WOODEN 
 SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 By 
 
 CHARLES DESMOND 
 
 
 » • „ 'J • • , 
 
 NEW YORK 
 
 THE RUDDER PUBLISHING COMPANY 
 
 9 MURRAY STREET 
 
 Opposite City Hall Park 
 
COPYRIGHT 1919 
 
 BV 
 
 THE RUDDER PUBLISHING COMPANY 
 
 NEW YORK 
 
 <^ll Rights ReitrveJ) 
 
 Kugineering 
 library 
 
 //cc^rianic g 
 
 U'C/' -^ 
 
 PRESS OF 
 
 ^ n/^»fa'r>x^Cf^ 
 
 9 Murray Street, New York 
 
Introduction 
 
 THE object of this book is to place at the disposal 
 of builders of wood ships some much needed in- 
 formation about construction and equipment. Each 
 principal part of a vessel's construction is explained, the 
 information being arranged in such a manner that the 
 reader can either use the book for reference purposes and 
 quickly obtain from it desired information about any selected 
 part of hull or equipment, or he can read the book as one 
 continuous story covering the construction and equipment 
 of a vessel. 
 
 If it is desired to make use of the book for reference 
 purposes, turn to indexed name of part or piece you desire in- 
 formation about. (The headings are arranged alphabetically.) 
 
 The photographs used to make the illustrations Figs. 
 29, 31, 38, 43a, 43b, 44, 47, 53, 57, 66, 69, 74, 75, 76, 76a, 
 77, 78, 79, 84, 92, 93, 95a, 124 and 125, and of the Accoma are 
 copyright Underwood & Underwood. 
 
 The illustrations numbered Figs. 81, 81a, 97 and 99 
 are published by the courtesy of Ingersoll-Rand Co. 
 
 The illustration Fig. 73 in Chapter X is copyright 
 by the Publishers' Photo Service. 
 
 The Author. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER PAGE 
 
 I. Classification and Insurance 5 
 
 II. Information About Woods 7 
 
 III. Kinds and Dimensions of Material to Use 19 
 
 IV. Tonnage 25 
 
 V. Strains Experienced by Ships 30 
 
 VI. Estimating and Converting 36 
 
 VII. Joints and Scarphs 39 
 
 VIII. Describing the Different Parts of a Ship Constructed of Wood 46 
 
 IX. Building Slips and Launching Ways 66 
 
 X. Building a Ship 80 
 
 XI. Ship Joinery 108 
 
 XII. Sails 123 
 
 XIII. Rigging : 129 
 
 XIV. Masts and Spars '. 143 
 
 XV. Types of Vessels 148 
 
 XVI. Anchors, Chains and Equipment 156 
 
 XVII. Resolution and Composition of Forces 167 
 
 XVIII. Strength and Strains of Material 169 
 
 XIX. Plans 180 
 
 XX. Definitions of Terms Used by Shipbuilders and Parts of Wooden 
 
 Ships 201 
 
 Useful Tables 212 
 
 Paragraph Reference Index 219 
 
 Alphabetical Index 221 
 
 Index to Illustrations 223 
 
 Index to Plans 224 
 
Chapter I 
 
 Classification and Insurance 
 
 In almost every instance kinds and dimensions of ma- 
 terials to use for constructing a ship are determined by 
 the designer, or builder, in accordance with rules laid 
 down by the classification society that will classify the 
 vessel for insurance purposes. 
 
 I a. Classification for Insurance Explained 
 
 Seagoing vessels are classified for insurance because 
 unless this is done insurance rates for vessel and for 
 cargo carried cannot be fixed with any degree of certainty. 
 
 When a ship owner contracts with a builder for a new 
 vessel he generally stipulates that the vessel shall be built 
 to conform with the classification rules of a known classi- 
 fication society, and selects the class he desires vessel 
 to enter ; and the builder, knowing these things, obtains a 
 copy of building rules and dimensions of material tables 
 issued by the named classification society and constructs 
 the vessel to conform to the rules. 
 
 These rules stipulate the kinds and dimensions of 
 materials that must be used for each principal part of 
 hull and equipment, and also the manner in which the 
 parts should be put together; and as the rules are based 
 upon results of actual tests made by practical shipbuild- 
 ers and owners all over the world, it is evident that both 
 builder and owner have every reason to adhere to them. 
 
 The Classification Societies' rules most generally used 
 are: 
 
 Lloyd's rules and regulations for the classification and 
 construction of vessels. (British.) 
 
 American Lloyd's (Bureau of American Shipping) 
 rules for classification and construction. 
 
 Bureau Veritas (French) rules for construction and 
 classification. 
 
 British Corporation rules. 
 
 Though methods of measuring and determining neces- 
 sary dimensions of material to use are not alike, some- 
 what similar results are obtained by the four classification 
 societies' rules mentioned, therefore a vessel built to con- 
 form to a certain class in one society will be granted a 
 corresponding classification in any other society. 
 
 As I have mentioned classification of vessels for in- 
 surance, perhaps I had better explain its meaning a little 
 more fully. The majority" of seagoing vessels are insured 
 by their owners, and the cargo carried is also separately 
 insured by its owners. The amount of "risk" or danger 
 of vessel and cargo being lost or damaged depends very 
 largely upon strength and seaworthiness of vessel and her 
 equipment, therefore it is imperative that people who in- 
 sure, and people who desire to ship cargo, have some ready 
 
 means for determining (a) the condition of the vessel 
 and her equipment, and (b) the proper amount of risk 
 involved by shipping cargo. If a vessel is sound and has 
 proper equipment the risk is necessarily very much less 
 than if a vessel is old, or badly constructed, or poorly 
 equipped, and of course the smaller the risk of loss or 
 damage the lower the premium will be for both vessel and 
 cargo carried. 
 
 You can therefore readily understand that a well- 
 found, properly constructed vessel will seldom have to 
 wait for cargo. The means employed for determining 
 condition of a vessel and for letting all shippers of cargo 
 know her condition is to have a vessel classified by a 
 known and competent authority and to have this classi- 
 fication done while vessel is being constructed and at 
 certain periods after launching. 
 
 The classification is done by skilled surveyors, em- 
 ployed by classification society, who designates the class 
 that vessel's construction and equipment entitles her to 
 receive. Under Lloyd's rules a vessel will be classed 
 "A" provided it is found to be in a fit and efficient condi- 
 tion for its contemplated employment. If a vessel is 
 being built for any particular trade, there will be affixed 
 to the letter the name of trade, such as "A" for coast 
 service only. 
 
 If vessel is built properly and in accordance with ma- 
 terial and dimension rules, the number lOO will be pre- 
 fixed to the letter, thus: A lOo; and if the equipment^ 
 such as anchor, chains, rigging, etc., is as specified in 
 tables, the figure (i) is placed immediately after the letter 
 designating class. Thus a vessel classed as lOO A i is 
 known to be in fit condition, to be built of materials that 
 are proper in strength and put together in a proper man- 
 ner, and to have equipment, rigging, etc., that is proper 
 in amount, dimensions and quality. If a vessel's con- 
 struction is not quite up to the standard called for by 
 rules, the numeral loo is replaced by one of lesser value 
 (95 or 90). 
 
 In the American Lloyd's (Bureau of American Ship- 
 ping) classification the character assigned to vessels is 
 expressed by number from i to 3, A i standing for 
 highest class and A 3 for lowest. Intermediate numbers 
 (i/4, i^, 2, 2^) being assigned to vessels that, while 
 not as good as A i, are superior to A 3. 
 
 In general new wooden ships built in accordance with 
 Lloyd's building rules can obtain classification in Class 
 A for a designated number of years, and can have this 
 classification continued on the termination of the named 
 
■6'- 
 
 WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 'p'eVioa 'if.i ailei" survey, the ship is found to be in proper 
 condition for a continuation of the classification. 
 
 Class A ships are entitled to carry all kinds of car- 
 goes in any waters. 
 
 Ships that have passed out of Class A and are not in 
 condition to be continued in it and ships not built in 
 accordance with rule are generally classed in Class A, in 
 red. 
 
 Ships which are found on survey fit for carrying dry 
 and perishable cargoes on short voyages are classed AE, 
 and ships which are not safe for carrying perishable car- 
 goes but perfectly safe for carrying cargoes not likely 
 to be damaged by salt water are classed E. 
 
 These classification rules are mentioned because it is 
 necessary that you have some knowledge of the under- 
 lying principles of the rules for classifying vessels. 
 
 To get a class, or get a vessel classified, a written ap- 
 plication must be made to a properly authorized agent, 
 or surveyor, of the classification society, and the estab- 
 lished fee paid. It is usual to apply for classification 
 before work on a vessel is commenced, because the rules 
 of classification societies stipulate that their surveyor 
 shall inspect hull during construction and specify the 
 stages of construction when each inspection shall be made. 
 
 Inspections are usually made: 
 
 1st. — When keel is laid and frames are up. 
 
 2d. — When planking is being wrought. 
 
 3d. — When planking is completed and caulked, but be- 
 fore deck is laid. 
 
 4th. — When decks and ceiling are laid and vessel is 
 ready for launching. 
 
 5th. — When vessel is completed, outfitted and ready 
 for sea. 
 
 When a class is assigned to a vessel it is assigned for 
 a certain stated number of years and upon the condition 
 that vessel is to be kept in good repair and properly 
 equipped during the whole of named period; and it is 
 also stipulated that whenever a vessel is being repaired, 
 or whenever she is damaged, a surveyor must be notified 
 and vessel be inspected. In addition to this all vessels 
 must be submitted for resurvey at the expiration of a 
 named number of years. These rules not only insure that 
 a vessel shall be properly built, but they also insure that all 
 classified vessels shall be kept in good repair under penalty 
 of withdrawal of certificate or lowering of class. Having 
 thus briefly explained the meaning of classification and 
 the reason for classifying vessels, I will tell you about the 
 kinds of materials used in ship-building and the proper 
 dimensions of materials to use in each principal part of 
 a vessel's construction. 
 
Chapter II 
 
 Information About Woods 
 
 The substance named ivood is, for the most part, 
 elastic, tenacious, durable, and easily fashioned. The 
 part that is characterized as timber is obtained from 
 the body of trees, or that part of those which grow 
 with a thick stem, rising high, and little encumbered 
 with branches or leaves, which is called the trunk. The 
 head of the tree consists of the branches, which are 
 adorned with leaves; these attain their full development 
 in the Summer, and then, in the great majority of 
 species, fall in the Autumn. 
 
 In ship carpentry, the wood of the trunk and largest 
 branches alone is used ; and only that of the commoner 
 species of trees. 
 
 Some of the timber trees attain an immense gize 
 when they are allowed to come to full maturity of 
 growth. Oaks and beeches are found to attain the height 
 of I20 feet; the larch, the pine, the fir grow to the 
 height of 135 feet. Other kinds, as the elm, the maple, 
 the walnut, the poplar, and the cypress, reach sometimes 
 a great elevation. 
 
 Botanists classify trees according to their physiological 
 and structural peculiarities; and in this way trees are 
 divided into two great classes, — Monocotyledonous, or 
 Endogenous, and Dicotyledonous, or Exogenous trees. 
 
 The terms Monocotyledonous and Dicotyledonous, 
 belong to the Jussieuan system of nomenclature, and are 
 descriptive of the organization of the seeds. Endog- 
 enous and Exogenous are the terms used by modern 
 botanists, and are descriptive of the manner of growth 
 or development of the woody matter of the tree, which 
 is, in the endogens, from the outside inwards towards 
 the interior, and in the exogens, outwards to the ex- 
 terior. 
 
 The monocotyledonous or endogenous trees have no 
 branches : their stems, nearly cylindrical, rise to a sur- 
 prising height, and are crowned by a vast bunch of 
 leaves, in the midst of which grow their flowers and 
 fruits. In this class are the palm trees, growing only 
 in tropical climes, where they are of paramount import- 
 ance, yielding to the people of those countries meat,- 
 drink, and raiment, and timber for the construction of 
 their habitations. 
 
 The pahn tree will serve as a type of the endogenous 
 structure. Dicotyledonous or exogenous trees, which 
 form the second class, are in much greater variety, and 
 much more widely spread over the globe, than trees of 
 the first class. The form of their trunks is generally 
 conical, tapering from the root to the summit: the sum- 
 mit or head of the tree is formed by the prolongation of 
 
 the trunk, which divides into sundry primary branches ; 
 these again ramify into innumerable secondary branches; 
 and these throw out small twigs, to which the leaves 
 are attached by foot-stalks, larger or smaller. At first 
 sight it appears as if the leaves grew by chance, but an 
 order, regular and constant in each species, presides in 
 their distribution. 
 
 On making a transverse section of a dicotyledonous 
 tree, we see that it is composed of three parts, easily 
 distinguished — the bark which envelops, the pith which 
 forms the core or center, and the woody substance which 
 lies between the bark and the pith. 
 
 In the woody substance we distinguish two thick- 
 nesses : the one wh'icJi envelops the pith is the greatest, 
 and is of a harder nature than that which adjoins the 
 bark. The former is termed perfect wood, the latter 
 alburnum. The inner layer of bark next the alburnum 
 is called the liber, a name given from its being used to 
 form the books (libri) of the ancients. Between the liber 
 and the alburnum there is a substance partaking of the 
 qualities of both, and called cambium. This is developed 
 in the Spring artd Autumn, when its internal portion 
 changes insensibly into alburnum, and the exterior into 
 liber. The liber never becomes wood: it is expanded 
 continually by the process of growth in the tree, and 
 forms the bark, which rends and exfoliates externally, 
 because of its drying ; and the layer of liber, in growing 
 old, cannot extend in proportion to the augmentation in 
 [he circumference of the tree. 
 
 Duhamel and Buffon long since proved that albur- 
 num, in process of time, became perfect wood; and there 
 is now no doubt in regard to the manner in which the 
 tree grows and produces its wood. 
 
 Exogens, or outward growers, are so called because, 
 as long as they continue to grow, they add new wood to 
 the outside of that formed in the previous year; in which 
 respect they differ essentially from endogens. 
 
 The only respects in which the»growth of exogens cor- 
 responds with that of endogens are, that in both classes 
 the woody matter is connected with the leaves, and in 
 both, a cellular substance is the foundation of the whole 
 structure. 
 
 As new layers of alburnum are produced, they form 
 concentric circles, which can be easily seen on cutting 
 through the tree; and by the number of these circles one 
 can determine the age of the tree. Some authors assert 
 that this is not so, since a tree may produce in one year 
 several concentric layers of alburnum, and in another 
 year only one. Nevertheless, the commonly received 
 
8 
 
 WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 opinion is, that the number of concentric circles in the 
 cross section of the wood, called annual layers, indicates 
 the time it has taken to reach its size. Although a layer 
 of alburnum is deposited each year, the process of trans- 
 formation of it into perfect wood, otherwise heart-wood, 
 is slow, and, consequently, the alburnum, or sap-wood, 
 comprehends many annual layers. 
 
 The annual layers become more dense as the tree 
 grows aged ; and when there is a great number in a tree 
 of small diameter, the wood is heavy, and generally hard 
 also. In wood which is either remarkably hard or re- 
 markably soft, the annual layers can scarcely be distin- 
 guished. They cannot, for example, be distinguished in 
 ebony, and other tropical woods, nor in the poplar, and 
 other soft white woods of our climate. In the case of 
 the softer woods in our climate, the layers are frequently 
 thinner and more dense on the Northern side than on the 
 opposite. In a transverse section of a box tree, about 7 
 inches diameter, we reckoned one hundred and forty 
 annual layers. 
 
 The roots of a tree, although buried in the soil, have, 
 as we have seen, an organization resembling that of the 
 trunk and branches. The roots of several trees are em- 
 ployed in the arts and in ship-building, but as these are 
 fully described in another chapter I need not dilate on 
 the subject: I shall only remark, that as the branches of 
 a tree divide into smaller branches and twigs, expanding 
 to form a head, so the roots divide also into branches, 
 which expand in every direction in the ground, and these 
 branches again divide, their ultimate division being into 
 filaments, commonly called fibres, which appear to be to 
 the roots what the leaves are to the branches. 
 
 It has been remarked that there is a sympathy between 
 the branches and the roots in their development. Thus, 
 when several considerable branches of a tree are lopped 
 off, the corresponding roots suffer, and" often perish. 
 
 2a. Cultivation of Trees 
 
 Trees are the produce of forests, planted sponta- 
 neously, and consequently very ancient, or of forests and 
 plantations created by man since he has engaged in this 
 kind of culture. 
 
 The reproduction of trees, their culture, and the fell- 
 ing of timber, belong more to the management of forests ; 
 but I shall remark briefly on some qualities which are 
 derived from growth. 
 
 The size and fine growth of a tree is not an infallible 
 sign of goodness of quality in the wood. The connection 
 of the age of a tree with its development, and the nature 
 of the soil in which it grew, ought to be inquired into 
 to enable a judgment to be formed of the quality of the 
 wood. 
 
 In general, boggy or swampy grounds bear only trees 
 of which the wood is free and spongy, compared with the 
 wood of trees of the same species grown in good soil at 
 greater elevations. The water, too abundant in low- 
 
 lying argillaceous land, where the roots are nearly al- 
 ways drowned, does not give to the natural juices of the 
 tree the qualities essential to the production of good wood. 
 The oak, for example, raised in a humid soil, is more 
 proper for the works of the cabinet-maker than for those 
 of the ship-carpenter; because it is less strong and stiff, 
 and is softer and more easy to work than the same wood 
 raised in a dry soil and elevated situation : it is also less 
 liable to cleave and split. Its strength, compared with 
 that raised in a drier soil, is about as 4 to 5, and its specific 
 gravity as 5 to 7. 
 
 Wet lands are only proper for alders, poplars, cypress, 
 and willows. Several other species incline to land which 
 is moist or wholly wet; but the oak, the chestnut, the 
 elm, thrive only in dry situations, where the soil is good, 
 and where the water does not stagnate after rain, but is 
 retained only in sufficient quantity to enable the ground 
 to furnish aliment for the vegetation. Resinous trees, 
 too, do not always thrive in the soils and situations 
 proper to the other kinds of timber, and especially in 
 marshy soils: sandy soils are in general the best for 
 their production ; and several species affect the neighbor- 
 hood of the sea, such as the maritime pine, not less useful 
 for its resin than for its timber. 
 
 In fine, trees which grow in poor and stony soils, and 
 generally in all such soils as oppose the spreading of 
 their roots, and do not furnish a supply of their proper 
 sap, are slow and stunted in their growth, and produce 
 wood often knotty and difficult to work, and which is 
 mostly used as veneers for ornamenting furniture. 
 
 The surest tokens of good wood are the beauty, clear- 
 ness, and firmness of the bark, and the small quantity of 
 alburnum. 
 
 It has been remarked that timber on the margin of a 
 wood is larger, more healthy, and of better quality than 
 that which grows in the interior, the effect of the action 
 of the sun and air being less obstructed. 
 
 2b. Timber for Ship-Building 
 
 The qualities which fit woods for use by shipbuilders 
 are durability, uniformity of substance, straightness of 
 fibre, strength and elasticity. The good quality of a 
 wood is known by uniformity and depth of color peculiar 
 to its species. When color varies much from heart to 
 circumference it is safe to assume that the tree from 
 which the timber was cut was affected by disease. 
 
 Knotty and cross-grained wood is difficult to work 
 and should be rejected especially for use in pieces sub- 
 jected to great strains. The knots are always a source of 
 weakness because the straightness of fibres which gives 
 strength is interrupted. 
 
 Knots are the prolongation of branches across the 
 perfect wood of the trunk of the tree. If the branches 
 have grown with the tree to the time it was cut down the 
 knots will be perfect wood and the fibres of the trunk 
 will only be slightly turned from their straightness, but 
 
WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 if the branch forming the knot ceased to grow before tree 
 was cut down the knot will be "dead" and will not only 
 greatly weaken the timber but may have caused some of 
 the surrounding wood to decay. In all woods of a given 
 species the heavier the specimens are the stronger and 
 more durable. Timber cut from the butt of a tree is 
 always the heaviest and strongest, and for this reason all 
 pieces of timber that have to be steam bent should be 
 cut from butt ends of logs. 
 
 Among resinous woods those which have the least 
 resin in their pores, and among non-resinous woods those 
 which have the least sap, or gum, in them are generally 
 the strongest and most durable. 
 
 The tenacity of wood when strained along the grain 
 depends on the tenacity of the fibres, and tenacity when 
 strained across the grain depends upon the adhesion of 
 the fibres to each other. 
 
 Timber used for ship-building should be free from 
 cracks radiating from the center (called "clefts"), from 
 cracks which partially separate the layers (called shakes), 
 and from sap-wood (the light-colored wood nearest the 
 bark), and should be properly and thoroughly air 
 seasoned. 
 
 2c. Care of Timber 
 
 If timber be exposed to great changes of tempera- 
 ture, to alternations of wetness and drought, to a humid 
 and hot atmosphere, it will inevitably suffer a deteriora- 
 tion of those qualities which render it serviceable for 
 the ship-carpenter. 
 
 Timber, when too suddenly dried, is liable to split: 
 when exposed to too high a temperature in a close at- 
 mosphere, its juices are liable to fermentation, followed 
 by a loss of tenacity and a tendency to rot and become 
 worm-eaten. The greater the quantity of timber thus 
 kept together, the more rapidly is it impaired, which is 
 made sensible to the smell by a peculiar odor emitted 
 from it. 
 
 When timber is exposed to injury from the weather, 
 and lying long exposed on a damp soil, it is attacked 
 by wet rot. The alternations, too, of drought and rain, 
 of frosts and of heat, disorganize the woody fibre, which 
 breaks, and a species of rottenness ensues resembling 
 the decay of growing timber. The means of defending 
 the timber from these various causes of waste, and pre- 
 serving it in a state fit and proper to be used in construc- 
 tion, we now propose to describe. 
 
 When the timber is squared and cut up, care must 
 be bestowed on' it ; not alone on the ground that it is 
 then so much the more valuable by the labor which it 
 has cost, but because, by its being divided, it is more 
 easily affected by deteriorating causes ; and by its sur- 
 face being augmented, these causes have also a larger 
 field to operate on. 
 
 Timber of the same scantling should be piled together ; 
 and there should not be mingled in one pile wood of 
 different species. 
 
 The first layer of the pile should be elevated above 
 the soil on sleepers, the higher the better, as securing 
 a freer circulation of air, and preventing the growth of 
 fungi. The most perfect security, however, is obtained 
 by paving the site of the pile, and building dwarf walls 
 or piers, with strong girders, to form the foundation 
 for the first tier. 
 
 Where the space will admit of it, and the timbers 
 are square, they should be laid in tiers crossing each 
 other alternately at right angles, and at least their own 
 width apart. This method will not do for thin planks, 
 because it would not allow a sufficient circulation of air. 
 These are better when piled so that in the alternate tiers 
 there are only planks sufficient to keep the other tiers 
 from bending. Where space can be afforded, it is well 
 to pile square timber in this way. The diagram (Fig. i) 
 will best explain this mode. 
 
 After timber is erected as part of a ship it will 
 rapidly deteriorate unless protected against the causes of 
 
 Fig. 1 
 
 decay, which are principally: (a) imperfect seasoning, 
 (b) improper ventilation and presence of impure air in 
 holds of a ship, (c) changes in temperature and presence 
 of moisture in holds and around joints of the ship's struc- 
 ture, (d) dirt in holds and around the framing. 
 
 In the present day very little shipbuilding timber is 
 properly seasoned and for this reason it is expedient to 
 close up ever}' rend, shake, and opening, and the surfaces 
 of joints that cannot be reached after the pieces are as- 
 sembled, with some substance that will act as a preserva- 
 tive by resisting the action of water and prevent moisture 
 getting into the pores of the wood. The ventilation of 
 holds and circulation of air around the timbers of the 
 frame should be properly planned because it is in the hold 
 of a ship, more than in any other part, that decay starts; 
 here the greatest degree of moisture collects and the 
 greatest amount of impure air accumulates, especially if 
 holds are not properly cleaned when a cargo is removed, 
 or if through some damage to ceiling of a hold dirt or 
 decaying refuse from cargo is allowed to accumulate 
 
lO 
 
 WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 around the frames and in places where it cannot be readily 
 removed from. 
 
 Timbers that are found to be decayed at the lower 
 part of the extremities of a ship, and in which the de- 
 cay proceeds from the center, will usually be found upon 
 examination to have some surface defect, such as a shake 
 or fissure, through which air and moisture have been ad- 
 mitted to the' heart, and in the case of joints that have 
 decayed it will generally be found that air and moisture 
 has had access to the center of joint through some defect 
 or opening in joint. 
 
 Without air and moisture decay in timber cannot 
 begin. Decay in timber is a fungus that requires air to 
 stimulate its growth, as can be easily proved by admitting 
 moist air to the heart of timbers that are apparently sound. 
 With the admission of air and moisture the growth of 
 fungus of decay is almost immediately started. 
 
 2d. Of the Bending of Timber 
 
 Curved forms require that the ship-carpenter should 
 obtain the timber naturally curved, or should possess 
 the power of bending it. Trees which yield timber 
 naturally curved are generally used for the construc- 
 tions of the naval architect. If, where curved timber 
 is required, it should be attempted to be formed by 
 hewing it out of straight timber, two evils would ensue: 
 the first, a loss of wood; the second, and greater, the 
 destruction of its strength by the necessary cross-cutting 
 of its fibres. Hence, to maintain the fibres parallel among 
 themselves, and to the curve, recourse is had to curving 
 or bending the timber artificially. This process may be 
 performed on the timber after it is squared or cut up. 
 
 The process of bending timber artificially is founded 
 on the property which water and heat have of penetrat- 
 ing into the woody substance, rendering it supple and 
 soft, and fitting it to receive forms which it retains after 
 cooling. 
 
 Bending timber is effected in the five following 
 ways: 
 
 1. By using the heat of a naked fire. 
 
 2. By the softening influence of boiling water. 
 
 3. By softening it by vapor. 
 
 4. By softening it in heated sand. 
 
 5. By vapor under high pressure. 
 
 The first method of operation is only applicable to 
 timbers of small scantling. 
 
 In the second method, the timber is immersed in 
 water, which is heated until it boils, and is kept boiling 
 until the timber is wholly saturated and softened. The 
 timber being then withdrawn, is immediately forced to 
 assume the required curvature, and is secured by nails 
 or bolts. This proceeding has the defect of weakening 
 the timber, and lessening its durability. It should, there- 
 fore, be used only in such cases as do not require the 
 qualities of strength and durability. 
 
 In the third process, the timber is submitted to the 
 action of the steam of boiling water. For this purpose 
 it is inclosed in a box made perfectly air-tight. The box 
 has a series of grated horizontal partitions or shelves on 
 which the timbers are laid. From a steam boiler con- 
 veniently situated, a pipe is carried to the box. The 
 steam acts on the timber, and in time softens it and 
 renders it pliant. The time allowed for the action of 
 the steam to produce this effect is generally one hour for 
 every inch of thickness in the planks. 
 
 The fourth method of preparing the wood for bend- 
 ing, is by applying heat and moisture to it through the 
 medium of the sand bath. The apparatus for this pur- 
 pose is a furnace with flues, traversing the stone on 
 which the sand is laid, in the manner of hothouse flues. 
 There is also provided a boiler in which water is heated. 
 On the stone a couch of sand is laid: in this the tim- 
 bers are immersed, being set edgeways on a bed of 
 sand about 6 inches thick, and having a layer of sand 
 of the same thickness separating them, and being also 
 covered over with sand. The fire is then lighted in the 
 furnace, and after a time, the sand is thoroughly mois- 
 tened with boiling water from the boiler before men- 
 tioned. This watering is kept up all the time that the 
 timber is in the stove. Thin planks require, as in the 
 preceding case, an hour for each inch of thickness ; but 
 for thick scantlings the time requires to be increased; 
 for instance, a 6-inch timber should remain in the stove 
 eight- hours. 
 
 The fifth mode, by means of high-pressure steam, only 
 differs from the third process described in this, that the 
 apparatus requires to be more perfect. The box, there- 
 fore, is generally made of cast-iron, and all its parts are 
 
 Fig. 2 
 
 strengthened to resist the pressure to be employed. 
 When the steam has a pressure of several atmospheres, 
 the softening of the wood is very rapid; and it is very 
 effectually done by this method. 
 
 After the timber is properly softened and rendered 
 pliable, it is bent on a mould having a contour of the 
 form which the timber is required to assume. 
 
 The simplest method of doing this is shown in out- 
 line in Fig. 2. A series of stout posts, a a a, are driven 
 into the ground, on a line representing the desired curve. 
 The piece of wood m n, when softened, is inserted 
 between two posts at the point where the curvature is 
 
WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 II 
 
 to begin, as at a b, and by means of a tackle, applied 
 near that point, it is brought up to the next post, a, where 
 it is fixed by driving a picket, c, on the opposite side. 
 The tackle is shifted successively from point to point; 
 and the pickets, c, d, e, are driven in as the timber is 
 brought up to the posts. It is left in this condition 
 until it is cold and dried ; and then it is removed to make 
 way for another piece. But if the balk is required to be 
 more accurately bent, and out of winding in its breadth, 
 squared sleepers, a a a (Fig. 3, Nos. i and 2), are laid 
 truly level across the line of curvature, and the posts 
 b b are also accurately squared on the side next the balk. 
 
 Fig. 3 
 
 An iron strap c, which is made to slide freely, is used 
 for attaching the tackle, and as the balk is brought up 
 to the curve, it is secured to the posts b, b by two iron 
 straps, e'e, e e (seen better in the vertical section, 
 No. 2), which embrace the pieces /, on the opposite 
 side, and are wedged up tight by the wedges h h. 
 
 In operating in either of the ways described, only 
 one piece of timber can be bent at a time. By the follow- 
 ing method several pieces may be bent together: 
 
 Fig. 4 is a vertical projection, and a transverse ver- 
 tical section, of the apparatus. It consists of the hori- 
 zontal pieces a a, arranged with their upper surface in 
 the contour of the curve. They are sustained by strong 
 framing b b, c c, d d. The timber is laid with its center 
 on the middlq of the frame, and by means of purchases 
 applied at both sides of the center, and carried succes- 
 sively along to different points towards each end, it is 
 cufved, and secured by iron straps and wedges as before. 
 The frame may be made wide enough to serve for the 
 bending of other pieces, as m, n; or for a greater num- 
 ber, by increasing the length of the pieces a a, and sup- 
 porting them' properly. 
 
 t:^ 
 
 Fig. 4 
 
 These methods are not quite perfect ; for in place of 
 the timber assuming a regular curvature, it will obviously 
 be rather a portion of a polygonal contour. To insure 
 
 perfect regularity in the curve, it is necessary to make 
 a continuous template, in place of the several pieces 
 a a a a. 
 
 Care must be taken that the curvature given to the 
 timber is such as will not too greatly extend, and, per- 
 haps, rupture the fibres of the convex side, and so 
 render it useless. 
 
 rifi^SS^-Sl^- 
 
 Fig. 5 
 
 The process of bending timber which we have 
 described, is, as will be seen, restricted to very narrow 
 limits. The effect, when the curve is small, is to cripple 
 the fibres of the inner circumference, and to extend 
 those of the exterior, and the result is, of course, a 
 weakening of the timber. Bending, effected by end 
 pressure, is not only not attended with injurious effects, 
 but on the contrary, gives to the timber qualities which 
 it did not before possess. 
 
 y]Epiaj SB© 
 
 Fig. 6 
 
 Wood can be more easily compressed than expanded ; 
 therefore, it is plain that a process which induces a 
 greater closeness in the component parts of the piece 
 under operation — which, as it were, locks up the whole 
 mass by knitting the fibres together — must augment the 
 degree of hardness and power of resistance. 
 
 Another of the good results of this method is, that 
 the wood is seasoned by the same process as affects the 
 
12 
 
 WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 bending. The seasoning of wood is simply the drying 
 qf the juices and the reduction of the mass to the mini- 
 mum size before it is employed, so that there should be 
 no future warping. But, as the compression resorted to 
 
 ^^ 
 
 Fig. 7 
 
 in the system' at once expels the sap, a few hours are suffi- 
 cient to convert green timber into thoroughly seasoned 
 wood. 
 
 Fig. 5 shows the form of the machine for timbers 
 under 6 inches square. Figs. 6 and 7 show the machine 
 for heavy timbers above that scantling. 
 
 The principle, as has been stated, is the application 
 of end pressure; but another characteristic feature is, 
 that the timber, during the process, is stibjected to pres- 
 sure on all sides, by which its fibres are prevented from 
 bursting or from being crippled ; and, in short, the tim- 
 ber is prevented from altering its form in any other 
 than the desired manner. The set 
 imparted to it becomes permanent 
 after a few hours, during which 
 time it is kept to its form by an 
 enveloping band and a holding 
 bolt, as shown in Fig. 8. 
 
 2e. 
 
 Fig. 8 
 
 Seasoning of Timber, and the Means Employed 
 TO Increase Its Durability 
 
 Seasoning timber consists in expelling, or drying up 
 as far as possible, the moisture (sap) which is con- 
 tained in the pores. Air, or natural, seasoning is best 
 and consists in simply exposing the timber freely to air in 
 a dry place sheltered from sunshine and rain. Air sea- 
 soning of hard wood cannot be completed in less than 
 two years. To immerse the logs in water for a few 
 weeks before they are sawed into plank will hasten the 
 seasoning because the water expels the sap. 
 
 Timber can be artificially seasoned by placing it in 
 a tight chamber, called a dry kiln, and exposing it to a 
 current of hot air which is forced into the compartment 
 by fans. The temperature of the air should vary with 
 kind of wood: 
 
 For oak it should not exceed lOS* 
 
 For hard woods in general, in thick planks, about lOo' 
 
 For pine woods in thick pieces, about i8o° 
 
 For pine timbers 200° 
 
 For mahogany , 260° 
 
 The current of air being freely circulated around 
 the planks, which should be piled, with spaces between 
 them, for not over 12 hours a day. 
 
 The drying should be gradual; for if the moisture be 
 carried off too rapidly the fibres of the wood will collapse 
 or lose their power of adhering to one another and the 
 timber will split along the grain. One reason why kiln- 
 dried timber is not advocated for use in ships is the ten- 
 dency of kiln-dried timber to imbibe moisture from the 
 atmosphere and thus induce decay. 
 
 An attempt to fix a time for air seasoning timber 
 would be utterly useless because time required to season 
 timber will vary with kind and quality, and also with 
 conditions of climate, piling, etc. 
 
 In general it can be said that timber for ship-building 
 should not be used sooner than three years after felling. 
 If timber is squared, cut to scantling, and placed in a 
 situation where air can pass freely over each piece, 
 pieces 6 inches square will season sufiiciently to be usable 
 in six months; pieces 12 inches square will require from 
 twelve to fifteen months ; and pieces over 12 inches square 
 will require from tzventy to twenty-four months. But 
 this period of seasoning will not thoroughly dry the tim- 
 ber; it will only put it into condition to be used for parts 
 that do not require thoroughly air-dried timber. 
 
 Timber in seasoning loses from 6 to 40% in weight, 
 and from 2 to 8% in transverse measurement (through 
 shrinkage). 
 
 Immersion in hot water effects the same purpose 
 much more rapidly; but as the wood has to be sub- 
 mitted to the action of the water for ten or twelve days, 
 the expense is prohibitory of the process, unless in cases 
 where the condensing water of a steam engine in con- 
 stant operation can be made available. As we have be- 
 fore remarked, when speaking of the bending of timber, 
 the action of the hot water impairs its strength, and 
 should not be used where strength is an object. 
 
 Immersion in salt water is a means of adding to the 
 durability of timber. It increases its weight, and adds 
 greatly to its hardness. It is attended, however, by the 
 grave inconvenience of increasing its capacity for mois- 
 ture, which renders this kind of seasoning inapplicable 
 for timber to be employed in the ordinary practice of the 
 carpenter. 
 
 The water seasoning of which we have been speaking 
 has many objectors; but numerous experiments prove, 
 beyond contradiction, that timber immersed in water 
 immediately after being felled and squared, is less sub- 
 ject to cleave and to decay, and that it dries more quickly 
 and more completely ; which proves that the water 
 evaporates more readily than the sap, of which it has 
 
WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 13 
 
 taken the place. The immersion, however, impairs, to 
 some extent, the strength of the timber; and this consid- 
 eration indicates the applicability or non-applicability 
 of the process. When the timber is required for pur- 
 poses for which dryness and easiness of working are 
 essential, then the water seasoning may be employed with 
 advantage; but when for purposes in which strength 
 alone is the great requisite, it should not be used. 
 
 2f. Loss OF Weight and Shrinkage of Timber in 
 Seasoning 
 
 While seasoning timber will lose a considerable por- 
 tion of its original (green) weight and it will also shrink 
 in width and in thickness. The amount of loss of weight 
 and dimensions in seasoning varies considerably, being 
 much greater in some kinds of timber than in others. On 
 the accompanying Table i (page 17) I give figures ob- 
 tained by carefully weighing and measuring a number of 
 experimental pieces of timber. The figures are for thor- 
 ough seasoning during a period of over three years. You 
 will note that there is some variation in shrinkage be- 
 tween butt and top planks of same timber. 
 
 Among the insects whose attacks are most fatally in- 
 jurious to the wood are the white ant, the Teredo 
 navalis, a kind of Pholas, and the Limnoria terebrans. 
 
 The white ant devours the heart of the timber, re- 
 ducing it to powder, while the surface remains unbroken, 
 and affords ho indication of the ravages beneath. 
 
 The teredo and pholas attack wood when submerged 
 in the sea. The teredo, its head armed with a casque or 
 shell in the shape of an auger, insinuates itself into the 
 wood through an almost imperceptible hole; it then in 
 its boring operations follows the line of the fibre of the 
 wood, the hole enlarging as the worm increases in size. 
 It forms thus a tube, extending from the lowest part of 
 the timber to the level of the surface of the water, which 
 it lines with a calcareous secretion. A piece of timber, 
 such as a pile in a marine structure, may be perforated 
 from the ground to the water level by a multitude of 
 these creatures, and yet no indications of their destruc- 
 tive work appear on the exterior. 
 
 The pholas does not attack timber so frequently as the 
 teredo; and its ravages are more slowly carried on. Its 
 presence in the wood, therefore, though very dangerous, 
 is not so pernicious as the other. 
 
 For the protection of timber from disease, decay, and 
 the ravages of ' insects, various means are employed. 
 These may be classed as internal and external applications. 
 
 I. Preservation of Wood by impregnating it with 
 Chemical Solutions. 
 
 The chemicals usually employed in solution are the 
 deutochloride of mercury (corrosive sublimate), the 
 protoxide of iron, the chloride of zinc, the pyrolignite 
 of iron, arsenic, muriate of lime, and creosote. They 
 are either used as baths, in which the timber is steeped, 
 
 or they are injected into the wood by mechanical means; 
 or the air is exhausted from the cells of the wood, and the 
 solutions being then admitted, fill completely every 
 vacuum. 
 
 All of these processes are advantageous under certain 
 circumstances ; but it cannot be said that any of them is 
 infallible. 
 
 But it is to be feared that against the attacks of the 
 marine pests — the teredo, the pholas, and the Limnoria 
 terebrans— the protection these processes afford is at the 
 best doubtful. An exception to this may probably be 
 taken in favor of the creosote process. The soluble 
 salts are supposed to act as preservatives of the timber, 
 by coagulating its albumen; thus the very quality of com- 
 bining with the albumen destroys the activity of the salts 
 as poisons, and hence although preservatives against 
 decay, they may, when thus combined, be eaten by an 
 insect with impunity. With creosote, however, the case 
 is different. It fills the vessels of the wood, and its 
 smell is so nauseous that no animal or insect can bear it. 
 It is also insoluble in water, and cannot be washed out. 
 It is thus a protection to the wood against the ravages 
 of insects, and also a preservative from decay. The 
 base of many of the marine preservative and, so-called, 
 anti-fouling bottom paints is creosote. 
 
 Previous to the application of any of these substances, 
 however, and as a preparative for it, it is essential that 
 the timber be thoroughly deprived of its moisture. 
 
 II. Preservation by Paints and other Surface Appli- 
 cations. 
 
 Timber, when wrought, and either before it is framed, 
 or when in its place, is coated with various preparations, 
 the object of which is to prevent the access of humidity 
 to its pores. In the application of such surface coatings, 
 it is essential that the timber be thoroughly dry ; for if it 
 is not, the coating, in place of preserving it, will hasten 
 its destruction, as any moisture contained in it will be 
 prevented from being evaporated, and will engender in- 
 ternal decay. This result will be more speedily developed 
 as the color of the coating is more or less absorbent of 
 heat. 
 
 One of the most common applications to timber con- 
 structions of large size is a mixture of tar, pitch, and 
 tallow. The mixture is made in a pot over a fire, and 
 applied boiling hot. 
 
 But the most universally applicable protective coating 
 is good oil paint. It is necessary that the oil should be 
 good, the paint insoluble in water, and thoroughly ground 
 with the oil, and that in its application it should be well 
 brushed with the end, and not with the side of the 
 brush. Such a coating has not the disadvantage of 
 weight, like the painting with sand; nor does it, like it, 
 alter the form of the object to which it is applied. 
 
 The timber to be painted in oil should be planed 
 smooth ; and it is essentially requisite that it be dry. It 
 is usual to submit it to the action of the air for some 
 
14 
 
 WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 time before painting, and then to take advantage of a 
 dry season to apply the paint. 
 
 To render eflfectual any of the surface coatings we 
 have mentioned, it is necessary to take care that the 
 joints of framing are also coated before the wrork is put 
 together. If this be neglected, it will happen that 
 although any water which may fall on the work will 
 evaporate from the surface, some small portions may 
 insinuate themselves into the joints, and these remain- 
 ing, will be absorbed by the pores of the wood, and 
 become the cause of rot. The joints of all exposed work 
 should, therefore, be well coated with the protective 
 covering before it is put together. 
 
 Besides these fluid compositions, timber exposed to 
 the action of marine insects is often covered with a 
 sheathing of metal, usually copper. 
 
 I will now give a brief description of each kind of 
 wood used by shipbuilders in the U. S. A., the average 
 weights of each, and the strength compared with that 
 of oak. 
 
 2g. Description of Woods — Hard Woods 
 
 Oak. — The oak is one of the strongest and most 
 durable of shipbuilding woods that grow in the U. S. A., 
 but all of the oaks are not equally durable and valuable. 
 
 The most durable and valuable of the oaks is the 
 live oak. This is a fine-grained, compact and heavy 
 wood obtained from trees that only grow near the sea- 
 coast of some of the Southern States. The trees are 
 rarely found more than 15 miles from the coast and are 
 most abundant along the shores of creeks and bays. It 
 is the most durable and strongest of the oaks that grow 
 in the U. S. A., but is difficult to procure in large quan- 
 tities because the trees seldom attain large dimensions 
 and are never found in forests. 
 
 Next in value to the live oak is the white oak. This 
 is a light-colored, hard and durable species x>f oak that 
 grows in great abundance in the Eastern half of the 
 U. S. A. The wood is very durable both in and out of 
 water and possesses great strength. Experiments on 
 samples of white oak gave these results: 
 
 Specific gravity, about .934 
 
 Weight of cubic feet in tb (nearly dry) 58.37 
 
 Comparative strength, or weight necessary to bend . .. . • 149. 
 
 Comparative strength 350. 
 
 Cohesive force per square inch ib 13,316. 
 
 Comparative toughness 108. 
 
 Red oaks and other varieties of common oaks, of 
 which there are several, are less durable and do not 
 possess the strength of white oak and for these reasons 
 should not be used when white oak can be obtained. 
 For interior finish the red oak is preferable to the white 
 because it is a softer wood and has a much finer grain, 
 or figure, when quarter-sawed. 
 
 Chestnut is a soft coarse-grained wood, somewhat 
 
 similar in color to white oak. It is found in the Eastern 
 part of the U. S. A., and while not nearly as strong 
 as oak its lasting qualities are excellent. For this reason 
 a certain percentage of chestnut can be used in the 
 frames of vessels without loss of class. The average 
 cohesive force of chestnut is about 9,700. 
 
 Its stiffness to that of oak is as 54 to 100. 
 Its strength to that of oak is as 48 to 100. 
 Its toughness to that of oak is as 85 to 100. 
 
 Rock Elm. — The elm is a large tree, common in the 
 U. S. A. There are about fifteen species, of which the 
 rock elm is the most valuable for ship-building. Its 
 wood is ruddy brown, very fibrous and flexible, subject 
 to warp, tough, and difficult to work. It is not liable to 
 split and bears the driving of nails or bolts better than 
 any other wood. When kept constantly wet it is exceed- 
 ingly durable, and is, therefore, much used for keels of 
 vessels and in wet places. 
 
 The weight of a cubic foot when green is about 60 tb 
 and when dry about 43 ft. 
 
 Its strength to that of white oak is as 82 to 100. 
 Its stiffness to that of white oak is as 78 to 100. 
 Its toiighness to that of white oak is as 86 to 100. 
 Its absolute cohesive strength is about 13,000 tb. 
 
 Soft elm is the worst of all the species and is abso- 
 lutely useless for shipbuilding use. 
 
 Ash is an excellent wood for oars, blocks, hand- 
 spikes, etc., because its toughness and elasticity fit it for 
 resisting sudden and heavy shocks. It is of little use for 
 other shipbuilding purposes because of its liability to rot 
 when exposed to dampness or used in places where it 
 will be alternately wet and dry. 
 
 The weight of a cubic foot of green ash is about 60 ft 
 and of dry wood about 49 ft. Its cohesive strength is 
 about 17,000 ft. 
 
 Its strength to that of white oak is as 119 to 100. 
 Its stiffness to that of white oak is as 89 to 100. 
 Its toughness to that of vvhite oak is as 100 to 100. 
 
 Teak. — While not a native U. S. wood, teak is ex- 
 tensively used in ship-building and is, in fact, one of, if 
 not the most valuable of all shipbuilding woods. It is 
 a native wood of India, and is one of the few woods that 
 can withstand the ravages of white ants. The wood is 
 light brown in color, is durable both in and out of water, 
 and possesses very nearly the strength of white oak. 
 Its tenacity is about 13,000 ft per square inch. 
 
 Teak is largely used for deck plank in yachts, for 
 rails, for joinerwork, and in places where great durability 
 is desired. 
 
 In countries where it is plentiful it is used for keels, 
 frames, and planking of vessels, and when so used the 
 vessels are practically indestructible through decay. 
 
 There are two descriptions of teak used in ship-build- 
 ing; one of which is brought from Moulmein and the 
 other from Malabar. The former of these is in various 
 
WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 15 
 
 respects superior to the latter ; in India, where the oppor- 
 tunities of comparing them have been more ample than in 
 this country, it is stated to be of less specific gravity, of 
 greater flexibility, and freer from knots and rindgalls 
 than the teak of Malabar; it is also of a lighter color. 
 It grows to an immense size in the forest, and trees are 
 sometimes cut of 8 or 9 feet in diameter; but most of 
 such trees are unsound; smaller trees are therefore pre- 
 ferred, ranging down to 18 inches in diameter. The 
 largest pieces of this teak run to about 85 feet in length, 
 and are about 8 or 9 feet in girt; keel-pieces range from 
 38 to 50 feet in length, squaring from 15 to 24 inches. 
 
 This timber is killed before it is felled: the trees are 
 girdled all round through the sap about 3 feet above the 
 ground, just before the rainy season begins, and when the 
 sap is low. The vitality of the trees being thus destroyed, 
 they are left in that state to season, for two or even three 
 years before they are felled. The trees are considered 
 to arrive at perfection in about seventy years; a trans- 
 verse section of some trees exhibits the periodical rings 
 of the stem at half an inch or even three-quarters of an 
 inch asunder, while in other specimens of the same tim- 
 ber these rings can hardly be distinguished. Some butts 
 are of a close and even texture; and the same feature of 
 the wood extends the whole length of the log though it 
 be 60 feet : other butts are soft for several inches round 
 the heart. 
 
 Maple. — Maple is a hard, heavy, strong and close- 
 grained wood of light color. The hard maple is exten- 
 sively used for launching ways and for planking of 
 slipways. The wood is durable when fully covered with 
 water but is not very durable when alternately wet and 
 dry. When green it weighs about 62 tb, and when dry 
 about 51 lb. Its tenacity, is about 10,586 It). 
 
 Locust. — The timber of the acacia is called locust 
 wood. In color it is yellow. It is an extremely durable 
 wood of great strength. Experiments have shown that 
 it is heavier, harder, stronger and more rigid than the 
 best white oak. Its use, however, is almost entirely 
 confined to treenails, because the trees from which the 
 timber is cut are always very small, and for this reason 
 locust is seldom used except for pieces that can be made 
 out of small timbers. For treenails it is far superior to 
 all other woods. 
 
 Its strength compared with oak is as 135 to 100. 
 
 Its weight is about 45 tb a cu. ft. and its tenacity is tb 16,000. 
 Locust wood shrinks very little indeed in seasoning. 
 
 Birch. — There are two kinds of birch used in ship 
 construction, the black and the yellow. The black is 
 the most durable and is the one preferred by shipbuilders. 
 It is moderately hard wood, weighs when green about 
 60 lb, and when dry about 45 tb. Its tenacity is 15,000 lb 
 a square inch. The yellow birch is not a very durable 
 wood. 
 
 Mahogany. — This wood is extensively used for ship 
 
 joinerwork and planking of small boats. It is a native 
 of the West Indies and Central America. The mahogany 
 tree is one of the most beautiful and majestic of trees. 
 Its trunk is often 50 feet high, and 12 feet diameter. It 
 takes probably not less than two hundred years to arrive 
 at maturity. . 
 
 The mahogany tree abounds themost and is in great- 
 est perfection between latitudes 11° and 23° 10' N., 
 including within these limits the islands of the Caribbean 
 Sea, Cuba, St. Domingo, and Porto Rico, and in these 
 the timber is superior in quality to that of the adjacent 
 continent of America, owing, it is to be supposed, in some 
 measure, to its growing at greater elevations and on 
 poorer soils.. 
 
 Mahogany timber was used at an early period by the 
 Spaniards in ship-building. In 1597 it was used in the 
 repairs of Sir Walter Raleigh's ships in the West Indies. 
 
 The finest mahogany is obtained from St. Domingo, 
 the next in quality from Cuba, and the next from Hon- 
 duras. 
 
 In the island of Cuba the tree is felled at the wane 
 of the moon from October to June. The trunks are 
 dragged by oxen to the river, and then, tied together in 
 threes, they are floated down to the rapids. At the 
 rapids they are separated and passed singly, then, col- 
 lected in rafts, they are floated down to the wharves for 
 shipment. It is considered essential to the preservation 
 of the color and texture of the wood that it should be 
 felled when the moon is in the wane. 
 
 The Honduras mahogany is commonly called bay 
 wood, and is. that most used for the purposes of car- 
 pentry. It recommends itself for these purposes by its 
 possessing, in an eminent degree, most of the good and 
 few of the bad qualities of other timber. It works 
 freely; it does not shrink; it is free from acids which act 
 on metals; it is nearly if not altogether exempt from 
 dry rot; and it resists changes of temperature without 
 alteration. It holds glue well; and it does not require 
 paint to disguise its appearance. It is less combustible 
 than most woods. The weight of a cubic foot is 50 tb, 
 and its tenacity is given by Barlow at 8,000 tb. 
 
 Its strength compared with oak is as 96 to 100. 
 Its stiffness compared with oak is as 93 to 100. 
 Its toughness compared with oak is as 99 to 100. 
 
 Sabicu. — The wood of a beautiful tree which grows 
 in Cuba. It is used in the government yards for beams 
 and planking. The weight of a cubic foot is from 57 to 
 65 tb. 
 
 Greenheart (Nectandra rodiosi). — This wood is a 
 native of Guiana, where it is in great abundance. The 
 trees square from 18 to 24 inches, and can be procured 
 from 60 to 70 feet long. It is a fine but not even-grained 
 wood. Its heart-wood is deep brown in color, and the 
 alburnum pale yellow. It is adapted for all purposes 
 where great strength and durability are required. The 
 
i6 
 
 WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 weight of a cubic foot is from 51.15 to 61.13, and its 
 specific gravity from 831 to 989. 
 
 Poplar (Populus). — The wood of the poplar is soft, 
 light, and generally white, or of a pale yellow. It has 
 the property of being only indented and not splintered 
 by a blow. 
 
 It is adapted for purposes which require lightness 
 and moderate strength, and when kept dry it is tolerably 
 durable. It weighs when green 48 ft 3 oz. per cubic 
 foot, and from 24 to 28 ft 7 oz. when dry. It shrinks 
 and cracks in drying, and loses about a quarter of its 
 bulk. When seasoned it does not warp, and takes fire 
 with difficulty. Its tenacity is 6,016. 
 
 2h. Resinous and Soff Woods 
 
 Of the timber of the resin-producing trees, belonging 
 to the natural order Coniferae, many varieties are used. 
 The white pine of America, which is the Pinus Strobus; 
 the yellow pine of America, Finns variabilis; the pitch 
 pine, Pinus resinosa; the silver fir, Pinus Picea; and the 
 various white firs, or deals, the produce of the Pinus 
 Abies, or spruce fir; and also the larch, are all used in 
 almost every kind of construction. 
 
 No other kind of tree produces timber at once so 
 long and straight, so light, and yet so strong and stiff; 
 and no other timber is so much in demand for all 
 purposes. 
 
 From the growing trees are obtained turpentine, liquid 
 balsam, and the common yellow and black rosin. Tar 
 is obtained by cutting the wood and roots into small 
 pieces, and charring them, or distilling them in a close 
 oven, or in a heap covered with turf. The lampblack 
 of commerce is the soot collected during this process. 
 Fortunately, the trees of the pine and fir tribe, so useful 
 to man, are found in great abundance in America and 
 Europe. 
 
 White or Northern Pine. — This wood grows in the 
 Northern States of the U. S. A. and in Canada. It is 
 a light, soft, straight-grained wood of a light yellowish 
 color, and is one of the most reliable of woods for stay- 
 ing in place after it is fastened, because it does not 
 warp. It is extensively used for patterns, for deck plank, 
 for joinerwork that will be painted, and for planking of 
 small craft of all types. 
 
 Its strength to that of oak is as 90 to 190. 
 Its stiffness to that of oak is as 95 to 100. 
 Its toughness to that of oak is as 103 to 100. 
 
 Its weight when green is about 36 tb. 
 
 Its weight when dry about 28 tb. 
 
 Georgia Pine. — Also known as pitch pine, as yellow 
 pine, and as "longleaf pine", is a strong, close-grained, 
 durable wood extensively used in ship-building. This 
 pine grows in Southern States from Virginia to Texas, 
 and can be obtained in lengths up to at least 60 feet 
 and dimensions up to about 14 by 14 inches. Yellow 
 pine is largely used for planking, for decking, for a large 
 
 portion of the longitudinal framework, for keels and 
 keelsons and for spars. 
 
 Its strength as compared with that of oak is as 90 to 100. 
 Its toughness as compared with that of oak is as 96 to 100. 
 
 Its weight when green is about 56 lb. 
 
 Its weight when dry about 45 tb. 
 
 Spruce. — There are four kinds of spruce in U. S. A., 
 of which only two are suitable for shipbuilding use, viz., 
 the black and the white spruce. These are tough, light 
 woods that are fairly durable when used in wet and 
 damp places. For this reason it is used for floors, for 
 keelsons and for longitudinal members of vessels' frame- 
 work. Its strength is about the same as that of white 
 pine. Bear in mind that it is the color of the bark and not 
 the wood that gives the name to each kind. The woods 
 cannot be distinguished after bark is removed. 
 
 Oregon Pine. — This is a species of pine that grows 
 on the Western Coast; its texture is somewhat like that 
 of the Eastern white pine but the wood is slightly harder 
 and contains more rosin. The wood is extensively used 
 for shipbuilding purposes and rates next to yellow pine 
 for durability and strength. It is an excellent wood for 
 masts and spars. Oregon pine can be obtained in lengths 
 of 100 feet and over, and some of the timbers of this 
 length are almost clear of knots. Oregon pine is also 
 called Douglas fir. 
 
 White Cedar. — -This is a soft, white, fine-grained 
 wood in great demand for planking small boats and yachts. 
 The wood is a native of Virginia, where it grows in 
 swampy land. Species of white cedar are also found in 
 Canada, in Michigan, in New Jersey and in Florida. The 
 wood is exceedingly durable, is tough and is extremely 
 light in weight, some of the Canadian cedars weighing 
 only 15 ft per cubic foot. The weight of an average 
 Virginian white cedar log is about 20 ft per cubic foot. 
 
 Red Cypress. — This is anotlier Southern wood in 
 great demand for small boat and yacht construction 
 work. Its color is reddish yellow and the wood is one 
 of the most durable of woods, either in or out of water. 
 
 Cypress has, however, this defect: it soaks up water 
 very readily, and for this reason it must be kept well 
 covered with paint or varnish. The wood is soft and 
 bends readily. 
 
 As cypress trees grow to heights of over 100 feet, 
 the wood can be obtained in long lengths and almost free 
 from knots and defects. The red cypress is the name 
 given to the dark-colored wood cut from trees that grow 
 near the coast — the lowland cypress. The upland light- 
 colored cypress is worthless for boatbuilding purposes 
 and is not at all durable. In color the lowland cypress 
 is yellowish and for this reason it is called yellow cypress. 
 
 The most valuable woods in the U. S. A. for ship- 
 building purposes are teak, live oak, white oak, common 
 oak, chestnut, elm, hackmatack, yellow pine, spruce, 
 Douglas fir or Oregon pine, red cypress, white cedar, 
 Washington cedar, and white pine. 
 
WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 17 
 
 Lignum Vita. — This is one of the hardest and 
 heaviest species of wood ;, and owing to its valuable pecu- 
 liarities it is applied to uses in which the greatest strain 
 has to be borne, and chiefly for the sheaves of blocks 
 and lining of shaft bearings. In this use it endures a vast 
 amount of friction, and bears the strain of enormous 
 weights. When the wood is used for sheaves, care should 
 be taken so to cut it that a band of the sap may be pre- 
 served all round; as this preserves the sheaves from 
 splitting from the outside inwardly towards the center, 
 which they would do if they consisted of the perfectly 
 elaborated wood alone. 
 
 As the sap of this wood is so important, care should be 
 
 taken to preserve it from the depredations of worms ; and 
 also to protect the wood generally from too much draught, 
 especially when it is newly cut. 
 
 The Havana Cedar {Cedrela odorata) belongs to the 
 same natural order as mahogany, which it resembles, 
 although it is much softer and of a paler color. It is im- 
 ported from the island of Cuba, and is much used both in 
 cabinet work and in boat-building. 
 
 The New South Wales Cedar {Cedrela toona) some- 
 what resembles the Havana cedar, but is of a coarser 
 grain and of a darker color. It grows in the East Indies 
 as well as in New South Wales. Most of the cedars are 
 used in boat-building. 
 
 TABLE I 
 TABLE OF TRANSVERSE SHRINKAGE AND LOSS OF WEIGHT IN SEASONING TIMBER 
 
 Kind of Timber 
 
 12-Inch Boards Shrunk to These Widths in 
 Seasoning 
 
 Butt Plank 
 
 Top Plank 
 
 Weights of Cubic Foot of Timber 
 
 Green State 
 
 When Seasoned 
 
 White oak 
 
 Common oak... 
 Common oak . . . 
 Canadian oak. . 
 
 Larch 
 
 Hackmatack . . 
 Ehn, American. 
 Ehn, Canadian. 
 
 Fir 
 
 Fir, Douglas. . . 
 Pine, white. . . . 
 Pine, long leaf. . 
 
 Pine, yellow 
 
 Cedar, white. . . 
 
 Ash 
 
 Spruce, Eastern 
 Cypress, red. . . 
 
 "•75 
 11.60 
 11.50 
 11.60 
 
 ii-SS 
 11.60 
 
 11.70 
 
 "■55 
 11.80 
 1 1. go 
 11.80 
 "•95 
 II.7S 
 11.40 
 
 II-SS 
 11.85 
 11.50 
 
 60 
 SO 
 35 
 45 
 40 
 
 50 
 45 
 30 
 70 
 80 
 65 
 85 
 65 
 30 
 45 
 75 
 30 
 
 58—64 
 56 
 54 
 57—60 
 
 37—40 
 
 43 
 
 60 
 
 56 
 46 
 
 43 
 36 
 56 
 5° 
 32 
 56 
 40 
 
 38 
 
 53—58 
 
 47 
 
 42 
 
 54 
 
 32—35 
 36—38 
 46 
 
 42 
 
 36 
 
 34 
 28 
 
 42—45 
 
 39 
 
 28 
 
 44—46 
 29—31 
 27 — 29 
 
i8 
 
 WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 TABLE 2 
 TABLE OF THE PROPERTIES OF TIMBER 
 
 
 I. 
 
 2. 
 
 3- 
 
 4- 
 
 $• 
 
 6. 
 
 7- 
 
 8. 
 
 9- 
 
 Tredgold's 
 Formula: 
 
 Barlow's 
 Formula: 
 
 
 Specific 
 
 Gravity, 
 
 Water 
 
 being 
 
 I.O 
 
 Weight 
 
 of a foot, 
 
 Dry, 
 
 in lbs. 
 
 Weight 
 of a Bar, 
 I ft. long, 
 I in. sq., 
 
 in lbs. 
 
 Absolute 
 Tenacity 
 of a sq. in. 
 Average, 
 in lbs. 
 
 Tenacity 
 
 of a sq. in 
 
 without 
 
 injury, 
 
 in lbs. 
 
 Modulus 
 
 of Elasticity. 
 
 in lbs. 
 
 Modulus 
 
 of Elasticity, 
 
 in feet 
 
 Crushing 
 
 force per 
 
 sq. inch, 
 
 in lbs. 
 
 Constants 
 
 for 
 
 Posts, and 
 
 value of 
 
 e 
 
 10. 
 
 n. 
 
 12. 
 
 13^ 
 
 
 Value of 
 a 
 
 Value of 
 C 
 
 Value of 
 
 S 
 
 Value of 
 E 
 
 Acacia . . . ^. 
 
 .710 
 .690 
 
 •845 
 .760 
 .822 
 .690 
 to .854 
 
 .792 
 .648 
 
 .960 
 1.029 
 
 ■450 
 
 .560 
 .657 
 
 •76s 
 •441 
 ■69s 
 
 .671 
 
 .748 
 
 ■753 
 
 44^37 
 
 43^12 
 
 53^8i 
 
 47^5 
 
 51^37 
 
 43 • 
 
 53^37 
 
 49^5 
 
 40.5 
 
 60. 
 
 64.31 
 
 28. 
 
 47.06 
 
 41.06 
 
 47.81 
 
 27.60 
 
 43^43 
 42. 
 46.75 
 47.06 
 
 .30 
 
 18,290 
 
 
 1,152,000 
 
 373.900 
 
 
 
 
 .621 
 
 •677 
 
 .1867 
 •2036 
 
 
 
 8,683 
 9.363. 
 7,158 
 7,733 
 9,363 
 6,402 
 11,663 
 
 .00168 
 
 
 .0105 
 
 
 Ash 1 
 
 .33 
 .35 
 
 17,200 
 
 3.540 
 
 1,644,800 
 1,640,000 
 
 4,970,000 
 
 •244 
 
 Bay tree 
 
 12,396 
 
 
 
 
 Beech | 
 
 Birch 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 •315 
 ■34 
 
 .28 
 .41 
 .446 
 
 •32 
 .285 
 
 •33 
 
 •30 
 -236 
 
 14,720 
 15,000 
 11,663 
 19,891 
 
 2,360 
 
 1,353,600 
 
 4,600,000 
 5,406,000 
 3,388,000 
 
 •00195 
 
 .0127 
 .0141 
 
 ■552 
 •643 
 ■605 
 
 •1556 
 .1881 
 .1834 
 
 •19s 
 .240 
 .256 
 
 " American . 
 
 :::if::: 
 
 i", 2 57, 600 
 
 
 
 Box 
 
 
 
 Bullet tree 
 
 
 2,601,600 
 700,000 
 650,000 
 
 1,000,000 
 
 5,878,000 
 
 
 
 
 .882 
 
 .2646 
 
 
 
 10,293 
 
 9,000 
 
 11,900 
 
 :.;::::: 
 
 S.674 
 4,912 
 
 
 
 
 " red 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Chestnut . . 
 
 
 
 .0187 
 
 
 
 
 Crab tree 
 
 
 ( 7,148 
 
 \ 6,499 
 6,000 
 
 / 9,973 
 I 8,467 
 
 I 
 
 10,331/ 
 5,7481 
 6.819] 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cypress. 
 
 6,000 
 10,230 
 
 13.489 
 11,549 
 12,776 
 
 1.500 
 
 900,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Elder .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ehn 1 
 
 Fir, Riga 
 
 3.240 
 
 
 1,340,000 
 699,840 
 
 1,328,800 
 869,600 
 
 5,680,000 
 
 .00184 
 
 .00152 
 
 .017 
 .00115 
 
 ■372 
 •369 
 
 • HIS 
 .1108 
 
 .101 
 
 4,080,000 
 
 .167 
 
 
 
 " Red 
 
 
 
 " Douglas 
 
 .560 
 
 •76 
 
 •590 
 
 1.022 
 .522 
 .560 
 
 1.22 
 .760 
 .800 
 .560 
 •793 
 .830 
 •934 
 
 .872 
 
 •756 
 .972 
 .661 
 
 .660 
 
 .607 
 
 .461 
 .612 
 .698 
 •S44 
 .419 
 .640 
 
 .786 
 
 •383 
 
 •590 
 
 •340 
 
 •470 
 
 .69 
 
 •657 
 
 .671 
 
 •390 
 
 .807 
 
 35^ 
 
 47^5 
 
 37.00 
 
 63.87 
 
 32.62 
 
 35- 
 
 76.25 
 
 47^5° 
 
 SO. 
 
 35^ 
 
 49 •S6 
 
 58^37 
 
 54 •SO 
 
 47^24 
 60.7s 
 
 4i^3i 
 
 41^25 
 
 41.06 
 
 28.81 
 38.40 
 43.62 
 34.00 
 26.23 
 40. 
 
 49.06 
 
 23^93 
 
 36.87 
 21.25 
 
 29.37 
 
 43.1 
 
 41.06 
 
 41^93 
 24^37 
 50.43 
 
 •30 
 •32 
 
 •44 
 
 •243 
 
 •S3 
 •32 
 •34 
 ■243 
 
 ■36 
 
 ■378 
 
 ■327 
 
 ■42 
 .283 
 
 .283 
 
 .26 
 .20 
 
 ".28"' 
 •338 
 
 .164 
 
 •25 
 
 .147 
 
 .20 
 
 .296 
 
 .282 
 
 .288 
 
 .167 
 
 •347 
 
 12,000 
 20,240 
 14,000 
 23,400 
 10,220 
 8,900 
 11,800 
 23-500 
 16,500 
 ^8,950 
 10,584 
 
 13.316 
 
 10,253 
 12,780 
 
 
 
 2,797,000 
 
 
 
 .02^^ 
 
 •380 
 
 .1144 
 
 ■94 
 
 Hornbeam 
 
 
 
 7,289 
 
 
 
 Hackmatack 
 
 3,000 
 
 1,200,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Lance •. . . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Larch | 
 
 2,065 
 
 10,740,000 
 1,052,800 
 
 4,415,000 
 
 5,5681 
 ( 
 
 .0019 
 
 .0128 
 
 .284 
 
 •853 
 
 .120 
 
 Lignum-vitae 
 
 
 
 
 Lime tree 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Mahogany, Spanish 
 
 
 
 
 8,198 
 
 .00205 
 .00161 
 
 ■0137 
 .0109 
 .0197 
 
 .0124 
 
 .OOQ 
 
 
 
 
 " Honduras 
 
 3,800 
 
 1,596,300 
 
 6,570,000 
 
 
 
 
 Maple 
 
 
 
 
 Oak, white | 
 
 " Canadian 
 
 3.960 
 
 1,700,000 
 1,451,220 
 
 2,148,800 
 
 1,191,200 
 2,282,300 
 
 4,730,000 
 
 1 4,684 
 -i 9.509 
 I 10,058 
 / 4.231 
 I 9,509 
 7,731 
 
 [■0015 
 
 I 
 
 •553 
 
 ■588 
 .560 
 
 .1658 
 
 .1766 
 •1457 
 
 .210 
 
 5,674,000 
 
 3,607,000 
 5,583,000 
 
 .310 
 .149 
 
 " common 
 
 / 
 
 .0087 
 
 " African 
 
 
 
 Pear tree ... 
 
 9,861 
 7,818 
 
 10,000 
 
 7,000 
 16,000 
 20,000 
 13,800 
 
 8,000 
 11,700 
 
 II.3SI 
 
 6,016 
 
 
 , 7,518 
 
 / 6,790! 
 
 l S.44SJ 
 
 / S,375\ 
 
 I 7,518/ 
 
 5.445 
 
 5.445 
 
 9,000 
 
 7,000 
 
 2,500 
 
 
 .021^ 
 
 
 
 
 Pine, Pitch . 
 
 2,900 
 
 1,225,600 
 
 1,840,000 
 
 1,000,000 
 1,200,000 
 1,700,000 
 1,400,000 
 700,000 
 
 4,364,000 
 
 6,423,000 
 8,700,000 
 
 
 .0166 
 
 •544 
 •447 
 
 .1632 
 •1341 
 
 .177 
 .272 
 
 " Red . . 
 
 
 .0100 
 
 " American white 
 
 
 .0112 
 
 " (N.C.) yellow 
 
 " (long leaf) yellow 
 
 " (Oregon) 
 
 .0110 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 " Red wood 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Plane tree 
 
 
 
 .0128 
 
 
 
 
 Plum tree 
 
 
 
 
 10,493 
 
 9,367 
 
 3,657 we 
 
 J 3,107) 
 I 5,124/ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 t. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Poplar 
 
 
 .0224 
 .0089 
 
 
 
 
 Soruce Orecon 
 
 
 1,536,200 
 
 6,268,000 
 
 •577 
 
 •1731 
 
 .190 
 
 ' ' Norway 
 
 17,600 
 14,000 
 13,000 
 12,460 
 
 8,465 
 
 14,000 
 
 8,000 
 
 
 7.293 
 
 .00142 
 
 
 ** white 
 
 
 1,200,000 
 
 
 .0124 
 
 
 
 
 Svcamore 
 
 
 
 
 .0168 
 
 
 
 
 Teak 
 
 
 2,414,400 
 
 7,417,000 
 
 12,101 
 7,227 
 6,128 
 
 .00118 
 
 .0076 
 .020 
 
 .820 
 
 .2462 
 
 •349 
 
 Walnut 
 
 
 Willow 
 
 
 
 
 
 •03 1 
 
 
 
 
 Yew, Spanish 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Chapter III 
 
 Kinds and Dimensions of Material to Use 
 
 The relative value of each wood for shipbuilding pur- 
 poses has been carefully considered and classified by 
 the vessel insurance companies for durability and strength. 
 This classification is in the form of years of service as- 
 signed to each wood when utilized for each principal 
 part of a vessel's construction, for you must bear in mind 
 that while one wood may give excellent service when 
 used for planking, it may not be at all suitable for the 
 framework. 
 
 Below I give a table of years of service assigned by 
 insurance companies to each wood when it is used for 
 designated parts of a vessel. 
 
 This table must be used in conjunction with one that 
 designates the dimensions of materials to use; because 
 sometimes, by increasing dimensions of a less valuable 
 wood the years of that wood for a designated part will 
 be increased. 
 
 3a. Explanation of Table 3 
 
 Table 3 gives years assigned to different kinds of tim- 
 ber, when used in the construction of a vessel built under 
 Lloyd's rules for classification of wooden vessels. 
 
 3b. Dimensions of Materials to Use 
 
 The specifications of both Lloyd's and the Bureau of 
 American Shipping construction rules cover workman- 
 ship, as well as quality and dimensions of timbers and 
 fastenings. 
 
 Tonnage is the base used for determining all scant- 
 lings of hull, the tonnage for Lloyd's being, in flush deck 
 vessels having one, two or three decks, the tonnage under 
 upper deck, without abatement for space used by crew 
 or for propelling power; and in vessels having raised 
 quarter deck, or top-gallant forecastle, or deck houses, 
 the total tonnage below the tonnage deck. 
 
 In Bureau of American Shipping the tonnage for 
 scantlings is determined by using this formula : 
 
 L X B X D X .75 
 
 ^ Tonnage. 
 
 100 
 L =r Length from after part of stem to fore side of 
 stern post. 
 
 B = Breadth over all at widest part. 
 
 D = Depth from top of ceiling alongside keelson to 
 
 TABLE 3 
 LLOYD'S TABLE OF YEARS ASSIGNED TO EACH KIND OF WOOD 
 
 
 
 e 
 
 h 
 
 55 
 
 1" 
 < 
 
 11 
 1 
 
 J 
 
 Timbers 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 T3 
 
 a' 
 
 'a 
 i4 
 
 Ceiling 
 
 § 
 
 m 
 
 4J 
 
 c 
 
 1 
 
 Plank 
 
 Deck 
 
 s 
 
 
 Kind of Timber 
 
 II 
 
 M 
 
 ■OK 
 
 it 
 
 1 
 
 E 
 
 d 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 ■s 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 cJ3 
 
 be 
 .S 
 
 i 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 I East India Teak . . . 
 
 16 
 
 12 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 16 
 12 
 10 
 
 7 
 
 ■ 7 
 9 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 9 
 
 4 
 
 16 
 
 12 
 10 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 9 
 8 
 
 9 
 9 
 4 
 
 16 
 12 
 10 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 9 
 8 
 
 9 
 9 
 
 4 
 
 16 
 
 12 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 8 
 
 9 
 9 
 8 
 8 
 
 7 
 6 
 
 7 
 8 
 
 7 
 
 16 
 
 12 
 10 
 
 ' 8 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 8 
 
 9 
 9 
 6 
 
 "6 
 6 
 6 
 8 
 6 
 
 16 
 12 
 10 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 9 
 8 
 
 9 
 9 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 16 
 
 12 
 
 10 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 9 
 8 
 
 9 
 9 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 6 
 
 "8 
 
 4 
 
 Tfi 
 
 16 
 12 
 10 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 8 
 
 9 
 9 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 6 
 
 "s 
 
 4 
 
 16 
 
 12 
 10 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 9 
 8 
 
 9 
 9 
 
 5 
 
 16 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 9 
 
 16 
 12 
 12 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 9 
 
 16 
 12 
 12 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 8 
 
 9 
 9 
 
 16 
 12 
 12 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 8 
 
 9 
 9 
 
 16 
 
 12 
 12 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 9 
 8 
 
 9 
 9 
 
 5 
 
 16 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 9 
 7 
 
 9 
 9 
 
 5 
 
 16 
 12 
 12 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 9 
 8 
 
 9 
 9 
 5 
 
 16 
 12 
 12 
 
 16 
 
 12 
 12 
 
 16 
 12 
 10 
 
 16 
 
 12 
 10 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 9 
 
 16 
 12 
 10 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 9 
 
 16 
 
 12 
 10 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 9 
 
 16 
 12 
 10 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 9 
 
 16 
 12 
 10 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 9 
 9 
 
 9 
 6 
 
 S 
 
 t6 
 
 2. English, African and Live Oak 
 
 Greenheart, iron bark 
 
 3. Sabien, Jarrah, Kurrie, Blue 
 
 Gum, Red Gum, Pencil Cedar 
 
 4. Second Hand English, Oak 
 
 Greenheart . . . . : 
 
 I 
 I 
 
 2 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 12 
 10 
 
 7 
 
 5. Red Cedar, Philippine Island 
 Cedar 
 
 7 
 9 
 8 
 
 9 
 9 
 
 S 
 
 6 
 6 
 
 ';8 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 9 
 10 
 
 8 
 12 
 12 
 10 
 
 8 
 12 
 
 6 
 
 12 
 10 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 9 
 10 
 
 8 
 12 
 12 
 10 
 
 8 
 12 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 9 
 
 5 
 6 
 
 7 
 6 
 6 
 8 
 6 
 5 
 
 8 
 
 6. Danish Oak, Mahogany (hard). 
 
 7 . North American White Oak. . . 
 
 8. Pitch Pine, Oregon Pine, Kau- 
 
 ria Pine, Larch, Hackmatack, 
 
 9 
 8 
 
 9 
 9 
 
 9 
 9 
 
 9 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 9. Danzie, French, Red Pine 
 
 I J . Rock Maple 
 
 10 
 10 
 
 5 
 
 S 
 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 6; 
 
 6 
 6 
 
 6 
 6 
 
 7 
 6 
 
 ' 8 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 6 
 
 "s 
 
 4 
 
 7 
 6 
 
 "8 
 
 4 
 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 13. Grey Elm 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 14. Black Birch 
 
 10 
 8 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 15. Spruce, Fir 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 
 16. Beech '. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 17. Yellow Pine. 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 S 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
20 
 
 WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 underside of main deck, to be measured at fore end of 
 main hatchway. 
 
 In both rules the scanthngs as hsted are correct for 
 use in vessels that are properly designed, have normal 
 shape, and have not over a certain named proportion of 
 length to breadth and of length to depth. In cases when 
 proportion of length to breadth is in excess, or when the 
 proportion of depth to length is below requirements, some 
 addition to structural strength is required, this additional 
 strength being obtained partly by the use of diagonal steel 
 straps and partly by increasing scantlings. 
 
 In all cases, workmanship must be first class and the 
 kinds of materials used must not have a lower rating for 
 durability and strength than those named in list. The 
 number, kind and size of fastening must also be as listed 
 in rules. In cases when a weaker or less durable kind of 
 material is used for a part some addition to dimension of 
 part must be made. Below I give a brief synopsis of 
 building rules and scantling tables. 
 
 3c. Lloyd's Rules and Dimension of Material Tables 
 
 The number of years assigned to a new vessel is de- 
 termined with reference to construction and quality of 
 vessel, the materials employed and mode of building. 
 
 Defects in workmanship or quality of timber will in- 
 volve a reduction in class. 
 
 Ships built with mixed timber materials below the 14- 
 year grade, and in which high class materials and extra 
 fastenings have been judiciously employed may be allowed 
 a period, not to exceed two years, exceeding that to 
 which the material of the lowest class used would other- 
 wise entitle them, providing workmanship is high class 
 thoroughout. 
 
 All timber must be of good quality, properly seasoned, 
 and of the descriptions and scantlings shown on tables. 
 
 Should the timber and space (spacing of frames) be 
 increased, the siding of timbers must be increased in 
 proportion. 
 
 In ships claiming to stand for twelve or fourteen years, 
 timber materials must be entirely free from sap and all 
 defects. 
 
 If a ship is properly salted during her construction, 
 one year will be added to her term for classification. 
 
 Workmanship is to be well executed for all grades; 
 (a) timbers to be frame bolted together throughout their 
 entire length; (b) the butts to be close fitted; (c) scarphs 
 are to be of proper length. 
 
 In all ships air courses must be left, either immediately 
 below or one strake below the clamps of each tier of 
 beams, and one or two air courses must be left in hold, 
 between the keelson and hold beam clamps. 
 
 All ships of 600 tons and up, the frames of which are 
 
 TABLE 3B— LLOYD'S SCANTLING TABLE 
 Minimum Dimensions in Inches, of Timbers, Keelson, Keel, Planking, Etc. 
 
 TONNAGE 
 
 300 
 
 400 
 
 600 
 
 700 
 
 800 
 
 1050 
 
 1150 
 
 1250 
 
 1350 
 
 ISOO 
 
 I7S0 
 
 Timber and Space — -Inches 
 
 Floors, S & M at Keelson, if Squared 
 Double Floors, S & M at Keelson, if 
 
 Squared 
 
 1st Futtocks, S & M at Floorheads, if 
 
 Squared 
 
 2nd Futtocks, Sided, if Squared. . . . 
 3rd Futtocks, Sided, if Squared .... 
 Top Timbers (Short), Sided, if Squared 
 Top Timbers, Moulded at Heads, if 
 
 Squared 
 
 Breast Hooks and Wing Transom, 
 
 S&M in Middle 
 
 Keel, Stem, Apron, and Sternpost, 
 
 S&M 
 
 Keelson ,S&M 
 
 Wales 
 
 (e) Bottom Plank, from Keel to Wales 
 
 Sheer Strakes, Top Sides, Upper Deck 
 
 Clamp (No Shelf); Lower Deck, 
 
 Clamp with Shelf 
 
 Ceiling Below Hold Beam Clamp. . . 
 Waterway: 
 
 Hardwood 
 
 Fir 
 
 Ceiling Betwixt Decks 
 
 Bilge Plank, Inside, Thick Strakes and 
 
 Limber Strake , 
 
 Lower Deck Clamp (No Shelf) and 
 
 Spirketting 
 
 Upper Deck Clamp (With Shelf) 
 
 Planksheer 
 
 Flat of Upper Deck 
 
 Scarphs of Keelson Without Rider .... 
 Scarphs, where Rider Keelson is added, 
 
 also Scarphs of Keel 
 
 Main Piece of Windlass — Inches 
 
 19 
 
 6 
 
 5K 
 
 4K 
 
 8K 
 
 10 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 2K 
 
 2X 
 2K 
 
 4'9' 
 
 4'3'' 
 14 
 
 21>i 
 
 8K 
 
 7K 
 
 7 
 
 24M 
 loX 
 
 9% 
 
 8K 
 
 8 
 
 7X 
 
 9% 
 
 4X 
 
 2K 
 
 3X 
 
 2'A 
 
 5K 
 
 12K 
 4^ 
 3X 
 
 3H 
 
 2H 
 
 5 5K 
 
 2 2% 
 
 3H 
 
 3X 
 2K 
 
 2H 
 
 3 
 5'3" 
 
 ^Y 
 15 
 
 3K 
 
 2H 
 
 3H 
 3 
 5'io 
 
 5'2" 
 15 
 
 27K 
 
 10 
 
 9 
 
 8>i 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 14 
 
 aH 
 
 3K 
 
 3H 
 
 2% 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 2K 
 
 4>i 
 
 4 
 
 2% 
 3K' 
 3 
 
 e'e" 
 16 
 
 30 
 13 
 
 II 
 
 10 
 
 9 
 
 9 
 
 6 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 3 
 
 6K 
 8 
 
 2>i 
 
 4>^ 
 
 A\i 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 6' 
 17 
 
 30>^ 
 
 13X 
 
 12^' 
 
 wYl 
 10>i 
 
 9^4 
 9% 
 
 13X 
 
 14X 
 
 5 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 2>4 
 
 \y^ 
 
 4K 
 3K 
 
 7' 
 
 6' 
 
 31K 
 13K 
 
 12K 
 
 \\% 
 
 9K 
 9>^ 
 
 f>y, 
 
 I3K 
 
 4 
 
 4K 
 3% 
 
 7 
 
 8K 
 
 2K 
 
 4K 
 
 4K 
 3% 
 
 6' 
 19 
 
 31K 
 
 12K 
 
 I2>< 
 IlX 
 10% 
 
 9A 
 
 f>yA, 
 13K 
 14K 
 
 SA 
 4X 
 
 4X 
 3K 
 
 7 
 
 8>^ 
 
 2^ 
 
 4K 
 
 4K 
 3K 
 4 
 
 3K 
 7'3' 
 
 6'3' 
 21 
 
 32 K 
 14 
 
 13 
 
 I2>^ 
 
 iiK 
 
 I0>^ 
 
 9H 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 16 
 
 iA 
 4X 
 
 VA 
 3A 
 
 lA 
 
 9 
 
 2H 
 
 5 
 
 3A 
 
 4 
 
 22 
 
 33X 
 WA 
 
 13A 
 
 13X 
 12X 
 iiK 
 10 
 
 7A 
 
 hA 
 
 15A 
 16A 
 
 6 
 
 VA 
 
 aA 
 
 3H 
 
 7A 
 9 
 
 2A 
 
 5A 
 5K 
 
 3^ 
 4 
 4 
 7'6" 
 
 b'b" 
 23 
 
 33A 
 14K 
 
 13K 
 
 nA 
 12A 
 iiA 
 loA 
 
 lA 
 
 14K 
 
 16K 
 6 
 
 4K 
 
 AA 
 3H 
 
 lA 
 
 9 
 
 3 
 
 5H 
 
 5A 
 
 3A 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 fg" 
 
 6'9" 
 
 23 
 
 33A 
 15 
 
 14 
 
 I3K 
 
 123A 
 
 11^ 
 loA 
 
 1A 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 6 
 
 aA 
 
 aH 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 9A 
 
 3 
 
 bA 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 7'9" 
 
 6'9' 
 24 
 
 33K 
 15X 
 
 14X 
 
 14K 
 
 12A 
 
 ioA 
 
 SA 
 
 15A 
 
 16A 
 
 17A 
 
 6A 
 
 aA 
 
 9A 
 .3 
 
 6A 
 
 5A 
 A 
 A 
 A 
 
 r 
 
 24 
 
 34 
 
 15A 
 
 iaA 
 
 HA 
 
 nA 
 12A 
 loK 
 
 ^A 
 
 15A 
 
 16A 
 
 17A 
 
 6A 
 
 aA 
 
 5A 
 
 AA 
 
 8A 
 9A 
 3A 
 
 6A 
 
 5A 
 
 aA 
 aA 
 
 4 
 8' 
 
 7' 
 25 
 
 3AA 
 15A 
 
 HA 
 
 hA 
 uA 
 12A 
 II 
 
 SH 
 15K 
 
 16K 
 
 17H 
 
 6A 
 
 aA 
 
 hA 
 aA 
 
 8A 
 9A 
 
 3A 
 6A 
 5A 
 
 aA 
 aA 
 
 4 
 
 7' 
 
 25 
 
 35 
 15K 
 
 iaH 
 
 13A 
 12A 
 iiA 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 18 
 
 7 
 5 
 
 SA 
 
 aA 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 3A 
 
 7 
 27 
 
WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 21 
 
 composed of fir, and all ships the length of which shall ber, not of less diameter than given for through butt 
 
 exceed five times the extreme breadth, or eight times bolts. The number of straps to be in the proportion of 
 
 and under nine times their depth, shall have diagonal not less than one pair for every 12 feet of ship's length, 
 
 steel straps inserted outside the frame, the straps to In vessels exceeding six breadths, or nine and under 
 
 extend from upper side of upper tier of beams to first ten depths in length, the number of diagonal straps must 
 
 futtock head. be not less than one pair to every .10 feet of the ship's 
 
 The dimensions of straps to be not less than as length. And in addition to the requirements for ships of 
 
 follows: five times their breadth in length, such ships must be 
 
 In ships from 100 to 200 tons 3j4" X Vie" fitted with rider keelson, or with a pair of sister keelsons 
 
 200 to 400 " 4" X Yi" properly fastened with through bolts. 
 
 400 to 700 " ..-;..4j4" X Yi Spacing of deck and hold beams is regulated by depth 
 
 Table 3a 700 to 1000 " 5" X Y^" of hold, and ships having extreme depth must be fitted 
 
 1000 to 1500 " 5J/2" X ^Vie" with riders, or with orlop deck beams properly secured. 
 
 1500 to 2000 " 6" X %" Methods of fastening, dimensions of fastenings, and 
 
 2000 and above 614" X J^" in fact particulars of every important detail of construc- 
 
 Straps to be placed diagonally at not less than 45 degrees tion are fully explained in the building rules, and in my 
 
 and to be fastened with bolts, one at each alternate tim- description of each part of a vessel's construction. 
 
 TABLE 3C— LLOYD'S PLANKING TABLE 
 
 For the Thickness of Inside Plank, and in the Construction of Ships in the British North American Colonies 
 
 and All Fir Ships Wherever Built 
 
 TONNAGE— Tons 
 
 100 
 
 200 
 
 300 
 
 400 
 
 Soo 
 
 600 
 
 700 
 
 goo 
 
 900 
 
 lOSO 
 
 I ISO 
 
 1350 
 
 Thick Waterway — Inches. 
 
 5X 
 
 6 
 
 6>^ 
 
 7K 
 
 8 
 
 8K 
 
 9 
 
 9K 
 
 10 
 
 II 
 
 iiK 
 
 12 
 
 Spirketting. 
 
 3 
 
 3K 
 
 3K 
 
 4 
 
 4X 
 
 4J< 
 
 4K 
 
 5 
 
 5K 
 
 5K 
 
 6 
 
 (>A 
 
 Ceiling Below Hold Beam Clamp and Between Decks. 
 
 2 
 
 2K 
 
 3 
 
 i'A 
 
 3K 
 
 4 
 
 ^yi 
 
 ^'A 
 
 4^ 
 
 5 
 
 5X 
 
 5A 
 
 Bilge Plank (inside). 
 
 3 
 
 3K 
 
 4X 
 
 4K 
 
 5K 
 
 byi 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 loK 
 
 iiK 
 
 12 
 
 Thickstuff Over Long and Short Floorheads and Limber Strakes. 
 
 2?< 
 
 3X 
 
 3K 
 
 4 
 
 4K 
 
 5 
 
 i'A 
 
 6 
 
 6K 
 
 7 
 
 rA 
 
 7 A 
 
 Main Keelson (Rider Keelsons may be two-thirds that of main 
 ditto) . 
 
 10 
 
 iiK 
 
 12K 
 
 H 
 
 15 
 
 ^i'A 
 
 I5K 
 
 15K 
 
 16 
 
 16K 
 
 i(>A 
 
 17 
 
 TABLE 3D— LLOYD'S FASTENING DIMENSIONS 
 Sizes of Bolts, Pintles of Rudder, and Treenails 
 
 TONNAGE 
 
 Heel-Knee, Sterason and Deadwood Bolts Inches 
 
 '% 
 
 ISO 
 
 I H'e 
 
 300 
 
 1% 
 
 3S0 
 
 1% 
 
 400 
 
 1^6 
 
 1% 
 
 1% 
 
 1% 
 
 Bolts in Sister Keelsons, Scarphs of Keel (a), Breast Hooks, 
 Pointers, Crutches, Riders, Knees to Hold or Lower Deck 
 Beams, Shelf, Clamp and Waterway Throat Bolts of Upper 
 Deck Hanging Knees. 
 
 '% 
 
 '% 
 
 'Hi 
 
 'Ke 
 
 Ws 
 
 '*/i6 
 
 1% 
 
 1% 
 
 1^6 
 
 Keelson Bolts, Throats of Transoms, Throats of Breast Hooks, 
 and Throats of Hanging Knees to Hold or Lower Deck Beams. 
 
 'Ke 
 
 'ife 
 
 'Hi 
 
 iKe 
 
 1% 
 
 I Hi 
 
 I Hi 
 
 Bilge, Limber Strake, and Through Butt Bolts. 
 
 'Hi 
 
 'Hi 
 
 'Hi 
 
 "/ii 
 
 'Hi 
 
 'He 
 
 'Hi 
 
 'He 
 
 'Hi 
 
 Other Butt Bolts. 
 
 'Hi 
 
 'Hi 
 
 'Hi 
 
 'Hi 
 
 'Hi 
 
 'Hi 
 
 'He 
 
 'He 
 
 'Hi 
 
 'Hi 
 
 Bolts through Heels ot Cant Timbers, Bolts of Upper Deck 
 Waterway, Shelf and Clamp, Arms of Hanging and Lodging 
 Knees. 
 
 'Hi 
 
 'Hi 
 
 'Hi 
 
 'He 
 
 'He 
 
 Pintles of Rudder. 
 
 2 H 
 
 2 A 
 
 2 H 
 
 2 H 
 
 3A 
 
 3A 
 
 iA 
 
 Hardwood Treenails. 
 
 I A 
 
 I A 
 
 I A 
 
 I A 
 
 I A 
 
 I H 
 
 I A 
 
 (a) Number of Bolts in Scarphs of Keel: 
 
 In ships of ISO tons and under 6 Bolts ] These bolts to be of 
 
 " above 150 tons and under 500 tons. 7 Bolts } Copper or Yellow 
 
 " ' 500 tons and above 8 Bolts J Metal in all cases 
 
 N.B. Bolts to be through and clenched, and to be of good quality, well made with 
 
 suitable heads and be tightly driven. 
 
22 
 
 WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 O 
 
 CD 
 
 h— I 
 
 X 
 
 CO 
 
 o 
 
 :^ 
 
 fe (J 
 
 o 
 
 :z; 
 
 o 
 
 CO 
 
 o 
 
 I— H 
 
 CO 
 
 w 
 
 Q 
 
 o 
 
 w 
 
 < 
 
 w 
 
 Oh 
 
 w 
 
 o 
 
 OS 
 W 
 
 m 
 
 f^ 
 
 Pb 
 o 
 
 CO 
 
 o 
 
 C/5 
 
 w 
 
 800 iJ^ 
 
 8^^ 
 
 00 in "^ 
 
 ■"•§1x2 
 g-3 " o 
 
 p 
 
 
 5.1! S a a 
 
 o> o o 
 
 M M \0 « 
 
 , K X X O 
 
 ' 1^ H O *-< 
 
 M M M 
 
 o 
 
 1 "O 
 00 X 
 
 ' o 
 
 . -^O ^ \rt -rt 
 
 « o 
 CO 2"" 
 
 00 
 
 X 2 « o 
 
 ! -^ X 
 
 '00 t^ »o t^ lo t^ r 
 
 L'-^vO X »o ■•t 
 
 :>ooo " 
 
 
 0\ r-»<5 (^O ► 
 
 
 O 
 
 OO ■* ■* 
 
 tX 
 
 C/3 
 
 . t-t 00 in^ 
 
 , X X X 7 
 ' c^ C^ r^ 
 
 . o>3!33 
 
 ■s! O O 
 
 co^°'"| 
 
 00 
 
 
 ■ ii ^ X ►-\ r^ lo - 
 
 •^ vO t^ 00 
 
 *"X ' 
 
 ^ 1) 4) OJ 
 •"• O 4J U 
 X t« t/i en 
 
 I I I 
 
 rOt^ X ■* ' 
 
 ' ■* o 
 
 15 o 
 X o 
 
 o 
 
 x.r; X 
 
 M (D -M 
 
 '^5 X X '^• 
 
 Vp r^ u: 
 
 J 00 vo »o ■<*■ 
 
 
 Tj- (ti 0) oj 
 
 ^^ \n ^ tn 
 
 t^ i/i t/i t/: 
 
 4J aj 4) 
 
 > > > 
 
 00 
 
 ?5 -oX X 1- < 
 
 ."O 00 
 
 'i?x u X 
 
 
 X ffg,^" 
 
 'S s ?° ° ° 
 
 X J3 j3 J3 
 
 00 -M ^ *J 
 
 ■C T3 '^ 
 
 S 
 
 
 £ 00 o lo Tj- lo 
 
 .X' 
 
 ' X X 
 
 XX 
 
 <1 o 
 
 •^ a> oj oj 
 M ^ >-• ^ 
 
 ■<f rol3 
 
 X 
 
 •g" 
 
 CO 
 
 00:2^ 
 
 w- 1^ ty:i . 
 
 ' t-n 00 10" 
 
 
 C/3 ^ 
 
 ^ M 00 
 
 
 
 N O 
 
 X X x'J 
 
 Sn\n I 
 
 :X 
 
 S 
 
 ' S X X 
 
 g^ 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 co° 
 
 M O 
 
 10 M 
 
 X X 
 
 o .0. 
 
 to 
 
 10 
 
 S X X ^ -\-\ CO X 
 ^ l-t 
 
 
 • 4) « 
 
 •;§.§ 
 
 • p 2 
 
 m o g 
 I* a '^ K 
 
 t^lZlQc/5 
 
 ■ : «■ 60 
 
 e S.S 
 p o 
 J; 03 c! 
 
 
 w ■ ■ 
 
 O ra W 1> 
 
 •^.c a c 1^ 
 « « u "ij 3 
 
 OJ It 
 
 rt u ■" S 
 
 EhMcocjuoo! 
 
 ;'^x X 
 
 ^ bf 60 bo , 
 
 X -H -^ -^ C 
 
 :x, 
 
 Tj- "(t « W tJ CJ 
 
 ^ M W M U O O 
 
 oXX- 
 
 t.'^'iix X 
 
 «XX2„ 
 
 X. 
 
 6-! 
 
 X X 
 
 10 
 
 10 vO 
 
 r* 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 X 
 
 M M 
 
 
 X X 
 
 
 Tf 10 
 
 " M 
 
 oX. 
 
 oXX-SX 
 
 ^^ tH (N 10 01 
 
 tn (/) CO 
 
 "art c3 
 o O O 
 
 QOO 
 
 ^.. 
 
 ■s 
 
 O 
 
 ■to S3 
 
 tn bo 
 
 S e . 
 
 O "n tn 
 
 .2 8 
 
 _rtcO 
 
 O.S 
 
 S P 
 
 a a . 
 
 ta oi « 
 OOco 
 
 S B 
 t« &■ 
 
 8.2 
 
 beams 
 beams 
 beams 
 
 Deck 
 Deck 
 Hold 
 
 :iS 
 
 : e c S3 
 
 ■ " 2 S 
 
 ;^ B.2. 
 
 , •,-! bo bo « 
 
 .t iH 
 ■3 ^ 
 
 a.2 
 III 
 
 •.-5 bo bo 
 d C C 
 
 C3 TO yi 
 
 ^.^ 5 0) 3 ^ 
 
 
 ^- i .t : 
 
 I 5" 
 
 : I ;< if}' 
 
WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 23 
 
 CO 
 
 Oh 
 
 PC 
 
 CO 
 
 Q 
 
 CO 
 
 CO ?^ 
 
 W H 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 :^ 
 , .0 
 
 fe (J 
 
 CO 
 
 W 
 
 H 
 
 W 
 
 
 O 
 
 O 
 
 PQ 
 < 
 
 C/3 
 
 o 
 
 iz: 
 
 w 
 
 H 
 
 < 
 m 
 
 b 
 
 o 
 
 w 
 
 
 ° z 
 
 c .g 
 
 P 
 
 8 z 
 - .a 
 
 Q 
 
 8 z 
 
 H 
 
 .9 
 
 
 Q 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 .ES 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 iz: 
 
 o- 
 
 •a 
 
 
 d 
 
 
 
 Z 
 
 
 
 r* 
 
 .?? 
 
 
 U 
 
 
 d 
 
 8 
 
 Z 
 
 
 
 .a 
 
 
 Q 
 
 
 d 
 
 
 
 Z 
 
 
 
 ■* 
 
 .3 
 
 
 Q 
 
 
 
 
 
 Z 
 
 
 
 PO 
 
 .a 
 
 
 Q 
 
 
 
 
 
 Z 
 
 
 
 
 la 
 
 
 d 
 
 
 
 Z 
 
 
 
 ■^ 
 
 .9 
 
 
 Q 
 
 XXX 
 
 :sx 
 
 XXXX XX xxxx 
 
 
 X X ^X 
 
 
 M M M 
 
 XX 
 
 XXXXi«XX.-;^:^^XXXX 
 
 XX 
 
 X X XX 
 
 
 I'K (^ r^ 
 
 
 -^ \a) Noo ^«) x^o--^ \jS\£\2-f> \S\S\2 
 
 ;#ir 
 
 
 
 :S:^X 
 
 XX 
 
 m\ <n\ f^ >-\w?\ (^ J?Cu^trt\ <^«^e5s^ 
 
 
 r^ "-N (^ tn\ 
 
 M Ht HI 
 
 XXX XX xxxxxx xxxx^iT;^ ^t ;f ;-r x x xx 
 
 xxx XX xxxxxx ^XXXXXXX XX X X 
 
 XX X 
 
 XXXXXXX XX X :r XX 
 
 X XX xxxxxx XXXX:^ir:^ ir:^ X XX 
 
 XXX XX xxxxxxxxxxx:^:^:^ :f ;f ^ „ ^^ 
 
 XXX X XXXXXXXXXX X ^ XX 
 
 XX 
 
 X XXXXXXX:;^:*::^ :«,^ X XX 
 
 XXX XX XXXXXXXXXXXXXX XX _^ X XX 
 
 XXX XX XXXXXXXXXXXXXX XX X X XX 
 
 X XX XX XX XXXXXXXX XX X 
 
 »--\ t^ "T\ H\ t«K "K ''K ^X *~-\ fH\ Ws t^ (*is f^ »o\ '-'\ (»K cK "^is 
 
 X X XX 
 
 : o' 
 
 fecJ^ 
 
 • p 
 
 
 J3 
 
 & 
 
 u 
 
 m 
 
 CI c 
 
 s • ^ 
 
 OJ Ul rf 
 
 ■*-* "^ /T* 
 
 |M 3 Sl.S.S'S 
 ^^ c 
 
 o' 
 
 6 e-^ 
 
 •s 
 
 8S JJ|<2B2 8 8g = :Ss.S|§Ou^- 
 
 O U 
 
 jWQpii 
 
 
24 
 
 WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 3d. General Remarks 
 
 While building rules specify dimensions of materials 
 that should be used for each part of a vessel's construc- 
 tion it is not necessary to use materials of exact dimen- 
 sions named, providing scantlings used are not less than 
 those specified in tables. Thus it is permitted to use 
 heavier frame timbers spaced a greater distance apart, 
 or to use keel, keelson and other longitudinal timbers 
 having' sided and moulded dimensions differing from 
 those specified but in all cases the alteration in dimensions 
 must not lessen strength of the whole structure and, of 
 course, the actual strength of each assemblage of timbers 
 must be equivalent to strength of timbers having dimen- 
 sions specified by rules. 
 
