IRLF 
 
LIBRARY 
 
 OF THE 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 BIOLOGY r//7cc 
 
 LIBRARY LlasS 
 
 G 
 
CHAPTERS 
 
 ON THE 
 
 N ATUR A L HISTORY 
 
 OF THE 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 BY 
 
 R. W. SHUFELDT, M.D. 
 
 CAPTAIN, MEDICAL DEPARTMENT, U. 8. ARMY (RETIRED). 
 
 ASSOCIATE IN ZOOLOGY, SMITHSONIAN 
 
 INSTITUTION. 
 
 Author of The Osteology of Arctic and Subarctic Water Birds," " The Myology 
 
 of the Raven," "Lectures on Biology," "The Anatomy 
 
 of Heloderma," Etc., Etc. 
 
 STUDER BROTHERS, Publishers, 
 
 114 Fifth Avenue, New York. 
 
 Issued under the auspices of 
 
 THE NATURAL SCIENCE ASSOCIATION OF AMERICA, 
 
 NEW YORK, U. S. A. 
 1900 
 
BIOLOGY 
 LIBRARY 
 
 G , 
 
 COPYRIGHT, 1897, 
 BY JACOB H. STUDER 
 
To 
 
 MY LEARNED AND ESTEEMED FRIEND 
 
 THEODORE NICHOLAS GILL 
 
 I DEDICATE THIS BOOK, 
 
 NOT ONLY 
 As A SLIGHT TOKEN OF MY PERSONAL REGARD, 
 
 BUT ALSO 
 
 To EXPRESS MY PROFOUND APPRECIATION 
 OF 
 
 His genius, and for the power and 
 influence his many works 
 
 have had in 
 advancing the best interests of General Biology. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER. PAGE. 
 
 I. Methods of Study of Natural History . . 23 
 
 II. Classification of Animals ..... 29 
 
 III. Some Interesting Insects, with Notes on the Class (Insecta] . 35 
 
 IV. Crayfish and Crabs (Crustacea) .... 54 
 
 V. Sawfish, Rays, Sharks, and Their Allies, with Notes on Deep- 
 sea Fishes (Elasmobranchii, etc.) . . . .64 
 
 VI. Sea Horses and Eels (Hippocampidce : A nguillidce) . 82 
 
 VII. Frogs, Toads, Newts, and other Amphibians (Amphibia) . 91 
 
 VIII. Some Observations on Lizards (Lacertilia) . . . 108 
 
 IX. Protective Coloration in Snakes, with other Notes about Them 
 
 (OpUdia) . .... . . .130 
 
 X. Turtles and Tortoises (Chelonia) . . 146 
 
 XI. Alligators and Crocodiles (Crocodilia) , . . 156 
 
 XII. Grebes, Loons, and Auks (Pygopodes : Alcce.) . . 164 
 
 XIII. Gulls and Their Allies (Longipennes) . . . 183 
 
 XIV. Pelicans and Their Relatives (Steganopodes) . . 195 
 XV. Meadow-larks and Partridges (genus Sturnella : Perdicinai) 204 
 
 XVI. American Vultures. (Superfamily Cathartoidea.) (Family 
 
 Catharlidce.) ...... 221 
 
 XVII. Some of the Owls of the United States (Striges) . 232 
 
 XVIII. The Carolina Paroquet and other Notes . . . 250 
 
 XIX. The United States Cuckoos (Family Cuculidce) . . 260 
 
 XX. Woodpeckers: Photographically and Pterylographically con- 
 sidered (Pici) , 270 
 
8 CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER PAGE 
 
 XXI. The Cedar Birds : with Notes on Where Birds Lay Their 
 
 Eggs (Ampelida>: Turdus: Vireo: etc.] . . . 291 
 
 XXII. The American Warblers and Sparrows (Mniotittidce and Fringil- 
 
 . . . . . .317 
 
 XXIII. The Yellow-breasted Chat; Cat-birds; and the Oven-bird 
 
 (Icteria virens ; Galeoscoptes carolinensis ; and Siurus 
 auricapillus) ...... 340 
 
 XXIV. The Common Opossum and Its Kin (DidelpJiys virginiana) 364 
 XXV. W hales and Manatees (Cetacea: Sirenia) . . . 374 
 
 XXVI. The Flying Squirrel and Its Relatives (Family Sciuridce) . 399 
 
 XXVII. The Deer Mouse, with Notes on other Rodents (Peromyscus leu- 
 
 copus: Rodentia} . . . . . . 415 
 
 XXVIII. Bats and Their Habits (Chiroptera) . . .427 
 
 XXIX. Museums and Their Uses : with some Observations on Tax- 
 
 idermy . . . 442 
 
ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTKATIONS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Portrait of Author (1894) ..... Frontispiece 
 
 Fig. 1. Spider Carrying Her Young in a Silken Ball (Dolomedcs tene- 
 
 brosus, Hentz). From a photograph by the Author . 39 
 
 Fig. 2. The Whip-tailed Scorpion (Thelyphonus giganteus). Natural 
 
 size. From life, by the Author . . .41 
 
 Fig. 3. A Typical Dragon-fly (Libellula trimaculata) : $ natural size. 
 
 From a photograph of living specimen by the Author 45 
 
 Fig. 4. The Praying Mantis. Drawn from life by the Author . 50 
 
 Fig. 5. The Violet Land Crab. Drawn by the Author . . 61 
 
 Fig. 6. Sawfish (P. pectinatus). Side view . . . .65 
 
 Fig. 7. Sawfish (P. pectinatus). Ventral view ... 65 
 
 Fig. 8. Torpedo (Torpedo occidentalis) . . . .69 
 
 Fig. 9. Barndoor Skate (Raid Icevis) .... 69 
 
 Fig. 10. Sting Ray ( Trygon sabina) . . . . .69 
 
 Fig. 11. The White Shark (Carcharias) .... 71 
 
 Fig. 12. Hammerhead Shark (Zygcena malleus) . . . .73 
 
 Fig. 13. Chlamydoselachus anguineus .... 75 
 
 Fig. 14. The Torchfish (Linophryne lucifer] . . . .77 
 
 Fig. 15. Neolythites steatiticus ..... 79 
 
 Fig. 16. Odontostomas alratus . , . . .79 
 
 Fig. 17. Bathypercis platyrhynchus ..... 79 
 
 Fig. 18. Physiculus argyropastus . . . . .79 
 
 Fig. 19. The Sea-horse (Hippocampus heptagonus . . 83 
 
 Fig. 20. Phylopteryx eques . . . . . .84 
 
 Fig. 21. Fry of Sea-horse ..... 85 
 
 Fig. 22. The Common Eel (Anguilla vulgaris) . . . .88 
 
 Fig. 23. Life-size head of Murcenopsis tridaetylus ... 92 
 
 Fig. 24. The Tiger Salamander . . . . .97 
 
 Fig. 25. Common Bullfrog. From photograph by the Author . 101 
 
 Fig. 26. Tree-toads (Hyla versicolor) . . . . .103 
 
 Fig. 27. Anolis principal ...... Ill 
 
 Fig. 28. Gila Monsters (Heloderma suspeclum) . . . .117 
 
 Fig. 29. Side view of the Head of a Heloderma . .119 
 
 Fig. 30. Superior view of a Heloderma .... 121 
 
 Fig. 31. Ventral view of a Heloderma .... 123 
 
!_) LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 PAGK 
 
 1 ; :;_'. The Collared Lizard (Crotaphytus collari*) 
 
 127 
 
 Fig. :i3. Sceloporus undulatnx 
 
 Fig. 34. Summer Snake (Cydophis vernalis), in Smilax Vine . 
 
 Fig. 35. Young of Water Snake (Natrix sipedori) . 
 
 Fig. 36. The Blotched King Snake (Lampropeltis rhombomaculata) 
 
 Fig. :*7. Floor of the Mouth of Bullsnake (P. s. bellona) 
 
 Fig. 38. Left Intersil view of the head of Bullsnake 
 
 Fig. 30. Young Box Tortoise (Citstudo Carolina) 
 
 Fig. 40. Shell of Testudo pardalis. Upper or dorsal aspect 
 
 Fig. 41. Shell of Testudo pardalis. Lower or ventral aspect 
 
 Fig. 42. The Carapace of a Young Hawk's-bill Turtle (Caretta imbricata) 153 
 
 Fig. 43. Head of Crocodile 157 
 
 Fig. 44. TheGavial . .162 
 
 Fig. 45. The Horned Grebe 1G5 
 
 Fig. 46. Right lateral aspect of the Head of the Black-throated Diver 
 
 (Urinator arcticus) . . l^l 
 
 Fig. 47. Whiskered Anklet . .175 
 
 Fig. 48. The Great Auk (Plautus imjiennis) 179 
 
 Fig. 49. Ross's Gull (Rhodostethia rosea) 184 
 
 Fig. 50. Trudeau's Tern . 188 
 
 Fig. 51. The Long-tailed Jaeger 190 
 
 Fig. 52. The Black Skimmer .... 192 
 
 Fig. 53. The Brown Pelican . . . 196 
 
 Fig. 51. Xest of Meadow-lark containing Two Young (Sturnella magna) 207 
 
 Fig. 55. The Meadow-lark . . . . . .211 
 
 Fig. 56. The Massena Partridge ... 217 
 
 Fig. 57. Head of the Turkey Vulture (Cathartes aura) . . . 222 
 
 Fig. 58. Young Turkey Vulture (Cathartes aura) . . . 225 
 
 Fig. .V.. The American Long-eared Owl (Asio wilsonianus) . . 2,'*r> 
 
 Fig. JO. The Long-eared Owl (A. wilsonianus). From a photograph by 
 
 the Author ....... 2137 
 
 Fig. 61. Nestling of Barred Owl ..... 241 
 
 Fig. 62. Head of Young Barred Owl (Syrnium nebulosum) . . 244 
 
 Fig. 63. The Carolina Paroquet (Conurus carolinensis) . . 251 
 
 Fig. 64. The Yellow-billed Cuckoo (C. americanus) . . . 261 
 
 Fig. 65. Photograph of a Live Specimen of Downy Woodpecker 
 
 (Dry abates pubescens) . . . . . 271 
 
 'I. Vertical Section of Tree, showing Nest of Golden-winged 
 
 Woodpecker, containing Six Young . . . 275 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 13 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Fig. 07. Nestling Golden-winged Woodpecker . . . 279 
 
