UC-NRLF ^B bSD fl73 .,.,. J ., nv^ ■H,i-,.,.,f^,.V(,,.,,t_-,. -v*r-*- r'>^," ^I'.'.v; ■ ■ .fr', 1 ^. .■,,.'(. : '■'!• .',>:';.:' f.r,!.'. . ,■■' ;■;,,,:,,,:,';;,'■', -;;;.'-■.,. ^ ,jr^'- i -j.,.f-: ,.j';V.;.. , •■ ■ .f- r '.''■' ■::';;.^;.'t■'^'^^^- .'-^ ;:-t::, ;:.■;■■ ■':'■■■•■:' <•.-.<■ r (.tV ■■■ '■ .■..'■'■.■••. , i ,. . . ., . ., i, , A GRAMMAR OF THE JAPANESE SPOKEN LANGUAGE. BY W. G. A S T O N, D. Lit., ;' JAPANESE SECRETARY, H. B. M.'s LEGATION, TOKIO, JAPAN. FOURTH EDITION. lofeotama : For Sale by Lane, Crawford & Co., Publishers. Kelly & Walsh, Limited. ^ofeio : The Hakubunsha. iLonlJon : Trubner & Co., Ludgate Hill. 1888. ^ • • • » * » t / *. « « I ( 4 1 PREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION. This Edition has been thoroughly rewritten. It is also much enlarged, and is almost completely a new work. More exclusive attention has been paid in it to the Tokio dialect, which now bids fair to become the language of the upper classes of Japan generally. At the suggestion of a friend, a literal interlinear translation of the examples has been added. No translation, however, has ordinarily been given of the particles which occur in them. Their meaning can be found in the chapter on particles. The author takes this opportunity of acknowledging the assistance which he has derived from the writings of Mr. E. M. Satow and Mr. B. H. Chamberlain. He is also indebted for some hints to Dr. Imbrie's Japanese Etymology. ToKio, November, 1888. M194441 TABLE OF CONTENTS I. II. III. IV. V. VI. VII. VIII. IX. X. XI. XII. XIII. XIV. XV. XVI. Syllabary — Pronunciation. Parts of speech. . . Noun. .. Pronoun. . . Numeral. Verb Adjective. Auxiliary words. . . Particles. Adverbs, Conjunctions, Prepositions and English into Japanese. Honorific and Humble forms Syntax. Time, money, w^eights and measures. . . Errors in speaking Japanese. X-yXLIaCLS* •• •• •• •• •• JLilQcX* •• •• •• •• •• Interjections I 5 7 II 34 42 93 io8 ii8 157 161 166 182 186 191 192 .207 A GRAMMAR OF THE JAPANESE SPOKEN LANGUAGE. CHAPTER I. THE SYLLABARY— PRONUNCIATION. §1. In Japanese, every syllable is supposed to end in a vowel, and generally does so, e.g. sa-yo de go-za-ri-ma-su. The exceptions occur mostly in foreign words, or are owing to contractions. There being no final consonants, the number of syllables is necessarily small, and is reckoned by the Japanese at forty-seven according to one arrangement, and by another, at fifty. There are, however, modifications of some of them, by which the number is increased to seventy-five. There are in Japanese no means of writing separate letters as in European languages, and each syllable is therefore represented by a single character, n final, which has a character to itself, being an exception. But n is supposed to represent an older inu. The following table shows the syllables of the Japanese language arranged according to what is called the Go-jiu-on, or fifty sounds. t f r < f t / < ' ' JAPANESE SYLLABARY, a • 1 u e ka ki gi ku gu ke g^ ko go sa za shi J'' su ZU se zc so zo ta da chi tsu dzu te de to do na ni nu ne no ha ba pa hi hi pi fu hu pu he be pe ho bo po ma mi mu me mo ya • 1 yu ye yo ra • n ru re ro vva • 1 u ye wo PRONUNCIATION. 3 It will be seen that there are a number of irregularities and repetitions in the above Table. These are owing to the circumstance that there are certain sounds which a Japanese cannot, or at any rate, does not pronounce. For si, he says shi, for huffily (ov yi, wi, wu and lae, z, i, n andj^, and so on. These irregularities play an important part in the con- jugation of verbs, and ought therefore to be carefully noted. § 2. a is pronounced like a in fat, father. e^ ,, „ ay in say. i „ ,, ee in meet. o „ ,,0 in more. u „ ,, 00 in fool. / and It are frequently almost inaudible. In such cases they have been written z, il. Thus, sliltay * below,' is pronounced very nearly shta ; tatsHy *a dragon,' almost tats. Long or double vowels are distinguished by a line drawn above them thus, f, d, u. The distinction between i and i, 6 and o, u and «, must be carefully attended to, as the meaning often depends upon it. Koshi for instance means ' an ambassador,' while koshi means 'the loins.' Soto means 'suitable,' but soto, 'outside ;' kiiki, 'the atmosphere,' kukiy 'the stem of a plant.' § 3. The consonants are pronounced as in English, except r, h, /, w, d, t, and g, which differ somewhat from the corresponding English sounds. The true pronun- ciation of these letters must be learnt from a Japanese, but the following hints may be found useful. R before i is the most difficult of Japanese sounds for a European to reproduce correctly. It is then pronounced nearly like d, except that the tip of the tongue touches the roof of the mouth farther back. Some Japanese make it nearly y in this position. Before other vowels the Japanese r more resembles the English sound. There is never any- thing in Japanese like the rough pronunciation given this 4 PRONUNCIATION. letter in French and Italian. R is often omitted before i in the words gozaimasu, nasaimasii^ for gozarimasu, nasarimasU. H and / are considered the same letter in Japanese and their pronunciation is not very different. The under lip does not touch the teeth in pronouncing /; it only approa- ches them as in pronouncing wh in which. In the vulgar Tokio dialect the syllable hi is undistinguishable from shi. In pronouncing the Japanese d and t the tip of the tongue is pressed forward against the teeth instead of only touching the gum as in English. Little or no distinction is made by most Japanese between dztc and zu. G at the beginning of a word is pronounced like the English g hard ; in any other position like the German (not the English) ng in ' finger.' In the syllable ye the y is in most words silent, or nearly so, and is often omitted in romanized Japanese. In the case of double consonants, both must be sounded. Thus amma, 'a shampooer,' must be pronounced differently from ama, a ' fisherwoman ;' katta, * bought,' from kata^ ' side.' §4. The nigori. The syllables ga, gi, gu, ge, go, za, ji, zu, ze, 20 etc., printed in small italic type in the above table, all begin with soft consonants and are considered by the Japanese not as different syllables but simply as modifications of the syllables beginning with hard consonants in the lines immediately above them. This distinction is indicated in writing by a small mark, which is often omitted. Ka for instance with a diacritic mark is read ga, shi, ji and so on. The formation of compounds and derivatives is often ac- companied by the modification of a hard into the correspond- ing soft consonant, so that it is important to take note of this change, which, with the mark by which it is indicated, is called in Japanese nigori, or ' impurity.' CHAPTER II. PARTS OF SPEECH. § 5. The words ' Noun,' ' Adjective' and * Verb' have two meanings in ordinary grammars of European languages. The term ' noun' is sometimes applied to a class of words inflected in a particular way, with cases and number, and it also means anything capable of being made the subject of a proposition. In other words it means one thing for etymological purposes and another in syntax, one thing in respect to changes within itself, another in its re- lations to other words. 'Verb' and 'Adjective' have double significations of a similar kind. This mode of classifying words according to two distinct principles viz. (i) the form of inflection and (2) their syntactical relations, is not with- out inconvenience even in European grammars, where it has led to the introduction of the awkward term * participle,' meaning a word which is partly a verb and partly an adjective or noun. But such forms are after all the ex- ception in European languages, where it is the general rule that words which as regards their declension or conjugation are nouns, adjectives or verbs are also nouns, adjectives or verbs for purposes of syntax. In Japanese, however, this is by no means the case. Here it is rather the rule than the exception that a word with or even without a change of inflection can be converted at pleasure into a verb, an ad- jective or a noun. Iku^ ' to go,* for instance, looking to its conjugation is a verb, but if we consider its position in such sentences as sugii ni ikii^ * he goes at once,' ihi ga yoroshi, I -H >. r-k 6 PARTS OF SPEECH. ' the going is good,' i.e. * he had better go,' iku hito ga am, ^ * a going person is,' i.e. ' there is somebody going,' it is only in the first case that it plays the part of a verb in the ( j sentence, in the second it is a noun, and in the third an ' adjective. The Japanese grammarians have avoided this ambiguity by classifying words as na or * names,' i.e. '- uninflected words,' kotoha or hataraki-kotoba, * words' or ' inflected words,' including the verb and adjective, and teniwoJia or 'particles.' But this is not the place to attempt to intro- duce a more scientific English terminology. It will be sufficient to retain the familiar words, noun, verb and adjec- tive, taking care to use them in such a way as to prevent confusion between these two significations. § 6. The noun is uninflected. All Chinese words in the Japanese language are uninflected, and are therefore strictly speaking nouns, but most of them, by the help of Japanese terminations are made to do duty as verbs, adjectives, or adverbs. Along with the noun or uninflected word are classed the pronoun and numeral adjective, which in Japanese have no inflection. They have some peculiarities however which make it convenient to consider them separately. There is no article. Prepositions and conjunctions are included mainly under the head of particles. Adverbs do not form a separate class of words. A particular form of the adjective does duty as an adverb, and other words which must be rendered as adverbs in English are in Japanese nouns, or parts of verbs. The verb and adjective have a substantially similar mode of inflection in Japanese and should be considered as really forming only one part of speech. f CHAPTER III. THE NOUN. § 7. In Japanese nouns have no inflections to distinguish masculine from feminine or neuter, singular from plural, or one case from another, but they are preceded or followed by particles which serve these and other purposes. § 8. Gender. — With the exception of a few common words such as musicko, ' son ; ' imismie, ' daughter ; ' chichi^ 'father; ' /m/m, * mother,' no distinction is ordinarily made between the masculine and feminine. Thus ushi is either * bull ' or ' cow ' ; muma is either ' horse ' or * mare.' When necessary, gender is distinguished by prefixing o or on for the masculine, me or meri for the feminine. Thus iishi is * a bull ; ' me icshi, * a cow;' on dori,' a cock;' men dori, *a hen.' These are really compound nouns. Such phrases as otoko no ko, *a male child;' onna no ko, *a female child ' are also in use, otoko meaning * man ' and onna * woman. § g. Number. As a general rule the plural is not dis- tinguished from the singular, but a plural idea can be expres- sed whenever necessary by the addition of one of the particles ra^ gata, domo, tachi, or shiu^ which will be found more particularly described in Chapter IX. 8 NOUN. Examples. Yahinin gata. Officials. Ninsokii domo. Coolies. Kodomo ra or Kodomo skill. Children. Neko domo. Cats. Some nouns have a kind of plural formed by reduplication. But these forms correspond rather to the noun preceded by ' every ' than to the ordinary plural. Thus shi7ia is ' an article,' shina jina, ' all sorts of articles ; ' kuni, ' a country,' hmigimi, ' every country ; ' tokoro ' a place,' tokoro dokoro, ' different places.' The first letter of the second half of these forms almost invariably takes the iiigori. (See § 4.) § 10. Case. Properly speaking, Japanese nouns have no cases, but a declension can be made out for them by the help of certain particles, as follows : — TORI, 'A BIRD.' Nominative. Tori or tori ga, a bird. Genitive. Tori no or tori ga, of a bird or a bird's. Dative. Tori ni or tori ye, to a bird. Accusative. Tori or tori wo, a bird. Vocative. Tori or tori yo, O bird ! Ablative. Tori kara or tori yori, from a bird. Locative. Tori 7ii, at, to or in a bird. Instrumental. Tori de, with or by means of a bird. The plural terminations come between these particles and the noun, as : Yahinin gata ni mcnjo wo I showed my passport to the Official to passport officials. misemashlta. showed The student is referred to Chapter IX for an account of these particles. § II. Compound nouns. Compound nouns are formed 15^ — From two nouns. Ex. Kazaguruma * a wind-mill,' THE NOUN. 9 from haze, * wind,' and kuruma^ *a wheel;' hajtazofw, *a flower-garden,' from hana, ' a flower,' and sono, * a garden ;' kobime, ' a boat,' from koj ' a child,' * something small,' and funej 'a boat ;' Jionya, 'a book-seller,' from Jiofi, 'a book,' and ya, 'a. house.' 27id — From the stem of an adjective and a noun. Ex. Akagane, ' copper,' from aka, stem oi akai, ' red,' and kane, * metal ; ' Nagasaki, * long cape,' the name of a place, from naga, stem oinagai, ' long,' and saki * a cape.' 2frd — From a noun and the stem of a verb. Ex. Mono- shiri, ' a learned man,' from mono, ' a thing,' and sJiiri, stem of shim, 'to know'; jibiki, *a dictionary,' fromjf, * a character,' and hiki, stem oi hiktt, ' to draw.' ^th — From the stem of a verb and a noun. Ex. Urimo7io, ' a thing for sale,' from uri, stem oi uni, * to sell,' and mono,'' a thing.' 5^A — From the stem of an adjective and the stem of a verb, as Supensurii no maru-nomi, ' a man who swallows Herbert Spencer whole,' where tnarii is the stem oimarui^ 'round,' and 7tomi, the stem oi nomu, 'to swallow.' 6th — From two verbal stfems, as hikidashi, ' a drawer,' (lit., ' a pull-out ') from hiki, stem of hikii, 'to pull,' and dashi,' stem of dasu, ' to bring out ; ' kigaye, ' a change of clothing,' from ki, stem of kirn, ' to wear,' and kaye, stem of kayerti, ' to change.' The first letter of the second part of a compound noun generally takes the nigori. (See § 4.) Thus the k of kane is changed into g in the compound akagane, the / o{ fiine into b in kobnne. The final vowel of the first part of a compound is often modified, the most common change being from ^ to r7. Thus from sakcj 'Japanese rice-beer' and te, 'hand,' is 10 THE NOUN. formed sakate^ 'drink money ;' from shiro, the stem oi shiroi, * white,' and ke, 'hair,' is formed shiraga, 'grey hairs.' The prefixes denoting gender and the honorific prefixes o, mi and o^o (for which see Chap. XII) must be considered as forming compounds with the nouns to which they belong. § 12. Derivative nouns. Abstract nouns are formed from adjectives by adding sa to the stem, as takasa ' height ' from takai, ' high.' It is occasionally added to words of Chinese derivation asfubinsa, ' pitiableness.' The adjective follow- ed by koto, ' thing,' is also used in a nearly similar significa- tion, as in the following examples. It denotes however rather the degree of a quality than the abstract quality itself. Takasa wa iku-ken dcsu ka ? How many ken is it height how many ken is ? in height ? Takai koto! ddmo ! ,,„ , i • i.. i high thing some how What a height ! Ima no wakasa ni. At your young time present youthfulness at of life. Many nouns are simply the stems of verbs without any change of form, as nokorij ' remainder,' stem of 7iohorUy ' to be left over;' kakushi, 'pocket,' stem o{ kahisic, 'to conceal ;' watashi, ' ferry,' stem of watasii, ' to make to cross over.' A few stems of adjectives are used in the same way, as shiro, ' white,' a dog's name, stem o{ sliiroi, ' white.' There is here however a slight change of meaning, nokori^ kakushi, watashi, and shiro having a more concrete signification than the verbs or adjective from which they are taken. It will be seen later that for purposes of syntax, cer- tain parts of the verb and adjective must be considered as nouns. CHAPTER IV. THE PRONOUN. § 13. Watakushi, 'I' (plural watakuslii do/no, *we'), is the ordinary word for the pronoun of the first person. Ore (plural orera) is less respectful, and is the word mostly used by coolies, etc., to each other. To inferiors it is a some- what haughty word. Students and soldiers say hokn for * I ', waga hai for ' we '. Temaye is a humble word for ' I,' much used by the lower classes of Tokio in addressing their superiors. It is also used as a pronoun of the second person. Some people use their surname instead of the personal pronoun of the first person. Other words for * I ' are watashi (familiar), watai (by women), washi (very familiar), wattchi (rustic), sessha (formal), oini (familiar), jibtm (properly * self). Examples. ^ WatakusJii wa zeikan no I am a customhouse officer. I customhouse yakunin dc gozarimasu. officer am ^ Ore mo iko. I'll go too. I too will go O yama no taisho ore I'm the king of the castle, (in - (hon.) mountain of general I the children's game.) hitori. alone 12 THE PRONOUN. k Nanda ore ga yotteru What! I drunk? Not a bit what is I being drunk q£ j^ (for yotte iru) mono ka. Watakushi I . desii. is thing wa go duyd (hon.) same Watakushi wa sore wo suku I them like keredomo, dumo watakushi although somehow me ni wa aimasu mai. to fit (polite) will not wa Tckurada It is just the same with me- I like them, but I am afraid they wont fit me. gozarimasu. Watakushi I Futoshi de Hajimcte o me ni for the first time (hon.) eyes on kakarimashita. have hung I am Tekurada Futoshi. I have the honour of meeting you for the first time. go In former times I was much Sennen iro-iro former year all kinds (hon.) indebted for your kindness. ku-on ni adzukarimashita. great favours have experienced lye ! watakushi koso No, I (emph. part.). nattara when I have become On the contrary, it was I who... I too, when I grow big, intend to be a naval officer. Okiku big bokic mo kaigun no shikan ni I too navy officer nam tstimori desii. become intention is § 14. The personal pronoun of the second person differs according to the rank of the person addressed. Anata, for ano kata 'that side,' (plur. anata gata) is pro- perly a pronoun of the third person but like the German Sie has come to be used for the second. It is sometimes a noun as in the phraseL^owo anata ' this gen tlemaj)/ Anata is used when speaking to superiors or equals, or in fact, to any one who has a claim to be addressed with civility. Omaye THE PRONOUN. I3 (plural omaye gata) is familiar and condescending, and is the word used in addressing servants, workmen, the members of one's own famil}^ etc. Omaye san is almost the same as anata, but more familiar, and is used chiefly by women. Kisama and temaye are used in addressing coolies and other persons of the lowest class in a familiar way. Kirni is much used among soldiers and students ; sensei in address- ing men of learning ; a servant says dajina (master), daniia- san or datina-sama (rarely aiiata) in addressing his master. Other words for ' you ' are konata (for kono kata, * this side '), sonata, (for sono kata, ' that side,' familiar) sono ho (by magistrates to prisoners or witnesses), sochi (to inferiors), nnshi (' master', very contemptuous), o nushi (very familiar), ware (rustic), tmn (abusive), sokka (formal). But anata and otnaye will be found enough for most Europeans to trouble themselves with. Examples. Anata ni hanashi moshi- There is something I want to you talk wish to ^^\i yo^^ tai koto ga gozarimasu. thing there is Otnaye koko ni matte ore. Do you wait here, you here waiting remain Kisama wa ore no uchi ni What do you mean, Sir, by you my house into coming into my house ? haitte, do sum ? entering how do Danna no a muma no shita- Your horse is ready. Sir. master 's horse prepa- * kti wa yoroshiu gozarimasu. ration good is Kimi wa doko ye iku ka. Where are you going? you where to go ? H THE PRONOUN. Boku wa gakko yc kaeru I am on the way back to I college to return colleo^e. tokoro da. place am gozamiasu, A ! senscl wa Mina you (lit. elder brother) mo to Kun dc Mr. (predicate) are ha ? Go kv-nici zva kane- ? (hon.) high name previ- te nkctamawattc orimasu. ously having heard I remain O nushi dachi. Ah ! are you Mr. Minamoto ? I have already heard of your high reputation. You fellows Unn dorohd me. You thief! Unn iiso zvo tsukn falsehood stick ze. (emph. particle) A! it kohoromochi d''atta: ah good sensation was Kisaburd kisama wa do da ? you how is ? You are lying Ah ! how pleasant that was ! Kisaburo, will you have a turn ? (Master, leaving bath, to ser- vant.) § 15. The pronoun of the third person is are (plural arera). Are has no gender. It is often replaced for persons by the .more polite form ano IiitOj 'that man' or * that woman ; ' a]io o kata, * that gentleman ' or ' lady ' or ano onna, ' that woman.' These words add gata to form the plural. Aitsu, aitsnra are contemptuous equivalents for are, arera, Kare (plural karera) is sometimes used instead of are by educated people, but it belongs rather to the book language than to the colloquial. To-Jiin ' the person in question' is sometimes used for ' he.' Ik ken is used when there is a sly emphasis on the pronoun, as ^Ikken ga kita, ^He has come.' THE PRONOUN. I5 Examples. Are wa mo Kobe ni tsuki- He (she or it) has probably already has arrived in Kobe by this time. mashitaro. probably arrived Ano Into wa junsa de goza- He is a policeman, policeman rimasu. is Ano hata Hiogo no akindo Isn't he a Hiogo merchant ? merchant ja nai ka ? is not ? § 16. The above are by no means the only personal pronouns in use, but they will be found sufficient for most Europeans to know, and few persons will have occasion to use more than watakiishi, watakushidomo^ for the first person, anata, anatagata or omaye, oniayegata for the second and are, anohito or mio kata for the third. The grammar of the pronouns is the same as that of nouns and they affix the particles in Chap. IX. in the same way as nouns. With the pronouns of the first and second person however the use of the plural particles when two or more persons are in- tended is the rule, instead of being the exception as it is in the case of nouns. A Japanese often says *we' (watakii- sJndomo, waga liai) for * I.' The use of personal pronouns is much more limited in Japanese than in English. They are not employed except in cases where their omission would cause ambiguity, or where there is an emphasis upon them. Thus, 'I am going to Tokio to-morrow,' will be Mionichi Tokio ye fnairmiasuy except where it is doubtful whether the speaker refers to himself or to another person, when ivatahushi is added. If there is an emphasis on the pronoun, as in the phrase, * I don't know what yon may do, but / shall go to Tokio to- l6 THE PRONOUN. morrow,' it must not be omitted. Japanese generally prefer to indicate person by some of the honorific or humble modes of expression described in Chap. XII. The indiscriminate use of pronouns is a very common fault committed by Europeans in speaking Japanese, and even disfigures some manuals of conversation which have been published. Not one personal pronoun is used in Japanese where there are ten in English. § 17. Possessive Pronouns are in Japanese nothing more than personal pronouns, with the addition of the possessive particle 110 or ga. Examples. Ano hito no iye wa His house is a long way off. that man's house y oho do toi. very much is far Watakushi ga yubl wa itandc I have a pain in my finger, my finger painful iru. is Omayc no kiukin wa iknra ? What are your wages ? your wages how much ? * Mine,' 'yours,' 'his,' 'hers,' 'theirs,' are in Japanese also luatnkiislii 7io,anata no, are no etc., but they can easily be distinguished from ' my ' ' your ' etc. by the particles which accompany them or by the context. Examples. Korc wa anata no fsuye Is not this your stick ? this your stick de wa gozainia- (sign of pred.) is senu ka ? not ? Hei ! Watakushino desu. Yes mine is 1/ Watakushi no da (for de am) mine is to omotte machigaimashita. that thinking mistook Watakushi no wa atarashiu mine new gozaimnsu ; anata no wa furU is your old gozaimasu. Ano Into no de wa ikemasenu: his with can go not jihun no de nakute wa ki ni own without mind irimasenu. enter not Watakushi no wo o kashi mine (hon.) lend mushimasu kara, go (humble word) became (hon.) yenrio nakn ceremony without ^'^ Anata gata no wa hitotsu ka your (plural) one or futatsu ^ arimashita. two there were Are no wo itadaite mo his having accepted even yoroshiti gozarimasU ka ? good is it ? THE PRONOUN. Yes, it is mine. I mistook it for mine. 17 Mine is new ; yours is old. His won't do but my own. I don't like any I will lend you mine, so please don't hesitate (to use it.) There were one or two of yours. May I accept his ? Taihcn tamatta Great change collected na ! Kono uchi ontaye no (exclam.) This among yours wa iktitsu bakari am ? how many amount are Temaye no wa sukoshi hoka I little other wa gozarimasevil. are not What a tremendous lot have been collected ! How many of these are yours ? Mine are only a few. J ^ NT ^l^\ c o 14 c - 1^ « ^ > ^ is; ^ "^ ^ o o Uv > »— I O O (J J o o o o o o C ' rt c o Wi I- rj O ;; ro o c o ^ Si "Ot ^3 "^ 5 c « OS 7- IK • • • c o c D O ;? O a H O pa r^ CO e/75 CO CI. •id m H c o CO Wl V cu c o w CU c H CT O .^ O C \£* O — ' e c e 1-1 c « c '-^ 2 oj 3 •— , Cm rC o c ^ e O w >-i ^1 o c >a ►^ j< K S "o '-J ^ ^ ^ ^ T;q ^ 0) o ^-- ^ ^ o O ,;» o c o -^ o o o o o o !>2 I^S C/2 !/) CO CO i-i 15 o o ^ c ^.^ o rt e ?i x: o SJ 2 « ^ -5 o o o o o o j< L:: tij ;i< j< ;*; c 12 o C ■ a o c/3 o c 15 (A o > > > o c 3 e o o C/2 C/D CO t>2 ? « > O C I^ c a; a S «) Ic Cfl J2 u 3 2 rt •»* *^. "^ o O O to o rt O w •"* • ^H •— t (D -a -^ ciJ rt > C/3 c O £ •7: (U > be - a •4-' > c 2 > O P c: ^ > w in -1-1 • •— ( 1^ ^ Ic 4-> •« I never was so frightened in my life. THE PRONOUN. 21 § 20. Sa or 50 ' that.' Sore, sono. There is the same distinction between sore and sojio that there is between kore and kono. Sore stands alone, sono is joined to nouns. The remarks on the words in the first column of the table also apply to the corresponding words in this column and need not be repeated here. Examples of sorej sono etc. Sore wa kinodoku na koto de That is a sad thing, that sad thing gozaimasu. is Doko de sono kura wo o kai Where did you buy that where that saddle buy saddle ' nasatta ? did Sonnara{ior sorenara) yoroshl . In that case it is all right, ifitbethat it is good Sore ja (for sore de wa) iko. Well then, let us go ! in that case will go Sayo nara ikimashd. Well then ! let us go ! thus if it be will go (more polite than last). Sore ya kore ya de o ukagal I called on you partly for that, that or this or for (hon.) call partly for this. niushita no dcsu. (humble word, pasttense)is So to mo ! So to mo ! Yes ! Yes ! so that even Sonna {for sore naru) mokuteki If that is your object the best that kind of object pi^n is to give it up. jiara yoshita ho ga ii. if it is have given up side is better ' Sore wa so to. Let that be so — i.e. to change that thus the subject. Sltlte^ * having made,' is understood at the end of the last sentence. 22 THE PRONOUN. Shd sho sokora (or sokoira) de a little thereabouts matte ore. waiting remain Yo no naka no koto wa mina world mterior thing all sonna mono sa. such thing (emph. part.) So da so vo. that is appearance Sore 111 sono toki hajimete that to that time tirst hontu no koto wo shitta. true thing learnt Anata wa so osshaimasu you so say keredomo but Sonnani o anji nasarn so much (hon.) anxious do koto wa gozahnascnv. thing there is not Sahodo no koto de wa arn- somuch of thing (pred.) will mai to omotta. not be thought Sa mo nakercha so even if is not Soshtte (or so slnte) tsnide thus having done opportunity ni mikan wo sukoshl kattc at orange a little bought kite kndasaimasenu ka? come give (neg.) ? At wa itasanakatta so desii. meet did not so is Amc ga furl so mo nai. rain fall even is not Ffifn ni natte husband and wife having become irn so na. remain is Wait a little thereabouts. Such is the way of the world. So it would appear. In addition to that, I then for the first time learnt the truth. You say so, Sir, but- There is no reason for your being so anxious. I thought it would not so very much signify. If that is not even so And won't you take the opportunity of buying me a few oranges? It seems they did not meet. It does not seem likely to rain. It seems they have become man and wife. THE PRONOUN. 23 Sora ! (for sore iva) kisha ga There ! the train is starting, there ! the train dcru. is starting Sore hodo arimashlte wa What will you do with all that that quantity being quantity? do sum ? how do . Dare ga so iimashifa? Who said so ? X who so said Soko ga kanjin da. That is the important point, that place important is § 21. A 'that.' Are and sore, ano and sono must not be used indis- criminately. Just as kore may be called the demonstrative pronoun of the first person, sore is the demonstrative pro- noun of the second and are of the third person. Sore, sono refer to something present before the speaker's eyes or to his mind ; are, ano to something a little way off or not in sight. Sore, sojto refer to the immediate subject of con- versation ; are, ano are used when a fresh subject is started. Sono muma for instance means ' that horse ' i.e. * the horse you are riding,' or 'which you have bought,' or 'of which we are speaking ;' a^io muma, ' the horse you rode yesterday,' etc. A710 yo 'that world' means ' the other world.' The phrase ' this that and the other ' is a fair translation of hore, sore, are. Kore, kono are the Italian questo ; sore, sono are cotesto and ano, are are qnello. A Japanese often begins a sentence with an ano which has no meaning whatever and which merely serves to draw the attention of the person addressed. The three words konata (for kono kata) ' this side,' sonata (for sono kata) 'that side,' and anata (for ano kata 'that side ') should when used as pronouns mean respectively (^^ 24 THE PRONOUN. * I,' 'you' and 'he,' 'she' or 'it,' but curiously enough they are all used in the second person, though konata may sometimes stand for 'I.' Aetata for 'you' resembles the German use of sie ' they ' as a pronoun of the second person. Asuko is irregularly formed. The regular form ako is in use in the western dialect. Ay 6 and ahodo are not found ; ano yd, are hodo are used instead. Are wa nan'' da ? that what is Ano daiku wakitaka? that carpenter come ? Examples of are, ano, etc. What is that ? Has that carpenter come ? Ara! (for are wa) mata there again There ! you are at it again. (Did any one ever hear) such bad hajimatta. Anna (for are nam) ianeuae:e ? have begun such htichi no warui koto wo ! mouth bad thing Omaye wa do shite koko How is it you are here ? Eh ! Ah ! you how having done here Is it I ? (the use of ano here ni iru ka ? Ano — watakushi ka ? indicates embarrassment.) are ? Ano — Iked a san. I Bakufu wa ano yd ni Shogunate that manner 7iatte kara. having become after I say ! Mr. Ikeda. Since the fall of the Shogunate. A in hanasJii that way called story mettani kikimasenu. seldom hear wa It is seldom we hear a story of that kind. A in fuzetsu wa ate ni One cannot depend on reports report dependence ^f ^hat sort, naranai. do not become THE PRONOUN. 25 § 22. Ka^ ' that.' The words in this column have the same meaning as the corresponding words in the previous one but they are much less commonly used and only by educated people. They belong properly to the book language. Kano has some- times the meaning ' a certain.' In some phrases kare is still in common use. Kare kore him desu. noon is Examples. It is just about noon. None of your objections, but be off with you. He went on talking as much as to say that he was not go- ing to be beaten. Though people do not make any remarks. Kare kore iwazu to ike. not saying go Nanno (for nani no) kanno (for kare no) to make- be beaten oshimi wo itta. reluctance said HUo wa kare kore to zva people that thi* iwanai kcredomo, not say although Nani ya ka ya. Anything whatever. § 23. Da^ *who'. Dare^ * who,' is the only word in this column, the places of the others being supplied by the derivatives ol do 'which.' Who is it ? who goes there ? Dare da ? is Dare no mdsen ? Dare ni kane wo yatta ? to money gave Dare ga so iimashUa ? who so said Dare ka who tara. I thought to omot- /sign of indiA while \rect clause. / Whose blanket ? To whom did he give the money ? Who said so ? I wondered who it was. 26 THE PRONOUN. § 24. Do, 'which.' DorCy 'which.' An old form of dore is idziire which is still in use in the sense ' at all events,' ' at any rate.' It is here put short for idznre ni mo, lit. * in whichever (case).' Donata, (for do7io kata, ' which side '), is used as a polite substitute for dare, ' who.' A still more respectful phrase is donata sama. From do, 'how,' are formed dozo, * somehow or other,' doka, * somehow,' both of which words have nearly the force of our * please.' <. \ Examples Dore wa yoroshiu gozari- which good is masu? Dono ftine? i^y Dono gnrai yoroshiu gozari- what quantity good masii ? IS Duka o negai somehow (hon.) beg moshimasu. (humble word.) Do in hanashi de how called talk (predicate) gozarimasii ka ? Donata dc gozaimasu? who is Donnani ureshi ka shirema- how much joyful ? cannot sen it. know Do shiyo ? how shall do Dore ! dore ! kore desu ka? which which this is ? of dore, etc. Which do you prefer ? Which ship ? How much do you require ? Please do, I beg of you. What is it all about ? Who is there ? (polite.) I cannot tell you how de- lighted I am. What shall I do? Let me see ! let ms see ! is it this one ? • THE PRONOUN. 