 In addition to this, improvements in construction de- 
 tails likely to increase strength of whole structure, or to 
 make a vessel constructed of lighter scantlings equal or 
 superior in strength to one constructed of materials hav- 
 ing specified scantlings are permitted by all classification 
 rules providing the plans of construction are submitted to 
 classification society before vessel is built and construc- 
 tion as shown on plans is approved. 
 
 Originally a wooden vessel was entirely a timber 
 product, shaped and assembled by hand-labor, and being 
 such the required construction strength was obtained by 
 using an exceedingly large amount of first-quality ma- 
 terial. In other words, dimensions of material were 
 excessive. 
 
 With the advent of machinery and larger use of iron 
 and steel it became possible to reduce the amount of ma- 
 terial used for many parts of construction and by sub- 
 stituting iron and steel for other parts, or combinng 
 the proper amounts of these metals with the wood, to 
 obtain greater strength with lessened weight. 
 
 Today, many labor-saving machines are used in ship- 
 yards, thus methods of assembling timbers and combin- 
 ing them with steel and wood that could not be used in 
 the old days, because of excessive cost, are now available 
 and it has become possible to construct wooden vessels 
 that have greater strength than any turned out in the 
 old days. 
 
 The successful wooden vessel of the future will be 
 one in which parts composed of wood will be composed 
 of a minimum of material fitted together in such a man- 
 ner that a maximum amount of strength will be obtained, 
 and a certain proportion of steel will be used in combi- 
 nation with the wood. Thus, in place of an all wood 
 solid keelson it is likely that all wood trussed keelsons 
 will be used, or all steel trussed keelhons, or a combina- 
 tion of a steel trused nelson with wood members. 
 
 It is also likely that there will be an increased use 
 of diagonal steel bracing both outside and inside of the 
 frames, and very likely steel knees will be substituted for 
 wooden ones. In addition to this, it will be found ad- 
 vantageous to substitute steel waterways and sheer 
 strakes for the present wood ones. 
 
 FORMULA FOR ASCERTAINING DIMENSIONS OF 
 MATERIALS TO USE 
 
 Rule — If the moulded breadth of vessel is multiplied by the decimal 
 entered against each principal part of construction the proper 
 dimension of material to use will be ascertained, approximately. 
 
 Name of Part 
 
 Decimal Multiplier 
 
 Keel Siding 
 
 .40— .42 
 •45 — 50 
 
 Keel Moulded 
 
 Keelson Main 
 
 .40— .42 
 .25— .28 
 .40 — .42 
 
 Frame Siding 
 
 Frame Moulded at Floors 
 
 Frame Moulded at Top 
 
 Main Deck Beams 
 
 .16 — .20 
 .30 — -.35 
 
 Planking Thickness, Bottom 
 
 Planking Thickness, Wales 
 
 Planking Thickness, Top Planking 
 
 .1 
 .12 
 
 • IS 
 
 .15 — .20 
 
 Ceiling at Bottom 
 
 Ceiling at Bilge 
 
 .25 
 
 .25— .30 
 .1 
 .m — .20 
 
 Deck Planking 
 
 Coamings 
 
 Stanchions Between Decks 
 
 .20 — .22 
 
 Lodge Knees 
 
 Hanging Knees 
 
 .15— -18 
 .20 — .25 
 
 
 
Chapter IV 
 
 Tonnage 
 
 In the early days of commercial intercourse between 
 France and England, a large portion of the cargo carried 
 in vessels consisted of wine in large casks, called Urns. 
 As trade increased it was found that it would be a 
 great convenience to have some generally understood 
 and simple method for determining the carrying capacity 
 of each vessel, and very naturally it became a practice for 
 vessel owners to state, when a question regarding size of 
 a vessel was asked, that the capacity was so many tuns 
 of wine, and as the tun was a standard of measure known 
 to all who owned vessels and shipped goods in them, a 
 knowledge of capacity in tuns enabled both to accurately 
 estimate capacity for carrying in other trades. Thus the 
 tun became a standard of a vessel's capacity to carry 
 cargo of all kinds. 
 
 The word tun ultimately became corrupted to ton and 
 turmage to tonnage, and no doubt the fact that the 
 actual weight of a tun filled with wine approximated 
 2,000 lb tended to preserve the name even after the 
 necessity for doing so ceased. 
 
 Note. — ^The capacity of a tun was equal to 252 gallons 
 of 231 cubic inches. 
 
 The tonnage of a ship is the capacity which the body, 
 or hull, has for carrying cargo, or weights. 
 
 4a. Tonnage. Explained 
 
 In these days the word tonnage, when referring to a 
 vessel, should never be used without expressly stating 
 the kind of tonnage meant. Unless this is done confusion 
 results, because any one of five different tonnage weights 
 or measurements can be meant. These are: 
 1st. — The builders', or classification societies' tonnage 
 measurement, sometimes used when calculating 
 dimensions of materials required to insure proper 
 strength of construction. 
 2d. — The Gross registered tonnage, or total internal 
 capacity of vessel as measured by a government 
 surveyor for the purpose of registration. 
 3d. — The Net registered tonnage, or tonnage measure- 
 ment ascertained by deducting from gross tonnage 
 the measurement (capacity) of space occupied by 
 engines, steering apparatus and certain designated 
 spaces that cannot be used for the storage of cargo. 
 This measurement is also made by a government 
 surveyor. 
 4th. — The Light displacement (in tons), ascertained when 
 vessel is designed by actually calculating the dis- 
 placement weight to water-line vessel will float 
 
 when ready for sea with clear swept holds, 
 empty bunkers and tanks. 
 Sth. — The Heavy displacement, or loaded displacement 
 (in tons), also ascertained by designer calculating 
 displacement weight when vessel is floating to the 
 deepest water-line she can safely be loaded to. 
 
 4b. Method of Calculating Builders' or Classifi- 
 cation Societies' Tonnage 
 
 The length, breadth and depth of vessel is measured. 
 
 Length measurement being taken from after side of 
 stem to fore side of stern-post. This measure is taken 
 along center line of deck. 
 
 Breadth measure is taken over all at widest part. 
 
 Depth measure is taken from top of ceiling of hold 
 alongside keelson, to underside of main deck. This 
 measure is made at forward end of main hatch. 
 
 Then the tonnage is ascertained by multiplying dimen- 
 sions, taken as above, into each other, and dividing the 
 product by 100. Three-quarters of quotient will be the 
 tonnage. 
 
 L X B X D X 0.75 
 = Tonnage. 
 
 IOC 
 
 Note. — In the above formula the divisor 100 repre- 
 sents the average number of cubic feet of bulk allowed 
 for one ton of cargo when vessel is measured in manner 
 stated. The coefficient 0.75 indicates the assumed fine- 
 •ness of form (block coefficient) of the average vessel. 
 
 4c. Meaning of Gross Tonnage and Method of 
 Calculating It 
 
 The Gross tonnage of a vessel is its internal capacity, 
 as calculated by method of measurement in use in the 
 country where vessel is being measured. There are 
 several methods of measuring tonnage — U. S. A., British, 
 Panama Canal, Suez Canal, Italian, etc. — and while each 
 country uses a different method, the underlying principle 
 of each rule is to ascertain as accurately as possible the 
 actual internal capacity of vessel. 
 
 The United States and British rules are very similar, 
 and as they are the ones most frequently used, I will ex- 
 plain method of measuring a vessel by using these rules. 
 
 Gross tonnage in U. S. A. is measured in this manner: 
 
 The length of vessel is measured in a straight line 
 from inside of plank at side of stem to inside of plank 
 at stern timbers, deducting from this length what is due 
 to rake of bow and of stern timber in the thickness of 
 
26 
 
 WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 deck, and also what is due to rake of stem timber due to 
 round of beam; the length thus ascertained is divided 
 into equal parts, the number depending upon length of 
 vessel : 
 
 Vessels 50 feet and under in length are divided into 
 six parts; 
 
 Vessels over 50 and up to 100 are divided into eight 
 parts ; 
 
 Vessels over 100 and up to 150 are divided into ten 
 parts ; 
 
 Vessels over 150 and up to 200 are divided into twelve 
 parts ; 
 
 Vessels over 200 and up to 250 are divided into four- 
 teen parts; 
 
 Vessels above 250 feet are divided into sixteen parts. 
 
 Then at each point of division of length measure the 
 transverse area is ascertained in this manner : 
 
 The depth of vessel at each point of division is 
 measured from top of ceiling to the underside of tonnage 
 deck and from this measure is deducted one-third of the 
 round of tonnage deck beam. If the depth measure at 
 midship point of division does not exceed 16 feet, each 
 depth measure is divided into four equal parts and the 
 inside horizontal breadth at each depth point of division 
 including the upper and lower points is ascertained (five 
 measures in all at each depth measure). The points of 
 division are numbered from i at deck to 5 at ceiling, then 
 the second and fourth breadth measures are multiplied 
 by four, and the third by two; these products are added 
 together and to the sum is added the breadth measure of 
 first and fifth ; the quantity thus obtained, when multiplied 
 by one-third the common interval between breadth 
 measurement lines, will give the transverse area. In 
 cases when depth measure at midship point of division 
 exceeds 16 feet, depth must be divided into six parts 
 .(seven lines for measuring), the multipliers for second, 
 fourth and sixth measurement is four, and the third and 
 fifth is two. Products are added and the calculation madfe 
 in exactly the same manner as explained for the smaller 
 depth. 
 
 When transverse area at each point of division is 
 ascertained, the Gross registered tonnage is calculated in 
 this manner : 
 
 The areas are numbered successively, beginning with 
 I at extreme bow. (There will be an odd number of 
 .areas in every instance.) All ^z/ew-numbered area 
 measures are added and product multiplied by four, then 
 all even numbered area measures, except first and last, 
 are added and product multiplied by two; the two prod- 
 ucts are added and to the sum the area measures of first 
 and last is added. When the total thus obtained is 
 multiplied by one-third the common interval between 
 points of length division, . the cubical contents of vessel 
 below tonnage deck will be ascertained. This tonnage 
 measurement is subject to these additions : 
 " , If, there is a break, a poop, or any other permanent 
 
 closed-in space on upper deck available for cargo, or 
 stores, or the accommodation of passengers or crew, the 
 cubical contents of such spaces must be ascertained in a 
 similar manner to the one explained and added to total 
 already ascertained, and if a vessel has a spar deck the 
 cubical contents of the space between it and the tonnage 
 deck must also be measured in the manner already ex- 
 plained and total added to other totals. The sum of all 
 these totals is the cubical measurement of vessel's internal 
 space and if this sum is divided by 100 the gross registered 
 tonnage of the vessel will be ascertained. 
 
 4d. Meaning of Net Registered Tonnage and 
 Method of Calculating It 
 
 The net tonnage is the internal capacity of space 
 available for carrying cargo and passengers, and is as- 
 certained by deducting from the gross internal capacity, 
 as ascertained by the rule, the capacity of spaces that are 
 exempt from measurement. 
 
 These spaces are : 
 
 (a) Spaces occupied by or appropriated to use of 
 crew of vessel. 
 
 Note the regulations of U. S. require that each 
 member of crew have a space of not less than 12 
 superficial feet and 75 cubic feet allotted to him. 
 
 (b) A reasonable and proper amount of space ex- 
 clusively for use of the Master. 
 
 (c) Space used exclusively for working of helm, 
 the capstan, the anchor gear, and for the keeping 
 of charts, signals, and other instrurtients of 
 navigation. 
 
 (d) Space occupied by donkey engine if same is con- 
 nected to main pumps of vessel. 
 
 (e) In sailing vessels, space used exclusively for 
 storage of sails, tonnage of said space not to exceed 
 2j^% of gross tonnage. 
 
 (f) In vessels propelled by steam, the deduction for 
 space occupied by propelling machinery is as 
 follows : 
 
 If propelled by paddle wheels, and the space oc- 
 cupied by machinery and for the proper working 
 of boilers and machinery is above 20% and under 
 30% of gross tonnage, a deduction of 37% from 
 gross tonnage is allowed; in vessels propelled by 
 screws, if space is over 13% and is under 20%, 
 the deduction, shall be 32%. In all cases the space 
 . occupied by sha f t alleys shall be deemed ,a space 
 occupied by. machinery. 
 
 (g) In cases when the actual space occupied by ma- 
 chinery amounts to under 20% of gross tonnage 
 in the case of, paddle veissels, and under 13% of 
 gross tonnage in case of screw vessels, the deduc- 
 
 r- ■ ' tion shall be ij4 tiqies the actual space in the case 
 _:.\ ■',oi paddle vessels and ,1^ timies. space , in cases of 
 ;-:[> if screw vessel?. . ■;■'■:■'■, -r i,:i:i;K-:.:-U: 
 
WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 27 
 
 Fan -rti ^nsexse 
 
 
 Tig. 9 
 
 (h) And in cases when space occupied by machinery 
 is so large as to amount to over 30% of gross 
 tonnage in the case of paddle vessels, and over 20% 
 of gross tonnage in screw machinery, the owner 
 has the right to select the actual space measure- 
 ment instead of the measure set as in (f). 
 And these proper deductions from the gross tonnage 
 having been made, the remainder shall be deemed the 
 net tonnage of vessel. 
 
 Below I give a table of Gross, Net and Builder's Ton- 
 nage of a number of vessels. 
 
 Table 4 
 
 
 
 
 Gross 
 
 Net 
 
 Builder's 
 
 No. 
 
 Type 
 
 L. B. D. 
 
 Tonnage 
 
 Tonnage 
 
 Tonnage 
 
 I 
 
 Ship 
 
 320—42—24 
 
 2,699 
 
 2,541 
 
 2,419 
 
 2 
 
 Schooner 
 
 258—44-28 
 
 2,461 
 
 2,342 
 
 2,383 
 
 7, 
 
 (( 
 
 211— 34— 17 
 
 1,088 
 
 879 
 
 914 
 
 4 
 
 n 
 
 14s— 24— 12 
 
 354 
 
 336 
 
 417 
 
 5 
 
 Screw Steamer 
 
 330—43—29 
 
 3,708 
 
 2,375 
 
 3,086 
 
 6 
 
 
 270—35—21 
 
 1,925 
 
 1,199 
 
 1,488 
 
 7 
 
 
 490—60—37 
 
 10,530 
 
 6,420 
 
 8,158 
 
 8 
 
 
 230—32—20 
 
 1,050 
 
 750 
 
 1,104 
 
 9 
 
 
 220 — 36 — 14 
 
 944 
 
 674 
 
 831 
 
 10 
 
 
 130— 21— II 
 
 250 
 
 158 
 
 225 
 
 Fig. 9 shows points used for measuring tonnage of a 
 vessel, and below it I give tabulated particulars of gross 
 and net tonnage of No. i and No. 5 vessels on list. 
 Table 4. 
 
 Ship No. I, 320x42x24. : , 
 
 Under deck tonnage 2,549 
 
 Poop tonnage; . .. .i .'. 
 
 ■ Fcastle tonnage ..... 
 
 Deck house . . ., 
 
 120 
 20 
 10 
 
 f;i 
 
 Deductions — 
 
 Crew's space . 
 Chart House . . 
 ■ ' P'swiiin stores 
 Sail locker . . . 
 
 'Gross'tonnage 
 Deduction . . : . 
 
 . r . I . 
 
 •••r'•.^.^•; <• • 
 
 •• V •••• 
 
 2,699; Gross tons 
 
 117 
 5 
 
 , -«o... 
 
 . 158 tons 
 2,699 ■ ;:= 
 158 .... 
 
 i ■;'??; 
 
 'r?-) 
 
 2,541 Nfet tonnage 
 
 Steamer No. s, 330x43x29 
 
 Under tonnage deck 3,488 
 
 Fcastle 90 
 
 Deck houses 80 
 
 Other closed spaces 50 
 
 3,708 Gross ton'ge 
 Deductions — 
 
 Machinery space 1,104 
 
 Crew space 142 
 
 Stores 57 
 
 Master's room 22 
 
 Chart room 8 
 
 1,333 tons 
 
 Gross tonnage 3,7o8 
 
 Deductions i,333 
 
 2,375 Net tonnage 
 
 4e. Panama and Stjez ^anal Tonnage 
 
 Special tonnage certificates are required for ships that 
 navigate either the Panama or Suez cana:ls, because the 
 methods of computing net registered tonnage by the canal 
 authorities differ somewhat from the rules in force in 
 U. S. A. and Great Britain. The rules for measuring, 
 while very similar to the one explained, have minor points 
 of diflference that should be considered by owners before 
 building a vessel that will frequently pass through either 
 of these canals, for it must be remembered that canal 
 dues are based upon the registered tonnage as measured 
 by canal authorities. It is not necessary here to explain 
 the small differences between the measurement systems, 
 but always bear in mind that as a ship's dues, such as 
 pilotage, dock, river, etc., in almost every country where 
 such dues are collected are based upon the registered 
 tonnage, it is of prime importance, from an economical 
 point of view, to carefully consider the tonnage rules and 
 so design a vessel that it will have a maximum of carrying 
 capacity and a minimum registered tonnage. - 
 
 Registered tonnage does not really give an acctirate 
 idea of size and, therefore, should never be used as a 
 base for comparing the size. of -one vessel with that. of 
 another.; '. .; ;! .•, '- - '•' ,:'.■; : ^r' 
 
 ■■ If it'is'desired to compare size, the onlyaccui-ate basis 
 f of comparison is light displacement and heavy displace- 
 
28 
 
 WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 O/gPLncencn-r .sc/^Lr- 
 
 Hg. 11 
 
 ment, because by comparing these it is possible to ac- 
 curately form an idea of size of vessel and size of cargo 
 she will carry. 
 
 4f. Light Displacement Calculation 
 
 The term displacement, when applied to a vessel, 
 means the amount of water displaced by the immersed 
 part of vessel. Displacement is, in U. S. A., expressed 
 in tons of 2,240 lb, when it is desired to express it in 
 terms of weight, or in cubic feet when it is. desired to 
 express it in terms of bulk. 
 
 The law of displacement is: 
 1st. — That a solid immersed in water will displace a 
 volume of water exactly the same as the hulk of 
 object immersed. 
 2d. — That any solid will float when its bulk is greater 
 than that of the water displaced. 
 
 Weight and bulk are, therefore, the two principal 
 things to consider when calculating displacement, and it is 
 very important to clearly understand that both hulk and 
 weight must be taken into consideration when making a 
 displacement calculation. 
 
 The Light displacement of a vessel is the weight of 
 water displaced when vessel is floating without cargo, coal, 
 water, stores, or crew on board. The calculation to de- 
 termine this weight is made in this manner : 
 
 The designer carefully measures the hulk of that por- 
 tion of vessel that is below the water-line to which she 
 floats when in a light condition and for each cubic foot 
 of bulk he allows 64 tb weight (the weight of a cubic foot 
 of salt water) if vessel is floating in salt water, or 62.5 lb 
 if floating in fresh water (fresh water weighs 62.5 tb 
 per cubic foot). 
 
 The bulk is measured by dividing the underwater 
 portion of vessel into parts, in a manner similar to the 
 one explained in paragraph dealing with Tonnage 
 measurement, ascertaining the area at each point of divi- 
 sion and then calculating volume or bulk by using the 
 area measures for a second calculation. Bear in mind 
 
 that only the underwater bulk is measured. If the 
 Volume figures ascertained by making this second cal- 
 culation are divided by 35 (32.5 for fresh water) the 
 actual displacement of vessel to water-line she is floating 
 will be determined in tons of 2,240 tb (35 cubic feet of 
 salt water weighs one ton). The calculation is called 
 Simpson's rule for measuring the volume of irregularly 
 shaped bodies. 
 
 The measurements for underwater bulk calculation 
 are made from outside to outside of planking and not 
 inside, as in the registered tonnage calculation. 
 
 4g. Heavy Displacement Calculation 
 
 The light displacement having been determined, it is 
 next necessary to determine the Displacement when vessel 
 is floating to the deepest draught of water it is permitted 
 to load her to. This is called the Heavy or Loaded dis- 
 placement, and the calculation is made in exactly the 
 manner that light displacement calculation is made, except 
 that displacement measurements are taken from the 
 heavy load water-line instead of from the light load 
 water-line. 
 
 The difference between the light and loaded displace- 
 ment weights is the deadweight. 
 
 4h. Deadweight 
 
 The Deadweight of a vessel will, of course, vary with 
 each change in draught, because deadweight is the dif- 
 ference between the displacement weight in a light con- 
 dition and at any specified draught. 
 
 4i. How Light Displacement W.L. is Fixed 
 
 The light displacement water-line always depends upon 
 the weight of material used in the construction of vessel, 
 therefore, it cannot change unless construction or other 
 permanent material is added to or taken from hull, or 
 equipment. Deadweight varies with each change in 
 weight of cargo or other removable weights placed on 
 
WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 29 
 
 vessel, but there is for every vessel a water-line beyond 
 which it is not safe to immerse a vessel, and this maxi- 
 mum safe water-line is the Heavy displacement water- 
 line. 
 
 This heavy displacement water-line is always fixed, 
 when vessel is built, by the classification society that 
 surveys the vessel for classification and is indicated by 
 marking on side of vessel near its midship section an 
 identifying freeboard mark somewhat similar to the one 
 shown by Fig. 10. 
 
 FW 
 
 et 
 
 4j. Explanation of Freeboard Mark 
 
 The long horizontal mark indicated by letter 5 is 
 placed on line to which vessel may load in salt water 
 during the summer months. The upper short line marked 
 FW is placed on line to which vessel may be loaded 
 when in service in fresh water. 
 
 The lower short line marked W is placed on line to 
 which vessel may load when in service on salt water 
 during the winter months. 
 
 The long line is placed through center of a circle and 
 all marks including circle are permanently graved or 
 marked on hull plating or planking and then painted a 
 color that will be clearly distinguishable. 
 
 Both light and heavy displacement water-lines and 
 weight required to immerse a vessel to these lines is known 
 and fixed, but suppose a vessel is loaded to a line between 
 fliese two and that it is desired to ascertain the displace- 
 ment weight to the intermediate line, how can this be 
 done? It is done in this manner: 
 
 4k. Displacement Curve and Deadweight Scale 
 
 When a vessel is designed, the designer calculates 
 the displacement weight to a number of equally spaced 
 parallel water-lines between the heavy and light ones, 
 and having done this he lays out a curve of displacement 
 and vertical deadweight scale, from which the owner of 
 vessel can quickly ascertain displacement weight of vessel 
 to any intermediate water-line, the cargo weight neces- 
 sary to immerse vessel to any draught of water between 
 light and heavy L.W.L. draughts, and amount of free- 
 board when vessel is immersed to any water-line. 
 
 On Fig. II I show displacement curve and dead- 
 weight vertical scale of cargo vesseK No. 8 (See page 
 28.) 
 
 Explanation of Fig. ii 
 
 The vertical scale on left is divided into equally spaced 
 intervals, each interval representing 100 tons of displace- 
 ment, the o of displacement scale beginning at intersection 
 point of the two scales. 
 
 The curved line that begins at bottom of vertical scale 
 
 and extends diagonally to horizontal scale is the displace- 
 ment curve of vessel plotted by calculating displacement 
 of vessel at several evenly spaced water-lines, marking 
 points where the ascertained tonnage and draught lines 
 will intersect and drawing a curved line to cut the points. 
 Thus as the light displacement drayght is 7 feet and the 
 displacement at that draught is 690 tons, a horizontal line 
 is drawn from named draught and a vertical line down 
 from ascertained tonnage for that draught, and the point 
 of intersection found. The displacement curve passes 
 through this point, and others found in a like manner. 
 
 On the right of curve is shown the deadweight scale. 
 This is divided into four columns, the first being marked 
 in tons displacement, the second in feet of draught from 
 keel up, the third in deadweight tons beginning with o at 
 the light displacement draught, and the fourth in free- 
 board measures beginning with o at sheer and progress- 
 ing downwards to the light displacement line. 
 
 To make the explanation clearer, I have marked at left 
 of scale an outline of cross-section with light and heavy 
 water-lines marked. The portion of section that is diago- 
 nally cross lines in one direction is the portion immersed 
 when vessel is floating to her light displacement line 
 (without cargo, stores and equipment), the portion cross 
 lines in two directions is the portion immersed by putting 
 cargo, stores, etc., on board, and the portion that is not 
 lined is the part of vessel that is out of water (freeboard) 
 when she is loaded to her deepest draught. 
 
 4I. Volume of Internal Body or Room in a Ship 
 This is very difl^erent from the displacement which 
 measures the whole space a ship occupies in the water, 
 and the weight of both vessel and everything on board. 
 The volume of internal room in a ship is measurement 
 of the empty space left inside of hull. 
 
 On Table 4a is given the approximate thickness of 
 sides of wood cargo vessels and the percentage of dif- 
 ference between internal and external capacity. 
 
 Table 4A 
 
 Internal 
 Capacity 
 in Tons 
 
 External Capacity 
 
 Increased Per Cent 
 
 in Wood Ships 
 
 Thicltness of S 
 
 of Wood Shi 
 
 in Inches 
 
 100 
 
 0.28 
 
 II 
 
 200 
 300 
 
 0.27 
 0.26 
 
 I2H 
 
 14 
 
 400 
 500 
 
 0.25 
 0.24 
 
 16 
 
 1000 
 
 0.20 
 
 20 
 
 2000 
 
 0.16 
 
 24 
 
 The proportions above are for ordinary sailing vessel 
 and will hold good for ships that are similar. 
 
 If the designer fails to accurately determine before- 
 hand the relative proportions that internal capacity avail- 
 able for cargo bears to displacement it may happen that 
 a vessel will not have enough displacement of under- 
 water body to enable her to carry a full weight of cargo 
 and it may also happen that she has plenty of displace- 
 ment to carry more cargo without having room to store it. 
 
Chapter V 
 
 Strains Experienced by a Ship's Structure 
 
 The chief strains to which a ship's structure is sub- 
 jected are: 
 
 1st. — Strains tending to produce longitudinal bending 
 of the whole structure. 
 
 2d. — Strains tending to alter the transverse shape. 
 
 3d. — Local affecting some particular part and tending 
 to produce local changes in shape or damage. 
 
 4th. — Strains due to propulsion by steam or sail. 
 
 The first and second items mentioned are strains that 
 affect the structure as a whole, and therefore must be 
 taken care of and overcome by an intelligent design of 
 the whole structure and a proper use of materials. The 
 effects of third and fourth items being local can be 
 readily overcome by giving ample strength to parts of 
 structure likely to be affected by the strains. 
 
 5a. Longitudinal Bending Strains When a Ship Is 
 Afloat in Still Water 
 
 These are partly, due to uneven distribution of weight 
 of hull structure and the fact that this distribution does 
 not coincide with the longitudinal distribution of upward 
 pressure due to buoyancy of water, and partly to weight 
 of cargo and its uneven weight distribution. 
 
 When a ship is afloat in still water the down pressure 
 due to weight of hull is exactly the same as the up pres- 
 sure due to buoyancy of water, and the longitudinal 
 center points of these two forces always exactly coincide. 
 Considered in this manner it would naturally seem that 
 the two forces being equal and acting in opposite direc- 
 tions, there is an absence of strain; but this is not really 
 the case as will appear when I analyze the problem. 
 
 A ship placed in water will sink until it displaces a 
 volume of water having a weight exactly equal to the 
 weight of ship and all on board, the bulk of immersed 
 portion of ship and bulk of water displaced will be 
 identical, the longitudinal center point of bulk of water 
 displaced and of weight of ship will be located exactly 
 over each other, and ship will float to a straight water- 
 line. This condition exists because the pieces of which 
 ship is built being rigidly connected, the structure has 
 become a single object and must be considered as sUch. 
 
 Fig. 12 is a longitudinal view of a ship afloat and on 
 
 it I have marked the center points of bulk of water dis- 
 placed and of weight of ship with arrows pointing in 
 direction of line of action of strain due to buoyancy up 
 force and weight down force. 
 
 That the up and down forces are equal, and that the 
 center of these forces are located the same distance from 
 bow, is known, because these are fundamental laws of 
 flotation, but until the longitudinal immersed form of a 
 ship and the longitudinal distribution of weights of con- 
 struction are analyzed and compared, it will not be known 
 whether the longitudinal distribution of bulk and of 
 weight coincide at points of length other than at the 
 ones marked (the center points). Unless they do coin- 
 cide at all points there will be a permanent strain put on 
 structure, the amount depending upon the difference 
 between bulk and weight distribution throughout ship's 
 length. 
 
 : To explain this more fully I have drawn illustration 
 
 Fig- 13. 
 
 Fig. 13 shows longitudinal view of Fig. 12 ship afloat, 
 but in place of its being one rigidly connected structure, 
 I have assumed that the structure has been divided into 
 ten parts, that each part has been made watertight with- 
 out increasing weight, and the parts connected in such a 
 manner that while free to move up and down, they can- 
 not separate or move sideways. 
 
 If the ten-part connected-together ship is now placed 
 in water instead of floating to a longitudinally one level 
 water-line as shown in Fig. 12,: it will float somewhat in 
 the manner shown on Fig. 13, the reason being : 
 
 While the total weight of ship has not changed and it 
 displaces exactly the same bulk and weight of water as 
 before, the separation of ship enables each part to act 
 in accordance with the law of displacement, which is — 
 iveight and bulk of object immersed and weight and bulk 
 of water displaced must be identical. 
 
 In other words, each part accommodates itself to a 
 water-line that equalizes weight and immersed bulk, which 
 it cannot do when whole ship is one rigidly connected 
 structure. 
 
 Thus Nos. I, 2, 9, 10 portions of structure (bow and 
 stern) have a greater proportion of weight than buoy- 
 
WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 31 
 
 ancy below marked water-line requires, and therefore 
 being free to immerse independent of other portions, they 
 sink until marked water-line is some distance below 
 water level. 
 
 The Nos. 3, 4, 7, 8 portions have varying degrees of 
 greater buoyancy below marked water-line than their 
 weights require, therefore these portions float with 
 marked water-line well above water level. 
 
 The Nos. 5, 6 portions have weight and bulk below 
 marked water-line very nearly equalized, therefore these 
 portions float with marked water-line nearly correspond- 
 ing with water level. 
 
 It therefore can be said that if the ten separated 
 parts, when floating as shown in Fig. 13, were rigidly 
 connected together again both longitudinal weight and 
 bulk strains would be equalized for the entire length of 
 ship and there would be an absence of structural strain 
 due to unequal distribution of weight and bulk, and it 
 can also be said that if the ten parts are rigidly connected 
 in any other position weight and bulk will not be equally 
 distributed throughout length, and consequently there 
 must be some degree of structural strain due to this un- 
 equal distribution. 
 
 As a ship cannot float in the manner shown by Fig. 13, 
 and as in all ships the longitudinal distribution of bulk 
 below L.W.L. does not coincide with longitudinal dis- 
 fribution of weight of construction, etc., it is evident 
 that the hull structure of every ship is under strain when 
 afloat. Bear in mind that this strain is always present, 
 but is never noticeable and does not have any permanent 
 effect on hull unless the longitudinal structure is too 
 weak to withstand it. 
 
 5b. Hogging Strains Explained 
 
 If strength of hull structure is not sufficient to with- 
 stand the strain the ends of ship will drop, relative to 
 center, and hull will ultimately change its form and 
 become "hogged". 
 
 The dotted lines on Fig. 14 show shape when ship 
 shown by heavy lines become hogged. 
 
 Hogging strains are nearly always present when a ship 
 is floating without cargo in still water, but if it should 
 happen that condition of weight and buoyancy are such 
 that there is an excess of buoyancy at ends and an excess 
 of weight near middle, the middle would drop relative to 
 ends and change of form, if hull is weak, would occur 
 near middle lengtH. A change in this kind is known as 
 sagging. 
 
 5c. Sagging Strains Expr.AiNED 
 
 Sagging strains are seldom present throughout the 
 whole length of a ship's structure when ship is without 
 cargo and is floating in still water. In loaded condition 
 and when moving among waves, the conditions are fre- 
 quently such as to produce sagging strains at every part 
 
 of the length. (Fig. 14a dotted lines, show shape of 
 ship that has sagged.) 
 
 Before it is possible to accurately determine the eflPect 
 longitudinal strains will have on hull structure of a ship 
 it is necessary to ascertain the relative positions and 
 magnitude of each kind of strain throughout the length 
 of ship and to calculate their effect when coupled as 
 one. 
 
 Perhaps you will more clearly understand my ex- 
 planations of strains and bending moments if I first ex- 
 plain a few simple problems, such as strains on weighted 
 and supported beams. 
 
 Fig. 15 shows a beam supported at its center and 
 loaded at both ends, the weights W and W IV being equal 
 and placed at equal distances from support. A beam 
 loaded and supported in this manner is under a sttain 
 similar to that experienced by a ship afloat in still water 
 and having an excess of weight at ends and buoyancy 
 and weight equalized at middle. i; 
 
 w 
 
 FIG-. 15 
 
 WW 
 
 Fig. 15a shows the same beam loaded at center and 
 supported at ends, a condition of loading that puts a sag- 
 ging strain at center of beam. A beam loaded in this 
 manner is under a strain similar to that experienced by 
 a ship afloat in still water and having an excess of weight 
 at center and buoyancy and weight equal at ends. ' 
 
 w 
 
 M 
 
 FI&.IJ' 
 
 Fig. 15b shows the same beam supported near ends 
 and loaded at ends and at center — a condition of load- 
 ing that puts both sagging and hogging strains on beam, 
 the magnitude of each depending upon weight and dis- 
 tance from the supports. 
 
 If W2 weight is greater than W-lVi weights there 
 will be a sagging moment at center of beam, but the 
 portion of beam between ends and supports will be sub- 
 jected to hogging strains and so also will be some portion 
 
32 
 
 WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 Jl 
 
 M 
 
 i 
 
 v-- 
 
 FI&. 1^' 
 
 of beam lying between the supports and middle. On the 
 illustration a dotted outline shows general lines of direc- 
 tion of strain. But if the moment of the W-Wi weight 
 X distance weights are from nearest support, is greater 
 than moment of W2 weight X distance, there will be a 
 hogging strain at middle of beam and no portion of beam 
 will be subjected to a sagging strain. 
 
 As bending moment ^ weight X length or leverage, 
 you can readily understand that before it is possible to 
 determine the strains on a weighted beam, it is essential 
 that the longitudinal distribution of both weight and 
 supports be known. 
 
 The weighted and supported beam conditions men- 
 tioned above are similar to those for a ship, therefore, it 
 is an easy matter to estimate the bending moment or 
 strain a ship's structure must withstand when the longi- 
 tudinal distribution of weight and buoyancy (support 
 of water surrounding ship) is known. 
 
 5d. Curves of Buoyancy Distribution 
 
 The longitudinal distribution of the buoyancy of a 
 ship floating at rest in still water may readily be deter- 
 mined when the lines of vessel are available, and a curve 
 of buoyancy can be plotted by marking a base line to 
 represent length of ship and on this base line erecting 
 ordinates at right angles to it and spaced the same dis- 
 tance apart that cross-sections used for displacement cal- 
 culations are. 
 
 Then if along each ordinate line there is measured a 
 distance equal to cross-section area of ship at that point 
 a series of points will be obtained and a line drawn to 
 cut these points will be curve of buoyancy of ship when 
 floating to the water-line cross-section areas are taken 
 from. 
 
 On Fig. 16 I show curves of buoyancy of a ship. 
 
 B. L.^Base Line. 
 
 I, 2, 3, etc., are ordinate lines spaced the distance apart 
 that cross-section lines drawing are. 
 
 C. B. curve of buoyancy drawn through points laid 
 off on ordinate line, the solid lines curve being curve of 
 buoyancy for ship when floating to her light W.L. with- 
 
 out coal, stores or cargo on board, and the dash line curve 
 is curve of buoyancy to line ship floats to when every- 
 thing is on board and ship is fully loaded with cargo. 
 
 Each curve clearly represents the longitudinal dis- 
 tribution of buoyancy of ship floating to a different W.L. 
 and the area enclosed within each curve represents the 
 total buoyancy or displacement volume to water-line 
 measurements are taken from. 
 
 The buoyancy weight of portion of ship lying between 
 any two ordinates can be ascertained by measuring areas 
 enclosed between the selected lines and converting it into 
 its equivalent displacement volume. The light displace- 
 ment volume of ship to which curve belongs is 47,250 
 cubic feet, the area enclosed within solid line curve is 
 47,250 square feet, and therefore each square foot of 
 area represents one cubic foot displacement volume, or if 
 expressed in terms of weight — 64 lb (salt water), and if 
 the number of square feet area enclosed between any two 
 ordinates is multiplied by 64 the actual buoyancy of 
 portion of ship between the selected ordinates is ex- 
 pressed in weight terms. Similar conditions prevail for 
 all buoyancy curves. 
 
 5e. Curves of Weight Distribution 
 
 The longitudinal distribution of construction, equip- 
 ment, lading and other weights of ship can be graphically 
 illustrated by means of a curve, or curves, laid out in a 
 similar manner, but in place of using cross-section areas 
 measures for curve points on ordinates, the weights of 
 construction, lading, equipment, etc., of portion of hull 
 between each two ordinates is determined. The weight 
 is then converted into its equivalent volume (by dividing 
 by 64) and the volume measure used as a point for curve 
 of weight. 
 
 Thus the weight of construction, etc., of portion of 
 hull enclosed between No. i and No. 2 ordinates is con- 
 verted and measurement point marked on ordinate 
 erected midway between No. i and No. 2 ; the weight of 
 construction, etc., of portion between No. 2 and No. 3 is 
 converted and point marked on an ordinate erected mid- 
 way between No. 2 and No. 3, and so on for the whole 
 length. A series of points for laying out curve of weight 
 is thus obtained, and a curved line drawn to cut all points 
 will graphically illustrate the longitudinal distribution 
 of weights, just as the buoyancy curve graphically illus- 
 trates the longitudinal distribution of buoyancy. Of 
 course as weight and buoyancy must always be equal, 
 the area enclosed within weight curve must be exactly 
 the same as that enclosed within buoyancy curve. 
 
 It is usual to lay out two, or three, curves of buoyancy 
 and of weight, one being for ship in light condition with- 
 out cargo, coal or stores, another being for ship with 
 everything on board except cargo, and the third being 
 for ship when fully loaded with cargo. If only two 
 sets of curves are laid out, omit the second. 
 
WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 33 
 
 On Fig. 17 I show the Fig. 16 curves of buoyancy 
 and on same base Hne is laid out two corresponding 
 weight curves, the solid-hned curves being one pair, the 
 dash-hned ones another. 
 
 By laying out the curves in this manner it is an easy 
 
 matter to compare the longitudinal distribution of buoy- 
 ancy with that of weight and determine with exactness the 
 points where buoyancy or weight is in excess. 
 
 Where the curve of buoyancy line of a pair is outside 
 the weight curve buoyancy is in excess ; where the two 
 lines cross weight and buoyancy are equal and where 
 weight lines is outside buoyancy line weight is in excess. 
 
 And knowing the points where buoyancy or weight is 
 in excess a curve of loads can be laid out and the value 
 of the longitudinal bending moment at any cross-section 
 determined. 
 
 5f. Curve of Loads 
 
 A curve of loads is laid out in this manner : 
 
 The same length of base line and ordinate spacing 
 used for weight and buoyancy curves is marked oflf and 
 then the distance between each line (buoyancy and weight 
 curve lines) of a pair is measured at each ordinate and 
 transferred to base line, measurements taken where 
 buoyancy is in excess being transferred above the base 
 line and those where weight is in excess below. 
 
 On Fig. 18 illustration is shown the curve of loads 
 (two) laid out from measurements taken from Fig. 17 
 illustration. 
 
 When the curve of loads for any ship floating to a 
 certain water-line and loaded in a certain manner is 
 plotted, it is an easy matter to calculate the longitudinal 
 bending moment or strain at any part of the hull by 
 ascertaining the excess buoyancy or weight at the 
 designated location and multiplying it by the longitudinal 
 distance this excess is from the point the strain is being 
 calculated from. For ships afloat in still water the point 
 generally selected for this calculation is either midship 
 section, bow, or stern. 
 
 The light load figures for ship that curves of loads 
 laid out on Fig. 18 belong are as follows : 
 
 For first 80 feet' from bow, weight is in excess 400 
 tons. 
 
 For the 70 feet nearest stern, weight is in excess 450 
 tons. 
 
 For 150 feet amidships, buoyancy is 850 tons in 
 excess. 
 
 This condition parallels that of the loaded beam 
 illustrated by Fig. 15b. 
 
 While the loading of a ship with cargo increases 
 weight it does not always increase .strains, as you will 
 see by referring to the dash-lined curve of loads, which 
 shows that by loading the ship strain has actually 
 diminished. 
 
 5g. Longitudinal Strains Among Waves 
 
 When a ship passes into disturbed water, the move- 
 ment of the waves will cause ship to rise and fall con- 
 tinually and this up-and-down movement will afifect both 
 the size and character of bending moments and will also 
 cause rapid changes in direction of strain in certain parts 
 of ship. 
 
 To illustrate the effect that movement of waves has 
 on a ship, I will take two extreme positions, the first 
 being a condition in which wave has immersed the middle 
 portion of ship more deeply and has left the ends partially 
 unsupported, and the second being a condition where 
 waves have been more deeply immersed the ends and left 
 middle portion partially unsupported. 
 
 Figs. 19 and 20 illustrate these two conditions. 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 [ J 
 
 
 
 1 1 
 
 1. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ~ 
 
 — ■■ 
 
 ., " 
 
 > •> 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 "~- — - 
 
 ,> 
 
 *^ 
 
 
 
 
 I ] 
 
 L 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 An examination of the Fig. 19 illustration will show 
 the great change that takes place in longitudinal distri- 
 bution of weight and buoyancy when a wave lifts a ship 
 on its crest, or when a ship falls into a hollow between 
 two waves. In general, when a ship is supported on the 
 crest of a wave of its own length there is a hogging strain 
 on the whole structure, the maximum hogging moment 
 being at, or near to, midship section and being, approxi- 
 mately, between three and four times the maximum ex- 
 perienced in still water. On the other hand, when a ship is 
 in the condition shown on Fig. 20 the whole structure is 
 under a sagging strain largely in excess of still-water 
 maximum, the point of maximum strain being at, or near 
 to, midship section, and in addition to this it must be re- 
 membered that these excessive hogging and sagging strains 
 alternate at intervals of a few seconds. (In a 360-foot 
 ship the intervals between extremes of rising and falling 
 when waves are 17 feet high is approximately 4j^ 
 seconds.) 
 
34 
 
 WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 While in every instance strain varies with, height and 
 length of waves it is safe to assume, for the purpose of 
 calculation, that the maximum longitudinal bending 
 moment is experienced when wave length is equal to 
 length of ship and wave height between one-twelfth and 
 one-fifteenth of length. 
 
 When longitudinal distribution of weight and buoy- 
 ancy of a ship is known the maximum hogging or sagging 
 bending moment at any point for still water, on a wave 
 crest, or in a wave hollow can be determined with reason- 
 able accuracy by using this formula : 
 
 Weight X Length 
 
 Numeral for length of ship and type 
 
 Maximum 
 bending moment 
 in foct-tons. 
 
 Weight being total excess, buoyancy or weight, at 
 selected point. 
 
 Length being distance excess is from point of support, 
 or from point where buoyancy and weight is equalized. 
 
 Numerals vary with size of ship and conditions of 
 loading. For cargo steamers from 250 to 350 feet in 
 length and loaded with miscellaneous cargo in all holds 
 the numerals are: 
 
 Still water From 1 10 to 150 
 
 On wave crest From 25 to 40 
 
 In wave hollow .... From 30 to 50 
 (These figures are approximate.) 
 
 When longitudinal distribution of weight and buoy- 
 ancy is not known a reasonably accurate formula to use 
 for computing maximum bending moment in foot-tons, 
 among waves, for ships of ordinary form loaded with 
 miscellaneous cargo properly stowed throughout length, 
 wave height being about i/i5th of length, is 
 L X W 
 
 := Bending moment in foot-tons. 
 
 20 
 
 L = length of ship. 
 W = weight of ship. 
 
 When making calculations for longitudinal strains it 
 is assumed that the ship remains upright. We, of course, 
 know that this condition is not possible when ship is in 
 a sea because both rolling and pitching occur simultane- 
 ously ; but to calculate strains for any assigned transverse 
 inclination, or variation between upright and a named 
 degree, would entail a large amount of labor and results 
 obtained would be of very little practical value providing 
 calculations for both direct transverse and longitudinal 
 strains are made. 
 
 It must, however, be kept in mind that when a ship 
 is poised upon the crest of a wave and inclined trans- 
 versely by the wave forcing one side of stem down and 
 supporting the opposite side at bow, there is a twisting 
 ■ strain put on structure and this strain must be resisted 
 
 by making the parts afifected sufficiently strong and 
 fastening them securely. In a very large number of 
 wooden ships structural weakness, especially when twist- 
 ing, is largely due to improper or weak fastening. 
 
 Sh. Transverse Strains When a Ship is Afloat 
 
 Strains of this kind tend to produce a change in 
 transverse form and are largely caused by oscillations 
 and rolling movements when ship is in a sea, and by 
 unequal pressure of water on underwater body. Fig. 21 
 is for the purpose of explaining this transverse water 
 pressure. 
 
 CENTRt or PRCS6URK. 
 
 CENTRE OF PRESSURE. 
 
 Fig. 21 shows cross-section of a ship floating upright 
 in still water. When afloat in this condition weight 
 pressure acts down through the C.G. point and up- 
 buoyancy pressure acts upwards through the C.B. point 
 and as both pressures are equal and act along the same 
 vertical line the ship is at rest. 
 
 There is, however, another pressure, or strain, that 
 must now be considered — i.e., the horizontal water pres- 
 sure acting on opposite sides of ship along horizontal 
 lines and having the center of pressure located about 
 two-thirds of mean draught below the L.W.L. This 
 horizontal pressure tends to compress the hull, or change, 
 the transverse form of ship along its whole length being 
 greatest at ends where sides of ship are nearly vertical 
 and where transverse area is smallest. 
 
 The ordinary framing (transverse) of a ship is 
 generally strong enough to withstand this pressure, ex- 
 cept at bow, where it is usual and necessary to add 
 structural strength to prevent the pressure causing leaks 
 in wood ships and "panting" (in-and-out movement of 
 plating) in steel ones. 
 
 In wood ships the forward end is strengthened by 
 means of knees and pointers, and in steel ships by means 
 of additional frames called panting frames or beams. 
 
 So long as a ship remains upright and in still water, 
 transverse pressure strains, while much greater than 
 longitudinal pressure ones (they are about eight times 
 greater), are not excessive, but just as soon as the ship 
 inclines, moves ahead, or pitches and rolls in a sea, trans- 
 verse water pressure and the forces tending to alter trans- 
 
WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 35 
 
 verse shape greatly increase. The strain when a ship 
 is in any one of the named conditions is very largely a 
 racking one that is continually striving to alter both the 
 transverse and longitudinal form, and unless the framing, 
 especially at connections between deck beams and side 
 framing, is amply strong and properly fastened there 
 will be some change of form or loosening of knees and 
 framing of decks and bilges. 
 
 When a ship's righting moment is known the approxi- 
 mate racking strain at any transverse inclination can be 
 ascertained by making use of this rule: 
 
 X Righting moment for inclination ^ Moment 
 
 j)2 j^ g2 of racking force in foot-tons. 
 
 D standing for depth of ship from upper deck to keel. 
 
 B standing for breadth of ship from outside to out- 
 side. 
 
 The period of oscillation, or time required for a ship 
 to make one complete roll from port to starboard, has a 
 very great influence upon total strain that a ship's struc- 
 ture has to withstand. The more rapid the oscillations 
 are the greater the number of times the racking strain 
 changes its direction in a named period (such as one 
 minute), and as each change of direction (from port to 
 starboard and vice-versa) tends to produce changes in 
 transverse form, it is advantageous to have a long period 
 of oscillation. A deep-rolling and quick-acting ship al- 
 ways requires greatest strength of hull structure to with- 
 stand strains. So also does one in which the proportion 
 of length to depth is excessive. 
 
 5i. Local Strains 
 
 By local strains is meant strains that affect some par- 
 ticular portion of the hull structure and which are due 
 to that part of the structure being subjected to some 
 strain that is local in its effect. For instance, if a heavy 
 or unusual load is concentrated upon some part of the 
 hull structure (a deck winch, for instance), the strain 
 due to this load will be local. 
 
 Thrust of a screw propeller produces a local strain 
 on that part of the ship to which the thrust block founda- 
 tion is attached. 
 
 The downward thrust of a mast produces a consid- 
 erable local strain at and near to part of hull where mast 
 is stepped. 
 
 Wind pressure on sails is transferred to spars and 
 rigging and then to' hull structure where masts are sup- 
 ported and rigging fastened. 
 
 Chain plates produce local strains on parts of struc- 
 ture where they are fastened. 
 
 Engines and boiler weights are concentrated along a 
 short portion of ship's length and cause local strains of 
 great importance. One of the most effective methods 
 of overcoming strains of this kind is to distribute these 
 permanent weights over as large a* portion of hull as 
 possible by extending the foundation structure over a 
 much greater (length and width) area than weight oc- 
 cupies. 
 
 53. Strains Due to Propulsion by Sails or Steam 
 
 In nearly every instance strains due to propulsion are 
 local and can best be overcome by adding strength to the 
 parts of structure in the locality where strains are 
 greatest. 
 
 When a ship is propelled by sail power the effective 
 wind pressure acts both longitudinally and transversely, 
 the longitudinal thrust acting principally in driving the 
 ship ahead and the transverse thrust acting largely upon 
 the structure of ship and tending to r^ck the structure, 
 especially at points where masts are stepped and rigging 
 secured to hull. 
 
 It is therefore necessary to strengthen any part of 
 hull where a mast is secured or supported, or where any 
 standing rigging is fastened. 
 
 In the case of propulsion by a screw propeller the 
 thrust is delivered in the direction ship will travel and 
 therefore there will be no transverse strain, except in 
 cases when hull vibrations are set up by unbalanced mov- 
 ing parts of machinery or by the period of engine vibra- 
 tion not being properly tuned to hull vibration period. 
 
 Every structure has a natural period of vibration and 
 in a ship this period is governed by the structural arrange- 
 ment, weight and distribution of material. In an engine 
 the period of vibration is governed by the balancing of 
 moving parts, and the period of revolution. If the revolu- 
 tion period of engine approximates in regularity to the 
 hull structural vibration period, hull vibrations will be 
 very noticeable; it is therefore necessary to determine 
 the natural period of hull vibration and then have engine 
 revolutions fixed at a number that will not be a muhiple 
 of the hull period. This can nearly always be done by 
 selecting a propeller that will allow engine to turn at a 
 number of revolutions that will not be a multiple of the 
 hull revolution period. 
 
 Unbalanced propellers will set up vibrations similar 
 to those produced by unbalanced moving parts of engine. 
 
Chapter VI 
 
 Estimating and Converting 
 
 6a. Bills of Material 
 The usual procedure in a modern shipyard is to first 
 prepare detailed bills of materials on which is specified 
 these things: 
 
 The names of principal parts of ship. 
 The kind, quantity, quality and dimensions of ma- 
 terials needed for each part. 
 The order in which materials are needed and 
 date they should be delivered. 
 On the bills of material is listed all lumber, fastenings, 
 fittings, equipment, rigging, machinery, etc., required for 
 the job, and in every case quantities named should in- 
 clude a proper allowance for wastage during converting 
 or manufacturing. 
 
 I say bills of material, because it is more satisfactory 
 to make up a separate bill of material for each principal 
 division of the work or for each production department. 
 Thus one bill would cover lumber, fastenings, fittings, 
 etc., for the hull construction department ; another would 
 cover materials and equipment for pipefitting and plumb- 
 ing department ; another material for engineering depart- 
 ment; another materials required by rigging and sail- 
 makers' department ; another materials for painting 
 department. 
 
 Specifying each department's materials separately sim- 
 plifies checking quantities and keeping track of deliveries. 
 
 Quantities are generally calculated from plans, speci- 
 fications and mould loft measurements, and as the work 
 must be very accurately done the man assigned to the job 
 should be a competent estimator and have a fair knowl- 
 edge of ship construction work. 
 
 The usual practice is for the estimator to enter on his 
 estimating sheets every needed item of material piece by 
 piece. The sheets then go to stock keeper, who checks 
 off items that can be supplied from stock and then passes 
 the sheets along to purchasing department, where items 
 that cannot be supplied from stock are listed and ordered. 
 
 In the next column 1 give headings of a very satis- 
 factory estimating sheet for use in a large shipyard. 
 
 A filled-in copy of Sheet No. i is attached to each 
 department's material list and to it is attached filled-in 
 sheets having headings as given in Sheet No. 2. 
 
 Copies of estimates should be sent to stock keepers, 
 to purchasing department and to the head of each depart- 
 ment, and it should be the duty of each department head 
 to report when any item of material is not delivered on 
 date wanted, and of the purchasing and stock keeping 
 departments to enter dates ordered and received on all 
 
 Sheet No. i Date 
 
 Name of Firm • • 
 
 Quantity estimating sheet for ship No Designed by 
 
 Contract No Signed on 
 
 Date set for delivery 
 
 The following dates have beei set for the named divisions of 
 work to be completed : 
 
 Keel laid Framed up 
 
 Planked and caulked 
 
 Deck laid and caulked 
 
 Joiner work completed 
 
 Engines and boilers in place Condensers in place 
 
 Auxiliary machinery in place Tanks in place 
 
 Pipe fitting completed .and covered 
 
 Electric wiring completed .... and tested 
 
 Plumbing completed and tested 
 
 Deck fittings and equipment in place 
 
 Spars, booms and rigging completed 
 
 Steering gear and navigation equipment in place 
 
 Painting completed 
 
 Sails bent 
 
 Vessel will be launched on 
 
 Trial trip will be run on 
 
 Delivery will be made At 
 
 As these dates have been set after consultation with heads of 
 departments, they must be adhered to unless changed by written 
 authority of the President of Company. 
 
 Sheet No. 2 Ship No. 
 
 Material estimate for 
 
 .Date 
 
 .Department 
 
 Date Date 
 
 Ordered Wanted 
 
 Quantity 
 
 Desctiption 
 
 Uied 
 for 
 
 Date 
 Received 
 
 Checked by 
 
 Estimator 
 
 department copies of estimates. Thus a very satisfactory 
 cross check is kept of delays, should any occur. 
 
 In all cases the estimated wanted date should be fixed 
 several days ahead of actual requirements. 
 
 6b. Selecting Timber Required For the Construc- 
 tion OF A Ship 
 
 The first work of the shipbuilder is to "lay down" the 
 lines and construction details full size, and make the 
 full-sized templates (moulds) required by the converters, 
 ship-carpenters, and erectors, and while this work is 
 going on the necessary timber can be selected and got 
 ready. Selecting timber should be done with care and 
 by men who are thoroughly familiar with ship construc- 
 tion and the grading of lumber. 
 
WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 37 
 
 Timber used in a modern shipyard is usually delivered 
 in these conditions : 
 
 (a) In pieces squared on four sides to dimensions 
 named. This is termed squared material (dimen- 
 sion stock) and is principally used for keels, keel- 
 sons, deadwood, and pieces that can be advan- 
 tageously got out of heavy straight dimension 
 material. When ordering material of this kind, 
 it is necessary to state length, width and thick- 
 ness of each piece and quality, or grade of ma- 
 terial desired. 
 
 Shipyards usually keep a stock of standard di- 
 mension squared material on hand — yellow pine, 
 fir, oak. 
 
 (b) In pieces, or planks, sawed to named thickness, 
 the edges of pieces being left with the natural 
 taper or curve of tree intact. Material of this 
 kind is called "flitch cut" and it is very advanta- 
 geous to have such material for frames, floors, 
 futtocks, stem, planking, and pieces that have to 
 be got out to some curved shape, because the 
 natural taper or curve will materially reduce 
 waste and enable the shipbuilder to avoid a great 
 deal of short grain (cross grain) that is always 
 present when a curved piece is got out of a 
 straight plank. Material of this kind is generally 
 ordered "log run" and therefore it is not graded 
 for quality. 
 
 (c) Planks edged and cut to named thickness. Use- 
 ful for planking, ceiling, decking and in places 
 where long straight planks are needed. Material 
 of this kind is cut to specifications as to thickness, 
 width, length and grade, or quality. 
 
 (d) In pieces planed and finished ready for use. 
 Under this heading is included flooring, joiner- 
 work material, matched material, etc. 
 
 (e) In pieces sawed to designated thickness and hav- 
 ing the natural curve of roots and butt portion of 
 tree intact. Material of this kind is termed 
 natural knees, and is usually either oak, spiucc, 
 pine or hackmatack. Knees are usually ordered 
 by thickness and as each piece has curve of root 
 and butt of tree intact, it is necessary to designate 
 the approximate angle of knee required. Thus 
 if knees having less than a right angle is desired, 
 "in" angle knees is designated. Knees having 
 more than a right angle are termed "out" angle 
 knees. 
 
 Wooden ship-building is naturally a wasteful industry, 
 because of the large number of pieces that have to be cut 
 with some curvature, or taper. Therefore, it naturally 
 follows that the man in charge of the selection of ma- 
 terial holds a most responsible and important position, 
 because upon the judgment and skill with which his 
 selection is made depends, to a considerable extent, 
 strength, and durability of the ship, and economy of ma- 
 
 terial. A good converter can save material, reduce cost 
 of labor and thus add many dollars to a firm's profit, 
 while a bad converter can so increase cost of material 
 and labor that profits will vanish. I mention this because 
 I know of instances in which yard managers have, through 
 mistaken economy, looked upon the selection of material 
 for the various parts of a ship as being of secondary im- 
 portance, and a matter that can be properly attended to 
 by an ordinary yard foreman or sawmill leading man. 
 It is false economy to do this, and I know through ex- 
 perience that it pays to have a man in charge of this work 
 who has a good knowledge of ship construction, a fair 
 knowledge of mould loft work, and a thorough knowledge 
 of timber and sawmill work. 
 
 6c. Converting 
 
 By converting timber is meant selecting the timber 
 and planks for each piece and part of ship, marking out 
 shape and form of the pieces, and getting them sawed, 
 or machined, as near as possible to required shape. 
 Therefore, the material has to pass through three different 
 departments before it is ready for the ship-carpenters. 
 
 1st.- — -The men who select the materials. 
 
 2d. — The men who mark out the materials to required 
 shape. 
 
 3d. — The men who actually machine or saw the ma- 
 terial to shape. 
 
 Here are a few things that should always be kept in 
 mind by the men who select and convert timber : 
 
 Waste material should be kept to a minimum by select- 
 ing logs and planks as near as possible of the required 
 dimensions, and by carefully considering before a log or 
 plank is cut whether the waste from it can, or cannot be 
 used for some other part. 
 
 Every log, or plank, should be carefully inspected for 
 defects before any work is done on it, and if defects exist 
 the templates should be laid out on the material in such 
 a manner that the more serious ones are cut out or left 
 in a position on completed piece that will not detract from 
 strength or durability. 
 
 In all cases when it is practicable, timber should be 
 so converted that the end of a log or plank that was 
 nearest the top of tree will be placed in ship at the part 
 in which decay starts quickest ; as, for instance, the top 
 of the log from which stern-post is sawed should be 
 placed uppermost, as the butt will be better preserved 
 when entirely immersed in water. 
 
 In converting timber, particular care should be taken 
 to avoid, as far as possible, an excessive amount of cross 
 grain located where it will detract from strength, or where 
 it will not be supported or reinforced by other adjoining 
 pieces of material. 
 
 In getting out futtocks of frame timbers cross grain 
 of one piece can nearly always be strengthened and re- 
 inforced by straight grain of adjoining piece. 
 
 Scarphs should never be cut until it is ascertained that 
 
38 
 
 WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 the piece of timber is fit for the intended use. It is 
 therefore advisable to cut each piece of material to shape 
 before cutting or forming a scarph. 
 
 No heart shake, check or knot should be located at or 
 near to a scarph unless fastenings are located in such a 
 manner that they will tend to close the defect and prevent 
 it detracting from strength of the finished piece. 
 
 In a modern shipyard every eflfort should be made to 
 reduce the amount of hand labor to a minimum by using 
 power and labor-saving machines. The handling of 
 heavy timber should be done by means of electric timber 
 
 trucks and self-propelling hoists, and the shaping of the 
 many pieces that enter into the construction of a vessel 
 should be very largely done by means of machinery. 
 Nearly every piece of the transverse frame of a vessel 
 can be sawed, shaped and beveled by machinery. Plank- 
 ing, decking, ceiling and nearly every longitudinal piece 
 of material can also be shaped and beveled by machinery, 
 all joinerwork material can be machined ready for as- 
 sembling, fastening holes can be drilled with the aid of 
 machinery, and in addition to this the actual caulking of 
 planking and deck seams can be largely done with the 
 aid of caulking machines. 
 
Chapter VII 
 
 Joints and Scarphs 
 
 In ship construction it is necessary to join together a 
 number of pieces of wood in such a manner that the 
 strength of joints will at least equal the strength of ma- 
 terial used. 
 
 The meeting place of two pieces of wood is called 
 the joint and the joint is circumscribed by the lines which 
 mark the intersection of the faces of one piece with the 
 other. 
 
 The simplest and easiest joints to make are those in 
 which the bearing faces are planes of the same size and 
 shape in relation to the planes of the axes. 
 
 The putting together of two pieces of wood may be 
 done in three ways: 
 
 1st.- — They may meet and form an angle. 
 
 2d. — Two pieces may be joined in a right line by 
 lapping and indenting the meeting ends on each other. 
 This is called scarphing. 
 
 3d. — The two pieces may be joined longitudinally, the 
 joint being secured by covering it on opposite sides by 
 pieces of wood, or metal, bolted to both beams. This is 
 called fishing. 
 
 7a. Joints That Form an Angle 
 
 Should two pieces of wood that meet and form an 
 angle be joined by simple contact of the end of one piece 
 with its bed on the other, the pieces are said to abut, 
 and the joint is called a plain joint. This method of 
 
 joining does not prevent one piece sliding on the other, 
 unless it is fastened with nails or bolts, and even when 
 these are used the joint will be a very insecure one. 
 
 Plate VIIa Illustrations 
 
 Fig. I shows the simplest means of obtaining resist- 
 ance to sliding by inserting the piece C in notches cut 
 in both pieces. On the upper view of joint is shown 
 the proper mode of securing joint by a bolt. A stronger 
 but more costly method of joining is the mortise and 
 tenon, and as this is the principle of a large number of 
 joints, I will describe it at length. 
 
 The simplest case of a mortise and tenon joint is 
 when two pieces of wood meet at right angles. Such 
 a joint is shown on Fig. 2. 
 
 The tenon is formed at the end of one piece in the 
 direction of its fibres and a mortise of exactly the same 
 size and form as the tenon is hollowed in the face of the 
 other piece. The sides of the mortise are called the 
 cheeks, and the square parts of the piece from which 
 the tenon projects, and which rest on the cheeks, are 
 called the shoulders. As the cheeks of the mortise and 
 the tenon are exposed to the same amount of strain, 
 it follows that each should be equal to one-third the 
 thickness of timbers in which they are made. 
 
 The length of a tenon should equal the depth of the 
 mortise, so that its end will press on bottom of mortise 
 
 Plate Vila 
 
40 
 
 WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 Plato vnij 
 
 when shoulders bear on the cheeks. In practice this 
 perfection of joining cannot be obtained, so the tenon 
 is generally made slightly shorter than depth of mortise, 
 thus enabling the shoulders to press closely upon cheeks. 
 
 When a mortise and tenon joint is cut and put to- 
 gether, the pieces are generally secured by a key or 
 treenail. The key is generally a round one having a 
 diameter equal to about one-fourth the thickness of the 
 tenon and it is usually inserted at a distance of about 
 one-third the length of tenon from the shoulder. 
 
 The key, however, is never depended upon as a means 
 of securing the joint, because joints of this kind should 
 be so closely fitted that they will hold together without 
 the aid of key. 
 
 The foregoing describes a simple tenoned joint when 
 the pieces to the joint are at right angles to each other. 
 
 When the pieces to be joined are not at right angles, 
 a more complicated method of tenoning must be used. 
 
 Fig. 1. 
 
 •AAA i^h Jk Al. 
 
 L 
 
 I 
 
 1 
 
 ~% 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 eS, 
 
 Fig. 3. 
 
 -mr 
 
 t*. 
 
 
 
 
 Plate Vlld 
 
 This method is shown on Fig. 3. 
 
 You will note that the cheeks of mortise are cut 
 down to form an abutment or notch, thus increasing the 
 bearing surface and adding to the resistance to slipping. 
 
 Plate VIIb Illustrations 
 
 Fig. 4 shows other forms of this kind of joint, and 
 on Fig. 5 I show methods of adding to resistance to 
 slippage by using straps and bolts. Note that a steel 
 wedge is inserted into opening of strap (a). 
 
 7b. SCARPHS 
 
 In ship-building it is often necessary to join timbers 
 in the direction of their length in order to secure scant- 
 lings of sufficient longitudinal dimensions. When it is 
 necessary to maintain the same depth and width in the 
 lengthened beam, the mode of joining is called scarphing. 
 Scarphing can be performed in a number of dififerent 
 ways, but in all cases it is very necessary to consider the 
 direction of strain to which the lengthened beam will 
 be subjected, whether longitudinal or transverse, and to 
 select the method that will give the maximum resistance 
 in the direction from which the strain comes. 
 
 The following illustrations will serve to explain a 
 number of excellent methods of scarphing and lengthen- 
 ing beams. 
 
 Plate VIIc Illustrations 
 
 Fig. 6 illustrates a plain scarphed joint. The end? of 
 each piece of timber are cut obliquely and lapped and 
 then secured by bolts that pass through plates or washers 
 to prevent the screwing up of the nuts injuring the wood. 
 
 The strength of a scarph of this kind depends en- 
 tirely upon the holding power of the bolts and the re- 
 sistance to slipping is very slight. 
 
 Fig. 7 shows a similar scarph, but as the ends are in- 
 dented and a key is inserted through opening cut in 
 timbers midway from ends of scarph, the resistance to 
 
WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 41 
 
 l^^^tT" 
 
 
 
 <? 
 
 i' : ^ 
 
 H L 
 
 
 ▼ 
 
 
 V 
 
 
 
 
 
 II 
 
 < 
 
 s 
 
 1_ 
 
 /J^ 
 
 
 Plato VHo 
 
 slipping is very greatly increased. This scarph is an im- 
 provement over Fig. 6. 
 
 Fig. 8 illustrates a scarph that is stronger than Fig. 7. 
 Here the indentions are placed at ends and center and 
 key is also used. With number of fastenings shown on 
 illustrations the relative strength of the three scarphs is: 
 
 Fig. 7 is one and one-quarter times the strength of 
 Fig. 6. 
 
 Fig. 8 is two and one-half times the strength of 
 Fig. 6. 
 
 Figs. 9 to 14 show other, more complicated, methods 
 of scarphing that can be used when maximum strength of 
 scarph is desired. 
 
 Figs. 15 and 16 show two views of combined ver- 
 tical and horizontal scarphs, and Figs. 17 and 18 illustrate 
 methods of lengthening beams by inserting a short piece 
 between two longer pieces. 
 
 When a beam does not have to be same thickness 
 throughout, the lengthening can be done by simply 
 
 butting the pieces and lacing pieces of timber each 
 side, bolting and keying the four pieces together. 
 
 Plate VIId Illustrations 
 
 Fig. I shows a plain fished joint. 
 
 Fig. 2 shows an indented fished joint. 
 
 Fig. 3 shows a keyed fished joint. A, B are keys. 
 
 This method of joining timbers is called fishing. 
 
 The timber used for the deck framing of a ship is 
 seldom of sufficient length to permit the use of one- 
 piece beams, so each beam and timber is generally com- 
 posed of two or more pieces scarphed together. 
 
 Plate VIIe Illustrations 
 
 On Plate Vile is shown methods of scarphing deck 
 beams. 
 
 Figs. 21 to 23 show accepted methods of scarphing 
 beams used for deck framing of vessels. 
 
42 
 
 WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 
 Plate Vile 
 
 Fig. 21 illustrates how a two-piece beam is put to- 
 gether, the upper view being a side or moulded view and 
 the lower one a view as seen from above. A scarph of 
 this kind is usually made one-third the length of the 
 whole beam. 
 
 In cases where it is necessary to make the beam out 
 of three pieces, the scarph is made in the manner shown 
 by Fig. 22. The length of scarph is usually about one- 
 fourth the length of beam. 
 
 Fig. 23 shows an exceptionally strong method of 
 scarphing beams. The keys in a scarph of this kind are 
 of iron or steel and must be tapered and fitted snugly, 
 and the lips of scarph must be cut square to the moulded 
 edge of beam. The length of this kind of scarph need 
 not be more than one-fifth or one-sixth length of beam. 
 
 7c. Dovetailing, Halving 
 
 Fig. 16 (Plate Vllf) shows two pieces of timber 
 joined together at right angles by a dovetailed notch. 
 As to dovetails in general, it is necessary to remark that 
 they should never be depended upon for joints exposed 
 
 to a strain, as a very small degree of shrinkage will allow 
 the joint to draw considerably. 
 
 Figs. 17 and 18 (Plate Vllf) show modes of mortis- 
 ing wherein the tenon has one side dovetailed or notched, 
 and the corresponding side of the mortise also dovetailed 
 or notched. The mortise is made of sufficient width to 
 admit the tenon, and the dovetailed or notched faces are 
 brought in contact by driving home a wedge c. Of 
 these. Fig. 18 is the best. 
 
 Fig. 19 (Plate Vllf) shows the halving of the tim- 
 bers crossing each other. Fig. 20 shows a joint simi- 
 lar to those in Nos. 17 and 18, but where the one timber 
 b is oblique to the other a. 
 
 Fig. 21 (Plate Vllf). — Nos. i and 2 show a mode of 
 notching a horizontal beam into the side of an inclined one 
 by a dovetailed joint. The general remark as to dove- 
 tailed joints applies with especial force to this example. 
 
 7d. An Explanation of Coaked Scarphs 
 
 The word coaked refers to a method of increasing 
 strength of scarphs by preventing the joint from moving 
 sideways or endways. A coak is a rectangular or round 
 
WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 43 
 
 piece of hard wood laid into the surface of the two pieces 
 of timber that are scarphed together in such a manner 
 that one-half of depth of coak will be in each piece of 
 timber. On Fig. 33 (page 49) is shown a properly coaked 
 keel scarph, and you will note that by the addition of 
 coaks the resistance to sliding has been greatly increased 
 and the holding strength of bolts has also been increased. 
 
 In the days when wooden ships were built in large num- 
 bers all the principal keel, stem, stern, keelsons and frame 
 scarphs were coaked, but in these days coaking is seldom 
 used, and in ignoring the advantages of coaking a scarph 
 I believe the shipbuilders are making a serious error. 
 Round coaks are used up to 3 inches'in diameter and rec- 
 tangular ones up to 3 inch X 6 inch. 
 
 Tig 
 
 (a.JO. 
 
 /^''./S/AA 
 
 T 
 
 \ 
 
 i i 
 
 
 Jk 
 
 Fin.n. 
 
 Vv^'N/' 
 
 
 > i. 
 
 
 j£L 
 
 Fiq. 18. 
 
 v/^xAV^ 
 
 Plate Vllf 
 
Chapter VIII 
 
 Describing the Different Parts of a Ship Constructed of Wood 
 
 In this chapter I shall describe and illustrate the prin- 
 cipal parts of a wooden ship's construction, explaining 
 the position each occupies, its duty, and how it is shaped 
 and fastened. 
 
 8a. Explanatory 
 
 The longitudinal form of a vessel is determined by 
 timbers called the keel, the stem and the stem-post. The 
 stem, which is at the foremost extremity, is supported by 
 its combination with the keel, which is the lowest part of 
 the structure, by other timbers lying in its concave part, 
 called the apron, and the stemson ; the apron and stemson 
 unite with timbers called the deadwood and with the 
 keelson, which timbers strengthen and give support to 
 the keel; the stern-post, which is at the aftermost ex- 
 tremity, is supported by timbers called the inner stern- 
 post and the sternson ; and these timbers likewise form 
 a junction with the keelson, deadwood, and keel, so that 
 a mutual connection is kept up by them, to preserve the 
 longitudinal form. 
 
 Transversely, the form is given by assemblages of 
 timbers placed vertically, called frames. The lowest tim- 
 bers of the frames, called floors, lie between the keel and 
 keelson, extending equally on each side; the other tim- 
 bers of the frames, called futtocks and top-timbers, con- 
 nect keel to the timbers that form the upper boundary 
 of the structure, which are called gunwales and plank- 
 sheers. 
 
 The longitudinal form is further maintained, and 
 strengthened, by exterior and interior linings, called plank- 
 ing, and by interior binders, called shelf-pieces, which 
 are united to the frames. The exterior lining or planking 
 which is connected with, and covers the whole surface of 
 the frame, is made watertight, to preserve the buoyancy 
 of the body. The two sides are connected and sustained 
 at their proper distance apart by timbers lying horizon- 
 tally, called beams ; these are firmly united to the sides 
 of the ship. Platforms, called decks, are laid on the 
 beams, on which the cabins for the accommodation of 
 officers and ship's company are placed. 
 
 The beams are so disposed on the different decks that 
 their sides may form the hatchways and ladderways, 
 which are the communications from one deck to another, 
 and to the hold ; and to give support to pieces fixed to 
 them, called mast partners, for wedging and securing 
 the masts. The beams on the different decks are placed 
 immediately over one another, in order that pillars may 
 be placed between them, to continue to the upper decks 
 the support given to lower beams by pillars resting on 
 keelson. 
 
 The deck beams are secured to the side by large tim- 
 bers, called shelf-pieces, on which the beams lie, and to 
 other large timbers called waterways, lying on ends of the 
 beams, both well fastened to the ship's side. Knees under 
 the beams, and steel plates bolted to the side, give addi- 
 tional security. 
 
 Below the lower deck, in two-decked ships and up- 
 wards, upon the inside planking, were formerly placed 
 interior frames, in the full part of the body, extending 
 from the keelson upwards to lower deck beams, called 
 bends or riders; the lowest timber, called the floor rider, 
 extended equally on each side of the middle ; the other 
 timbers, according to their position with this, were called, 
 first, second, and third futtock riders. These timbers 
 were intended to support the body against the upward 
 pressure should the ship ground. 
 
 These riders are in some cases omitted, diagonal frames 
 being introduced on the inside of frame timbers, form- 
 ing a system of braces and trusses, that takes their place. 
 The diagonal framing was brought into use to prevent 
 ships hogging through the unequal vertical pressures of 
 the weights downwards, and of water upwards, in 
 different parts of a ship's length. 
 
 At the present time, a greatly improved method of 
 diagonal framing is used. This method calls for the use 
 of flat steel straps on the outside of frames, the straps 
 being let in flush and placed to cross the frames and 
 each other at an inclination of about 45° from the per- 
 pendicular. In addition to this, steel plate riders and a 
 
 ng. 25 
 
WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 45 
 
 Fig. 26 
 
 Steel arch are worked on inside of frames, the arch 
 extending from near deadwood forward up to main deck 
 beams amidships and to stern-post near deadwood aft. 
 This arch is securely fastened to all the frames it crosses. 
 Figs. 25, 26, 27 and 28 show construction details of a 
 wooden ship, the principal parts being marked for identi- 
 fication. 
 
 8b. Keel. Description 
 
 The keel is the principal longitudinal timber of a ship 
 and is the first construction timber to set on the building 
 slip blocks. A ship's keel is usually parallel sided except 
 for a short distance near the forward and after ends, 
 where the sided dimension is reduced to that of stem 
 and stern post. 
 
 The sided and moulded (S. & M.) dimensions of keel 
 required for a ship can be ascertained, when ship's ton- 
 nage is known, by referring to Table of Dimensions 
 
 issued by classification society under whose rules the 
 ship is being built, (see Tables 3b to 3f) or it can be 
 calculated, when dimensions of ship are known, by using 
 formula at end of Chapter III. 
 
 8b\ Material For Keels 
 
 The keel of a ship should be made of selected straight- 
 grained, well-seasoned timber of a kind that is durable 
 when immersed in water, and that has sufficient tensile 
 strength to withstand the maximum keel strain. 
 
 The relative durability and strength of diflferent kinds 
 of woods used for keels is given in Tables 2 and 3. 
 
 In U. S. A. at present time, Douglas fir, and long- 
 leaf yellow pine, are the two most readily procurable 
 woods suitable for keels of large ships. Timbers of these 
 trees can be obtained in long lengths and of better quality 
 than other more highly rated (by insurance companies) 
 woods, and in addition to this these woods do not shrink 
 
 HALF - BEAM 
 
 HATC H WAV BEAM 
 
 Fig. 27 
 
46 
 
 WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 very much while seasoning and for this reason, if partially 
 seasoned timber is used, the danger of seams of scarphs 
 opening through wood shrinking is greatly reduced. 
 
 Fig. 29 is a photograph of a ship's keel being set on 
 building blocks; Fig. 30 shows photograph of keel, stim 
 and stern post of a shallow draught hull set on building 
 blocks, and Fig. 31 shows drawings of construction de- 
 tails of which keel forms a part. 
 
 8b^. Scarphing Keels 
 
 As timber long enough to make a keel of a ship is 
 difficult to obtain, it is very often necessary to join two or 
 more pieces lengthways by scarphing and bolting or 
 riveting. Keel scarphs should always be either nibbed 
 or hooked, because a plain scarph lacks strength and can- 
 not be held in place under the strain a keel is subjected 
 to. On Plate VIIc, 6, 7, 8, I show details of plain, 
 nibbed and hooked scarphs, the relative strength of each 
 
 being : The nibbed scarph has one and one-quarter times 
 the strength of the plain one, and the hooked scarph has 
 two and one-half times the strength of the plain one. 
 While scarphs can be cut either vertically or horizontally, 
 meaning by this cut on a vertical plane parallel to moulded 
 surface (side) of keel, or cut on a horizontal plane 
 parallel with sided surface (top) of keel, horizontal 
 scarphs are generally used when scarphing keels because 
 they are easier to cut, fasten and keep tight ; but no matter 
 which kind of scarph is used, it is very important to make 
 it of sufficient length to permit the proper number of 
 fastenings to be driven. Length of scarphs should vary 
 with dimensions of material and size of ship, but it is 
 safe to adhere to this rule: Make keel scarph extend 
 under at least four frames (three frame spaces). 
 
 In some cases, especially if ship is a large one, it is 
 necessary in addition to scarphing two or more timbers 
 
 Dead eye- 
 Upper Channel 
 
 Cham Puiic— 
 iBulwark , 
 
 Plankahe^'- - 
 SheeT9trake^- 
 
 ( Lower., 
 
 ^Clumrul 
 
 Cham Bolt... 
 Pltvcnter Boll 
 
 "Topgallatit RmI 
 
 ■Topgallant Bulwark Stanchwii 
 /Nam Rail 
 
 Bulwark Stanckion 
 Cp<.'cnng BoarJ 
 ■Waterway 
 / ,'hitier Wfiterway 
 
 f^F,dlwoh 
 "Wmher 
 
 'RultrKe^ow 
 MoMi Keelson. 
 Liniher-loard 
 
 Bottom Planhim 
 
 Floor or Floortini her^ 
 Vfali'rcourse'^ 
 
 K,-ct Rohhct 
 /-IT , , • E23a ^Jiaiiv Keel 
 
 Gari^^nl stmke- p^^^U,,,,Keel 
 
 Fig. 28. Cross-Section of Ship, Showing Construction Details, Marked For Identification 
 
WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 47 
 
 FlK. 29. Laying the Keel of Another Ship as Soon as the Accoma Left 
 the Ways at the Foundation Company's Yard 
 
 together to make the required length of keel, to also 
 fasten two or more timbers on top of each other to get 
 the required moulded (depth) size. 
 
 In such cases the scarphs must be located longitu- 
 dinally, so that there is a considerable distance between 
 the location of a scarph on top keel timber and that of 
 scarph on piece of timber immediately below. By doing 
 this each scarph is supported and strengthened against 
 hogging and sagging strains by the solid timber im- 
 mediately below or above. 
 
 8b". An Explanation of Coaked Keel Scarphs 
 
 The word "coaked" refers to a method of increasing 
 strength of scarphs by preventing the joint from moving 
 sideways or endways. A coak is a rectangular or round 
 piece of hard wood laid into the surface of two pieces of 
 timber, that are scsfrphed together, in such a manner 
 that one-half the depth of coak is in each piece of timber. 
 On Fig. 33 is shown a properly coaked keel scarph and 
 it is apparent that, by the addition of coaks, the resis- 
 tance to sliding and holding strength of bolts has been 
 greatly increased. In the days when wooden ships were 
 built in large numbers, all principal keel, stem, stem, 
 keelson and frame scarphs were coaked, but in these days 
 coaking is seldom used, and in ignoring the advantages 
 
 of coaking a scarph I believe the shipbuilders are mak- 
 ing a serious error. With modern machinery now avail- 
 able every scarph could be coaked without seriously in- 
 creasing cost. 
 
 8b*. Fastening Scarphs of Keels 
 
 Next in importance to cutting and* fitting is method of 
 securing, because the strength and number of fastenings 
 must be proper to withstand all strains put upon joint or 
 : carph. Fig. 33, drawing of keel, shows two pieces of 
 timber scarphed and fastened, the scarph being a longi- 
 tudinal nibbed and coaked one. Fastenings are clearly 
 indicated on drawing. Note there is a clench ring under 
 ^he head and also under riveted end of each fastening, 
 and that one-half the fastenings are driven from each 
 side (top and bottom) of keel. Below I mention a few 
 good rules to adhere to when laying out keel scarph 
 fastenings. 
 
 (a) Make the diameter of fastenings in accordance 
 with size laid down by classification society, and 
 bore holes for fastenings with an auger that is 
 at least one-eighth inch smaller than bolt. 
 
 (b) At extreme ends of scarph let there be double 
 fastenings. 
 
 (c) Space intermediate fastenings equally and locate 
 each fastening a sufficient distance inside edge 
 of keel to bring both the fastenings and washers 
 well inside and clear of rabbet. 
 
 (d) Locate all keel scarphs fastenings in positions 
 that will not interfere with the driving of frame 
 to keel fastenings, and keelson to frame and keel 
 fastenings. 
 
 On Fig. 33 is shown frames and keelson in position and 
 fastened to keel. 
 
 Sb'^. Stopwaters in Keel Scarphs 
 
 I will next call attention to the method of keeping 
 water from leaking through a horizontal keel scarph. 
 Before the scarph is put together for fastening, it is 
 usual to either paint or treat the surfaces that go to- 
 gether with some wood preservative and, of course, the 
 scarph is accurately fitted before it is fastened. But 
 these precautions do not prevent the wood shrinking 
 and the joint opening. So it is necessary to use some 
 methods of preventing water from passing inside the 
 ship should a scarph joint open. The most satisfactory 
 method of doing this is to put one or more stopwaters 
 through the seam of a scarph in such a location that the 
 stopwater will prevent water that passes along scarph 
 getting inside the ship. 
 
 A stopwater is a well-seasoned soft-wood dowel or 
 plug that is driven into a slightly smaller hole bored 
 edgeways along the seam of a scarph in such a manner 
 that one-half of hole will be each side of joint. 
 
 Of course the stopwater must be located in the proper 
 position, which is, in a keel scarph like the one I am 
 
48 
 
 WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 Fig. 30. Keel Set Up 
 
 referring to, in rabbet of keel. When located in this 
 position the caulking of garboard covers end of stop- 
 water and prevents water from passing back of it. Holes 
 for keel stopwaters should never be bored or stopwater 
 driven until ship is ready for planking. 
 
 On Fig. 34 I have shown keel stopwater in place ; 
 note it is in such a position that garboard will cover it. 
 
 Fig. 31. As Soon as the Congaree Was Lanncbed From the Foundation 
 Company's Yard Workmen Laid the Keel For Another Vessel 
 
 Sb" Keel Rabbet 
 
 In paragraph above I mentioned rabbet of keel, so 
 perhaps I had better explain how a keel rabbet is cut. 
 
 The rabbet extends from end to end of keel and 
 mei'ges into _ rabbet of stem and stern; it is sometimes a 
 groove cut at proper angle and width for plank to fit into 
 and sometimes is formed by beveling the upper corners 
 of keel in such a manner that garboard will fit square 
 against keel. On cross-section construction view (Fig. 
 28) a grooved rabbet cut near to top of keel is shown, 
 and on Fig. 29 (photo of keel) the beveled upper corner 
 rabbet can clearly be seen. Note that rabbet at end? of 
 keel is never cut until after stem and stern post is set 
 up and fastened in place. As regards value the advan- 
 tage lies with grooved rabbet, because the wood back of 
 groove forms a backing for caulking, while the groove 
 tends to add support to garboard along its lower edge, 
 and in addition to this the small amount of keel wood 
 above rabbet is sufficient to necessitate the notching of 
 floor timbers over keel and thus they are strengthened 
 against side thrust. As regards labor to construct the 
 advantage lies with the beveled-edge rabbet. 
 
 8b'. Edge-Bolting a Keel 
 
 In the days when wood was the principal shipbuild- 
 ing material, keels were nearly always edge-bolted, the 
 bolts being driven from alternate side of keel and spaced 
 
WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 49 
 
 the distance alternate frames were apart, all bolts being 
 placed some distance below garboard, as edge-bolts 
 through garboard into keel were considered sufficient to 
 strengthen the upper edge of keel. 
 
 Without doubt edge-bolting a keel is advantageous 
 because it tends to prevent keel being split by driving the 
 large number of vertical bolts that pass through it, and by 
 the working of these bolts when ship is afloat; and in 
 addition to this edge-bolting will oftentimes prevent a 
 keel splitting should the ship go aground. 
 
 Sb". False Keel, or Shoe 
 
 This is a relatively thin piece of timber 2 inches to 4 
 inches in thickness, that is fastened below keel for the 
 purpose of protecting its lower portion from damage 
 should a ship go aground. On Figs. 25 and 28 the false 
 keel is plainly marked. 
 
 The false keel extends the whole length of keel and 
 is fastened with independent fastenings that do not pass 
 entirely through keel, their number and strength being 
 sufficient to secure the keel under normal conditions, but 
 not sufficient to hold it in place should ship go aground. 
 The false keel is always fastened in place after ship is 
 built, and when keel timber is relatively soft material, 
 such as Douglas fir, or long-leaf yellow pine, false keel is 
 made of some durable wood, oak, hard maple or beech. 
 
 8c. The Stem 
 
 The stem is the extreme forward construction timber 
 of a hull and is the timber to which the ends of planking 
 are fastened. The stem is attached to forward end of 
 keel by scarphing and is reinforced and held in place by 
 knees or timbers riveted or bolted to both keel and stem ; 
 these timbers are clearly shown on Fig. 35, which is a 
 reproduction of the drawing of keel, stem and stemknee 
 construction of a modern wood ship. 
 
 The Fig. 35 construction details are the simplest that 
 it is possible to design, and in simplifying the construc- 
 tion strength has not been sacrificed. 
 
 For the purpose of enabling a comparison to be made 
 between the older and more modern methods of construct- 
 ing a stem I have shown on Fig. 36 stem construction 
 of a wood ship built in 1876. 
 
 Compare Fig. 35 with Fig. 36 and the more compli- 
 cated construction is noticeable. 
 
 When scarphing a stem to keel it must be remembered 
 that the scarph will have to withstand strains coming 
 
 fT^^^.. riiA.f 
 
 Coaled Keel Scarpb and Stopw^ter 
 
 from ahead, and therefore the scarph must be nibbed, 
 or hooked, in such a manner that it will add strength to 
 fastenings should the stem receive a direct blow from 
 ahead, as would be the case should ship hit another vessel 
 or take the ground head on. 
 
 On Fig. 35 and 36 the scarph fastenings are clearly 
 shown. * 
 
 You should also note that on Fig. 36 stem construc- 
 tion names of principal pieces are marked. 
 
 One thing should be kept in mind when laying out a 
 stem, and that is, to have the grain of wood run length- 
 ways of all pieces of timber. It is, of course, impossible 
 to have full-length grain in all pieces, but if the shape of 
 stem is such that a great deal of cross-grained wood must 
 be used, if stem is gotten out of straight planks or tim- 
 bers it is better to make use of some knees or material 
 that has a certain amount of natural bend of grain or 
 fibres. 
 
 Every piece of short grain should be supported or 
 backed by a piece having straight grain and the fasten- 
 ings should be spaced and located in such a manner th.at 
 the several pieces of timber will be rigidly fastened to- 
 gether and to keel. 
 
 A stem receives the ends of outside planking and there- 
 fore it must have a rabbet. This rabbet is cut either 
 upon the after edge, or along the stem a little distance 
 inside of its after edge, but in either case the rabbet ex- 
 tends from stem head to keel and is backed up by apron 
 piece into which a number of the plank end fastenings 
 will be driven. 
 
 Ahead of rabbet the stem is beveled to take the ap- 
 proximate shape of longitudinal lines of ship, and after 
 this beveling is completed the front of stem is frequently 
 protected by a piece of steel, called a stem band, that ex- 
 tends from above the heavy load water-line down to fore- 
 foot. 
 
 8d. The Apron 
 
 The apron is the piece of timber that is fitted to after 
 side of stem and extends from stem head down to for- 
 ward deadwood. In fact, the apron can be considered as 
 a continuation of forward deadwood. The apron forms 
 a support for stem and for the fastenings that hold the 
 forward ends of planking in place in stem rabbet. On 
 Figs. 35 and 36, the apron is clearly indicated, as well as 
 method of fastening it to stem. Some shipbuilders make 
 it a practice to allow apron piece to extend to forward 
 ends of planking, and thus the whole of rabbet is cut in 
 apron, and stem only forms a protection for the ends of 
 planking-. This method is largely resorted to when con- 
 structing smaller craft and it has the advantage of allow- 
 ing replacing a stem, should it be damaged, with the mini- 
 mum of labor. This method, however, has the disad- 
 vantage of reducing strength of construction. 
 
 In large vessels the rabbet for plank is cut in stem and 
 therefore joint between stem and apron is along a line 
 cut a short distance inside of bearding line of rabbet. 
 
50 
 
 pro O DEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 It is usual to make apron the same width as stem, 
 but if it is impossible to get proper bearing for planking 
 end fastenings without increasing width of apron, the 
 apron is made of material considerably wider than stem. 
 In fastening apron to stem, through bolts are usually em- 
 ployed, and care should be taken to space them in such a 
 manner that they will not interfere with bolts of cant 
 timbers or breasthook fastenings. In a number of cases 
 I have noticed that shipyards are driving apron and stem 
 fastenings parallel to each other. This is not good prac- 
 tice, and much better resuUs, so far as resistance to pull- 
 ing apart or damage is concerned, will be obtained by 
 driving fastenings at varying angles to each other. Tests 
 of the holding power of fastenings driven parallel to each 
 other and fastenings driven at various angles show that 
 "various angle" fastenings have a holding power 60% 
 greater than parallel fastenings. This test was made with 
 i-inch diameter fastenings connecting together two 12- 
 inch pieces of yellow pine. The power used was applied 
 for the purpose of separating the joint. 
 
 Hard wood is the best material to use for stem and 
 apron, and even if stem is made of a resinous wood, such 
 as fir or yellow pine, the apron should be of oak, or a 
 hard wood of similar strength and durability. Apron is 
 shown on Figs. 25, 35 and 36 illustrations. 
 
 8e. The Knightheads 
 
 Knightheads are timbers placed on each side of apron 
 when the rabbet is on after edge of stem, and partly on 
 stem and partly on apron when rabbet is cut along stem 
 and apron. These timbers give support to bowsprit, and 
 add strength to the foremost extremities of outside 
 planking (called hooding ends.) 
 
 Knightheads should extend a sufficient height above 
 bowsprit to receive the fastenings of bowsprit chock, and 
 
 a sufficient distance below deck to give necessary added 
 strength to the structure around the bowsprit. 
 
 When the diameter of bowsprit exceeds siding of stem 
 at head, so that knightheads would have to be cut con- 
 siderably to allow bowsprit to pass between them, pieces 
 of timber, called stem pieces, sufficiently thick to give 
 necessary increase of width to stem and apron, are 
 fastened to sides of stem and apron. 
 
 Knightheads and stem pieces are made to conform 
 to scantling of frame, and are bolted to stem. When 
 the bow of vessel is not too acute the bolts should pass 
 through both knightheads and stem; but when too acute 
 the bolts can be driven from each side through one knight- 
 head and stem only. 
 
 On Fig. 26 the knightheads are indicated. 
 
 8f. Forward Deadwood 
 
 This is the piece of timber placed on top of keel, 
 immediately aft of stem, for the purpose of making depth 
 of wood at forward end of keel sufficient to allow a solid 
 backing for the frames. 
 
 In most vessels, as stem is approached the lines narrow 
 to such an extent that the frames assume a "V"-Hke 
 appearance and this, of course, will increase the distance 
 between rabbet and bearding line, and from bearding 
 to cutting down line, or line where top edge of timbers 
 leave side of keel, stem or deadwood. On Figs. 25, 35 
 and 36 the forward deadwood is clearly shown. 
 
 Fig- 35 shows modern method of forward deadwood 
 construction when straight material is used, and Fig. 36 
 shows method of construction that was in use before the 
 advent of steel ships. The old method is more com- 
 plicated but it has the advantage of being more durable 
 and stronger than the more modern method. 
 
 In constructing forward deadwood it is essential that 
 fastenings be properly driven and correct in size and 
 
WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 5r 
 
 number. It is advantageous and advisable to nib the 
 ends of deadwood into keel and stem, and to use coaks 
 when deadwood is built of straight material. 
 
 The size of dimensions of deadwood is usually the 
 same as keel. 
 
 8g. Stern-Post 
 
 Stern-post is the perpendicular piece of timber 
 fastened to after end of keel. The stern-post forms a 
 portion of the after boundary of the framework of ship 
 and is the timber to which after ends of all lower planks 
 fasten. 
 
 The stern-post is usually constructed of material of 
 same sided dimensions as keel' and is rabbeted to re- 
 ceive the ends (after hoods) of all planks that terminate 
 at stern-post. It is usual to secure stern-post to keel 
 by tenoning it into mortises cut into keel, and securing 
 the tenoned lower end against rupture by placing dove- 
 tail plates (let in flush) on each side and securing them 
 with through bolts. In addition to this the stern-post is 
 supported and fastened to the after deadwood and to 
 shaft log if there is one. 
 
 In vessel propelled by sail only the after end of stern- 
 post is grooved in such a manner that forward edge of 
 rudder post will lay close against it, and by closing the 
 opening between stern-post and rudder eddies at this 
 point are eliminated. In such vessels the stern-post must 
 have a sufficient width and strength to receive the fasten- 
 ings of rudder gudgeon and pintle straps. 
 
 On Fig. 37 is shown details of sternpost construction 
 of sailing vessel, and you will note that the stern-post is 
 composed of two pieces of material fastened together. 
 This is done when width of available material is not suffi- 
 cient, or when additional strength of stern-post is needed. 
 The forward piece of the two is named the inner stern- 
 post. 
 
 On Fig. 39 is shown the modern method of construc- 
 tion at after end of keel. 
 
 In vessels that have a screw propeller located along 
 center line the stern-post is shaped to receive the out- 
 board bearing of propeller shaft, and rudder is hung some 
 distance aft of stern-post on a frame erected to receive 
 
 Fig. 38. Side Counter Timbers 
 
 it. Of course a hole for propeller shaft to pass through 
 must be bored through stern-post. 
 
 On Fig. 38 I show construction of stern-post of a 
 screw-propelled vessel. 
 
 8h. After Deadwood 
 
 The after deadwood bears the same relation to stern- 
 post that forward deadwood does to stem. It is fitted on 
 top of keel and against stern-post, and is sufficiently deep 
 to permit the heels of after frames to be secured to it. 
 The after deadwood is generally made of timber having 
 the same siding as keel and stern-post. 
 
 In screw-propelled vessels the upper edge of dead- 
 wood timbers forms a bearing for shaft log or box, and 
 after shaft log is in place the sternson knee is fastened 
 in place and adds strength to the whole assemblage of 
 pieces. 
 
 It is advantageous to use coaks in deadwood timbers 
 and to drive the fastenings at varying angles. 
 
 On Fig. 39 construction of screw-propelled vessel's 
 after deadwood is shown, and Fig. 37 shows construc- 
 tion of a sailing vessel's after deadwood; compare the 
 two types of construction. 
 
 On Fig. 36 is shown after deadwood construction of 
 vessel built in 1868. 
 
 8i. Counter Timbers — On Counter and Elliptical 
 
 Sterns 
 
 Counter timbers extend aft from stern-post in all 
 round and elliptical stern vessels to form the rake of 
 stern. There are in reality three counter timbers, two 
 side counter timbers and one center counter timber. 
 
 The side counter timbers are placed each side of stern- 
 post, extend aft at rake that lower portion of counter 
 must have, are set into grooves cut each side of stern- 
 post, and securely bolted to stern-post, to deadwood, to 
 
52 
 
 WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 Fig. 39. Constrnctlon Plan of Three-Masted Auxiliary Schooner, Which Will Carry 700 Tons Dead Weight 
 
 each Other, and to deadwood, sternson knee and shaft 
 log (if there is a shaft log) ahead of stern-post. 
 
 On Fig. 38 the side counter timbers of an elhptical 
 stern vessel are shown in place, and on Fig. 37 the 
 method of fastening them to deadwood and stem-post is 
 shown. 
 
 The center counter timber must be large enough to 
 fill the space between side counter timbers, and as rudder- 
 post opening is cut through the center counter timber the 
 distance from inside of one counter timber to inside of 
 the other one must be at least equal to diameter of rudder 
 post. 
 
 A rudder port is constructed around rudder-post 
 opening. After the three counter timbers are bolted to- 
 gether a rabbet to receive edge of planking that terminates 
 along counter is cut along the lower outer edge of out- 
 side counter timbers. 
 
 Fig. 40 illustrates modern elliptical stern construction 
 details. 
 
 8k. The Frame 
 
 This is the name given to the transverse timbers that 
 are shaped to the form of vessel and placed at stated dis- 
 tances apart from stem to stern. 
 
 Along the center portion of a vessel, where the shape 
 does not change very much, the frame timbers are placed 
 square to the longitudinal plane and for this reason are 
 named square frames. But at the ends (bow and stern) 
 where shape changes considerably the frame timbers are 
 placed obliquely to longitudinal vertical plane and for 
 this reason are named cant frames. (They are canted or 
 inclined from the perpendicular.) In addition to the 
 frame of a vessel being composed of a number of timbers, 
 placed as stated above, each separate frame is composed 
 of several pieces assembled and fastened together, and 
 each of these pieces (called timbers of the frame) has 
 a distinguishing name, viz., first, second, third, fourth, 
 fifth and sixth futtocks; and long and short top timbers. 
 Of course you will understand that the number of fut- 
 tocks will vary with size of vessel. 
 