 Fig. 68. Pterylosis of Harris's Woodpecker. Lateral view . . 278 
 
 Fig. 69. Pterylosis of Harris's Woodpecker. Dorsal and ventral views 283 
 
 Fig. 70. Pterylosis of Red-naped Woodpecker. Ventral view . 285 
 
 Fig. 71. Pterylosis of Red-naped Woodpecker. Dorsal view . 287 
 
 Fig. 72. Cedar Waxwing (Ampelis cedrorum}. Photograph from life . 293 
 
 Fig. 73. Cedar Bird (Ampelis cedrorum). Photograph from living specimen 295 
 
 Fig. 74. A Pair of Cedar Birds (Ampelis cedrorum. Adult $ and 9 299 
 
 Fig. 75. Nest of Wood Thrush (Turdus mustelinus) . . 303 
 
 Fig. 76. Young Wood Thrush (Turdus mustelinus) . . . 307 
 
 Fig. 77. Nest and Young of Red-eyed Vireo (Vireo olivaceous) . 311 
 
 Fig. 78. Nest and Young of the Indigo Bunting (Passerina cyanea) . 315 
 
 Fig. 79. Black-poll Warbler (Dendroica striata) $ . From life . 321 
 
 Fig. 80. Nest and Young of the Yellow Warbler (Dendroica cestiva). 
 
 Taken, natural size, in situ, from nature by the Author . 325 
 
 Fig. 81. Nest and Three Young of the Prairie Warbler . . 327 
 
 Fig. 82. Young Chipping Sparrows (Spizella socialis) . . . 331 
 
 Fig. 83. A Pair of Crossbills ..... 337 
 
 Fig. 84. Nest and Young of Yellow-breasted Chat (Icteria virens) . 343 
 
 Fig. 85. Nest and Young of Catbird (Galeoscoptes carolinensis) . 347 
 
 Fig. 86. A Pair of Young Catbirds . . . . .351 
 
 Fig. 87. The Oven-bird (Siurus auricapillus). Natural size . 355 
 
 Fig. 88. Nest of the Oven-bird (Siurus auricapillus) . . . 359 
 
 Fig. 89. Nest of Furnarius ..... 361 
 
 Fig. 90. Vertical Section of the Nest of Furnarius . . .361 
 
 Fig. 91. Young of American Opossum (D. virginiana) . . 365 
 
 Fig.' 92. Young of American Opossum (D. virginiana). Right lateral view 371 
 
 Fig. 93. Common Dolphin (D. delphis) .... 379 
 
 Fig. 94. Skunk Porpoise (Lagenorhynchus gubernator) . . . 381 
 
 Fig. 95. The Blackfish (Globiocephalus melas) . . . 381 
 
 Fig. 96. The Grampus (Grampus griseua) .... 383 
 
 Fig. 97. The Herring-hog (Phocfena communis) . . . 384 
 
 Fig. 98. The Sperm Whale . . . . . .385 
 
 Fig. 99. The Bowhead Whale * . . . . . 385 
 
 Fig. 100. The Narwhal . . . . 389 
 
 Fig. 101. The Sperm Whale ..... 389 
 
 Fig. 102. Skull of African Manatee (Manatus senegalensis) . 392 
 
14 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Fig. 103. Front View of the Head of the American Manatee. Lips di- 
 
 x arii-sited) ..... 392 
 
 Fig. 104. Front View of the Head of the American Manatee. Lips 
 
 contracted . . . 392 
 
 Fig. lor,. South American Manatees. Attitudes of swimming . 395 
 
 Fig. 106. South American Manatees in Act of Feeding . 395 
 
 Fig. 107. The Flying Squirrel (Sciuroptems v. volueella) . 401 
 
 Fig. 108. The Gila Chipmunk . . 407 
 
 Fig. 109. Life-size Head of a Specimen of Abert's Squirrel . 412 
 
 Fig. 110. True's Pifion Mouse. Life size from nature . . 416 
 
 Fig. 111. The Deer Mouse (P. leucopus). From life . . 417 
 
 Fig. 112. The Jumping Mouse ..... 421 
 
 Fig. 113. Section of the Skull of a Beaver (Castor fiber) . . 424 
 
 Fig. 114. Side View of the Skull of a Beaver (after Huxley) . . 424 
 
 Fig. 115. Side View of Skull of Muskrat (Fiber zibethicus) . . 424 
 
 Fig. 116. Bats in an Old Tree-stump . . . . .429 
 
 Fig. 117. Serotine Bat .... 433 
 
 Fig. 118. Serotine Bat. Front view ..... 437 
 
 Fig 119. Ornithological Hall of the Smithsonian Institution . 447 
 
 Fig. 120. Model of Sunfish, ready to receive the skin . 451 
 
 Fig. 121. Anterior View of Mounted Sunfish 453 
 
 Fig. 122. Mounted Specimen of a Sunfish . . . 455 
 
 Fig. 123. Group of Jackals . . . 457 
 
 Fig. 124. Model of Jackal . . . . .456 
 
 Fig. 125. Model of Jackal . ... 459 
 
 Fig. 126. Mounted Specimen of Fox . . 460 
 
 Fig. 127. Model of Young Bear . . 465 
 
 Fig. 128. Mounted Specimen of Young Polar Bear . . . 467 
 
 Fig. 129. Mounted Specimen of the European Pine Marten . 470 
 
 Fig. 130. Rhea Americana . . 471 
 
INTRODUCTION 
 
INTRODUCTION 
 
 N ottering to my readers the Chapters on Nat- 
 ural History found in the present voluuieritas 
 not with the intention of placing before them 
 anything having the form of a systematic 
 treatise upon the subject, but rather a series 
 of nature stories selected at random by their 
 author. During the past ten or twelve years 
 or more I have contributed to the various 
 popular-science magazines of this country 
 accounts and descriptions of many of our bet- 
 ter-known mammals, birds, reptiles, fish, and 
 insects, and it is from these that the present 
 chapters have been largely borrowed. In 
 nearly every case, however, they have been extensively revised, 
 augmented, and in a few instances new illustrations added to 
 them. A few of these chapters appear now for the first time, 
 never having been published elsewhere. Judging from what my 
 many correspondents have kindly written me in years gone by, I 
 feel safe in saying that my labors along these lines have been 
 met with marked favor, and it is my earnest hope that there has 
 been no falling off of this interest, and that gathered together in 
 this their present shape these brief life-histories of many of our 
 birds and animals will be received even with greater apprecia- 
 tion. 
 
 Technical descriptions have been largely disallowed place in 
 these pages, as in this age of science the literature in such fields 
 is very rich and ample, while but few really popular works upon 
 natural history are being written. This further inclines me to 
 believe that these chapters will be favorably regarded, especially 
 by those who love to ramble in our fields and forests, ex- 
 plore along the banks of our streams and shores, and delight in 
 reading about the forms in nature that they meet with there 
 every day. I trust, too, that these accounts will stimulate 
 others, and better pens than mine, to add still more to our knowl- 
 edge of the habits of our United States animals, particularly 
 those usually considered to be abundant and well known. Often 
 these are the very ones that have been neglected, and the inti- 
 
18 INTRODUCTION 
 
 mate habits of which we know the least about. Then many of 
 the species in our fauna are now rapidly becoming extinct, and 
 ih.-se especially need our attention at the present time. I will 
 h, very j:hid :ind feel more than repaid for my labor should my 
 young naturalist friends, boys and girls, like this book, and wish 
 in ha vi- it in i heir libraries. They liave been largely in my mind 
 while iis pa^vs were being written; and my own children, who 
 have not only assisted me greatly in collecting some of the ma 
 teria! therein described, but have heard them read ere they were 
 
 sent to press. 
 
 It will be observed that quite a large number of the illustra- 
 tions are reproduced from photographs of living animals of va- 
 rious species and kinds. These were all taken by myself from 
 the living subjects, and nearly in every instance of natural size. 
 Too much cannot be said in favor of the constant use of the 
 photographic camera in zoology, and when by its means really 
 tii st rate, life-like pictures of any of our living forms are secured 
 in natural attitudes, and with nature's surroundings, they should 
 surely be published, and be made to take the place of many of 
 the highly incorrect figures of our animals, still to be found in 
 popular works upon natural history. Taxidermists and artists 
 will then, I am sure, appreciate this feature in my book, for if 
 anything be useful and helpful to them in their work it is good 
 pictures of this class, used, as they safely can be, as models. 
 
 During the entire course of preparation of the volume, not a 
 few of the works of other naturalists have been carefully con- 
 sulted, and in many instances quoted from more or less exten- 
 sively. Chief among these have been the writings of Professor 
 Huxley; Darwin: from his "Voyage of a Naturalist;" Sir William 
 II. Flower of the British Museum; the classical and voluminous 
 writings of Alfred Newton; the very numerous and excellent con 
 tributions of Doctors Philip Lutley Sclater and R. Bowlder 
 Sharpe; of Alexander Wilson; the Parkers; E. D. Cope; Gill, and 
 (1. Krown (Joode in fishes; Packard and others distinguished in 
 eiiininology; the unrivaled works in American ornithology of 
 Robert Kidgway and of Chas. E. Bendire; those of the veteran 
 in the study of reptiles, Dr. Albert C. L. G. Giinther, F.K.S.; and 
 ;i greal many others. 
 
