ENGLISH GRAMMAR 1 ^i«S LOGICAL METHOD, alexandp:r bain, ll.d., i'rtoPi:ssoit of logic in (fii: t .vivnitsiT^" of aufrobkx. m If '1 • ''"it NEW YORK: HOLT & WILL I A IMS. John 3wett -ij .i '..-> " . v.- ■■ <(p::^r lor irHU!?iaiuiu inio iTencn. pvo. I'apcr. Cottin. Elisabeth et Ciaire d'Albe. l8mo. Bds. Standard Educational Works, Corson (Mme.) Soirees Litteraires- With Notes. i6mo $ 73 College Series of Modern French Plays. With English Notce by Prof. B6cher. 12mo. Paper. La Joie Fait Peur, 30c. ; La Bataille des DameB, 40c. ; La Maisoii de Penarvan, 40c. ; La Poudre aux Ycux, 40c ; Jean Baudry, 40o. ; Les Petits Oiseaux, 40g. ; Mademoiselle de la Seiglidre, 40c. ; Le Roman d'un Jeune Homme Pauvre, 40c. ; Les Doigts do F6e, 40c. The foregoing in 2 volumes, vol. L containing the first five, voL II. the rest, 12mo, each vol 1.T8 Modern French Comedies. 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It has the outward form of a science, and its difficulties spring out of its scientific character. There are Definitions to be framed, Principles to be stated, Bules to be prescribed ; all which operations, if entered upon at all, should be carried out in a scientific spirit. A loose way of proceeding in this respect fails to answer the ends of Grammar, and fails still more as a mental discipline. The chief peculiarity in the plan of the present work lies in anticipating the unavoidable difficul- ties of the subject by a previous handling of certain elementary notions (belonging to all science), without which no one can hope to understand the scope or method of Grammar. This preparatory portion explains, by the help of familiar instances, first, the meanings of Individual, General, Abstract, 54 I lii)9 ' IT PREFACE. Class, Grenus, Species, Co-ordinate, Subordinate, and Definition; secondly, the constituents of a Preposition, and the kinds of Prepositions ; and lastly, the Sentence, from which are evolved the Parts of Speech. • After such preliminary explanations, I make no scruple to introduce a strict mode of defining the Parts of Speech. I also exemplify the leading subdivisions or classes of each. Moreover, I bring forward at once the equivalent phrases, which, in the case of the Adverb in particular, are used more frequently than single words. On this method, the Grammatical parsing of a sentence directs attention forcibly to the meaning. Inflection is treated, if not with the fulness, at least with the exactness, of the larger Grammars. The Analysis of Sentences, although in a great measure anticii)ated by the extended view taken of the Parts of Speech, is explained and exempli- fied. The proper processes of Syntax — Concord, Government, and Order of Words^— are succinctly stated; and examples given of the more usual errors. The Key is framed to assist the teacher in com- prehending the exact drift of the Exercises and the Questions appended to each head; but it is not confined to this. It exhausts the whole of the important grammatical bearings of each example, and varies the points raised in the Questions. It • also includes a large selection of additional ex- amples, which are commented on with a view to set forth still farther the methods of parsing, and to illustrate the constructions and idioms of the language. Aberdeen, Jamuxi-y, 1872. TABLE OF CONTENTS. PREPARATORY EXPLANATIONS. SPEECH, OE DISCOURSE. PAGE Speech made up of separate words. — The different func- tions of words , , 1 Subjects of. Knowledge • • 2 FIRST STEP OF KNOWLEDGE. SUBJECTS, OR THINGS SPOKEX OF. Knowledge begins witb Differences; tbe Individual. Knowledge also involves Agreements. Examples of Difference and Agreement. Exercise 1. Agree- ments give birth to Classes. The names of classes V ar^ General. Higher and Lower classes. Ex- amples. Exercise 2. Genus and Species : Co- ordinate and Subordinate. Definition. Examples. Exercise 3. Abstract and Concrete ... 8 SECOND STEP OF KNOWLEDGE. WHAT IS SAID OF A SUBJECT-PREDICATION. Subject and Predicate: Exercise 4. Propositions, Singular and General. Exceptions to general or uni- versal Propositions. Rules. Exceptions to rales • 18 VIU CONTENTS. THE SENTENCE. Examples of Short Sentences. The Naked Sentence. Noun and Verb. Enlargements of the naked sen- tence. The Adjective. The Object. The Adverb. Other parts of the sentence. The Preposition. The Conjunction. The Pronoun 21 Questions • . . , , , , . .28 PARTS OF SPEECH. THE NOUN. Definition . . . , . . - . . 80 Classes op Nouns. I, Proper, Singnlari Meaningless. II. Common, General, Significant. Exercise 5. III. Collective Noans. IV. Material Nouns. V. Abstract Nouns. Exercise 6 31 Questions on the Noun 40 THE PRONOUN. Definition 42 Classes of Pronouns. I. Personal. II. Demonstra- tive : various references of *'it" and "they" In- definite Demonstratives. III. Relative, co-ordi- nating and restrictive. Equivalents of the proper Relatives. IV". Interrogative. Exercise 7 • • 43 Questions on the Pronoun 53 THE ADJECTIVE. Definition 58 Classes of Adjectives. I. Pronominal: subdivided into — 1. Demonstratives ; 2. Possessives. Exercise 8. IT. Quantity : subdivided into — 1. Quantity iu Mass or Bulk j 2. Quantity in Number, comprising CONTENTS, IX FAOK — (1.) Definite Numerals, (2 ) Indefinite Numerals, (3.) Distributive Numerals. Exercise 9. III. Quality (exemplified by qualities referring to Time, Space,- Form, Motion, Solidity, Fluidity, Colour, Good and Evil). Proper Adjectives 59 The Articles 65 SuBSTiTUTi*:s FOR THE SiMPLE ADJECTIVE. 1. A Clause ; 2. a Participal Phrase ; 3. a Noun ; 4. a Prepositional Phrase ; 5. a Possessive Case ; 6. an Adverb . . 66 Adjectives in the Predicate— Co-ordinate adjectives. Exercise 10 6S Questions ou the Adjective •••••• 73 THE VERB. Definition ••••«•••• 76 Classes of Verbs. I. Transitive. II, Intransitive* III. Incomplete, Exercise 11 • % , , 77 Questions on the Verb 80 THE ADVERB. Definition 82 Classes of Adverbs. I. Place :— 1. Eest in ; 2. Motion to; 3. Motion from. Pronominals. II. Time: — 1. Present; 2. Past; 3. Future; 4. Duration and Repetition. III. Degree. IV. Belief, Certainty. V. Cause and Effect. VI. Manner or Quality , ih. Adverbial Phrases of the various classes ... 85 Select examples of Adverbs of Quality, Adverbial Clauses, &c. Exercise 12 86 Questions on the Adverb • 90 THE PREPOSITION. Definition 92 Case-Prepositions :— Of, To, From, By, With . . 94 X CONTENTS. FAOl Classes op Prepositions generally. I. Place :— 1. Rest iu J 2. Motion with Direction ; 3. Place and Direction. II. Time. III. Agency. IV. End. V. Reference. VI. Separation and Exclusion. VII. Inclination and Conformity. VIII. Aversion, Opposition. IX. Substitution .... 97 Questions on the Preposition 101 THE CONJUNCTION. Definition. Co-ordinate and Dependent clauses . . 103 Classes of Conjunctions. I. Co-ordinating :— 1. Cumu- lative ; 2. Adversative, embracing (1.) Arrestive, (2) Exclusive, (3) Alternative ; 3. Illative. Exercise 13 105 II. Subordinating : — 1. Condition; 2. End or Purpose; 3. Reason and Cause ; 4. Time- Exercise 14 , . 109 Questions on the Conjunction 112 Interjections 113 INFLECTION. INFLECTION OF NOUNS-DECLENSION. GENDER. Meaning of Geuder. Modes of distinguishing Gender : — different words, prefixes, sufl&xes, adjectives of sex , 114 Questions on Declension for Gender .... 116 NUMBER. Meaning of Number. Modes of forming the plural : — usual modes, obsolete modes, irregular modes. Mis- cellaneous remarks 117 Questions on Declension for Number . . • . 121 CONTENTS. XI PAOB CASE. Meaning of Case. Three cases. Nouns inflected only for the Possessive. Modes of forming the Possessive. Limits to its use 122 Questions on Declension for Case 123 INFLECTION OF PEONOUNS. Pronouns inflected for Objective case. Declension of Personal Pronouns, of Relatives, of Interrogatives . 124 Questions on Inflection of Pronouns .... 126 INFLECTION OF ADJECTIVES— COMPARISON. Meaning of Comparison. Three degrees — Positive, Comparative, Superlative. Modes of Comparison . ih. Demonstrative adjectives inflected for Number : Nume- ral adjectives for Case 127 Questions on Inflection of Adjectives , . , . 123 INFLECTION OF ADVERBS. Adverbs inflected only for Degree. Compared like Ad- jectives i&. Exercise 15 » ih, INFLECTION OF VERBS-CONJUGATION. Voice. Active and Passive 130 Mood. Exercise 16 131 Tense, Person, Number 134 Conjugation of the Verb Proper , . . , ih. Auxiliaries to the Inflection of the Verb: — Be, Have, Shall, Will 136 Complete Conjugation of the Verb, with Auxiliaries 139 Quasi-Auxiliary Verbs :— Do, May, Can, &c. . . 143 Meanings oe the Tenses. Present Indefinite, Progres- sive, Past Indefinite, Present Perfect , , . 146 Irregularities in the Conjugation of Verbs . , 147 Exercise 17. Questions • . ..... 151 XU. CONTENTS. SYNTAX. THE ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. PAOB The SiMPLK Sentence 155 The Complex Sentence 161 The Compound Sentence 165 Examples of Analysis , 166 CONCORD. Concord of Subject and Verb. General Rale. Causes of errors. Rule for Collective Nouns. Rules for nouns or pronouns united by * and ; * exceptions. Other Rules , . 176 CoNCOUD OF Noun and Adjective. 'This* and 'that.* * Each ' and * every.* 179 Concord of Tenses. Present Indefinite. Perfect In- finitive 180 GO YERNM ENT. Nature of Government. The Possessive before an infi- nitive. The rule for the verb * be.* . , . tb. ORDER OP WORDS. Subject and Verb Verb and Object . . . • Noun and Adjective.^ Repetition of the Article Pronoun and Antecedent ..... Placing of the Adverb. * Only* and * not* • ih. ih. ih. 1S3 Exercise 19. Errors in Syntax . • • . • 184 PEEPAEATOEY EXPLANATIONS. SPEECH, OR DISCOUESE. 1. Speech, Language, or Discourse, is made up of separate words. * Alfred drove the Danes from England ; and he ruled the whole country justly.' This is a portion of speech, language, or discourse ; and is a string of thirteen words. 2. The words are of different sorts, or kinds, according to their uses. Bj one kind of words we name and point out persons, things, actions, &c., without connecting these with any others. The words * Alfred,' * Danes,' * England,' 'country,' name the persons and things, and merely call them to mind without saying anything about them. 3. By another kind of words sometliing is said, told, or declared, about persons or things. The words 'drove,' 'ruled,' assist in telling something about the person * Alfred,' who is the main subject of the •2 SPEECH, OR DISCOURSE. speech or discourse. If these two words were left out, the remuining eleven would not give sense ; they would have no meaning, 4. AH Speech contains at least these two sorts of words. * The moon sets ; the stars disappear ; the sun rises, and lights the earth and sea.* Of the first sort of words are — moon, stars, sun, earth, 8ca. Of the second sort— sets, disappear, rises, lights. There are other words, in the saying given, besides those ■ iHeiitioned : — the, from, and, he, whole, justly. These exem- plify live other sorts of words, whose uses will be afterwards described. They are not the leading words of a speech, but helping words. 5. Whatever subjects we know, we give names to. Our knowledge includes persons, places, things, actw)LS and results of actions, states or situations, feelings. Persons and the lower animals : — John, Luther, mother, queen, judge, angel. Lion, eagle, serpent, shark, bee. Tlaces : — England, York, Rome, Sahara, Paradise ; street, valley, quarry, abyss, sea. Things : — Star, cloud, rock, diamond, gold. Tree, shrub, rose, fruit. House, ship, machine, bridge. Actions, active agents, and results of actions : — Motion, thunder, heat, fire, speech, thought, battle, victory, ruin, punishment, law. States, situations, and conditions : — Freedom, childhood^ apprenticeship, rest, royalty, prosperity, peace. SUBJECTS NAMED. JJ Feelings, and states of the mind: — Pleasure, love, anger, elation, excitement, belief, conscience, understanding. 6. The same kind of things may be known in different ways, as shown by the names. Thus in regard to persons, the name * Alfred' and the name * man,' refer to human beings, but in distinct ways. The name * Rome ' and the name * city * express the same kind of subject, but very diflferently. 7. We have also names for the connecting part of Language, for saying or declaring something about some other thing. Brings, makes, comes, is— are a few examples of the connecting, or declaring words, used in every complete meaning. 8. To understand Grammar, there are two steps in our Knowledge. First, as to the subjects named and spoken of. Second, as to the subjects, taken along with what is said of them. FIEST STEP or KNOWLEDGE. SUBJECTS OR THINGS SPOKEN OF. 1. Knowled<7e proceeds by comparing things to learn how far they differ, and how far they agree. We are first struck with Differences. We feel the difference of night and day, sunshine and cloud, heat and cold, large and small, red and blue. Night is night, as being the opposite of day ; day is the opposite of night. Heat is different from cold. Sour is different from sweet. A light weight affects us differently from a heavy weight Milk is different from water. Ice is different from water. A ball is different from a rod. Being hungry is different from our state after eating. Being asleep is different from being awake. 2. We feel Differences best when the things are placed together. 'Yo distinguish two rods of different length, we lay them side by side. To see which of two persons is taller, we make them stand close together. DIFFERENCES AMONG THINGS. 5 Two shades of colour are distinguislied by being looked at beside each other. Two keys may be thought to be exactly alike, till we com- pare them closely. A glass of water from a river may seem perfectly clear when viewed alone ; by the side of a glass from a spring, it will probably look dim. Unless they were placed side by side, we should not discover the difference. 3. It is by their DifiPerences that things or per- sons are separate and distinct, whereby each is thought of as an Individual. The Sun impresses us differently from the Moon. Hence we call them separate and distinct objects. Each is an Individual ; and neither is confounded with the other. Both Sun and Moon are different from the Stars. When we compare the Stars we find differences, although not so great. Some are brighter than others. Two stars of the same brightness have still a difference ; they are in different parts of the heavens. From this differ- ence alone, we keep them distinct in our minds. Each is an Individual. Our two hands differ very little ; but from being placed on different sides of the body, we treat them as separate ; they are two distinct individuals. They have separate names; ' right hand,' * left hand.' Two spoons on the table have to the eye no difference ; we distinguish them for the moment by their place; this, and that spoon ; the spoon here^ the spoon there ; John's spoon, Mary's spoon. Two men differ, not only by their outward appearance, but by their time and place of birth, and all the circum- SUBJECTS OR THINGS SPOKEN OF. etances of their history, and peculiarities of their character. When we know these differences we keep the persons distinct in our own mind. We do not confound Alexander the Great with Julius Coosar, if we know respecting each the particu- lars wherein the two differed. 1'he Rhine is a separate, distinct, and Individual thing. The actions called the founding of Rome and the dis- covery of America are different actions. The Reformation in Germany, in England, and in Scot- land, constituted three several actions or events. The battle of Waterloo was an Individual action. 4. We are also struck with Agreements among things. Wo discover that one day is like another, as passing through the stages of light and dark. We see that one human being is very like another. One tree has a great deal of likeness to another. One fire is like another. One ball is like another. One chair is like another. One draught of water affects us like another. All these agreements are accompanied with diferences which. give the peculiarity, or the separate character, to the things compared. To-day is a little different from yesterday, while in many respects the same. Any two human beings have their points of unlikeness. One tree is taller, greener, leafier, than another. One ball is made of wood, another of ivory. One chair is heavier, or larger than another, besides there being many minute marks on each peculiar to itself. AGREEMENTS AMONG THINGS. 7 One glass of water is cooler, and clearer, and fuller than another glass. Placing things together is favourable to discovering Agree- ments, as well as Differences. 5. In some things we discover a very great amount of diflPerence, and very little agreement ; in others, the reverse. In settled weather, any one day is very nearly the same as the one before. Comparing a fine midsummer day with a snowy day in winter, we discern many and marked, dififerences. Two twins may be so alike that we are at a loss to dis- tinguish them. A fair-complexioned English child and an aged negro are very unlike. A human child is still more unlike an elephant, a serpent, a salmon, a robin-red-breas^,, a butterfly, an oyster. Yet these all agree in possessing^ animal life. Two fir plants in a nursery garden may be almost identi- cal. A grown pine is very different from a grown oak ; still more from a holly bush ; still more from a stalk of oats or barley. Yet greater is the difference between any of these and one of the animals just named. 6- Complete knowledge unites Differences and Agreements. When we have two or more things before us, our know- ledge is incomplete till we see both all that they differ in, and all that they agree in. Water and milk are compared, and found to differ in colour and in taste ; to agree in being liquid, and in being used as drink. 8 SUBJECTS OR THINGS SPOKEN OP. They both diff< r from ink, which is black, has a bad taste, 18 never drunk, and is used for writing ; they agree with it in being liquid. All these substances differ from soup, from vinegnr, from wine ; while agreeing in one fact, namely, that they are liquids. Red and Blue are different to the eye. They agree in being colours. Round and Oval are different : the one is of equal size across everywhere ; the other is lonj^er in one direction. They agree in being rounded or curved figures. Tee differs from water, in being cold and in being solid. The two agree in being the same material, and in being transparent. Ice differs from Snow in being hard and transparent. Steam differs from Tee, Snow, and Water, in being a gas and invisible. All the four agree in being one material, although undergoing diff^^rent changes. A chair and a bed differ (1) in construction, and (2) in the manner of their use. They agree (1) in being articles of house furniture, and (2) in being used for resting on. A flute and a violin differ in construction, and in the •manner of playing them ; they agree in being musical in- struments. The human throat agrees with both. Exercise 1. Examples of Difference and Agreement 1. A penny and a shilling. 2. A railway and a road. 3. Dwelling-house and church, 4. Square and triangle, o. Food and drink. 6. Six and a hundred. CLASSES FOUNDED ON AGREEMENTS. 9 7. Arm, leg ; eye, ear. 8. Dragoon and foot soldier ; private, officer. Lords and Commons. 9. Englishman, Frenchman, German. 10. Printing, writing. 11. Child, man. 12. Catholic, Protestant, Jew, Mahometan, VS. Farmer, builder, merchant. 14. Sea, river, fountain ; desert, field. From this union of difference and agreement proceeds all our knowledge. We know the differences of things, and so distinguish them from one another, or give to them their character as Iiidivi duals. We know the agreements also from which knowledge many consequences follow. 7. Owing to Agreements, we make Classes. Human beings agree so much that, in spite of their dif- ferences, we regard them as making up a class ; and give them a class name — Man, human being. The animals that walk on all-fours are, when compared, found to be very different ; an elephant is extremely unlike a mouse ; yet they have numerous points of sameness ; for which they are made into a class— ^Quadruped. When the agreement is close, and the differe ces few, classes are formed with very numerous characters This is the case with human beings, with horses, dogs, fir trees, and metals. When the agreement is slender, and the differences nume- rous, the class bond is small ; the including of human beings and metals in a class gives very little class agreement. There are some marks in common ; both are material and solid bodies. 10 SUiaECTS OR THINGS SPOKEN OF. 8. Tlie names of Classes are General Namac«. The meaning of ' General ' is agreement among a number of Individuals. The class name * man ' is a general name, because it sup- poses that all the Individual men resemble one another, or agree. The class name 'conqueror' is a general name, given to the Individuals — Alexander the Great, Julius Ciesar, Attila — because they agreed in leading armies and in subduing countries. The class name or general name, * river,' is given to th^ individuals called the Thames, the Rhine, the Nile, the Ganges, because they all agree in what is meant by a river. Examples of General Names or Class Names. Apostle, Preacher, Workman, rianet, Poet, Fishernianj King, Judge, Seaman, Soldier, Reptile, Spider, Bird, Insect, Fly, Tree, Bush, Rose, Mineral, Hedge, Tulip, Stone, Street, Diamond. 9. There may be higher and lower Classes, the higher containing the lov^er. The class * human beings * contains classes under it ; as "white men and negroes. The class * birds * contains the classes— birds of prey, climbing birds, swimming birds, wading birds, &c. The class * trees of the forest ' contains the classes — oak, birch, beech, elm, willow, plane, yew, &c. HIGHER AND LOWER CLASSES. 11 The class * Animals ' is higher than * human beings ; ' it contains * human beings,' and all the classes of the brutes or the lower animals— quadrupeds, birds, reptiles, fishes. The class described by the general name * building ' con- tains a large number of objects with certain points of agree- ment. It may be divided into smaller classes — as private building and public building. The class Private building may be farther divided into dwelling houses, shops, stables, and various other classes. The class Public building may be divided into smaller classes — as Official buildings, Eccle- siastical buildings or churches, and fortresses for defence, as Gibraltar. We may begin at the Individual and proceed upwards to the successively higher classes, thus : — Individual. The fortress of Gibraltar. Lowest Class. Fortresses. Higher Class. Public Buildings. Still Higher Class. B ui 1 di n gs. Exercise 2. Higher and Lower Classes. 1. Social Animals: — Beaver, Bee, Wasp, Ant. 2. Eatables:— Bread, Vegetables, Fish, Meat, 3. Property: — Money, Land, Houses, 8hips. 4. Wines : — Sherrj'', Port, CI iret, Hock. 6. Virtues : — Justice, Benevolence, Prudence. 6. Professions : — Clergymen, Lawyers, Physicians. 7. Heavenly Bodies: — Fixed Stars, Planets, Satellites, Comets. ( Take some of the lower classes, and subdivide them into still lower, so as to end at an individual.) 