the same time from the same teacher. In 
 his Conduct of Schools (1721), De la Salle gives 
 explicit directions regarding this method of 
 teaching. Lancaster admits " that he was 
 astonished that the French preferred his method 
 tothatof the Brothers of theChristian Schools." 
 (3) The grade school, 1688. (4) The Normal 
 College for secular teachers, 1684. (5) The 
 Christian Academy or Sunday school, where 
 drawing, geometry, and architecture were 
 
 64.5
 
 CHRISTIAN BROTHERS 
 
 CHRISTIAN BROTHERS 
 
 taught, Paris, 1698. (6) Schools for technical 
 instruction in drawing, architecture, navigation, 
 practical geometry, hydrography, botany, and 
 manual training, Sain-Yon (Rouen), 1705. 
 (7) The Reform School, Saint-Yon, 1706. (,S) 
 Boarding colleges, having for object the higher 
 secondary courses, Paris, 1698, and Rouen, 1705. 
 (9) The modern popular system of education, 
 which he inaugurated, Paris, 1698, and then 
 perfected and systematized, 1717. 
 
 Institutions of these various types arc con- 
 ducted by the Christian Brothers in France, 
 Belgium, Austria, Germany, Spain, Holland, 
 Italy, England, Ireland, and in the French and 
 English colonies, in Algeria, Tunis, Isle of 
 Malta, Canary Islands, and Congo (Africa). 
 There are under the direction of the Institute 
 18 houses in the District of Alexandria, 22 in 
 the District of Constantinople, 10 in the Dis- 
 trict of .lerusalem, 11 in the District of Mada- 
 gascar, Isle of Reunion and Maurice, 12 in the 
 District of India, S in the District of Indo-China, 
 4 in the District of Brazil, 9 in the District of 
 Argentine, 12 in the District of Chile, 7 in the 
 District of Ecuador, 19 in the District of Co- 
 lombia, 15 in the District of Panama, and 7 
 in the District of the Antilles. It is obvious 
 that De la Salle embraced in his program the 
 whole scope of secondary education. 
 
 The founder clearly distinguished between 
 pedagogy as a science and pedagogy as an art. 
 The uniting of instruction with Christian educa- 
 tion appeared so important to De la Salle that 
 he constituted it the second object of the In- 
 stitute, and an essential characteristic of the 
 spirit that should animate its members. 
 
 Basic Principles. — The following are the 
 general basic principles of his system of edu- 
 cation: — 
 
 (1) Man is a rational being, composed of 
 body and soul. (2) Children are as weak from 
 the viewpoint of intellection and volition as 
 they are in their physical faculties. (3) AU 
 moral disorders, especially among the poor 
 and working classes, are due to the fact that 
 they are left to their own guidance, and are ex- 
 posed thereby to the greatest spiritual dangers. 
 (4) Man is so prone to evil that he takes pleas- 
 ure therein; this is specially noticeable among 
 children, who, owing to their lack of proper 
 training, cannot reflect seriously, and are con- 
 sequently inclined to gratify their senses and 
 the lower appetites. (5) Man may and can 
 improve. (6) Men should attain the same de- 
 gree of perfection, for God is the ultimate object 
 of all. Again, men should, according to their 
 vocation and social position, aspire to perfect 
 the gifts or special talents with which they have 
 been endowed. (7) To correct a defect or vice, 
 man should make frequent acts of the virtue 
 opposed thereto. (8) The senses, having a 
 large share in the operations of the intellect, 
 should be carefully cultivated. Hence the 
 necessity of developing the intellect, of rectify- 
 ing the judgment, of educating the will, and of 
 
 forming the heart to virtue. (9) The teacher 
 should imitate Providence, i.e. act with decis- 
 ion and gentleness. (10) From the intellect- 
 ual viewpoint, children should graduallj' be 
 trained to do spontaneously the work set for 
 them, even when the teacher cannot be present 
 to supervise their labor. (11) Character should 
 be carefully molded and developed; pupils 
 should be taught to practise virtue in a manner 
 proportionate to their age. (12) The school 
 should be the novitiate of Christianity, the 
 preparation for the duties of the Christian and 
 the civic life. 
 
 The following are the chief counsels of De la 
 Salle concerning Physical, Intellectual, and 
 Moral education : — 
 
 Physical. — (1) Children should be clean. 
 Twice a day the teacher should make an ex- 
 amination or inspection regarding cleanliness. 
 (2) Cleanliness of body, especially of the head, 
 should be considered as an exterior indication of 
 purity. (3) Children, whether standing or sit- 
 ting, should at all times avoid in their deport- 
 ment all affectation, restraint, thoughtlessness, 
 or anything which would indicate effeminacy, in- 
 solence, pride, or rudeness. (4) Children should 
 be taught habits of regularity concerning the 
 principal actions of the day. (5) During rec- 
 reation, children should prefer to engage in 
 manly exercises which develop and strengthen 
 the body. (6) The classroom should be thor- 
 oughly ventilated. 
 
 Inlellectual. — (1) De la Salle insists that 
 the teacher should have an accurate knowledge 
 of psychology and of the degree of intellectual 
 development acquired by the pupil. (2) To 
 inspire the pupil with the love of virtue. (3) 
 To induce the pupil to take the initiative in 
 intellectual work, proportionate to his mental 
 capacity. (4) To urge him to study the truth 
 of things by teaching him the principles of 
 logic. (5) To persuade him to study only 
 useful subjects and dissuade him from trifling 
 ones, or those merely prompted by curiosity. 
 (6) The knowledge of children should be pro- 
 gressive as well as practical. (7), To question 
 the pupils so as to fix their attention on the 
 lesson given, and to ascertain that they thor- 
 oughly understand it. (8) By questioning, to 
 teach them the truths under consideration, and 
 to draw logical consequences from the truths 
 with which they are familiar. (9) To employ 
 a rational, progressive, and practical method in 
 teaching. (10) To make use of the inductive 
 method as one of the most efficacious means of 
 intellectual culture. (11) To interest the par- 
 ents in the progress of their children. (12) To 
 have a daily schedule of lessons and to follow 
 it with exactness. 
 
 Moral. — (1) To enlighten the consciences 
 of the pupils and to guide them in their choice 
 between good and evil. (2) To teach the pupils 
 their duty to God, to country, to their neigh- 
 bor, and to themselves. (3) To induce pupils 
 to withdraw from everything that may corrupt 
 
 646 
 
 A
 
 CHRISTIAN BROTHERS 
 
 CHRISTIAN BROTHERS 
 
 their morals, especially evil companionship. 
 
 (4) To cultivate the habit of frankness among 
 pupils in word and deed, and to inspire a great 
 horror for hypocrisy and lying. (5) To pre- 
 vent faults by an enlightened vigilance. (6) To 
 act toward the child who has contracted some 
 vicious habit as a skillful physician treats his 
 patient. 
 
 Qualifications of Teachers. — De la Salle 
 demanded the following qualifications from his 
 disciples: — 
 
 Physical : A good constitution, a strong 
 clear, and sympathetic voice, and a dignified 
 carriage. Intellectual ■' An understanding suf- 
 ficiently keen to grasp promptly the sense 
 of the pupil's questions, a sound judgment, 
 practical common sense, a retentive memory, 
 correct and fluent speech, a good method, and 
 the facility of teaching. Moral : A true vo- 
 cation, great dignity of character, politeness, 
 kindness, firmness, gentleness, and an invio- 
 lable fidelity to duty, both in private and public 
 life. 
 
 A good teacher has the virtues of gravity, 
 silence, discretion, prudence, wisdom, patience, 
 reserve, gentleness, zeal, vigilance, piety, and 
 generosity. 
 
 De la Salle strongly insisted upon the correc- 
 tion of the following faults in young teachers: — 
 
 (1) Nervousness in teaching. (2) Petulancy 
 and constant movements of the body. (3) 
 Thoughtlessness and diversion. (4) Fastidi- 
 ousness in punishing faults. (5) Impatience, 
 harshness, excessive severity. ((>) Spite. 
 (7) Favoritism. (8) Slothfulness and indul- 
 gence. (9) Dullness, enervation. (10) Weak- 
 ness, pusillanimity. (11) Dejection, grief. 
 (12) Familiarity, froliesomeness. (13) The 
 habit of irony. (14) Inconstancy. (15) Sus- 
 ceptibility, jealousy. (16) Equality and uni- 
 formity of method with all the pupils, without 
 taking into consideration the difference in age, 
 character, and education. (17) Loss of time. 
 (IS) Presumption. 
 