 In closing these introductory remarks, it gives me pleasure 
 in sav that ij would have been practically impossible for me in 
 have brought ollt t|,j s volume at the present time had i! not been 
 
INTRODUCTION 19 
 
 i'or the invaluable and substantial aid rendered ine by niy very 
 good friend, A. C. Gould, Esqr., the esteemed editor of Shooting 
 and Fishing, of New York City, N. Y. Mr. Gould not only greatly 
 encouraged me to write this work, but, prompted by a generosity 
 rarely equaled, presented me with the forty or more half-tone 
 blocks upon which are engraved the reproductions of altoiLtliose 
 animals photographed by me from life. For this very timely 
 and friendly assistance I here extend him niy most sincere 
 thanks. All of my articles kindly published for me by Mr. Gould, 
 from time to time in his admirable journal have been incorpo- 
 rated into the present chapters, and in many cases without any 
 alteration whatever. I feel the deepest obligations, too, to Mr. 
 Benjamin Lillard, the able editor of Popular Science News, of New 
 York City, who, upon application, promptly loaned me many 
 electrotypes of figures that during the past few years illustrated 
 articles of mine in his excellent paper. I refer especially to the 
 figures of the Violet Land Crab; the Sea Horse; P. eques; the 
 Common Eel; head of Crocodile; the Gavial; the Horned Grebe; 
 Black-throated Diver; Whiskered Auklet; Trudeau's Tern; Peli- 
 can; the Crossbills; and others. The text-matter which these 
 figures illustrated in Popular Science News has also been largely 
 reproduced in the following pages, and I am sure will add ma- 
 terially to the usefulness of the book. 
 
CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY OF THE 
 UNITED STATES 
 
CHAPTER I. 
 
 METHODS OF STUDY OF NATURAL HISTORY. 
 
 HAT has been written of the poet can with equal truth 
 be applied to the naturalist, for 
 " ? T is long disputed, whether poets claim 
 From art or nature their best right to fame; 
 But art, if not enrich'd by nature's vein, 
 And a rude genius of uncultur'd strain, 
 Are useless both; but when in friendship join'd, 
 A mutual succour in each other find." 
 
 And, as in the case of the poet, "naturalists are born and not 
 made." A true naturalist has the spirit of genius born within 
 him, and no amount of discouragement, or of misfortune, or of 
 opposition will deter him in the fulfillment of his destiny. To 
 such a one the methods of research in the fields he loves so well 
 will be sought out and come to him, as it were, by second nature. 
 \\>re I asked what I considered to be the best qualifications 
 for a naturalist to be possessed of, I should, without hesitation, 
 answer, that, above all else, he must be a good observer; then, of 
 equal importance is it that he should be endowed with a keen 
 power of reasoning, in order to logically utilize what he ob- 
 serves. To these qualities of correct observation, and just ap- 
 preciation of what he sees, must be added an unfailing store of 
 patience, and a capability for work of any desired amount. True 
 naturalists are true men in every sense of the word, and of them 
 it may be said that no class possesses a higher regard for all the 
 characteristics of the nobler side of human nature, as those of 
 truth, candor, and unselfishness. The majority of our best nat- 
 uralists, and especially those who come to be our best descrip- 
 tive biologists, are born with the gift of drawing and painting, 
 an art which in them rapidly develops. This is particularly true 
 of those who lay any claim to being proficient in special depart- 
 ments, as those of ornithology, ichthyology, herpetology, and 
 like sciences. 
 
 Of course, this in no way applies to those philosophic minds, 
 who may be the expounders, the generalizes, or the authors of 
 
24 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 rompendiums of any of these .branches. But what I do distinctly 
 mean is, that for one to be great in ornithology, for example, he 
 must sit least be capable of drawing and painting birds cor- 
 rectly, whHln-r In- exercises the art nature may have given him 
 
 or not. 
 
 .Many "closet-naturalists" there have been who, in their life's 
 work, have demonstrated their extreme usefulness in advancing 
 the biological sciences, while upon the other hand a great deal 
 of the labor performed under such conditions has come to be the 
 most serious stumbling-block in the way of sound progress. 
 Consequently, whenever it becomes possible, animals and plants 
 should be invariably studied alive, both in nature, and under all 
 other conditions that opportunity may offer. It is only by such 
 means that we can ever obtain a correct idea of form, color, 
 habits, uses, and actions of certain organs or appendages, and 
 much else besides. 
 
 Of the living specimens, too, that we study, we should always 
 make good photographic pictures, as well as correct colored 
 drawings. When dissections and other preparations are made, 
 and no working naturalist can dispense with these, they, too, 
 must be copied upon paper, and according to a prescribed scale, 
 either by the means of pen, pencil, brush, and pigment; by the 
 camera; or by the camera lucida; or by any other skillful con- 
 trivance in use for the purpose. In coloring dissections on 
 papers, conventional tints should always be used, as red for the 
 arteries and blue for the veins, and so on. If naturalists invari- 
 ably employed the same colors for the same structures in pro- 
 ductions of Ihis class, a great point of vantage would be gained. 
 And of still greater importance is it that a universal nomen- 
 clature of colors come into use, and our coming young natural- 
 ists of the present can do much tow r ard the promotion and 
 adoption of such ends. 
 
 When making notes upon animals, or indeed biological obser- 
 vations of any nature whatever, or drawings from life or dissec- 
 lions, they must be made as nearly coincident with the time of the 
 observation as possible. In other words, leave nothing to mem- 
 ory, but make record only in the presence of the subject you pur- 
 pose to describe. Field naturalists and explorers should be par- 
 ticularly exacting in this, their work being reduced to writing 
 every t \von1y-fonr hours. By such methods alone can accuracy 
 be insured, and progress be made certain, 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 25 
 
 In a naturalist's armamentarium there are two sets of things 
 which are co-equal in importance to him, and both essential to 
 his success. These are his implements upon the one hand, and 
 his books upon the other. His microscope and its appurte- 
 nances; his guns and their belongings; his camera and its outfit; 
 his drawing and coloring utensils; his other and many various 
 instruments of precision may be considered to be the active 
 agents in his researches, while his library is the passive one. By 
 the means of the first he obtains, studies, dissects, and makes 
 descriptive record of material, while by the use of the second he 
 compares the observations of others in every possible way; de- 
 tects errors; ascertains the limitation of knowledge upon any 
 particular point or subject; and finally, establishes in his mind 
 the relative value of his observations, and exactly, in the event 
 of their being published, to what extent they may be considered 
 a contribution to the particular line of biological research along 
 which they have been made. 
 
 Both books and implements should be of the very best obtain- 
 able: the first in the matter of recognized authority, and the 
 second with regard to manufacture. The best test for the acqui- 
 sition of either is the appreciation of the feeling for its need. 
 Purchase only as the demand presses, and as the widening of 
 your field requires it. Excess of either tools or volumes can but 
 create lumber in the laboratory; demand care without the ade- 
 quate increase in efficiency; and levy a pecuniary tax, which 
 might have been used with greater power in some other direction. 
 
 In the matter of books, again, the naturalist will of course be 
 greatly influenced by circumstances. If he has access to very 
 extensive scientific public libraries, he needs at hand, of his 
 own, only such works of reference as his researches require. 
 These may be limited in some cases to text-books, practical 
 works upon the use of instruments and dissections; compen- 
 diums, keys, manuals, lexicons, and the like, with perhaps some 
 fifty volumes upon the general literature of his science. A dozen 
 or more good journals and magazines should likewise find their 
 way to his study table. 
 
 Eight times out of ten, I find no difficulty in entering my li- 
 brary and work-room in the dark, and finding the volume I need, 
 or placing my hand upon any implement required. Precision, 
 extreme neatness and order, economy in time carried to the 
 maximum, and the minimum use of appliances compatible with 
 
26 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 the best possible results, will carry a capable naturalist through 
 almost any undertaking in which he may engage, and stamp his 
 uailv surroundings with the unmistakable mark of success. 
 
 When we come to the material which it is our intention to ex- 
 amine, study, and describe, there is altogether another question 
 involved. The more generous the supply of material the 
 broader, clearer, and more comprehensive will be the results of 
 our researches. If possible, the amount of material examined 
 in the study of any zoological or botanical subject should be 
 sufficiently Ample as to insure beyond all perad venture a 
 thorough elucidation of every detail of structure, and the widest 
 opportunity for the data of comparison. 
 
 Say, for example, that it is a specimen of a tortoise that com- 
 mands tlic naturalist's attention. Having obtained all the pos- 
 sible light upon its habits in nature, and its geographical distri- 
 bution, and every fact and fiction that has appeared in regard 
 to it in literature, then seize upon all the material obtainable, 
 enough in any event in order to fully exhibit the extremes of 
 variation in size; the sexual characters; the eggs, embryos, and 
 young at all stages; the fossil forms, if any are known; and 
 finally, an abundance of similar material representing all the ap- 
 parent allies of the particular form, either near or remote. 
 
 With this before one, compare and inter-compare all of its ex- 
 ternal characters, be they of whatever nature they may. Ke- 
 study its habits in confinement, and its physiological functions 
 as far as they may be observed. Make of the specimen measure- 
 ments, drawings, and photographs to an extent to illustrate all 
 of these particulars. Next kill a series of specimens with 
 chloroform, and make full comparative dissections upon these 
 fresh cadavers, and especially with the view of ascertaining the 
 appearance, relative positions, and morphology of all the parts 
 and organs, unaffected by any preserving fiuid. Colored draw- 
 ings of all of these should be made, and then a similar series of 
 specimens be consigned to a preserving fluid, and their mor- 
 phology be re-examined, and several specimens injected (after the 
 most approved methods employed by microscopists), hardened 
 and stained, and then ;ill the tissues examined by means of a 
 lower power lens, as well as mounted sections of the same being 
 made for a complete microscopical examination, with the view of 
 making a full series of micrographs and colored drawings. 
 Having accomplished all this, we are prepared to use our labora- 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 27 
 
 tory notes in writing out an account of the species; naming it, 
 if the form be unknown to science; and suggesting a place for 
 it in the system. This is simply a brief outline of the ideal path 
 along which a biologist works, and hints as to the methods he 
 adopts in his researches. Below this, his studies may be carried 
 to any stage of completeness he desires, and I have known- of 
 youthful naturalists who have accomplished truly remarkable 
 results by means of the most rudimentary appliances, and 
 scarcely any assistance beyond the aid of a text-book or two in 
 elementary zoology. 
 