12 SUBJECTS OR THINGS SPOKEN OP. 10. The higher class contains more members than the lower, but has fewer class marks. There are more Animals than human beings, more human beings than white men. There are more Birds than there are birds of prey. There are more Trees than pines, more pines than Nor- wegian pines. There are more Buildings than there are public buildings, more public buildings than churches. The class Animal has fewer marks or peculiarities than the class human being. A human being has all the char- acters that the animals have, and characters of its own be- sides. The bird of prey has all the characters of Birds in general, together with the special characters named by the words, * bird of prey* A church has all the peculiarities belonging to buildings generally ; it has also all the marks belonging to public buildings ; it has, in addition, the peculiarity of its own class — namely, being used for worship. There is more agreement among the objects named * poets' than among the objects named men ; there are cor- respondingly fewer poets than men. For every additional point of agreement, there is a less number of the agreeing objects. Add ' blind ' to the name poet, and say ' blind poet,' and fewer persons are to be found suiting the designa- tion ; it applies to Homer and to Milton, but not to Shakspeare, to Pope, nor to many other poets. * Capital * contains more meaning than * city ; ' and ac- cordingly there are fewer capitals than there are cities. The class * capital' is a subdivision, or select portion of the GENUS AND SPECIES. 13 class • city ; * the class * city ' Is a large class containing the class * capital,' and other cities besides that are not capitals. The designation * large and populous capitals ' expresses more than ' capitals ; ' it applies to a smaller number of cities. It applies to London, Paris, Vienna, Berlin, but not to Washington. Medicine and Law agree in being occupations ; in this they resemble fishing, shoemaking, cottonspinnipg, and many others. They agree more closely and specially in being learned occupations, which these others are not. The greater amount of agreement among occupations, expressed by prefixing the name learned^ makes the number fewer and more select. There are many occupations; there are only a few learned occupations. In enlarging classes, we drop agreements ; in passing from the class ' animal ' to the class * living being,' we drop the agreements peculiar to animals, and the agreements peculiar to plants, and retaia what both animals and plants agree in. 11. The words genus and species mean res- pectively higher class and lower class — as genus * city,' species ' capital/ The genus contains more individuals and has fewer characters than the species. The class name is sometimes called the generic name ; the name for the additional meaning of the species is called the specific name, or the specific distinction, 12. The additional meaning that makes a class smaller and more select is often given by a dis- tinct word — ' white thorn,' * beautiful scene.' In some of the instances named, the increase of meaning .14 SUBJECTS OR THINGS SPOKEN OP. is conveyed by a separate name ; as man, poet ; city, capital. More usual is the employment of a second word to the name — blind poet. * Thorn ' means a certain class of trees ; * white thorn ' is a more select class, possessing, in addition to all the peculiarities of thorns generally, the peculiarity of white flowers. * Scene ' is a class ; * beautiful scene ' is a smaller contained class, to which we may apply the specific or peculiar character of beauty, * Mountain ' contains the select division * wooded moun- tain.' We may have * wine ' simply, or the specifying and select classes ^ sweet wine,' * effervescing wine.* * Lion ; ' * male lion,' * female lion.' This word is called the AdJectlYe. 13. The inferior classes are termed subordinate with reference to the superior. Classes that have the same rank, as divisions of a higher class, are co-ordinate. The very hii^h class named Living Beings, is diviied into two great classes — Plants and Animals ; which are therefore subordinate classes, as respects Living Beings. They are co-ordinate as respects each other. The class Bird has the lower or subordinate classes — birds of prey, climbing bird, swimming bird, «S:c. ; these are co- ordinate classes. If Public Buildings be divided into official buildings, churches, fortresses, &c., these are co-ordinate classes : they are all in subordination to the class — Public Buildings. 14. To explain or Define a thing is to give its differences and agreements when compared with other thinors. DEFINITION. 15 The Agreements are given by stating the superior class that it belongs to. Alexander the Great is in part explained or defined when we give his agreements with Caesar, Attila, and Napoleon ; which is to put him in the superior class — conqueror. Iron is partly explained by its agreements with gold, silver, lead, in the class— metal, 15. The Differences are given by stating the peculiarities distiagulsliing the object from other members of the class. The account of Alexander is completed by his own per- sonal history, wherein he differed from Cfesar and the rest. The definition of Iron is completed by mentioning the properties distinguishing it from other metals. Examples of Definition, A Shilling agrees with a penny, a sixpence, a florin, a sovereign, or belongs to the class Coined Money. It differs from all other coins in its value, which is twelve penee ; but not from all, in being made of silver. A Church. Class — Public Building; Distinguishing or specifying mark — used for religious worship. A Street. CI iss — Congregation of Houses ; Difference or distinguishing marks— the houses arranged in one or two rows, on a public pathway. An Army is * a collection of men * (Class) ; * trained, equipped, and arrayed for fighting ' (Difference). A River is * a body of running water * (Class) ; * rising in the high grounds or hills, contained in many channels leading into one, and flowing to the sea * (Difference). A poker is a machine of the class * lever ; ' used for stirring the fire. 16 SUBJECTS OR THINGS SPOKEN OP. Exercise 3. Define the following things : — 1. Plough, spade, clock, watch, cart, carriage, 2. Mountain, sea, lake. 3. Star, planet, moon. 4. Builder, sailor, painter, general, king, martyr. 5. Book, paper. 6. Prudence, benevolence. 16- In a definition the distinction or difference may be one point, or more than one. After stating the class, we state the difference. The difference may be one particular, or it may be two or more. A fire-place is * a part of a room * (Class) for * containing a fire ' (Difference). Here there is one difference. Coal is a mineral (Class) formed from ancient trees (1) and extracted for burning (2). Here there are ^tf'o differences, A planet is a heavenly body (CI iss) ; it revolves round a a central sun (1) in a nearly circular path (2). Here both differences are needed ; the first distinguishes it from satellites ; the second from comets. The Part of Speech called the Noun needs for its definition tJtree differences. 17- Agreement is sometimes expressed in the Abstract; as by the words— roundness, white- ness, greatness, wisdom, fire. The name ' circle,' or the name * round,* applies to a great number of things having the same shape — a wheel, a ring, a penny, and many besides. When we wish to mention the shape by itself, without considering the size, colour, weight, or material of the things, we speak of the round shape in the abstract; and for this we use the word * roundness.* AGREEMENTS IN THE ABSTRACT. 17 * Wisdom * is one or more * wise persons ' looked at only as "wise, and without reference to their being tall or short, young or old, or otherwise different. A wise man must have all that belongs to a man, but we may speak of him solely as being wise, or as belonging to the class named wise. In opposition to Abstract, the words * round ' and * circle,' and the word * wise,' are called Concrete names. SECOND STEP OF KNOWLEDGE. WHAT IS SAID OF A SUBJECT- PREDICATION. 1. When we speak we do more than name, or point to, some person or thing ; we say something about that person or thing: — John is hero; the clock has struck two. The saying — John is here — names or mentions John, and says or tells about him that ' he is here.* The saying — the clock has struck two — names or mentions the clock, and says or tells about it that it * has struck two.* 2. The thing mentioned and spoken about is called the Subject; wliat is said about it is called the Predicate. 'John is here.* Subject — John. Predicate — is here. * Rain baa fallen.* Subject — Rajn. Predicate — has fallen. * The stars are distant.' Subject — The stars. Predicate — are distant. Exercise 4. Examples of sayings about Subjects:-—' Predications or Propositions. (To be divided into Subject and Predicate.) 1. The kettle boils. 2. The canary sings. 3. Oscar followed me. 4. The fire is hot. 6. John will get a watch. 6. Our PROPOSITIONS AS RULES. 19 neighbour's cat has taken a rat. 7. Jane waters the flowers. 8. The doctor passes this way every morning. 9. Whoever wishes to be well spoken of should think what will please other people. 10. The early bird catches the worm. 11. A rose by any other name would smell as sweet. 12. War is a dire calamity. 13. The death of Alexander III., of Scotland, by a fall from his horse, was the be- ginning of great evils to the country. 14. A sick room should be well aired. 15. Within the last century there have been grcjat improvements in all kinds of knowledge, and in all the arts. 3. A Proposition may be Singular, or it may be General. It is a singular proposition to say — * Rome has many narrow streets.' The saying refers to the individual city, Rome. It is a general proposition to say — * Old cities have narrow streets.' The saying in this case refers to the whole class, old or ancient cities. Cassar was brave ; great generals are brave. Mars shines by the light of the sun ; all the planets shine by the light of the sun. Iron corrodes ; the metals corrode, 4. A Proposition may be true universally, or it may have Exceptions. Some general propositions are true in every instance : — Men will die ; all matter is indestructible. Some propositions fail in certain cases, which are said to be exceptions : — All metals rust in the air, except gold, silver, and a few others. 5. Propositions are sometimes given as direc- tions, or rules for practice. 20 WHAT IS SAID OF A SUBJECT— PREDICATION. *Eat that you may live * is a rule or practical direction. It is the practical form of the proposition — ' Eating, or food, supports life,' * Ohey the law ' is a rule of practice. It is the same as — * the law must be obeyed ; ' * every one is compelled to obey the law. * * Learn while you are young.' * Speak distinctly.' These are difTorent from the ordinai'y forms of speech, and are called Imperative forms. The separation into subject and predicate is made by findim^ out who is addressed. 'Shut the door;' subject, *you* (unexpressed); predicate * shut the door.' * Poachers, beware ; * suhjecf, * (you) poachers ; * predicatef * beware.' 6. Rules may be universal, or thcj may have exceptions. * Do all the good you can ' is a universal rule. * Take food when you are hungry,' is a general rule, but not without exceptions. Sometimes people should abstain from eating. The rule * swear not at all ' is considered by the Society of Friends to have no exceptions. The greater number of persons think that taking an oath before a court of jus- tice is au exception. Grammar contains a great many rules, but many of them have exceptions. Hence, after stating a rule, there is frequently given a list of exceptions. THE SENTEN'CE. 1. Speech Is made up of separate sayings, each complete iu itself. These are Sentences. A person may utter one single meaning, as * the sky is clear ; ' but a speech generally contains several meanings, or distinct propositions. * The sky was lately clouded. It is now clear. There is no fear of rain.' Three distinct meanings are here given in succession ; each is complete in sense, having a distinct subject and a distinct predicate. 2. Every saying, declaration, or proposition, is a Sentence. All the examples given of sayings or propositions are examples of Sentences (p. 18) ; and there will be many more afterwards. The Sentence, being in every respect what is meant by a saying, or proposition, or assertion, has the same two parts — namely, Subject and Predicate. These parts have now to be viewed more particularly, as bearing on Grammar. Examples of Short Sentences. We can have a distinct and full meaning in two words ; one being the Subject, the other the Predicate. 22 THE SENTENCE. Sirius twinkles. Jupiter thunders. Victoria reigns. Peter repented. Nero fiddled. Bucephalus neighed. Carthage fell. Rome remains. Bnowdon appears. ^len laugh, aogs fight, horses gallop. Mountains tower. Matter resitits, gold glitters. Steel tarnishes. Fire burns. Industry enriches, art refines. Misery crushes, hope cheers. Punishment deters, wisdom guides. Music soothes. In every one of these the first word is the Subject, the second the Predicate. • The following examples have three w^ords, the two first being the Subject, the third the Predicate :— The moon rises. A horseman came. This man answers. No one survives. Great poets arise. The subjects are * the moon,' *a horseman,' &o. NOUN AND VERB. 23 The following examples have three words, the first Sub- ject, the two last Predicate : — Moses led Israel. Titus destroyed Jerusalem. Government makes laws. Animals serve man. Misfortune brings despair. It will be seen that these sentences give a more complete account than the others. They name some one that does something ; they state what is the kind of the action, and> finall}', what is the thing acted on. 3. The examples containing only two words are examples of a naked sentence. They give the words es.sential to a meaning, and. all other words are additions or Adjuncts to these. These two words are the two chief Parts of Speech ; the first is called the Noun, the second the Verb. In the sentence * gold glitters,' the Subject * gold ' is called a Noun, the Predicate * glitters ' is called a Verb. Jupiter (noun) thunders (verb). Jklen (noun) laugh (verb). Eocks (noun) press (verb). Carthage (noun) fell (verb). The words naming the Subjects are Nouns ; the words giving the Predicates are Verbs. It will be observed that the subject is sometimes one person or thing (Jupiter, Carthage), and sometimes a whole class (men, rocks). It may be remarked, also, that the Predicate word — the Verb — gives the time of the action or fact predicated. ' Thun- 24 THE SENTENCE. ders,' * lancfh/ * press,* — siarnify present time ; * fell * is past time. It is a cLiaracter of Verba to state whether the action is present, past, or future. If all meanings could be expressed in two words, like these examples, there would be, in Grammar, only two kinds of words, or two Parts of Speech — Noun and Verb. 4. Tn sentences with more than two words, tli( re Jire still two cliiaf words, and the others are looked upon as helps or Adjuncts. * Great poets arise : * Subject, * great poets ; * chief word, the noun 'poets;' additional word, or Adjunct, * great. The word * poet ' has a meaning in itself; the word * great ' has no meaning in itself; it has a meaning when used along with any noiui, as poet, man, river. It is purely an Ad- junct word. * His blood boiled.* — Subject, * his blood ; * principal word, the noun * blood ; ' additional word, or adjunct, * his.* * Those men departed.* — Subject, * those men ; * principal word, the noun * men ; * additional word, or adjunct, * those.' * The stars rise.* — Subject, 'the stars;* principal word, the noun ' stars; ' additional word, or adjunct, ' the.* * His,' ' this,' and ' the * are adjectives. 5. The words joined to the Noun, in these in- stances, are called Adjectives. It is very common to have the Subject made up of a Noun and Adjective : — old walls, wJiite sugar, rare jewels, good will. As already explained (pp. 12, 14), the Adjective limits the number of things expressed by a general noun, and increases the points of agreement. Examples : — round table, straight road, bright eye. ADJECTIVE AND ADVERB. 25 It is a peculiarity of most Adjectives ti express a meaning that may be more or less in degree. * Great' may be made * greater ' or ' greatest.' 6- When the Predicate consists of several words, there is usually one chief word, a verb ; the others being Adjuncts. In the form, * Animals serve men,' the Predicate is * serve men ; ' the chief word is the Verb ' serve ; ' the word * men,* is an Adjunct. It is a Noun, and is called the Object of the verb serve; the act of serving is performed towards ' men.' This is one mode of completing the Predicate, or enlarging the Predicate verb. The verbs that may take this Adjunct are called Transitive verbs. The verbs that do not take such an Adjunct, as in * he rtcns^' are Intransitive. 7. The Predicate may be enlarged in another way ; as — Animals serve men faithfully ; he runs swiftly. The words * faithfully ' and * swiftly * resemble Adjectives in this that they have no meaning when standing by them- selves. Their meaning is seen along with a verb, and they modify or qualify the action expressed by the verb. It is one thing to serve ; it is something additional to 8erve faith- fully : it is one thing to rim, it is something more to run swiftly. These words are, in Grammar, Adverbs. Examples of Adverbs. The fire soon consumed the town. The fact is certainly true. He deftly plied the oar. Solomon judged wisely* W&M patiently. Some do nothing well, 3 26 THE SENTENCE. Another form of the Adverb is seen in the sentence — * 3he learns music at home.'' The adverb is here made up of two words, 'at' and 'home.' The second word *home' is a Noun ; it might be the subject or (A)j( ct of a sentence. The other word * at ' is called a Preposition. The combination of a Noun and a Preposition in this way is called an Adverbial Fhrase. 8. Sometimes a word is used to conned two different sentences ; as * Alexander died at Baby- lon, and\\\^ empire was divided among his generals/ The word * and * is called a Conjunction. 9. The Subject of a Sentence may be given by a word of referevce : — The Vatican is in Eome ; it is the palace of the Pope. In the first of these two sentences, the subject is *The Vatican,' which is a noun, and names the building intended to be spoken of. In the second sentence, the subject is given by the word *it^' which refers back to the subject of the sentence, and but for that reference could have no meaning. * It ' is called a Pronoun. The Queen is coming ; she is gaily attired. The Peers have assembled ; they have taken their seats. * I am a man more sinned against than sinning.' / means the person speaking at the time. Thou and you are the persons addressed. 10- The Seven Classes of words, now ennme- rated — Noun, Verb, Afljectivc, Adverb, Preposition, Conjunction, Pronoun — are called the Parts of Speech. They are taken in order as follows ; — THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 27 Noun. Pronoun. Adjective, Verb. Adverb. Preposition. Conjunction. The Noun, the Pronoun, and the Adjective, appear chiefly in the Subject of the Sentence. The Verb and the Adverb appear in the Predicate. The Noun and the Adjective appear in the Predicate occasionally. The three Parts of Speech named Pronoun, Preposition, and Conjunction, are entirely without meaning when they Stand alone : as I, it, for, and. The Adjective and Adverb, standing alone, are imperfect or incomplete in meaning. The Noun and the Verb have a meaning in themselves ; which the other Parts of Speech extend and vary. Questions. 1. What is speech made up of ? 2. What are the two different uses of words ? 3. Give the leading words in the saying, * All men grieve when they lose friends. ' 4. Give the helping words in the same saying. 5. What subjects are included in our knowledge ? 6. In which list of subjects should each of the following names be placed : — horse, Turkey, flint, joy, Isaac, infancy, oratory ? 7. What part of language do the words — rouses, had, became — belong to ? 28 THE SENTENCE. 8. What are the facts that all knowledge begins from ? 9. What enables us to recognise * up and down,' * long and short,' * strong and weak ?' 10. In what way do we best discover Differences ? 11. What makes an Individual ? Examples: — The Ger- man Ocean, Jerusalem, George III. 12. What is the efftict upon us when two different things are like each other ? 13. In which of the two following couples is there most agreement: — a table and a chair; a house and a tree ? 14. What union makes knowledge complete ? 15. What are C/asses founded on ? for example, the classes — stars, seas, clouds, ships? 16. What is meant by a General name ? Are class names general ? 17. "When is one class higher than another ? 18. Which class — higher or lower — contains most indi- viduals ? Show this in the classes — men. English- men. 19. What is the meaning oi genus and species ? 20. What is the additional word that expresses a smaller. class with mere marks ? 21. Give the meaning of Subordinate and Coordinate. 22. What is the method of Defining a thing? 23. llow are Agreements given shortly ? 24. How are the Differences given ? 25. What is the difference in meaning between white and whiteness ? Which of the two words is Abstract ? 26. What is necessiry, more than a Subject, to make a saying complete ? 27. What is the difference between — * London has a Mayor,' and — * all the English towns have mav' ■ • ?' QUESTIONS. 29 28. When a proposition is not true in every case, what should be stated alon^ with it ? 29. What is the difference between a proposition and a rule ? Are all rules universal ? ^ 30. What is a Sentence ? 31. What is the fewest number of words in a Sentence ? 32. When a Sentence has but two words, what are these words ? 33. Which word includes, in its meaning, the time of aa action P 34. What is the word that is usually joined to the Sub- ject? 35. How may the Predicate be enlarged ? 36. What Part of Speech arises from the enlargement of the Predicate ? 37. What is the Adverbial Phrase ? What new Part of Speech appears in it ? 38. What is -the Part of Speech used to connect Sen- ^ tences ? 39. What Part of Speech names Subjects and Objects of Sentences, by means of a reference ? 40. What Parts of Speech have a full meaning in them- selves? 41. What Parts have no meaning in themselves? 42. What kind of meaning has the Adjective or the Adverb standing alor.e ? PAETS or SPEECH. THE NOUN. DEFINITION. 1. The Noun is the Subject or the Object of a Sentence : — as * Csesar conquered Gaul ; ' * famine raises prices.' Ciesar and Gaul are nouns ; Caesar is the subject and Gaul the object. The Noun is not the only word that may be the subject or the object of a sentence ; the same purpose maybe served by a Pronoun, and by a particular part of the Verb called the Infinitive. In — * I choose to remain,' and * I prefer remain- ing,' the subject * I' is a pronoun, the objects *to remain* and 'remaining' are Infinitives. Hence, in defining the noun, we must assign some other marks to distinguish it from these other words. The Noun is distinguished from the Pronoun by the follow- ing mark : — 2. The Noun is the name of an actual thing, - while the Pronoun names by means of a reference. ' Csesar usurped the government of Rome ; but he was speedily slain.' * Csesar ' and * he ' are subjects ; * Caesar ' is PROPER NOUNS. 