 Laws of Education. — (1) Custom takes the 
 middle course between instinct and will, which 
 latter is a free and spontaneous activity. 
 (2) The chief intellectual habits which the 
 teacher should stimulate the pupils to acquire, 
 are attention and reflection. (3) The intelli- 
 gence should be exercised in the youngest pupils 
 from the first lessons which they receive. (4) 
 Tiie a(lvance<l pujjils shoukl be accustomed to 
 invent their own jilans of literary coni|)()sition. 
 
 (5) The teacher ought to attach much inij)or- 
 tance to normal education. (6) The laws of 
 education should be universal, expedient, pro- 
 gressive, and moral. Universal, i.e. extending 
 to all the faculties, to all periods of life, to all 
 classes of society, to both sexes. (7) Educa- 
 tion siiould be rational. (S) Instruction is not 
 the final object to be attained. The object is 
 the acquisition and practice of virtue. (!)) Edu- 
 cation should be national. Moral law does not 
 change under the varying conditions of time 
 
 and place. In all countries and under the 
 most changing chmates, it preserves the same 
 characteristics. It is peremptory, invariable, 
 uniform, and always practical. Pupils should 
 be brought up in accordance with the customs 
 and spirit of the country in which they live. 
 
 Success of the Order. — The varied, yet 
 uniform, character of De la Salle's educational 
 methods, and the steady progress of the schools 
 he founded in the face of the severest trials, 
 gained for his Institute substantial aid at the 
 hands of the civil and ecclesiastical authorities 
 in France, so that at the outbreak of the Revolu- 
 tion in 1789 the Institute was flourishing and 
 its schools bore the reputation for efficient 
 work in the field of popular education. At 
 that period also the simultaneous method (q.v.) 
 of teaching had already been so perfectly de- 
 veloped that the superiority of the Christian 
 Schools was unquestioned. Textbooks, cover- 
 ing all the subjects taught in tlie elementary 
 and secondary grades of education, had been 
 published in accordance with the progressive 
 spirit of De la Salle. Brother Agathon, sixth 
 Superior General (1777-1797), had written the 
 Tioelve Virtues of a Good Master, a manual of 
 guidance for imparting the moral, intellectual, 
 and religious instruction outlined by the 
 founder. 
 
 History. — Scattered at the Revolution in 
 1791, the surviving nicndjers of the Insti- 
 tute resumed their work in Lyons, Paris, 
 Rheims, and other cities, 1S05. Napoleon, in 
 1808, gave an imperial decree reestablishing 
 the legal status of the institute in France. 
 From that period is dated the constant de- 
 velopment of the Christian Schools in respect 
 to their external organization and the spread 
 of the Brothers into other countries. The 
 scheme of instruction remained the same as 
 heretofore, i.e. the Christian education of 
 youth through the teaching of the catechism 
 and the Gospel maxims, to which were added 
 courses of study fitting the pujiils for conmier- 
 cial, industrial, and professional pursuits. 
 The higher secondary program in the Christian 
 Schools was the logical sequence of the system 
 devised by De la Salle. Thus were developed 
 the superior courses in the great boarding col- 
 leges of Passy (Paris), St. Etienne, Toulouse, 
 Lyons, Bordeaux, and others which prepared 
 students for the professional and technical 
 courses of the Ecole Centrale and the School of 
 Mines. 
 
 During the administration of Brother 
 Philippe (1838-1874), the Institute made great 
 progress. In 1838 the Brothers ojiencd a free 
 grammar school in Montreal, Canada. Some 
 years later, 1846, schools were established in 
 Baltimore and New York City. When Brother 
 Facile became the Visitor of North America, in 
 1848, there were 56 Brothers, 3200 pupils, 
 representing the strength of the Institute in 
 Canada and the United States. In 1873, at 
 the close of Brother Facile's active life, there 
 
 647
 
 CHRISTIAN BROTHERS 
 
 CHRISTIAN BROTHERS 
 
 were 5 districts, 176 houses, and 900 Brothers, 
 having charge of 36,500 pupils in colleges, 
 academies, high schools, grammar schools, 
 asylums, and protectorates. 
 
 The census of the Institute in 1907 gives 
 Canada 692 Brothers, 40 in the normal insti- 
 tutes, and 36 novices. The estabhshmcnts 
 under the management of the Brothers num- 
 ber 51, comprising day and boarding colleges, 
 academies, grammar schools, and asylums, 
 with an enrollment of over 20,000 pupils. 
 Mt. St. Louis College, Montreal, is the most 
 important institution, opened in 1887, having 
 on its roster 300 boarders and 310 day pupils. 
 
 New York ilistrict was and still is the scene 
 and center of the greatest activity of the Chris- 
 tian Brothers in the United States. Brother 
 Ambrose was the moving spirit of the remark- 
 able development of Catholic educational work 
 in the 'oO's. In 1863, under the management 
 of Brother Patrick, Manhattan College began 
 its successful career, and its graduates are 
 found in all professions. Academies, grammar 
 schools, and orphanages had also been founded 
 in Troy, Albany, Utica, Buffalo, and Detroit. 
 Thus, in the short space of 15 years, the 
 Brothers developed in New York a complete 
 system of higher secondary education: the ele- 
 mentary, grammar schools, academies and high 
 schools, and the college. To this was added 
 in 1863 the New York Catholic Protectorj', 
 having over 2000 inmates, who apply them- 
 selves to the various trades. This institution 
 has become the model for similar ones through- 
 out the states. The value of this complete 
 system of education, devoted to the conserva- 
 tion of Catholic life, and to the development 
 of higher culture, under an organized body of 
 educators, is suggestive. The New York Dis- 
 trict was established in 1861, with Brother 
 Turibe as Visitor. Brothers Ambrose, Patrick, 
 Paulian, Justin, Joseph, and Gerardus have 
 successively held that position. The district now 
 includes the institutions of the Brothers in the 
 archdioceses of Boston and New York, and in 
 the dioceses of Albany, Brooklyn, Buffalo, 
 Cleveland, Detroit, Manchester, Portland, 
 Providence, Fall River, Hartford, Springfield, 
 and Syracuse, numbering 39 houses. The 
 Christian Schools in the archdiocese of Halifax 
 arc likewise afhliated to those of the New York 
 district. The normal institute is located at 
 Poncantico Hills, N.Y. 
 
 In 1849, Brother Philippe, tenth Superior 
 General (1838-1874), sent three Brothers to St. 
 Louis, to open a free grammar school at the 
 earnest solicitation of Archbishop Kenrick. In 
 1851 the Christian Brothers College was 
 opened, having a well-organized plan of in- 
 struction and with full power to confer degrees 
 usually granted by universities of learning. 
 The progressive methods adopted by the faculty 
 of the college drew many students to its halls 
 from far and near. To meet this increase of 
 patronage. Brother James, president, sought a 
 
 better site and built a more commodious in- 
 stitution. The new college was built in 1882, 
 at Cote Brillante, within the limits of the city. 
 Brother Justin, its present head (from 1903), 
 has added an engineering department to satisfy 
 the demands of the students who desire to 
 become skilled mechanical, electrical, or civil 
 engineers. Its enrollment is over 500, and its 
 courses have the sanction of the New York 
 Board of Regents. St. Louis was formed into 
 a district in 1870, with Brother Edward as 
 Visitor. His successors were Brothers Ro- 
 muald, Paulian, and the present incumbent, 
 Brother Emery. The district includes schools 
 in the archdioceses of St. Louis, Chicago, St. 
 Paul, and Santa F6, as well as in the dioceses 
 of Kansas City, St. Joseph, Nashville, and 
 Duluth. The (Christian Brothers College gradu- 
 ates are prominent in the professions, in civic 
 and political life, and may be found through- 
 out the South and West. The Normal Institute 
 is at Glencoe, Mo. 
 
 The District of San Francisco was established 
 in 1868. This arduous task fell to the lot of 
 Brother Justin, who with seven Brothers as- 
 sumed the charge of St. Mary's College, 
 September, 1868. The indomitable courage 
 and energy of Brother Justin was instrumental 
 in multiplying the houses of the district. 
 Many of the graduates of St. Mary's College 
 became members of the Institute, thus provid- 
 ing professors of ability who helped to develop 
 the educational ideas of De la Salle, applying 
 them to the requirements of the peculiar con- 
 ditions prevailing on the Pacific coast. The 
 college prospered, and the Brothers were 
 obliged to erect another college to accommodate 
 the eager students that demanded admission. 
 In 1889 St. Mary's College was removed to 
 Oakland. Its well-equipped engineering course 
 was created by Brother IJernard in 1903. The 
 successors of Brother Justin as Visitor are 
 Brothers Bettelin, Theodorus, and Xenophon. 
 This district has grammar schools, academies and 
 high schools, commercial schools, and colleges. 
 Besides several houses in San Francisco, the 
 Brothers are established in Berkeley, Portland, 
 Sacramento City, Santa Cruz, St. Vincent, 
 Walla Walla, and Vancouver. The members 
 number over 150. The normal institute is at 
 Martinez. 
 