 Fortunately in these days when a parent discovers that a 
 child has taken to capturing snakes, shooting and skinning 
 birds, drawing and painting butterflies and beetles, and pos- 
 sesses similar traits that become only more pronounced through 
 opposition, the road is very clear as to what is to be done, for 
 biology, elementary and otherwise, is completely woven into the 
 very tissue and substance of our public-school system, and the 
 best advice to be given in the premises is to suggest to the 
 principal of the school to allow that particular pupil to add the 
 elementary course in biology to his list of studies. Time will 
 very soon demonstrate whether or no an embryo in biology is 
 incubating. Should it happen that one is, then open every ave- 
 nue to his or her requirements, for, indeed, good naturalists 
 come not to us every day, and biological science rejoices in the 
 acquisition of capable recruits to its ranks. Moreover in these 
 days there is abundant room and occupation for them, and the 
 world is wiser and better for their coming. Throw the books and 
 the "paint-box" and the dissecting set in their way, and, to tell 
 the truth, I know of no better mental training for any career in 
 practical life than the one offered by a course in biology. A 
 large share of success in life depends upon good powers of ob- 
 servation, the appreciation of the experience of others, and the 
 logical application of these two combined. If a boy contem- 
 plates a course in medicine, for example, fortunate for him in- 
 deed is it has he the patience and understanding to obtain a 
 score of crayfishes, and, with Huxley's book on the subject, sit 
 down and master what is contained in those common-sense, 
 philosophic pages, for should he do so, I will stake my life upon 
 it, he will have acquired a kind of knowledge and a training that 
 will stand him in good stead at every stage of his career,and give 
 him a preparation that will easily enable him to outstrip his fel- 
 
28 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 lows in tlu school of medicine not similarly prepared, to say 
 nothing of the benetit that will accrue to him in after life. 
 
 Things were very different thirty-five or more years ago, in my 
 boyhood time, when a youth who gave evidence of any such tastes 
 was commonly considered to be some sort of a juvenile 
 crank, with a dash of insanity in his composition, and 
 his father was advised to force him into one of the 
 prescribed "professions," and make every effort to eliminate 
 i lie eminently unpractical streak in his organization. The mi- 
 croscope was taken away from him; the collection of plants or- 
 dered destroyed; the living specimens under examination made 
 to be let go, and the "rubbish" of birds' nests, eggs, skins, and 
 what not destroyed, and the boy with the "bent" bent sure 
 enough into channels for which he had no taste or capacity. 
 Thanks to the present-day methods in biology, such procedures 
 are fast becoming ones of greater and greater rarity. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 THE CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS. 
 
 (Taxonomy.) 
 
 HEN we come to regard this earth as a whole, with 
 everything upon it, it can be stated that it is made up 
 of two kinds of matter. By far the lesser portion of 
 this material is living matter, while the balance is not 
 living matter, and for the distinct gap separating these tw r o, the 
 biologist knows of no link. Whatever life may be, when it ceases 
 in the protozoan, in the animal, or in the plant, what remains is 
 at once claimed by the world of lifeless matter, and is thereafter 
 subject only to the chemical changes of either disintegration or 
 of decomposition. Later on it may be taken up again into living 
 material. 
 
 Now, the consideration of all living matter, with the phenom- 
 ena it manifests, falls to the science or sciences of biology, while 
 the dealing with dead matter belongs to another distinct cate- 
 gory known as the abiological sciences. The science of zoology 
 is an example of the first, and geology of the last. Again, we 
 have animal-life and plant-life; organic forms and non-organic 
 forms; and so, once more considered in its entirety, structures of 
 all kinds exhibiting the phenomena of life are divisible into two 
 great kingdoms the animal and the vegetable. As we pass to 
 the forms of the greatest simpleness in either of these, no zoolo- 
 gist or botanist can with a steady hand draw the hard and fast 
 dividing line between them. 
 
 Still, this has been attempted, and Dyer has truthfully said that 
 the " fundamental difference which separates the vegetable king- 
 dom from the animal kingdom is to be found in the modes of nu- 
 trition which obtain in each. If we compare a plant and animal 
 reduced to their simplest terms, and consisting, therefore, in 
 cadi case of a single cell, i. e., of a minute mass of protoplasm in- 
 vested with a cell-well, while the unicellular plant draws its nu- 
 triment by simple imbibition through the cell-wall from the sur- 
 rounding medium a process which implies that all its nutriment 
 passes into it in a liquid form the unicellular animal is able to 
 take in solid nutriment by means of interruptions in the con- 
 tinuity of the cell-wall, and is also able afterward to reduce this 
 
30 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 solid food, if of a suitable composition, to the liquid state. And 
 not merely is tin-re a difference of this kind in the mode, there is 
 also ono no less important, although less general, in the mate- 
 rials of nutrition. While under present terrestrial conditions 
 those substances, or chemical combinations, which are required 
 for the nutrition of animal organisms are, as far as we know, 
 nowhere spontaneously produced that is to say, nowhere apart 
 from the influence of living organisms materials derived wholly 
 from the inorganic world are sufficient to sustain directly nearly 
 the whole of vegetable life, and, therefore, indirectly, of all other 
 life as well." As thus differentiated, then, we leave the dealing 
 with vegetable life and plant-forms of every description to the 
 consideration of the vegetable physiologist and the vegetable 
 morphologist to the botanist in the widest sense and briefly 
 lake here into consideration only scientific classificatory methods 
 as applied in the animal kingdom, though it may be said the same 
 principles obtain in both. In biology, the term taxonomy is now 
 frequently employed for the word classification. Each signifies 
 the same thing, however to fi.r objects or material in some defi- 
 nite order; to (irruni/c them, or it, according to some defined plan 
 adopted for the purpose. 
 
 In all classifications we base our arrangements upon the re- 
 semblances (limnologies) or non-resemblances of the things clas- 
 sified. 
 
 Biological classification follows the same course, and, in it, it 
 is the Ktrm-tHir of the forms under consideration that is taken 
 info account. The structure of animals constitutes the science 1 
 of morphology. "But morphology means nothing more than what 
 we formerly comprehended by the term anntouu/. Anatomically, 
 the structure of organic forms is considered along two more or 
 less distinct lines; the one being " gross anatomy," or all that 
 pertains to the consideration of organs and parts in their en- 
 tirety; the other being "minute anatomy," or nistoloyy, wherein 
 the use of the microscope is essential to its prosecution, and the 
 province of its department being the examination and compari- 
 son of the ultimate structural detail of organs and other parts. . 
 
 Topographical anatomy treats of the crtcnnrt form and parts 
 of animals, and may be studied upon the living specimens; that 
 branch of anatomy dealing with the internal parts usually being 
 undertaken only upon the dead bodies of animals. 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 31 
 
 Again, living animals are unceasingly undergoing a change of 
 structure, or, in other words, they have a development; and this 
 development may be anatomically considered at any stage, and 
 for any fraction of time. This constitutes developmental anatomy; 
 and in a similar way we have the province of developmental his- 
 tology. The two combine in a special branch, or that of embry- 
 ology, or the early stages of the development of the individual. 
 Fossil anatomy takes account of the structure of the remains of 
 extinct animals, and incidentally of their history in time. This 
 is the science of palaeontology. The facts brought to light by the 
 study of embryology and palaeontology largely assist in the cor- 
 roboration of a natural taxonomy. 
 
 The path followed in a natural classification of animals is that 
 one which first takes into consideration the very simplest forms 
 known, and passes to those of gradually increasing complexity. 
 In this course, structural resemblances constitute, when taken as 
 a whole, the main guide and basis, checked, as ever must be the 
 case, by what embryology and palaeontology have to offer. 
 
 In writing upon taxonomy, Huxley has truly said that it " is 
 conceivable that all the forms of life should have presented about 
 the same differentiation of structure, and should have differed 
 from one another by superficial characters, each form passing by 
 insensible gradations into those most like it. In this case tax- 
 onomy, or the classification of morphological facts, would have 
 had to confine itself to the formation of a serial arrangement 
 representing the serial gradation of these forms in nature. 
 
 " It is conceivable, again, that living beings should have dif- 
 fered as widely in structure as they actually do, but that the in- 
 terval between any two forms should have been filled up by an 
 unbroken series of gradations; in which case, again, classification 
 could only effect the formation of series the strict definition of 
 groups would be as impossible as in the former case. As a 
 matter of fact, living beings differ enormously, not only in differ- 
 entiation of structure, but in the modes in which that differentia- 
 tion is brought about; and the intervals between extreme forms 
 are not filled up in the existing world by complete series of gra- 
 dations. Hence it arises that living beings are, to a great extent, 
 susceptible of classification into groups, the members of each 
 group resembling one another, and differing from all the rest, by 
 certain definite peculiarities. 
 
 " No two living beings are exactly alike, but it is a matter of 
 
32 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 observation that, among the endless diversities of living things, 
 some constantly resemble one another so closely that it is im- 
 possible to draw any line of demarcation between them, while 
 they differ only in such characters as are associated with sex. 
 Such as thus closely resemble one another constitute a, morpho- 
 logical species; while different morphological species are defined 
 by constant characters which are not merely sexual. 
 
 " The comparison of these lowest groups, or morphological 
 species, with one another, shows that more or fewer of them 
 possess some character or characters in common some feature 
 in which they resemble one another and differ from all other 
 species and the group or higher order thus, formed is a genus. 
 The generic groups thus constituted are susceptible of being ar- 
 ranged in a similar manner into groups of successively higher or- 
 der, which are known as families, orders, classes, and the like." 
 And, added to this, it may be said that, according to quite similar 
 principles, we create the intermediate groups in nature, or those 
 intended to contain the subspecies, the subgenus, the subfamily, 
 the suborder, the subclass, and also such others as the superfamily 
 and the superorder, and so on. 
 