31 a noim, and is the name of the actual person ; * he ' is a word tlmt names by referring to the former sentence, "where * Caesar ' is the subject. The Noun is distinguished from all parts of the Verb, as follows : — 3. The Noun is changed, or inflected, for num- ber, case, and gender. The Infinitives of the Verb are not inflected at all. When the meaning allows of it, a noun has singular and plural forms — 'city,' 'cities;' case forms — *Ca33ar,' 'CoBsar's; gender forms — * baron,' * baroness.' The infinitive of the verb is unchangeable. The verb has many changes ; the chief is to give difference of time. The full Definition of the Noun, according to the rules of defining (p. 15), is this : — The Noun is a Part of Speech (Higher Class) ; it may be the subject or the object of a sentence (1), it names an actual thing (2), it may be changed or inflected for number, case, and gender (3) (Differences). CLASSES OF NOUNS. 4. 1. Proper, Singular, Meaningless IsTouns : — Snowdon, Greece, Jupiter, William Tell. These are called proper, because they are the property of some individual person or thing. They are called singular for the same reason. * Snowdon' is the peculiar and exclusive name of a certain mountain. They are called meaningless, in opposition to the next class, because they are mere marks to designate a person or thing, and do not convey any information about the person or thing. ExampUs of Proper Names. Persons— ^o\omoT\, Homer, Cato, Constantino, Joan of Arc, Oliver Cromwell. 32 TUE NOUN. Tlaces—Asm^ Tartary, Pekin, Sahara, Constantinoplo, Jordan, Horeb. Branches of Knowledge — Geometry, Chemistry, Surgery, Agriculture, Navigation. Days, Months, Festivals — Saturday, March, Christmas. Diseases — Fever, Palsy, Gout, Plague, Hooping-cough, Consumption. There are more than one thousand diseases. Some meaningless nouns may never have been used but for one object ; as * Rome.' for the city of th'it name ; * Jeho- vah,' for the Deity. These are Proper and Singular nawies in the strictest sense : they are exclusively possessed by an individual. But, as we have many objects to name, we often use the same name for a variety of objects, tvithoiU any resemblance to one another. Thus, ' Jupiter,' the name of a god, is used to name one of the planets. * Wellington' and 'Victoria' are applied to persons, to animals, to towns, to streets, to forts, to harbours, to ma- chines, &c. Persons were at first named by a single word, as Abraham, Samuel, Socrates. To avoid confusion from the same name being applied to many persons, the Romans employed double ond even triple names — Titus Livius, Marcus TuUius Cicero. We do likewise : John Hampden, Charles James Fox, fignify each one person. Family surnames are used in the plural, as designating a plurality of persons : — the Gracchi, the Howards, the Mac- leods. So, speaking of any one, we may say — a Howard, a Macleod, a Brown. Such names are so far class names; the point of resemblance of the subjects being common descent, or family relationship, real or supposed. When the same name is given to several places, rivers, or bnildin,2:s, &c., a second designafion is used : Newcastle-upon- Tyne, Newcastle-under-Lyne J North Esk, South Eskj St. Paul's in Loudon. COMMON NOUNS. 33 5. ir. Common, General, Significant Nouns : — mountain, kingdom, man. These nouns are called common and general because they are common to a great many things, by reason of the agree- ment of those things. Snowdon, Skiddaw, St. Bernard, Lebanon — are in some respects different from each other, yet they all agree in a very important point. They are masses of high ground. On account of their likeness, they receive the name 'moun- tain.' This name is significant ; it signifies the fact com- mon to all mountains. The name * Snowdon ' is not signi- ficant—it is meaningless ; it might have been given to a rivor, or a country, or a horse. All names of Classes, being also general, are significant : the classes — mineral, plant, animal, bird, man — are each made up of individuals resembling one another. There may be higher and lower classes ; as the class Ani- mal, which contains the classes — men, quadrupeds, birds, reptiles, fishes. Every such class name is a significant name. 6- Some Singular objects have names that are Significant : — as Providence, Omnipotence, for the Deity. These are rare and peculiar. Fate, Nature, Destiny, are of the same kind. Usually when a Singular person or thing has a significant designation, it is by uniting several significant names, which separately may apply to many individuals, but collectively apply to only one. 'The present Pope* is an individual, expressed by three significant words ; but when these are 34 THE NOUN. all joined, they restrict the moaning to one indi vidu;il. There are many Popes ; but there is only one present Pope. Many Singular names have a mixed character ; they are partly meaningless and partly significant. Thus * Exeter Hull' has a certain meaning through the significant name * hall ' — a place of meeting ; the word * Exeter * is an acci- dental addition, and serves for distinguishing Exeter Hall from other public places, as * Westminster Hull,' * St. James's Hall,* which are mixed names also. * Paradise ' is a purely proper and meaningless name ; tho * Garden of Eden * is a mixed singular name. It willbe afterwards explained that the word * the,' called the Definite Article, prefixed to a general nou?i, is often sufiicient to point out an individual ; the queen, spoken in this country, means a single person ; the river, spoken in London, means the river Thames : the IBank, is the Bank of England. Proper names of rivers have usually the article : — the Rhine, the Nile, the Severn. As the significant general name designates many indi- viduals, it must be modified according as we speak of one or of a number of these. Sometimes we name a single member of the class ; for which the form is * a mountain,' * an animal,* * a ship ; ' sometimes we speak of several individuals, and then we say * mountains,* animals,* * ships.* The following Exercise embraces the two foregoing classes of Nouns. Exercise 5. 1. Columbus discovered America. 2. George Fox, the first of the Quakers, was a shoe- maker. 3. Joan of Arc perished at the stake. 4. Washington is the capital of the United States. COLLECTIVE NOUNS. 85 y 6, The ark of the covenant was brought up to Mount Zion. 6. Roman Catholics worship the Blessed Virgin, and eat no flesh during Lent. 7. A shout that frighted the reign of Chaos and old Night. 8. Earth felt the wound. 9. Laud was flung into the Tower. 10. Christmas comes but once a year. 11. Measles, Scarletina, and Small-pox, are just now very prevalent. 12. James is learning Arithmetic ; Mary begins music in January. 7. III. Collective ITomis ; as flock, crowd, tribe, congregation. A great many individuals are collected together, and are spoken of as one body. * The flock is brought home ; * * the crowd is large ; * * the tribe of Judah was scattered.* Farther examples : — Company, party, family, troop, legion, cluster, galaxy, swarm, assembly, meeting, court, jury, parliament, club, multitude, mob, herd, array, brother- hood, tenantry, number, host, gathering. Armada, navy, army, fleet, regiment, clan. As there may be more than one collection of the same things, collective names may be either Singular or Plural ; * an army,' * armies ; * * a host,' ' hosts.' Such names are significant as well as collective. The collective nouns * Armament,' * starry sphere,* are so all-comprehending that there cannot be more than one. Z6 TUE NOUfJ. . 8. IV. Material Nouns : — silver, coal, chalk, sandstone, ivory. * Silver ' is a name for the entire collection of the metal of that name existing everywhere. * Chalk ' means all chalk, not any piece or portion of it. * Wood ' is wood generally and collectively. Farther examples : — Brass, iron, stone, clay, sugar, salt^ tobacco, cotton, flax, beet-root, mustard, rice, grass, cloth, wood, jute, jiaper, water, snow, wine. These names are necessarily singular ; they designate the material as one whole. When such names are used in the plural, as they often are — irons, coppers, marbles, coals, sands, cottons, sugars, wines — their meaning is changed. They no longer state the material as a whole, but either thiuga made of it, or portions of it, or kinds of it. Coppers are tilings made of copper ; marbles things made of marble. Coals are pieces of coal ; sands are grains of sand. Woods, cottons, sugars, wines, are different kinds of wood, cotton, ^ugar, wine. Such nouns are common, or signiflcant nouns. They are class nouns. Whatever noun is used in the plural, as irons, coppers, may also be used in the singular with a or an before it ; an iron, a copper, a sugar. This also shows that the noun is not used as a noun of material, but as a common, general, or class noun. 9. V. Abstract !N'onns : — darkness, squareness, righteousness, purity (Int. p. 16). These are formed from Adjectives : — darkness, from dark ; righteousness, from righteous ; purity (also pureness) from pure. ABSTRACT NOUxNS. 37 The Adjective (see p. 14) expresses a meaning along with a noun : — * dark places ^ * righteous men.* The Abstract noun expresses the same meaning as if it were separate ; it mentions the agreement apart from the things agreeing : — darkness, righ teousness. It is impossible to separate darkness from something that is dark, or righteousness from some persons that are righteous ; but it is convenient to suppose the separation, or to consider only that property of the things mentioned called * dark,' * righteous,' 10- Other Abstract Nouns are formed from verbs : — Contradiction, belief, doubt. * Contradiction ' is from the verb * contradict,' and ex- presses the action of the verb. * Belief is from the verb * believe.' ' Doubt ' is either noun or verb. Nouisr — * doubt is a dis- tressing condition.' Verb—' no one doubts the rumour.' When Abstract Nouns are used with * a ' before them, or in the plural, they are converted into common or general nouns, and have a different meaning. * Truth ' is an ab- stract noun; ' a truth,' and 'truths,' mean particular examples of truth. ' Charity ' is abstract ; ' charities ' are particular acts or modes of charity. ' Glory ' — abstract ; * glories * — a general noun — kinds or examples of glory.- 'Time' and 'Space' may be parsed either as collective nouns, or as abstract nouns. ' Time * means the whole dura- tion of past and future j * a time ' and ' times ' mean parts or porti(ms of time. 4 88 THE NOUN. Besides being Subject or Object of a Sentence, the Noun may be found in the following places : — (1). Nouns are extensively used along with prepositions, as phrases ; which phrases most usually act the part of Adverbs. * lie stood by John,' ' we were under canvas.* Tliese phrases may have adjectives prefixed to the noun; ' I stood on the highest ground.' Excepting in one of the infinitive forms of the verb — as *to ride,' ' to see ' — the word that follows a preposition is either a Noun or a Pronoun. (2). Nouns occur in the Predicate of a Sentence, with certain verbs of incomplete meaning ; the verb ' be ' (is, was, were, &c ) is the chief example. * He is a lawyer,* The verb * is ' has not a complete meaning till we add a word to say what he is. The words that complete the meaning of these incomplete verbs are usually either Nouns or Adjectives. (3). Nouns are used extensively as Adjectives : — ship stores, table drawer. These will be explained afterwards. [With these explanations the pupil will be able to point cut every noun in the examples. A beginning should be made, however, by pursing only the nouns that are either subjects or objects of sentences.] Exercise 6. Komis generally. 1. Frederick the Great wrested Silesia from the Empire, and brought on the Seven Years' War. 2. Kindness to animals is no unworthy exercise of bene- volence. 3. The produce of previous labour makes the wealth of a country. 4. Security of property is essential to capital, to power, to skill, to combination and division of labour, and also to self-preservation. 6. The throne of the Caesars gave little certainty of possession to the occupier, 6. Dirt is matter in the wrong place. 7. Round the ao:ent's house they threw up with great speed a wall of turf fourteen feet in height, and EXERCISE ON THE NOUN. 39 twelve in thickness. The space enclosed was about half-an-acre. Within this rampart all the arms, the ammunition, and the provisions of the settle- ment were collected, and several huts of thin plank were built, , 8. In a short time two hundred foot and a hundred and fifty horse had assembled. 9. Lowliness is young Ambition's ladder. 10. The grape is a richer fruit than the gooseberry. 11. Affectation in any part of our behaviour is lighting up a caudle to our defects. 12. The beauties of a great poem cannot be enjoyed at first sight. 13. Life is precious ; yet men have laid down their lives to preserve the liberties of their country. 14. There is no royal road to geometry ; practice is the way to perfection in all sciences and arts. 15. James has a complete set of the ferns of his own district. 16. Laws securing to every man a property' in the pro- duce of his labour are universal in well-ordered societies. 17. Loam contains more sand than potter's clay. 18. Hundreds of different grasses are named in works on Botany. 19. Halloween, Shrove Tuesday, and other old festivals* are now less observed than in former times. 20. Morris, turning in his saddle, called out to his people, ** remember what I have told you, men." Then he put his spurs into ' Old Treasurer,' and, followed by the fraction of the regiment that ranged clear of the battery, drove full at the squadron corifronting him. 21. Humanity then lodged in the hearts of men, And thankful masters carefully provided For creatures wanting reason. 40 THE NOUN. 22. Cholera makes great ravages in low-lying and ill- drained towns. 23. Lime is an essential ingredient in all fertile soils. 24. In the direct front of the ranks thus awaiting the charge of our horsemen, there was sitting in his saddle a Russian who seemed to be the squadron- leader. 25; When the Arminian controversy arose in TTolhind, the English Government and the English Church lent strong support to the Calvinistic party. 26. From March, 1629, to April, 1640, the Houses of Parliament were not convoked. 27. Carbon is the most abundant element in plants. 28. Wheat is a finer grain than oats. 29. In a time of frost, the appearance of the northern lights may be counted on with certainty. 30. The Report of the Select Committee of the House of Commons, appointed in 1833 to enquire into the state of the education of the people in England and Wales, gives an amount of information showing the increase of decency of deportment in the present age. Questions. 1. Mention all the Parts of Speech that may be the Subject or the Object of a Sentence. 2. Distinguish the Noun from the Pronoun. 3. Distinguish the Noun and the Pronoun from the Verb. 4. Whv are the words — Adam, tree, winter — called Nouns ? Show that they correspond with the Definition. 5. Why are the words— he, great, loving — said not to be Nouns ? QUESTIONS ON THE NOUN. 41 6. Why are tlie nouns — India, Charles — called Proper ? why Singular ? why Meaningless ? 7. How is it that singular nouns may be names for many subjects ? Take the examples — Venus, Washing- ton, Smith. 8. What is done to prevent confusion when one name is given to many persons, or to several places or buildings ? 9. Why are the nouns — star, kingdom, table— called Common ? why General r why Significant ? 10. Why are class names General and Significant? 11. What Singular objects have names that are not Mean- ingless, but Significant? 12. How can Significant names be joined to express a Singular Object ? Take as examples — the head of our family ; the father of all mankind ; the last of the Stuarts ; the great pyramid. 13. Some Singular Names are compounds of meaningless and significant words. Show this in the names- Mount Horeb, the Falls of Niagara, St. Paul's Cathedral. 14. What is a Collective Noun ? Are the nouns — people, family, fleet — significant as well as collective ? 15. Of what class are the Nouns— ivory, spice, grass ? 16. Of what class are — wines, spices, grasses ? 17. To what class belong the nouns — brightness, scarcity ? What is the meaning of these words, as compared with the adjectives— bright, scarce? 18. To what class belong — education, success, life ? 19. When Abstract Nouns are used with * a ' before them, or in the plural, what are they ? 20. To what class belong the words— Time and Space P 21. Give all the places, in a sentence, where Nouns may be found. THE PEONOUN". DEFINITION. 1. The Pronoun differs from the Noun in ex- pressing a thing not by its own name, but by a reference or relation to something else. * J' (the person spealjing) ' say ; * * /ie ' (some person already mentioned) * remained.' We know what * John Smith * or * man ' stands for, as soon as we hear or see the name ; we do not know wliat * I * stands for until we find out who is addressing us. When we ask — Who is there? and get the answer — * I,' we do not know from the pronoun who is the person speaking : we re- main in ignorance until the person gives his real name, or until we recognise him by his voice or by some other circum- stance. The writer of a letter uses the pronoun ' I ' to designate himself; but unless he signs his name or unless we know the handwriting, we do not know who it is that * I * designates. In a legal document, the writer tells who he is — ' T, James Brown, of Duke Street, St. James's, do hereby declare.' In the following sentence, *we' is used with a similar explanation :—' We, English, occupy a middle ground be- tween the French and the Germans.' Merely to say * I saw him' without having spoken before, conveys no sense ; but if after speaking of some person we add ' I saw him yesterday,' we know that * him ' refers to PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 43 the person spoken about. In like manner, * she/ * it,' ' they,' 'this,! ' that,' have no sense unless we know, in some other way, who or what they refer to. 2. The Prononn, like the IN'oun, may be the Subject or the Object of a sentence, and may be changed for number, case, and gender. * We saw them ; ' * I met her.' * We ' and * them ' are plural ; * them ' and * her' are changes for case (from ' they * and *she).' * She ' and * her ' are feminine; * he,* 'him,' being masculine. Tn regard to case^ the Pronoun has more changes than the Noun. The Pronoun farther agrees with the Noun, in occupying the followiug places in the sentence, besides being Subject or Object. 1. In Phrases, with a Preposititm : — He spoke comfort to me ; they left the book wiih us; all retired except them; John, fi'ojn whom I heard. 2. In the Predicate of a Sentence, with incomplete verbs, especially the verbs * is,' * was,' &c. : — It is J; if I were he. CLASSES OF PRONOUNS. 3. I. Personal Pronouns : — I, we, thou, ye, you. ' I ' and ' we ' are pronouns of the first person ; the . others — thou, ye, you — are pronouns of the second person. I denotes the speaker by himself: *I give you leave to do it.' We denotes the speaker and others with him, A school- boy says for himself and his schoolfellows — *We played cricket,' * We do not meet on Saturday : * a member of a church says — * We have a good minister.' Thou is addressed to one person. It Is used not in 44 THE PRONOUN. ordinary address, but when wo speak under strong feeling: * thou that rulest over all ! ' * thou fair orb, that silent shines ! ' * thou viper I * You is the ordinary pronoun of the second person, whether we address one or a number. Ye, like ' thou,' is employed chiefly in strong feeling: * Ye gates, lift up your heads.' *0 night, And storm, and darkness, ye are wondrous strong.* 4. II. Demonstrative Pronouns : — he, she, it, they, this, that. The Personal pronouns refer only to persons speaking and persons spoken to : tho Demonstrative pronouns refer to, point out (as with the finger) whatever is spoken about, 5. He is the pronoun of the masculine gender in man and in the higher animals : — * the horse mocketh at fear, neither turneth he back from the sword.' * 6- She is the pronoun of the feminine gender in man and in the higher animals: — 'Her young ones also suck up blood, and where the slain are, there is slie.^ When inanimate things are spoken of as persons, they are pointed out by pronouns of distinct gender. We speak of the Sun as ' he,* of the Moon aa * she.* We say also — * Take fast hold of Instruction, for she is thy life : ' and of Wisdom — ' she guides the young.' 7. It is the pronoun of the neuter gender^ and DEMONSTKATIVE PRONOUNS. 45 is applied to thintrs without life: ''Hero is the well ; let us drink from iV * It ' refers also to living beings not sufficiently important to have their sex distinguished. * Look at the child ; what a pretty thing it is ! ' * iHs a fine dog.' * It * refers not only to single names, but to phrases and to whole clauses, 'The man is honest; who can deny «7.*' * It may be that the accused is guilty, but can you prove U ; ' There are greater varieties in the use of * it * than in the use of * he ' and * she.* 1. ' It ' with a backward reference — (1.) to a single word. The stort/ is not true, whoever told it. The book was brought, but it was not the right one. The ^7'e was lighted, but it went out. The moon was up ; it was nearly full. I tried the doo)\ but it was locked. I found a beautiful pebble, and brought it home. I saw a canary bird, and wished to have it. I am seized with melancholy^ and fain would have it beaten away. * The wind blew down the wall; it was very strong.' Here there are two nouns, and ' it ' may equally apply to either * wind ' or ' wall.' Such cases are ambiguous. ^Adversity gives wisdom, although it is painful.' The two nouns ' adversity ' and * wisdom ' both precede the pronoun ' it ; ' we know by the sense that the reference is to * ad- . versity.' 46 THE PRONOUN. * It' with a backward reference — (2.) to a clause. * Surely the Lord is in this phice, and I knew tt not.' * It ' does not refer to * place,* but to the fact expressed in the whole clause. Earnest men will obtain converts ; and no one is surprised at it (that earnest men obtain converts). I say that Anp^elo is a villain. Is il not strange? (That he should be a villain). 2. * It ' with a forward reference to a phrase, or a clause. It is foolish to attempt tlie impossible (phrase). It is requisite to defer judgment. It is vain to shift the scene. It is peculiar to human beings to have a history. It may be asserted that unbroken Jiappiness is not to be hoped for (clause). It is doubtful whether the story be true. If it be asked, what has science done for us, it might be retorted, What was our condition a century ago ? 