 The Baltimore District, which was founded, 
 October, 1879, has colleges in Ellicott City 
 (Rock Hill College), Md., in Philadelphia, 
 Scranton, Baltimore, and Washington. These 
 colleges are conducted on the same lines as those 
 in the other districts. It has 3 industrial Pro- 
 tectorates, viz.; at Pawling, Pa., Eddington, 
 Pa., and Bel mead, Va. Besides these institu- 
 tions, the Brothers have the management of 
 large grammar schools in Augusta, Ga., Cum- 
 berland, Md., Germantown, Jersey City, 
 Newark, Orange, Patterson, Richmond, Va., 
 6 in Philadelphia, numbering in all 24 houses. 
 Brothers Christian, Romuald, Quintinian, 
 
 648
 
 CHRISTIAN BROTHERS 
 
 CHRISTIAN EDUCATION 
 
 Reticius, and Austin have had the administra- 
 tion of the district. The normal institute is 
 at Ammendale, Md. 
 
 The Christian Brothers in the United States 
 have 96 schools, consisting of normal institutes, 
 colleges, high schools, academies, grammar 
 schools, orphanages, and industrial protecto- 
 rates. These are distributed in 31 archdioceses 
 and dioceses, with a total enrollment of over 
 57,000 pupils; 265 young men are under in- 
 struction in the normal institutes and novitiates, 
 as candidates for membership in the Institute. 
 The personnel of the congregation includes 
 natives of 46 different countries. 
 
 Literary and Scientific Works. — The Insti- 
 tute, in the United States as elsewhere, has its 
 own series of textbooks, composed by the 
 Brothers and published in its name. These 
 embrace classbooks for teaching reading, writ- 
 ing, arithmetic, algebra, geography, history, 
 grammar, rhetoric, literature, drawing. Chris- 
 tian doctrine, pedagogy, and methodology. 
 The following works may be pointed out; — 
 
 Brother Potamun. Electrical Measurements. (Lon- 
 don, 1885.) 
 Electricity, its Place in a College Course. (New 
 
 York, 1897.) 
 Essays on Electrical Experimentors and Experiments. 
 (New York, 1893.) 
 Brother Louis de Poisst. Christian Philosophy. (New 
 
 York, 1893.) 
 Brother Chrysostom, Elementa Philosophiae. (New 
 
 York, 1906.) 
 Brother Constantius. Young Christian Teacher En- 
 couraged, 2d ed. (St. Louis, 1910.) 
 Brother Azarias. Philosophy of Literature. 7th ed. 
 (Philadelphia, 1899.) 
 Essays Pldhsophical. (New Y'ork, 1896.) 
 Essays Educational. (New York, 1896.) 
 Essays Miscellaneous. (New York, 1896.) 
 Phases of Thought and Criticism. (Boston, 1890.) 
 Old English Thought. (New York, 1885.) 
 
 B.C. 
 References: — 
 Alain. L' Instruction Primaire en France avanl la Revo- 
 lution. (Paris, 1881.) 
 Azarias. Essays Educational. (New York, 1896.) 
 Barnard. H. Normal Schools, etc. (Hartford, 1853.) 
 BeaOREPAIRe. Recherchcs sur I'lnstruclion Publique 
 cians le Diocise de Rouen avant 1789. 3 vols. (Ev- 
 reux, 1872.) 
 Boisson. Dictionnaire de Pedagogic. (Paris, 1887.) 
 Chevalier. Les Frires des Ecolcs chritiennes. (Paris, 
 
 1887.) 
 Christiam Brothers. Elements of Practical Pedagogy. 
 
 (New York, 1905.) 
 Constantius, Brother. St. John Baptist de la Salle. 
 Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. VIII. (New York, 
 1910.) 
 De Felleh. Dictionnaire Historicpte. 1797. 
 Dei.aire. Snint Jean-Batiste de la Salle. 44me 6dit. 
 
 (Paris, 1901.) 
 
 DuRO/.iER. L'Alil)( de la Salle et I'Inslitut dc Frires dcs 
 
 Ecoles Chritienncs, depuis 1654 jusqu'ii nos jours. 
 
 (Paris. 1842.) 
 
 De la Sai.i.e. Conduite des Ecolcs. (Avignon, 1720.) 
 
 Les Regies de la Biensiance el de la Civiliti Chri- 
 
 tienne. (Paris, 1835.) 
 Meditations on the Schools for the Time of the Re- 
 treat. (New York, 1882.) 
 Meditations for Sundays and Festirals. (New York, 
 
 18S2.) 
 Management of Christian Schools. (Philadelphia, 
 
 1885.) 
 Ragles Communes. (Rouen, 1717.) 
 Histoire de Rouen, t. III. (Rouen, 1710.) 
 
 Greard. Education et Instruction, Enseignment Pri- 
 maire. (Paris, 1895.) 
 JusTiNUS, Fr&re. Educational System of the Brothers 
 
 of the Christian Schools in France. Report of the 
 
 Commissioner of Education. (Washington, 1898- 
 , 1899.) 
 
 Elements de Pedagogic. 2 vols. (Paris, 1901.) 
 Lancaster. The Truth of Mutual Teaching. 
 Luca5D, Fr^re. Annates dc I'Institut des Frires des 
 
 Ecoles Chreticnnes. 2 vols. (Tours, 1883.) 
 Blessed de Ja ^ Salle and his Educational Methods. 
 
 (Chicago, 1893.) 
 Vie du Vcn. de la Salle. 2 vols. (Paris, 1876.) 
 Noah, Brother. Life and Works of the Yen. J.-B. de la 
 
 Salle. (New Y'ork, 1878.) 
 Poujoulat. La Vie du Frire Philippe. (Tours, 1875.) 
 Ravelet-O'Meara. Life of Bl. J. B. de la Salic. 
 
 (Tours, 1SS8.) 
 Rendu, A. De I'lnstrucfion Puldique et parliruliire- 
 
 ment des Ecoles Chreticnnes. (Paris, 1819.) 
 Speil. Der Heilige Johatines Baptista de la Salle und 
 
 seine Stiftung. (Kaufbeuren, 1907.) 
 Wilson, Mrs. The Christian Brothers, their Origin and 
 
 their Work. (London, 1883). 
 
 CHRISTUN BROTHERS' COLLEGE, 
 MEMPHIS, TENNESSEE. — See Christian 
 Brothers, Schools of. 
 
 CHRISTLA.N BROTHERS' COLLEGE, 
 ST. LOUIS, MO. — See Christian Brothers, 
 Schools of. 
 
 CHRISTIAN COLLEGE, COLUMBIA, MO. 
 
 — An institution for the education of young 
 women, established in 1851. College prepara- 
 tory, collegiate, and fine arts departments are 
 maintained. Entrance requirements are in- 
 definite. Degrees are conferred. There is a 
 faculty of 20 instructors. 
 
 CHRISTIAN EDUCATION IN THE EARLY 
 CHURCH. — Although it has been rightly said 
 that the Christian Church is the mother of 
 schools, yet it is only of the Church of the 
 Middle Ages and of the West that this is true. 
 In the first centuries of its existence the 
 Church appears to have done little for the 
 education of its members by the way of schools. 
 This, however, was not strange. In the first 
 place, the Church regarded itself as an educa- 
 tional institution. It was itself engaged in 
 teaching, not mere speculative dogmas, but the 
 practical wisdom of life, and this was what 
 many of the philosophical schools were doing. 
 Among the Church's officers were teachers, 
 didaslcaloi, those who had the chariifiiia of 
 teaching (cf. Eph. 4:11). The Christian com- 
 munity in some places assumed for protection 
 the form of a philosophical school without mak- 
 ing any change in its nature, customs, or con- 
 stitution. In the second place, faith in the 
 speedy return of Christ in glory continuetl to 
 be a determining factor in life until well into 
 the second century. Few institutions, therefore, 
 were as yet rigidly established. Only as con- 
 flicts with heresy and serious problems of ad- 
 ministration arose did ecclesiastical institutions 
 take form and assume prominence in the 
 Church's consciousness. Toward the end of 
 