27 Doann yosn ka to Wondering what the state of state of affairs ? affairs was. omotte. thinking Ima kokoro-atari wa nai ga, At present I have nobody in now mind hit is not ^j^^ ^ut at all events I will idzure tadzuncte^ mimasho. j^^ke inquiries, having inquired will see Du nasa'unasu ? What do you propose to do ? how do Do ka nasaimashtta ka ? Is anything the matter with you ? somehow have done ? Sono shogun wa Napoleon Which is the stronger — that that general general or Napoleon? to dochi ga tsuyu gozaitnasu ? and which strong is Do kangaycte mo. No matter how I think how having thought even over it. § 25. ATrt, 'what.' Nani, 'what,' is used of inanimate objects only. There is no adjective form. Nani no, usually contracted into 7ia7t- no or dono, is used instead. Naze, * why,' is for na-zo-ye, zo being an emphatic and j'^ an exclamatory particle. See Chap. X. Nanihodo, contracted into nambo, is used by the Japanese of the central and western provinces instead of the familiar ikiira, * how much,' of Tokio. Examples of nani etc. Nanda (for nani de am) ? What is it ? or what is the matter ? Kono mono wa nanda ? What is this thing ? this thing what is Sono gunkan wa nan^ What is that man-of-war that man-of-war what called ? to iu ? called 28 THE PRONOUN. Nani shi ni kita ? what do to have come \ What have you come to do ? what has brought you here ? Nan'i ? stigtini niuma wo hii- What (nonsense)! lead the horse what at once horse having here at once. te koi. led come Nannara (for nani nareha) because it is what watakushi mo hima dcsu kara, I leisure is because o tamo wo itashitc- (hon.) accompany having done mo yoroshiu gozaimasu, ka ? even good is ? Nani shiro issho what do(imperative) together 111 iki nasal. go (polite imperative) Bimbo da nan^io in kokoro Well then ! as I have nothing to do, have you any objections to my accompanying you ? Suppose you go along with me. Putting away the feeling that I poor what called heart yvas poor or anything of that sort. wo haishttc. giving up Yubin-bato ni shi-komu to ka post-pigeon as train that ? nani to ka itte. something that ? saying Nanno go yd desii ka ? what (hon.) business is ? Nani to ka shiyo wa art- do manner will masumai ka not be ? Naze hayaku konai ? why quickly not come Naze to iyeba. why if say Saying he was training it as a carrier pigeon or something of that sort. What is your business ? Is there nothing which can be done ? Why don't you come quickly ? To explain the reason why. Nani, in the combination nau'desU * what is it ' and similar phrases, is constantly introduced by some speakers in a meaningless way, something like our * don't you know.' THE PRONOUN. 29 § 26. Indefinite Pronouns. — By the addition of the particles ka^ mo, demo, zo, interrogative pronouns become indefinite pronouns. Dare ka, ' somebody.' Example. Dare kashttanl matte oru. Somebody is waiting below, below waiting remains Dare mo, 'anybody,' is generally used with a negative verb. Examples. Dare mo shiranu. Nobody knows. "T Dare ye mo iwanai You don't tell anybody. •^ to even not say (imperative.) yo. (emph. part.) Dare de mo means * any one whatever.' Example. Dare de mo yoroshiu gozari- Anybody whatever will do. good is masil, Dore mo, * any one,' dore de wo, * any one whatever,' are used in a similar way to da7'e mo and dare de mo. Nani ka, ' something,' anything.' Examples. Kono hako no naka ni nani Is there anything in this box ? box inside ka haittc iru ka ? having entered is ? Kojikininanikao yarinasarc. Give something to the beggar, beggar to give do Nani mo, ' anything at all,' is used with negative verbs. 30 THE PRONOUN. Example. Nani mo gozarimasenu. There is nothing at all. Nani de mo, * anything whatever.' m Examples. Kono musume wa nani de mo This girl eats anything , , ^^"^ whatever. taberu, eats Nani de mo shitte iru. He knows every thing. Nani zo, usually contracted into nanzo, ' something or another,' ' any.' Example. Nanzo omoshiroi shimbun go- Have you not some diverting diverting news news to tell me ? zarimasenu ka ? is not In the same way interrogative adverbs may become in- definite, as doko ' where,' dokka (for doko ka) * some- where,' dokodemo ' anywhere.' Example. Doko ka de mita yo ni I think I have seen (him) seen manner somewhere. omotmasu. think §27. Reflexive Pronouns. — jfibun, ^ seU,' jibun 710, * one's own,' is the commonest reflexive pronoun in the Japanese spoken language. It is sometimes replaced by jishin or onore. Waga means ' one's own ' in the phrases tvaga ko, ' one's own child,' waga kiodai, ' one's own brothers and sisters,' waga kimiy 'one's own country,' and perhaps some others. THE PRONOUN. 31 yibiin de dekinai hara can't because Examples oijibnn etc. Because I can't do it by my- self, help me please. tetsudatte kudasare. lending hand give yibtin ga warm. himself is bad Tegami wa yd ni tatanai ; letter use stands not talk to the man himself. jishin ni itte o hanashi nasarc. going speak do It is his own fault. A letter is of no use ; go and speak Go jibtin no toki (hon.) own time yoroshiu gozarimasu. good it is de at It will do at your own time. Yokci na o sewa da I don't want your assistance ; needless (hon.) trouble it is brush the flies from your own head. jibun no atama no hai wo oyc. own head flies drive off Samukiite,jibu7t no te da ka being cold own hand is ? nan''da ka wakaranu. what is ? is not clear It is so cold, I don't know whether they are my own hands or what they are. yibtin no inochi wo siitefe, Throwing away his own life, life abandoning he aided others. hito wo tasukemashita. aided Observe the force of hito in this sentence. For * each other,' ' one another,' Japanese use the adverb tagai ni which means * mutually.' Examples. Tagai ni mite orimashlta. They looked at one another. Tagai ni tasukeru. They assist each other. § 28. Relative Pronouns — The Japanese language has no relative pronouns. To express the same idea, the verb of the relative clause is put before the v^^ord to which the relative pronoun refers. In the case of "passive verbs a 32 THE PRONOUN. similar construction is found in English. Thus, for ' the man who was murdered,' we may say, *the murdered man,' which corresponds exactly to the Japanese phrase, koro- sareta Into. ^ Examples. Anataga o uri nasattajokisen. The steamer which you sold, sell did steamer Sakujitsu katta hobtme. The sailing vessel which (we) yesterday bought sailing-ship bought yesterday. Hayaku sustimu fune. A ship which sails fast, or a quick advance ship fast sailing ship. ^ Nihon go '^ '■ wakara- A man who does not under- Japan language not ^^^^^ Japanese. «u liHo. understand man Instead oi koroshita Into, 'the man who killed,' korosare- ta hitOf * the man who was killed,' it is possible to say koroshita tokoro no Into, korosareta tokoro no Jilto, tokoro meaning * place,' but this construction can hardly be said to belong to the colloquial language. Such phrases, however, as kiita tokoro 7ii yotte, 'according to what I have heard,' are not unfrequent. § 2g. Other Pronominal words : — i^i^o ' man', i^z^o is used in a similar way to the German man, the French o«, and the English ' one ' or ' people.' It may also mean ' other people.' Examples. Hito wo haka 7U shtte, You should not make fools of people fool to making people. ikenai. cannot go Hfto ga in no ni. According to what people say. say in THE PRONOUN. 33 Hito no kodotno. Other people's children, children Mina, ' all,' is used either alone or after a noun. Mina karcta. They have all withered. Ki ga mina kareta. The trees have all withered. Mina de ikutsu ? How many in all ? Mina san yoku irasshai- You are .all welcome, Gentle- all Mr. well (hon.)come ^^^ mashiia. (past) Ika (root) * how ' is only found in a few combinations such as ikani or ikaga, ' how,' ikahodoj 'how much.' Iku, 'what number,' appears in the following combina- tions — ikutsu, ' how many,' ikiira^ ' how much,' ikumaiy ' how many flat objects,' ikuhojij * how many cylindrical objects,' ikuka, ' how many days, ikutari or ikunin, ' how many men,' and other similar phrases. ItsUf 'when,' is found alone and in the combinations itsiizo, ' at some time or another,' itsuka, ' on some day or another,' itstc mo or itsu demo, *at any time at all,' * always.' Rio-ho, lit. 'both sides,' is used for 'both,' hut docJiira mo is commoner. CHAPTER V. NUMERALS. § 30. The Japanese language has two series of numerals, one consisting of original Japanese words, the other borrowed from the Chinese. The Japanese series extends no further than the number ten, after which Chinese numerals only are used. List of Numerals : — . JAPANESE. CHINESE. I Hitotsu. Ichi, 2 Fhtatsu. Nu 3 Mitsn. Safi. 4 Yotsii. Shi, 1 5 Itsutsii. Go. 6 M tits 11, Roku. 7 Nanatsu, S hie hi. m 8 YatsH. Hachi, 9 Kokonotsu, Ku, 10 To. yiu. . II yiu ichi. 12 yin ni. 20 Ni jiu. 21 Ni jin ichi. 30 s San jiu. 100 Hiakii. 200 Ni hiakii. 300 Sam biaku. 600 • Rop piaku. 800 Hap piaku. 1,000 Sen. 10,000 Man, NUMERALS. 3^ Larger numbers are expressed by multiples of tnan, Ex. 1^0,000, jiu go man; a miWion, Iiiakic itian. Consecu- tive numerals follow the same order as in English. Ex. 1868. seji hap piakii rokujiu hachi. Rio * both ' is sometimes used instead oi ni 'two' as in the phrase rid san niuy ' two or three persons.' Na7ia jiu is sometimes used instead of shichi jiti^ * seventy,' in such phrases as nana jisscn ' seventy cents.' § 31. The following rules are to be observed in the use of numerals : — 1. The only cases in which the Chinese numerals under eleven are employed are alone or before un- compounded or monosyllabic nouns of Chinese origin. Ex. yiu go kin^ ' fifteen catties ; ' rokn nin, * six men;' hap piakn (for hachi hiakii), 'eight hundred.' The letter changes which take place will be best understood from the numerous examples in § 32 and elsewhere. 2. The Japanese numerals when prefixed to nouns of Japanese origin lose the final syllable isu. Tsu is really an old possessive particle. Examples. FUta hako. Two boxes. Mi tsutsumi. Three parcels. Yo hiro. Four fathoms. 3. The possessive particle no is sometimes introduced between the numeral and the noun. Ex. Futatsii no mono, ' two things.' 4. The numeral is very often placed after the noun. 36 NUMERALS. Examples. Yama futatsii. Two mountains. Mikan yotsii. Four oranges. 5. The numeral may stand by itself. Example. Ikntsu am ? How many are there ? jfiu ichi gozarimasu. There are eleven. §32. Auxiliary Numerals. — It is comparatively seldom that the numeral is joined immediately to the noun. What may be called Auxiliary Numerals are much in use. They correspond to the English phrases, ' six head of cattle,' ^foiir brace of partridges,' * two pair of shoes.' Examples. Kami ichimai. One sheet of paper. Hakimono issoku (for ichi sohti). One pair of shoes. Akindo jiu ichi nin. Eleven merchants [lit. mer- chants — eleven men). Most of these auxiliary numerals are of Chinese origin, and fall under Rule i of the preceding section. A few are Japanese words, and fall under Rule 2 as kui-a Into tomaiy *one godown.' They are commonly placed after the noun, but a construction similar to that described in Rule 3 is also admissible. Ex. Sannin no akindo, * three merchants.' These numerals are in daily use, and a knowledge of some of them is absolutely necessary. NUMERALS. 57 The most common are : — FOR ANIMALS. FOR MEN. FOR BIRDS. HUH. Ni7i. Wa. I. Ip piki. Ichi nin or hltori. Ichi wa. 2. Ni hiki. Ni nin or fiitari. Ni wa. 3- Sam biki. San 7iin. Sam ba. 4- SJii hiki. Yottari ov yo''' nin. Shi wa. 5- Go hiki. Go nin. Go iva. 6. Rop piki. Rokn 7iin. Rokn wa. 7- Shichi hiki. Shichi niti. Shichi wa. 8. Hachi hiki. Hachi nin. Hachi wa. 9- Ku hiki. Ku nin. Ku wa. 10. jfip piki. yiu nin. yip pa. S'C. S--C. S'C. FOR LONG AND ROUND ARTICLES, SUCH AS BOTTLES, PENCILS, TREES, ETC. Hon.' I. Ip pon. 2. Ni hon. 3. Sam bon. 4. Shi hon. 5. Go hoti. 6. Rop pon. y. Shichi hon. 8. Hachi hon, 9. Ku hon. 10. yip pon. S^c. FOR BROAD FLAT OBJECTS, SUCH AS DOLLARS, SHEETS OF PAPER, CLOTHING, ETC. Mai, I. Ichi mai. 2. Ni mat, 3. Sa7n mai. 4. Yo rnai, 5. Go mai. 6. Rokn mai. 7. Shichi mai 8. Hachi mai, g. Ku mai. 10. yiu mai. S'C, * Shi is avoided in many combinations because it also means ' death,' a word of ill omen, and the Japanese numeral yo used instead before Chinese vvordsi FOR HOUSES. FOR SHIPS. GLASSES OF WINE, SHOES. CUPS OF TEA, ETC. Ke7i, So, Hai. Soku. I. Ik ken. Is so. Ip pai. Is soku. 2. Ni ken. Ni so. Ni hai. Ni soku. 3. San gen. San z6. Sam hai. San zoku. 4. Shi ken. Shi so. Shi hai. Shi soku. 5. Go ken. Go so. Go hai. Go soku. 6. Rok ken. Roku so. Roku hai. Roku soku. 7. Shlchl ken. Shichi so. Shichi hai. Shichi soku. 8. Hachi ken. Hachi so. Hachi hai. Hachi soku. g. A'm /v'(?;i. Ku so. Ku hai. Ku soku. 10. yi^ ^^«. jfis so. yip pai. Jis soku. II. jfiuik ken. S'C, S'C. S'C, FOR JINRIKISHA AND KAGO, Cho ' or Dai. It cho Ichi dai. Ni cho Ni dai. San cho San dai. Shi cho Yo dai. Go cho Go dai. Roku cho Roku dai. Shichi cho Shichi dai. Hat cho Hachi dai. Ku cho Ku dai. yit cho yiu dai. For carriages the numeral is ichi rid, ni rid etc.; for books (vols.) is satsUy ni satsu, (copies) icJii btc, ni bu etc.; for mats, ichi jo f nijo etc. NUMERALS. 39 § 33. Ordinal Numbers. — The ordinals are formed by prefixing the word dai or affixing ban to the Chinese numerals. I St. Dai ichi or Ichi ban. 2nd. Dai 7ii „ Ni ban. 3rd. Dai san ,, Sam ban, 4th. Dai shi „ Yo ban. 5th. Dai go ,, Go ba7t, &>c. S'C, The ordinals precede the noun, the possessive particle no being introduced between. Examples. Dai ichi no yaku. The first, or highest office. Ni ban no June. The second ship. Dai ichi, ichi ban mean literally ' number one.' Me i often added after ba7t, as 7ii ban me no fnne, 'the second ship.' § 34. Fractions. — Fractional quantities are expressed in the following manner: 21-iooths is hiakn bun no ni jin ichif (lit. of one hundred parts twenty one.) The no is commonly omitted, and bji- substituted for bitJi. Thus for ' one third ' the speaker has a choice between sam bnn no ichi and sa7n bn ichi. When there is no denominator expressed, it is understood that tenths are meant. Examples. Hachi hu. Eight tenths. Shichi bu sam bu ni wake- Divide it into seven tenths having and three tenths. te kure, divided give 40 NUMERALS. One half is han, or ham bun. One third and one fourth are sometimes juiisu, ichi and yotsu ichi. These particular forms have been sanctioned by usage, but as a general rule Japanese and Chinese numerals cannot be combined in this way. §35. Examples of Numerals. t^ fMtl Past Participle . . . ■Past Tense of do , Hypothetical of do Probable Past . . Alternative Form Concessive Past Desiderative Adj. Polite Form .... .f Jo I ^1 1> Negative Base Neg. of Pres. Indie Negative Past . . . Neg. Conditional . Neg. Hypothetical Neg. Concessive . Neg. Participle Hypothetical Neg. Adjective . . . Future ■ -^Kuski-4e, having lent or lending. /Mj (he) lent or has lent. ( Ki^sV\A ^w*.-) ^-^V tarcba, if or when (he) lent, or has lent. taraba, if (he) had lent. taro, (he) probably lent. ■' (^ ^l^f^C,^Ui^',y<'^ tari, at one time lending. ^ tarcdoj though (he) lent. tai, (he) wishes to lend. -masu, (he) lends. 1/ -rr Present Indicative Neg. Imperative Neg. Future Conditional Base . . Imperative Conditional Concessive. Kasa. Kasa 7iu, (he) does not lend. ,, nanda, (he) did not lend. ,, iieba, if (he) does not lend. ,, zu ba, if (he) were not to lend. ,, ncdo, though (he) does not lend. ,, de or zu, not lending. ,, ba, if (he) were to lend. ,, liai, (he) does not lend. Kaso, (he) will lend, f -iCw^^^rCUv i^^uU Kasu, (he) lends. Kasu na, do not lend. ,, mai, (he) will not lend. Kase, Kase, lend. ,, ba, if (he) lend. '„ do, though (he) lend. THE VERB. 45 § 40- CONJUGATION II. Taberu, to eat. Stem Tabe, eat. Past Participle Ta be tc, having eaten or eating. Past Tense , , ta, (he) ate. Conditional of do. . . , , tareba, if or when (he) ate, or has eaten. Hypothetical of do. . . , , taraba, if (he) had eaten. Probable Past , , taro, (he) has probably eaten. Alternative Form.... , , tari, at one time eating. Concessive Past , , taredo, though (he) ate. Desiderative Adj , , tai, (he) wishes to eat. Polite Form , , masu, (he) eats. Imperative , , ro, eat ! Negative Base Tabe. Neg. Pres. Indie Ta be 7m, (he) does not eat. Neg. Past Indie , , iianda, (he) did not eat. Neg. Conditional .... , , ncba, if (he) do not eat. Neg. Hypothetical . . , , zjiba, if (he) were not to eat. Neg. Concessive .... , , nedo, though (he) does not eat. Neg. Participle .... , , de or zu, not eating. Hypothetical , , ba, if (he) were to eat. Neg. Adjective , , nal, (he) does not eat. Neg. Future , , mat, (he) will not eat. Future , , yd, (he) will eat. Present Indicative . . Taberu, (he) eats. Neg. Imperative .... Ta bem na, do not eat. Conditional Base .... Tabere. Conditional Ta bere ba, if (he) eat. Concessive „ do, though (he) eat. 46 . THE VERB. . x- § 41. The following examples show the letter-changes ^ which take place when the stems of verbs of the first conjugation ending in chi, ri, ki, gi, i preceded by a vowel, mi or bi come before the terminations te, ta, tareba, tara, taraba, taro, tari, and taredo. Machi'te becomes matte ^ machita fnatta, etc. Ajci^fe^^ ,, aite. kaite. tsiiide or tstiite, shimatte. omotte. yonde. P Tsugv-te, J Shimai-te J Omai::te^ m Yomi-te a:» Yobi-te yonde. Exception : — Iki-ie [ikii * to go ') becomes itte not iite. § 42. Irregular verbs. K^iru Ho come,' sum *to do' and the polite auxiliary masii are somewhat irregular. Their conjugation is given below. For the future of kiiru, koyo is best, /izjo, which is also used, is not so good. Kd is sometimes heard in the phrase itte ko ka, * having gone shall I come.' Instead oisho, the future oistiru, ' to do,' seyo is sometimes heard, and for the negative future semai, some people say sumai or shitnai. But these forms are less correct than those given in the tables. Masii has no desiderative form. Instead of ihima- shitaif we must say ikito gozaimasil ' I wish to go.' Mase (imperative) is often pronounced mashi by careless speakers. Masuru is more formal, and less common than ffiasu, Masu is not now in use as a separate word, but only combined with other verbs to form polite tenses. THE VERB. 47- § 43- KurUf to come. •. Stem Ki. come. Past Participle Ki te coming or having come. Past Tense „ ta (he) came, or (he) has come. Conditional of do. . . ,, tareba if or when (he) came. Hypothetical of do. ,, taraba if (he) had come. Probable Past ,, taro (he) has probably come. y-t Alternative ,, tari at one time coming. ^ ; although (he) came. •* (he) wishes to come. ^^ *'*' (he) comes. l^*vX- ^ Tfc Concessive of Past. Desiderative Adj. . . Polite Form ,, taredo , . ,, masii ^ Negative Base Ko Neg. of Pres. Indie. Kg nu (he) does not come. Neg. of Past Indie. ,, nanda (he) did not come. Neg. of Conditional. ,, iieba if (he) does not come. Neg. of Hypothet. ,, zuba should (he) not come. Neg. of Concessive. ,, nedo though (he) do not come. Neg. Participle .... ,, de, ZH not coming, or without coming. Hypothetical „ ba should (he) come. Neg. Adjective ,, iiai (he) does not come. Neg. of Future ,, mat (he) will not come. Future Ko or koYo Koi (he) will come, come ! Imperative Present Indicative . . Ktiru (he) comes. Neg. Inoperative . . Kuril na do not come ! Conditional Base . . Knre Conditional Kurc-ba if (he) ccmes. Concessive „ do though (he) comes. 48 THE VERB. § 44- Sum, to do. Stem Shi do. Past Participle Shi te doing or having done. Past Tense M ta (he) did or has done. Conditional of do. .. ,, tareba if or since (he) did. Hypothetical of do. ,, taraha if (he) had done. Probable Past .... ,, taro (he) probably did. Alternative ,, tari at one time doing. Concessive Past . . „ taredo though (he) did. Desiderative Adj. . . ,, tai (he) wishes to do. Polite Form ,, masu (he) does. Imperative „ TO do! Neg. Adjective „ nai (he) does not or will not do. Negative Base .... Se. Neg. of Pres. Indie. Se 11 u (he) does not do. Neg. of Past Indie. ,, nanda (he) did not. Neg. of Conditional. ,, ncba if (he) does not. Neg. of Hypothetical ,, zuba should (he) not do. Neg. of Concessive. ,, ncdo though (he) do not. Neg. Participle „ de or zu not doing, or without doing. Hypothetical „ ba should (he) do. Neg. Future ,, mai (he) will not do. Future Shd (he) will do. Pres. Indicative Sum (he) does. Neg. Imperative . . Sum na do not ! Conditional Base . . Sure Conditional Sure ba if (he) does. Concessive M do though (he) does. THE VERB. 49 §45- Masu, to be. Stem Mas hi be. Past Participle Mashi te being or having been. Past Tense ,, ta (he) was or has been. Conditional of do. . . „ tarcha if or since (he) was. Hypothetical of do. ,, taraha if (he) had been. Probable Past ,, taro (he) probably was. Alternative ,, tari at one time being. Concessive Past . . ,, tarcdo though (he) was. Desiderative Adj. . . Polite Form Wanting Wanting Negative Base Mase Neg. of Pres. Indie. Mase-iiu (he) is not. Neg. of Past Indie. ,, naiida (he) v/as not. Neg. of Conditional. ,, itcba if (he) is not. Neg. of Hypothetical „ ziiba should (he) not be. Neg. of Concessive. ,, ncdo though (he) is not. Neg. Participle „ de OT zu not being. Hypothetical .... „ ba should (he) be. Neg. Adjective Future Wanting Mas ho (he) will be. be! Imperative Mase Present Indicative.. Masu or masuru (he) is. Neg. Imperative . . Masii-iia ! do not be ! Neg. of P'uture ,, mai (he) will not be. Conditional Base .. Masure Conditional Masiirc-ha if (he) is. Concessive „ do though (he) is. 50 THE VERB. § 46. The Stem'-' or Indefinite form. Kashi^ tahe. 1. As will have been seen from the above tables, the stem is used as a base to which some of the terminations are added. 2. The stem is used to form compounds with nouns, adjectives, or other verbs. Kashiya. Kimono. Migurushi. Arigafai. Examples. ' A house to let,' from kashl, stem of kas7t, * to lend,' and ya, ' a house.' ' Clothes,' from ki, stem of kirn, 'to clothe,' and mono, ' a thing.' * Ugly,' from mi, stem of mint, ' to see,' and kurushi, painful, ' dis- tressing.' ' It is difficult to be ' (I am much obliged), from ari, stem of oru, * to be ' and katai, ' hard, ' dif- ficult.' * To beat to death,' from bnchi, stem of biitsu, 'to beat,' and korosu, ' to kill.' ' To finish,' from shi, stem of sum ' to do,' and agent, ' to raise.' Sora wa knmottc imasu The sky is clouded ; it looks sky clouded is Hke rain. kara, fiiri-sona amhai desu. because fall state * The form which in previous editions of this work was termed the Root is now called the Stem or Indefinite Form for reasons which have been very convincingly put by Mr. B. H. Chamberlain in a short paper read before the Asiatic Society of Japan, to which I am indebted for this improvement. It is possible, however, that such stems as kashi are after all really roots, the / not being a termination but merely a sound added in order to comply with the rule that in Japanese every syllable must end with a vowel. Buchikorosn. Shi agent. THE VERB. 51 Yd sumi-shidai ni. business finish order in As soon as my business is finished. Dekl shidai ni okurhnashu. I will send it as soon as it is is made order will send made. Furi-sona (for furi-sd-naru)^ sumi-shidai and deki-shidai in these sentences should be regarded as compounds. 3. The stem is often a noun. Examples. X'. O kamai nasaimasuna. (hon.) care do not O wakari mo (hon.) understanding ariviasumai ga. — will not be but Mu kaycri ni natta. already return has become Naka-naka o kiki-ire middle-middle listen-take-in ga nakatta, was not Kono shina mochi wa yoro- this article hold is shi, good Shimai ni natta. end to has become Mi ni ikimashita. see to went Kai ni kimashita. buy to come Cha wo nomi nagava. tea drink whilst Please don't mind. You will probably not under- stand, but — He has already gone away. He utterly refused to listen to me. This article wears well. It is finished. I went to see. I have come to buy. Whilst drinking tea. Negative tenses are formed by prefixing the stem fol- lowed by the particle wa or mo' to the negative forms of the verbs sunc or itasu, ' to do.' These forms are more emphatic than the corresponding simple tenses of the verb, 52 THE VERB. and are in very common use. Wa in this position is com- monly pronounced ya. % Examples. Kono * minato ni kahiireta Are there no hidden rocks in harbour ^ hidden ^his harbour ? iiva ari wa (or ya) shinai ka ? rock is do not ? Machi wa [ox ya) shimascnu, I won't wait, wait do not Darcmo ori zva itashimascnu. There is nobody here, anyone remain does not Kamai y a shinai, I don't care, care don't Mada ki ya sh'nnasiunai. He can't have come yet. yet come will not do Shhii wa itashimasumai. He will not die. die will not do 4. The Stem is the subject of a rule of Syntax which is very important in the written language, and is occasion- j ally exemplified in the spoken language. Rule, When two or more consecutive clauses of a sentence contain verbs in the same mood and tense, the last verb only takes the distinctive termination of the mood and tense, and all those which precede are put in the stem or indefinite form, so called because it has no mood or tense of its own. In the case of Negative Forms, the indefinite form is the participle in zti. This rule is the counterpart for verbs of the rule given for Adjectives in Chap. VII. Examples. ' Mamc wo niakcba, mame ga If you sow beans, beans grow, beans if sow beans ^nd if you sow hemp seed, hayc, asa no tane wo tnakcba, hemp grows. grow hemp seed if sow asa ga dckiru. hemp becomes. THE VERB. 53 Watakushi 710 ydna bimbo- A poor man like me buys I sort of poor ^^^itn he has money, and does nin wa zeni no ant toki ni wa ^ot buy when he has none. /' man cash is tmie kai, nai toki wa, kawanai. buy not time do not buy TukiO no ho ye idc da to iu There are people who say side go say ^hat he is going to Tokio, and Into mo ari, yappari uchl ni -^ -^ ^j^^ ^^-^ ^^^^ ^^ -^ •„ people are still home at , 00 . , , , ... to stay at home. idc da to mo tn. *■ *■ \ f'l^ also say Mircdomo, miyczn; kikedo- Though they look, they can- though see can't see though ^ot see ; though they listen, they mo kikoycnai. cannot hear, hear cannot hear The Student should not attempt to imitate this con- struction, which is not very common in ordinary conver- sation. Instead of haye^ kai, it is better to say hayeni. ga, kau ga. For ari, areba is better, and for yniyezu, miyenai. § 47. The Past Participle. Kashite, tahete. The termination te of the past participle is really the stem of an obsolete verb tsuru ' to finish.' This ac- counts for its being occasionally like other stems used as a noun, as in the phrase shitte no tori ' as you are aware.' It also follows that such phrases as fnatte ont, * he is waiting,' are really examples of the rule of syntax given in the preceding section, matte being the Indefinite Form. The term Past Participle is not free from objection, as this is by no means the only use of this form. It must sometimes be rendered by the present participle, and it sometimes has no reference to time, but describes the manner of the action of the verb which follows. 54 THE VERB. Examples. Doko yc itte kiia ? Where has he been to ? where having gone has come Mottc kite age- I will. bring it for you. having taken having come I masho. will offer Kami wo kitte moratta. I got my hair cut. hair having cut received Dare ka Yokohama made I want somebody to go to somebody as far as Yokohama for me. itte moraitai. having gone I wish to receive Sono kagaki wo yonde What did he say when he that post-card having read ^^ad that post-card ? nail' to itta ? what said Muma ni wa nottc miro ; hUo Try a horse by riding him; horse riding see man ^^y ^ ^^iu by associating with ni wa sottc miro. him. associating see Ydji ga atte no tagio. A journey on business, business being journey Tattc mo suwattc mo, ncdan It is as cheap sitting as standing sitting price standing. wa onaji koto. same thing O furo ni itte mo May I go to the bath ? bath having gone yoroshiu gozarimasil ka? good is ? Haitte mo daiji It does not matter, even if having entered great thing y^^ ^ome (or go) in. nai. is not Itte shimatta. • He has gone away, having gone has finished Kashi wo tahete shimatta. He has eaten all the cakes, cakes eating has finished THE VERB. 55 Amari tabete wa biuki ni You will become ill if you too much ill g^t too much. nam. become The last example shows that the Past Participle with wa added may be used as equivalent to the Conditional Form in cha. Te wa is in the common Tokio dialect pronounced cha. Te wa has not always the force of the Conditional. Example. Nefe wa imascnu. He is not gone to bed. having lain down remains not Note the difference in meaning between hashite kara, * after lending,' and kashita kara, ' because he lent.' § 48. The Past Tense. Kashita, taheta. The ta of the past tense is a shortened form of tani, which is itself contracted for te-artt, te being the termi- nation of the past participle, and arjc the verb ' to be.' In the written language taru has a perfect significa- tion, the simple past tense being indicated by the particle shi or ki added to the stem. These latter forms are obsolete in the spoken language, where ta is oftener a simple past than a perfect, although the latter use is not unknown. Yokohama ye itta may mean, either ' he went to Yokohama,' or ' he has gone to Yokohama.' If it is desired to bring out the perfect signification dis- tinctly, the past participle with orn or irn is employed, as Yokohama ye itte orn, itte iru or ittenc, * he has gone to Yokohama,' lit. ' having gone to Yokohama he remains.' Like the other tenses of the Indicative Mood, the Past Tense may stand to other words in the relation (i), of a Verb, as ano hito wa kita, 'he came or has come,' (2), 56 THE VERB. \l of an Adjective,'"' as kita IiUo, 'the came man' i.e. 'the man who has come,' or (3), of a Noun, as kita ni soi nai * there is no mistake about .his having come.' # Examples of the Past Tense. I. As a Verb. Kio kita. He came to-day. to-day came *" Do shimashita ? how has done What has happened to him ? The past tense is sometimes used where in EngHsh the present is preferred, as wakarimashita * I understand.' 2. As an Adjective. The money I lent some days ago. The pears I ate this morning. Ko7io aida kashtta kane. this interval lent money Kesa tahemashita naslii. this morning ate pear Kioncn no ftiyu zciatakushino last year winter my tokoro ni kita Mto. place came man Kane -wo tamcta ityc de money collected upon kitni ni kaycru. country returns The man who came to my place in the winter of last year. He is going back to his country after he has amassed some money. The past tense, as an adjective, is frequently followed by the particle 110, Examples. (J-. Nita no yori wa yakcta no I prefer roast to boiled, boiled than roast yoroshin gozarimasu. good is Shinda no ja nai ha ? dead is not ? Is it not a dead one ? hna jibun viaitta no ga Am I wrong to have come at £*"■ now time came this time ? wanii ka ? is bad ? * Cf. § 28 Relative Pronoun. Shimbim no koto newspaper thing kimashUa su desu. \ come it is THE VERB. 57 de It seems ' they have come about the newspaper. y 3. As a Noun. Itta ga yokatta. the having gone was good Maketa the being beaten wa nai. is not ni chigai mistake Tori-otoshita wo mireha, take dropped when saw. Hiroi-totte kiireta pick up having taken gave wa do in hi to de attal how called man was I wish I had gone (* I am glad I went' would be itta no wayokatta). There is no mistake about his having been beaten. When I looked at what he had dropped. What sort of a person was it who picked it up for me ? Takke, a contraction for tari-ke^ni of the written lan- guage, is sometimes employed as a sort of past termina- tion. It is however used only as a verb, and not as an adjective or noun, and generally indicates that the speak- er is in doubt or trying to remember. Examples. Ano otoko wa naii* that man what mdshimashitakkc ? called A ! sayo deshltakke ! ah ! thus it was to What was that man's name ? Ah ! that is how it was ! Chotto ! nan'' to ka iimashi- a little what called takke ; moshi Kane don ka ? suppose ? Don shows that it is a servant who is addressed. I say ! what is this your name is ? Shall I say O Kane ? § 49. The Conditional and the Hypothetical Forms OF THE Past Tense. Kashitarehay tahetareha. Tareba, taraha are for te areha^ te araba. Tareba is commonly still further contracted into tara. 58 t THE VERB. There was originally a distinction between tarcha and taraba, the former relating to an event which has actually happened or is pro- bable, the use of the latter implying that the event has not happen- ed at all, or is put as a mere supposition. But this distinction is now lost and both forms are used indiscriminately, there being a tendency for taraba to fall out of use. Kashitareba may mean not only ' if he lent,' but 'if he" had lent,' ' if he shall have lent,' * since he has lent,' ' when he lent,' 'when he had lent,' * when he shall have lent.' • The compound tense kashita iiara is very generally used in much the same sense as kashitareba, Nara is here for nareba, the Conditional Present oi 7iaru, ' to be.' , UllV^ -^Wll>ai».lWHC4.1 J. H^OV^ilC »^i /H.l./i*', ^ Examples of tareba, taraba^ tara and ta nara. Sore ga ■wakntfarcba, If (or when) we have under- that when have understood gtood that, the rest is easy. ato iva yasui. rest is easy Tokio yc ikitnashlfarcba As soon as I have gone to when I have gone Tokio, I will order some. chumon shhnasho. order will do into a passion. So vioshimashUarcba, mina When I said so, they all flew so when I said all okorimashita. flew into a passion Bcntcn wo tootara kaji ga When I passed Benten . a fire when passed fire broke out. dekimashUa. was made Ittaraba, kayo na koto If he had gone, nothing of if had gone this kind of thing ^.