3. * It • with indefinite reference. The reference of * it ' is indefinite in such phrases as ' Who is it V ' what is ifi ' This is shown by the answers made to such questions : * it is an old woman ; ' ' it is a child ; ' * it is a baker's cart ; * * it is a horse ; * * it is a man selling fruit.' In such phrases as — * lord it^ * foot it,* * brave it out,' the j-eference is so vague that * it ' may be considered a mere expletive. INDEFINITE DEMONSTRATIVES. ^7 8. They is the plural of * He,' * She/ find * It.' * Your fathers, where are tlmj ? ' ' There are lionesses in the menagerie ; I saw tliem to-day.' * Many things have to be considered, but we cannot consider tlcem alK' * They ' has somefcimes a forward reference. (1.) With the relative of restriction : — Tlieij that seek shall find. (2.) With a phrase of restriction : — They of Arcadia.* And they will best succeed, that best can pay, 9- TMs and that may in certain cases be classified as Pronouns. *This' and 'that' usually take a noun with them, and must then be parsed as Adjectives, When they stand alone as words of reference, they must be taken as Pronouns : ' I would rather be in his place, than in that of his accuser ; ' * as for meeting you to-morrow, that I can't promise;' * this is a strange doctrine ; ' * who would endure this f * 10. In such phrases as * ove cannot tell,' ' they say that the war will not last long,' — one and they are called Indefinite Demonstrative Pro- nouns. It is more polite to say — * Suppose one were accused of being dishonest,' than — ' Suppose / were accused of being dishonest ; * and much more than — ' Suppose you were ac- cused of being dishonest.' * One ' in this sense is derived not from the numeral * one,» but from the French oUj a corruption of hoonme — man. * One * See this usage kept up in Lord Derby's Translation of Homer. 48 THE PRONOUN. is surprised to hear/ means, according to derivation, ' A man is surprised to hear.' * One ' should be followed by ' one ' and not by * he.* * What otie undertakes, one must endeavour to perform.' 11. The nunneral one appears in such construc- tions as the followinsf: — *I want aknife; give me a good oneJ ' The little ones (children) are gone out.' 12- other is used in the same way : — * One re- mains, the others have left.* 13- Both is likewise a word of reference : — * Will you take your coat or your cloak ? ' * I will take ^ both: 14. Compounds formed by adding the word 'self to Personal or Demonstrative Pronouns, are called Reflective Pronouns: — myself, thyself, ourselves, yourselves, himself, herself, itself, themselves, one's self. 15- III- Relative Pronouns: who, which, that, what. These are tho proper Relatives. A Relative Pronoun unites sentences or clauses like a conjunction. Who and its compounds — whoso, whoever, whosoever — apply to persons ; which and its com- pounds — whichever, whichsoever — relate generally to things; that, and what, with its compound whatsoever, are used with both persons and things ; * whatever * relates to things. RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 49 16. Who is the Co-ordinating Relative of Persons. ' I called on Henry, icho told me what happened.' This is the same as — and /te told me w^hat happened. It is a pronoun and a conjunction {and) together. The Duke of Wellington, ivho commanded the English armies in the Peninsula, never lost a battle. Our Father, who art in heaven. And Mitford, ivJio was gradually displacing Gillies, was himself displaced by later historians, who excelled both. 17. Which is the Co-ordinating Relative of Things :— In the wood I cut a stout stick, which (and it) helped me on the road wonderfully. The word of God, ivhich is contained in the Scriptures, is the only rule. * They gave a loud shout, which was heard across the river.' This is the same di%—and it was heard. The English nation, which never ceased to desire liberty, is an example to other nations. * Which ' may refer back to a whole clause, like the Demonstrative Pronoun *it': — *I turned off to the right hand, which led me astray.' The reference of * which ' is not * hand,' but the facfe expressed by the whole clause. He then dissolved the Parliament; which was his favourite plan for meeting their demands. 18- That is the relative of Restrietion, for both Persons and Things : — ^ The man iliat I called on;' ' the spring that 1 passed on the way.' 5 50 THE PRONOUN. The saying — that I called on — restricts or points out the man intended. The spring that I passed on the way, is pointed out or restricted by this circumstance, namely, I passed it on the way. * Kean was the best actor that I ever saw.* The class * actor ' is here under a two-fold restriction ; the phrase * that I ever saw ' is the equivalent of an adjective (called an adjective clause) and limits actors to those seen by mo. The second limitation is the adjective * best,* which singles out one individual actor. * One of the wisest men w7io ever lived,* is not correct ; say, Uhat ever lived.* Man is the only animal that can be both sociable and solitary. It was a peace that everybody was glad of, and that nobody was proud of. I love everything thaVs old. The Post-office intimation beginning — Letters which con- tain coin — would be better thus— Letters that contain coin. The intention is to restrict the class * Letters,' to those letters containing coin. In such a nio:ht Medea gathered the (^nchanted herbs That did renew old -3iison. Uneasy lies the head that wears a crown. Man seems the only growth thai dwindles here. The only kind of nobility that becomes a philosopher, is the rank that he holds in the esteem of his fellows, M/io are the best judges of his merits.' The two first relatives are properly restrictive (that); the last is co-ordinating fwhoj. In modern style, *Who' and 'Which* are often used for restriction instead of ' That '—the relative preferred by the old EQUIVALENTS FOR RELATIVES. 51 writers. In conveisation, the restrictive meaning is raore frequently expressed by * that.' * You are welcome to any book that I have.' * The boy that you see there will show you the way.' 19. What often stands for ' that which,' Hhe— that : ' — That which you propose, the thing that you propose, ivhat yon propose — is reasonable. ^lan sometimes loathes tvhat (the thing that) he imitates. We become fond of what we have often benefitted. We may understand tvhat we could not have found out. 20- As, preceded by Such, has the force of the restrictive relative, applying to both persons and things. It is a pleasing show to sucJi as care for these things ; I can always find there such articles as I want. This is a contracted form. The full expression is — such articles as the articles that I want. 21. The word But serves as a relative in certain constructions: — 'there was not a man .of them hut shook for dread,' for * there was not a man of them that did not shake for dread.' 22. The adverb When answers the purpose of the restrictive relative, especiall}'' with a noun of time as the antecedent : — ' It is the hour when from the boughs the nightingale's high note is heard.' * When ' is not always restrictive ; sometimes it is co- ordinating. * The day of trial will come, when all will be different.' When is here equivalent to * and then.' 52 THE PRONOUN. 23. Where is used as a relative when the ante- cedent denotes place : — * This is the very spot where we stood two years ago.' * Where' is sometimes co-ordinating, though oftener re- strictive. * On my way back, I called at the inn, tvhere I found a pack of rough fellows drinking beer,' * Where' is here equivalent to 'and there.' 24- Whence is occasionally nscd as a relative of phice : — ' he returned to the place whence he came,' instead of ^from ivhich he came,' or * that he came froiii.^ 25- Whither is used in like manner in the sense of 'to a phice ; ' as ^ They went out not knowing whither,' 26- The compound forms — whoever, whoso, whosoever, whichever, whichsoever, whatever, whatsoever, whenever, whensoever, wherever, wheresoever, whithersoever, whencesoever — have a certain Indefinite meaning, and have their antecedents often left unexpressed : thus, * whoever said it,' means * avy jierson that said it ; ' ' whoso is prudent ; ' * whatever you say to the contrary ; * ' wherever, whithersoever you go, I will follow.' 27* IV- Interrogative Pronouns : who, which, what. Who applies to persons and is entirely indeG- nite : — ' Who croes there ? ' supposes complete ignor- ance of the person referred to. INTERROO.VnVE PRONOUNS. 53 28- Which, unlike its use as a Relative, applies to peA'sons as well as to things. Its peculiar force is selective. It supposes a known class or group, and inquires the particular individual or indivi- duals : ' Which of you will go with me ? ' * Which am I to take ? ' 29. What and Whatever refer exclusively to tilings :— ^ What say jou ? ' ' Whatever is the matter with the boy ? * When * what' refers to persons, it is followed by a noun : ' tvhat man, lohai Roman, would be dragged in triumph, thus ? ' * Whatever * has the same usage. The words * when,' * where,' * whence,' ' whither,' may be used for asking questions ;^ they are the Adverbial Interroga- tives. Exercise 7. Examples containing Pronoun^ I Even the wisest cannot, while a revolution is still recent, weigh quite fairly the evils that it has caused against the evils that it has removed. 2. H )w doth the city sit solitary, that was full of people ! How is she become as a widow I 3. They say that the Prince leaves this to-morrow: would you have believed it ? 4. The Emperor Nicholas, in 1854, ordered his troops to cross the Prath, which was to invade Turkey. 5. This is what might be expected. 6. Romans, countrymen, and lovers! hear me for my cause; and be silent that you may hear. As Ciesar loved me, I weep for him. ; as he was for- tunate, I rejoice at it ; as he was valiant, I honour him. 54 THE PRONOUN. 7. Where did you first see liim ? That is the poiTit. 8. Boy, what 8ic:n ia it, when a man of great spirit grew J melancholy ? 9. This is not such a prize as I expected, hut it is the hest that ever I heard of. 10. It inevitably follows that much that was useful to them is useless to us. 11. The authority of Aristotle was at one time almost paramount to that of the Scriptures themselves. 12 The willow, which Lends to the tempest, often escapes better than the oak, which resists it. 13. One cannot always be studying one's own works. 14. He looks upon the whole world, as it were, in another light, and discovers in it a multitude of charms that conceal themselves from the generality of mankind. 15. When this man has looked about him as far as he can, ho concludes there is no more to he seen ; when he has shot his best, he is sure none ever did, or ever can, shoot beyond it. 16. It is only when the attention to what is said relaxes, that one begins to consider who is behind and who is before. 17. No species of superstition was ever more terrible than that of the Druids. 18. There was nothing in the whole collection but was in keeping with himself. 19. Although man has great variety of thoughts, useful to himself and to others, yet they are all within his own breast. 20. It is my wish, while I yet live, that you, ray boy, should visit the places where I myself have been. 21. In looking over a vast morass, unmarked by tower, or citadel, or town, which the horizon descends upon but does not bound, the shaping mind may discover more to think of than in the landscape that laughs with every variety of scenic beauty. EXERCISE ON THE PRONOUN. 55 22. Though it is confessed that great and splendid actions are not the ordinary employment of life, yet any system is defective that leaves no room for them. They often save, and always illustrate, the age and nation where they appear. 23. What art does for men, nature has done for animals, which are themselves incapable of art. 24. There is no writer but must sometimes fail in genuine wit. 25. To bow and sue for grace With suppliant knee, and deify his power^ that were low indeed ; That were an ignominy and shame beneath This downfall. 26. No cliff so bare but on its steep Thy favours may be found. 27. There breathes not clansman of thy line But would have given his life for thine. 28. Who is^t that can inform me ? That can T. 29. The raven himself is hoarse That croaV;s the fatal entrance of Duncan Under my battlements. 30. He *s here in double trust : First, as I am his kinsman and his subject, Strong both against the deed ; then, as his host, Who should against his murderer shut the door. Not bear the knife myself. 31. I have a strange infirmity, which is nothing To those that know me. Questions. 1. In what points does the Pronoun agree with the Noun ? In what do they differ ? 2. When we meet with the word *he,' where must we look to see whom it denotes ? 56 THE PRONOUN. 3. Give the Personal Pronouns. Apply the definition to thein. How do they differ from Nouns ? 4. In the saying — weovre you nothings— who are denoted by * we?' 5. When is * thou * used ? What is * you * applied to ? 6. To what class of Pronouns belong * he ' and * she ? ' 7. How many Modes of Reference has the pronoun * it ? ' What is the First ? When is this reference uncer- tain ? 8. What'is the Second Reference ? 9. What i8 the Third Reference ? 10. What is the mode of Reference in such expressions as * lord it/ * brave it out ? ' 11. What is the usual mode of Reference of *they?* What other reference has it sometimes ? 12. In what eases are the words * this * and *that* used as Pronouns? What other Part of Speech are they? What makes them Pronouns ? 13. What are the Indefinite Demonstrative Pronouns? 14. Distinguish tha two uses of the word *on8.' 15. Give an expression containing ' other ' as a Pronoun. Would it be a Pronoun in the saying — He has other property ? 16. What are the Reflective Pronouns ? 17. What is a Relative Pronoun more than a Personal or Demonstrative Pronoun ? 18. Which of the Relatives apply to Persons, which to Things ? 19. What are the co-ordinating Relatives ? Give the use of * who. ' 20. What are the purposes of * which ? * What uses are common to * which * and ' it ? ' QUESTIONS ON THE PRONOUN. 57 21. What is the chief relative of Restriction ? Give sentences showing the difference between Co-or- dination and Restriction. 22. In the saying — we pursue what pleases us — give the use of ' what.' 23. Mention various substitutes for the Relatives, and mention which are co-ordinating, and which re- strictive. Give illustrative sentences. 24. Give the Interrogative Pronouns. How do these answer to the Definition of the Pronoun ? TILE ADJECTIVE. DEFINITION. 1. Dejimtion. An Adjective is a word joined to a noun, to increase its meaning and limit its ex- tent: — as * round towers,* Hall men,' * clear water.' * Towers ' is a significant or general noun, comprehending a class of things. The word * round * selects from the class * towers* such as are round; accordingly ' round towers* means all that * tower * means, and * round ' hesides. The class * round towers ' is at the same time a smaller class than the class * towers.' * Tall men ' has more meaning than * men ; * it adds tallness to the other distinctions of human heings. At the same time it makes a class of smaller extent. * Clear water * means more than * water * ; and restricts the application, by leaving out all water that is not clear. Adjectives express meanings that usually vary in degree ; some tall men are taller than others ; some water is clearer than other water ; all things called * round * are not equally round. This shows the difference between an Adjective and a Noun used as an Adjective. If we say * clear water,' we can say * clearer, clearest ; ' but if we say * rose water,' or * ditch water,' we cannot say * roser, rosest ; * * ditcher, ditcbest.' The greater number of adjectives are called Adjectives of Quality. A certain number express not Quality but Quantity, PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. 59 or amount. A few words, having the effect of Adjectives, are derived from Pronouns, and are called Pronominal* these are the fewest of all ; they may be taken first. Under Adjectives are placed the words a or an, and the, called the Articles. CLASSES OF ADJECTIVES. 2. I. Pronominal. These are of two kinds. Demonstrative and Possessive. Pronouns stand by themselves in place of nouns : pro- nominal adjectives go along with nouns. In the expression — * I don't like that ' — ' that ' is a pronoun : in * I don't like that man,' * that* is a pronominal adjective. 3. 1. Pronominal Demonstratives :— this, that, the, you, yonder. This applies to persons and to things, and means some object near at hand, or nearer than some other compared object : — * this man,' namely, some one close by ; * this fellow was one of them.' That applies also to persons and to things, and means something at a distance. * That man * is some one not close by. * This ' and * that * are correlative or contrasting words ; the one excludes or opposes the other ; * I mean this man, not that one.' The, derived from * that,' is commonly called the Definite Article.' It is usually explained along with *a* or * an,' called the Indefinite Article. Yon and yonder are in use for the same meaning as * that : ' * yon castle wall ; * ' yonder city.' 4. 2. Pronominal Possessives :— my, mine, our, ours, thy, thine, your, yours, his, her, hers, its, 60 THE ADJECTIVE. their, theirs. These are the possessives of the Personal and Demonstrative Pronouns. The forms my, our, thy, your, their, are used with nouns like any other adjectives; * my horse,' * our table,' * yotir desk,' * their house : ' the corresponding forms mine, ours, thine, yours, theirs, are used in the predicate ; * the horse is mine^ * the table is oxirs^ * the desk is yoiirSy* *the house is theirs.* Exercise 8. Fronotninal Adjectives. 1. Come one, come all, this rock shall fly From its firm base as soon as I. 2. That spearVound hath our master sped. 3. Beneath those rugged elms, that yew-tree's shade. 4. There are only two courses open to us, to fight or to retreat ; this is disgrace, that is madness. 5. Yon cottager who weaves at her own door. 6. In yonder grave a Druid lies. 7. Some sins "do bear their privilege on earth, And so doth yours ; your fault was not your folly, 8. Besides, this Duncan Hath borne his faculties so meek. 5. II. Adjectives of Quantity. 1. Quantity in mass or bulk:— much, little, great, small, some, any : wuch food, little fire, great houses, some water. 6. 2. Quantity in Number. Under this head 176 have various kinds. ADJECTIVES OF QUANTITY. 61 (1) Definite Numeral Adjectives : — as eight daj'S {cardinal number) ; the eighth day {ordinal number) ; siiigle, double, triple (multipliers). A or an, the Indefinite Article, is the numeral adjective *one,' with a somewhat altered signification. Another is an ordinal adjective, meaning the second of two. Both means two taken together, and is opposed to the distributives * either* (one of two), and * neither' (none of two). (2) Indefinite Numeral Adjectives; as ^ many houses,* *a«y towns,' * a/^ streets. * These express number, but not in the definite form of numeration. Some denotes an uncertain portion of an entire collection : ^ some trees are more than two feet in diameter,' ^ some men have black hair.' Certain is a small select number : * there are certain points that I object to.' Applied in the singular, it means a par- ticular and known individual : — * hard by lived a certain nobleman.* Several is used to mean a small number. * He went several miles, before he saw his mistake.* Few is opposed to many : — * Few, few shall part where mayig meet.* ' A few ' is some— not many : — *Thou hast a few names even in Sardis.' 'Not a few' is a more emphatic main/ : — ' and of honourable women not a few."* Most means the largest number: — ^most people admit that.* All is opposed to * none,' and to *some:' — *not one or two, but all acknowledged his power.* Whole, or total, is opposed to * part,' and hence to * some :*— * the whole performance was admirable.* No and None, the absence, negation, or privation of any- 6 62 THE ADJECTIVE. thing : — * no sound broke the stillness,' * no mourners attended his funeral.' (3) Distributive Numeral Adjectives; as *each man, * neither way.' These are— each, either, neither, several, every, other. Each means two or more things taken separately : either means otw of two things. It is correct to say — * there are houses on each side of the road,' when we mean both sides : but we must say — * you may build a house on either side,' when we mean one and not both. Every means a//, of a number of things taken separately : * every art ' means * all arts ' when spoken of one by one. Exercise 9. Adjectives of Quantity, 1. A small leak may sink a great ship. 2. The planets traverse enormous orbits. 3. Every little thing helps. 4. I will do your worship as much service for forty shillings as another shall for three pounds. 5. The Feast of Tabernacles, which lasted seven days, began on the fifteenth day of the seventh month. 6. AH join the chase, but few the triumph share. 7. They performed their several duties admirably, each striving to do his best. 8. Either of the two large rods, and any one of the small, will serve my purpose. 9. Each of the five rooms on the second floor is smaller than any of the three on the first floor. 10. All thine adversaries, every one of them, shall go into captivity. 11. Several stars go to the making of one constellation. ADJECTIVES OF QUALITY. 63 12. Certain fishes have a swimming bladder, 13. Two men went up into the temple to pray : the one a Pharisee, the other a publican. 14. You must take both the horses or neither. 15. Love all, trust a few, do wrong to none. 16. The abilities of man must fall short on one side or other, like too scanty a blanket when you are abed. 17. A dungeon horrible, on all sides round As one great furnace flamed. 18. He doth bestride the narrow world Like a Colossus ; and we petty men Walk under his huge legs. 19. Then none was for a party, Then all were for the state. 20. Two of a house few ages can afford, One to perform, another to record. 21. Some he will lead to courts, and some to camps. 7. III. Adjectives of Quality:— a rich man, a beautiful garden, mighty kings, good will, holij places, old walls, high mountains, wild beasts, ancient tunes, natural affection, lowly minds, false doctrines, the African lion. To know whether a word is an Adjective of Quality, con- sider, first, whether it be an Adjective. Consider, secondy whether it be a Pronominal Adjective, or an Adjective of Quantity. If, being an Adjective, it is neither of these two kinds, it is an Adjective of Quality. Thus, * spacious ' is an Adjective : it complies with the Definition, as may be seen in using it with a noun, * sjjaciotcs rooms,' ' sjMcious grounds.' But it is not one of the Pro- nominal Adjectives, and it is not one of the Adjectives of 64 THE ADJECTIVE. Quantity ; accordingly we set it down as an Adjective of Quality. Try on the same plan — oval, hard, cold, red, sweet. 