 So much for true or natural classification ; but we have another 
 kind, differing from it, however, only in degree, and I refer to all 
 forms of artificial classification. The artificial classification of 
 living forms in nature depends upon the selection of easily ob- 
 served* features, most frequently external ones, as bases of divi- 
 sions by means of resemblances or dissemblances. It is likenesses 
 in both instances, but in the natural one the morphological re- 
 semblances are taken in their totality ; while in the artificial one, 
 external characters, often only appearances, are given weight. 
 To arrange living forms, in other words, in a natural classifica- 
 tion requires a far-reaching knowledge of morphology on the 
 part of the taxonomer; while an artificial one, although often 
 convenient in some few particulars, may be conceived by almost 
 any observer with common powers for comparison of objects. 
 All birds, for example, might, in an artificial classification, be 
 easily placed in one group or class; lines might then be drawn 
 upon the fact that some birds were " land birds " and others 
 " water birds " ignoring the matter of structure entirely and 
 by similar reasoning make minor groups of " diving birds," 
 " scratching birds," " climbing birds," " perching birds," and so 
 on. All this can de done as a matter of observation of habit 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 33 
 
 rather than of structure. To make the minor groups, however, 
 structural resemblances of an easily accessible nature would next 
 have to be resorted to, as shape of bills and feet; number of 
 feathers in tail and wings ; form, color, and even size, might also 
 be pressed into service. In such classifications affinity becomes 
 guesswork, and true relationships are thrown to the wiridsr- 
 
 The simplest and most lowly organized of all known animal 
 forms are those designated by biologists as the Protozoa. For 
 the most part they are composed of single cells of living matter, 
 and are elementary in all particulars. Multi-celled animals, or, 
 as they have been called, the Metazoa, is a division created to 
 contain all other animals. Spanning these two primary groups, 
 we have certain protozoans in which simple cells are massed to- 
 gether in globular form. 
 
 The next most general morphological fact to be observed, and 
 which can be practically utilized in a taxonomic way, is that the 
 Metazoa are susceptible of division into two primary groups, on 
 the basis -that in one set we find the animals possessed of a cen- 
 tral axis or cord, composed of either jointed osseous segments or 
 vertebrae; of cartilage, or simply of the notochord; while in the 
 remaining set nothing of the kind exists. In other words, we 
 have the Invertebrata and the Vertebrata. But the latter possess 
 also a spinal chord and brain, hence they may likewise be desig- 
 nated as the Chordata; the invertebrate group, wherein the 
 nerve-cords are either ventral or lateral, are known as the Non- 
 chordata. Other good distinctions also exist. 
 
 Here again, however, when w r e get down toward the simplest 
 types, we meet with forms that approach with remarkable near- 
 ness the lowest ones of the alternate series. That is, in these 
 cases certain invertebrates approach the Vertebrata in certain 
 features, and, vice versa, we meet at the very starting point of the 
 vertebrate series with most puzzling animals, as, for example, the 
 Tunicata; the worm-like Balanoglossus and Cephalodiscus, and the 
 famous Lancelet (AmpMoxus). 
 
 The Protozoa have been well classified into their main groups 
 and subdivisions by biologists; so, too, the invertebrate Meta- 
 zoa have been similarly dealt with, and we meet therein with 
 more or less natural divisions created to contain the Sponges 
 (For if era) ; the jelly-fish, hydroids, and their allies (Coslenterata) ; 
 the Worms (Yermes) ; the starfish, etc. (EcMnodermata) ; the 
 shelled animals (Mollusca), and other groups for crustaceans, 
 
34 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 myriopods, insects, spiders, and the various allies of these, living 
 
 and extinct. 
 
 Passing to the Vertebrata, we meet at the very threshold of 
 this phylum, as stated above, forms in regard to the taxonomy 
 of which biologists by no means hold a unanimous opinion. I 
 am inclined to think, however, that waiving such little violence 
 as may be done, in any particular instance, the gain for conven- 
 ience and classificatory simplicity will so far outweigh it that, in 
 the light of future research, not only will AmpMoxus, the Tuni- 
 ruta, and Balanoglossus be admitted, with Cuvier's Vertebrata, in 
 the phylum Vertebrata, but both Gephalodiscus, as well as Rhab- 
 dopleura, will be placed there, associating them with Balanoglos- 
 sus. Granting the admission of these three groups as the Geph- 
 alochorda (Ampliioxus), the Urochorda (Tunicata), and the Hemi- 
 rtiorda (Balanoglossus), Vertebrata, as the Graniata, will stand 
 as a fourth one, the whole constituting the great phylum of the 
 VERTEBRATA. 
 
 The GRANIATA may be primarily divided into two main divi- 
 sions, the first, the Gyclostomata, including the hagfishes (Myx- 
 inc) and the lampreys (Petromyzon). They are limbless, scale- 
 less, round-mouthed, almost jawless forms that lead up to the 
 fishes. 
 
 The second division of the Craniata the Gnathostomata in- 
 cludes the main vertebrate groups of Fishes, Amphibians, Rep- 
 tiles, Birds, and Mammals. In a brief chapter, such as the one 1 
 am now writing, it becomes out of the question to discuss the 
 minor divisions of these great groups, much less the morphologi- 
 cal considerations upon which they are based. I must not neg- 
 lect to point out, however, that Birds are linked to Reptiles 
 (Sauropsida), as are Fishes linked to Amphibians (Ichthyopsida). 
 many extinct forms corroborating the two alliances. 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 SOME INTERESTING INSECTS, WITH NOTES ON THE CLASS. 
 
 (Insecta.) 
 
 NE of the great kingdoms in organic nature are the 
 Invertebrata, invertebrates being animals without a 
 vertebral column, and in this at least are distin- 
 guished from the Vertebrata, or vertebrated animals 
 
 possessing a vertebral column or spine, it constituting in them 
 the median part of an osseous or cartilaginous skeleton. Ar- 
 rayed as one of the divisions of the Invertebrata, we find the 
 Arthropoda, joint-footed forms, including the Class Insecta (In- 
 sects), the largest one of all, as well as the Classes Arachnida, 
 Crustacea, and Myriopoda. 
 
 As distinguished from a crustacean (crabs, lobsters, etc.), 
 from an arachnid (spiders, etc.), and from a myriopod (centipedes, 
 etc.), a true insect never has more than six legs; two antenna; 
 distinct head, thorax, and abdomen, with commonly two pairs of 
 wings, and certain peculiarities in the organs and function of 
 respiration. There are at least a million different species of in- 
 sects in the world, and they occur in every known part of it. Not 
 more than a quarter of a million of the earth's existing insect 
 fauna has as yet been described, however, and thousands of vol- 
 umes still remain to be written upon their biology. Fossil in- 
 sects occur as early as the Devonian, and from this they lead up 
 to the present era, becoming more and more like the groups now 
 in existence. Many species have been preserved in amber, which 
 is a fossil resin, as well as in gum copal; the former being usually 
 extinct types, while the latter agree as a rule with the species 
 still in existence. Some insects, such as certain ants and bees, 
 may have a duration of life extending over seven or eight years; 
 such species as the May-flies, on the other hand, have a duration 
 of life not exceeding twenty-four hours. The period of existence 
 in numerous species is greatly affected by the temperature; cold 
 increasing the duration and heat diminishing it. Many insects 
 are of vast economic importance to man; while in the economy 
 of nature, especially in the matter of the fertilization of plants, 
 they play no less an important role. 
 
 M'Lachlan remarks that among "the varied relations of insects 
 
36 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 to other classes of the animal kingdom and their mutual rela- 
 tions, no subject is more interesting than is that of parasitism. 
 It occurs in almost all the orders, but in very different degrees. 
 Whole groups are naturally epizoic, others entozoic, while a few 
 (such as fleas and bed-bugs) can scarcely be arranged in either of 
 these divisions, inasmuch as, although in one sense epizoic, it ap- 
 pears probable that they may occasionally be able to go through 
 the whole of their life cycle without contact with the animals to 
 which they otherwise appear especially attached." This is avery 
 large and far-reaching subject, really a special department of en- 
 tomology, and one, in some of its aspects, of great economic im- 
 portance, and purely scientific in others. 
 
 Xot a few insects are endowed with luminous powers, such as 
 the fire-flies, cucullos, and some of the larval forms. The study 
 of this extraordinary property is likewise deserving of the closest 
 attention of the student. A variety of insects puncture all the 
 various parts of trees and plants, giving rise to peculiar growths 
 known as galls', but why these growths take place there has as 
 yet been no satisfactory explanation. 
 