^is kind could have happened. wa dckinai hadzu de not become necessity arimashUa. was * It may be well to repeat here a remark which has been already made, viz., that the Japanese Verb has no person, and that where the pronoun ' he ' is introduced in the English version, any other pronoun would do as well. THE VERB. 59 Kitaraha taihcn da. if should come great change is Shinhnashltareba do siiru ? if died how do Oya ga shinimashitara do parents if died how sh'njiashUard ? would have done Jsshoii kiiarcha yok^atta. together if had come good was O ! dare ka to omottara, oh ! who while I thought Fujita kun ka, Mr. " I wan II not say kanarazu certainly ? to that moshitara, when he said iiimat will not say to that zonjimashita. thought Kowashita nara, naze kowa- broke . if why broke shita to watakushl ni koto- me to explana- wari wo huanal ka? tion not say ? It would be a terrible thing if he came. What would you do, if he died ? If his parents had died, what would he have done ? It would have been well if he had come along with us. Oh ! I wondered who it was. Mr. Fujita? I thought he \vould not tell, when he had once said he would not. If you broke it, why not let me know that you broke it ? § 50. The Probable Past, or Perfect Future. Ka- shitaro, tabetaro. The termination taro of this tense is a contraction for te nro, aro being the future of aric ' to be.' It is little used as a noun or adjective, although theo- retically it might be so employed. Examples. Mo shimai ni nar'nnasM- It is probably (or will be) already finish will have finished by this time. taru. become 6o THE VERB. Do in wake de gozari- how called reason will have mashifard ? been Kima^Haru ka ? Dctaru. Sazo go talkntsit de gozari- surely ennui will have mashitard. been What could have been reason ? the Do you think he has come ? He has probably gone out. You must surely have found the time long. § 51. The Alternative Form. Kashitari, tahetari. The termination tari of this form is a contraction for te ari. A Verb in this form is nearly always accompanied by one or more other verbs in the same form. Examples. Oya ni kokorodzukai kake- He reformed his unfilial con- j^^ parents anxiety hung ^^^^ j„ ^^^^ gj^j^g anxiety to tari, oya wo nakasctari no fii- ^is parents, and now making make weep un- ko wo aratameta. filial conduct reformed them weep. Kono ame ga futtari yandari I don't like this weather, this rain falling stopping ^^^^ j^ jg alternately raining sum tcnki wa ki ni iranai. and leaving off. do weather mind not enter Tenugui ni tsntsnndari tamoto Wrapping up some in his towel wrapping up sleeve ^^^^^^ and putting others into his sleeve. ye iretari shUc. putting in doing jfitsti ni ncgattari kanattari Indeed it is a case of no truly ^ begging granting ^^^^^^ asked for than granted. de gozarimasu. is Anata wa Mto wo koroshUa- you people killing ri zoku wo hataraku kokoro wa robbery work heart arimascnu to. is not if If you have no wish to commit murder or robbery. THE VERB. 6l Midzu wo knndari nani ka Please draw water for me, water drawing something ^nd the like. shite kure. doing give The termination tari onginall}' had no alternative mean- ing, and in some of the above phrases the alternative force is not very evident. § 52. The Concessive Past. Kashitaredo, tabetaredo. This form is not much used, being replaced by kashi- ta to iyedo, lit. ' though one say that (he) lent,' or more commonly still, by kashita keredo. Mo 'even' is often added to all these forms. 'Though' is the correct trans- lation of the concessive terminations but it is usually more convenient to render them in English by placing ' but ' at the beginning of the subsequent clause. Example. Yohodo viaye ni kane wo I lent him money a long much before money time ago, but he has not kashita keredo, inada kaycshi- returned it vet. lent although yet returned masenu. not Kashite mo is also much used with nearly the same meaning, but it is of no special tense, and may be either present, past or future. § 53. Desiderative Adjective. Kashitai^ tabetai. See Chap. VII. § 54. The Polite Form. Kashbnasu, tabemasn. The conjugation of this form is given in § 45. For its use, see Chap. XII. § 55. The Negative Base. Kasa, tabe are not in use as separate words. This form has no meaning by itself. 62 THE VERB. § 56. The Negative Present Indicative. Kasanu, tabenu. The final tt of this form is inaudible, except when very distinct pronunciation is aimed at. The Japanese themselves often omit it in writing the spoken language. Instead of this form, the Tokio dialect generally prefers the Negative Adjective kasanai, tabenai. (See Chap. VII.) Like the other tenses of the Indicative Mood, the Nega- tive Present may be either a verb, an adjective or a noun. (See remarks on the Past Tense.) Examples. 1. As a Verb. Ka}ic ga dckinv, to, ho- If money is not procured, money is not made if all thg^e will be duns coming from bo karakaketori gakurii d''aro. ^|j quarters. sides from dun come will Shiran u. I don't know. Arc kiri (pron. arekkiri) I have never seen him since, that cut off aimasejiu. not meet (The last example shows that this form is sometimes used where we have a past tense.) Sara! warawanu to inoshi- There! have, you not laughed that ! not laugh having ^f^^^ having said you would not ? te, waratta de iva nai ka? said laughed (pred.) is not ? (This example illustrates the principle that in Japanese there are no special forms for indirect narration. If a man says warawaiiU ' I won't laugh * the same \vord warawanti is used in repeating what he said, though in English we change ' will into ' would.' For warawanXi as a future see the section on the Future Form). 2. As an Adjective. Shiranu koto wa gozarima- He certainly knows, not-know thing is senii. not Shiranii koto am mono Don't tell me you don't know, not-know thing existing thing ka? (vulgarly won^a). is? THE VERB. 63 ^ V- (l Dckinu toki wa shikafa not-can-do time do-manner g» 11 at. is not Shiran u hi to. f Yeigo wakaranii English words not-understand stand Eno-lish. hi to. man If it can't be done, there is no help for it. A man whom I don't know, (also, a man who does not know.) A man who does not under- Ichi lien mo tatanii- one year even not-stand uchi ni, within 3. As a Noun. Shirhnascnu de gozaimasu. not-know is Before even a year had passed. Domo shl ya shi nai kara any how do do not because ni genii de mo ii. the not-running-away even is good. O ki ni iranu wo (hon.) mind not-enter o naoshl nasare, mend do I don't know (a very humble ' form of expression used by people of the lower classes to their superiors). You needn't run away. I won't do anything to you. Correct what displeases you (in me). A number of Compound Tenses are formed by adding de aro, de atta, etc., to the Negative Form (or the Neg. Adj.) taken as a noun. Examples. Shiranu d^aro. not-knowing will be Kamawanu d^attaro. not-caring probably was He probably does not know. He probably did not care. § 57. The Negative Past. Kasanajida, tahenanda. This form is usually replaced in the Tokio dialect by kasanakattay tabejiakatta, the predicate form of the negative adjectives 64 THE VERB. [kasanakit tabenakii) combined with the past tense of nr//, ' to be,' the u final being ehded before the a of aru. Kasanii (or kasanai) de atta may also be used to express the same meaning. Examples. Ikimasenanda. I did not go. Sonnani yasuku wa urananda I did not sell it so cheap as that, so cheap did-not-sell (or uranakatta). Hanashi ni tikarete ki ga I was so taken up by the con- talk on floated mind versation that I did not notice it. tsukananda. not-stick A Japanese often uses the negative of the present tense or the negative adjective where the past seems to us more suitable. Thus, in answer to the question, Did you go ? O ide nasatta ka ? the reply will very likely be, Ikimasenii, for * I did not go.' This is particularly true in the case of indirect clauses or where the Negative Past, if used, would be an adjective or a noun. Examples. Chnmon shlta ka senu ka to They were discussing the ques- order did ? do not ? tion of whether it had been order- iu koto wo hanashUe ^^ ^^ ^lot. (Note that the Japanese called thing talking ^ , » . , x^ . prefers the Active to the Passive otta. . remained construction). Kid made itoma wo negawa- Those who have not resigned to-day until leave not- ^^p tju to-day. nai mono. request person From the Negative Past are formed a Negative Past Al- ternative, kasanandari, tahenandarij a Negative Past Conditional, kasanandareha, tahenandareha, a Negative THE VERB. 65 Past Hypothetical, kasanatidaraba, tabenandaraba, a Nega- tive Past Concessive, kasanandaredo, tabenandaredo^ and a Negative Probable Past, kasanandaro, tabenandaro. These forms have not been included in the scheme of con- jugation, as most of them are not ver}^ common, and their formation is very simple. Like other negative forms they are frequently replaced by compound tenses formed with the help of the Negative Adjective. § 58. The Negative Conditional. Kasaneba, tabe- neba. These are the negative forms corresponding to the positive forms kaseba, tnbereba. Example. •^^. Mionichi made tsuknrancba, If he does not make it by to- to-morrow until if not make sorrow I shall order it some- hoka dc atsurayeru, ,^,here else, elsewhere order This part of the verb followed by the negative of naru^ * to become,' gives the force of the English auxiliary verb * must, ' as in the following example : — Mawaraiicha naranu. I must go round, if not go round does not become Te wo araivancha naranu. I must wash my hands, hand if not wash The naranu is sometimes allowed to be understood, as in the following example : — Ikancba. I must go. The Negative Adjective followed by te wa is used in the same way, and is commoner. See Chap. VII. The final ba of the Negative Conditional is often pro- nounced ja. For ' if he does not lend ' one can also say kasanakereba, kasanii kereba, kasanu toki laa, kasanai toki wa, kasanii 66 THH VERB. nara, kasanai nara^ kasaiiu to, kasanai to, kasanakii te wa or kasanai de wa, though some slight distinctions might be drawn in the meaning and appHcation of these phrases. ' § 59. The Negative Hypothetical. Kasazuha^ tahe- zuba. Kasazuba,- tabeziiha are the negatives corresponding to kasaba, tabeba. They have sometimes an m inserted for euphony ,iefore the termination ba. In practice they are cofif5unded with the conditional forms. Examples. Koniiichi ame ga furazuha, I want to go with you to to-day rain if not fail Tsulciji, if it does not rain Tsukijl ye o tomo today, accompanying itashUd gozaimasu. wish-to-do am Shosho kinsti wo tsukawasa- It will be necessary to spend a a little money if not spend little money. zuha nariinasumai. will not become § 60. The Negative Concessive. Kasanedo, tabenedo. Example. Hakodate ye itte mincdo, Though I have not gone to going see not Hakodate and seen for myself, I yohodo samtci yHsu de ^m informed that it is very cold very cold seem gozaunasu. is there. This form is not much used, being ordinarily replaced by the Negative Present or Negative Adjective followed by keredo. For kasanedo, one nearly always hears kasanii keredo or kasanai keredo. § 61. The Negative Participles. Kasade, kasazii, tabede, tabezu. THE VERB. 67 De as a negative termination is commoner in the western dialects than in the Tokio language. The Negative Participle has, like the past participle, the syntax of the Stem or Indefinite Form. As a Stem it is usually a noun. Examples. Negai wo togczu ni shinda. He died without obtaining his wish not obtaining died wish. Munia ni kaiba wo tsukezu He went away without giving horse fodder giving not the horse his food. ni itte shhnatta. having gone finished Hanibun kikazu ni dctnashita. He went out without hearing half not hearing went out half. Kare kore iwazu ni Don't make objections, but that this not saying ^ring it here. totte koi, having taken come Mizu, shirazu A person one has never seen or not seeing not knowing heard of. no mono. person Mnkfj mizu wo sum He is not a man who does opposite not seeing reckless things. hi to de wa nai. man is not Ikazu ni shimaima- He never went after all. without going he finished shita. In the following sentence this form has an adverbial force. Ai-kawarazu tassha de gozai- He is in his usual robust health, unchangingly robust is masu. In the following examples it is a verb. Shoyu wa irezu to yoroshiu You need not put in any sauce sauce not put in if good (sov). gozaimasu. is 68 THE VERB. Sonna koto ivo iwazii to, Don't talk like that, but give such thing not saying Yi\m the money. kanc wo yarc. money give Kasauii de, kasanai de are much used as substitutes for kasazu. As stated above (§ 47), the Neg. Participle in zu may have the force of the Indefinite Form. Example. Hajiine wa gokii shlmbio At first he was an excellent beginning very admirable servant, but he gradually got d'atta ga ; oi oj zUcho ^^^^^ ^nd would not pay the was gradually mcreasmg ... . , .. , , slightest attention to my orders, shite, iitsiikcrn koto wa siikoshi ...... , doing order thing a little ^"^ >" addition he is constantly mo kikazu, sono uye drying to deceive me by telling even not hear that over and lies. uso wo tsuitc oira wo {Kikazu here takes its tense from da at above falsehood telling me the end of the sentence and is therefore azamuku koto tahi tahi da. to be translated as if it were kikanu, deceive thing frequently is. the Neg. Present Indicative.) § 62. Hypothetical Form. Kasaha, tateba. This form is gradually falling out of use. It ought to imply a hj^pothesis or bare supposition, but in speaking it is mostly confounded with the Conditional Form in ba. There are however some locutions where it is still pre- ferred to the Conditional. Example. Alio hito wa iwaba He is, so to speak, an upper that man if one say ^lass society buffoon. joto shakai no taiko-mocJii first class society buffoon de gozaimasu. Other examples of the Hypothetical Form. Ichido iiaraba, mcdziirasJiiku If it were once, there would be one time if it were curious nothing extraordinary about it. mo nai. even is not. THE VERB. 69 Teppo motaba, uchl-korusti If I had a gun, I would shoot gun if had hit kill him. 110 desu. is O rusn naraba hono tcgami wo If he is not at home, bring absent if is this letter b^ick this letter. niotte kayerc. taking come back. The termination ha of this form is identical with the particle wa described in Chapter IX, but it is doubtful whether kasaba may not stand for kasan (the old future) wa or perhaps kasnn ni wa. It will be remembered that ha is wa with the nigori. See §. 4. § 63. The Negative Adjective. Kasajtai, tahenai. This form is conjugated as an Adjective. It is much used in various combinations as a substitute for the negative forms of the verb. See Chap. VII. § 64. The Future. Kaso, taheyo. The formation of the Future presents some difficulty. The written language forms the future of all verbs by adding • « (originally inu''') ' to the negative base, thus, kasan, tahen, dekin. In the spoken language this n be- comes «, which in the first conjugation is contracted with the preceding a into d, thus giving the form kaso. In the same way tahen and dekin ought to become tahyo (e being considered equal to i-\-a), dekiu, and these forms are actually in use in some dialects, but the Tokio language, by a mistaken analogy, has adopted the forms taheyo, dekiyo. The following practical rule for forming the future may be found useful. Rule. — For the first conjugation change 7i of the Present Indicative into d. For the second conjugation add yd to the stem. * It may be conjectured that mti contains the same root as mini, 'to see,' and that the original meaning of kasa-mu or kasan was " lend-seem." yO THE VERB. It is convenient to call kaso the Future and kasu the Present, but in practice the distinction between these forms is less often one of time than that kaso expresses an opinion or a probability (as ' will ' sometimes does in English) and kasu a fact. Kaso may be translated ' he probably lends,' 'I think he lends,' or 'he probably will lend'; kasu is a positive assertion, and may be rendered accord- ing to circumstances 'he lends,' or ' he will lend.' If a Japanese says mionichi mairimasho , it must not be thought that he is promising faithfully to come to-morrow. He has only said ' I shall most probabl}' come to-morrow.' If he intends to give a definite promise, he will say, mionichi mairimasil. These remarks also apply to the Negative Future and Present, kasumai, kasanil. Examples of the Future. 1. As a Noun. This tense is not much used as a noun. Itte miyu J a nai having gone shall see is not Shall we not go and see it ? ka? 2. As an Adjective, kaso does not often occur, the Present Indicative being used instead. Thus for 'the ship which will arrive the day after to-morrow ' we say asatte chaku siiru (not shd)fune. There are however certain phrases where the future is used before nouns. Naro koto naraba. If it can be done, will become thing if it is Shiyu koto ga nai. There is nothing which can be will do thing is not done. Shiro hadzu wa nai. He can't possibly know, will know necessity is not 3. As a Verb. Nan\l ' aro ? What can it be ? what will be THE VERB. 71 Go de mo hajimeyd ka ? Koyo mo shirenu. will come even can't know Sono hinkd wa That conduct karo ga^ — will be but — tadashi- correct Yubin haitatsu nin wo post distribution man utu to shita. strike (fut.) did Konrei no sakadzuki wo sho wedding wine cup do to in tokoro. called place Nagasaki ni honya aru ka ? book shop Arimashu. Gozarimasumai. Hatoba ni kayoi-bime ga aro jetty ferry boat ka? Arimasu to mo. Miunichi sono muma wo to-morrow horse kaimasho. will buy Its74 shuppan shimasho ka ? when sailing will do Mionichi jiu ni ji ni shuppan to-morrow sum. Shall we begin a garrie of go ? He may come for aught I know. His conduct may very likely be Correct but — He made to strike the postman. Just when they were about to exchange the marriage wine-cup. Are there any bookshops in Nagasaki ? I believe there are. I am afraid not. Do you think there are any ferry boats at the jetty ? To be sure there are. I shall probably buy that horse to-morrow. When is she likely to sail ? She sails at twelve o'clock to- morrow. § 65. The Present Indicative. Kasu, taberu. The Form which is now used as a Present Indicative had formerly in the case of verbs of the Second Conjugation the force of an Adjective or Noun only, a different form being in use for the Indicative Mood. Taberu (or tabnrn, as it was then pronounced, and still is pronounced in the central and western provinces) could only be used before a noun, as taburu hi to, ' the man who eats,' or as a noun itself in the sense of 72 THE VERB. 'eating.' It* could not mean ' he eats,' to express which there was a distinct form viz. tabu. In the modern spoken language tabu has fallen out of use and' faburu (altered to taberu in Tokio) alone is employed for the Indicative Mood as well as in its other capacities as an Adjective or Noun. I suspect that this change had its origin in the habit which the Japanese are prone to of leaving their sentences unfinished. They perhaps began a sentence by saying kono Into ga taberu wa — ' this man's eating ' — intending to add words indicating that his eating is a fact, but leaving them ultimately unsaid. This becoming a general practice, kono hito ga taberu wa or koio hito ga taberu came to mean ' this man eats.' This explanation is confirmed by the fact that even in the modern colloquial we find such sentences as kono hito ga taberu wa (or wa e, e being a slightly emphatic particle) where the meaning is simply ' this man eats.' It is difficult to see what business the wa has here, if some- thing has not been omitted. In the First Conjugation, the Present Indicative and its Adjective Form have always been identical, so that no change is apparent, but in the Irregular Verbs aru and nam, the Indicatives of which were originally ari and nar'i, and in Adjectives, a similar alteration has taken place. An interesting consequence of this change is that ga, which in the older language was a possessive particle only, has in the modern colloquial become the sign of the nominative case. If taberu in the sentence ^o«o /n'^o g a taberu no longer means 'eating' but 'eats,' it follows of necessity that ga must also change its signification and that kono hito ga will mean not ' this man's,' but ' this man.' Examples of the Present Indicative. I. As a Noun. Damatte oru ga i. You had better hold your silent remaining is good tono-ue Iku 111 chigai nai. There is no mistake about his going mistake is not going. Iku yori wa ikanai It is better not to go than to going than not going ^^^ ho ga yoroshi. side is good Shinjiru to shinjinai to A man is at liberty to believe or believing not believing ^^^ ^^ believe. wa hito no jiyfi dcsu. man liberty is , So sum fii. In doing so. doing THE VERB. 73 Sore wo miru ni. that In looking at it. seeing Remember that iii after the stem means ' in order to ' as — What have you come to do ? Naiii ski what do ni kit a ? to have come Kasa wo kari ni umbrella borrow mairimashita. have come 2. As an Adjective. Sankci snru hUo come-worship do man ga di. are many Tahcrii mono ga nai. eat thing is not So sum hi ni wa. so do day on Motoyori hiki-oi ga hara- of course liabilities not warcnai toki wa tsuburcru no can pay time smash up wa mochiron no koto desu. of course thing is Mionichi yo-akc ni shut- I have come to borrow an umbrella. The people who come to wor- ship are many. I have got nothing to eat. On the day you do that. If you do that. It is a matter of course when a man can't pay his debts that he should smash up. You must make everything to-morrow day break at start- ^^^^^ ^eady so as to start at day- tatsit sum ydni chanto ing do manner in perfectly shitaku wo shinaku cha preparation if not make ikcnai. does not do break tomorrow. 3. As a Verb. soto de matsu. outside waits Dare ka somebody Ka ga taisd oru. musquito many abide Konnichi nara (for nareba), to-day Somebody is waiting outside. There are a great many mus- quitoes. If today, it is in time. tna m an. space meets 74 THE VERB. Yd ga arcba, te wo tatahu. If I have anything for you to business if is hands strike ^o, I will clap my hands. (Observe that the present is used here, not the future, there being no doubt.) yiu ri^ nam, kuwazti ni If it were ten ri, I could (or ten if it were not eating would) go even without- eating, de mo ikti ga, hiaku ri desu ^^t as it is lOO ri could (or even ,-,> loo is would) go kara— because Konnichi o taku ye agarn I would go to your house to- to-day (hon.) house to go up day, but as I have a bad leg,— no desu ga, ashi ga itamimashi- /j ^m afraid I shall not be able is leg being pain- ^^ tc, (ikarcmasumai). ful (shall not be able to go) § 66. The Negative Imperative. Kasima, taheruna. » Examples. Ikuna ! Don't go ! Shuchi surmia ! Don't consent 1 Sore wo taheruna ! Don't eat that. § 67. The Negative Future. Kasiwiai, tahemai. The termination mai of this tense is attached to the Present Indicative in the First, and to the Negative Base in the Second conjugation. The Negative Adjective followed by aro^ future of aru, * to be,' is sometimes used for this form as, shira^iak'aro, * he probably does not know,' for shiranai. xShiranii daro, shiraiiai daro have also the same meaning. For the true meaning of the Future see §. 64. Examples of Negative Future. I't be better by to- Miunichl made naorima- He V tomorrow till recover morrow. sumai. will not THE VERB. 75 Hi tori de dckimai. alone will not be able Arumai. Mcshl wo tabcmai. rice will not eat Alone he will not be able. I don't think there are any. He is not likely to eat rice. It is possible he may recover Ashrtaniino naornmal mono . tomorrow not recover thing ^^^^ tomorrow. dc mo not. even is not § 68. The Imperative Mood. Kase, tahcro. The Conditional Base is not in use as a separate word, except in the First Conjugation, where it coincides with the Imperative. In the Second Conjugation ro, or in the western dialect yo, is added to the root in order to form the Imperative. Instead of the bare Imperative, which is a very rough style of address, it is generally preferable to use some of the minor honorifics, even when addressing servants. Instead of to wo shimerOy it is better to say to wo slmnete, to wo shimete o kure or to wo shime na (for shime nasare). Achi ike ! there go To wo shimero ! door shut Kotio hako wo akcro ! this box open Waki yc yore! side approach Shlta ni iro ! down remain Ten no bachi heaven punishment akiramcro. make up your mind Examples. Get away ! Shut the door ! Empty this box. Open this box. Go to one side I Squat down (as was formerly done by Japanese when a man of rank was passing). da to Make up your mind that it is a ^^ punishment from heaven. 76 THE VERB. Nam 111 shiro, wand koto what make bad thing da. ■ it is Anyhow it is a bad business. Shikkari shiro, firmly do Bear up ! (to a sick person) steady ! Osok''are hayak''are koin ni He will be arrested sooner or be it late be it early arrest later. narimashd. will become ^ § 6g. The Conditional Form. Kaseba, tabereba. Properly speaking there is the same distinction between this form and the Hypothetical Form kaseba, tabeba, that there is between the forms in tareba and taraba, i.e., the former denotes a condition either realized, or looked upon as likely to be so, while the forms in aba represent a mere hypothesis. But this distinction is almost wholly neglected in practice, and the forms in eba and aba are used indis- criminately. All the hypothetical forms, however, seem to be gradually falling out of use and are not much employed except in particular phrases. A distinction between these forms is always observed by correct writers. Nareba, the conditional of warw * to be ', is nearly always contracted into nara. Asuko ye ikcha, there to if go komarii koto nashi. trouble thing is not Examples of Conditional Forms. If I go there, I shall have no annoyance all my life. issho one life Warui koto bad thing muktil ga afu. reward is • snrcha, warui if do bad Moscba kayctte go if tell on the contrary (hon.) kiiro wo kakeyd to omotta. anxiety hang thought If you do evil, there is an evil reward. I thought that if I were to tell you, I should on the contrary cause you anxiety. THE VERB. 77 Areba it to omottc. Hoping (not a confident hope) if there are is good thinking th^^e might be some. Dorobu to ka nan^ to ka While he would have been thief ? something ? justified in calling him a thief, iyeba yoi noiii, ^^ th^ ^1,^. if say IS good while § 70. The Concessive Form. Kasedo, tahedo. This Form is mostly superseded by the Present Indicative followed by keredo or, more rarely, by to iyedo. Both these expressions may be used with any tense of the Indicative Mood, thus producing a series of Concessive Tenses. They may also be added to adjectives. Keredo is the Concessive Form of kern, which is probably the perfect tense of kuni 'to come,' and iyedo, the Concessive Form of in, * to say,, so that to iyedo means literally * though one say that.' Moj 'even,' is frequently added to all the Concessive Forms. Examples. Tcnki naredo samid. Though fine, it is cold., weather though it is is cold Ktisuri wo nomcdo na- He will not recover, even medicine though drink not though he do (or does) take medi- oranai, cine, recovers Tunin wa sayd The man himself may very person in question thus nkgiy have said so, but I can mushtta de mo arimasho hardly believe it. said even will be kcredomo, sore wa dumo although that somehow chito siiinjiraremasenu. a little cannot believe I inquired, but there was none. Tadzunemashlta inquired kcredomo, although gozaimasenu. is not Kite iru to having come 1 remains iycdomo. though Although he has come. ^8 THE VERB. In speaking Japanese, the student should not use the Concessive Form standing by itself or the Form with to iyedo. They occur so seldom that Mr. Satow's Kwaiwa Hen^ I believe, does not contain a single example of them. The Indicative Mood (or Attributive form of Adjectives) followed by keredo or keredomo is better, or he may use the past participle followed by tno {Jia shite mo), or the adverbial form of the adjective followed by temo {osoku temo). DERIVATIVE VERBS. § 71. Transitive and Intransitive verbs. In English, there are seldom distinct words or forms for the transitive and intransitive applications of the same verbal root. Thus the words ride, sinky breaks bend and many others are either transitive or intransitive according to circumstances. In such cases, the Japanese language has usually two distinct verbs containing the same root. No rule can be given for forming transitive or intransitive verbs, but some of the more common modes of doing so are exemplified below : — Intransitive. Transitive. Tatsu (ist. Conj.), to Tateru (2nd. Conj.), to stand. set up. Siisunm (ist. (Conj.), Susumeru (2nd. Conj.), to to advance. encourage. Yatnu (ist. Conj.), to Yarneru (2nd. Conj.), to cease. cease. Iru (ist Conj.), to Irem (2nd. Conj.), to enter. put i^,, Sagaru (ist Conj.), Sagerii (2nd. Conj.), to to come down. let down. THE VERB. 79 IVahi (ist. Conj.), to boil. Chirii (ist Conj.), to scatter. Neru (2nd. Conj.), to sleep. Oririi (2nd. Conj.), to descend. DeriL (2nd. Conj.), to go out. Wakasii (ist Conj.), to make boil. Chirasii (ist. Conj.), to scatter. Nekasrc (ist. Conj.), to put to sleep. Orosu (ist. Conj.), to lower. Dasii (ist. Conj.), to put out. The Intransitive Verbs illustrated in the following ex- amples form a separate class. They have usually a potential force, but must not be confounded with the passive forms of the same verbs. Kireni (2nd. Conj.), to be discontinuous. Ureru (2nd. Conj.), to be saleable, to sell. Miyeric (2nd. Conj.), to be visible, to be able to see. Kikoyeru (2nd. Conj.), to be audible, to be able hear, to hear. Ikerii (2nd. Conj.), to be able to 2:0. Kim (ist. Conj.), to cut. Uru (ist. Conj.), to sell. Mini (2nd Conj.), to see. Kiku (ist. Conj.), to ar. Ikii (ist Conj.), to go. The French se couper, se vendre correspond pretty ac- curately to kireru, iireni. The example ikcru shows that these verbs may be formed from intransitive as well as from transitive verbs. Ikeru is familiar to us in the negative adjective form ikcnai, * it is no go ', * it won't do '. Note that while the termination em may belong either to the transitive or to the intransitive form, verbs ending in su 8o THE VERB. are transitive only. Exception. Dasu in combination is sometimes intransitive, as, a7ne ga furi-dashita^ ' it has come on to rain ', tobi-dashita, ' he rushed out '. In the examples given below, we have pairs of transitive verbs containing the same root. Kam (ist. Conj.), to Z^'asw (ist. Conj.), to lend. borrow. Adzukaru (ist. Conj.), to take charge of. Kiru (2nd. Conj.), to wear. Mine (2nd. Conj.), to see. Adzukeni (2nd. Conj.) to give in charge. KiseriL (2nd. Conj.), to clothe. Miseru (2nd. Conj.), to show. Examples of Transitive Yu hot water ga waita ka ? boiled ? He, ima ivakashimasu de yes now make boil gozaimasu. it is Hara ga tatta. belly arose Umi-tate no tamago. lay set up egg Tatenai. cannot stand Bdchan wo nekashUc (see Ch. XII.) having put kara, omayc mo netc to bed after you too having mo yorosh'i, gone to bed even is good Bctsudan hima ga torcru particularly time can take hodo no koto mo arimasumai. amount thing will not be and Intransitive Verbs. Is the hot water ready ? Yes, I am just getting it to boil. He got angry. A new-laid egg. I cannot stand. I do not set up. When you have put young mas- ter to bed, you can go too. There probably won't be any- thing which will occupy any great time. THE VERB. 8l Sekcn ye shircnai Before it becomes known to world to not become known ^j^g world. uchi ni. within Kokoja hanascnai yo. We can't talk here, here cannot talk (emph. part.) Hitori mo hatiascru There is not a single fellow one man even can talk ^^0,^^ talking to. • yatsu zva nai. fellow is not Taisd ni kawari How very much changed you very much (Hon.) change ^^^ \ enough to be unrecognizable nasatta lie I Dashinukc ni if one met you all of a sudden, done abruptly attara, mi-chigaycru gurai if met see can mistake amount da. it is § 72. Causative verbs. Causative verbs are formed by adding sent to the Negative Base of verbs of the first conjugation, as fsukuru * to make ', tsiikuraseru ' to cause to make.' In verbs of the second con- jugation saseni is added to the stem, as taberu * to eat,' tahcsaseni ' to cause to eat.' The causatives of the irregular verbs kiiru and siiru are kosaserii and saseni. All causative verbs belong to the second conjugation. Instead of the causative verbs, such phrases as ikn yo ni surUy * go-manner-make' i.e. * to make him to go,' are much used. The transitive verbs in sii (ist. conj.) and the causatives in sent are constantly confounded, the same person saying for example at one time kikashlte and at another kikasete. 