8. Adjectives of Qaality are as extensive as our knowledf^e. The following are some leading classes of Adjectives of Quality :— Time : — Enduring, permanent, frequent, transient, brief, hasty, momentary, unceasing, eternal, preceding, former, following, late, present, future, contemporary, approach injgf, bygone, ancient, modern, young, old, mature, early, punctual, ready, late, tardy, seasonable, incessant, recurrent. Space : — Extensive, roomy, capacious, local, large, bulky, voluminous, minute, expanded, contracted, distant, near, long, short, broad, narrow, high, low, deep, upright, straight, slanting, level, flat, plane, hanging, parallel, in- clined, inverted, crossed, external, internal, outer, inner, superficial, covered, bare, intervening, circumscribed, fore- most, hindermost, lateral. Form : — Regular, uniform, shaped, irregular, distorted ; angular, bent, crooked, curved, round, oval, winding, spiral, conical, columnar, bulging, concave, hollow, open. Motion : — Moving, still, stationary, restless, wandering, cjilm, quiet, steady, sailing ; fast, speedy, swift, rapid, quick, fleet, nimble, brisk, slow, tardy, easy, lazy, sluggish ; im- pulsive, recoiling ; advancing, receding, undeviating, attrac- ting, repelling, converging, diverging, admitting, excluding, rising, falling, turning, vibrating, tremulous. Solidity: — Material, heavy, light, dense, rare, compact, thin, hard, soft, stiff", supple, tough, brittle, powdery, gritty, polished, frozen. THE ARTICLES. 65 Fluidity : — Liquid, fluid, aerial, airy, molten, volatile, ■watery, wet, windy, moist, dry, flowing, bubbling, purling, frothy. Cb^owr .•—Luminous, shining, bright, lustrous, dim, dull, dark, faint, dingy, misty, shady, transparent, glassy, turbid, . coloured, white, black, red, crimson, pink, yellow, golden, purple, violet, blue. Good and Evil : — Moral, right, good, upright, honest, just, fair, equable, worthy, lovable, proper, becoming, dutiful, noble, generous, liberal ; wrong, unjust, immoral, bad, wicked, hateful, disagreeable, faithless, false, base, selfish, sinful, guilty, depraved, intemperate. 9. The class of Adjectives derived from proper names; and called Proper Adjectives, are princi- pally Adjectives of Quality ; as — the JVeivtonian telescope, a peculiar form of telescope invented by Newton. THE ARTICLES 10. A or An is called the Indefinite Article. * A horse ' means ' any horse ; ' one horse, but no one in par- ticiilar ; any object of the kind or class horse. These are not two articles, but different forms of the same article. * A * is used before a consonant, and before *h' (sounded as 7i), * y,' or * w ; * * a meal,' * a house,' * a year,' * a world.' * An ' is used before a vowel, and before silent * h ; ' ^ an ounce,' * an hour.* Several words beginning with a vowel are pronounced as if they began with a consonant : — Ewe, eunuch, eulogy, GQ THE ADJECTIVE. European, useful. Before such words some writers use ' an/ but most writers use *a,' which is preferable — * a ewe-lamb/ * a eulogy,' * a European fame,' * a useful article.' 11. The is called the Definite Article. * 2 he horse ' means some one horse in particular. It is the uncmphatic form of the de4nonstrative * that,' and has itself a weaker demonstrative force than ' that.' By this article, combined with significant nouns, we may single out an individual. * The town ' means the particular town that we live in or near. * The window ' means the window of the room that we live in. ' The Saviour,' * the tempter,' * the church '—are individual names. The significant noun may be qualified by an adjective :— the Catholic church ; the south wind ; the succeeding genera- tion ; the late king. SUBSTITUTES FOR THE SIMPLE ADJECTIVE. 12. 1. The Adjective Clause is a sentence servings to limit a Noun in the same manner as the Adjective : — the house that Jack built ; subjects that are hard to understand ; metals that do not tarnUli; men that have suffered reverses. * Subjects that are hard to understand ' — is nearly the same as ' unintelligible subjects.' For — * metals that do not tarnish,' we may substitute ^incorrodible metals:' — *men that have suffered reverses ' — * unfortunate men.' We cannot always obtain an Adjective to make the re- striction that is needed. There is no adjective for ' the SUBSTITUTES FOR THE SIMPLE ADJECTIVE, 67 house that Jack built.* * Kings that have succeeded while young,' cannot be expressed by a simple adjective united to 'kings.* 13. 2. Tho Adjective Clause may be reduced to a Participial Phrase; — the bouse built hy Jack; Kings succeedmg while yoking ,- men (tbat are) 'pre- disposed to crime ; furnaces consuming (tbat consume) ilieir oivn smoke. These participial phrases either are or resemble shortened clauses. 14. 3. Tbe place of the Adjective is often taken by a Noun: — a diamond necklace ; the oj)ium trside ; the London mail ; Guernsey granite. These are still farther abbreviations. * A diamond necklace * is a necklace that is made of diamonds (adjective clause) ; this may be shortened to the participial phrase — a necklace made of diamonds. By leaving out the verb entirely, it becomes 'diamond necklace,' which is the final substitute for a clause. * The opium trade ' is contracted from * the trade that is carried on in opium.* * London mail ' — is the mail that proceeds to and from Lon- don, or the mail proceeding to and from London. * Guernsey granite' — granite that is brought from Guernsey. * Cod-liver oil ' is a double contraction. * Cod liver * is liver belonging to the cod ; ' cod-liver oil ' is oil that is ex- tracted from the liver that belongs to, or is found in, the cod. 15. 4. A frequent substitute for the Adjective is a phrase :— a man ?'n armour; castles m the air ; the river of the tree of life* 68 THE ADJECTIVE. These also are shortened forms of clauses. * A man in armour,' is a man that is clad in armour. * Castles in the air' — castles huilt, or that are built, or that are imagined in the air. * The river of the tree of life ' — * the river that runs by or near the tree that imparts life.' Such phrases are mostly Adverbial phrases; the verbs that they belong to being left out. 16- 5. In sigmfy'mg possession, a possessive case may serve the purpose of an Adjective : — JhtroltVs grave ; the moons orbit ; virtue's reward ; IleaveiCs decree. These possessives, like prepositional phrases, are shortened clauses : —The grave where Harold is buried ; the orbit that the moon revolves in ; the reward that follows on the practice of virtue; the decree that has been issued from Heaven. 17- 6. Occasionally, Adjectives have their place supplied by Adverbs : — daily bread ; the above remarks ; a cross section. The same process of abbreviation is traceable here. * Daily bread,' is bread that is supplied daily, or day by day ; * the above remarks ' — the remarks that have been made above. The adverb is to be understood as qualifying an omitted verb. These substitutes for the Adjective are also explained in The Analysis of Sentences. ADJECTIVES IN THE PREDICATE. 18. The Predicate of a Sentence is often made np of an Incomplete Verb and an Adjective : — the fixed stars are remote ; tbe sun rose red. PREDICATE ADJECTIVES. 69 The verb * be * is the chief of the incomplete verbs. Many sentences have as predicate some part of this verb along with an adjective : I am strong ; the new gate is secure; the day has been fine ; the bravest are not always fortunate ; the golden eagle is scarce. 19. Adjectives in the Predicate are not restric- tiv^e, but co-ordinating. Tliey' do not narrow a class, but add some new meaning to it. In the designation — * fixed stars,' the adjective * fixed ' nar- rows the class ' stars,' and increases its signification, so that the subject denotes not all * stars,' but such stars as are fixed : this is the usual purpose of an adjective joined to a noun. In the saying — * the fixed stars are remote* — the adjective 'remote' does not farther narrow the class * fixed stars,' but predicates, or says, of them that they are * remote ; ' that they belong to the class — * remote or distant things.* * Golden eagles are now rare.' The adjective 'golden* restricts the class * eagles ' and increases its meaning ; the predicate adjective, * rare,' does not restrict the class, but connects it, or co-ordinates it, with another class, the class * rare animals.' It is the same as — * golden eagles are rare animals,' or are included in the wider class *rare animals.' * The new gate is secure,' is a shorter way of saying— 'the new gate is a secure gate.' The predicate adjective does not restrict the noun in the subject — new gate ; it re- stricts a noun in the predicate, which noun is not expressed. 'The bravest are not always fortunate.' There is here a double omission of the noun 'men.' 'The bravest men are not always fortunate men.^ In this form the use of the adjec- tives—bravest, fortunate— is regular. _ By the one, 'men' is restricted to the bravest men ; by the other, to fortunate men. The sentence denies that the two are always the same. 70 THE ADJECTIVE. * Brutus is honourable,' is the same as * Brutus is an hon- ourable man.* * Honourable' does not restrict Brutus; it restricts the class * man,' and predicates of Brutus that he is to be found in the restricted class — * honourable men.' With other Incomplete Verbs : — Britain has become great ; studious men grow wise ; the young horses were allowed to run wild ; the moon shines bright. * Britain has become great,' is the same as — Britain has become a great nation. So — studious men grow wise men. The young horses were allowed to run wild horses — to become wild horses. The moon shines bright — shines a bright object, 20. Many adjectives prefixed to Nouns are not restrictive, but co-ordinating, or predicate Adjec- tives. This can be known only from the sense. * "When an adjective is prefixed to a proper or singular name, it cannot be restrictive. * Brave soldiers ' expresses a select class of soldiers, possessing, in addition to the qualities of all other soldiers, the quality of being brave. But * brave Curtius' cannot restrict Curti us ; an individual cannot be restricted. The meaning is—Curtius, who was brave; it is a short way of mentioning Curtius, and of saj^ng also that Curtius was a brave man. * Glorious Apollo ' is Apollo, tvho is gloriom. It names Apollo, and implies that he is glorious. *Thou Great First Cause, least understood.' * First' has a restrictive meaning ; it selects from the class * causes ' the one that is first, or the foundation of all the rest. The ad- jective ' great ' does not farther restrict * First Cause ; * but adds to it the designation Great ; ' Thou First Cause, thou art great.* The phrase * least understood ^s an additional circumstance of co-ordination. The full expression of the EXERCISE OK THE ADJECTIVE. 71 passage is — Thou art the First Cause ; thou art Great ; thou art least understood. * The sea, the open sea ' — the sea, ivhich is open, which is an open thing. * The wide world ' — the world, which is wide, which is a wide object or thing. * The glorious uni- verse ' — the universe, which is glorious. These adjectives are all co-ordinating : they have the same effect as a clause introduced by the co-ordinating relative — which. * The human face divine.' The class noun * face * is re- stricted by the adjective human — * human faces ' are selected from the wider class * faces. ' The adjective * divine * does not make a farther selection from human faces, or constitute a narrower class * divine human faces,' leaving out certain human faces that are not divine ; it adds to the class * human faces,' in all its extent, the meaning * divine * — the human face, which is divine, which is a divine faee. Pronominal Adjectivesf Numeral Adjectives, and the Articles, comply with the defiuition of the Adjective ; they limit a class word to a select portion, often to an individual. From their nature, they do not admit of degrees j they are not com- pared, Exercise 10. Adjectives genet' ally. 1. It is better that ten guilty persons should escape than that one innocent should suffer. 2. King Arthur is said to have lived a blameless life in the good old times. 3. Caesar is styled the foremost man of all this world. 4. Holy and heavenly thoughts shall counsel her. 5. The Sloane Collection was the first foundation of the ' British Museum. 6. O the nrast beef of Old England, And for Old England's roast beef. 72 EXEECISE ON THE ADJECTIVE. 7 Dryden the poet was one of the choice and master spirits of his age. 8. But anxious cares the pensive nymph oppressed, And secret passions laboured in her breast. 9." People living in the country get town made articles from the retail traders of their neighbourhood. 10. Two boys whose birth beyond all question sprin<^8 From great and glorious, though forgotten kings. 11. Nimrod was a mighty hunter. 12. Country cousins are sometimes unwelcome visitors to their town friends. 1 3. These little things are great to little men. 14. Some pious drops the closing eye requires. 15. Hath sorrow struck So many blows upon this face of mine, And made no deeper wounds ? 16. To every man upon this earth Death cometh, soon or late. ^ 17. He that tells a lie, is not sensible how great a task he "undertakes ; for to maintain that one, he must invent twenty more. 18. The battled towers, the donjon keep, The loophole grates, where captives weep, The flanking walls that round it sweep In yellow lustre shone. 19. Soon will the high midsummer pomps come on, 20. Mine be the heart that can itself defend. 21. The loud laugh that spoke the vacant mind. 22. With every exertion the best of men can do but a moderate amount of good. 23. But oh ! how few of all that try This might}' march, do aught but die ? 24. There are ninety good years of fair and foul weather Between them, and both go a stealing together. EXERCISE ON THE ADJECTIVE. 73 25. By this the northern waggoner had set His sevenfold team behind the steadfast star. 26. Deep in the shady sadness of a vale, Far sunken from the healthy breath of morn, Far from the fiery noon and eve's one star, Sat gray-haired Saturn, quiet as a stone, 27. And thy hair, Thou other gold-bound brow, is like the first. 28. Jerusalem has derived additional reputation from the number and importance of her memorable sieges. 29. I am sorry for thee, thou art come to answer A stony adversary, an inhuman wretch Incapable of pity, void and empty From any dram of mercy. 30. In the task of securing their armies against attacks in flank and rear, the Allies were much favoured by the conformation of the ground ; for the besieging forces were all upon the Chersonese, which was so bounded by the sea on the one hand and the Sapoune Heights on the other, as to offer good means of defence. 31. From toil he wins his spirits light, From busy day the peaceful night ; Rich from the very want of wealth, In heaven's best treasures, peace and health. 32. When one of the unphilosophical artists of the circus gallops his round, standing or dancing upon his horse's back, and tosses up an orange, which he is afterwards to receive on the sharpened point of a sword, he presents to us an exemplification of some physical truths, connected with the most refined conclusions of science. Questions. 1. Define the Adjective; apply the definition to the Ad- jectives — bright, square, good, — supplying a noun to each. 2. How can the Adjective be distinguished from the Noun ? 7 74 THE ADJECTIVE. 3. Give the classes of Adjectives. Which class is most numerous ? 4. What are the Pronominal Adjectives ? Show how they come under the definition of the Adjective. 5. What is the difference of meaning between * this ' and * that ? ' Why are they called correlative words ? 6. What are the words— your, his, its, their — called? and why? 7. What are the words— much, great, some, any ? Show how they comply with the definition of the Adjec- tive. Show also that they cannot be Nouns. Can any of them be Pronouns ? 8. What are the words — five, third, triple ? How do they answer to the definition of the Adjective ? 9. What are — all, any, most, several, few ? 10. What are— either, each, every ? 11. What is the difi'erenco of meaning between 'either * and * each ? * 12. What is the diflference between * all' and * every ? ' 13. Give some Adjectives of Quality from the classes — Time, Space, Form, Motion, Colour. Apply to some of them the definition of the Adjective. 14. How do we know an Adjective of Quality ? Take as examples — old, rapid, smooth, pleasant. 15. Give a reason for regarding Proper Adjectives as Adjectives of Quality. 16. What is the use of * a,* called the Indefinite Article ? Take the examples — a man, a table, a church. 17. What is the use of ' the,' called the Definite Article ? Give the meaning of — the man, the table, the church. 18. What are the substitutes for the Adjective? 19. Restrict the noun ' man * by the signification * rich,' expressed as an Adjective Clause. 20. What is a participial phrase ? How may it be derived from an Adjective Clause ? QUESTIONS ON THE ADJECTIVE. 75 21. In the designation — London Weekly Express — what are the words ' London * and * Weekly ? ' State the meaning by clauses in full. 22. When a prepositional phrase takes the place of an Adjective, what Part of Speech does it answer to ? and what does it qualify ? 23. Fill up the omitted words in— Jacob's ladder, Time's revenge. 24. Give an example of an Adverb occupying the place of an Adjective. Give some omitted verb, which the Adverb qualifies. 25. Give a sentence containing an Adjective in the Predi- cate. What is the character of the Verb in such a Sentence ? 26. Show that the Adjective in the Predicate is not re- strictive, but co-ordinating. Examples— marine animals are cold ; old wine is costly. What are the names that the predicate adjective restricts ? 27. When an Adjective goes along with a Proper or Singular name, show that it cannot be restrictive. THE VEEB. DEFINITION. 1. The Verb is the chief word used in predica- tion. There can be no Sentence without a Verb : — William speaks ; rivers deposit mud ; gold is heavy. When we predicate, or affirm, of William that ho speaks, we use a verb. The predication respecting rivers — * deposit mud' — contains the verb * deposit,* and the object 'mud.' The predicate of gold — * is heavy ' — contains the verb * is * and the adjective * heavy. * 2. The Verb takes on different forms to express the circumstances of Predication ; the chief cir- cumstance being Time, ' William speaks * means that William is performing the act of speaking noWy or at the present time. * Pitt spoke * — would mean that the act took place in past time. No part of Speech, except the Verb, undergoes changes for time. In other parts of speech there are words that express time — as the adverbs * now,' ' formerly ; ' .but that is their only purpose. The other circumstances expressed by the Verb, besides Time, are given under Inflection. INTRANSITIVE VERBS. ^^ CLASSES OF VERBS. 3- I- Transitive Verbs ; where the predicate is completed by an Object : — shepherds watched their flocks. * Watch ' is a transitive verb ; its meaning is completed by- naming what the shepherds watched — * their flocks.' The following are Transitive Verbs : — give, make, create, touch, train, break, kill, vanquish, lead, follow, rule, raise, add, dig, persuade, save, cherish. Sentences containing a Transitive verb are those that give the fullest account of an action. When anything is done, we usually wish to know, first, who does it (Subject), second, what is the nature of the action (Verb), third, what person or thing the action is performed upon (Object). 'Hannibal crossed the Alps, and defeated the Romans.' This contains two actions, each completely stated in a sentence with Sub- ject, Verb, and Object. Transitive Verbs can be turned into the form called the PASSIVE VOICE, the object then becoming the subject : — the flocks were watched by the shepherds j the Romans were de* feaied by Hannibal. 4- n. Intransitive Yerbs ; where the predicate is complete without an Object : — the sea roars ; the stars twinkle * The sea roars ' — contains as subject * the sea,' and as pre- dicate the verb * roars,' which possesses a meaning complete in itself. The sun shines ; the clouds drift ; time passes ; nations rise and fall; the wound healed; we sat, the others stood; some rode, some walked; a few spoke, none read, many listened. 78 THE VERB. Transitive Verbs may become intransitive by expressing tbe action generolly, or witbout reference to any particubir Objt^ct. ' He digs a field,' is Transitive; * he digs ' is In- transitive, and means that his general occupation is digging. * Virgil wrote the JEneid ; ' * he writes,' as a profession. ' I Bee a ship; ' * the puppy sees ' or has attained its sight. Intransitive Verbs may be qualified both by an Adverb, and by an Adverbial phrase : — run quickly ; follow in haste ; we laughed at Joseph. Very often the preposition can be taken with the verb, making it a compound transitive verb : —laugh at, contend for, run against. These compound verbs can be used in the passive voice, which is the surest mark of a transitive verb: — Joseph was laughed at; the ofiBce was contended for ; the carriage was run against ; the proposal was not to be sneered at ; everything was seen to. The process of forming compound verbs by prepositions is not confined to Intransitive verbs. We use it in ail verbs; build up, take down, drive along, pass by, strike for, Ac. Jt is one of the regular processes of the language, for increasing the number of useful words. Some Transitive verbs appear to have a second Object: — make me a coat ; pay the tailor his bill; he taught us music. The proper objects in these sentences are — make a coat^ pay his bill, taught music. The others, sometimes called Indirect Objects, are considered as adverbial adjuncts in the several sentences: — make a codit for me; pay his bill to the tailor; he taught music to us. 5. TIL Verbs of Incomplete Predication: — be, seen, become, appear, call, grow, live, &c. These verbs do not take an Object after them, as Transitive verbs do, and they do not of themselves give a meaning, like Intransitive Verbs. They are completed by VERBS OF INCOMPLETE PREDICATION. 79 a noun or an adjective, in co-ordination^ or apposition, with the subject. In — 'he was general,' the verb 'was' is completed by the noun * general ; * which noun predicates a circumstance respecting the subject. * She will be handsome.' The compound verb * will be * is completed by the co-ordinating adjective 'handsome.' He seemed a god ; the rumour seems true. Wolsey became minister ; he became great. The object appeared a ship ; John appeared mistaken. Mercury is called a metal ; all nations shall call him blessed. The child will grow a man ; he grows big. He lived an example to his flock ; he lived noble. Some are born orators ; some are born great. Exercise 11. The Verb, 1. The expedition failed. 2. The glass broke. 3. The mind developes. 4. Do I see this and live ? 5. He left his home poor and returned rich. 6. New brooms sweep clean. 7. Winds o'er us whispered, flocks by us did bleat. 8. He said he would conquer or die. 9. Our sight is the greatest of our senses. We see objects at vast distances. We hear only when sounds are loud and close. 10. Let us eat and drink, for to-morrow we die. 80 THE VERB. 11. The statesman that endeavours to substitute education for coercion deserves well of his country. 12. Happy those times When lords were styled fathers of families. 13. The basaltic pillars of the Cave of Staffa are as hicjh as the roof of a cathedral. The sea sweeps roaring into the cave, and beats apfainst the pillars. The floor seems paved with ruddy marble. Boats can come in when the sea is placid. 14. Rich gifts wax poor when givers prove unkind. 15. Surely never lighted on this orb, which she hardly seemed to touch, a more delightful vision. 