 The anatomy, classification, and geographical distribution of 
 the insects found even within the boundaries of this country are, 
 each and all, altogether too extensive subjects to be touched 
 upon in a brief popular chapter about them, so the remainder of 
 my space I will devote to short accounts of some special forms. 
 Spiders and their allies, for example, constitute a very large 
 group of insects; indeed, naturalists have created an entire sub- 
 class to contain them. They are designated as the Arachnida, 
 and, as thus assembled, not only all the hosts of spiders in the 
 world are included in it, but also their near kin, the scorpions, 
 mites, daddy-long-legs, and the like. Much is already known 
 about them; about their habits and geographical distribution; 
 about their physiology and structure, and a great deal else. 
 Scientists have written many treatises about them, and a great 
 many have been beautifully drawn, colored, and given to the 
 world on handsome plates. Yet, notwithstanding all this, it may 
 be said that we have barely gained an insight of what we really 
 ought to know about them and, in the ages to come, no doubt 
 will. An entire history of this great sub-class of insects would 
 m:ik<* a large library of itself, and men have lived who have de- 
 voted their wlio]<- lives to the study of only certain families of 
 spiders. Many vears ago, the writer had a good friend who was 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 37 
 
 an astronomer, and who had a private observatory near his resi- 
 dence. This gentleman once placed a species of spider in the 
 distant end of the tube or barrel of his telescope, and for several 
 days he unceasingly studied the insect as it created its beautiful 
 web. It was one of those rayed webs made in one plane, and my 
 friend was curious to know if there were either certain^ figures or 
 angles used in its construction in fact, was the spider's net 
 built upon a definite geometrical plan and he came to the con- 
 clusion it was not. His study well repaid him, however, for he 
 acquired a very considerable knowledge of how the spider fas- 
 tened its web together, and the plan it was apparently built upon. 
 Any intelligent observer, by the aid of a lens, can gain a good 
 deal of information about how spiders form their beautiful webs. 
 By holding the insect properly the thread may be drawn out, and, 
 in the common garden spider, for example, it will be seen to issue 
 from a set of very remarkable organs at the under side of the dis- 
 tal extremity of the abdomen. These are called the spinnerets. 
 There may be as many as a half a dozen of these, while at the 
 apex of each there are to be seen upward of a thousand tubulets 
 from which the separate filaments issue. So that the delicate 
 silken thread as it is spun consists of several thousand strands, 
 and it is manufactured in a set of special glands at he base of the 
 spinnerets. At first it is in a fluid form, viscid and tenacious; 
 but when exposed to the air it quickly hardens to form the 
 thread. This last, the spider, by the aid of his hinder pair of feet, 
 fastens to some object, which is easily effected by its adhesive 
 qualities. Then, as he moves away, the thread is formed and 
 drawn out. The manufacture of this material is of the greatest 
 use and importance to these wonderful insects. Some use it to 
 make their webs; some to enshroud their victims captured for 
 food; others to construct trap-doors to various kinds of subter- 
 ranean passages. By means of this thread spiders are allowed 
 to lower themselves down from heights; others float in the air 
 by it; some swing by it across small streams or ditches; and they 
 put it to a variety of other uses. While out in my garden last 
 summer I captured a great, big, dark-brown, hairy spider, that 
 with ease made good headw r ay over the ground, water, lily-pads, 
 and anything on the surface. She carried with her a round ball, 
 double the size of a buck-shot, which, when opened, was found to 
 be filled with hundreds of young spiders. Originally, these were 
 eggs and the mother spun over them this round, silken case. In 
 
38 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 this they had hatched, as iny examination showed. Bringing out 
 iny camera, I obtained a fine photograph of this specimen as it 
 ran over a little rocky ledge, and a copy of this is offered here to 
 show the reader exactly how she looked. This species belongs 
 to the family Lycosidw, and is common in Maryland and other 
 localities of Eastern United States. In certain parts of the trop- 
 ics there are spiders of great size, and these species spin a web of 
 no little strength; strong enough, indeed, to entangle small birds 
 that have unwittingly flown against its meshes. We are all 
 familiar, of course, with the peculiar cloth-like web built usually 
 in corners and elsewhere, by the common house-spider, and how 
 he runs out from the funnel-shaped angle of it, to capture insects 
 that may alight upon its urface. All sorts of "cobwebs'' consti- 
 tute other weavings of these tireless spinners, and there is an- 
 other family of these insects that are divers by nature. They 
 weave remarkable little dome-shaped domiciles under water, and 
 into these they dive with their captured victims. All spiders 
 are aerial respirers, so that these forms have a way of filling their 
 subaqueous structures with air, by carrying down globules of it 
 entangled in the longest hairs of their highly pubescent bodies. 
 
 Dr. Glaus, of Vienna, tells us that all spiders " are predacious, 
 and suck the juices of other insects; nevertheless, the manner in 
 which they get possession of their prey varies much, and often 
 indicates the possession of highly developed instincts. The so- 
 called vagrant spiders do not, as a rule, form nets to catch their 
 prey, but use the secretion of the spinning glands only to line 
 their hiding-places, and to make their ovisacs. They catch their 
 prey either by running after it, or by springing on it. Most 
 spiders rest in the daytime, and go out for prey in the dusk or in 
 the night-time. Many vagrant spiders, however, hunt in the day- 
 time, even when the sun is shining." There is another very re- 
 markable thing about the Dolomedes shown in my illustration, 
 and it is that the females are larger than the males, and more 
 powerful. Other species may occupy their webs near each other 
 in peace, or even temporarily a web in common, but this is by no 
 means always the case, for at other times the female will lie in 
 ambush for her partner and kill and devour him with quite as 
 much relish as she does other insects. Not only this, but she 
 will accomplish th< same fiendish purpose while he is in the very 
 act of fulfilling his duties toward her as her mate, or immedi- 
 ately thereafter. The male is well aware of this dangerous trait 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 41 
 
 on the part of his spouse, and consequently only undertakes to 
 enter upon his amours with a due amount of caution. 
 
 The bite of some spiders is dangerous and extremely poison- 
 
 FIG. 2. 
 
 THE WHIP-TAILED SCORPION. (Thelyphonus giganteus.) 
 
 Natural size, from life, by the author. 
 
 ous; when inflicted in the case of small animals it often causes 
 almost immediate death. This is a bite, however, and not a 
 sting, as in the case of their near cousins, the scorpions. The 
 latter are connected with the spiders by a very remarkable in- 
 
42 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 sect, found in certain parts of Southwestern United States and 
 in Mexico. This scorpion-like looking spider (see figure) is called 
 the "Whip-tailed Scorpion," or the "Vinigaroon," and is greatly 
 dreaded by the people living in the countries where it occurs. 
 When in New Mexico I obtained several specimens of this insect, 
 and of one of them I made an accurate drawing, which is shown 
 here in the illustration. The bite of this insect is poisonous, but 
 I have never heard of a case where it has proved fatal in the case 
 of man. Its tail is but a feeble lash, and structurally very differ- 
 ent from the tail of a true scorpion. It is one of the largest in- 
 sects we have in this country, yet contributions to its life-history 
 are very much needed by entomologists. 
 
 We must not believe that spiders are altogether lacking in 
 anything to recommend them, for most all of them possess a very 
 great attachment for their young, while the two sexes in son?./, 
 species often live together in great harmony, even peacefully oc- 
 cupying the same web. Many spiders will go for a long time, 
 even months, without food, but when this is plenty, their great 
 voracious propensities are quickly exhibited. Spiders are often 
 very curiously formed, while some of the so-called " jumping 
 spiders" are most brilliantly colored. In the case of nearly all 
 of them, they are both crafty and skillful in attacking and cap- 
 turing their prey, and many of them possess an intelligence quite 
 equal to that exhibited on the part of some ants. Speaking of 
 ants reminds me of those interesting cases of "protective mim- 
 icry" in spiders, for in Brazil, in certain localities, there are 
 species of ants and species of spiders so much alike that the ordi- 
 nary observer can by no means tell them apart. Some species 
 again closely resemble beetles, or even certain small mollusks, 
 and there is one species so much like a little crab that most peo- 
 ple would declare it was a crab. Certain insectivorous birds 
 often feed upon spiders, but other spiders are so protected by 
 spiny outgrowths, or are incased in dense horny armor, that the 
 feathered denizens of the air let them severely alone. Many 
 reptiles and small mammals feed upon these insects, while 
 spiders kill and devour each other, and other insects also kill 
 them. When collecting, years ago, in Louisiana, I found that 
 one of the best places to look for spiders was in the newly formed 
 nests of the so-called "mud-daubers," a kind of wasp. These in- 
 sects stung spiders, paralyzed them, and then sealed them up in 
 their nests as a food-supply for their young. Spiders are great 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 43 
 
 drinkers of water, and feel the loss of that fluid very severely; 
 this can be easily tested by depriving one of it, and then placing 
 some within its reach. The insect will plump up imediately after 
 it has had a good draught. 
 
 In concluding this brief account I must tell you that a great 
 many fossil spiders have been found, even as far back as the coal 
 formation. Some of the very best of these have been preserved 
 in amber, which, as has been stated, is but a fossilized resinous 
 germ of the ancestors of our coniferous trees. Even now,' this 
 process can be easily studied in any pine forest, for spiders still 
 continue, as of old, to run up and down such trees, and when 
 they become entangled in the clear exuding gum, they often be- 
 come completely embalmed in time by the same material flooding 
 over them. Time and fossilation does the rest. 
 
 Let us now consider some other group of this division of inver- 
 tebrate forms, and it may be remarked that books and papers to 
 the extent of a small library have been published upon those 
 truly remarkable insects known as Dragon-flies, or, as they are 
 familiarly called in this country, Devil's Darning-needles, and 
 Horse-stingers by our young naturalist friends in England. Hun- 
 dreds of beautiful lithographs in colors, drawings, cuts, plates, 
 and engravings throughout entomological literature have also 
 appeared, showing the vast variety and extraordinary forms com- 
 prising this group of the order Neuroptera, a group termed the 
 Odonata by Kirby and others, who divide it into the two families, 
 Libellulidce and Agrionidw. 
 