 649
 
 CHRISTIAN EDUCATION 
 
 CHRISTIAN EDUCATION 
 
 the second century chiliastic expectations be- 
 came less general, and were confined more and 
 more to minor sects and parties, and the 
 Church began to make itself at home in the 
 world. Even then the Church did not make 
 any provision for secular education, although 
 the only sciiools available were those kept by 
 heathen teachers who used heathen textbooks. 
 There were, therefore, no schools of elementary 
 instruction officially connected with the Church 
 for centuries, with the exception of the monas- 
 tery schools under the rule of St. Basil iq.v.), 
 and other monasteries of the East. In the 
 West only with the Benedictine rule, after 500, 
 do they become at all common, and then only 
 in monasteries. Neither is there any satis- 
 factory evidence that Christians in any num- 
 ber adopted the profession of teacher for the 
 sake of Christian children. A number of diffi- 
 culties stood in the way of a Christian who 
 would adopt the profession. The subjects 
 taught in the elementary schools were of 
 necessity connected with pagan literature, for 
 there was as yet no Christian literature worthy 
 of the name. Then again, the life of the 
 teacher necessarily brought him in contact with 
 heathen worship, and, if he would open a school, 
 he was obliged to follow heathen customs. 
 These disadvantages Tertullian (q.v.) sets forth 
 with his usual vehemence in his work On Idola- 
 try (cf. especially ch. 10). Nevertheless, some 
 did venture upon a profession regarded by 
 manj' as dangerous to the Christian's faith. 
 Thus Origen {q.v.}, when he was left penniless 
 by the confiscation of the property of his father, 
 the martyr Leonidas, supported himself and his 
 mother by teaching rhetoric, and it is prob- 
 able that the School of Alexandria Iq-v.), 
 which had been broken up by the persecution 
 of Septimius Severus in 202, thus opened 
 again under the guise of a rhetorical school, 
 with Origen as its teacher. (Cf. Neumann, 
 Der romische Slaat und die allgemeine Kirche, 
 I, 164.) But the other cases of rhetorical 
 teaching by Christians are very scanty and 
 doubtful before the end of the third century. 
 Malchio is mentioned by Eusebius {H. E. VII, 
 29, 2) as principal of the Greek school at An- 
 tioch {q.v.), who, nevertheless, was a presbj'ter 
 of the Church of that city, having been made 
 such on account of his superior faith in Christ. 
 It may be that on becoming a Christian he 
 abandoned teaching rhetoric as a profession, as 
 was the case with Cyprian {q.v.) on his con- 
 version, who had formerly been a distinguished 
 teacher of rhetoric. But we certainly find 
 Christian teachers of rhetoric by the middle 
 of the fourth century, and they were probably 
 numerous by the time of Julian's edict against 
 Christian teachers in 362. During the heathen 
 Empire and for a considerable time after the 
 sole reign of Constantine, Christians were 
 obliged either to have tutors for their children 
 at home or to send them to the heathen teachers, 
 in both cases using heathen literature as the 
 
 means of instruction, or they had to teach 
 them themselves as best they could. It was 
 practically impossible for Christians wholh' to 
 refrain from attendance on the schools. Even 
 such a rigorist as Tertullian had to admit the 
 necessity of secular education in spite of the 
 objectionable literature; though in the case of 
 the student there was less danger to the faith 
 than in case of the teacher, i.e. danger of being 
 involved in acts that might be regarded as 
 forms of idolatry. 
 
 In the matter of higher instruction the case 
 was somewhat different from that of elementary 
 literary instruction. Even the rhetorical schools 
 taught more than beUes-lettrcs ; historical and 
 scientific works were read. The texts of the 
 latter were less defaced with mythological 
 matter and salacious morality, and might safely 
 be employed by Christians both as teacher and 
 as students. Such were the works of Ari.stotle, 
 Euclid, and Galen, studied in the Christian 
 schools conducted by Theodotus at Rome. 
 (Cf. article on Catechetical Schools.) The 
 teacher of philosophy, furthermore, might easily 
 treat Christianity as the supreme philosophy, 
 and pursue methods similar to those followed in 
 other philosophical schools. This was all the 
 more easy because Hellenistic philosophy had 
 entered upon its religious stage and was studied 
 very largely from religious interest. As a fact, 
 a number of men of philosophical training 
 became Christians; some were professional 
 teachers of philosophy, of whom the most im- 
 portant were Aristides, Justin MartjT, Athenag- 
 oras, Pantienus {q.v.), Clement of Alexandria 
 {q.v.), and probably Melito of Sardis. Of these 
 Justin Martyr, Pantsnus, and Clement are 
 known to have become professional teachers of 
 Christian philosophy, the former conducting a 
 school on Ids own responsibility, the two latter 
 being connected with the Catechetical School 
 of Alexandria. (See article on Catechetical 
 Schools.) The case of Justin Martyr is no 
 doubt typical of others of less distinction. He 
 treated Christianity as a philosophy, and con- 
 tinued to wear his philosopher's cloak, and saw 
 nothing to prevent his practice of his profes- 
 sion as a teacher of philosophy. He was now 
 an adherent of the school of Christ, and not 
 of the heathen philosophers. The theoretical 
 justification was simple; what the divine Logos 
 had revealed in part to Socrates had been com- 
 pletely revealed in Christ, who was the incar- 
 nation of that same Logos, or divine reason. 
 (Cf. Justin Martyr, ll,Apol., c. 10.) The same 
 line of thought was taken up by Clement 
 {q.v.), who regarded the Law of the Jews and 
 the Philosophy of the Greeks as being both 
 divinely ordained forms of preparation for 
 Christ. But the amount of private teaching 
 after the method of Justin Martyr could never 
 have been considerable. It does not seem to 
 have affected the life of the Church as a whole; 
 it gave rise to no institutions, and left no trace 
 upon legislation. The men who gave them- 
 
 650
 
 CHRISTIAN EDUCATION 
 
 CHRISTIAN EDUCATION 
 
 selves to it were never numerous at the most, 
 and in the course of the Church's development 
 they would have less and less opportunity for 
 treating Christianity in this way. The chief 
 schools of this sort appear to have been those 
 of the Gnostics {q.v.), and men who by eccen- 
 tricity of doctrine separated themselves from 
 the main body of the Church, so that the 
 name " school " became early synonymous with 
 schism and heresy. (Cf. Harnack, Mission und 
 Aushreiiung des Christenlums, 1906, Vol. I, pp. 
 300 f.) Those who did not alienate themselves 
 from the main bod}' of the Church could carry 
 on their work as private teachers only before 
 the rise in the Church of a body of Christian 
 theology, i.e. before the early part of the third 
 century. After that time they would have 
 been strongly suspected of heresy. From the 
 early part of the third century, in spite of the 
 attitude of Clement of Alexandria, Christian 
 thought was regarded in most parts of the 
 Church as something different from, and su- 
 perior to, philosophy. The Gnostics were too 
 much concerned with philosophical problems 
 to make the study of philosophy or the treat- 
 ment of Christianity as philosophy ai)pear as any- 
 thing other than something extremely doubt- 
 ful if not positi\'ely heretical. (Cf. TertuUiau, 
 De Praescriptione, c. 7.) Men who had been 
 trained in philosophy now found work in other 
 occupations than that of a private teacher; 
 the charismatic didaskaloi had long since given 
 way to ordained clergy as teachers. But men 
 of philosophical training could stUl find abun- 
 dant opportunity for their dialectical powers in 
 the explication and defense of doctrine. The 
 Church was building up a body of science which 
 was itself a subject of profoundest study and a 
 means of education. If these men became 
 clergj-, as not a few did, they would em- 
 ploy all their talents in the work of preaching, 
 which in the East, at least, became a universal 
 means of popular education in religion and 
 ethics. Speculative philosophy and meta- 
 physics under such circumstances would be 
 entirely beside the mark. And as a matter of 
 fact, no Christian takes any prominent place 
 as a philosopher, though not a few were 
 thoroughly conversant with the prevailing 
 schools and employed the current conceptions 
 in their theological science. 
 
 What the Church was able to do directly 
 and confessedly for education in the first cen- 
 turies was not in the form of literary instruc- 
 tion, but in what was more in harmony with its 
 mission, in the catechumenal instruction. (See 
 CA'rECHUMEN.\L SCHOOLS.) And it regarded it 
 as its duty to impress upon the minds of 
 parents the necessity of the moral instruction 
 aiul training of their children and the obliga- 
 tion of parents to see that tiieir children were 
 taught religion and morals. In the matter of 
 catechumenal instruction the training and dis- 
 cipline in morality and the actual instruction 
 in the doctrines of the faith were given to can- 
 
 didates for baptism, as yet chiefly adults. In 
 the matter of parental training, the exhorta- 
 tions of the Apostolic Constitutions, which 
 never received any general authority and which 
 date for the most part from the fourth century, 
 may be taken as typical of Church teaching- 
 generally. They did little more than enlarge 
 upon the precepts of the New Testament. 
 The catechetical schools, however, did take up 
 the advanced instruction of students beyond 
 the primary stages of discipline, and in some 
 cases, notably that of Alexandria and Casarea 
 under Origen, covered the whole range of 
 religious and secular education. (Cf. Gregory 
 Thaumaturgus, Panegyric on Origen.) But it 
 is hardly likely that this comprehensive treat- 
 ment of all branches of knowledge was followed 
 in other catechetical schools, and it is prob- 
 able that it was peculiar to Origen. 
 