82 THE VERB. Examples of Causative Verbs. Taihen ni o dreadfully (honorific) matase mushita. made to wait (respectful) Muma ni mame wo kuwaseta horse beans made eat ka? Mo ichido hikasete more once having made hear kudasare. give Kono ho ni kega wo sasete this child wound cause sumanai. not finish «/ jfiu ni shlchi hachi wa ten seven eight shuchl itasaseru kokoro de agreement cause heart gozarimasu. is ^ Fusoku nam, motto insufficient if is more torascyo, will make take Honto no okka san ni reality mother awasete kndasatta. having made meet he gave \/ A. Musumc ni muko wo daughter to husband torasete raku wo having made take ease shd to in wake de wa will make called reason nai. B. Watakushi wa do is not I how shite mo having done even torasoiai. do not make take I have kept you waiting an awful time. Did you give the horse his beans ? Please let me hear once more. It won't do to cause any hurt to this child. I have an idea that it is seven or eight chances out of ten that I shall make him consent. If it is not enough, I will give you more. He was kind enough to cause her to meet her real mother. A. My reason for giving my daughter a husband is not that I intend to enjoy my ease. B. I will not allow her to take (a hus- band) on any account. THE verb'. 83 § 73. Passive or Potential Verbs. — Passive or Poten- tial Verbs are formed by adding areru to the present in- dicative form of the active verbs, the final u of which is elided. Thus : — Mirareru, to be seen, is formed from mini, to see. KorosarcrUy to be killed, ,, ,, korosu, to kill. Tadzunerarcru, to be sought, ,, tadzuncru, to seek. The passive forms of the irregular verbs siiriii kuru are serarertCf korareni. The Passive verbs have also a Potential meaning. In the case of Intransitive verbs, this is their ordinary signification* although in such sentences as teisJii ni shinaremashita ' she was died by her husband,' i.e. ' she was separated by death from her husband,' we have something like the pas- sive of an intransitive verb. The Passive Voice is much less used in Japanese than in English. All passive verbs are of the 2nd. conjugation. * By,' after a passive verb, is rendered in Japanese by nL Examples. jfimmin ni kirawareru. He is hated by his subjects, people is hated Sendo ni tasukeraremashita. He was saved by a boatman, boatman was saved Miraremashita ka? Could you see ? Ikareru de aru ka ? Will he be able to go ? Mairaremascnu. I cannot come. Kogoto iwaremashita. He got a scolding, scolding he was said Tanji no korosarcru no wo On witnessing Tanji's murder, being killed mite. having seen 84 THE VERB. Hachijiu yen to iu eighty called taikin wo large money tor ar eta. was taken Kane • wo money to shit a. made torareyo about to be taken kagc Omayc no o you shadow kinsu wo torarcnai. money not taken de by Morawarc ya itashi-masenu. can accept do not jfissal bakarl no otoko no ten year amount male ko ni tc wo hikarcte, child hand being led Shuhci no tame ni kawa no by river fukai tokoro ni ke- deep place , kick otosareta. knocked down A. Sukkari gakwnon wo wholly learning mi-kaglttc shimatta. see-having limited finished B. Hate! umaku well ! sweetly itteru ze ; say remain (emph. part.) gakuvwn ni mi-kagirareta no learning by see-limited d^aro. will be Inn ni te wo kamareta, dog hand was bitten He had taken from him the large sum of eighty j^w. I was nearly losing my money. Thanks to you I was not robbed of my money. I can't accept it. Led by the hand by a boy of about ten years old. He was kicked down by Shohei into a deep part of the river. (No tame ni * on account of ' is also used for • by ' with the passive voice, but it is stifFer and less common). A. I bid adieu to learning com- pletely. , B. Well to be sure ! that is a good one. I think it was a case of learning having bid adieu to you. He got his hand bitten by a dog. He was bitten on the hand by a dog. THE VERB. 85 In the terminations of Transitive, Intransitive, Causative and Passive Verbs, it is easy to distinguish the verbs sunc * to do,' aru 'to be ' and cm * to get.' The termination areru of Passive Verbs is nothing more than am * to be ' and em * to get,' the literal meaning of jnirarem, ' to be seen,' being ' get-be-see.' It is easy to see why the same form may also have a potential signification. § 74. Other Derivative Verbs. Verbs are formed from nouns by adding various termina- tions as : — • YadorUf to lodge, from yado, a lodging. TsukajuUy to grasp, from tsuka, a hilt. Tsunagu, to tie, from tsima^ a rope. Utatc, to sing, from tUay song, poetry. § 75. Many Chinese and other uninflected words (which are really nouns) do duty as verbs with the help of the Japanese verb sur2i * to do.' In most cases of this kind sunt remains a distinct word, as shimpai suru * to be anxious,' hai suru * to abolish,' rioko suru ' to travel,' etc. But with some words stiru in this position suffers a con- siderable change. The 5 takes the nigori, and becomes 7, while the conjugation is assimilated to that of verbs of the second conjugation whose stem ends in i. Thus kiuy a Chinese word which means * prohibition,' forms with suru a verb kinjiru which is not conjugated like suru but like dekiru, § 76. Derivative verbs are formed from adjectives by adding jnu to the stem. These verbs are intransitive, The corresponding transitive verbs add Dieru to the stem. 86 THE VERB. Examples. TakaniUy to become high, takamcni, to make high, from takai, high. Hiromit, to become wide, hiromeru, to spread abroad, from hirui, wide. Fujln no chil wo I think of raising the position woman position of women. takameyd to onion. make high think § 77. The schemes of conjugation given on pp. 44 to 49 are intended to show the formation of the simple moods and tenses of the verb, but there are many compound eX' pressions in use as their equivalents. These are so numerous that it is impossible to give them all, but the following tables, which comprise a selection of the more common, may be useful. The Auxiliary Verbs used in these combinations are treated of in Chapter VIII. It must not be supposed that the forms arranged under the same heading are used altogether indiscriminately. There are distinctions between them, some of which are pointed out in these pages and others will be learnt by practice. THE VERB. 87 §78- CONJUGATION I. Kasii, to lend. INDICATIVE MOOD. Tense Positive Negative Present Kasu Kasanii Kasanai Kasu no desu Kasanai no desu Kasii no da Kasanai no da Kashimasu Kashiniasenu Past KashUa Kasaiiaiida Kasanakatta KasMta no desu Kashita no de nai Kasanakatta no desu Kasanai no deshita ■ Kashimashita Kashimasenanda Kashhnasenu d^atta Perfect or Con- KashUe oru or iru KashUe oranu or inai tinuative* ... Kashlte imasu KashUe imasenu Future ■ Kaso Kasumai Kasu d'aro Kasanai d'aro Kasu no dcsho Kasanai no desho Kashimasho Kashiniasmnai Probable Past. . Kashitaro Kasanandaro Kasanakattard Kashita no dcsho Kasanakatta no deshu KashimashUaro Kashiviasenandaro * See below, § 100. 88 THE VERB. CONDITIONAL MOOD. Tense Positive Negative Present Kaseba Kasaba Kasu to Kasu nara Kasu toki wa Kashite wa Kashimasu to Kasaneba Kasanu kereba Kasazuba Kasanu to Kasanai to Kasanu nara Kasanu toki wa Kasanaku te wa Kashimasenu to Past Kashitara Kashita nara Kashimashttara Kasanandara Kasanakattara Kasananda nara Kasanakatta nara Kashimasenandara Perfect or Con- tinuative .... Kashite iru nara Kashite inai nara CONCESSIVE MOi OD. Tense Positive Negative Present Kasedo Kasu kcredo Kasu to iyedo Kashite mo Kashimasu kcredo Kasancdo Kasanakcredo Kasanu kcredo Kasanai keredo Kasanu to iyedo Kasanu de mo Kashimasenu keredo Past Kashltarcdo Kashita kcredo Kashitcmo Kashimashita keredo Kasanandaredo Kasananda kcredo Kasanakatta keredo Kasanaku tc mo Kashimasenanda kcredo Perfect or Con- tinuative Kashite oru kcredo Kashite inai kcredo Future Kasu to mo Kasanu to mo Kasazu to mo THE VERB. 89 IMPERATIVE MOOD. Positive Negative Kase kashi nasare KashHe hire Kashi na Kasiina kashi nasartina Kashite kureruna Kashi nasanna PARTICIPLE. Positive Negative Kashi te KashimashUe Kasazti Kasazu ni Kasanaku te Kasanai de . Kashimasezu Kashimasezu ni ALTERNATIVE FORM. Positive Kashitari; Negative Kasanandari. DESIDERATIVE ADJECTIVE. Positive Kashltai ; Negative Kashi taku nai. CAUSATIVE VERB. Positive Kasaseru; Negative Kasasenu. PASSIVE OR POTENTIAL VERB. Positive Kasareru ; Negative Kasarenu, POTENTIAL VERB. Positive Kaseru ; Negative Kasenu» 90 THE VERB. §79. CONJUGATION II. Taberu, to eat. INDICATIVE MOOD. Tense Positive Negative Present • Taberu Tabenu, Tabenai Taberu no desu Tabenai no desu. Taberu no da Tabenai no da Tabemasu Tabemasenu Past Tabeta Tabenanda Tabenakatta Tabeta no desu Tabeta no de nai Tabenakatta no desu Tabenai no deshita TabemashUa ' Tabemasenanda Tabemasenu d'atta Perfect or Con- Tabete oru Tabete oranU tinuative* .... Tabcte iru Tabete inai Tabete imasu Tabete imasenu Future Tabcyo Tabemai Taberu d^aro Tabenai d'aro Taberu no desho Tabenai no desho - Tabeniasho TabemasUmai Probable Past .. Tabetard TabenandarO Tabenakattard Tabeta no desho Tabenakatta no desho Tabemashltaro Tabemasenand^aru * Se# below, § 100. THE VERB. 91 CONDITIONAL MOOD. Tense Positive Negative Present Tabereba Tabeneba Tabcnukereba Tabenakcreba Tabeba Tabczu-ba Taberu to Tabenii to Tabcnai to Tabern nara Tabenii nara Taberu toki wa Tabenii toki iva Tabetc wa Tabcnakn te wa Tabcmasii to Tabemasenu, to Past Tabetara Tabenandara Tabenakattara Tabeta nara ■ Tabcnanda nara Tabenakatta nara Tabcmashitara Tabemasenandara Perfect or Con- Tabete iru nara Tabete inai nara tinuative CONCESSIVE M0( 3D. Tense Positive Negative Present Taberedo Tabenedo Tabenakeredo Taberu keredo Tabenukeredo . Tabenai keredo Taberu to iyedo Tabenii to iyedo Tabe te mo Tabenii de mo Tabemasu keredo TabemasenH keredo Past Tabe tar edo Tabeta keredo Tabenandaredo Tabcnanda keredo Tabenakatta keredo Tabe te mo TabenakU te mo Tabe7nashita keredo Tabemasenanda keredo Perfect or Con- Tabete oru keredo Tabete inai keredo tinuative .... Future Taberu to mo Tabenii to mo Tabezu to mo 92 THE VERB. IMPERATIVE MOOD. Positive Negative Tabero tabe* nasare Tabete o kure Tabe na Taberuna. tabe* nasaruna, Tabete kureruna. Tabe nasanna. PARTICIPLE. Positive Negative Tabete TabemashUe Tabezu Tabezu ni TabenakU te Tabenai de Tabemasezu Tabcmasezu ni * O tabe nasare, o tabe nasaruna are not used ; o agari nasare, o agari nasaruna are used instead. They are simply given to show the usual form in other verbs of this conjugation. ALTERNATIVE FORM. Positive Tabetari; Negative Tabenandari. DESIDERATIVE ADJECTIVE. Positive Tabetai; Negative Tabetaku nai. CAUSATIVE VERB. Positive Tabcsaseru; Negative Tabesasenu. PASSIVE OR POTENTIAL VERB. Positive Taberareru; Negative TaberarenU. POTENTIAL VERB. Wanting. CHAPTER VII. THE ADJECTIVE. § 80. The Adjective is conjugated as follows :- HIROI WIDE Stem Hiro Predicate, Adverb or Indefinite Form Hiroku or hiro . Wide Wide ; widely being wide if wide even though wide if it should be wide is not wide was wide will be wide hiroku te hiroku te wa hiroku te mo hiroku ba or hirokumba hiroku nai hirok^atta hirok^aro Attributive and Verbal Form..:.. Hiroi... Wide (before a noun); is wide Conditional Hirokereha If it be wide Concessive Hirokeredo Though it is or be wide Abstract Noun Hirosa Width A comparison of this conjugation with the conjugation of verbs will show that they are essentially identical. The stem of the verb cor- responds to the stem of the adjective, and the Indefinite Form to the Adverbial Form. The Negative Base is not in use in the case of the Adjective, for Negative Forms or for the Future, but the Hypothe- tical Form is hiroku ba where the Adverbial Form stands for the Neg. Base. The Present Indicative of the Verb corresponds to the Verbal Form of the Adjective, and the Conditional and Concessive Forms contain a Conditional Base viz. hirokere. 94 THE ADJECTIVE. § 8i. The Stem. Hiro. The Stem is used in forming compounds. Thus from naga the stem of nagai, * long,' and saki, * a cape,' is derived Nagasaki (the Hteral signification of which is * long cape ') ; from yo the stem o( yoi, ' good,' and sugiru^ ' to exceed,' we have the compound yosjigiru, *to be too good'; ustiguroi * dark-coloured,' is formed from ttsti stem of Usui, ' thin,' and kuroi, ' black.' Hadzuhashi-so na hawo de. With a shamefaced expression shameful appearance face with ^f countenance. Tegaru-so ni iti kcredo. Though he talks in an offhand hand light say although manner. Medzurashi-so ni mite orti. He is looking at it as if it were curious looking is a curious thing. The stem occasionally stands by itself as a noun, as in the phrase makkuro ni natta^ * it has become quite black.' § 82. The Predicate, Adverb or Indefinite Form. Hiroku or hiro. By adding ku to the stem we get the predicate, or form used where the verb * to be ' comes between the adjective and the noun. The same form is also used as an adverb.'-' The contracted form hiro is obtained by dropping the k of hiroku and joining into one syllable the last vowel of the stem and the u of the termination. In this way, hiroku becomes first hiroi'i and then hiro ; hayaku becomes successively hayaii and hayo ; shigeku, ' dense,' loses first its k and becomes shigeii, which is then contracted into shigyo; furuku becomes furu. Adjectives whose adverbial form ends in iku lose the k but suffer no further change. Thus yakajjiashiku, ' noisy,' is contracted into yakania- shiu. * As in German. THE ADJECTIVE. 95 As a predicate, the contracted form is better, but when used as an adverb, the uncontracted form is more usual, especially in the Tokio dialect. Examples. 1. As a Predicate. O hayo. (hon.) early O hay a gozarimasu. (hon.) early are Mada hayo gozarimascnu ka? yet early is not ? Koyio niuma wn gokii tako this horse very dear gozarimasu. is 2. As an Adverb. Hayaku or hayo! Hayaku o ide nasare ! quickly come do Yoku dekita, Shiroku nurimashita, 3. As a Noun. Good morning. Good morning (more polite). Isn't it early yet ? This horse is very dear. Quick! Come quickly. Come early. It is well made. He painted it white. He worked till late. Letting people in general know. Osoku made hataraita. late until worked Oku no hito ni numerous man shirasctc. making known 4. As Indefinite Form. Rule. Whenever in English two or more adjectives are joined by the conjunction * and,' all but the last take in Japanese the adverbial or indefinite form. Compare the rule given for the use of the Indefinite Form of verbs on p. 52. g6 THE ADJECTIVE. Examples. Knmo kurokti, ame hidoi. The clouds are black and the clouds black rain violent ^ain is violent. Kami no he ga ktiroku, me A woman with black hair and head hair black eyes ^^^^ gygg^ ga awoi onna. blue woman Utsuktishiku chisai kodonio. A pretty little child, pretty little child Oya mo nakti kiodai He is a person who has neither parents not brothers or parents nor brothers or sisters. mo nai to iu sisters even not called mono da. person is Dcte kita no wa sono The person who came forth having come out that ^^g apparently the woodcutter's soma no niobo to rniyete, ^jf^^ g^g ^as twenty seven or woodcutter s wife seemmg , , , ... , . , . , , . twenty eight years of age, with toshi^oro wa nijiH shichi hacht . age twenty seven eight ^^^^ complexion and a straight de, iro shiroku, hana suji "ose, and was a style of woman complexion white nose line not often found in mountain huts. tori, yamaga ni wa was thorough mountain huts mare na onna de gozaimasu. rare woman is The last sentence shows that in this construction the adverbial forms of adjectives (shiroku) and the stems of verbs (tori) are given the same syntactical value. In ordinary conversation some other construction is generally preferred. § 83. Adverb with te. Hirokit te, . Te in this combination may be taken as the equivalent of atte, * being.' Examples. Kuraku te miyemascnu. It is so dark I cannot see. dark being cannot see THE ADJECTIVE. 97 Samuku te tamar'wiascnn. It is so cold I cannot endure cold not endure it. Isogashtku te tsui go I have been so busy that I busy casually (hon.) h^ve somehow or another not bnsaia wo itashhnashUa. ^ome to see you. not giving news did Shiroku, te yoroshl. Its being white is an advant- being white is good age. Atsukil te hiroL It is thick and wide. § 84. Adverb with te wa. Hiroku te wa, commonly contracted into hirokiicha. This form is a sort of Conditional Mood. It is in very common use, especially with the Adverbial Form of the Negative Adjective. Examples. Hatsuka yorl osokil te wa I shall be inconvenienced if it 20th than late jg j^ter than the twentieth. komaru. am inconvenienced Usiikucha ikenai. It won't do for it to be too thin does not do thin. Nakucha naranu. I must have it. if not does not become Siigu 111 kawanakucha Some must be bought at once, at once not buying narimascnii. does not do § 84. Adverb with te mo, Hirokii te mo. ' This is a Concessive Form. It belongs to no particular tense. Donnani kitanaku te mo I don't care how dirty it is. how much dirty Jiamaivana'i. don't care Abunaku te mo hamau Who cares even if it is dan- dangerous being even care gerous ? mono ka ? person ? 98 THE ADJECTIVE. Usuku te mo daijdhu desU. It is quite safe, though it is thin safe is thin. § 85. Adverb with ba. Hirokuba or hirokumba, Ba with the Adverb corresponds to the Hypothetical Form of the Verb, and Hke it is not much used. § 86. The Negative of Adjectives is formed with the help of the Negative Adjectives nai * is not,' and the past and future by adding the past and future of am * to be,' to the Adverbial form. Examples. Omoshirok'' atta. It was amusing. Mo osok' aro. It must be late, already late will be Akaku nai no wa iranai. I don't want any that are red not don't want not red. § 87. The Attributive Form. Hiroi. This form may be obtained by adding i to the root. It is really, however, a contraction for an older form in ki, the k being omitted. "'•' This form is used when the adjective immediately pre- cedes the noun. Examples of Attributive Form. Yoi hito. A good man. Warni onna. A bad woman. Atsui kam'i. Thick paper. Awoi kawo. A pale face. Samui koto ! How cold it is ! (lit. the cold thing!). Fukai toki wa fiine de wataru. If it is deep, I shall cross in deep time boat cross ^ boat. * The older form is not quite obsolete. It is retained for example in the proverb tori naki sato no kOmori, ' the bat of No-bird-town,' and in the termination beki. \ Q ^^ A ^ ' V . Tfj£ ADJECTIVE. 99 The particle 7io is often attached to this form of the adjec- ^ ' tive. No has in this position very much the force of the • ' ^ t English indefinite pronoun * one.' It is possibly here a con- + ^ traction for mono * thing.' This derivation would at any ^ v rate suit the meanmg. ^ Js. Examples. ^ j. ^ Yoroshi no wa nai ka ? Have you no good ones ? ' Shiroi no hakari aru. There are only white ones. Kiiroi no wa iktctsu arimasu ? How many black ones are ^ ^ -r, black how many there ? ■ ,» , Akai no hitotsu mo gozarima- I have not a single red one. •" w scnu, tij Kore wa hiakushd no wariii This is not the farmer's fault, farmer bad no de wa nat. V6 Yori-dottc mo il May I have pick and choice ? "^ choose having taken even good o^ no desu ka ? _ y^ ts ? No ni following this form of the adjective may be trans- ^ "" lated * while,' as in the examples :— ^ Sono mama de ii no ni, naze While they were well enough **. \j ^ that state good why ^g ^^ey were, why did you put sji soto ye dashUa? them out of doors ? ,< ^v5^ outside put-out Samnl no ni naze atatakai ki- Why don't you wear warm ^ cold why warm clothes in this cold weather ? ^ ^ mono ki nai ka ? [ • clothes wear not , V This form of the adjective may stand by itself as a noun, ^ as in the following examples : — (sj Sid mo amai mo shiri-nui- He is a man who knows per- sour sweet know passed f^^tly what is what. ^ ta Jato dcsU. \ji through man is 100 THE ADJECTIVE. Nagai mijikai mo iwazu ni Take receipt of the money with- long short not-saying ^^^ making any fuss about it. kanc wo tikciOre. money receive O kayeri nasatta Jw ga yoroshl I think you had better go away, return did side good desho. will be § 88. The Verbal Form. Hiroi. The same form is used for the adjective combined with the substantive verb as for the attributive form. The older and book language has a special form for this, viz. hiroshiy produced by adding shi to the stem."" Examples of the Verbal Form. Amari mutsukashi. It is too difficult. .too is difficult Kawaga asai kara daijubu da. It is quite safe because the river shallow safe river is shallow. Tcnki wa yoroshl* The weather is good. Mitgi wo maitc, komc no If we sow wheat, we never - wheat having sown rice have a crop of rice, and if we dckita koto vio naku; mame wo ^q,^ beans we never have a crop become beans of hemp. maitc, asa no hoyeta koto mo hemp grown thing also nai. is not Warul to wa iwanai. I don't say that it is bad. Osoi to ikenai. It wont do to be late. § 89. The Conditional Form. Hirokereha. i Kereha is often pronounced kereya or keria. * In some phrases the old form is still in use, as shdbu n?shi 'there is no victory-defeat,' 'neither side has won;' kidzukai nashi, * there is no cause for alarm ^ yoshi, yoshi, lit. 'is good, is good,' ' all right — never mind ! ' THE ADJECTIVE. lOI Examples. Miuiiichl tenki ga yoroshi- I will come to-morrow, if the tomorrow weather if weather is good. kcrc'ba, mairimasii. good come Hitori de ii-niknkereba, wata- If you find a difficulty in tell- alone if say difficult I j^g it all by yourself, I will go kushi zva go issho ni ikimasho, ^ith you. along with will go Michi no mikari ga As the mud of the road was road mud hanahadasJnkereba. since extreme Miunichi tsugo ga wa- tomorrow convenience if rukereha, asatte ki- bad day after tomorrow will masho. come something awful. If tomorrow is not convenient, I will come the day after. Other Conditional expressions are hiroi tohi wa, hirokic (or hiro) gozariinasm-eha, hiroi to, hiroi nara and hiroku te wa. These have nearly the same meaning as hirokereha and are more common. § go. The Concessive Form. Hirokeredo. Hiroi keredo or hirokii te mo are generally preferred to hirokeredo. Example. Warnkcredo, (better ivartd ke- Though bad, it can't be helped. redo or zvaruku te mo) shikata ga nai. § 91. The Abstract Noun. Hirosa. See § 12. Derivative Adjectives. § 92. A number of Derivative Adjectives are formed from nouns by adding rasht, a termination which corresponds to the English * ish ' or * ly.' Examples. Kodomorashiy 'childish,' hakarashl^ 'foolish.' 102 the adjective. § 93. Desiderative Adjectives. Adjectives may be formed from verbs by adding to the stem the termination tai which means ' desirous ' or * desir- able.' TJie forms thus obtained are used where we should employ such verbs as * wish ' or ' want.' Examples. Moraitai mono. A thing I should like to get a receive like thing present of. Ikitai. I want to go. Kaitai or kaito gozaimasu. I want to buy. O hanashi wo (or ga) shitai I have been wanting to talk talk wish to do ^q yQ^^ to omotte itnasu. thinking remain The Desiderative Adjective may take either ^a or wo be- fore it, as shown in the last example. § 94. Negative Adjectives. An important class of adjectives is that which is formed from verbs by adding to the negative base the negative adjective nai, ' not. ' They are formed from all verbs, with a very few excep- tions, and are constantly used to replace the negative forms of the verb proper. The Predicate and Adverb of these adjectives is seldom contracted, and the Abstract Noun is not in use. Examples. Wakaranai. I don't understand, it is unintelligible Ukeawanai. I don't guarantee it. Shiranal hito. A man I don't know. Yakanaku, te mo yoroshi. You need not roast it. not roasting even is good THE ADJECTIVE. 103 Kaze ga iiai kara, ho wo wind not because sail kaketemo kakcnakxi tc mo onaji set not set same koto da. thing is Shiranakereba, sensaku shima- inquiry sho. Sonna koto wo iwana- that sort of thing if not kereba ii no ni. say good while Mono wo mo iwanai de thing without saying nigedashtta. ran off Ikanaku tc wa narimascnu. not-go if does not be- come In the idiom exemplified narimasenu is often omitted, It is all the same whether you hoist sail or not, as there is no wind. If he does not know, I will make inquiries. It would have been better if he had said nothing of the sort. He ran off without saying a word. I must go. in the last sentence, the word 2iV\&te wa contracted into cha. Kawanakucha. Te wo arawanakucha. Konakucha naranu. Examples. I must buy. I must wash my hands. He must come. §. 95. Beki. This termination, which means 'ought,* 'should,' 'may,' 'must' or 'will,' is indispensable in all forms of the written language, but, by a curious caprice, it has been almost entirely banished from the colloquial. The uncontracted forms heki (attributive), behi (adverb) and heshi (adj. with substantive verb) are considered bookish and affected, while the contracted form bei is also con- demned as characterizing the rustic dialect of the east of Japan. Byo^ the contracted adverbial form, is seldom or never used except on the stage. In a few combinations, 104 "^"^ ADJECTIVE. however, heki^ hehi remain in use, as ko suheki hadzu da, lit ' thus ought to do necessity is,' i.e. ' this is how it ought to be done, ' narubeku, ' as far as possible,' naruheku wa, ' if possible.' With verbs of the First Conjugation beki accom- panies the Present Indicative, with verbs of the Second Conjugation, the stem, but in the latter case there is some confusion and the practice of the written language is some- times followed. On the whole, the student may be recommended not to trouble himself about beki. § 96. Other Derivative Adjectives. Katai 'hard,' yasui 'easy,' 7iikui 'difficult,' 'hateful,* are also added to the stems of verbs to form derivative adjectives. Examples. Ari-gatai. It is difficult to be. (a phrase used to mean ' Thanks.') li-nikui. Difficult to say. Mi-niktii. Hateful to look at ; ugly. Koware -yasui. Easy to break, fragile. Other examples of derivative adjectives formed from verbs are isogashi, 'busy,' from isogu, 'to be in a hurry '; 050- roshi, dreadful, ' from osorerii, ' to fear. ' § 97. Uninflected words used as Adjectives. There are a number of nouns which do duty as adjec- tives, and are often considered as such. Like other nouns, they are properly speaking uninflected, but with the aid of certain particles, a conjugation may be made out for them corresponding to the conjugation of the adjective proper, as follows : — THE ADJECTIVE. I05 Akirakdf Bright. Stem Akiraka ... bright. Predicate Akiraka de bright. Adverb Akiraka ni brightly. Attributive Akiraka na bright (before a noun). Verbal Form Akiraka da is bright. Conditional Akiraka nareba if bright. Concessive Akiraka rtaredo though bright. Abstract noun ... Akiraka na ^o^o brightness. Examples. Rippa na mono ja nai ka ? Is it not grand ? Makoto ni rippa de gozai- It is really splendid. • truly mas it. Hi wa akiraka ni tern. The sun shines brightly, sun brightly shines Kinodoku na no wa Mori The one who is to be pitied sorry is Mr. Mori. San da. Bimbo tii natte irti kara Now that I have become poor, poor become because j j^^st practise economy. kcnyaktt shinakucha nari- economy if-not-do does masenu. not become Are wa ganko na He is one of the old school — he obstinate prejudiced ^n old fossil. yatsu desu. fellow To this class of words belong rippa * grand,' * splendid : ' bimbo, * poor ;' kanemochi, * rich ; ' kirei, ' clean,' * pretty,' and a multitude of words of Chinese derivation. Some adjectives proper use the termination na added to the root as well as the regular attributive form. Thus we may say either chisai or chisana, * small ;' 6ki or okina^ I06 THE ADJECTIVE. * big ; ' okashi or okashina, * ridiculous.' English adjectives must often be translated in Japanese by other parts of speech. * Single' for example is hitoye 7W, a noun with the possessive particle no ; * Japanese' is Nippon no, lit. 'of Japan;' * fat' is fiitotta, the past tense of a verb futoru ' to get fat ;' * explicit ' is hakkiri shita, an adverb followed by the past tense of suj-ti ' to do.' § 98. Degrees of Comparison. — The Japanese adjec- tive has no degrees of comparison. The idea of compari- son is expressed in the following manner: — * the weather ,^ is finer today than yesterday ' is in Japanese, sakujitsii yori konnichi wa tenki ga yoroshi. This is literally, ' than yesterday today the weather is good.' Examples. ' Watakushi yori anata o You are younger than I. I than you waku gozaimasu. young are In sentences like this, the former part is often omitted if the meaning is clear without it, as anata wa o waho gozari- 7Jiasv, 'you are the younger,' or anata no ho ga o wako gozarimasii, lit. 