 In addition to this each frame of the square body is 
 fastened to a floor timber that scores over and lays across 
 
 the keel. The cant frames do not generally have floor 
 timbers but have their lower ends mortised directly into 
 the deadwood or other piece of material against which 
 they rest. 
 
 The sided and moulded dimensions of frames and 
 also distance center of one frame is from center of next 
 one, called timber and space, is specified for all sizes of 
 
 Fig. 40 
 
 vessels (see Table 3b), and Fig. 41 defines the meaning 
 of terms Sided, Moulded, and Timber and Space. 
 
 Explanation of Terms 
 
 The sided measure of a frame is width or thickness of 
 material of which it is composed measured on fore-and- 
 aft line when frame is in position in vessel. 
 
 Moulded measure of a frame is width or breadth of 
 material of which frame is composed measured along a 
 transverse line when frame is in position in a vessel. The 
 
WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 53 
 
 term means the measurement of side on which the mould 
 of shape of frame is placed. 
 
 Timber and space means the longitudinal space, or 
 room, occupied by the timber of one frame added to the 
 space between it and the next frame. 
 
 On Fig. 28 I show a transverse view of an assembled 
 square frame, each piece of which is identified. 
 
 Beginning at the lower (keel) end of a frame I will 
 describe each piece and explain how the various pieces 
 are shaped and fastened together. 
 
 8k\ The Floor or Floor Timber 
 
 This is the name of the piece of timber that crosses 
 keel and serves to tie a frame on one side of keel with 
 one on the other. On the illustration the floor is clearly 
 marked. 
 
 The floors of the midship frame usually, in flat-floored 
 ships, extend out to about one-fourth the breadth on each 
 
 TIMBER Alto 
 SPACE I _ -^^ 
 
 MOUL 
 
 side of keel, but it must be remembered that if the floors 
 are doubled (two floors placed alongside of each other) 
 each will have a long and a short arm, the long arm of 
 one floor being on side of keel that the short arm of 
 adjacent one is. The reason for this is explained in 
 description of frame timbers. 
 
 Floors are secured to keel with bolts, and if notched 
 over keel their lowest points must exactly reach to 
 bearding line of rabbet. The distance from bearding line 
 of rabbet of keel to the upper part of floors, at their 
 center line, is called the cutting down, or throating. 
 
 Dimensions of floors and their fastenings are given 
 in Tables 3b and 3d. 
 
 8k-. The Frame Timbers 
 
 The pieces of timber of which a frame is composed 
 
 must be disposed in such a manner that they can be 
 fastened together securely.- This is done by shifting the 
 butts and bolting the pieces together in the manner illus- 
 trated on Figs. 28 and 42a and explained below. 
 
 The floor on illustration is a double one, the dash line 
 marked near keel across it indicating the end of a short 
 arm, and the full line a little further out indicating end 
 of a long arm. 
 
 The first futtock is butted against the end of short arm 
 of floor and the upper end of this futtock extends to 
 dotted line next above the full line that indicates end of 
 long arm of floor. This permits lower portion of first 
 futtock to be bolted to portion of long-arm floor that 
 extends beyond the short arm of adjacent floor. The 
 lower end of second futtock butts against long-arm end 
 of floor and upper end of this futtock extends some 
 distance above upper end of first futtock. The lower 
 end of second futtock is fastened to portion of upper end 
 of first futtock that extends beyond end of long arm of 
 floor. In this manner each succeeding futtock overlaps 
 and is bolted to the one below, and thus any short grain 
 of wood at the end of a futtock is strengthened by the 
 long grain of piece that overlaps it. On illustration the 
 even numbered futtocks are marked for identification, 
 and location of odd numbered ones is indicated by dash 
 lines and numbers only. 
 
 Bolts are used to fasten the futtocks to floor arms and 
 to each other, and if maximum strength is desired round 
 coaks are inserted between the overlapping portions of 
 futtocks. 
 
 All fastenings of futtocks should be located in posi- 
 tions that will keep them clear of knee and waterway 
 fastenings, and if filling frames are to be used the heads 
 and ends of bolts that are located where filling frames 
 will be must be countersunk flush with surface of wood. 
 
 8k^. Filling Frames 
 
 This is the name given to short frames located between 
 the frames proper and extending from keel to about the 
 turn of bilge. Their use is to strengthen the transverse 
 bottom framing of vessel, but originally they were used 
 in conjunction with caulking to make the whole of bottom 
 of a vessel's transverse framing watertight. 
 
 The old method of using filling frames was to make 
 these frames extend from keel to orlop deck location and 
 to completely fill spaces between frames proper. Thus 
 the whole of bottom and bilges of a vessel was made one 
 solid mass of wood, and when the seams between the 
 various frames and filling frames were caulked with 
 oakum the whole bottom framing of vessel was made 
 watertight. Construction of this kind requires a very 
 large amount of material, and the weight of a vessel con- 
 structed in this manner is much greater than that of a 
 vessel constructed in accordance with modern ideas of 
 what is proper and necessary. In present-day construc- 
 tion of large vessels one filling frame, or at most two, 
 
54 
 
 WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 Fig. 42. The Dimensions Are: L. O. A. 200 Ft., Length on Deck 177 Ft., Breadth 36 Ft. 8 In. She l3 to be Rigged With Porr Masts 
 
 is placed between each two regular frames, the filling 
 frames extending out to about turn of bilge. 
 
 In small and moderate sized vessels the filling frames 
 are frequently omitted entirely. 
 
 In addition to these filling frames, filling pieces are 
 placed in the wake of fore, main, and mizzen rigging, 
 wherever a valve connection passes through the bottom or 
 side of vessel, where a knee will not coincide with a 
 regular frame, and wherever an opening of any kind is 
 cut through side or bottom. 
 
 8k*. Cant Frames 
 
 I have already mentioned that some of the frames are 
 canted out of perpendicular. I will now explain the 
 reason for doing this. 
 
 When referring to the transverse framing a vessel is 
 considered as being divided into two principal parts, one 
 part being named the square body frame and the other 
 the cant body frame. Along the square body (the part of 
 a vessel where the shape of cross-section changes very 
 little) the frames stand perpendicular at right angles to 
 center line of keel, and parallel to each other; and along 
 the portions of a vessel where cant frames are located the 
 frames are canted, or swung around to an angle, thus 
 increasing the distance they are apart at deck line. Cant 
 frames are canted forward at bow, and aft at stern, the 
 number of cant frames varying in each vessel and depend- 
 ing upon fullness at deck relative to fullness along dead- 
 wood at stem and stern. The reason that forward and 
 aft frames of a wooden vessel are canted is, that in the 
 
 parts where deck outline merges into stem, and around 
 the curve of an elliptical stern square timbers would have 
 to be beveled to an excessive degree to make planking lay 
 against the frames for their full width, and this exces- 
 sive beveling would greatly weaken frames ; or if frames 
 were a sufficient width to allow for beveling an excessive 
 amount of material would be wasted. 
 
 By inclining, or canting, each frame so that its outer 
 face parallels, as near as possible, the deck outline the 
 amount of bevel necessary to make plank fit against a 
 frame for its full width is greatly reduced and additional 
 strength of frame is obtained without adding to the ma- 
 terial. Cant frames at bow always cant forward and 
 those at stern cant aft. 
 
 On Fig. 4 2 I show views of forward cant frames in 
 position. You will note by referring to illustration that 
 no change is made in spacing of lower ends of cant 
 frames, but by canting the actual interval (space) be- 
 tween upper ends of frames increases, and as outer face 
 of frames more nearly follows shape of vessel's out- 
 line, they oflfer a greater resistance to pressure of waves 
 at bow and at stern. 
 
 The lower ends of cant frames are always "boxed" 
 into deadwood about i^ inches deep, except in range of 
 a shaft hole, and each cant frame is bolted through dead- 
 wood. 
 
 Before the days of steel ships it was usual to cant all 
 frames ahead and aft of the middle body, but modem 
 wooden shipbuilders do not consider it necessary to cant 
 
WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 55 
 
 f«.-lTTMMC1 roP KEEl--iC«« TTC 
 
 Fig. 42a. Midship Constrnction Plan of Four-Masted Schooner Building For J. W. Somervllle, Designed by Cor & Stevens 
 
 more than a few frames at extreme bow and a few at ex- 
 treme stem. 
 
 The old method is certainly the best but it entails a 
 greater amount of work both in the mould loft and when 
 erecting the frame. 
 
 81. Hawse Pieces 
 
 Hawse pieces are pieces of timber used to fill in 
 between the knightheads and the foremost cant frames. 
 Their use is to give solid wood for the hawse pipe to pass 
 through and fasten to. 
 
 In reality hawse pieces are cant frames that close the 
 openings between forward cant frames from the knight- 
 heads aft as far as necessary to give good solid fastening 
 for hawse-pipe flanges. The lower ends of hawse timbers 
 are bolted to the apron and the several hawse timbers are 
 edge-bolted together, care being taken to keep bolts clear 
 of positions where^ breasthooks and hawse holes are 
 located. On Figs. 25 and 26 hawse pieces are marked 
 and on Fig. 42 they are very clearly shown. 
 
 8m. Keelsons 
 8m^ Main 
 
 The keelson is a timber placed immediately over keel 
 on top of the floors, over which it is sometimes notched, 
 and extending from forward deadwood to after dead- 
 
 wood. It unites in one solid structure the keel, floors 
 and deadwoods. 
 
 The main keelson is usually built up of a number of 
 pieces scarphed together, and when laying out a keelson 
 it is necessary to locate the scarphs in positions that 
 will not bring them immediately over a keel scarph. The 
 scarphs are usually nibbed and have a length equal to at 
 least two frame intervals (double the room and space). 
 Some of the fastenings of scarphs must pass through both 
 floors and keel, and if the maximum strength of construc- 
 tion is desired two or three circular coaks should be fitted 
 into each scarph. The lips of scarphs are fastened with 
 two short bolts that do not pass through keel. 
 
 At forward end of vessel the main keelson usually 
 scarphs into deadwood and is then secured to apron by 
 means of a stemson knee. Aft the main keelson scarphs 
 into deadwood and in some vessels the sternson knee 
 rests upon main keelson and serves to fasten its after end 
 to stern-post. 
 
 The main keelson is fastened in place with bolts that 
 pass through floors and into keel, and in vessels that are 
 well constructed additional strength is given to the whole 
 structure by coaking the lower piece of main keelson to 
 each floor and filling that it crosses: 3-inch diameter 
 coaks are used for doing this. 
 
 If the main keelson is built up of two or more tim- 
 bers placed on top of each other the pieces should be 
 
50 
 
 WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 coaked together with square coaks before the through 
 floor and keel fastenings are driven. 
 
 On Figs. 25, 28, 35 a main keelson is shown in its 
 proper position in a vessel. 
 
 8m^. Sister Keelsons 
 
 Sister keelsons are generally placed each side of and 
 close to main keelson, extending fore-and-aft parallel with 
 main keelson to where the reduction in width of floor of 
 vessel reduces their depth to about 6 inches. 
 
 These keelsons, in properly constructed vessels, are 
 coaked to floors and filling timbers with circular coaks, 
 then bolted to floors and fillings and edge-bolted to main 
 keelson. Scarphs of sister keelsons are cut and fastened 
 the same as main keelson scarphs. On Fig. 28 sister 
 keelsons are shown in place. 
 
 8m^. Boiler or Bilge Keelsons, 
 
 In all vessels having machinery, two or more boiler 
 or bilge keelsons are run parallel with sister keelsons and 
 suflSiciently apart to form the lower timber of engine and 
 boiler foundations. These keelsons are coaked and 
 fastened to all frames and filling they cross, and are al- 
 ways extended as far as possible forward and aft, because 
 by doing this the strain caused by weight of machinery, 
 as well as the local vibrations caused by the rotation of 
 engine crank are spread over a wide extent of the struc- 
 ture. 
 
 8m*. Rider Keelsons 
 
 Rider keelsons are placed on top of main keelsons 
 for the purpose of giving additional strength to the whole 
 longitudinal structure of a vessel. In Chapter V on Strains 
 I explained that hogging and sagging strains can best be 
 resisted by adding strength to the longitudinal members 
 of a vessel's structure, and this the rider keelson does. 
 
 On Fig. 28 a rider keelson is shown in position. 
 
 Rider keelson scarphs and fastenings are similar to 
 those in keelsons, and of course scarphs must be prop- 
 erly located so as not to coincide with keelson or keel 
 scarphs. 
 
 Power of resistance against hogging and sagging 
 strains is increased when rider keelson fastenings are 
 diagonally driven at varying angles from the perpen- 
 dicular. 
 
 8n. Stem SON 
 
 The stemson is the piece of material, a natural knee, 
 placed in angle formed by apron, upper piece of dead- 
 wood and forward end of keelson. It acts, as an addi- 
 tional support for stem and serves to properly tie keelson 
 and forward deadwood to stem and apron. 
 
 The fastenings go through stem, apron and stemson 
 at one end, and keel, deadwood, keelson and stemson at 
 the other. 
 
 It is advantageous to use coaks in addition to the 
 metal fastenings, and of course all fastenings should be 
 through "bolts clenched on rings. 
 
 On Fig. 25 the stemson is clearly indicated. 
 
 80. Sternson 
 
 The sternson bears the same relation to stern-post that 
 stemson does to stem. It is used to strengthen stern- 
 post and is, in the case of vessels having a shaft log, 
 placed on top of log and serves to hold log in position. 
 
 On Fig. 25 a sternson knee is shown; but in present- 
 day practice stemson and sternson knees are now seldom 
 used, as an examination of illustrations and construction 
 details shown in this book will indicate. 
 
 8p. Diagonal Steel Bracing of Frame 
 
 Steel straps are fastened diagonally across outside of 
 the frame of a vessel for the purpose of strengthening 
 vessel against strains that tend to change its shape longi- 
 tudinally. (Hogging or sagging strains.) These straps 
 are let into frames flush, cross frames at about 45° in- 
 clination, and are fastened with at least one bolt through 
 each strap into each frame, and to each other with rivets 
 wherever two straps cross. The dimensions of straps, 
 their number and location varies with the size of the ves- 
 sel. (See Table 3a in Chapter III.) 
 
 On Fig. 25 is shown by dotted lines the general direc- 
 tion of diagonal straps. In large vessels, in addition 
 to diagonal straps, it is usual to insert a steel strap arch 
 on inside of frames. This arch begins at stem near to 
 deadwood, rises in a curve to lower side of upper deck 
 beams at about midships, and from these descends in a 
 curve to near deadwood at stern-post. This strap is let 
 into frames flush and is fastened in place with one bolt 
 into each frame. Bear in mind that these and the 
 diagonal straps are supplemented later by one or more 
 of the planking fastenings at each frame going through 
 both strap and frame. 
 
 8q. Planking 
 
 Planking is the name given to outer covering of the 
 transverse frame. It is put on in strakes that run from 
 stem to stem, each strake being properly proportioned 
 in width from bow to midship and from midship to 
 stern. In other words, the planks are not parallel for 
 their entire length but have their widths graduated in 
 such a manner that the number of planks required to fill 
 space at stem, which is the narrowest space to fill, will 
 also fill space at midship section, which is the widest 
 space to fill. A single plank that runs from stem to stern 
 is called a strake of planking. Below I give names and 
 description of principal planks. 
 
 8q'. Garboard 
 
 The plank next to keel is named the garboard. The 
 lower edge of this plank is fitted into rabbet of keel, stem, 
 and stern-post, and it is usual to edge-bolt this plank to 
 keel, in addition to fastening it in the usual manner to all 
 frames at crosses. The garboard is generally made of 
 thicker material than rest of planking, as you will note by 
 referring to Fig. 42a. 
 
WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 57 
 
 In a large vessel there may be two or three thick 
 strakes next to garboard proper. In such cases each 
 strake is slightly thinner than garboard proper, and it is 
 correct to refer to all these thick strakes as being gar- 
 board strakes. Technically there can be only one gar- 
 board strake, but as it is impossible to obtain one plank 
 sufficiently wide to cover the space that thick strake next 
 to keel should cover, the term garboard is used when re- 
 ferring to all thick strakes next to keel. 
 
 On Fig. 42a -three thick strakes are shown and you 
 will note how each succeeding plank is slightly thinner 
 than the last one put on. When planking a vessel the 
 garboard is the first bottom plank put in position, and 
 after vessel is planked the excess thickness is "dubbed off" 
 for a few feet at bow and stern. 
 
 8q^. Sheer Strake 
 
 The top strake of planking is called the sheer. This 
 is usually the first strake of planking put on. 
 
 As this plank is an important one in the assemblage 
 of planks that aid in resisting longitudinal strains its 
 strength should be at a maximum, and for this reason 
 butts of sheer strake should also be scarphed and edge- 
 bolted instead of being butted in the manner that planks 
 
 .. ., Outside plankui^-- , , 
 ,,--'' / ( InteriuiL oiecoj ^-^ '---^ 
 
 •r" — * -~ * » » » ■ # J^ 
 
 j \.^\.~^ tWrs^f>ftvVj^^^ 
 
 " : i/ iteoJ.' 
 
 of other strakes are joined. On Fig. 43 is shown a 
 proper method of scarphing and fastening a sheer strake. 
 The scarph, as you will note, is a nibbed one that ex- 
 tends across three frames and after planks are fastened 
 in position the scarph is edge-bolted between frames, the 
 edge-bolts passing through sheer and into next plank 
 below. * 
 
 Sq". The Wales (an old term) 
 
 This name applies to an assemblage of planks that 
 covers the frame from immediately below sheer strakes 
 (the three or four top strakes used to be termed sheer 
 planking) to bilge planking, which commences at or near 
 to bilge. The term is seldom used by shipbuilders of 
 the new school. 
 
 The wales were always somewhat thicker than the rest 
 of planking and it was usual to designate wale strakes 
 according to their location. Thus the wale strakes lo- 
 cated where channel fastenings are, were named channel 
 wales. The planks below were named the main wales, 
 and below these again were the diminishing strakes, so 
 called because it was here the planks began to be dimin- 
 ished in thickness and merge into bottom planks located 
 immediately below the diminishing strakes and which 
 filled space between them and garboard strakes. 
 
 On Fig. -28 I have identified the various assemblages 
 of planks by marking names against them. 
 
 New Planking Names 
 
 The present-day method of planking is similar to the 
 old in many respects, but as all planks between sheer and 
 garboard strake are alike in thickness and method of 
 fastening, the old distinguishing names for the thicker 
 planks have become obsolete and now all planks between 
 top of garboard and bilge are known as bottom plank- 
 ing, and that from bilge to under side of sheer as top- 
 side planking, or side planking. 
 
 On Fig. 42a illustration shows the new planking 
 method with names of assemblage of planks marked for 
 identification. 
 8q*. Caulking 
 
 Caulking is the operation of making seams of planking 
 watertight by forcing oakum into the seams by means of 
 a caulking iron and mallet. In caulking the thickness of 
 plank regulates the quantity of oakum that should be 
 driven into each seam or butt joint. The following table 
 gives number of threads of oakum for planks from 10 
 inches down to i inch thick. 
 
 Ijiij ii 1^ w i;»ji) liis!) j!iiai |;S^ lij p tiiw 
 
 Fig. 43 
 
 
 
 
 Number of 
 
 Number of 
 
 
 
 
 Double Threads of 
 
 Single Thread 
 
 Thick 
 
 ness of Pis 
 
 nk 
 
 Oakum 
 
 Spunyarn 
 
 
 10 
 
 inches 
 
 13 
 
 2 
 
 B 
 
 9 
 
 
 12 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 II 
 
 2 
 
 . 
 
 7 
 
 
 10 
 
 2 
 
 .o_« 
 
 6 
 
 (( 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 
 •n c J 
 c rt 1 
 
 S 
 
 tt 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 «-5, 
 
 4 
 
 " 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 <U 
 
 3 
 
 
 4 
 
 I 
 
 rt 
 
 2j 
 
 ^2 " 
 
 3 
 2 
 
 __ 
 
 ^ 
 
 2 
 
 tt 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 it 
 
 I 
 
 — 
 
ss 
 
 WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 Double Threads, Double Threads. White 
 
 
 Deck. 
 
 
 Black Oakum 
 
 Oakum or Cotton 
 
 9 inches 
 8 " 
 
 
 II 
 10 
 
 
 
 5 " ^ 
 
 t '■ ■ 
 
 2/ " 
 
 
 9 
 
 7 
 S 
 4 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 I 
 I 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 
 Single Threads. 
 Black Oakum 
 
 Single Threads, White 
 Oakum or Cotton 
 
 4 inches 
 
 
 3 
 
 I 
 
 3 " 
 2^ inches 
 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 I 
 I 
 
 2 " 
 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 In order that the proper quantity of oakum may be 
 driven all seams to be caulked are made tight at the 
 bottom and open at surface. This is .called allowing the 
 seam. 
 
 The necessary seam for plank of any thickness may 
 be found by drawing two lines, lo inches long, so that 
 they meet at one end, and are yi inch apart at the other ; 
 if the thickness of plank be set off from the point where 
 lines meet, the distance lines are apart at this place will 
 be the open seam that must be allowed. The progressive 
 manner of caulking is, by first driving wedge-like irons 
 into the seams to open them on the surface. This opera- 
 tion is called raiming or reeming. After this, the spun- 
 yarn, white oakum or cotton, is driven, if any, and then 
 the number of black threads, which are then hardened, or 
 what is called horsed up; this is done by one man hold- 
 ing, in the seam upon the oakum, an iron, fixed in a 
 handle, called the horse iron, and another driving upon it 
 with a large mallet, called a beetle, that the oakum may 
 be made as firm as possible and be below the outer sur- 
 face of the plank. It is of importance, in order to give 
 firmness to the caulking, and to prevent decay, that the 
 threads be driven into the seam as far as possible, or 
 driven home, and not choked, as is sometimes the case. 
 The whole of the oakum driven should form a wedge 
 and be what is called, well bottomed. 
 
 Ott Fig. 44 are shown men engaged in caulking out- 
 side planking seams of a vessel's bottom. 
 
 Inside Planking of a Vessel 
 
 Sq". Ceiling 
 
 This is the name given to planking that covers inside 
 of the frames of a vessel. It begins below clamps and 
 covers the entire inside of frames from clamps to keel- 
 son. 
 
 On Figs. 28, 43 and 43a methods of fastening the 
 ceiling are clearly shown and on Fig. 42a is shown 
 present-day method of ceiling a vessel which I will now 
 describe. 
 
 Immediately next to keelson is laid the limber stroke, 
 which is a strake of ceiling placed in such a position that 
 by removing portions of it access to limber chains or 
 watercourses can be obtained. (See Fig. 28.) 
 
 Immediately next to limber strake begins the ceiling 
 
 Fig. 44 
 
 proper and this extends to just below turn of bilge where 
 the bilge ceiling begins. The bilge ceiling is of thicker 
 material than ceiling proper and extends up until curve 
 of bilge is passed, when the thinner ceiling again begins 
 and extends up to air course left directly under clamps. 
 Ceiling extends from bow to stern, is put on in 
 strakes that fit tightly against one another, and is se- 
 curely fastened to frames and filling, some of the fasten- 
 ings going through both frames and outside planking. 
 On Fig. 43b is shown interior view of a vessel with 
 bottom ceiling in place. 
 
 8q'. Fastening the Planking 
 
 It is necessary to describe the fastenings both outside 
 and inside (ceiling) planking at one time because many 
 of the fastenings go through outer plank, frame, and 
 inner plank. Correct fastening of planking is essential 
 for strength, and not only must the fastenings be ample 
 in number and of proper size, but they must be properly 
 located and driven. 
 
 First I will call your attention to a most important 
 detail of fastening frequently overlooked by shipbuilders 
 of the present-day. 
 
 All plank fastenings are driven through holes bored 
 with an auger. Up to within the last year or so these 
 fastening holes were bored with hand-operated augers, 
 and the regulations for proper sizes of holes (based upon 
 experience) stipulated that holes should be bored % inch 
 
WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 59 
 
 Fig 43a. Laying Ceiling 
 
 (for i-inch fastening) smaller than fastening. This in- 
 sured that fastening would fit tightly into hole and hold 
 properly after it was driven. This regulation for fiand- 
 bored fastening holes is absolutely sound and correct, but 
 when it is applied to machine-drilled holes it is incorrect 
 and results in fastenings being loose and insecure. 
 
 When a fastening hole is drilled with an auger at- 
 tached to an air-driven tool the auger should be one or 
 two sizes SMALLER than the one used for boring for 
 same sized fastening by hand. The smaller size augei 
 is necessary when a machine is used because the higher 
 speed of rotation, coupled with the difficulty of holding 
 auger perfectly vertical and steady, nearly always causes 
 the hole to assume an oblong shape and to become slightly 
 larger than size of auger. 
 
 Whenever a fastening hole is to be bored with a ma- 
 chine-operated auger use an auger one size smaller 
 than is specified for hand-operated augers. 
 
 Two kinds of fastenings are used for connecting 
 planking to the frame; 2vood (called treenails) and 
 metal (copper, composition metal, or iron), and the fasten- 
 ings can be spaced either single, double, or alternate 
 single and double. 
 
 By single fastening is meant each strake having one 
 fastening of each kind into each frame; by double fasten- 
 ing is meant each strake having two fastenings of each 
 kind into each frame, and by alternate fastening is meant 
 each strake having one fastening of each kind in every 
 other frame and t\Vb fastenings of each kind into each 
 frame between single fastened frames. 
 
 On Fig. 45 is shown sections of planking with single, 
 double, and alternate fastenings through each strake. 
 Before the advent of steel ships the larger wooden ves- 
 sels were nearly always double fastened, medium-sized 
 ones were double fastened above water and alternate 
 fastened below, and the smaller ones were alternate 
 fastened above water and single fastened below. This 
 
 practice was an excellent one and with this modification 
 should be followed in these days : Wherever fastenings 
 of knees, clamps, shelf, pointers, or riders pass through 
 frame and outer planking the planking fastenings should 
 be only sufficient in number to draw planking to its posi- 
 tion against frames. 
 
 The reason for this modification is: The through 
 fastenings of parts mentioned must have a clear' passage- 
 way through frames and must have proper amount of 
 solid wood surrounding them. If double fastenings of 
 planking are driven in places where other fastenings must 
 pass through, one of two things may happen, — either the 
 additional fastenings will cut an excessive amount of 
 wood from frames and thus weaken the frame, or else 
 the fastenings of planking will interfere with knee and 
 other additional fastenings. 
 
 It is well to bear in mind this important fact — treenail 
 fastenings resist transverse strains better than metal, but 
 the metal will better resist direct separation strains. It 
 therefore is apparent that a wise combination of the two 
 kinds of fastenings is most desirable. 
 
 As the inside planking (ceiling) is not laid at the 
 same time that outside planking is a certain proportion 
 of both outer and inner planking fastenings must be 
 driven into frames only. 
 
 The usual manner of fastening is somewhat along 
 these lines : The outer planking is first fastened with a 
 certain number of metal fastenings that pass through 
 
 Fig. 13b. Edge Bolting Ceiling 
 
60 
 
 WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 Single Fantening. 
 
 ~^ I'-i M M n r-1 rn M M r^ i^- ^^ M M ''H 
 
 :o :;o ', ',o :io :;o 
 
 rjrfi^MAwnaijg 
 
 ^^^^ Iw^J Iv^ 1-^ twv^ t-vw^l U-v^ U/iA^ ^,^A4 l-wW U\^ ^J tw\J '"^ ^A^ 
 X Dump * Bolt. 
 
 Fig. 45. Planking Fastenings 
 
 planking and into frames for about two-thirds of their 
 depth, a certain number of treenail fastenings are then 
 driven through outer planking and frames and wedged 
 tight. These fastenings are only sufficient in number 
 to securely hold planking in position until inner plank- 
 ing (ceiling) is wrought. 
 
 The ceiling is first fastened with a minimum number 
 of short fastenings that only pass through ceiling and 
 into frames. After ceiling is in place the planking fasten- 
 ings that go through outer and inner planking and frame 
 are put in, the metal ones being clenched and the wood 
 ones wedged. 
 
 To fasten butts through bolts, treenails and short 
 welts are used. Butts are usually cut upon the middle 
 of a timber and are fastened with one treenail and one 
 short bolt through the butt of each plank into butt tim- 
 ber (timber butt is cut on) and one through bolt, called 
 a butt bolt, in timbers nearest to butt timber. 
 
 On Fig. 46 is shown a properly cut and fastened butt 
 and below the illustration are given rules for spacing 
 butts. 
 
 Now a few words about wedging treenails. 
 
 After treenails are driven their ends are cut off flush 
 and wedged with hardwood wedges, the wedges serving 
 the double purpose of expanding ends of treenails and 
 thus increasing resistance to separation of ^he two or 
 three pieces of material that the treenails fasten together ; 
 and of caulking the ends. 
 
 Very large treenails used to be caulked with three 
 wedges forming a triangle, and small ones with two 
 wedges crossing each other at right angles,. but in these 
 days the practice is to use the cross wedges on very large 
 treenails and a single wedge on the smaller ones. Tree- 
 nails must drive tight, meaning by this, be driven through 
 holes that are somewhat smaller than the treenail. On 
 Fig. 47 are shown a number of treenails ready to drive. 
 
 8r. The Clamps 
 
 The clamps are two or three thick planks extending 
 the whole length of frame and located immediately under 
 each tier of deck beams, their use being to help support 
 
 deck beams and add strength to the structure along point 
 of joining of a deck with side framing. 
 
 In sailing vessels the deck beams very often rest 
 directly upon clamps and are fastened to them and to 
 frame of vessel with hanging knees. These knees are 
 shown in outline on Fig. 28. 
 
 In ships driven by steam and in many of the larger 
 sailing crafts the clamps form a backing for shelf on 
 which the deck beams rest. 
 
 Each tier of beams has its clamps and shelf. (See 
 Fig. 28.) 
 
 The upper edge of each set of clamps is usually 
 located at proper height to allow deck beams to be let 
 in about one inch, or if it is not intended to let beams in, 
 the upper edge is placed high enough for beams to have 
 a full bearing. 
 
 If maximum strength is desired clamps should be 
 coaked to frames, each assemblage of clamps should be 
 edge-bolted between timbers and butts should be scarphed ; 
 the scarphs being sufficiently long to extend over and 
 fasten to three frames. All scarphs should be properly 
 edge-bolted. 
 
 Clamps are usually first fastened to frames only, and 
 after they are firmly set in their proper position addi- 
 tional fastenings that go through outer planking, frame 
 and clamp, are driven from outside and clenched on 
 clamp. 
 
 8r^. Air Course 
 
 This is an opening left immediately under lowest 
 clamp plank for the purpose of allowing air to circulate 
 freely around the frames. (See Fig. 28.) 
 
 8s. The Shelf 
 
 This is the name given to a heavy continuous timber, 
 or a combination of two or more timbers, that extends 
 from bow to stern at each tier of deck beams and is 
 fastened to inner face of upper clamps in a position that 
 will allow deck beams to have a full width bearing on 
 upper face of shelf. 
 
 On Fig. 42a the shelf is shown in position under 
 a deck beam. Shelf timbers are usually scarphed in the 
 same manner that clamps are, and are securely fastened 
 to clamps, frames and outer planking. 
 
 The duty of a shelf is to resist strains tending to ex- 
 tend the vessel, to support deck beams and form a secure 
 base for securing them to. 
 
 8s\ Shelf Fastenings 
 
 Shelves are fastened in the same manner that clamps 
 are and, in addition, they are fastened to clamps with 
 metal fastenings driven through shelf and into at least 
 two of the clamp timbers. (See Fig. 42a.) 
 
 8t. Deck Beams 
 
 Deck beams are horizontal timbers that extend across 
 a vessel and support the decking. The ends of deck 
 
WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 6i 
 
 } rs. ' r 
 
 m 
 
 Fig. 46. Butt Fastenings 
 
 beams rest upon shelf and clamps and are strengthened 
 by means of hanging knees (vertical knees), one end 
 of which fastens to beams and the other to clamps, ceil- 
 ing, and frames at side. In addition to these hanging 
 knees a certain number of horizontal ones, called lodge 
 knees, are fastened at designated positions throughout 
 length of vessel. On Fig. 28 the vertical knees are 
 shown in place, and on Fig. 27 is shown some lodge 
 knees. 
 
 Along center line of vessel the deck beams are sup- 
 ported by pillars or stanchions that have their lower ends 
 firmly resting on and secured to keelson and their upper 
 ends secured to a longitudinal deck stringer and to the 
 beams. Separate longitudinal stringers and stanchions 
 are fitted between each tier of beams, and the stanchions 
 of each tier are always located immediately over one 
 another. Thus the whole center line of deck framing is 
 supported and tied longitudinally and to the keel struc- 
 ture. 
 
 In some vessels the ends of stanchions are kneed to 
 deck frames and to keelson, and in others they are secured 
 with deck straps. (See Fig. 50 for method of using 
 strap at upper end and knee at keelson.) 
 
 Sometimes a system of supports and diagonal fore- 
 and-aft bracing, or trussing, is used between orlop deck 
 beams and keelson, and sometimes a fore-and-aft longi- 
 tudinal bulkhead with openings through it, at stated in- 
 tervals, extends from keelson to orlop deck beams. The 
 supports above orlop deck are in both these methods of 
 construction stanchions fitted as already described. 
 
 In some steam-driven vessels longitudinal stringers 
 are located in line with the outboard sides of hatch open- 
 ings and practically form a part of hatch framing. In 
 vessels constructed in this manner it is usual to place 
 sister keelsons immediately below these side stringers and 
 to erect stanchions between the sister keelsons and longi- 
 tudinal stringers. 
 
 In many cases it is necessary to join two or more 
 pieces of timber together to form a deck beam. When 
 this is done the beam is termed a two. or three-piece beam 
 and the scarphing is done in one of the ways shown on 
 Plate Vile. 
 
 When laying out a scarph for a deck beam it is essen- 
 tial that length of scarph be sufficient to insure that joint 
 (scarph) has ample strength when fastenings are in 
 place. 
 
 Below I give a brief list of suitable dimensions for 
 beam scarphs and fastenings of beams about 40 feet in 
 length. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Quart'd Deck 
 
 
 Orlop Deck 
 
 Lower Deck 
 
 Upper Deck 
 
 and Forec'tle 
 
 Name 
 
 Beams 
 
 Beams 
 
 Beams 
 
 Beams 
 
 Length of 
 
 
 
 
 
 scarph 
 
 8 feet 
 
 7-8 ft. 
 
 7—8 ft. 
 
 8—7 ft. 
 
 Depth of lip 
 
 3 inches 
 
 3 inches 
 
 3 inches 
 
 3 inches 
 
 Bolts in lip 
 
 2 of Ys" 
 
 2 of Vi" 
 
 2 of Yi" 
 
 2 of Yi" 
 
 Bolts in middle 
 
 3 of i%" 
 
 3 of i%" 
 
 3 of I" 
 
 3 of Ys" 
 
 Through Ends 
 
 4 of 1K2" 
 
 4 of iVa" 
 
 4 of lY," 
 
 4 of iYa" 
 
 8t\ Fastening the Knees and Deck Beams 
 
 Deck beams are fastened to shelf with bolts that pass 
 through beams into shelf and are riveted along under- 
 side of shelf. 
 
 The hanging knees are fitted to underside of beams 
 and to side of vessel and fastened with through rivets 
 driven at varying angles. On Fig. 50 knee fastenings are 
 clearly shown. When designating parts of hanging knees 
 the proper terms to use are: 
 
 The Arm. — Meaning by this the end of knee fitted 
 against beam. 
 
 The Bady. — Meaning the portion of end of knee fitted 
 against clamps. and side of vessel. 
 
 Lodge or lodging knees usually have their arms fitted 
 against side of beam and body fitted against clamp. The 
 fastenings' of lodge knee arms are bolts that pass through 
 arm of knee and beams, and of body bolts that pass 
 through knee, clamp and frame. 
 
 Fastenings of knees are designated as being either in- 
 and-out, or fore-and-aft, depending upon whether they 
 are driven through side of vessel or through the beam. 
 Those used to fasten body of knee to side are termed 
 in-and-out bolts and those used to fasten arm of knee to 
 beams are termed fore-and-aft. 
 
 There are usually from five to seven in-and-out bolts 
 
 Fig. 17. Tieenalls Beady to Drive Into Ceiling Frame and Flanking 
 
62 
 
 WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 —ARRANGEMENT Of IRON STRAPPING — 
 
 riAONSTRAP^W* 
 
 SE.CTION SHOWlNSIRQWaTPapplMg 
 VXWMPPEP ABOUND BILSE. *.BECU«F.B 
 
 TOPi-ooR tiivipi.e:r 
 
 Fig. 49. Diagonal Straps 
 
 used in a hanging knee, each bolt being driven at an 
 angle that will cause it to take the shortest distance be- 
 tween knee and outside of planking. All but one or two 
 of these bolts are driven from the outside and clenched 
 on inside, and all in-and-out fastenings are driven, and 
 knee secured to side of vessel, before the fore-and-aft 
 fastenings are driven and secured. This is done to in- 
 sure that knee fits snug against side of vessel. 
 
 The fore-and-aft fastenings should consist of from 
 three to five bolts passing through both knee and beam. 
 
 The in-and-out bolts in lodging knees should never 
 be fewer than one in each timber, and the knees should be 
 sufficiently long to cross at least four timbers. If an ex- 
 ceptionally strong job of work is desired the fore-and-aft 
 bolt fastenings should be reinforced by using circular 
 coaks. On Table VHP is entered the minimum number 
 of pairs of hanging knees to use in vessels of named 
 tonnage. Table VHP 
 
 Number of Hanging Knees 
 
 
 To Hold 
 
 To Upper 
 
 
 To Hold 
 
 To Upper 
 
 
 Beams 
 
 Deck Beams 
 
 
 Beams 
 
 Deck Beams 
 
 Tons 
 
 Paira 
 
 Pairs 
 
 Tons 
 
 Pairs 
 
 Pairs 
 
 150 
 
 — 
 
 4 
 
 600 
 
 10 
 
 14 
 
 200 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 650 
 
 10 
 
 15 
 
 250 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 700 
 
 II 
 
 16 
 
 300 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 750 
 
 II 
 
 17 
 
 350 
 
 7 
 
 9 
 
 800 
 
 12 
 
 18 
 
 400 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 900 
 
 13 
 
 20 
 
 450 
 
 8 
 
 II 
 
 1000 
 
 14 
 
 22 
 
 500 
 
 9 
 
 12 
 
 1 100 
 
 15 
 
 24 
 
 550 
 
 9 
 
 13 
 
 1.150 
 
 17 
 
 26 
 
 8t-. The Framing of Decks 
 
 The framing of deck consists of athwartships beams, 
 half -beams, longitudinal carlings and ledges. Dimensions 
 of beams vary with their length. On Table VHP is given 
 dimensions of beams, and method of framing is clearly 
 shown on Figs. 27, 28, 42a and 50. 
 
 In general one half-sized beam is placed between each 
 two main beams except in spaces between beams that 
 form the hatchways and around masts, where there are 
 generally two half-beams placed between each two beams. 
 
 All deck beams should be crowned, those of the upper 
 decks having the greatest amount of crown. 
 
 Deck beams are crowned because the crown causes 
 water to quickly flow to the waterways, where it passes 
 clear through the scuppers and in addition to this trans- 
 verse strength is increased by crowning beams, especially 
 if, as is sometimes done, the beams are crowned while 
 being placed in position. 
 
 It is advantageous to let ends of beams into shelf in 
 the manner shown on Fig. 42a. 
 
 8t^. Framing of a Hatchway 
 
 Fig. 27 clearly illustrates the proper way to frame a 
 hatchway of a medium-sized vessel. In larger vessels 
 the center line longitudinal deck stringer mentioned in 
 paragraph 8th extends longitudinally across hatchway 
 
WOODEN SHIPBUILDING 
 
 6j 
 
 Fig. 50. Construction Flan of Section of Steam Trawler by Cox & Stevens 
 
 practically dividing it into two portions, and when the 
 side longitudinal stringers are used they form a support 
 for the coaming. 
 
 Sf*. Framing of Mast Partners 
 
 Mast partners is the name given to the framing 
 around hole in deck through which mast passes. The 
 framing must be strong and solid because it has to with- 
 stand the strains of both mast and bitts that are generally 
 placed close to a mast in sailing vessels. 
 
 On Fig. 27 is shown the usual method of framing a 
 mast partner of a sailing vessel. 
 
 8t*. Framing of Decks Around Stem and Stern 
 
 At stem the deck framing of each deck terminates in 
 a solid block of wood, or a natural knee, called a breast- 
 hook. This breasthook is securely fastened to stem and 
 apron and to the clamps it rests against, the fastenings 
 
 through clamps passing through knightheads, fra'me and 
 planking. The tops of breasthooks are rounded to the 
 same crown that has been given to deck beams. 
 
 On Fig. 51 is shown details of forward deck framing 
 and on Fig. 52 is shown some wood and steel knees used 
 when framing a vessel. 
 
 Around the stern it is necessary to have solid wood 
 to receive the deck and fastening. If the vessel has a 
 transom stern the upper transom is always shaped and 
 rabbeted to receive ends of deck planks and their fasten- 
 ings. If an elliptical stern the upper piece of stern fram- 
 ing is shaped to receive deck ends and their fastenings. 
 St". Framing of Decks under Deck Winches, Capstans 
 and Anchor Engine 
 
 It is always necessary to strengthen the deck frame 
 at and around locations of deck winches, anchor windlass 
 and capstans. This is done by filling in between the deck 
 
64 
 
 WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 beams and supporting this tilling by bolting longitudinal 
 planks to the deck beams it crosses. The filling and 
 planks should extend some distance outside the space that 
 will be occupied by deck windlass or other piece of equip- 
 ment, and of course the filling must cover the entire 
 space between under side of deck and upper surface of 
 the supporting planks. The deck is laid on this filling 
 and after deck is finished and caulked wood foundation 
 timbers are fitted on deck, the upper surface of these being 
 arranged to receive the holding down bolts of windlass 
 or other piece of equipment. 
 
 When the piece of equipment is very heavy supporting 
 stanchions are added under the deck beams. 
 
 8u. The Waterways 
 
 The waterways are pieces of timber that rest on deck 
 beams and fit in angle made by deck beams and side of 
 vessel. Waterways extend from forward to after ends 
 of each deck, are worked to the shape of inside of vessel 
 and are securely fastened to deck beams and shelf or 
 clamps beneath the beams ; they should be edge-bolted into 
 frames. 
 
 In some vessels filling-in pieces are fitted to fill the 
 space between shelf and top of beams and from side of 
 ship to where inner edge of waterway will be located. 
 When this is done the waterways can be fastened to shelf 
 between beams and thus additional strength is gained. 
 
 Waterways are always made of thicker material than 
 the deck, and scarphs of waterways should always be 
 vertical, have nibbed ends, or be hooked, and be edge- 
 bolted. 
 
 On Fig. 28 is shown a detail of waterway construc- 
 
 Fig. 61. Bow Framing 
 
 Fig. 52 
 
 tion and method of fastening, and on Figs. 26, 53, and 
 54 waterways are shown fitted in place alongside frames. 
 8u^. Lock or Thick Strokes 
 
 These are strakes of decking that adjoin the water- 
 ways. They are thicker than deck proper and are joggled 
 over beams. This joggle is clearly shown on Fig. 42a. 
 These strakes extend from bow to stem and are fastened 
 vertically with two fastenings through every beam, and 
 horizontally with one bolt in every second timber. (Note 
 it is usual to leave room for these fastenings by omitting 
 a fastening from every frame to which thick strakes will 
 be fastened.) 
 8u^. Decking 
 
 The upper or main deck planking should be composed 
 of clear straight-grained material put on in greatest 
 obtainable lengths. Deck planks are usually worked fore- 
 and-aft and the laying is begun at or near to center line 
 of vessel. The ends of deck planks that butt against 
 thick or lock strakes of waterways should be let into 
 thick strake about 2 inches, thus eliminating a feather 
 edge and giving a good seam for caulking. On Fig. 55 
 the ends of deck planks are shown let into thick strake 
 
WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 05 
 
 Fig. oS. Deck framing and Waterways 
 
 of waterway. Deck planks are laid with seams for caulk- 
 ing and are fastened to beams with at least two spikes 
 into each beam. 
 
 Butts are square cut on center of a beam and should 
 
 be bolted. Rules for spacing butts of deck planks and 
 caulking seams conform to those laid down for outer 
 planking of frames. 
 
 Table VHP 
 Siding and Moulding of Beams 
 
 Length of 
 
 Hold Beams 
 
 -• Deck 
 
 Beams 
 
 Beam 
 
 Sided and Moulded at 
 
 Sided and 
 
 Moulded at 
 
 Amidships 
 
 Moulded Ends 
 
 Moulded 
 
 Ends 
 
 Ft. 
 
 In. In. 
 
 In. 
 
 In. 
 
 10 
 
 
 4/. 
 
 3^ 
 
 II 
 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 12 
 
 
 5'/4 
 
 454 
 
 13 
 
 
 hA 
 
 4/2 
 
 '4 
 
 
 5J4 
 
 454 
 
 15 
 
 "i" m 
 
 6% 
 
 554 
 
 i6 
 
 8/2 7 
 
 6/2 
 
 S/2 
 
 17 
 
 m rA 
 
 6J4 
 
 5/2 
 
 i8 
 
 9^ iVa 
 
 7 
 
 554 
 
 19 
 
 9% 8 
 
 7% 
 
 6 
 
 20 
 
 10 syi 
 
 7A 
 
 (>y* 
 
 21 
 
 io'/4 8>4 
 
 7J4 
 
 6A 
 
 22 
 
 10^ 9 ■ 
 
 8 
 
 6/2 
 
 23 
 
 II 9^ 
 
 ^Va, 
 
 6M 
 
 24 
 
 II J4 954 
 
 8/2 
 
 7 ^ 
 
 25 
 
 11V4 9% 
 
 8/2 
 
 yVA 
 
 26 
 
 12 10 
 
 8^ 
 
 7% 
 
 27 
 
 12^ 1054 
 
 9 
 
 7'A 
 
 28 
 
 I2l'i 10^ 
 
 9 
 
 7V^ 
 
 29 
 
 12^4 I0J4 
 
 •9J4 
 
 7H 
 
 30 
 
 13 II 
 
 9/2 
 
 8 
 
 31 
 
 i3'/4 ii'/4 
 
 9/2 
 
 8 
 
 32 
 
 1354 ii'/4 
 
 9J4 
 
 sVa 
 
 33 
 
 13^ 1 1/2 
 
 10 
 
 f4 
 
 34 
 
 14 11^ 
 
 10 
 
 81/2 
 
 35 
 
 I4'/4 12 
 
 I0'4 
 
 8/2 
 
 36 
 
 WA 1254 
 
 10^ 
 
 8/2 
 
 37 
 
 1434 12Vi 
 
 10^ 
 
 8)4 
 
 38 
 
 15 12^ 
 
 loYi 
 
 854 
 
 39 
 
 15^ 12^ 
 
 I0'/4 
 
 9 
 
 40 
 
 155^ 13 
 
 10^ 
 
 9 
 
 Fig. 54. 
 
 Showing Waterways in Main Deck Forward of Auxiliary 
 Scbooner 
 
 Fig. 55. Ends of Deck Let Into Waterways 
 
Chapter IX 
 
 Building Slips and Launching Ways 
 
 9a. Building Slip Foundation 
 
 The ground upon which a vessel is built is termed 
 the building slip, or berth, and the fixed timbers that 
 carry vessel from building slip into the water are called 
 launching ways. 
 
 Both building slip and ways must have a firm founda- 
 tion and be laid at proper inclinations; and one of the 
 most important details in connection with laying out a 
 shipyard is correct planning and construction of building 
 slips and ways. 
 
 The first essential is that the foundation be sufficiently 
 solid to bear the maximum load that will have to be car- 
 ried, and this solidity must be alike for the entire length 
 and width of building slip and ways. 
 
 The universally adopted and most practical method 
 of getting the necessary solidity of foundation in a small 
 shipyard is to drive a sufficient number of rows of piles 
 into the ground at proper locations to support keel block- 
 ing, ways and staging, spacing them as close as neces- 
 sary to attain the desired end. The tops of the piles are 
 then cut off at proper height and capped with timbers, 
 placed at right angles to launching direction, extending 
 sufficiently far out each side of keel position to cover 
 keel and launching way piles and allow all bilge, bottom, 
 and staging supports to be placed on them. 
 
 When constructing a building slip of this kind the 
 ground is leveled to some desirable inclination and piles 
 driven and cut off to inclination selected for slip, then 
 the athwartships caps are placed over piles and fastened 
 and slip filled in with cinders, or other suitable material, 
 to a proper height to make a good platform for the men 
 working under vessel during construction. 
 
 Very often the portion of shp from land end down to 
 where stem of vessel will be when being built is filled 
 in level with top of caps, then from this point to a little 
 below the low-water level the slip is floored over for 
 about three-quarters of its width. From the low-water 
 level the slip extends into water a sufficient distance to 
 give the required launching depth of water over ends of 
 launching ways, this portion of slip consisting of rows of 
 piles, to act as bearers for launching ways, cut off at 
 proper inclination and height and capped longitudinally. 
 Cross capping is not generally used here, because it is 
 likely to interfere with launching of vessel. Fig. 56 
 shows plan of such a building slip. 
 
 9b. Inclination of Slip,' 
 
 While the contour of ground upon which a building 
 slip is placed, the length of ground available for the land 
 
 .i'. 
 
 o ,- 
 
 yC 
 
 '-■-^ ^' 
 
 d ^ \ <•> -\r- O , 
 
 - ''-fiSit 
 
 Tig. 66 
 
WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 67 
 
 Fig. 57. Steel and Concrete Building Slips, N. Y. Shipbuilding Comp any, Camden, N. J 
 
 end of slip, depth of water at end of slipway, and width 
 of channel available for free launching purposes, are 
 things that must be carefully considered when selecting 
 the most suitable inclination for building slip, the inclina- 
 tion that keel will be laid at, and inclination of 
 launching ways necessary to insure a successful launch- 
 ing of the largest and smallest vessels likely to be built 
 upon the slip must also be considered as a part of the 
 problem. 
 
 The nearer the longitudinal inclination of slip is to the 
 average inclination of launching ways the better. An 
 inclination of about 4° to the horizon seems to be ex- 
 cellent for slips that are used for the construction of 
 vessels of moderate tonnage and length. 
 
 In reality the inclination of slip floor is a matter of 
 minor importance so long as the inclination is one that 
 will give a good working platform for men and permit 
 proper shoring and securing of keel blocks and launch- 
 ing ways. 
 
 On slips constructed in manner described, the keel 
 
 blocking and launching ways are set up for vessel and 
 
 arranged at inclinations that are considered most suitable. 
 
 A more costly kind of building slip is constructed in 
 
 this manner: 
 
 After the ground is piled in manner already explained 
 the piles are cut off at, or near to, the average launching 
 inclination and sufficiently low down to bring top of cap 
 timbers a few inches below the desired level of build- 
 ing slip floor. The cap timbers are then used as supports 
 for a flooring which is laid, longitudinally, over that 
 portion of slip, except its center where keel will come, 
 that is above the low-water level. 
 
 The longitudinal planking of slip floor that comes 
 near places where launching ways will be laid is generally 
 made out of much heavier material than floor proper 
 and forms a permanent longitudinal stringer, or founda- 
 tion, on which the launching ways can be laid. 
 
 The portion of slip below low-water point is con- 
 structed in manner already described. 
 
 A still more costly and permanent style of building 
 slip is one constructed on concrete foundations set on 
 piles cut off some distance below the level of ground. 
 
 Slips constructed in this manner are generally covered 
 with a steel structure and fitted with traveling overhead 
 crane for handling material used in the construction of 
 vessels. 
 
 Fig- 57 is an excellent illustration of a slip of this 
 kind. 
 
68 
 
 WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 
 Thousands of Piles Are Driven Into the Marsh on Which to Build the Piers. The Picture on the Left Shows the Piling Tor Pier and That on 
 
 the Bight Shows Pier Completed and Beady For Use 
 
 In all cases when laying out a building slip it is very 
 necessary to carefully plan for economical moving and 
 placing of construction material in position on vessel. 
 
 For a small shipyard one of the most economical 
 methods of doing this is to lay rails on one or both 
 sides of slip and from slip to places in yard where the 
 material will be converted and got ready for erection. 
 Then by using a traveling hoist of sufficient capacity the 
 heaviest piece of material can be moved and lifted into 
 position without having to use costly hand labor. If a 
 method of this kind is used, level runways for the rails 
 on which hoist will travel must be erected each side of 
 slip and sufficient space allowed between adjacent slips 
 to permit hoist to pass between the vessels and be 
 properly operated. 
 
 The number of piles required for a slip will vary 
 with nature of ground and weight of vessel to be carried 
 and should be carefully calculated before commencing 
 work. 
 
 9c. Information About Piles 
 
 Piles are made from trunks of trees and should be 
 straight and not less than 6 inches in diameter for light 
 foundation or 9 inches for heavy ones. The woods 
 generally used for piles in the Northern States are oak, 
 spruce, hemlock, Norway pine, Georgia pine, and occa- 
 sionally elm, gum and bass wood. In Southern States 
 oak, Georgia pine and cypress is extensively used. While 
 there does not appear to be much difference in the 
 durability of these woods under water, oak makes the 
 most satisfactory piles and next to it the ones made of the 
 hardest wood. This is especially so if the ground is hard 
 and driving is difficult. 
 
 All piles should be cut from growing timber, should 
 be butt cuts and only have bark peeled and knots trimmed. 
 It is probably best to remove the bark though there is 
 some difference of opinion on this point. The specified 
 sizes are diameters at stated distance from ends, and 
 length. Oak piles should be of either white, burr or post 
 
 oaks; they should not have over 2 inches of sap wood and 
 should be at least 9 inches in diameter at 6 feet from butt 
 for piles less than 28 feet and 12 inches in diameter for 
 piles 30 feet and over and the taper should be uniform 
 and gradual from butt to top, the top being not less than 
 five-eighths of greatest diameter. 
 
 Norway and tamarack piles should not be less than 10 
 inches diameter for a 30 foot, 14 inches for a 36 foot, 
 and 16 inches for a 40 foot at butt. 
 
 Cedar piles 30 feet long should not be less than 14 
 inches in diameter at butt. 
 
 Piles are prepared for driving by sawing ends square 
 and pointing the lower end, or by capping the upper end 
 and shoeing the lower should the hardness of ground and 
 length of piles warrant doing this. 
 
 In soft ground a square-ended pile seems to drive 
 better and straighter than one that has been pointed. 
 
 When driving into compact soil, such as gravel or stiff 
 clay, the lower end of pile should be pointed and shod 
 with iron. 
 
 And in cases when the ground is so hard that pile 
 drives less than 6 inches at each blow the head should be 
 capped with a ring of iron to prevent its splitting. 
 
 The usual method of driving piles is by a succession 
 of blows given with a block of cast iron which slides up 
 and down between long uprights mounted on a machine 
 called a pile driver. The machine is moved over the 
 place where pile is to be driven, the pile is placed under 
 hammer, small end down, and held there while the machine 
 lifts the weight (called the hammer) to required distance 
 above pile and then lets it drop on pile. The hammer is 
 raised by steam power and dropped by releasing a catch 
 when it has reached tiie desired height. 
 
 The weight of hammers used for driving piles for 
 slipways is between 1,200 and 2,000 lb and the fall 
 varies from 5 feet to 20 feet or over. 
 
 When driving piles care must be taken to keep them 
 plumb and to regulate the drop of hammer to suit nature 
 of soil. When soil is mud penetration becomes small, the 
 
WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 6g 
 
 The Ficturo on the Left Shows the Ground on Whi:h Shiyways Now Stand, 
 
 That on the Right Shows the Shlpways Completed. 
 
 fall should be lessened and blows given in rapid succes- 
 sion. When a pile refuses to drive before it has reached 
 the required depth it should be cut off and another pile 
 driven close alongside. 
 
 A pile that has been driven to a depth of 20 feet over 
 and then refuses to move under several blows of the 
 hammer falling about 15 feet can be considered satis- 
 factory. 
 
 The most reliable way to ascertain the carrying power 
 of piles is by actual experiment with piles driven into 
 the ground where the slip is to be built. This experi- 
 ment can be made by driving about two piles a selected 
 distance apart, connecting them together and building a 
 rigid platform on top. Then by loading platform until 
 the weight begins to sink piles further into the ground 
 the maximum carrying weight per square foot of surface, 
 or per pile, will be ascertained. This carrying weight 
 must be in excess of the requirements. 
 
 The carrying weight value of piling can be determined 
 with a sufficient degree of accuracy for ordinary condi- 
 tions by making use of this formula: 
 
 2 W H 
 
 Safe carrying load in pounds =^ 
 
 S + I 
 W = Weight of hammer in pounds. 
 H ^= fall of hammer in feet. 
 
 S = average penetration of pile in ground during 
 last five blows. 
 
 Assuming that a 1,000- lb hammer is used and that 
 average penetration for last five blows is 6 inches and 
 fall is 15 feet, the safe load for pile is 4,286 lb. 
 2 X 1,000 X 15 30,000 
 
 = = 4,286 lb. 
 
 6+1 7 
 
 This rule is a fairly accurate one to use when aver- 
 age conditions pi'evail, but it must be recognized that 
 nature of soil largely determines length of pile necessary. 
 The following table of bearing value of piles in 
 various kinds of soils will prove of value as a guide: 
 
 Nature 
 of Soil 
 
 Length of 
 
 Pile in 
 
 Feet 
 
 Average 
 Penetration 
 in In. Last 
 Five Blows. 
 
 Inches 
 
 Load in 
 Tons Pile 
 Carried. 
 
 Tons 
 
 ... 6 
 ... 7 
 
 ... 9 
 . . .12 
 . . .12 
 ...18 
 
 Average Dia. 
 
 in Inches 
 
 Whole 
 
 Length. 
 
 Inches 
 
 Mud 30 8 2 ... 
 
 Soft earth 30 8 i!^... 
 
 Soft clay 30 8 i ... 
 
 Quicksand 30 8 ^2..- 
 
 Firm earth 30 8 Yi- ■ ■ 
 
 Sand 20 8 Solid. 
 
 Gravel 15 8 Solid 18 
 
 It is safe to say this : No pile should be less than 5 
 inches in diameter at small end and 10 inches at large 
 for 20 feet length of driving, or 12 inches for 30 feet, 
 and no pile should be expected to carry more than 
 18 tons, even under the best conditions of ground and 
 location. 
 
 Piles for foundations of building slips should not be 
 spaced closer than 2 feet 6 inches. If spaced closer than 
 this there is danger of the ground being broken up and 
 holding power of adjacent piles lessened. A good plan 
 is to use two, three, or four rows of piles under center 
 of slip to act as supports for keel blocks; two, three, or 
 four more closely spaced rows each side to form supports 
 for launching ways, and additional intermediate and out- 
 side piles if ground is soft and weight to be carried is 
 excessive. 
 
 Of course the cross caps will connect these rows of 
 piles and make a level and evenly supported athwartships 
 bearing surface for keel blocks and launching ways. 
 
 The longitudinal spacing will depend somewhat upon 
 weight to be carried and length of vessel that will be 
 built on ship, but it should always be remembered that 
 spacing must be sufficiently close to allow two cross caps 
 to be used as supports for the lower pieces of each keel 
 block in cases where blocking has to be sufficiently high 
 to warrant cribbing it. 
 
 9d. Length .^nd Width of Building Slips 
 
 The length of that portion of the building slip that 
 is above high-water mark should be at least one and a 
 half times the length of longest vessel that will be con- 
 structed on slip ; and there must always be sufficient dis- 
 
70 
 
 WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 Tig. 58. Three Wooden Ships , That Were Launched From the L. 
 Shattuck, Inc., Yard at Portsmouth, N. H. 
 
 H. 
 
 tance between stern-post and water to allow vessel to 
 attain a safe launching velocity before it reaches a depth 
 of water sufficient to reduce speed to a point where the 
 slightest obstruction might cause vessel to stick on ways. 
 The distance that longitudinal underwater portion of slip 
 extends out must be sufficient to give firm support to 
 launching ways until vessel becomes water-borne, or 
 "tips." Therefore determine launching draught of the 
 largest vessel likely to be built on slip, and have the 
 ends of slipway extend out a sufficient distance from 
 shore to give more than the required depth of water 
 when tipping occurs. The tipping can be considered to 
 occur when the longitudinal center of vessel is over ends 
 of way. Fig. 56 outer end of landing ways. 
 
 The width of building slip must be sufficient to permit 
 the building of the widest vessel, the erection of proper 
 staging, and the handling of material on each side. 
 
 Four important width measures must be selected. 
 
 1st. — The width of blocking necessary to support keel. 
 
 2d. — The width required for launching ways and dis- 
 tance the center of ways will be out from center line of 
 keel. 
 
 3d. — The extreme width of slip necessary for erecting 
 staging around vessel. 
 
 4th. — The additional width required for handling 
 material along sides of slip. 
 
 The first can be considered to be about 4 feet, there- 
 fore, piles should be sufficiently closely spaced through- 
 out the whole length of slip, for 2 feet each side of its 
 center line, to carry all the weight that must be supported 
 on keel blocks during construction. 
 
 Launching ways are generally placed about one-third 
 extreme breadth of a vessel apart. So consider that one- 
 sixth the width of widest vessel likely to be built on slip 
 as distance that center of launching ways supporting 
 piles must be out from center line of slip and have one 
 line of piles driven along this line, two lines of piles out- 
 side of it, and three or four lines inside of it. This wili 
 give six or seven lines of piles for supporting launching 
 ways and a sufficiently wide support to take care of 
 ordinary variations of width of launching ways. 
 
 Another View of the Shattuck-Bullt Ships and the Long Line of Building 
 Ways at Fortsmonth, N. H. 
 
 Fig. 3 going down the ways. 
 
 The width necessary to erect staging around vessel 
 should be added to extreme width of vessel, and the width 
 required for handling material should be measured from 
 outside of staging supports. 
 
 Always leave ample room between adjacent slips for 
 the operation of hoist and handling the largest pieces of 
 material. 
 
 9e. Inclination of Keel Blocking 
 
 Keel blocking is the name given to the blocks upon 
 which a vessel's keel is laid and weight of vessel carried 
 until it is transferred to the launching ways immediately 
 before launching. The height of keel blocks must be 
 such that bottom of vessel's keel and frame will be suffi- 
 ciently high above the ground of slip, or slip floor, for 
 the workmen to do the necessary construction work, and 
 the inclination relative to slip and launching ways must 
 be such that the forefoot of vessel will clear the lower 
 end of slip by at least 10 inches when vessel is being 
 launched. Bear in mind that the inclination of top of 
 keel blocks determines the inclination keel will have dur- 
 ing launching, and that the keel of vessel does not have to 
 be at the same inclination as launching ways or building 
 slip floor. 
 
 To determine the required height and inclination of 
 keel blocks proceed in this manner: 
 
 Lay out on a piece of drawing paper, to proper scale, 
 lines to indicate correct length and inclination of slip 
 floor and inclination that you intend the launching ways 
 to have. Next mark points on these lines where fore- 
 foot, midship section and stern-post of vessel will be 
 located during construction. Tlie height that keel of 
 vessel must be above ground to insure ample working 
 space under vessel for the men who will do the construc- 
 tion work must next be determined, and it is best to 
 determine this height for the midship section position 
 because that will be flattest and widest point of bottom 
 of vessel. 
 
 Having determined the height keel must be above 
 slip floor at midship section, measure oflf this height on 
 
WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 71 
 
 drawing, and also measure off at lower end of slip a 
 distance of at least 10 inches above the floor of slip line. 
 A line drawn through these two points will indicate 
 the correct inclination for keel blocking measured in a 
 straight line, and if the bottom of keel does not extend 
 
 Fig. 59. 
 
 Canibas. 10,000-Ton Freighter Launched From the Texas S. S. 
 Company's Yard at Bath, Me. 
 
 below this line you can be sure that there will be ample 
 clearance above slip during launching. 
 
 To insure that you understand this explanation I have 
 drawn Fig. 60. 
 
 On this illustration I show a longitudinal outline of 
 vessel. The line B.L. is drawn horizontal and only for 
 the purpose of insuring that inclined lines are marked at 
 correct inclinations to the horizontal. 
 
 The line S.S. indicates top of slip floor and is drawn 
 at correct slip inclination. 
 
 The line W.W. indicates inclination of launching ways 
 and is drawn at their proper inclination and height rela- 
 tive to line S.S. 
 
 The line S.K.F. indicates selected height and inclina- 
 tion of keel blocks, S being the location of stern, K the 
 midship section position, and F the position of forefoot 
 of vessel during construction. The line S.K.F. is con- 
 tinued past end of launching ways and if it nowhere falls 
 below the line W.W. and the line W.W. is nowhere 
 nearer to S.S. than 10 inches, the forefoot of vessel will 
 clear end of building slip when vessel is launched. By 
 
 measuring from S.S. to S.K.F. at proper intervals height 
 of keel blocks to a straight line can be ascertained. 
 
 9f. Keel Blocking 
 
 During construction the entire weight of a vessel is 
 carried on a row of temporary building blocks placed 
 immediately under keel at the proper inclination. These 
 keel supporting blocks are generally placed about 4 feet 
 apart, and each block is built of pieces of timber placed 
 one on top of another until the desired height is obtained. 
 When the vessel is not exceedingly heavy, or the keel 
 blocks not excessively high each keel block can consist 
 of pieces of timber placed on top of each other, the 
 lowest one being placed immediately on a cross cap of 
 slip foundation; but when the vessel is heavy or keel 
 blocks have to be erected to a height that would make 
 
 Sli^ fLoaa. 
 
 
 g 
 
 v^^\m 
 
 m 
 
 s^ 
 
 
 '-'/y^m^J-' -~) 
 
 rig. 61 
 
 it difficult to keep single blocking in position, cribbing is 
 resorted to and each keel block is placed on the center 
 of a crib of timber resting on at least two of the cross 
 timbers of the slip foundation and built up of pieces of 
 timber laid alternately lengthways and athwartships. 
 The whole structure of each keel block must be securely 
 fastened together, and as all of the keel-supporting block- 
 ing must be removed before vessel can be launched, the 
 blocks or cribbing must be erected in such a manner that 
 they can be removed from below the keel after the entire 
 construction work is completed. 
 
 Fig. 61 shows illustration of keel blocking set up on a 
 building slip, a portion of the blocking being cribbed. 
 
 9g. Launching Apparatus 
 
 The launching apparatus may be divided into two 
 principal parts — the launching ways and the cradle or 
 
 Fig. 60 
 
72 
 
 WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 Keel Blocks Being Laid 
 
 temporary framework which slides down the launching 
 ways and supports vessel during its movement down the 
 ways. The launching ways consist of two continuous 
 runways of hard wood (oak, maple or hard pine), planed 
 perfectly smooth and laid at such an inclination that 
 vessel will move freely down the ways as soon as she 
 is free to do so. If the inclination of lavmching ways 
 is greater than inclination of building slip floor, the 
 ways must be securely supported on blocking or cribbing 
 placed on top of slip foundation timbers. Of course the 
 launching ways must be securely fastened and shored 
 to prevent them moving sideways or lengthways during 
 launching. 
 
 The determining factors for inclination are: 
 1st. — The weight of vessel. The smaller the weight 
 the greater the inclination should be. 
 
 2d. — The speed in feet per second that vessel is 
 wanted to move at during launching. The available width 
 of channel and depth of water where vessel will take 
 the water must be carefully considered and a launching 
 speed selected that will be sufficiently great to insure that 
 
 vessel will take water properly and not so great as to 
 cause vessel to travel too great a distance after she is 
 water-borne. 
 
 In practice it has been found that one-half inch to 
 a foot is a dangerously slow inclination for even the 
 largest vessels. 
 
 Five-eighths of an inch to the foot will give a moderate 
 and easily controlled safe launching speed for vessels 
 weighing between 800 and 1,200 tons. 
 
 An inclination of three-quarters of an inch to a foot 
 will give a good, safe, free launching speed for moderate 
 weight vessel, or a speed that will be sufficient to insure 
 freedom from danger of sticking, and if there is suffi- 
 cient width of channel to allow this inclination it is an 
 excellent one to select. 
 
 Seven-eighths of an inch to a foot will deliver a vessel 
 into the water at a high rate of travel and should not be 
 used except in cases when it is necessary that vessel move 
 very fast, or there is danger of the weight of vessel 
 forcing the lubricating grease out from between the 
 launching and sliding ways. 
 
 The following particulars of launching speeds will 
 prove of value as a guide: 
 
 Table of Launching Data 
 
 Length 
 
 of Vessel 
 
 in Feet 
 
 Launching 
 Weight 
 in Tons 
 
 Inclinittion 
 
 of Launching 
 
 Ways per Foot 
 
 Inches 
 
 Launching 
 Speed Feet 
 per Second 
 
 .5/8 . 
 .3/4 . 
 .9/16. 
 .5/8 . 
 
 .5/8 . 
 .9/16. 
 .9/16. 
 
 .12* 
 
 • 15 
 
 • IS 
 .16 
 
 • 17 
 .16 
 .18 
 
 200 250 
 
 225 350 
 
 250 560 
 
 275 675 
 
 310 875 
 
 32s 1,200 
 
 350 1,800 
 
 *Too slow. 
 
 A velocity of 12 feet per second is very slow; one 
 of about 15 feet per second is a good speed to use in 
 cases where it is desired to control the launching or stop 
 vessel gently; 16 to 18 feet per second is an excellent 
 speed for use when width of launching channel is suffi- 
 cient to allow vessel to move a little distance out before 
 being stopped. 
 
 Fig. 62 
 
 Schooner O. A. SomervlUe, Designed by Cox & Stevens, 
 Beady For Launching 
 
 Schooner G. A. Somervllle Afloat 
 
WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 73 
 
 Above 1 8 feet per second should not be used unless 
 there is ample room for launching or it is necessary to 
 have vessel move very swiftly down the ways. 
 
 9h. Breadth of Surface of Launching Ways 
 
 The width of surface of launching ways must always 
 be proportioned to weight of vessel because the whole 
 of launching weight of vessel must be carried on launch- 
 ing ways, and if weight per unit of surface is too great 
 the lubricating materials placed between launching and 
 sliding ways will be forced out and vessel may stick on 
 ways. 
 
 The width of launching ways should be such that 
 maximum pressure on each square foot of surface that 
 is beneath the sliding ways does not exceed 2^ tons. 
 
 Suppose, for instance, that launching weight of a 
 certain vessel is 8oo tons, the length of launching cradle 
 surface that will bear on ways is 200 feet, and we desire 
 that pressure per square foot during launching does not 
 exceed 2 tons. 
 
 As there are two launching ways the weight each 
 must support is 400 tons, and as length of each sliding 
 way is 200 feet a surface of 2 feet is sufficient to carry 
 the weight without exceeding the named pressure per 
 square foot. 
 
 gi. Distance to Placf. Launching Ways Apart 
 A distance of about one-third the extreme breadth of 
 vessel from center to center of ways, measured at their 
 upper end, will give excellent results for vessels of ordi- 
 nary form of cross section. The lower end of ways 
 must be 2 or 3 inches further apart than the upper ends, 
 this increase of distance being nece^ary to take care of 
 the slight spreading of cradle that occurs when weight 
 of vessel is transferred from keel blocks to cradle, and 
 to insure that the cradle will move freely down the 
 ways. 
 
 In addition to this, the upper surfaces of the launch- 
 ing ways should be inclined inwards about yi inch to a 
 foot for the purpose of reducing the danger of ways 
 being forced outwards when weight is transferred to 
 them. 
 
 When a vessel moves along the launching ways there 
 is always a tendency to slide sideways, as well as towards 
 the water, the side tendency being due to the outward 
 pressure on bilge ways which is always present, though 
 not dangerous unless it should happen that one of the 
 launching ways is placed slightly higher than the other 
 or the bilge blocking of cradle is not wedged up alike 
 on both sides. Perfection in these matters cannot be 
 obtained, so, by giving the ways a slight inclination of 
 surface inward, and spreading them a little at the lower 
 
 rig. 63. Launching of i Motoxshlp at the St. Helens Yards, Near Port ind, Ore. Another One Hundred and Fifty of These 3,000-Ton Vessels 
 
 Have Been Ordered. They Are Fitted With Heavy-Oil Engines 
 
WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 q 10 II 
 
 a lb ^ " - 
 ends, danger from these two causes is reduced to a 
 minimum. 
 
 I will now illustrate and explain the launching appara- 
 tus used when launching a moderately sized vessel stern 
 first. 
 
 Fig. 64 
 
 Fig. 64 shows a cross section of launching apparatus 
 placed in position under vessel. I have selected a section 
 through one of the forward sections and show the vessel 
 resting on cradle. 
 
 Fig. 65 shows longitudinal view of same vessel and 
 one side of cradle in position ready to wedge up. 
 
 9J. Descriptive Explanation of Figs. 64 and 65 
 
 No. I indicates top of slip floor (already described). 
 
 No. 2 indicates supporting piles (already described). 
 
 No. 3 indicates athwartships caps placed on piles 
 (already described). 
 
 No. 4, keel blocking upon which vessel rests during 
 construction (already described). 
 
 No. 5. Launching Ways placed in position for 
 launching. 
 
 No. 6. Launching Ribbands that run full length of 
 launching ways to prevent the sliding, or bilge, ways 
 from sliding sideways. These ribbands are strips of oak 
 or hard wood bolted to launching ways. The butts of 
 ribbands should not coincide with butts of launching 
 ways. 
 
 Fig. 65 
 
 No. 7. Ribband Shores placed at frequent intervals 
 along outside of launching ways. Their use is to hold 
 launching ways in place and prevent the ribbands being 
 torn off. Note that one end of shores rests partly 
 against ribband and partly against launching w^y, and 
 the other is firmly braced against side of slip or piles 
 driven into ground for that purpose. 
 
 The abovenamed pieces form the lower line of sup- 
 ports and are the fixed portion of the launching apparatus. 
 
 The upper, or movable, portion of the launching 
 apparatus forms a cradle for the vessel to rest in and a 
 carriage that will glide smoothly along the launching 
 ways and convey vessel from the slip to the water. 
 
 No. 8. Sliding, or Bilge, Ways. These are oak, or 
 yellow pine logs that rest on launching ways. Two or 
 more logs are required on each launching way, and the 
 surface that rests on launching ways must be planed 
 perfectly smooth, and ends of each log slightly rounded 
 to prevent their catching in launching ways should there 
 be a slight irregularity at any joint. The pieces of slid- 
 ing ways butt against each other and are usually fastened 
 together with rope, or chain lashings passed through 
 holes bored in ends of each piece. The sliding ways 
 form a base for the cradle upon which the whole weight 
 of vessel is carried while being launched. The length 
 and width of sliding ways must be such that pressure 
 on their under surface does not exceed 2^^ tons per 
 square foot. The sliding ways must be slightly longer 
 than cradle and should not be less than three-quarters of 
 the length of vessel. The lubricating material is placed 
 between launching and bilge ways. Note that when ves- 
 sel rests on cradle the outer edge of bilge ways does not 
 bear hard against the launching ribbands. There is about 
 ^ inch between. 
 
 No. 9. Sole Piece. Planks of hard wood that ex- 
 tend from end to end of cradle to form a bearing sur- 
 face for the large wedges that are used to raise vessel 
 off keel blocks immediately before launching. The sole 
 piece planks are fitted so that when their inner edge 
 rests firmly upon the sliding ways the outer edge is 
 about ^ inch open. This opening is for the purpose of 
 giving a good bearing surface for the wedges. The sole 
 piece planks are made the width sliding ways. 
 
WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 75 
 
 Fig. 66. 
 
 Coyote, Wooden Ship Built by tlie Foundation Company. She Is 281 Ft. Long and Is the First of a Big Fleet Building at This 
 
 Company's Plant on the Passaic Biver 
 
 No. lo. Slices, or Large Wedges, placed between 
 sliding ways and sole piece planks. 
 
 No. II. Packing or Filling, that fills space from top 
 of sole piece plank to bilge along the middle length of 
 vessel. The quantity and length of this filling depends 
 upon shape of vessel. This filling is the width of sole 
 plank. 
 
 No. 12. Poppets are upright pieces of timber placed 
 abaft and before the packing. The packing extends for- 
 ward and aft to points where the distance between bilge 
 and sole plank becomes too great for the use of solid 
 packing. From these points bilge of vessel is supported 
 by means of logs of timber, called poppets, which are 
 placed about 15 inches apart and stand upright or at a 
 slight rake. The lower ends of poppets rest upon the 
 sole planks and their upper ends against planks that are 
 fitted snugly against the vessel's planking, and both ends 
 of poppets are securely fastened to these planks and held 
 in position by cleats, bolts and tenons. You will note 
 that the extreme forward and after poppets stand at a 
 rake. This helps to resist the upsetting tendency. 
 
 No. 13. Poppet Ribbands. The poppets are held to- 
 gether, fastened to the packing, and braced longitudinally 
 by pieces of planks called poppet ribbands. One is gen- 
 erally placed near bottom and one near top of poppets, 
 though when poppets are short a single wide ribband is 
 sufficient. The ribbands extend well onto the planking, 
 are let into both filling and poppets and securely fastened 
 
 with bolts, thus tying filling and poppets together and 
 making one firm structure, longitudinally, of each side of 
 cradle. 
 
 No. 14. Poppet Chains, or Lashings. To prevent 
 the upper ends of poppets working outwards when 
 weight of vessel is transferred to cradle, chains are passed 
 under the keel of vessel, one end of each chain being 
 fastened to a poppet on one side of vessel and the other 
 end fastened to corresponding poppet on the other side. 
 The number and size of chains to use depends upon size 
 and shape of vessel's underbody. The greater the dead- 
 rise the greater the tendency will be for the hull to wedge 
 cradle outwards and therefore the greater the number of 
 chains required to keep cradle in place. For a vessel 
 of moderate size with normal deadrise there should be 
 at least two chains secured to forward poppets, two to 
 ends of packing and two to the after poppets. Of course 
 the chains must be brought up taut against under side of 
 keel before they are fastened, and it is always advisable 
 to place a piece of hardwood packing between chain and 
 keel to prevent chain cutting into keel when strain is 
 put on chains during launching. Very often it is advis- 
 able to make one end of each chain fast with a removable 
 pin extending above water, thus insuring that the chains 
 can be quickly loosened and cradle separated should it be 
 found difficult to remove cradle from under vessel after 
 she is afloat. 
 
 No. 15. Dog Shore. This is a shore that prevents the 
 
76 
 
 WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 Fig. 67. Chetopa Flnnging Into the Water, and Alcona Waiting For Her Turn 
 
 sliding ways and cradle moving between the time vessel 
 is raised off keel blocking and time of launching. This 
 shore is placed at the upper end of ways, its lower end 
 resting against the launching ribband (6) and its upper 
 end against a cleat securely fastened to the side of sliding 
 ways. The under side of the cleat that is fastened to 
 bilge ways must be kept well above the top of launching 
 ribband, because it must pass over and clear of ribband 
 during launching. 
 
 No. i6. Sole Piece Stops. These are pieces of hard 
 wood bolted to sliding ways for the purpose of prevent- 
 ing side and end movement of sole piece planks. The 
 top of these stops must be a sufficient distance below top 
 of sole piece plank to enable wedges to be driven. 
 
 No. 17. Holes bored in ends of sliding ways to re- 
 ceive ropes which are led on board to secure bilge ways 
 when they float after vessel is launched. 
 
 I will now briefly describe the preparations for launch- 
 ing a vessel. 
 
 The launching ways are first set in position and 
 secured, then ribbands and ribband shores are placed 
 and fastened. When placing launching ways it is well to 
 bear in mind that if their upper surface is given a camber 
 of about 2 inches per 100 feet of length the danger of 
 vessel sticking, should ways settle, will be greatly 
 lessened. 
 
 Next the sliding ways, sole pieces, sole piece stops, 
 packing, poppets and poppet ribbands are fitted in place, 
 and poppet chains, lashings, wedges, and dog shores got 
 ready. Everything is fitted and fastened properly, and 
 ropes or chains for removing cradle from under vessel 
 
 after she is afloat are led and arranged. For this purpose 
 wire ropes or chain, of sufficient length to extend from 
 upper end of building slip to the point in water where 
 vessel will be fully water-borne, are fastened to upper 
 ends of bilge ways, the other ends of ropes being fastened 
 to an anchor or piles set into ground at upper end of slip. 
 
 These ropes or chains are led inside of the sliding 
 ways and stopped up out of the way with rope yam. 
 As the ropes are only sufficiently long to allow cradle to 
 move freely until vessel is water-borne, they will stop 
 the cradle when that point is reached, and as the vessel 
 can still continue to move she will leave the cradle and 
 thus allow it to float clear. 
 
 When everything is fitted and fastened properly, the 
 cradle is removed from under vessel and sliding ways 
 are turned bottom side up and clear of launching ways. 
 The surfaces of launching ways and sliding ways are 
 next thoroughly covered with tallow and soft soap; the 
 tallow being to fill the pores of wood and give it a 
 smooth surface, and the soft soap to lubricate the sur- 
 face. Oil is added to the soap to insure more perfect 
 lubrication. Several coats of hot tallow are applied, 
 time being given to allow each coat to soak well into 
 the wood. 
 
 The sliding ways are next placed back in position and 
 the exposed surfaces of launching ways covered with 
 boards to protect the tallow and soap from dirt until 
 time of launching arrives. 
 
 The dog shores are next placed and secured and 
 additional temporary stops placed against lower ends of 
 ways. 
 
WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 77 
 
 Fig. 68. Lake Silver, at the Great Lakes Engineering Works at Ecorse, on the Ways Ready For Her Sideways Plunge 
 
 Next the pieces of cradle are put back into position 
 and refastened, and ends of wedges entered between sole 
 plank and sliding ways and driven up until the cradle 
 rests firmly against hull. 
 
 The poppet chains and lashings are now placed and 
 everything prepared for transferring the weight of vessel 
 from keel blocking to cradle. 
 
 The weight of vessel still rests upon the keel blocks 
 and should rest there until immediately before the time 
 set for launching, when gangs of men are arranged 
 along each side of vessel, and at a given signal the wedges 
 are driven home evenly and weight of vessel gently 
 transferred from keel blocks to cradle. Every other 
 keel block and bilge shore is first removed and blocking 
 moved clear of keel, and when this has been done the 
 wedges are again driven and the remainder of keel blocks 
 and shores are taken down. 
 
 The whole weight of vessel now rests on sliding ways 
 and the vessel should be released as soon as possible, 
 because if launching is delayed there is danger of the 
 pressure due to vessel's weight forcing the tallow and 
 soap out from between the ways and thus reducing its 
 lubricating value. ' 
 
 The temporary stops are removed immediately after 
 the men are clear of the bottom of vessel, and then, by 
 simply cutting or releasing the dog shore, vessel will be 
 free to move by its own gravity toward the water. 
 
 In all cases it is well to make provision for starting 
 vessel, should she refuse to start immediately the dog 
 shore is released. For this purpose air or hydraulic 
 rams, jack screws, or balks of timber handled by gangs 
 
 of men can be used. The most important thing to re- 
 member is, never to delay a moment if vessel refuses to 
 start, and to make sure that the rams, screws, or balks 
 of timber are applied simultaneously and with equal force 
 to each side of vessel. 
 
 Of course proper provisions must be made for stop- 
 ping vessel when she is afloat. This is usually done by 
 means of drags, weights or anchors operated from on 
 board the vessel. 
 
 9k. Concluding Remarks 
 
 In all cases it is necessary to insure that damage will 
 not result to hull from excessive strains that occur dur- 
 ing launching. The easiest way to do this is to place 
 shoring inside of hull near the places where excessive 
 strains are likely to arise. 
 
 As vessel enters the water, the water that surrounds 
 it exerts a supporting force that will lift stern clear of 
 ways just as soon as the total buoyancy becomes greater 
 than the total weight. If the length of ways is sufficient 
 to support the whole length of cradle until buoyancy of 
 water acting on immersed portion of hull is sufficient to 
 lift vessel clear of cradle there will be no tipping moment, 
 but the force of buoyancy will cause a great pressure on 
 the fore poppets and portions of hull and ways that is 
 nearest to them, and if the structure of poppets, hull 
 and ways is not sufficiently strengthened at this point 
 one of three things may happen : ' / 
 
 Either the ways may spread out ; 
 
 Or the fore poppets may collapse ; • 
 
 Or the hull may be fqcced in and se^a 
 
Accoma, Wooden Ship Bnilt by tbe Foundation Company, Sliding Down the Ways Into the Passaic River 
 
 Pig. 70. A Broadside Launching at the Ecorse Yard, Great Lakes 
 
WOODEN SHIP -BUILDING 
 
 79 
 
 Fig. 69. Launch of tlie Mezoil, a S.OOOTon Vessel, Built by the Alabama-New Orleans Transportation Company at Violet, La., For the Mexican 
 
 Petroleum Company 
 
 If, however, the ways are so short that the longitu- 
 dinal C.G. of hull and cradle weight will pass beyond 
 their ends before buoyancy is sufficient to cause a lifting 
 moment in opposite direction, there will be a tipping mo- 
 ment, and it is clear that the ends of launching ways will 
 become a fulcrum, and if they are not sufficiently strong 
 to support the strain and weight caused by tipping, the 
 ways may give way or they may spread out. If the ways 
 are able to stand the strain and the inclination of ways 
 and depth of water is sufficient to allow vessel to sink 
 deep into water before lifting, the bow of vessel may 
 lift clear of cradle and immediately afterward the up 
 force of buoyancy may be sufficiently strong to bring 
 the bow down onto the launching ways with considerable 
 force. So in this case also it is necessary to insure 
 against damage to hull by placing internal shores and 
 
 braces along the portion of hull that is near to fore 
 poppets. 
 
 9I. Bro.adside Launching 
 
 In many yards on the Great Lakes vessels are con- 
 structed with their keels parallel with water front and 
 therefore it is necessary to launch sideways in place of 
 endways as is usual along the coast. When a vessel has 
 to be launched sideways or "broadside" ways are evenly 
 distributed under the whole length of vessel and launch- 
 ing cradle rests on these ways at right angles to their 
 line of direction. 
 
 On Fig. 68 launching ways and cradle is clearly 
 shown and on Fig. 70 Lake Janet is shown just entering 
 the water. 
 
Chapter X 
 
 Building a Ship 
 
 Having described each principal part of a vessel's 
 construction, I will in this chapter describe the proper 
 way to build a vessel in a modern shipyard. By building 
 a vessel I mean management and supervision as well as 
 the actual construction and equipment work. 
 
 loa. Explanatory 
 
 To become successful as a builder of wooden vessels 
 one must have a t horou gh knowledge of ship construction, 
 of what constitutes a fair day's labor and of material; 
 and in addition to this, the ability to plan work ahead of 
 requirements, and to manage and supervise men is of 
 prime importance. It is not necessary that all of this 
 knowledge and ability be possessed by one man but it is 
 very necessary that the one or more men who direct 
 work and manage the yard be fully competent in the 
 things I have mentioned. It is an error to imagine that 
 success in building a vessel largely depends upon the 
 mechanic's ability to do work properly. Unless properly 
 managed and someone with brains directs them, the most 
 competent workmen are more likely to make a failure 
 than less competent men managed and directed in a 
 proper manner. 
 
 So I will commence at the beginning and explain some 
 of the fundamental essentials for success in ship-building. 
 Ship-building is a business that calls for coordination of 
 the work of men in many trades and the use of many 
 different kinds of material. In addition to this, the build- 
 ing of a ship covers a period of several months at least, 
 and any failure, during this whole period, to have material 
 on hand when required, to supervise and plan properly, 
 or to have the proper number of men at work and work 
 done in proper order, is very likely to cause delays and 
 increase cost. 
 
 For the purpose of this explanation I will suppose that 
 a certain vessel owner desires to have a wooden vessel 
 built. The owner can do one of two things. He can 
 either go to a naval architect, explain his ideas and have 
 a set of plans and specifications prepared and then get 
 builders to submit prices for building the vessel in accord- 
 ance with the architect's plans and specifications, and 
 under his supervision, or he can go to a builder, or to 
 several builders, and get him, or them, to submit prices 
 for building the vessel from their own plans and specifi- 
 cations and under the supervision of an inspector ap- 
 pointed by the owner. 
 
 It is a point of controversy as to which is the better 
 method, but this much has been definitely settled — if is 
 much less costly and more satisfactory if the vessel's plans 
 and specifications are properly prepared and approved 
 before construction li'ork is commenced. Therefore, even 
 if the owner adopts the second method he should insist 
 upon plans being prepared and specifications being prop- 
 erly drawn up before work is commenced. 
 
 Plans are for the purpose of conveying to workmen 
 the owner's intentions as to shape, construction and finish, 
 and by preparing all of the plans beforehand, it is possible 
 to convey to the builder, his superintendents, his fore- 
 men, and workmen, a clear picture of the whole building 
 problem, and thus they learn, before work is commenced, 
 what has to be done and the way it is intended it shall 
 be done. 
 
 In a book of this kind it will be out of place to enter 
 into a long explanation of the preparation of plans, but 
 as it is necessary that you understand what is meant by 
 Plans and Specifications, I will briefly describe the plans 
 and specifications prepared by naval architects. 
 
 ^•nininls Sblpballdlng Company's Plant at Portland, Ore. 
 
WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 8i 
 
 lob. Plans and Specifications Briefly Described 
 A set of Plans and Specifications prepared by a naval 
 architect generally consist of: 
 
 (a) Lines drawing, or drawing to show the shape of 
 vessel. This drawing shows profile, cross-section and 
 half-breadth water-line, views of vessel's shape, and has 
 attached to it a table of measurements, called Offset table, 
 from which the mould loftsman can obtain measurements 
 for "laying down" the lines full size. 
 
 (b) Construction drawings, or drawings that show 
 the designer's intentions regarding the way structure is to 
 be fitted and fastened together. There are usually several 
 construction drawings, each being devoted to illustrating 
 some particular part of the structure. In general one 
 drawing shows the longitudinal views of framing of keel, 
 keelsons, frames, decks, etc. ; another shows transverse 
 views of framing, another the general arrangement of 
 cabins, another longitudinal and transverse views of the 
 completed vessel, another the details of machinery and its 
 piping, another the installation of sanitary piping, etc.; 
 another the electrical wiring and installation, and another 
 rigging, spars and details of fittings pertaining to them. 
 Of course, each drawing is to scale and has marked on 
 it sufficient measures and written explanations to enable 
 the builder to fully understand the designer's intentions. 
 It is impossible to write all necessary explanations and 
 measurements on the plans, therefore, the designer always 
 attaches to them a complete, clearly written explanation 
 of every essential construction detail. This written ex- 
 planation is called the Specifications. 
 
 On Fig. 200 illustration is shown the lines drawing 
 of a large schooner prepared by Crowninshield and on 
 Fig. 201 is shown a number of the construction detail 
 drawings of a large motor-driven vessel prepared by Cox 
 & Stevens. 
 
 An examination of these drawings will serve to ex- 
 plain, more clearly than can be done in words, the proper 
 way to prepare drawings of wooden vessels. 
 
 Now, I will assume that the drawings have been pre- 
 pared and contract signed for the construction of a 
 wooden vessel of about 250 feet in length. 
 
 The first and really one of the most important things 
 the manager of yard should consider is whether the equip- 
 ment of his plant is ample to enable vessel to be built at 
 low cost and in the available time, and the next is the 
 proper planning of supervision, of building methods, of 
 methods for keeping track of costs and progress of work, 
 of obtaining materials and workmen, and of financing the 
 job from the day it is started until the day vessel is de- 
 livered to owner and contract completed. 
 
 Many present-day failures and shipyard difficulties 
 can be traced to some mistake in planning, or neglect to 
 give proper and careful consideration to management 
 details. 
 
 Assuming that the builder has the ways ready, and a 
 certain amount of machinery and material on hand, he 
 should, during the time the contract is being discussed, 
 carefully consider these things and map out some definite 
 plan of procedure to follow in case the contract is given 
 to him. 
 
 1st. — He should determine whether the machinery in 
 his plant is sufficient to enable vessel to be built economi- 
 cally and as rapidly as necessary. 
 
 2d. — He should go over available facilities for re- 
 ceiving material and handling it after it is received, and 
 determine whether they are adecjuate. 
 
 3d. — He should carefully estimate the approximate 
 quantities of material required, the approximate dates for 
 delivery, and it is also advantageous to find out tenta- 
 tively, where materials can be obtained and their approxi- 
 mate prices. 
 
 4th.— He should ascertain whether methods of keep- 
 ing track of materials, progress of work, and costs, are 
 adequate and sufficiently simple to enable every employee 
 to keep informed of the things he must know, and the 
 things he is responsible for. Bear in mind that all these 
 things should be considered before it is even certain that 
 contract will be awarded. 
 
 To the man who is used to doing work in a haphazard 
 manner or without properly planning it beforehand it 
 may seem wasteful of time to plan every detail before 
 
 The Plant of the Tiarloi Shlpbnilding Company at Cornwells, Fa. 
 
82 
 
 WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 work is commenced, but I can assure you that the most 
 successful builders of wooden vessels are the men who 
 carefully think out the whole building problem before 
 beginning work. 
 
 Before proceeding further, I will more fully explain 
 the four items referred to above. 
 
 (ist.) Machinery in Shipyard 
 
 In these days, machinery is universally used in all 
 modern shipyards, and the better and more complete the 
 machinery equipment is the greater the speed of produc- 
 tion and the lower cost will be. 
 
 While machinery requirements of each yard will vary, 
 it is safe to say that these machine tools are necessary in 
 a modern shipyard used for the building of wooden 
 vessels, and of course there must be ample power to drive 
 the machines under the most adverse conditions of service. 
 When figuring upon power requirements, do not make the 
 mistake of underestimating. This is a common fault, 
 due largely to the builders of the machines forgetting that 
 the average shipyard woodworking machine tools must 
 work on rough and heavy timbers and the mechanics 
 running the tools are more likely to force them to the 
 limit of speed and power than the mechanic handling a 
 similar tool in a joiner shop. 
 
 Here is a list of tools that are considered essential in 
 a modern shipyard. I have listed them under three head- 
 ings : Shipyard Proper, Joiner Shop, and General, and 
 against each is marked the approximate amount of power 
 required to drive under normal service conditions. 
 
 Shipyard 
 
 48" Band-saw, shipyard type with beveling arrangement. . 20 
 
 38" Band resaw 10 
 
 Automatic cut-off saw 15 
 
 Self-feed circular rip saw 25 
 
 Four-sided timber planer 45 
 
 Double surfacer 17 
 
 Beveling and edging raachine^Shipyard type 25 
 
 Band-saw 38" ordinary type 10 
 
 Rip-saw ordinary type 10 
 
 Planer single surfacer 7 
 
 Joiner Shop 184 
 
 Band-saw 36" 10 
 
 Small rip-saw 15 
 
 Universal bench-saw 5 
 
 Planer and matcher 25 
 
 Joiner 10 
 
 Four-sided moulder 20 
 
 Buzz planer 5 
 
 Single planer or surfacer 12 
 
 Tenoner, Mortiser 20 
 
 Sander 10 
 
 Hollow chisel mortiser 4 
 
 Chain mortiser 4 
 
 Wood lathe, Saw sharpener and gummer. Band-saw setter 
 
 and filer, Emery wheels. Grindstone 5 
 
 General 145 
 
 Air compressor, air coupling, air hose 
 
 Air compressor, air piping, air hose 
 
 Six go-tt) air hammers 
 
 Two extra heavy air hammers 
 
 Six air-driven wood boring machines 
 
 Six electrical drills 
 
 Fifty Hydraulic jacks of various sizes 
 
 Power bolt cutter 10 
 
 Hand bolt cutters 
 
 Bolt header 10 
 
 Two or more Hoisting Engines with wire cables, manila 
 
 ropes, blocks and falls 
 
 One or more Traveling Hoist with tracks laid to slipways 
 
 and woodworking machine shops 
 
 Shaving exhaust blower 35 to 50 
 
 Portable forges 
 
 Power punch 10 
 
 Additional tools that can be advantageously used : 
 
 Portable electrically driven timber planer 
 
 Portable electrically driven deck planer 5 
 
 Air-driven caulking tools for caulking decks 
 
 <.-■ >*,^i:x:;s;s^ 
 
 ThrM Wooden Cargo Carriers on tba Way* at the Yards of the St. Helens ShipbulldinK Co. at St. Helens, Oregon. The S. T. Allard Is in 
 
 the Center and the City of St. Helens on the Left 
 
WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 83 
 
 Fig. 71. A Squadron of Electric Carriers at the Yard of the Peninsula 
 
 Shlphulldlng Company. These Handy Vehicles Are Wonders In 
 
 the Way of Time-Savlng and Transportational Flexibility 
 
 This list is merely a general one for the purpose of 
 giving information about tools that should be available 
 in a modern shipyard. The powers given are taken from 
 actual installations of electrically driven tools installed 
 in a modern shipyard. It should be remembered that, 
 while it is only occasionally that more than 50% of the 
 tools will be in operation at one time, it is not safe to 
 assume that the total power required will ever fall below 
 the actual total for all tools. As a modern shipyard is 
 frequently called upon to do machine work on metals, a 
 few metalworking machine tools should be installed. Be- 
 low I give list of power required to drive modern metal- 
 working machine tools : 
 
 56" X 56" X 12' planer will require 20 
 
 42" X 42" X 20' planer will require 15 
 
 30" X 30" X 8' planer 10 
 
 24" X 24" X 6' planer 5 
 
 10' boring mill 20 
 
 7' boring mill I5 
 
 so" boring mill 7 
 
 62" lathe 10 
 
 48" lathe 5 
 
 32" lathe 4 
 
 24" lathe 3 
 
 18" lathe 2 
 
 5' radial drill 5 
 
 Four spindle gang drill 7 
 
 40" vertical drill 2 
 
 Milling machine 3 
 
 • No. 6 Niles bending rolls 35 
 
 Double punch and sheers 10 
 
 Angle sheers ( double) 10 
 
 12" straightening rolls 15 
 
 No. 4 punch 10 
 
 No. 2 punch 5 
 
 18" shaper 5 
 
 Milling machine 3-5 
 
 Grinding machine 3-6 
 
 22' bending rolls driving 35 
 
 lifting 10 
 
 Regarding installation of machinery. Electrically 
 driven tools are preferable to belt driven, especially in 
 
 woodworking shops, and in all cases the location of tools 
 should be chosen with a view to every tool being acces- 
 sible and available for use without it being necessary to 
 stop one tool to enable material to be properly handled 
 at an adjacent one. In addition to this, every tool should 
 be so located that the largest timbers can be machined and 
 finished without excessive handling Being necessary. The 
 entering end for rough timber should always be located 
 nearest to receiving end of yard and exit end nearest, or 
 in the direction of assembling and erecting end of yard. 
 
 Labor-saving devices for handling timbers, such as 
 portable rollers, tables, and cranes, should be available 
 for use at every machine where heavy timbers will be 
 handled. 
 
 (2d.) Facilities for Handling Material 
 
 If a shipbuilder attempts to handle material by hand 
 he is almost certain to make a failure of the job because 
 costs will be so high that it will become impossible for 
 him to do business at a profit. About 1,250,000 feet of 
 timber has to be handled three or more times during the 
 construction of a 275-foot wooden vessel. First, from 
 the vessel or cars, that delivers it to yard, to the assorting 
 and piling locations ; second, from the timber piles to saw- 
 mill ; third, in the sawmill, and then from sawmill to as- 
 sembling and working platforms or stations, and from 
 there to the vessel for erection in position. You can 
 readily understand how labor cost will mount and delays 
 occur when the handling and routing of material has not 
 been properly thought out and planned beforehand. Here 
 are a few suggestions that have proved of value: First, 
 carefully consider the possible locations of receiving and 
 storage points and select those which will enable the ma- 
 terials to be handled the minimum number of times and 
 routed from receiving point through sawmill to assembling 
 point and from there to building slip in the most direct 
 manner. 
 