 After the establishment of Christianity as 
 the religion of the State, nothing stood in the 
 way of the foundation of Christian schools. 
 Yet young Christians still patronized heathen 
 schools. The profession of teacher, except in 
 the case of religious instruction, does not seem 
 to have been followed by many Christians for 
 some time after the downfall of heathenism. 
 Proijeresius, one of the Athenian professors of' 
 Gregory of Nazianzus and the emperor Julian, 
 was a Christian teacher of distinction, as was 
 also Basil, the father of Basil the Great of 
 Csesarea. The best evidence that it remained 
 the custom for Christian parents to send their 
 children to heathen teachers, at least after the 
 first rudimentary instruction, is that eminent 
 Christians, brought up by Christian parents 
 renowned for their piety, were so sent. This 
 was the ca.se of Gregory of Nazianzus {q.v.), the 
 son of the Bishop Gregorj' of Nazianzus. 
 After he had studied at the Catechetical School 
 of Cffsarea, and possibly for a short time at 
 Alexandria, he went to Athens, where he at- 
 tended the lectures of heathen as well as 
 Christian teachers. The same is true of Basil 
 of CVsarea, Gregory's intimate friend. His 
 father, though a Christian, and an advocate 
 and teacher of rhetoric, sent him to Athens 
 after giving him some instruction himself. 
 John Chrysostom (q.r.) received the bulk of 
 his higher instruction from the heathen sophist 
 Libanius. Jerome (q.v.), born of Christian 
 parents and educated strictly and religiously, 
 after studying with Donatus, the granuiiarian 
 (q.v.), studied with the iiliilosopher \'ictorinu3 
 while he was still a heathen. The list could be 
 enlarged. The ca.se of Augustine (q.v.) is 
 hardly to the point, as Monica's religious 
 career began after her son was a grown man, 
 and she was little more than a nominal Chris- 
 tian during his youtli. 
 
 After tlie middle of the fourth century, 
 things dianged, and more Christians became 
 teacliers of rhetoric and possibly of philosophy. 
 Tliis change was natural enough, in spite of the 
 fact that the classical literature was still 
 
 G.J1
 
 CHRISTIAN EDUCATION 
 
 CHRISTIAN EDUCATION 
 
 studied in instruction in rhetoric. The Church 
 had begun to make terms with the world and 
 to tolerate wliat was once an abomination to 
 stricter Cliristians. That the Christian teaclicrs 
 must have been numerous is clear enough from 
 Julian's attack upon them, already alluded to, 
 whereby in 362 they were forbidden to use the 
 classical literature and were directed to confine 
 themselves to the Gospels. In this edict Julian 
 attempted both to discredit the Cliristian teachers 
 and to bring Christians distinctly under heathen 
 teachers. The attempt of some Christian teachers 
 to prepare substitutes for the classics was not 
 fated to be carried to its natural termination, as 
 Julian's edict was repealed in 364. At Athens 
 and probaljly elsewhere, Cliristian teachers re- 
 sumed their accustomed textbooks and taught 
 side by siile with heathen instructors. In the 
 Western Empire Ausonius, a Cliristian, acting 
 under the commission of Gratian, reorganized the 
 system of imperial schools and restored the former 
 methods and textbooks. Late in the fifth 
 century the heathen schools of Athens were 
 flourishing, and the Neo-Platonic philosophy 
 entered upon its most developed state under 
 Proclus (d. 485). The study of Aristotle was 
 revived by heathen teachers both at Athens 
 and Alexandria, and influenced in no small 
 degree the later developments of patristic 
 theology. The end of confessedly heathen 
 schools seems only to have come with the clos- 
 ing of the schools of Athens in 529 by Justinian 
 in his plan to strengthen and reorganize the 
 schools at Constantinople. (See Athens, Uni- 
 versity OF.) 
 
 In the matter of heathen classical literature 
 used in instruction, it should be frankly recog- 
 nized that there was a distinction made be- 
 tween the purely literary productions and the 
 scientific and historical works. There was 
 reason in the Christian's scruple as to the use 
 of the former when the real existence of heathen 
 gods was accepted by all parties in the Church. 
 There was also the practical question of per- 
 version to heathenism, at least until after the 
 time of Juhan. Under such circumstances it 
 may be asked whether it was morally justifiable 
 for Christians to send their children to study 
 works that were filled at once with false beliefs 
 and polluting indecencies. Much as it looked 
 like obscurantism on the part of men like 
 Tertullian when in perfervid rhetoric they de- 
 nounced classical literature and its teachers, 
 it was at the bottom merely reasonable con- 
 sistency. The classical works of Horace and 
 other poets had not been edited i)i usum Dd- 
 ■phini, and thoy presented then, as now, a 
 morality and a teaching often utterly contrary 
 to Christian sentiment. It was to this phase 
 as much as to the mythology that objection 
 was taken. True it is that Tertullian also de- 
 nounces philosophy because of its connection 
 with Gnosticism, yet he himself is saturated 
 with Stoic metaphysics, and is willing enough 
 to profit by the best science of his times in his 
 
 treatise On the Soul. (For the use made by 
 Tertullian and others of Greek medical science 
 see Harnack, Medizinisches aus der altesten 
 Kirchengeschichte; Texle ^ind Untersttchimgen, 
 Bd. Vlli, 1892.) The extreme position is not 
 typical of the Church in the first centuries. 
 The Apologists constantly appealed to heathen 
 writers; so did Clement. Origen recognized 
 the consequences of the fact that the Apostle 
 Paul made citations from heathen writers. So 
 far as there was prohibition of heathen books, 
 it was a part of a system which aimed to pro- 
 hibit heretical and bad books which came into 
 existence in the reign of Constantine. (Cf. 
 Eusebius, Vita Const., Ill, 66.) Basil distinctly 
 defends the use of classical literature in his 
 so-called homily Ad Juvenes. But toward the 
 end of the fourth century the mona.stic and 
 ascetic spirit began to oppose this literature. 
 Thus Jerome says he gave up reading such after 
 374. His example had great weight, and it is 
 with him that the sentiment began to turn 
 against the use of the classics. (Cf. Jerome, 
 Ep. 20, ad Eiistorch., § 30.) Yet he recognizes 
 the necessity of such books, and defends their 
 use by Christian theologians (Ep. 70, ad 
 Magnum). He actually taught Vergil and 
 other profane writers in the school he estab- 
 lished in his monastery at Bethlehem! Augus- 
 tine, although perceiving the danger in the 
 study of the classics, recognized their utility 
 as a whole for the Christian teacher. (De 
 doctrina Christiana, II, 40.) In spite of the 
 obscurantism of Gregory the Great, due in 
 great part to his belief in the approaching end 
 of the world, and in spite of his enormous in- 
 fluence upon the Middle Ages, in spite of 
 monkish asceticism which tried to prevent the 
 reading of profane writers, their works, which 
 had formed the basis of early education under 
 the Christian Church, remained in use and were 
 read constantly in the monasteries and other 
 centers of learning, until the overwhelming 
 interest in scholastic theology absorbed the 
 mind of the learned, and little attention was 
 given to literary elegance. J. C. A., Jr. 
 
 See Church Schools; also Bishops' 
 Schools; C.\thedral Schools; Cloister 
 Schools; Collegi-\te Church Schools; 
 Monastic Schools; etc. 
 
 References: — 
 
 Sources : — 
 Eusebius. Historia Ecctesiastica ; the works of .Justin 
 Martyr ; Tertullian (especially, De Idololafria aiitl De 
 Praescriptione Hacreiicoruyn) ; Clement of Alexandria ; 
 and Origen ; Gregory Thaumaturgiis, Panegyric on 
 Origen (the most valuable account of a Christian school 
 in the third century) : the Epistles of Jerome ; Augus- 
 tine, De doctrina Christiana ; Basil, Ad Juvenes. With 
 the exception of the last, all these may be found trans- 
 lated in Anle-Nicene Fathers, and the Nicene and Post- 
 Nicenc Fathers, Series I and II. (New York, 1885- 
 1900.) 
 
 RIodern : — 
 Dill, S. Roman Society in the Last Century of the West- 
 ern Empire. (London, 1898.) 
 
 652
 
 CHRISTIAN UNIVERSITY 
 
 CHRYSOLORAS 
 
 Ebert. AUgcmeine Oeschirhtc der Literatur des Mittelal- 
 lers im Ahindlande. (1,SS(>-1889.) 
 