'your side is yourig.' Sore wa nawo yoroshiu goza- That is still better, that still good is rimasu. Mijikai hodo wa, yoroshi. The shorter the better, short amount is good Ane hodo okiku wa nai. She is not so tall as her elder elder sister big is not sister. Omoi no hoka katai. It is harder than I thought, thought outside of is hard Instead of a Superlative Degree qualifying adverbs are used or the meaning is indicated by the context. THE ADJECTIVE. IO7 Examples. Kore wa ichibati takai. This is the highest. this No. I is high Naka ni korc wa takai. This is the highest, among this is high Mitsu no uchl ni sore wa That is the prettiest of the three among that three. ichiban kirci dc gozaimasu. No. I pretty is ^ CHAPTER VIII. AUXILIARY WORDS. § 99. ArUf 'to be,' ist. conjugation. With the present indicative followed by the particle de and the verb am, ' to be,' are formed a number of compound tenses which are in very common use. The present indicative is in this con- struction a noun and de the sign of the predicate. De am is usually contracted into da, de aro into d'aro, etc. Examples. When is he likely to go ? This alone won't be enough. Itsu iku d'arU ? when go will be Kore bakari de taranu this, alone not suffice d''ard. will be Konu d^atta. not come was Yoroshiu arimasenU d'atta. good is not was He did not come. It was not good. The last sentences show that the negative in this con- struction goes with the principal verb. A similar construction is in use with adjectives. Examples. Katai da. It is hard. Atarashl de arimasenu. It is not new. The particle no often comes between the verb or adjective and da, d'aro, d'atta etc. AUXILIARY WORDS. lOQ Examples. Konai no d^aro. He is probably not coming. Itsu iku no d^aru ? When is he going ? Mo chaku shimashita no He has probably arrived by this already arrival did time. d^aro. will be When the verb am preceded by de, the sign of the pre- dicate, is followed by the polite termination masu, a still further contraction takes place, which is constantly used in familiar conversation. De arwiasu is contracted into demasuj and then into desu, de arimasho into defuasho and then into desho, de arimashita into deshita etc. The shorter and more contracted the phrase, the less polite it becomes. Desii is very much more familiar and less respectful than de gozarimasil. Examples. So desii. It is sp. Do desu ka ? How is it ? Gozaru and gozarimasu (in the Tokio dialect commonly pronounced gozaimasii), the polite substitutes for aru, may be used in the same way. Gozaru is not often heard in ordinary conversation. Another series of compound tenses is formed by the past participle followed by aru. Example. Kite gozaimasii. They have come. The verbs aru, arimasuy gozarimasu may also be joined to the stem, as : — Dochira ye o ide de Where are you going ? where go gozarimasil ka ? is J no AUXILIARY WORDS. § loo. OrUy iru, 'to remain,' ' to dwell.' With the various tenses of the verbs oru (ist. conj.) and ini (2nd. conj.) and the past participles of verbs are formed a series ^f tenses which in some verbs correspond to the compound tenses formed by the verb 'to be ' and the pre- sent participle of English verbs ; in others to the tenses formed by the verb ' to have ' and the past participle. In other words this combination has sometimes a Perfect, sometimes a Continuative P^orce. For instance, hataraite oru means * he is working ' but kite oru means not ' he is coming,' but ' he has come.' Iric has the same meaning as oru. It usually forms a contrac- tion with the verb, thus — shitteru, for shitte iru^ ' I know ' lit. ' having learnt, I remain.' The kite gozarititasu of the last section is slightly different in meaning from kite, orima- su. The former might be expanded into ' as they have come, there now are some ;' the latter means ' they have come, and still remain.' Naturally the form with oru or inc is more in use in the case of living beings. Examples. / Issaku nen no natsu kara I have been studying since the before last year summer from summer of the year before last. keiko shite orimasu. study having made remain Bakana koto wo itterti. You are talking nonsense, foolish thing say remain Kono tabi ni ana ga aite These socks have got holes in these socks hole opened tjjem. oru. remains Dete orimasu. He has gone out. Tsuite orimasu. It has arrived. § loi. Naru, ' to be.' The verb naru, * to be,' is extremely frequent in books. AUXILIARY WORDS. lit In the spoken language it is most usually found in the Conditional Form as an auxiliary joined with the Indicative tenses of verbs. Thus it is common, instead of ikeba, * if he goes,' to say, ikic nareba, or iku nara ;" for ittareba * if he went ' or 'had gone,' we may say i^^rt nareba or itta nara, Nara may be used with adjectives in the same way, as utsnkushi nara ' if pretty,' and is particularly frequent with those uninflected words described in § 97 which are used instead of adjectives. It has been already pointed out that the termination na of these words is a contraction for nam. Naredo, the Concessive Form, is also in use. In the written and older language the present indicative of this verb was not naru but fiari, and in some phrases this form is retained. Example. Tatoye kuchi yakusohi iiari Granted that it is only a verbal suppose mouth promise promise. to mo, Naru, * to be,' should be distinguished from naru, * to become.' The latter may be generally recognised by its being preceded by ni or to. Examples. Kirel ni nani. To become beautiful. Hito to naru. To become a man. § 102. Snru, * to do.' The conjugation of the irregular verb s^irji is given in § 44, and its use with the stems of verbs to form an emphatic negative has been explained in § 46. But perhaps the most common use of siirii is to supply the place of verbal inflections in the case of Chinese and other words, which are themselves uninflected. ♦ Nara is merely a contraction for nareba. It is the nara which we have in the well-known phrase sayo nara, the literal meanin'g of which is ' if it be so,'—' good bye.' 112 AUXILIARY WORDS. Examples. yisan sum. Undo sum. Sudan shimasho. Shimpai stimna. Yojin shinai to ikenai. To bring. To take exercise. I will consult (about it). Don't be anxious. You must be careful. For the honorific verb iiasaru, the polite verb jnasu and the respectful verbs itasu and mosu, see chapter XII. § 103. hi, 'to say,' a regular verb of the first conjuga- tion. It is used with other verbs in a way which will be understood from the following examples. If one say that there are, i.e. ■ supposing that there are. Though one say that there are, i.e. granted that there are, al- though there are. If we say that we go i.e. if we go. Who ever heard of anybody cry- ing for nothing ? Aru to iu to. Am to iycdomo. Ikti to iu to. Tada naku to iu koto simply cry called thing am mono ka? is ? Iu used in this way is often altogether redundant. § 104. Kern, an old perfect of kurii, * to come,' is much used in the Concessive Form keredo with the Indicative Tenses of verbs. In these combinations the meaning of the tense of the principal verb is not lost. Itta keredo for example means ' he went, but ' — , while if one says ikedoj ' though go,' or ittemo, * even having gone,' no particular tense is indicated. Keredo is also used with the Verbal Form of Adjectives, as nigai keredo, ' though it is bitter.* It may be useful to notice here some nouns which for want of a better name may be called Auxiliary Nouns. AUXILIARY WORDS, 113 § 105. Hadzu. * necessity,' * obligation,' is much used to express the idea contained in our auxiliary verbs * ought,' *must.' Examples. Kono shina ga makoto ni These articles are really cheap, this article truly yastii. is cheap Hanahada warui kara, yasui They ought to be, for they are very bad cheap very bad. hadzu da. necessity Sahijitsu ikii hadzu de yesterday go arimashita. was Dnnna wa konnichi ide master today iiasaru hadzu desu, is Shiro hadzu wa nai, will know He ought to have gone yester- day. Master ought to come (i.e. is expected) to-day. There is no reason why he should know. He can't possibly find out. Sonna koto wo shiranakatta yo. I tell you I knew nothing of the such did not know kind. How could you know ? I was to have been paid that money yesterday. He is to go next month. Shiranai hadzu da. not know necessity is Sakujitsti sono kane wo yesterday that money uketoru hadzu deshlta. receive necessity was Raigctsu ikubeki hadzu next month go ought necessity dcsii. is Iku hadzu will do as well as, or better than, ikubeki hadzu in the last sentence. § 106. KotOf ^action,' 'thing,' is much used with adjectives and the forms of verbs which are ^capable of being made 114 AUXILIARY WORDS. adjectives in a way which will be best understood from a few examples : — Iku koto. Ikanu koto. Itta koto. Iku koto wa dekimasho going thing will be possible ka? Ikanu koto wa artimai. not going thing will not be Tukid ye itta koto arimasu gone thing is ka? } Nippon no sake wo nonda Japanese drunk koto wa nai, thing is not Noborii koto wa noborare- ascending thing can viasu ; oriru koto wa ascend coming down mudzukashi. is diflicult Tukid ye kit a koto wa come thing kimashita. Watakushi wa mo nagai koto 1 long wa arumai. will not be Rippana Into ni nam to in splendid become koto wo shuchi sh'ite iru. know The going. The not going. The having gone. Will it be possible to go ? He will surely go. Has he ever gone to Tokio ? I have never drunk Japanese sake. So far as getting up is con- cerned, I can get up ; it is the coming down that is difficult. He has come to Tokio, so far as that goes. I don't think I have long to live. I know that he will turn out a splendid fellow. In the last sentence, koto takes the place of the con- junction ' that.' The to iu is superfluous, as it often is in Japanese. AUXILIARY WORDS. US I have once met you.; I have never seen. I can't see. Ah ! how sleepy I am ! I thought of enquiring about the short swords. Whom do you mean by 'pro- fessional jester ? ' I mean you. Talk of not understanding ! it is you who don't understand. Let your master know that I have come. I heard about this book from Miss O Kiyo. Ichido me ni kakatta kota once eye hung ga aritnasu, Mita koto ga nai. Mini koto ga dckinai. A ! nenini koto ! sleepy Wakizashi no koto wo short sword about kiko to omotta. will hear thought Taikomochi to wa dare no jester who koto da ? is Omaye no koto sa. Wakaranu to wa anaia no not understand your koto. thing Watakushi no kita koto wa come danna ye shirasete o kure. master make known give Kono shomotsu no koto zva this book O Kiyo san kara kikimashtta. from heard § 107. Mono means * thing,' but it frequently occurs after verbs in idiomatic expressions to which this meaning affords little clue. Examples. A. Are wa sen ni she before miyenakatta onna da. not seen woman is B. So d^ard ; are wa thus will be she kotoshi kara kitan^da mono. this year from come is thing A. I never saw that woman be- fore. B. Very likely ; considering that she has come this year. ii6 AUXILIARY WORDS. A. Afio tokoro ye tahako- that place tobacco ire wo atsnrayete oita ; holder having ordered put are wo totte ki na, that having taken come B. Are wa raigetsii jiu ni that next month nichi no yakiLsoku da mono wo- day promise Kamau mono ka? care thing ? Komatta mono da. Ikitai mon'' desU like to go is keredo — although A. I ordered a tobacco-pouch from that place : go and fetch it. B. Well, considering that it was promised for the 12th of next month — (The sentence is left unfinished as so often happens in Japanese.) What do I care ? It is very annoying. I should like to go, but — § 108. Tokoro, ' place.' The ordinary mode of rendering in Japanese the relative clauses of European languages has been already described in § 28, but in order to bring out the relative force more distinctly, the word tokoro is sometimes introduced, in imitation of a Chinese idiom. Thus instead of iku hito, * the man who goes,' it is possible to say iku tokoro no hito, which means the same thing. The relative force may be recognized in the following examples : — Omaye no kino hanashita you yesterday said tokoro de wa. place by Kampuku ni tayenai admiration do not endure tokoro da. By what you said yesterday. It is a thing for which I can- not contain my admiratioiT. What did you see Mr. Kogoro do? Kogoro san wa do sum how doing tokoro wo mi-nasatta? place see did Tokoro after the indicative tenses of verbs has the force of our 'just,' as in the following examples : — AUXILIARY WORDS. 117 Anata no ttwasa wo shite iru report tokoro d^atta, Nan'da ka kore kara yotmi read tokoro da. Totiart no hanashi neighbour talk kite iru tokoro da. listening wo We were just talking about you. I am just going to read what it is. We are just listening to what they are saying next door. Tokoro ga, sono ban ni — that night Yonde ntita tokoro ga — reading seen place Sayd mushimashlta tokoro ga — A. Sazo o yakamashiu goza- surely noisy will rimashttaru. B. Yakamashi have been noisy dokoro ka? place ? A. Watakushi no tokoro ma- my place as de motte kite far as having taken having come kndasaru koto ga deki- give thing will be pos- mashu ka ? B. Hei ! arigato sible ? thank you gozaritnasH ; sashi - agemasU send up dokoro de wa gozarimasenu. place it is not Other examples of tokoro. Well then, on that night — Upon reading it— On my saying so— A. I am sure you must have been disturbed by our noise. B. Far from it! A. Would it be possible for you to bring it as far as my place ? B. Thank you ; we would do much more than send it. (' No trouble at all ' we should say.) i CHAPTER IX. PARTICLES. I § 109. Particles have very varied uses in Japanese. "^ ' They serve instead of case and plural terminations, and are also used as prepositions" and conjunctions. Many of the particles described in this chapter are really '/vj identical with some of the terminations of verbs and adjec- tives already noticed. They are mostly found after nouns, but are also used with those parts of the verb and adjective which are nouns in "^ syntax, and a few are joined to verbs in the indicative mood /^ or to adjectives in the verbal form. ^ For convenience of reference they have been arranged alphabetically. ;§ no. Daiio. Dano is a contraction for de am no. It is used in enumerations, where it is desired to make each thing mentioned as distinct as possible. It is usually trans- lated ' and ', but this does not give the full force of this * particle. It resembles not a little the alternative form of ' the verb, and like it is found in pairs. I* 4. •fi 4: Examples. Kid dano asu dano Saying that they were coming, to-day to-morrow ^qw today, now tomorrow, they maim to te,\ kimascnu. have not come. come come not * As they come after the noun, postpositions would be the more correct term, t For to itte. PARTICLES. lya dano d dano to itte, Saying at one time * no ' at "° y^^ saying another time 'yes', he nevertheless skinai no desu. not do s does not do it. Ninsoku dano, daiku dano He sent for coolies, and for car coolie carpenter yaneya dano yonde, tiler having called shigoto wo sascmashita. work caused to do penters, and for tilers, and set them to work. . A ?v - — § III. De. De is a contraction for 7iite. With the vari- -^ ]^-^ ous verbs for ' to be ', it forms a series of contractions, as p (la for de am, dcsii for de arimasii, deshita for de arima- •^ shita, datta for de atta, daro for de aro etc. De wa is con- tracted mioja. *• De means * with, ' ' by, ' * by means of, ' * on account of, ' .•^ . ' at,' * in,' as in the following examples : — ^^ Zokin de ita wo tntgu. To wipe the boards with a W floorcloth board wipe cloth. "^ Oka de iku. land go Kawase de hane wo bill of exchange money okuru. send. Wakaranai de komaru. understanding To go by land. To send money by means of a^ ^ bill of exchange. | "ik I am bothered by his not under standing. It is an annoyance that the room -^ Hey a wa hanahada fuketsu de room very dirty by is so dirty. komarimasu. am annoyed Gan ichi wa de kare wildgoose one that making a fuss about one wili*^; , It is not that it is worth . K kore in wake de wa gozaima- goose, say reason is not -.b »»*^ senu, Yashiki de sodachimashita. I was brought up in Si yashiki. &2 ; - n ^ •is 120 PARTICLES. / Gakko de sonna koto wa college at such ikku shiranu. wholly do not know Kore de mina desu ka ? this with all is ? Do hi shidai de ? what called order They know nothing of the kind at the college. Is this all ? Under what circumstances ? De as the sign of the Predicate. When two nouns are joined together by the verb ' to be ' (am^ arimasH, gozari- masu), the latter affixes de. Examples. Watakushi wa kajiya de I am the blacksmith, blacksmith gozarimasu. Kono mushi wa tomho desu. insect dragon fly Uso da. I ja nai ka ? Tokid hen no yatsu wa quarter fellow jinjaku de (atte) ikcnu. effeminate not go Neruson wa I girls li no hlto Nelson Englishman de (atte)y kaigun no guketsU navy hero desu, is Kore wa o hioban no He great report mono de (atte)^ Aioi cho ni This insect is a dragon fly. It is a lie. Is it not good ? i.e.^ are you not satisfied ? The Tokio fellows are effemi- nate and therefore useless. Nelson was an Englishman and a naval hero. He had a great reputation, and lived in Aioi St. street orimashlta, lived De as the mark of the predicate is much used in forming the compound tenses of verbs and adjectives. See § 99. .PARTICLES. 121 Demo combines the meaning oif de with that of mo even,' *also. ' It may generally be translated ' even'. Sayo demo gozai- That is probably even so, but — thus (pred.) even it will masho ga, — be but Demo gozaimasho ga, — Demo — Sore demo ikenai. that with even it can't go Okata taki ye demo probably waterfall to (Same as last.) Yes, but- Even so it won't do. He has probably gone round to the waterfall. [Demo here shows mawatta node gozarimasho. ^^at the remark is a mere guess.) gone round will be Ato demo yoroshi. after even is good Sore wa kodomo demo wakaru. that child even is in- telligible Futotta no demo, yaseta no fat lean It will do afterwards. Even a child understands that. Either fat ones or lean ones will do. demo yoroshi. is good • 1 Seiyo no hito demo He is neither a European nor a west ocean man Chinaman. Shinajin demo nai. Chinese V In the last sentence we have a combination o( de as pre- dicate and mo, repeated with two nouns in the sense of * both.' For demo with Interrogative Pronouns see § 26. § 112. Z)2W^5^^, * each,' * every,' 'apiece'. Examples. Kono httstiri wa ichi nichi This medicine is taken three this medicine one day ^jj^gg g^ery day. sando dzutsu nomu no three times each drink desu. is r22 PARTICLES. V Hi tori dzutsH hairUna- one person at a time entered shHa. Toshi ni nido gtirai dzutsu year twice amount each Tokiu ye dete ktirii wake ni wa out come reason iktimai ka ? will not go ? Miiia ni fUtatsu dzutsu haitte all two each oru. They came in one at a time. Would it not be possible to come to Tokio twice every year ? There are two in each of them. § 113. Ga. Ga was originally a possessive particle, and it still retains this force in certain phrases. Koma-ga-take. yiu nen ga aida. ten year space Ore ga me no maye dc saye. my eyes before even Kore ga tame ni. Waga ktini. Wag a kiddai. Examples. Colt's peak (the name of a mountain). For the space of ten years. {jiu nen no aida is equally good and much more common.) Before my very eyes. On this account. One's country. One's own brothers and sisters. It is better not to use ga as a possessive particle except in phrases for which there is good precedent. By the process described in § 65 ga has in the modern colloquial come to be chiefly used as the sign of the nomi- native case. This case is, however, not necessarily accom- panied by ga. It is omitted when wa or mo follows the noun and in many other cases, and a noun may be in the nominative case without any particle at all being added. Ga is almost always used before the verbs am ^ to be,' dckiru * to become,' ' to be made,' and oni and iru * to remain.' Examples of^a as sign of the nominative case. PARTICLES. 123 Kane ga am ka ? money is ? Hana ga fakaku natta. nose high became Isogu koto ga aril kara. hurry is because Sei ga takai hUo. stature tall man Shikata ga nai. do-side is not Uso ga arawarcta. falsehood has been revealed Damatte iru ho ga being silent remain side is good. Saku last night ya hitogoroshl ga murder atta. was Yube ante gafutta. last night rain fell Ano sumiya san wa that charcoal-dealer kamisan ga arimasu ka ? wife is ? Aka ga nijittan aru, red twenty pieces Oi-oi hanashi ga nakaba gradually story middle ni narimasu kara, kore kara becomes because this after ga omoshiroku narimasu. amusing becomes O cha ga dekimashita, (hon.) tea is made Hima ga nakatta. leisure was not Yd ga aru kara, kochi business is because hither ide. Is there any money ? Have you any money ? He gave himself airs. Because there is hurry. A man of tall stature. There is nothing to be done. There is no help for it. Your falsehood has been found out. You had better hold your tongue. There was a murder last night. It rained last night. Has that charcoal-dealer a wife ? There are twenty pieces of the red. Now that we are at length get- ting to the middle of the story, what remains becomes interest- ing. The tea is ready. I had not time. Come here ; I've something for you to do. ^M/f^ 124 PARTICLES. The noun is often followed hy ga where we should expect to find an accusative case, as in the following examples. Kono imi ga wakarima- I don't understand the meaning this pieaning is unintelligi- of this. senu. ble Hana ga suki desu ka? Are you fond of flowers ? flower like is ? Kane ga ukeforitai When you want to receive the money desirable to receive toki wa. time money. . Hansho no oto ga sum. There is the firebell. fire-bell sound does In the above sentences imi^ hana, kane, and oto are regarded by the Japanese as the subjects of the verb or adjective which follows. Ga, after those parts of adjectives and verbs which are used as nouns for purposes of syntax, has the same force as when it follows ordinary nouns. Examples. Ikn ga yoroshi. You had better go. the going is good Itta ga yok^atta. He would have done better to having gone was good jjave gone. Yenrio sezu ni You had better make no cere- ceremony not doing ^^^^^ ^ut speak out frankly. uchi-akcte hanashrta ga frankly the having spoken yoroshi. is good . Ori-ai ga tsukimasenu. They don't hit it off together, bend-meet not hit. Sugu ni tsurete You should have brought him at once accompanying ^itiQ at once. kita ga a. the having come was good. PARTICLES. 125 O ai ga naku te yoroshiji You need not meet him. meet without good gozaimasii. Ga after a verb in the indicative mood or an adjective in the verbal form may generally be translated by * but. ' Vcj^ Sometimes a pause in speaking is a sufficient equivalent. Examples. Torl-naoso to omou ga, take will mend think tori-naosenai. take cannot mend Shinsetsu wa arigatai ga, kindness thanks zehi ikaneba naranai. positively if not go does not become Momen de wa arimasil ga, cotton (pred.) is aratte shitate-naoshtta bakari washed made up renewed only dcsu. are Senkoku nani ka miseru I wish to put it right, but I can't. You are very kind, but I must positively be going (to an inferior). It is true that they are cotton, but they have just been washed and made up again. You said av/hile ago that you former hour something show j^ad something to show me— may mono ga aru to osshaimashita j j^^j^ ^^. j^ here ? thing is said ga, koko de haiken shitemo here see having done yoi no de gozarimasu ka? good is it Ame ga ii kagcn ni rain good condition yamcba, yorosht ga — if stop is good If the rain would stop in reason- able time, it would be a good thing, but — (I don't expect it will). After tokoro, ^a has a somewhat similar force. Kiite mita tokoro ga. Upon making inquiries — (a having heard seen place pause) Tokoro ga or daga (for de aru ga) at the beginning of a sentence means 'this being so,' ' upon this,' 'well then.' 126 PARTICLES. § 114. Gena is found after verbs in the sense * it would appear that,' ' I am told that,' ' I understand that.' ^ Examples. Chdman to yarn de gozari- I am told that it is dropsy, if dropsy ? is ^hat is the right name. masii gena. Sakujitsu kaycrimashita I understand that he came back v S^^'^' yesterday. So desu is commoner in Tokio than geria^ which is more a Kioto expression, and has the same meaning. Ex. Saku- jitsti kayerimashita so desu, ' I understand that he returned yesterday.' I § 115. Ka asks a question or intimates a doubt, it is . very accurately represented by the mark of interrogation. Examples. • ^ ^ ^ >• *^ Oki fune ka ? Is it a large ship ? j-^ji- :2 A , large ship ? -"A .. Watakushi ka? Is it I ? , iiTiVa ka ? Has he come ? A'rt between two nouns represents our conjunction * or.' yf '7 V - -^ V f (5) Examples. K ' '^ y' Osaka ka Nagasaki no ucJii He lives in one of the two J , y _♦ ^^^ one or places, Osaka or Nagasaki (I , , ^ 3 , «^' orimasu. don't know which). ^ Z' -r ^ »' other lives ' "^ ^ *^ \U^ Ya ka tama ni atatte He was killed by an arrow or arrow bullet striking ^ bullet. shmimashlta. died Otoko ka onna ka? Is it a male or a female ? man ? woman ? Itta ka ikanai ka ? Has he gone, or not ? has gone ? does not go ? . Donata ka to omoimashlta. I wondered who it was. M- * -P> f.- -7>;-3?li3) PARTICLES. I27 ' ^ /, ;!' :t ^% i^ i?- 7, Sono Aow tio hiyushi wa Is the cover of that book thick that book cover ^^ ^j^jj^ p atsiii ka Usui ka ? i thick thin Where the clause begins with another interrogative word, ka may be omitted. ^ Example. " Dare desu ? Who is it ? The Japanese language having no special forms for ^ indirect narration, a question or doubt when repeated in an — indirect clause does not change its form as it does in r* English. ^ Examples. Anata wa midntchi iyo-iycr He came to enquire whether . . you tomorrow still y^^ had not changed your mind 1/ ^h ide nasaru ka to about going tomorrow, do you come ? (sign o^quotation) kiki ni kimashita. * hear to came "^ Muma ka ushi ka shiranU. I don't know whether it is a horse bull horse or a bull. V who I thought Iko to ontou. I am thinking of going, will go think . V -^ Iko ka to omou. I think I may perhaps go. , will go ? think ^ Man - ichi so iu koto It occurred to me whether there « 10,000 I so called might not possibly be something demo ari wa semal ka to of that kind, even be will not do ? omotta. thought Shijiu hak-ku ni naro A beggar who one would think forty eight nine will become n^jg^t be perhaps forty eight or ka to omou kojiki. forty nine years of age. thmk beggar Aru ka mo shiremasenu. There may be some, for aught are ? even can't know j know. 128 PARTICLES. 7) ,ri H m JU For ka with Interrogative Pronouns see § 26. § 116. Kara, (with nouns) 'from,' 'since ;' (with verbs) t ' because,' * after.' Examples. I. With nouns. Konnichi hara. Kore kara hachi ri. Saki kara. Doko kara ikimasu, ka ? where from go Nakasendo kara ikimasu. Kanada kara seiyd ye from west ocean iko to zonjimasU. will go think Sore kara no koto ni sho that after thing will make ja nai ka ? is not ? r- Kore kara. Omote no ho kara irete front side from having let in kureruna. don't give Kakushi kara kane wo pocket from money dashite. taking out Ima kara sugu ni kayeru. now from immediately return From today. Eight ri from here. From a while ago. By which way do you go ? I am going by the Nakasendo. I think of going to Europe vi3. Canada. Let us take it after that. rienceforth. Don't let him in by the front. i Taking money from his pocket. x^. I am now going straight back again. J' 2. With Verbs, (a). With Indicatives. J Oyaji ga naku narimashita My father is dead, so I would ^\\ father not became ^sk you for two or three days ^ *^ kara ni san nichi itoma je^ve. because two three day leave wo negaimasu. request .1 I PARTICLES. rig Daijobu desu kara, go You may make your mind at safe is because g^se ; it is quite safe. anshin — easy-mind Kono uchi no maye wa Remember that I don't allow this house before jinrikshas to be set down before kurutna wo okasenai kara, ^j^jg house. jinrikisha not-let-put because so onwttc iro. so thinking remain Ima ni kayeru kara. Tell the driver I am going away now go back because in a moment. giosha ni so itte a kure. driver having said give * In the last two sentences kara is used where we might have expected to, the sign of quotation. Atsui kara. Because it is hot. (b). With Past Participle. Mama demo kutte It will do after you have had /j) boiled rice even having eaten ^^^^ .j^e (to persons much in- ^ kara yok^aro. f^^i^^ i^ ^^^^. after will be good ' Mina atsumatte kara Won't you wait till they are all all having assembled after assembled before doing it ? ni nasaremasenu ka ? not do Hiru-tfieshl wo tahete I won't go till after I have had ^ noon meal^ having eaten j^y midday meal. kara de nakiicha ikimasenu. after if not don't go § 117. Koso is a very emphatic particle. It formerly had the effect of making the verb or adjective at the end of the sentence be put in the Conditional Base, and rare cases of the application of this rule are still met with. G Examples of Koso, Omaye koso nsotsuki da. It is you who are the liar, you liar are I PARTICLES. Yo koso oide nasatta. You are most welcome, well come Watakushi koso go husata — It is I who have neglected call- I not-giving news i^g on you. Shinzureba koso,go chiukoku It is just because I believe it, since believe advice ^hat I offer you advice. moshimasu. say (respectful) Yoroshi ; sore de koso kimi Right ! That is like yourself, is good that with you da, is § ii8. Made, from 7na 'space' and de *wlth,' means * to/ ' up to,' ' till,' * until,' ' as far as,' ' inclusive of.' Examples. M'wnichi made. Till to-morrow. Yokohama kara Tukio made. From Yokohama to Tokio. Hachiuji made donogurai How far is it to Hachoji ? what quantity am ? '^ ^ % In made mo nai. It is not worth mentioning. _j J v.* saying as far as even is not • J / '^• f^ T^ ^ Miogonichi made ni y It will be finished by the day ^ * -6 day after tomorrow by after tomorrow. "I deki-agarimasu. is finished Kojiki to made ni natta. He fell so low as to become a ^ beggar as far as became beggar. Namaye made I even told you my name. name as far as ^^ o hanashi mushlta. ,» ^ ^ told Konnichi no hlto ni made. Even down to the men of this 3- today man down to ^j^y^ Sakiihan osoku made j He had not returned up till late last night late until last night. kayerananda. returned not 4 PARTICLES. 131 Doko made mo chikara Exerting one's strength to the where as far as even strength y^^y utmost. wo tsuki( shite. having exhausted Omaye made watashi you inclusive of me wo ijimerii, vex Even you join in vexing me. § iig. Mo means * also,' *too,' *even,' and, when re- peated with two nouns, ' both.' It is the opposite of wa^ wa meaning 'this, and nothing more,' ' this, if nothing more,' while tno implies that some thing else is associated with the noun to which it belongs. These two particles are therefore not found together. The case particles come before mo, but when it is used, ga (as sign of the nominative) and wo are generally omitted. For dejno see §111. It is the same particle which is used with the concessive form of verbs and with participles. Kono tsuho mo o kat nasare. ^t.i>^this vase buy do Imt mo neko mo. dog cat Ingirisu mo Nippon mo. Futatsu to mo. Examples. I. With nouns. Buy this vase too. Both dogs and cats. 3) Both England and Japan. Both of them. You are not wrong to think so. 4^ >tvr J z. ^ ? ffr V^ So omou mo muri wa nai. so think even wrong is not Shiri mo shinai Into no know do not man tokoro ye tegami wo dashtte. place letter sending off Omoti and shiri in the last two sentences must be taken as nouns. y Sending off a letter to a man she knows nothing of. 132 PARTICLES. Shinko shinai htto mo aru. There are some who do not belief do not men also are believe. Kuru\ ka mo ] shiranu. He may come, for aught I know, come ? even don't know "^9 ^A 9--^/ ^»w -b -^ i^U^-fey This phrase implies a slight leaning to the opinion that he will come ; kuru ha shiranu is simply an expression of ignorance. Kio wa mata Hdyaji I don't know whether that today agam fellow Hayaji may not come again me ga koyu mo to^j^y. (contemptuous) ,^^1 come even termmation shirefiu. can't know Tatoye nani to izvo to supposing what will say mo, tori-awanai no ga even take-meet-not ichiban da. no. I is Mina tabenaku te mo all not eating even yoroshi. is good Aril keredo mo omaye are although even you ni wa yaranai. to not give No matter what he may say, the best plan is to take no notice of him. You need not eat them all. I have some, but I won't give you any. § 120. iVa^am, * whilst.' * I. With nouns. Kage nagara. shade Go mendo nagara. trouble Shikkei nagara. impolite Futatsti nagara. two In my inmost heart. I am sorry to trouble you, but — It is very rude of me, but— Both of them. The two of them. PARTICLES. 133 2. With Verbs (stem form). Utare nagara, kanjD Going on with his counting all being beaten counting ^^^ ^^^^ ^e was being beaten. wo shite. doing Cha wo nomi nagara tea drink whilst shahette oriniashtta. chattering remained They were chattering over their tea. Kiusoku shi nagara. rest do O kotoha o damashi words (hon.) deceive asohasn to shirt nagara mo. condescend know even Osore nagara. fear Habakarl nagara. fear While resting. Even knowing all the time that your words were deceiving (highly respectful). With all due respect. With all due respect. -I § 121. Ni. With nouns ni usually means 'to,' * in,' * at,' 'into,' 'on.' Examples. He goes to Kioto. Kioto ni iku. to go Kioto ni orimasu. Uchi ni orimasu, within r / He lives in Kioto. He is at home. ^ / -h i^ ^ i) S 1 Denshinkyoku ni haitta. He went into the telegraph telegraph office into entered office. Yengawa ni dashite verandah on having put out oke, put Kiuji ni mairi- waiting at table have fnashtta. come Hito wo baka ni suru. person fool into make Put it out on the verandah. '^ V Jf r I have come to wait at table. To make a fool of a person. -^:4 '34 PARTICLES. ■|5 Dare ni kiita ? whom from did hear Wakai toki, haha ni young time mother from wakarete. separated Toshi tii wa okl. year for is big Anohlto ni medznrashl that man for rare chikoku desii. late-hour is Sore ni sui nai. that about mistake is not Sore ni, mata that in addition to again itte mircha — ■^ ' having gone when I saw. Other meanings of ni. From whom did you hear it ? <5 J"; Bekon ni tamago. bacon in addition to eggs. Take ni snzttme. bamboo sparrow ►? " ni Separated from her mother when young. He is big for his age. It is very unusual for him to be so late. There is no mistake about that. And besides, when I went again to see — Bacon and eggs. Bamboos and sparrows (as a subject of a painting). It contained clothing besides valuable combs and hairpins. She wants to get married. Taisctsn na kushi kanzashi valuable comb hairpin irui mo haitte clothing having entered J j^ imashlta. ;^r^ was Yome ni ikitai. bride as wishes to go ^ 7^ ^ ^ Ni \^ often required in Japanese where there is no ■ J T^ "' preposition in English. Examples. To consult a doctor. Isha ni Sudan sum, doctor consultation do Isha ni mite morau. having seen receive To get a doctor to examine one. PARTICLES. 