 The first sorting or grading of lumber for parts it 
 can be best utilized for, and for quality, should be done at 
 the receiving point when material is received. By doing 
 this much confusion and unnecessary handling of material, 
 after it is piled, will be avoided. 
 
 Second, carefully consider how the materials can be 
 best handled over every point of this routing and the 
 means you will adopt for handling it. For handling tim- 
 bers from a vessel's hold, or from a car, by lifting power- 
 operated derrick booms are useful, or if the timbers have 
 to be unloaded from a vessel through bow cargo ports, 
 it may be that a large portion of the cargo can be most 
 economically handled by means of a power-operated port- 
 able winch and wire rope passed through ports, the tim- 
 bers being hauled endways from vessel and onto timber 
 trucks that will haul it to storage piles or sawmill. In 
 either case it is very necessary that the conveyors used for 
 moving timbers from vessel or car to its first stopping 
 place be power-driven. Electrically driven timber trucks 
 running on light steel rails or a traveling steam-driven 
 
84 
 
 WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 hoist can be used advantageously, so also can auto tim- 
 ber trucks. Bear in mind that this handling of material 
 from vessel to the piling points requires, in a majority of 
 cases, the handling of full loads. For the second han- 
 dling from the piling points to the sawmill, lighter trucks 
 can be utilized because in the majority of instances partial 
 loads will be hauled and delivered from piles of material 
 that has already been sorted for quality and dimensions. 
 Light motor or electrically driven timber carriers are 
 wonderful labor-savers for transporting material to saw- 
 mills and from them to the assembling and erecting points. 
 On Fig. 71 is shown some of these vehicles. 
 
 For the actual handling of material in sawmill, there 
 are many very satisfactory devices available, some being 
 power driven and others calling for the use of manual 
 labor while the piece of timber is actually being machined. 
 
 For the handling of heavy straight materials through 
 saws and beveling machines, the best kind of devices are 
 those which operate by power and have both vertical and 
 horizontal movement, capable of adjustment for speed, 
 height and direction. For the less weighty materials, 
 and for handling timber through band-saws, moulders and 
 planers, plain rollers and tables that can be quickly ad- 
 justed in position are best. When possible to do so, 
 the materials should be handled direct from machine 
 through which it passes, onto the truck or conveyance 
 that will move it to assembling or erecting points. To 
 allow material to be piled on floor of sawmill and then 
 handled a second time from floor to truck or conveyor 
 is wasteful of time and adds to expense, therefore a num- 
 
 Flg. 72. Traveling Holsti uid Tracks In Shipyard 
 
 ber of light trucks or conveyors is preferable to ones only 
 adapted for carrying heavy loads. 
 
 At the assembling platforms for frames at points 
 where the heavier timbers will be shaped and fastened 
 by the shipbuilders, and at the slipway where vessel is 
 being erected, means should be provided for handling 
 materials economically and rapidly, and I do not know 
 of a better way to do this than by using light, portable 
 steam-driven hoists or cranes that travel on rails. The 
 rails can be laid along the most desirable routes and the 
 hoists can pick up and move the finished pieces in the 
 shortest possible time and with a minimum of hand 
 labor. 
 
 Hoists of the kind referred to are clearly shown in 
 operation on tracks shown on Fig. 72. 
 
 From this brief description you can readily understand 
 the importance of carefully planning the handling and 
 routing of materials as a means for reducing labor costs 
 and speeding up production. 
 
 I do not know of anything that looks more inefficient 
 than to see a large number of workmen handling and haul- 
 ing material by hand power, and the men assigned to do 
 this kind of work are neither satisfied with their job or 
 efficient workmen. In addition to this the sight of men 
 moving along at low speed tends to slow up work of other 
 and more efficient workmen. 
 
 Before passing to my next explanation I want to 
 emphasize this point : It is very necessary that after you 
 have planned the method of handling and routing material 
 you should take pains to make every foreman and work- 
 man clearly understand your plan and the reason for hav- 
 ing it, and of course the plan should be made as simple 
 as possible because the simpler it is the more quickly the 
 average workman will understand it. 
 
 (3d.) Estimating Amounts of Materials Required 
 
 Estimating, if done accurately, is a great saving of 
 time and labor. By estimating, I mean determining 
 quantities, kinds and dimensions of material needed for 
 constructing and outfitting the entire vessel; and if the 
 estimate is prepared in a proper manner and with a view 
 to it being of greatest value, each piece of material should 
 be listed. First, for kind, dimensions, quality and quan- 
 tity, and second, in the order in which it is needed. The 
 kind, dimensions, quantity and quality list is generally 
 prepared by the estimator, and the order in which ma- 
 terial is needed list under the immediate direction of 
 superintendent, and on this list should be clearly stated 
 the dates each piece of material should be in the ship- 
 yard ready for use. 
 
 I have generally found that if the second list is pre- 
 pared with a view to using it in all departments for keep- 
 ing track of available material, it will prove a valuable 
 aid to checking materials and eliminating delays due to 
 non-delivery of materials. How this is done can best 
 be explained by describing the way one shipbuilding firm 
 prepares the list and uses it to check the purchasing 
 
WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 85 
 
 department's work and deliveries. In yard referred to a 
 clerk, under the direction of superintendent, prepares a 
 list of materials, on which is listed the quantities of ma- 
 terials required for each principal part of vessel and the 
 date each item should be in the yard. On this list there is 
 placed against each item three blank spaces, or squares, 
 onto which is pasted different colored pasters. When an 
 item of material is ordered a blue paster is fastened in 
 the first square opposite item, and on it is marked three 
 dates — the first indicating date ordered, the second date 
 delivery of material is promised, and the third a safe date 
 when material .should be shipped for delivery on date 
 promised. In second blank square, against an item a red 
 paster is fastened whenever shipment date arrives and 
 material has not been shipped. The safe date for ship- 
 ment is usually several days ahead of actual date ship- 
 ment must be made, thus allowing time for making in- 
 quiries. In third blank Space, against each item is 
 fastened a brown paster when materials are in yard 
 ready for use. Thus by having a boy paste the neces- 
 sary colors against each item at the beginning of each 
 day, it is possible, at a glance, for each head of a depart- 
 ment to see if materials are ordered, are shipped in time 
 to insure delivery, or are in yard ready for use. This 
 system is so simple that the smallest yard can use it and 
 it is capable of being advantageously used in the largest 
 yards. 
 
 It is unwise and unsafe to try and build a vessel 
 without using some system for keeping track of material 
 that has been ordered, and the system should always be 
 one that will enable the purchasing department and heads 
 of construction to keep track of deliveries and require- 
 
 ments, and the superintendent and men in charge to keep 
 check on purchasing department and on materials in yard. 
 
 (4th.) Methods of Keeping Track of Materials, Progress 
 of Work, Etc. 
 
 These should be adequate and sufficiently simple to 
 enable the heads of departments to keep posted upon 
 every detail of work progress. One" of the best methods 
 to use in a small shipyard is the combined numeral and 
 color method. Before work on a vessel is started a 
 tabulated list of each principal part of the work is made 
 out, each item is given a number, and against each item 
 is left four blank columns, or spaces, similar to the ones 
 left on estimating sheets. 
 
 The heading of blank columns being: 
 
 1st column— ^Material in yard. 
 2d column— *Work on material started. 
 3d column— •Assembling in ship started. 
 .4th column— ^Assembling in ship finished. 
 
 When list is prepared the superintendent enters in 
 each blank space dates that he estimates it is necessary 
 to have materials in yard, work started, assembling begun, 
 and assembling finished. 
 
 This list now becomes the yard's prime estimate for 
 work completion, and track is kept of progress of work 
 by pasting various colored pasters in the squares left 
 against each item. When material is in yard a brown 
 paster is fastened in first column, but if there is danger 
 of material not being delivered in yard on date entered 
 against any item, then a red paster is fastened in space. 
 It is the same with each stage of progress as indicated 
 by headings above columns. Should date when work on 
 
 '^:^^^mi^^^ 
 
 Fig. 72a. Meacham & Babcock's Wooden Shipyard at SeatUe. Four 3.500-Ton Sliips Under Construction 
 
86 
 
 WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 any piece of material arrive, and work not be started, a 
 red paster is fastened in the space and this remains until 
 work is started, when its place is taken by a paster having 
 one half blue and the other brown — the blue indicating 
 that work was started late. Of course on each paster is 
 written dates to indicate start and completion. Thus by 
 looking at the itemized sheet, it is possible for anyone 
 interested in keeping track of work to see at a glance 
 just how work on the vessel is progressing. A line of 
 brown pasters in fourth column will indicate that all 
 work is finished, and if pasters are partly brown and 
 partly blue they will indicate that while work is finished 
 it was not finished on date estimated. 
 
 I mentioned that each principal item or division of 
 work is given a numeral. This serves the double pur- 
 pose of enabling each part to be quickly traced through 
 each department or stage of work and kept track o^ by 
 marking its numeral on the piece, and it also enables 
 workmen to indicate on their time cards (if cards are 
 used), by using numbers, the pieces they have worked 
 on during each day. This facilities cost-keeping. 
 
 At the beginning of this chapter I mentioned Manage- 
 ment and Supervision, so perhaps it will be advisable for 
 me to explain my meaning of these things. 
 
 IOC. Management and Supervision 
 
 Proper and adequate yard management and supervi- 
 sion of workmen and the work is very essential. The 
 manager of a shipyard should have a sufficient knowledge 
 of ship-building and management of men to plan every 
 detail of the work of supervision, and his knowledge 
 should be such that he can fairly judge whether his sub- 
 
 ordinates are properly attending to their duties and the 
 work is progressing at estimated rate. 
 
 I am now referring only to the production manage- 
 ment. I have found that the only way to keep proper 
 track of progress of work and costs is to have reports 
 made daily and to have each superintendent and fore- 
 man meet at least once a week for discussion of the 
 various problems that arise from time to time. No 
 manager can achieve success by trying to run his yard 
 as a one-man problem, or without sincerely cooperating 
 with his assistants and keeping them fully informed of 
 his plans and intentions. 
 
 The manager of a yard should carefully plan each and 
 every detail of management and supervision beforehand, 
 and having planned should explain everything to his 
 assistants and insist that the management plan be adhered 
 to. 
 
 Some of the daily records that will be found of 
 value are: 
 
 I. — Records of number of men at work in yard and 
 on each job of work. 
 
 2. — Records of foremen in charge of work on each 
 job and number of men under each. 
 
 3. — Records of daily production of work in yard and 
 progress of work on each job. 
 
 4. — Records of materials in yard and on order. 
 
 5. — Records of amount of material erected and cost. 
 
 6. — Daily averages of production, of cost per unit, 
 and of cost compared with selling price. 
 
 7. — Records of men available for work should it be 
 necessary to increase force. 
 
 8. — Records of wasted material, and mistakes made 
 in the various departments. 
 
 The S. T. Allard Beady For LanncUng 
 
WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 87 
 
 In planning management details, I have found it ad- 
 visable to let each department keep their own records 
 and then to have their records used as a base to actually 
 check ever}' item. The simpler records are, and the more 
 direct the information they give is, the more valuable they 
 will prove. 
 
 The superintendents of work should not only know 
 the manager's intention but they should also be kept in- 
 formed 'as to progress of work and its actual cost. In- 
 formation of this kind should come direct from the 
 manager's office and should be in such form that it can 
 be used by the superintendent to check his prime records 
 and figures. It is very important that superintendents 
 keep in close touch with foremen in charge of work and 
 see that the essential orders of yard are obeyed. One 
 record that will prove very valuable to a superintendent 
 is a short one giving the number of men used for han- 
 dling material by hand power, the amount of material so 
 handled and reason why it is necessary to use men in- 
 stead of machine power. 
 
 Another record that is of great value is one con- 
 taining suggestions for improvements. Every man in the 
 employ of a firm should be encouraged to make sugges- 
 tions, and if any suggestion is of sufficient value to 
 warrant it being adopted the maker of the suggestion 
 should receive an adequate reward. It is very necessary 
 that superintendents take the time and trouble to instruct 
 foremen and leading men in charge of work as to their 
 duties and methods of increasing output. Very few fore- 
 men have any fixed ideas regarding methods of directing 
 men and laying out work; and for this reason every 
 superintendent should help foreman to learn the best 
 methods of directing the men and planning work. One 
 very necessary essential is to see that every one in charge 
 of work is kept posted on progress and cost, and if there 
 is combined with this figures taken from a preliminary 
 estimate of cost in labor for each principal part of the 
 work, each foreman will know whether he is ahead or 
 behind the schedule. I have always found it valuable to 
 have this information given to each foreman at least 
 once a week. Management and supervision of work is 
 a comparatively easy matter for the man who knows how 
 to use his brains. Many foremen and superintendents 
 forget that a few moments of thought given to each 
 problem will often expedite work and lessen cost. 
 
 lod. Actual Construction Work 
 
 I will now begin my explanation of actual construc- 
 tion work. Immediately after plans are ready, or re- 
 ceived, they are sent to the mould loft and laid down 
 full size; the mould loftsmen and their assistants then 
 make the necessary full-sized template and patterns for 
 the builders. 
 
 Laying down a vessel's lines is enlarging them to full 
 size, and making full-sized templates is making full-sized 
 patterns of parts of vessel and pieces of construction 
 
 material that have to be shaped in the sawmill or by 
 workmen. On Fig. 73 is shown some of the templates 
 made and work done in a mould loft. 
 
 The laying-down and template work required for the 
 construction of a wooden vessel is about as follows : 
 
 (a) Lines must be laid down full size and faired. 
 
 (b) The shape of each frame of vessel must be laid 
 down full size and templates of the various futtocks and 
 floors made. 
 
 (c) The construction details of keel, keelson, stem, 
 stern and other principal parts of the structure must be 
 laid down and templates must be made of the pieces. 
 
 (d) Accurate bevels must be taken of every frame 
 and of every necessary detail. 
 
 (e) Essential details of joiner work must be laid 
 down full size and templates of the details made or 
 detail rods laid out. 
 
 (f) From time to time during the actual construc- 
 tion work, it will be found necessary to refer to the full- 
 sized construction and detail plans, therefore, it is ad- 
 visable to keep details on mould loft floor until con- 
 struction has progressed sufficiently to insure that they 
 will not be needed. 
 
 Just as soon as the mould loft templates are made and 
 full-sized framing details are ready the work of con- 
 struction can begin. 
 
 When constructing a vessel it is usual to begin work 
 on keel, stem, stern and frames simultaneously and then 
 as the work progresses, the other pieces of material are 
 got out in their proper order and sufficiently ahead of 
 requirements to insure that they will be ready when 
 needed. 
 
 In this description I will follow the usual construc- 
 tion procedure and describe each principal part of the 
 work in the order in which it is usually done. 
 
 loe. Keel Blocks 
 Arranging blocks to receive keel is really a part of 
 the construction work. These blocks are set out at proper 
 
 Fig. 73. Mould Loft Work 
 
88 
 
 WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 Fig. li. Assembling a Frame 
 
 intervals along center of building slip and they must be 
 arranged correctly as to location and height. The essen- 
 tial things to remember when arranging keel blocks is 
 to have them sufficiently high at lowest keel block to 
 enable workmen to work under vessel, and at the same 
 time their inclination must be in accordance with plans, 
 and correct for the inclination of building slip and launch- 
 ing ways. In chapter on Launching Ways this is ex- 
 plained more fully. 
 
 lof. Keel 
 This is the principal longitudinal timber of a vessel 
 and is the first timber to put in position. It extends 
 from stem to stern and is the timber upon which the 
 whole structure is erected. The dimensions of keel, and 
 in fact of every piece of timber in a vessel, is usually 
 stated in Construction Specifications. In almost every 
 instance dimensions selected are the ones stipulated in 
 Lloyd's rules. In selecting keel material these rules 
 should govern : 
 
 (a) The material should be durable when immersed 
 in water, should be in as long lengths as possible, and 
 scarphs should be located in such positions that they will 
 receive the maximum support from other pieces of timber. 
 
 (b) Scarphs of keel should always be nibbed and^t 
 is advantageous to use coaks in keel scarphs. 
 
 (c) Fastenings of keel scarphs should always be Suffi- 
 cient in number and of proper size. Never use a fewer 
 number of fastenings than is called for by Lloyd's rules. 
 
 (d) The material used for a keel should be well sea- 
 soned and free from knots and defects that lessen 
 strength. Sapwood should not appear on any keel tim- 
 ber. 
 
 When getting out keel timbers it is usuaj, to omit 
 cutting rabbet at ends, because this portion of rabbet can 
 always be more accurately- cut after stem and sti^ posts 
 are in place. 
 
 On Fig. 29 a keel is shown being set in position on 
 building blocks. ^^ 
 
 The location of every frame, obtained from mould 
 
 loft floor drawing, must be clearly marked on keel, and 
 the fastenings of keel scarphs should be located in posi- 
 tions clear of all frame fastenings. In a modern ship- 
 yard, keel timbers are obtained slightly larger than re- 
 quired dimensions and run through a four-sided plane 
 to smooth surfaces and reduce the timber to proper 
 dimensions. 
 
 The scarphs can be partly cut on a shipyard band- 
 saw, providing proper carriers for the keel timbers are 
 used, and the saw is installed in a position that will 
 allow room for keel to swing to right and left. In all 
 cases it will be found necessary to complete the fitting of 
 keel scarph by hand, and it is always advisable to paint 
 or treat the surface of scarphs before fastening them to- 
 gether. After keel pieces are placed in position on blocks 
 they are fastened together by driving the scarph bolts 
 and then the keel is aligned and secured in position on 
 blocks. It is very necessary to have keel timber abso- 
 lutely straight from end to end. 
 
 While keel timbers are being got ready, work on stem, 
 stern, deadwood, keelson timbers, floors and frames is 
 proceeding and just as soon as keel is set in position the 
 frames, and then the stem, stern, deadwood and keel- 
 sons can be erected and fastened. 
 
 lOg. Getting Out the Frames 
 
 The frames of a wooden vessel are always composed 
 of several pieces of timber, sawed to required shape and 
 fastened together to form the frame. The lowest piece 
 of each frame, called the floor timber, fits across and is 
 notched over keel, and each succeeding piece from keel 
 up is named a futtock and has a numeral added to in- 
 dicate location relative to keel. Thus the piece next the 
 floor timber is termed the first futtock, the piece next 
 above, the second futtock, and so on upwards until the 
 last piece is reached. The last or upper piece of each 
 
 Fig. 76. Assembling a Midslilp Frame 
 
WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 89 
 
 Fig. 76. SettlnK Up a Frame 
 
 frame is called the top timber. On Fig. 28 each futtock 
 is indicated. 
 
 The method of fastening futtocks together is by doub- 
 ling, allowing their ends to lap, and then bolting the 
 doubled pieces together. On Fig. 28 is shown the various 
 joinings of the piece and bolts that fasten them together. 
 Frames built up in this manner are called double because 
 the material is doubled in thickness by the lapping of 
 joints. Thus a 6-inch sided doubled frame is practically 
 12 inches sided measure. 
 
 The shape of each frame is obtained from full-sized 
 mould loft drawing, the templates and bevels being used 
 by the millmen when they saw the pieces of material to 
 proper shape. In a modern shipyard each and every 
 piece of a vessel's frame is accurately beveled and shaped, 
 inside and outside, in the sawmill, and all that the ship 
 carpenters have to do is to assemble the pieces and place 
 cross spalls in position to prevent frame getting out of 
 shape during the erection work. 
 
 On Fig. 74 is shown some workmen assembling the 
 pieces of a forward frame. Note the bevel of outer edge 
 and how the bolt holes are being drilled at an inclination 
 from perpendicular, also on Fig. 75 is shown a midship 
 body frame being assembled on one of the assembling 
 platforms. Note the cross spalls. In some shipyards 
 frames are assembled on platforms located some distance 
 from the vessel, and in others they are assembled just 
 ahead or aft of a vessel and then moved to their proper 
 location and erected. 
 
 There seems to be a preference for beginning the 
 erection of a vessel's frame at or near to amidships and 
 then working both aft and forward. 
 
 I will describe the work of erecting a framfe in posi- 
 tion. 
 
 A timber runway or platform is placed each side of 
 keel at a proper height and distance from center of keel 
 line to enable workmen to use platform or runways for 
 
 working on. On Fig. 76 such, a runway is shown and 
 on Fig. yy men are shown moving the platform timbers. 
 A frame is moved to its location on keel and laid down 
 on platform, then by means of a derrick it is hoisted up- 
 right and placed in position. When in position on keel 
 it is necessary to plumb and secure the frame against 
 moving. This work is done in th'e following manner: 
 On the upper cross spall a center line is marked and when 
 frame is in position, but before it is secured to keel, a 
 plumb is dropped from center mark on spall. If the 
 point of plumb bob strikes center longitudinal line marked 
 on top of keel it indicates that frame is set plumb in one 
 direction (transversely). To find out whether frame is 
 plumb in longitudinal direction, measure distance at keel 
 between plumb bob and frame and also distance from 
 cross spall to keel ; then, knowing the inclination that 
 keel is set on keel blocks and these two measures, it is 
 an easy matter to calculate whether frame is properly 
 plumbed or not. Of course measurements at keel and 
 cross spall must be made from the same edge of frame. 
 
 When frame is plumbed it must be secured against 
 movement by placing shores against it, and then it can 
 be secured to keel by driving one of the frame to keel 
 fastenings. 
 
 Bear in mind that the majority of keelson fastenings 
 go through frames into keel and serve to secure both 
 keelson and frames to keel, therefore, as it is undesirable 
 to bore a large number of fastenings holes through 
 frames, only the minimum number of fastenings should 
 be driven when frames are first erected. After the first 
 frame is set in place, the other frames are placed in 
 position, the men working towards both bow and stern 
 and regulating each frame by making measurements to 
 
 ••gpstsffiSFsrsssrs?! 
 
 ^.iMIlllUllllli 
 
 FiK. 7ea. Erecting a Midship Frame 
 
go 
 
 WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 ■ i 
 
 
 j| 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 -J: 
 
 
 Z llMKia....^.^. _3 ... :^J ~'^''^*'*3|B 
 
 vH 
 
 
 
 L.^ — _: .^H^^fel 
 
 Jr 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 '' ' ^i^^o^JiwWffSflBry^S^^^^^^rl^^^^BMfc. 
 
 1 
 
 
 Lrg^^g^^ 
 
 
 
 ^ — 
 
 /M > ^^ i. V x:^j:st^^JnI^^^Bfc?MH 
 
 riK. 77. Moving a Framing Platform 
 
 prove that "room and space" between frames is correct 
 and frames properly set and "horned". The usual 
 method of proving that a frame is horizontally square 
 with keel is to "horn" it, or prove its accuracy by measur- 
 ing from a point on keel, some distance ahead (or aft) 
 of frame being horned, out to sheer line marked on each 
 side of top timber of frame. If the frame is set correctly 
 the distance from point on keel to starboard top timber 
 sheer line on a frame will be identically the same as the 
 measure from same point to port top timber sheer line. 
 Of course plumb bob can also be used to prove accuracy 
 in a transverse direction. 
 
 As each frame is erected and secured, it is shored and 
 held in position by fastening it to the adjoining frame 
 with short cleats, and after several frames are erected 
 they are regulated, faired, and held in position by fasten- 
 ing ribband battens near to bilge, to sheer, and along 
 bottom. On Fig. 78 bilge ribband batten is shown shored 
 in position. 
 
 While the frames of middle body are being erected, 
 other gangs of men can be putting forward and after 
 deadwoods in place and erecting the stem and stern 
 posts, so that by the time cant frames are ready to erect 
 the deadwood will be in position to receive them. 
 
 I have already explained that cant frames are erected 
 at varying angles to the perpendicular and are located at 
 and near to bow and stern. On Fig. 80 the forward 
 cant frames are clearly shown. Cant frames are shaped, 
 assembled, and erected in the same manner that the 
 square frames are, but it is usual to use harpin ribbands 
 forward for the purpose of holding forward cants in 
 position while being fastened, and to run in some short 
 stern ribband aft to hold after cants in position. 
 
 Cant frames are generally mortised into deadwood 
 and fastened to deadwood or stem, or stem by means of 
 bolts that pass through frames, deadwood, stem, or stern. 
 
 In large vessels strength is added to the bottom fram- 
 ing by inserting filling frames between the regular tim- 
 
 bers of the frame. If you will turn to plans of vessel 
 shown on Fig. 205, you will note that there is an open 
 space between each frame. This open space is filled with 
 floors or short frames that extend from keel to about the 
 turn of bilge, the purpose of these being to strengthen the 
 bottom of vessel and prevent dirt accumulating in open 
 spaces between frames. In the days before iron and steel 
 were used for ship-building it was usual to have the filling 
 frames extend well above turn of bilge, to fit and wedge 
 them closely against frames and then to properly caulk 
 all the seams between frames, thus making the whole 
 bottom of a vessel absolutely watertight before the plank- 
 ing was put on, and greatly adding to strength to resist 
 hogging and sagging strains. In these days, however, 
 the use of steel diagonal straps and arches has, to a large 
 extent, done away with the necessity for using filling 
 frames as a means for strengthening the structures of 
 small and moderate sized vessel. Filling frames should 
 be used in large vessels. 
 
 loh. The Stem, Apron and Deadwood 
 
 The shapes of these are obtained from mould loft, 
 and by using the templates and bevels made in mould 
 loft the various pieces of material can be properly shaped, 
 beveled, and partially finished in sawmill. The stem is 
 usually composed of several pieces of material fastened 
 together with through bolts in the manner designated 
 on plans. Stem is assembled, rabbeted to receive plank- 
 
 FiK. 78. Erecting a Stem 
 
WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 91 
 
 Fig. 79. Stem, Deadwood and Frame Set Up 
 
 ing, then raised to its position, plumbed and properly 
 fastened. 
 
 Now a word about fastening the large timbers of a 
 vessel such as keel, stem, deadwood, frame, etc. 
 
 In a modern shipyard nearly all hand drilling for 
 fastening has been replaced by air-operated machine drill- 
 ing, and it is very necessary to remember that the old 
 hand drilling for fastenings rules do not give satisfactory 
 results if followed when holes are drilled by air-operated 
 machines. With hand-operated augers the practice is to 
 use an auger that is one-eighth smaller than fastening, 
 and this rule is satisfactory because the hole bored by a 
 hand-operated auger is never very much larger than the 
 actual size of auger and, the metal used for fastening 
 
 being slightly in excess of designated size, the fastening 
 will drive tightly and hold securely. But when air- 
 machine augers are used the high speed of rotation, com- 
 bined with the difficulty of holding drilling machine per- 
 fectly steady and the necessity for withdrawing auger a 
 number of times while boring a hole for a long fastening, 
 usually causes the auger to bore ah oblong hole that is 
 materially larger than auger. It therefore is essential 
 that a smaller size of auger be used when boring holes 
 with an air-operated machine than is called for by the 
 hand-operated auger requirements. I believe the size 
 of auger should be not less than 3/16-inch under fasten- 
 ing, and I have found it sometimes necessary to use an 
 auger ^-inch smaller. Much depends upon the skill 
 of operator and the care with which he withdraws and 
 inserts auger while hole is being drilled. 
 
 On Fig. 81 and Fig. 8ia air-operated augers are 
 shown in operation. 
 
 A fastening that will drive easily into its hole is 
 worthless and aside from its insecurity is liable to leak. 
 The old practice of having the fastening hole so small 
 that fastening will head perfectly while driving is an ex- 
 cellent one to follow and the old rule that required each 
 fastening to drive not over J4 inch under each of the last 
 six full blows is also a most excellent one to adhere to. 
 
 Many present-day defects in wooden vessel construc- 
 tion are due to insecurity of fastenings, through the 
 holes into which they are inserted being too large. 
 
 Hg. 80. Wooden SMp-Bulldlng on the Pacific Coast. Tie City of St. Helens In Frame at the Yard of the St. Helens, Ore.. Shipbuilding Company 
 
92 
 
 WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 . •fir.-:' ^ 
 
 B 
 
 P 
 
 mJ\ 
 
 Iktt 
 
 V 
 
 ...ds**— ._ -g-~ ^ "'^V^IHII 
 
 tin Ml 
 
 
 ss 
 
 fiial 
 
 If® 
 
 s^Sb^ 
 
 
 9Q 
 
 Fig. 81. The Little David Pneumatic Boring Machine Makes Light Work 
 
 of the Deep Holes Required in the Giant Keelsons. The Operator 
 
 Has to Have Only a Straight Eve and a Steady Hand, For His 
 
 Task Is Rut to Guide the Tool 
 
 Continuing Remarks About Stem 
 
 On Figs. 78 and 79 a stem is shown in position and on 
 Fig- 36 is shown two construction details of forward 
 deadwood and stem of wooden vessels. 
 
 loi. Stern-Post and After De.adwood Construction 
 
 The shape of stern-post, its deadwood, and the count- 
 er timbers for stern is obtained from templates made in 
 mould loft and, as in the case of stem and its deadwood, 
 the various pieces of material are sawed into shape and 
 partly fashioned in the sawmill. The erection of stern- 
 post and its adjoining timbers is done in this manner : 
 First the stern-post and its knee is plumbed and secured in 
 place and then the deadwood and counter timbers are 
 placed in position and fastened. On Fig. 37 is shown the 
 construction details of stern of a vessel and on Fig. 82 is 
 shown photographs of stern-post framing. After stem 
 and stern with their deadwoods are erected the cutting 
 of rabbet is completed and then the whole frame is proved 
 and regulated. 
 
 Fig. 90 shows a vessel in frame ready for planking. 
 
 loj. The Keelson Construction 
 
 While the stem and stern-post are being erected and 
 fastened, the lower keelson timbers should be got ready 
 to fasten in place and just as soon as the frame is prop- 
 erly erected and faired, the keelsons can be fastened in 
 place. Keelson timbers are generally got out in sawmill 
 in the same manner that keel timbers are got out, and 
 scarphs should be nibbed ones. It is advantageous to 
 coak all keelson scarphs. 
 
 When laying out locations of keelson scarphs, it is 
 
 essential to locate them in positions that are not too close 
 to keel scarphs and to make scarphs extend over at least 
 three frames. In addition to this scarphs of the rider 
 keelson should be widely separated from those of keelson 
 proper. 
 
 It is advantageous to let keelson into floors for about 
 one inch, because by doing this the keelson obtains a 
 firmer base to rest upon and is strengthened against side 
 movement. 
 
 On illustrations Nos. 201, 202, 205, 206, 212 are 
 shown details of three kinds of keelson construction. 
 
 Fig. 201 shows the most advanced type of construc- 
 tion, consisting of a combination of steel and wood ar- 
 ranged in such a manner that the maximum of resistance 
 against longitudinal strains is obtained with a minimum 
 weight of material. 
 
 The Fig. 201 keelson as you will note is a built-up / 
 beam having its lower members secured to floors and its 
 upper member fastened to steel plating that rests on, and 
 is fastened to the ceiling of floor. The pieces of ceiling 
 next to keelson fit against and edge-bolt through the 
 steel plate web, thus tying the whole structure together. 
 On Fig. 84 is shown another type of steel keelson con- 
 struction, consisting of a top steel plate riveted to built- 
 up side members composed of angles and plates. On Fig. 
 84a cross-section details of a keelson of this kind are 
 shown. The keelson construction shown on Fig. 202 
 cross-section view is an all-wood keelson composed of 
 three lower and three upper pieces of timber securely 
 fastened together and to the floors of vessel. You will 
 note by referring to the longitudinal view that both the 
 upper and lower center keelson timbers extend from bow 
 to stern and are properly scarphed into and securely 
 fastened to deadwood forward and extend aft to form a 
 portion of after deadwood. It is most important to have 
 keelsons extend the whole length of a vessel and fasten 
 them to forward and after deadwoods in such a manner 
 
 Courtesy of IngersoU-Rand Company 
 
 Fig. 81a. The Pneumatic Drift Bolt Driver Hammering Home a Long 
 
 1>4-In. Bolt Through a Deck Ream and Its Supporting Sturdy 
 
 Sill. The Bolt Disappears Into Its Hole With 
 
 Astonishing Rapidity 
 
WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 93 
 
 that there will not be any weakness of structure at points 
 of termination of keelsons. 
 
 On Figs. 205 and 206 are shown longitudinal views of 
 large vessel keelson construction similar to the one shown 
 on Fig. 202. In this construction the keelsons are com- 
 posed of three tiers of timbers, instead of the two shown 
 on Fig. 202, and you will note that the two lower tiers 
 are put in place before stemson and after deadwood is, 
 and that-the upper tier of timbers rests on and is fastened 
 to stemson forward and deadwood aft. On Figs. 36 and 
 37 are shown details of another method of scarphing 
 upper piece of keelson to stemson and deadwood. 
 
 On Fig. 212 is shown cross-section and longitudinal 
 views of another type of wood keelson construction suit- 
 able for a large vessel. This construction is composed 
 of two lower tiers of timbers each of which is composed 
 of three members edge-bolted together as well as being 
 fastened securely to the floors. On top of these is 
 fastened three additional tiers of timbers each being 
 composed of one timber. Thus the whole keelson makes 
 a solid structure of an inverted T shape all members of 
 which extend from stem to stern. Under hatch openings 
 it is usual to secure an additional short piece of timber 
 on top of keelson and then cover the portion of keelson 
 under opening with steel plates, for the purpose of pro- 
 tecting it against damage when loading and unloading 
 cargo. 
 
 The essentials in keelson construction are : 
 
 (a) To have the keelson sufficiently deep to with- 
 
 stand longitudinal strains tending to hog or sag the 
 whole structure. 
 
 (b) To fasten keelson securely to keel frame, stem- 
 son and to after deadwood, thus making keelson and all 
 parts mentioned above one longitudinal member of the 
 ship's structure, and at the same time adding strength to 
 transverse members of structure. * 
 
 loj'. Other Methods of Keelson Construction 
 
 In some of the larger sailing vessels now being con- 
 structed the keelson structure, in place of being straight 
 on top, as shown on Fig. 212, is formed in the shape of an 
 arch. In a keelson of this kind the three lower tiers of 
 timber extend from stem to stern in manner shown on 
 Fig. 212, and after these are secured an arch is built up 
 on top of keelson by forming several timbers and bend- 
 ing them in place on top of the lower tiers. Each suc- 
 ceeding timber of the arch is longer than the one below, 
 and the last, or upper, timber reaches to the stemson 
 forward and deadwood aft, and is scarphed to these struc- 
 tures. On Fig. 85 is shown details of this kind of keel- 
 son construction. 
 
 One objection to this kind of keelson construction is 
 the large amount of material required for its construction, 
 and another is the weakness at point of junction of for- 
 ward end of arch with stemson. 
 
 This arch construction is a development of the center 
 line longitudinal bulkhead construction that has been tried 
 out in several vessels. 
 
 Pig. 82. Setting Up the Stern 
 
94 
 
 WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 Tig. 84. Steel Keelson 
 
 I will now describe and illustrate the most advanced 
 development of the arch type of keelson. 
 
 On Fig. 86 is shown details of a longitudinal trussed 
 keelson composed of wood and steel. Keelson of this 
 kind has the advantage of possessing the maximum of 
 strength with a minimum weight. Of course the mem- 
 bers must be properly fitted and the whole structure se- 
 curely fastened to keel, frame, stemson and stern framing. 
 For a structure of this kind it is advantageous to revert 
 to old timber bridge construction methods and use steel 
 tie-rods and straps, details of a number of which are 
 shown on Fig. 86a. 
 
 Another advanced development of keelson construc- 
 tion is an all-steel trussed keelson to which hold stan- 
 chions deck beams and transverse framing are secured 
 as well as the longitudinal members of the ship's struc- 
 ture. This type of keelson construction is shown on Fig. 
 87 and possesses many advantages over the wood keelson 
 for large sailing vessel construction. 
 
 Still another development is the reinforced concrete 
 keelson. Deep keelson construction of the types referred 
 to above are not suitable for vessels in which machinery 
 
 is installed unless the top of machinery foundation is 
 located sufificiently high to allow keelson to pass below 
 engines and boilers without reduction of its height above 
 keel. In the case of the steel trussed keelson the trussing 
 along machinery foundation space can be arranged 'to 
 allow machinery foundation timbers to be fastened to and 
 strengthened by the keelson structure, and in one instance 
 as keelson approaches the machinery space it is divided 
 into two members which pass each side of machinery 
 foundation space at a proper distance to allow the steel 
 foundation to be members fitted between the two keel- 
 son members. 
 
 Details of this kind of construction are shown on Fig. 
 43b. 
 
 lok. Steel Strapping of Frame 
 
 When frame is regulated it is faired inside and out- 
 side by dubbing off irregularities and then, if steel 
 diagonal straps or arch straps are to be used, they are 
 fitted and fastened in place. 
 
 In all vessels built of wood there is a continual ten- 
 dency for the longitudinal members of structure to alter 
 their shape and, especially in large vessels, no amount of 
 additional wood material is capable of resisting this ten- 
 dency to alter longitudinal shape as efficiently as steel 
 straps will. It, therefore, has become usual to insert 
 steel diagonal straps outside the frames of all wood ves- 
 sels, and in larger ones these are supplemented by steel 
 arch straps fastened inside or outside the frames. 
 
 Method of crossing diagonal straps outside of frames 
 is shown on Fig. 49 and on Fig. 88 is shown details of 
 method of fastening straps to frames, at crossing points 
 and to longitudinal sheer strap. 
 
 Fig. 25 also shows steel diagonal strap locations 
 marked by dotted lines, and on Table 3 A (page 21) is 
 given dimensions of steel straps used on vessels of named 
 sizes. 
 
 Section 39, Lloyd's rules, specifies that proportion of 
 breadth to length and depth to length shall regulate the 
 
 ^■- 
 
 f^^^ 
 
 ,ri 
 
 W'*. 
 
 Tig. 83. 
 
 Motoishlp James Tlmpsou, Built by the O. M. Standlfer Construction Company at Portland, Ore. 
 
 Designed by Coz b Stevens 
 
 A Correctly-Sbaped Elliptical Stern 
 
WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 95 
 
 flf^aL£--^ 
 
 Fig a^ 
 
 KEEL 
 
 number of straps, that tonnage shall regulate the dimen- 
 sions of straps, that lower ends of straps must reach to, 
 at least, halfway between long floor heads and first fut- 
 tocks and upper ends to upper tier of beams. All straps 
 must be let in flush with outside edge of frames by re- 
 moving a proper depth and width of wood from each 
 frame at point where strap crosses. The steel strap arch 
 is also let in and fastened to every frame it crosses. 
 This arch should begin at stemson forward, rise in a fair 
 sweep until it reaches the upper deck line near to the 
 midship section, and from this point it should drop in a 
 fair sweep until it reaches after deadwood a short dis- 
 tance ahead of stern-post. 
 
 You can readily understand that a vessel strapped 
 with both diagonal and arch straps has a greater power 
 of resistance against longitudinal strains than one con- 
 structed in the old manner with caulked filling timbers for 
 its entire length and a large number of wooden riders or 
 iron. It is very essential to have tension of every strap 
 as nearly alike as possible and to have all strap fasten- 
 ings properly driven into frames. 
 
 When straps are let into frames and fastened the work 
 of planking can begin, and at the same time the ceiling, 
 the deck beams and pieces that compose the deck fram- 
 ing can be got ready. 
 
 lol. Planking 
 
 I have explained in Chapter VIII that planking 
 is the name given to outside covering of frame, and 
 
 that it is put on in planks called strakes, that run in fair 
 curves from bow to stern. For thickness of planking to 
 use see Tables given in Chapter III (page 21), and I 
 also refer you to cross-sections of plans Nos. 201, 202, 
 212, 213, on which are clearly marked the general dimen- 
 sions of planking at various points from keel to sheer. 
 When planking a vessel the garboarcf is the first plank to 
 fit and fasten in place. 
 
 loP. Laying a Garboard 
 
 As the lower edge of garboard must fit snugly into the 
 rabbet of keel it is necessary that the rabbet cut along 
 keel, stem, deadwood and stern be properly faired before 
 a garboard can be laid. The ship-carpenters usually fair 
 this rabbet before taking measurements for garboard 
 (called spiling), and when rabbet is fair garboard meas- 
 urements are taken, a template made, if it is necessary 
 to do so, and garboard planks got out to shape and fitted 
 in place. 
 
 The width of available material usually determines 
 the width that garboard will be at its widest point, and as 
 it is essential that width of garboard and of all planking 
 strakes be properly proportioned from end to end, it is 
 advisable that width marks for each plank be laid off at 
 several frames before any planking is got out. This is 
 done by carefully measuring from rabbet of keel to sheer 
 around outside of midship frame and dividing this meas- 
 urement by the number of strakes the plans specify 
 that vessel's planking shall consist of. The widths of 
 strakes at midship section are very often given on cross- 
 section plan of vessel's construction (see Fig. 202, cross- 
 section) and may vary at diflferent points, but the essen- 
 tial thing to remember when laying out planking marks 
 is to have the proper number of strakes at midship 
 (widest) section. The planking marks are scribed across 
 outside face of midship frame and when this has been 
 done each line indicates where upper edge of each strake 
 of planking must reach to at midship section. 
 
 When midship section planking lines have been laid 
 out measurements are taken around several frames located 
 at equal intervals between midship, stem and stern, care 
 being taken to have the same number of marks on all 
 frames (except in cases where a strake of planking termi- 
 nates before it reaches one of the marked frames). 
 Thus when the selected frames have been measured and 
 
 ng. 86. Arcbed Wood Keelson 
 
96 
 
 WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 plank marks scribed across their outside faces, a series 
 of lines appear on the outside of frames and each line 
 indicates where a seam of planking will be located. 
 
 Some shipbuilders make a practice of going still 
 further and by means of battens and chalk lines they run 
 each plank line and, when they have proved its accuracy, 
 scribe it across the outside face of every frame. This 
 is a most excellent plan and will sometimes enable greater 
 planking speed to be made, because planking can be spiled 
 well ahead of planking gang's requirements. 
 
 To take the shape, or "spiling" for a plank all that is 
 necessary is to tack a thin plank of material (about ^- 
 inch thick), that is sufficiently wide to prevent its bend- 
 ing edgeways, along the outside of frames and as near 
 as possible to position where plank will fill. For gar- 
 board this thin plank would be fastened with its lower 
 edge an inch or so out from rabbet, then the ship-carpenter 
 sets a pair of dividers to a width that will allow one point 
 of dividers to rest against rabbet of keel and other point 
 on pattern material, and without changing set of dividers 
 he marks a series of points along the pattern material, 
 always holding one point of dividers against rabbet of 
 keel and marking point on material with other. Frame 
 numbers, the width of plank at each frame, and setting 
 of dividers, are marked on pattern material, before taking 
 it to sawmill, for use when getting out the plank. Width 
 of planking measure referred to is obtained by measuring 
 distance from keel rabbet out to mark, on outside of 
 frames, that indicates line upper edge of plank will 
 follow. 
 
 Of course a bevel board, on which is marked bevels 
 that lower edge of plank should have, must accompany 
 plank spiling batten. The bevels for lower edge of plank 
 are obtained by placing an adjustable bevel along frame 
 and adjusting it to fit properly against bevel of rabbet in 
 manner shown on Fig. 89. Planking is usually marked out 
 in the sawmill, and if bevels are indicated by degrees at 
 each point the planks can be sawed to shape with properly 
 beveled edges by using an adjustable beveling shipyard 
 saw or one of the modern shipyard adjustable beveling 
 heads. 
 
 When garboard plank is shaped, its edges are finished 
 by hand and then it is placed in the steam-box, well 
 steamed to permit it to be bent readily in place, and then 
 
 ^•rr^M Pos^ 
 
 hung in position, bent to fit snugly against the frames and 
 secured by means of fastenings, wedges, jackscrews, and 
 planking clamps. All of the wedges, screws, and clamps 
 are allowed to remain in position until plank is "set" and 
 fastenings are driven. 
 
 Garboard strakes should have vertical scarphs all of 
 which should be some distance, longitudinally, from keel 
 and keelson scarphs, and at least three frame spaces 
 away from any mast step. Scarphs of garboards must 
 be edge-bolted to keel. 
 
 Regarding the fastening of garboards. Garboards are 
 fastened with at least one QJHc/j-bolt, or bolt riveted on 
 washer, through every second frame timber in addition to 
 the usual double treenail fastenings laid down in building 
 rules. If a garboard strake is over 4 inches in thickness 
 it must be edge-bolted to keel in every second frame space, 
 and if the garboard is over 7 inches in thickness a second 
 (garboard) strake, i or ij,-^ inch less thickness than first 
 garboard, must be used, and this strake must be edge- 
 bolted to first garboard in each alternate frame space. In 
 large wooden vessels a third and sometimes a fourth gar- 
 board strake is used. 
 
 In all cases the excess thickness over and above that 
 of bottom planking, that shows along edge of garboard 
 strakes, is "dubbed off" even with bottom planking at 
 stem and stern, and sometimes for the whole length of 
 garboard. On Figs. 202 and 212 the garboard is "dubbed 
 oflf" for its full length and on Fig. 213 is "dubbed oflF" at 
 bow and stern only. Note difiference in appearance of 
 edges on midship section views. 
 
 10I-. Sheer Strake Wales and Other Planking 
 
 The plank that follows sheer line of a vessel, named 
 the sheer plank, is usually got out and fitted in place at 
 same time that garboard is being fitted. The "spiling" 
 is taken in the same manner as for garboard. Bear in 
 mind that, as covering board (on deck) extends to out- 
 side of planking, the upper edge of sheer plank must be 
 beveled to same crown that deck frame has. 
 
 The butts of sheer plank should be nibbed scarphs 
 edge-bolted in manner shown on Fig. 43. 
 
 On Fig. 90 is shown a vessel framed and ready for 
 sheer strake, and on the ground alongside of vessel is 
 shown some of the sheer strake planks scarphed ready to 
 
 ^-'f^'wi[»p^'i^r^si w\ mm. MHi \'>i^rm' '' ''^'^^Wm'w^%Kw\m\m 
 
 MM-»^ ^=i 
 
 Fig. 86. Trussed Wood Kaalson 
 
WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 97 
 
 hang in place. Sheer planks are sawed to shape, beveled, 
 hung and fastened in manner explained in garboard 
 paragraph. 
 
 The wales, as you will note by referring to Figs. 28 and 
 201 and Table 3E (page 22), are somewhat thicker than 
 bottom planking. The proper vertical extent of wales 
 on vessels of usual proportion of depth to length is about 
 one-third of vessel's depth of hold, but when a vessel is 
 eight or more depths in length it is usual to increase ver- 
 tical depth of wales to about two-fifths of depth of hold. 
 Method of getting out and fastening wales is similar to 
 that of balance of planking. 
 
 ■ In all cases the outside planking of a vessel must be 
 put on in as long lengths as possible, because butts tend 
 to weaken longitudinal strength of planking. While I am 
 referring to butts, I will mention some safe rules to 
 following in locating butts. 
 
 1st. — All planking butts should come on middle of a 
 frame and should be cut accurately and fastened securely. 
 
 2d. — Butts of adjoining planks should not be nearer 
 each other, in a longitudinal direction, than three frames, 
 and two butts should not come on the same frame unless 
 at least three full strakes of planking are between. 
 
 It is advisable when a vessel is planked with fir or yel- 
 low pine to make the after hoods of planks along the 
 "tuck" and the forward hoods of bow planks that will 
 require a great deal of twisting to get them in place, of 
 white oak. Another detail of importance is to get out 
 all planks with the required curvature, and thus do away 
 with any necessity of having to "force" the planks edge- 
 ways in order to make them fit snug against the adjacent 
 plank. "Edge-setting" a plank is a detriment and will 
 sometimes result in the plank breaking after it has been 
 fastened in place. 
 
 loP. Fastenings of Planking 
 
 The number, sizes, and kinds of planking fastenings 
 to use are given on Tables 3B, 3C, 3D, 3E, 3F (pages 
 20 to 23), and methods of fastening are shown on Figs. 
 45 and 46. 
 
 Three kinds of fastenings are used for securing out- 
 side planking of a vessel's frame. Wood treenails, through 
 bolts zvith nuts and clinch bolts (bolts whose ends can be 
 clinched or riveted over clinch rings or washers). 
 
 Number of planking fastenings should always be 
 proportioned to width of strake of plank. 
 
 Planks above 11 inches must have at least two fas- 
 tenings into each frame, called double fastening. Planks 
 over 8 inches and up to 11 inches must have alternate 
 dou])le and single fastenings; that is, have two fasten- 
 ings in one frame and one fastening in adjacent one. 
 
 Planks under 8 inches in width can be single fas- 
 tened; that is, have one fastening driven through each 
 frame. 
 
 All butts' of planks must be fastened with at least 
 two bolts going through the timber on which butt is cut 
 and one bolt through each adjacent timber. These butt 
 bolts must be riveted or have nuts set up on washers. 
 
 Treenails used for fastening planking must be made 
 of straight-grained well-seasoned hardwood (locust or 
 other approved kind) and must be driven into holes that 
 are sufficiently small to insure the treenail having a max- 
 imum of holding strength. After treenails are driven 
 their ends must be cut flush with outside of planking and 
 inside of frame (or ceiling) and then wedged across 
 grain with hardwood wedges. 
 
 When fastening planking it is very necessary to give 
 proper consideration to the relative positions of fasten- 
 ings of outside planking, inside ceiling and of all knee 
 and other fastenings that must pass through frame tim- 
 bers, because if this is not done many fastenings may 
 pass through a frame so close to each other that wood 
 of frame will be cut away and both strength of frame and 
 holding power of fastenings reduced. 
 
 These rules should govern fastening of planking and 
 ceiling : 
 
 (a) Not less than two-thirds of treenail fastenings 
 should go through outside planking, frame and inside 
 ceiling or clamps. 
 
 (b) At least one fastening in each frame should be. 
 of metal, clinched or riveted on inside of frame timber. 
 
 Fig. 86a. Tle-Bods and Stiaps 
 
98 
 
 WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 In a number of present-day wooden vessels defects in 
 planking fastenings are apparent, and these defects are 
 in some cases so serious that the structural strength of 
 vessel is much below requirements. Some of the more 
 serious defects are due to 
 
 (a) The use of augers that are too large for fas- 
 tening diameter. 
 
 (b) The use of an improper number and size of 
 fastenings (usuaHy too few and too small). 
 
 (c) The use of unseasoned planking material and 
 improper spacing of fastenings. 
 
 (d) Improper location of butts and improper butt 
 fastening. 
 
 (e) The omission of edge fastenings, especially 
 through garboards. 
 
 (f) Imperfect wedging of treenail fastenings. 
 
 (g) Failure to properly clinch, or rivet, metal fas- 
 tenings of planking. 
 
 The augers used for plank fastenings should be suf- 
 ficiently smaller than diameter of fastening to insure that 
 fastening will require exceptionally hard blows to drive 
 them. In my explanation of keel fastenings, I mentioned 
 proper sizes of augers to use. The number of fastenings 
 driven into each frame timber should not be less than 
 mentioned in this paragraph and their diameters should 
 never be less than given in table below : 
 
 Planking Fastening 
 
 Thickness of 
 Planking 
 
 l" 
 
 2>4" 
 
 Diameter of 
 Bolts 
 
 /" 
 
 ■ Diameter of 
 
 Treenails 
 
 I" 
 
 3-3/2" 
 
 M" 
 
 i%" 
 
 4-4/2" 
 
 %" 
 
 ^Va" 
 
 5-5/2" 
 
 6" or over 
 
 15/16" 
 i" 
 
 1/2" 
 
 All planking material should be properly seasoned, 
 because unless it is the natural shrinkage of wood during 
 and aften construction will cause seams to open, caulk- 
 ing to loosen, and thus leaks will develop and strength 
 of vessel be greatly reduced. It is folly to use "green" 
 planking material. While air-drying is best, it is better 
 to resort to smoke or steam-drying than to use unseasoned 
 material and in fact if properly and carefully done smoke 
 
 /yg sr 
 
 3^ 
 
 tf 
 
 ^fCZ) 
 
 ^Jlmmj4^^mmm\ m^^ 
 
 Fig. 87. TrnsBed Steel Keelson 
 
 or Steam-drying does not detract from strength and dura- 
 bility of planking material. 
 
 Butts should always be located according to rules 
 mentioned in this chapter. Edge fastenings should always 
 be used along garboards, at butts of sheer and along 
 sheer strake. 
 
 Another method of fastening planking of vessels is 
 when the plank is being put in place to use a sufficient 
 number of spikes, "dump bolts," and treenails, to prop- 
 erly hold the planks in place and after the ceiling has 
 been wrought to, complete the fastening by putting in the 
 balance of treenails and all the through bolts. The first 
 fastenings, to hold planks in place, go through planking 
 and into frame timbers, and the second fastenings through 
 planking, frame timbers and ceiling. And still another, 
 older method is to use a minimum number of spikes and 
 some temporary fastenings (bolts with nuts) for the first 
 fastenings, and when the ceiling is being put in place to 
 withdraw the temporary fastenings, continue the boring 
 of these fastenings holes through ceiling, and then put 
 in the permanent planking fastenings through planking, 
 frame timbers and ceiling. 
 
 The principal things to bear in mind are : 
 
 (a) To consider the fastenings of ceiling and plank- 
 ing as being one and to so space the fastenings of both 
 planking and ceiling that the maximum number will serve 
 the double purpose of securing both planking and ceiling 
 to the frame timbers. , 
 
 (b) To so space all fastenings that there will be a 
 minimum number of holes bored through the frame tim- 
 bers. If the frame timbers are weakened too much by 
 having an excessive number of fastening holes bored 
 through them, the frames will not properly hold the fas- 
 tenings and are also liable to break under the strains that 
 are put on them when a vessel works in a sea. 
 
 Space fastenings properly, bore the proper sized holes 
 for every fastening, drive and rivet or wedge each fasten- 
 ing properly, and use the proper number of fastenings 
 and the vessel will have the maximum amount of strength. 
 Figs. 46, 47 give illustrations of proper spacing methods 
 for plank fastenings. 
 
 Continuing Planking 
 
 After garboards and sheer strake are fastened the 
 balance of planking is got out, and as there is now an 
 upper and a lower strake of planking in position (gar- 
 board and sheer) planking can proceed from sheer strake 
 down and from garboard strake up. 
 
 All planks are "spiled" in manner that garboard is, 
 and as each plank is fitted in place it should be tightly 
 wedged against the next plank before any fastening is 
 driven. Of course all seams of planking must be per- 
 fectly tight inside, and open, for caulking, on outside, 
 and care should be taken to have upper edge of each 
 plank follow the line laid out for it. 
 
 The last strake of planking to put in place is the 
 
WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 99 
 
 shutter strake, so called because it "shuts" or closes the 
 last space that planking has to fill. On Fig. 91 the 
 shutter strake opening is clearly shown. 
 
 After planking is completed and fastenings all secured, 
 planking is ready for roughing off caulking and smooth- 
 ing, but this work should be delayed until the last moment 
 in order to give planking time to properly dry out. 
 
 lol^. Double Planking (Fore and Aft) 
 The foregoing explanation refers to single planking 
 put on in the usual manner. There are, however, two 
 other accepted planking methods that I will now explain. 
 The first of these methods is the double fore-and-aft 
 method of planking. In this method all planks run from 
 stem to stern and are shaped in exactly the manner that 
 the usual single thick planking is ; but in place of plank- 
 ing being put on in one thickness it is divided into two, 
 the combined thickness of the two being slightly less than 
 the normal thickness of single planking. Thus if the sin- 
 gle planking of a vessel is 4 inches, for a double-planked 
 vessel the inner, or plank nearest to frame, would be 
 i^ or ij-^ inches and the outer planking would be 2 
 inches. 
 
 A vessel is double-planked in this manner: 
 The garboard and sheer strakes are got out of single 
 thickness material in the usual manner, except that the 
 upper edge of garboard and lower edge of sheer is rab- 
 beted to a depth that leaves standing part along edge of 
 same thickness as inner planking and about 2 inches in 
 width. These planks are then fastened in place and 
 spiling taken for inner planking. The inner planking is 
 got out and fastened to frames with short fastenings suf- 
 ficient in number and length to hold planks securely in 
 place. 
 
 The seams of inner planking are next caulked, sur- 
 face of planking smoothed and then outer planks are 
 got out in such a manner that their seams will run along 
 middle fore-and-aft lines of all inner planks. Of course 
 
 t^W\ 
 
 at garboard and sheer the outer plank fits into rabbet 
 already cut. The fastenings of outer planking go through 
 both outer and inner planks and are secured in the usual 
 manner. It is necessary to thoroughly paint or fill outer 
 surface of inner planks and inner surface of outer planks 
 before they are fastened. Bitumastic paint or one of 
 the many wood preservations are used for this. After 
 outer planking is in place, seams are caulked and plank- 
 ing smoothed in the usual manner. It is evident that, 
 as no seams go directly through from outside' to inside 
 of a plank, the double planking offers greater resistance 
 to longitudinal strains than single planking, but it is more 
 expensive to lay and for this reason is not very often 
 used. 
 
 On Fig. 91a I show a sketch of a midship section out- 
 line and portion of profile with details of double plank- 
 ing clearly shown. 
 
 iol°. Double Diagonal and Single Fore-and-Aft 
 Planking 
 
 This method of planking calls for the laying of two 
 thin inner layers of planking diagonally from sheer to 
 keel and one thick outer layer of planking fore-and-aft. 
 
 For this method of planking, filling timbers must be 
 added to frame to fill space between frame timbers along 
 sheer and at keel. These additions are necessary because 
 ends of diagonal planks terminate along keel and sheer, 
 and there must be solid wood at these places to receive 
 and hold the fastenings. 
 
 The filling timbers that fill space between frame tim- 
 bers need not extend more than a foot or so out from 
 keel, or down from sheer. 
 
 The two inner layers of planking are made of rela- 
 tively thin material, the total thickness of the two being 
 slightly more than one-third thickness required for single 
 thick planking. Thus if single thickness of planking 
 laid planking should be about 34-inch. The outer fore- 
 and-aft planking thickness should be somewhat less than 
 
 n^0\ h/rtkAl \4f\W 
 
 OETAIL OF IRON STRAPPINa - 
 
 Fig. 88 
 
 *»■ -Suisai^-t-^ji . 
 
100 
 
 WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 one-half the total thickness of planking required for sin- 
 gle thick planking method, or about i}i inches thick if 4 
 inches is thickness of single planking. 
 
 When planking a vessel in this manner the diagonal 
 planking is got out in planks about 8 or 9 inches wide 
 and the first layer of diagonal planking is laid diagonally 
 across frames, beginning at keel and extending to sheer 
 at an inclination of about 45°. The planks are laid with 
 tight seams and fastened with nails to every frame they 
 cross. Where a butt comes an additional filling piece is 
 secured between the frames and to this filling piece and 
 its adjacent frame the butt end of plank is secured. 
 When the whole frame is covered with .one layer of the 
 diagonal planking the planks are smoothed, seams caulked 
 and surface painted. 
 
 The second layer is now put on diagonally in an oppo- 
 site direction thus crossing inner layer at right angles. 
 Outer diagonal layer of planking fastenings goes through 
 inner layer into frames, and after this layer of planking 
 is put on its seams are caulked and surface smoothed. 
 
 The outer fore-and-aft planking is got out and put 
 on in exactly the manner that single thick planking is, 
 except that the fastenings of outer planking go through 
 both diagonal plankings into frames. After outer fore- 
 and-aft planking is laid, the three thicknesses of plank- 
 ing are fastened together between frame timbers by 
 means of short nails driven from inside into outer fore- 
 and-aft planks or by means of nails driven from outside 
 through the three thicknesses of planks and clinched; 
 thus bringing all planks in close contact and adding 
 strength to the planking structure. Of course the seams 
 of outer planking are caulked and planking smoothed and 
 finished in usual manner. 
 
 All fastenings of double and triple planking should be 
 of metal properly riveted, or clinched. 
 
 On Fig. 91b I show details of this method of plank- 
 ing. As regards strength of construction the combined 
 diagonal and fore-and-aft method of planking possesses 
 great strength, but it is costly to plank a vessel in this 
 manner. 
 
 Fig. 90. Flamed Ready For Sheei 
 
WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 lOI 
 
 lom. Ceiling — Explanatory 
 
 During the time a vessel is being planked ceiling 
 material can be got ready and when a sufficient portion 
 of bottom and topside planking is fastened in place work- 
 men can begin to lay and fasten ceiling. 
 
 The ceiling in a wooden vessel is for the double pur- 
 pose of adding to structural strength and preventing dirt 
 getting between frame timbers, it therefore is essential 
 that ceiling be of proper strength, that it be properly 
 laid and securely fastened, and that no openings be left 
 between the seams of ceiling planks. 
 
 Ceiling is usually laid in planks that run fore-and-aft, 
 the planks being tightly fitted against each other and 
 fastened to every frame. 
 
 You will note by referring to cross-section drawings 
 Figs. 202 and 212 that ceiling planks are thicker along 
 bilges than along bottom and sides. This is usual and 
 proper, because it is along the bilges that frames are 
 weakest and strains are greatest. On Tables in Chapter 
 III, I give proper thickness of ceiling to use at bottom, 
 along side, and at turn of bilge. 
 
 It is seldom necessary to make templates or mark a 
 ceiling width scale on inside of frames, because ceiling 
 planks are usually got out as near straight and one width 
 from end to end as it is possible to have them. On Fig. 
 92 is shown the first planks of bottom ceiling in place. 
 
 In a modern shipyard sawmill ceiling planks can be 
 beveled and got ready to fit in place by using an adjust- 
 able head beveling machine. 
 
 iom\ Laying Ceiling 
 
 The first planks of ceiling laid are those which butt 
 against keelsons unless vessel is to have a limber strake, 
 
 in which case the first strake of ceiling is laid the width 
 of limber strake out from keelson. On Fig. 212 cross- 
 section limber strake is clearly shown next to keelson, 
 and on Fig. 201 cross-section you will note that there is 
 no limber strake. 
 
 lom-. Explaining the Reason* Why a Limber 
 Passage is Necessary 
 
 Water will find its way into the holds of all vessels 
 and it is necessary that pumps be installed for its re- 
 moval. These pumps have suctions led to lowest point 
 in each hold or compartment, and open passageways 
 through which the water can freely pass to pump suc- 
 tion are always arranged. In wooden vessels these 
 passageways consist of openings cut across outside of 
 frame timbers (these openings are clearly shown on Fig. 
 212) and as it is necessary to have some method of 
 cleaning out the openings, should dirt fill them, it is 
 usual to either reeve a chain through all openings from 
 bow to stern, leaving the ends in a convenient place for 
 crew to take hold of them, haul chain backhand forth 
 and thus clear limber openings of obstructions, or to 
 leave removable boards over the frames and thus by 
 removing a board crew can reach any obstruction in 
 passage and clear it away. The best and most satisfac- 
 tory method is to use both the chain and loose board. 
 
 The passage cut along outside of frame timbers is 
 named the limber; the chain that is run through passage 
 is named a limber chain, and the boards placed over open- 
 ing left between ceiling and keelson are named limber 
 boards. 
 
 The limbers are carefully cut before planking is put 
 on, and limber chain is put in position before the strake 
 
 Fig. 91. A 255-Foot AnxUlary Schooner, From Daslgns by Tuns, Lemolne k Crane. Planked Beady For Shutter 
 
102 
 
 WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 Frame timbers^ 
 
 yy 
 
 Fig. 91. Double Planking 
 
 of planking that covers limber is fastened in place. Of 
 course limber chain must be much smaller than limber, 
 otherwise it would stop flow of water. Dimensions of 
 limbers should not be less than 2^ inches wide by ij4 
 inches deep and should be cut clear of a plank seam. 
 
 lom^. Butts and Fastening of Ceiling 
 
 Ceiling planks, especially along the bilges, should be 
 of greatest possible length and all scarphs should be 
 either hooked, nibbed, or locked. When cutting scarphs 
 of ceiling planks consideration must be given to location 
 of butts of outer planks, and all ceiling scarphs must be 
 located some distance away from planking butts. 
 
 Each strake of ceiling must be fastened to each 
 frame with at least two (metal) fastenings in addition 
 to the through planking treenail fastenings that have to 
 be driven through outside planking, frame and ceiling. 
 
 The bilge ceiling should first be fastened in place 
 with a sufficient number of fastenings, driven into frames 
 only, to hold it in position, and then through each frame 
 and each bilge ceiling plank there should be driven from 
 outside, one or two (metal) fastenings, and the inside 
 ends of these fastenings must be riveted over clinch 
 rings. 
 
 In addition to this all bilge ceiling and a greater por- 
 tion of bottom and side ceiling must be edge-bolted 
 between frame timbers. On Fig. 212 cross-section view 
 these edge-bolts, or drifts, are clearly marked. 
 
 It is very essential that ceiling be laid with tight 
 
 seams and that the whole mass of ceiling planks be 
 secured together and to framing in such a manner that 
 it will offer greatest possible resistance to both longi- 
 tudinal and transverse strains. On Fig. 43b the scarph 
 of a strake of bilge ceiling can be seen on right-hand 
 side, and on left-hand side the ends of fastenings are 
 clearly discernible. A central steel keelson is also very 
 clearly seen in this illustration. 
 
 I cm*. Air Course and Salt Stops 
 
 If you will refer to Figs. 202 and 212 cross-section 
 views, you will notice an open space left between strakes 
 of ceiling immediately below the clamps, and you will 
 also see on left-hand side of frame timber immediately 
 above opening in ceiling a piece of wood that extends 
 from inside of planking to outside of ceiling planks. 
 The opening through ceiling is named an air course and 
 is placed there to allow air to freely circulate around 
 the spaces between frames. This air course is not a 
 clear opening from bow to stern, but consists of a series 
 of short openings at stated intervals. In other words, 
 portions of the space are filled in and other portions 
 left open. Air courses are usually between 3 and 4 
 inches wide and their length is equal to the open space 
 between frame timbers. The piece of wood that extends 
 across frame is named a salt stop. 
 
 The salt stop consists of short pieces of wood wide 
 enough to reach from inside of planking to outside of 
 ceiling and long enough to fill the open spaces between 
 frame timbers. The purpose for which they are placed 
 
 Oc/r£fi PL^fsJK 
 
WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 103 
 
 Fig. 92. Ceiling Commenced 
 
 there is to hold the salt placed between frame timbers 
 when a vessel is salted. 
 
 iom°. Salting 
 
 Salting a vessel consists in filling all open spaces 
 between frame timbers, from keel salt stops, with 
 coarse rock salt. Salt is an excellent wood preservative, 
 especially in damp places and where air cannot freely 
 circulate, and it has been found that if all open spaces 
 between the frame timbers of a vessel be filled with salt, 
 the timbers will resist decay longer than unsalted tim- 
 bers will. For this reason all insurance classification 
 societies will add a named period (usually one or two 
 years) to a vessel's classification if vessel is salted while 
 on the stocks or building ways. When a vessel is to be 
 salted, it is necessary to enclose the space occupied by 
 limbers and chains, otherwise the salt will fill these 
 spaces and clog the openings. 
 
 It is advisable to salt a vessel. 
 
 lom". Double and Triple Ceiling 
 
 While it is the usual practice to use a single thickness 
 of ceiling put on in manner explained, some of the more 
 advanced builders are beginning to recognize the advan- 
 tages of using double fore-and-aft ceiling, or triple (two 
 diagonal and one fore-and-aft) diagonal and fore-and- 
 aft ceiling. 
 
 By the use of double ceiling the same strength of 
 construction can be obtained by using ceiling having a 
 total thickness of about seven-eighths of single ceiling 
 thickness, and nearly all edge fastenings can be dis- 
 pensed with. Of course first layer of ceiling planks 
 must be fastened independently, and fastenings of second 
 layer must be spaced to clear inner ceiling fastenings. 
 In addition to the usual fastenings into frame timbers 
 additional short fastenings should be driven along seams 
 
 of planks to secure edges of second layer of ceiling to 
 layer below. 
 
 Triple ceiling without doubt has greater strength per 
 unit of material than either single or double, and for 
 this reason the total thickness of triple ceiling need not 
 be more than three-quarters or five-eighths of single ceil- 
 ing thickness. ^ 
 
 When triple ceiling is used fiUing timbers must be 
 fitted to fill open spaces between frame timbers along 
 keelson, along sheer, and wherever a butt of diagonal 
 laid ceiling will come. 
 
 The first diagonal layer of ceiling crosses frame tim- 
 bers at an inclination of about 45° and is fastened to 
 frames with sufficient fastenings to firmly hold the 
 planks in position. The second diagonal layer of ceiling 
 crosses the first at right angles and is fastened securely 
 to first layer and to frames. The third, fore-and-aft, 
 layer is fitted and fastened in the manner explained for 
 single thick ceiling, and as all of its fastenings go through 
 the first and second diagonal layers the whole ceiling 
 structure becomes one solid mass of wood that offers 
 great resistance to both longitudinal and transverse 
 strains. 
 
 When triple ceiling is used it is not necessary to 
 increase thickness of bilge ceiling. 
 
 When double ceiling is used it is very necessary to 
 thoroughly coat the upper surface of first layer of ceil- 
 ing and under surface of second layer with a good wood 
 preservative before the second layer is fastened in place. 
 With the triple layer it is necessary to coat surfaces of 
 the three layers of planks, the object being to prevent 
 decay through moisture and stagnant air getting into 
 pores of wood. 
 
 Moisture, stagnant air and dirt are the three prime 
 causes of decay in wood. 
 
 Fig. 93. Canllclng Bottom Planking 
 
I04 
 
 WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 Fig. 94. Breast Hook 
 
 lom^. Clamps and Shelf Pieces 
 
 The clamps, auxiliary clamps, and shelf and lock 
 shelf, is an assemblage of longitudinal timbers firmly 
 fastened to frame timbers, and together, their use being 
 to support deck beams and strengthen the hull along each 
 deck. 
 
 On Figs. 20I, 202, 212 cross-section drawings, differ- 
 ent methods of assembling the pieces are clearly shown, 
 and on Tables in Chapter III is given proper dimensions 
 of materials to use for these parts. 
 
 Clamps material is usually got out at the time ceiling 
 material is, and in the same manner. 
 
 Clamp and shelf material should be of the greatest 
 possible length and all scarphs must be either locked, 
 hooked, or keyed and edge-bolted, the length of each 
 scarph being not less than six times the width of material. 
 Clamps must be fastened to each frame timber they cross 
 with not less than two through bolts riveted over clinch 
 rings. 
 
 The forward end of each clamp usually terminates 
 at apron, and clamps at opposite sides of vessel are con- 
 nected together by means of knees that are fitted against 
 apron and between the clamps. These knees, called 
 breast-hooks, are secured to apron and also to clamps 
 and frame timbers. On Fig. 94 is shown an excellent 
 method of securing forward ends of clamps by means 
 of wood and steel breast-hook. 
 
 The after ends of all clamps that do not merge into 
 the framing of an elliptical stern should also be securely 
 kneed to transom or stern framing. In addition to the 
 clamp breast-hooks at stem there must also be at least 
 one hook in the space between each deck and also at the 
 forward termination of all pointers. 
 
 lom*. Pointers 
 
 These are built-up assemblages of timber located at 
 bow and stern. The bow pointers begin at after end of 
 apron and stemson, near to forefoot, and run aft and 
 upwards in a diagonal direction until they reach a tier of 
 deck beams. On Fig. 201 interior profile view, two bow 
 and three stern pointers are clearly shown. 
 
 At the stern the pointers begin at deadwood at vary- 
 ing distances from keelson and extend upwards and for- 
 ward. 
 
 Pointers are usually constructed of several pieces of 
 oak, or yellow pine, steam-bent to shape and fitted on 
 top of each other, thus forming a solid laminated struc- 
 ture of great strength. The painters lay on ceiling, are 
 through bolted to ceiling frame timbers and planking, 
 and should extend upwards to most convenient tier of 
 beams and be kneed to clamp of that tier. 
 
 Pointers are for the purpose of strengthening the for- 
 ward and after portions of vessel against a tendency to 
 "hog." 
 
 In general pointers should be not over 6 feet apart 
 at points of termination at bow or stern, should be fitted 
 at an inclination of about 45°, and should be fastened to 
 every frame timber they cross with two bolts. The 
 proper dimensions of pointers is given on Tables in Chap- 
 ter III. 
 
 I am of the opinion that pointers of steel channels, 
 or of angles and plates riveted together, are preferable 
 to the wood ones because greater strength can be obtained 
 from a given weight of material. 
 
 ion. Deck Framing 
 
 Deck beams can be sawed to shape and finished in the 
 sawmill of a modern shipyard during the time that ves- 
 sel's frame is being erected and planking is being put on. 
 
 The deck framing of a vessel consists of transverse 
 beams and half-beams, carlins, lodge and hanging knees, 
 
 Fig. 95. view of Interior Showing Knees 
 
WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 105 
 
 Fig. 95a. Large Knees Beady For Use 
 
 hatch coamings and hatch framing; and in a vessel hav- 
 ing more than one deck there must be a properly framed 
 and fastened set of deck beams installed at every deck 
 position. Details of framing of the various decks are 
 always shown on longitudinal profile, and transverse con- 
 struction plans somewhat in the manner they are shown 
 on Fig. 20I plans. 
 
 It is well to remember that in some vessels the lower 
 tier of beams (called hold beams) are merely for the pur- 
 pose of adding transverse strength and do not carry deck 
 planking. 
 
 The sided and moulded dimensions of deck beams 
 vary with width of vessel and not with tonnage; and the 
 spacing of deck beams should always correspond with 
 spacing of frames. In other words, the ends of each 
 deck's beams should bear against a frame timber and 
 rest upon clamp and shelf pieces in one of the ways 
 illustrated on construction drawings of Figs. 201, 202, 
 212. On Fig. 28 and Fig. 27 are shown details of hatch 
 and mast partner construction with parts marked for 
 identification. 
 
 In nearly all vessels it is necessary to support the 
 deck beams along the center line of vessel. This sup- 
 porting is done by erecting tiers of stanchions, at stated 
 intervals, and fastening their ends securely. 
 
 The lower tier of stanchions have their lower ends 
 securely fastened to keelson and their upper ends to 
 lower tier of beams. The next tier of beams are set up 
 immediately over the lower tier ones and have their lower 
 ends secured to deck and deck beam they rest on, and 
 their upper ends secured to beams of deck above. Thus 
 each succeeding stanchion is placed immediately above 
 one below, with the result that the greatest possible sup- 
 port along the longitudinal center line is given to the 
 whole deck structure. 
 
 It is very necessary that deck beams be properly 
 crowned on their upper surface. The amount of crown 
 is specified by the designer and is usually much less for 
 lower deck beams than for the upper or exposed deck 
 ones. 
 
 If you will turn to Fig. 201 you will note that the 
 ends of both tiers of deck beams are securely kneed to 
 ceiling and framing. This is an excellent method of 
 fastening deck beams, especially if the vessel is a large 
 one. Fig. 95 is an exceptionally clear photograph of 
 hanging deck knees in a vessel built from plans Fig. 201, 
 and on Fig. 95a is shown some natural or root knees 
 sawed to shape. 
 
 On Fig. 212 cross-section view is shown another 
 method of securing ends of deck beams. Here there are 
 two shelves and two auxiliary clamps to take the place 
 of the hanging knees, and as one of the shelves is what 
 is termed a lock shelf, and the whole structure of shelves, 
 clamps and beam is thoroughy well secured to each other 
 
 
 FiK. 96. View of Main Deck, No. 1 Hatch 
 From Forward House Looking Aft 
 
io6 
 
 WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 Tig. 97. The Pneumatic Hammer Driving Deck Spikes in Holes Which 
 
 Have Been Drilled and Countersunk at the Same Operation by 
 
 Another Little David. These Tools Make Short Work 
 
 of Numerous Tasks 
 
 and to frame timbers, the structure is amply strong to 
 withstand strains that tend to separate the pieces. 
 Now a few words explaining a lock shelf. 
 
 icn^ Lock Shelf 
 
 A lock shelf is a shelf to which the beam is locked by 
 means of a key piece, or coak, or projection that fits into 
 a corresponding depression in underside of beam. If 
 you will look carefully at the Fig. 212 cross-section you 
 will notice (dotted) end of lock piece projecting above 
 upper surface of shelf and let into underside of beam. 
 In my opinion hanging knees are stronger and preferable 
 to the lock shelf and added shelf and clamp timbers. 
 
 Bear in mind that lock piece can be used with advan- 
 tage when hanging knees are used. 
 
 Dimensions and number of hanging knees required 
 for vessels of various sizes are given on Table VHP in 
 Chapter. VIII. 
 
 I have mentioned lodge knees, so I will next explain 
 why they are used. 
 
 lon^. Lodge Knees 
 
 Lodge knees are used to prevent the deck beams turn- 
 ing on their sides, and for the purpose of strengthening 
 deck framing, near sides of vessel, against fore-and-aft 
 movement. 
 
 On Fig. 28 lodge knees are shown in position, and on 
 deck framing of Figs. 201, 206, 207 lodge knees can be 
 seen in position. 
 
 ion''. Knee F.\stenings 
 
 Knees of all kinds should be through fastened with 
 bolts passing through knee, clamps, frame, and planking, 
 and through knee deck beam, shelf, the fastenings being 
 driven at inclinations that will enable the knee to resist 
 strain from all directions. On Figs. 201, 202, 212 cross- 
 section views lines of direction are clearly shown by 
 dotted line that indicate fastenings. 
 
 lOn*. Hatch Framing 
 
 In every vessel that carries cargo there must be a suf- 
 ficient number of openings through the decks to allow 
 the cargo to be properly and quickly loaded and unloaded, 
 each of the openings must be sufficiently large to permit 
 the most bulky piece of cargo to pas's through it, and all 
 of the openings must be arranged to enable the crew to 
 make them absolutely watertight when vessel is at sea.' 
 
 The openings through decks are named hatchways 
 and it is usual to locate the hatchways in most convenient 
 positions along upper deck and then to have the hatch 
 openings through lower decks come immediately under 
 the upper deck openings. By doing this it is possible to 
 load or unload cargo on any deck or in hold with a mini- 
 mum of labor. The dimensions of hatch openings having 
 been determined it is necessary to properly frame around 
 the openings, to make removable hatch covers to close 
 the openings, and to have watertight paulins with neces- 
 sary hatch battens with wedges fitted over the hatch cov- 
 ers and arranged to fasten tightly around the hatch 
 coamings. 
 
 Fig. 27 is a detailed drawing of the framing of a 
 hatch and each part is identified by name. On the dra\V- 
 
 -Lo^Kr-ikchBciims.>[ 
 
 Fig. 98 
 
WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 107 
 
 Fig. 99. The Caulking Tool Can Be Held in Any Position and Is Able to 
 
 Deliver 1,500 Taps a Minute. The Oakum Is Fed Mechanically, so 
 
 That The Work of "Horsing It In" Can Be Done Eapidly and 
 
 Thoroughly, No Matter Where the Seam Is Located 
 
 ing referred to you will notice that the fore-and-aft deck 
 pieces of hatch coaming stop at ends of opening and that 
 the cross pieces are fitted into them. This is the proper 
 method to use for a small sailing vessel, but in large ves- 
 sels, especially those having a central superstructure or 
 
 house, it is better to allow the upper deck fore-and-aft 
 timbers of hatch coamings to extend in one piece from 
 forward to aft and to let each cross piece into these fore- 
 and-aft timbers. Then if supporting stanchions are placed 
 directly under these fore-and-aft timbers, the maximum 
 strength, which will, of course, come directly over the 
 under deck fore-and-aft around, the hatch openings, is 
 obtained without an unnecessary amount of material 
 being used. 
 
 With the construction shown on Fig. 27 there is a 
 slight weakening of structure around hatch openings, but 
 with the continuous fore-and-aft pieces of coaming sup- 
 ported with stanchions there is no weakening. Of course, 
 vyhen the continuous fore-and-aft pieces are used, the 
 deck is practically divided longitudinally into three, and 
 therefore there must be a sufficient number of openings 
 cut in longitudinal timbers, between deck and lower edge 
 of timbers, to allow water to pass freely across the deck 
 and flow into water ways. 
 
 On Fig. 96 is shown main deck hatch framing of a 
 schooner and on Figs. 201, 202, 206, 207, 212, 213 are 
 shown details of hatch framing used on vessels con- 
 structed from these plans. 
 
 On Fig. 201, upper deck plan, you will clearly see the 
 continuous fore-and-aft members of hatch framing, and 
 on Fig. 207, deck framing plan, you will note the con- 
 tinuous under deck fore-and-aft members of the hatch 
 framing. 
 
Chapter XI 
 
 Ship Joinery 
 
 Ship joinery is tlie art of cutting, dressing, framing, 
 and finisliing wood for the external and internal finish- 
 ing of a ship. The ship carpenters erect the structure 
 that gives strength to the ship and their work cannot be 
 removed without affecting the strength of structure, while 
 that of the joiners is not intended to add to structural 
 strength and therefore can be removed without affecting 
 strength. 
 
 As the finish and appearance of joiner work largely 
 depends upon the care with which the work is done it is 
 essential that woods used for joiner work be thoroughly 
 seasoned, be properly cut, and be of kinds that will not 
 warp or be affected by changes in temperature or by 
 moisture in air. 
 
 The best joiner woods available for use in U. S. A. 
 are : Mahogany, teak, Q. S. oak, for natural wood finishes 
 and parts that will be exposed to weather; and white 
 pine, yellow pine, fir, cypress, cedar for parts that will 
 be painted. 
 
 While many of the joints and methods of doing work 
 are in common use by both ship carpenters and joiner 
 workers, it is wrong to suppose that a good ship carpenter 
 can do good joiner work because the nature of the work 
 is entirely different. The ship carpenter works on heavy 
 materials and seldom devotes much time to finish of 
 surfaces, while the joiner worker works with light ma- 
 terial and has to continually think of finish and appear- 
 ance of the work when it is completed. 
 
 On sheet A joiner work illustration sheet, I show 
 some commonly used joints, or joiner workers' methods 
 of connecting pieces of wood. 
 
 iia. Description of Sheet A Joiner Work 
 Illustrations 
 
 On this illustration sheet is shown a number of joints 
 used by ship joiners. 
 
 Fig. I shows a joint formed by planing edges of board 
 perfectly true and inserting wood or iron pins (called 
 dowels) at intervals along joined edges. The pin is 
 shown by dotted line, and such a joint is said to be 
 doweled. 
 
 Fig. 2 shows a joint made by grooving edge of one 
 piece of wood and forming a tongue upon another. A 
 joint of this kind is commonly used for uniting pieces of 
 flooring, partitions, etc. The shrinking of wood joined 
 in this manner will cause joint to open, therefore, it is 
 usual to run a bead, or V, along edge of one of the 
 pieces and thus make shrinkage opening less noticeable. 
 
 Bead is shown by dotted line on upper edge and V by 
 dotted line on lower edge of Fig. 2. 
 
 Fig. 3 is a double-tongued joint, now seldom used. 
 
 Fig. 4 is a combined tongue-and-groove joint with 
 rabbet. It is used on tight seamed floors when it is de- 
 sired to fasten the pieces along their edges. 
 
 In Fig. 5 the groove and tongue are angular. 
 
 Fig. 6 is a kind of grooving and tonguing resorted to 
 when the timber is thick, or when the tongue requires to 
 be stronger than it would be if formed in the substance of 
 the wood itself. In this mode of jointing corresponding 
 grooves are formed in the edges of the boards, and the 
 tongue is formed of a slip of a harder or stronger wood. 
 
 Figs. 7, 8, 9 are examples of slip-tongue joints; the 
 tongue in Fig. 9 is of wrought iron. 
 
 Fig. 10 shows dovetail grooves, with a slip tongue of 
 corresponding form, which, of course, must be inserted 
 endways. 
 
 Fig. II is a simple rebated joint. One-half the thick- 
 ness of each board is cut away to the same extent, and 
 when the edges are lapped the surfaces lie in the same 
 plane. 
 
 Fig. 12 shows a complex mode of grooving and tongu- 
 ing. The joint is in this case put together by sliding the 
 one edge with its grooves and tongues endways into the 
 corresponding projections and recesses of the other. The 
 boards when thus jointed together cannot be drawn 
 asunder laterally or at right angles to their surface, with- 
 out rending; but, in the event of shrinking, there is great 
 risk of the wood being rent. 
 
 In joining angles formed by the meeting of two boards 
 various joints are used, among which are those which 
 follow : 
 
 Fig. 13, the common mitre-joint, used in joining two 
 boards at right angles to each other. Each edge is planed 
 to an angle of 45°. 
 
 Fig. 14 shows a mitre- joint keyed by a slip-tongue. 
 
 Fig. 15 shows a mitre-joint when the boards are of 
 different thickness. The mitre on thicker piece is only 
 formed to the same extent as that on edge of thinner 
 piece; hence there is a combination of the mitre and 
 simple butt joint. 
 
 Fig. 16 shows a different mode of joining two boards 
 of either the same or of different thickness. One board 
 is rebated, and only a small portion at the angle of each 
 board is mitred. This joint may be nailed both ways. 
 In Fig. 17 both boards are rebated, and a slip-tongue 
 is inserted as a key. This also may be nailed through 
 from both faces. 
 
Fig.l. 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 E 
 
 \ 
 
 ^^>^■.■^^.^■^■,■^-.-^^-.^v.^■.-^■.■.W P „r< . <,<,< . 
 
 Fig. 3. 
 
 
 W. 
 
 Fi^.4. 
 
 Fix;. 5 
 
 Fi^ 6 
 
 Fig. 7. 
 
 Fig. 8 
 
 t 
 
 Fifl ,9. 
 
 1. ■ 
 
 Fig. 10. 
 
 Fig. n. 
 
 Fig. J 2 
 
 Fig. 23. 
 
 Fig. 14. 
 
 Fig. 16. 
 
 Fig. 16. 
 
 ps%~<.jRSSSSS^ 
 
 Fig. 19 \ 
 
 r 
 
 mmmifiMmm 
 
 Fig. 23 
 
 i!m:;:mmmA "<2. 
 
 Fig. 26. 
 
 Fig. 27. 
 
 Fig. 28. 
 
 LA 
 
 Fig. 32. 
 
 Fig. 2S. 
 
 1 
 
 Fig. 33 
 
 \ ■''''''' '■ 'f' 
 
 Fig. 36 
 
 Z 
 
 F2g.3Z 
 
 z 
 
 Fig. 38. 
 
 ^^ 
 
 Sheet A. Joiner Work 
 
no 
 
 WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 Figs. 18. and 19 are combinations of grooving and 
 tonguing with the last-described modes. These can be 
 fitted with great accuracy and joined with certainty. 
 
 Fig. 20 is a joint formed by the combination of mi- 
 tring with double grooving and tonguing, shown in Fig. 
 12. The boards must in this case be slipped together end- 
 ways, and cannot be separated by a force applied at right 
 angles to the planes of their surfaces. 
 
 In all these mitre-joints the faces of boards meet at 
 the angle, and the slight opening which might be caused 
 by shrinkage would be scarcely observable. In the butt- 
 joints which follow, the face of the one board abuts 
 against the face of the other, the edge of which is con- 
 sequently in the plane of the surface of first board, the 
 shrinkage of which would cause an opening at joint. To 
 make this opening less apparent is the object of forming 
 the bead-moulding seen in the next five figures. 
 
 In Fig. 21 the thicker board is rebated from the face, 
 and a small bead is formed on the external angle of 
 abutting board. 
 
 In Fig. 22 a groove is formed in the inner face of 
 one board and a tongue on edge of the other. 
 
 In Fig. 23 the boards are grooved and tongued as in 
 the last figure. A cavetto is run on the external angle of 
 abutting board, and the bead and a cavetto on the in- 
 ternal angle of other board. 
 
 In Fig. 24 a quirked bead run on edge of one board, 
 and the edge of abutting board forms the double quirk. 
 
 In Fig. 25 a double quirk bead is formed at the ex- 
 ternal angle, and the boards are grooved and tongued. 
 The external bead is attended with this advantage, that 
 it is not so liable to injury as the sharp arris. 
 
 In Figs. 26 and 27 the joints used in putting together 
 cisterns are shown. 
 
 Figs. 28 and 29 are joints for the same purpose. They 
 are of the dovetail form, and require to be slipped to- 
 gether endways. 
 
 Figs. 30 to 35 show the same kind of joints as have 
 been described, applied to the framing together of boards 
 meeting in an obtuse angle. 
 
 Figs. 36 and 37 show methods of joining boards to- 
 gether laterally by keys, in the manner of scarphing; and 
 Fig. 38 shows another method of securing two pieces, 
 such as those of a circular window frame-head by keys. 
 
 The methods of joining timber described are all more 
 or less imperfect. The liability of wood to shrink ren- 
 ders it essential that the joiner should use it in such 
 narrow widths as to prevent this tendency marring the 
 appearance of his work ; and, as even when so used it will 
 still expand and contract, provision should be made to 
 admit of this. The groove-and-tongue joint admits of a 
 certain amount of variation, and the grooved, tongued, 
 and beaded joint admits of this variation with a degree of 
 concealment, but the most perfect mode of satisfying both 
 conditions is by the use of framed work. 
 
 Framing in joinery consists of pieces of wood of the 
 
 same thickness, nailed together so as to inclose a space 
 or spaces. These spaces are filled in with boards of a less 
 thickness, termed panels. 
 
 On sheet B joiner work illustrations is shown method 
 of framing joiner work partitions, doors, etc. 
 
 lib. Description of Sheet B Joiner Work 
 Illustrations 
 
 In Fig. ih, a a,b b shows framing, c c raised panel and 
 c plain panels. The vertical pieces of the framing a a 
 are termed styles, and the horizontal pieces b b are 
 termed rails. The rails have tenons which are let into 
 mortises in the styles. The inner edges of both styles and 
 rails are grooved to receive the edges of panels, and thus 
 the panel is at liberty to expand and contract. Framing 
 is always used for the better description of work. Wide 
 panels should be formed of narrow pieces glued together, 
 with the grain reversed alternately. They should never 
 exceed 15 inches wide, and 4 feet long. These dimensions, 
 indeed, are extremes which should be avoided. 
 
 The panels may be boards of equal thickness through- 
 out, in which case the grooves in the styles and rails are 
 made of sufficient width to admit their edges, as in Fig. 
 2b dotted line. These are termed flat panels. Flush 
 panels, again, have one of their faces in the same plane 
 as the face of framing, and are rebated round the edges 
 until a tongue sufficient to fit the groove is left. Raised 
 panels are those of which the thickness is such that one of 
 their surfaces is a little below the framing, but at a cer- 
 tain distance from the inner edge, all round it, begins 
 to diminish in thickness to the edge, which is thinned off 
 to enter the groove. The line at which the diminution 
 takes place is marked either by a square sinking or a 
 moulding. All these kinds of panels are sometimes 
 combined. 
 
 Flush panel framing has generally a simple bead stuck 
 on its edges all round the panel, and the work is called 
 bead flush. But in inferior work the bead is run on the 
 edge of the panels in the direction of the grain only, that 
 is, on the two sides of each panel, while its two ends are 
 left plain; this is termed bead butt. The nomenclature, 
 however, of the various descriptions of framed, and of 
 framed and moulded work, will be best understood by 
 reference to the annexed figures. Fig. 2b dotted line is the 
 flat panel. In this the framing is not moulded, and is 
 termed square. In Figs. 2b and 3b the same framing is 
 shown with a moulding stuck on it. In Fig. 4b the same 
 framing is shown with a moulding laid in or planted on 
 each side. In Fig. 5b a bead flush panel is represented ; 
 Fig. 6b a raised panel with stuck mouldings ; and Fig. 7b a 
 panel raised on one side with stuck mouldings. 
 
 lie. Dovetailing 
 
 Dovetail-joint. — ^This joint has three varieties: — ist, 
 the common dovetail, where the dovetails are seen on each 
 side of the angle alternately; 2d, the lapped dovetail, in 
 
r" 
 
 6 
 
 
 i 
 
 J 
 
 L. 
 
 , , 
 
 
 A''/7v.//Vr 
 
 
 
 
 
 ' f 7^/ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 r 
 
 ///^^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 fl 
 
 I f 
 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 \. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 CL 
 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 CL 
 
 c 
 
 Cu 
 
 
 , 
 
 '//■■ 
 
 // 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 // /• 
 
 
 
 
 
 V 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 
 '' ■ 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 
 
 ' / ■ / 
 
 
 ^z 
 
 
 L, 
 
 1 — 1 
 
 
 J 
 
 
 c 
 
 CC 
 
 c 
 
 
 r- 
 ( 
 1 
 1 
 
 1 1 
 
 6 
 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 L 
 
 
 
 .J 
 
 iB 
 
 • 
 
 6 
 
 
 a. 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 CL. 
 
 
 CL 
 
 ^ 
 
 L 
 
 Sbeet B. Joiner Woik 
 
fujJ.J^'fJ. 
 
 V 
 
 Fi </.:'.. A'" 7. 
 
 Fui.:i.Mi. 
 
 Fiq 3..\''2 
 
 ill'' 
 
 H / 
 
 ■::{£: j 
 
 lllll^ 
 
 r 
 
 ^J 
 
 
 i 
 
 _.L. 
 
 Fx^.l.JV?2. 
 
 Fi^.2...N-"2 . 
 
 Fy.I. Ji^J 
 
 Fig.3.J\f^3. 
 
 Fi^.2. JV"3. 
 
 Fi^.3. .]V°4. 
 
 Fy.4.J\n'l. 
 
 Fit/ 4 ^VF. 
 
 Fuf.5.JV?Z. 
 
 Slwet 0. Joiner Work 
 
WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 113 
 
 which the dovetails are seen only on one side of angle; 
 and, 3d, the lapped and mitred dovetail, in which the joint 
 appears externally as a common mitre-joint. The lapped 
 and mitred joint is useful in salient angles, in finished 
 work, but it is not so strong as the common dovetail, and 
 therefore, in all re-entrant angles, the latter should be 
 used. 
 
 The three varieties of dovetail-joint above enumerated 
 are illustrated on sheet C joiner work illustration. 
 
 Description of Sheet C Joiner Work Illustrations 
 Fig. I, No. I is an elevation of the common dovetail- 
 joint ; No. 2, a perspective representation ; and No. 3, a 
 plan of the same. 
 
 In all the figures the pins or dovetails of the one side 
 are marked a, and those of the other side are marked b. 
 
 Fig. 2, Nos. I, 2, 3. — In these the lap-joint is repre- 
 sented in plan, elevation, and perspective projection. 
 
 F'?- 3. ^os. I, 2, 3. — In these figures the mitred dove- 
 tail-joint is represented in plan, elevation, and perspective. 
 The dovetails of adjoining sides are marked respectively 
 B and c in all figures. 
 
 Fig. 4, Nos. I, 2 and Fig. 5, Nos. i, 2, show methods 
 of dovetailing an angle when sides are inclined. The 
 pins of one side are marked a and those of the other 
 B on all figures. 
 
 I id. Hinging 
 
 Hinging is the art of hanging two pieces of wood to- 
 gether, such as a door to its frame, by certain ligaments 
 that permit one or other of them to revolve. The liga- 
 ment is termed a hinge. 
 
 Hinges are of many sorts, among which may be enu- 
 merated butts, rising hinges, casement hin!.;es, chest 
 hinges, folding hinges, screw hinges, scuttle hinges, shut- 
 ter hinges, desk hinges, back fold hinges, and center-pin 
 or center-point hinges. 
 
 As there are many varieties of hinges, there are also 
 many modes of applying even the simplest of them. In 
 some cases the hinge is visible, in others it is necessary 
 that it should be concealed. In some it is required not 
 only that the one hinged part shall revolve on the other, 
 but it shall be thrown back to a greater or lesser distance 
 from the joint. 
 
 On illustration sheets D, E, F, joiner work are shown 
 a great variety of hinges and methods of hinging. 
 
 Description of Sheet D Joiner Work Illustrations 
 
 Fig. I, No. I, shows the hinging of a door to open 
 to a right angle, as in No. 2. 
 
 Fig. 2, Nos. I and 2, and Fig. 3, Xos i and 2. These 
 figures show other modes of hinging doors to open to 90°. 
 
 Fig. 4, Nos. I and 2. These figures show a manner of 
 hinging a door to open to 90°, and in which the hinge is 
 concealed. The segments are described from center of 
 hinge g, and the dark shaded portion requires to be cut 
 out to permit it to pass the leaf of hinge g f. 
 
 Fig. 5, Nos. I and 2, show an example of center-pin 
 
 hinge permitting door to open either way, and to fold 
 back against the wall in either direction. Draw a fo at 
 right angles to door, and just clearing the Hne of wall, 
 or rather representing the plane in which the inner face 
 of door will lie when folded back against wall ; bisect 
 it in /, and draw / d the perpendicular to a b, which make 
 equal to a f or f b, and d is the place of the center of 
 hinge. 
 
 Fig. 6, Nos. I and 2, another variety of center-pin 
 hinging opening to 90°. The distance of b from o c is 
 equal to half of a c. In this, as in the former case, there 
 is a space between door and wall when the former is 
 folded back. In the succeeding figures this is obviated. 
 
 Fig. 7, No. I. Bisect the angle at a by the line a b; 
 draw d e and make e g equal to once and a half times 
 ad; draw f g aX right angle to e d, and bisect the angle 
 f g ehy the line c g, meeting ab inb, which is the center 
 of hinge. 
 
 No. 2 shows the door folded back when the point e 
 falls on the continuation of line / g. 
 
 Fig. 8, Nos. I and 2. To find the center draw a b, 
 making an angle of 45° with the inner edge of door, and 
 draw c b parallel to the jamb, meeting it in b, which 
 is the center of hinge. The door revolves to the extent 
 of quadrant d c. 
 
 Description of Sheet E Joiner Work Illustrations 
 Fig. I, Nos. I and 2; Fig. 2, Nos. i and 2; and Fig. 
 
 3, Nos. I and 2, examples of center-pin joints, and Fig. 
 
 4, Nos. I and 2, do not require detailed description. 
 
 Fig. 5, Nos. I, 2, and 3, show the flap with a bead a 
 closing into a corresponding hollow, so that the joint can- 
 not be seen through. 
 
 Fig. 6, Nos. I, 2, and 3, show the hinge a b equally 
 let into the styles, and its knuckle forming a part of the 
 bead on edge of style b. The beads on each side are equal 
 and opposite to each other, and the joint pin is in the 
 center. 
 
 Fig. 7, Nos. I, 2, and 3. In this example, the knuckle 
 of hinge forms portion of bead on style b, which is equal 
 and opposite to the bead on style a. 
 
 In Fig. 8, Nos. i, 2, and 3, the beads are not opposite. 
 
 Description of Sheet F Joiner Work Illustrations 
 
 Fig. I, shows the hinging of a back flap when the 
 center of hinge is in the middle of joint. 
 
 Fig. 2, Nos. I and 2, shows the manner of hinging a 
 back flap when it is necessary to throw the flap back from 
 the joint. 
 
 Fig. 3, Nos. I and 2, is an example of a rule-joint- 
 hinge. The further the hinge is imbedded in the wood, 
 the greater will be the cover of joint when opened to 
 a right angle. 
 
 Fig. 4, Nos. I and 2, shows the manner of finding the 
 rebate when hinge is placed on the contrary side. 
 
 Let / be the center of hinge, a b the line of joint on 
 the same side, h c the line of joint on the Opposite side, 
 
Fi^.l..A/"2. 
 
 Fip.Z.JV^Z. 
 
 Ft^.3.Jv'^1. 
 
 Fi^.3.J\/^2. 
 
 Fi^AJ^l. 
 
 Fi^.4.JV?2. 
 
 Fi^.£.JV"2. 
 
 Fiff.6.JV^2. 
 
 Fig.8.JV°2. 
 
 Sheet D. Jolnex Work Hinging 
 
Fi^.l.J\/'2. 
 
 Fiff.l J^l. 
 