 A great deal has also been written and printed upon the mar- 
 velous structure of these insects; their strange metamorphoses, 
 their habits and geographical distribution, much of which, owing 
 to its technical nature, cannot be touched upon in the present 
 connection. Moreover, in a popular work this will hardly be 
 necessary, as probably all the readers of this chapter are familiar 
 with the general appearance and parts of any of our typical 
 American dragon-flies. There is, for example, in the Eastern 
 United States, the big species that our boys and girls call the 
 Snake Doctor, firmly believing, when they see it hawking about 
 for its prey, that a snake lies concealed somewhere in the neigh- 
 borhood. Older folk call this insect the Mosquito Hawk, a name 
 more in keeping with its habits. Science recognizes two species 
 of it, designating them as ^schua heros and M. grandis. As I 
 have said, it is a large form, and frequently gets into our houses 
 
44 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 in the summer time, greatly frightening the children, and even 
 (a rryiug dismay among the grown people. The posterior part of 
 its body is of a brilliant green color, elegantly marked with blue 
 bands and spots, while its great eyes are truly objects of wonder- 
 ful beauty. Then there are our pretty little species that are ever 
 to be seen in spring and summer, flitting among the plants that 
 grow in swampy places and sluggish streams. One of these is 
 especially striking the species with the slender, emerald-colored 
 body, and the ample wings of jetty black; while another is of a 
 gay, bright blue, with wings like gauze. Another, and one that 
 has always been a favorite with the writer, is the species de- 
 scribed by Count De Geer as Libellula, trimaculata, it having a 
 chalky white body, transparent wings, marked in the male by each 
 having a dark patch near the body, and a more extensive area of 
 the same, covering the outer part all to the tip. Three such 
 deeply clouded patches ornament any one of the four wings in 
 the female of this insect. A figure of this species is presented 
 herewith (Fig. 3). 
 
 Among the high pine lands, in the month of June, we also find 
 another species of this genus, Libellula quadrimaculata, having 
 four spots upon each of its gauzy wings; and then there is that 
 yellowish red fellow, so frequently seen hawking over the quiet 
 pools and ponds during the same time of the year (Diplax ruM- 
 cundula), with its ally, D. Berenice. But we can refer to no 
 others here, and science has already described some 2,000 of these 
 insects, occurring as they do in nearly all parts of the world. 
 
 The method of reproduction among dragon-flies varies some- 
 what with the species, and we have yet much to learn in regard 
 to it. One thing is sure, however, and that is, the gravid female 
 in some of the forms either lays her eggs singly or in masses, 
 accomplishing the act by hovering over the water, and suddenly 
 dipping the apex of her abdomen into that element, thus ejects 
 the eggs, which slowly sink to the bottom. Others alight upon 
 the stalks of certain aquatic plants, and backing down upon these 
 till the abdomen is well beneath the water, there perform the act 
 of oviposition. Still others deposit beneath the water, in in- 
 cisions they make in the stems and leaves of plants, a single egg 
 in each, effecting the necessary cut by means of a special appa- 
 ratus that is a part of the economy of the insect. Sometimes the 
 male descends with the female, and sometimes two of the latter 
 sex insert their eggs into the stalklet of the same aquatic plant. 
 
FIG. 3. A TYPICAL DRAGON-FLY (Libellula trimaculatd). 
 
 Natural size. From a Photograph of the living specimen, taken by the Author. 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 47 
 
 Uhler, a very close observer and competent entomologist, has 
 noticed that Libellula "alights upon water plants, and, pushing 
 the end of her body below the surface of the water, glues a bunch 
 of eggs to the submerged stem or leaf." 
 
 These eggs are usually small and of a yellow color, while in 
 some of the Agrions they are of a bright pea green, and^>ur Eng- 
 lish students observe that in this group the females have been 
 known to go down several inches beneath the surface of the 
 water, to deposit their eggs upon the stems of the plants. 
 
 When summer is well advanced the eggs soon hatch, and then 
 the larva of various species of Dragon-flies are easily to-be ob- 
 tained with an ordinary dip-net in any of our ponds or ditches. 
 They are very active aquatic insects with six legs, big eyes, large 
 head, and powerful jaws concealed by a facial mask. Constantly 
 feeding upon the larvae of mosquitoes and other noxious insects, 
 they perform a service of untold good, a career the matured flies 
 carry on in the air ever afterward until the day of their death. 
 In fact, of all the insects known to me, none can in any way 
 compare, in the matter of the amount of good done through the 
 constant destruction of harmful insects, with dragon-flies of 
 every species and kind. So far as man is concerned, the entire 
 life of any one of these insects is one of beneficence of the mor 
 pronounced character. 
 
 In speaking of the larvae, Packard, our distinguished entomolo- 
 gist, has said : "Not only does the immature Dragon-fly walk over 
 the bottom of the pool or stream it inhabits, but it can also leap 
 for a considerable distance, and by a most curious contrivance. 
 By a syringe-like apparatus lodged in the end of the body, it dis- 
 charges a. stream of water for a distance of two or three inches 
 behind it, thus propelling the insect forward. This apparatus 
 combines the functions of locomotion and respiration. There 
 are, as usual, two breathing pores (stigmata) on each side of tht; 
 thorax. But the process of breathing seems to be mostly carried 
 on in the tail." 
 
 Perhaps the best way of all to study these insects, from this 
 time on, is to place a lot of them in a good-sized aquarium, in 
 which some small reed-like grasses and lilies have been made to 
 grow. This I have done many times as a boy, and what I then 
 saw has never been forgotten, nor the lesson lost. Here we may 
 observe how the larva of the Dragon-fly passes into the pupa 
 stage, the latter differing but very little from the former in ap- 
 
48 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 peurance, aiid with habits but little changed. Simply it has the 
 four rudimentary wing-cases somewhat larger, and it bears a 
 more general resemblance to the matured insect, while there is 
 scarcely any diminution in its activity or in its ravenous appetite 
 for all kinds of aquatic insects and their Iarva3. 
 
 At this time, by an interesting operation, the too-small larval 
 skin is molted, and the soft, delicate pupa emerges therefrom, 
 soon to attain a larger size, and then to have its body walls, or 
 external skeleton, harden. Still later on, or along some time in 
 July, these brown, often hairy, immature creatures are seen to 
 climb up the stalks of the water plants, and cling thereto by 
 means of their three pairs of legs, just beneath the surface of the 
 water, or in some species above it. Then follows the most re- 
 markable of all metamorphoses. Down the middle of the back 
 there suddenly occurs a gaping rent, and from out of this, 
 tediously, the tender imago of the Dragon-fly emerges. Flabby 
 and soft, it slowly moves higher up the plant stalk upon which 
 the pupa had climbed. Here it listlessly clings for an hour or 
 more, during which time one may almost see the insect pass to 
 the perfected stage. Its wings and body walls harden, the beau- 
 tiful tints of the latter gradually become evident, and complete 
 maturity soon follows. The warm sun quickly dries its harden- 
 ing form, intensifying as it does so the gorgeous colors as they 
 appear, and the insect is soon seen to rustle its elegant wings, be- 
 stir itself, test the powers of the functions of some of its various 
 structures, and then in flight launch into the air. 
 
 As a rule the duration of life of dragon-flies is not long, and is 
 made up of their incessant consumption of the many insects upon 
 which they prey; of their extraordinary methods of mating; of 
 their egg-laying, shortly after which they perish. M'Lachlan has 
 remarked that these insects are "pre-eminently lovers of the 
 hottest sunshine (a few are somewhat crepuscular), and the most 
 powerful and daring on the wing in fine weather become inert 
 and comparatively lifeless when at rest in dull weather, allowing 
 themselves to be captured by the fingers without making any 
 effort to escape. Many of the larger species (JEschua-, etc.) have 
 a habit of affecting a particular twig or other resting place, like 
 a Flycatcher among birds, darting off after prey and making 
 long excursions, but returning by the chosen spot." 
 
 In various quarters of the globe superb specimens of fossil 
 dragon-flies have been discovered, and doubtless manv more of 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 49 
 
 these will be found from time to time. ILL closing this very brief 
 account barely a word as compared with what has been written 
 about these insects I would say science still remains in total ig- 
 norance of a great deal that pertains to them, and the writer 
 knows of no chapter in the entire range of entomology that would 
 better repay the careful study and observation of the entonio- 
 phile, nor, indeed, a group from which, by patient research, more 
 information could be derived, which, if carefully recorded, would 
 form a more solid contribution to knowledge. 
 
 Another very interesting group of insects to consider is the 
 one represented by our common Eear Horse (Stagmomantis Caro- 
 lina). These insects, known under a variety of other names to 
 be hereinafter mentioned, are predaceous, and, therefore, of bene- 
 fit to the agriculturist. They have a remarkable history, and a 
 great many drawings of them have been published. The egg 
 cases, similar to those now before us, have been figured in the 
 fourth volume of "Insect Life," on page 244, while on the preced- 
 ing page of the same work there is described a curious insect 
 parasite of these eggs, which may, with interest, be read in con- 
 nection with the former account. 
 
 Our species of "Kear Horse" are known far and wide in those 
 parts of the country where they occur, and many who read this 
 chapter will at once recognize the insect from the drawing I have 
 made of one especially to illustrate it. Two egg cases are also 
 shown in it attached by the insect on the frame to the left. 
 
 They have been called "Bear Horses" from the manner in 
 which they hold themselves, and the position of the anterior pair 
 of legs, giving a fancied resemblance to a horse in the act of rear- 
 ing. Another name by which they are even better known is that 
 of Mantis. Mantis is from the Greek word meaning "a diviner," 
 and it has been applied to a genus of these insects, of which 
 Mantis religiosa is the common form. Hence, also, another name, 
 or the "Praying Mantis," that it likewise gets from the devout 
 attitude in which it continually holds itself, and its solemn as- 
 pect withal. We shall soon see, however, that these insects, as 
 a distinguished entomologist once remarked, " are not the saints 
 but the tigers of the insect world." In one country or another 
 they are also called "soothsayers," and "nuns" or "preachers," 
 " saints," and similar appellations, which are simply so many 
 more titles they by no means deserve. It was endowed with 
 supernatural powers by the ancient Greeks, and the Arabs as 
 
50 
 
 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 well as the Turks contend that a Mantis is constantly engaged in 
 prayer with its face turned town ids Mecca. In some parts of 
 Europe, it is said that the children will ask a Mantis to show 
 them the way, and that it will, with one of its forelegs, indicate 
 
 FIG. 4. THE PRAYING MANTIS. 
 