135 6 - Yotsu tsuji de four crossroads at basha ni aimashita. carriage met Mina ni ichi mai dzutstt all one (flat object) apiece yare. give Shindai - kagiri ni natta. property-limit became Fuji san ni nohotta. Fuji M* ascended Tonari ni arimasu. I met the carriage at the cross- roads. Give them all one apiece. He became bankrupt. f. He ascended Ml Fuji. 4 It is next door. Ni with nouns often forms Adverbs. Makoto ni. truth in Tashtka ni. certainty in Dai ichi ni. number one in Uye ni. Mare ni. Examples. Truly. Certainly. Firstly. Above. Seldom. .A it \- • I ir Before passive verbs, 7ii means * by,' and before causative verbs indicates the person who is caused to perform the '- action. ^ = ^^ -'^ ^^. ^= i^i>=L^ Examples. Hiyoko wa karasu ni young chicken crow by tor ar eta. was taken Nani ka Moriyama ni mo something by too iwareta. was said The chicken was carried off by a crow. He was talked to a little by Moriyama too. 136 PARTICLES. Niwatorl ni ye wo Give the fowls their food, fowl food kuwasero. make eat A similar construction is in use with some intransitive verbs. Example. Kono atsusa ni dumo I am knocked up by this heat, this heat by somehow yowatta. have become weak Ni may follow those parts of the verb and adjective which are capable of becoming nouns. (a) After Indicatives. Tanoshimi ni omoimashlta ni. Whilst I was looking forward pleasure as thought in ^^ j^ ^j^h pleasure. Ashita tattara When it would do quite well if tomorrow if started y^^ started tomorrow, why insist yok'aro ninaze shiite (on going) today ? will be good in why persistently konnichi — today Ame ga fureba, nureru to When you knew very well that rain if falls get wet ^^^^ ^^^ jf ) j^ ^ains, people get ill koto wa shirete wet-(why did you go out in it ?). called thing bemg known tru ni- ls in Kike to iu ni — listen say when When I tell you to listen — (why don't you listen ?) (b) After Adjectives. Atsui ni komaru. I am bothered by the heat, being hot by am annoyed Kurai no ni, naze chuchin When it is so dark, why don't being dark in why lantern ^^^ ^^-^^^ ^ lantern ? wo motte konai ? taking not come PARTICLES. 137 Yd mo nai ni saki ye As I have nothing for you to business not while first jo, you may go to bed without nereba ^ yoL waiting for me. if go to bed IS good Ni is frequently found after nashi, the old verbal form of nai 'not,' as yenrio nashijii 'without ceremony.' This is an ungrammatical construction but it has the sanction of use. (c) After Stems. Kimono wo arai ni yatta. He sent the clothes to be clothes wash sent washed. . » y v' Naoshi ni yatta ha? Did you send them to be mend sent mended ? Mi ni itta. He went to see. It is not every verb with which this construction is usual or possible. O kiki ni iremasu. I will tell you (very respectful), hearing put in (d) After Negative Participles. {Gozen no) Ato no katadzuke He went to bed without putting^ ^ *J /- » 'i Hako no kaori. The key of the box. ^ *' * , ^ . • / Omaye no kimono. Your clothes. u^a-^ »i tjc *^i^ i A'f rt»,/^ "tvCL^^ •! >k ^ . . . .1 -tM r— P -;' J. I Ij'*'/ 138 PARTICLES. ii V > i ..( fia Ima no (itta koto) wa now of said thing jodan desu yo. joke is (emph. part). Sei no takai heitai. growth of high soldier Yama no oi kuni, mountain numerous country Hi no aru uchi ni. sun's being within Rondon kara no dempo. London from telegram. Kin no kahei. Miya no shita ni Shinto temple of below yadoya ga niken aru. inn two there are. Yane no nye kara tonde roof of above from flying itte shimatta. going finished Me no maye de. eye of before at What I said just now was a joke, I tell you. A tall soldier. A mountainous country. While there is still daylight. A telegram from London. Gold coins. There are two inns below the Shinto temple. It flew away over the roof. Before my eyes. No joins two words which relate to the same person or thing. '^ r 1 Dokushin no watakushi, single body Sagami no kuni. Mekura no kojiki, eye-dark of beggar. Betto no Tsiinckichi. Sugu ni koi to no at once come kotodzuke, message I, who am a single man. The province of Sagami. A blind beggar. The horse boy Tsunekichi. A message that he was to come at once. No is sometimes used like dano (which is=^a+wo) in enumerations. Here it may be rendered ' and ' or 'or.' !> ^ f I- ( PARTICLES. 139 Muko no yoshi no Even if I asked for a thing so far ^ son-in-law adopted son ^bove my station as to become to sonna mi ni sugita son-in-law or your adopted such person exceedmg son, my request could not be ^ koto wa negatte mo ^^ thing having requested even granted. kajiaimase7iu. T cannot be granted Moto yori izon no Of course there is no difference ^ oricrin from difference of ^f opinion or anything of that * opmion K- J JO ^ nanhio to iu wake wa t anything called reason nai. is not No with numerals. ► 't'^ Mitsu no hako. Three boxes. ' Sannin no dorobo. Three thieves. • ^ No after adjectives may very often be taken as equal to mono ' thing ' and translated by ' one.' Ito no futoi no wo motte Bring me a stout piece of thread thick taking thread. koi. come Kore ! nibul no bakari aru; Look here ! there are only blunt f' this blunt only are ones. Are there no sharp ones ? togatta no ga arimasenu ka? T C > sharp are not ? L ( Ichiban yastii no no nedan. The price of the cheapest ones. \ f^ \ no. I cheap price "^ "^ Omaye wa warui no ni You were certainly to blame. ^ t3 i you bad " q^ \ ^' chigai nai. ' ^ mistake ^ f \ In the following examples no ni may be rendered * whilst.' ^ -^ Ka ga oi no With such a lot of musquitoes *», J * musquitoes numerous about, why did you not put up the "^ c , ni naze kaya wo niusquito net ? ?f ^ 1 ,j whilst why musquito net t f f r s. tstttte okanai ? having hung not put r J \f' 140 PARTICLES. Kid wa Doyohi de nai no today Saturday not ni dushite ide whilst how having done come nasatta ? did How is it you have come to- day ? It is not Saturday. Kcisatsusho ye police station to tsnrcte iku no wa mendo accompany going trouble da kara. is because Kd kaite arimasu, no wo thus written is mite. seeing Omaye ga kowashita no ka? you broke ? Kowashita no wa watakushi broke I de gozarimasenit, is not Kowasu no wo mita yo. break saw Hisashi koto yenzetsu ga long thing speech nakatta no ni, kio wa was not whilst to day ichi ni nin one two men namaye ga miyeru. names are visible Watakushi wa itna mtfa I now looked no ni nani mo inai. when something is not Doko ye o ide nasatta where to go did no desho ? Ima made koko will be now until here ni ide nasatta no ni. No with verbs. Because it is tocr much trouble to go with you to the police no jozu no clever station. Seeing what was thus written. Is it of your breaking ? Was it you who broke it ? It was not I who broke it. I tell you I saw you break it. There have been no speeches for a long time but one or two clever speakers' names appear (on the list for) today. When I looked just now, there was nothing there. Where can he have gone to ? He was here till a moment ago. PARTICLES. 141 § 123. Ra is a plural particle. With adverbs of place rn adds vagueness to their meaning like the English * abouts ' in the same position. KokOy for example, means ' here,' kokora * hereabouts.' When it is wished to show respect ra is not used with nouns or pronouns, but dachi or gata. Examples. Sozushi yatsit ra da! noisy fellow (plural) is Sore ra no koto wo that (plural) thing segare kara kikimashlta. son Go from heard riokwan wa travel-residence dochira desu ? whereabouts is What a noisy lot of fellows ! I heard about [koto) those things from my son. Whereabouts are your lodg- ings ? § 124. Sa is found after nouns at the end of a sentence, where it has the same meaning as da ' is,' but is more emphatic. Examples. Ayashimu ni taranu There is not enough reason for think strange is not enough thinking it strange. wake sa. reason is Go sodan mostt consultation do isumori sa. intention is Yd ga am to sa, business is Sugu ni tonde iku no at once flying go desii to sa. is I intend to consult you. He says there is something for you to do. I tell you it is said that it goes flying off at once. ^ 142 PARTICLES. Are sa. (A phrase used as the equivalent ^® of our *I say' in calling one's atten- tion or by way of remonstrance.) Sayo sa. Yes. thus ig § 125. Saye after nouns or the stems of verbs means ' only.' Examples. Danna saye yoroshikereba, If my master is Only satisfied, m master only if is good j ^on't mind. ^^' '^ ' watakushi wa dudemo t\-.^ r; \{ qxj:^ I anyhow yoroshiu gozarimasu, 1 ^"""^ . *^ . \^ yf^ J,.- 'f h Yudachi no maye ni If they have only started before shower before ^ the shower, t^ ^vivt^J fc^v^ dckakete saye ireha. ^^ having gone out if remain ^-^ yihun ga horitsu wo okashi For my own part, so long as I ^^^^ ^^^^ . ^^^^^ don't break the law, there is no saye senya {iox seneba) reason why I should be the least only if not do r -j r . i- . afraid of the police. nam mo junsa no kowai anything police afraid koto wa nai hadzu sa. ' thing not necessity De sometimes comes between the noun and saye. It adds nothing to the meaning. Sempo de saye go shuchl If the other party only agrees, other party consent de gozarimasu nara. is if Chikusho de saye mo on wo The very beasts have a sense beast favour of gratitude. shiru. know § 126. Shi is used with verbs in the indicative mood as a conjunction. It may be rendered ' and,' ' and also,' ' not only — but,' * and so.' PARTICLES. Examples. H3 Michi mo yohodo am shi, way much is osoku natteni kara, late has become because hi to ban koko ni tomatte, one night here having stayed ashita tattara yok^arU. tomorrow if started will be good Toi michi demo ari wa distant way even be shimai shi, hashi wo will not do bridge ft watarcba tsui hana no if cross casually nose saki. before • Soto wo arukeba ashi ga outside if walk leg kutabireru shi, uchi ni get tired at home p oreba taikutsu suru shi, if remain ennui do ^ jitsu ni dumo — truly somehow Sewasht hi mo aru shi; busy day hima na hi mo aru. leisure day As you have a long way to go, and besides it has got late, you had better stay here for one night, and start tomorrow. Not only is it no great way off, but if you cross the bridge, there it is before your nose. If I go out, my legs get tired, and if I stay at home I feel bored, so that really — I have busy days and days of leisure. § 127. Shin is a moderately respectful plural particle. It is comparatively little used. || ^/ Tomodachi shiu. Kodomo shiu. Danna shiu. Examples. Friends. Children. Masters. § 128. Tachi or dachi is also a respectful plural particle. 144 PARTICLES. Examples. Ima no fujin dachi ga now lady (plur.) gakumon wo shite iru no learning doing remain wo mini to. see if Mo kimi tachi wa meshi already you rice ka? When we consider the pursuit of learning by the ladies of the present time. Have you gentlemen got to the rice (the last part of a meal) ? § i2g. To, To between two nouns means 'and.' It is sometimes repeated after the second. Watakushi to oniaye wa I and you huni kara kita toki. province from came time Temaye no okub'w to you cowardice mttgaku to wo taiia ni ignorance shelf to agete. raising Uchi no imi to dokka no home dog somewhere inu to ga oba san no daijina dog aunt's much-prized hato wo koroshita, pigeon killed Examples. When you and I came from our province. Putting in the background your cowardice and ignorance. Our dog and another one have killed my aunt's much-prized pigeon. Note that in the last sentence the whole phrase uchi no inu to dokka no inu to is the subject of the sentence and therefore takes ga after it as the sign of the nominative case. Hone to kawa to ni natta. bone skin has become He has become skin and bone. Other uses of to with nouns. He had a quarrel with a China- man. Shina -jin to kenkwa wo China man with quarrel shit a. did PARTICLES. 145 Kind kaita tammono They are the same as the piece yesterday bought piece goods g^Q^js I bought yesterday. to onaji mono desn. as same thing is Sakiijitsu katta hanakin yesterday bought shirtings to chigaimasn. from differs. \ Kotio hifo to this man with issho same place ni ike. go t They are different from the shirtings I bought yesterday. Go along with this man. Are wo tdzoku to shltc him robber having made mini toki wa. see time Riunin to mo. two men and even Itto shokikan to (or «/) first class secretary If we look on him as a robber. Both of them. He has been made First Secretary. nariniashtta, has become To with some uninflected words is used to form adverbs. Shikkarl to. Totsnzcn to. Pan to, Bara hara to. Firmly. Suddenly. With a bang. With a rattling noise. Onomatopoetic words like the two last examples are exceedingly common in Japanese, but they are rather inelegant. To with nouns sometimes corresponds to the inverted commas used as a sign of quotation. Urashiwo to ka in tokoro. A place called, if I remember Vladivostock ? jight^ 'Vladivostock.' 146 PARTICLES. O namaye wa nan'' to in ? name what say Watakushi lua Denkichi to mdshiinasu. call Honto to mo {ittc yoroshi ). truth even saying is good What is 5'our name ? My name is ' Denkichi.' To be sure it is true. With verbs, to (like our conjunction 'that') is the sign of quotation" or of indirect statement generally, and is used after such verbs as * to say,' 'to think,' * to promise,' 'to advise,' etc. etc. It must not be omitted as * that ' often is in English. It must sometimes be rendered by ' to.' Scri-nri ga mo shimai ni He said that the auction was auction already finish over. natta to iimashlta. became said Ike to in no da. go (imp.) say is Nan'' da to ye? what is it Koko de awo to wa here will meet omowananda. did not think Uto to sJuta. will strike did I tell you to go away. What is it you say it is ? I did not expect to meet you here. He made to strike him. When to is used, there is often an ellipsis of some part of one of the verbs iic 'to say,' mine 'to see,' omou 'to think,' sum ' to do,' kikic * to hear.' Anata ni sodan you with consultation (sho) to {omottc') khnashtta. will do thinking came I came to consult with you. * I am inclined to think that to is identical with the root so of sore ' that,' and that from a demonstrative, this particle has become a conjunction, just like its English equivalent. In the phrases to kaku, to mo kakti nu), its original demonstrative force is retained. PARTICLES. 147 Kohn ye vivgaku I think he said he was going to engineering matriculation matriculate in Engineering. (^stiru') to ka itta. do ? said Yd gozarimasu to ('/^O To be sure I will, good is that said mo {yoroshl\ even is good Ariinasu to mo. To be sure there are. The ordinary force of to mo after verbs is ' though,' * even though.' Nanl ni tsttkai-harawarcru You can spend the money on what for spend be paid whatever you please. to mo omaye no kattc da. • . . even your convenience is In the language of the lower classes, to is often con- tracted with the verbs hi and aru following. Ikcttaray (for ike to Why don't you go when I tell go (imp.) youp ittara) ikanai ka ? when I said not go ? Shiranai ttc (for to ittc) When I tell you I don't know, not know iu fil, saying in Na wo iye tatte (for You ask me to tell you his name, name say (imp.) ^^^ there is no such person. to atte) sonna hzto wa being such person arimascnu. is not Hongo ye hiki-koshi nasatta By the help of a statement that remove did y^^ j^ad removed to Hongo, I tcnde (for to iu no de), found you out with difficulty, by-its-being-said-that yv-yd no koto de shircmasJnta. hardly thing by found out. 1^8 PARTICLES. Mckiira ta (for to wa, which Whom do you call blind ? blind again is for to iu wa) dare no who of koto da ? thing is Tcgami ga nai tcba Have not I told you there is no letter is not (for to icba). if I say letter ? To after verbs must sometimes be translated 'if or ' when.' Gudzu gudzu sum to, tochiu If you loiter, it will be dark loitering do if way before you get there. de hi ga kurcru yo. on sun goes down Yokti-jitsu ni nam to. When the following day next day become when arrived. Sono toki no koto wo When I think of that time, that time thing onion to, think Knru to sugu ni. As soon as he comes (or came), come when at once § 130. Wa is a distinctive or separative particle. It has the force of isolating or singling out one object from among a number, of opposing one thing to another, or of limiting a statement strictly to the word which wa follows. Thus kore wa may mean '■ this one out of a number,' * this one not that one,' ' this one and nothing else,' ' this one at least.' Wa is often found with the subject of a sentence, but it must not be taken for the sign of the nominative case. It is also found combined with the locative particles ni and de, and even after wo the sign of the, accusative case, when it takes the nigori and becomes ba. PARTICLES. 149 The French quant a is perhaps the nearest equivalent to way but in European languages the same idea is usually expressed, not by a separate word, but by means of a great- er emphasis on the noun. Wa has frequently very little meaning, and its presence or absence is often immaterial. Wa may be used after those parts of the verb or adjective which are nouns in syntax. Shiroi koto wa shiroi. Are wa warui ; kore wa that is bad this yoroshi. is good X Korc de wa ikcnai. this with cannot go Watakushi no ktini ni wa my country jishin ga nai, earthquake is not Konda wa sonna wake ja this time such reason (for dc wa) nai. is not So far as whiteness gocs^ it is white. That is bad, this is good. This won't do. There are no earthquakes in my country. Tliis time, there will be nothing of that kind. Do shitcmo san- No matter what you do, I how having done even three think it will take at least three nights. I brought all that were in the box. (The wa implies that there were, or may have been, others not in the box.) The Tokaido coolies are called kumosUkc. ya wa kakarii d^aro, nights belong will be Hako no uchi ni arimashita box inside was 110 wa mina motte niairi- all having taken came tnashita. Tokaido no ninsokji wa coolie kumosuke to iu. call Kono sakana wa takai ka ? this fish dear ? Is this fish dear ? I50 PARTICLES. Hito no mono wa woga mono ; man thing my thing waga mono wa hito no mono de wa nai. is not Taisa to nattc colonel having become irii kara wa. remain since Watakushi no hnnko ni akai my desk red na-fnda ichimai am: sore wo name card one is that ba totte koi. having taken come Saiwni na koto ni wa. fortunate thing in Kawaglshi no dcnakatta wa not come out zanncn d^atta. disappointment was Narubcku wa. become could Kttfgnn ni irai shinaku navy reliance not doing tc wa naranu. in case does not become Watakushi no sDzo ataru kn my idea hit ? atoranai ka wa (or wo) shiranu. not hit What is other people's is mine, but what is mine is not other people's. Ever since he became a colonel. (The wa hints a contrast with the time before he became a colonel.) There is a red visiting card in my desk : bring it to me. (The ha shows that the card is to be singled out among the other things in the desk.) Fortunately. What a pity Kawagishi was not present ! If possible. We must rely upon the Nayy. I don't know whether my idea is correct, or not. Wa without any apparent meaning at the end of a sen- tence has been ah-eady adverted to in § 65. The Kioto terminations wai na^ wa na suggest that the verb 7iaru * to be ' must be supplied in this case, as mada o kawo ni sukoshi mo deniasenu iva (nam), Ht. * not yet coming out in the'least on your face is (a fact),' * it does not yet show on your face in the least.' PARTICLES. 151 An interrogative is often understood after wa. O atstirayc iva (iiani de What do you order, Sir ? (hon.) order what gozar'nnasii) ? is Ato iva? next Denkiclii san ! annaija wa ? guide Shikkci nagara, o impolite whilst (hon.) namayc wa? name (What is) the next (course) ? Mr. Denkichi ! what about the guide ? Excuse me, but what is your name ? In the common language of Tokio iva often suffers change or contraction. Thus for ari wa shinai ka, we have ari ya shhiai ka, for sore wa, sore ya or sorya, for nanzo wa, 7iaiizd, for kore wa, kord, for koto wa, kotd, etc. § 131. Wo is the sign of the accusative case. But a noun in the accusative case does not necessarily take wo after it. The accusative case governed by a preposition does not take wo, which is often omitted before sitni or itasu 'to do ' and in other cases. Da'tku wa dai wo tsukuru. carpenter table makes Ane 110 ycnsho to yara elder sister love lettpr ? wo watakushi made kaycshUc me to return moraitai. wish to receive Umcjiro san no koto haknri thing only wo ki ni kaketc int. mind having hung remain Kannin shite kudasarc. patience having done give The carpenter makes a table. I should like my elder sister's love letter, if that is what you call it, to be returned to me. He thinks of nothing but Ume- jiro. (Note the position of wo.) Please have patience with me. (Note the absence of rvn after kannin.) 1.-9 y ^ t 7 »*7 152 PARTICLES. Sazawa wo watakushl da to He thought Sazawa was I. I omotta. thought Wo is, often found where we use a preposition in English. lye wo dcmashita. He left his house, house from went out Kurtima wo orite. Getting out of the jinrikisha. jinrikisha from having got down Scnycn no kanc wo He was robbed of one thou- looo yen money of g^nd yen. tor ar eta. was robbed Konzatsu wo hanarcta tokoro. A place removed from turmoil, turmoil from removed place For mo7io wo see mono, § 107. In the following sentence wo has a somewhat similar meaning: — Taikd ni mo nam tokoro It had gone so far that he was expulsion even become place ^^ ^^e point of being expelled de atta wo, dare ka fj-om college, when by some- was whereas somebody , , , , ,v^ body s good offices — sniusen shite — good offices having done But ga is commoner than wo in this construction. § 132. Ya, Ya oscillates in meaning between the two signs'?' and'!,' being sometimes expressive of doubt, and at others a mere exclamation. After nouns it is used ; — • 1. As a Vocative termination. Take ya / Take ! 2. With the meaning ' or.' Nido ya sando. Two or three times, twice three times Koto ya samisen wa tai- A moderate degree of profi- Jap.harp guitar pretty- ciency on the koto or samisen tei de wa ii. jg sufficient, nearly with is good PARTICLES. 153 With Verbs. Knu ya kuwazu no mi, A person with precarious means eat or not eat body of subsistence. Aiiata no hasha wa niiyeru The moment your carriage your carriage is visible ^omes in sight. ya inaya, ? not ? . The last idiom is rather bookish. Iko ya / Let us go ! will go ¥ov ya as a corruption o{ iva^ see above, § 130. § 133. Vara. Vara is a contraction for ya (see pre- vious section) and ara^i, the old future of arw, *to be.' It expresses uncertainty. Doko ni orimasu yara I don't know where he lives, where lives ? watakushi ni wa wakarimasenu, me to is not known Doko ye itta yara. I wonder where he has gone. The last sentence is left incomplete in the Japanese ver- sion. Some such phrase as the concluding words of the previous example is to be supplied. Aviakao to yara ye idc ni The year after you went to Macao to went Macao, if that is the right name narimashlta yoku nen. q£ ^^^ place, (respectful) next year Tanoji tara (for to yara) iu A singing-girl called Tanoji,' if geisha. I remember rightly. Dare yara ga itta koto. Something somebody said, who said thing § 134. Ye^ 'towards,' * to.' ThejK in this particle is pronounced very lightly, and perhaps the student's safest plan is to omit it altogether, as many Japanese do. Itsu kuni ye kaeri When do you return to your when country to return country ? asant, ha? do ? if'f o} ^ 1i^ V r'7, p U' f, J 1 -A /, ^ b' ^ x: 3. fb'T^ f 3 > .-s ^^^' 3»; 154 PARTICLES. Tabi ye tatsu no wo He put off starting on his journey starting journey. nobashita, put oft Watakiishi no yado ye o Stay for the night in my my lodging in lodgings. totnarl nasare. stay do Achira ye mate. Wait there. Ye in the last two sentences seems to mean *at ' or 'in,* but perhaps o ide nasatte or itte is to be supplied after it. There is a ye (or e) which is a mere interjection some- thing like our ' eh ?,' and must be distinguished from ye * towards.' § 135. Yo. Yo is used with nouns in the vocative case, but it is something more than a rnere vocative particle. It is emphatic, and implies pleading, remonstrance, appeal or warning. Indeed it often stands quite by itself as an exclamation with this force. It is difficult to render yo by any English word, but ' I tell you,' will sometimes translate it pretty accurately. In the Kioto dialect yo is used with the roots of verbs of the second conjugation to form the imperative mood. Thus for taberOj the Kioto people say tabeyo. In the Tokio dialect, j^o with the imperative is not a mere termination, but has the emphatic force described above. It is a favourite particle with women. Okka san yo. Mother ! mother O cha yo / yiikafa yo ! Some tea ! a bath gown ! (for tea bath gown a guest). Abtinai yo. It is dangerous, I tell you. is dangerous Shiranai yo. I tell you I don't know. PARTICLES. 155 O ide yo. Do come. O agari nasai (Tor nasare) yo. Do come in. come up do § 136. Von, * from,' * since,' * than.' Examples. Korc yori hachi ri, this from eight Konaida yori h'wki some days ago from illness de shnkkin owing to going to office itashimasenu. do not Mushi-agemashlta ncdan yori stated price than shtta de low with Eight ri from here. For some days past I have been prevented by illness from going to office. I can't let you have them for less than I said. wa sashi-agerarare- offer can masenu, not Omotta yori yasui. thought cheap Watakushi yori hoka ni me than other shiru Into wa nashi. know man is not Itsumo yori kenkd desu, ever than robust is Seppuku sum yori hoka ni harakiri do than other shikata ga nai. do-side is not A. O ! Fuku ha ? do Hilloa ! how shlta ? B. Ore yori wa omaye did me than you san do shtta ? how did It is cheaper than I thought. Nobody knows but me. He is in stronger health than usual. There is nothing left for it but to commit harakiri. A. Hilloa ! is that Fuku ? What became of you? B. Or rather what became of you ? § 137. Zo is a very emphatic particle. 156 PARTICLES. Examples. Keshtte uchi -ye irete -You must positively not allow positively house into admit him into the house. wa naranat zo» in case not become Katahu ii-tsukcta zo, hard ordered Kita zo. has come Kiku hodo no mono wa hear quantity thing nai ze (for zo ye). is not You have my strict ^ orders. Here he is ! I tell you there is nothing worth listening to. CHAPTER X. ADVERBS, PREPOSITIONS, CONJUNCTIONS AND INTERJECTIONS. ft ADVERBS. § 138. The true adverb is in Japanese the form of the adjective ending in the syllable ku : 3iS hay aktif 'quickly;' atarashikuj * newly ;' yokuy ' well.'* See § 82. Many words used as adverbs are really nouns or nouns followed by particles, as ashita^ * tomorrow ;' sakini, * before ;' bakaniy *■ foolishly ;' sugimi, ' at once ;' or participles of verbs, as siibete^ ' generally ;' semetey * at least ;' nokorazuy * without exception.' The present indicative of verbs is sometimes reduplicated to form an adverb, as 7nirn-mirUy * a vue d'oei\\ yuku-yukUy * as one goes along.' § 139. The following list contains some of the most commonly used adverbs : — > ADVERBS OF TIME. Moy already. ItsUy when (interrogative). Tokij ditto, (relative). Miotiichi, to-morrow. Ashtta, ditto. Konnichiy to-day. Kidy ditto. Maduy not yet. ItsudemOy always. yikiniy soon. Mettaniy (with neg.) seldom. Tadaimay immediately. Mohayay already, Sudeniy ditto. * Also contracted into hayd, atarashiu, yd. 158 ADVERBS. ADVERBS OF TIME. Sakujitsu, yesterday. Kind, ditto. Sendatte,- some days ago. Nochihodo, by and by. Tabi tabif several times. Ichi do or hito tabi, once. Ni do or futa tabi, twice. &c. &c. ADVERBS Koko, here. Kokoni, here. Doko, where. Dokoni, where. Soko, there. Sokoni, there. Asiiko, there. Asukofii, there. Kochi, here, hither. Kochira, here, hither. Dochi, where, whither. OF PLACE.'"' Dochira, where, whither. Sochi, there, thither. Sochira, there, thither. Achi, there, thither. Achira, there, thither. Sakini, before. Atode, behind. Sakasama, upside down. Yokoni, across. Uyeni, above. Shitani, below. Do, how. Ikaga, how. Ko, in this way. Kayoni, in this way. So, in that way. Sayoni, in that way. ADVERBS OF MANNER. Domo, howsoever. Hanahada, very. Naze, why. ZeJii, positively. Jozii ni, cleverly. Yoliu, well. ADVERBS OF QUANTITY. Takusanf taiso, much. Donoknrai, how much. jfiubun, enough. Sukoshi, little. Ikutsu, how many. Bakari, only. Ikura, how much. Motto, more. Amari or ' Yokeini too much. * See also §§ i8 to 24. ADVERBS. 159 ADVERBS OF AFFIRMATION AND NEGATION. He, or /mz, yes. lye, no. MottotnOj right ! He or hai must not be understood in too strict a sense. It is often nothing more than a poHte expression of atten- tion to what is being said. The true mode of expressing affirmation is to repeat the verb of the clause referred to. A negative answer to a question may be expressed in a similar manner. He and hai are more used in answer to commands than to questions. Examples. Mu himashita ka ? Has he come yet ? Kimashita. Yes, he has come. Mionichi tsugo wa Is it convenient tomorrow? tomorrow convenience yorosh i ka ? is good Sayo desu or He, sayo desu. Yes, it is. He, sayo de gozaimasenu. No, it is not. § 140. Onomatopoetic Adverbs are common in Japanese but most of them are somewhat vulgar. They are often followed by the particle to. Examples. Gata gata. of a rattling noise. Butsti butsu. grumblingly. Potsuri-potsuri. of the ' spitting ' of rain. Domburi to. of falling with a ' flop.' The adverb invariably precedes the word which it qualifies. PREPOSITIONS. § 141. The Preposition should in Japanese be called the Postposition, as it always follows the noun. The pre- positions have been treated of in the Chapter on Particles. l6o INTERJECTICNS. The English prepositions must often be rendered in Japan- ese by different parts of speech. Thus, for ' between,' we have no aida ni, Ht. ' in the space of; ' for ' beside ' we must say no soba ni, Ht. 