 Fi^:2.J\r2 
 
 Fi^.3.J\/^2. 
 
 Fig. 4.^/^2 
 
 Fig.6.JV?l. 
 
 Fig.5JV°l. 
 
 Fi^.7.J^J 
 
 Fi^J.J/'Z. 
 
 Fig.SrJ/^l. 
 
 Sbeet £. Joiner Work Hinging 
 
ii6 
 
 WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 and b c the total depth of rebate. Bisect b c m e and 
 join e f ; on e f describe a semicircle cutting a b in g, and 
 through g and e draw g h cutting d c in h, and join d h, 
 h g, and g a io form the joint. 
 
 Fig. 5, Nos. I and 2, is a method of hinging employed 
 when the flap on being opened has to be at a distance 
 from the style. It is used to throw the opened flap or 
 door clear of the mouldings of coping. 
 
 Fig. 6, Nos. I and 2, is the ordinary mode of hinging 
 shutter to a sash frame. 
 
 lie. Mouldings 
 
 A few of the principal ornamental mouldings used 
 by joiners is illustrated and described in this chapter. 
 The names given to the mouldings are the proper archi- 
 tectural ones and the methods of laying the mouldings out 
 are described in detail. 
 
 Grecian and Roman versions of the same mouldings 
 are shown on sheet G joiner illustrations. 
 
 Fillet or Listel right-angled mouldings require no de- 
 scription. 
 
 The Astragal or Bead. — To describe this moulding, 
 divide its height into two equal parts, and from the point 
 of division as a center, describe a semicircle, which is the 
 contour of the astragal. 
 
 Doric Annulets. — The left-hand figure shows the 
 Roman, and the right-hand figure the Grecian form of 
 this moulding. To describe the latter proceed thus: — 
 Divide the height b a into four equal parts, and make 
 the projection equal to three of them. The vertical divi- 
 sions give the lines of the under side of the annulets, and 
 the height of each annulet, c c, is equal to one-fifth of the 
 projection ; the upper surface of c is at right angles to the 
 line of slope. 
 
 Listel and Fascia. — (Roman.) — Divide the whole 
 height into seven equal parts, make the listel equal to 
 two of these and its projection equal to two. With the 
 third vertical division as a center, describe a quadrant. 
 (Grecian.) — Divide the height into four equal parts, make 
 the fillet equal to one of them, and its projection equal to 
 three-fourths of its height. 
 
 Caz-etto or Hollow. — In Roman architecture this 
 moulding is a circular quadrant ; in Grecian architecture 
 it is an elliptical quadrant, which may be described by 
 any of the methods given in the first part of the work. 
 
 Ovolo or Quarter-round. — This is a convex moulding, 
 the reverse of the cavetto, but described in the same 
 manner. 
 
 Cyma Recta. — A curve of double curvature, formed of 
 two equal quadrants. In the Roman moulding these are 
 circular, and in the Grecian moulding elliptical. 
 
 Cyma Reversa. — A curve of double curvature, like the 
 former, and formed in the same manner. 
 
 Trochilus or Scotia. — A hollow moulding, which, in 
 Roman architecture, is formed of two unequal circular 
 arcs, thus : — Divide the height into ten equal parts, and 
 
 at the sixth division draw a horizontal line. From the 
 seventh division as a center, and with seven divisions as 
 radius, describe from the lower part of the moulding an 
 arc, cutting the above horizontal line, and join the center 
 and the point of intersection by a line which bisects ; and 
 from the point of bisection as a center, with half the 
 length of the line as radius, describe an arc to form the 
 upper part of the curve. There are many other methods 
 of drawing this moulding. The Grecian trochilus is an 
 elliptical or parabolic curve, the proportions of which are 
 shown by the divisions of the dotted lines. 
 
 The Torus. — The Roman moulding is semi-cylindrical, 
 and its contour is of course a semicircle. The Grecian 
 moulding is either elliptical or parabolic ; and although 
 this and the other Greek mouldings may be drawn, as we 
 have said, by one or other of the methods of drawing 
 ellipses and parabolas, described in the first part of the 
 work, and by other methods about to be illustrated, it is 
 much better to become accustomed to sketch them by the 
 eye, first setting off their projections, as shown in this 
 plate, by the divisions of the dotted lines. 
 
 Description of Sheet H Joiner Work Illustrations 
 
 The figures in this plate illustrate various ways of 
 describing the ovolo, trochilus or scotia, cyma recta, 
 cyma reversa, and torus. 
 
 Fig. I. — The Quirked Ovolo. — The projection of the 
 moulding is in this case made equal to five-sevenths of its 
 height, as seen by the divisions, and the radius of the 
 circle b c i% made equal to two of the divisions, but any 
 other proportions may be taken. Describe the circle b c, 
 forming the upper part of the contour, and from the point 
 g draw g h, to form a tangent to the lower part of the 
 curve. Draw g a perpendicular to g h, and make g f 
 equal to the radius d f of the circle b c, join / rf by a 
 straight line, which bisect by a line perpendicular to it, 
 meeting g a in a. Join a d, and produce the line to c. 
 Then from a as a center, with the radius a c or a g, de- 
 scribe the curve c g. 
 
 Fig. 2. — To draw an ovolo, the tangent d e, and the 
 projection b, being given. 
 
 Through the point of extreme projection b, draw the 
 vertical line g h, and through b draw b c parallel to the 
 tangent d e, and draw c d parallel to g h, and produce 
 it to a, making c a equal to c d. Divide e b and c b each 
 into the same number of equal parts, and through the 
 points of division in c 6 draw from a straight lines, and 
 through the points of division in e b draw from d right 
 lines, cutting those drawn from a. The intersections 
 will be points in the curve. 
 
 Fig. 3. — To draw an ovolo under the same conditions 
 as before, vis., when the projection f, and the tangent c g, 
 are given. 
 
 The mode of operation is similar to the last: f d is 
 drawn parallel to the tangent c g, and c d parallel to the 
 perpendicular a b, d e is made equal to c d, and d f and 
 c) f are each divided into the same number of equal parts. 
 
Fi^ 2. 
 
 Fi^.2.'J/°l. 
 
 Fig. 3. J^l. 
 
 Fig.S.JV'Z. 
 
 Fiq. 2.^-^2. 
 
 Ftq 4 JV''2 
 
 Fig.S.MZ 
 
 Fig. S JT'J. 
 
 Fix^.e.jf.i 
 
 Fig. 6. JfZ 
 
 Sheet F. Joiner Work Hinging 
 
Homan/ 
 
 Fillet orLLfleL. 
 
 Gr&cicuv. 
 
 Astray aL or BexiAi. 
 
 Doric AnnuZets . 
 
 T 
 
 Lisleiy cundj Fadcu . 
 
 Caveito or Hollow. 
 
 I 
 
 Ovolo or QiLorlo RouTid. 
 
 Cymcu Rectcb. 
 
 Cyrruv Reverso/. 
 
 T' 
 
 L._^ TrocMLas or ScoUcu. p-^_^ 
 
 Torus. 
 
 Sbe«t O. Joiner Work Monldlngs 
 
Sheet H. Joiner Work Mouldings 
 
120 
 
 ^WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 Fig. 4. — In this the same things are given, and the 
 same mode of operation is followed. By these methods 
 and those about to be described, a more beautiful contour 
 is obtained than can be described by parts of circular 
 curves. 
 
 Fig. 5. — ^Divide the height b a into seven equal parts, 
 and make a r equal to 6 o i J^ of a division ; join c r, and 
 produce it to d, and make c d equal to 8^ divisions. 
 Bisect c d in i, and draw through i, 4 i at right angles to 
 c d, and produce it to e ; make i e equal to b 0, and from 
 e as a center, with radius e c or e d, describe the arc c d. 
 Then divide the arc into equal parts, and draw ordinates 
 to c d, m 1 f, 2 g, 2i h, 4 i, etc., and correspondmg ordi- 
 nates f k, g I, h m, i n, to find the curve. 
 
 Fig. 6. — The height is divided into eight equal parts, 
 seven of which are given to the projection d c. Join d and 
 the fifth division e, and draw d o at right angles to d e. 
 Make d f equal to two divisions, and draw / g parallel to 
 d e, then d f \s the semi-axis minor, and d g the semi-axis 
 major of the ellipse; and the curve can either be tram- 
 melled or drawn by means of the lines a h, m k, p, 
 being made equal to the difference between the semi-axis, 
 as in the problem referred to. 
 
 Fig. 7. — To describe the hyperbolic ovolo of the Gre- 
 cian Doric capital, the tangent a c, and projection b, being 
 given. 
 
 Draw d e g k a perpendicular to the horizon, and 
 draw g h and ^ / at right angles to d e g k a. Make g a 
 equal to d g, and e k equal to d e; join h k. Divide h k 
 and / h into the same number of parts, and draw lines 
 from a through the divisions of k h, and lines from d 
 through the divisions of / h, and their intersections are 
 points in the curve. 
 
 Fig. 8 is an elegant mode of drawing the Roman 
 trochilus. Bisect the height /; b in e, and draw e f, 
 cutting ^ c in /; divide the projection h g into three 
 equal parts, make e equal to one of the divisions, and 
 / d equal to two of them, join d 0, and produce the line 
 to a. Make d c equal to d g, and draw c b, and produce 
 it to a. Then from rf as a center, with radius d a or d g, 
 describe the arc g a; and from o as a center, with radius 
 o a, describe the arc a b. 
 
 Fig. 9 shows the method of drawing the .Grecian tro- 
 chilus by intersecting lines in the same manner as the 
 rampant ellipse. 
 
 Fig. 10 shows the cyma recta formed by two equal op- 
 posite curves. By taking a greater number of points as 
 •centers, a figure resembling still closer the true elliptical 
 curve will be produced. 
 
 Fig. 1 1 shows the cyma recta formed with true ellipti- 
 cal quadrants, or they may be trammelled by a slip of 
 paper. 
 
 Fig. 12 shows the cyma reversa, obtained in the same 
 manner. The lines c d, e h are the semi-axes major, and 
 the line n is the semi-axis minor, common to both 
 curves. 
 
 Figs. 13 and 14 show the cyma recta used as a base 
 moulding, and Fig. 15 the Grecian torus. 
 
 I if. Stairs 
 
 Stairs are constructions composed of horizontal planes 
 elevated above each other, forming steps; affording the 
 means of communication between different decks of a 
 vessel. 
 
 Definitions. — The opening in yvhich the stair is placed, 
 is called the staircase. 
 
 The horizontal part of a step is called the tread, the 
 vertical part the riser, the breadth or distance from riser 
 to riser the going, the distance from the first to the last 
 riser in a flight the going of the flight. 
 
 When the risers are parallel with each other, the stairs 
 are of course straight. 
 
 When the steps are narrower at one end than the 
 other, they are termed winders. 
 
 When the bottom step has a circular end, it is called a 
 round-ended step; when the end is formed into a spiral, 
 it is called a curtail step. 
 
 The wide step introduced as a resting-place in the 
 ascent is o landing, and the top of a stair is also so called. 
 
 When the landing at a resting place is square, it is 
 designated a quarter space. 
 
 When the landing occupies the whole width of the 
 staircase it is called a half space. 
 
 So much of a stair as is included between two landings 
 is called a flight, especially if the risers are parallel with 
 each other : the steps in this case are fliers. 
 
 The outward edge of a step is named the nosing; if it 
 project beyond the riser, so as to receive a hollow mould- 
 ing glued under it, it is a moulded nosing. ■ 
 
 A straight-edge laid on the nosings represents the 
 angle of the stairs, and is denominated the line of nosings. 
 
 The raking pieces which support the ends of the steps 
 are called strings. The inner one is the wall string; the 
 other the outer string. If the outer string be cut to 
 mitre with the end of the riser, it is a cut and mitred 
 string ; but when the sti'ings are grooved to receive the 
 ends of the treads and risers, they are said to be housed, 
 and the grooves are termed housings. 
 
 Economy of space in the construction of stairs is 
 an important consideration. To obtain this, the stairs 
 are made to turn upon themselves, one flight being carried 
 above another at such a height as will admit of head room 
 to a full-grown person. 
 
 Method of Setting Out Stairs 
 
 The first objects to be ascertained are the situation of 
 first and last risers, and the height wherein the stair 
 is to be placed. 
 
 The height is next taken on a rod; then, assuming 
 a height of riser suitable to the place, a trial is made, by 
 division, how often this height is contained in the height 
 between decks, and the quotient, if there be no remainder, 
 will be the number of risers. Should there be a remain- 
 
WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 121 
 
 Sbeet I. Joiner Work Handrails 
 
 der on the first division, the operation is reversed, the 
 number of inches in the height being made the dividend, 
 and the before-found quotient the divisor, and the opera- 
 tion of division by reduction is carried on, till the height 
 of riser is obtained to the thirty-second part of an inch. 
 These heights are then set of? on a measurement rod as 
 exactly as possible. 
 
 It is a general maxim that the greater the breadth of 
 a step the less should be the height of the riser ; and con- 
 versely, the less the breadth of step, the greater should 
 be the height of the riser. Experience shows that a step 
 of 12 inches width and SJ4 inches rise, may be taken as 
 a standard. 
 
 It is seldom, however, that the proportion of the step 
 and riser is exactly a matter of choice — the room allotted 
 to the stairs usually determines this proportion; but the 
 above will be found a useful standard, to which it is 
 desirable to approximate. 
 
 A proportion for steps and risers may be obtained by 
 the annexed method : — 
 
 Treads in 
 
 Risers in 
 
 Treads in 
 
 Risers in 
 
 s 
 
 9 
 
 12 
 
 53^2 
 
 6 
 
 8/2 
 
 13 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 14 
 
 4J4 
 
 8 
 
 7^ 
 
 IS 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 7 
 
 16 
 
 3/2 
 
 lO 
 
 6/2 
 
 17 
 
 3 
 
 II 
 
 6 
 
 18 
 
 2/2 
 
 Set down two sets of numbers, each in arithmetical 
 progression ; the first set showing the width of the steps, 
 ascending by inches, the other showing the height of the 
 riser, descending by half inches. It will readily be seen 
 that each of these steps and risers are such as may 
 suitably pair together. 
 
 The landing covers one riser, and therefore the num- 
 ber of steps in a flight will be always one fewer than 
 
122 
 
 WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 the number of risers. The width of tread which can be 
 obtained for each flight will thus be found, and con- 
 sistent with the situation, the plan will be so far decided. 
 A pitch-board should now be formed to the angle of in- 
 clination: this is done by making a piece of thin board 
 in the shape of a right-angled triangle, the base of which 
 is the exact going of the step, and its perpendicular the 
 height of the riser. 
 
 If the stair be a newel stair, its width will be found by 
 setting out the plan and section of the newel on the 
 landing. 
 
 Then mark the place of the outer or front string, and 
 also the place of the back or wall string, according to the 
 intended thickness of each. This should be done not only 
 to a scale on the plan, but likewise to the full size on the 
 rod. Set off on the rod, in the thickness of each string, 
 the depth of the grooving of the steps into the string; 
 mark also on the plan the place and section of the bottom 
 newel. 
 
 When two flights are necessary, it is desirable that 
 each flight should consist of an equal number of risers ; 
 but this will depend on the form of staircase, situation, 
 height of doors, and other obstacles to be passed over 
 or under, as the case may be. 
 
 I ig. Handrails 
 
 The height of the handrail of a stair, as the following 
 considerations will show, need not be uniform throughout, 
 but may be varied within the limits of a few inches, so 
 as to secure a graceful line at the changes of direction. 
 In ascending a stair the body is naturally thrown forward, 
 and in descending it is thrown back, and it is only when 
 standing or walking on the level that it maintains an up- 
 right position. Hence the rail may be with propriety 
 made higher where it is level at the landings, the posi- 
 tion of the body being then erect, than at the sloping part, 
 where the body is naturally more or less bent. 
 
 The height of the rail on the nosings of the straight 
 part of the stairs should be 2 feet 7j4 inches, measuring 
 from the tread to its upper side; to this there should be 
 added at the landings the height of half a riser. 
 
 In winding stairs, regard should be had, in adjusting 
 the height of the rail, to the position of a person using it, 
 who may be thrown further from it at some points than 
 at others, not only by the narrowing of the treads, but 
 by the oblique position of the risers. 
 
 Sections of Handrails.— In Sheet I. some of the usual 
 forms of the sections of handrails are given. To de- 
 scribe Fig. 3, divide the width 6 6 in twelve parts, bisect 
 it by the line a b, at right angles to 6 6; make c b equal 
 to seven, a c equal to three such parts, and b i also equal 
 to three parts ; set off one part from 6 to 7, draw the 
 lines 7 i on each side of the figure; set the compasses 
 in 4 4, extend them to 6 6, and describe the arcs at 6 6 
 
 to form the sides of the figure; also set the compasses 
 in B, extending them to a, and describe the arc at a to 
 form the top ; make / b equal to two parts, and draw the 
 line k I k; take four parts in the compasses, and from the 
 points 4 4 describe the arcs e f, then with two parts in 
 the compasses, one foot being placed in k, draw the inter- 
 secting arcs g h ; from these intersections as centres, de- 
 scribe the remaining portions of the curves, and by join- 
 ing k i, k i, complete figure. 
 
 In Fig. 4 divide the width c D into twelve equal parts ; 
 make 6 m equal to 6 parts; 6 b and m h respectively, 
 equal to two parts, and m i equal to three parts; make 
 e h and h f respectively, equal to two parts ; then in / 
 and e set one foot of the compasses, and with a radius 
 equal to one and a half parts, describe the arcs g g ; from 
 the point m, with the radius m a, describe the arc at a 
 meeting the arcs g g, to form the top reed of the figure; 
 from 2 with a radius equal to two parts, describe the side 
 reeds c and d; draw i d parallel to a b; and with a 
 radius of one part from the points d d describe the reed 
 d for the bottom of the rail, which completes the figure. 
 
 Fig. 5 is another similar section of handrail. The 
 width 6 6 is divided into twelve equal parts as before; the 
 point 4 is the center for the side of the figure, which is 
 described with a radius of two parts ; a m is made equal to 
 three parts, and b w to eight parts, and m n equal to 
 seven parts ; then will a b be the radius, and b the center 
 for the top of the rail. Take seven parts in the com- 
 passes, and from the center 6 in the vertical line a b, 
 describe the arcs g h, g h\ take six parts in the compasses, 
 and from the center 4, describe the arcs e f, e f; draw the 
 line d d through the point n; from the intersections at 
 e f g h, as 3l center, with the radius of four parts, and 
 from 4, as a center, with the radius of two parts, describe 
 the curve of contrary flexure forming the side of the rail ; 
 then from d, with the radius of one part, describe the 
 arc at d, forming the astragal for the bottom of the rail. 
 
 Fig. 6. — To describe this figure, let the width 6 6 be 
 divided into 12 parts ; make m 4 equal to four parts, m 6 
 equal to 6 parts, and 6 8 equal to 2 parts ; make 6 d equal 
 to 5 parts, and draw the dotted lines d 4; also the lines 
 4 g. On these lines make / 4 equal to two parts, / o equal 
 to half a part, and g equal to four parts ; also make m k 
 equal to one part, and draw the lines g k ; from k, as a 
 center, describe the arc at a for the top of the rail; from 
 g describe the arcs ho. At 4 and 4, with the radius of 
 two parts, describe the arcs at 6 for the sides of the rail ; 
 then from d set off the distance of two parts on the line 
 d 4, and from this point as a center, with a radius of two 
 parts, describe the curves of contrary flexure terminating 
 in d d, which will complete the curved parts of the figure. 
 Continue the line 6 6 the distance of four parts on each 
 side to the points 4': from these points, and through the 
 points d d, draw the lines d d for the chamfer at the 
 bottom of the rail, thus completing the entire figure. 
 
Chapter XII 
 
 Sails 
 
 As a builder of ships should have a general knowledge 
 of sails, I have devoted this chapter to illustrating and 
 describing rigs of vessels and boats. 
 
 No attempt has been made to do more than give a 
 general description and complete lists of sails of the 
 various rigs. Each rig is illustrated and identifying num- 
 bers are marked against each sail. 
 
 ^ 1 2a. Ship Sails 
 
 Fig. loi is an illustration of a full-rigged ship, sails 
 being numbered for identification, the name of each sail 
 being listed below with identifying numbers against it. 
 
 Fig. 101. SMp 
 
 DIFFERENT RIGS OF VESSELS 
 
 Ship, Full-Rigged Ship 
 
 A three-masted vessel (foremast, mainmast and miz- 
 zenmast) each mast is fitted with a topmast, top-gallant- 
 mast and royalmast, all are square-rigged, i.e., rigged with 
 yards and square sails. (See Fig. loi.) 
 
 Four-Masted Ships 
 These vessels have either one, two or three of their 
 masts, square-rigged, and those masts not square-rigged 
 are fitted with a topmast only, and carry gaff-sails, like 
 a barkentine, the three foremost masts are named like 
 those in a three-masted ship (foremast, mainmast, miz- 
 zenmast) and the hindmost is called a jigger-mast. 
 
 Ship Sails (Ship Rig) 
 
 1. 
 
 Flying jib. 
 
 8. 
 
 Royal studdingsail. 
 
 2. 
 
 Standing jib or outer jib. 
 
 9. 
 
 Fore-sail or fore course. 
 
 3. 
 
 Inner or middle jib. 
 
 10. 
 
 Lower-fore topsail. 
 
 4. 
 
 Fore topmast staysail. 
 
 11. 
 
 Upper-fore topsail. 
 
 5. 
 
 Lower studdingsail. 
 
 12. 
 
 Lower-fore topgallantsail. 
 
 6. 
 
 Topmast studdingsail. 
 
 IS. 
 
 Upper-fore topgallantsail. 
 
 7. 
 
 Topgallant studdingsail. 
 
 14. 
 
 Fore royal. 
 
 15. 
 
 Fore skysail. 
 
 24. 
 
 Cross-jack. 
 
 16. 
 
 Mainsail or main course. 
 
 25. 
 
 Lower-main topsail. 
 
 17. 
 
 Lower-main topsail. 
 
 26. 
 
 Upper-mizzen topsail. 
 
 18. 
 
 Upper-main topsail. 
 
 27. 
 
 Lower-mizzen topgallantsail 
 
 19. 
 
 Lower-main topgallantsail. 
 
 28. 
 
 Upper-mizzen topgallantsail 
 
 20. 
 
 Upper-main topgallantsail. 
 
 29. 
 
 Mizzen royal. 
 
 21. 
 
 Main royal. 
 
 30. 
 
 Mizzen skysail. 
 
 22. 
 
 Main skysail. 
 
 31. 
 
 Spanker. 
 
 23. 
 
 Moonsail. 
 
 
 
 1. Main staysail. 
 
 2. Main topmast staysail. 
 
 3. Middle staysail. 
 
 4. Main topgallant staysail. 
 
 5. Main royal staysail. 
 
 Fig. 102. Staysails 
 
 Ship (Staysails) 
 
 6. Mizzen staysail. 
 
 Mizzen topmast staysail. 
 Mizzen topgallant staysail. 
 Mizzen royal staysail. 
 
 1 2b. Sails of a Barque 
 Fig. 103 is an illustration of a barque, her sails being 
 numbered for identification. The name of each sail, 
 with identifying number against it, is listed below. 
 
 Barque; Bark (Sails) 
 A three-masted vessel, (foremast, mainmast and miz- 
 zenmast) the two foremost masts are square-rigged, as 
 in a ship, the after or mizzenmast has no yards, being 
 fitted with a topmast only, and carries a gaff-sail (called 
 the spanker) and a gaff-topsail. (See Fig. 103.) 
 
 Fig. 103. Barque 
 
124 
 
 1. Flying jib. 
 
 2. Jib. 
 
 3. Fore topmast staysail. 
 
 4. Fore-sail. 
 
 6, Lower-top topsail. 
 
 6. Upper-top topsail. 
 
 7. Fore topgallant sail. 
 
 8. Fore royal. 
 
 9. Main topmast staysail. 
 
 10. Middle staysail. 
 
 11. Main topgallant staysail. 
 
 WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 12. Main royal staysail. 
 
 13. Main sail. 
 
 14. Lower-main topsail. 
 
 15. Upper-main topsail. 
 
 16. Main topgallant sail. 
 
 17. Main royal. 
 
 18. Mizzen staysail. 
 
 19. ^fizzen topmast staysail. 
 
 20. Spanker. 
 
 21. Gaff-topsail. 
 
 I2C. Sails of a Barkentine 
 
 Fig. 104 is an illustration of a barkentine, her sails 
 
 being numbered for identification. The name of each 
 
 sail with identifying number against it, is listed below. 
 
 (No. i-io same as on bark. No. 13-16 as on schooner.) 
 
 Barkentine 
 A three-masted vessel, ( foremast, mainmast and miz- 
 zenmast) the foremast only is square-rigged, the main 
 and mizzen mast are fitted with topmasts, and carry gaff- 
 sails and gaff-topsails. 
 
 Fig. 105. Brig 
 
 Brigantine 
 
 A two-masted vessel (foremast and mainmast). The 
 foremast is square-rigged, and the after or mainmast 
 (of a greater length than the foremast) carries a boom- 
 
 1. 
 
 Flying jib. 
 
 8. 
 
 Royal. 
 
 
 
 
 2. 
 
 Jib. 
 
 9. 
 
 Main topmast staysail. 
 
 ing 
 
 a gaff-topsail. (See Fig. 
 
 106.) 
 
 3. 
 
 Fore-topmast staysail. 
 
 10. 
 
 Middle staysail. 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 Foresail. 
 
 13. 
 
 Main sail. 
 
 8. 
 
 Flying-jib. 
 
 16. Royal. 
 
 6. 
 
 Lower topsail. 
 
 11. 
 
 Main gaff topsail. 
 
 9. 
 
 Outer jib or main jib. 
 
 17. Main staysail. 
 
 6. 
 
 Upper topsail. 
 
 15. 
 
 Mizzen or spanker. 
 
 10. 
 
 Inner jib. 
 
 18. Middle staysail. 
 
 7. 
 
 Top gallantsail. 
 
 16. 
 
 Mizzen topsail. 
 
 ^-^._ 1 
 
 11. 
 12. 
 13. 
 14. 
 15. 
 
 Fore topmast staysail. 
 Fore-sail. 
 Lower topsail. 
 Upper topsail. 
 Topgallant sail. 
 
 19. Main topmast staysail. 
 
 20. Main topgallant staysail 
 
 21. Main sail. 
 
 22. Gaff topsail. 
 
 Fig- 104. Barkentine 
 
 I2d. Sails of a Brig 
 Fig. 105 is an illustration of a brig, her sails being 
 numbered for identification. The name of each sail, with 
 identifying number against it, is listed below. 
 
 Brig 
 
 A two-masted vessel, (foremast and mainmast), 
 square-rigged, i.e., exactly as the two forerpost masts 
 of a full-rigged ship or a barque. 
 
 8. 
 
 Flying jib. 
 
 9. 
 
 Outer jib. 
 
 10. 
 
 Inner jib. 
 
 11. 
 
 Fore sail. 
 
 18. 
 
 Fore topsail. 
 
 13. 
 
 Fore topgallantsail 
 
 14. 
 
 Fore royal. 
 
 16. 
 
 Main staysail. 
 
 16. 
 
 Main topmast staysail. 
 
 17. 
 
 Main topgallant staysail 
 
 18. 
 
 Main sail. 
 
 19. 
 
 Main topsail. 
 
 20. 
 
 Main topgallant sail. 
 
 21. 
 
 Main royal. 
 
 22. 
 
 Spanker. 
 
 i2e. Sails of a Brigantine 
 Fig. 106 is an illustration of a brigantine, her sails 
 being numbered for identification. The name of each sail, 
 with identification number against it, is listed below. 
 
 Fig. 106. Brigantine 
 
 I2f. Sails of a Topsail Schooner 
 Fig. 107 is an illustration of a topsail schooner, her 
 sails being numbered for identification. The name of 
 each sail, with identifying number against it, is listed 
 below. 
 
 Topsail Schooner 
 A two-masted vessel (foremast and mainmast) with 
 long lower masts. The foremast is fitted with yards and 
 square sails, which are lighter than those of a brigantine, 
 and carrying a loose square foresail (only used when 
 sailing before the wind) the main- or after mast is rigged 
 like the after mast in a brigantine. (See Fig. 107.^ 
 
 1. Flying jib. 
 
 2. Outer jib. 
 
 3. Inner jib. 
 
 4. Fore topmast staysail. 
 6. Fore sail. 
 
 6. Fore topsaiL 
 
 7. Upper fore topsail. 
 
 8. Main tOf>mast staysail. 
 
 9. Main sail. 
 
 10. Main gaff topsail. 
 
WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 123 
 
 Fig. 107. Topsail Scbooner 
 
 Three-Masted Topsail Schooner 
 
 A three-masted vessel (foremast, mainmast and miz- 
 
 zenmast). The foremast is rigged like the foremast in 
 
 a topsail-schooner and the two after masts are fitted with 
 
 boom sails and gaff-topsails, like those of a barkentine. 
 
 i2g. Sails of a Fore-and-Aft Schooner 
 Fig. 108 is an illustration of a fore-and-aft schooner, 
 her sails being numbered for identification. The name of 
 each sail, with identifying number against it, is listed 
 below. 
 
 Schooner 
 
 A name applied to vessels of 'fore-and-aft rig of 
 various sizes. Schooners have two or more long lower 
 masts without tops, and are sometimes fitted with light 
 square topsails, especially at the fore; but these are giv- 
 ing way to the fore-and-aft gaff topsails, which are better 
 adapted to the American coast. 
 
 Some of the more modern schooners measure 2,000 
 and 3,000 tons, and carry six and seven masts. (See 
 Fig. 108.) 
 
 Fig. 108. Fore-and-Aft Scbooner 
 
 13. 
 14. 
 15. 
 16. 
 17. 
 
 Plying jib. 
 Jib. 
 
 Inner jib. 
 Staysail. 
 Pore- sail. 
 
 18. 
 19. 
 20. 
 21. 
 22. 
 
 Fore gaff topsail. 
 
 Main sail. 
 
 Main gaiT topsail. 
 
 Mizzen. 
 
 Mizzen-gaff topsail. 
 
 i2h. Scow 
 
 Scows are built with flat bottoms and square bilges, 
 but some of them have the ordinary schooner bow. They 
 are fitted with one, two, and three masts, and are called 
 scow-sloop or scow-schooner, according to the rig they 
 carry. Some of them carry bowsprits. The distinctive 
 line between the scow and regular-built schooner is, in 
 the case of some large vessels, quite obscure, but would 
 seem to be determined by the shape of the bilge ; the scow 
 having in all cases the angular bilge instead of the curve 
 ( futtock) bilge of the ordinary vessel. 
 
 I2i. Cat 
 
 A rig supposed to be derived from the Brazilian cata- 
 maran that allows of one sail only, an enormous fore- 
 ' and-aft mainsail spread by a boom and gaff and hoisted 
 to the one mast stepped near the stem. The cat rig is 
 much employed on Long Island Sound for small coasting 
 and fishing vessels. It is also a favorite rig for pleasure 
 vessels, being easily handled, but is not suited to a heavy 
 sea and rough weather. (See Fig. 109.) 
 
 Fig. 109. Cat 
 
 The scow is a vessel used in the shoal waters of nearly 
 all the States, but principally on the lakes. 
 
 I2J. YaVV^L 
 
 Resembles the cutter rig, except that it has a jigger- 
 
126 
 
 WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 Fig. 110. Yawl 
 
 mast at the stern, which carries a small lug-sail, the main 
 boom traversing just clear of it. (See Fig. no.) 
 
 12k. Sloop 
 
 The sloop is a vessel with only one mast, and a bow- 
 sprit carrying a fore-and-aft mainsail and jib, which, 
 being set on the forestay, is called the foresail. The 
 sloop is one of the oldest styles of vessel known to the 
 trade of this country, and is (with some local variations 
 in the cut of sails) a rig that is more or less employed in 
 the commerce of the entire globe. (See Fig. in.) 
 
 Pig. 111. Sloop 
 
 12I. Cutter 
 
 The cutter carries a fore-and-aft mainsail, stay fore- 
 sail, flying jib, and topsail. Large cutters, 400 to 500 
 tons, have been constructed for naval use and made to 
 carry yards with every sail that can be set on one mast, 
 even to sky sails, moon-rakers, star-gazers, etc. The 
 modern cutter-yacht generally carries a flying gafif top- 
 sail. The name cutter applies as much to the sharp build 
 of the vessel's hull as to the particular rig. (See Fig. 
 112.) 
 
 Fig. 112. Cutter 
 
 12m. Lugger 
 Luggers are vessels generally with one mast (though 
 sometimes two or three), having quadrilateral or four- 
 cornered fore-and-aft sails bent to a hoisting yard, the 
 luff being about two-thirds the length of the after leech. 
 The French chasse-maree or lugger, used for fishing and 
 
 Fig. 113. Lug-Salls 
 
 coasting purposes, carries two or three masts and is of 
 200 to 300 tons capacity. In this country the lugger is 
 generally a small vessel with one mast, used for the oyster 
 trade on the Mississippi River and adjacent waters. 
 (See Fig. 113.) 
 
 Fig. 114. Lateen-Sall 
 
WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 127 
 
 i2n. Lateen 
 The lateen rig is similar to the lug rig, excepting that 
 the sail is triangular, a long yard which hoists obliquely 
 to a stout mast forming the luff. 
 
 Sail 
 
 -^ Spkit - Sails - 
 
 The lateen rig is much used by small craft in the 
 Mediterranean and in some of the larger size which have 
 more than one mast. The sails brail up in case of need. 
 (See Fig. 114.) 
 
 Sliding Gunter-^ 
 
 Parts and Particulars of Sails (Figs. 115, 116, 117) 
 
 Sail 
 
 bolt rope of a — (Rope 
 sewed around a sail 
 bonnet of a — (A remov- 
 able portion of a sail) 
 bunt of a square — {when 
 furled) 
 
 clew or clue of a — 9 
 spectacle clew, iron clew of 
 a — pa 
 
 clew-rope of a — 
 cloth of a — IS 
 cover of a — (Canvas cover 
 put over furled sail to pro- 
 tect them from damage) 
 cringle of a — 12 
 earing of a {square) — 14 
 
 earing cringle of a 
 (square) — 13 
 earing thimble of a 
 {square) — (Thimble 
 worked into earing) 
 eyelet-holes in a — 16 
 foot of a — 6 
 foot-band of a — (Band 
 along foot) 
 foot-rope of a — 6a 
 girth-band of a — 18 
 grommets {for eyelet 
 holes) of a — (Brass or 
 sewed protection around 
 eyelet holes) 
 
 head of a {square or gaff) 
 — I 
 
 head of a {triangular) — ib 
 head-rope of a {square) — 
 la 
 
 head-rope of a {gaff) — ic 
 head-rope, stay-rope of a 
 {triangular) — 10 
 hoist of a — 25 
 lacing of a — (Line used to 
 lace sail to gaff or boom) 
 leech of a {square) — 8 
 after leech of a {triangu- 
 lar or trapezoidal) — 20 
 fore-leech or luff of a {tri- 
 angular or trapezoidal) — • 
 {fixed to, or hoisted on a 
 mast) — • 19b 
 
 fore-leech, stay or luff of 
 a {triangular) — {hoisted 
 on a stay) — ipd 
 leech-lining of a {square) 
 leech-rope of a {square) 
 — 8a 
 
 after leech-rope of a {tri- 
 angular or trapezoidal) — 
 20a 
 
 fore-leech rope, mastrope 
 of a {trapezoidal or tri- 
 angular) — {fixed to, or 
 hoisted, on a mast) 
 middle band, belly band of 
 a {top)— 5 
 peak of a {gaff) — 22 
 tpef in a — (Distance be- 
 tween each set of reef 
 points) 
 balance reef in a {gaff) — 
 
 24 
 
 reef band of a — 3 
 
 reef cringle of a — 12 
 
 reef earing of a {square) 
 
 — 14 
 
 reef points of a — 4 
 
 reef-tackle-cringle of a — 11 
 
 reef-tackle piece or patch 
 
 of a — ID 
 
 seam of a — 15a 
 
 stopper or roband {to 
 
 fasten a sail to a jackstay 
 
 or to a hank) 
 
 tack of a {trapezoidal or 
 
 triangular) — 21 
 
 throat or neck of a {gaff) 
 
 — 23 
 
 Fig. 116 
 
128 
 
 WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 Foot -rope ^ **- 
 rig. 116 
 
 f3 
 
 frfirtju; -crut^ 
 
 ~JUtf-av}^Us 
 
 Raf-taJiU'avigU 
 
 ■R ecf-toi: hhixmigU. 
 
 rig. 117 
 
Chapter XIII 
 
 Rigging 
 
 Rigging is the name given to all ropes on a vessel 
 employed to support the masts, and raise, lower or fasten 
 the sails. The rigging of a vessel is divided into two 
 classes, one class comprising all standing, or stationary 
 rigging, and the other all running or movable rigging. 
 
 13a. Standing Rigging Described 
 
 The standing rigging of a vessel is usually of iron 
 and steel wire rope made of strands of wire laid around 
 a hemp core, the number of strands, varying from 7 to 
 19, depending upon service rope is put to. 
 
 On the accompanying tables I give properties of 
 
 TABLES OF WIRE ROPES. 13A 
 
 WEIGHT, STRENGTH, ETC., OF EXTRA STRONG CRUCIBLE 
 CAST-STEEL ROPE 
 
 TABLE 13B 
 WEIGHT, STRENGTH, ETC., OF STAND.\RD WIRE ROPE 
 Composed of Six Strands and a Hemp Center, Nineteen Wires to the 
 Strand. 
 
 Swedish Iron 
 
 Composed of 
 
 six strands am 
 
 a hemp center, nineteen wires to the strand 
 
 
 Approximate 
 
 
 Approximate 
 
 Allowable 
 
 Diameter 
 
 Circumference 
 
 Weight per 
 
 Breaking Strains 
 
 Working Strains 
 
 in Inches 
 
 in Inches 
 
 Foot in Pounds 
 
 in Tons of 
 2000 Pounds 
 
 in Tons of 
 2000 Pounds 
 
 2j< 
 
 8^ 
 
 "■95 
 
 266 
 
 53 
 
 2K 
 
 7^ 
 
 985 
 
 222 
 
 45 
 
 2% 
 
 TA 
 
 8.00 
 
 182 
 
 36.4 
 
 2 
 
 6K 
 
 6.30 
 
 144 
 
 28.8 
 
 iH 
 
 s'A 
 
 4-85 
 
 112 
 
 22.4 
 
 iH 
 
 s 
 
 415 
 
 97 
 
 19.4 
 
 I'A 
 
 4K 
 
 3-55 
 
 84 
 
 16.8 
 
 iH 
 
 4'/i 
 
 3.00 
 
 72 
 
 14.4 
 
 iX 
 
 4 
 
 2-45 
 
 58 
 
 11.60 
 
 iH 
 
 3'/2 
 
 2.00 
 
 49 
 
 9.80 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 1.58 
 
 39 
 
 7.80 
 
 H 
 
 2^ 
 
 1 .20 
 
 30 
 
 6.00 
 
 H 
 
 2% 
 
 0.89 
 
 22 
 
 4.40 
 
 H 
 
 2 
 
 0.62 
 
 iS-8 
 
 316 
 
 ■ % 
 
 ij< 
 
 0.50 
 
 12.7 
 
 2-54 
 
 H 
 
 i>^ 
 
 0-39 
 
 10. 1 
 
 2.02 
 
 '-16 
 
 iX 
 
 0.30 
 
 7.8 
 
 1.56 
 
 H 
 
 ^yi 
 
 0. 22 
 
 5.78 
 
 115 
 
 ^6 
 
 I 
 
 015 
 
 40s 
 
 0.81 
 
 H 
 
 ^ 
 
 O.IO 
 
 2.70 
 
 0-54 
 
 SEVEN WIRES TO THE STRAND 
 
 IK 
 
 4H 
 
 3-55 
 
 79 
 
 15.8 
 
 I^ 
 
 4X 
 
 3.00 
 
 68 
 
 13-6 
 
 r'A 
 
 4 
 
 2.45 
 
 56 
 
 II. 2 
 
 iH 
 
 ^y^ 
 
 2.00 
 
 46 
 
 9.20 
 
 I 
 
 3 
 
 1.58 
 
 37 
 
 7.40 
 
 H 
 
 2H 
 
 1.20 
 
 28 
 
 5 .60 
 
 H 
 
 2X 
 
 0.89 
 
 21 
 
 4.20 
 
 'Hi 
 
 2H 
 
 0.7s 
 
 18.4 
 
 3.68 
 
 H 
 
 2 
 
 0.62 
 
 iS-i 
 
 3.02 
 
 % 
 
 iH 
 
 0.50 
 
 12.3 
 
 2,46 
 
 H 
 
 iK 
 
 0-39 
 
 9.70 
 
 1.94 
 
 ¥6 
 
 iK 
 
 0.30 
 
 7-5° 
 
 I-50 
 
 H 
 
 lA 
 
 0.22 
 
 558 
 
 1. 11 
 
 '46 
 
 I 
 
 oiS 
 
 3-88 
 
 0.77 
 
 '-6 
 
 H 
 
 O.I2S 
 
 3.22 
 
 0.64 
 
 
 Approximate 
 
 
 Approximate 
 
 Allowable 
 
 Diameter 
 
 Circumference 
 
 Weight per 
 
 Breaking Strain 
 
 Working Strain 
 
 in Inche« 
 
 in Inches 
 
 Foot in Pounds 
 
 in Tons of 
 
 in Tons of 
 
 
 
 
 2000 Pounds 
 
 2000 Pounds 
 
 2H 
 
 ?.H 
 
 II 95 
 
 114 
 
 22.8 
 
 2K 
 
 iH 
 
 985 
 
 95 
 
 18.9 
 
 2% 
 
 lA 
 
 8.00 
 
 78 
 
 15.60 
 
 2 
 
 6'A 
 
 6.30 
 
 62 
 
 12.40 
 
 I^ 
 
 S'A 
 
 4-8s 
 
 48 
 
 9.60 
 
 \H. 
 
 5 
 
 4-15 
 
 42 
 
 8.40 
 
 iK 
 
 4^ 
 
 3-55 
 
 36 
 
 7.20 
 
 xH 
 
 4X 
 
 3.00 
 
 31 
 
 6.20 
 
 1% 
 
 4 
 
 2-45 
 
 25 
 
 S.oo 
 
 I'A 
 
 3K 
 
 2.00 
 
 21 
 
 4. 20 
 
 I 
 
 3 
 
 1.58 
 
 17 
 
 3-40 
 
 H 
 
 2H 
 
 1.20 
 
 13 
 
 2.60 
 
 H 
 
 2% 
 
 0.89 
 
 9-7 
 
 1.94 
 
 H 
 
 2 
 
 0.62 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 1.36 
 
 % 
 
 iH 
 
 0.50 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 1. 10 
 
 % 
 
 i>^ 
 
 0-39 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 0.88 
 
 ¥6 
 
 iX 
 
 0.30 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 0.68 
 
 H 
 
 lA 
 
 0. 22 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 0.50 
 
 '46 
 
 I 
 
 OIS 
 
 I 
 
 7 
 
 0-34 
 
 Va 
 
 K 
 
 0. 10 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 0.24 
 
 CAST STEEL 
 
 2A 
 
 8^^ 
 
 11-95 
 
 228 
 
 45-6 
 
 2K 
 
 lA 
 
 985 
 
 190 
 
 37-9 
 
 2A 
 
 lA 
 
 8.00 
 
 156 
 
 31.2 
 
 2 
 
 6% 
 
 6.30 
 
 124 
 
 24.8 
 
 iK 
 
 s'A 
 
 4-85 
 
 96 
 
 19.2 
 
 iH 
 
 5 
 
 4-15 
 
 84 
 
 16.8 
 
 I'A 
 
 aH 
 
 3-55 
 
 72 
 
 14.4 
 
 iH 
 
 4X 
 
 3.00 
 
 62 
 
 12.4 
 
 iX 
 
 4 
 
 2.45 
 
 50 
 
 10. 
 
 xA 
 
 3A 
 
 2.00 
 
 42 
 
 8.40 
 
 I 
 
 3 
 
 1.58 
 
 34 
 
 6.80 
 
 A 
 
 2H 
 
 1.20 
 
 26 
 
 5.20 
 
 H . 
 
 2V, 
 
 0.89 
 
 19.4 
 
 3.88 
 
 H 
 
 2 
 
 0.62 
 
 13-6 
 
 2.72 
 
 % 
 
 iK 
 
 0.50 
 
 II. 
 
 2.20 
 
 % 
 
 xA 
 
 0-39 
 
 8.8 
 
 1.76 
 
 Tfg 
 
 lA 
 
 0.30 
 
 6.8 
 
 1.36 
 
 H 
 
 lA 
 
 0.22 
 
 5-0 
 
 1. 00 
 
 %, 
 
 I 
 
 0.15 
 
 3-4 
 
 0.68 
 
 X 
 
 H 
 
 O.IO 
 
 2-4 
 
 0.48 
 
 various standard sizes of iron wire and steel wire rope. 
 The size of a wire rope is its diameter, or circumference, 
 as the case may be, and the size required for each piece 
 of standing rigging depends upon working strain that 
 must be withstood, which of course varies with size, 
 type of vessel, rig, and amount of sail that will be carried. 
 
 13b. Fastening of Standing Rigging 
 One end of each piece of standing rigging is attached 
 
I30 
 
 WOODEN SHIP -BUILDING 
 
 Fig. 118. Chain Plates and Channels 
 
 to one of the spars and the other end to one of the chain 
 plates, pad-eyes, or eyebohs fastened to hull, or to another 
 spar. 
 
 On Fig. ii8 are shown details of chain plate con- 
 struction and method of fastening chain plates to hull 
 and rigging to chain plates. 
 
 No. I on the illustration is the chain plate which is 
 attached to hull by chain plate bolt 2 and preventer 
 bolt 3 ; 4 is a preventer plate, 5 the channel over which 
 the chain plate is led, 6 the dead-eye through which the 
 tightening lanyard is led, and 7 is the strand of rigging 
 attached to chain plate. 
 
 The other part of illustration shows profile view of 
 main rigging chain plates. Note that the one channel ex- 
 tends across all chain plates of each set of rigging. 
 
 13c. Describing the Channels 
 A channel is an assemblage of oak planks lying hori- 
 zontally and projecting outwards from side of ship. They 
 are placed near to each mast, with their fore ends slightly 
 ahead of center of mast, and are always sufficiently long 
 to receive and support as many chain plates as necessary. 
 Channels are securely bolted to frames and are fre- 
 quently shod with iron. 
 
 13d. Chain Plates and Their Fastenings 
 Chain plates are made of iron or steel and are usually 
 about 3 or 4 inches broad and from i to i^ inches 
 thick on ships of 1,500 tons. Chain plates are fastened 
 to hull with bolts that pass through planking, frame, 
 ceiling, and are securely riveted in heavy clinch rings 
 inside hull. The main and fore chain plates usually 
 have a preventer plate and bolt as an additional fastening. 
 On Fig. 1 18 the chain plate fastenings are clearly shown. 
 Dead-eyes, or turnbuckles, are fastened to the upper 
 end of each chain plate. Turnbuckles are fastened to 
 the chain plates with an iron strap that passes around 
 the dead-eye and is fastened to chain plate with a bolt 
 or link. 
 
 Turnbuckles are fastened to chain plates with a bolt 
 that passes through shackle of turnbuckle and hole in 
 upper end of chain plate. 
 
 i3e. Method of Fastening Standing Rigging to 
 Spars, and to Hull 
 
 The method of fastening standing rigging to spars 
 is by splicing to eyes on bands, by splicing around the 
 spar, or by seizing the end ; and the method of fastening 
 to hull is by splicing to turnbuckles or dead-eyes, by 
 splicing around thimbles that are placed in eyebolts and 
 pad-eyes, and by seizing. A large portion of standing 
 '■igging is "set up" or tautened by means of either turn- 
 buckles, dead-eyes or lanyards. 
 
 All standing rigging must be set taut and securely 
 fastened. 
 
 i3f. List of a Ship's Standing Rigging 
 
 On the following list are given the names of the 
 principal pieces of a ship's standing rigging, and im- 
 mediately below the list is an illustration, on which each 
 piece of rigging is marked for identification. Bear in 
 mind that fore and main masts of barks and brigs, and 
 the foremast of a barkentine and a brigantine have stand- 
 ing rigging that is very similar to a ship's. 
 
 List of a Ship's Standing Rigging Shown on Fig. 119 
 
 Main topgallant rigging. 
 
 Mizzeii ^rigging. 
 
 Mizzen topmast rigging. 
 
 Mizzen topgallant rigging. 
 
 Fore topmast backstays. 
 
 Fore topgallant backstays. 
 
 Fore royal and skysail back- 
 stays. 
 
 Main topmast backstays. 
 
 Main topgallant backstays. 
 
 Main royal and skysail back- 
 stays. 
 
 Mizzen topmast backstays. 
 
 Mizzen topgallant backstays. 
 
 Mizzen royal and skysail back- 
 stays. 
 
 Bobstays. 
 
 Jib boom martingale stay. 
 
 Flying jib boom martingale 
 stay. 
 
 Martingale guys or back ropes. 
 
 Jib flying jib boom guys. 
 
 1. 
 
 Fore skysail stay. 
 
 23. 
 
 2. 
 
 Fore royal stay. 
 
 24. 
 
 3. 
 
 Flying jib stay. 
 
 25. 
 
 4. 
 
 Fore topgallant stay. 
 
 26. 
 
 0. 
 
 Jib stay. 
 
 27. 
 
 6. 
 
 Fore topmast stay. 
 
 28. 
 
 7. 
 
 Fore stay. 
 
 29. 
 
 8. 
 
 Main stay. 
 
 
 9. 
 
 Main topmast stay. 
 
 30. 
 
 10. 
 
 Main topgallant stay. 
 
 31. 
 
 11. 
 
 Main royal stay. 
 
 32. 
 
 12. 
 
 Main skysail stay. 
 
 
 13. 
 
 Mizzen stay. 
 
 33. 
 
 14. 
 
 Mizzen topmast stay. 
 
 34. 
 
 15. 
 
 Mizzen topgallant stay. 
 
 35. 
 
 16. 
 
 Mizzen royal stay. 
 
 
 17. 
 
 Mizzen skysail stay 
 
 36. 
 
 18. 
 
 Fore rigging. 
 
 37. 
 
 19. 
 
 Fore topmast rigging. 
 
 38. 
 
 20. 
 
 Fore topgallant rigging. 
 
 
 81. 
 
 Main rigging. 
 
 39. 
 
 22. 
 
 Main topmast rigging. 
 
 40. 
 
 rig. 119. Ship's standing Elgglng 
 
WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 131 
 
 i3g. Standing Rigging 
 Below is listed in alphabetical order the names of each piece of standing rigging used on sa:iling vessels. 
 
 Backstay — (Stays that support 
 topmast, topgallant and 
 royal masts from aft. 
 They reach from heads of 
 their respective masts to 
 the channels at each side 
 of ship.) 
 preventer — 
 
 fore royal — s 29, Fig. 119 
 main royal — s 32, Fig. 
 119 
 
 mizzen royal — s 35, Fig. 
 119 
 
 fore skysail — s 29, Fig. 
 119 
 
 main skysail — s 32, Fig. 
 119 
 
 mizzen skysail — s — -35, 
 Fig. 119 
 standing — 
 
 fore topgallant — s — 28, 
 Fig. 119 
 
 main topgallant — s — -31, 
 Fig. 119 
 
 mizzen topgallant — s — 
 34, Fig. 119 
 
 topmast — s {of a square- 
 rigged mast) — 20, Fig. 
 120 
 
 fore topmast — s (of a 
 square-rigged mast) — 27, 
 Fig. 119 
 
 Backstays, fore topmast — s 
 (.of a fore and aft 
 schooner) 
 
 main topmast — s (of a 
 ship, barque or brig) — 
 30, Fig. 119 
 
 main topniast — s (of a 
 barquentine, brigantine or 
 schooner) 
 
 mizzen topmast — s (of a 
 ship) — 33, Fig. 119 
 mizzen topmast — s (of a 
 barque, barquentine or 
 three-masted schooner) 
 weather — s 
 
 Bobstay (usually made of 
 chain) — 36, Fig. 119 
 
 Flemish-horse — 31, Fig. 120 
 
 Foot rope's are fitted to all 
 yards (See Rigged Fore- 
 mast) Fig. 120* 
 
 Foot ropes 
 
 cross-jack — ; cross-jack 
 yard — 
 
 fore — ; fore yard — 28, 
 Fig. 120 
 
 Foot ropes 
 
 main — ; main yard — 
 
 topsail — ; topsail yard — 
 
 29, Fig. 120 
 
 topgallant — ; topgallant 
 
 yard — 
 
 royal — ; royal yard — 
 
 skysail — ; skysail yard — 
 
 jib boom — 
 
 flying jib boom — 
 
 stirrup in a — 30, Fig. 120 
 
 Guy ; Back-rope 
 boom — 
 davit — 
 jib boom — 
 flying jib boom — 
 martingale — 
 lower studdingsail boom — 
 
 Man-rope; Ridge-rope of the 
 bowsprit ; Bowsprit-horse 
 
 Martingale-stay ; Martingale 
 jib boom — 
 flying jib boom — 
 
 Pendant 
 
 boom guy — 
 brace — 
 fish tackle — 
 jib sheet — 
 mast head — 
 staysail sheet — 
 topmast head — 
 
 Puttock-rigging ; Puttock- 
 shrouds 
 fore — 
 main — 
 
 mizzen — (of a ship) 
 mizzen — (of a barque, 
 barquentine or three- 
 masted schooner) 
 
 Puttock-rigging, fore topgal- 
 lant — 23, Fig. 120 
 main topgallant — 
 mizzen topgallant — 
 
 Ratline — 16, Fig. 120 
 
 Rigging 
 
 fore — ; fore lower — 18, 
 Fig. 119 
 
 main — ; main lower — 
 21, Fig. 119 
 
 mizzen — ; mizzen lower 
 (of a ship) — 24, Fig. 119 
 mizzen — (of a barque, 
 barquentine or three- 
 masted schooner) 
 
 Rigging 
 
 topmast — (of a square- 
 rigged mast) — • 22, Fig. 
 120 
 
 fore topmast — (of a 
 square-rigged mast) — ig. 
 Fig. 119 
 
 fore topmast — (of a top- 
 mast not fitted with any 
 yards) 
 
 main topmast — (of a 
 square-rigged mast) — 
 22, Fig. 119 
 
 main topmast — (of a 
 topmast not fitted with any 
 yards) 
 
 mizzen topmast — (of a 
 ship) — 25, Fig. 119 
 mizzen topmast — (of a 
 barque, barquentine or 
 three-masted schooner) 
 fore topgallant — 20, Fig. 
 119 
 
 main topgallant — 23, Fig. 
 119 
 
 mizzen topgallant — 26, 
 Fig. 119 
 
 lower mast — (all the 
 standing rigging of a lower 
 mast, including stay and 
 mast-head pendants) 
 topmast — (all the stand- 
 ing rigging of a topmast, 
 including backstays and 
 stay) 
 
 topgallant mast — (all the 
 standing rigging of a top- 
 gallant-mast, including 
 backstays and stay) 
 
 Shroud (*) 
 
 bowsprit — 
 fore lower — s 
 foremost — ; Swifter 
 futtock — s 
 lower — • s 
 main — s 
 
 mizzen — s (of a ship) 
 mizzen — s (of a barque, 
 barquentine or three- 
 masted schooner) 
 preventer — 
 topgallant • — s 
 topmast — s 
 
 (*) A shroud is any one of the 
 ropes — hemp or wire — of which the 
 "rigging", as lower-rigging, topmast- 
 rigging, topgallant rigging, etc., is 
 formed. The bowsprit, futtock, 
 funnel-shrouds, etc., are often made 
 of chain and sometimes of bar-iron. 
 
 *Fig. 120 and 138 are alike. 
 
132 
 
 WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 Stay 
 
 bumpkin — ; bumpkin- 
 shroud 
 
 fore — 7, Fig. 119 
 fore — (,of a schooner, 
 cutter, etc.) 
 jib — 5, Fig. 119 
 flying- jib — 3, Fig. 119 
 inner-jib — ; middle jib — 
 Fig. 119 
 
 jumping — ; pitching — 
 main — 8, Fig. 119 
 middle staysail — Fig. 119 
 mizzen — {of a ship) — 
 13, Fig. 119 
 
 mizzen — (of a barque, 
 barquentine or three- 
 masted schooner) 
 
 Stay 
 
 Stay 
 
 royal — 
 
 fore royal — 2, Fig. 119 
 
 main royal — 11, Fig. 119 
 
 mizzen royal — 16, Fig. 
 
 119 
 
 skysail — 17, Fig. 119 
 
 fore skysail — i, Fig. 119 
 
 main skysail — 12, Fig. 119 
 
 mizzen skysail — 17, Fig. 
 
 119 
 
 spring — 
 
 fore topgallant — • 4, Fig. 
 
 119 
 
 main topgallant — 10, Fig. 
 
 119 
 
 mizzen topgallant — 15, 
 
 Fig. 119 
 
 fore topmast — {of a 
 
 square-rigged mast) — 6, 
 
 Fig. 119 
 
 fore topmast — {of a 
 
 topmast not fitted with 
 
 any yards) 
 
 main topmast — (of a 
 
 square-rigged mast) — 9, 
 
 Fig. 119 
 
 main topmast — (of a 
 
 topmast not fitted with any 
 
 yards) 
 
 mizzen topmast — (of a 
 
 ship) — 14, Fig. 119 
 
 mizzen topmast — (of a 
 
 barque, barquentine or 
 
 three-masted schooner) 
 
 (ilhlf latfi Rof/e Shrnmllaul Rope Biiioser laid Rope Flmiish Rye 
 
 26 
 
 Klark itkitt 
 Hack 
 
 Fig. 121 
 
 i3h. Running Rigging 
 Running rigging is the name applied to all that por- 
 tion of a vessel's rigging that is used to set, furl, control 
 and handle the sails. It is usually composed of manila, 
 hemp, or sizal, cordage, rove through blocks or over 
 sheaves. 
 
 The rope used for rigging is composed of a number 
 of yarns twisted together to form strands and then a 
 certain number of these strands are twisted together to 
 form the rope. 
 
 Rope is named according to the manner in which it is 
 laid and its size is determined by measuring diameter, or 
 circumference, as the case may be. 
 
 Common or plain laid rope is composed of three 
 
 TABLE 13c 
 
 APPROXIMATE WEIGHT AND STRENGTH OF MANILA ROPE 
 
 Manila, Sisal, New Zealand, and Jute ropes, weigh (about) alike. 
 Tarred Hemp Cordage will weigh (about) one-fourth more. Manila 
 is about 25% stronger than Sisal. Working load about one-fourth of 
 breaking strain. 
 
 
 
 
 'lumber of 
 
 Strength of 
 
 Circumference 
 
 Diameter 
 
 Weight of 1000 Feet and Inches 
 
 New Manila Rope 
 
 in Inches 
 
 in Inches 
 
 Feet in Pounds C 
 
 ne Pound 
 
 in Pounds 
 
 
 
 Fa 
 
 t Inches 
 
 
 H 
 
 Va 
 
 23 I 
 
 
 
 
 450 
 
 I 
 
 % 
 
 a 3 
 
 3 
 
 
 780 
 
 ^% 
 
 H 
 
 42 2 
 
 5 
 
 
 1000 
 
 iX 
 
 '-1-6 
 
 52 I 
 
 9 
 
 
 1280 
 
 iX 
 
 K 
 
 74 1 
 
 I 
 
 
 1760 
 
 iK 
 
 '-ie 
 
 101 
 
 9 
 
 
 2400 
 
 2 
 
 H ■ 
 
 132 
 
 7 
 
 
 3140 
 
 2K 
 
 K 
 
 167 
 
 6 
 
 
 3970 
 
 2K 
 
 '% 
 
 207 
 
 S 
 
 
 4900 
 
 2^ 
 
 }^ 
 
 250 
 
 4 
 
 
 5900 
 
 3 
 
 I 
 
 297 
 
 3 6 
 
 7000 
 
 i% 
 
 I Mi 
 
 349 
 
 2 10 
 
 8200 
 
 3'A 
 
 i>i 
 
 40s 
 
 2 4 
 
 9600 
 
 3K 
 
 iX 
 
 465 
 
 2 I 
 
 1 1000 
 
 4 
 
 l5^6 
 
 529 
 
 I 10 
 
 12500 
 
 A'A 
 
 T-H 
 
 597 
 
 I 8 
 
 14000 
 
 A'A 
 
 I'-16 
 
 669 
 
 I 5 
 
 15800 
 
 4K 
 
 iK 
 
 746 
 
 I 4 
 
 17600 
 
 s 
 
 ^H 
 
 826 
 
 I 2 
 
 19500 
 
 ^% 
 
 IK 
 
 1000 
 
 
 23700 
 
 6 
 
 I>^ 
 
 1 190 
 
 10 
 
 28000 
 
 (>% 
 
 2 
 
 1291 
 
 9K 
 
 33000 
 
 tyi 
 
 2H 
 
 1397 
 
 8K 
 
 38000 
 
 7 
 
 ^y. 
 
 1620 
 
 7 ^ 
 
 44000 
 
 7K 
 
 iH 
 
 i860 
 
 6K 
 
 50000 
 
 8 
 
 2% 
 
 2116 
 
 SK 
 
 60000 
 
 8K 
 
 2H 
 
 2388 
 
 5 ^ 
 
 63000 
 
 9 
 
 2H 
 
 2673 
 
 4A 
 
 67700 
 
 Ia 
 
 3 
 
 2983 
 
 4 
 
 70000 
 
 10 
 
 3% 
 
 3306 
 
 3^ 
 
 80000 
 
WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 133 
 
 strands twisted together, the number of yarns in each 
 strand varying with size of rope. 
 
 Shroud laid rope has four strands, and cable or 
 hawser laid rope consists of three strands laid up as for 
 plain laid rope, and then three of these three-ply strands 
 laid up to form the hawser. Hawser laid rope is twisted 
 together left-handed and, of course has o strands as ex- 
 plained above. 
 
 There is also a four-stranded hawser laid rope. 
 
 On the accompanying Table 13C are given particulars 
 of the most generally used sizes of ropes; on Fig. 121 
 are shown illustrations of rope, and on Table 13D names 
 of ropes and parts. 
 
 Different Ropes Supplied to a Ship 
 
 Breast-fast ; Breast-rope 
 Cable, spare — 
 Hawser 
 
 steel — 
 
 wire — (used for towing) 
 Messenger 
 Rope 
 
 bolt — (rope used for 
 
 roping sails) 
 
 cable laid — 24. Fig. 121 
 
 coil of — 
 
 coir — 
 
 common laid — ; hawser 
 
 laid — (see definition) 
 
 heart of a — (the center) 
 
 hemp — {Europe) (rope 
 
 made of hemp) 
 
 manila — (rope made of 
 
 manila) 
 
 mooring — • (rope used for 
 
 mooring a vessel) 
 
 pointed — ; point of a — 
 
 Rope 
 
 preventer — 
 relieving — 
 serving of a — 
 shroud laid — 2 
 
 I.' 12 i2I 
 
 strand of a — (see defini- 
 tion) 
 
 three-stranded — 26, Fig. 
 121 
 
 four-stranded — 25, Fig. 
 121 
 
 tarred — (Hemp rope that 
 has been immersed in tar) 
 whip of a — ■ 
 white or untarred — (rope 
 made of natural hemp or 
 manila) 
 
 wire — (see Table 13a) 
 steel wire — (see Table 
 13a) 
 
 Tow-line; Tow-rope (rope 
 used for towing) 
 
 24, Fig. 121 
 
 Running Rigging of a Ship (Fig. 122) 
 
 Moonsail brace. 
 
 Cross-jack brace. 
 
 Lower-mizzen topsail brace. 
 
 Upper-mizzen topsail brace. 
 
 I.ower-mizzen topgallant brace. 
 
 Upper-mizzen topgallant brace. 
 
 Mizzen royal brace. 
 
 Mizzen skysail brace. 
 
 Fore buntlines. 
 
 Fore topsail buntlines. 
 
 Fore topgallant buntline. 
 
 Fore royal buntline. 
 
 Main buntlines. 
 
 Main topsail buntlines. 
 
 Main topgallant buntline. 
 
 ^ain royal buntline. 
 
 Cross-jack buntline. 
 
 Mizzen topsail buntlines. 
 
 Mizzen royal buntline. 
 
 Spanker brails. 
 
 Peak halliards. 
 
 Hg. 122. SUp — Ennnijig Rigging 
 
 against a number of the items are marked identifying 
 numerals that correspond with similar numerals marked 
 on the running rigging illustrations. By referring to the 
 numeral and illustration entered against any item of 
 running rigging you will learn its location and the purpose 
 it is used for. 
 
 Names of Running Rigging 
 Brace 
 
 — pendant 
 
 131- 
 
 1. Flying jib sheet. 23. 
 
 2. Jib sheet. 2*. 
 
 3. Middle jib sheet. 25. 
 A. Fore topmast staysail sheet. 26. 
 
 5. Fore sheet. 27. 
 
 6. Main sheet. 28. 
 
 7. Cross-jack sheet. 29. 
 
 8. Spanker sheet. 30. 
 
 9. Fore brace. 31. 
 
 10. Lower-fore topsail brace. 32. 
 
 11. Upper-fore topsail brace. 33. 
 
 12. Lower-fore topgallant bract. 34. 
 
 13. Upper-fore topgallant brace. 3,'). 
 
 14. Fore royal brace. 36. 
 
 15. Fore skysail brace. 37. 
 
 16. Main brace. 38. 
 
 17. Lower-main topsail brace. 39, 
 
 18. Upper-main topsail brace. 40. 
 
 19. Lower-main topgallant brace. 42. 
 
 20. Upper-main topgallant brace. 43. 
 
 21. Main royal brace. 44. 
 
 22. Main skysail brace. 
 
 I3j. Fore-and-Aft Schooner Rigging (Fig. 123) 
 
 23. Fore boom topping lift. 26. Fore peak halliard. 
 
 24. Main boom topping lift. 27. Main peak halliard. 
 28. Mizzen boom topping lift. 28. Mizzen peak halliard. 
 
 13k. Names of Running Rigging 
 Below is listed in alphabetical order the names of 
 principal pieces of running rigging used on ships, and 
 
 Bowline 
 
 — bridle 
 cross-jack — 
 fore — 
 lee — 
 The following bowlines are 
 seldom used : 
 main — 
 top — 
 fore top — 
 main top — 
 mizzen top — 
 topgallant — 
 fore topgallant — 
 main topgallant — 
 mizzen topgallant — 
 weather — 
 
 Brace 
 
 Cross-jack — 24, Fig. 122 
 
 fore — 9, Fig. 122 
 
 lee — 
 
 main — 16, Fig. 122 
 
 moon-sail — 23, Fig. 122 
 
 preventer — 
 
 royal — 
 
 fore royal — 14. F'g- 122 
 
 main royal — 21, Fig. 122 
 
 mizzen royal — 29, Fig. 
 
 122 
 
 skysail — 30, Fig. 122 
 
 fore skysail — 15, Fig. 
 
 132 
 
 main skysail — 22, Fig. 122 
 
 mizzen skysail — 
 
 studdingsail boom — 
 
 topgallant — 
 
 fore topgallant — 
 
 lower fore topgallant — 
 
 12, Fig. 122 
 
 upper fore topgallant — 13^ 
 
 Fig. 122 
 
 lower topgallant — 
 
 main topgallant — 
 
 lower main topgallant ^ 
 
 19, Fig. 122 
 
 Fig. 123. Fore-and-Aft Schooner Blgging 
 
^34 
 
 WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 Brace 
 
 upper main topgallant — 
 
 20, Fig. 122 
 
 mizzen topgallant — 
 
 lower mizzen topgallant 
 
 — 27, Fig. 122 
 
 upper mizzen topgallant — 
 
 28, Fig. 122 
 
 upper topgallant — 
 
 topsail — • 
 
 topsail — (of a schooner) 
 
 fore topsail — 
 
 lower fore topsail — 10, 
 
 Fig. 122 
 
 upper fore topsail — 11, 
 
 Fig. 122 
 
 lower topsail — 
 
 main topsail — 
 
 lower main topsail — 17, 
 
 Fig. 122 
 
 upper main topsail — 18, 
 
 Fig. 122 
 
 mizzen topsail — 
 
 lower mizzen topsail — 25, 
 
 Fig. 122 
 
 upper mizzen topsail — 26, 
 
 Fig. 122 
 
 upper topsail — 
 
 weather — 
 
 Brail 
 
 foot — 
 
 peak — 
 
 preventer — 
 
 spanker — 43, Fig. 122 
 
 throat — 
 
 trysail — 
 
 fore trysail — 
 
 main trysail — 
 
 Bridle 
 
 Bunt-line 
 
 — lizard 
 
 cross-jack — 39, Fig. 122 
 
 fore — 31, Fig. 122 
 
 lower — s 
 
 main — 35, Fig. 122 
 
 royal — 
 
 fore royal — 34, Fig. 122 
 
 main royal — 38, Fig. 122 
 
 mizzen royal — 42, Fig. 
 
 122 
 
 topgallant — 
 
 fore topgallant — 33, Fig. 
 
 122 
 
 main topgallant — 37, Fig. 
 
 122 
 
 mizzen topgallant — 41, 
 
 Fig. 122 
 
 topsail — 
 
 topsail — (of a schooner) 
 
 fore topsail — 32, Fig. 122 
 
 main topsail — 36, Fig. 122 
 
 mizzen topsail — 40, Fig. 
 
 122 
 
 Cat-back; Back-rope of a Cat- 
 block 
 
 Clew-garnet — (a tackle 
 fastened to clews of main 
 and foresail for trussing 
 them to yard) 
 cross-jack — 
 fore — 
 main — 
 
 Clew-line or Clue-line 
 royal — 
 fore royal — 
 main royal — 
 mizzen royal — 
 skysail — 
 fore skysail — ■ 
 main skysail — 
 mizzen skysail — 
 topgallant — • 
 fore topgallant — • 
 main topgallant — 
 mizzen topgallant — 
 topsail — 
 
 topsail — (of a schooner) 
 fore topsail — ■ 
 main topsail — ■ 
 mizzen topsail — 
 
 Downhaul 
 
 gaff-topsail — 
 
 jib - 
 
 flying-jib — 
 
 peak — • 
 
 fore-staysail — 
 
 staysail — ■ 
 
 main staysail — 
 
 middle staysail — 
 
 mizzen staysail — (of a 
 
 ship) 
 
 mizzen staysail — (uf a 
 
 barque, barquentine or 
 
 three-masted schooner) 
 
 main royal staysail — 
 
 mizzen royal staysail — 
 
 fore top staysail — 
 
 main topgallant staysail — 
 
 mizzen topgallant staysail 
 
 fore topmast staysail — 
 main topmast staysail — 
 mizzen topmast staysail — 
 (of a ship) 
 
 mizzen topmast staysail — 
 (of a barque, barquentine 
 or three-masted schooner) 
 studdingsail — 
 fore lower studdingsail — 
 main lower studdingsail — 
 lower studdingsail — 
 royal studdingsail — 
 fore royal studdingsail — 
 main royal studdingsail — 
 topgallant studdingsail — 
 fore topgallant studding- 
 sail — 
 
 main topgallant studding- 
 sail — 
 
 Downhaul, topmast studding- 
 sail — 
 
 fore topmast studding- 
 sail — 
 
 main topmast studding- 
 sail — 
 
 Fall 
 
 cat — 
 purchase — 
 tackle — 
 fish tackle — 
 top tackle — 
 
 Fancy-line 
 
 Halliard 
 jib- 
 flying jib — 
 
 inner jib — ; middle jib — 
 main-jib — 
 outer — 
 peak — 
 
 fore peak — 26, Fig. 123 
 main peak — 27, Fig. 123 
 spanker or mizzen peak — 
 28, Fig. 123 
 peak — 44, Fig. 122 
 royal — 
 fore royal — 
 main royal — 
 mizzen royal — 
 signal — ; ensign — 
 skysail — 
 fore skysail — 
 main skysail — 
 mizzen skysail — • 
 stay foresail — • 
 staysail — 
 fore top staysail — 
 main staysail — 
 middle staysail — 
 mizzen staysail — (of a 
 ship) 
 
 mizzen staysail — (of a 
 barque, barquentine or 
 three-masted schooner) 
 main royal staysail — 
 mizzen royal staysail — 
 main topgallant staysail — 
 mizzen topgallant stay- 
 sail — 
 
 fore topmast staysail — 
 main topmast staysail — 
 mizzen topmast staysail — 
 (of a ship) 
 
 mizzen topmast staysail — 
 (of a barque, barquentine 
 or three-masted schooner) 
 studdingsail — 
 fore lower studdingsail — 
 fore lower studdingsail 
 inner — 
 
 fore lower studdingsail 
 outer — 
 
 main royal studdingsail — 
 topgallant studdingsail — 
 
WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 135 
 
 Halliard 
 
 fore topgallant studding- 
 sail — 
 
 main topgallant studding- 
 sail — 
 
 topmast studdingsail — 
 fore topmast studding- 
 sail — 
 
 main topmast studding- 
 sail — 
 throat — 
 
 fore-sail throat — 
 main throat — 
 spanker or mizzen 
 throat — 
 topgallant — 
 fore topgallant — 
 main topgallant — 
 mizzen topgallant — 
 topsail — 
 
 topsail — {of a schooner) 
 fore topsail — 
 main topsail — 
 mizzen topsail — 
 
 Inhaul 
 
 spanker — 
 trysail — 
 fore trysail — 
 main trysail — 
 
 Jib-heel-rope; Jib-boom-hcel- 
 rope 
 
 Leech-line 
 
 cross- jack — 
 
 fore — , 
 
 main — 
 
 preventer — 
 Lift 
 
 boom — ; boom topping — 
 
 cross-jack — 
 
 fore — 
 
 fore sail boom — ; fore 
 
 boom topping — 
 
 lower — 26, V\g,. 120 
 
 lower studdingsail boom 
 
 topping — 
 
 main — • 
 
 main boom — ; main boom 
 
 topping — 
 
 royal — 
 
 fore royal — 
 
 main royal — 
 
 mizzen royal — 
 
 skysail — 
 
 fore skysail — 
 
 main skysail — 
 
 mizzen skysail — 
 
 spanker boom topping — • 
 
 mizzen boom topping — 
 
 topgallant — 
 
 fore topgallant — 
 
 main topgallant — 
 
 mizzen topgallant — 
 
 topsail — 27, Fig. 120 
 
 fore topsail — 
 
 main topsail — 
 
 mizzen topsail — 
 
 Outhaul 
 
 spanker — 
 
 trysail — 
 fore trysail — 
 main trysail — 
 
 Reef-tackle 
 
 cross-jack — 
 
 fore — 
 
 main — 
 
 topsail — 
 
 topsail — {of a schooner) 
 
 fore topsail — 
 
 main topsail — 
 
 mizzen topsail — 
 
 Sheet 
 
 boom fore sail — 
 brig's boom sail — 
 cross-jack — 7, Fig. 122 
 fore — 5, Fig. 122 
 head — s 
 jib — 2, Fig. 122 
 flying jib — 17, Fig. 122 
 inner jib — ; middle jib — 
 3, Fig. 122 
 lee — ■ 
 
 main — 6, Fig. 122 
 moon sail — 
 preventer — 
 ringtail — 
 royal — 
 fore royal — 
 main royal — 
 mizzen royal — 
 skysail — 
 fore skysail — 
 main skysail — 
 mizzen skysail — 
 spanker — 8, Fig. 122 
 square sail ■ — 
 stay fore sail — 
 staysail — 
 main staysail — ■ 
 middle staysail — 
 mizzen staysail — {of a 
 ship) 
 
 mizzen staysail — {of a 
 barque, barquentine or 
 three-masted schooner) 
 main royal staysail — 
 mizzen royal staysail — 
 main topgallant staysail — 
 mizzen topgallant stay- 
 sail — 
 
 fore topmast staysail — 4, 
 Fig. 122 
 
 main topmast staysail — 
 mizzen topmast staysail — 
 {of a ship) 
 
 mizzen topmast staysail — ■ 
 {of a barque, barquentine , 
 or three-masted schooner) 
 storm sail ■ — 
 studdingsail — 
 fore lower studdingsail — • 
 fore royal studdingsail — 
 main royal studdingsail — 
 
 Sheet 
 
 fore topgallant studding- 
 sail — 
 
 main topgallant studding- 
 sail — 
 
 fore topmast studding- 
 sail — 
 
 main topnjast studding- 
 sail — 
 topgallant — 
 fore topgallant — 
 main topgallant — 
 mizzen topgallant — 
 topsail — 
 
 topsail — {of a schooner) 
 fore topsail — 
 main topsail — 
 mizzen topsail — 
 trysail — 
 fore trysail - 
 main trysail — 
 weather — • 
 
 Slab-line 
 
 Span 
 
 Spilling-line 
 
 Tack 
 
 cross-jack — 
 fore — 
 gaff topsail — 
 jib - 
 
 flying-jib — 
 
 inner jib — : middle jib — 
 main — 
 spanker — 
 stay fore sail — 
 staysail — 
 main staysail — 
 mizzen staysail — 
 main royal staysail — 
 mizzen royal staysail — • 
 main topgallant staysail — 
 mizzen topgallant stay- 
 sail — 
 
 fore topmast staysail — 
 main topmast staysail — 
 mizzen topmast staysail — 
 (of a ship) 
 
 mizzen topmast staysail — 
 {of a barque, barquentine 
 or three-masted schooner) 
 studdingsail — 
 fore royal studdingsail — 
 main royal studdingsail — 
 fore topgallant studding- 
 sail — 
 
 main topgallant studding- 
 sail — 
 
 fore topmast studding- 
 sail — 
 
 main topmast studding- 
 sail 
 
 Tack-tracing-line 
 
 Tye or Tie 
 
 topsail — 25, Fig. 120 
 topsail — {of a schooner) 
 
130 
 
 WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 Tye or Tie 
 
 fore topsail — 
 
 main topsail — 
 
 mizzen topsail — 
 
 topgallant — 
 
 fore topgallant — 
 
 main topgallant — 
 
 mizzen topgallant — 
 Topgallant mast-rope 
 Topping-lift -^ 23, 24, 25, Fig. 
 123 
 
 Top-rope 
 
 Tripping-line 
 
 Vang 
 
 — fall; Fall of a — 
 pendant of a — 
 preventer — 
 spanker — 
 trysail — 
 fore trysail — 
 main trysail — • 
 
 13I. Blocks, Tackles and Knots 
 Blocks are used in a ship either in combination with 
 ropes to increase mechanical power, or to arrange and 
 lead ropes to positions where they can be most con- 
 veniently handled or secured. 
 
 A block consists of at least four principal parts: 
 
 1. The shell or outside. 
 
 2. The strap or part of block to which the fastening 
 is secured. 
 
 3. The sheave, or wheel over which the rope is run. 
 
 4. The pin, or axle, on which the sheave turns. 
 
 On Fig. 123A I show the principal parts of a block 
 and several types of blocks used on ships and ashore. 
 
 13F. Description of a Shell of a JJlock 
 
 Block shells are made of wood, and of metals of 
 various kinds (steel, iron, composition, aluminum). 
 
 For the running rigging of ships wood shell blocks 
 are most generally used. These shells are composed of 
 four or more pieces of wood fitted and fastened together 
 with metal dowels and screw pins. On Fig. 8 of illustra- 
 tion sheet 123 A is shown the assembled shell of a single 
 block composed of two sides (8b) connected together by 
 top and bottom pieces that keep sides the proper dis- 
 tance apart. The space between sides (8a) is named the 
 score and is always properly proportioned to width and 
 diameter of sheave and diameter of rope that will run 
 
 LIGNUM- VITAE- SHEAVE 
 
 IKON SHEAVE 
 
 BOLTS |0R PINS 
 
 Single 
 
 PATENT-SHEAVES 
 
 BLOCK 
 
 SINGLE BLOCK 
 
 SHELL-OF-A-BLOCK 
 
 FOUR lift SHEAVE-BLOCK 
 
 TREBLE BLOCK 
 
 // 
 
 DOUBLE BLOCK 
 
 /Z 
 
 /3 
 SNATCH BLOCK 
 
 /4 
 
 FIDDLE- BLOCK TAIL\ BLOCK 
 
 Fig. 123 A 
 
 /^s 
 
 CAT O BLOCK 
 
 ^/2 A 
 
 DEAD EYE 
 
WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 J37 
 
 over sheave. All parts of blocks are proportioned to 
 withstand a greater strain than rope rove through it will 
 stand. 
 
 The woods most generally used for shells of blocks 
 are: Lignum-vitae, ash, elm. 
 
 Lignum-vitre is best for small sizes of block shells 
 because it is not liable to split. 
 
 For larger sizes of blocks ash and elm are excellent 
 woods. 
 
 13I-. The Strap of a Block Described 
 
 Block straps are now almost universally made of steel 
 or iron, though for some special uses rope strapped blocks 
 continue to be used. Block straps of iron or steel can be 
 inserted inside of shell or can be fitted outside as shown 
 on Fig. 12b. Inside straps (see Figs. 6, 7, 9) are most 
 frequently used on ships. As you will note by referring 
 to Figs. 6 and 7, the strap passes each side of score and 
 is inserted into grooves cut in shell to receive it. At the 
 upper end of strap a loop is formed for the eye of a 
 hook or other fastenings device (see Figs. 6 and 9). 
 
 When it is necessary to fasten the standing end of a 
 
 rope to a block, it is passed over a thimble fitted between 
 an extension to strap left for that purpose. This exten- 
 sion is clearly shown on Figs. 6, 9 and 10 blocks. Rope 
 straps are spliced around outside of blocks in grooves 
 cut to receive them. 
 
 13P. Describing the Sheave of a Block 
 
 Block sheaves are made of lignum-vitse, of iron, of 
 composition metal, and a combination of all three. 
 
 If a sheave is a wheel with a hole through its center, 
 as shown by Figs, i and 2, it is said to b^ a plain sheave, 
 but if it is composed of one large wheel into which 
 several smaller rollers or balls are inserted, it is called 
 a roller or a patent sheave. Patent sheaves are now in 
 very general use because by their use friction is greatly 
 reduced and less power is required to lift the load. 
 
 A sheave is inserted into each score of a block and is 
 held in place by a pin that passes through a hole in each 
 sheave and holes in strap and in shell of block. The 
 pins are generally made of steel, or of composition metal 
 and are shaped as shown on Fig. 5 of illustration sheet 
 r23A. 
 
 SINGLE-WHIP 
 
 LONG -TACKLE DOUBLE -WHIP 
 
 Fig. 123B 
 
 SPANISH-BURTON 
 
138 
 
 WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 13I*. Names of Blocks 
 
 Blocks are named according to length of shell, num- 
 ber of sheaves and shape. Thus a block having a shell 
 6 inches in length is termed a 6-inch block, and if there 
 is one sheave inserted in block it is a 6-inch single block 
 (see Fig. 7) ; if there are two sheaves it is called a 
 double 6-inch block (see Fig. 11) ; and if there are three 
 sheaves a 6-inch treble block (see Fig. 10). Blocks are 
 seldom made with more than four sheaves (see Fig. 9). 
 
 In addition to this there are many dififerent shapes of 
 blocks each having its special place in a ship, the shape 
 being the one found by experience to be best adapted for 
 the place and purpose. 
 
 On illustration sheet 123A, a few shapes of blocks 
 are shown. A dead-eye, while strictly speaking is not a 
 block, is usually classed with them. The lanyards used 
 for setting up standing rigging of a vessel are rove 
 through holes in dead-eyes, one of which is attached to 
 standing rigging and the other to a chain plate on side 
 of vessel. 
 
 A fiddle-block is practically two attached single blocks 
 
 (one over the other) ; they are used in places where a 
 double block would be liable to split by canting over, 
 such as for top-burtons of a ship. A snatch block is a 
 single block so arranged that a rope can be passed over 
 its sheave without it being necessary to reeve it through 
 the score. This is accomplished by having a cut made 
 through one shell and closing ^he cut with a hinged metal 
 fastening piece. Both the cut and hinged metal piece 
 are shown on illustration sheet 123 A. This kind of 
 block is very useful when it is necessary to lead a rope 
 in a desired direction, such as to a capstan or windlass. 
 
 A tail block is a single rope strapped block, to which 
 a tail, or end rope is attached. 
 
 Cat-blocks are used when hoisting anchor in position. 
 They are extra heavy blocks fitted with outside iron or 
 steel straps. 
 
 Below I list, in alphabetical order, the names of 
 principal blocks used on vessels. The numerals marked 
 against some items indicate that the block, or part of 
 block, against which numeral is placed is identified by 
 that numeral on illustration sheets 123A, B, C. 
 
 6 
 
 WATCH TACKLE 
 
 RUNNER ^TACKLE 
 
 THREE FOLD PURCHASE 
 
 rig. 123C 
 
 TWO FOLD PURCHASE 
 
WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 139 
 
 Names of Blocks 
 
 Ketf-Krwi. Fyure of Eight Knot. SingleBeul Carrick Bend 
 
 Block, brace — 
 brail — 
 bunt-line — 
 
 butterfly — {jor topsail- 
 sheet at bunt of lower 
 yard) 
 
 cat — ; Cat-hook — 12 
 cheek — 
 
 cheek of a — 8b 
 clew-garnet — 
 clew-line — 
 clump — 
 dead — (Heart) 
 double — II 
 downhaul — 
 fiddle — 14 
 fish-tackle — 
 girtline — 
 halliard — 
 hook — 12a 
 internal bound — 
 iron bound — ; iron 
 stropped — 12b 
 jeer — (employed for 
 raising a lower yard) 
 jewel — 
 leading — 
 leech-line — 
 lift — 
 
 lift purchase — 
 nine-pin — s 
 pin of a — s 
 purchase — 
 reef tackle — 
 score — 8a 
 
 Block, sheave — i, 2, 3 
 
 bouching or bush in sheave 
 
 of a — 4 
 
 sheave-hole or channel 
 
 of a — 2a 
 
 bottom of a sheave-hole 
 
 in a — 
 
 lignum-vitse sheave of — i 
 
 metal sheave — 2 
 
 sheet — • 
 
 shell — 6 
 
 shoe — 
 
 shoulder — 
 
 single — 7 
 
 sister — 14 
 
 snatch — 13 
 
 span — 
 
 strop of a — 
 
 swallow of a — 
 
 swivel — 
 
 tack — 
 
 tackle pendant — 
 
 tail — IS 
 
 tie — 
 
 top — 
 
 topping lift — 
 
 treble — 10 
 
 wheel chain — ; wheel 
 
 rope — • 
 
 Bull's-eye; Wooden thimble 
 Dead-eye ^ 16 
 Dead-sheave; Half-sheave 
 Gin ; Gin-wheel 
 Heart (dead-block) 
 
 I will now pass to a description of tackles. 
 
 i3ni. Tackles 
 
 When a rope is rove through a single block the com- 
 bined block and rope is named a single whip, but if the 
 rope is rove through two or more blocks the combina- 
 tion is named a tackle. 
 
 There are many different kinds of tackles, each hav- 
 ing its use and each increasing the power obtained accord- 
 ing to the number of sheaves around which the rope is 
 rove, the manner of reeving the rope and the relative 
 positions of load and of hauling part. 
 
 On Figs. 123B and 123C I illustrate a number of 
 commonly used tackles. Fig. i shows a single whip, 
 the smallest and simplest, purchase in use. Fig. 2 shows 
 details of a long tackle composed of two fiddle blocks 
 with falls rove as shown. Fig. 3 illustrates the way a 
 double whip is rove and Fig. 4 a Spanish-burton. Fig. 5 
 shows details of a watch tackle composed of a single and 
 a double block, and Fig. 6 a runner and tackle combined. 
 When using the runner and tackle the hook of runner is 
 fixed to object intended to be moved. 
 
 A three-fold purchase is composed of two three- 
 sheave blocks. On the illustration the rope is rove off 
 
 , Fig. 123D 
 
 from outside to outside thus bringing the hauling part 
 on outside. It is better, I think, to reeve the fall over 
 iniddle sheave first instead of over an outside one. This 
 
 M„Hh<'i>- Wtilkn- 
 
 I Mm tvfif hHM 
 
 Fig. 123E 
 
I40 
 
 WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 will bring a cross in the fall, but it will carry the heaviest 
 strain, which always comes on the fall part, in center 
 of block and will also prevent the block canting. When 
 fall is in middle the block is drawn square with direc- 
 tion of pull and strain is equalized on all sheaves. A 
 two-fold purchase is shown by Fig. 8. 
 
 Below I have listed names of a few of the principal 
 tackles used on board ships. 
 
 Names of Tackles 
 
 Tackle 
 
 boom — 
 cat — ■ ; Cat 
 fish — for 
 — fall 
 long — 2 
 luff — 
 reef — 
 relieving — 
 rolling — 
 runner and — 
 stay — 
 swifting — ■ 
 tack — 
 
 — ■ upon tackle 
 yard — 
 
 — for 
 
 Purchase 
 
 gun tackle — 
 
 lift — 
 
 two-fold — 8 
 
 three-fold — 7 
 
 four-fold — ■ 
 Jigger or Watch-tackle — 5 
 
 boom — 
 
 bunt — 
 
 tail — 
 Whip, (single) — i 
 
 bunt — 
 
 double — 3 
 
 — ■ and runner 
 Spanish-burton — 4 
 
 i3n. Knots and Splices 
 
 As it is necessary that a shipbuilder should know the 
 names of the principal knots used on board ships and in 
 shipyards I have on Figs. 123D and E, illustrated a few 
 of the knots that are in general use, and on Fig. 123F 
 I have shown method of fastening two pieces of ropes 
 together by splicing. The long splice (illustrated) is 
 
 used when the rope has to pass through a block ; you will 
 note that the long splice does not increase diameter of 
 rope, while the short splice does (Fig. 123F). 
 
 On list below I give names of a number of commonly 
 used knots and against those illustrated on Figs. 121, 
 123D and E, I have marked the identifying numeral. 
 
 Knots, Bends, Hitches and Splices 
 
 Knot 
 
 single diamond — 
 double diamond — 
 figure of eight — 2 
 Matthew Walker — 17 
 overhand — ■ 
 reef or square — i 
 rope-yarn — • 32 
 shroud — 20 
 French shroud — 
 stopper — 19 
 Turk's-head — i8 
 single wall — ■ 13 
 single- wall and crown- 
 double wall — • 14 
 double wall and crown 
 16 — (man-rope knot) 
 
 Bend 
 
 carrick — 4 
 double — 
 fisherman's — 
 single — 3 ; sheet — ; 
 common — 
 studdingsail halliard — 
 
 Clinch 
 
 inside — 
 
 outside — 
 Catspaw — 29 
 
 Hitch 
 
 blackwall — 30 
 
 double blackwall — 
 
 bowline — 6 
 
 bowline on the bight — 7 
 
 running bowline 
 
 clove — II 
 
 half — 12 
 
 Hitch, half — and timber 
 marling — 9 
 marling spike — 
 midshipman's — 
 rolling — 8 
 timber — 10 
 two half — es 
 
 Sheep-shank — 5 
 
 Splice 
 
 cable — 
 eye — 22 
 horseshoe — 
 long — 21 
 short — • 23 
 
 10 
 
 Eve 
 
 Elliot's — 
 Flemish — 27 
 
 '-t^i^t:^^ 
 
 Banning Rigging Beadr to Beeva Off 
 
IF 00 DEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 141 
 
 TABLE 13D 
 
 RECOMMENDED GIRTHS, IN INCHES, OF IRON AND STEEL WIRE LOWER RIGGING, BACKSTAYS, STAYS, AND 
 BOWSPRIT SHROUDS, OF SAILING VESSELS, ALSO SIZES OF BOBSTAYS FOR SAME 
 
 TONNAGE 
 
 300 
 
 400 
 
 SCO 
 
 600 
 
 700 
 
 8so 
 
 1000 
 
 1250 
 
 OF VESSEL 
 
 No. 
 
 Girth 
 
 No. 
 
 Girth 
 
 No. 
 
 Girth 
 
 No. 
 
 Girth 
 
 No. 
 
 Girth 
 
 No. 
 
 Girth 
 
 No. 
 
 Girth 
 
 No. 
 
 Girth 
 
 Fore and Main Shrouds 
 
 Fore and Main Topmast Backstays 
 Fore and Main Top-gallant Back- 
 stays 
 
 4 
 2 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 2 
 I 
 
 2H 
 
 ■2'A 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 I 
 2 
 
 2 
 I 
 
 3 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 2^ 
 2 
 
 4 
 2 
 
 I 
 2 
 2 
 I 
 
 3 
 
 2% 
 3X 
 3 
 
 2yi 
 
 5 
 2 
 
 I 
 2 
 2 
 
 I 
 
 3K 
 3>< 
 
 2^ 
 3K 
 
 3^ 
 
 2>< 
 
 5 
 2 
 
 I 
 2 
 2 
 I 
 
 3K 
 3K 
 
 2>^ 
 
 3K 
 3>^ 
 
 2j^ 
 
 5 
 2 
 
 I 
 2 
 2 
 
 I 
 
 4 
 3K 
 
 2J< 
 
 4 
 
 3K 
 
 2K 
 
 5 
 2 
 
 I 
 2 
 2 
 I 
 
 4X 
 4 
 
 2?^ 
 4>< 
 4 
 2^ 
 
 6 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 2 
 I 
 
 4>^ 
 4>< 
 
 3 
 
 Fore and Main Lower Stays 
 
 Fore and Main Topmast Stays 
 
 Fore and Main Top-gallant Stays.. 
 
 4>^ 
 4>< 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 I 
 I 
 2 
 
 I 
 I 
 
 2K 
 2H 
 
 I'A 
 
 2H 
 2K 
 
 3 
 I 
 
 I 
 2 
 I 
 I 
 
 2H 
 
 2% 
 iK 
 2^ 
 2^ 
 \H 
 
 3 
 
 I 
 I 
 2 
 
 I 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 2>l 
 
 2^ 
 2J< 
 13^ 
 
 4 
 2 
 I 
 
 2 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 3>^ 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 2 
 I 
 2 
 I 
 I 
 
 3>< 
 3^ 
 
 2>i 
 
 3>i 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 2 
 
 I 
 2 
 I 
 I 
 
 3K 
 3^ 
 
 2>< 
 
 3X 
 3^ 
 
 2>^ 
 
 5 
 3 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 I 
 
 ^1< 
 
 
 
 
 ^'^ 
 
 
 
 
 2l/f 
 
 Mizzen Lower Stays 
 
 
 
 3'-^ 
 
 Mizzen Topmast Stays 
 
 
 
 3 '4 
 
 Mizzen Top-gallant Stays 
 
 
 
 2'.< 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 2K 
 
 2 
 
 2H 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 iVi 
 
 2 
 
 3^ 
 
 2 
 
 3H 
 
 2 
 
 3K 
 
 2 
 
 3^ 
 
 
 
 Bobstay Bar, Diameter in Inches.. 
 Bobstay Pin, Diameter in Inches. . 
 Bobstay Chain, Size in Inches 
 
 HA 
 1% 
 
 2 
 1^6 
 
 2ii 
 
 1% 
 
 2% 
 HA 
 1^6 
 
 2>^ 
 1% 
 
 2A 
 
 1% 
 
 2A 
 2}i 
 
 1^6 
 
 2^>< 
 1% 
 
 Steel Wire Rigging may be I2>^ per centum less in size than is specified in table. 
 
 Hemp Standing Rigging, according to quality, should be from two to two and a quarter times the girth required for iron wire rigging. 
 
 Fig. 123F 
 
Chapter XIV 
 
 Masts and Spars 
 
 The masts and spars of wooden vessels are usually 
 made of wood. They are rounded for a greater part of 
 their length and stepped in properly prepared mast steps 
 fastened to keelson, though in ships that have a center 
 line propeller, the after mast step cannot extend below 
 top of shaft tunnel. 
 
 The location, number and dimensions of mast and all 
 other spars are marked on a spar and rigging plan pre- 
 pared by designer. Lloyd's and the other classification 
 societies have laid down rules for masting and rigging 
 and have also issued tables of dimensions, and when a 
 designer prepares his plans he generally adheres to the 
 specifications of classification societies. 
 
 Mast, or spar making, used to be a separate trade, 
 but at present time most shipyards have their own spar- 
 makers. 
 
 14a. Timber Used for Spars 
 
 The timbers commonly used in U. S. A. for masts 
 and spars are: 
 
 Oregon pine or Douglas fir. 
 Spruce, Canada red. Yellow and white pine. 
 Yellow pine. 
 And in Europe, Riga fir and Norway pine is largely 
 used. 
 
 Timber for masts and spars must be absolutely free 
 from sapwood, dead knots and defects likely to lessen 
 
 Fig. 126. Making a Spar 
 
 Strength. In addition to this, it is advantageous to have 
 the smaller pieces of timber delivered to the sparmaker 
 before they are squared, because the sparmaker can then 
 lay out spar in such a manner that center or heartwood 
 of tree is near center of spar. 
 
 On Fig. 124 is shown a stick of timber being con- 
 
 ..v.,^^,,„. 
 
 pQF'TfON or* WOOUEN BUILT Mast ^ 
 
 
 
 % 
 
 t 
 
 Uppcr-Portiom or am iron-Mast^ 
 
 Tnw-lioop ftrxiinl 
 
 
 j:V;:' '| j!!;! ' j> ' ?:"'r 
 
 'r 
 
 Fig. 124. Making a Spai 
 
 Figs. 126 and 128. Names of Parts of Mast 
 
WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 143 
 
 "^ 
 
 :■ 
 
 Fi.riNC 'jia- BOOM 
 
 nm 
 
 |Cn: 
 
 r. ^ 
 
 H I 
 
 •ir^ 
 
 z^ 
 
 -4v~4i: 
 
 m 
 
 
 ctp 
 
 ^.c. ..-,-' 
 
 has been done, and stick is fair, the sparmaker dubs off 
 the square corners and makes portion of stick that has 
 to be rounded, eight sided. Next he makes it sixteen 
 sided, by again taking off the corners, and after this 
 has been done the stick is rounded and made perfectly 
 smooth. Of course, as spar has a rounding taper from 
 butt to point of greatest diameter," and from this point 
 to 'top, it is necessary that sparmaker "lay out" longi- 
 tudinal taper lines very accurately and work to them. 
 
 In the case of booms, yards, and other smaller spars, 
 the same method of procedure is followed. 
 
 On Fig. 126 is shown details of a ship's mast and on 
 Fig. 127 shapes and names of various spars. 
 
 After a spar is shaped, it should be well oiled or 
 painted to prevent wood checking, and then mast fittings 
 and bands should be fitted and fastened in place. 
 
 The accompanying illustrations show details of mast 
 head, tops and their fittings, and on each illustration I 
 have listed the name of each detail identified on illustra- 
 tions by numerals. 
 
 14c. Mast Steps 
 
 At the beginning of this chapter I mentioned mast 
 steps. These are generally cast steel shoes, securely 
 
 Topmast 
 bvsUt treat 
 
 laymast. 
 crotttrea 
 
 W 
 
 T'Aaa A'H <«oM''^ 
 
 TOPftALLANT^^y YAWO 
 
 
 Figs. 127 and 134 
 
 verted into a spar. Note how the center of heart is 
 located at about the center of stick, and on Fig. 125 is 
 shown the same stick of timber converted into a spar. 
 