1 saw her just above the horizon, decorating and cheering the elevated sphere she just began to move in. 16. Is it for thee the lark ascends and sings p Joy tunes her voice, joy elevates her wings. Is it for thee the linnet pours his throat ? Loves of his own and raptures swell the note. Questions. 1. What is the verb ? Why are the following words called verbs — shines, break, hear ? 2. What circumstance is stated by a verb, besides mere predication ? 3. Are the following words ever verbs — water, thunder, house, chair ? What are the tests ? 4. What is a Transitive Verb? 5. Supply subjects and objects to the following transitive verbs : — create, lift, drive, touch, encourage. 6. Why is it said that sentences with Transitive Verbs give the fullest meaning ? 7. Exemplify the passive construction of Transitive Verbs.^ 8. What is an Intransitive verb ? Give sentences with Intransitive verbs. QUESTIONS ON THE VERB. 81 9. Point out in what way Transitive verbs become In- transitive. 10. When a Transitive verb has two objects, what is the second regarded as ? 11. To what class belongs the verb * be.' Mention others of the same class. What words have to be added to these Verbs to form Predicates ? THE ADVEER DEFINITION. 1. The Adverb is the part of speech that modifies the meaning of the Verb : — He spoke slowly ; they judged wisely ; Hercules cleansed the stables ihorouyhly ; we were well advised. Most actions can be performed in various ways. The action * speaking' may be slow, rapid, distinct, confused; and for expressing these modes, we join to the verb the words — slowly, rapidly, distinctly, confusedly. CLASSES OF ADVERBS. 2. T. Adverbs of Place : as — here, hence, near, together. We will remain here ; they entered the city together. (1.) Rest in a place: — here (in this place), there (in that place), where (in what place), at, by, near, yonder, above, below. There is used by a peculiar idiom to introduce a verb before its subject : — there was a great tumult in the city ; there appeared unto them Moses and Elias ; there existed a custom. Near, by, are the adverbs of nearness or proximity :— there was no one near ; stand hy ; a lady passed by. Separation in place is expressed by apart, separately, asunder : — six miles apart ; wide as the poles asunder. ADVEKBS OF PLACE. 83 Conjunction is expressed by together :— while they stood talking together. Place, in a variety of relative positions, is indicated by — above, aloft, below, under, down, beyond, yonder, away, through, in, out, without, inwards, inside, around, fro, forth. Under place we may class the adverbs of numerical order :— firstly, or first, secondly, lastly, &c. (2.) Motion to a place: — hither Cto this place), thither (to that place), whither (to what place). Bring your son hither; he proceeded ^/a'Mer in January; whither bound ? (3.) Motion from a place : — hence (from this place), thence (from that place), whence (from what place). Depart hence ; thence he proceeded to York ; whence come you? The pronominal adverbs form three regular groups cor- responding to these divisions : — Place where Motion to Motion from Here Hither Heace There Thither Thence Where Whither Wheuce Where, used as an Interrogative, is a simple adverb, the equivalent of the interrogative adverbial phrase — ' in what place ? ' But in such expressions as — ' Know ye the land ivJiere the citron-trees blow,* * where ' serves more the function of a pronoun ; it is equivalent to * in which ' — a pronominal adverbial phrase. 3- II- Adverbs of Time : ever, seldom, now, monthly, to-morrow, &c. Time may be present, past, or future. (1.) Time present. Now is the main or typical Si THE ADVERB. adverb of present time ; others are — to-day, in- stantly, presently, still, forthwith, henceforth. (2.) Time past :— before, heretofore, hitherto, already, lately, once, yesterday. (8.) Time future :— hereafter, afterwards, soon, henceforth, presently, immediately, to-morrow, no more. (4.) Adverbs also express Duration of time and Repetition : — ever, never, always, aye, often, seldom, rarely, occasionally, frequently, continually, continuously, incessantly, perpetually, ao^ain, once, twice, daily, monthly, annually, periodically. Then and wheii ma}- be described as Relative adverbs of time. They express time not absolutely but with reference to some time otherwise given. They are equivalent to the pronominal phrases — ' at that time,* * at what time ? * 4. III. Adverbs of Degree, or Measure : — much, little, very, far, exceedingly. The adverbs so, as, and too, are used to express degree or measure bt/ comparison with something else. These ad- verbs are peculiarly important. The prize-ox was so fat that he could hardly walk. The ship was as big as a first-rate man-of-war. Too good to be true. 5. Adverbs of Degree may be used to qualify Adjectives and other Adverbs : — very rich ; exceed- ingly moderate ; tJiorotcghly well. * Rich * and * moderate ' are adjectives ; * well ' is an ad- verb. Both Adjectives and Adverbs of Quality may be varied for Degree. This variation is made in one way by their ADVERBS OF MANNER. 85 comparison; in another way by adverbs of degree or measure. Adverbs qualify ing Adjectives : — Slightly red ; scarcely hot; tremendously bad. Adverbs qualifying Adverbs : — very patiently ; far more resolutely ; so kindly ; much less warily. 6. IV. Adverbs of Belief and Disbelief, or Certainty and Uncertainty : as — truly, surely, cer- tainly, nay, not, not so. 7. V. Adverbs of Cause and Effect : as — therefore, wherefore, why. 8. YI. Adverbs of Manner or Quality: as — well, ill, gently, boldly, disagreeably, rapidly. As with adjectives, this is the class that includes the great body of adverbs. 9. Adverbial Phrases. Phrases, made up of a preposition and a noun, are used as Adverbs : — the enemy set the town on, fire; speak in point, to the j)oint. The phrases may be compound. The noun may be quali- fied by an Adjective : — they came in great haste ; we worked to no purpose ; the trial ended on the third day. There may bo a succession of prepositional phrases : — in point of fact ; according to this rate of speed ; by means of a summary proceeding at law ; to all intents and purposes. Examples of Adverbial Phrases, To express Place : — in the house ; behind the door ; to- wards the river ; from the South. 8 Bb THE ADVERB. To express Time : — in the twinkling of an eye ; at the close of the day ; after twenty years. To express Decree : — in a great measure ; by little and little ; to a small extent ; in a high degree. To express Belief an^ Disbelief : — by all manner of means; without a doubt ; on no account ; not a jot. To express Cause and Effect : — by means of his wealth, throuL^h the medium of a lawyer, by dint of perseverance, to their own disadvantage, with the happiest effect. To express Manner or Quality : — in the top of his glory ; in sickness or in sorrow ; with fondness ; with fire and fury, &c. «&c. The Adverbial Phrases of manner and qua- lity are innumerable. The following are select classes of Adverbs of Quality (words and phrases.) Life and Death : — In life, above ground, at death's door, at the point of death. Fleasure Midi Fain: — Acutely, sharply, pungently, sensibly, feelingly, pleasurably, joyfully, delightfally, daintily, sweet- ly, tenderly, painfully, miserably, disastrously, agonizingly, frigidly, horribly, bitterly, sourly. In rapture, in love, in joy, in misery, in pain, in a glow, in a fever, in a horrible plight, in danger, in distress, in an agony of grief, in a transport of joy, in a frenzy of despair, with indiflference, with an air of melancholy, in a merry fit. Sound : — Sonorously, loudly, vociferously, quietly, silently, stilly, noiselessly, inaudibly, obstreperously, boisterousl}', clamorously, harmoniously, tunefully, melodiously, discor- dantly, jarringly, gratingly. At the top of one's voice, with a loud shout, in full cry, with jarring sound, in rough accents, with loud acclaim, with a wild whoop, in a stage whisper, in winning tones, with a soft cadence, in tune, out of tune, in a high key, at a different pitch. ADVERBIAL PHRASES. 87 Speech : — Explicitly, distinctly, intelligibly, literally, lucidly, plainly, learnedly, expressively, simply, legibly, ob- viously, truly, openly, publicly, graphically, metaphorically, figuratively, drily, infallibly, pointedly, obscurely, vaguely, ambiguously, abstrusely, falsely, inexplicably, dogmatically, diplomatically, evasively, deceptively, hypocritically. In plain terms, in honest truth, in dark hints, in mysterious oracles, with learned phrase, with effective elocution, in affected language, in sportive vein, * in King Cambyses' vein,' with artless eloquence, with great tact. The above list shows that adverbs are nearly all derived from Adjectives, by adding the syllable ly : — plain, plainly. Hence these examples also furnish corresponding Adjectives. On the other hand, the classes of Adjectives of Quality (p. 64) furnish corresponding Adverbs. Although all Ad- jectives cannot be changed into Adverbs, a good many can. 10. The Adverbial phrase sometimes appears with the preposition dropt : — they rode ho7ne ; he was out all day. Those are abbreviated expressions for — towards home, during all the day. It is in such cases that Nouns are said to be used as Adverbs, 11. Adverbial Clauses are extensively used in place of adverbs: — tarry till I come; he was as fresh as is the month of May. These are fully exemplified in the Analysis of Sen- tences. 12. Sometimes Adjectives appear to be used as Adverbs. (1.) Certain words are both Adjectives and Ad- 0» THE ADVERB. verbs ; as — ill, much, more, most, little, first, soft, fust, clean. (2.) The Adjectives that accompany Incomplete Verbs are apt to be regarded as Adverbs : — .stand firm ; be sits silent ; the broken sheds looked sad tiiid strange; the moon shines bright. These are properly Adjectives. Errors in using the Adjective for the Adverb. Unless in special instances, the use of an Adjective to qualify a verb, another adjective, or an adverb, is an error: — remarkable strong, for — remarkably strong. Two adjectives of quality may go together, as — * a tall, handsome man,' which means a man both tall and handsome. Exercise 12. The Adverb. 1. America was discovered by Columbus in the year 1492. 2. By studying economy I live like a lord. 3. He sang as merrily as a lark on a spring morning. 4. Mrs. St. John came down to breakfast every morning in that summer visit of the year 1638. 5. Only the noble lift willingly with their whole strength at the general burden. 6. He performed his business cheerfully and with despatch. 7. Half-a-league onward. 8. Cannon to right of them, cannon to left of them. 9. Somewhere, I knew not where— somehow, I knew not how — by some beings, 1 knew not bj' whom, 10. They tug, they strain, down, down they go, The Gael above, Fitz-James below. EXERCISE ON THE ADVERB. 89 11. And I awoke in struggles, and cried aloud : — I will sleep no more. 12. On the morrow he will leave me, as my hopes have fl >wn before. 13. Presently my soul grew stronger : hesitating then no lons^er^ — Sir, said I, or Madam, truly your forgive- ness I implore. 14. This mounting wave will roll us shoreward soon. 15. Slowly and sadly we laid him down From the field of his fame fresh and gory. 16. M my a time and oft In the Rialto you have rated me. 17. Sjme, as often happens, gave up the pursuit half-way, 18. In the first place, Natural History is almost exclu- sively a science of observation. 19. Man is necessarily, and from the very mode and nnture of his existence, to all intents a speculative being. 20. There's nothing half so sweet in life As Love's young dream. 21. Some day I shall be cold, I know — But ah, not yet, not yet ! 22. He lay still until t was within a hundred yards of him ; then slowly rising on his fin-like legs, he lumbered towards the river, looking askance at me, 23. But we steadfastly gazed on the face that was dead, And we bitterly thought of the morrow. 24. At the close of the day, when the hamlet is still, 25. In the garb of old Gaul, with the fire of old Rome. 26. Idle after dinner in his chair Sdt a farmer, ruddy, fat, and fair. 27. 'Tis years since last we met, And we may not meet again. 90 THE ADVERB. 28. Oil ! darkly, deeply, beautifully blue, As some one somewhere sings about the sky. 29. A little of that goes a very long way. 30. I am ten times undone. 31. Nature formed me of her softest mould, Enfeebled all my soul with tender passions, And sunk me even below my weak sex. 32. Where shall I drive to ? Home. 33. With death doomed to grapple Beneath this cold slab, he Who lied in the chapel Now lies in the Abbey. 34. I slept very soundly, and waked much better com- posed than I had ever been before ; and now 1 began to think sedately ; and upon the utmost debate with myself, I concluded that this island, which was so exceeding pleasant, fruitful, and no farther from the mainland than as I had seen, was not so entirely abandoned as I might imagine. 35. But first as ho flew, I forgot to say. That he hovered a moment upon his way. If his eyes were good, he saw by night What we see every day. . 36. A murky storm deep lowering o'er our heads Hung imminent, that with impervious gloom Opposed itself to Cynthia's silver ray. 37. With such a companion to tend a few sheep. To rise up and play, or to lie down and sleep ; I was so good-humoured, so cheerful and gay. My heart was as light as a feather all day. But now I so cross and so peevish am grown, So strangely uneasy as never was known. Questions. 1, In what respect do the Adjective and the Adverb agree ? In what respect do they differ ? QUESTIONS ON THE ADVERB. 91 2. How doos the Adverb vary the statement of actions ? Examples — walking, looking, working, sailing. 3. What are the diflferent modes of Place ? Give the uses of — there, near, where, whence, whither. 4. What are the Pronominal Adverbs ? Why are they called Pronominal ? 5. What are the chief Adverbs of Duration and Repeti- tion ? 6. Besides verbs, what parts of speech are qualified by Adverbs of Degree and Measure ? 7. Give the Comparative Adverbs. Why are they so called? 8. What are the Adverbs of Belief and Disbelief? 9. Which class of Adverbs is most numerous ? 10. How are Adverbial Phrases made up ? 11. Refer to the lists of Adjectives (p. 64), and make Ad- verbs out of as many of theiii as possible. 12. When the Preposition is dropt, what form does the Phrase assume ? 13. What is an Adverbial Clause ? 14. In what cases do Adjectives seem to be used as Adverbs ? 15. When may two Adjectives come together with the same noun ? In what cases is this an error? THE PEEPOSITION. DEFINITION. 1. A preposition is a word of relation placed before a Noun, to make up a qualifying phrase : — he died at Calcutta ; in, truth they do not know. The Preposition is called a word of relation, because in itself it is unmeaning ; it relates or connects other words — chiefly nouns or verbs. Its most usual position is before a noun and after a verb : — the sun shines on the water. It has been termed a /i/iA:-word. The phrase made up of preposition and noun is mostly adverbial. From qualifying verbs, it comes, b}' abbreviation, to qualify nouns in the manner of the Adj ictive. The equivalents of the Noun in the Sentence,— the Pronoun and the Infinitive, may be conjoined with a pre- position, and make up phrases : — Speak to me ; go with them ; on hearing this they settled the matter by writing. In such expressions as — ' in all/ * in none,' * for good,' * for better,' * for worse,' prepositions are combined witk adjectives instead of nouns. These, however, are exceptions and irregularities, brought about by the desire of being short. In relative constructions, the preposition, in English, may follow its word at a distance: — Joliu, whom I did not speak fo, was present ; \vhat he is accused of, we shall hear. ' The two greatest mathaiuaticiaus that 1 have ever had the honour to be known to.* 'The man (that) you were so anxious to discover, I have at length got information o/,' When a Preposition is folio \\ed by a Noun Clause, it is no PREPOSITIONS PRIMITIVE AND COMPOUND. 93 lon.^r regarded as a Preposition, but as a Conjunction : — * since yesterday ' (Preposition) ; * since (that) I left home ' (Conjunc- tion). Several other prepositions appear in tliis doable capacity :— till, before, after. 2- The Prepositions are a small class of words, some of them being primitive words of the lan- guage, while others are compound and derived. Frimitice pyepositions\: — Of, to, from, for, by, with, in, on, at, over, up, down, through. Compounds : — Into, unto, upon, along, below, before, beyond, between, until, since, among, against, but ('Z'^ o?(i* — may mean (1) the love displayed hy God towards man — God's love {partitive meaning) ; or (2) the love put forth by man towards God {reference meauini'). 'The chief end of man'— is either (1) the end pursued by man — man's own end {partitive) ; or (2) God's end towards man — God's end in the creation of man {reference). ' The reform of the Government' — mi^ht bo either a reform made by the Government upon something else, or a reform made upon the Government itself. 7- To. The primary meaning of *to ' is motion towards:— brinj^ that to me; to your tents, O Israel ; wheel to the right. As * of * expresses reference from, so 'to * expresses refer^ ence towards: — the I)ve of David to Absalom ; the hatred of the Jews to the Gentiles; with love to man this cup is fraught. 8. For. The primary meaning of * for ' is fore, in front of * For ' is used to express various relations, more or less conntjcted with its primary meaning : — (1.) Direction^ purpose, benefit: — he sets out for town; he toiled /y/' fame ; a subscription /or the poor. (2.) NotwitkHandinj, in spite of:— for all his learning, he did little good in the world ; for all their precautions, the enterprise failed. (3.) In opposition to against ;— he that is not against us is for us ; he spoke against his party, and voted for it. 9. Prom signifies forth, forwards, leg inning from, proceeding from : — he came from London ; from Land's End to John o*Gr6'at's House. It is widely used to express * direction from ' among things that succeed each other \—from day to day ; from being a MEANINGS OF " WITH." 97 shepherd he became a king ; from love to hatred ; from one degree of indulgence to another ; he acted from a sense of justice. 10. By. The primary meaninor of * by ' is along- side of, near to : — hy Babel's streams ; ly the fire. The following applications accord with the original meaning : — they stood by their chief; aided by his friends ; done by fairy hands ; by the light of the moon ; they came by night. 11. With. The primary meaning of * with ' is joining or uniting. It is used to express the following connected relations :— (1.) Companionship : — abide with me ; go with them. (2.) Possession : — the lady with the silk dress ; he came to town with a few shillings in his pocket ; with all my gifts I come. (3.) Opposition (like * for ') : — with all his eloquence, he failed to persuade them. (4. ) Cause, manner, or htstrument : — pale with fear ; clothed with majesty ; he felled the_tree with his axe. CLASSES OF PREPOSITIONS GENERALLY. 12- The entire body of Prepositions may be classified as follows : — 13. I Place. 1. Rest in (the where) : — in, on, at, near, by. In a cottage near a wood ; arrayed in festive guise ; in what concerns thy interest ; blending in accord ; skilled in his profession ; in fact ; on Sunium's marble steep ; at home ; at the cannon's mouth ; at any rate ; at hberty ; at rest ; near the hills. 9 98 THE PliEPOSITION. 2. Motion mUli direction (the whence and the whither) : — to, into, unto, towards (up, down), from. Death comcth to all ; they disappeared into the wood ; ho went into business ; fall into their hands ; vanish into thin air; come i«^o being ; t/«/o that place the tribes go up ; unto us a child is given ; they marched towards the city ; up a steep mountain ; come down the street. 3. Flace and Direction : — on, over, under, through, behind, between, among, upon, near, off, across, beyond, abaft, above, round, against, with- out. On dry land ; on eagle's wings ; on hand ; over the flea ; a shadow o'er his halls crept year by year ; under the earth ; under fostering^ care ; he had soldiers under him ; through the pine wood ; through his energy ; behind the door ; between the tree and the brook ; among his companions ; off the mainland ; across the stream ; beyond seas ; beyond his con- ceptions ; fl^oi'^ the hamlet ; against the Tiber's mouth; go round the world ; without the city ; abaft the mast. 14. II. Time :— Since, till, until, daring, pend- ing, after, ere. Since Whitsunday; till daybreak ; until mid-day ; during the siege ; pending the trial ; after sunset ; ere this time. 15. Many Prepositions of place may be applied to time by governing a noun of time : as — in, on, at, before, between, by, within, about, above, near. In the month of December ; on Christmas eve ; at mid- night ; before the break of day ; between three and four o'clock ; iy next month ; within six days ; about foity years; above a century ; near the end of the week. PREPOSITIONS AND PHRASES OF END. 99 16. III. Agency. The agent, instrument, or means of an action is indicated by the Preposi- tions — by, through, with ; and by the phrases — by means of, by virtue of, through the . instrumen- tality of, by help of, by means of, &c. Wrested by violence; melted bf/ heat; he succeeded through sheer impudence ; dug up with a mattock ; by means 0/ minute investigation; by virtue 0/ its healing qualities; through the instrumentality of powerful friends ; by help of his advice; by force o/" steadfast attention. 17. IV. End, purpose, motive, or reason : — for, from. Phrases : — out of, on account of, by way of, for the sake of, for the ends of, in con- sideration of, on the score of, from a regard to, with a view to, with an eye to, &c. A struggle for life ; And hearts that once beat high for praise ; he was silent from bashfulness ; he did it out of pure goodwill ; he was pardoned on account of his youth ; this was said by way of iniToduction ; we will yield for the sake of peace ; a knowledge of men is necessarj' for the ends of the orator; he was presented with a purse in cotisideraiion of his services ; he was preferred on the score of his greater experience ; the work was suppressed from a regard to the author's reputation ; the house was furnished with a vietv to comfort ; with an eye to the main chance. 18. V. Reference : — on, of, about, touching, concerning, with reference to, as for, as to, as re- gards, on the subject of, on the matter of, on the point of, in respect of, in the event of, in case of. Burke wrote on the Sublime ; I love the tales 0/ other days ; about this matter there can be no doubt ; silence should be kept touching these matters ; a law was passed coH" 100 THE PREPOSITION. cerning Trades-Unions ; with reference to your letter of yes- terday ; as for me and my house ; there wiis no question as to his ability ; he is happy as regards his friends ; a lecture was delivered on the subject o/*heat ; in respect o/age he was a suitaMe candidate ; in the event o/the enemy landing upon our shores ; in case 6/ his struggling, they had instructions to force him. 19. VI. Separation and Exclusion : — wiihout, save, except, besides, setting aside, apart from, far from, but. Without either money or credit ; all save only Hermann ; they all mutinied except the first mate ; besides wealth, he had contentment ; setting aside the consideration of means ; apart from his good looks, he had little to recommend him ; far from the madding crowd's ignoble strife j nothing re- mains on earth but fame. 20. VII. Inclination and Conformity : — for, according to, in accordance with, conformably to, in pursuance of. . • For better or for worse; according to the practice of civil- ized nations ; in accordance with the wishes of his father ; conformably to the custom of the town ; in pursuance of the new act. 21- VIII. Aversion, Opposition : — against, in spite of, in defiance of. A speech against the repeal of the Union ; he failed in spite of all his endeavours ; in defiance o/' popular opinion. 