'at the side of;' for 'over,' hoyete, the past participle oi koyerii, 'to cross.' CONJUNCTIONS. § 142. Conjunctions in English are variously rendered in Japanese by Particles, Verbal or Adjectival terminations etc. Some have been already noticed under the head of Particles, and hints as to translating them into Japanese will also be found in Chapter XI. INTERJECTIONS. § 143. As in other languages Interjections are merely ex- clamations, and can scarcely be said to have any grammar. The principal are : — Of, Halloa! Aita, Ah ! of pain. Oya, Oh ! of surprise — used chiefly by women. He, (rising accent) of surprise and admiration. Yai, of terror. Dokkoi, when lifting a heavy weight, or otherwise exerting oneself. Sd, of inciting a person to do something. Md, of satisfaction, surprise, etc. The lie so common in the vulgar Yedo dialect (in other parts of Japan it is na or no) is a sort of interjection. It has very little meaning, and merely serves to draw the attention of the person addressed. It has about the same force as the meaningless, ' you know,' sometimes heard in English con- versation. Yorosh'i ne, ' it is good, is it not '? mata inioniclii o ide nasarn ne, 'you will come again to-morrow, won't you '? sore kara ne , ' after that, don't you know ' Ne is little used by men. CHAPTER XL ENGLISH WORDS INTO JAPANESE. § 144. At the risk of some repetition, it has been con- sidered desirable to give a few notes on the mode of render- ing into Japanese some common English words." § 145. * Although ' or 'though.' A''^r^*^^^«1 to children. Jt san ) Another's grandmother. One's own grandmother go so bo. sobo. ba san (to children). baba. Another's brother. One's own brother. ani san Celder). ani. go sonkei ( do ). go shatei sama (younger). go shatei ( do. ). otdto go ( do. ). ototo. HONORIFIC AND HUMBLE FORMS. l6g Another's sister. One's own sister. ane san (elder). ane. anc sail. imoto go (younger). imuto. Another's son. One's own son. go shisoku. segarc. tmisuko san. musuko. kodomo (also of daughters) go sorio (eldest). sdriu. go jinan (second). jinan.. go sannan (third). sannan. Another's daughter. One's own daughter. go sohijo. musume. a musume go. ojo san. Oji and oha are used for one's own uncle and aunt ; the same words followed by san or sama for another's. Oi and rnei are used for one's own nephew and niece ; oi go sama and o mei go sama for another's. Another's father-in-law and mother-in-law are shiuto go, shiutome go ; one's own simply shiuto^ shiutome. Similarly one's own son-in-law is miiko, another's o miiko san; daughter-in-law (own) yome or (another's) yome go ; grandchild (own) mago or (another's) o mago ; cousin (own) itoko or (another's) o ifoko ; adopted son, (own) yoshi or (another's) go yoshi. San or sa7nn may be added to any of the above honorific forms. Children, and to some extent women, add san in speak- ing of their own elder relations. They say, for instance, ane san for * my elder sister,' okka san for ' my mamma.' The words used of one's own relations may also be used of the relations of third persons to whom no special respect is due, or even of the relatives of the person addressed when the latter is of a rank decidedly inferior to the speaker. lyo HONORIFIC AND HUMBLE FORMS. To one's servant, one says oniaye no chichi or omaye no oyaji for * your father.' Segare and giLsai can only be used of one's own son, and one's own wife. § i66. Honorific and humble verbs. Honorific verbs are of two kinds (a) where a wholly different word is sub- stituted for the ordinary verb and (b) where the causative or potential (passive) verb is put instead of the simple verb, on the principle that it is more respectful to say that a person has caused a thing to be done or has been able to do it than merely that he has done it. Humble verbs belong exclusively to the first of these two classes. Examples. (a) Neutral. Humble. Honorific. Sum, to do Itasu or tstikamatsuru Nasam or asohasu. Iku, to go Maim ide nasam or irassharu. In, to say Mdsu Ossharu. Yarn, to give Agcru Kudasaru or taviaii. Taheru, to eat Meshi-agam. Omou, to think Oboshimcsu. (b) Do'itsu no Kotei ga Germany Emperor shinaremashita. was able to die. Daijin ga deraremashita, H. E. Htmei ni without command { i. e. of shinaremashita. Heaven) died. O machi asobase. The German Emperor is dead. His Excellency (used of Mi- nisters of State) has gone out. He died a violent death. Be pleased to wait. HONORIFIC AND HUMBLE FORMS. I7I § 167. Honorific Prefixes. The honorific prefixes o and go are used before nouns, verbs and adjectives, as indica- tions of respect. They generally, though not invariably, show that the words with which they are used are in the second person or have something to do with the person addressed, and they therefore render to a large extent un- necessary the use of pronouns of the second person. Thus o miiinay kunima will usually mean * your horse,' 'your jinrikisha' without the addition of any personal pronoun. Sometimes however the pronoun understood is not in the possessive but in some other case. O negaiy for example, usually means ' a petition to you ' and o muma may only mean * a horse /or you,' as in the phrase osore-itta o muma de gozarimasUj * it is a fear-entered honourable horse ' i.e. * it is a horse I am ashamed to offer you.' The phrase o saki ye means * before you.' It is an apology for going on ahead of or leaving before the person addressed. Go henji (honorable answer) may mean according to circumstances, either 'your answer' or 'an answer to you ' ; go burei either ' your impoliteness ' or ' impoliteness to you.' Sometimes the honorifics are intended by way of respect to the objects to which they are applied. There are words with which the lower classes use them almost invariably, partly from this reason, and partly no doubt from habit. ' The sun ' for example is o tento sama with women of the lower class, 'cold water' is o hiya^ 'hot water' o yti^ ' food ' go zen, ' cash ' o ashij ' a Buddhist temple ' o tera etc. etc. O is a word of Japanese origin, no doubt connected with okiy ' great,' and is ordinarily prefixed to Japanese words. Go is used before Chinese words. But neither of these rules is without exceptions. A good number of Chinese words 172 HONORIFIC AND HUMBLE FORMS. have become so assimilated that their Chinese origin is overlooked, and they are no longer recognized as strangers. They therefore take the native prefix, while on the other hand one or two Japanese words have come to be some- times preceded by go. Ex. O takuy 'your house;' kyaku, *a guest;' o tokeij *your watch;' go niottomOj 'you are right;' go {or 0) yiiniri to, 'at your ease ' (in pressing a guest to stay longer). A very common use of is with the stems of verbs in the second person followed by the honorific verbs nasaru or asohasii as kashi nasare Mend,' o kashi nasatte kiidasare^ ' please be kind enough to lend me,' machi asobase, ' be good enough to wait, sir.' This combination is very common in the imperative mood when nasare is sometimes contracted into na or even omitted altogether. But in such cases the honorific force almost entirely disappears. machi na or machi * wait ' would only be used to servants or members of one's own family. O is also used before the stem followed by the humble word mosu in the first person, so that this construction comprises an expression of respect for the person addressed with a humble reference to oneself. Ex. negai moshimasu * I ask a favor of you, tanomi mostr' ' I pray you.' O may also be used with adjectives. Ex. samuii gozari- jnasho * I am sure you are cold,' wako gozarimasu ' you are young.' In the compound gozarimasu or gozaimasu, so common as a polite substitute for the verb aru * to be,' go is not a honorific particle indicative of respect to the person who is the subject of the verb, but like masu, its use implies * This phrase or o tanomu, tanomu or o tanomi moshimasu is called out by the visitor to a Japanese house instead of knocking or ringing a bell. HONORIFIC AND HUMBLE FORMS. 173 courtesy to the person addressed whatever may be the nominative to it. When we say watakushi de gozniinasu * it is I,' are de goznimnsu * it is he,' there is no intention of speaking honorifically of oneself or of him ; the courtesy impHed by the use of ^o is all intended for the benefit of the person addressed. § 168. Honorific Suffixes. The Plural Suffixes gata and tacJii and in a less degree shiu have a moderately honorific force : ra and domo are used when no honorific meaning is intended. Sama, the original meaning of which is * appearance,' is used after the name, description or title in addressing or in speaking respectfully of superiors, more especially by servants to their masters, and by tradespeople to their customers. It indicates much the same degree of respect as our 'Sir.' Ex. Danna sama * Sir,' anata sama 'your honour,' Takeda sama Mr. Takeda, okic sama ' the honour- able interior of the house,' i.e. 'the lady of the house,' koshi sama 'the Minister,' Tenshi sama 'the Mikado,' o Tento 5awa ' the sun,' tono sama (to daimios) 'your Lordship.' It is also used with a few other words, as go hiro sama ' thanks for your trouble,' sewa sama * I am much obliged to you.' Kochira sama^ achira sama are highly respectful expressions for kochira, achira, Sattj a contraction of sama, corresponds roughly to our Mr., Mrs. or Miss. It is used chiefly between equals, occa- sionally to superiors and even to inferiors when one wishes to be civil. It is not used with reference to one's own relations or in addressing one's own servants. ' My father ' is not oyaji san but simply oyaji. San may be added either to the personal name or to the surname. In the case of women o is usually prefixed at the same time, when the 174 HONORIFIC AND HUMBLE FORMS. personal name is used, as O Tora san ' Miss Tora.' To one's own servant or wife the personal name with or without is used. A wife does not speak of or call her husband san ; a concubine does. In speaking of her husband in the third person, a wife generally says yado ' the house ' or feishiu (pron. teishi), ' husband.' San is not used to one's friend's servants. But to the servants of strangers do7i should be used instead of san. ' Madame ' is oku san or in a lower class of society o kami san. * Mademoiselle ' is o jo san or o niusume go. In the third person for Mrs. A , A- saji no go kanai or saikun is the proper expression. San is much used after names of trades and professions, as daiku san ' the carpenter,' hanto san ' the merchant's clerk,' isha san ' the doctor, ' both in the second and in the third person. Children use to each other the first part of the personal name with or without san. One's own male servants are addressed by their personal names which are mostly abbreviated, as Tsune for Tsnnesabnro. Little boys up to five or six are called bo cJian (for bo san). Dono is little used in speaking but its contraction don is used in addressing or in speaking of the servants of others, also by female servants and bantos (merchant's clerks) to each other. Kun is the word in use by students for Mr.. It is familiar, like the use of the bare surname in English. The surname without any addition is an exceedingly familiar form of address, and is little used. As an example of the use of these suffixes, take your servant. His full name is Ikeda Torakichi, Ikeda being . the surname and Torakichi the personal name. You will HONORIFIC AND HUMBLE FORMS. 175 address him as Tom or Torakichi ; his intimates of his own rank will call him Tora san or perhaps Ikeda san ; his wife Ikeda, and strangers Ikeda san; if his son goes to the university or is drawn as a conscript, he will be called by his comrades Ikeda kun, and if he becomes an official his subordinates will address him and speak of him as Ikeda sama. On visiting cards, the personal name, surname and title or official rank only are written. No san or other similar suffix is used. Go is used as a suffix after a few names of relationships. See the Table in § i66. § i6g. The above modes of expressing respect or humi- lity are generally found in combination. Thus the phrase o ide nasareniase includes the honorific particle o, the special verbs idem instead of iku or knrn, and nasaru for sum, and the potential form nasarenc for nasam. Masu was originally a honorific. . As now used, it ex- presses neither respect nor humility but is a polite termina- tion which may be used indiscriminately with any person of the verb. It should be remembered that ynasu is an element of the contracted forms desu, deshita and desJio, which are therefore somewhat more polite than da, datta, and daro. But a contracted form which contains a honori- fic or polite form is always much less respectful than the uncontracted form. The politeness implied in the use of masu, is always for the benefit of the person addressed, and not of third persons. It should not be used to servants or coolies. § 170. Examples of Honorific and Humble expressions. See also the extracts in Chapter xvi. s/ 176 HONORIFIC AND HUMBLE FORMS. Nouns. A. Go shiu (for sake) wa A. May I offer you some ikaga de gozarimasu? B. Hai, sake? B. Thanks, I will take how is chodai ifashimashu, receive will do some. O tsumurl (for atama) kara saki Shall I do your head first, head from first sir ? (a shampooer asks). ni itashimasho ka ? shall do Go zen (for meshi) ga deki- Dinner (breakfast or supper) is "^eal ready, Sir. inashlta. Go zcn isubu de tsukete Stick it on with some boiled boiled rice grains having ^^^^^ o kure. stuck give A. Yn go han wa mada de A. Have you not had supper gozaimasuka? B, He ; yii-meshi yet? B. No, not yet. iva mada desu. Verbs. ^/ O machi mvshite (humble for I was waiting for you. wait doing shite) orimashita. remained Katakii go chiukoku vioshi- I strongly advise you. hard advice do masu (humble for surti). Go konrei asohasanai (bono- Before you perform the marriage, marriage do not rif. for stiru) nchi. within O siiki asobasu ongaku. The music which your Lord- like do music ship is so fond of. Oki-tamaye. Have done. (student's Ian- put give guage). O rei wo o nke mosu hodo It is not worth being thanked thanks receive do amount Jqj.. no koto de wa gozaimaseiiu. thing is not HONORIFIC AND HUMBLE FORMS. I77 hima no tokl hanashi When you have time, please leisure time talk ^ome and have a chat. ni irasshatte (for kite) kudasarc, having come give Donata de irasshaimasu ka? May I ask who you are, Sir ? who are (for am) Nan'to osshaimashita ? What did you say, Sir ? what say (for itta) Mionichi hayeshi mdshimasu, I will return it tomorrow, tomorrow return do Haikcn shltemo May I see it ? see having done even (for mitcnio) ii no desu ka? good is it Haishaku shite wa Would it be any harm if I borrow having done borrowed it ? ivarui ka ? bad Honorific Prefixes. O toshi wa o ikutsu ni o What age are you ? year how many nari nasaru ? become do O toshi ni shite wa tassha You are a robust man for your year de gozarimasu. year robust ^ / IS O medeto gozarimasu. I beg to compliment you. (a new beautiiul year's greeting, also used at wed- dings etc.) O yakamashiti gozarimashita, I have been making myself a "°'^y nuisance to you. Makoto ni sewa da, I am much obliged to you (said truly trouble ironically or to inferiors). O atsuii gozarimasu. It is hot. hot O shidznka ni irasshaimase. Go in peace, (to a departing quietly be, go or come, guest). Danna wa tichi ka ? Is your master at home ? master within 178 HONORIFIC AND HUMBLE FORMS; V Oku sama wa uchi ka ? He, rusu de gozarimasu. absent O dekake de gozarimasu, O iirami ni wa zonjimasenu, hate not think Anata wa wakai kara. you are young because Anata no kangaye de wa. opinion with O kage de. shadow with O jama wo itashimashita, interference did Doko ni stimai dcsu ka? where dwell is Otoko no ko dcsu, ka ; onna male child is female no ko dcsu ka? child Danna ! o mukai ni mairi- master meet have mashlta. come O machi nasare, Koko ni kite kure here having come give (tiasare). O aki ni nattara wata- empty when became kushi ni kashite kurcnii ka ? me having lent give not O tsuki sama ni siippoji da. moon tortoise Yoku tadzune kndasatta. well visit have given O kinodoku sama. mind of poison O machido dcshlta. Is your mistress at home ? No, he (or she) has gone out. Ditto. I don't hate you for it. Because you are young. In your opinion. Thanks to you. I apologize for having inter- rupted you. Where do you (or your father, master etc.) live ? Is it (your friend's child) a boy or a girl ? I have come to meet you, Sir. Wait. Come here. Won't you lend it to me when you have done with it ? It is as different as chalk from cheese. Thank you for coming to see me. I am sorry for you. I have kept you waiting. HONORIFIC AND HUMBLE FORMS. 179 V V / 1/ Go mcndo dc gozalmasho trouble will be get— Go shimpai nl wa oyobi- anxiety reaches viasenu. not Go katte shidai. convenience according to Goran nasai ! Gomcn nasai ! Gyoi (for go i) ni gozaimasu. hon. opinion is Mada go nicnkai mdshimascnu. yet meeting do not deshita, was Go yenrio naku—^ Sazo go shiusho de surely sorrow gozalmasho. will be It will be troubling you very much, but — You need not be anxious. Just as you please. Look! Pardon me ! : I beg your pardon. Your Honour is quite right. I have not met you before. Without ceremony. You must surely be in great grief (a common expression of condolence). Iro iro go yakkai ni all kinds of assistance narimashtta. become I am under all kinds of obli- gations to you. Goran no turi. see manner As you see. Tuke no go shisoktt this house son Your son Hayazo. Hayazo knn. Mr. Go isshin mayc» restoration before Before the Restoration (of the Mikado's power in 1868). Suffixes. O kyaku sama ga miycma- visitor has be- sliita. come visible A visitor has arrived, Sir. i8o HONORIFIC AND HUMBLE FORMS. A. Uyeki-ya san ! hono hi gardener this tree wa karcru ja nai ka ? B. wither He ! achira sama ye there to nye-kaycmasho, plant change. Daniia sama nl mushi-wake master excuse ga gozarimasenu, Yomc go san no go bidki daughter-in-law illness wa ikaga de gozaimasu ? how A. Gardener ! is not this tree dyin^ ? B. Yes. Sir ; I'll trans- plant it over there. My conduct has been inexcus- able, Sir. How is your daughter-in-law ? Kono fujln gat a ladies wo Show these ladies to the waiting room. kiusoktijo ye go annai restingplace to guidance moshi-agcro. do § 171. The word ' come ! ' (imp. mood) in a gradually ascending scale of respect towards the person addressed. Koi, O idc. O ide na. O ide nasare* Irasshare. O ide nasarcmase. Irassharemase O ide asobasc, O ide asobashimasc. To children or animals, and to servants, coolies etc. in giving short orders. Familiar. Ordinary form among equals. To superiors. To persons much superior in rank. Exceedingly respectful. If the word * please ' is introduced, the scale will be as follows : — Kite kurero* Kitd kure. HONORIFIC AND HUMBLE FORMS. l8l Kite kure na. Kite hire. Ki tamayc. Student's language. Kite kudasare, O ide kudasare* O ide nasatte kudasare* * O ide wo ncgaimasu. Irasshattc kudasare* Irasshatte kudasainiase. § 172. Contemptuous forms of expression. Some nouns have a contemptuous force, 2istsura * mug,' for kawo ' face,' yatstt, * fellow,' for Into ' man.' Examples of Contemptuous Verbs are — Kuu or kurauy ' to eat ' for tahcru. Useru, * to go away ' for iku. Ketsukaru, ' to be ' for aru or oru. Agarti with the stems of verbs is a contemptuous aux- iliary, as ko?io haka yard me nani wo fiukashi-aganc ? * What is this fool gabbling about ? ' Me is used after nouns as a contemptuous suffix, as chi- kusho me * beast,' ama me ' hussy,' heraho me ' scoundrel,' yard me * low fellow.' CHAPTER XIII.' SYNTAX. ■ ORDER OF WORDS IN A SENTENCE. § 173. The first place in a Japanese sentence is occupi- ed by the nominative case, the next by the indirect object of the verb or by a noun followed by a postposition, the third by the direct object of the verb (accusative case) and the last by the verb or the adjective in the verbal form. Ex. Watakushi wa tichi ni tahaho wo nomanuy ' I don't smoke (lit. * drink') tobacco in the house ;' teyiki lua sakujitsii kara atsidi * the weather is hot since yesterday.' Exception. In comparisons the object with which the comparison is made is usually, but not always, put first. ^ Ex. Kono yama yori are wa takai, 'this mountain is higher than that.' § 174. Qualifying words or phrases precede the words which they qualify. Thus : — (a) The adjective and the verb in the attributive form precede the noun to which they belong, as yoroslii hito^ * a good man,' hini Into * the man who comes.' (b) The adverb precedes the verb, adjective or adverb which it qualifies, as goku hayaku * very early,' goku hayai * very early,' hayahn koi ' come quick.' (c) The noun followed by the possessive particle 710 or ga precedes the noun to which it is joined, as Into no chikara ' a man's strength,' ki7i 710 tokei * a gold watch.' SVNtAX. t§3 § 175. Particles indicating number and case, with wa, yUf ga, 7)10 J kUf to J or 7iagara, come after the noun, a.s yama ni * to the mountain,' kore ka ' is it this ? ' Roughly speaking they come in the following order : — plural particles ; to or nagara\ case signs; wa^ ga, ya^ mOj or ka, but to this there are numerous exceptions. § 176. The signs of gender o and on, me and men and the honorifics and go are put before the word to which they belong. But these are really qualifying words, and fall under the rule in § 174. § 177. Expressions denoting time precede expressions denoting place and a general expression precedes one that is more precise. Ex. Itsu Kobe ni ikimasu ka ? 'when are you going to Kobe ? ' ; ko?inichi go ji ni ide nasare, * come at five o'clock today.' But this rule is by no means rigidly observed. § 178. Conjunctions and interrogative particles are placed at the end of the clause or sentence to which they belong. Ex. Kane ga arimasenu kara, * because I have no money ; naze nai ka ? * why have you none ?' § 179. Dependent clauses and participles precede the principal verb of the sentence. Kane ga ant, toki, kaimashu. I intend to buy some when money is time will buy i j^ave the money. Ftirui kimono wo ntte^ Having sold her old clothes, old clothes having sold g^e bought new ones. aiarashi no kaimashlta, new bought Clauses ending in kara occasionally follow the principal clause of the sentence. Ex. GiosJia san, basJia wo tometc kiire, koko ni oritai kara, 'Driver, please stop the carriage: I want to get down here.' But in these cases, the latter clause is really added by way of an afterthought. 184 SYNTAX. INDIRECT NARRATION. § 180. In European languages, a sentence when reported by another person changes its form considerably. If I say ' I will go,' another person in reporting my promise, says * he said he would go,' 'will' being changed into 'would,' and ' he ' substituted for * I.' In Japanese no change takes place, and the fact that the sentence is a quotation is in- dicated simply by the particle to placed after it. Thus ' I will go ' is ikti ; ' he said he would go ' is iku to iimashita. See tOj p. 146. APOSIOPESIS. § 181. The Japanese are very fond of breaking off a sentence in the middle leaving the remainder to be under- stood. This habit of theirs explains many apparent anomalies. Examples. O rtisti nara, sashi-oki de If he is absent, it will be absent if is leave sufficient to leave it, so (don't yorosht kara Qnottc kayeruna). bring it back again), is good because Dalkti wo yonde Call a carpenter, carpenter having called (o kure). give O kure is itself an example of this practice, nasarc being omitted after it. DozD kannin shtte Please have patience with me. please patience having done {kudasare). COORDINATION. § 182. The Rule by which, when two or more Verbs or Adjectives are coordinated in a sentence, the last only takes the inflection or particle belonging to all, the others being SYNTAX. 185 put in the indefinite form, has been already explained in §§ 46 and 82. A somewhat similar rule applies to nouns. Particles which belong to several nouns are not put with each of them, but only with the last of the number. We do not say for example nioho wo kodomo ivo sutete nigemashita but iiidbo kodomo wo sutete nigemashita^ ' he ran away abandoning his wife and children.' CHAPTER XIV. TIME, MONEY, WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. YEARS. § 183. The Japanese have two modes of reckoning years. One is by means of a cycle of twelve years, to which the names of the twelve signs of the Japanese zodiac have been given. These signs are : — 1876 Ne, the rat. 1877 Ushi, the bull. ,1878 Tora, the tiger. 1879 U (for usagi) the hare. 1880 Tatsti, the dragon. 1 88 1 Mi, the serpent. 1882 Mwna, the horse. 1883 Hitsuji, the goat. 1884 Sam, the monkey. 1885 Tori, the cock. 1886 hm, the dog. 1887 /, the wild boar. 1888 is again A^^, and so on. This mode of reckoning is not much used now except in referring to the year of one's birth. The other plan is by means of periods of uncertain length distinguished by a special name (nengo). These periods were formerly fixed arbitrarily, but it has been announced that in future they will coincide with the reigns of the Mikados. The present year (1888) is the 21st year of Meiji. The Japanese year now coincides with our own and begins on the ist January, TIME, MONEY, WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 187 Months. § 184. The Gregorian calendar has been introduced in Japan for the month as well as for the year. The months are called : — ■ January, sho gatsu. August, hachi gatsu. February, ni ,, September, ku „ March, san ,, October, j}}!' . . n April, shi ,, November, jin ichi ,, or May, go shimotsnki. June, roku ,, December, jiu ni gatsu, July, shichi ,, i . or shiwasu. 'One month,' 'two months,' &c., are expressed by means of the Japanese numerals and tsilki, the Japanese word for a month. 'One month' is hito tsuki, 'two months ' futa tsuki, &c. Ik-ka-getsii (contr. for ichi-ka-getsu), ' one month,' ni-ka- getsii, 'two months ' etc., may also be used. Days. § 185. The days of the month are as follows : — ist, tsiutachi. 17th, jiu shichi 7iichi, 2n6,fictsuka. i8th, ,, liachi 7iichi. 3rd, ?nikka. 4th, yokka. 5th, itsiika. . igth, 20th, 2ISt, ,, kiL nichi. hats ilka, ni jiic ichi 7iichi, 6th, muika. 22nd, ,, ,, ?iJ 7iichi, 7th, 7ianuka, 8th, yoka. gth, kokonoka, loth, toka. 23rd, 24th, 25th, 26th, ,, ,, san 7iichi, ,, ,, yokka. ,, ii go fiichi. ,, ,, roktc 7iichi. nth, jiu ichi nichi. 27th, ,, ,, shichi 7iichi 1 2th, ,, 7ii 7iichi. . 28th, ,, ,, hachi nichi. 13th, ,, san nichi, 14th, „ yokka, I5th> a go 7iichi. 1 6th, ,, roku nichi. 2gth, 30th, 31st, ,, ,, ku nichi. san-jiu-7iichi. ,, ,, ichi-7iichi. < * l88 TIME, MONEY, WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. The above numerals may also be used when a number of days is meant, and not the day of the month. For ' one day ' however we must say ichi nichi not tsuitaclii. Misoka is used for the last day of the month on whatever day it may fall. § 186. The days of the week are : — Sunday, Nichi yd hi. Monday, Getsu yd bi. Tuesday, Ka yd bi. Wednesday, Siii yd bi. Thursday, Mokii yd bi. Friday, Kin yd bi Saturday, Do yd bi, Bi (for hi) *day' is often omitted. Thus for ' Sunday ' one may say either Nichi yd bi or Nichi yd. The month is also divided into three jtm^ the first ten days being called jdjun^ the second chiujuitj and the third gejun. Hours. § 187. The Japanese have now adopted the European' division of the day. For 'one o'clock' they say ichi jij for ' two o'clock ' 7ii jif * three o'clock ' san ji, ' four o'clock''*' j'o;7 and so on. 'One hour' is ichi-ji-kan, 'two hours' 7ii ji kan etc. Minutes are called /«//, and seconds hid. Thus * five minutes and three seconds past six' is rokii ji go fun sam bid* Money. § 188. 100 sen = i yen* The yen is a silver coin worth at the present rate of ex- change about three English shillings. It is the equivalent of the Mexican dollar which has disappeared from circula- tion in Japan. * See p. 37. TIME, MONEY, WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 189 Measure OF LENGTH. § 189. 10 rin = I bu 10 bti I sun 10 smt — I sJiakic 6 shaku I ken 10 shaku 1 jo 60 ken — I c/io 36 ch6 I ri The shaku or kaneshaku may be taken as equal to one English foot. More accurately, it is 11.93 inches. The ken is nearly six English feet (71.58 inches). The ri is equal to 2.44034 English miles. The hiro is not much used for accurate measurements. It may be taken as equal to about 5 feet, and like our * fathom ' is chiefly used in speaking of the depth of water. For nautical purposes, the European Geographical mile (kai-ri) is used. Dry goods measure. § 190. For measuring dry goods, a shaku (called the kujirajaku) of 14.913 inches is used. The English yard is pretty generally known. Japanese cotton and silk goods are usually made up in pieces of a little over iqJ yds {tan) or of twice that length (hiki). Superficial or land measure. § 191. 30 tsiibo = 1 se 10 se =1 tati 10 tan = I cho The tsubo, which is the ordinary unit, of measurement is 6 ka^ieshaku square or about 3.95 sq. yds. The cho is equal to 2.45 acres. igo time, money, weights and measures. Weight. § 192. 10 rin = I fiui 10 ftin = I momme 100 momme = hyahi-me 1000 momme ^= kamme 160 momme = 1 kin The fun is equal to 5.7972 grains avoirdupois ; the kmn- me to 8.2817 ^^s* avoirdupois. The hyaku-kin or picul (100 kin) is the weight commonly used in commercial transac- tions with foreigners. It is equal to 132.5073 lbs. avoir- dupois, but is usually taken as if the kin were i J lbs. Measure OF CAPACITY. § 193. 10 sat I shakic 10 shaku I go 10 go — I sho 10 sho I to 10 to _ I koku This measure is used for liquids and grain. The sho is •397 of ^ gallon. A 5/^0 of rice weighs about 2J kiti. The koktc is used for junks' measurement. One koku is equal to about ^ of a ton or 2 J piculs. § 194. All the words in the above tables, except hiro and tsubOj are of Chinese origin, and are accompanied by Chin- ese numerals only. See Chap. V. CHAPTER XV. Common Errors in Speaking Japanese. § 195. The following list of errors into which he is most likely to fall may be useful to the beginner : — The use of the honorific words and particles o, go, masu (as in arimasu), nasarii, (as in ide 7iasare), and anata in addressing servants or coolies. O hayo means ' early,' and should not be used late in the day without some special meaning. Shinjo means ' respectfully to offer,' and should not be made to mean simply ' give.' The use of the numerals hitotsu, futatsu, &c. where custom requires the words described in § 32. The use of the form of the adjective ending in i where that ending in ti is required. Yoroshi arimasuj warui gozaimasuj are often heard instead of yoroshm arimasu^ waru gozaimasu. The indiscriminate introduction of personal and possessive pronouns. See Chap. IV. Remember that for one of these pronouns in Japanese there are at least ten in English. Confounding in pronunciation short and long vowels and single and double consonants. The arrangement of the words of a sentence in a wrong order. See Chapter XIII. CHAPTER XVI. EXTRACTS. The following extracts are intended chiefly to illustrate the use of honorifics. They are taken from modern Japanese novels, the conversations in which are in the colloquial style, the narrative part being in the written language. Yencho's novels, which are entirely composed in the spoken language, are an exception. Yencho is the best- known public story-teller of Tokio, and an amanuensis takes down his tales exactly as he delivers them. The number of lady students of Japanese is increasing, and it may therefore be convenient to state that the story called Asilkagawa^ the opening passage of which is given in Extract V., is suitable for their reading. The narrative part, however, is in the written style, and perhaps the best plan will be not to attempt to read it but to get a Japanese teacher to relate the substance of it viva voce. I. Conversation with a Jinrikisha Coolie. Fare. Oi I oi ! Kurumaya ! michi ga chigai wa shinai ka ? I say jinriksha man road mistake not do ? Coolie. He, he, daijobu de gozaimasu. F. Doko ye iktinda quite safe is where to go is (for iku 710 da) ka shittc oru ka ? C. He, zonjite orimasu : ? knowing remain ? knowing remain kochira kara mairimashUa ho ga chikai no de gozaimasu (gara this way from came side near is rattle gara gara). F. Oi ! oi! Daga, doko da ka shitteru rattle rattle I say But where is ? knowing remain EXTRACTS. 193 ka ? C. He, he, zonjitc orimasn. (gam gara). F. Zonjite ? knowing remain rattle rattle knowing oru ja (for de wa) wakaranai. Doko ye iktmda ? C. remain with is not intelligible where to go is He, he (gcira gara). F. Kore ! matte kiire to in rattle rattle this having waited give that saying ni. (gara gara gara gara gara gara). in rattle rattle rattle rattle rattle rattle From a Japanese novel called Shosei katagi, TRANSLATION. Fare. I say, jinriksha man ! are not you going the wrong way? Coolie. Yes, Sir, it is all right, Sir. F. Do you know where you are going ? Yes, Sir, I know, this is the short road (rattle, rattle). F. I say, but do you know where it is (I am going) ? C. Yes, Sir, I know, (rattle, rattle). F. I don't understand what you mean with your ' I know.' Where is it you are going ? C. Yes, Sir (rattle, rattle). F. Look here ! wait, I tell you. (rattle, rattle, rattle, rattle, rattle, rattle). II. A Lady Teacher is informed by one of her pupils that a gentleman of rank has come to pay her a visit. Pupil. O shisho sania ye mushi-agcmasn. Tadainia Yagi- teacher say raise just now wara sama ga o ide ni narimashlta ga, ima ye iushi come became sitting room pass moshimasho ka ? Teacher. E, nani ? Yagiivara sama (humble auxiliary) ? eh what ga.... O, sayu desu ka ? Ima yori wa ano oku no oh so is it ? sitting-room rather than back ko-zashiki ye go annai mdshi-agete kudasai. Sore kara small-parlour invitation (humble aux.) please that after siiye ye iitsukctc, tamo no shin ni mo go shin ivo dashttc, servant to ordering suite of persons to too sake put out oku ye mo itsumo no riori wo mochi back part of the house always of cooked food take nasai yo. Hayaku nasaranu to (ikenai) isogi ka mo zonji- soon do not if haste ? even not masenu yo. know Shinsu no gajin. 194 EXTRACTS. TRANSLATION. Pupil. Madam, I beg to inform you that Mr. Yagiwara has just arrived. Shall I show him into the sitting-room ? Teacher, Eh ! what ? Mr. Yagiwara has Is that so ? Don't show him into the sitting-room but into the small reception room at the back of the house. Then tell the servants to let the people of his suite have some sake, and being the usual refreshments to the back part of the house. You must be quick about it, for he may perhaps be in a hurry. Note the highly respectful forms sama, moshi-ageru, used by the pupil to the teacher, and the honorific references to the guest by the use of sama, o ide ni narii, o tushi mushiniasho, go annai, o riori and o isogi. The teacher's language to the pupil differs from that used to a servant as the forms desii, kudasai, o niacin iiasai, iiasaratiu and zonjimasenu show. It has an air of friendly condescension. III. A young man of the lower class meets a merchant's son as the latter is going to the bath-house. A. Toki ni waka-datma ! kore kara go n'mto ni natte, time young master this from enter bath having become sore kara do nasaru no desH ? B. Uchl ye kayeru no sa. A. O that from how do is house to return uchi ye o kayeri ni natte, sore kara ? B. Asamcshi wo house to return having become that from morning rice ktni no yo. A. Asa gozcn wo mcshi-agattc, sore kara ? eat morning meal having-partaken of that from B. Urusai na; misc ni ittc, akinal wo sum no sa. A. bothersome shop to having gone business do Naruhodo : sono o akinai wo shite hi ga kureru become quantity that business having done sun go down to? B. YU-meshi wo knii no sa. A. Sono go yuhan ga when evening rice eat that evening meal sumu to, do nasaimasu ? B. Mise no wakai mono wo aite finish when how do shop young person partner ni {shite) hanashi demo sum no sa. A. Sono hanashi ga sumn talk even do that talk finish to ? B. Urusai na. hoka ni shikata mo nai kara, when bothersome ! else do-side even is not because neru no sa. go to bed Meiji nki yo no furo. EXTRACTS. 