 Hatch. The In/luence of Greek Ideas arid Usages upon 
 the Christian Church. (London, 1890.) 
 
 Hodgson, G. Primitive Christian Education, (Edin- 
 burgh, 1906.) 
 
 MuLLiNGER, J. B. Art. " Schools " in Smith and 
 Chcetham's Dictionary of Christian Antiquities, and 
 The Schools of Charles the Great. (London, 1S97.) 
 
 Rasbdall. Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages. 
 (O.tford, 1895.) 
 
 Taylor. The Classical Heritage of the Middle Ages. 
 (New York, 1901.) 
 
 CHRISTIAN UNIVERSITY, CANTON, MO. 
 
 — Founded in 1852 under the auispices of the 
 Christian Disciples Church. It is a coeduca- 
 tional institution, with academic, collegiate, 
 theological, and musical courses. About 14 
 units are required for admission, which may be 
 by examination or certificate from recognized 
 high schools and academies. Degrees are con- 
 ferred in the college and theological courses. 
 There is a faculty of 11 professors and 3 in- 
 structors. 
 
 CHRISTIANIA, UNIVERSITY OF. — The 
 
 only university in Norway, founded in 1811 
 and opened for instruction in 1813. Faculties 
 of law, medicine, arts, sciences, and theology 
 are maintained. In 1909 there were about 500 
 students in attendance. See Nokw.^y, Edu- 
 cation IN. 
 
 CHRODEGANG. — A Benedictine monk, 
 born about 712, died in 760, w^ho held the office 
 of chancellor under Charles Martel, and that 
 of Archbishop of Metz from 742 to 766, and 
 attempted to effect a literary revival in the 
 monasteries of northern Germany. His system 
 of rules was very generally adopted throughout 
 western Europe; and the result was a cer- 
 tain standardization of monastic singing, lan- 
 guage, and script, which continued to be effective 
 until the time of the greater revival under 
 Charles the Great. 
 
 References : — 
 
 EcKHART... Vita S. Chrodcgangi. 
 
 Pertz. Ubcr die Vita Chrodrgangi, in Berlin-Akad. 
 d. U'l'ss. Hist, philol. classe. Abhandlungen (1852. 
 pp. 507-517). 
 
 Sandys, .J. E. History of Classical Scholarship. (Cam- 
 bridge, I90:i-1908.) 
 
 Works: lirguta Canonicorum ; Diploma pro fundalione 
 Gorzienais monasterii. In Mignc, Pat. Lat. (186.3, 
 V. 89). 
 
 CHROMATIC QUALITIES. — By these are 
 meant chromatic as distinguished from achro- 
 matic [q.v.) ; the term "chromatic," then, applies 
 to all visual sensations that are neither white, 
 gray, nor black. The purest of chromatic 
 qualities are obtained by analyzing white light, 
 either of the sun's rays or of some artificial 
 source, by passing it through a prism, into its 
 constituent color elements. Such a prismatic 
 band of colors is termed a spectrum, and may 
 be roughly divided into four parts — the col- 
 ors from red to yellow, from yellow to green, 
 
 green to blue, and blue to violet. The tran- 
 sition between the members of any such pair 
 is through a series of qualities bearing some 
 resemblance to each color of the pair, but the 
 colors mentioned first in each pair — red, 
 yellow, green, blue — are turning points in the 
 series, since no one of them resembles the other 
 three. These are often called the jjrimary or 
 cardinal colors, and plaj- an important role in 
 color investigation and theory. Most colors 
 in everyday life are not, indeed, pure colors 
 (see Color), and for some of them (the purples) 
 there are no like colors in the spectrum. By 
 mixing (sec Color Mi.xing) two colors near the 
 respective ends of the spectrum, however (for 
 instance, red and blue), a series of purples may 
 be obtained. The chromatic sjiectral qualities 
 might thus be ordered in a color circle {q.v.) — 
 red, yellow, green, blue, violet, and through 
 the purple back to red. We can discriminate 
 about 150 different chromatic ([ualities in the 
 spectrum, and many thousands of tints (q.v.), 
 hues {q.v.), and shades of these. A chromatic 
 quality may be adequately defined by giving 
 its tone {q.v.) or hue, its brightness or in- 
 tensity {q.v.), and its saturation {q.v.). 
 
 R. P. A. 
 References: — 
 T^.^LDWiK'i^ Dictionary of Phil. OTul Psych. : Art. "Vision,'* 
 Helmholtz, H. V. Phi/siologische Optik. 2d ed., pp. 
 
 321 ff. (Leipzig, 1896.) 
 Ebbinghaus. Grundziig. d. Psychologic. Vol. I, pp. 
 195 ff. (Leipzig, 1905.) 
 
 CHRONOGRAPH. — An apparatus for re- 
 cording, usually on a smoked surface, time in- 
 tervals. The apparatus is used in various 
 types of reaction experiments {q.v.). See also 
 Kymogr.\ph. 
 
 CHRONOLOGY. — See History. 
 
 CHRONOSCOPE. — An apparatus for meas- 
 uring very short intervals of time, from tJtj to 
 ff,'o,7 .second. This is used in determining the 
 length of reactions. See Re.\ction Experi- 
 ments. 
 
 CHRYSOLORAS, MANUEL. — Diplomat 
 and scholar of the Byzantine Empire, who 
 exercised considerable iufiuence among the 
 early Humanists in the revived .study of Greek. 
 He was frequently sent to the West on diplo- 
 matic missions, and in 1396 he was invited to 
 remain at Florence to teach Greek. His stay 
 lasted from 1397 to 1400, when he removed for 
 3 more years to Pavia. He also taught at 
 A'enice. Among his i)upils were tluarino {q.v.), 
 who lived in his house at Constantinople as a 
 famulu.'i and was also taught by his son, and 
 Vergerius (q.v.). Filelfo {q.v.) married his 
 niece. Chrysoloras was the author of a Greek 
 grammar in Greek in the form of question and 
 answer {Erotemata), wh'n'h was edited, with a 
 Latin version, by Guuriuo. The son of Chryso- 
 
 653
 
 CHRYSOSTOM 
 
 CHRYSOSTOM 
 
 loras, Johannes, was a teacher in Constanti- 
 nople. 
 
 References : — 
 
 Cambridge Modern History, Vol. I. The Renaissance. 
 
 (London and New York, 19013.) 
 WooDWAUD, W. H. Education during the Renaissance. 
 
 (Cambridge, 1906.) 
 Vittorino da Fcllre. (Cambridge, 1891.) 
 
 CHRYSOSTOM, JOHN. — The greatest 
 pedagogue of his day, and probably the greatest 
 preacher of all time, was born at Antioch, a.d. 
 347, and died in exile, 407. Descended from 
 an illustrious family, he enjoyed the highest 
 educational advantages. His mother, Anthusa, 
 a woman of rare Christian graces, devoted her- 
 self wholly to his education. He studied under 
 the best masters — the celebrated rhetorician 
 Libanius, the philosopher Andragathius, the 
 theologians JMcletius, Theodorus, and Diodorus 
 of Tarsus. Revolting from the sordid life of 
 the forum, he became a Christian and spent six 
 years of solitary study with a company of her- 
 mits. Returning to Antioch, he was ordained 
 to the ministry, and soon won world-wide fame 
 as a preacher and teacher. Antioch was then 
 the intellectual center of the world, and Chrys- 
 ostom became the dictator of its thought. 
 The Catechetical School of Antioch (q.v.) was 
 then even more flourishing than that of Alex- 
 andria (q.v.), but followed Aristotle rather than 
 Plato and was less given to the study of Greek 
 philosophy and more to the exposition of Holy 
 Scripture and Christian doctrine. Its great 
 teachers inaugurated the literal and historical 
 method of exegesis instead of the allegorical 
 interpretations of Origen (q.v.). It matured 
 many of the greatest theologians of the Greek 
 Church, but its finest product and its head 
 during its most flourishing period was St. 
 Chrysostom. All fourth-century educational 
 progress centers round his name. The Church 
 was then the mother of schools, and the world 
 is indebted to her for the survival of learning. 
 This alliance between the Church and the 
 school imparted to educational work a spirit 
 of intense earnestness and seriousness which it 
 had not possessed before. St. Chrysostom 
 regarded education as the chief handmaid of 
 the Church, and established schools and directed 
 educational movements throughout the Eastern 
 Empire. Among his pupils was John Cassian 
 (q.v.), who inaugurated the educational in- 
 fluences which later on enlightened the whole 
 Western Church. Like the Alexandrian 
 Fathers, St. Chryso.stom held that the Chris- 
 tian scholar should extract the honey from the 
 flowers of heathen poetry and philosophy, and 
 