22- IX. Substitution : — for, instead of, in room of, in place of, as a substitute for. An eye for an eye ; blessing instead of cursing ; in room QUESTIONS ON THE PUEP^filtiOit. 101' of his father ; in place of the late\ iijc^iKribont ^ iliey ^ftW peat as a substitute for coals. As an Exercise point out the prepositions occurring in previous Exercises. Questions. 1. What is meant by calling the Preposition a word of relation? What classes of words are related, or connected, by the preposition ? 2. What are the other Parts of Speech that are words of relation ? 3. What words, besides the noun, may be followed by a preposition ? 4. When a preposition is followed by a Clause, how is it regarded ? 5. Give the most simple and primitive prepositions. 6. What are the compound prepositions ? 7. What prepositions are derived from Verbs ? 8. Give some phrases used as Prepositions. How are these phrases usually made up ? 9. What meaning attaches to the simple or primary prepositions ? How does this meaning connect them with Verbs ? How does it connect them with Nouns .P 10. What are the prepositions that give the meanings of the case-endings in the classical languages ? 11. W^hat case, in the English noun, does *of ' answer to ? 12. What different meanings has * of '? Which of them is found in the following examples: — the heat of the fire, the wing of the butterfly, the love of the child? 13. Give the meaning of ' to,* with examples. 14. Distinguish the meanings of * for.* 102 THE PREPOSITION. • >. 1,5^ What i8 the primary meaning of 'from'? How is 16. "What is the meaning of * by ' ? 17. Give the primary and the derived meanings of ' with.* 18. Enumerate the Prepositions of Place, under the several heads. Show that direction of movement pervades them all. ♦ 19. What are the prepositions of Time ? Which of thera are i Iso prepositions of Place ? 20. What prepositions express Agency? Which of them are borrowed from other meanings ? 21. What are the primary prepositions suited to express End or purpose ? Give phrases signifying End, 22. Give prepositions and phrases of Reference. 23. What is the chief preposition of Separation ? Give • phrases. 24. How is Inclivation expressed ? How Aversion ? How Substitution f THE CON-JXTNCTIOK dj:finition. 1. Conjunctions are words of relation, joining sentences together. Like Prepositions, Conjunctions are unmeaning when they stand alone. They connect different sentences or affirraa- . tions, so as to show the mutual bearing of the sentences conjoined. * We should not be too confident, for we are all fallible.' The two distinct sentences — * we should not be too confident,' * we are all fallible' — are united by the conjunction 'for;' which also gives the mutual bearing of the two sentences, — namely, that the second is a reason for the first. While the Preposition unites verbs to nouns, or nouns to nouns and adjectives, in the same sentence, the Conjunction unites different sentences : — bring the letter to me, and (conj.) I will answer it; he would have eaten husks, lut (conj.) no one gave them to him. Owing to abbreviations, conjunctions sometimes appear to join words in the same sentence : — John and I will see to it. This, however, is a contraction of two sentences — John will see to it, and I will see to it. * I wish to see you hut not him * is — I wish to see you, hut I do not wish to see him. * This has been don6 once and again ' — this has been done once, and it has been done again. * I would thou wert either cold or hot ' — I would either that thou wert cold, or that thou wert hot. 104 THE CONJUNCTION. 2. The Conjunctions are a small number of single words (some used also as Adverbs or as Prepositions), together with Phrases. The pure and proper conjunctions are — and, if, though, or, nor, either, neither, lest — all very extensively used, * And,' * but,' * if,* and * or' are amongst the most familiar words of the language. The conjunctions that have an Adverbial character are — as, so, also, likewise, otherwise, now, yet, then, when, while, lest, therefore, wherefore, nevertheliss. Most of these are still used as Adverbs ; and many, if not all of them, may have been adverbs first. * He has not come yet,^ * Yet ' is here an adverb of Time. I am hungry, yet I cannot eat ; ' * yet ' is here a conjunction. The Conjunctions that are also Prepositions are — for* before, after, since, until, ere, except, but. These words may have passed from prepositions to conjunctions by taking after them the demonstrative that^ foUowtid by a clause :— *for I repented,' for that I repented ; * after he came,' after that he came. In Old English constructions, the demon- strative is often retained :— * Fain would I climb but that I fear to fall.' The word *that * is itself a conjunction of End. There are a few conjunctive phrases, or compounds of simple conjunctions: — so as, so then, as if, in order that, seeing that, supposing that, inasmuch as, forasmuch as, for that reason, because (by means of), nevertheless, as well as, not only. 3. For understanding the Conjunctions, atten- tion must be paid to the difference between co-ordinate and dependent (called subordinate) Clauses. CLAUSES CO-OKDINATE AND DEPENDENT. 105 * I will go, if you will come.' These are two distinct sentences, but the one is made conditional or dependent on the other : — I will go, only on the condition that you come; if you do not come, I will not go. Other forms of dependence are — I will go, though you come ; I will not go, unless you corae ; I will go, when you come ; I will go, because you have come. * I will go, and you will come,' expresses connection with- out dependence: — I will go, whether you come or not; still you are to come also. Such a union of sentences or clauses is said to be, not dependent, or subordinating, but co-ordinating ; *and' is a co-ordinating conjunction. * I will go, but you will remain.* There is still an absence of condition, qualification, or dependence : — I am to go irrespectively of your movements ; at the same time, you are to remain. Hence * but ' is also a co-ordinating conjunction. * Either I will go, or you will go.' These two clauses, although connected by alternation, are yet not considered dependent clauses ; * either ' and * or ' are a division of co- ' ordinating conjunctions. Correctly speaking, there is a certain amount of dependence shown whenever two sentences or clauses are joined by a eon- junction. This dependence is smallest with ' and ; ' it is some- what greater with ' but,' and with * or ; ' but it is greatest of all with ' if,' and the subordinating conjunctions. It is at *if ' that the line is drawn in dividing the conjunctions into two classes — the one signifying comparative independence, or co- ordination, the other dependence or subordination. CLASSES OF CONJUNCTIONS. 4. I. Co-ordinating Conjunctions. These are of three classes. The first class signify the smallest amount of connexion. The chief of the class is ' and,' which merely adds something to what has 106 THE CONJUNCTION. been already said. This class is called Cumulative. A second class are those that place one sentence or clause in some kind of opposition to another. The strongest word of the class is * but.* There are, however, several kinds of opposition. The name of the class is Adversative. A third class make one clause the effect or co?i- seqrieiice of another. Adverbs of cause and effect are used for the purpose. The chief word is * therefore.' The name of the class is Illative. 5. 1. Co-ordinating Cumulative Conjunctions. These are — And first— then also secondly likewise further as well as moreover not only — but now partly — partly well * Death opens the gate of fame, and shuts the gate of envy after it.* The circumstance expressed in the second clause is merely added to what is said in the first. 6. 2. Co-ordinating Adversative Conjunctions. There are three modes or degrees of opposition. (I.) The strong form of opposition given in the word * But.' This class may be called the con- junctions of arrest, or Arrestive ; because they arrest, or stop, the full carrying out of an asser- tion. The following are of this class — But only But then nevertheless Still however Yet CO-ORDINATTXG CONJUNCTIONS. 107 Phrases — For all th;it, at the same time. * Be generous, but first of all bo just.* This saying con- tains a general rule or precept — be generous : we are not, however, to be generous at all costs ; a stop must be made when being generous would lead to being unjust. The stop is expressed by one of the conjunctions of arrest. (2.) A somewhat different opposition is ex- pressed by the conjanetions — else, otherwise. They are called Exclusive, * Bo generous, otherwise you will not be much respected.* This means that by not being generous, you will not be re- spected : — Be generous, and you will be respected ; be un- generous, and you will not be respected. (3.) The conjunctions called Alternative are well marked : — * either — or/ * whether — or,* ' neither — nor.' * Either Rome must destroy Carthage, or Carthage will be a perpetual threat to Rome.* 7- 3. Co-ordinating Illative conjunctions ; that is, conjunctions of effect or consequence. They are : — Therefore thus wherefore so hence so that whence then consequently so then accordingly *I have believed, therefore have I spoken.' There are here two distinct sayings ; and the second is given as an effect or consequence of the first. 108 THE CONJUNCTION. Exercise 13. CO'Ordinat ing Conjun ctions. ^ 1. Fool8 build houses, and wise men live in them. 2. I have no tears, else would I weep for thee. 3. It is, doubtless, a hard case; still, there is no help for it. '**' 4. Energy is a good thing : only, it must be guided by discretion. 5. Unhappily, however, this is rarely the case. 6. Praise is the reflection of virtue, but it takes the colour of the glass or body that giveth the reflec- tion. 7. A man's nature runs either to herbs or to weeds, 8. Fierce are Albania's children, yet they lack Not virtues, were those virtues more mature. 9. I got me servants and maidens, and had servants born in my house ; also I had great possessions and small cattle. This also is vanity. 10. He was often warned of the dano^er, but, for all that, he persisted in his mad attempts. 11. This agreeth not well with me; wherefore, I will not continue it. 12. llius her innocence was not only cleared, but crowned. — 13. Virtuous and wise he was, yet not severe. 0^ 14. He was so enraged that he never spoke to me again. 15. He was called away by business of importance, other- wise, he would have stayed a few days longer.. 16. They are idle, and, consequently, discontented. 17. Not animation, however, but dignity, is the ruling characteristic. SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS. 109 18. Another came ; nor yet beside the rill, Nor up the lawn, nor at the wood was he. 19. True, he served the state in his youth ; but then he betrayed it in his old age. 20. He was kind not only to me, but to others. He was not only just, but also generous. 21. There still remain for him cares and duties, and, therefore, hopes. 22. Whether he stays or goes, is to me a matter of indif- ference. 23. The date as well as the nature of this book have been mistaken. 24. Partly because they blend me with his line, And partly that I did his sire some wrong. 25. I know that I have not much to recommend me ; nevertheless, I wish to be loved. 26. He told me to go, and accordingly I went. 27. It is well first to watch and then to speed. 28. They left the town abruptly, so that I had no oppor- tunity of seeing them again. 29. I admit that the thing is very pretty : at the same time I fail to see what purpose it serves in such a place. 8. II. Subordinating Conjunctions. These apply to cases where one sentence is entirely sub- ordinate to, or dependent on, another. They are headed by If. There are different modes of sub- ordination, or dependence. 10 110 THE CONJUNCTION. 9. 1. Condition. These are — If without though provided that if not "whether unless notwithstanding as if supposing that except albeit. 10. 2. Conjunctions of End or Purpose :— that, in order that, so — as, as — as, lest. 11. 3. Conjunctions of Reason and Cause: — be- cause, for, since, as, whereas, inasmuch as, for that reason. 12. 4. The relative Adverbs introducing clauses of time may be called Subordinating Conjunctions of Time : — when, while, as, until, ere, before, after, since. Exercise 14. Con/uHctions generally. 1. Long and curious speeches are as fit for despatch, as a robe or a inautle, with a long train, is for a race. 2. If this be good-nature, let me always be a clown ; if this be good-fellowship, let me always be a churl. -3. It is turning out a fine day, notwithstanding the morning was wet. 4. Unless you study, you will not become learned. 5. He husbanded his energies so as to have something to spare for a great occasion. 6. We often dispute about fictitious characters as if they were real. EXERCISE ON CONJUNCTIONS GENERALLY. Ill 7. Wt'll, then, since you insist upon it, I consent. 8. Expect nothing, lest you be disappointed. 9. Supposing that the story were true, what then ? 10. If not a rogue, he was a fool. 11. If you prick us, do we not bleed ? If you tickle us, do we not laugh ? If you poison us, do we not die ? And if you wrong us, shall we not revenge ? 12. Stay a little, that we may make an end the sooner. 13. It is better to meet dangers half-way, than to keep too long a watch upon their approaches ; for if a man watch too long, it is odds he will fall asleep. 14. 'Twas Milton struck the deep-toned shell. And, as the choral warhlings round him swell, Meek Newton's self bends from his state sublime, And nods his hoary head, and listens to the rhyme. 15. If all be well, we shall leave home in a week. 16. Luther said, * I will go to Worms, though it should rain Duke Georges for nine days.' 17. It is good discretion not to make too much of any man at the first ; because one cannot hold out that proportion. 18. How often have I blessed the coming day, When toil remitting lent its turn to play. And all the village train, from labour free. Led up their sports beneath the spreading tree, While many a pastime circled in the shade, The young contending as the old surveyed. 19. There is no trusting to the force of nature, except it be corroborate by custom. 20. Who did for me what none beside have done, Nor shrank from one albeit unworthy thee. 21. 'Tis said nobly ; For princes never more make known their virtues. Than when they cherish goodness where they find it : They being men, and not gods, Contarino, They can give wealth and titles, but not virtues. 112 THE CONJUNCTION. Questions. 1. In what respects do Conjunctions and Prepositions agree ? In what respects do they differ ? 2. Give the words that are most exclusively Conjunctions. 3. Mention words that are hoth Conjunctions and Ad- verbs. How can it be known, in each case, whether a word is an Adverb or a Conjunction ? 4. What Adverbs, are also Prepositions? How may Prepositions be supposed to become Conjunctions ? 6. What Demonstrative Adjective is employed as a Con- junction ? 6. Mention any phrases serving as Conjunctions ? 7. Give examples of dependent sentences. 8. Give exanu'lcs of co-ordinating sentences. 9. Show that there are degrees of dependence between connected sentences. Give examples of the two extremes. 10. What are the classes of Co-ordinating Conjunctions ? 11. Mention the chief of the Cumulative Conjunctions. 12. Mention the chief of the Adversative Conjunctions. 13. What are the conjunctions of consequence ? What are they called ? 14. Pick out of the list of cumulative conjunctions some that have the meaning of comparison as well aa of cumulation or addition. 15. Give the modes or degrees of opposition, in the Co- ordinating Adversative Conjunctions. 16. What are the Alternative Conjunctions ? 17. What is the chief of the Subordinating Conjunctions ? 18. Give the Conjunctions of Condition. 19. Refer to separate heads the Subordinating Con- junctions — when, for, that, since, though, while, whereas, lest, after. INTERJECTIONS. 113 Interjections. — Certain words, such as — hark ! hush ! ah ! oh ! alas! — are not Parts of Speech in the sense of being parts of a sentence. They are simply cries uttered in strong feeling, and stand by themselves : hence they are called Interjections ^ that is, words thrown in among the ordinary forms of sentence. They are suited to diflferent emotions : JO f/ IS expressed by — Hey! Huzza! Hurrah! ffrief — Ah I Alas! Hoo! wonder— Kah ? Eh? contempt— Yiidgel Tut! Pshaw! Tush! and many other emotions by many other words. INFLECTION. Inflection means the changes made upon words to suit various relations. The Noun and the Pronoun are inflected for Oender and for Number. They are also varied for Case. These chanj^es are called Declension. The inflection of the Adjective and the Adverb to express difierences in Degree, is called Comparison. The inflection of the Yerb to express differences in Person, Number, Time, &c., is called Conjugation. The Preposition, the Conjunction, and the In- terjection, are not inflected. INFLECTION OF NOUNS-DECLENSION. • GENDER. 1. The Gender of Nouns corresponds to the distinctions of sex. The gender of names for the male sex, as — prince, brother, is called the Masculine gender. MODES OF DISTINGUISHING GENDER. 115 The gender of names for the female sex, as — princess, sister, is called the Feminine gender. Names for things without sex, as — chair, table, desk, are said to be of the Neuter gender, that is, of neither or no gender. Many words are applied to both sexes alike ; as friend, child, relative. These are said to be of the Common gender. The names of most of the inferior animals, as cat, par- tridge, sparrow, are of the common gender. It is only in the most important and best known animals that we are at the pains to note the sex. 2. There are three ways of distinguishing the gender of Nouns. I. By employing different words. The following are the chief examples : — Mas. Fem. Boy Girl Brother Sister Bull Cow Cock Hen Drake Duck Mas, Fem. Father Mother Gander Goose Gentleman Lady Husband Wife King Queen Mas, Fem, Man "Woman Monk Nun Nephew Niece Son Daughter Uncle Aunt. This is not strictly an inflection, or change made on a word but a change of word. II. By prefixing a word indicating the sex ; as he-wolf, she-wolf; bull-calf, cow-calf ; man-servant, maid-servant. III. By the use of distinctive suflB.xes or ter- minations. The most common are * ess,' and * ix,' added to the masculine to make the feminine. IIG INFLECTION OF NOUNS. The following are examples of the addition of ess : — Mas, Fern. Mas. Fern. Mas. Fern. Abbot Abbess Host Hostess Poet Poetess Actor Actress Instructor Instructress Priest Priestess Baroa Baroness Lad Lass Prince Princess Duke Duchess Lion Llouess Prophet Prophetess Emperor Empress Master Mistress gheplierd Shepherdess Giant Giantess Negro Negress Songster Songstress God Goddess Pation Patroness Tiger Tigress Heir Heiress Peer Peeress Traitor Ti-aitress The following are examples of Ix, whicU is used for a much smaller number of woHs : — Mas, Fern, Mas, Fern, Administrator Administratrix Heritor Heritrix Director Directrix Testator Testatrix Executor Executrix Other feminine terminations are seen in such words, as — vix-en (from * fox '), hero-ine, czar-ina, Joseph-ine, Wilhelm-ina, apin-ster. The adjectives * male' and * female* are extensively used to express differences of gender, as * a male singer,' * a female crocodile : * but this usage does not properly fall under de- clension, or inflection for gender. Inanimate objects are sometimes spoken of as male or female, and are then said to be personified. The Sun, Time, Winter, Death, are made masculine : the Moon, the Earth, Spring, Hope, Mercy, Peace, are feminine. This does not appear in Inflection, but in the use of the corresponding pronouns. Questions. 1. How many genders are there ? What do they corres- pond to ? What names belong to the Neuter Gender? Of what gender are the names of the lower animals ? QUESTIONS ON DECLENSION FOR GENDER. 117 2. What are the three principal ways of distinguishing gender ? Which of them is not properly an inflection ? 3. What are the most common suffixes for distinguishing gender ? Mention others that are less common. 4. By what other means is gender distinguished ? Is this properly an Inflection ? 5. When is gender ascribed to inanimate objects ? 6. Give the gender of — enemy, prophet, author, Time, Mercy, vixen, breath, snow, wolf, tiger, salmon. 7. Give the feminines of — Earl, Duke, Marquis, traitor, director, he-bear, lion, instructor, testator. NUMBER. 1. When a Noun (or Pronoun) names a single object, it is said to be of the Singular Number, as 'brush/ 'field;' when more than one are named, the Noun usually undergoes a change, and is then said to be of the Flural Number, as ' brushes,' ' fields.' The Plural is formed in English, with a few exceptions, by adding s to the Singular : — book, books. 2. 1. When the Noun ends in a sharp mute (p, /, t, th [in thin], kj, the 's' has its sharp sound (sea) ; — drops, chiefs, rats, moths, rooks. 2. When the Noun ends in a flat mute (h, v, d, th \_the'], g\ in a liquid (m, n^ Z, r), or a vowel, the 's' has its flat sound z: — slabs, waves, roads, booths, logs, rims, pins, walls, rafters, cantos. 118 INFLECTION OF NOUNS. 3. When the IsTonn ends in a sibilant or hissing Bound (s, z, sh, ch, .r), the original * es * is retained: — losses, pbizzes, lash * shall.* \ 2. Complement f * put down.' IV. Object, * you.* 30. 3. It is in vain that you seek to escape. I. Subject, *it.' II. Noun clause in ap- ( * that you seek to escape.' position to subject \ (aj I 1. Verb of incomplete predication, * is.* III. Predicate < 2. Complement, * in vain,' prepositional \ adjective phrase. Analysis of (a). I. Subject, ' you.' III. Predicate, * seek.' IV. Object, * to escape,' infinitive as noun. [Or, * to escape ' may be analysed as a gerundial adverbial phrase, if we take * seek * as an intransitive verb — * seek, look this way and that, with a view to escapin^.^^ 31. 4. Health, which is precious to all, is invalu- able to the poor. I. Subject, ' Health.' II. Attributive adjunct ( ' which is precious to all,' co-ordi- of subject \ nate adjective clause, {a) TTT T>'fJ' f \^' y*^'*'^ ^f ^^^(^(^^^^P^^^^ P''^'<^^^<^(i^on, ^ is.* (2. Complement, * invaluable.' VI. Adverbial adjunct ( * to the poor,' phrase of direc- of predicate \ Hon. 15 170 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. Analysis of (a). I. Subject, 'which.