 14b. Spar-Making 
 
 A stick of timber is converted into a spar in this 
 manner : 
 
 The spannaker first obtains length and diameter 
 measurements from spar and rigging plans and proceeds 
 to "lay out" the Spar on one side of stick of timber, if 
 it is a squared stick; or if it is a round stick of timber, 
 he hews one side to a flat surface upon which the laying 
 out lines can be marked. On a squared stick of timber 
 the "laying off" lines are marked on each face, but if 
 the stick is a round one, it will be necessary to hew to 
 the lines marked on one face before lities can be marked 
 on other faces. The spar is first worked to shape by 
 hewing in the manner shown on Fig. 124 and when this 
 
 Fig. 129. Spu and Rigging Details 
 
144 
 
 WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 fitted over and bolted to upper keelsons. The upper face 
 of this casting has a recess of proper size and depth to 
 receive tenon cut on foot of mast. In the case of 
 steamers having a single screw and an after mast located 
 above shaft, it is necessary to step mast on lower deck, 
 or on a properly prepared step bolted to top of shaft 
 alley planking and framing. Where a mast goes through 
 a deck, it must be properly supported and wedged in 
 place, and of course the deck framing must be suffi- 
 ciently strong to withstand additional strains that will 
 come on deck near mast and where rigging is attached to 
 side of vessel. The manner of framing a deck around a 
 mast is clearly shown on Fig. 27 and on some of the 
 drawings of deck framing shown at end of book. On 
 the drawing No. 28 mast step construction details are 
 clearly shown. 
 
 i4d. ^Iasts and Spars of Various Rigs 
 On the following lists I give names of masts and spars 
 of principal rigs, each spar being identified by numerals 
 marked on illustrations. 
 
 Fig. 131. Barque Spars 
 
 32. 
 33. 
 
 34. 
 
 Fore yard. 
 
 Lower-fore topsail yard. 
 
 Upper-fore topsail yard. 
 
 40. 
 41. 
 42. 
 
 Main topgallant yard 
 Main royal yard. 
 Spanker boom. 
 
 35. 
 36. 
 37, 
 
 Fore topgallant yard. 
 Fore royal yard. 
 JIain yard. 
 
 43. 
 44. 
 
 45. 
 
 Spanker gaff. 
 Bowsprit. 
 Jib boom. 
 
 38. 
 39. 
 
 I.ower-main topsail yard. 
 Upper-main topsail yard. 
 
 46. 
 
 Inlying jib boom. 
 
 Fig. 132. Barkentlne Spars 
 
 Fig. 130. Ship Spars 
 
 Sp.'\rs OF Ship 
 
 1. 
 2. 
 3. 
 4. 
 5. 
 e. 
 7. 
 
 8. 
 
 9. 
 10. 
 11. 
 12. 
 13. 
 14. 
 15. 
 16. 
 17. 
 18. 
 19. 
 20. 
 21. 
 22. 
 23. 
 
 Flying jib boom. 24. 
 
 Jib boom. 25. 
 
 Bowsprit. 26. 
 
 Martingale boom. 27. 
 
 Fore mast. 28. 
 
 Fore topmast. 29. 
 
 Fore topgallant mast. 30. 
 
 Fore royal mast. 31. 
 
 Fore skysail mast. 32. 
 
 Main mast. 33. 
 
 Main topmast. 34. 
 
 Main topgallant mast. 35. 
 
 Main royal mast. 36. 
 
 Main skysail mast. 37. 
 
 Mizzen mast. 38. 
 
 Mizzen topmast. 39. 
 
 Mizzen topgallant mast. 40. 
 
 Mizzen royal mast. 41. 
 
 Mizzen skysail mast. 42. 
 
 Fore yard. 43. 
 
 Lower-fore topsail yard. 44. 
 
 Upper-fore topsail yard. 45. 
 Lower-fore topgallant yard. 
 
 Upper-fore topgallant yard. 
 
 Fore royal yard. 
 
 Fore skysail yard. 
 
 Main yard. 
 
 Lower-main topsail yard. 
 
 Upper-main topsail yard. 
 
 Lower-main topgallant yard. 
 
 Upper-main topgallant yard. 
 
 Main royal yard. 
 
 Main skysail yard. 
 
 Cross-jack yard. 
 
 Lower-mizzen topsail yard. 
 
 Upper-mizzen topsail yard. 
 
 Lower-mizzen topgallant yard. 
 
 Upper-mizzen topgallant 
 
 Mizzen royal yard. 
 
 Mizzen skysail yard. 
 
 Fore trysail gaff. 
 
 Main trysail gaff. 
 
 Spanker boom. 
 
 Spanker gaff. 
 
 Monkey gaff. 
 
 yard. 
 
 23. 
 24. 
 25. 
 26. 
 27. 
 28. 
 
 1. 
 
 2. 
 
 3. 
 
 4. 
 
 5. 
 
 6. 
 
 7. 
 
 8. 
 
 9. 
 10. 
 11. 
 12. 
 13. 
 14. 
 15, 
 16. 
 17. 
 
 Fore yard. 
 Lower topsail yard. 
 Upper topsail yard. 
 Topgallant yard. 
 Royal yard. 
 Bowsprit. 
 
 29. 
 30. 
 31. 
 32, 
 33. 
 
 Jib boom. 
 Flying jib boom. 
 Martingale boom. 
 Main boom. 
 Main gaff. 
 
 Foremast and Its Rigging 
 
 Lower mast. 18. 
 
 Tap. 19. 
 
 Mast-head. 20. 
 
 Lower cap. 21. 
 
 Topmast. 22. 
 
 Topmast crosstrees. 23. 
 
 Topmast head. 24, 
 
 Topmast cap, 25. 
 
 Lower yard. 26. 
 
 Topsail yard. 27. 
 
 Topmast studdingsail boom. 28. 
 Topgallant studdingsail boom. 29. 
 
 Lower rigging. 30, 
 
 Swifter (foremost shroud), 31, 
 
 Sheer-batten. 32. 
 
 Ratlines. 33. 
 
 Dead-eyes. 34. 
 
 Lanyards. 
 Chain plates. 
 Topmast backstays. 
 Lower futtocks. 
 Topmast rigging. 
 Topgallant futtocks. 
 Sling of lower-yard. 
 Topsail tye. 
 Lower lifts. 
 Topsail lifts. 
 Lower foot-ropes. 
 Topsail foot-ropes. 
 Stirrups, 
 Flemish horse. 
 Quarter irons. 
 Yard-arm irons. 
 Lift purchase. 
 
 22. Fore mast. 
 
 23. Fore topmast. 
 
 24. Fore topgallant mast, 
 
 25. Fore royal mast. 
 
 26. Main mast. 
 
 Names of Barque Spars 
 
 27. Main topmast. 
 
 28. Main topgallant mast. 
 
 29. Main royal mast. 
 
 30. Mizzen mast. 
 
 31. Mizzen topmast. 
 
 Names of Fore-and-Aft Schooner Spars 
 
 1, Fore mast, 7, Fore boom, 
 
 2. Main mast, 8, Main boom, 
 
 3, Mizzen mast, 9, Mizzen boom, 
 
 4, Fore topmast. 10. Fore gaff. 
 
 5. Main topmast. 11. Main gaff. 
 
 6. Mizzen topmast, 12, Mizzen gaff. 
 
WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 145 
 
 Fig. 133 and 120. Rigged Foremast 
 
 List of Masts and Spars of Vessels 
 
 Boom, fore topmast studding- 
 sail — 
 
 main topmast sfuddingr 
 sail — 
 
 Bowsprit — I, Fig. 127-134 
 Parts of Bowsprit: 
 bed of — 
 
 bees or cheeks of — 
 gammoning of — 
 screw-gammoning hoop 
 of — 
 
 housing — • {the part in- 
 side of stem) I a, Fig. 134 
 — partners 
 
 running — (in small ves- 
 sels) 
 
 saddle of — 
 steeve of — 
 step of — 
 tenon of — ib, Fig. 134 
 
 Bumpkin ; Bumkin ; Boomkin 
 quarter — ; Outrigger (for 
 main braces) 
 
 Cap is fitted on spars listed be- 
 low: 
 
 bowsprit — ic, Fig. 134 
 lower gd, Fig. 134 
 fore-mast (iu any vessel) 
 main-mast (in any vessel) 
 mizzen-mast — (0/ a ship) 
 mizzen-mast — (of a 
 barque, barquentine or 
 three-masted schooner) 
 
 Boom — Names of parts of : 
 — crutch 
 
 gooseneck — 4a, Fig. 127 
 jaw or throat — 3a, Fig. 
 127 
 
 jaw-rope 
 
 reefing cleat — • 4b, Fig. 127 
 saddle — 
 
 fore — ; gaff-fore sail — 
 {of a schooner) 
 {square) fore sail — 
 load — ; Derrick; 
 main — 3, Fig. 127 {of a 
 schooner, brigantine, bar- 
 quentine or three-masted 
 schooner) 
 
 main — {of a brig) 
 main — {of a sloop or 
 cutter) 
 
 mizzen — {of a barquen- 
 tine or a three - masted 
 schooner) 
 ring tail — 
 spanker — 
 
 studdingsail — 7, Fig. 127 
 studdingsail — {boom- 
 iron) — on all studding- 
 sail booms 
 
 lower studdingsail — ; 
 swing — {Ship) 
 
 Boom — Names of parts of : 
 royal studdingsail — 
 (Ship) 
 
 fore royal studdingsail — 
 (Ship) 
 
 main royal studdingsail — 
 (Ship) 
 
 topgallant studdingsail — 
 fore topgallant studding- 
 sail — (Ship) 
 main topgallant studding- 
 sail — (Ship) 
 topmast studdingsail — 
 (Ship) 
 
 Cap, on all top and topgallant 
 masts : 
 
 topgallant mast — 
 fore topgallant mast — 
 main topgallant mast — 
 mizzen topgallant mast — 
 topmast — lod. Fig. 127 
 fore topmast — 
 main topmast — 
 mizzen topmast — 
 
 Crosstrees -~ 20, Fig. 129 
 
 Fitted on spars listed be- 
 low : 
 fore mast — ; fore lower 
 
 — {in any vessel) 
 
 main mast — ; main lower 
 
 — (in any vessel) 
 mizzen mast — •; mizzen 
 lower — (of a ship) 
 mizzen mast — ; (of a 
 barque, barquentine or 
 three-masted schooner) 
 topgallant — 
 
 fore topgallant — 
 main topgallant — 
 mizzen topgallant — 
 topmast — 
 fore topmast — 
 main topmast — 
 mizzen topmast — ■ 
 
 Flying jib boom — i, Fig. 130 
 
 Gaff — fitted on vessels rigged 
 in manner mentioned be- 
 low: 
 
 jackstay on a — 6a, Fig. 
 127 
 
 jaw — 5a, Fig. 127 
 jaw-rope of a — • 
 throat bolt — sb. Fig. 127 
 
 — traveller; 
 
 fore — ; boom fore-sail — 
 (of a schooner) 
 main — (of a schooner, 
 barquentine, brigantine or 
 three-masted schooner) 
 main — ; main boom sail 
 
 — (of a brig) 
 
 mizzen — (of a barquen- 
 tine or three-masted 
 schooner) 
 
 monkey — 45, Fig. 130 
 trysail — 
 
10 
 
 WOODEN SHIPBUILDING 
 
 Gaff 
 
 fore trysail — 41, Fig. 130 
 main trysail — 42, Fig. 130 
 spanker — 44, Fig. 130 
 Jib-boom — 2, Fig. 130 
 
 — traveller (Jib-traveller) 
 Martingale-boom ; Dolphin- 
 striker 
 
 Mast, parts of a : 
 
 lower — 9, Fig. 129 
 
 — cheek or Hound- 
 piece; — 9b, Fig. 127 
 
 — coat 
 
 fish front, or rubbing 
 paunch — 
 foot — 9c, Fig. 127 
 tenon (of the foot) — ge. 
 Fig. 127 
 
 — head ; g{, Fig. 127 
 
 — head tenon; tenon of 
 
 — head — gg, Fig. 127 
 
 — hole 
 
 — hoop gh, Fig. 127 
 hounding of a — (part of 
 a mast between upperdcck 
 and trestle-trees) 
 housing of a — (part of a 
 mast under deck) — gx. 
 Fig. 128 
 
 jackstay — 
 
 patent jackstay or slide — 
 
 knee — 9k, Fig. 128 
 
 — partners — Fig. 28 
 
 — partner chocks, Fig. 28 
 Mast, rake of a — (its inclina- 
 tion from perpendicular) 
 
 Erection in a vessel for lower 
 end of mast: 
 
 — step; step of a — 
 
 — step cheek 
 
 — step cleat 
 
 — trunk 
 
 — wedges (wedges to se- 
 cure mast at decks) 
 
 Masts — Names of and their 
 parts : 
 
 Foremast — s, Fig. 130 (of a 
 ship, barque, brig, brigan- 
 tine, schooner, etc.) 
 (of a lateen vessel) 
 
 Jigger-mast (hindmost mast in 
 a four-masted ship) 
 
 Jigger-mast (in the stern of a 
 small craft) 
 
 Jur}'-mast 
 
 Main-mast (in any vessel) 10, 
 Fig. 130 
 
 Mizzen-mast (of a skip) 15, 
 Fig. 130 
 
 Mizzen-mast (of a barque, bar- 
 quentine or three-masted 
 schooner) 
 
 Pole-mast 
 
 Royal-mast — 12, Fig. 130 
 fore — 8, Fig. 13c 
 
 Royal-mast 
 
 main — 13, Fig. 130 
 mizzen — 18, Fig. 130 
 
 Skysail-mast — 13, Fig. 130 
 fore — 9, Fig. 130 
 main — ■ 14, Fig. 130 
 mizzen — 19, Fig. 130 
 
 Snow-mast ; Trysail-mast 
 
 Top-gallant-mast — 11, Fig. 
 130 
 
 — fid 
 
 fid hole — loa, Fig. 127 
 sheave-hole for top rope 
 in a — 
 
 Topgallant-mast, sheave-hole 
 for tye in a — 
 fore — 7, Fig. 130 
 main — 12, 1-ig. 130 
 mizzen — 17, 1-ig. 130 
 long — (topgallant-mast 
 with royalmast in one 
 length) 
 short — 
 
 Topmast — 10, Fig. 127 
 
 — fid 
 
 fid hole in a — loa, Fig. 
 127 
 
 — head — lob. Fig. 127 
 
 — heel — IOC, Fig. 127 
 
 — hound 
 
 — hounding (the part be- 
 tween lower cap and top- 
 mast trestle-trees) 
 sheave-hole for top rope 
 in a — 
 
 sheave-hole for topsail-tye 
 
 in a — 
 
 fore — (when fitted with 
 
 yards) — 6, Fig. 1 30 
 
 fore — (when not fitted 
 
 with any yards) 
 
 jury — 
 
 main — (of a ship, barque 
 
 or brig) — 11, Fig. 130 
 
 main — (of a brigantine 
 
 or schooner) 
 
 main — (of a barquentine 
 
 or three-masted schooner) 
 
 mizzen — (of a ship) — 
 
 16, Fig. 130 
 
 Topmast, mizzen — (07 a 
 
 barque, barquentine or 
 
 three-masted schooner) 
 
 spare — 
 Outrigger 
 Pole; Flag-pole — (carried aft 
 
 on all vessels and boats) 
 
 mast — 
 
 fore mast — 
 
 jigger masr — 
 
 main mast — 
 
 mizzen mast — 
 
 royal — 
 
 fore royal — 
 
 main royal — 
 
 Pole 
 
 mizzen royal — 
 skysail — 
 fore skysail — 
 main skysail — 
 mizzen skysail — 
 stump — 
 topgallant — 
 fore topgallant — 
 main topgallant — • 
 mizzen topgallant — 
 topmast — 
 fore topmast — 
 
 Pole is the pointed portion of 
 a mast above the eyes of 
 the rigging, when there is 
 no topmast fitted; or the 
 upper pointed part of a 
 topmast (when there is no 
 topgallant mast), or of a 
 topgallant - mast (when 
 there is no royal-mast) 
 etc. 
 
 Top 
 
 Name of parts of a top of 
 square-rigged vessels : 
 close planked — 
 grated — 
 
 lubber hole in a ^ — 
 netting of a — ; Top-net- 
 ting 
 
 rail of a — ; Top-rail 
 rim of — ; Top-rim 
 fore — 
 main — 
 mizzen — 
 
 Trestle-trees — 21, Fig. 129 
 Names of parts of trestle- 
 trees : 
 
 bolster, or pillow on top 
 of — (under the eyes of 
 rigging) 
 fore mast — 
 main mast — 
 mizzen mast — (of a ship) 
 mizzen mast — (of a 
 barque, barquentine or 
 three-masted schooner) 
 topgallant — 
 fore topgallant — 
 main topgallant — 
 mizzen topgallant — 
 topmast — 
 
 fore topmast — 21, Fig. 129 
 main topmast — 
 mizzen topmast — 
 
 Yard 
 
 Names of parts of a yard 
 used on square-rigged 
 vessels : 
 
 — arm 
 
 — arm cleat 
 
 — arm hoop (for lift, 
 brace, etc.) 
 
 — arm iron — i6b, Fig. 
 127 
 
WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 147 
 
 Yard 
 Names of parts of a yard 
 used on square-rigged ves- 
 sels : 
 roller in — arm iron 
 
 — batten 
 
 center, bunt, or sling of 
 
 a — 
 
 jackstay — i6c, Fig. 127 
 
 parrel of an {upj>er) — 
 
 17a, Fig. 127 
 
 quarter — i6d, Fig. 127 
 
 — quarter iron — i6e. Fig. 
 127 
 
 sheave-hole — 
 
 sling of a lower — 
 
 sling-cleat of a (lower) — 
 
 sling-hoop of a {lower) — 
 
 l6f. Fig. 127 
 
 standard or crane of a 
 
 lower topsail — 
 
 truss of a {lower) — i6g. 
 
 Fig. 127 
 
 truss-hoop of a (lower) — 
 Yards 
 
 Names of yards used on 
 
 square-rigged vessels : 
 Cross-jack-yard — 34, Fig. 130 
 
 Fore-yard — 32, Fig. 131 
 Fore-yard — 20, Fig. 130 
 GafF-topsail-yard 
 Lower-yard 
 
 Main-yard — 27, Fig. 130 
 Royal yard — • 19, Fig. 127 
 fore — 25, Fig. 130 
 main — 32, Fig. 130 
 mizzen — 39, Fig. 130 
 
 Skysail-yard 
 
 fore — 26, Fig. 130 
 main — 33, Fig. 130 
 mizzen — 40, Fig. 130 
 
 Spritsail-yard 
 
 Squaresail yard (the yard of 
 a schooner or of a sloop, 
 cutter, etc.) 
 
 Studdingsail-yard 
 
 lower — Fig. 130 
 royal — Fig. 130 
 topgallant — Fig. 130 
 topmast — Fig. 130 
 
 Topgallant-yard 
 
 fore — 35, Fig. 131 
 lower fore — 23, Fig. 130 
 upper fore — 24, Fig. 130 
 
 Topgallant-yard 
 lower — 
 main — 
 
 lower main — 30, Fig. 130 
 upper main — 31, Fig. 130 
 mizzen — 
 lower mizzen — 37, Fig. 
 
 130 
 
 upper mizzen — 38, Fig. 
 
 130 
 upper — 
 
 Topsail-yard 
 
 (of a schooner) 
 
 fore — 
 
 lower fore — 21, Fig. 130 
 
 upper fore — 22, Fig. 130 
 
 lower — ■ 
 
 main — 
 
 lower main — 28, Fig. 130 
 
 upper main — 29, Fig. 130 
 
 mizzen — 
 
 lower mizzen — 35, Fig. 
 
 130 
 
 upper mizzen — 36, Fig. 
 
 130 
 Upper- Yards 
 
 upper — 
 
 TABLE OF THE FRACTIONAL PROPORTION THAT THE 
 
 INTERMEDIATE DIAMETERS BEAR TOWARDS THE 
 
 GIVEN DIAMETER OF MASTS, YARDS, ETC. 
 
 
 
 Proportions to the Given 
 
 Diameter 
 
 SPECIES OF 
 MASTS, YARDS, ETC. 
 
 Quarters 
 
 Head 
 
 
 
 I St 
 
 2nd 
 
 3rd 
 
 Lower 
 Part 
 
 Upper 
 Part 
 
 Heel 
 
 
 •%i 
 
 Hi 
 
 ft 
 
 ?4 
 
 % 
 
 t 
 
 
 
 Topmast, Topgallant 
 Masts and Royal-Masts 
 
 •%i 
 
 '«! 
 
 «7 
 
 «i 
 
 •li 
 
 
 Yards 
 
 *)h 
 
 % 
 
 ^li 
 
 Arms 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bowsprit 
 
 •9ii 
 
 'Hj 
 
 % 
 
 ?i 
 
 
 Outer 
 End 
 
 
 "Si 
 
 ",'n 
 
 % 
 
 Ends 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Main-booms 
 
 *%i 
 
 'Tu 
 
 » 
 
 Fore 
 Ends 
 
 ?4 
 
 After 
 End 
 
 Middle 
 
 
 
 
 «%. 
 
 '«! 
 
 IS 
 
 S 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Heeling 
 
 Standing-Masts 
 
 Athwart 
 Ship 
 
 
 
 
 Fore 
 and Aft 
 
 V, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bowsprit 
 
 Athwart 
 Ship 
 
 1i! 
 
 
 
 Up and 
 Down 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Chapter XV 
 
 Description of Types of Vessels 
 
 15a. Explaining Division of Vessels into Types 
 AND Classes 
 
 Vessels are divided into kinds, such as steam, motor- 
 driven, auxiliary and sailing vessels ; and each kind of 
 vessel is then divided into types, and each type is sub- 
 divided into classes according to general arrangement of 
 decks, number of decks, and certain structural details. 
 
 Steam vessels are generally designated according to 
 purpose for which they are designed. Thus, there are 
 war vessels, passenger steamers, cargo carriers, ferry- 
 boats, fishing vessels, light ships, tugs, steam lighters, 
 wrecking vessels, etc. 
 
 Sailing and auxiliary craft are generally designated 
 according to rig. Thus, there are ships, barks, barken- 
 tines, brigs, brigantines, schooners, etc. 
 
 Vessels are also classed, or named, according to num- 
 ber of decks, structural arrangement of decks and houses, 
 and details of certain parts of their structure, and as it is 
 very necessary that you have a clear understanding of 
 this I have illustrated and briefly described the most im- 
 portant of these details and the various classes of vessels. 
 
 15b. One-Decked Vessels 
 
 These are small vessels having one completely laid 
 deck-flat, and little depth of hold, say 12 feet or less. 
 When the depth of hold increases to 14 or 15 feet, some 
 hold-beams are inserted. 
 
 A one-decked vessel can be either steam or sail driven 
 and, of course, can be used for any purpose it is designed 
 for. Fig. 202 illustrates a one-deck steam trawler, Fig. 
 203 a one-deck auxiliary schooner, and Fig. 212 a one- 
 deck schooner. 
 
 15c. Two-Decked Vessels 
 
 These vessels have generally a depth of hold from 
 about 20 to 24 feet, the decks are called upper deck and 
 lower deck, the latter also styled '"tween-deck." 
 
 Fig. 205 illustrates a two-deck motor-driven cargo 
 vessel, and Fig. 207 a two-deck schooner. 
 
 i5d. Three-Decked Vessels 
 
 These are vessels having three tiers of beams, with at 
 least two decks laid and caulked ; they are sometimes 
 flush decked, in other instances fitted with a poop, bridge- 
 house and a forecastle, or with a shelter deck or shade 
 deck above the upper deck. 
 
 The scantlings of materials are of the heaviest de- 
 
 scription, being regulated by the dimensions of hull, 
 measured to height of upper deck. 
 
 This class of vessel is intended for any description 
 of cargo, and for employment in any part of the world. 
 
 I5e. Spar-Decked Vessels 
 
 These are vessels having also three tiers of beams like 
 a three-decked ship, with generally two decks laid and 
 caulked. 
 
 They are of lighter construction than the former, the 
 scantlings of materials being principally regulated by the 
 dimensions of hull, measured to the height of middle 
 deck. 
 
 This class of vessel is usually constructed for special 
 trades. 
 
 i5f. Awning-Decked Vessels 
 
 These vessels have a superstructure above the main 
 deck, of which the scantlings of material are inferior to 
 the topsides, deck beams, and deck-flat, in a spar-decked 
 vessel of similar dimensions. 
 
 An awning deck may be fitted to vessels with either 
 one, two or three decks; and the scantlings of material 
 of hull are regulated by the dimensions of vessel, with- 
 out reference to the added awning deck. 
 
 The space or capacity between the awning deck and 
 the deck below is generally intended for the stowage of 
 light cargo, or for the use of passengers, etc. 
 
 i5g. Partial Awning-Decked Vessels 
 
 These are vessels in which the upper deck is only 
 partially covered by a deck of light construction, having 
 the scantlings of material similar to those in a complete 
 awning-decked vessel. 
 
 i5h. Shelter-Decked Vessels 
 
 These are vessels with exposed (or weather) decks, 
 of a lighter construction than required for awning-decked 
 vessels, the topsides between the upper and shelter decks, 
 are closed-in ; but the shelter deck is sometimes fitted 
 with ventilation openings. 
 
 151. Shade-Deck Vessels 
 
 These are vessels with a very light exposed or weather 
 deck above the upper deck ; this shade deck generally 
 extends over the whole length of upper deck, and is not 
 enclosed at sides above the main rail or bulwark; it is 
 used as a protection from sun or rain. 
 
WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 149 
 
 15J. Flush-Decked Vessels 
 These vessels have a continuous upper deck, without 
 poop, bridge-house, or forecastle ; spar and awning-decked 
 vessels are generally flush decked (see Fig. 142). 
 
 15m. Structure and House Arrangements Named 
 
 Below I illustrate and describe structural details and 
 
 deckhouse arrangements that influence type and classifi- 
 
 cation. 
 
 -i 
 
 ^:::zf 
 
 At 
 
 H 
 
 ^ACMIfCKt^ 
 
 Tl 
 
 J* 
 
 Tt^ee^ Be 
 
 0£eP r^HK 
 
 Fig. 135 
 
 FORM F£AK TANK 
 
 A^TMM ^MAH I 
 
 ^ 
 
 FOftt ^£*K rANX 
 
 15k. Well-Decked Vessels 
 These are vessels having long poops or raised quarter- 
 deck, and topgallant forecastle; the space between these 
 structures forming the well (see Fig. 135). 
 
 
 
 RQD 
 
 
 f ff / 
 
 
 
 
 T. 
 
 c 
 
 V 
 
 1 ' MAlf^ 
 
 
 DECK 
 
 
 
 
 A 
 
 / 
 
 HOLO 
 
 "fACMt, 
 
 ■/eiTY 
 
 HOt.O 
 
 / / 
 
 Afr 
 
 e. 
 
 r fe. 
 
 
 .n^^ 
 
 -y,~\ 
 
 
 
 —^ 
 
 
 ^O.m.t^MTmA m*LLA,tT tammi' 
 
 Fig. 138 
 
 Fig. 135 is an illustration of a one-deck steamer with 
 short raised quarter-deck, enclosed bridge-house and 
 topgallant forecastle. The illustration shows a vessel 
 without double bottom, but fitted with fore-peak, after- 
 peak and deep tanks. 
 
 ^Oftt *>* * 
 
 Fig. 136 
 
 15I. Ship With a Hurricane Deck 
 This is a vessel with a light deck or platform over 
 erections on the upper deck ; it has generally a breadth 
 from two-thirds to three-fourths or sometimes the whole 
 breadth of ship, running frequently all fore-and-aft, and 
 is used for a promenade, etc., in passenger ships (see Fig. 
 137)- 
 
 wK 
 
 A^tttt FMAtf 
 
 -X 
 
 'tAcmnM/ty 
 
 T 
 
 
 Fig. 139 
 
 Fig. 136 shows a similar arrangement of deckhouses 
 but vessel has a double-bottom tank in place of deep tank 
 amidships. 
 
 Fig. 137 shows a two-deck steamer with full poop, 
 enclosed bridge-houses and topgallant forecastle. This 
 vessel has double bottom and peak tanks. 
 
 ^ 
 
 ATAC ** / «/*- K Y 
 
 MAIH , BeCK 
 
 ± 
 
 AFTmK FMAK 
 
 Fig. 137 
 
 FOKE P£A, 
 
 ^ 
 
 A^TMA t^A 
 
 Fig. 140 
 
 FOKt fMAif 
 
 Fig. 142. 200-Foot Flnsh Decked OU-EnRined Wooden Cargo Vessel From Desifi^ns b? J. MnrraT Watts For East India Trade 
 
'50 
 
 WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 Fig. 143. 
 
 Cbibiabos, Boy H. Beattie, Milton and HaTerbill, Four Ships Built by L. H. Sbattuck, Inc., at Portsmouth, at the Dock Fitting Out 
 
 With Elgglng, Joiner Work, Etc. 
 
 Fig. 138 shows a steamship with long full poop deck, 
 enclosed bridge-houses and topgallant forecastle. This 
 vessel has double bottom and peak tanks. 
 
 Fig. 139 shows steamship with long raised quarter- 
 deck, enclosed bridge-houses and topgallant forecastle. 
 Double bottom and peak tanks are shown. 
 
 Fig. 140 shows a steamer having hurricane deck, 
 shade deck, and lower decks. Double-bottom tanks as 
 well as peak tanks are also shown. This arrangement 
 of decks is generally used in passenger vessels. 
 
 ^ 
 
 ■ i>i/c ^iiSML. 
 
 Fig. 141 
 
 Fig. 141 shows sailing vessel with raised quarter- 
 deck, forecastle, upper and lower decks. Fore and after- 
 peak tanks are fitted, therefore this arrangement of tanks 
 indicates that vessel is of steel construction. 
 
 Figs. 143 to 155 are illustrations of various types 
 of vessels. 
 
 US S. Constitution 
 
 iiflLcd ^ rr ,.^. I -^^ 
 
 Fig. 144 
 
Fig. 115. Constitution as Slie Now Is at tbe Boston Navy Yard 
 
 Tig. 146. Steam Yacht Vanadls, Built For C. K. O. Billings, Sold to tbe Bussian Oovernment 
 
Fig. 146a. 52-Foot Hydro-Aeroplane Tender, Designed by J. Murray Watts 
 
 Length 52 feet 
 
 Breadth 14 " 
 
Fig. 147. XS. S. S. South Carolina, a Battlaship of the Dieadnougbt Type, Which Mounts Eight 12-Iuch Guns and Many Smaller Ones 
 
 Fig. 148. XT. S. Mine-Sweeper Fellcan Built by the Qas Engine & Power Company, Launched June 15, 1918 
 
Fig. 149. Faith, the First Concrete-Built Ocean Steamer, Starting Off From San Francisco for Seattle, Tacoma and Vancouver 
 
 Fig. 160. Faith,' 6,000-Ton Concrete Vessel, Launched 1918 From the San Francisco Shipbuilding Company's Yard at Redwood City, Cal. 
 
/V<| 
 
 .■ 
 
 
 .., /\ 
 
 y/\ 
 
 / 
 
 // \ 
 
 / 
 
 // 
 
 / 
 
 // 
 
 / 
 
 / / 
 
 " / 
 
 ' 
 
 ' 1 
 
 
 
 Fig. 151. Iskum, an 80-Foot Fishing Schooner Built From Designs by Edson B. Schock and Fitted With a CorUss Gas Engine 
 
 Fig. 155. Ship Bickmars on the Delaware 
 
 Fig. 162. Northeast End Light Vessel 
 
 Fig. 154. Motorshlp James Timpson. Built by the Standifer Company, 
 Designed by Cox & Stevens 
 
 Fig. 153. Margaret Haskell 
 
Chapter XVI 
 
 Anchor, Chains and Equipment 
 
 Every vessel must be properly equipped for sea, and 
 while the amount of equipment necessary varies in each 
 type and size of vessel, the greater part of equipment 
 used on seagoing vessels, as well as the sizes, dimen- 
 sions and amount of equipment that must be carried on 
 each vessel, has been standardized. Equipment upon 
 which the safety of a vessel or its crew depends, such as 
 anchors, chain, boats and their equipment, navigating 
 and directing instruments, etc., is defined in Govern- 
 ment regulations and by rules laid down by classifica- 
 tion societies, and no vessel is allowed to put to sea 
 without being equipped in accordance with the rules. Of 
 all equipment, anchors, chains and methods of handling 
 them, the steering apparatus, and navigating instru- 
 ments are the most important, and next to these comes 
 the lifeboat and its equipment. 
 
 i6a. Anchors 
 
 The number and sizes of anchors that must be car- 
 ried depends upon size and type of vessel, and the 
 service it will be engaged in. By size of vessel is meant 
 tonnage as computed by rules of the classification so- 
 cieties. 
 
 In general it can be said that all seagoing vessels, 
 except the very smallest, must carry three or more 
 anchors and each of these must be of a certain size and 
 type. 
 
 On Tables i6A and i6B (page i66) is given lists of 
 weights and kinds of anchors that must be carried on 
 steam and sailing vessels of named tonnage. 
 
 As bowers, stream and kedge anchors are mentioned, 
 1 will illustrate and describe each kind. 
 
 Bowers are the largest and principal anchors carried 
 and they can be either stockless, patent with hinged 
 flukes, or common with wood or steel stock. 
 
 Fig. 156 is an illustration of a stockless anchor. 
 ( Durkee. ) 
 
 As this type of anchor is stockless the shank can 
 be housed in hawse pipe and anchor carried in manner 
 shown on Fig. 157. Anchors of this kind are generally 
 used on all modern vessels because they are much easier 
 to handle, stow better and are just as efficient and strong 
 as the older type anchors with stocks. 
 
 On Fig. 158 a common bower with wood stock is 
 shown, and on Fig. 159 a patent bower with hinged arm 
 and flukes. 
 
 The common bower anchor with wood stock is now 
 seldom used except on sailing vessels, but the bower 
 with iron stock, and bower with hinged arm and fluke is 
 frequently used on smaller vessels. These types of 
 
 Fig. 166. Stockless Anchor 
 
 Fig. 157. Stockless Anchor in Place 
 
WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 157 
 
 BOWER (common) 
 
 \' Anchor-ring 
 
 Fig. 158 
 
 anchors must be stowed on a properly prepared platform, 
 called a bill board, in the manner shown on Fig. i6o, 
 and it is necessary to install proper cat and fish tackles 
 and davits or an anchor crane for hoisting anchor to its 
 stowage position. Anchor davits and falls are shown in 
 position on Fig. i6o. 
 
 The smaller stream and kedge anchors carried on 
 vessels are similar in shape to bowers. On Fig. i6i 
 anchors of this kind are shown. 
 
 i6b. Hawse Pipes 
 
 I have mentioned hawse pipes, so I will now describe 
 and illustrate them. 
 
 Hawse pipes are fitted at each side of bow, their use 
 being to afford a proper opening for passage of chain 
 cable to which anchors are attached. 
 
 In wooden and steel vessels it is necessary to strongly 
 reinforce the fr-aming where hawse pipes pass through 
 framing and planking and to securely bolt hawse pipes to 
 this reinforcing. 
 
 Hawse pipes for use with stockless anchors always 
 have opening through them sufficiently large to allow 
 stock of anchor to pass through it. On Fig. 162 the 
 hawse pipes for a pair of stockless anchors are clearly 
 shown in position. 
 
 And on Fig. 201, profile view, the direction of lead 
 
 of hawse pipes is clearly indicated by dotted lines at 
 bow. 
 
 Hawse pipes are made of cast-iron and consist of 
 two pieces, the outer flange with pipe attached, and the 
 inner or deck flange. The outer flange is carefully 
 fitted to planking because it must make a watertight 
 joint, and after pipe is in place th§ inner flange is fitted 
 around inner end of pipe and joint caulked tight. The 
 outer flange is securely fastened to hull with bolts 
 closely spaced (see bolt holes on Fig. 162) and inner 
 flange is secured to deck in like manner. 
 
 As there is considerable wear on flanges and pipe of 
 a hawse pipe, it is necessary that there be ample thick- 
 ness of metal in casting, especially along lower portion 
 of pipe and outer flange, because it is here that greatest 
 amount of friction occurs when chain is being let out, 
 or hauled up, or vessel is riding at anchor. 
 
 On the following table I give diameter of pipe and 
 thickness of metal for hawse pipes of vessels carrying 
 anchors with stock. 
 
 
 
 TABLE 16C 
 
 
 
 
 
 Size and 
 
 Thickness of Iron 
 
 Hawse Pi 
 
 PE 
 
 FOR Cables 
 
 OF 
 
 
 
 Each 
 
 Size 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Thickness o 
 
 
 
 
 Thickness of 
 
 
 
 Iron in the 
 
 
 
 
 Iron in the 
 
 
 Size o( 
 
 Body of the 
 
 Size of 
 
 
 size of 
 
 Bod 
 
 y of the 
 
 Size of Chain 
 
 Hawse Pipe 
 
 Pipe and of 
 
 Chain 
 
 Hawse Pipe 
 
 Pipe 
 
 and of 
 
 Cable 
 
 in tlie Clear 
 
 the Flange 
 
 Cable 
 
 in 
 
 the Clear 
 
 the 
 
 Flange 
 
 Ins. 
 
 Ins. 
 
 Ins. 
 
 Ins. 
 
 
 Ins. 
 
 
 Ins. 
 
 2Vs 
 
 21% 
 
 iy2 
 
 I ¥2 
 
 
 13% 
 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 18% 
 
 1% 
 
 1% 
 
 
 12% 
 
 
 % 
 
 1% 
 
 17% 
 
 1% 
 
 1% 
 
 
 11% 
 
 
 % 
 
 1% 
 
 15% 
 
 1% 
 
 1% 
 
 
 10% 
 
 
 % 
 
 1% 
 
 14% 
 
 1% 
 
 I 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 % 
 
 For stockless anchors the diameter of opening must 
 be increased considerably but it is not necessary to in- 
 crease thickness of metal. 
 
 The outside diameter of flange should be sufficiently 
 
 BOWER (patent) 
 
 iTonAntli 
 
 Fig. 159 
 
158 
 
 F»» »63 
 
 WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 Fid 160 
 
 greater than outside diameter of pipe to insure tiiat all 
 fastenings will go into solid wood (or metal). 
 
 Do not confuse hawse pipes with the chain pipes that 
 lead from deck to chain locker. 
 
 i6b\ Chain Pipes 
 
 After anchor chain has passed through hawse pipe, 
 it is led around wild-cat of anchor windlass and from 
 there passes through chain pipes, let into deck, into chain 
 locker. On Fig. 163 is shown cross-section view of chain 
 pipe and on Fig. 164 the chain pipes are clearly shown 
 in position under windlass. 
 
 i6c. Anchor Chain 
 
 Chain is now universally used with anchors for an- 
 choring a vessel. The kind of chain used is stud-linked 
 and diameter of material of which links are made de- 
 termines size. Each vessel must have a certain speci- 
 fied amount of chain for each anchor, the amount and 
 diameter varying, as with anchors, with tonnage of ves- 
 sels. On Tables 16A, B, is given diameter and length 
 of chain specified by classification societies' rules, and 
 on Fig. 165 is shown a portion of anchor chain properly 
 shackled and fitted with swivel. 
 
 For convenience in handling, anchor chain comes in 
 lengths, several of which are fastened together with 
 shackles to form a cable. The first "shot", or length, 
 is usually a short one and has attached to it a swivel. 
 Anchor is shackled to chain and inboard end of chain is 
 secured to a heavy beam and eyebolt placed in chain 
 locker for that purpose. 
 
 i6c\ Chain Locker 
 
 Chain is stowed in a properly prepared locker built 
 in bow of vessel and this locker must be sufficiently large 
 to stow each cable separately and there must be a divi- 
 sion or partition between the chains. 
 
 A certain amount. of room is required to stow a chain 
 cable, the amount varying with diameter of chain and 
 its length. On Table 16D I give space required to 
 properly stow 50 fathoms of chain of named diameters. 
 
 TABLE 16D 
 Space Required to Stow Roughly 50 Fathoms of Chain Cable 
 
 Diameter 
 Ins. 
 
 2% 
 
 2% 
 
 2 
 
 1% 
 
 1% 
 
 1% 
 
 1% 
 
 Cubic Feet 
 
 Diameter 
 
 Required 
 
 Ini. 
 
 89.83 
 
 1% 
 
 83.84 
 
 1V4. 
 
 66.75 
 
 1% 
 
 60.19 
 
 I 
 
 54.01 
 
 % 
 
 46.16 
 
 % 
 
 39.19 
 
 a 
 
 Cubic Feet 
 Required 
 
 32.80 
 26.20 
 20.96 
 17.30 
 14.24 
 
 "•73 
 8.26 
 
 i6d. Anchor Windlass 
 
 An anchor windlass is used to assist in hoisting 
 anchor. This windlass can be operated by power or by 
 hand. 
 
 On sailing vessels hand-operated anchor windlasses 
 are installed on forward deck and operated by means of 
 a geared brake lever, or by hand-spikes inserted in open- 
 ings left for that purpose. 
 
 On Fig. 166 is shown three types of hand-operated 
 anchor windlass installed in sailing vessels and on Fig. 
 167 details of one of the types, with parts marked for 
 identification, are shown. 
 
 Below I give list of names of parts of windlass shown 
 on Fig. 167. 
 
 Hand-Operated Anchor Windlass 
 Windlass — carrick-bitts — x 
 — side bitts — 2 
 cheeks of carrick bitts — 3 
 standard knees of carrick- 
 bitts — 4 
 
 — connecting rods — g 
 
 — purchase rods 
 
 — crosshead — 8 
 
 — ends; — heads — 5 
 
 — hand levers — 13 
 
 main piece of — 
 
 — pawls — 10 
 
 — pawl bitt — ■ I 
 
 — pawl rim; — • pawl 
 rack — II 
 
 — purchase rims — 12 
 spindle of — 
 
 strong back of a — 7 
 iron whelps on — 6 
 wood lining on — 
 
 i6d\ Steam-Operated Anchor Windlasses 
 On Fig. 168 is shown a modern power-operated an- 
 chor windlass installed on forecastle deck of a motor- 
 ship. You will note by referring to illustration (which 
 is a bow view, looking aft) that anchor chains, after 
 passing through hawse pipes (as this is a photo of ship 
 shown on plans Fig. 201, you can see location of hawse 
 pipes by referring to these plans) pass through con- 
 trollers placed on deck a little distance aft of deck end 
 of hawse pipe. Controllers are for the purpose of con- 
 
 STREAM-ANCHOR. 
 
 KEOGC. 
 
 GRAPNEL. 
 
 Tit. 161 
 
Fig. 162. Hawse Pipes on Agawam 
 
i6o 
 
 WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 Fig. 165. Anchor Chain 
 
 trolling chain should brake on windlass become defec- 
 tive, or when vessel is riding at anchor. From con- 
 trollers the chain passes over wild-cats of windlass and 
 from thence through chain pipes, placed immediately 
 below wild-cats, into chain lockers. 
 
 On Fig. 164 is shown details of one type of steam- 
 operated anchor windlass with principal parts identified 
 by numerals. Below I give names of parts. 
 
 1. Hand power levers. 
 
 2. Cross-head. 
 
 3. Warping ends. 
 
 4. Side bitts. 
 
 5. Side bitt keeps. 
 
 6. Screw brake nut. 
 
 7. Cable lifter. 
 
 8. Pawl rack. 
 
 9. Main cone driving wheel. 
 10. Cross-head bracket. 
 
 11. Center bitt. 
 
 12. Center bitt keep. 
 
 13. Chain pipes. 
 
 14. Cable relievers. 
 
 15. Bedplate. 
 
 16. Chain wheel for messenger 
 
 from steam winch. 
 
 17. Clutch for attached strain 
 
 power. 
 
 18. Gearing for steam power. 
 
 i6e. Deck Winches 
 
 Modern vessels have power-operated deck winches 
 installed convenient to hatches and booms used for cargo. 
 On Fig. 169 is shown a steam deck winch, principal 
 parts being identified by number, and on deck of vessel 
 shown on Fig. 170 a deck winch can be seen installed in 
 proper location. 
 
 Below I give names of parts identified on Fig. 169. 
 
 Warping ends. 
 Main spur-wheel. 
 
 Barrel. 
 Barrel shaft. 
 Small spur-wheel. 
 Clutch lever. 
 Cylinders. 
 Steam chest 
 
 10. 
 11. 
 12. 
 13. 
 14. 
 15. 
 16. 
 
 Stay or tie-rod. 
 Steam pipe. 
 Exhaust pipe. 
 Reversing lever. 
 Base plate. 
 Stop valve. 
 Connecting rod. 
 Piston rod. 
 
 A hand-operated deck winch is shown on Fig. 171 
 and below I give names of parts identified by number 
 on the illustration. 
 
 Head of Bark Oreyhound 
 
 Deck of Whaling Brig Viola, Showing Windlass 
 
 SS-^HIi 
 
 
 
 
 
 Deck of Brig Viola 
 
 Head of Bark Wanderer 
 
 Fig. 166 
 
WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 i6i 
 
 Clutch lever. 
 Brake. 
 Barrels. 
 Pinion. 
 
 Spur wheels. 
 
 6. 
 7. 
 8. 
 9. 
 
 )0. 
 
 Framing. 
 Ratchet wheel. 
 Pawls. 
 Tie-rod. 
 Warping ends. 
 
 i6f. H.-VND Pump 
 On Fig. 172 is shown details of hand-operated bilge 
 pump, each principal part being identified by name. 
 Every vessel must be equipped with a proper number of 
 pumps for pumping water out of bilges. In sailing 
 vessels these pumps are generally located on deck, are 
 hand-operated, and of type shown on illustration, but in 
 steam and motor vessels the bilge pumps are located in 
 engine rooms and operated by steam or other power. 
 In all cases the pump suctions are led to properly located 
 wells in which suction boxes with strainers are located. 
 If a vessel is divided into a number of compartments by 
 watertight bulkheads the suction pipes are led through 
 stuffing boxes in bulkheads and each compartment is 
 fitted with a separate suction, and valves to shut off each 
 set of pipes are located in engine room. In the case of 
 a hand pump the' water is discharged directly on deck 
 and runs overboard through the scuppers, but all steam 
 and power-operated bilge pumps are fitted with discharge 
 pipes that lead from pump through side of vessel above 
 the water-line. 
 
 i6g. Sounding Pipes 
 Sounding pipes must be located in every compart- 
 ment. These pipes extend from upper deck to lowest 
 
 part of bilge in each compartment, to permit a sounding 
 of amount of water in bilges to be taken without it being 
 necessary to go into hold. The pipes are usually led to 
 upper deck and fitted with a tight flush cap. By remov- 
 ing cap a rod, called a sounding rod, can be lowered 
 through pipe into bilge and if there is any water in bilge, 
 it will wet rod, and by lifting rod and measuring depth 
 of wet portion an accurate estimate can be made of 
 amount of water in bilges. 
 
 i6h. Capstan 
 On Fig. 173 is shown hand-operated deck capstans 
 with principal parts marked for identification. 
 
 i6i. Steering Gear 
 On Fig. 174 is shown details of a hand-operated 
 steering gear and below I give list of parts. 
 
 1. Standard. 
 
 2. Spindle. 
 
 3. Yoke. 
 
 4. Nut. 
 
 5. .\rm. 
 
 6. Guide rods. 
 
 7. Cross-head. 
 
 8. Yoke bolt. 
 
 9. Rudder wheel. 
 10. Spokes. 
 
 i6j. Bo.\ts and Their Equipment 
 The number of boats each vessel must carry, their 
 capacity and equipment, is specified in the regulations 
 governing equipment of vessels which are issued by 
 every government. 
 
 Below I give details of equipment that must be car- 
 ried in lifeboats placed on a seagoing vessel. 
 
1 62 
 
 WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 Fig. 168. Windlass and Foredeck of the James Timpson 
 
 Equipment for Lifeboats 
 
 All lifeboats on ocean steam vessels shall -be equipped 
 as follows: 
 
 A properly secured life-line the entire "length on each 
 side, festooned in bights not longer than 3 feet, with a 
 seine float in each bight. 
 
 One painter of manila rope of not less than 2^ inches 
 in circumference and of suitable length. ^ 
 
 A full complement of oars and two spare oars. 
 
 One set and a half of thole pins or rowlocks attached 
 to the boat with separate chains. 
 
 One steering oar with rowlock or becket and one 
 rudder with tiller or yoke and yoke-lines. 
 
 One boathook attached to a staflf of suitable length. 
 
 Two live-preservers. 
 
 Two hatchets. 
 
 One galvanized iron bucket with lanyard attached. 
 
 One bailer. 
 
 Where automatic plugs are not provided there shall 
 be two plugs secured with chains for each drain hole. 
 
 One efficient liquid compass with not less than a 2- 
 inch card. 
 
 One lantern containing sufficient oil to burn at least 
 nine hours and ready for immediate use. 
 
 One can containing one gallon illuminating oil. 
 
 One box of friction matches wrapped in a water- 
 proof package and carried in a box secured to the under- 
 side of stern thwart. 
 
 A wooden breaker or suitable tank fitted with a 
 siphon, pump, or spigot for drawing water and con- 
 taining at least one quart of water for each person. 
 
 Two enameled drinking cups. 
 
 A watertight receptacle containing 2 tb avoirdupois of 
 provisions for each person. These provisions may be 
 ■hard bread. The receptacle shall be of metal, fitted with 
 an opening in the top not less than 5 inches in diameter, 
 properly protected by a screw cap made of heavy cast 
 brass, with machine thread and an attached double 
 toggle, seating to a pliable rubber gasket, which shall 
 insure a tight joint, in order to properly protect the con- 
 tents of the can. 
 
 One canvas bag containing sailmaker's palm and 
 needles, sail twine, marline, and marline spike. 
 
 A watertight metal case containing twelve self-ignit- 
 ing red lights capable of burning at least two minutes. 
 
 A sea-anchor. 
 
 A vessel containing one gallon of vegetable or animal 
 oil, so constructed that the oil can be easily distributed 
 on the water and so arranged that it can be attached to 
 the sea-anchor. 
 
 A mast or masts with one good sail at least and 
 proper gear for each (this does not apply to power 
 lifeboat j, the sail and gear to be protected by a suitable 
 
 Tig. 170. Deck Views of Motorship James Timpson, Built From Designs by Cox & Stevens 
 
WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 163 
 
 canvas cover. In case of a steam vessel which carries All loose equipment must be securely attached to the 
 
 passengers in the North Atlantic, and is provided with boat to which it belongs. 
 
 a radio-telegraph installation, all the lifeboats need not Lifeboats of less than i8o cubic feet capacity on 
 
 be equipped with masts and sails. In this case at least pleasure steamers are not required to be equipped as 
 
 one of the boats on each side shall be so equipped. above. 
 
 On the following list is given names of principal types and parts of boats carried on vessels: 
 
 Different Kinds of Boats 
 Cutter 
 Gig 
 
 Launch 
 Steam Launch 
 Lifeboat 
 Longboat 
 Pinnace 
 Whaleboat 
 
 Details and Appurtenances 
 
 OF Boats 
 Boat 
 
 — awning 
 back-board in a — 
 
 — bailer 
 carvel-built — 
 clinch-built — 
 
 Boat 
 
 — chock 
 
 — chock skids 
 
 — compass 
 
 — cover 
 
 — davit 
 
 — davit tackle 
 foot grating in a 
 
 — gripe 
 
 — hook 
 
 tank of a {life) - 
 
 — mast 
 — ■ oar 
 
 — 's painter 
 pkig of a — ■ 
 rowlock of a — 
 row port of a — 
 
 Boat 
 
 — rudder 
 
 — rudder tiller 
 — ■ rudder yoke 
 
 — rudder yoke-line 
 
 — sail 
 
 — skids 
 
 swifter of a ^- 
 thole-board of a — 
 thole-pin of a — 
 thwart of a — 
 wash-board of a — 
 
 Davit 
 Davit, anchor — ; cat — 
 boat — 
 
 fish — 
 
 — guy 
 
 — socket 
 
 i6k:. Equipment 
 
 For the convenience of the reader I list below names of a large number of pieces of equipment generally car- 
 ried on seagoing vessels: 
 
 Caulking 
 
 -T- iron 
 • — mallet 
 Chain-hook 
 Chair 
 Chart 
 
 — case; — chest 
 Chinsing-iron (caulker's tool) 
 Chisel 
 
 hollow — 
 mortise — 
 Chronometer 
 
 — chest 
 Clock; Time-piece 
 Compass 
 
 azimuth — 
 variation — 
 boat's — 
 — box 
 polinarus 
 standard — 
 steering — • 
 Cork-fender 
 Cover 
 
 capstan — 
 skylight — 
 ventilator — 
 
 Accommodation ladder; 
 
 Bell 
 
 Gangway ladder 
 
 — crank 
 
 .■\nemometer 
 
 — rope 
 
 Awning 
 
 Berth 
 
 boat's — ; 
 
 Binnacle 
 
 — boom 
 
 — cover 
 
 bridge — ; bridge 
 
 — lamp 
 
 house — 
 
 Blue-light 
 
 crowfoot of an — 
 
 
 curtain of an — 
 
 Boatswain's chair 
 
 
 forecastle — 
 
 Buckets 
 
 lacing of an — 
 
 — fire 
 
 lacing-holes of an — 
 
 — rack 
 
 main-deck — 
 
 Bunk (sailor's) 
 
 poop — 
 
 Bunting 
 
 quarter-deck — 
 
 Buoy 
 
 ridge of an — 
 
 anchor — 
 
 ridge hnmg of an — 
 
 cork — 
 
 ridge rope of an — ^ 
 
 life — 
 
 — stanchion 
 
 — sling 
 
 Axe; — handle 
 
 sounding — 
 
 Ballast 
 
 Burgee 
 
 Barometer ; .'\neroid — 
 
 Can-hooks 
 
 Belaying-pin ; Jack-pin ; Tack- 
 
 Canvas 
 
 pin 
 
 Cask 
 
 Bell 
 
 Cat-head stopper 
 
 — cover 
 
 Caulking 
 
i64 
 
 WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 Cover 
 
 wheel — 
 winch — 
 
 Crow-bar 
 
 Dogs ; Cant-hooks 
 
 Dunnage; — wood 
 
 Ensign 
 
 Fair-leader 
 
 Fender 
 
 rope — 
 wooden — 
 
 Fid (saihnaker's) 
 splicing — ■ 
 turning — 
 
 Fish-hook 
 
 Flag; Colors 
 
 — chest 
 
 — staff 
 
 Foghorn 
 
 Fore-lock; Key 
 
 Gimblet 
 
 Grating 
 
 Grindstone 
 
 Grommet 
 
 Hammock 
 
 Hand-cuffs 
 
 Hand-hook 
 
 Hand-spike 
 
 Hank 
 
 Harness cask 
 
 Hatchet 
 
 Hen-coop 
 
 Hinge 
 
 Holystone 
 
 Horsing-iron {caulker's tool) 
 
 Hose 
 
 canvas — 
 
 deck wash — 
 
 india rubber — 
 
 leather — 
 
 scupper — / 
 
 Hose-wrench 
 Ladder 
 
 forecastle — 
 
 hold — 
 
 poop — 
 
 raised quarter-deck — 
 
 rope — ; side — 
 Lamp 
 Lantern 
 
 globe — 
 
 signal — 
 Lead (sounding) 
 
 deep-sea — 
 
 hand — 
 
 — line 
 
 — line marks and deeps 
 Leather; — pump — 
 Life-belt; Life-buoy 
 
 Light, anchor — ; Anchor- 
 lantern 
 mast-head — 
 
 — masthead lantern 
 Lightning-conductor 
 
 Line 
 
 furling — 
 hambro — 
 hauling — 
 heaving — 
 house — 
 life — 
 
 Lizard 
 Log 
 
 — board 
 
 — book 
 
 — glass 
 ground — • 
 
 — line 
 
 — line runner 
 patent — 
 
 — reel 
 
 — ship 
 
 Making-iron (caulker's tool) 
 
 Mallet; serving — 
 
 Manrope (o/ bowsprit) 
 
 Man rope (on a yard) 
 
 Manropes (of gangway) 
 
 Marline 
 
 Marline spike 
 
 Maul 
 
 Medicine chest 
 
 Mop 
 
 Nails 
 
 Nautical almanac 
 
 Needle 
 
 bolt rope — ; roping — 
 
 sail — 
 Night-glass ; Night-telescope 
 Oakum 
 
 thread of — 
 
 twisted — 
 Padlocks 
 Paint brush 
 
 Palm (sailmaker's tool) 
 Parbuckle 
 Parcelling 
 Pennant 
 Pitch 
 
 — ladle 
 — • mop 
 
 — pot 
 Plane 
 Plug 
 Pricker 
 Provisions 
 Raft; saving — 
 Rasp; wood — 
 Ratline; Ratline stuff 
 Rave-hook; Meaking-iron 
 
 (caulker's tool) 
 
 Reeming-iron (caulker's tool) 
 Ridge-rope (life-line stretched 
 
 along a deck during bad 
 
 weather) 
 Rigging-screw 
 Ring 
 Roller (over which ropes are 
 
 led, to prevent chafing) 
 Rope-yarn 
 Sail-hook; — twine 
 Sand-glass 
 Saw ; hand — 
 Scoop 
 Scraper 
 Screw-jack 
 
 Scrubber ; Hand-scrubber 
 Seizing 
 
 cross — 
 
 fiat — 
 
 racking — 
 
 rose — 
 
 tail — 
 
 throat — 
 Sennit 
 
 common — 
 
 french — 
 
 round — 
 
 square — 
 Serving-board 
 Sextant 
 Shackle 
 
 anchor — 
 
 — bolt 
 
 fore-lock of a — bolt 
 
 joining — 
 
 mooring — 
 
 patent — 
 Shears ; Sheers 
 Shovel 
 
 Side-light; Side lantern 
 
 — screen 
 
 — screen stanchion 
 Signal 
 
 distress — 
 
 fog — 
 
 international code of — s 
 
 night — 
 
 rocket — 
 
 Sling; chain — ; rope — 
 Sounding-rod 
 
 — • machine 
 Spanish windlass 
 Speaking trumpet 
 Spike 
 Spunyarn 
 Spy-glass 
 Squillgee 
 
 Stage; triangular — 
 Standard 
 Staple 
 
WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 165 
 
 Stove 
 
 Stopper 
 
 Strop; selvagee — 
 
 Swab 
 
 Swinging tray 
 
 Swivel ; chain — 
 
 mooring — 
 Tank ; bread — 
 
 fresh-water — 
 Tar 
 
 — barrel 
 
 — bucket 
 
 Tar 
 
 — brush 
 
 Tarpaulin 
 
 Telescope 
 
 Thermometer 
 
 Thimble 
 
 Toggle 
 
 Traverse-board 
 
 Truck 
 
 fair lead — 
 parrel — 
 
 Jub 
 
 Turtle-peg 
 Twine 
 
 Vane; — spindle 
 Varnish ; black — 
 
 bright — 
 Ventilator; — cowl 
 
 — socket ■*. 
 Water-cask 
 Weather-board 
 Weather-cloth 
 Wedge 
 Wind-sail 
 
 1 61. Stowage of Various Cargoes 
 Below is given average space in cubic feet required 
 to stow named kinds of cargo. By stowage space is 
 meant the actual number of cubic feet in hold of vessel 
 that a ton of named cargo requires. This is always 
 more than actual bulk of a ton of the named material 
 because some space is taken up by containers, and in 
 addition to this there is always some space left between 
 packages. 
 
 List of Hold Space Required to Stow Cargo 
 
 Cubic Ft. 
 
 to the Ton 
 
 Stowed 
 
 Wool 98 
 
 Hemp, loosely packed 100 
 
 Hemp, compressed in bales 65 
 
 Cotton 115 
 
 Cotton, compressed in modern compressors 105 
 
 Rice in bags 48 
 
 Oats in bags 65 
 
 Linseed 58 
 
 Potatoes in bags 70 
 
 Refined sugar in bags 50 
 
 Tea 90 
 
 Grain in bulk 46 
 
 Butter in kegs 58 
 
i66 
 
 WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 K 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 t" 
 
 O 
 
 
 1-1 
 
 •z 
 
 
 w 
 
 CO 
 
 1-1 
 
 
 w 
 
 Q 
 
 
 > 
 
 Z 
 
 
 o 
 
 <^ 
 
 
 ^, 
 
 =Q 
 
 
 P-H 
 
 PiQ 
 
 
 l-l- 
 
 N r^ 
 
 
 HH 
 
 t-l CO 
 
 
 <! 
 
 CO W 
 
 m 
 
 t/J 
 
 
 \o 
 
 « 
 
 HH 
 
 
 Ori 
 
 [■tI 
 
 ^ 
 
 M - 
 
 1 1 
 
 w 
 
 u z 
 
 m 
 
 2; 
 
 2 :? 
 
 < 
 
 <fl 
 
 H 
 
 W 
 
 ^u 
 
 
 
 s§ 
 
 
 1?^ 
 
 K 
 
 
 <l 
 
 C 
 
 
 OS 
 
 a 
 
 
 PH 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 S 
 
 
 C 
 
 ts 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ?! 
 
 
 < 
 
 HH 
 
 
 
 
 nreqo 
 
 1 
 
 c 
 
 .X^X^X^^^::^^^ ^?^:s^^;?x^ 
 
 a 
 
 02 
 
 6q*}8u8q 
 
 B 
 
 uoooiooioooooooooooooo 
 
 O 01 W rfJlO^OOaOOOCOGOOOOOOOXGOaOODX 
 
 
 ozig lunuiraijY 
 
 1 
 
 ^ :^x:;S^^^:^^;;srx^ :f^;^^ 
 
 
 
 E 
 o 
 
 J3 
 o 
 
 a 
 < 
 
 1 
 
 o 
 
 s 
 
 1 
 
 a 
 
 aapsx pnr 
 
 
 ■ ■ -lOiOiOUOO OOiOOiOOO o»oo 
 
 aapsH 
 
 
 00000000»00>OtOOOOOOOO 
 '-' •-" C) (^ r^ -^ -^ ir>\C> -^ \0 r^t^oO 0^0^— ■ fM rO 
 
 lUBa^g 
 
 ^ 
 ^ 
 
 S^Sgg'^gOiOUOOOOOQOOOO 
 
 o 
 
 m 
 
 X^iBjinipv 
 
 e2 
 
 X X ^ ^ 
 
 ^OOJg 
 
 ^ 
 
 00000»O0QiO0»O0000C000 
 OCO>r;iO(NirjO(^uot^OO»OOCOOC 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 
 eaSpax 
 
 
 
 
 uicajtg 
 
 
 
 RISMOg 
 
 (N N <N r* <N N rOrOfOfOrfjrfjfOrOrfjrOrOrCrf; 
 
 
 
 
 aSennox 
 
 
 85>88§§§§88888888888 
 
 H^ •- (N rO -^ u-;\0 1^00 On O M rf\0 00 O tO O "O 
 
 be <i> 
 
 03 
 
 ^ a; 
 5^ «^ 
 
 ■w ^ 03 
 
 -4-3 >-l C 
 
 CO o ->^ 
 S «.— 
 
 3_ 
 MT3-0 
 fe S « . 
 
 j2 -*^ 
 o 03'3 
 
 ■< g s 
 
 mis ft 
 
 IIS 
 
 13 
 O 
 
 Uv 
 
 
 03 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 
 
 are 
 
 qO uisaaig 
 
 s 
 
 x^^:^;^^^^^^^^^^^ :f ^:s^:^;^:f ^x,^,^^.^^^^^? 
 
 f 
 
 qjSaaq 
 
 1 
 
 looooooiomoci/^ioooooooooooooooooooooo 
 O oi N N 01 (N rDf^»oin^vi:;xooooxooxoooo r^r-^r^i^t^t^o O o O re rc\5 
 
 
 eazTg Lunuiimi^ 
 
 a 
 
 
 I 
 
 CO 
 
 1 
 
 hi 
 
 o 
 
 » 
 •5 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 aSpaX pas 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 aapaH 
 
 ^ 
 
 00»O000Q00»OiO00iOiO00000000Q000 
 
 lOOO ro^ aNir)0\DX — t^r^^OOO « lOO lOiOO I->-»iO(N O O C| \n 
 
 d(Nfr>rOfOT)-iOlD i/^vO v£! IN. W r^OO 00 OvO^O ^ ^ nfO. Tl- ionD t^ 
 
 uisaitg 
 
 
 (NOiOOOOOOiOOOOQO>OOOOQOiOOQOOOOOOQOOO 
 '-' O « 00 O rr> rCO r~>.fOONO Q N tN.roiOu-30 uor»oo OvO co>00 (N lOO O >00 
 -« P< r< C< ro <e 10 100 I^IN-O^O— "-< W r^Tj-iO u-;\0 OooON"- (N tJ-io^OoO O M^O 
 
 (1) 
 1 
 
 ?sax 
 
 i 
 
 ON 0*00 r>. M u-;oo 0* 00 CD t^ 10 rs On^ i-nO-^-iot^ nr^ioiot^ id(n 
 
 IT)^ CO Ov ^ 04 ro '^nO I^X '- r^iOvOX O 1- fOrfiO t^X On O '- Ot rO »r;^ X O 
 ■_ HI H- — H- H- 1-. cs 01 (N 0< M 04 rOfCrTifOfCfCrOfOTl-TifTf-t^Tl-rJ-Ti-ir! 
 
 
 
 0»r^o^OX^O■^-o^OXNOTl-OQOOOOQQOQQQQQOOOOQOO 
 
 ONOiN.*fQr^^-x -t-xx o>oo ino o o>oo 000 Q o>oo 
 
 rCTi^O X •- rCi/^OX O " r^^O X -h rfj^O X "- Ot -1-0 X O 01 -+^00 O fO'O O 
 ,-, h-. i-H 1-H ^ « d 04 n 04 04 fDfOferr!"+-1--^-^'1-ioioioio U^vO ^O NO 1^ 
 
 1 
 
 s 
 
 3 
 
 saSpax 
 
 
 ^HMMOlOlO4OIO104O4O10*0404O4r4OlO4O4NOlO404O4OlOlO4 
 
 uiBaj^g 1 
 
 
 
 sja*iog 
 
 
 040404N040IOlO<040ir4040l040l040<(NrOfOr*:>fO»r)'^'^"*Tl- tJ- tJ- Tf ^f -^ ■+ 
 
 
 aai 
 
 muc 
 
 J, siasBBA 
 
 e2 
 
 O»r>©iO0"00ir;0000CoCoC00 0. ogoooooooooco 
 
 '-'•-'C<04rOfOThTj- ionO t---X ON 01 -^^ X r^NO OiOO»00»OOuOO OOO 
 
 „K-H---H-fs0404fOrO'^'^iD ir>»0 vO ^^X On O 
 
Chapter XVII 
 
 Resolution and Composition of Forces 
 
 The effects of the different forces which act on a 
 piece of timber at rest are these — extension and com- 
 pression in the direction of its length, lateral compres- 
 sion, and torsion. To the first, is opposed cohesion; to 
 the second, stiffness ; to the third, transverse strength ; 
 and to the fourth, the elasticity of torsion. On these 
 resistances of materials, direct experiments have been 
 made, and practical formulae for calculating them have 
 been deduced. 
 
 It is essential that an accurate idea should be formed 
 of the manner in which several forces act when united 
 in their effect, and I shall therefore explain the principles 
 of the composition and resolution of forces. 
 
 If a (Fig. la) be a force acting on a body in the di- 
 rection of line a b, and c another force acting on the 
 same point in the direction of line c b, with pressures in 
 proportion to the length of lines a b and c b respectively, 
 then the body will be affected precisely in the same 
 manner as if acted on by a single force d, acting in the 
 direction d b, with a pressure proportioned to the line 
 d b, which is the diagonal of a parallelogram formed on 
 a b, c b, and which is called the resultant of the two 
 
 forces o c. In like manner, if the forces a, c, d (Fig. 2a), 
 act on a body b, in the direction of lines a b, d b, c b, 
 and with intensities proportioned to the length of these 
 lines, then the resultant of the two forces, a and d, is ex- 
 pressed by the diagonal e b oi the parallelogram, formed 
 on lines a b, d b, and the resultant of this new force e, 
 and the third force c, is / acting in the direction / b, 
 the diagonal formed on e b, c b; therefore, / b expresses, 
 in direction and intensity, the resultant of the three 
 
 /^ 
 
 
 
 /VJ2 
 
 //(5-43^ 
 
 forces a, d, c. A simple experiment may be made to 
 prove this. Let the threads a b, a c d, a e f (Fig. 3a) 
 have the weights b d f appended to them, and let the 
 two threads a c d, a e f he passed over the pulleys c and e; 
 then if the weight b be greater than the sum of d f, the 
 assemblage will settle itself in a determinate form, de- 
 pendent on the weights. If the three weights are equal, 
 the lines a c, a e oi the threads will make equal angles 
 with a b; if the weights d f and b be respectively 6, 8, 
 and 10, then the angle c a e will be a right angle, and 
 the lines c a, e a will be of the respective lengths of 6 
 and 8; and if we produce c a, e a to n and m, and com- 
 plete the parallelogram a n o m; a n, a m will also be 6 
 and 8, and the diagonal a o will be 10. The action of 
 weight b in the direction a is thus in direct opposition 
 to the combined action of the two weights d f, in the 
 
i68 
 
 WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 directions c a, e a; and if we produce o a to some point 
 k, making a r, a s equal to those weights, we shall 
 manifestly have a k equal to a o. Now, since it is 
 evident that the weight b, represented by o o, would just 
 balance another weight /, pulling directly upwards by 
 means of the pulley k, and as it just balances the two 
 weights d f, acting in the directions a c, a e, we infer 
 that the point a is acted on in the same manner by these 
 weights as by the single weight, and that two pressures 
 acting in the directions and with the intensities a c, a e 
 are equal to the single pressure acting in the direction 
 and with the intensity a k. In like manner, the pressures 
 a, s a are equivalent to n a, which is equal and oppo- 
 
 //^-^ 
 
 site to r a; also, o a, r a are equivalent to m a, which 
 is equal and opposite to 5 a. 
 
 In the case of a load w (Fig. 4a) pressing on the 
 two inclined beams h c, b d, which abut respectively on 
 the points c and d, it is obvious that the pressures will 
 be in the directions b c, b d. To find the amounts of 
 these pressures, draw vertical line b e through the center 
 of load, and give it, by a scale of equal parts, as many 
 units of length as there are units of weight in the load 
 w: draw e f, e g parallel io c b, d b; then b g, measured 
 on the same scale, will give the amount of the pressure 
 sustained by b c, and b f the amount sustained by b d. 
 
 The amount of thrust, or pressure, is not influenced 
 by the lengths of pieces b e, h d. But it must be borne 
 in mind, that although the pressure is not modified in 
 its amount by the length, it is very much modified in 
 its efifects, these being greatest in the longest piece. 
 Hence, great attention must be given to this in design- 
 ing, lest by unequal yielding of the parts, the whole form 
 of the assemblage be changed, and strains introduced 
 which had not been contemplated. 
 
 If the direction of the beam fc d be changed to 
 that shown by the dotted line b i, it will be seen that the 
 pressures on both beams are very much increased, and 
 the more obtuse the angle i b h the greater the strain. 
 
Chapter XVIII 
 
 Strength and Strain of Materials 
 
 The materials employed in vessel construction are ex- 
 posed to certain forces, which tend to alter their molecu- 
 lar constitution, and to destroy that attraction which 
 exists between their molecules, named cohesion. 
 
 The destructive forces in timber may operate in the 
 manners following: 
 
 I. By tension in the direction of fibres of the wood, 
 producing rupture by tearing it asunder. 
 
 IL By compression in the direction of fibres, pro- 
 ducing rupture by crushing. 
 
 III. By pressure at right angles to direction of fibres, 
 or transverse strain, which breaks it across, and which, 
 as will be seen, is a combination of the two former 
 strains. 
 
 IV. By torsion or wrenching. 
 
 V. By tearing the fibres asunder. 
 
 Every material resists with more or less energy, and 
 for a longer or shorter period, these causes of destruction. 
 
 The resistance to the first-named force is called the 
 resistance to extension, or simply, cohesion ; to the 
 ■second, the resistance to compression ; and the third, the 
 resistance to transverse force. The measures of these 
 resistances are the efl^orts necessary to produce rupture 
 by extension, compression, or transverse strain. 
 
 Those materials which, when they have been sub- 
 mitted to a certain force less than the amount of their 
 resistance, return to their normal condition when that 
 force is withdrawn, are termed elastic. The knowledge 
 of the elasticity proper to any body gives the means of 
 calculating the amount of extension, compression, or 
 flexure, which the body will sustain under a given force. 
 
 For the purposes of calculation, it is convenient to 
 have a measure of the resilience or elastic power of a 
 body expressed either in terms of its own substance, or 
 in weight. This measure is termed the modulus of 
 elasticity of the body. 
 
 If we suppose the body to have a square unit of sur- 
 face, and to be by any force compressed to one-half or 
 extended to double its original dimensions, this force is 
 the modulus of the body's elasticity. No solid sub- 
 stance, it may at once be conceived, will admit of such 
 an extent of compression or extension ; but the expres- 
 sion for the modulus may nevertheless be obtained by 
 calculation on the data afforded by experiment. The 
 moduli for various kinds of woods will be found in 
 Table 2, column 7. (See p. 18 for Table 2.) 
 
 l8a. /. Resistance to Tension. 
 
 Although, mechanically considered, this is the sim- 
 plest strain to which a body can be subjected, it is yet the 
 one in regard to which fewest experiments have been 
 
 made, in consequence of the great force required to tear 
 asunder lengthways pieces of timber of even small di- 
 mensions. There is, too, a want of agreement sufficiently 
 battling in the results obtained by different operators. 
 The results of several experiments are given in the table 
 2, column 4, reduced to a section of one inch square. 
 
 Resistance of timber to compression in the direction 
 of the length of its fibres. 
 i8b. //. Resistance to Compression. 
 
 It is not necessary to give rules for the absolute crush- 
 ing force of timber. Those that follow are applicable to 
 the cases of posts whose length exceeds ten times their 
 diameter, and which yield by bending. 
 
 To find the diameter of a post that will sustain a 
 given weight. 
 
 j^ule. — Multiply the weight in lb by 1.7 times the 
 value of e (Table 2, column 9) ; then multiply the prod- 
 uct by the square of length in feet, and the fourth root 
 of the last product is the diameter in inches recjuired. 
 
 Examples. — i. The height of a cylindrical oak post 
 being 10 feet, and the weight to be supported by it 
 10,000 ft, required its diameter. 
 
 The tabular value of e for oak is .0015 — 
 
 therefore, 1.7 X .0015 X 100 X loooo = 2550 
 the fourth root of which is 7. 106, the diameter required. 
 
 By inverting the operation, we find the weight, when 
 the dimensions are given. 
 
 To find the scantling of a rectangular post to sustain 
 a given zveight. 
 
 Rule. — Multiply the weight in tb by the square of 
 the length in feet, and the product by the value of e: 
 divide this product by the breadth in inches, and the 
 cube root of the quotient will be the depth in inches. 
 
 To find the dimensions of a square post that will 
 sustain a given weight. 
 
 Rule. — Multiply the weight in ft by the square of 
 the length in feet, and the product by 4 times the value 
 of e; and the fourth root of this product will be the 
 diagonal of the post in inches. 
 
 To find the stiff est rectangular post to sustain a given 
 Weight. 
 
 Rule. — Multiply the weight in ft by 0.6 times the 
 tabular value of e, and the product by the square of the 
 length in feet ; and the fourth root of this product will be 
 the least side in inches : divide the least side by 0.6 to 
 obtain the greatest side. 
 
 Let the length of the stiffest rectangular oak post 
 be 10 feet, and the weight to be supported 10,000 ft, 
 required the side of the post. 
 
 0.6 X .0015 X 10 X 10 X loooo = 900, 
 
I JO 
 
 WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 the fourth root of which is 5.477, the least side, which, 
 divided by 0.6, gives 9.13 as the greatest side. 
 
 i8c. ///. Resistance of timbers to transverse strain. 
 When a piece of timber is fixed horizontally at its 
 two ends, then, either by its own proper weight, or by 
 the addition of a load, it bends, and its fibres become 
 curved. If the curvature do not exceed a certain limit, 
 the timber may recover its straightness when the weight 
 is removed; but if it exceed that limit, although ihe 
 curvature diminishes on the removal of load, the timber 
 never recovers its straightness, its elasticity is lessened, 
 and its strength is partly lost. On the load being aug- 
 mented by successive additions of weights, the curva- 
 ture increases until rupture is produced. Some woods, 
 however, break without previously exhibiting any sensi- 
 ble curvature. 
 
 It may be supposed that, in the case of the timber 
 being exactly prismatic in form, and homogeneous in 
 structure, the rupture of its fibres would take place in 
 the middle of its length, in the vertical line, where the 
 curves of the fibres attain their maxima. 
 
 In the rupture by transverse strain of elastic bodies 
 in general, and consequently in wood, all the fibres are 
 not afifected in the same manner. Suppose a piece of 
 timber, composed of a great number of horizontal 
 ligneous layers, subjected to such a load as will bend it, 
 then it will be seen that the layers in the upper part are 
 contracted, and those in the lower part extended, while 
 between these there is a layer which suflfers neither com- 
 pression nor tensiQn; this is called the neutral plane or 
 
 axis. 
 
 If the position of the neutral axis could be determined 
 with precision, it would render more exact the means of 
 calculating transverse strains; but as the knowledge of 
 the ratios of extensibility and compressibility is not ex- 
 act, the position of the neutral axis can only be vaguely 
 deduced from experiment. Where the ratios of compres- 
 sion and extension equal, the neutral axis would be in 
 the center of the beam; but experiments show that this 
 equality does not exist. Barlow found that in a rec- 
 tangular fir beam the neutral axis was at about five- 
 eighths of the depth; and Duhamel cut beams one-third, 
 and one-half, and two-thirds through, inserting in the cuts 
 slips of harder wood, and found the weights borne by 
 the uncut and cut beams to be as follows : 
 
 Uncut Beam M Cut % Cut % Cut 
 
 45 tt) 51 It) 48 tb 42 lb 
 
 Results which clearly show, that less than half the fibres 
 were engaged in resisting extension; and it has been 
 long known that a beam of soft wood, supported at its 
 extremities, may have a saw-cut made in the center, 
 half-way through its thickness, and a hard wood piece 
 inserted in the cut, without its strength being materially 
 impaired. 
 
 The transverse strength of beam is — 
 Directly as the breadth. 
 Directly as the square of the depth, and 
 Inversely as the length; 
 or substituting the letter b for the breadth, 
 
 d for the depth, and 
 / for the length, 
 and placing the ratios together, the general expression of 
 the relation of strength to the dimensions of a beam is 
 obtained as follows: — 
 
 b X d' 
 
 I 
 But this forms no rule for application, since beams of 
 different materials do not break by the application of the 
 same load ; and it is therefore necessary to find by experi- 
 ment a quantity to express the specific strength of each 
 material. 
 
 Let this quantity be represented by S, and the formula 
 becomes — 
 
 b Xd' XS 
 = breakmg weight. 
 
 By this formula experiments can be reduced so as 
 to give the value of S. It is only necessary to find the 
 breaking weight of a beam whose dimensions are known, 
 and then by transposition of the equation — 
 / X breaking weight 
 
 b X d' ~~ 
 
 S thus becomes a constant for all beams of the same 
 material as the experimental beam. 
 
 When the value of S for various kinds of wood is 
 determined, the formula may be used for computing the 
 strength of a given beam, or the size of a beam to carry 
 a given load. For any three of the quantities, /, b, d, W, 
 being given, we can find the fourth thus : — 
 
 I. When the beam is fixed at one end and loaded at 
 the other, and when 
 
 /W 
 
 = S. 
 
 The length, breadth, and depth being given, to find the 
 weight— Sb d^ 
 
 W= 
 
 / 
 
 The weight, breadth, and depth being given, to find the 
 leng'th— 
 
 _S b d- 
 
 ~~ W 
 The weight, length, and depth being given, to find the 
 breadth — 
 
 _ / W 
 
 The weight, length, and breadth being given, to find the 
 depth — 
 
 1 /W 
 
WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 ni 
 
 When the section of a beam is square, that is, when 
 
 / / W 
 h = d; then b or d ^ yj 
 
 The table la cohimn 12 contains the results of ex- 
 periments on transverse strength of various kinds of 
 wood, with the value of S, calculated according to 
 
 /W 
 the formula S = . 
 
 In any beam exposed to transverse strain, it is mani- 
 fest that there must be some certain proportion between 
 the breadth and depth which will afiford the best results. 
 It is found that this is obtained when the breadth is to 
 the depth as 6 to 10. Therefore, when it is required to 
 , find. the least breadth that a beam for a given .bearing 
 should have, the formula is as follows: — 
 
 — 0.6 = 6; 
 ^~d 
 or, expressed in words — 
 
 Rule. — Divide the length in feet by the square root of 
 the depth in inches, and the quotient, multiplied by the 
 decimal 0.6, will give the least breadth the beam ought 
 to have. 
 
 The nearer a beam approaches to the section given 
 by this rule, the stronger it will be ; and from this rule is 
 derived the next. 
 
 To find the strongest form of a beam so as to use 
 only a given quantity of timber. 
 
 Rule. — Multiply the length in feet by the decimal 
 0.6, and divide the given area in inches by the product, 
 and the square of the quotient will be the depth in inches. 
 
 Example. — Let the given length be 20 feet, and the 
 
 60 
 
 given area of section 60 inches. Then = 5.00, 
 
 20 X 0.6 
 the square of which is 25 inches, the depth required, and 
 the breadth is consequently 2.4 inches. 
 
 The stiffest beam is that in which the breadth is to the 
 depth as .58 to i. 
 
 i8d. Tenacity 
 
 As the strength of cohesion must be proportional to 
 the number of fibres of the wood, or, in other words, to 
 the area. of section, it follows that the tenacity of any 
 piece of timber, or the weight which will tear it asunder 
 lengthways, will be found by multiplying the number of 
 square inches in its section by the tabular number cor- 
 responding to the kind of timber. (Column 4, Table 2.) 
 
 Example.— ~S\xppose it is required to find the tenacity 
 of a tie-beam of fir, of 8 X 6 inches scantling. 
 
 8 X 6 = 48, which, multiplied by 12,000, the tabular 
 number for fir, gives 576,000 fb. 
 
 This is the absolute tenacity. Practically it is not 
 considered safe to use more than one-fourth of this 
 weight, or 144,000 tb. 
 
 By the rule inverted, the section of the timber may be 
 found when the weight is given, as follows: — 
 
 j^iile. — Divide the given weight by the tabular num- 
 ber, and the quotient multiplied by 4 is the area of sec- 
 tion required for the safe load. 
 
 Example. — Required the area of section of a piece of 
 fir to resist safely a tensile strain of 144,000 tb. 
 144000 
 = 12 X 4 = 48, the section required. 
 
 12000 
 
 i8e. Summary of Rules 
 
 I. Resistance to Tension or Tenacity. 
 
 To find the tenacity of a piece of timber. 
 
 Rule. — Multiply the number of square inches in its 
 section by the tabular number corresponding to the kind 
 of timber. 
 
 III. Resistance to Transverse Strain. 
 
 1st. When the beam is fixed at one end and loaded at 
 the other. 
 
 To find the breaking iveight, when the length, breadth, 
 and depth are given. 
 
 /?«/^.— Multiply the square of the depth in inches by 
 the breadth in inches, and the product by the tabular 
 value of S (Table 2, column 12, page 18), and divide 
 by the length in inches: the quotient is the breaking 
 weight. 
 
 To find the length, zi'hen the breadth, depth, and break- 
 ing zveight are given. 
 
 Rule. — Multiply the square of the depth by the 
 breadth and by the value of S, and divide by the weight : 
 the quotient is the length. 
 
 To find the breadth, zvhen the depth, length, and break- 
 ing zveight are given. 
 
 Rule. — Multiply the weight by the length in inches, 
 and divide by the square of the depth in inches multi- 
 plied by the value of S : the quotient is the breadth. 
 
 To find the depth, zvhen the breadth, length, and 
 zveight are given. 
 
 Rule. — Multiply the length in inches by the weight, 
 divide the product by the breadth in inches multiplied by 
 S, and the square root of the quotient is the depth. 
 
 To find the side of a square beam, zvhen the length 
 and zveight are given. 
 
 Rule. — I^Iultiply the length in inches by the weight, 
 divide the product by S, and the cube root of the quo- 
 tient is the side of the square section. 
 
 To find the scantling of a piece of timber zvhich, 
 zvhen laid in a horizontal position, and supported at 
 both ends, zvill resist a given transverse strain, zvith a 
 deflection not exceeding ^/toth of an inch per foot. 
 
 I. When the breadth and length are giz'en, to find the 
 depth. 
 
 Rule. — Multiply the square of the length in feet by 
 the weight to be sustained in tb., and the product by 
 the tabular number a (Table 2, column 10, page 18) ; 
 divide the product by the breadth in inches, and the cube 
 root of the quotient will be the depth in inches. 
 
 Example. — Required the depth of a pitch pine-beam, 
 
IT 2 WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 having a bearing of 20 feet, and a breadth of 6 inches, the length between the supports in inches, and the quo- 
 te sustain a weight of 1000 lb. • tient will be the greatest weight the beam will bear in lb. 
 The square of the length, 20 feet. . = 400 2d. When the beam is supported at one end and 
 
 Multiplied by the weight = icxx) loaded in the middle. 
 
 • The length, breadth, and depth, all in inches, being 
 
 And the product 400,000 given, to find the zueight. 
 
 By the decimal .016 Rule. — Multiply the square of the depth by 4 times 
 
 the breadth, and by S, and divide the product by the 
 
 Divide the product by the breadth, length for the breaking weight. 
 
 6 inches = 6400.000 The zveight, breadth, and depth being given, to find 
 
 Gives 1066.666 the length. 
 
 The cube root of which is 10.2 inches, the depth re- R^de. — Multiply 4 times the breadth by the square 
 
 quired. of the depth, and by S, and the product divided by the 
 
 2. When the depth is given. weight is the length. 
 
 Rule. — Multiply the square of the length in feet by ^'^o weight, length, and depth being given, to find 
 
 the weight in tb, and multiply this product by the tabu- '''^ breadth. 
 
 lar value of a: divide the last product by the cube of the i?i«/^.— Multiply the length by the weight, and the 
 
 depth in inches, and the quotient will be the breadth product divided by 4 times the square of the depth 
 
 required. multiplied by S, is the breadth. 
 
 £.ra;«/'/f?.— Length of pitch-pine beam 20 feet ; depth. The weight, length, and breadth being given, to find 
 
 10.2 inches; weight, 1000 lb. '/^^ depth. 
 
 20 X 20 X 1000 X .016 6400 i?i(/f.— Multiply the length by the weight, and divide 
 
 Then = = 6, the breadth the product by 4 times the breadth multiplied by S. 
 
 • A '°'^ ^ ^°^ ^° ^ ' IVhen the section of the beam is square, and the weight 
 
 " ',, . , , , , , , , , . . and length are given, to find the side of the square. 
 
 3. M^hen neither the breadth nor the depth is given, , . , .,,..,,.,■ u.. j a- -j 
 
 , "^ , , , . , , , ,. , r Rule. — Multiply the length by the weight, and divide 
 
 but they are to be determined by the proportion before , ^ u ^ c ^u u ^ ^ ^u ,.■ ^ 
 
 -; , , , , , ' ^ the product by 4 times b : the cube root of the quotient 
 
 given, that is, breadth to depth as 0.6 to i. • ^1 , j^u ..i j ^u 
 
 „ , ^/ , ■ , , • , • ^ , , t , is the breadth or the depth. 
 
 Rule. — Multiply the weight in lb by the tabular num- , ,,,, ., , ■ j: j >. u ^u a jijj 
 
 .*, -^ ° ; 3d. When the beam is fixed at both ends and loaded 
 
 ber a, and divide the product by 0.6, and extract the • ,, jj, 
 
 , • , , , , , , ■ r , in the middle, 
 
 square root: multiply the root by the length in feet, and ^^^^ ^^^^^^^ ^^^^/^^ ^^^ ^^^^^^ ^^. .^^^^ ^^ ^,^^ 
 
 extract the square root of this product, which will be the ^, ... 
 
 the weight. 
 
 depth in inches, and the breadth will be equal to the Rule.-Un\U^\y 6 times the breadth by the square 
 
 depth mult.p led by 0.6. ^^ ^^^ ^^p^j^^ ^^^ ^ S^ ^^^ ^;^i^^ ^^^ p^^^^^^ ^^ ^j^^ 
 
 To find the strength of a rectangular beam, fixed at . .r f *t, • u*. 
 
 one end and loaded at the other. ^" n'is^not nelesLy to repeat all the transpositions of 
 
 Rule. — Multiply the value of S by the area of the ,, 
 
 ,,,,,.,, ,,■•,, the equation, 
 
 section, and by the depth of the beam, and divide the ^^,^ ^,^^,^ ^j^^ ^^^^ j^ ^,.^^ ^^ ^^^^ ^^^,^ ^^^ ,^^^j^j 
 
 product by the length in inches. The quotient will be the ^^ ^^ intermediate point. 
 
 breaking weight in ft. i?M/^.— Multiply 3 times the length by the breadth, 
 
 E.rample.-A beam of Riga fir projects 10 feet be- ^^^ ^^ ^^e square of\he depth, and by S; and divide the 
 
 yond Its point of support, and its section is 8 X 6 inches, p^.^^^^^^ ^^ ^^j^^ ^,^^ rectangle formed by the segments 
 
 what IS Its breaking weight ? .^^^ ^^.^^ ^^^ ^^-^^^ ^,j^j^^3 ^j,^ ^^^^ 
 
 Area 8 X 6 r=r 48, multiplied by the depth 8 = 384. p^^ example, if the beam is 20 feet long and the 
 
 Multiply this by the constant 1108, and divide the product ^^jg^t is placed at 5 feet from one end, then the seg- 
 
 iioo X 304 ments are respectively 5 feet and 15 feet, or, in inches, 
 
 by the length, = 3545 tb. The fourth part 5^ ^^^j jg^. ^^^ ^he rectangle is 60 X 180 = 10800; 
 
 ^^ and twice this amount, or 21600, is the divisor. 
 
 of this is the safe weight to impose in practice, there- Suppose the beam of Riga fir, fixed at both ends, 
 
 °^^ and its section 8X6 inches and the weight placed at 5 
 
 3545 feet from one end, required its breaking weight: then, 
 
 = 886 lb. three times the length = 720, multiplied by the product 
 
 4 of the breadth into the square of the depth, and by the 
 
 To find the strength of a rectangular beam, when it is tabular value of S = 306339840; which divided by 21600, 
 
 supported at the ends and loaded at the middle. as above, gives 14,182 lb as the breaking weight. 
 
 Rule. — Multiply S by 4 times the depth, and by the 5th. When the beam is supported at both ends, but 
 
 area of the section in inches, and divide the product by not fixed, and when the load is in the middle. 
 
WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 173 
 
 To find the zveight, zahen the length, breadth and 
 depth are given. 
 
 Rule. — Multiply 4 times the breadth by the square 
 of the depth and by S, and divide the product by the 
 length : the product is the breaking weight. 
 
 i8f. Compound Beams 
 
 In any loaded beam, as we have seen, the fibres on 
 the upper side are compressed, while those on the lower 
 side are extended; and within the elastic limits those 
 forces are equal. The intensity of the strain, also, varies 
 directly as the distance of any fibre from the neutral 
 axis. 
 
 If the parts of a beam near the neutral axis, which 
 are little strained and oppose but little resistance, could 
 be removed ; and if the same amount of material could be 
 disposed at a greater distance from the axis ; the strength 
 and stifTness would be increased in exact proportion to 
 the distance at which it could be made to act. Hence, 
 in designing a truss, the material, to resist the horizontal 
 strain, must be placed as far from the neutral axis as 
 the nature of the structure will allow. 
 
 Suppose to the single beam a b (Fig. 5a) we add 
 another c d, and unite them by vertical connections, then 
 it might be supposed that we were doing as above sug- 
 gested ; that is, making a compound beam by disposing 
 the material advantageously at the greatest distance 
 from the neutral axis. But it is not so. There are only 
 two beams resisting with their individual strength and 
 stiffness the load, which is increased by the weight of 
 the vertical connections, and they would sink under the 
 pressure into the curve shown by the dotted lines. It is 
 necessary, therefore, to use some means whereby the 
 two beams will act as one, and their flexure under pres- 
 sure be prevented. This is found in the use of braces, 
 as in Fig. 6a ; and we shall proceed to consider what 
 effect a load would produce on a truss so formed. 
 
 The load being uniformly distributed, the depression 
 in the case of flexure will be greatest in the middle, and 
 the diagonals of the rectangles a b, c d, will have a ten- 
 dency to shorten. But, as the braces are incapable of 
 yielding in the direction of their length, the shortening 
 cannot take place, neither can the flexure. A truss of 
 this description, therefore, when properly proportioned, 
 is capable of resisting the action of a uniform load. 
 
 il^: _- 
 
 F/G S'^ 
 
174 
 
 WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 If the load is not uniformly distributed, the pressures 
 will be found thus : — Let the weight be applied at some 
 point c (Fig. 7a), and represented by c p. Now resolve 
 this into its components in the direction c a, c b, and con- 
 struct the parallelogram p m, c 0, then c m will represent 
 the strain on c b and c the strain in the direction c a. 
 B)' transferring the force c m to the point b, and resolv- 
 ing it into vertical and horizontal components, the verti- 
 cal pressure on b will be found equal to c n and that on 
 A eqtial to n p. That is, the pressures on a and b are 
 directly proportional to their distance from the place of 
 the application of the load. 
 
 In the same manner, if the load were at R, it would 
 be discharged by direct lines to a and b. 
 
 The effect of the oblique force c a acting on r is to 
 force it upwards, and the direction and magnitude of the 
 strain would be the diagonal of a parallelogram con- 
 structed on a c, c R. 
 
 The consequence of this is, that in a truss a weight at 
 one side produces a tendency to rise at the other side, 
 and, therefore, while the diagonals of the loaded side are 
 compressed those of the unloaded side are extended. 
 
 Hence„ while the simple truss shown in the last two 
 figures is perfectly sufficient for a structure uniformly 
 loaded, because the weight on one side is balanced by the 
 weight on the other, it is not sufficient for one subjected 
 to a variable load. 
 
 For a variable load, it is therefore necessary either 
 that the braces should be made to resist extension by 
 having iron ties added to them, or that other braces to 
 resist compression in the opposite direction should be 
 introduced ; and thus we obtain a truss composed of four 
 elements, namely, chords a b and c d (Fig. 8a), vertical 
 
 ties e f, g h, k m, braces e c, g f, g m, k D, and counter- 
 braces A f, e h, k h, B m, or, in place of the latter, tie- 
 rods added to the braces. 
 
 It has been shown that in any of the parallelograms 
 of such a truss as has been described, the action of a load 
 is to compress the braces a d, a b, and to extend the 
 counter-braces a b, a c. Suppose (Fig. 9a) that the 
 counter-braces have been extended to the length a tn, 
 and the braces compressed to an equal extent ; then if a 
 wedge be closely fitted into the interval a m, it will 
 
 /^/& ^ 
 
 neither have any effect on the framing, nor will itself be 
 afifected in any way so long as the weight which has pro- 
 duced the flexure continues. But on the removal of the 
 weight, the wedge becomes compressed by the effort of the 
 truss to return to its normal condition. This effort is re- 
 sisted by the wedge, and there is, consequently, a strain 
 on the counter-brace equal to that which was produced 
 by the action of the weight. The effect of the addition 
 of a similar weight, therefore, would be to relieve the 
 strain on the counter-brace, without adding anything to 
 the strain on the brace a d. 
 
WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 175 
 
 Here is listed in alphabetical order the names of principal parts -of a wooden ship, 
 defined under proper headings or described and illustrated in one of the chapters. 
 
 Parts of a Wooden Hull Including the Wooden Portions of 
 
 Air-course 
 
 Amidship 
 
 Apron 
 
 Beam 
 
 after — 
 
 breast — ; collar — (of 
 
 o poop, forecastle, etc.) 
 
 — carling 
 deck — 
 
 awning deck — 
 between deck — 
 forecastle deck ■ — 
 lower deck — 
 main deck — 
 middle deck — 
 poop deck — 
 raised-quarter deck — 
 spardeck — 
 
 upper deck — 
 
 — end 
 foremost — 
 
 half — {in way of hatch- 
 ways) 
 
 hatchway — 
 hold — 
 
 intermediate — 
 mast — 
 midship — 
 
 moulding of — s {depth) 
 orlop — 
 paddle — 
 
 rounding or chamber of a — 
 scantling of — s 
 siding of — s {breadth) 
 
 — scarph 
 spacing of — s 
 
 spring — , sponson — {of 
 
 paddle-steamer) 
 
 spur — {of paddlewalks) 
 
 tier of — s 
 
 transom — ■ 
 
 Bearding-line 
 
 Bilge 
 
 — keelson 
 
 — logs 
 
 • — planks 
 
 ■ — strakes 
 
 thick strakes of — 
 
 turn of — 
 
 lower turn of- — 
 
 upper turn of — 
 
 Binding-strake 
 
 Bitt 
 
 cross piece of — 
 gallow — 
 
 — head 
 lining of — 
 riding — 
 
 Bitt 
 
 standard to — 
 
 step of — 
 
 top sail sheet — 
 
 windlass — {see windlass) 
 
 Body {of a ship) 
 
 Chock, bow — 
 
 bi^tt — {of timbers) 
 
 corner — {over the stem 
 
 seam in way of hawse 
 
 bolster) 
 
 cross — 
 
 dowsing — {breasthook 
 
 above a deck) 
 
 floor head — - 
 
 Cable-stage ; Cable-tier 
 
 Careening 
 
 Carling {Beam-carling) 
 hatchway — 
 mast — {fore and aft 
 partners of mast) 
 
 Carvel-built 
 
 Carvel-work 
 
 Casing 
 
 Cat-head 
 
 supporter of — 
 
 Cat-tail 
 
 Caulking 
 
 Ceiling 
 
 between deck — 
 close — 
 tlat — , floor — 
 hold — 
 
 — plank 
 
 thick stuff of — 
 
 Chain-locker 
 
 Chain-plate 
 backstay — 
 
 — bolt 
 fore — 
 main — 
 mizzen — 
 preventer — 
 preventer bolt 
 
 Channel 
 fore — 
 
 — knee 
 lower — 
 main — 
 mizzen — 
 
 — ribband 
 upper — 
 
 Cheek 
 
 Chess-tree 
 Chock 
 
 the greater number of parts being either 
 
 A Composite Hull 
 
 Clamp 
 
 deck beam — 
 awning deck beam — 
 forecastle deck beam — 
 lower deck beam — 
 middle deck beam — ; main 
 
 deck beam — • 
 poop — 
 
 spardeck beam — 
 upper deck beam — 
 hold beam — 
 
 Cleat 
 
 sheet — ; kevel - — 
 
 shroud — 
 
 snatch — 
 
 step of a — 
 
 stop ■ — 
 
 thumb — 
 Clincher-built 
 Clinched-work 
 Coach {quarter-deck cabin) 
 Coak or dowel 
 Coal-hold 
 Coat 
 Combing; Coaming 
 
 hatchway — 
 
 house — 
 Companion 
 
 — way 
 Compartment 
 Copper 
 
 — fastened 
 Counter 
 
 lower — 
 
 upper — 
 Covering-board 
 Crane 
 Crew-space 
 Cross piece {floor) 
 Crutch {hook in after peak) 
 Crutch 
 Curve 
 Cutwater 
 Dead-eye 
 Dead-flat 
 Dead-light 
 Dead-rising 
 Dead-wood 
 Dead-work 
 
 Deck 
 
 awning — 
 entire awning — 
 partial awning — 
 between — {'tweendeck) 
 
 — dowel 
 — - ends 
 
 first, second and third — 
 
I yd 
 
 WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 Deck 
 
 Fastening 
 
 Futtock, — heel 
 
 flat of — 
 
 metal — 
 
 
 flush — 
 
 single — {in planks) 
 
 Gallery 
 
 fore — 
 
 through — 
 
 Galley 
 
 forecastle — 
 
 
 
 — hook 
 
 Faying surface {of timbers, 
 
 Gallows; Gallows-bitts 
 
 — house 
 
 planking, etc.) 
 