195 TRANSLATION. A. Well but — young master ! You are now going to have a bath. After that what will you do ? B. I shall go home. A. When you have gone home, what next ? B. I shall have my breakfast. A. And when you have had your breakfast, what then ? B, You are a nuisance, I go to the shop and attend to business. A. To be sure. And when business is over, and the sun goes down ? B. I have my supper. A. And when supper is finished, what do you do ? B. I very likely have a talk with the youug men in the shop. A. And when your talk is over ? B. You are a nuisance. Then there is nothing else to be done but to go to bed. IV. Interview with a ragman. Ragman. Kudzuya de gozai ; ktidzu wa harai zva gozaimascnii ragman it is rags sell is not ka ? Customer. Choito ! kxidzu ya san ! horc wo tottc ? a little ragman Mr. this having taken kurc. R. He, he! haiken itashimasho ; zuibnn give yes look (respectful) will do tolerably furitbite soshite yogorete imnsn na. He ; having become old and having become dirty is ikahodo ni itadakimasu ? C. Omaye ma funde goran how much for receive you having estimated see yo, R. He, he, hassen de wa ikaga sama ? C. Bakana koto eight sen with how foolish thing o ii de nai yo. Sore demo ntoto wa takaku te kirei say is not that with even originally dear and pretty d^attayo; sonnani fiimi-taosarete tamaru mono ka was so much estimate being knocked down endure thing ? ne? R. He; moto wa takaku te kirei 7U chigai arimascnu, originally dear pretty mistake is not ga; kore ga chirimen narcba koso hassen but this crape because it is (emphatic part.) eight sen ni mo itadakimasu ; sore de nakereha do shite he. for receive (humble) that for were-it-not how having done C. Atarimoye da ne ; da kara watai tno hassen de tva iyada ordinary it is is because I too eight sen for dislike to iunda, ne : jiu go sett ni shi ; sore de omaye ni son wa nai saying is fifteen sen do that with you to loss is not 196 EXTRACTS. yo. R. Do itashimashlte — sore ja maldo nega- (emphatic part.) how having done well then every time re- uti'desu, kara, jissen ni itadakimashu. He, sore deyoroshikic- questing is because ten sen will receive that with if good ba he. C. SJiikata ga nai ne ; motte ide yo. R. Arignto do-side is not having taken go thank zonjimasu : chodo jissen ; maldo arigato zonjimasu. Kudzu ya you exactly ten sen every time thank you ragman de gozai. C. Itigd na hudzu ya da ne. R. Kudzu wa harai de it is hard ragman rags sell gozarimaseiiu ka? is not Kudzu ya no kago. TRANSLATION. Ragman, (calls) The Ragman ! Any rags for sale ! Customer. I say, ragman! won't you take this ? Yes, Ma'am ! please let me see it ; it is pretty old, and dirty besides ; yes, Ma'am ! how much shall I give you for it ? Do you put a price on it. Yes, Ma'am. Would eight cents ? Don't talk nonsense ; that was a very pretty and expensive thing when it was new and I can't let it go for so little as that. Yes, Ma'am ! No doubt it was a pretty and expensive thing when it was new, and it is just because it is crape that I will take it from you for eight sen, otherwise I really — Well, I suppose you have a right to name your price, but I would have you know that I have something to say to it too and I won't take eight sen. Make it fifteen sen ; you will lose nothing by it. Really, Ma'am, I could'nt think . Well then, as you are such a good customer, I will take it from you for ten sen. If that will suit you — Well ! it can't be helped, take it away. Thank you, Ma'am, (here is your money) — just ten sen. Much obliged for all your custom. (calls) The Ragman ! How fond that ragman is of a hard bargain ! Any rags for sale ! Exit. ' EXTRACTS. 197 V. A young engaged couple view the plum blossoms and listen to the nightingale."' She (from the garden). Takco san ! Takco san ! chotto. (personal name) Mr. a moment He (from the house). Nam ka arimashlta ka ? ; ima ikn tokoro anything was ? now go place desii. (comes out). She. Ima muku no mumcbayashi de it is. now opposite plum grove in uguisu no hatsu ne ga shita yd desu kara, kiki iii nightingale first note did manner is because hear to ikimasho. He. Sayu desu ka. Sore wa yukai desu na : sa, let us go thus it is ? that pleasant is come itte kikimasho. (A little later). O jo san! anata wa having gone let us hear Miss you damashi de wa arimasenu ka ? Chitto mo ngutsu ga naki- deceiving is not ? a little even nightingale sings masejiu ne. She. lye, sakki yoi ne wo shite, futa not no a while ago good voice having done two koye bakari nakimashtta kara anata wo o yobi moshtta no desu. cries only sang because you call did is He. So desu ka ? Shikashi nan'' da ka ate ni nara- it is so ? but somehow reliance not nal yd na kl ga shimasu 7ie. She. Mattaku become manner mind does completely sakki naita koto wa nakimashtta kara snkoshi a while ago sung thing sung because a little matte ite mimasho. He. Sonnara kore kara mo ichiji waiting remaining will see if so this from more one hour kan hodo matte nakannkattara do 7tasaimasu. She. So space amount waiting if should not sing how do so desu ne. Kd shimasho. Nari'daka hinata ye detara it is thus will do what is it sunshine to since went out nodo ga kawaita yd desU kara, kahe wo ii-tsuke throat became dry appearance it is because coffee order ni ikn tsnkai wo shimasho. He. Sorewa omoshiroi. Watakushi to go your messenger will do that is amusing I mo tianda ka nomi mono ga hoshikn natta tokoro desu kara — too what is it drink thing desirous have become place is because She. Sore de watakushi no yaku wa dckimashlta ga ; moshi that with my office has been made if * The ugnisii is not a nightingale but a bird somewhat resembling it. igS EXTRACTS. naitara anata wa do nasainiasn. He. So dcsu ne. Naitara it should sing you how do so it is if should sing watakushi mo sono o tsukal ni ikhnashd. She. Sore iva ikcma- I also your messenger as will go that won't senu yo. Sono koto wa watakushi ga kangaycta no dcsu kara. do that thing I thought of is because He. Sonnara nan^denw o nozomi no koto ivo shimasho. She. if so anything at all your wish thing will do Sakki mite o ide nasatta watashi no namayerashi mono a while ago reading you were my name resembling thing no atta ano o tcgami wo o tnise nasai na. He. Yd gozaimasu ; was that letter show good it is moshi 7iaitara o me ni kakcniasho. She. Kitto dcsu ha? if it should sing your eyes on will hang certain it is ? He. Kitto me ni kakemasu to mo. She. Ima ga sakari certainly eyes on will hang now full blossom dcsu, ne. He. So dcsU, ima ga chodo midokoro dcsU ga, jitsu tii is so it is now exactly see-place it is truly mume wa hoka no hana to chigatte hin ga yoi kara plum other flowers from differing quality is good because mini Mto no kokoro made shizen to kosho ni nam see person heart as far as naturally elevated become yd dcsu nc. She. Say 5 dc gozaimasu. Hito no kosai manner it is thus it is people intercourse mo kore to onaji-koto dc watashi nado mo kd shite anataga- also this as same thing being I etc. also thus doing you ta no ydna a kata to shijiu a tsuki-ai wo shite iru kind of gentleman with constantly association doing no de jibun no ichi ga shizen to agaru ka to omoitnasii yo. by own position naturally rises ? think He. Do shite; watakushi nado wa sonna wake ni wa mai- how having done I etc. such reason do rimascnu ga: nan^de mo hito wa tomodachi wo ycrahti no ga not go (pause) anyhow people • friends choosing kanjin dcsu. Toki ni, o jd san ! tsnkanai koto wo o kiki important is by the way Miss not stick thing inquire mdshtmasn ga, kono maye no Nichiyo mo ima no Nichiyd mo (humble aux.) this before Sunday now Sunday also Daijin wa nanika o shirabe tnono no yd dcsu His Excellency something investigation appearance is ga, kajimuki no o shirabe dcsu ka. She. lye, watashi mo household investigation is ? no I too *o' yokti wa shirimasenu ga, anata mo go zonji no tori well do not know but you too know manner EXTRACTS. 199 mai-toshi kono niutne no sakari n't wa yenkai wo every year this plum full bloom at entertainment itashhnasn kara kono aida haha ga sono koto wo ntdshi- does because the other day mother that thing when tnashitara, ko-toshi wa ayaniku shirabe-mono ga am she spoke of this year unfortunately investigation is kara yenkai wa gozarimasenu to kotayemashlta. because entertainment is not answered Asukagawa. TRANSLATION. She. (from the garden) Takeo ! come here for a little. He. (from the house) what is it ? I'll be with you in a moment, (he comes out). I thought just now I heard the first song of the nightingale from the plum orchard over there : let us go and listen to it. Indeed. How nice! Come ! we will go and hear it. (a little later) Have you not been humbugging me, Miss ? The nightingale does not sing a bit. Yes, a while ago, it did sing twice with a beautiful note, and that was why I called you. Indeed ! But somehow I don't feel quite satisfied. It did really sing a while ago, so let us wait a little and see. Well then, we'll wait for an hour from now, and if it does not sing by that time, what will you do ? Well, I'll tell you what I will do. Coming out into the sun makes me thirsty, so I will go and order a cup 'of coffee for you. That is a good idea. I do feel as if I should like something to drink. Now that it is settled what I have got to do, if the nightingale does sing, what will you do ? Certainly. If it sings, I will go as your messenger. That will never do : that was my idea. Well then, I will do anything you like. Show me the letter you were reading a while ago which had something like my name in it. Very good ; if it sings, I will show it to you. You promise me faithfully. I promise faithfully to show it to you. 200 EXTRACTS, The plum-trees are just now In full blossom. Yes, now is exactly the time to see them. Indeed the plum is of a quality so far surpassing other flowers that it naturally elevates as it were the minds of those who look on it. You are right. And it is the same with the society one keeps ; I feel as if the position of a person like myself were naturally raised by constant association in this way with gentlemen like you. Not at all ! that is not so in my case. Still people ought to be very careful in their choice of friends. By the way, Miss! to change the subject, I want to ask you a question. Both last Sunday and today His Excellency seems to have been engaged in investigating something; is it some private matter ? No, I really do not quite know, but as you will remember, he has been in the habit of giving an entertainment every year when the plnm-trees are in full blossom. When my mother asked him about it the other day, he said that unfortunately he would be prevented from giving it this year by an investigation which he had in hand. VI. A man of high rank talks to a newly-engaged servant. Master. Korc ! kore ! Temaye wa Kddzuke to mdsu ka ? this this you are called ? Servant. Hci, Tonosama ni wa gohigcn yoroshiu — waiaknshi yes your Lordship health good I ■wa Kddzuke to tnushimasn shinzan mono de gozaimasu. called new came person am M. Sono ho wa shinzan mono demo kage hinata naku you new come person even shade sunshine without- yoku hataraku to itte, daibu hidban yoku mina distinction well work saying a good deal reputation well all no ukc ga yoi yo. Toshigoro zva ni jiu ichi ni to miycrn reception is good age twenty one or two seem ga^ hito-gara to ii, otokoburi to ii, zDri-tori ni wa personal appearance say manly bearing say sandals take as oshl mono da. S. Tonosama ni wa konaida-jin go regrettable thing is your Lordship for some days past fukai de gozaimashUa so de o anji-mdshi- indisposition having been appearance by feel anxious EXTRACTS. 201 agemashita ga; sashf-faru koto mo gozaimasenu ka, did (humble) (pause) important thing is not ? M. O, yoku tadzunete kureta ; betsu ni sashUarti koto mo oh well having asked gave specially important thing even nai ga. Shite — tcmaye wa ima made idztikata ye hoko wo it is not (pause). And you now until where service shita koto ga atta ka ? S.Hei! Tadaimamade hobo hoko mo did thing was Yes just now until all quarters service itashimashita — madzu ichi-ban saki yii Yotsuya no kanamonoya have done to begin with first-of-all ironmonger ye mairimashita ga, ichi nen hodo orimashite, kake-dashtma- went but one year amount having remained ran away shUa ; sore kara Shimbashi no kojiya ye mairi, mi tsukl that after blacksmith going three months hodo sugite kake-dashi, mata NakadDri no Yezoshiya ye amount having passed ran away again picture dealer mairimashita ga, toka de kake-dashimashtta. M. Sojio ho no went but ten days with ran away you yo ni so akite wa hoko wa dekinai yo. S. WatakUshi ga manner so getting tired service cannot do I akippoi no de wa gozaimasenu ga, watakushi wa readily disgusted am not (pause) I dozo shite buke hoko ga itashUai to omoi, some how or another military house service wish to do thinking, sono wake wo oji ni tanomimashttemo , oji wa buke hoko wa that reason uncle having applied even uncle mendo da kara, choka ye ike to moshimashUe, trouble is because merchant's house to go (imp.) having said achi kochi hoko ni yarimasu kara, watakashi mo tsura- thither hither service sends because I too face ate ni kake-dashite yarimashita. M. Sono ho wa hit by way of having run away gave you kiukutsn na buke hoko wo shitai to in mono wa ikaga na irksome wish to do said thing how wake ja? S. Hei ; watakushi w a buke hoko ivo itashi, reason I military house doing o kcujutsn wo oboyctai node, hei, M. Hal ketijutsu-suki fencing wish to learn by ah fencing like to na. Botan doro by Yenchu. 202 EXTRACTS. . ^ TRANSLATION. Master. Look here ! Is your name Kodzuke ? Servant. Yes, Sir, My name is Kodzuke, I have just entered 3'our Lordship's service ; I hope your Lordship is in good health. I hear that though you are a new comer you have made a favour- able impression on everybody, and that you have got a good character for working hard night and day. You seem about twenty one or twenty two years of age, and with your looks and bearing, it is a pity you are nothing better than a sandal bearer. I understand that your Lordship has been unwell for some days past, and I was anxious about you ; 1 hope it is nothing serious. Thank you, it is nothing of importance. And where have you been at service up to now ? Up to the present, I have been at service in various places. First of all I went to an ironmonger's in Yotsuya, and after being there three years I ran away: then I went to a blacksmith's in Shim- bashi. I ran away from him after three months. I next took service with a picture-dealer in Nakadori St, but I left him in ten days. But you can't do your duty as a servant if you get disgusted in that way. Oh ! It is not that I am easily disgusted ; it is because I wanted to take service in the house of some military noble. I begged my uncle to get me a situation of this kind, but he told me that service with a military noble was very troublesome, and that I must go to a merchant's. So he sent me to service here and there, and I ran away just to spite him. But what made you want to take employment with a military noble ? It is an irksome kind of service. Well, Sir, It was in order that I might learn fencing. Ah ! You say you are fond of fencing ? VII. A youth named Tasiike goes to the Toda yashiki to ask for his father. He addresses the officer in charge of the gate. Tasuke. Hai ! Gomcn nasai. Officer. Doko yemairunda? Mono- pardon do where are going beg- morai nam achira ye ike, T. Hai. SJwshd mono ga uketamawa- gar if are thither go little thing wish to EXTRACTS. 203 rlto gozaimasu, O. Mono ga kikitakcrcba o tsuji yc ike» learn am if wish to hear outer guard go Nnnda ? hojiki mita yd na nari wo shite — T. Kore kara kojiki what beggar seen kind of dress this from beggar ni narcha narunda ga, mada kojiki nl wa naranai. Ano — if become is becoming but yet beggai ot-become Toda sama no o yashiki wa koko dc gozaimasu ka? O. daimio's residence here is ? Toda sama no yashiki wa kochi da. T. Sore de wa jiu yo nen here is then fourteen years maye ni kochi ye kakaycrareta Shiobara Kakuyemoti to in kata ga before here employed person ariiiiasu ka ? O. Nani ? Shiobara ? hai, are wa jiu san nen maye is what he thirteen years before ni shlta-dziime ni natte^ kono yashiki ni zaa country-station having become this oranii. T. O kuni wa Yashiti no Utsunomiyade gozaimasu does not live province Kodzuke is ka ? O. Maye wa Utsunomiya de atta ga, Matsudaira Tonomo ? before was but no kami dono to kuni-kaye ni natte, ima de wa Hi- province change having become now zen no Shimabara da. T. Hizen no Shimabara to in tokoro wa is place to gozaimasu ka? O. So sa. Shimabara made wa, satn distant is ? yes as far as three biaku ichi ri han am na. (Tasuke falls down in a faint.) hundred one half is O. Kore ! kore ! achi ye maire ! achi ye maire, this this thither go Shiobara Tasuke by Ycncho. TRANSLATION. Tasuke. Excuse me. Officer. Where are you going ? If you have come to beg, get away. T. I want to inquire something from you. O. If you want to inquire, you can go to the outer guard. What do you mean, you beggarly looking fellow ? T. If after this I am to become a beggar, I suppose I shall become one, but I have not got so far yet. Is this the residence of Lord Toda ? O. Yes, it is Lord Toda's residence. T. Then is there a gentleman here named Shiobara Kakuyemon who entered this service fourteen years ago ? O. What ? Shiobara ? yes, he went on duty to our province thirteen years ago, and does not live here now. T. Your 402 EXTRACTS. province is Utsunomiya in Kodzuke, is it not ? O. It was Utsu- nomiya formerly, but there was an exchange of domain with Lord Matsudaira Tonomo no kami, and now it is Shimabara in Hizen. T. Is Shimabara in Hizen far off? O. That it is. It is three hundred and one ri and a half to Shimabara. (Tasuke falls down in a faint.) O. Here ! here ! Be off with you. Be off with you. VIII. Dreams. A. Yumc de matsu-jo ga zommci shite irn yosn dream in youngest daughter alive doing remain appearance wo tiiite, kokoro ga mayoiniashitc ne, ika naru dor I to mo having seen heart being bewildered how be rationale kai shi kancmasu ga; zcntai Shina de tnusu yd ni understand do cannot (pause) generally China in say manner by seimu nazo to in koto ga gozaimashu ka na? Ninna san true dream (plur.) called thing will be ? (surname) wa tctsugakuka da to ukctamawatta kara, futo go student of philosophy is learnt because suddenly shitsumon wo itasii wake dcsu ga — interrogation do reason it is (pause) B. Naruhodo, soriya hanahada kitai na o yume ni wa soi indeed that very strange dream mistake nai ga — shikashi korai sono ret wa amata am is not (pause) but from old time of that precedent plenty is koto de, nani mo kikai na koto ja arimascnu yo. Sei- thing being anything miraculous thing is not true mn no gotoki wa moto yorl mutu arubckarazarti ddri de, dream the like of of course a jot ought not to be principle being somo-sotno yume to in mono wa ika nara mono ka to in this being so dream called thing how being thing ? saying ni kcdashi waga kokoro no hataraki ni hoka nara- in pretty nearly one's own mind operation than other does not zu dcsu. Yorn ni naru to ningen no shintai wa hiruma no become is night becomes human body daytime tsukare de ne-itte shimai, maru de kan- fatigue on account of having fallen asleep finish wholly sensa- kakti ga naku narimasu, ga, no wa mattaku shintai to chigatte tion not becomes but brain wholly body from differing yoru to iycdomo kiusoku sezu shite hiru no tori ni hataraki- night although rest not do doing day of manner in works masu kara, no ga odayaka de nai toki nanzo because brain quiet (sign of pred.) is not time (plural part.) EXTRACTS. 205 wa koto ni iroiro na koto wo mirun^de arimasu. Katsn ya particularly all kinds of thing seeing(pred.) is farther kankaku ga yasun\h irti no de gwaibu kara no shigeki sensation resting remaining by outside from impression ga siikoshi mo nai kara, shttagatte niokitzcn no a little even is not because, accordingly eye-before koto wo kangaycru hitsnyo mo naku, shizcn thing reflect upon necessity is not naturally omol-yoranu mukashl no koto nado ytime de wa miru koto ga not think of ancient thing (plur.) dream in see thing arimasu, no sa. Kore ta nashi. Sdj'ite ningen to in is this other is not on the whole mankind called mono wa yushu no toki kara no kcikcn wo ba minna nuztii thing infancy time from experience all brain no uchi ni osamete tsune ni takuwaycte wa orimasu within having laid up ordinarily stored remains no da ga, hiru wa mi-kiki sum koto ga okutc sore ya kore is but day see hear do thing being many that this ya 7u tori-magirete mokuzen no koto ni muyo-na shiso wa by being confused eye-before thing for needless thought shizcn oku no ho ye hiki-komi-gachi ni natte yoi ni naturally back part side retire having become readily omoidasu, mono de arimasenu, Tatoye wo motte kore wo think of thing (pred.) is not illustration taking this moseha — yoriii kage kuru shite keika no san-taru wo miru ga if one say willow shade dark firefly shine see gotoku, yashokn chin-chin to shite hajiinete mushi no koye wo like night-colour quiet first insect cry kiku to ippan, hotaru wa hirnma oranu mono de mo hear same thing firefly day time not remain thing even naku, miishi wa him nakanii, mono de mo nai ga, hiru wa is not insect day not cry thing even is not but day suzoshi yuye hoka no shigeki ni sasayerarcte go-jin ga noisy because other impressions being impeded I-fman = we ki ga tsukanU duri de arimasu. Desu kara yume to in mind not stick principle it is it is because dream called mono wa to ni kaku katsiite omotte otta koto wo miru thing in-any-case previously having thought put thing see mow' de kesshite omowatiai koto wo miru mon'' de arimascnU yo, thing being certainly not think thing see thing is not The above passage is in a much less familiar style than the others. It contains numerous expressions and forms which are only used by educated men or in books. From the Shosei Katagi, ft Sli/Af 206 EXTRACTS. TRANSLATION. H-fvcc/i^ A. Having seen in a dream my youngest daughter as if alive, my fil^^^y^^^ mind is quite perplexed, and I cannot understand on what principle .J _^jj this could take place. Is it possible that there may be after all such things as true dreams, as they say in China ? I hear that you, Mr. \ ' jCi. Ninna, are a student of philosophy, and it amounts to subjecting you without warning to an examination — (but I should like to know u- ^L/tAy\, your opinion). • B. Indeed. That is unquestionably a very strange dream. But / there are numerous precedents of such dreams from old times, and there is nothing miraculous about it. In principle there can of. course be no such thing as ' true dreams.' This being so, let me explain the nature of what we call dreams. It may be taken that they are neither more nor less than the operation of one's own mind. At night, the human body, owing to the fatigue of the day, falls asleep, and all sensation ceases. But the mind, unlike the body, does not rest even at night. It continues its activity as in the daytime. The brain therefore, when it is unquiet, is specially sensitive to all manner of things, and as sensation is suspended, there are no impressions from without. There is therefore no necessity for it to attend to that which is immediately before it, and so in dreams we naturally become conscious of past things which we had not been thinking of. The sole reason for this is that mankind generally are from their infancy continually receiving and storing up all their experiences in their brains. In the daytime, owing to the multitude of impressions, our minds become confused by one thing and another, and thoughts needless for immediate matters are huddled back into the interior of the mind from whence they are not readily brought out again by reflection. As an illustration of this, I may quote the saying : ' It is in the dark shade of the willow that we can best see the lustre of the firefly ; it is not until night, when all is still, that we can hear the cries of the insects.' It is not that there are no fireflies in the daytime, or that the insects do not utter their note by day, but our minds do not attend to them owing to their being embarrassed by other impressions caused by the noises of daytime. Hence what we call dreams are visions of things which we must have previously thought of, and we certainly can not dream of things that have never entered our minds before. INDEX. Si Page , Page A • • • • i8, 23 Ba (with Adj.) .. 98 Abstract Noun 10, lOI Because . . 162 Achi .. .. • ( • • 18 Before . . . . 162 Adjective 5. 93 Beki .. .. .. . . 103 Adverb .. 94. 157 Bokii .. II Again . . ..181 Both .... 33.35 Agglutination . . • • 43 But . . 162 Aitsu ,. 14, 18 Can .. .. .. 162 All .. / •• 33 Capacity, measure of . . igo Alternative Form . . 60 L^ase . . . • • • .. 8 Although .. 161 Causative Verbs .. 81 Anata .. 12, 15, 18, 23 Cha . . 103 And . . ..161 Chinese Words .. 6 Anna . . . . 18 Come .. .. 180 Annani .. . . . . 18 Compounds . . ... .. 50 Ano 18, 23 ,, Formation of .. 4 Afto hito 14.15 Compound Nouns .. 50 Ano kata .. 14, 15, 29 „ Tenses . . .. 86 Anybody 2g Comparison . . 106 Anything 2g Concessive form of Adj. . . 100 Anywhere . . 30 „ Particle . . .. 61 Aposiopesis . . • • 184 ,, Past .. 61 Are .. 14, 18 Conditional form of Adj. . , 100 Areru .. • • • • 83 „ Past . . . •• 57 Am .. 108 „ of Verb . . .. 76 As .. 162 Conjugation . . . . 42, 44.45 Attributive Form . . g8 „ Common form s 87 Auxiliary Nouns .. 113 „ of uninflect( 2d „ Numerals ..36 words used as Ac Ij. 105 ,, Verbs .. 118 Conjunctions . . . . 160 Ba (conditional) Ba (hypo- Contemptuous Forms .. 181 thetical) . . 68,76 Coordination . . .... . . 184 / 208 INDEX. Page Could 162 Da 18, 25 Dachi . . . . . . . . 143 Daga .. # .. .. .. 125 Danna . . . . . . . . 13 Dano 118 Dare . . .. .. 18, 25 Dare de mo '. . .. ..29 Dare ka . . . . . . 29 Dare mo .. . . . . 29 Days .. 187 De (negative) . . . . . . 66 De (particle) . . . . ..119 Declension of Nouns . . 8 Demo .. .. .. .. 121 Demonstratives . . . . 18 Dependent Clauses .. .. 183 Derivative Adj. .. .. loi „ Nouns .. .. 10 ,, Verbs . . . . 78 Desiderative Adj. .. .. 102 Desii .. .. .. .. 109 Do (pronominal) .. 18, 24, 26 Do (concessive) . . • • 77 Dochi . . . . . . . . 18 Duka . . . . . . . . 26 Dokka 30 Doko .. .. .. .,26 Dokodcmo . . . . . . 30 Domo . . . . . . . . 173 Don . . . . . . . . 174 Donata . . . . . . 26 Donna .. .. .. ..18 Donnani . . . . . . 18 Dono . . . . . . 18, 174 Dore . . . . . . 18, 26 Dore mo ,. . . . . 29 Dore de mo . . . . . . 29 DozQ . . . . . . . . 26 Dry Goods Measure . . Dzutsu E Each other Page .. 189 . . 121 see ye " 31 English Words into Japanese 161 Errors in speaking do . . 191 Extracts .. .. .. 192 Fractions .. .. ..39 Future . . . . . . . . 69 Ga . . . . .. 16, 72, 122 Gata .. .. .. 14 173 Gena .. .. .. 126 Gender . . 7 Go (hon. prefix.) 171 Go (hon. suffix.) 175 Go-jiu-on I Gozaru, Gozarimasu . . 172 Hadzu . . 113 He 14 Hers 16 His 16 Hito 32 Honorific and Humble Words 166 Honorific Nouns • • 167 Honorific Prefixes 167, 171 Honorific Suflixes 173 Hours . . 188 How 33 Hypothetical Form . . 68 Hypothetical Past 57 I .... II Idztire . . 26 If .... 162 Ika 33 Ikkeu .. 14 Iku 33 Imperative Mood 75 Indefinite Form of Adj. 94 Indefinite Form of Verb 50 *H/i'Z,u fi4,cessiTtj INDEX. 209 Page Page Indefinite Pronouns • • . . 29 Kun .. 174 Indicative Present • • .. 71 Kuril . . ' . . 46 Indirect Narration • • . . 184 Land Measure . . . . 189 Interjections • • • • . . 160 Length, measure of . . 189 Interrogatives • • • • .. 18 Letter Changes in Conjugation. 46 Irregular Verbs • • . . 46 Made . . . . 130 Iru • • 55. no Mai ■ . . . . 74 It ■ « .. 14 Masu . . ..175 Itsu ' ■ . . • • •• 33 Masu, Conjugation of 46, 49 Ill • «' .. 112 May .. .. 163 jfibun . . • • .. 30 Me . . < .. i8i yishin . . • • .. 30 Me (gender) . . 7» 183 Ka ..i8, 19. 25, 2g,"i26 Men . . . . 7. 183 Kahodo . . ■ •' • .. 20 Might . . ..163 Kaku . . • • .. 20 Miiia . . . . •• 33 Kara . . • • 128, 183 Mine . . . . .. .. 16 Kara position of • • .. 183 Mo ..29, 77, 131 Kano . . • • 18, 25 Money . . 188 Kare • • 14, 18, 25 Mono . . . . - - .. 115 Kayo . . • • .. 19 Months .. 187 Kereha . . • • .. 100 Mosu . . . . 170 Keredo . . . . ■ - • • .. 112 Must . . 65, 163 Kercdo with Adj. • • .. lOI N final . . I Keredo with Verb • • 61, 67, 77 Na 18, 27 Kern . i • • .. 112 Na (neg. imp.) . . 74 Kimi . . • • .. 13 Na (with adj.). . .. 105 Ktsanta . . • • .. 13 Na (for nasare) • • . • • 75 Ko .. • • • . . 20 Nagara • . . . . 132 Ko • • 18, 19 Nai . . , . . . 62, 6g, 98 Kocki . . « • 19 Nambo . . . . .... 27 Koitsu . . • • .. 19 Nanda . . . . 63 Koko • • .. 19 Nani . . . . - . . . ■ 18, 27 Konaia . . • 13. 18, 19, 23 Nani de mo . . 30 Konna . . • • .. 19 Nanihodo .. 18, 27 Konnani • • .. 19 Nanika.. ..... 29 Kono • • .. 19 Nanimo ..29 Kore • • . . 19 Nara . . . . ..58 Koto 1 1 10, 113 Nam . . .. no Koso • • .. 129 1 Nasaru . . 75, no 210 INDEX. Ne .. .. Ncba Nedo Negative Adjective ,, Base Page . . i6o .. 66 66 .65, 6g, 102 . . 61 >!• M 99» Concessive Conditional Emphatic Tenses. Future Hypothetical Imperative . . Participle . . „ Present Nengo Ni Nigori No No ni Noun Number . . . . 7 Numerals .. Nushi , . . . O .. .. 7, 10, 171, O (Term, of Future) . . Ohayb .. KylfCi' •• •« •• % m Omaye . . .. .. 13, 15 On One One's own . . . . . . 30 Onorc . . . . . . . . 30 66 65 51 74 66 74 66 63 62 186 133 4 137 99 5 42 34 13 183 70 191 II 16 7 32 Onomatopoeic Adverbs Onushi . . Or Ordinal Numbers ',. KJTv • • • • » • Order of Words Ordinal Numbe8»^»^,, 159 13 163 39 II 182 39 Page Oru .. .. .. 55, no Other People 32 Ought ,. 163 Parts of Speech , . . . 5 Particles, Order of . . . . 183 Passive Verbs . . . . . . 83 Past Participle . . • • 53 Past Tense . . . . , . 55, Perfect Future .. ..59 Personal Pronoun .. .. n Please 180 Plural 7 Possessive Pronoun . . . . 16 Potential Verbs . . • • 79 Predicate . . . . • • 94 Prepositions , . . . . . 159 Present Indicative . . . . 71 Probable Past . . , . • • 59 Pronoun .. .. .. n ,, limited use of • • 15 Pronunciation . . . . . . 3 Ra .. ..7, 195 141. 173 Rashi .. ,. .. .. loi Reflexive Pronouns . . . . 30 Relations . . . . . . 167 Relative Pronouns . . . • 30 Riohu .. .. .. ••33 Ro . . . . . . • • 75 Sa (Abstract Terms) * . . . loi Sa (that) ,. .. ..21 Sa (Particle.) . . . . . . 141 Sahodo . . , . . . . . 18 San or Sama . . . . . . 173 Sascru .. .. .. ..81 Self .. .. .. ..30 Sensei . . . . . . • • 13 Scru . . . . . . . . 81 Sessha .. .. .. ..11 She .. .. .. ..14 INDEX. 211 Paqe Shi . . . . . . lOO, 142 Shika 18 Shinjo . . . , . . , . 191 Shin . . . . . . . . 164 Should.. .. ..7, 143, 173 Sochi ,. .. .. 13, 18 Sochira,. .. .. ... ig Soitsu . . . . . . . . 18 Sokka .. .. ., ,.13 Soko .. .. .. ..18 Sokora .. .. ., .. ig Somebody .. ., •• 2g Something .. ,. ., 2g So .. ,. .. .,21 Sonata .. .. .. 18, 23 Sonna .. ., .. ..21 So7inani , . , , . . 18 Sono .. .. ,, ..21 Sono ho . . . . . , 13 Sore ., .. .. ..21 Stems, as Nouns .. .. 10 „ of Verbs ,. ..50 ,, of Adj. .. .. ..94 Su 81 Superficial or Land Measure. i8g Suru with uninflected Words 85 „ Conjugation .. 46, 48 „ with Negatives . . .. 51 „ to do .. .. ..Ill Ta 55 I'^chi 7, 143, 173 Tagai ni , . . . ."Si Tai .. .. ,. 61, 102 Takke 57 Tata 57 Taraba., ,. ,. ,.57 Tareba . . , . , , . . 57 Taredo . . . , , . . . 61 Tari 60 Page Taro • • 59 ^«^« 55 Te (with Adj.) . . . . . . g6 Te (Past Participle) . . • . 53 Temaye n, 13 Te mo .. . . . . • • 97 Terminations of Verbs .. 186 Te wa with Adj gy ,, ,, with Verbs .. ..55 That .. .. 18, 21, 25, 164 They 14 Theirs .. .. .. ..16 Think 164 This 18, 19 Though ,. ..' .. 161 Time 186 To 144, 164 Tokoro .. ,, 32, 106, 125 Tonin 14 Transitive and Intransitive Verbs 78 Uninflected Words . . . . 6 „ used as Adjectives. 104 Unu , . . . . . . • 13 Verbs . . . . . . . . 42 Verbal Form of Adj. .. .. 100 Wa .. .. ,, ., 148 Waga 30 Want 165 Ware . . . . . , • • 13 Washi .. .. .. .. n Watai .. ,, ,. ..II Wataknshi .. .. 11, 15 Watashi .. ., ..11 Wattchi II We iii 15 Week 188 Weights .. .. .. 190 What 27 Ay P^R 212 When Who Why Wo Would Ya Yara Ye INDEX. ^ !7' £. *:> r Page •• 33 i8, 25 i8, 27 165 152 153 153 Page Years .. 186 Yo ..... .. 75, 154 ^ori 155 You .. .. .. 12, 13 Yours 16 ^0 •• 155 Zm 66 Zuba . . . . • . . . . 66 '*i ERRATUM. 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