* III. Predicate i \' ^''^ f v^comphte predication, * is.' i 2. Complement, * precious. IV. Adverbial adjunct f.. i,, , /.,. .. of predicate \ *^ *^'» ^^''*'' ""f direction. 32- 5. No scene of life but has contributed Much to remember. I. Subject, * scene. ' ' 1 . * no,* indefinite numeral. I 2. *of life,' restrictive adjective II. Attributive adjuncts J phrase, ofsubj.ct S^ 3. *but' (that not) *ha8 contri- buted much to remember,* restrictive adjective clause, {a\ III. Predicate ['is' (exists), understood']. Analysis of (a). I. Subject, 'that.* III. Predicate, ' has not contributed.* 'IV. Object, * much.* V. Attributive adjunct of object, * to remember,' gerundial adjective phrase. 33. 6. The tares of despotism were sown while men slept. I. Subject, * tares.* II. Attributive adjuncts 1 1. *The.* of subject \ 2. * of despotism, ' adjective phrase. III. Predicate, * were sown.' IV. Adverbial adjunct f * while men slept,* adverbial clause of predicate \ of time'. \a) Analysis of {a). I. Subject, * men.' III. Predicate, * slept.* VI. Adverbial adjimct of predicate, * while.' 34- 7- What he spake, though it lacked form a little Was not like madness. EXAMPLES OF ANALYSIS. 171 I. Subject^ * What he spake,' noun clause, {a) 1. Verb of incomplete predication^ * was not.' III. Predicate <( 2. Complenunt *like madness,' adJcUive iclth qualifijing adverbial phrase — * {(o) madness.' VI. Adverbial adjunct i ' though it lacked form a little,' of predicate \ adverbial clause, {b) Analysis of {a), I. Subject, * he.' II r. Predicate^ 'spake.* IV. Object, 'what.' Analysis of fb). I. Subject, ' it ' (what he spake). III. Predicate, ^lnokQ^L.'' IV. Object, * form.' VI. Adverbial adjunct i ' a little,' elliptical for * to a little of predicate \ degree,' phrase of degree. . 35- 8- There is a sweetness in good verse which tickles even while it hurts. I. Subject, 'sweetness.' .1. 'a.' II. MtribuHveAcljmcts \ ^^ '^^'"1? ^''='^'f •7.'^" ^]'."^'' of '^ b'p t N hurts, restrictAve adjective J -^ J clause (' which ' improperly ' used for ' that ') faj. I 1. Verb of incomplete predication y I 'is * III. Predicate \ n n ' i * i - j > j 2. Complementy ' in good verse, \ prepositional adjective phrase. VI. Adverbial adjuncts of predicate ^ * there,' expletive. Analysis of (a). I. Subject, 'which.' III. Predicate, ' tickles.' VI. Adverbial adjunoU ( '^^<'" "''"?/* '>"'"*!'' "fi''^''?^ of predicate elauseofhtne (a^) qualified by -^ -^ \ adverb of degree. Analysis of {cfi). I. Subject, 'it.' III. Predicate, ^ hxxvi^.'* VI. Adverbial adjunct of predicate, ' while.' 172 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. I^ote on * while.'— The adverbial conjunctions, * while,* * where,' * when,' * as,' &c., are consideied parts of a sub- ordinate sentence, being adverbial quulifiuations of the predicate. Other conjunctions, 'if,' 'though,' 'because,' 'since' (of Reason), &c., are not looked upon as parts of the subordinate sentence, but merely as introductory words. Vompotmd Sentences. The Co-oriinato Sentences are to be analysed separately and the link of connection indicated. These separate sen- tences, when complex, are to be analysed as such. 36- !• She moves a goddess, and she looks a queen. [A] * She moves a goddess ; ' [B] 'she looks a queen.* * And * is a cumulative conjj^nction, adding B to A. 37. 2. They asked him whether he was guilty, bat he refused to answer. [A + a] * They asked him whether he was guilty ; ' [B] * lie refused to answer.' * But' is an adversative conjunction, putting B in oppo- sition to A -|- a- Contracted Sentences. In these the omitted parts must be expressed at full length, after which the analysis proceeds as above. 38- A man of real information becomes a centre of opinion, and therefore of action. [A] A man of real information becomes a centre of opinion [Bj therefore (a man of real information becomes a centre) of action. EXERCISE ON ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 173 Exercise 18. 1. Amid the roses fierce Repentance rears Her snaky crest. 2. Man, the subject of Politics, can speak. 3. Home they brought her warrior dead. 4. His purpose is to avert bad consequences. 5. It fell upon a raw and gusty day The troubled Tiber chafing with his shores. 6. Now leave complaini ag, and begin your tea. 7. He loved planting and building, and brought in a politer way of living. 8. Leaves have their time to fall And dowers to wither at the North Wind'a^reath. 9. It was a shame for them to mar their complexions with long lying abed. 10. Now, therefore, let thy servant abide in place of the lad, a bondman to my lord. 11. With droll sobriety they raised a smile At Folly's cost, themselves unmoved the while. 12. Collecting, classifying, contrasting, and weighing facts, are processes made use of in teaching method. 13. The boy stood on the burning deck Whence all but him had fled. 14. The rose that all are praising is not the rose for me. 15. All controversies that can never end, had better per- haps never begin. 16. He that fights and runs away ]Miiy live to fight another day. 17. Meanwhile opinion gilds with varying rays Those painted clouds that beautify our days. 18. How France was saved from this humiliation, and how the great alliance was preserved, will now be seen. 19. She loved me for the dangers I had passed. 20. The forms of a free constitution surviving, when its st irit is extinct, would perpetuate slavery by rendering it more concealed and secure. 174 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 21. Disquieted by imaginary alarms, insensible t') tb^^ real danger tbat awaits them, people are taui^ht to court that servitude which will be a source of misery to themselves and to posterity. 22. It is only by the fresh feelings of the heart tbat man- kind can be very powerfully aCfected. 23. Long and various experience seems to have convinced the nations of Europe that nothing but a standing army can oppose a standing army. 24. In working well, if travail you sustain, Into the wind shall lightly pass the pain, But of the deed the glory shall remain. 25. To prove my assertion we have but to observe, what ^nerally passes between the winner and the loser. 2G. Go into Turkey, where the Pachas will tell you that the Turkish government is the most perfect in the world. 27. All that be does is to distribute what others produce ; which is the least part of the business. 28. And even while fashion's brightest arts decoy, The heart, distrusting, asks if this be joy. 29. Those poets who owe their best fame to his skill Shall still be his flatterers, go where he will. 30. The heart of man craves for sympathy, atid each of us seeks a recognition of his talents and his labours. 31. The Dutch florist that sells tulip bulbs for their weight in gold, laughs at the antiquary that pays a great price for a rusty lamp. 32. Here Cumberland lies, having acted his parts, The Terence of England, the mender of hearts; A flattering painter, who made it his care To draw men as they ought to be, not as they are, 33. Nor second he that rode sublime Upon the seraph-wings of Ecstasy, The secrets of the abyss to spy. QUESTIONS ON ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 175 34. When civil dudgeon first grew, high And men fell out, they knew not why; U'hen did Sir Knight abandon dwelling, And out he rode a-colonelling. Questions. 1. Into what two principal parts is the sentence analysed? 2. How are sentences classified ? 3. What is a Simple sentence ? 4. What part of speech is the type of the Subject ? What other parts of speech may stand in its place? What different forms of infinitive phrase may stand as subject ? 5. How may the noun subject be enlarged ? Enumerate and exemplify the different forms of the Adjuncts of the subject in the Simple Sentence. 6. What part of speech is the type of the Predicate? What names are given to different forms of the predicate verb ? 7. What part of speech is the type of the Object ? How is it varied? How enlarged? 8. How is the predicate verb enlarged ? Enumerate and exemplify different forms of Adverbial Phrase. 9. What view is taken of the negative *not' in the analysis of the sentence ? 10. What is meant by a Complex Sentence? What names are given to its component clauses ? What is the function of the Subordinate Clauses ? 11. Define the Noun Clause. What places may it occupy in the sentence ? 12. What words are used to introduce noun clauses ? 13. Explain the Adjective Clause. Show by examples what various positions it may have in the sentence. 14. Point out and exemplify the difference between Re- strictive and Co-ordinate Clauses. What is the proper relative for each kind of clause ? 176 CONCORD. 15. Explain the force of the relative clause in the sen- tence—' He that hath ears to hear, let him hear.* 16. What function is served by the Adverbial Clause ? Exemplify the various classes of adverbial clauses ? 17. How is the adverbial clause contracted ? 18. Distinguish the Compound Sentence from the Com- plex. 19. How are compound sentences contracted ? CONCORD. 1. When two connected words are of the same Number, Gender, Person, or Tense, they are said to agree with one another, or to be in Concord. We have seen that in the infl-ction of the verb, the form is changed according to the Number and the Person of the subject: — • they walk — he walk*; *I walk— thou wdlkest.* The verb * walk ' is said to agree with, to be in concord with the subject, whether *they,' 'he,* * I,* or *thou.' When two different parts of speech are applied to the same subject, their inflections, in s > far as they are inflec- ted, must correspond, or be in concord. We must not use the feminine pronoun 'she,' when we refer to a man; nor * he,* when we refer to a woman: we must not use * they ' when we refer to a singular noun ; nor * it * when the noun referred to is plural. CONCORD OF SUBJECT AND YEKB. 2. A Verb must agree with its Subject in Number and in Person, and the subject of the Verb (if a Pronoun) is in the Nominative Case: — your motives icere good, but your conduct was wrong ; you ivere quite right ; I am to blame. COLLECTIVE NOUN AND VERB. 177 The following are incorrect expressions : — says T ; up we goes to the table ; his pulse are too quick ; what have become of our friends ? she dare not resist ; do as thou list ; them that despise me shall be lightly esteemed ; here is the soldiers ; there was all the officers cursing a Dutch general. Errors are sometimes made when a prominent noun of different number comes between the subject and the verb : — the derivation of the words are uncertain ; one of the mareschals were slain. ' An appearance of morals and religion are useful in society.' — (Junius.) * The progress still made by the Saxons, prove that the advantage was commonly on their side.' — (Hume. ) ^Our present English language, in which the speech of the victors and the vanquished have been so happily blended. — {Ivanhoe,) Another misleading case is when the subject is qualified by two adjectives: — ' a handsome and polished exterior are much in his favour;' 'his kind and even temper endear him to all that know him.' 3. A Collective IN'oun, though Singular in form, is not always followed by a singular verb. When the group denoted by the collective noun is spoken of as a whole, the verb is singular : — the array is in good condition ; the regiment is under the command of Colonel White ; the clan is powerful ; the jury -was divided into two sections ; the club meets on Tuesday. But when the members of the group or collection are spoken of individually, the verb is plural :— the 93rd are very fine men ; the clan Macdonald hate the clan Campbell ; 178 CONCORD. the jury were unanimous ; the gentry ivere not los8 refractory than the clergy ; the public are requested not to write on these walls. 4. When the form of a noun is plural, and the meaning singular, a singular verb is generally pre- ferred. * Nine-tenths of a man's happiness depends upon other people ; * * this news about my children decides me ; ' ' Mathe- matics is a branch of study in every school ; ' *' three multi- plied by four makes twelve.' The title of a book though plural in form, takes a singular verb when it stands for the book as a whole: — 'Temple's Observations on the Uhited Provinces is a very tho ou ;h work.* Similarly with the title of a song : — * Green Leaves is a pretty song.' 5. If the subject of a sentence consists of two Nouns or Pronouns united by the conjunction * and,' the Verb must be in the plural : — David and Jonathan were bosom friends j silence and twilight creep hand in hand. Exceptions. (1.) When two nouns are names for tho same subject. In this case the subject is really singular. * My trusty counsellor and friend has warned me to havo no dealings with such men.* (2.) When two names almost synonymous are used for the sake of emphasis: — 'secrecy and silence is what they chiefly desire; * * pride and jealousy there was in his eye.* *Nor was the manner and address of the king calculated to cure these prejudices,* SINGULAR SUBJECTS UNITED B-Y "AND." 179 * The pomp and state of a court was emulated in the castles of the great nobles.' (3.) When the two things named make a single com- pound subject, such as * wheel and axle, ' * bread and butter,* * needle and thread. ' *The composition and resolution of forces' (viewed as one process) * was applied by Newton.' * When, in King Lear, the height and depth and breadth of human passion is revealed to us.' 6. When two or more Singular Nouns are joined by alternative' conjunctions, the verb is Singular. Either your brother or Thomas is to be there. 7. When the subject of the verb is a Relative Pronoun, the antecedent shows the number of the verb. A man that hopes to be great ; men that hope to be great. CONCORD OF -NOUN AND ADJECTIVE. 8. The Demonstrative Adjectives ' this * and * that,' being inflected for number, must agree with their noun : — this tree, these hands. 9. The Distributive Adjectives * each * and * every ' are joined to a Singular noun ; — e very- friend is expected to help. These words, when applied to one Gender, take a Singular pronoun; — every man for himself; each sister for herself. When both sexes are implied, there is a difficulty. If we 180 GOVERNMENT. . say * each for himself,' the concord of gender is violated ; if we say * each for themselves,* the concord of gender is saved, and the concord of number infringed. Both forms are in use. CONCORD OF TENSES. 10. The Sabordiiiate Tenses aud the Principal Tense must not conflict. * He affinned that he will go to-morrow; * * if this should be done, I will at once withdraw ;* *he hid himself, lest he shallhoi impressed ;' — and such like, are wrong constructions ; but errors are seldom made in cases so simple. The use of the present indefinite to express a proposition true; for all time, is an apparent exception. It is right to say — * Galileo maintaiaed that the earth moves^' and wrong to say * moved. ' The perfect infinitive is often misapplied. It should not be used except after a present tense. To use it after a past tense, is bad syntax. * Hj trusted to have vanquished his enemies,' should be — ' he trusted to vanquish his enemies.' The following is also wrong : — I thought thy bride-bed to have deck'd, sweet maid. And not to have strew' d thy grave. Errors are sometimes committed in making up the tenses with auxiliaries: we meet with such mistakes as — * having broke,' 'had broke,' W 'having broken/ * liad broken/ and ' being returned' for ' having returned.' G V E R ]Sr M E N T. 1. Government is the regulating of the case of a Noun or Pronoun. We must say — we captured him (not he) ; go with them (not ihei/). POSSESSIVE CASE BEFORE INFINITIVE. 181 The Noun has only one case, the possessive ; and only a few nouns can be used in the possessive.* Those that are so used, such as proper names, are followed by the noun for the thing possessed : — Mary's fan. 2. A T^oun or Pronoun coming before an infini- tive in * ing ' to indicate the subject of the verb, is put in the possessive : — * John's advising me to accept the offer, was unexpected ; ' * the reason of his being there, I did not know.' From confusing the infinitive with the participle, writers often infringe the rule. We often find such false construc- tions as * John advising me,' and 'the reason of him being there.' 3. Transitive verbs (with their Infinitives, Parti- ciples, and Gerunds), and Prepositions, govern the Objective case. This rule appears only in Pronouns: — They brw me ad- dress her^ while bringing him to accompany them; Peter, whom you know, did that ; after us. 4. The Verb * be ' has the same case after it as before it : — it is he ; we knew it to be her. This rule is not universally observed. * It is me,' * it was not me,' 'it was him,' * it was her,' are often used in con- versation, and sometimes in books by good writers. E D E R OF W E D S. In a sentence, the different Parts of Speech are placed in a certain order. 16 182 ORDER OF WORDS. Subject and Verb. 1. The Subject precedes the Verb : — the road winds ; time passes quickly. There are exceptions to this rule. The adverb * there' often introduces an inverted sentence : — there is a way ; there came a traveller. Other adverbs, and adverbial phrases, lead to a similar inversion : — then followed a great multitude ; at no time left he the house. Verb and Object, 2' The Transitive Verb precedes its object : — We hoisted the flag. There are exceptions to this rule also, especially in poetry :—m^ ye trusted; him the Almighty Power hurled headlong ; what none has dared, thou hast done ; whom none has advised, thou hast persuaded. Noun and Adjective, 3. The Adjective precedes the Noun : — good advice. When the adjective is accompanied by qualifying phrases, it is often placed after the noun :— a person in every respect trustworthy. Bepetition of the Article. When two nouns apply to the same subject, the article is given only once : the statesman and general (one person). When the two nouns express diflferent subjects, each has the article : the statesman and the general (two persons). Fronoun and Antecedent, 4. Every pronoun should have a distinct refer- ence. PLACING OF "only** AND "NOT." 183 It has been seen (Pronoun 7, 8) that the word referred to by the pronoun usually goes before (antecedent), but in certain cases cornea after. We should avoid using a pronoun with more than one reference on the same sentence. * It/ from the variety of its references, is often abused in this way. What has the child done with my book? It is provoking that it will always run away with «^.* , Placing of the Adverb, 5. The Adverb usually follows the verb : — He works steadily ; bring the man. quickly. When the verb is Intransitive, the adverb follows im- mediately after : when the verb is Transitive, it follows the object. There are many exceptions to the rule. Tlacing of ^only* and * not.^ — ' Only' qualifies the word or phrase immediately after it. * He 07tlt/ sends in his account twice a-year,' means that he sends in his account, and takes no other step — does not call, does not write press- ing letters. * He sends in his account only twice a-year,' means that he sends in his account twice a-year, and no oftener. * Only ' is often misplaced. * I am only anxious to see him,' should be, * I am anxious only to see him.' * Not ' is often misplaced in constructions with * not— but only,' * not only — but,' * not only — but also.' He did not wish to punish, but only to warn,' should be — * he wished not to punish, but only to warn.' The verb applies to both the contrasted expressions, and should stand clear at the beginning. On similar grounds— * he not only was just but generous,' should be, * he was not only just, but generous.' *He not only resolved to send a message, but also to go 184 SYNTAX. . thither in person/ should be, * he resolved not only to send, &c. Exercise 19. Errors in Syntax, 1. Both their nature, tempers, qualities, actions, and way of living was made up of innumerable contra- dictions. 2. Scotland and thee did in each other live. 3. O Thou for ever present in my way. Who all my motives and my toils survey. 4. I had wrote to him the day before. 5. The reason of him attendini^ their meetings, were simply that he wishes to obstruct them. 6. The rise and fall of nations are an interesting study. 7. Great piins were taken to have avoided such a calamity. 8. The mind and body remains invincible. 9. The fact of me going away could not signify. 10. Nor want nor cold his course delay. 11. She*fell a-laughing, like one out of their right senses. 12. There are a class of men who never looks before their •noses. 13. I, your friend, advises you not to trust either of the three partners. 14. Between you and I, there was a variety of causes at work. 15. The only real hindrance to it being attainable is the wonderful imprudent character of the people. 16. Though four- fifths of the population is Celtic and Roman Catholic, more than four-fifths of the pro- perty belong to Protestants. / ERRORS IN SYNTAX. 185 17. No other river such fine salmon feed. 18. The books were lain upon the table. 19. He is one of the best and wisest men who h is ever lived. 20. He trusted to have equalled the Most High. 21. Every tub must stand upon their own bottom. 22. That is the man whom I perceived was in fault. 23. You are the first that rears your head. 24. His Elements of Political Economy were very favour- ably reviewed. • 25. The play is most pernicious slow. 26. The tenantry has resolved to celebrate the marriage of its young proprietor with all the honours. 27. All human race would fain be wits. 28. Each make as much profit as they can. 29. Sir William Temple had a good shape, and was extreme active. 30. His honourable and amiable disposition were praised by everybody. 31. Shattered by the fever, his friends left him to his "^^^ fate. 32. I am afraid of the man dying before a doctor can come. 33. It was very characteristic of Bacon to say that by indignities men came to dignities. 34. If we could only hold our tongues, everything will succeed to a wish. 35. His wages are not sufficient to support a growing family. 36. Have you seen the minister and schoolmaster the day? 37. That bliss which only centres in the mind. 186 SYNTAX. 38. We would be greatly mistaken if wo suppose wealth and rank exempt from care and toil. 39. Hoping to hear from you soon, believe me yours truly. 40. A plague to his parents at home, the master could almost make nothing of him at school. 41. Nine-tenths of the miseries and vices of mankind proceed from idleness. 42. He complained th it ho had suffered him only to use his horse for one day. 43.* Before Hell's gate there sat On either side a formidable shape. 44. He not only endeavoured to do his duty, but to make others do theirs. " 45. Some persons can only distinguish black, white, and gray. 46. This does not so much seem to be owing to the want of physical power, but rather to the absence of vehemence. 47. The attempt may succeed in this case, but it is not often that it is safe to make it. Standard Educational Works, L. PYLODET'S FRENCH SERIES. Beginning French. l(5mo. Boarde I qq Beginner's French Reader. A Companion to "Beginning French." Witli illustrations. 16mo. Bds M Beginner's Second French Reader l.sg Couttes de Rosee. 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