 
 — light 
 
 lower or orlop ^ 
 
 Felt {under metal sheathing) 
 
 Gangway 
 
 Entering port 
 
 middle — , main — 
 
 Figure-head 
 
 Gangways {under deck) 
 
 — plank 
 
 fiddle — 
 
 Garboard 
 
 quarter — 
 
 Filling; Filling piece 
 
 outer — 
 
 raised quarter — or half 
 
 
 — plank 
 
 poop — 
 
 Floor 
 
 — seam 
 
 — seam 
 
 aftermost — 
 
 — strake 
 
 shade — 
 
 cant — Double futtock 
 
 
 sheer of — 
 
 double — 
 
 Girder 
 
 shelter ■ — 
 
 flat — 
 
 Girth {of a ship) 
 
 . spar — 
 stage or preventer — 
 
 foremost — 
 half — 
 
 Gripe {of stem and keel) 
 
 tonnage — 
 
 — head 
 
 Groove 
 
 upper — 
 
 — head chock 
 
 Gunwale 
 
 weather — 
 
 long armed — 
 
 
 • well — 
 
 midship or main — 
 
 Gutter 
 
 
 moulding of — s {depth) 
 
 — ledge {of hatchway) 
 
 Depth 
 
 — of hold 
 
 rising of — s 
 seating of a- — 
 sliort armed — 
 siding of — s {breadth, 
 thickness) 
 
 Hatch {cover of a hatchway) 
 
 • moulded — {measured from 
 top of keel to top of mid- 
 ship beam) 
 
 — bars 
 
 — battens ; Hatchway 
 battens 
 
 — batten-cleat 
 
 Diagonal 
 
 top of — s 
 
 booby — ; Booby hatchway 
 
 — iron plates or riders {on 
 
 Forecastle 
 
 ■ — carling 
 
 frames') 
 
 — beam 
 
 — house 
 
 Diminishing stuff; Diminishing 
 
 — coveringboard 
 
 Hatchway {also called hatch) 
 
 planks 
 
 — deck 
 
 after or quarter — 
 
 
 — rail 
 
 cargo — 
 
 Door 
 
 — skylight 
 
 — carlings 
 
 Doubling 
 
 monkey — {small height) 
 sunk — 
 
 — combing 
 lower deck — 
 
 diagonal — 
 
 topgallant — 
 
 main deck — 
 
 Dove-tail 
 
 
 upper deck — 
 
 — plate 
 
 Frame 
 
 fore' — 
 
 
 after balance — 
 
 fore and after in a 
 
 Dowel ; Coak 
 
 fore balance — 
 
 — grating 
 
 deck — 
 
 diagonal — ; trussing — 
 
 — headledge 
 
 floor — 
 
 flight of — s 
 
 hood of — 
 
 Draught 
 
 foremost — 
 
 main — 
 
 
 main or midship — 
 
 thwartship piece, half beam 
 
 Draught-mark 
 
 moulding of — s 
 
 in a — 
 
 Eking 
 
 — riders, diagonals on — s 
 
 wing boards in — {for 
 
 siding of — s 
 
 grain cargoes) 
 
 Entrance {of a vessel) 
 Erection {on deck) 
 
 spacing of — s 
 spacing between — s 
 
 Hawse; Hawse-hole 
 — bag 
 
 Escutcheon {that part of the 
 
 square — 
 stern — 
 
 — bolster 
 
 — plug 
 
 stern, where the name is 
 
 
 written) 
 
 Freeboard 
 
 Hawse-pipe 
 
 knee — 
 
 Futtock 
 
 — flange 
 
 Fair leader 
 
 first — ; lower — 
 
 Hawse-timber 
 
 Fashion-piece 
 
 toptimber of a — 
 
 second — 
 third — 
 fourth — 
 
 Head {of a vessel) 
 beak of the — 
 
 Fastening 
 
 fifth — 
 
 bluff — 
 
 copper — 
 
 sixth — 
 
 Knee of the head (") 
 
 double — {in planks) 
 
 double — 
 
 — boards 
 
 iron — 
 
 — head 
 
 bob-stay piece of the — 
 
WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 177 
 
 Head (of a vessel) 
 
 Keelson 
 
 Manger 
 
 cheeks of the — 
 
 bilge — 
 
 — board 
 
 cheek-fillings of the — 
 
 main — 
 
 
 lower cheeks of the — 
 
 middle line — ; center — 
 
 Mast-carling (fore and aft 
 (partners of mast) 
 
 washboards under the low- 
 
 rider — 
 
 er cheeks of the — 
 
 scarph of — 
 
 — hole ■ 
 
 upper cheeks of the — 
 
 sister- — ; side — 
 
 Mess-room 
 
 filling chocks of the — 
 
 Kevel ; Kevel-head 
 
 Middle-line; Center-line 
 
 — grating 
 
 
 
 independent piece of the — 
 
 Knee 
 
 Midship-section 
 
 lace piece or gammoning of 
 the — 
 
 beam arm of a — 
 dead wood — 
 
 Mooring-pipe 
 
 Head, standard knee of the — 
 
 diagonal — 
 hanging—; vertical — 
 
 Moulding 
 
 — rail 
 
 heel — (of sternpost and 
 
 Moulding (of a piece of 
 
 berthing rail of — 
 
 keel) 
 
 timber) 
 
 main rail of — 
 
 hold beam - — 
 
 breech — 
 
 small or middle rail of — 
 
 iron ■ — 
 
 cable — 
 
 stem furr of the — 
 — timbers 
 
 lodging — 
 
 lower deck beam — 
 
 Name-board 
 
 Head-ledge (of a hatchway) 
 
 middle deck beam — 
 
 Naval-hood (hawse pipe bol- 
 ster) 
 
 Heel 
 
 upper deck beam — 
 
 Helm 
 
 Knee, ^ rider 
 
 Pad 
 
 
 standard — 
 
 Paddle beam 
 
 Helm-port (the hole in the 
 counter, through which the 
 
 staple — 
 throat of a - — - 
 
 Paddle box 
 
 framing of — 
 
 head of the rudder passes.) 
 
 transom — 
 
 Hogging; Sagging 
 
 wooden — 
 
 Paddle walks (extension of the 
 
 Hold 
 
 Knight 
 
 paddle boxes) 
 
 after — 
 
 of the fore-mast 
 
 Panel-work 
 
 fore — 
 
 of the main-mast 
 
 Panting (of a ship) 
 
 lower — 
 
 of the mizzen-mast 
 
 
 main — 
 
 Knighthead 
 
 Pantry (steward's room) 
 
 Hood 
 
 (of the crew-space) 
 
 Launching (of a ship) 
 
 Partner 
 
 bowsprit — 
 
 after — s (of planking) 
 
 Lazarette 
 
 capstan — 
 
 fore — s (of planking) 
 
 Leak 
 
 mast — 
 
 — ends ; Wood-ends 
 House; Deck-house 
 
 Lee-board (used by small Hat 
 bottomed vessels) 
 
 fore and aft mast — 
 (mast-carling) 
 
 Ice-doubling; Ice-lining 
 
 Lee-flange (iron horse) 
 
 Peak 
 
 after - — ■ 
 
 Intercostal 
 
 Length (of a ship) 
 
 fore — • 
 
 Iron 
 
 extreme — (from fore-part 
 
 
 bar — 
 
 of stem to afterpart of 
 
 Pin-rack 
 
 galvanized — 
 
 sternpost) 
 
 Plank 
 
 plain • — 
 
 Lengthening (of a ship) 
 
 boundary — ; margin — (of 
 
 — rod; Iron-horse 
 
 Limbers; Limber-passage (*) 
 
 a deck) 
 
 — work 
 
 Limber-boards 
 
 shifting of — s 
 
 Keel 
 
 
 Planking 
 
 bilge — 
 
 Limber-hole 
 
 bilge— (outside) 
 
 camber of — ; hogging of — 
 
 Limber-strakes 
 
 bilge — (inside) 
 
 center line — ; middle line — 
 
 Lining 
 
 bottom — 
 
 false— ; safety — 
 
 Listing 
 
 bow — 
 
 length or piece of — 
 
 Load-line 
 
 bulwark — 
 
 main — 
 
 deep — 
 
 buttock — 
 
 moulding of- — 
 
 Lobby 
 
 deck — 
 
 lower — ; upper false — 
 
 diagonal - — 
 
 — rabbet 
 
 Locker 
 
 fastening of — 
 
 — scarph 
 
 Locker-seat 
 
 inside^ 
 
 stopwater (in keel scarph) 
 
 (*) A passage over the floors 
 
 outside — 
 
 — seam (garboard-seam) 
 
 or holes in same to allow water 
 
 stern — 
 
 side — 
 
 to reach the pumps ; The space 
 
 topside — 
 
 siding of — 
 
 between the floors extending a 
 
 Planksheer 
 
 skeg of — 
 
 short distance on each side of 
 
 Platform 
 
 sliding — 
 
 the middle-line, is also called 
 
 upper or main — 
 
 "Limbers". 
 
 Pointer 
 
178 
 
 WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 Poop 
 
 — beam 
 
 — bulkhead 
 
 — frame 
 full — 
 
 half — (or raised quarter 
 deck) 
 
 Port 
 
 air — 
 ballast — 
 
 — bar 
 bow — 
 
 cargo — ; gangway — (in 
 
 bulwark) 
 
 entering — 
 
 flap of — 
 
 freeing — ; water — ■ (in 
 
 bulwark) 
 
 — hinges 
 
 — lid 
 
 Port, quarter — 
 raft — 
 
 — ring 
 sash — 
 side — 
 
 — sill; — cill 
 
 Quarter (after end of a ship) 
 
 — deck 
 raised — deck 
 
 — pieces 
 Rabbet 
 
 back — 
 
 keel — 
 
 • — line 
 
 stem — 
 
 sternpost — 
 Rail 
 
 boundary — 
 
 counter — s 
 
 cove — 
 
 fife — (around raised quar- 
 ter dedk). 
 
 fife— (around masts) 
 
 forecastle — 
 
 hand' — 
 
 main — ; roughtree — 
 
 poop — 
 
 sheer — 
 
 taflf- 
 
 topgallant — ; monkey — 
 Ranger (side pin-rack) 
 Ribs (frames) 
 Rider (hold rider) 
 
 floor — 
 
 futtock — ; top — 
 Roof 
 
 Rubbing-strake 
 Rudder 
 
 back pieces of — 
 
 balanced • — 
 
 — boards (of inland 
 vessels) 
 
 — brace ; — gudgeon 
 
 — bushes (bushes in rudder 
 braces or around pintles) • 
 
 Rudder 
 
 — coat 
 gulleting of a — 
 
 — head 
 
 coning of the — head 
 
 — heel 
 
 rounded heel df — 
 
 — horn (an iron bar on 
 back of rudder, to which 
 the pendants are shackled) 
 
 — irons 
 
 jury — ; temporary — main 
 piece of • — 
 
 — mould 
 
 — pendant 
 
 — pintle 
 
 — pintle score 
 rake of a — 
 
 sole piece of a- — 
 
 Rudder tell-tale of a — 
 
 — tiller or tillar 
 
 — trunk 
 
 — woodlock (to prevent 
 the rudder being unhung) 
 
 Run (of a vessel) 
 clean — 
 
 full — 
 
 Sail-room 
 
 Samson-post (of heavy piece of 
 timber used for different pur- 
 poses) 
 
 Scantling 
 
 Scarph ; Scarf 
 flat — 
 hooked — 
 horizontal — 
 lip of a — 
 dovetail — 
 vertical — ; side — 
 
 Score 
 
 Scupper ; Scupper hole — 
 • — leather 
 
 — pipe 
 
 — plug 
 
 — port ; Freeing port (in 
 bulwark) 
 
 Scuttle (small opening in the 
 ship's side or deck) 
 cable-tier — 
 deck — 
 
 Seam 
 
 butt — 
 longitudinal — 
 
 Sheathing 
 bottom — 
 copper — 
 metal — 
 wood — 
 wood — (of bottom)- 
 
 Sheathing zinc — 
 Sheer (of a ship) 
 Sheerstrake 
 
 Shelf 
 
 deck beam — 
 
 awning deck — , awning 
 deck beam — 
 
 forecastle deck — ; fore- 
 castle deck beam — 
 
 lower deck — ; lowerdeck 
 beam — 
 
 main or middle deck — ; 
 main deck beam — 
 
 poop — ; poop beam — 
 
 spar-deck — ; spar-deck 
 beam — 
 
 upper deck — ; upper deck 
 beam — 
 
 hold beam — 
 
 Shift of planking. 
 
 after- — of planking 
 fore — of planking 
 
 Shifting-boards (in hold for 
 
 grain-cargoes) 
 Ship-building 
 Shore 
 
 Side (of a ship) 
 lee — 
 port — 
 starboard — 
 
 top — ■ . 
 
 weather — 
 
 Side-light; Side scuttle 
 
 Sill; Cill 
 
 Skeleton (of a ship) 
 
 Skids; Skid-beams 
 
 Skin 
 
 Skylight 
 
 cabin — 
 
 dead lights of a — 
 
 forecastle — 
 
 — guards 
 Sounding-pipe (of pump) 
 Spirketting 
 
 deck beam — ; deck — 
 
 awning deftk — 
 
 forecastle deck ■ — 
 
 lower deck — 
 
 main- or middle deck — 
 
 poop — 
 
 spar-deck — 
 
 upper deck — 
 
 hold beam — 
 Spur 
 
 Spur-beam 
 Stanchion 
 
 bulwark — 
 
 deck — ; deck beam — 
 
 main deck — 
 
 upper deck — ' 
 
 deck — cleats 
 
 fixed — 
 
 hold — ; hold 
 
 beam — 
 
 loose — 
 
 quarter — 
 
WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 179 
 
 Stanchion 
 
 roughtree — 
 
 step of — 
 
 topgallant bulwark — , 
 State-room 
 Stealer; Drop-strake 
 Steerage 
 Steering-apparatus 
 
 patent — 
 Steering-wheel 
 
 Stem • 
 
 moulding of — (breadth) 
 rake of — ; inclination of — 
 boxing of — and keel 
 siding of — (thickness) 
 up and down — (stem 
 forming no cutwater) 
 
 Stemson 
 
 Step 
 
 — butted (planking) 
 Stern (extreme after part of 
 
 a ship) 
 
 elliptical — 
 
 — frame 
 moulding of — 
 pink — 
 
 — pipe 
 
 — port 
 
 round — ; circular — 
 square — 
 
 — timber 
 
 — window 
 Sternpost; Rudder post; or 
 
 Main post 
 
 heel of — 
 
 heel knee of — 
 
 inner — (inner post) 
 
 rake of — 
 
 tenon of — 
 Stemson 
 Stirrup (strap on foot of stem 
 
 and fore-end of keel) 
 Stop 
 Store-room 
 
 boatswain's — 
 Stowage 
 Strake; Streak (of planking) 
 
 Strake, adjoining — 
 bilge — 
 
 Strake 
 
 binding — 
 black — 
 bottom — 
 intermediate — 
 side — 
 topside — 
 
 Stuff, diminishing — 
 short — . 
 thick — 
 
 Thick-strakes (of ceiling) 
 (of outside planking) 
 
 Tiller; Tillar (rudder) 
 quadrant — 
 
 — rope 
 
 Timber 
 
 alternate — 
 butt of — s 
 cant — 
 counter — 
 side counter — 
 
 — dowel 
 filling — ■ 
 floor — 
 hawse — 
 
 — head 
 heel of a — 
 
 horn- — (middle timber of 
 stern) 
 knuckle — 
 
 moulding of — s (thick- 
 ness) 
 
 post — s (stern timbers in 
 round or elliptical stern) 
 Timber, quarter — s 
 scantling of — s 
 set of — s (a frame) 
 shift of — s 
 siding of — s (breadth) 
 and space 
 space between — s 
 square — s 
 top — 
 
 Tonnage 
 
 — under deck 
 gross — 
 register — ; net — 
 
 Tonnage-deck 
 
 Topgallant- forecastle (Fore- 
 castle) 
 
 Topside (of a vessel) 
 
 Topside-planking 
 
 Trail-board (between the 
 cheeks of the head) 
 
 Transom 
 deck — 
 filling — s , 
 
 — knee 
 
 wing — (in square stern 
 ships) 
 
 Treenail 
 
 — wedge 
 
 Treenailing 
 
 Trunk 
 
 Trussing, internal — 
 
 Tuck; Buttock 
 
 Waist (the deck between fore- 
 castle and poop) 
 
 Wales 
 
 channel — 
 
 Ward-room 
 
 Water-closet 
 
 Water-course (limbers) 
 
 Water-line 
 light — 
 
 Water-way 
 inner — 
 lower deck — 
 main deck — 
 outer -^ 
 upper deck — 
 
 Well; Pump-well 
 Wheel (steering-wheel) 
 barrel of — 
 
 — chain 
 
 — house 
 
 — rope 
 
 — spindle 
 
 — spokes 
 
 — stanchion 
 
 Whelp (of a capstan or wind- 
 lass) 
 Wing (of the hold) 
 Wood-flat 
 Wood-lining 
 Work, upper — ; Dead work 
 
Chapter XIX 
 256-Foot Commercial Schooner 
 
 The principal dimensions are: 
 
 Length o. a 292 feet 
 
 Length at water-line, loaded .... 256 
 
 Length, keel 244 
 
 Breadth 48 
 
 Depth 23.75-' 
 
 Tonnage gross, 2,114; net, 1,870 
 
 
 s^ 
 
 M 
 
 M 
 
 M 
 
 •^ -j 
 
 "^^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 P°^ 
 
 ^3 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^^ 
 
 fe^^ 
 
 / j 1/ 
 
 •/ 
 
 / 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 -' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ~0^ ^^^^v^ 
 
 §^<:- 
 
 / / / 
 
 \ 
 
 / . 
 
 ^'v 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^^ c^^ 
 
 :SS: ->n\ ■--, 
 
 H-/t 
 
 M 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^^^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 — ■■ — ^ 
 
 _ 
 
 
 
 — ' 
 
 ■ 
 
 ^^^N 
 
 Fig. 200. Lines and Sail Plan of Commercial Schooner. Designed by B. B. Crownlnshield 
 
WOODEN S H I P - B U I L D I N G ■. s:lU:r}i:} ix; I z8i 
 
 5,000-Ton Motorship 
 
 Fig. 201a. Construction Section of Wooden Motorship 
 
 Fig. 201b. Construction Plan For Hold and Lower Deck 
 
 The principal, dimensions of this vessel are: 
 Length o. a. 278 feet 11 inches 
 
 Length, A.B.S. rule ... 260 
 
 Length, l.w.l 267 
 
 Breadth, extreme .... 45 
 
 Breadth, moulded .... 44 
 
 Depth, moulded 25 
 
 Depth of hold 21 
 
 o 
 o 
 o 
 o 
 o 
 o 
 
 Deadrise 36 feet o inches 
 
 Draught, loaded 22 " o " 
 
 Draught light, forward 10 " o " 
 
 Draught, light, aft 16 " 6 " 
 
 Displacement .... 5,087 long tons 
 
 Total D.W 3.100 long tons 
 
 Net D.W 2,550 long tons 
 
 Lumber capacity . . 1,500,000 board feet 
 
g 
 
 'Mi 
 
 t'l-.' 
 
 or™ 
 
 (^^ 
 
 c^ 
 
 
 I o 
 
 a 
 
 o 
 
 « 
 n 
 
 a 
 
 lSr*t--.;i., -^^Nl 
 
■>''''V>^ii^-M^.; 
 
 Fig. 20 le. Typical Sections 
 
 Fig. 201f. Arrangement of Machinery and Piping of Engine Boom 
 
Tig. 202. Fioftle, Construction and Deck Fluu of Steam Trawler, Bnllt From Designs by Cox & Stevens For the East Coast Fisheries Company 
 
The Trawl Ready to Lower Over the Side of the Vessel 
 
 Forward Deck House 
 
 Kingfisher on the Ways of the Portland Shipbuilding Company Beady For Lauiicliiuii 
 
 Steam Trawler Kingfisher on Her Trial Trip at Portland, Mo. 
 Fig. 202a 
 
; € » » < € • « 
 
 Sail Plan of 80-Foot Auxiliary Fishing Schooner Built From Schock Designs 
 
 
 Construction Flan of 80-Foot Auzlliary Schooner Iskum 
 Fig. 203 
 
Half Deck Flan and Longitudinal Lines of b Whaler 
 
 Typical N eyv Bcbforb Whalcr. 
 
 Tig. 204 
 
i88 
 
 WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 270-Foot Cargo Carrier 
 
 A 270-fo6t full-powered cargo vessel, from designs of direct-connected generating outlits for lighting, heating 
 
 by Edson B. Schock. This vessel has two full decks and and operating electric winches, of which there are four, 
 
 about 3,200 tons deadweight carrying capacity. and an electric windlass. 
 
 It is built to the highest class, and is driven by twin The general dimensions are : 
 
 Mclntosh-Seymour Diesel engines of 500 h.p. each. The Length 270 feet 
 
 estimated speed is 9.5 knots. Fuel capacity 1,000 barrels, Breadth 46 " 
 
 carried in four tanks. The auxiliary machinery consists Depth moulded : . 26 " 
 
 Fig. 205. Plans of a 270-Foot Cargo Carrier, Built From Designs by Edson B. Schock; Equipped With Mclntosh-Seymour Diesel Engines 
 
WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 :;:■{■} i^ji-J/-^ 
 
 Fig. 206. Profile, Deck, Construction and Sail Plans of 220-Foot Auxiliary Scbooner Built From Designs by Edson B. Schock 
 
 Length o. a 220 feet 
 
 Breadth 4^ " 
 
 Depth moulded 21 
 
 Carrying capacity . . . . .^ 1,800 tons 
 
•c c c 5c J c < • t . 
 
 Fig. 207. Sail, Construction and Deck Plans of 223-Foot Auxiliary Schooner, Bnilt From Besigns by Cox & Stevens 
 
WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 :',;/$?;/, 
 
 Pig. 209. 235-Foot AuxlUary Commercial Schooner, Designed by J. Murray Watts 
 
 235-Foot Auxiliary Schooner 
 
 The accompanying plans show a four-masted auxil- 
 iary schooner, designed by J. Murray Watts. This vessel 
 is 235 feet over all, 217 feet registered length, 40 feet 
 breadth and 18 feet depth. 
 
 Plans and specifications conform with the American 
 Bureau of Shipping. 
 
 Power, oil engines of 320 h.p. 
 
 Cargo capacity, 2,cxx> tons. 
 
 224-Foot Auxiliary Schooner 
 
 A four-masted auxiliary schooner, designed by Edson 
 B. Schock, of Seattle, Wash. The construction is ac- 
 cording to the requirements of the American Bureau of 
 Shipping. Teh capacity of this vessel as usually ex- 
 pressed on the West Coast is 1,400,000 feet of lumber. 
 
 Length o. a 224 feet o inches 
 
 Length 1. w. 1 200 " o " 
 
 Breadth 43 " 6 " 
 
 Depth 20 " o " 
 
 Fig. 208. 221-Foot Auxiliary Commercial Schooner, Designed by Edson B. Schock 
 
M 
 
 S 
 
 e 
 
 
 •s 
 
 o 
 
 3 
 
 a 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 « 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 F4 
 
a 
 
 ft 
 
IQ4 
 
 WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 200-Foot Schooner 
 
 Fig. 212. Profile, Sail and Deck Plans of 200-Foot Four-Masted Schooner Building For J. W. Somerville, Gulfport, Miss., From Designs 
 
 by Cox & Stevens 
 
 This vessel is a four-masted schooner built under line, extreme breadth 36 feet 8 inches, depth of hold 15 
 
 the classification of the American Bureau of Shipping feet, depth of side 17 feet 11 inches, draught loaded 16 
 
 and rated A-i 15 years. She is built of long-leaf yellow feet 6 inches. She will displace 1,942 tons and carry 
 
 pine and her spars are of Oregon pine. Her general 1,240 tons deadweight. The area of the lower sails is 
 
 dimensions are: 200 feet long over all, 177 feet water- 10,794 square feet. 
 

 znxt 
 
 Fig. 212a. Engine Installation For Working Windlass and Capstan 
 
 Rfc3TCrH»G5 rOP. KEELSOtta ETC 
 
 i>j.cv3giv y^^T " """^^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 ««,.vv^.*««^--^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ew ft B MB. 
 
 1 wiTtnggrPitt agg: 
 
 .2!fi£KI 
 
 -UbL 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fig. 2121). Midship Consttuction Plan of Four-Masted Schoo.er Building For J. W. Somervllle, Designed by Cox Sc Stevens 
 

 Fig. 213a. Sail Plan of 152-Foot Auxiliary Schooner, Now Building From Designs by John G. Alden 
 
 Deck and Arrangement Plan of 152-Foot Cargo Carrier, Building by Frank C. Adams, East Boothbay, Me. 
 
 Sections of Auxiliary Schooner, Building From Alden Designs 
 
WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 :■■;;> ir«7-; 
 
 152-Foot Auxiliary Schooner 
 
 An auxiliary schooner, 152 feet long on deck, is being storeroom, spare room, and rooms for the mate and 
 
 built by Frank C. Adams, of East Boothbay, Me., from steward. 
 
 designs by John G. Alden. The vessel is to be used With the present shortage of timber this vessd, being 
 
 as a sailing craft because of the difficulty in obtaining smaller than is usual for cargo carriers, can be built in 
 
 engines, but as soon as the engine builders can furnish comparatively short time and made to pay enormous 
 
 the power it will be installed. This is only one instance profits. It will carry about 700 tons dead weight and be 
 
 of the trouble shipbuilders are experiencing with engines operated offshore with a crew of seven men, and on the 
 and it is because of the great demand for engines which _ coast, especially in Suminer, with five men. 
 
 the manufacturers are at present unable to meet. With There are many yards which are capable of building 
 
 the great building program of the shipping interests in vessels of the size of this schooner but which could not 
 
 this country only just put in operation there is coming an 'i^ndle larger vessels. Such craft at present rates of 
 
 era of prosperity for all engine men. ^''^'ght would very soon pay for themselves and would 
 
 ,„, . , . , . . , , always be useful for coasting or for short voyages, 
 
 i his vessel is most attractive in appearance and has ^, , ■ . 1 • 1 1 , . , 
 
 ,, , , r A. ,,, • r , , ^, , ^he vessel is rigged with three masts, which are 113 
 
 all the earmarks of Air. Alden s careful work. 1 he plans ,- . r 1 t . . 1 t-i 1 -^^ • o r . 
 
 •^ teet from deck to truck. I he bowsprit is 48 feet out- 
 show a vessel with unusual freight capacity for one of Ury^^A 
 
 her size. There is a house forward, in which are The general dimensions are: 
 
 the quarters for the crew, a galley and the engine space. Length on deck ici2 feet 
 
 In the after house is the captain's cabin, 10 feet square, Length, registered 142 " 
 
 a messroom of the same size, the captain's stateroom, 10 Breadth 33 " 
 
 feet 6 inches by 6 feet 2 inches, a bathroom, a chartroom, Depth of hold I2>1 " 
 
 Fig. 213b. MidsUp Section of AnxiUary Schooner, Designed by John G. Alden 
 
.:..n/iCjO''H..l 
 
 /Vf M' Y0K.K Pilot £pAT., 
 
 SaU Flan and lines of New York Pilot Boat. Drawn by Geo. B. Douglas 
 
 Fig. 214 • 
 
Profile and Deck Plans of 47-Foot Tug, Built br L. D. ,~i;::, Jro;:: To irua ty J. riurrsy ~;at:3 
 
 Construction Plan of 47-Faot Tug For South American Service, Equipped With a Kahlenberg Heavy-Oil Engine of 90-100 H.P. 
 
 Fig. 215 
 
 Length 47 feet o' inches 
 
 Breadth 12 " o " 
 
 Draught, running 4 " 8 " 
 
.^oa 
 
 
 WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 North RiveR Schooneh. 
 
 >yM. DiCKL X 
 
 Hr/icK. MY. 
 
 i.i»^^ 
 
 Lines and Sections of 77-Faot Nortii River Schooner 
 
 Sail Flan of North Biver Schooner 
 Fig. 217 
 
 Length o. a •]•] feel Main topmast, o. a. 
 
 Length on w. 1 64 
 
 Breadth 24 
 
 Draught ' 7 
 
 Foremast, deck to cap 59 
 
 Main mast, deck to cap 69 
 
 27 feet 
 
 Boom, main 48 ' 
 
 Boom, fore 27 ' 
 
 Gaff, main 29 ' 
 
 Gaff, fore 26 ' 
 
 Bowsprit, outboard 24 . ' 
 
Chapter XX 
 
 Definitions of Terms Used by Shipbuilders and of Parts of Wooden Ships 
 
 Note. — Items marked * are clearly shown on one or more of the illustrations. 
 
 Abut. — When two timbers or planks are united endways, 
 they are said to butt or abut against each other. 
 
 Adhesion of surfaces glued together. From Mr. Bevan's ex- 
 periments it appears that the surfaces of dry ash-wood, cemented 
 by glue newly made, in the dry weather of summer would, after 
 twenty-four hours' standing, adhere with a force of 715 tb to the 
 square inch. But when the glue has been frequently melted and 
 the cementing done in wet weather, the adhesive force is re- 
 duced to from 300 to SCO lb to the square inch. When fir cut in 
 autumn was tried, the force of adhesion was found to be 562 lb 
 to the" square inch. Mr. Bevan found the force of cohesion in 
 solid glue to be equal to 4,000 lb to the square inch, and hence 
 concludes that the application of this substance as a cement is 
 capable of improvement. 
 
 Adhesive Force of nails and screws in different kinds of 
 wood. Mr. Bevan's experiments were attended with the following 
 results : — Small brads, 4,560 in the pound, and the length of each 
 44/100 of an inch, force into dry pine to the depth of 0.4 inch, 
 in a direction at right angles to the grain, required 22 lb to extract 
 them. Brads half an inch long, 3,200 in the pound, driven in the 
 same pine to 0.4 inch depth, required 37 lb to extract them. 
 Nails 618 in the pound, each nail 134 inch long, driven 0.5 inch 
 deep, required 58 lb to extract them. Nails 2 inches long, 130 in 
 the pound, driven i inch deep, took 320 lb. Cast-iron nails, i inch 
 long, 380 in the pound, driven 0.5 inch, took 72 lb. Nails 2 inches 
 long, 73 in the pound, driven i inch, took 170 lb ; when driven 
 iV> inch they took 327 tb, and when driven 2 inches 530 lb. The 
 adhesion of nails driven at right angles to the grain was to force 
 of adhesion when driven with the grain, in pine, 2 to i, and in 
 green elm as 4 to 3. If the force of adhesion of a nail and 
 pine be 170, then in similar circumstances the force for green 
 sycamore will be 312, for dry oak 507, for dry beech 667. A 
 common screw i/s of an inch diameter was found to hold with 
 a force three times greater than a nail 214 inches long, 73 of 
 which weighed a pound, when both entered the same length into 
 the wood. 
 
 Adze. — A cutting tool for dubbing, much used by shipwrights. 
 
 Afloat. — Borne up by, floating in, the water. 
 
 After-Body. — That part of a ship's body abaft midships or 
 dead-flat. 
 
 After-Hoods. — The after plank of all in any strake, outside 
 or inside. 
 
 After Timbers. — All timbers abaft the midships or dead-flat. 
 
 * Air Course. — An opening left between strakes of ceiling to 
 allow air to circulate around frames. (Fig. 28.) 
 
 Air-Ports. — Circular apertures cut in side of a vessel to 
 admit light and air to state-rooms, etc. Closed with a light of 
 glass, set in a composition- frame and turning on a hinge, se- 
 cured when closed by a heavy thumb-screw. 
 
 Amidships. — Signifies the middle of ship, as regards both 
 length and breadth. 
 
 Anchor Chock. — A chock bolted upon the gunwale for the 
 bill of sheet-anchor to rest on. 
 
 Anchor-crane is employed for taking anchors in board, thus 
 replacing cat-heads, cat-davits and fish-davits. 
 
 * Anchor-Lining. — Short pieces of plank, or plate iron fast- 
 ened to sides of ship to prevent the bill of anchor from wounding 
 the ship's side when fishing the anchor. 
 
 Anchor Stock, To. — Sec "To Anchor Stock." 
 
 An-End. — The position of any mast, etc., when erected 
 perpendicularly on deck. The topmasts are an-end when hoisted 
 up to their stations. This is also a common phrase for ex- 
 pressing the forcing of anything in the direction of its length, 
 as to force one plank to meet the butt of the one last worked. 
 
 Angle-Bracket. — A bracket placed in an interior or exterior 
 angle, and not at right angles with the planes which form it. 
 
 Anvil. — A block of iron on which shipsmiths hammer forge- 
 work. 
 
 * Apron. — A timber conforming to shape of stem, and fixed 
 in the concave part of it, extending from the head to some 
 distance below the scarph joining upper and lower stem-pieces. 
 (Fig. 25.) 
 
 Ballast, heavy substances placed in the hold of a ship to 
 regulate the trim, and to bring the center of gravity of ship 
 to its proper place. It is distinguished as metal and shingle. 
 Metal is composed of lead or iron. 
 
 Batten, thin and narrow strips of wood. Grating battens 
 unite the ledges that form the covering for the hatchways. 
 (See Grating.) Battens to hatchways are battens used for 
 securing tarpaulins over hatchways to prevent the sea from 
 linding a passage between the decks. 
 
 Baulk. — A piece of whole timber, being the squared trunk of 
 any of the trees. 
 
 Bearing. — The space between the two fixed extremes of a 
 piece of timber; the unsupported part of a piece of timber; also, 
 the length of the part that rests on the supports. 
 
 * Half Beams are short beams introduced to support the 
 deck where there is no framing, as in places where there are 
 hatchways. (Fig. 27.) 
 
 The Midship Beam is the longest beam of ship, lodged 
 between the widest frame of timbers. 
 
 * Bcarding-Line. — A curved line occasioned by bearding the 
 deadwood to the form of the body; this line forms a rabbet for 
 the timbers to step on ; hence it is often called the Stepping-Line. 
 (Fig. 36.) 
 
 Beetle. — A large mallet used by caulkers for driving in their 
 reeming-irons to open seams for caulkings. 
 
 Belly. — The inside or hollow part of compass or curved 
 timber, the outside of which is called the Back. 
 
 *Bcnds. — An old name for the frames or ribs that form the 
 ship's body from keel to top of side at any particular station. 
 They are first put together on the ground. That at the broadest 
 part of ship is the Midship-Bend or Dead-Flat. The forepart of 
 wales are commonly called bends. 
 
 Between-Decks. — The space contained between any two 
 decks of a ship. 
 
 Bevel. — A well-known instrument, composed of a stock and 
 a movable tongue, for taking angles. 
 
 Beveling Board. — A piece of board, on which bevelings or 
 angles of the timbers, etc., are described. 
 
 Bevelings. — The windings or angles of timbers, etc. A term 
 applied to any deviation from a square or right angle 
 bevelings there are two sorts. Standing Bevelings and 
 Bevelings. By the former is meant an obtuse angle, 
 which is without a square; and by the latter an acute angle, or 
 that which is within a square. 
 
 A term 
 mgle. Ci% 
 id Unden 
 '., or that! 
 
202 
 
 WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 Bibbs. — Pieces of timber bolted to the hounds of mast to 
 support trestle-trees. 
 
 * Bilge. — That part of a ship's floor on either side of keel 
 which has more of a horizontal than of a perpendicular direc- 
 tion, and on which the ship would rest if on the ground. (.Fig. 
 28.) 
 
 * Bilge Keels. — The pieces of timber fastened under bilge 
 of boats or other vessels. 
 
 * Bilgeways. — A square bed of timber placed under the bilge 
 of the ship, to support her while launching. 
 
 Bill-Board. — Projections of timber bolted to side of ship 
 and covered with iron, for bills of bower anchors to rest on. 
 
 Bill-Plate. — The lining of bill-board. 
 
 Binding Strokes. — Thick planks on decks, running just out- 
 side the line of hatches, jogged down over the beams and ledges. 
 
 *Bitts are square timbers fixed to the beams vertically, and 
 enclosed by the flat of deck; they are used for securing the 
 cables to, and for leading the principal ropes connected with 
 the rigging, etc. (Fig. 26.) 
 
 Board. — A piece of timber sawed thin, and of ponsiderable 
 length and breadth as compared with its thickness. 
 
 Boat-Chocks. — Clamps of wood upon which a boat rests 
 when stowed upon a vessel's deck. 
 
 Body. — The body of a ship is the bulk enclosed within the 
 planking of hull and deck. It is a term used by shipbuilders 
 when designing some particular portion of a ship's longitudinal 
 body, as — Cant Body, or the portion of ship along which cant 
 frames are placed, fore Body, or portion of ship ahead of square 
 body. After Body, or portion of ship aft of square body. 
 Square Body, or portion of ship where square frames are lo- 
 cated. 
 
 * Body-Plan. — One of the plans used in delineating the lines 
 of a ship, showing sections perpendicular to length. 
 
 Bollard. — A belaying bitt placed on deck. 
 
 Bolsters. — Pieces of wood placed on the lower trestle-trees 
 to keep the rigging from chafing. 
 
 Bolsters for Sheets, Tacks, etc., are small pieces of ash or 
 oak fayed under the gunwale, etc., with outer surface rounded 
 to prevent sheets and other rigging from chafing. 
 
 Bolts. — Cylindrical or square pins of iron or copper, of 
 various forms, for fastening and securing the different parts 
 of the ship. Of bolts there are a variety of different kinds, 
 as Eye-bolts, Hook-bolts, Ring-bolts, Fixed-bolts, Drift-bolts, 
 Clevis-Bolts, Toggle-bolts, etc. 
 
 Booby Hatch. — A small companion, readily removed; it lifts 
 off in one piece. 
 
 Boom-Kin. — A boom made of iron or wood projecting from 
 bow of ship, for hauling down the fore-tack; also from their 
 quarter, for securing the standing part and leading block for 
 the main-brace. 
 
 Boom^Irons. — .Are metal rings fitted on the yard-arms, 
 through which the studding-sail booms traverse; there is one 
 on each top-sail yard-arm, but on the lower yards a second, 
 which opens to allow the boom to be triced up. 
 
 * Booms. — The main boom is for extending the fore-and-aft 
 main sail ; the spanker boom for the spanker ; the jib boom for 
 the jib and the Aying jib boom for the flying jib. The studding- 
 sail booms are for the fore and main lower, top and top-gallant 
 studding-sails and swinging booms for bearing out the lower 
 studding-sails. 
 
 Bottom. — All that part of a vessel that is below the wales. 
 Bottom Rail. — A term used to denote the lowest rail in a 
 piece of framed work. 
 
 * Bow. — The circular part of ship forward, terminating at 
 the rabbet of stem. (Fig. 26.) 
 
 Bows are of different kinds, as the full or bluff bow, bell 
 bow, straight bow, flare-out or clipper bow, wave bow, water- 
 borne bow, tumble-home bow, and the parabolic bow. 
 
 * Bowsprit.— The use of bowsprit is to secure the foremast 
 and extend the head sails. (Fig. 25.) 
 
 Bowsprit Chock. — A piece placed between the knight-heads, 
 fitting close upon the upper part of bowsprit. 
 
 Bo.xing. — The boxing is any projecting wood, forming a 
 rabbet, as the boxing of the knight-heads, center counter timber, 
 etc. 
 
 Brace. — A piece of timber in any system of framing extend- 
 ing across the angle between two other pieces at right angles. 
 
 Brates. — Straps of iron, or steel, secured with bolts and 
 screws in stern-post and bottom planks. In their after ends 
 are holes to receive the pintles by which the rudder is hung. 
 
 Brad. — A particular kind of nail, used- in floors or other 
 work where it is deemed proper to drive nails entirely into the 
 wood. To this end it is made without a broad head or shoulder 
 on the shank. 
 
 Breadth. — A term applied to some dimension of a vessel 
 athwarthships, as the Breadth-Extreme and the Breadth-Moulded. 
 The Extreme-Breadth is the extent of midships or dead-flat, with 
 thickness of bottom plank included. The Breadth-Moulded is 
 the same extent, without the thickness of plank. 
 
 Breadth-Line. — A curved line of the ship lengthwise, in- 
 tersecting the timbers at their respective broadest parts. 
 
 Break is the name given to the termination of a deck, when 
 interrupted by a raised quarter-deck, sunk-forecastle, etc.; the 
 front-bulkheads placed at such terminations are known as 
 "Break bulkheads". Any elevation of a ship's deck, no matter 
 whether aft, forward or amidships, is also styled a "Break" 
 and the extra capacity gained by such raised portion, is known 
 as the "Tonnage of Break". 
 
 Break. — The sudden termination or rise in the decks of 
 merchant ships. 
 
 Breaking-Joint. — That disposition of joints by which the oc- 
 currence of two contiguous joints in the same straight line is 
 avoided. 
 
 Breakwater (on a forecastle, etc.). — A coaming fastened 
 diagonally across forecastle deck to stop water that is thrown 
 on deck when ship is in a sea. 
 
 * Breast-Hooks. — Large pieces of timber fixed within and 
 athwart the bows of a ship, through which they are well bolted. 
 There is generally one between each deck, and three or four 
 below the lower deck, fayed upon the plank. Those below are 
 placed square to the shape of ship at their respective places. The 
 Breast-Hooks that receive the ends of deck planks are called 
 Deck-Hooks, and are fayed close home to the timbers of decks. 
 
 Bridge. — A raised superstructure built across deck. Some- 
 times the bridge is a separate structure, but more frequently 
 it is an enclosed portion of a deck house on which is located the 
 steering wheel, binnacle, engine room telegraphs, chart house, 
 etc. 
 
 Bucklers.— Lids or shutters used for closing the hawse-holes, 
 holes in the port-shutters and side-pipes. 
 
 * Bulkheads. — Transverse, or longitudinal, partitions in a 
 ship. Solid structural bulkheads, known as water-tight bulk- 
 heads, divide a ship into water-tight compartments. The number 
 and locations of these are designated in building rules of classi- 
 fication societies. 
 
 Bulls-Eye. — A thick piece of glass inserted in topsides, eta 
 
WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 203 
 
 * Bulwarks. — A planked railing built around ship above the 
 planksheer. The bulwarks are generally built on a continua- 
 tion of top timbers called bulwark stanchions. The names of 
 principal parts of bulwarks ai-e: Bulwark freeing port, bul- 
 wark rail, bulwark stanchions, bulwark planking. 
 
 *Butt. — The joint where two planks meet endwise. 
 Butt-End. — The end of a plank in a ship's side. The root or 
 largest end. 
 
 * Buttocks. — The after-part of a ship on each side below 
 the knuckle. 
 
 * Buttock-Lines.— Cui the ship into vertical longitudinal 
 sections, parallel to the center line. 
 
 Cabin. — The living space for officers and passengers. The 
 principal room is called the Main Cabin. Entrance to cabin is 
 usually through a raised trunk called a cabin companion trunk, 
 or cabin companionway. Any skylight placed over a cabin is 
 called a cabin skylight. 
 
 Camber. — A curve or arch. Cambered beam, a beam bent or 
 cut in a curve like an arch. 
 
 Cant. — A term signifying the inclination that anything has 
 from perpendicular. 
 
 Cant-Ribbands are ribbands that do not lie in a horizontal 
 or level direction, or square from the middle line, as the diagonal 
 ribbands. 
 
 * Cant-Timbers are those timbers afore and abaft, whose 
 planes are not square with, or perpendicular to, the middle line 
 of ship. 
 
 Caps. — Square pieces of oak laid upon the upper blocks on 
 which the ship is built. The depth of them may be a few 
 inches more than the thickness of false keel. 
 
 Capstan. — A mechanical device for handling rope. A heaving 
 appliance which takes a rope around its barrel. 
 
 * Cartings. — Long pieces of timber, above four inches square, 
 which lie fore and aft, from beam to beam, into which their 
 ends are scored. They receive the ends of the ledges for fram- 
 ing the decks. 
 
 Carlings, Hatchway, are the fore and aft frame timbers of 
 hatchway framing, mast carlings are the fore and aft partners 
 of mast. (Fig. 27.) 
 
 Carvel Work. — Signifying that the seams of bottom-plank- 
 ing are square, and made tight by caulking. 
 
 * Cathead. — A piece of timber with sheaves in the end, 
 projecting from bow of a ship, for the purpose of raising the 
 anchor after cable has brought it clear of the water. It is 
 strengthened outside from underneath by a knee, called a sup- 
 porter. The cathead is iron-bound, and is braced with knees 
 forward and aft, (Fig. 35.) 
 
 Caulking. — Forcing oakum into the seams and between the 
 butts of plank, etc., to prevent water penetrating into ship. 
 
 Caulking-Matlet.— The wooden instrument with which the 
 caulking-irons are driven. 
 
 Cainl. — A large cleat for belaying the fore and main tacks, 
 sheets, and braces to. 
 
 * Ceiling. — The inside planks of the bottom of a ship. It is 
 usually designated according to location, thus : — Hold Ceiling, 
 Between Deck Ceiling, Floor Ceiling, etc. (Fig. 28.) 
 
 Center of Buoyancy, or Center of Gravity of Displacement. 
 — The center of that part of the ship's body iijimersed in water, 
 and which is also the center of the vertical force that water 
 exerts to support the vessel. 
 
 Center of Effort of Sail. — That point in the plane of sails 
 
 at which the whole transverse force of wind is supposed to be 
 collected. 
 
 * Chain-Bolts.— T\it bolt which passes through the toe-links, 
 and secures the chains to side. (Fig. 28.) 
 
 * Chain-Plates.— Iron plates to which the dead-eyes are se- 
 cured; they are often substituted for chains, being considered 
 preferable. (Fig. 25-28.) 
 
 Chamfer. — To cut in a slope. 
 
 * Channels.— I'XSit ledges of white oak plank or steel pro- 
 jecting outboard from the ship's side, for spreading the lower 
 shrouds and giving additional support to masts. (Fig. 25-28.) 
 
 * Check-Blocks. — Blocks placed upon the side of bitts for 
 fair leaders. 
 
 Cheek-Knees. — Knees worked above and below the hawse 
 pipes in the angle of bow and cutwater, the brackets being a 
 continuation of them to the billet or figurehead. 
 
 Chine. — That part of the waterway which is left above deck, 
 and hollowed out or beveled off to the spirketting. 
 
 Chinse. — A mode of caulking any seams or butts. 
 
 * C/om/'j.— Strakes of timber upon which the deck beams 
 rest. Clamps are placed immediately below the shelf pieces and 
 serve to support the deck frame. Clamps are placed below each 
 set of deck beams and are designated by affixing the name of 
 deck to the word clamp, thus : — Forecastle Deck Beam Clamp 
 supports forecastle deck beams. Upper Deck Beam Clamp sup- 
 ports the upper deck beams. Main Deck Beam Clamps support 
 main deck beams. Hold Deck Beam Clamps support the hold 
 deck beams, etc. (Fig. 28.) 
 
 .^Clamping. — Fastening or binding by a clamp. 
 
 Clear. — Free from interruption. In the clear, the net distance 
 between any two bodies, without anything intervening. 
 
 Cleats. — Pieces of wood having projecting arms, used for 
 belaying ropes to. 
 
 Clinch or Clench.— To spread the point, or rivet it upon a 
 ring or plate; to prevent the bolt from drawing out, same as 
 riveting. 
 
 Clincher, or Clinker Built. — A term applied to boats built 
 with the lower edge of one strake overlapping the upper edge 
 of the one next below. 
 
 * Cooking. — The placing of pieces of hard wood, either 
 circular or square, in edges or surfaces of any pieces that are to 
 be united together, to prevent their working or sliding over each 
 other. (Fig. 33.) 
 
 *Coamings. — The pieces that lie fore-and-aft in the framing 
 of hatchways and scuttles. The pieces that lie athwart ship, to 
 form the ends, are called head-ledges. (Fig. 27.) 
 
 Cocking, Cogging. — A mode of notching a timber. 
 
 Companion. — A wooden hood or covering placed over a 
 ladderway to a cabin, etc. 
 
 ■" Counter. — A part of the stern. (Fig. 25.) 
 
 Counter-sunk. — The hollows, to receive the heads of screws 
 or nails, so that they may be flush or even with the surface. 
 
 * Counter Timbers. — The tirhbers which form the stern. 
 Cove. — Any kind of concave moulding. 
 
 * Cradle. — A strong frame of timber, etc., placed under the 
 bottom of a ship to conduct her steadily till slie is safely launched 
 into water sufficient to float her. 
 
 Cradle Bolts. — Large ring-bolts in the ship's side, on a line 
 with and between the toe-links of the chain plates. 
 
 Crank. — A term applied to ships built too deep in propor- 
 tion to their breadth, and from which they are in danger of 
 oversetting. 
 
204 
 
 WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 Cross-Grained Stuff.— T'\mher having the grain or fibre not 
 corresponding to the direction of its length, but crossing it, or 
 irregular. Where a branch has shot from the trunk of a tree, 
 the timber of the latter is curled in the grain. 
 
 * Cross Spalls.— Flanks nailed in a temporary manner to the 
 frames of ship at a certain height, and by which the frames 
 are kept to their proper breadths until the deck-knees are 
 fastened. 
 
 Dagger.— A piece of timber that faces on to the poppets 
 of bilgeways, and crosses them diagonally, to keep them to- 
 gether. The plank that secures the heads of poppets is called 
 the dagger plank. The word dagger seems to apply to anything 
 that stands diagonally or aslant. 
 
 Dagger-Knees.— Knees to supply the place of hanging 
 knees. Their sidearms are brought up aslant, to the under side 
 of beams adjoining. Any straight hanging knees, not perpen- 
 dicular to the side of beam, are in general termed dagger-knees. 
 
 * Davits. — Pieces of steel projecting over the side of ship 
 or the stern, for the purpose of raising boats. Fish Davits are 
 used for fishing the anchor. 
 
 * Dead-Eyes. — Pieces of elm, ash or lignum-vitae, of a round 
 shape, used for reeving the lanyards of standing rigging. (Fig. 
 28.) 
 
 Dead-Flat.— A name given to that timber or frame which 
 has the greatest breadth and capacity in the ship, and which is 
 generally called the midship bend. In those ships where there 
 are several frames or timbers of equal breadth or capacity, 
 that which is in the middle should be always considered as dead- 
 Hat. 
 
 * Deadwood.— Forward and aft, is formed by solid pieces of 
 timber scarphed together lengthwise on keel. These should be 
 sufficiently broad to admit of a stepping or rabbet for the heels 
 of the timbers, and they should be sufficiently high to seat 
 the floors. Afore and abaft the floors deadwood is continued 
 to the cutting-down line, for the purpose of securing the heels 
 of cant-timbers. 
 
 * Decks. — The several platforms in ships, distinguished by 
 different names according to their situations and purposes. 
 
 ' * Deck Planks. — -The flooring or covering of deck beams. 
 
 Deck Transom. — A timber extending across the ship at the 
 after extremity of deck, on which the ends of deck plank rests. 
 
 Depth of Hold. — One of the principal dimensions of a 
 ship; it is the depth in midships, from the upper side of the 
 upper deck beams, in flush-decked vessels, and from the upper 
 side of the lower deck beams in all others, to the throats of 
 the floor timbers. 
 
 Diagonal Lines. — Lines used principally to fair the bodies, 
 shown as straight lines in the body-plan. 
 
 Dished. — Formed in a concave. To dish out, to form coves 
 by wooden ribs. 
 
 Displacement.^The volume of water displaced by the im- 
 mersed body of ship, and which is always equal to the weight 
 of the whole body. 
 
 Distribution. — The dividing and disposing of the several 
 parts, according to some plan. 
 
 Dog. — A tool (iron) used by shipwrights; it is made of 
 iron having both ends sharpened and one turned over making a 
 right angle. In planking the decks or outside it is first driven a 
 short distance into the beams or frame timbers and wedges 
 introduced between that and the strake's edge to force the 
 plank up to the one last worked. 
 
 Door-Case. — The frame which incloses a door. 
 
 Door-Post. — The post of a door. 
 
 Door-Stops. — Pieces of wood against which the door shuts 
 in its frame. 
 
 Doorway. — The entrance into a cabin, or room. The forms 
 and designs of doorways should partake of the characteristics of 
 the finish of room it opens into. 
 
 Doubling. — The covering of a ship's bottom or side, with- 
 out taking oflf the old plank, a method sometimes resorted to 
 when the plank get thin or worn down. 
 
 * Dove-Tailing. — Joining two pieces together with a mortise 
 and tenon resembling the shape of a dove's tail. 
 
 Dove-Tail Plates.— Meia.\ plates resembling dove-tails in 
 form, let into the heel of stern-post and keel, to bind them to- 
 gether. 
 
 Dowel.— To fasten two boards or pieces together by pins 
 inserted in their edges. This is similar to coaking. 
 
 Draft of Water.— The depth of water a ship displaces when 
 she is afloat. 
 
 Drag. — A term used to denote an excess of draft of water 
 
 Drift. — A piece of iron or steel-rod used in driving back a 
 key of a wheel, or the like, out of its place, when it cannot be 
 struck directly with the hammer. The drift is placed against the 
 end of the key, or other object, and the strokes of the hammer 
 are communicated through it to the object to be displaced. 
 
 Dubb, To. — To smooth and cut off with an adze. 
 
 Entrance. — The forward part of a vessel below the water- 
 aft. 
 
 Even-Keel. — When the vessel has the same draught of water 
 forward and aft, she is said to be on an even-keel. 
 
 Falling Home or Tumbling Home.— A term applied to the 
 upper part of the topside of a ship, when it falls very much 
 within a vertical line from the main breadth. 
 
 * False Keel.— A thin keel, put on below the main keel, that 
 it may be torn off without injury to the main keel, should the 
 vessel touch the ground. 
 
 * Fashion Picccs.—T\mhers that give the form or fashion 
 of the after extremity, below the wing transom, when they 
 terminate at the tuck in square-sterned ships. 
 
 Fay. — To fit with a close joint. 
 
 Feather-Edged Boards.— Zod^ris made thin on one edge. 
 
 Felt Grain.— Timber split in a direction crossing the annular 
 layers towards the center. When split conformably with the 
 layers it is called the quarter grain. 
 
 Felloes.— The arch pieces which form the rim of the steer- 
 ing wheel. 
 
 Fid.— A bar of wood or iron used to support the top-mast 
 and top-gallant masts when they are on end. 
 
 * Fid-Hole. — Mortises in the heels of top-masts and top- 
 gallant-masts. 
 
 * Fife i?aj7.— Rails placed around the mast in which the pins 
 are placed to belay the running rigging to. (Fig. 26.) 
 
 Fillet. — A small moulding, generally rectangular in section, 
 and having the appearance of a narrow band. 
 
 Fillings. — Pieces placed in the openings between the frames 
 wherever solidity is required. 
 
 Firrings. — Pieces of wood nailed to any range of scantlings 
 to bring them to one plane. 
 
 Fishing, Fished Beam. — A built beam, composed of two 
 beams placed end to end, and secured by pieces of wood covering 
 the joint on opposite sides. 
 
 Fit-Rod. — A small iron rod with a hook at the end, which 
 is put into the holes made in a vessel's side, etc., to ascertain the 
 lengths of bolts required to be driven in. 
 
WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 205 
 
 Fishes. — Pieces used in made masts ; also cheek pieces carried 
 to sea on board vessels to secure a crippled mast or yard. 
 
 Fixed Blocks.— Sheet chocks, or any other chock placed in the 
 side of a vessel to lead a rope through. 
 
 Flaring. — The reverse of Falling or Tumbling Home. As 
 this can be only in the forepart of the ship, it is said that a ship 
 has a flaring bow when the topside falls outward from a per- 
 pendicular. Its uses are to shorten the cathead and yet keep the 
 anchor clear of the bow. It also prevents the sea from break- 
 ing in upon the forecastle. 
 
 Flats. — A name given to timbers amidships that have no 
 bevelings, and are similar to dead-flat. See Dead-Flat. 
 
 Flashiitgs. — In plumbing, pieces of lead, zinc, or other metal, 
 used to protect the joinings of partitions with floor, or where a 
 coaming joins the deck, or around pipes that pass through a 
 deck. The metal is let into a joint or groove, and then folded 
 down so as to cover and protect the joinings. 
 
 * Floor. — The bottom of a ship, or all that part on each side 
 of keel which approaches nearer to a horizontal than a per- 
 pendicular direction, and whereon the ship rests when aground. 
 
 *Floors, or Floor Timbers.— TUe timbers that are fixed 
 athwart the keel, and upon which the whole frame is erected. 
 They generally extend as far forward as the foremast, and as far 
 aft as the • after square timber, and sometimes one or two 
 cant-floors are added. 
 
 Flush.— With a continued even surface, as a Flush Deck, 
 which is a deck upon one continued line, without interruption, 
 from fore to aft. 
 
 * Fore Body. — That part of the ship's body afore midships 
 or dead-flat. This term is more particularly used in expressing 
 the figure or shape of that part of ship. 
 
 * Fore-Foot. — The foremost piece of keel. Also called gripe. 
 (Fig. 25.) 
 
 Forelock. — A thin circular wedge of iron, used to retain a 
 bolt in its place, by being thrust through a mortise hole at the 
 point of bolt. It is sometimes turned or twisted round the 
 bolt to prevent its drawing. 
 
 Fore-Peak. — Close forward under the lower deck. 
 
 Fore-Sheet Traveller. — An iron ring which travels along on 
 the fore-sheet horse of a fore-and-aft vessel. 
 
 *Foretop, Trestle, and Cross-Trees. — Foretop, a platform 
 surrounding the foremast-head: it is composed of the trestle- 
 trees, which are strong bars of oak timber fixed horizontally 
 on opposite sides of foremast; and cross-trees, which are of 
 oak, and supported by the cheeks and trestle-trees. 
 
 Frame. — A term applied to any assemblage of pieces of 
 timber firmly connected together. 
 
 * Frames. — The bends of timber which form the body, of a 
 ship, each of which is composed of one floor-timber, two or 
 three futtocks, and a top-timber on each side, which, being united 
 together, form the frame. (Fig. 28.) 
 
 * Futtocks. — Timbers of the frame between the floors and 
 top-timbers. 
 
 Gain. — i. A beveling shoulder. 2. A lapping of timbers. 
 3. The cut that is made to receive a timber. 
 
 * Garboard Stroke. — That strake of bottom which is wrought 
 next the keel, and rabbets therein. (Fig. 25.) 
 
 Gauge. — Measure; dimension. 
 
 Gauged-Pilcs — Large piles placed at regular distances apart, 
 and connected by horizontal beams, called runners or ivale-pieces, 
 fitted to each side of them by notching, and firmly bolted. A 
 gauge or guide is thus formed for the sheeting or filling piles. 
 
 which are drawn between the gauged-piles. Gauged-piles are 
 called also standard piles. 
 
 Geometrical Stairs. — Those stairs the steps of which are 
 supported at one end only by being built into the wall. 
 
 Girth. — In practice, the square of the quarter girth multi- 
 plied by the length, is taken as the solid content of a tree. 
 
 Glass-Plate. — Specific gravity, 2.453; weight of a cubic foot, 
 153 tb; expansion by 180° of heat, from 32° to 212°, .00086 inch. 
 
 Gore. — .\ wedge-shaped or triangular piece. 
 
 * Goose-Neck. — An iron hinged bolt, with strap to clasp it, 
 used on the spanker, lower and fish booms. The bolt fore- 
 locks below a sort of gudgeon. 
 
 Grade. — A step or degree. 
 
 Grain-Cut. — Cut across the grain. 
 
 Graining. — Painting in imitation of the grain of wood. 
 
 * Gratings. — Lattice coverings for hatchways and scuttles. 
 
 * Gripe. — A piece of white oak or elm timber that com- 
 pletes the lower part of the knee of head, and makes a finish 
 with fore-foot. It bolts to stem, and is farther secured by two 
 plates of copper in the form of a horse-shoe, and therefrom 
 called by that name. 
 
 Grooving and Tonguing, Grooving and Feathering, Plough- 
 ing and Tonguing. — In joinery, a mode of joining boards, which 
 consists in forming a groove or channel along the edge of one 
 board, and a continuous projection or tongue on the edge of 
 another board. When a series of boards is to be joined, each 
 board has a groove on its one edge and a tongue on the other. 
 
 * Groundways. — Large pieces of timber, which are laid upon 
 piles driven in the ground, across the building slip, in order to 
 make a good foundation to lay blocks on, upon which the ship 
 is to rest. 
 
 * Gudgeons. — The hinges upon which rudder turns. Those 
 fastened to ship are called braces, while those fastened to 
 rudder are called pintles. (Fig. 25.) 
 
 Gunwale. — That horizontal plank wliich covers the heads 
 of timbers between the main and fore drifts. Although this 
 term is so commonly employed, there is really not a piece in 
 the present structure, either of an iron or wooden Merchant- 
 vessel, bearing that name. — In wooden vessels the upper outer 
 edge of the Planksheer may be considered as the Gunwale. 
 
 * Half-Breadth Plan. — A ship-drawing, showing a series of 
 longitudinal transverse sections. 
 
 Half-Round. — A moulding whose profile is a semicircle ; a 
 bead ; a torus. 
 
 Half-Timbers. — The short timbers in the cant bodies. 
 
 Halving. — A mode of joining two timbers by letting them 
 into each other. 
 
 Hancc. — The sudden breaking-in from one form to another, 
 as when a piece is formed, one part eight-square and the other 
 part cylindrical, the part between the termination of these 
 different forms is called the fiance; or the parts of any timber 
 where it suddenly becomes narrower or smaller. 
 
 Handrail. — A rail to hold by. It is used in staircases to assist 
 in ascending and descending. When it is next to the open newel, 
 it forms a coping to the stair balusters. 
 
 * Hanging-Knee. — Those knees against the sides whose arms 
 hang vertically or perpendicular. (Fig. 28.) 
 
 * Hanging-Knees. — Knees placed vertically under the deck- 
 beams. 
 
 Harpins. — A continuation of the ribbands at the fore and 
 after extremities of ship, fixed to keep the cant-frames, etc., in 
 position, until outside planking is worked. 
 
206 
 
 WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 '^ Hawse-Holcs. — The apertures forward, lined with iron 
 casings, for the chain cables to pass through. (Fig. 25.) 
 
 Hawse-Hook. — The breast hook at hawse-holes. 
 
 * Hawse-Pipes or Chain-Pipes. — The pipes in deck, through 
 which the chain cables lead to the lockers. (Fig. 25.) 
 
 Head. — The upper end of anything, but more particularly 
 applied to all the work fitted afore the stem, as the figure, the 
 knee, rails, etc. A "scroll head" signifies that there is no carved 
 or ornamental figure at the head, but that the termination is 
 formed and finished off by a volute, or scroll turning outward. 
 A "fiddle head" signifies a similar kind of finish, but with the 
 scroll turning aft or inward. 
 
 *Head-Lcdges. — The 'thwartship pieces which frame the 
 hatchways and ladderways. (Fig. 27.) 
 
 Head-Rails. — Those rails in the head which extend from the 
 back of figure to cathead and bows. 
 
 Heart-Wood. — The central part of the trunk of a tree; the 
 duramen. 
 
 Heel. — The lower end of any timber. To incline. 
 Helm. — The rudder, tiller and wheel, taken as a whole. 
 
 * Hogging. — The arching up of the body along its middle, 
 occasioned frequently by the unequal distribution of the weights. 
 Ships hog in launching, unless tlie after part of vessel is prop- 
 erly water-borne till she is clear of the ways. 
 
 Hood. — The foremost and aftermost plarik in each strake. 
 
 Hooding Ends. — The ends of hoods where they abut in the 
 rabbet of stem and stern-post. 
 
 Horse. — The iron rod placed between the fife-rail stanchions 
 on which the leading blocks are rove or secured. Also in 
 fore-and-aft rigged vessels, it is a stout bar of iron, with a 
 large ring or thimble on it, which spans the vessel from side to 
 side just before the foremast, for the fore-staysail sheet;- and 
 when required one is also used for the fore and main-boom 
 sheets to haul down to and transverse on. 
 
 Horse Shoes. — Straps of composition in the form of a 
 horse shoe, used for securing the stem to keel, placed on op- 
 posite sides, let in flush and bolted through; rings are now 
 generally used instead. 
 
 Horsing-Irons. — A caulking-iron, with a long handle -at- 
 tached, which is struck with a beetle by a caulker in hardening 
 up oakum in seams and butts, called horsing-up. 
 
 * Hounding. — The length of the mast from the heel to the 
 lower part of head. 
 
 * Hounds. — Those projections at mast-heads serving as 
 supports for the trestle-trees of large, and rigging of smaller, 
 vessels to rest upon. With lower masts they are termed cheeks. 
 
 Housing. — The space taken out of one solid to admit of the 
 insertion of the extremity of another, for the purpose of connect- 
 ing them. 
 
 In-and-Out.— The bolts that are driven through tlie ship's 
 side are said to be in-and-out bolts. 
 
 Incise. — To cut in ; to carve. 
 
 Indented. — Cut in the edge or margin into points like teeth, 
 as an indented moulding. 
 
 Inner Post. — Worked on the inside of the main post running 
 down to the throat of stern-post knee. 
 
 Iron-Sick. — The condition of vessels when the iron-work 
 becomes loose in the timbers from corrosion by gallic acid. 
 
 Iambs. — The vertical sides of any aperture, such as a door, a 
 window. 
 
 loint of Frame. — The line at which the two inner surfaces 
 of the frame-timber meet. 
 
 "'Keel. — I he main and lowest timber of a ship, extending 
 longitudinally from the stem to the stern-post. It is formed of 
 several pieces, which are scarphed together endways, and form 
 the basis of the whole structure. Of course, it is usually the 
 first thing laid down upon the blocks. (Fig. 30.) 
 
 .* Keelson, or, more commonly. Kelson. — The timber, formed 
 of long square pieces of oak, fixed within the ship exactly over 
 keel for binding and strengthening the lower part of ship; for 
 which purpose it is fitted to, and laid upon, the middle of the 
 floor timbers, and bolted through floors and keel. (Fig. 25, 28.) 
 
 Kcvel. — Large wooden cleats to belay ropes and hawsers to, 
 commonly called Cavils. 
 
 Key-Pile. — The center pile plank of one of the divisions of 
 sheeting piles contained between two gauge piles of a cofferdam, 
 or similar work. It is made of a wedge form, narrowest at the 
 bottom, and when driven, keys or wedges the whole together. 
 
 King-Piece. — Another and more appropriate name for king- 
 post. 
 
 King-Post. — The post which, in a truss, extends between the 
 apex of two inclined pieces and the tie-beam, which unites their 
 lower ends. 
 
 Knee. — A piece of timber somewhat in the form of the 
 human knee when bent. 
 
 * Knight-Heads. — Timbers worked on each side of the stem 
 and apron. (Fig. 26.) 
 
 Knights (also called "leer bitts") are small hilts, placed 
 behind the different masts on the upper-deck, in the heads of 
 these are several sheaveholes {with sheaves), through which run- 
 ning-rigging for hoisting, etc., is rove; with the exception of 
 some Mediterranean vessels, they are now very rarely found in 
 merchant ships. 
 
 Knots in Wood. — Some kinds render wood unfit for the car- 
 penter; some kinds are not prejudicial. 
 
 Knuckle of the Stern. — The sudden angle made by the 
 counter-timbers and after cants. 
 
 Kyanise, v. — To steep in a solution of corrosive sublimate, 
 as timber, to preserve it from the dry-rot. 
 
 Lacing-Piece. — The piece running across the top of head 
 from the backing-piece to the front-piece. (Fig. 25.) 
 
 Landing. — First part of a floor at the end of a flight of 
 steps. Also, a resting-place between flights. 
 
 Landing Strake. — The upper strake but one in a boat. 
 
 Launch. — The slip upon which the ship is built, with the 
 cradle and all connected with launching. 
 
 * Launching Ribband. — An oak plank bolted to outside of 
 the launching ways, to guide the cradle in its descent in launch- 
 ing. 
 
 Lap, V. — To lap boards is to lay one partly over the other. 
 
 Lateral Resistance. — The resistance of water against the side 
 of a vessel in a direction perpendicular to her length. 
 
 - *Laying-Off, or Laying-Down. — The act of delineating the 
 various parts of ihe ship, to its true size, upon the mould-loft 
 floor. 
 
 * Ledges. — The pieces of the deck frame lying between the 
 beams jogged into the carlings and knees. (Fig. 27.) 
 
 Lee Boards. — Similar to center-boards, afiixed to the sides of 
 llat-bottomed vessels ; these on being let down, when the vessel 
 Is close-hauled, decreas'e her drifting to leeward. 
 
 Let-in, To. — To fix or fit one timber or plank into another, 
 as the ends of carlings into beams, and the beams into shelf or 
 clamps, vacancies being made in each to receive the other. 
 
 Level Lines. — Lines determining the shape of a ship's body 
 horizontally, or square from the middle line of the ship. 
 
WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 207 
 
 Lighter. — A large open flat bottom vessel. 
 
 * Limber-Holes or Watercourses are square grooves cut 
 through the underside of floor timber, about nine inches from 
 the side of keel on each side, through which water may run 
 toward the pumps, in the whole length of floors. This precaution 
 is requisite, where small quantities of water, by the heeling of 
 the ship, may come through the ceiling and damage the cargo. 
 It is for this reason that the lower futtocks of merchant ships 
 are cut off short of the keel. (Fig. 28.) 
 
 * Limber-Passage. — A passage or channel formed through- 
 out the whole length of the floor, on each side of kelson, for 
 giving v;ater a free communication to the pumps. It is formed 
 by the Limber-Strake on each side, a thick strake wrought next 
 kelson. This strake is kept about eleven inches from kelson, 
 and forms the passage fore and aft which admits . the water 
 to the pump-well. The upper part of limber-passage is formed 
 by the Limber-Boards or plates. These boards are composed 
 of iron plates, or else of short pieces of oak plank, one edge of 
 which is fitted by a rabbet into the limber-strake, and the other 
 edge beveled with a descent against the kelson. They are fitted 
 in short pieces, for the convenience of taking up any one or 
 more readily. (Fig. 28.) 
 
 Lips of a Scarph. — The thin parts or laps of scarph. 
 
 Lockers. — Compartments built in cabins, etc., for various 
 purposes. 
 
 Lock. — I. Lock, in its primary sense, is anything that 
 fastens; but in the art of construction the word is appropriated 
 to an instrument composed of springs, wards, and bolts of iron 
 or steel, used to fasten doors, drawers, chests, etc. Locks on 
 outer doors are called stock locks; those on chamber doors, spring 
 locks; and such as are hidden in the thicki-.^s of the doors t& 
 which they are applied, are called mortise locks. 2. A basin or 
 chamber in a canal, or at the entrance to a dock. It has gates 
 at each end, which may be opened or shut at pleasure. By means 
 of such locks vessels are transferred from a higher to a lower 
 level, or from a lower to a higher. Whenever a canal changes its 
 level on account of an ascent or descent of the ground through 
 which it passes, the place where the change takes place is com- 
 manded by a lock. 
 
 Lock-Chainber. — In canals, tiie area of a lock inclosed by the 
 side walls and gates. 
 
 Lock-Gate. — The gate of a lock provided with paddles. 
 
 Lock-Paddle. — The sluice 'in a lock which serves to fill or 
 empty it. 
 
 Lock-Pit. — The excavated area of a lock. 
 Lock-Sill. — An angular piece of timber at the bottom of a 
 lock, against which the gates shut. 
 Locker. — A small cupboard. 
 
 Main Breadth. — The broadest part of ship at any particular 
 timber or frame. 
 
 * Main-Wales. — The lower wales, which are generally placed 
 on the lower breadth, and so that the main' deck knee-bolts may 
 come into them. (Fig. 28.) 
 
 Mallet. — A large wooden hammer, used by caulkers.' 
 Manager Board. — A piece of oak plank fitted over deck and 
 
 running from side to side a short distance abaft the hawse 
 
 pipes. 
 
 Manger. — An apartment extending athwart the ship, im- 
 mediately within the hawse-holes. It serves as a fence to in- 
 terrupt the passage of water which may come in at the hawse- 
 holes or from the cable when heaving in ; and the water thus 
 prevented from running aft is returned into the sea by the 
 manger-scuppers, which are larger than the other scuppers on 
 that account. 
 
 Margin. — A line in ships having a square stern, at a parallel 
 distance down from the upper edge of the wing transom forming 
 the lower part of a surface for seating the tuck rail; it ter- 
 minates at the ends of tlie exterior planking, or what is called 
 the tuck. 
 
 * Mast Cartings, large carlings.on each side of mast; they 
 are placed at equal distances from the middle line, and apart 
 the diameter of mast, and sufiicient for wedging on each side; 
 they score and face into the beams, before and abaft mast, 
 and lap on them about two-thirds the breadth of beam, and are 
 bolted with two bolts in each end. (Fig. 27.) 
 
 Mast-Coat. — A canvas covering fitted over the upper ends of 
 the mast wedges and nailed to the mast and mast coaming to 
 prevent any leakage around the mast. 
 
 * Mast Partners, commonly called cross partners, are pieces 
 placed before and abaft the mast for the wedges to come against; 
 they are let into a double rabbet taken out of mast carlings, 
 and are bolted through these, with two or three bolts in end 
 of each piece. (Fig. 27.) 
 
 Mauls. — Large hammers used for driving treenails, having 
 a steel face at one end and a point or pen drawn out at the 
 other. Double-headed mauls have a steel face at each end of 
 the same size, and are used for driving bolts, etc. 
 
 Meta-Center. — That point in a ship below which the center 
 of gravity of weight must be placed. 
 
 Middle Line. — A line dividing the ship exactly in the middle. 
 In the horizontal or half-breadth plan it is a right line bisecting 
 the ship from stem to stern-post; and in the plane of projection, 
 or body plan, it is a perpendicular line bisecting the ship from 
 keel to height of top of side. 
 
 Midships (see Amidships). 
 
 * Miter or Mitre, the mode of joining two solid pieces of 
 timber; the surfaces to be brought together are so formed, that 
 when connected, the joint shall make an angle with the side of 
 each piece that shall be common to both. 
 
 Momentum of a body is the product of weight multiplied 
 by the distance of its center of gravity from a certain point, 
 or from a line called the axis of momentum. 
 
 * Mortise. — A hole or hollow made in a piece of timber, 
 etc., in order to receive the end of another piece, with a tenon 
 fitted exactly to fill it. 
 
 Moulded. — Cut to the mould. Also, the size or bigness of 
 the timbers the way the mould is laid. See Sided. 
 
 * Moulds. — Pieces of board made to the shape of the lines 
 on mould-loft floor, as the timbers, harpins, ribbands, etc., and 
 used as patterns when cutting out the different pieces of timber, 
 etc., for the ship. 
 
 Nail. — A small pointed piece of metal, usually with a head, 
 to be driven into a board or other piece of timber, and serving 
 to fasten it to other timber. The larger kinds of instruments 
 of this sort are called spikes ; and a long, thin kind, with a flattish 
 head, is called a brad. There are three leading distinctions of 
 nails, as respects the state of the metal from which they are 
 prepared, namely, wrought or forged nails, cut or pressed nails, 
 and cast nails. Of the wrought or forged nails there are about 
 300 sorts, which receive different names, expressing for the most 
 part the uses to which they are applied, as, deck, scupper, boat. 
 Some are distinguished by names expressive of their form : thus, 
 rose, clasp, diamond, etc., indicate the form of their heads, 
 and Hat, sharp, spear, chisel, etc., their points. The thickness of 
 any specified form is expressed by trade terms. 
 
 Offset, or Set-off. — A horizontal break. 
 
 Ogee. — A moulding consisting of two members, one concave 
 and the other convex. It is called also cvma reversa. 
 
208 
 
 WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 * Orlop-bcoDis are hold-beams, fitted below the lower-deck 
 of two and three-decked vessels ; their spacing is greater, and 
 they are therefore generally heavier than the beams in the decks 
 above. (Fig. 28.) 
 
 Orlop-deck is the lowermost deck in four-decked ships. 
 
 Ovolo. — A moulding, the vertical section of which is, in 
 Roman architecture, a quarter of a circle ; it is thence called the 
 quarter-round. In Grecian architecture the section of the ovolo 
 is elliptical, or rather egg-shaped. 
 
 Panel. — An area sunk from the general face of the surround- 
 ing work; also a compartment of a wainscot or ceiling, or of 
 the surface of a wall, etc. In joinery, it is a thin piece of wood, 
 framed or received in a groove by two upright pieces or styles, 
 and two transverse pieces or rails ; as the panels of doors. 
 
 Piles. — Beams of timber, pointed at the end, driven into the 
 soil for the support of some superstructure. They are either 
 driven through a compressible stratum, till they meet with one 
 that is incompressible, and thus transmit the weight of the struc- 
 ture erected on the softer to the more solid material, or they are 
 driven into a soft or compressible structure in such numbers as 
 to solidify it. In the first instance, th^ piles are from 9 to 18 
 inches in diameter, and about twenty times their diameter in 
 length. They are pointed with iron at their lower end, and 
 their head is encircled with an iron. 
 
 Pilc-Driver. — An engine for driving down piles. It consists 
 of a large ram or block of iron, termed the monkey, which slides 
 between two guide-posts. Being drawn up to the top, and then let 
 fall from a considerable height, it comes down on the head of the 
 pile with a violent blow. 
 
 Pile-Planks. — Planks about 9 inches broad, and from 2 to 4 
 inches thick, sharpened at their lower end, and driven with their 
 edges close together into the ground in hydraulic works. Two 
 rows of pile-planks thus driven, with a space between them 
 filled with puddle, is the means used to form watertight coffer- 
 dams and similar erections. 
 
 Pin. — .\ piece of wood or metal, square or cylindricrl in 
 section, and sharpened or pointed, used to fasten timbers to- 
 gether. Large metal pins are termed bolts, and the wooden pins 
 used in ship-building treenails. 
 
 Plank. — All timber from one and a half to four inches in 
 thickness has this name given to it. 
 
 * Planking. — Covering the outside of a ship's timbers with 
 plank, the plank being the outer coating when the vessel is not 
 sheathed. (Fig. 28.) 
 
 * Plank-Sheers, or Plank-Sheer. — The pieces of plank laid 
 horizontally over timber-heads of quarter deck and forecastle, 
 for the purpose of covering the top of the side ; hence some- 
 times called covering-boards. (Fig. 28.) 
 
 Planted. — In joinery, a projecting member wrought on a 
 separate piece of stuff, and afterwards fixed in its place, is said 
 to be planted; as a planted moulding. 
 
 * Poppets. — Those pieces which are fixed perpendicularly 
 between the ship's bottom and the bilgeways, at the fore and 
 aftermost parts of the ship, to support her in launching. 
 
 * Preventer-Bolts. — The bolts passing through the lower end 
 of the preventer-plates, to assist the chain-bolts in heavy strains. 
 (Fig. 28.) 
 
 Preventer-Plates. — Short plates of iron bolted to the side at 
 the lower part of the chains, as extra security. 
 
 Pump.—Tht machine fitted in the wells of ships to draw 
 water out of the hold. 
 
 Quarter-Grain. — When timber is split in the direction of its 
 annular plates or rings. When it is split across these, towards 
 the center, it is called the felt-grain 
 
 Quarter-Round. — The echinus moulding. 
 
 Quicken, To. — To give anything a greater curve. For in- 
 stance, "To quicken the sheer" is to shorten the radius by which 
 the curve is struck. This term is therefore opposed to straight- 
 ening the sheer. 
 
 Quick-Work. — A term given to the strakes which shut in 
 between the spirketing and the clamps. By quick-work was 
 formerly meant all that part of a merchant vessel below the 
 level of the water when she is laden. 
 
 * Rabbet. — A joint made by a groove or channel in a piece 
 of timber, cut for the purpose of receiving and securing the 
 edge or ends of planks, as the planks of bottom into the keel, 
 stem or stern-post, or the edge of one plank into another. 
 
 Rag-Bolt. — A sort of bolt having its point jagged or barbed, 
 to make it hold the more securely. 
 
 Rails. — The horizontal timbers in any piece of framing. 
 Rake. — A slope or inclination. 
 
 Rake. — The overhanging of the stem or stern beyond a 
 perpendicular with the keel, or any part or thing that forms 
 an obtuse angle with the horizon. 
 
 Raking Mouldings. — Tliose which are inclined from the 
 horizontal line. 
 
 Ram-Line. — A small rope or line, sometimes used for the 
 purpose of forming the sheer or hang of the decks, for setting 
 the beams fair, etc. 
 
 Razing. — The act of marking by a mould on a piece of tim- 
 ber, or any marks made by a tool called a razing-knife or scriber. 
 
 Reeming. — The opening of the seams of plank for caulking 
 by driving in irons called reeming irons. 
 
 Rends. — Large shakes or splits in timber or plank, most 
 common to plank. 
 
 Riding-Bitts are bitts to which chain-cables are belayed when 
 a ship is anchored. 
 
 Ring-Bolts. — Eye-bolts having a ring passed through the 
 eye of the bolt. 
 
 *Room and Space. — The distance from one frame to the 
 adjoining one. 
 
 Rough-Hew. — To hew coarsely without smoothing, as to 
 rough-hew timber. 
 
 Roivlucks. — Places either raised above or sunk in the gun- 
 wale of a boat used to place the oar in when rowing. 
 
 Rudder. — The machine by which the ship is steered. 
 
 Rudder-Stock. — The main piece of a rudder. 
 
 Run. — The narrowing of the after-part of ship; thus a ship 
 is said to have a full, fine, or clean run. 
 
 Sagging. — The contrary of hogging. 
 
 * Sampson-Knee. — A knee used to strengthen riding bitts. 
 
 Saucers. — Metal steps bolted to the aft-side of the rudder- 
 post below a brace, so that the plug of the pintle will rest on 
 it, and keep the straps of pintles and braces from coming in 
 contact, thereby lessening the friction to be overcome in turning 
 the rudder. The pintles which rest on these saucers are made 
 with longer plugs, and are called saucer-pintles. 
 
 .Sap-Wood. — The external part of the wood of exogens, which 
 from being the latest formed, is not filled up with soild matter. 
 It is that through which the ascending fluids of plants move 
 most freely. For all building purposes the sap-wood is or ought 
 to be removed from timber, as it soon decays. 
 
 Scantling. — The dimensions given . for the timbers, planks, 
 etc. Likewise all quartering under five inches square, which 
 is termed scantling; all above that size is called carling. 
 
WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 2og 
 
 * Scarphing. — The letting of one piece of timber or plank 
 into another with a lap, in such a manner that both may appear 
 as one solid and even surface, as keel-pieces, stem-pieces, 
 clamps, etc. 
 
 * Scarphs.- — Scarphs are called vertical when their surfaces 
 are parallel to the sides, and flat or horizontal when their sur- 
 faces are opposite, as the scarphs of keelson and keel. They 
 are hook-scarphs when formed with a hook or projection, as 
 the scarphs of stem; and key-scarphs, when their lips are set 
 close by wedge-like keys at the hook, as the scarphs of beams. 
 
 * Schooner. — A vessel with two, three or more masts, with 
 fore-and-aft sails set on gaffs. A topsail schooner has a fore- 
 topsail, and sometimes a fore-topgallant sail. 
 
 Scuppers. — Holes cut through water-ways and side, and lined 
 with lead, to convey water to the sea. 
 
 Scuttle. — An opening in deck smaller than a hatchway. 
 
 Screw-Jack. — A portable machine for raising great weights 
 by the agency of a screw. 
 
 Scribe. — To mark by a rule or compasses ; to mark so as to 
 fit one piece to another. 
 
 Seams. — The spaces between the planks when worked. 
 
 Seasoning. — A term applied to a ship kept standing a certain 
 time after she is completely framed and dubbed out for plank- 
 ing, which should never be less than six months, when circum- 
 stances will permit. Seasoned plank or timber is such as has 
 been cut down and sawed out one season at least, particularly 
 when thoroughly dry and not liable to shrink. 
 
 Seating. — That part of the floor which fays on deadwood, 
 and of a transom which fays against the post. 
 
 Sending or 'Scending. — The act of pitching violently into the 
 hollows or intervals of waves. 
 
 Setting or Setting-to.— The act of making the planks, etc., 
 fay close to the timbers, by driving wedges between the plank, 
 etc., and a wrain staff. Hence we say, "set or set away," meaning 
 to exert more strength. The power or engine used for the 
 purpose of setting is called a Sett, and is composed of two 
 ring-bolts and a wrain staff, cleats and lashings. 
 
 Shaken or Shaky.— A natural defect in plank or timber when 
 it is full of splits or clefts, and will not bear fastening or 
 caulking. 
 
 Sheathing. — A thin sort of doubling or casing of yellow pine 
 board or sheet copper, and sometimes of both, over the ship's 
 bottom, to protect the planks from worms, etc. Tar and hair, 
 or brown paper dipped in tar and oil, is laid between the 
 sheathing and the bottom. 
 
 Sheer.— The longitudinal curve or hanging of a ship's side 
 in a fore-and-aft direction. 
 
 Sheer-Draught. — The plan of elevation of a ship, whereon 
 is described the outboard works, as the wales, sheer-rails, ports, 
 drifts, head, quarters, post and stem, etc., the hang of each 
 deck inside, the height of the water-lines, etc. 
 
 Sheers. — Elevated spars, connected at upper ends, used in 
 masting and dismasting vessels, etc. 
 
 Sheers.— Two masts or spars lashed or bolted together at or 
 near the head, provided with a pulley, and raised to nearly a 
 vertical position, used in lifting stones and other building 
 materials. 
 
 * Sheer-Strake.—Tht strake or strakes wrought in the top- 
 side, of which the upper edge is the top-timber line or top of 
 side. It forms the chief strength of the upper part of top- 
 side, and is therefore always worked thicker than the other 
 strakes, and scarphed with hook and butt between the drifts. 
 (Fig. 25.) 
 
 Sheet-Piles, Sheeting-Piles. — Piles formed of thick plank, 
 shot or jointed on the edges, and sometimes grooved and tongued, 
 driven closely together between the main or gauge piles of a 
 coffer-dam or other hydraulic work, to inclose the space so as 
 either to retain or exclude water, as the case may be. Sheeting- 
 piles have of late been formed of iron. 
 
 "^ Shelf-Pieces.— A strake worked for deck beams to rest on 
 where iron hanging knees are to be used. (Fig. 28.) 
 
 Shift. — A term made use of to denote the position of butts 
 and scarphs of planks and timber. 
 
 Shore. — An oblique brace or support, the upper end resting 
 against the body to be supported. 
 
 Shoulder. — Among artificers, a horizontal or rectangular pro- 
 jection from the body of a thing. Shoulder of a tenon, the plane 
 transverse to the length of a piece of timber from which the 
 tenon projects. It does not, however, always lie in the plane 
 here defined, but sometimes lies in different planes. 
 
 Sirmarks. — Stations marked upon the moulds for the frame 
 timber, etc., indicating where the bevelings are to be applied. 
 
 Skeg. — The after-end of the keel. The composition piece 
 supporting the heel of an equipoise rudder. 
 
 Skew, or Askew. — Oblique ; as a skew-hxiAge. 
 Snaping. — Cutting the ends of a stick off beveling so as to 
 fay upon an inclined plane. 
 
 Sny or Hang. — When the edges of strakes of plank curve 
 up or down, they are said to sny or hang; if down, to hang; if 
 up, to sny. 
 
 Specific Gravity. — The relative weight of any body when 
 compared with an equal bulk of any other body. Bodies are 
 said to be specifically heavier than other bodies when they 
 contain a greater weight under the same bulk; and when of 
 less weight, they are said to be specifically lighter. 
 
 Spiles. — Wooden pins used for driving into nail-holes. 
 Those for putting over bolt-heads and deck-spikes are cylindrical, 
 and are called plugs. 
 
 * Spirketting. — The strakes of plank worked between the 
 lower sills of ports and waterways. (Fig. 28.) 
 
 Sprung. — A yard or mast is said to be sprung when it is 
 cracked or split. 
 
 Square Framed. — In joinery, a work is said to be square 
 framed or framed square, when the framing has all the angles 
 of its styles, rails, and mountings square without being moulded. 
 
 Square-Body. — The square body comprises all those frames 
 that are square to the center line of ship. 
 
 Squaring Off.—Tht trimming off of the projecting edges of 
 the strakes after vessel is planked. 
 
 "' Stanchions. — -Upright pieces of wood or iron placed under 
 deck beams to support them in the center. (Fig. 27.) 
 
 Standards. — Knees placed against the fore-side of cable or 
 riding-bitts, and projecting above the deck. 
 
 Staples. — A bent fastening of metal formed as a loop, and 
 driven in at both ends. 
 
 Start-Hammer. — A steel bolt, with a handle attached, which 
 is held on the heads of bolts, and struck with a double-header 
 to start them in below the surface. 
 
 Stealer.— A name given to plank that fall short of the 
 stem or stern-post, on account of the amount of sny given some- 
 times in planking full-bowed ships. 
 
 *Stem. — The main timber at the fore part of ship, formed by 
 the combination of several pieces into a curved shape and 
 erected vertically to receive the ends of bow-planks, which are 
 united to it by means of a rabbet. Its lower end scarphs or 
 boxes into the keel, through which the rabbet is also carried,' 
 and the bottom unites in the same manner. (Fig. 25.) 
 
210 
 
 WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 * Stemson.- — A piece of timber, wrought on after part of 
 apron, the lower end of which scarphs into the keelson. Its 
 upper end is continued as high as the middle or upper deck, 
 and its use is to strengthen the scarphs of apron, and stem. 
 (Fig. 25.) 
 
 Step. — One of the gradients in a stair; it is composed of two 
 fronts, one horizontal, called the tread, and one vertical, called the 
 riser. 
 
 Steps for the Ship's Side.—The pieces of quartering, with 
 mouldings, nailed to the sides amidship, about nine inches asun- 
 der, from the wales upward, for the convenience of persons 
 getting on board. 
 
 * Steps of Masts. — The steps into which the heels of masts 
 are fixed are large pieces of timber. Those for the main and 
 foremasts are fixed across the keelson, and that for the mizzen- 
 mast upon the lower deck-beams. The holes or mortises into 
 which the masts step should have sufficient wood on each side 
 to accord in strength with the tenon left at the heel of mast, 
 and the hole should be cut rather less than the tenon, as an 
 allowance for shrinking. (Fig. 25.) 
 
 * Stern Frame. — The strong frame of timber composed of 
 the stern-post, transoms and fashion-pieces, which form the 
 basis of the whole stern. 
 
 * Stern-Post. — The principal piece of timber in stern frame 
 on which the rudder is hung, and to which the transoms arc- 
 bolted. It therefore terminates the ship below the wing-tran- 
 som, and its lower end is tenoned into keel. (Fig. 25.) 
 
 Stiff. — Stable; steady under canvas. 
 
 Stiinng.— The elevation of a ship's cathead or bowsprit, or 
 the angle which either makes with the horizon; generally called 
 steeve. 
 
 Shoe, Anchor.— A flat block of hard wood, convex on back, 
 and scored out on flat side to take the bill of anchor; it is used 
 in fishing the anchor to prevent tearing the plank on vessel's 
 bow, and is placed under the bill of it, and is hauled up with it. 
 
 * Stoppings-Up. — The poppets, timber, etc., used to fill up the 
 vacancy between the upper side of the bilgeways and ship's 
 bottom, for supporting her when launching. 
 
 Straight of Breadth. — The space before and abaft dead-flat, 
 in which the ship is of the same uniform breadth, or of the 
 same breadth as at dead-flat. Sec Dead-Flat. 
 
 * Strake.- — One breadth of plank wrought from one end of 
 the ship to the other, either within or outboard. 
 
 Strut. — Any piece of timber in a system of framing which is 
 pressed or crushed in the direction of its length. 
 
 Stub-Mortise. — A mortise which does not pass through the 
 whole thickness of the timber. 
 
 Tabling. — Letting one piece of timber into another by al- 
 ternate scores or projections from the middle, so that it can- 
 not be drawn asunder either lengthwise or sidewise. 
 
 Taffarel or Taff-Rail.—Tht upper part of the ship's stern, 
 usually ornamented with carved work or mouldings, the ends 
 of which unite to the quarter-pieces. 
 
 Tasting of Plank or Timber. — Chipping it with an adze, or 
 boring it with a small auger, for the purpose of ascertaining 
 its quality or defects. 
 
 Templet. — A pattern or mould used by masons, machinists, 
 smiths, shipwrights, etc., for shaping anything by. It is made 
 of tin or zinc plate, sheet-iron, or thin board, according to the 
 use to which it is to be applied. 
 
 * Tenon.— The square part at the end of one piece of timber, 
 diminished so as to fix in a hole of another piece, called a 
 mortise, for joining or fastening the two pieces together. 
 
 Tenon. — The end of a piece of wood cut into the form of a 
 rectangular prism, which is received into a cavity in another 
 piece, having the same shape and size, called a mortise. It is 
 
 sometimes written tenant. 
 
 Thickstuff. — -A name for sided timber exceeding four inches, 
 l)ut not being more than twelve inches in thickness. 
 
 Tholes, or Tholc-Pins. — The battens or pins forming the 
 rowlocks of a boat. 
 
 Throat. — The inside of knee at the middle or turn of the 
 arms. Also the midship part of the floor timbers. 
 
 Thwarts. — The seats in a boat on which tJie oarsmen sit. 
 
 Tiller. — An arm of wood or iron fitted into the rudder- 
 head to steer a ship or boat by. 
 
 Timber. — That sort of wood which is squared, or capable 
 of being squared, and fit for being employed in house or ship- 
 building, or in carpentry, joinery, etc. 
 
 Timber. — {Material for ship-building.). — Timber is generally 
 distinguished into rough, square or hewn, sided and converted 
 timber. Rough timber is the timber to its full size as felled, 
 with lop, top and bark off. Hewn timber is timber squared for 
 measurement. Sided timber is the tree of full size, one way, 
 as it is felled, but with slabs taken off from two of its sides. 
 Converted timber is timber cut for different purposes. 
 
 Timber-Heads. — Projecting timbers for belaying towing 
 lines, etc. 
 
 To Anchor Stock. — To work planks by fashioning them in 
 a tapering form from the middle, and working or fixing them 
 over each other, so that the broad or middle part of one plank 
 shall be immediately above or below the butts or ends of two 
 others. This method, as it occasions a great consumption of 
 wood, is only used where particular strength is required. 
 
 Tonnage of Capacity. — The capacity which the body has 
 for carrying cargo, estimated at 100 cubic feet to the ton. 
 
 Tonnage of Displacement. — The weight of the ship in tons 
 with all on board; found by computing number of cubic feet 
 of the immersed body to the deep load line and dividing by 
 35- 
 
 * Top and Half Top-Timbers. — The upper timbers of the 
 frame. (Fig. 28.) 
 
 Top-Rail. — An iron rail at the after part of ship's tops. 
 
 Top-Rim. — The circular sweep or the fore-part of a ves- 
 sel's top and covering in the ends of cross-trees and trestle- 
 trees, to prevent their chafing the topsail. 
 
 * Topside. — That part of the ship above the main wales. 
 (Fig. 28.) 
 
 To Teach. — A term applied to the direction that any line, 
 etc., seems to point out. Thus we_ say, "Let the line or mould 
 teach fair to such a spot, raze," etc. 
 
 Trail-Boards.— The filling pieces, sometimes carved, placed 
 between the brackets on the head. 
 
 * Transoms. — Transverse timbers in square-sterned ships, 
 connected and placed square with the stern-posts. 
 
 Tread. — The horizontal surface of a step. 
 
 Tread of the Keel. — The whole length of the keel upon a 
 straight line. 
 
 Treenails. — Cylindrical oak pins driven through the planks 
 and timbers of a vessel, to fasten or connect them together. 
 These certainly make the best fastening when driven quite 
 through, and caulked or wedged inside. They should be made 
 of the very best oak or locust, cut near the butt, and perfectly 
 dry or well-seasoned. 
 
 Trimming of Timber. — The working of any piece of timber 
 . into the proper shape, by means of the axe or adze. 
 
WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 211 
 
 Truss. — A combination of timbers, of iron, or of timbers and 
 iron-work so arranged as to constitute an unyielding frame. It 
 is so named because it is trussed or tied together. 
 
 Trussed Beam. — A compound beam composed of two beams 
 secured together side by side with a truss, generally of iron, 
 between them. 
 
 The Tuck.—Th.t after part of ship, where the ends of 
 planks of bottom are terminated by the tuck-rail, and all below 
 the wing-transom when it partakes of the figure of the wing- 
 transom as far as the fashion-pieces. 
 
 Tuck-Rail. — The rail which is wrought well with the upper 
 side of wing-transom, and forms a rabbet for the purpose of 
 caulking the butt ends of planks of bottom. 
 
 Upright. — The position of a ship when she inclines neither 
 to one side nor the other. 
 
 Veneer. — A facing of superior wood placed in thin leaves 
 over an inferior sort. Generally, a facing of superior material 
 laid over an inferior material. 
 
 *lVales (by some also called Bends) {Wooden Vessels). — 
 The thickest outside planking of a ship's side, about midway 
 between the light water-line and the plank sheer; the breadth 
 of the Wales is generally equal Xo Y^ or y^ of the depth of the 
 vessel's hold. (Fig. 28.) 
 
 Wall-Sided. — A term applied to the topsides of the ship when 
 the main breadth is continued very low down and very high up, 
 so that the topsides appear straight and upright like a wall. 
 
 Washboards. — Thin plank placed above the gunwale of a 
 boat forward and aft to increase the height. 
 
 * Water-Lines. — Sections of the vessel parallel to the plane 
 of flotation. 
 
 Water-logged. — The condition of a leaky ship when she is 
 so full of water as to be heavy and unmanageable. 
 
 * Waterways. — The edge of the deck next the timbers, which 
 is wrought thicker than the rest of deck, and so hollowed to 
 thickness' of deck as to form a gutter or channel for water to 
 run through to the scuppers. (Fig. 26.) 
 
 Wedges. — Slices of wood driven in between the masts and 
 their partners, to admit of giving rake if desired. 
 
 -The brackets or projecting parts of the barrel of 
 
 Whelps.- 
 a capstan. 
 
 Whole-Moulded. — A term applied to the bodies of those 
 ships which- are.,»o constructed that one mould made to the 
 midship-bend, with the addition of a floor hollow, will mould 
 all the timbers below the main-breadth in square body. 
 
 Winch. — A machine similar to a windlass, but much smaller, 
 often placed on the fore side of the lower masts of merchant 
 vessels, just above the deck, to assist in hoisting the topsails, etc. 
 
 Wind. — To cast or warp ; to turn or twist any surface, so 
 that all its parts do not lie in the same plane. 
 
 Windlass. — A machine used in vessels for hoisting the 
 anchor. 
 
 Wings. — The places next the side upon the orlop. 
 
 Wing-Transom. — The uppermost transom in stern frame, 
 upon which the heels of counter-timbers are let in and rest. 
 It is by some called the main-transom. 
 
 Wood-Lock. — A piece of elm or oak, closely fitted and 
 sheathed with copper, in the throating or score of the pintle, 
 near the load water-line, so that when the rudder is hung and 
 wood-lock nailed in its place, it cannot rise, because the latter 
 butts against the under side of the brace and butt of score. 
 
 Wrain-Bolt. — Ring-bolts used when planking, with two or 
 more forelock holes in the end for taking in the set, as the plank, 
 etc., works nearer the timbers. 
 
 Wrain-Stave. — A sort of stout billet of tough wood, tapered 
 at the ends so as to go into the ring of the wrain-bolt, to make 
 the setts necessary for bringing-to the planks or thickstuflf to 
 the timbers. 
 
 Yacht.— JK small vessel (sailing or power-driven vessel) used 
 for pleasure. 
 