 consecrate it to the service of the Church, but 
 he violently opposed the theater as injurious 
 to public morality. Some of the pedagogical 
 principles which he laid down may be sum- 
 marized as foUows: Women, especially mothers, 
 are the natural educators of children; Chris- 
 tian life and experience are the foundation of 
 all true education, and therefore all parents and 
 teachers must teach not only by precept but 
 by example; religious education is an essential 
 factor in school work, and hence it is of the high- 
 est importance that children be brought up " in 
 the nurture and admonition of the Lord "; as 
 Christ lowered himself to man's estate in order 
 to raise men to a higher level, so the teacher 
 must lower himself to the capacity of his 
 pupils in order to elevate them to his standard; 
 just as Christ left his pupils to discover much 
 of the truth for themselves, so the teacher 
 must not do for his pupils what they can do 
 for themselves. During the twelve years of his 
 ministry in Antioch, John attained the perfec- 
 tion of sacred eloquence, won from an admir- 
 ing posterity the surname Chrysostom (the 
 Golden-mouthed), and became a great moral 
 and intellectual force which was felt through- 
 out the world. In 39S he was forced to become 
 Patriarch of Constantinople, and filled this 
 difficult and responsible post as Head of the 
 Greek Church until his martyrdom. He de- 
 voted much attention to Liturgies, and framed 
 the Liturgy which bears his name and is still 
 used throughout the Oriental Church. His 
 extant writings exceed in bulk those of any 
 Greek Father, and contain a vast variety of 
 valuable material. They include 240 letters 
 (many of them of extreme interest), more than 
 1000 sermons (in which a wealth of sacred and 
 secular learning is brought to bear upon the 
 exposition of divine truth), and a most valuable 
 commentary covering nearly the whole New 
 Testament. His Golden Book concerning the Edu- 
 cation of Children, which lays down the moral 
 and religious basis of education as conceived in 
 the Early Christian period, has been well trans- 
 lated by John Evelyn (q.v.). W. R. 
 
 See Catechetical Schools; Catechu- 
 iiENAL Instruction; Christian Education in 
 THE Early Church. 
 
 References : — 
 r.\Rn,vR, F. W. Lives of the Fathers. (New York, 
 
 1907.) 
 Library of Greek and Latin Fathers. (New York, 1890- 
 
 1.S97.) 
 MoNTFAUcoN. Works of St. Chrysostom. (Paris, 1840.) 
 Oxford Library of the Fathers. 
 Palladids. Contemporary Biographer. 
 Stephens, W. R. W. St. Chrysostom, His Life and 
 
 Times. (London, 1880.) 
 
 End op Vol. I. 
 
 654
 
 ' I ""HE following pages contain advertisements of a 
 -'■ few of the Macmillan books on kindred subjects
 
 I
 
 A LIST OF BOOKS FOR TEACHERS 
 
 PUBLISHED BY 
 
 THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 
 
 ADAMS, John. Exposition and Illustration in Teaching. 
 
 Cloth, via + 428 pages. $i.2j net. 
 
 ARMSTRONG, Henry E. Teaching of Scientific Method. 2d edition. 
 
 Cloili. i2mo. .xxvii + §04 pages. Tiidcx. $1.75 ttet. 
 
 ARNOLD, Felix. A Text-book of School and Class Management. I. Theory and Practice. 
 
 Clotli. 121)10. .x.xii + 40<) pages. Index. i>i.2jnet. 
 
 IL Administration and Hygiene. Cloth, xii + 2g2 pages. $1.00 net. 
 Attention and Interest. Cloth, viii + 272 pages. $1.00 net. 
 
 BAGLEY, William Chandler. Classroom Management : Its Principles and Technique. By 
 
 William Chandler Bagley, Superintendent of the Training Department, State Normal School, 
 Oswego, N.Y. Cloth. i2mo. .xvii + jj2 pages. $1.23 net. 
 
 The Educative Process. Cloth. i2mo. xix + j^S pages. $1.25 net. 
 
 BROWN, John Franklin. The American High School. By John Franklin Brown, Ph.D., 
 
 formerly Professor in Education and Inspector of High Schools for the State University 
 of Iowa. Cloth, xii + 4qS pages. i2mo. $i.2j net. 
 
 BUTLER, Nicholas Murray. The Meaning of Education, and Other Essays and Addresses. 
 
 By Nicholas Murray PSutler, President of Columbia University. 
 
 Cloth. i2mo. xii + 2J0 pages. $1.00 net. 
 
 CHUBB, Percival. The Teaching of English. By Percival Chubb, Principal of High School 
 
 Department, Ethical Culture School, New York. 
 
 Cloth. i2mo. .xvii -\- 41 1 pages. $1.00 net. 
 
 COLLAR, George, and CROOK, Charles W. School Management and Methods of In- 
 struction. By George Collar and Charles W. Crook, London. 
 
 Cloth. i2mo. via + jj6 pages. $1.00 net. 
 
 CRONSON, Bernard. Methods in Elementary School Studies. By Bernard Cronson, A-B., 
 
 Ph.D., Principal of Public School No. 3, Borough of Manhattan, City of New York. 
 
 Cloth. i2mo. 167 pages. $i.2§ net. 
 
 Pupil Self-Government. Cloth. i2tno. ix + 107 pages. $.qo nH. 
 
 CUBBERLEY. Syllabus of Lectures on the History of Education. With Selected Bibli- 
 ographies ami Suggested Readings. By Elhvood P. Cubberley. Second Edition revised and 
 enlarged. In two parts. 
 
 Part I, V -\- I2Q pages. $1.50 net; Part 11, .xv + j6i pages, $i.$o net. 
 
 Complete in one volume, $2.60 net. 
 
 DE G.\RMO, Charles. Interest and Education. By Charles De Garmo, Professor of the 
 Science and .\rt of Education in Cornell University. 
 
 Cloth. i2nio. xvii -\- 2J0 pages. Si. 00 net. 
 
 The Principles of Secondary Education. 
 
 I'ol. I, Stutiies. Cloth. i2mo. xii + 2gg pages. $1.2^ net. 
 
 Vol. IF, Processes of Instruelion. xii -f- 200 pages. $1.00 net. 
 
 Vol. III. Ethical Training. Nou' ready. 
 
 DEXTER, Edwin Grant. A History of Education in the United States. By Edwin Grant 
 De.xter, Professor of Education in the L'niversity of Illinois. 
 
 Cloth, xxi + 66§ pages. Svo. $2.00 net.
 
 A LIST OF BOOKS FOR TEACHERS — Co>iiinued 
 
 BUTTON, Samuel T. Social Phases of Education in the School and the Home. By 
 Samuel T. Button, Superintendent of the Horace Mann Schools, New York. 
 
 Cloth. i2mo. ix -\- 2jg pages. $i.2j nei. 
 
 BUTTON & SNEBBEN. The Administration of Public Education in the United States. 
 By Samuel Train Button, A.M., and Bavid Snedden, Ph.B. With an Introduction by 
 Nicholas Murray Buder, Ph.B., LL.B. 
 
 Cloth, viii + j9j pages. Bibliography. Index. i2mo. $1.75 net. 
 
 FITCH, Sir JosHa-i. Educational Aims and Methods. Lectures and Addresses by Sir Joshua 
 Fitch, late Her Majesty's Inspector of Training Colleges. 
 
 Cloth, xii + 44S pages. i2mo. SS/.25 net. 
 
 Lectures on Teaching. Cloth, xiii + jgj pages. i6mo. $1.00 net. 
 
 FOGHT, Harold W. The American Rural School. By H. W. Foght, Professor of Education, 
 Midland College. Cloth, xxii + j66 pages. $1.25 net. 
 
 GANONG, WiLUAM F. The Teaching Botanist. By William F. Ganong, Ph.B., Smith College. 
 
 Cloth. 121710. Rnvritten ed. xii + 444 pages. $1.25 net. 
 
 OILMAN, Mary L. Seat Work and Industrial Occupations. A Practical Course for Primary 
 Grades. By Mary L. Oilman, Principal of the Clay School, Minneapolis, Minn., and Eliza- 
 beth L. Williams, Principal of the Holmes School, Minneapolis, Minn. 
 
 Fully illustrated. Cloth. 141 pages. Square i2mo. $.^0 net. 
 
 GRAVES, Frank P. A History of Education before the Middle Ages. By Frank Pierrepont 
 Graves, Ohio State University. Cloth. 320 pages. Bibliography. $1.10 net. 
 
 HALLECK, Reuben Post. The Education of the Central Nervous System. A Study of 
 Foundations, especially of Sensory and Motor Training. 
 
 Cloth. i2mo. xii + 25S pages. $1.00 net. 
 