212 
 
 WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 USEFUL TABLES 
 
 FRACTIONS OF AN INCH IN DECIMALS 
 
 Fraction 
 
 ;)ecimal 
 
 Fraction 
 
 Decimal 
 
 Fraction 
 
 Decimal 
 
 Fraction 
 
 Decimal 
 
 of an 
 
 of an 
 
 of an 
 
 of an 
 
 of an 
 
 of an 
 
 of an 
 
 of an 
 
 Inch 
 
 Inch 
 
 Inch 
 
 Inch 
 
 Inch 
 
 Inch 
 
 Inch 
 
 Inch 
 
 J6 
 
 01562 
 
 '% 
 
 26562 
 
 ^^ 
 
 51562 
 
 'Hi 
 
 .76562 
 
 ^ 
 
 03125 
 
 % 
 
 28125 
 
 '% 
 
 53125 
 
 'Hi 
 
 .78125 
 
 % 
 
 04687 
 
 '% 
 
 29687 
 
 'Hi 
 
 54687 
 
 'Hi 
 
 .79687 
 
 Hi 
 
 06250 
 
 Hi 
 
 31250 
 
 % 
 
 56250 
 
 '^6 
 
 .81250 
 
 % 
 
 07812 
 
 'Hi 
 
 32812 
 
 '% 
 
 57812 
 
 "Hi 
 
 .82812 
 
 % 
 
 09375 
 
 'Hi 
 
 34375 
 
 '% 
 
 59375 
 
 'Hi 
 
 •84375 
 
 % 
 
 10937 
 
 ""Hi 
 
 35937 
 
 'Hi 
 
 60937 
 
 'Hi 
 
 •85937 
 
 'A 
 
 12500 
 
 H 
 
 37500 
 
 H 
 
 62500 
 
 H 
 
 •87500 
 
 ?6 
 
 14062 
 
 'Hi 
 
 39062 
 
 'Hi 
 
 64062 
 
 'Hi 
 
 .89062 
 
 ;4t 
 
 15625 
 
 f^ 
 
 40625 
 
 % 
 
 65625 
 
 % 
 
 •90625 
 
 'Hi 
 
 I7187 
 
 2% 
 
 42187 
 
 ''Hi 
 
 67187 
 
 'Hi 
 
 .92187 
 
 ,¥' 
 
 18750 
 
 J^^ 
 
 43750 
 
 'He 
 
 68750 
 
 'Hi 
 
 •93750 
 
 ■% 
 
 20312 
 
 'Hi 
 
 45312 
 
 'Hi 
 
 70312 
 
 'Hi 
 
 •95312 
 
 % 
 
 21875 
 
 ■% 
 
 46875 
 
 "^ 
 
 71875 
 
 'Hi 
 
 •96875 
 
 '56 
 
 23437 
 
 'Hi 
 
 48437 
 
 ''Hi 
 
 73437 
 
 "Hi 
 
 .98437 
 
 K 
 
 25000 
 
 H 
 
 50000 
 
 H 
 
 75000 
 
 I inch 
 
 I .00000 
 
 INCHES AND FRACTIONS IN DECIMALS OF A FOOT 
 
 
 Parts of 
 
 
 Parts of 
 
 
 Parts of 
 
 
 Parts of 
 
 
 Foot in 
 
 Decimal 
 
 Foot in 1 
 
 Decimal 
 
 Foot in 
 
 Decimal 
 
 Foot in 
 
 Decimal 
 
 Inches and 
 
 of a Foot 
 
 Inches and 
 
 f a Foot 
 
 Inches and 
 
 f a Foot 
 
 Inches and 
 
 of a Foot 
 
 Fractions 
 
 
 Fractions 
 
 
 Fractions 
 
 
 Fractions 
 
 
 Hi 
 
 .00520 
 
 3 'Hi 
 
 25520 
 
 6 'Hi 
 
 ■50520 
 
 9 Hi 
 
 •75520 
 
 A 
 
 .01040 
 
 3 A 
 
 26040 
 
 6 A 
 
 51040 
 
 9 A 
 
 .76040 
 
 'Hi 
 
 .01562 
 
 3% 
 
 26562 
 
 6 'Hi 
 
 51562 
 
 9 'Hi 
 
 .76562 
 
 K 
 
 .02080 
 
 3 A 
 
 27080 
 
 6 A 
 
 52080 
 
 9A 
 
 .77080 
 
 Hi 
 
 .02600 
 
 3 'Hi 
 
 27600 
 
 6 'Hi 
 
 52600 
 
 9 'Hi 
 
 .77600 
 
 H 
 
 .03125 
 
 3 H 
 
 28125 
 
 6 A 
 
 53125 
 
 9 A 
 
 .78125 
 
 Hi 
 
 .03640 
 
 3 Hi 
 
 28650 
 
 (■Hi 
 
 53640 
 
 9 Hi 
 
 •78650 
 
 K 
 
 .04170 
 
 3 A 
 
 29170 
 
 6 A 
 
 54170 
 
 9 A 
 
 ■79170 
 
 Hi 
 
 .04687 
 
 3 Hi 
 
 29687 
 
 6 Hi 
 
 54687 
 
 9 Hi 
 
 •79687 
 
 H 
 
 .05210 
 
 3 A. 
 
 30210 
 
 6 ^ 
 
 55210 
 
 9 ^ 
 
 .80210 
 
 'Hi 
 
 •05730 
 
 3"Hi 
 
 30730 
 
 (>"Hi 
 
 55730 
 
 9"Hi 
 
 •80730 
 
 H 
 
 .06250 
 
 3 A 
 
 31250 
 
 6H 
 
 56250 
 
 9 A 
 
 .81250 
 
 . "Hi 
 
 .06770 
 
 3% 
 
 31770 
 
 (>"Hi 
 
 56770 
 
 9"Hi 
 
 .81770 
 
 H 
 
 .07290 
 
 3A- 
 
 32290 
 
 6 7A 
 
 57290 
 
 9 A 
 
 .82290 
 
 "Hi 
 
 .07812 
 
 3"Hi 
 
 32812 
 
 6>5.1'6 
 
 57812 
 
 9"Hi 
 
 .82812 
 
 I inch 
 
 .08330 
 
 4 inches 
 
 33330 
 
 7 inches 
 
 58330 
 
 10 inches 
 
 •83330 
 
 I 'Hi 
 
 .08850 
 
 A 'Hi 
 
 33850 
 
 7 'Hi 
 
 58850 
 
 ion's 
 
 .83850 
 
 I 'A 
 
 •09375 
 
 4 A 
 
 34375 
 
 7 A 
 
 59375 
 
 10 A 
 
 •84375 
 
 I 'Hi 
 
 .09900 
 
 A 'Hi 
 
 34900 
 
 7 'Hi 
 
 S9900 
 
 10% 
 
 .84900 
 
 I % 
 
 . 10420 
 
 A A 
 
 35420 
 
 7 A 
 
 60420 
 
 10 A 
 
 .85420 
 
 I 'Hi 
 
 • 10937 
 
 A 'Hi 
 
 35937 
 
 7 'Hi 
 
 60937 
 
 10 Hi 
 
 •85937 
 
 I H 
 
 .11460 
 
 A H 
 
 36460 
 
 7 H 
 
 61460 
 
 10 A 
 
 .86460 
 
 I Hi 
 
 .11980 
 
 A Hi 
 
 36980 
 
 7 Hi 
 
 61980 
 
 10 Hi 
 
 .86980 
 
 I 'A 
 
 .12500 
 
 A A 
 
 37500 
 
 7 A 
 
 62500 
 
 10 A 
 
 .87500 
 
 1% 
 
 .13020 
 
 A Hi 
 
 38020 
 
 7 Hi 
 
 63020 
 
 10 Hi 
 
 .88020 
 
 I H 
 
 •13540 
 
 A. A 
 
 38540 
 
 7H 
 
 63540 
 
 10 H 
 
 .88540 
 
 i"Hi 
 
 . 14062 
 
 A"Hi 
 
 39062 
 
 7"Hi 
 
 64062 
 
 lo^'Hi 
 
 . 89062 
 
 I H 
 
 • 14580 
 
 aH 
 
 39580 
 
 7 A 
 
 64580 
 
 10 A 
 
 .89580 
 
 i"Hi 
 
 ,15100 
 
 A"Hi 
 
 40100 
 
 7"Hi 
 
 65100 
 
 10% 
 
 .90100 
 
 I H 
 
 •15625 
 
 A A 
 
 40625 
 
 7 A 
 
 65625 
 
 10 7A 
 
 •90625 
 
 i"Hi 
 
 .16150 
 
 A"y{i 
 
 41140 
 
 7"Hi 
 
 66150 
 
 10% 
 
 .91150 
 
 2 inches 
 
 .16670 
 
 5 inches 
 
 41670 
 
 8 inches 
 
 66670 
 
 II inches 
 
 .91670 
 
 2 'Hi 
 
 .17187 
 
 5 'Hi 
 
 42187 
 
 8'Hit 
 
 67187 
 
 II 'Hi 
 
 .92187 
 
 2 A 
 
 .17710 
 
 5A . 
 
 42710 
 
 8Ai 
 
 67710 
 
 II A 
 
 .92710 
 
 2 'Hi 
 
 .18230 
 
 5 'Hi 
 
 43230 
 
 sHi 
 
 68230 
 
 11% 
 
 .93230 
 
 2% 
 
 •18750 
 
 5A 
 
 43750 
 
 8A 
 
 68750 
 
 II A 
 
 •93750 
 
 2 'Hi 
 
 .19270 
 
 5 'Hi 
 
 44270 
 
 s'Hi 
 
 69270 
 
 I J 'Hi 
 
 .94270 
 
 2 H ■ 
 
 .19790 
 
 5H 
 
 44790 
 
 8 A' 
 
 69790 
 
 II 'As 
 
 •94790 
 
 2 Hi 
 
 .20312 
 
 5 Hi 
 
 45312 
 
 SHi ■ 
 
 70312 
 
 11 Hi 
 
 •95312 
 
 2 A 
 
 .20830 
 
 5A 
 
 45830 
 
 8 A 
 
 70830 
 
 II A 
 
 •95830 
 
 2 Hi 
 
 .21350 
 
 5 Hi 
 
 46350 
 
 8% 
 
 71350 
 
 11% 
 
 •96350 
 
 2H 
 
 •21875 
 
 5H 
 
 46875 
 
 SHY 
 
 71875 
 
 II H 
 
 •96875 
 
 2"Hi 
 
 . 22400 
 
 5"Hi 
 
 47400 
 
 8% 
 
 72400 
 
 ii"Hi 
 
 .97400 
 
 2V4 
 
 .22920 
 
 5A 
 
 47920 
 
 8 A 
 
 72920 
 
 II A 
 
 .97920 
 
 2"Hi 
 
 •23437 
 
 5"Hi 
 
 48437 
 
 8% 
 
 73437 
 
 ii"Hi 
 
 •98437 
 
 2 7yi 
 
 •23950 
 
 5A 
 
 48960 
 
 8 7yi 
 
 73960 
 
 II 7A 
 
 .98960 
 
 2"Hi 
 
 .24480 
 
 5"Hi 
 
 49480 
 
 8% • 
 
 74480 
 
 ii"Hi 
 
 .99480 
 
 3 inches 
 
 .25000 
 
 6 inches 
 
 50000 
 
 9 inches 
 
 75000 
 
 12 inches 
 
 I .00000 
 
WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 213 
 
 AREAS AND CIRCUMFERENCES OF CIRCLES 
 
 Diameter 
 
 Area 
 
 Circumference 
 
 Diameter 
 
 Area 
 
 Circumference 
 
 I 
 
 •7854 
 
 3-I416 
 
 51 
 
 2042.8206 
 
 160.2212 
 
 2 
 
 3-1416 
 
 6.2832 
 
 52 
 
 2123. 7166 
 
 163.3628 
 
 3 
 
 7.0686 
 
 9.4248 
 
 53 
 
 2206.1834 
 
 166.5044 
 
 4 
 
 12.5664 
 
 12.5664 
 
 54 
 
 2290.2210 
 
 169.6460 
 
 5 
 
 19-6350 
 
 15.7080 
 
 55 
 
 2375-8294 
 
 172.7876 
 
 6 
 
 28.2743 
 
 18.8496 
 
 56 
 
 2463.0086 
 
 175.9292 
 
 7 
 
 38.4845 
 
 21. 991 1 
 
 57 
 
 2551-7586 
 
 179.0708 
 
 8 
 
 50-2655 
 
 25-1327 
 
 58 
 
 2642.0794 
 
 182.2184 
 
 9 
 
 63.6173 
 
 28.2743 
 
 59 
 
 2733-9710 
 
 185-3540 
 
 10 
 
 78.5398 
 
 31-4159 
 
 60 
 
 2827.4334 
 
 188.4956 
 
 II 
 
 95-0332 
 
 34-5575 
 
 61 
 
 2922.4666 
 
 191.6372 
 
 12 
 
 113-0973 
 
 37.6991 
 
 62 
 
 3019.0705 
 
 194-7787 
 
 13 
 
 132-7323 
 
 40.8407 
 
 63 
 
 31 17-2453 
 
 197.9203 
 
 14 
 
 153-9380 
 
 43-9823 
 
 64 
 
 3216.9909 
 
 201.0619 
 
 15 
 
 176.7146 
 
 47.1239 
 
 65 
 
 3318.3072 
 
 204.2035 
 
 16 
 
 201.0619 
 
 50.2655 
 
 66 
 
 342 1. 1 944 
 
 207.3451 
 
 17 
 
 226.9801 
 
 53-4071 
 
 67 
 
 3525.6524 
 
 210.4867 
 
 18 
 
 254.4690 
 
 56-5487 
 
 68 
 
 3631. 681 1 
 
 213.6283 
 
 19 
 
 283.5287 
 
 596903 
 
 69 
 
 3739.2807 
 
 216.7699 
 
 20 
 
 314-1593 
 
 62.8319 
 
 70 
 
 3848.4510 
 
 219.9I15 
 
 21 
 
 346.3606 
 
 65-9734 
 
 71 
 
 3959-I921 
 
 223.0531 
 
 22 
 
 380.1327 
 
 69.1150 
 
 72 
 
 407 1. 504 1 
 
 226.1947 
 
 23 
 
 415-4756 
 
 72.2566 
 
 73 
 
 4185-3868 
 
 229.3363 
 
 24 
 
 452-3893 
 
 75-3982 
 
 74 
 
 4300.8403 
 
 232.4779 
 
 25 
 
 490.8739 
 
 78-5398 
 
 75 
 
 4417.8647 
 
 235-6194 
 
 26 
 
 530.9292 
 
 81.6814 
 
 76 
 
 4536.4598 
 
 238.7610 
 
 27 
 
 572.5553 
 
 84.8230 
 
 77 
 
 4656.6257 
 
 241.9026 
 
 28 
 
 615-7522 
 
 87.9646 
 
 78 
 
 4778.3624 
 
 245.0442 
 
 29 
 
 660.5199 
 
 91.1062 
 
 79 
 
 4901 .6699 
 
 248.1858 
 
 30 
 
 706.8583 
 
 94-2478 
 
 80 
 
 5026.5482 
 
 251-3274 
 
 31 
 
 754-7676 
 
 973894 
 
 81 
 
 5152.9974 
 
 254.4690 
 
 32 
 
 804.2477 
 
 100.5310 
 
 82 
 
 5281.OI73 
 
 257.6106 
 
 33 
 
 855-2986 
 
 103.6726 
 
 83 
 
 5410.6079 
 
 260.7522 
 
 34 
 
 907.9203 
 
 106.8142 
 
 84 
 
 5541.7694 
 
 263.8938 
 
 35 
 
 962.1128 
 
 109-9557 
 
 85 
 
 5674-5017 
 
 267.0354 
 
 36 
 
 IOI7.8760 
 
 113.0973 
 
 86 
 
 5808.8048 
 
 270.1770 
 
 37 
 
 IO75.210I 
 
 116.2389 
 
 87 
 
 5944-6787 
 
 273-3186 
 
 38 
 
 II34.II49 
 
 119.3805 
 
 88 
 
 6082.1234 
 
 276.4602 
 
 39 
 
 1 194.5906 
 
 122.5221 
 
 89 
 
 6221. 1389 
 
 279.6017 
 
 40 
 
 1 256. 637 1 
 
 125.6637 
 
 90 
 
 6361. 7251 
 
 282.7434 
 
 41 
 
 1320.2543 
 
 128.8053 
 
 91 
 
 6503.8822 
 
 285.8849 
 
 42 
 
 1385.4424 
 
 131.9469 
 
 92 
 
 6647. 610I 
 
 289.0265 
 
 43 
 
 1452. 2012 
 
 135-0835 
 
 93 
 
 6792.9097 
 
 292.1681 
 
 44 
 
 1520.5308 
 
 138.2301 
 
 94 
 
 6939.7782 
 
 295-3097 
 
 45 
 
 I59O.43I3 
 
 141-3717 
 
 95 
 
 7088.2184 
 
 298-4513 
 
 46 
 
 I66I.9025 
 
 144-5133 
 
 96 
 
 7238.2295 
 
 301.5929 
 
 47 
 
 1734-9445 
 
 147-6549 
 
 97 
 
 7389-81 13 
 
 304-7345 
 
 48 
 
 1809.5574 
 
 150.7964 
 
 98 
 
 7542.9610 
 
 307.8761 
 
 49 
 
 1885. 7410 
 
 153-9380 
 
 99 
 
 7697.6874 
 
 31I.OI77 
 
 50 
 
 1963.4954 
 
 157.0796 
 
 100 
 
 7853-9816 
 
 314-1593 
 
 WEIGHT OF A SQUARE FOOT OF CAST AND WROUGHT IRON, 
 
 COPPER, LEAD, BRASS AND ZINC 
 
 FROM He TO i INCH IN THICKNESS 
 
 
 
 Wrouglit 
 
 
 
 
 
 Tliickness 
 
 Cast Iron 
 
 Iron 
 
 Copper 
 
 Lead 
 
 Brass 
 
 Zinc 
 
 Inch 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Hi 
 
 2.346 
 
 2-517 
 
 2.89 
 
 3.691 
 
 2.675 
 
 2-34 
 
 'A 
 
 4-693 
 
 5-035 
 
 5-781 
 
 7.382 
 
 5-35 
 
 4.68 
 
 %, 
 
 7-039 
 
 7-552 
 
 8.672 
 
 11.074 
 
 8-025 
 
 7.02 
 
 K 
 
 9-386 
 
 10.07 
 
 1 1 .562 
 
 14-765 
 
 10.7 
 
 9-36 
 
 % 
 
 11-733 
 
 12.588 
 
 14-453 
 
 18.456 
 
 13-375 
 
 II.7 
 
 H 
 
 14.079 
 
 15.106 
 
 17-344 
 
 22.148 
 
 16.05 
 
 14.04 
 
 % 
 
 16.426 
 
 17-623 
 
 20.234 
 
 25-839 
 
 18.725 
 
 16.34 
 
 "6 
 
 18.773 
 
 20.141 
 
 23-125 
 
 29-53 
 
 21.4 
 
 18.72 
 
 % 
 
 21. 119 
 
 22.659 
 
 26.016 
 
 33.222 
 
 24-075 
 
 
 'tl 
 
 23.466 
 
 25.176 
 
 28.906 
 
 36.923 
 
 26.75 
 
 
 25-812 
 
 27-694 
 
 31-797 
 
 40.604 
 
 29-425 
 
 
 .H 
 
 28.159 
 
 30.211 
 
 34.688 
 
 44-296 
 
 32-1 
 
 
 % 
 
 30.505 
 
 32.729 
 
 37-578 
 
 47-987 
 
 
 
 ,'{f 
 
 32-852 
 
 35-247 
 
 40.469 
 
 51-678 
 
 
 
 "^ 
 
 35-199 
 
 37-764 
 
 43-359 
 
 55-37 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 37-545 
 
 40.282 
 
 46.25 
 
 59.061 
 
 
 
 NOTE.- 
 plates. 
 
 -The wrought iron and the copper weights are those of hard-rolled 
 
214 
 
 WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 FRESH WATER 
 UNITED STATES GALLON 
 Tons = gallons Tons = cubic feet 
 
 268.365 35.883 
 
 Pounds = cubic feet X 62.425 
 Gallons = cubic feet X 7.48 
 Pressure = height in feet X -4335 
 Height in feet = pressure X 2.3093 
 
 Logarithm 
 
 I ton contains 35.883 cubic feet 1.55489 
 
 I ton contains 268.365 gallons 2.56628 
 
 I ton weighs 2240 pounds 3-35025 
 
 I gallon contains 231 cubic inches 2.36361 
 
 1 gallon contains .833 imperial gallon 2.92065 
 
 I gallon weighs 8.33 pounds j. 92065 
 
 I quart weighs 2.08 pounds 31806 
 
 I ^int weighs i .04 pounds 01703 
 
 I gill weighs .26 pound 9.41497 
 
 I cubic foot weighs 62.425 pounds 1 .79536 
 
 I cubic foot contains 7.48 gallons 87390 
 
 I cubic foot contains 1728 cubic inches 3-23754 
 
 I cubic inch weighs .036125 pound 8.55781 
 
 12 cubic inches weighs .4335 pound 9.63699 
 
 27.71 cubic inches weighs i pound 
 
 27.71 cubic inches, height 2.3093 feet 36348 
 
 METRIC CONVERSION TABLE 
 
 Inches 
 
 Millimeters 
 
 Inches 
 
 Millimeters 
 
 Inches 
 
 Millimeters 
 
 Mii 
 
 1-59 
 
 2% 
 
 58.74 
 
 6 
 
 152.40 
 
 }i 
 
 3-17 
 
 iH 
 
 60.33 
 
 6^ 
 
 158-75 
 
 % 
 
 4.76 
 
 2^6 
 
 61.91 
 
 6 K 
 
 165.10 
 
 K 
 
 6-35 
 
 2K 
 
 63-50 
 
 6K 
 
 171-45 
 
 % 
 
 7-94 
 
 2% 
 
 65-09 
 
 7 
 
 177.80 
 
 H 
 
 9-53 
 
 2fg 
 
 66.67 
 
 IV, 
 
 184.15 
 
 Ki 
 
 11.10 
 
 2'K6 
 
 68.26 
 
 TA 
 
 190.50 
 
 'A 
 
 12.70 
 
 2% 
 
 69.85 
 
 7K 
 
 196.85 
 
 % 
 
 14.29 
 
 2% 
 
 71-44 
 
 8 
 
 203.20 
 
 ^ 
 
 15-87 
 
 21A 
 
 73-03 
 
 ^'A 
 
 209.55 
 
 't^ 
 
 17.46 
 
 2% 
 
 74.61 
 
 8 A 
 
 215-90 
 
 K 
 
 19-05 
 
 3 
 
 76.20 
 
 8K 
 
 222.25 
 
 'Ke 
 
 20.64 
 
 33^ 
 
 79-37 
 
 9 
 
 228.60 
 
 n 
 
 22.23 
 
 3X 
 
 82.55 
 
 9X 
 
 234-95 
 
 'K6 " 
 
 23.81 
 
 3^ 
 
 85-73 
 
 9 A 
 
 241.30 
 
 I 
 
 25.40 
 
 iA 
 
 88.90 
 
 9 Y^ 
 
 247-65 
 
 I Ke 
 
 26.99 
 
 ZH 
 
 92.08 
 
 10 
 
 254-00 
 
 I yi 
 
 28.57 
 
 3K 
 
 95-25 
 
 10 A 
 
 260.35 
 
 1% 
 
 30.16 
 
 3^ 
 
 98.43 
 
 10 K 
 
 266.70 
 
 I X 
 
 31-75 
 
 4 
 
 101.60 
 
 10 K 
 
 273-05 
 
 1^6 
 
 33-34 
 
 4 J^ 
 
 104.78 
 
 II 
 
 279.40 
 
 I H 
 
 34-92 
 
 4X 
 
 107.95 
 
 II A 
 
 285.75 
 
 l'/<6 
 
 36.51 
 
 4N 
 
 III. 13 
 
 II K 
 
 292.10 
 
 I A 
 
 38.10 
 
 454 
 
 114.30 
 
 II K 
 
 298.45 
 
 1% 
 
 39-68 
 
 ^H 
 
 117.48 
 
 12 
 
 304-80 
 
 Mfe 
 
 41.27 
 
 4^ 
 
 120.65 
 
 13 
 
 330.20 
 
 42.86 
 
 4>i 
 
 123-83 
 
 14 
 
 355-60 
 
 i^ 
 
 44-44 
 
 5 
 
 127.00 
 
 15 
 
 381.00 
 
 1% 
 
 46.03 
 
 5>^ 
 
 130.18 
 
 16 
 
 406.40 
 
 I yk 
 
 47-62 
 
 5K 
 
 133-35 
 
 17 
 
 431.80 
 
 i'% 
 
 49-21 
 
 5 H 
 
 136-53 
 
 18 
 
 457.20 
 
 2 
 
 50.80 
 
 5K 
 
 139-70 
 
 19 
 
 482 .60 
 
 2 Hi 
 
 52.39 
 
 5^ 
 
 142.88 
 
 20 
 
 508.00 
 
 2 yi 
 
 53-97 
 
 5K 
 
 146.05 
 
 
 
 
 
 2% 
 
 55-56 
 
 5^ 
 
 147-25 
 
 39-3708 
 
 I. Meter 
 
 2>^ 
 
 ,56.15 
 
 
 
 
 
 I Kilogramme = 
 
 50,8 Kilogrammes = 
 
 100 Kilogrammes = 
 
 1000 Kilogrammes = 
 
 1016,06 Kilogrammes 
 
 2.2046 Lb. 
 I Cwt. 
 1 ,96 Cwts. 
 19,68 Cwts. 
 I Ton. 
 
 i.o Cubic Meter = 35,317 Cubic Feet 
 
WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 215 
 
 WEIGHTS OF ENGINES IN POUNDS PER H.P. FOR 
 VARIOUS VESSELS 
 
 Comp 
 
 Compound 
 
 Triple 
 
 Quadruple 
 
 Steam Launches 
 
 Small Cargo Steamers 
 
 Torpedo Boats 
 
 Small Cruisers 
 
 Large Cruisers 
 
 Cargo Steamers 
 
 Cargo Steamers 
 
 Passenger Steamers. . . 
 
 17-33 
 132-187 
 
 5-36 
 
 36-70 
 
 57-110 
 
 143-210 
 
 92-143 
 
 154-242 
 1 10-176 
 
 WEIGHTS OF SINGLE PARTS OF ENGINES 
 
 Designation of Parts 
 
 Cylinders and Valve Boxes 
 
 Cylinder Cover and Other Joints 
 
 Covers and Faces of Valve Chests 
 
 Stuffing Boxes, Safety Valves 
 
 Screw Bolts 
 
 Foundations, Col's, Bearings with Guides. 
 
 Thrust Blocks, Complete 
 
 Pistons 
 
 Piston Rods 
 
 Crossheads 
 
 Connecting Rods 
 
 Valves 
 
 Valve Rods and Eccentrics 
 
 Reversing Gear, including Reversing Shaft 
 
 Crank Shaft and Shafting 
 
 Condenser 
 
 Driven Air Pump 
 
 Driven Circulating Pump 
 
 WEIGHTS OF STATIONARY AND MOVING PARTS OF 
 MARINE ENGINES 
 
 
 
 
 
 Condenser, 
 
 
 
 
 Moving 
 
 Fixed 
 
 Pumps, Piping, 
 
 Total 
 
 
 I. H. P. 
 
 Parts 
 
 Parts 
 
 IncludingWater 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 
 I 
 
 520 
 
 31.2 
 
 59-6 
 
 9.6 
 
 100.4 
 
 2 
 
 1040 
 
 233 
 
 49-5 
 
 1-9 
 
 74-7 
 
 3 
 
 1200 
 
 60.5 
 
 99 
 
 5-8 
 
 1653 
 
 4 
 
 1470 
 
 lOI .0 
 
 1450 
 
 10.2 
 
 256.2 
 
 5 
 
 1670 
 
 88.0 
 
 1430 
 
 4.8 
 
 235-8 
 
 6 
 
 1880 
 
 44 
 
 74.1 
 
 5-4 
 
 1235 
 
 7 
 
 1880 
 
 53-6 
 
 107.6 
 
 7-3 
 
 168.5 
 
 8 
 
 2000 
 
 72.2 
 
 loi .0 
 
 51-8 
 
 225.0 
 
 9 
 
 2100 
 
 78.5 
 
 118. 
 
 36.1 
 
 232.6 
 
 10 
 
 2500 
 
 72.6 
 
 114. 
 
 7.8 
 
 194.4 
 
 II 
 
 6600 
 
 66.5 
 
 88.0 
 
 28.8 
 
 183.3 
 
 12 
 
 2000 
 
 67.9 
 
 68.0 
 
 21.7 
 
 157-6 
 
 NOTE, — Since the weights will vary with the design, the above values can 
 only be used as an estimate and their limitations appreciated. Weights are 
 from actual calculations and checked by scale weights. 
 
2id 
 
 WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 w 
 
 CL, 
 >- 
 
 K 
 U 
 ■H 
 O 
 U 
 
 T 
 
 m 
 
 BJ 
 U 
 J 
 
 o 
 
 CQ 
 
 U 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 < 
 
 o 
 
 en 
 
 < 
 
 ,-1 
 
 y 
 
 H 
 
 < 
 a. 
 
 uox Jad '33Bpns j 
 
 ^0 lO t~»0 lOOO » 
 
 (*5^1/^vO 1^00 TfO t^OO ^OOO 
 
 
 
 suox l«?ox 
 
 suox 'JajBAV 
 
 suox '-i^noa 
 
 suox [«?ox 
 
 suox *-I3;b,w 
 
 suox 'J^nog 
 
 3U1JB3H IBIOX 
 
 3 33 J diBnbs 
 93Ejjns 
 
 qjSuaq 
 
 ft ^ O O>ooooooo c>oo Oioo <No mf*ioooo r^t^ 
 
 oooooo'-iooddddMtHMMMiHi-J 
 
 
 Owt^t~-r^>r)\fit-i \n O OO (n i/ioo»onoooo to 
 
 q »oqoo ioio*oo fi oooooo mroooo f^^^ 
 
 ^^^^OC^>'5^/i■-'lOOOcON^-m^-00000 
 
 '-lONCOTtioO'^OaO'-H (N OfO f^oo O 00 OOO 
 
 ^O OOO00O^O ^tot^O Nr^00»O'-' OO" 
 
 Oi r- Tfoo "O r*0 M o^ >o>o "O 0>'0 oo 00 O "o m-o 
 
 N M lo >-" t^ wi rfoo It f^lO i^'tfO OO r^OO lo 
 
 '"T^'^'tf*3f')rON N M >^ iH M w i-i 
 
 _ ISX-. 
 
 • t^t*t--ooO r*oo t^oo r~.0 t^o^OO'C O 
 
 j3:»3Uib;0 
 
 N N N NClNPjcitrj NPOPorofOPOfOfOf*5POfO 
 
 jaquinisj 
 
 sj3qujEq3 
 uopsnqui03 'ojnj 
 
 es3U3(o;i[x 
 
 "ui ja^dUiBiQ 
 
 jsquin^ 
 
 SS3U3|3TqX 
 
 qiSuaq 
 
 ja^amBTQ 
 
 ainsssjfj 
 
 8UT3IJO^ 
 
 
 C00«0 O O MOO P>00 O T^>0 M ^^^^o M X <M 
 'tj-Tj-mcs "Tf^'-' "-" Oio PO^f*jt^t»-r*)^»-i MOO 
 OOOOOOOO r- t^OO TfTj-MNOttHK-iMi-iMM 
 
 PO -rO^fOfOrorjfONNNMN' 
 
 ^^:?:s:S:;s:Si?;'?i?:^:5^i?:»;?:s:^^:? 
 
 s;i? ^ 
 
 SJ 
 
 OOOOOOOOOvO ■^f^rOfOfJ'^CI « W N N C* 
 
 OOOO OOO O OOvO"© OO f*i-0 O O O Oi 
 
 "W- Oi 00 o O" o 00 00 "*-. "m %H ''i- "b 'm "bi'oi'bi'o.'bi 
 
 wi ^O f0>'lf^'^0^00'*)"i00000000> 
 lOO wiiO-^-^^M -■ i^ -ot -^ f^ r*i -I -I >H o OoO 
 
 OOON-itOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 
 
 OOO M O M O Hioo OOO OsO OOO OOO OOOOO 
 
 !! I ...-!'!!!!'!! I ' i « 
 
 'O'O'O'O'D'O'O -T3'0*T3T3'a "C 
 
 cdfllntfltclcocd 'rtcijrtninj .cj 
 
 i^ ^ u, i^ ii i~, i^ • u u u u u ^> 
 
 h^hi^i->HhH :^H^hH : : : : : I*! 
 
 .M .« .^ .« ». .M .M <"_4.MM__ m to to M M CO 5 
 
 o o o o o o o^ o o o o oSSSSSS = 
 
WOODEN SHIP-BUILDING 
 
 PARTICULARS OF VESSELS OF NAMED DIMENSIONS AND TYPE.S 
 
 217 
 
 Elements 
 
 T.S.S. 
 
 s. s. s. 
 
 s. s. s. 
 
 s. s. s. 
 
 s.s.s. 
 
 s. s. s. 
 
 S.S.S. 
 
 S. S. S. 
 
 S.S.S. 
 
 S.S.S. 
 
 T.S.S. 
 
 T.S.S. 
 
 120.0 
 
 200.0 
 
 330.0 
 
 250.0 
 
 255 
 
 310.0 
 
 319.0 
 
 320.0 
 
 392-0 
 
 420.0 
 
 460.0 
 
 469.0 
 
 21.0 
 
 30.0 
 
 41 .0 
 
 32.0 
 
 34-5 
 
 370 
 
 340 
 
 40.0 
 
 39-0 
 
 48.0 
 
 52 
 
 56.0 
 
 7.10 
 
 12 .1 
 
 24.4 
 
 12.6 
 
 9.2 
 
 17-3 
 
 17.8 
 
 18.33 
 
 21-3 
 
 18.8 
 
 26.7 
 
 24-5 
 
 282 
 
 1285 
 
 6880 
 
 1740 
 
 1420 
 
 3600 
 
 3445 
 
 4720 
 
 5767 
 
 8160 
 
 13080 
 
 13895 
 
 150 
 
 324 
 
 925 
 
 355 
 
 285 
 
 590 
 
 526 
 
 664 
 
 738 
 
 828 
 
 1322 
 
 1315 
 
 4508 
 
 8628 
 
 25210 
 
 1 1 184 
 
 10164 
 
 18099 
 
 19245 
 
 21 102 
 
 26235 
 
 31196 
 
 42423 
 
 43389 
 
 54 
 
 61 
 
 70 
 
 79 
 
 80 
 
 96 
 
 90 
 
 71 
 
 118 
 
 75 
 
 no 
 
 99 
 
 ■ 550 
 
 ■695 
 
 .788 
 
 .684 
 
 .700 
 
 .690 
 
 .712 
 
 .771 
 
 .698 
 
 .821 
 
 -753 
 
 .789 
 
 9.20 
 
 10.8 
 
 10.5 
 
 11.94 
 
 II-3 
 
 11.97 
 
 "■59 
 
 11.79 
 
 12.05 
 
 II. 8 
 
 12.05 
 
 12.0 
 
 192 
 
 661 
 
 1372 
 
 962 
 
 816 
 
 1655 
 
 1 194 
 
 1788 
 
 1758 
 
 2086 
 
 3382 
 
 3780 
 
 174 
 
 228 
 
 305 
 
 255 
 
 223 
 
 244 
 
 297 
 
 258 
 
 320 
 
 276 
 
 276 
 
 264 
 
 608 
 
 617 
 
 780 
 
 627 
 
 504 
 
 613 
 
 686 
 
 670 
 
 735 
 
 560 
 
 690 
 
 607 
 
 0.680 
 
 0.514 
 
 0.200 
 
 0.553 
 
 0.574 
 
 0.534 
 
 0-347 
 
 0-375 
 
 0-305 
 
 0.255 
 
 0.256 
 
 0.272 
 
 s. s. s. 
 
 Length Between Perpendiculars 
 
 Beam Extreme 
 
 Draught, Mean 
 
 Displacement, Tons 
 
 Area Midship Section, Square Feet 
 
 Wetted Surface, Square Feet 
 
 Length of Fore Body, Feet 
 
 Prismatic Coefficient 
 
 Speed in Knots per Hour 
 
 Indicated Horse Power 
 
 Admiralty Constant 
 
 Midship Section Constant 
 
 L H. P. -^ Displacement. '. 
 
 426.0 
 
 54-25 
 
 24.0 
 
 1 1 556 
 1250 
 
 37798 
 
 102.5 
 .760 
 
 12.51 
 
 3305 
 
 303 
 
 744 
 
 0.286 
 
 Elements 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Naval 
 
 Naval 
 
 Naval 
 
 T.S.S. 
 
 T. S. S. 
 
 T S.S. 
 
 T. S. S. 
 
 T.S.S. 
 
 T. S. S. 
 
 T.S.S. 
 
 T.S.S. 
 
 T. S. S. 
 
 T.S.S. 
 
 300.0 
 
 302.0 
 
 3"-5 
 
 270.0 
 
 290.0 
 
 470.0 
 
 685.0 
 
 200.0 
 
 210.0 
 
 300.0 
 
 34-5 
 
 38.0 
 
 36.0 
 
 34-0 
 
 38.0 
 
 58.0 
 
 68.0 
 
 19-5 
 
 20.5 
 
 36.5 
 
 13-78 
 
 13-5 
 
 "-5 
 
 10.5 
 
 11.92 
 
 20.5 
 
 29.91 
 
 5-5 
 
 5-67 
 
 13-9 
 
 2200 
 
 2400 
 
 1780 
 
 1350 
 
 2100 
 
 9650 
 
 25910 
 
 263 
 
 320 
 
 2235 
 
 425 
 
 460 
 
 392 
 
 3" 
 
 416 
 
 1 100 
 
 1922 
 
 77 
 
 91 
 
 445 
 
 14043 
 
 14472 
 
 12628 
 
 10253 
 
 I317O 
 
 35912 
 
 72208 
 
 3890 
 
 4323 
 
 14083 
 
 129 
 
 "9-4 
 
 152-5 
 
 118. 
 
 "3-3 
 
 163 
 
 213 
 
 80 
 
 87.0 
 
 124 
 
 .603 
 
 .604 
 
 -514 
 
 -563 
 
 .609 
 
 -653 
 
 .690 
 
 .600 
 
 .586 
 
 .586 
 
 18.20 
 
 18.57 
 
 18.70 
 
 19-3 
 
 20.34 
 
 20.2 
 
 20.8 
 
 27-6 
 
 30-5 
 
 20.8 
 
 4398 
 
 5241 
 
 4000 
 
 3750 
 
 5820 
 
 16200 
 
 26500 
 
 3628 
 
 6017 
 
 7275 
 
 246 
 
 219 
 
 240 
 
 207 
 
 236 
 
 230 
 
 297 
 
 237 
 
 220 
 
 212 
 
 556 
 
 563 
 
 641 
 
 596 
 
 599 
 
 560 
 
 652 
 
 419 
 
 428 
 
 551 
 
 2 .00 
 
 2.18 
 
 2.25 
 
 2.78 
 
 2.77 
 
 1.68 
 
 1.02 
 
 13-8 
 
 18.3 
 
 3.26 
 
 Naval 
 T. S. S. 
 
 Length Between Perpendiculars 
 
 Beam Extreme 
 
 Draught, Mean 
 
 Displacement, Tons 
 
 Area Midship Section, Square Feet 
 Wetted Surface, Square Feet. . . . . . 
 
 Length of Forebody, Feet 
 
 Prismatic Coefficient 
 
 Speed in Knots per Hour 
 
 Indicated Horse Power 
 
 Admiralty CoYistant 
 
 Midship Section Constant 
 
 I . H . P. -^ Displacement 
 
 360.0 
 
 60.0 
 
 20.6 
 
 6100 
 
 1059 
 
 25545 
 
 158 
 
 -561 
 
 20.96 
 
 10646 
 
 288 
 
 915 
 
 1-74 
 
 Elements 
 
 S. S. s. 
 
 S.S.S. 
 
 S.S.S. 
 
 T.S.S. 
 
 S. S. S. 
 
 T.S.S. 
 
 S.S.S. 
 
 T.S.S. 
 
 S.S.S. 
 
 S.S.S. 
 
 S.S.S. 
 
 T.S.S. 
 
 300.0 
 
 402.0 
 
 380.0 
 
 550.0 
 
 460.0 
 
 204.0 
 
 240.0 
 
 420.0 
 
 340.0 
 
 400.0 
 
 425.0 
 
 530.0 
 
 42.0 
 
 43-0 
 
 43-0 
 
 63-0 
 
 So.o 
 
 34-0 
 
 32.0 
 
 50.0 
 
 41.0 
 
 45-2 
 
 51-0 
 
 59-0 
 
 II. 2 
 
 18.51 
 
 18.6 
 
 29-9? 
 
 2ib.7 
 
 10-33 
 
 15-4 
 
 21. 1 
 
 17.0 
 
 18.6 
 
 23.2 
 
 23-5 
 
 2502 
 
 5670 
 
 5685 
 
 22589 
 
 12720 
 
 1080 
 
 2040 
 
 9070 
 
 4120 
 
 5842 
 
 9950 
 
 14206 
 
 401 
 
 700 
 
 712 
 
 1779 
 
 J270 
 
 300 
 
 450 
 
 980 
 
 620 
 
 747 
 
 1 126 
 
 1225 
 
 14683 
 
 25694 
 
 24956 
 
 6009a , 
 
 41058 
 
 7929 
 
 12022 
 
 33065 
 
 20128 
 
 26063 
 
 36448 
 
 46391 
 
 81.4 
 
 "8.5 
 
 100 
 
 106 
 
 no 
 
 78 
 
 81.3 
 
 96 
 
 107.4 
 
 126.3 
 
 116 
 
 124 
 
 -729 
 
 .708 
 
 -737 
 
 .809 
 
 .761 
 
 .617 
 
 .661 
 
 -771 
 
 .684 
 
 .684 
 
 .767 
 
 -765 
 
 12.23 
 
 12.28 
 
 12.4 
 
 12.75 
 
 12.95 
 
 13.20 
 
 13-23 
 
 13-90 
 
 14-36 
 
 14-79 
 
 14.8 
 
 14-7 
 
 15" 
 
 2101 
 
 2329 
 
 4790 
 
 3950 
 
 1018 
 
 1,584 
 
 3908 
 
 2884 
 
 3742 
 
 4512 
 
 6118 
 
 223 
 
 279 
 
 260 
 
 345 
 
 299 
 
 240 
 
 235 
 
 306 
 
 262 
 
 280 
 
 299 
 
 305 
 
 484 
 
 616 
 
 .581 
 
 768 
 
 698 
 
 685 
 
 658 
 
 670 
 
 633 
 
 645 
 
 648 
 
 637 
 
 0.604 
 
 0-371 
 
 0.410 
 
 0.213 
 
 0.310 
 
 0.942 
 
 0.776 
 
 0.430 
 
 0.700 
 
 0-645 
 
 0.452 
 
 0.430 
 
 S.S.S. 
 
 Length Between Perpendiculars 
 
 Beam Extreme 
 
 Draught, Mean 
 
 Displacement, Tons 
 
 Area Midship Section, Square Feet 
 
 Wetted Surface, Square Feet 
 
 Length of Fore Body, Feet 
 
 Prismatic Coefficient 
 
 Speed in Knots per Hour 
 
 Indicated Horse Power 
 
 Admiralty Constant 
 
 Midship Section Constant 
 
 I. H. P. -7- Displacement 
 
 300.0 
 38.0 
 13 - 10 
 2506 
 
 453 
 
 14596 
 
 107 
 
 -643 
 
 15-33 
 
 2602 
 
 255 
 629 
 1.04 
 
 Elements 
 
 T. S. S. 
 
 T. S. S. 
 
 T. S. S. 
 
 S.S.S. 
 
 S.S.S. 
 
 S.S.S. 
 
 T. S. S. 
 
 S.S.S. 
 
 S.S.S. 
 
 T. S. S. 
 
 T. S. S. 
 
 T. S. S. 
 
 280.0 
 
 290.0 
 
 300.0 
 
 315-5 
 
 420.0 
 
 450.0 
 
 220.0 
 
 388.0 
 
 466.0 
 
 600.0 
 
 680.0 
 
 570.0 
 
 31.0 
 
 38.0 
 
 34-5 
 
 33-5 
 
 43-0 
 
 45-17 
 
 28.0 
 
 43-0 
 
 52.0 
 
 65.0 
 
 75 -o 
 
 64.0 
 
 13-4 
 
 II .92 
 
 13-78 
 
 15-0 
 
 18.4 
 
 23.6 
 
 9.0 
 
 17.6 
 
 20.1 
 
 30.01 
 
 30.0 
 
 27-5 
 
 1940 
 
 2100 
 
 2200 
 
 2480 
 
 5906 
 
 8500 
 
 736 
 
 4315 
 
 8124 
 
 23630 
 
 30020 
 
 19150 
 
 350 
 
 416 
 
 425 
 
 422 
 
 698 
 
 926 
 
 204 
 
 615 
 
 980 
 
 181O 
 
 2094 
 
 1629 
 
 12582 
 
 13170 
 
 14043 
 
 15200 
 
 26699 
 
 32578 
 
 6841 
 
 22330 
 
 285II 
 
 63977 
 
 76440 
 
 56195 
 
 86 
 
 "3-3 
 
 129.0 
 
 107-5 
 
 124 
 
 129 
 
 94 
 
 142 
 
 176 
 
 143 
 
 178 
 
 168 
 
 -693 
 
 .609 
 
 .603 
 
 .658 
 
 •705 
 
 •714 
 
 •573 
 
 .632 
 
 .622 
 
 .762 
 
 •738 
 
 -723 
 
 15 03 
 
 15-00 
 
 15-34 
 
 15-34 
 
 1510 
 
 15-05 
 
 16.50 
 
 16.82 
 
 16.52 
 
 16.01 
 
 16.20 
 
 17-25 
 
 2373 
 
 2157 
 
 2358 
 
 2243 
 
 4437 
 
 4900 
 
 1405 
 
 4660 
 
 6347 
 
 10508 
 
 12491 
 
 11035 
 
 223 
 
 257 
 
 259 
 
 295 
 
 253 
 
 289 
 
 261 
 
 269 
 
 287 
 
 321 
 
 329 
 
 332 
 
 501 
 
 650 
 
 650 
 
 678 
 
 543 
 
 642 
 
 654 
 
 626 
 
 696 
 
 707 
 
 712 
 
 760 
 
 1.22 
 
 1.03 
 
 1.07 
 
 0.90 
 
 0.75 
 
 0.58 
 
 1.90 
 
 1.08 
 
 0.78 
 
 0-44 
 
 0.42 
 
 0.57 
 
 T. S. S. 
 
 Length Between Perpendiculars 
 
 Beam Extreme 
 
 Draught, Mean 
 
 Displacement, Tons 
 
 Area Midship Section, Square Feet.. 
 
 Wetted Surface, Square Feet 
 
 Length of Forebody, Feet 
 
 Prismatic Coefficient 
 
 Speed in Knots per Hour 
 
 Indicated Horse Power 
 
 Admiralty Constant 
 
 Midship Section, Constant 
 
 I. H. P. -T- Displacement 
 
 269.0 
 
 33-0 
 
 8.75 
 
 1237 
 
 266 
 
 9678 
 
 106.3 
 
 -605 
 
 18.9 
 
 3231 
 246 
 556 
 2.61 
 
Thetis, a Sea-Nymph— Wooden Figurehead 
 
Paragraph Reference Index 
 
 CHAPTER SUBJECT PAR. 
 
 I.— CLASSIFICATION AND INSURANCE. 
 
 Insurance explained 'a- 
 
 II.— KNOWLEDGE OF WOODS. 
 
 Cultivation of trees 2a 
 
 Timber for Ship building 2b 
 
 Care of timber 2c 
 
 Bending timber 2d 
 
 Seasoning timber 2e 
 
 Loss of weight and shrinkage 2f 
 
 Hard woods (description) 2g 
 
 Soft and resinous woods 2h 
 
 III.— KINDS AND DIMENSIONS OF MA- 
 TERIAL TO USE. 
 
 Explanation of tables 3 3a 
 
 Dimensions of materials 3b 
 
 Lloyd's rules and material tables 3c 
 
 Tables of Material to use 3C 
 
 IV.— TONNAGE. 
 
 Tonnage explained 
 
 Builder's Tonnage explained 
 
 ross 
 
 Registered " " 
 
 Panama and Suez Tonnage 
 
 Light Displacement 
 
 Heavy Displacement 
 
 Dead Weight 
 
 Light Displacement W.L 
 
 Freeboard mark 
 
 Displacement curve and Deadweight scale. 
 Volume of Internal Body or Room in a Ship 
 
 v.— STRAINS EXPERIENCED BY SHIPS. 
 
 Longitudinal strains in still water 
 
 Hogging strains explained 
 
 Sagging " ". . 
 
 Curves of buoyancy distribution 
 
 " " weight 
 
 " " loads 
 
 Longitudinal strains among waves 
 
 Transverse strains when afloat 
 
 Local strains 
 
 • Strains due to propulsion of sail or steam. . 
 
 VI.— ESTIMATING AND CONVERTING. 
 
 Bills of material 
 
 Selecting material required for construction 
 
 of a ship 
 
 Converting 
 
 VII.— JOINTS AND SCARPHS. 
 
 Joints that form an angle 
 
 Scarphs 
 
 Dovetailing halving 
 
 Coaks 
 
 PACE 
 
 6a 
 
 VIII.— DESCRIBING THE DIFFERENT 
 PARTS OF A SHIP CONSTRUC- 
 TED OF WOOD. 
 
 Explanatory 
 
 Keel — Description 
 
 Materials for Keel ; 
 
 Scarphing Keels 
 
 Explanation of coaked keel scarphs 
 
 Fastening scarphs of keel 
 
 Stopwaters in keel scarphs 
 
 Keel rabbet 
 
 Edgebolting keel 
 
 False keel or shoe 
 
 Stem 
 
 Apron 
 
 8a 
 
 8b 
 
 8bi 
 
 8b2 
 
 8b3 
 
 8b« 
 
 8b= 
 
 8b8 
 
 8b^ 
 
 8b8 
 
 8c 
 
 8d 
 
 9 
 10 
 12 
 13 
 14 
 16 
 
 19 
 19 
 20 
 
 24 
 
 4a 
 
 25 
 
 4b 
 
 25 
 
 4C 
 
 2.S 
 
 4d 
 
 26 
 
 46 
 
 27 
 
 4f 
 
 28 
 
 4K 
 
 28 
 
 4h 
 
 28 
 
 41 
 
 28 
 
 4J 
 
 29 
 
 4k 
 
 29 
 
 4I 
 
 29 
 
 .Sa 
 
 30 
 
 .Sb 
 
 31 
 
 ■Sc 
 
 31 
 
 .Sd 
 
 32 
 
 Se 
 
 32 
 
 5t 
 
 33 
 
 .SK 
 
 33 
 
 5h 
 
 34 
 
 51 
 
 35 
 
 5J 
 
 35 
 
 36 
 
 6b 
 
 36 
 
 6c 
 
 37 
 
 7a 
 
 39 
 
 7b 
 
 40 
 
 7c 
 
 42 
 
 7d 
 
 42 
 
 44 
 45 
 45 
 46 
 47 
 47 
 47 
 48 
 48 
 49 
 49 
 49 
 
 SUBJECT 
 
 Knightheads 
 
 Forward deadwood 
 
 Stern post 
 
 After deadwood 
 
 Counter timbers 
 
 Frame 
 
 Floor 
 
 Frame timbers 
 
 Filling frames 
 
 Cant frames 
 
 Hawse pieces 
 
 Main keelson 
 
 Sister keelson 
 
 Boiler or bilge keelson 
 
 Rider keelsons 
 
 Stemson 
 
 Sternson 
 
 Diagonal steel bracing of frames . 
 
 Planking 
 
 Garboard 
 
 Sheer 
 
 Wales 
 
 Caulking 
 
 Ceiling 
 
 Fastening planking 
 
 The clamps 
 
 Air course 
 
 The Shelf 
 
 Shelf fastenings 
 
 Deck Beams 
 
 Fastening knees and deck beams . 
 
 Framing of deck 
 
 Framing a hatchway 
 
 Framing a mast partner 
 
 Framing decks at stem and stern 
 Framing decks under winches . . . . 
 
 Water ways 
 
 Lock and thick strakes 
 
 Decking 
 
 PAR. 
 
 8e 
 
 8f 
 
 8g 
 
 8h 
 
 8i 
 
 8k 
 
 8ki 
 
 8k2 
 
 8k3 
 
 8k* 
 
 81 
 
 8m 
 
 8ml 
 
 8m2 
 
 8m3 
 
 8n 
 
 80 
 
 8p 
 
 8q 
 
 8qi 
 
 8q2 
 
 8q8 
 
 8q* 
 
 8q=' 
 
 8q8 
 
 8r 
 
 8ri 
 
 8s 
 
 8si 
 
 8t 
 
 8ti 
 
 8t2 
 
 8t3 
 
 8t* 
 
 8t5 
 
 8t« 
 
 8u 
 
 8ui 
 
 8u2 
 
 IX— BUILDING SLIPS AND LAUNCH- 
 ING WAYS. 
 
 Slips and ways 9a 
 
 Inclination of slip 9b 
 
 Information about piles 9c 
 
 Length and width of slips 9d 
 
 Inclination of blocking 9e 
 
 Keel blocking ■ 9* 
 
 Launching apparatus 9g 
 
 Breadth of surface of ways 9" 
 
 Distance ways are apart 9f 
 
 Description of cradle 9J 
 
 Concluding remarks 9k 
 
 Broadside launching 9I 
 
 X.— BUILDING A SHIP. 
 
 Explanatory 'oa 
 
 Plans and Specifications lob 
 
 Management and Supervision loc 
 
 Actual Construction Work lod 
 
 Keel Blocks loe 
 
 Keel lof 
 
 Getting out Frames log 
 
 Stem, Apron and Deadwood loh 
 
 Stem-Post and Deadwood loi 
 
 Keelson Construction lOJ 
 
 Steel Shaping of frames lok 
 
 Planking lO' 
 
 Laying a garboard 1°}^ 
 
 Sheer strake and Wales lol- 
 
 Fastenings of Planking loj' 
 
 Double planking (fore and aft) lol* 
 
 Double diagonal and single fore and aft 
 
 planking lol' 
 
 PAGE 
 
 50 
 50 
 
 SI 
 
 51 
 51 
 52 
 
 53 
 53 
 S3 
 54 
 55 
 55 
 55 
 56 
 56 
 S6 
 56 
 56 
 56 
 56 
 57 
 57 
 57 
 58 
 S8 
 60 
 60 
 60 
 60 
 60 
 61 
 62 
 62 
 63 
 63 
 63 
 64 
 64 
 64 
 
 66 
 66 
 68 
 69 
 70 
 71 
 71 
 73 
 73 
 74 
 77 
 79 
 
 80 
 81 
 86 
 87 
 87 
 88 
 88 
 90 
 92 
 92 
 94 
 95 
 
 96 
 97 
 99 
 
 99 
 
220 
 
 PARAGRAPH REFERENCE INDEX 
 
 CHAPTER SUBJECT PAR. 
 
 Ceiling lom 
 
 Laying Ceiling lom"^ 
 
 Limbers lom^ 
 
 Butts and Fastenings of Ceiling lom^ 
 
 Air Course and Salt Stops lom* 
 
 Salting lom^ 
 
 Double and Triple Ceiling lom" 
 
 Clamps and Shelf Pieces lom' 
 
 Pointer lom** 
 
 Deck Beams and Framing ion 
 
 Lock Shelf lon"^ 
 
 Lodge Knee ion- 
 Knee fastenings lon^ 
 
 Hatch framing ion* 
 
 XL— SHIP JOINERY. 
 
 Description of Sheet A iia 
 
 " B lib 
 
 Dovetailing iic 
 
 Description of Sheet C 
 
 " D 
 
 " E 
 
 " H 
 
 Hinging lid 
 
 Mouldings lie 
 
 Stairs iif 
 
 Handrails iig 
 
 XII.— SAILS. 
 
 Sails of a Ship 12a 
 
 Bark sail 12b 
 
 Barkentine sails 12c 
 
 Brig sails I2d 
 
 Brigantine sails I2e 
 
 Topsail schooner sails I2f 
 
 Fore and aft schooner i2g 
 
 Scow i2h 
 
 Cat sails I2i 
 
 Yawl " I2j 
 
 Sloop " 12k 
 
 Cutter " 12I 
 
 Lugger " 12m 
 
 Lateen " I2n 
 
 Parts and Particulars of sails 
 
 XIII.— RIGGING. 
 
 Standing rigging described 13a 
 
 Fastening standing rigging 13b 
 
 Describing the Channels 13c 
 
 Chain plates and their fastenings 13d 
 
 Method of fastening standing rigging to 
 
 spars and hull I3e 
 
 List of ship's standing rigging i3f 
 
 Alphabetical list of standing rigging I3g 
 
 Running rigging I3h 
 
 List of ship's running rigging 131 
 
 Fore and Aft schooner's rigging 13J 
 
 Alphabetical list of running rigging 13k 
 
 PAGE 
 lOI 
 lOI 
 lOI 
 
 102 
 102 
 103 
 103 
 104 
 104 
 104 
 106 
 106 
 106 
 106 
 
 108 
 110 
 no 
 
 113 
 
 "3 
 113 
 116 
 
 113 
 116 
 120 
 122 
 
 123 
 123 
 124 
 124 
 124 
 124 
 
 125 
 125 
 
 125 
 125 
 
 126 
 126 
 126 
 127 
 127 
 
 129 
 129 
 130 
 130 
 
 130 
 130 
 131 
 132 
 
 133 
 133 
 133 
 
 CHAPTER SUBJECT PAR. 
 
 Blocks 13I 
 
 Shell of a block 13I1 
 
 Straps of " 13I2 
 
 Sheave of " 13I8 
 
 Names of blocks 13I* 
 
 Tackles 13m 
 
 Knots and Splices I3n 
 
 XIV.— SPARS. 
 
 Timber used for spars 14a 
 
 Spar making 14b 
 
 Mast steps 14c 
 
 Masts and Spars of Various Rigs I4d 
 
 XV.— TYPES OF VESSELS. 
 
 Division of Vessels into types 15a 
 
 One deck vessels 15b 
 
 Two " " 15c 
 
 Three " " i5d 
 
 Spar " " ise 
 
 Awning" " i5f 
 
 Partial awning vessels isg 
 
 Shelter deck I5h 
 
 Stave deck isi 
 
 Flush deck 15J 
 
 Well deck Vessels 15k 
 
 Hurricane deck 15I 
 
 Structural and House arrangement 15m 
 
 XVI.— ANCHORS, CHAINS AND EQUIP- 
 MENT. 
 
 Anchors l6a 
 
 Hawse pipes i6b 
 
 Chain pipes l6bi 
 
 Anchor chain i6c 
 
 Chain Lockers i6ci 
 
 Anchor Windlass Hand i6d 
 
 Steam i6di 
 
 Deck Winch i6e 
 
 Hand pump i6f 
 
 Sounding pipes i6g 
 
 Capstan i6h 
 
 Hand steering Gear i6i 
 
 Boats and their equipment l6j 
 
 Equipment i6k 
 
 Stowage of cargo space required 16I 
 
 XVII.— RESOLUTION AND COMPOSI- 
 TION OF FORCES 
 
 XVIII.— STRENGTH AND STRAINS OF 
 MATERIAL. 
 
 Resistance to tension l8a 
 
 " " compression i8b 
 
 " transverse strains i8c 
 
 Tenacity i8d 
 
 Summary of rules l8e 
 
 Compound beams i8f 
 
 PAGE 
 
 136 
 136 
 137 
 137 
 138 
 139 
 140 
 
 142 
 143 
 143 
 144 
 
 148 
 148 
 148 
 148 
 148 
 148 
 148 
 148 
 148 
 149 
 149 
 149 
 149 
 
 156 
 157 
 158 
 158 
 158 
 158 
 158 
 160 
 161 
 161 
 161 
 161 
 161 
 163 
 165 
 
 167 
 
 169 
 169 
 170 
 171 
 171 
 173 
 
Alphabetical Index 
 
 PAR. PAGE 
 
 Air course Sr"- 60 
 
 lom^ 102 
 
 Anchors i6a 156 
 
 Anchor chain equipment 16 166 
 
 Anchor Windlass, Steam i6di 158 
 
 Apron 8d 49 
 
 loh 90 
 
 Awning deck vessels iSf '49 
 
 B 
 
 Bark sails 12b 123 
 
 Bark spars I4d I44 
 
 Barkentine sails 12c 124 
 
 Barkentine spars I4d 144 
 
 Beams, siding and moulding of Table 8^ 65 
 
 Bills of material 6a 36 
 
 Blocks 13I 136 
 
 Block names 13I* 138 
 
 Block sheaves described 13!'' 137 
 
 Block shells 13!^ 136 
 
 Block straps described 13.1^ I37 
 
 Boats and their equipment i6j 161 
 
 Boiler keelsons 8m2 56 
 
 Brig sails I2d 124 
 
 Brigantine sails I2e 124 
 
 Broadside launching 9I 79 
 
 Builder's tonnage 4h 28 
 
 Building a ship — -explanatory loa 80 
 
 Building slip foundations 9a 67 
 
 Building slip inclination 9b 67 
 
 Building slips and launching ways 9 66 
 
 Building slip — Length and width 9d 69 
 
 Buoyancy curves explained Sd 32 
 
 C 
 
 Cant frames 8k* 54 
 
 Capstan i6h 161 
 
 Cat sails I2i 125 
 
 Cargo stowage 16I i6.'5 
 
 Caulking 8q* 57 
 
 Ceiling 8q5 58 
 
 lom loi 
 
 Ceiling — double and triple iom«> 103 
 
 Chain i6c 158 
 
 Chain locker i6ci 158 
 
 Chain pipes i6b'^ 158 
 
 Chain plates 13d 130 
 
 Channels 13c 130 
 
 Clamps 8r 60 
 
 Clamps and shelf pieces lom^ 104 
 
 Coaked scarphs and coaks 7d 42 
 
 Compound beams i8f 173 
 
 Construction work lod 87 
 
 Converting 6c 37 
 
 Counter timbers .' 8i 51 
 
 Cradle launching 9J 74 
 
 Cutter sails 12I 126 
 
 Deadweight explained 4h 28 
 
 Deadwood loh 90 
 
 loi 92 
 
 Deadwood aft 8h 51 
 
 Deadwood forward 8f SO 
 
 Deck beams 8t 60 
 
 Deck beams and framing ion 104 
 
 Deck framing St^ 62 
 
 Deck framing under winches, etc 8t* 63 
 
 Decking Su^ 64 
 
 Diagonal straps 8p 56 
 
 Dimensions of parts 3e 22 
 
 3d 24 
 
 Displacement calculations 4f 28 
 
 4g 28 
 
 Displacement curve and deadweight scale .... 4k 29 
 
 Displacement W.L 4i 28 
 
 Double ceiling • lom" 103 
 
 Double planking loH 99 
 
 lol' 99 
 
 Dovetailing 7c 42 
 
 lie no 
 
 Durability of woods 3a 19 
 
 E 
 
 PAR. PAGE 
 
 Edge bolting keel ....*. 8b^ 48 
 
 Equipment for boats l6j 161 
 
 Equipment, List of i6k 163 
 
 Estimating and converting 6a 36 
 
 Estimating material required lob 81 
 
 False keel 8h^ 49 
 
 Fastening deck beams 8t^ 61 
 
 Fastening dimensions 3 21-23 
 
 Fastening knees &i^ 61 
 
 Fastening planking 8q*' 58 
 
 Fastening shelf Ss^ 60 
 
 Filling frames 8k^ 53 
 
 Floor timbers 8ki 53 
 
 Flush deck vessels 15J I49 
 
 Foremast rigging I4d 144 
 
 Frame 8k 52 
 
 Frame timbers 8k2 53 
 
 Frames, cant 8k* 54 
 
 Frames, getting out log 88 
 
 Framing deck ion 104 
 
 Framing hatches ion* 106 
 
 Freeboard mark 4J 29 
 
 Garboard 8qi 56 
 
 Garboard, laying a loU 95 
 
 Gross tonnage 4c 25 
 
 H 
 
 Halving 7c 42 
 
 Hand pump i6f 161 
 
 Handling material lob 81 
 
 Handrails ng 122 
 
 Hard woods 2g 13 
 
 Hatch framing 8i^ 62 
 
 Hawse pieces 81 55 
 
 Hawse pipes i6b 157 
 
 Heavy displacement 4g 28 
 
 Hinging nd 113 
 
 Hogging strains Sb 30 
 
 House arrangements 15^1 149 
 
 Hurricane deck vessels 15! I49 
 
 I 
 
 Inclination of building slip 9b 65 
 
 Inclination of keel blocking 9e 70 
 
 Insurance classification la 5 
 
 Internal volume or room in a ship 4I 29 
 
 Joints and scarphs 7 39 
 
 Joints that form an angle 7a 39 
 
 Joinery ship i la 108 
 
 Joinery illustrations A na 109 
 
 Joinery illustrations B lib no 
 
 Joinery illustrations C n 113 
 
 Joinery illustrations D n 113 
 
 Joinery illustrations E 1 1 113 
 
 Joinery illustrations F n 113 
 
 Joinery illustrations H n 116 
 
 K 
 
 Keel blocking 9f 7i 
 
 Keel blocks loe 87 
 
 Keel construction lof 88 
 
 Keel description 8b 45 
 
 Keel edge laolts 8b^ 48 
 
 Keel materials 8b^ 45 
 
 Keel rabbet 8b8 48 
 
 Keel scarphs 8b2 46 
 
 Keel scarphs coaked 8b* 47 
 
 Keel scarph fastenings 8b* 47 
 
 Keel shoe 8b8 49 
 
 Keelsons 8m 55 
 
 Keelson construction loj 92 
 
 Keelson construction, trussed and steel loj'- 93 
 
 Keeping track of materials lob 81 
 
 Knee fastenings St^ 61 
 
 ion* 106 
 
 Knightheads 8e 50 
 
ALPHABETICAL INDEX 
 
 PAR. 
 
 Knots 13I 
 
 Knots and splices I3n 
 
 L 
 
 Lateen sails I2n 
 
 Launching apparatus 9g 
 
 Launching broadside 9I 
 
 Launching cradle 9J 
 
 Launching ways, breadth of 9h 
 
 Light displacement 4f 
 
 Limber ; lom^ 
 
 Lloyd's fastening table 3d 
 
 Lloyd's planking table 3c 
 
 Lloyd's rules 3c 
 
 Lloyd's scantling table 3c 
 
 Load curves Si 
 
 Local strains Si 
 
 Lock shelf loni 
 
 Lock or thick strakes 8u^ 
 
 Lodge knees lon^ 
 
 Longitudinal strains Sa 
 
 5g 
 Lugger sails 12m 
 
 M 
 
 Machinery in shipyards lob 
 
 Management loc 
 
 Mast partner framing Sf 
 
 Mast steps 14c 
 
 Mast timber 14a 
 
 Masts and spars of various rigs I4d 
 
 Masts and spars — alphabetical list I4d 
 
 Material Bills 6a 
 
 Mouldings lie 
 
 O 
 
 One-decked vessels iSb 
 
 P 
 
 Panama Canal tonnage 4e 
 
 Partial awning-deck vessels iSg 
 
 Piles 9C 
 
 Planking 8q 
 
 lol 
 
 Planking fastenings 8q'' 
 
 Plans and specifications lob 
 
 Plans and specifications described lob 
 
 Pointers lom* 
 
 R 
 
 Registered tonnage 4a 
 
 Resistance to compression iSb 
 
 " " tension i8a 
 
 " " transverse strains iSc 
 
 Rider keelsons Sm* 
 
 Rigging of fore and aft schooner 13J 
 
 Rigging, running I3h 
 
 Rigging, standing 13a 
 
 Running rigging of a ship I3i 
 
 Running rigging — alphabetical list 13k 
 
 s 
 
 Sails, Bark 12b 
 
 " Barkentine 12c 
 
 " Brig I2d 
 
 " Brigantine I2e 
 
 " Cat 1 2i 
 
 Cutter 12I 
 
 " Description of 12 
 
 " Fore and Aft Schooner I2g 
 
 " Lateen I2n 
 
 " Lugger 12m 
 
 " Schooner I2f 
 
 " Scow i2h 
 
 " Sloop 12k 
 
 " Yawl I2j 
 
 Salt stops lom* 
 
 Salting lom'^ 
 
 Scarphs of various kinds 7b 
 
 Schooner spars 14a 
 
 Selecting timber 6b 
 
 PAGE 
 
 136 
 140 
 
 127 
 71 
 79 
 74 
 73 
 28 
 
 lOI 
 
 21 
 21 
 20 
 20 
 33 
 35 
 
 106 
 64 
 
 106 
 30 
 33 
 
 126 
 
 81 
 
 86 
 
 63 
 
 143 
 
 142 
 
 144 
 
 144 
 
 36 
 
 116 
 
 149 
 
 27 
 149 
 68 
 56 
 95 
 58 
 81 
 81 
 104 
 
 25 
 169 
 169 
 170 
 
 S6 
 133 
 132 
 129 
 133 
 133 
 
 123 
 
 124 
 124 
 124 
 124 
 126 
 127 
 125 
 127 
 126 
 124 
 125 
 126 
 125 
 102 
 103 
 
 40 
 142 
 
 36 
 
 PAR. 
 
 Shade-deck vessels 151 
 
 Sheer strakes 8q- 
 
 Sheer strake construction lol'^ 
 
 Shelf 8s 
 
 Shelf pieces .■ . . . lom^ 
 
 Shelter-deck vessels i5h 
 
 Slip inclination 9b 
 
 Slip length and width pd ' 
 
 Slips and ways 9a 
 
 Ship's sails 12a 
 
 Ship's spars i4d 
 
 Ship's standing rigging i3f 
 
 Sister keelsons "i-m- 
 
 Soft woods 2h 
 
 Sounding pipes i6g 
 
 Spar making 14b 
 
 Spars of various rigs i4d 
 
 Spars, timber for 14a 
 
 Specifications described lob 
 
 Splices i3n 
 
 Stairs i if 
 
 Standing rigging — alphabetical list I3g 
 
 Standing rigging fastenings I3e 
 
 Steel bracing pf frames 8p 
 
 lok 
 
 Steel strapping of frame lok 
 
 Steering gear i6i 
 
 Stem 8c 
 
 loh 
 
 Stemson 8n 
 
 Stern post 8g 
 
 loi 
 
 Sternson 80 
 
 Stopwaters in keel scarphs 8b^ 
 
 Stowage of cargo 16I 
 
 Strains caused by propulsion 5j 
 
 Strains, Hogging, explained 5b 
 
 Strains, local 5! 
 
 Strains, longitudinal among waves 5g 
 
 Strains, longitudinal bending in still water .... sa 
 
 Strains, sagging, explained 5c 
 
 Strains, transverse sh 
 
 Structural arrangements 15m 
 
 Suez Canal tonnage 4e 
 
 Supervision loc 
 
 T 
 
 Tackles 13I 
 
 Tackles described 13m 
 
 Tenacity i8a 
 
 Thick strakes 8u^ 
 
 Three-decked vessels I5d 
 
 Timber bending 2d 
 
 Timber, care of ■ . . 2c 
 
 Timber, properties of Table 
 
 Timber seasoning 2e 
 
 Timber shrinkage while seasoning 2f 
 
 Timber for shipbuilding 2b 
 
 Timber for spars 14a 
 
 Tonnage explained 4a 
 
 Tonnage, gross, explained 4c 
 
 Tonnage, Panama and Suez \ . . . 4e 
 
 Tonnage, Registered 4d 
 
 Transverse strains Sh 
 
 Trees, cultivation of 2a 
 
 Triple ceiling lom" 
 
 Triple planking „ lol'' 
 
 Two-decked vessels 15c 
 
 Types of vessels isa 
 
 V 
 
 Vessels, awning decked isf 
 
 fiush " 15J 
 
 " hurricane " 15I 
 
 " one-decked 15b 
 
 " partial awning decked isg 
 
 " shade decked isi 
 
 shelter " ish 
 
 " spar decked I5e 
 
 " three-decked isd 
 
 " two-decked 15c 
 
 " types of 15a 
 
 well decked 15k 
 
 149 
 
 57 
 
 96 
 
 60 
 
 104 
 
 149 
 
 66 
 
 69 
 
 66 
 
 123 
 
 144 
 
 130 
 
 56 
 
 16 
 
 161 
 
 142 
 
 144 
 
 142 
 
 81 
 
 140 
 
 120 
 
 131 
 
 130 
 
 56 
 
 94 
 
 94 
 161 
 
 49 
 90 
 
 56 
 51 
 92 
 
 56 
 
 47 
 
 149 
 
 35 
 31 
 35 
 33 
 30 
 31 
 34 
 149 
 27 
 86 
 
 136 
 
 139 
 169 
 
 64 
 149 
 
 10 
 
 9 
 
 2 18 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 8 
 142 
 25 
 25 
 27 
 26 
 
 34 
 
 8 
 
 103 
 
 99 
 
 149 
 149 
 
 148 
 149 
 149 
 148 
 148 
 148 
 148 
 148 
 148 
 148 
 148 
 149 
 
ALPHABETICAL INDEX 
 
 223 
 
 PAR. PAGE 
 
 w 
 
 Wales 8q3 57 
 
 loe- 87 
 
 W. L. Light displacement 41 28 
 
 Waterways 8u 64 
 
 Ways, distance apart pi 73 
 
 Ways, launching 9* 66 
 
 Weight distribution curves Se 32 
 
 PAR. 
 
 Well deck vessels 15k 
 
 Winches, deck l6e 
 
 Windlass, steam i6di 
 
 Woods, hard woods described 2g 
 
 W^oods, information about 2 
 
 Woods, soft woods described 2h 
 
 Y 
 
 Yawl sails . .*. i2j 
 
 PAGE 
 
 149 
 i6o 
 
 158 
 
 14 
 
 7 
 
 16 
 
 125 
 
 Index to Illustrations 
 
 FIG. . PAGE 
 
 1 Timber properly piled 9 
 
 2 Bending timber 10 
 
 3 " " " 
 
 4 " " " 
 
 5 " " II 
 
 6 " " II 
 
 7 " " 12 
 
 8 " " 12 
 
 9 Tonnage measurement 27 
 
 10 Freeboard mark 29 
 
 11 Displacement and surplus buoyancy 28 
 
 12 Strains in still water 30 
 
 13 " " " " 30 
 
 14 Hogging strains 31 
 
 14a Sagging strains 31 
 
 15 Weight W. W. W 31 
 
 15a Weight W 31 
 
 15b Weight W. W.i W.2 32 
 
 16 Curves of buoyancy 32 
 
 17 Curves of weight 33 
 
 18 Curves of loads 33 
 
 19 Longitudinal strains among waves 33 
 
 20 " " 33 
 
 21 Transverse strains when afloat 34 
 
 Scarphs Plate Vila 39 
 
 Vllb 40 
 
 VIIc ; 41 
 
 " Vlld 40 
 
 " Vile 42 
 
 " yilf 43 
 
 25 Longitudinal view (profile) 44 
 
 26 Deck view 45 
 
 27 Deck hatch 45 
 
 28 Cross section 46 
 
 29 Photo keel being set up 47 
 
 30 Photo of keel 48 
 
 31 Keel scarph 48 
 
 33 Coaked scarph 49 
 
 34 Keel stopwater 49 
 
 35 Stem construction assembled 50 
 
 36 Stem construction 50 
 
 37 Stern post construction sailing vessel 51 
 
 38 Stern post construction and shaft log • 51 
 
 39 Screw propeller stern post construction 52 
 
 40 Electrical stern construction 52 
 
 41 Room and space S3 
 
 42 Canted frame in position 54 
 
 42a Midship construction plan 55 
 
 43 Planking and sheer scarph 57 
 
 43a Ceiling fastening 59 
 
 43b Bottom ceiling in a vessel 59 
 
 44 Caulking bottom plank seams 58 
 
 45 Single, double and alternate plank fastenings .... 60 
 
 46 Rules for spacing butt planking fastenings 61 
 
 47 Treenails ready to drive 61 
 
 49 Straps on stanchion 62 
 
 51 Forward deck frames 64 
 
 52 Knees — Steel and wood 64 
 
 53 Waterways 65 
 
 54 " 6s 
 
 ■55 End of deck let into waterway 65 
 
 56 Plank of building slip 66 
 
 57 New York Ship Yard Launching 67 
 
 58 Outer end of launching ways 70 
 
 59 Going down way 71 
 
 60 Longitudinal outline or clearance 71 
 
 FIG. PAGE 
 
 61 Keel blocks set up , 71 
 
 62 Ready for launching 72 
 
 63 Moving into water 73 
 
 64 Cross section of launching cradle 74 
 
 65 Longitudinal view of cradle 74 
 
 66 Launching motor ship 75 
 
 67 Launching 76 
 
 68 Floating clear Tj 
 
 69 Broadside launching 79 
 
 70 " " 78 
 
 71 Timber trucks 83 
 
 72 Hoists in a shipyard 84 
 
 73 Templates in mould loft 87 
 
 74 Assembling a forward frame 88 
 
 75 " a midship frame 88 
 
 76 Setting up a frame 89 
 
 76a Erecting a midship frame 89 
 
 77 Platform for erecting frame and midship frame 
 
 set up 90 
 
 78 Bilge ribband and stem set up 90 
 
 79 Stem and forward deadwood 91 
 
 80 Forward cant frames 91 
 
 81 Air-operated augers s 92 
 
 8ia " " " 92 
 
 82 Stern post framing 93 
 
 83 Framed ready for planks 94 
 
 84 .Steel Keelson Construction 94 
 
 84a Cross section details of steel Keelson 95 
 
 85 Arched wood Keelson Construction 95 
 
 86 Trussed wood " " 96 
 
 86a Tie Rods and straps 97 
 
 87 Trussed steel Keelson construction 98 
 
 88 Steel diagonal straps 99 
 
 89 Planking Bevel at rabbet 95 
 
 90 Frame ready for sheer plank loo 
 
 91 Planked ready for shutter loi 
 
 91a Double planking 102 
 
 91b Triple planking 102 
 
 92 First planks of bottom ceiling in place 103 
 
 93 Caulking bottom planks 103 
 
 94 Breast hook — Knee Construction 104 
 
 93 Deck Hanging Knees 104 
 
 95a Large natural Knees 10.5 
 
 96 Deck hatch coaming framing 105 
 
 97 Pneumatic hammer in use 106 
 
 98 Bitts and Knee 106 
 
 99 Pneumatic caulking tool in use 107 
 
 loi Ship's sails 123 
 
 102 Stay sails 123 
 
 103 Barque sails 123 
 
 104 Barkentine sails 124 
 
 105 Brig sails 124 
 
 106 Brigantine sails 124 
 
 107 Topsail schooner sails 125 
 
 108 Fore and aft schooner sails 125 
 
 109 Cat sails 125 
 
 1 10 Yawl sails 126 
 
 1 1 1 Sloop sails 126 
 
 1 12 Cutter sails 126 
 
 1 13 Lugger sails 126 
 
 1 14 Lateen sails 126 
 
 1 15 Square sails 127 
 
 1 16 Triangular sails 128 
 
 1 17 Gaff sails 128 
 
 1 18 Chain plates and channels 130 
 
224 
 
 INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 FIG. PAGE 
 
 119 Ship's Standing rigging 130 
 
 120 Rigged foremast 14S 
 
 121 Manila rope 132 
 
 122 Running rigging of ships 133 
 
 123 Fore and aft schooner rigging 133 
 
 123a Blocks and parts 136 
 
 123b Tackles 137 
 
 123c Tackles 138 
 
 123d Knots 139 
 
 I23e Knots 139 
 
 I23f Splices 141 
 
 I23g Rope 140 
 
 124 Making spars 142 
 
 125 Rounding spars 142 
 
 126 Details of ship's mast 142 
 
 127 Shapes and name of various spars 143 
 
 128 Mast's part and details 142 
 
 129 Mast top and rigging 143 
 
 130 Ship's spars 144 
 
 131 Barque spars 144 
 
 132 Barkentine spars 144 
 
 133 Rigged foremast 145 
 
 134 Bowsprit and parts 143 
 
 13s RQD, EBH and TF arrangement of house 149 
 
 136 RQD, EBH and TF house with DB 149 
 
 137 FP, EBH, TF house 149 
 
 138 LFP, EBH, TF house 149 
 
 139 LRQD, EBH and TF house 149 
 
 140 HD, SD — Passenger Vessel 149 
 
 141 Sailing Vessel RQD, F. 2 Decks 150 
 
 142 Flush Deck Vessel 149 
 
 143 Four Wood Cargo Carriers 150 
 
 FIG. PAGE 
 
 144 Cargo Carrier 150 
 
 145 "Constitution", Frigate 151 
 
 146 Yacht 151 
 
 146a Hydroplane tender (52 ft.) (J. M. Watts) 152 
 
 147 South Carolina, Battle Ship 153 
 
 148 Mine Sweeper 153 
 
 149 Concrete Ships. Faith 154 
 
 150 " " " 154 
 
 151 80 ft. Fishing Schooner Auxiliary 155 
 
 152 Light Ships iss 
 
 153 Schooner 155 
 
 154 Motor Ship 155 
 
 155 Ship 155 
 
 156 Stockless anchor 156 
 
 157 Stockless anchor in place 156 
 
 158 Common Bower anchor 157 
 
 159 Patent Bower anchor with hinged arm 157 
 
 160 Anchor with stock hoisted in position on Bow.... 158 
 
 161 Stream and Kedge anchors 158 
 
 162 Hawse pipes for stockless anchors 159 
 
 163 Chain pipe 158 
 
 164 Steam Windlass with parts 161 
 
 165 Anchor chain and shackles 160 
 
 166 Hand operated anchor windlass on Whalers 160 
 
 167 Detail and part of Hand Windlass 161 
 
 168 Steam anchor windlass 162 
 
 169 Steam deck winch 161 
 
 170 Deck of motor ship 162 
 
 171 Hand operated deck winch 161 
 
 172 Hand operated Bilge pump 161 
 
 173 Hand operated Capstan i6l 
 
 174 Hand Steering Gear 161 
 
 Plans 
 
 FIG. PAGE 
 
 200 Lines and Rigging 292 Schooner (Crowninshield) .180 
 
 201 Construction details motor ship "James Timpson".l8l 
 
 202 Construction details Steam trawler 184 
 
 203 80 ft. Fishing Schooner 186 
 
 204 Plan New Bedford Whaler 187 
 
 205 270 ft. cargo carrier (E. B. Schock) 188 
 
 206 220 ft. Auxiliary Schooner (E. B. Schock) 189 
 
 207 223 ft. 4 mast schooner (Cox & Stevens) 190 
 
 208 224 ft. Schooner (E. B. Schock) 191 
 
 FIG. PAGE 
 
 209 235 ft. Auxiliary Schooner (J. M. Watts) 191 
 
 210 Mast Boom Gaff Rigging 5 Mast Schooner (G. B. 
 
 Douglas) 192 
 
 211 Mast and Details of Yard (G. B. Douglas) 193 
 
 212 200 ft. Auxiliary Schooner (Cox & Stevens) 194 
 
 213 152 ft. Auxiliary (J. G. Alden) 196 
 
 214 N. Y. Pilot Boat (J. G. Douglas) 198 
 
 215 47 ft. Tug (J. M. Watts) 199 
 
 217 77 ft. Schooner 200 
 
Books for a Nautical Library 
 
 ADVANCE IN PRICES— Owing to the increased cost of paper, printing and bind- 
 ing, we are obliged to advance all our new editions of former $ 1 books to $1.25 
 
 BOAT HANDLING, ETC. 
 Rudder On Series — 
 
 On IHags, Their Origin and Use. By A. F. Aldridge $0.25 
 
 On Navigation Simplified. By Mc.^rthur 1.25 
 
 Handy Jack Book of Navigation Tables paper .75 
 
 On Sights. By Sheppard J-oo 
 
 On Yacht Etiquette. By Patterson i.oo 
 
 On Yacht Sailing. By T. F. Day 50 
 
 Southward in the Roamer. By H. C. Roome 1. 00 
 
 Art and Science of Sailniaking. By S. B. Sadler 6.00 
 
 Awnings and Tents, Construction and Design. By Ernest Chandler 5.00 
 
 Boat-Building and Boating. By Beard 1.25 
 
 Boating Book for Boys i-So 
 
 Book of the Motor Boat. By Verrill i.io 
 
 Book of the Sail Boat. By Verrill t.io 
 
 British and Colonial Flags 60 
 
 Handbook of American Yacht Racing Rules -2.00 
 
 The Helmsman's Handbook. By B. Heckstall Smith 4.00 
 
 Kedge .Anchor. By Patterson i.oo 
 
 Knots and Splices. By Capt. Jutsum 75 
 
 Knots, Splices and Rope Work. By B. V^errill i.oo 
 
 Knots. By A. F. Aldridge i.oo 
 
 Know Your Own Ship 3°° 
 
 Masting and Rigging. By Robert Kipping i.oo 
 
 Motor Boats, Construction and Operation 1.50 
 
 Practical Boat Sailing. By Frazar j i.oo 
 
 Racing Schedule Sheets • • .10 
 
 Sailing. By Knight 75 
 
 Sailing Ships and Their Story. By E. Keble Chatterton 2.50 
 
 Sails and Sailmaking 1.25 
 
 Small Boat Sailing. By Knight $2.25; by mail 2,50 
 
 Small Yacht. By R. A. Boardman $2.50; by mail 2.63 
 
 The Landsman. By Ensign L. Edson Raff, ist Bat. Nav. Mil., N. Y. .50 
 
 Yachtsman's Guide 1918 $1.00; by mail 1.25 
 
 Yacht Sails. By Patterson i .00 
 
 SEAMANSHIP 
 
 Fore-and-Aft Seamanship 50 
 
 Merchant Marine Manual i.oo 
 
 Modern Seamanship. By Knight $3.00; by mail 3.25 
 
 Notes on Stowage. C. H. Hillcoat 3.75 
 
 Reed's Seamanship . . . .■ 3-00 
 
 Seamanship. By Doane _. 1.25 
 
 Tait's New Seamanship, 5th Edition 2.00 
 
 SIGNALLING 
 
 International Signals — A Few Ways to Use the Code 25 
 
 Nautical Telegraph Code. By D. H. Bernard 1.25 
 
 Navy and Merchant Marine Signal Chart 25 
 
 Night Signals of World's Shipping 1.25 
 
 Signal Card 75 
 
 .Signalling — International Code Signals i.oo 
 
 Signalling Made Easy. By Capt. Bernard 75 
 
 Signal Reminder. By D. H. Bernard 50 
 
 BO.ATBUILDING 
 Rudder How to Series — 
 
 How to Build a Cruiser (Seabird) i.oo 
 
 How to Build an 18-Foot Racing Cat i.oo 
 
 How to Build a Flattie or Sharpie ■ 1.25 
 
 How to Build an Ice- Yacht — with Building Plans of a Scooter .75 
 
 How to Build a Knockabout 75 
 
 How to Build a Model Yacht 1.25 
 
 How to Build a Motor Launch ' 50 
 
 How to Build a Racer for $50 paper 75c; Cloth i.oo 
 
 How to Build a Racing Sloop 1.00 
 
 How to Build a Rowboat 1.25 
 
 How to Build a Shoal-Draught Sloop i.oo 
 
 How to Build a Skipjack 75 
 
 How to Build a Small Cruising Power Boat ... 7 25 
 
 How to Build a Speed Launch i .00 
 
 How to Build a 32-Foot Cruising Launch. By H. L. Skene., i.oo 
 
 How to Build V-Bottom Boats , 1.25 
 
 How to Build a Viper 25 
 
 How to Design and Construct a Power Boat 2.00 
 
 How to Design a Yacht. By C. G. Davis 2.00 
 
 How to Run a Boat Shop. By Desmond 1.25 
 
 How to Run and Install a Gasolene Engine. By C. Von Culin. .25 
 
 How Sails Are Made and Handled. By C. G. Davis 2.00 
 
 Boatbuilders' Estimating Pads 1.00 
 
 Boat Building and Boating. By Beard 1.25 
 
 Boating Book for Boys 1.50 
 
 Motor Boats, Construction and Operation 1.50 
 
 Steel Shipbuilders' Handbook. An Encyclopedia. By C. W. Cook 1.50 
 GAS ENGINES 
 
 American Power Boat Rules ....paper .50 
 
 Diesel Engines, Marine and Stationary. By A. H. Goldingham.. 3.00 
 
 Elements of Gas Engine Design , 50 
 
 Gas Engine Handbook. By Roberts. 7th Edition 2.00 
 
 Gas Engines. , By Hutton 4.50 
 
 Gas Engines. By Lieckfeldt _. 3$ 
 
 Gas, Gasolene and Oil Engines. By Gardner D. Hiscox 3.00 
 
 How to Run and Install a Gasolene Engine. By Von Culin 25 
 
 Marine Gas Engines. By Clark 2.00 
 
 Motor Boats. By Durand 2.00 
 
 Motor Boats, Construction and Operation 1.50 
 
 Oil Engines. By A. H. Goldingham 2.50 
 
 Questions arid Answers from the Gas Engine 1.50 
 
 Resistance of Ships and Screw Propulsion 2.25 
 
 Valves and Valve Gears for Gasolene, Gas and Oil Engines: 
 
 Part I, $2.50; Part II, 2.00 
 
 DESIGNS 
 Rudder What To Build Series — 
 
 Cabin Plan Book $1.00 Racer Book $1.00 
 
 Cat Book paper .50 Schooner Book ' 1.25 
 
 Power Cruiser Book i.oo Yawl Book paper .75 
 
 ICE-BOATS 
 How to Build an Ice-Yacht — with Building Plans of a Scooter 75 
 
 YACHT AND NAVAL AbCHITECTURE 
 
 Naval Architecture Simplified. By Chas, Desmond 5.00 
 
 A Text Book of Laying Off. By Attwood and Cooper 2.00 
 
 Elements of Yacht Design. By N. L. Skene 2.00 
 
 Handbook of Ship Calculations, Construction and Operation 5.00 
 
 Laying Down and Taking Off. By Desmond 2.00 
 
 Machinery's Handbook 6.00 
 
 Manual of Yacht and Boat Sailing and Yacht Architecture. Kemp 15.00 
 
 Naval Architects' Pocket Book. By MacKrow 6.00 
 
 Naval .Architecture. A Manual of Laying-Off. By Watson 12.00 
 
 Naval Architecture. By Peabody 7*5o 
 
 Naval Constructor. By Simpson 5-oo 
 
 Practical Shipbuilding. By A. C. Holms. 3d Edition 20.00 
 
 Practical Shipfitting. By Shl-Dk 2.00 
 
 Speed and Power of Ships. 2 Vols. By Taylor 7.50 
 
 Tables for Constructing Ships' Lines. By Hogg i.oo 
 
 The Power Boat, Its Construction and Design. By Schock 2.00 
 
 Theoretical Naval Architecture. By Atwood 3.00 
 
 Wooden Shipbuilding. By Desmond 10.00 
 
 ELECTRICAL 
 
 Dry Batteries. By a Dry Battery Expert 25 
 
 Electrical Circuits and Diagrams. By N. H. Schneider .25 
 
 Electric Wiring, Diagrams and Switchboards. By Newton Harrison 1.50 
 
 Electric Bells and -Alarms 25 
 
 Induction Coils. By P. Marshall 25 
 
 Modern ' Primary Batteries 25 
 
 Practical Electrics 25 
 
 Small Accumulators. By Marshall 25 
 
 Study of Electricity. By Schneider 25 
 
 Uses of Electricity on Shipboard. By J. W. Kellogg i.oo 
 
 MODEL YACHTS 
 
 How to Build a Model Yacht 1.25 
 
 Building .Model Boats, By P. N. Hasluck 75 
 
 Machinery for Model Steamers 25 
 
 Model Engines and Small Boats. By Hopkins 1.25 
 
 Model Sailing Yachts. By Marshall 75 
 
 MARINE ENGINEERING 
 
 Calculus for Engineers. By Larkman 2.00 
 
 Elements of Mechanism. By Schwamb 2. 50 
 
 New Marine Engineers' Guide 3-oo 
 
 Marine Propellers. By Barnaby 3.00 
 
 Marine Steam Turbine. By J. W. Sothern. 3d Edition 15.00 
 
 Mechanics' and Engineers' Pocketbook. By Charles H. Haswell . . 4.00 
 
 Practical Marine Engineering. By Capt. C. W. Dyson, U. S. N. . 6.00 
 
 NAVIGATION 
 
 Navigation Simplified. By McArthur 1.25 
 
 .American Practical Navigator. Bowditch $2.25; by mail 2.50 
 
 .American Nautical Almanac 3° 
 
 Navigation — .A Short Course. By Hasting 75 
 
 Navigation. By G. L. Hosmer 1.25 
 
 Modern Navigation. By Hastings 75 
 
 Self Instructor in Navigation 3-00 
 
 Simple Rules and Problems in Navigation 3.50 
 
 Elements of Navigation. By Henderson 1.25 
 
 Epitome of Navigation. By Norie 2 Vols. 1 5.00 
 
 Navigation. By Jacoby 2.25 
 
 Navigators' Pocket Book. By Capt. Howard Patterson 2.00 
 
 Practical Aid to the Navigator. By Sturdy _. 2.00 
 
 Wrinkles in Practical Navigation. By Lecky $12.00; by mail 12.50 
 
 Book of Sights Taken in .Actual Practice at Sea i.oo 
 
 Brown's Star Atlas ". 2.00 
 
 Deviation and Deviascope 2.00 
 
 Manual on Rules of the Road at Sea 3.25 
 
 Pocket Course Book Chesapeake Bay 25 
 
 Pocket Course Book Long Island Sound 25 
 
 Pocket Course Book New England Waters 25 
 
 Pocket Course Book Portland to Halifax 25 
 
 Pocket Course Book Race Rock to Boston Light 25 
 
 Pugsley's — 
 
 Dead Reckoning 2.00* 
 
 Latitude by Meridian Altitude 2.00 
 
 Learners* Compass Card ; . . .50 
 
 Guide to the Local Inspectors' Examination — Ocean Going 
 
 — Steam and Sail 2.00 
 
 New York Pilot and Guide to the Local Inspectors' Ex- 
 amination , 2.00 
 
 Log Book 2.00 
 
 Multiplication Table I.oo 
 
 Seaman's Receipt Book 25 
 
 Tides 2.00 
 
 Questions and Answers on the Rules of the Road 25 
 
 Handy Jack Book of Navigation Tables paper .75 
 
 Ex-Meridian, Altitude, Azimuth and Star Finding Tables 3.15 
 
 Tables for Correcting the Observed Altitude, etc. By S. Anfindsen i.oo 
 
 THE RUDDER 
 
 Single Copies, 25c; Monthly, a Year 2.00 
 
 Bound Volumes: 1910, 1911, 1916, 1917 4-oo 
 
 Covers for Binding 1.25 
 
 Prices Subject to Change. 
 
 ABOVE PRICES INCLUDE DELIVEKY ONLY WITHIN THE UNITED STATES. PURCHASERS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES MUST ADD ZS PER CENT TO AMOUNT 
 
 OF ORDER TO COVER DELIVERY. ^^^ Ruddcr Publlshmg: Company, 9 Murray St., New York, N. Y 
 
Laying Down 
 and Taking Off 
 
 By CHARLES DESMOND 
 
 THE few men understanding Mould Loft Work 
 and the urgent call for ships at the outbreak 
 of the war presented grave problems and to 
 help the situation we secured a series of articles 
 for publication in The Rudder. The demand for 
 the numbers soon exhausted the supply and we 
 have received so many requests for the issues we 
 decided to reprint the articles in book form. 
 
 The author is thoroughly versed in the subject and has an unusual 
 faculty of imparting his knowledge in a simple, understandable way 
 that the reader readily grasps. The book is intended for the man 
 who does not know and wants to gain the knowledge and to whom 
 most books on the subject are a struggle in the dark, void space of 
 theory. The author's soul is in this work and it's his religion to 
 impart knowledge to those who seek it. Illustrated throughout. 
 
 Trice $2.00 
 
 THE RUDDER PUBLISHING COMPANY 
 
 9 Murray Street, New York 
 
Naval 
 
 Architecture 
 
 Simplified 
 
 HE study of Naval Architecture is one of the most diffi- 
 cult subjects for the average man to master, especially if 
 the rudimentary knowledge is not acquired under the 
 guidance of an instructor. 
 
 The various books on the subject while very thorough are 
 too far advanced for the student to grasp. 
 
 Naval Architecture Simplified, by Charles Desmond, was written 
 for students. 
 
 In order that the theory might be properly understood, the work is 
 illustrated and described in detail, and while intended primarily for 
 students, there is a fund of information of value to all Naval Architects. 
 
 After many years of study both from the theoretical and practical 
 side Mr. Desmond prepared a course of instruction, by correspondence, 
 and enrolled students in all parts of the world in his school. 
 
 The course required from 6 months to a year to complete according 
 to the student and for the complete course as given in this book the 
 charge was $150.00. 
 
 With the outbreak of the War Mr. Desmond oflfered his service to the 
 Government. All the data he had collected during the period 
 of 30 years of practical experience he turned over to THE RUDDER to put in 
 book form — making it possible for a man to become a proficient Naval 
 Architect. The book is the result of a life's work and presents an oppor- 
 tunity never before offered to a student. 
 
 The explanations and descriptions are without doubt the simplest 
 form in which the subject has been written and enable a student to 
 thoroughly understand what heretofore has been a hopeless maze. 
 
 Send for complete Paragraph Index. 
 
 Trice $5.00 
 
 The Rudder Publishing Company 
 
 9 Murray Street 
 Opposite City Hall Park 
 
 New York, U. S. A. 
 
 SEND FOIt COMPLETE CATALOGUE OF NAUTICAL BOOKS 
 
THE 
 
 M 
 
 RUDDEP 
 
 yl v^agazine devoted to the interests 
 of Shiphudders and Nerval ^M!en and all 
 who love the Sea, its ships and Sailors 
 
 Published on the 24lh 
 day o( the month. 
 
 Established 1890. 
 
 Single Copies 25 cents. 
 
 Subscription price 
 $2.00 a year. 
 
 7 
 
 ust now all interests center in the great 
 effort being made to build ships. Millions 
 of tons of cargo carriers are now on the 
 ways or are projected. This huge work 
 is so important that everyone is taking a 
 deep interest in its progress. 
 
 The Rudder is helping to keep up this 
 interest and to boom the work. 
 
 Each month plans of vessels building or 
 projected are given. It prints articles 
 by Naval architects and engineers on all 
 topics of interest and serves everything 
 up in a most attractive way. Illustrations 
 of Warships, Merchant Vessels, Ship- 
 yard scenes and things pertaining to the 
 Sea. The Rudder is a magazine for all 
 lovers of the Sea. 
 
 The Rudder Publishing Co. 
 
 9 Murray Street - New York City 
 
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY 
 BERKELEY 
 
 Return to desk from which borrowed. 
 This book is DUE g^^^^l^t da^e^tam^ed b^jg^^^y 
 
 \ 
 
 MAR 29 1954^ 
 
 MAY 
 
 141^/ 
 
 JUN^1956 
 JUN 011996 
 
 LD 21-100m-7,'52(A2528sl6)476 
 
fM. 
 
 ^^ 
 
 f.. 
 
 RETURN TO the circulation desk of any 
 University of California Library 
 or to the 
 NORTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY 
 BIdg. 400, Richmond Field Station 
 University of California 
 Richmond, CA 94804-4698 
 
 2 mnT?^^ "^"^ ^^ RECALLED AFTER 7 DAYS 
 1-yeaMoans may be recharged by bringing books 
 'Xtdrdir^^^^ "^^^ '^ -^^ ^ ^ays 
 
 DUE AS STAMPED BELOW 
 
 SEP 1 11996 
 
 >"£, 03959 
 
 U. C. BERKELEY LIBRARIES 
 
 CDSblDDSfiT 
 
 j^gineermg 
 Library 
 
 £RSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY 
 
 20,000 (4/94) 
 
;cx£ir*; £r; rscrfjs iSKsrr;