 HANUS, Paul H. A Modern School. By Paul H. Hanus, Professor of the History and Art 
 of Teaching in Harvard L'niversity. Cloth. i2mo. x + 306 pages. $1.25 net. 
 
 Educational Aims and Educational Values. By Paul H. Hanus. 
 
 Cloth. i2mo. vii + 221 pages. $1.00 net. 
 
 HENBERSON, Ernest Norton. The Principles of Education. 
 
 Cloth. Svo. xiv -\- 5JO pages. Bibliography. Index. $i.j5 net. 
 
 HERB.\RT, John Frederick. Outlines of Educational Doctrine. By John Frederick Herbart. 
 Translated by Alex. F. Lange, Associate Professor of English and Scandinavian Philology and 
 Bean of the Faculty of the College of Letters, University of California. Annotated by Charles 
 Be Garmo, Professor of the Science and Art of Education, Cornell University. 
 
 Cloth. Large i2mo. xi + 334 pages. $1.25 net. 
 
 HERRICK, Cheesman A. The Meaning and Practice of Commercial Education. By Chees- 
 man A. Herrick, Ph.B., Birector of School of Commerce, Philadelphia Central High School. 
 
 Cloth. .XV + 3jS pages. i2tno. $1.25 net. 
 
 HORNE, Herm.\n Harrell. The Philosophy of Education. By Herman Harrell Home, 
 .Assistant Professor of Philosophy and Pedagogy in Bartmouth College. 
 
 Cloth. Svo. .xvii + J95 pages. $1.50 net. 
 
 The Psychological Principles of Education. By Herman Harrell Home. 
 
 Cloth. i2mo. xiii + 435 pages. $1.75 net.
 
 A LIST OF BOOKS FOR TEACHERS — Continued 
 
 HUEY, Edmund B. The Psychology and Pedagogy of Reading. By Professor Edmund B. 
 Huey, of the Western University of Pennsylvania. 
 
 Clotli. i2mo. xvi-\- 46g pages. $1.40 net. 
 
 JONES, Olive M., LEARY, Ele.\nor G., and QUISH, Agnes E. Teaching Children to Study. 
 The Group System applied. Illustrated. Cloth, viii + ig3 pages. i2mo. $.So net. 
 
 KILPATRICK, Van Evrie. Departmental Teaching in Elementary Schools. 
 
 Clot/i. 121)10. .vm + I JO pages. i6mo. $.60 net. 
 
 KIRKP.^TRICK, Edwin A. Fundamentals of Child Study. By Professor Edwin A. Kirk- 
 patrick, Principal of State Normal School, Fitchburg, Mass. 
 
 Cloth. i2mo. .\xi + JS4 pages. $i.2j net. 
 
 Genetic Psychology. Cloth, .xv + jyj pages. $1.25 net. 
 
 LAURIE, S. S. Institutes of Education. 3d ed. Cloth. .\ii + jgi pages. &1.Q0 net. 
 
 M.AJOR, David R. First Steps in Mental Growth. A Series of Studies in the Psychology of 
 Infancy. By David R. Major, Professor of Education in the Ohio State University. 
 
 Cloth, xiv -\- j6o pages. i2mo. $1.25 nH. 
 
 THE McMURRY SERIES Each, doth, t2mo. 
 
 General Method 
 
 The Elements of General Method. By Charles A. McMurry. j2j pages. $.qo net. 
 
 The Method of the Recitation. By Charles .A. McMurry and Frank M. McMurry, Pro- 
 fessor of the Theory and Practice of Teaching, Teachers College, Columbia University. 
 
 xi + J2g) pages. $.go net. 
 
 Special Method. By Charles A. McMurry. 
 
 Special Method in Primary Reading and Oral Work with Stories. 
 
 i-ii + loj pages. $.60 net. 
 
 Special Method in the Reading of English Classics. vi + 254 pages. S.75 net. 
 
 Special Method in Language in the Eight Grades. ■uiii + ig2 pages. $.70 net. 
 
 Special Method in History. i';/ + 2gi pages. $.J5 tiet. 
 
 Special Method in Arithmetic. vU + 22^ pages, ^.jo nft. 
 
 Special Method in Geography. xi + 217 pages, i.jo net. 
 
 Special Method in Elementary Science. ix + 2j§ pages. $.75 net. 
 
 Nature Study Lessons for Primary Grades. By Mrs. Lida B. McMurry, with an Intro- 
 duction by Charles A. McMurry. xi + igi pages. $.60 net. 
 
 Course of Study in the Eight Grades. 
 
 Vol. I. Grades I to IV. vii + 2j6 pages. $.75 net. 
 Vol. II. Grades V to VIII. v + 226 pages. $.75 net. 
 
 MONROE, Paul. A Brief Course in the History of Education. By Paul Monroe, Ph.D., 
 
 Professor in the History of Kducation, Teachers College, Columbia University. 
 
 Cloth. Svo. xviii + 4og pages. $1.25 net.
 
 A LIST OF BOOKS FOR TEACHERS — Cotitimed 
 
 MONROE, Paul. A Text-book in the History of Education. 
 
 Cloth, xxiii + 277 pages, izmo. $i.go net. 
 
 A Source Book of the History of Education. For the Greek and Roman Period. 
 
 Cloth, xiii + 315 pages. Svo. $2.2$ net. 
 
 O'SIIE.A, M. V. Dynamic Factors in Education. By M. V. O'Shea, Professor of the Science 
 and Art of Education, University of Wisconsin. 
 
 Cloth. 121110. xiii + J20 pages. $1.2 j net. 
 
 Linguistic Development and Education. Cloth. i2mo. xvii -'r 347 pages. $1.25 net. 
 
 PARK, Joseph C. Educational Woodworking for Home and School. By Joseph C. Park, 
 State Normal and Training School, Oswego, N.Y. 
 
 Cloth. I2H10. xiii + 210 pages, illus. $1.00 net. 
 
 PERRY, Arthur C. The Management of a City School. By Arthur C. Perry, Jr., Ph.D., 
 Principal of Public School No. 85, Brooklyn, N.Y. 
 
 Cloth. i2mo. viii + 350 pages. $1.25 net. 
 
 ROWE, Stuart H. The Physical Nature of the Child. By Dr. Stuart H. Rowe, Professor of 
 Psychology and the History of Education, Training School for Teachers, Brooklyn, N.Y. 
 
 Cloth. i2mo. vi + 211 pages. $.go net. 
 
 ROYCE, JosiAH. Outlines of Psychology. An Elementary Treatise with Some Practical Ap- 
 plications. By Josiah Royce, Professor of the History of Philosophy in Harvard University. 
 
 Cloth. i2mo. xxvii + jp2 pages. $i.go net. 
 
 SHAW, Edward R. School Hygiene. By the late Edward R. Shaw. 
 
 Cloth, vii + 255 pages. i2mo. $1.00 net. 
 
 SHURTER, Edwin DuBois. The Rhetoric of Oratory. By the Associate Professor of Public 
 Speaking in the University of Te.xas. Cloth. J2j pages. i2tno. $1.10 net. 
 
 SMITH, David E. The Teaching of Elementary Mathematics. By David E. Smith, Pro- 
 fessor of Mathematics, Teachers College, Columbia University. 
 
 Cloth. XV -\- J12 pages. i2mo. $1.00 net. 
 
 SNEDDEN AND ALLEN. School Reports and School Efficiency. By David S. Snedden, 
 Ph.D., and William H. Allen, Ph.D. For the New York Committee on Physical Welfare of 
 
 School Children. Cloth. i2mo. xi + i8j pages. $i.jO net. 
 
 VANDEWALKER, Nina C. The Kindergarten in American Education. By Nina C. Vande- 
 walker. Director of Kindergarten Training Department, Milwaukee State Normal School. 
 
 Cloth, xiii + 224 pages. Porlr., index, i2mo. $1.2^ net. 
 
 WARNER, Franci-s. The Study of Children and their School Training. By Francis Warner. 
 
 Cloth, xix + 264 pages. i2mo. $1.00 net. 
 
 WINTERBURN and BARR. Methods in Teaching. Being the Stockton Methods in Elemen- 
 tary Schools. By Mrs. Rosa V. Winterburn, of Los Angeles, and James A. Barr, Superintend- 
 ent of Schools at Stockton, Cal. Cloth, xii -j- jj^ pages. i2mo. $i.2§ net. 
 
 THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 
 
 Publishers 64-65 Fifth Avenue New York 

 
 UC SOUThv'~N regional UBRAfl-y FAClLIA' 
 
 D 000 415 336 7
 
 FOR REFERENCE 
 
 NOT TO BE TAKEN FROM THE ROOM 
 
 CAT. NO. 23 012