 Drawn from Life by the Author. 
 
 it to them with almost invariable exactness. They have the 
 greatest faith in its powers to do this. But there are curious 
 species of this family of insects found in many parts of the world, 
 so. there is no end to the legends and superstitions concerning 
 them. A form found in Nubia is held in high veneration by the 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 51 
 
 people of that country, while the Hottentots about worship a lo- 
 cal species found in the land inhabited by that race, and they 
 look for no better omen of good fortune than to have a Mantis 
 alight upon them. It indicates a token of saintliness. Even the 
 priesthood have not been above the promulgation of similar 
 myths, for they say of St. Francis Xavier that a Mantis once 
 lighting upon his hand, he commanded it to sing the praises of 
 God, whereupon the dutiful insect loudly intoned a very beauti- 
 ful canticle. 
 
 An old writer at my hand says, "The warlike disposition of the 
 Mantis is put to a curious use in China, these insects being kept 
 in bamboo cages for prize fights, like fighting cocks. At these 
 exhibitions two of them are placed face to face; they raise their 
 wings, their bodies tremble, and with the utmost fury they rush 
 upon each other. They use their long forelegs like sabers, giving 
 blow upon blow ; sometimes the fight lasts several minutes. The 
 victor then devours his enemy, which, all things considered, is a 
 much more rational termination of a duel than is common among 
 men. Were it introduced into the human code of honor, and the 
 victor required to eat his victim, it would greatly tend to do 
 away with one of our fashionable barbarisms." 
 
 On a number of occasions the present writer has tried this ex- 
 periment with our United States species, and they will fight in 
 exactly the same manner, the victor generally biting off the head 
 of the slain one, and devouring a portion of the softer parts of 
 his body. 
 
 If the reader will look at my drawing, he will see that, of the 
 usual three pairs of legs possessed by the Mantis, in common 
 with such a large proportion of the Class Insects, the two hinder 
 pairs present us with nothing very unusual. The anterior pair, 
 however, are very much modified, and in such a manner as to 
 constitute a very cruel pair of weapons. The second joint is so 
 fashioned that it can close into the third, after the manner of the 
 blade of a penknife into the handle. The margins of the receiv- 
 ing groove of the third joint are armed with strong, movable 
 spines. The tibial or blade joint also has a sharp serrated edge, 
 being adapted to both cut and grasp with. A Mantis can extend 
 and strike with one of these limbs as quick as a flash of lightning, 
 and woe betide the unfortunate creature that comes within his 
 murderous clutch, for his fate is sealed beyond all peradventure 
 of a doubt. 
 
52 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 It is a remarkable sight to watch one of these voracious, sanc- 
 timonious-looking fiends out for a hunt for food. A number of 
 years ago I kept a large one twenty-four hours in a box without 
 anything to eat. The next afternoon I let him walk out of his 
 prison onto a window-sill, where the window-sash was down, and 
 a dozen or more large iiies had congregated. He came forth 
 with marked deliberation, and with a dignified mien, as though 
 he was about to burst with rage at the gross insult to which he 
 had been subjected. I even thought I could detect the hate in 
 his eye as he glanced obliquely at me, as his curious, quick- 
 moving little head turned from side to side on the anterior end 
 of his elongated, semi-erect prothorax. For all the world he 
 looked as though he said, "Were I big enough I'd saber you, you 
 scoundrel; but I'm not; and, however, I'm too hungry, and must 
 get after some of those flies I see over there." Then, with an ap- 
 parent effort, he bottled his rage, and assuming an exceedingly 
 devout air, with his murderous, half-opened forelimbs held in 
 their characteristic devotional attitude in front of him, he, with 
 markedly slow and mincing steps, betook his way silently down 
 the sill close to the sash. Ever and anon he would stand motion- 
 less as I patiently watched him. He would then cock his head 
 from side to side in a vicious, knowing manner, as much as to 
 say, " I know what I'm up to, but those flies don't." Just then a 
 big blue one lit directly in front of him zip, flew out one of 
 the fellow's forelegs, and his victim was seized in a twinkling 
 between its joints, as merciless as though he had fallen between 
 the sharpened, miniature blades of two saws, closing together 
 with flashlike rapidity. The other leg at once came into play in 
 steadying his capture in front of his mouth, and the fly was soon 
 devoured. Then that Mantis cautiously stalked about that win- 
 dow-sill until every fly upon it had fallen a prey to his voracious 
 appetite. 
 
 In nature they will also catch and devour caterpillars, grass- 
 hoppers and other insects, while a large South American form 
 will even take lizards and frogs, or some of the smaller species of 
 birds. 
 
 Some of the foreign species have their wings beautifully modi- 
 fied so as to present the appearance of withered leaves, and this 
 mimicry greatly aids them in deceiving their prey. Bates, the 
 naturalist, found an Amazonian Mantis exactly mimicking the 
 white ants upon which it lived, and the distinguished Wallace, of 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 53 
 
 East Indian fame, describes a species he saw in Java, that closely 
 resembled a pink orchid flower, and "is said to feed largely on 
 butterflies so that it is really a living trap, and forms its own 
 bait!" 
 
 Our young " preying beetles," when they are hatched, are like 
 the parents except that they are wingless. These insects all be- 
 long to the MantldcB of the order Orthoptera. They do not all 
 deposit their eggs in a manner similar to the specimen shown in 
 the above drawing. I have a good figure of an African Mantis 
 at my hand that makes a very curious egg-mass (Monteiro's An- 
 gola), and there is an Australian form that has a very peculiar ar- 
 rangement for depositing its eggs, which has been described by 
 Mr. Webster. 
 
 Although these insects are so well known, it should not deter 
 us from making still further investigation into their biology 
 whenever good opportunity presents itself, and thus obtain a 
 better knowledge of their habits. 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 CRAYFISH AND CRABS. 
 
 (Crustacea.) 
 
 RAY FISH and Crabs belong to that very interesting 
 Class of the Animal Kingdom known as the Crustacea, 
 being arrayed in the Subkingdom Annulosa, created 
 to contain the more or less nearly allied groups of the 
 insects (Insecta), the myriapods (Myriapoda), and the spiders 
 with their kin (Arachnida). In a more restricted sense they form 
 the division Arthropoda, or the Articulata of some naturalists. 
 In this country a great many kinds of them occur in its fauna, as 
 all the various species and subspecies of crabs, lobsters, cray- 
 fish, king-crabs (Limuhts), water-fleas, besides a perfect legion 
 of others, to which no common names have been given, and a 
 host of fossil forms, such as the trilobites and their allies. 
 
 There is a very voluminous and helpful literature extant upon 
 the biology of the Crustacea, the published labors of many able 
 minds. One of the most useful books known to me on the subject 
 is Huxley's " Crayfish," and it will give the student a very clear 
 idea of the anatomy and natural history of one of the best known 
 members of this group. 
 
 Fully examined in a comparative way in connection with the 
 typical allied forms, the lobsters and crabs, the crayfish will lead 
 to a general knowledge of the Class, and a good understanding 
 of the habits and characters of the widely varying forms repre- 
 senting the many different orders of the Annulosa, apart from 
 the insects, spiders, and myriapods. 
 
 Our United States crayfish belong to two well-marked genera, 
 Cambarus and Astacus, the first being divided into five groups, 
 and the latter genus all being contained in a single group. The 
 most able and thorough work upon them known to me is " A Re- 
 vision of the Astacidfe," of which Mr. Walter Faxon, of Harvard 
 College, is the author. This fine quarto memoir gives a very com- 
 plete account of all the crayfish of this country known to science 
 up to the time of its appearance (August, 1885). Another Ameri- 
 can naturalist, Professor A. S. Packard, of Brown University, has 
 also powerfully advanced our knowledge of these forms by his 
 numerous contributions to the subject, not to mention Ihosc of 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 55 
 
 the late Professor Cope, and of Dr. C. C. Abbott, F. W. Putnam, 
 H. A. Hagen, S. I. Smith, W. F. Bundy, S. A. Forbes, Ralph S. 
 Tarr, and W. P. Hay. There are upward of a hundred different 
 kinds of crayfish in the United States, and new forms of them 
 are constantly coming to our knowledge. In the U. S. National 
 Museum, the crayfish and crabs are being best studied by Mr. 
 James E. Benedict, Mr. Eichard Rathbun, and Miss^Mary Rath- 
 bun, and there is a large store of material illustrating this group 
 in the collections of that institution. 
 
 The general form and appearance of a crayfish is so well known 
 that no special description of one is here necessary, while in a 
 brief chapter it is not possible to enter upon the highly instruct- 
 ive subject of the anatomy of these animals. One should turn 
 to Professor Huxley's book for that, where it is given in great 
 detail. Of our common forms, the ones best known to me are 
 Cambarus diogenes and C. bartonii robusta. The first-named I had 
 many opportunities to study in Louisiana, while collecting in that 
 State many years ago, while Barton's crayfish I found in the 
 country districts about the City of Washington, D. C. Both of 
 these species are builders of the so-called "chimneys," struc- 
 tures that have given rise to no little amount of speculation as 
 to their object and use. Many of these chimneys, constructed by 
 C. diogenes, I found in the low, flat meadows, south of the city 
 of New Orleans. Here they were usually built up vertically, 
 even where they stood on the sloping banks of the ditches, and in 
 many instances the taller ones were seen to have the apertures 
 at their tops sealed over, and this condition obtained still more 
 commonly among those of lesser stature. The sub-cylindrical 
 passage used by the owner of one of these " chimneys " traversed 
 its entire length, and down into the ground a varying distance 
 below the level of the latter. When very low, one of these affairs 
 reminded me more of a mound of mud, particularly when it was 
 sealed over at its entrance, but after being carried up to a greater 
 height, and especially when they were open at the top, perhaps 
 they did appear as much like little earthen chimneys of cylindri- 
 cal form as anything else. Where the ground was dry the method 
 of construction could easily be observed, for they were evidently 
 built up of small pellets of mud laid on in a single course, while 
 at the bottom, by the pellets rolling down, a mound-like base 
 was formed, around the outer boundary of which numerous loose 
 pellets were scattered about. Where the ground was very wet 
 
56 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 the pellets, to a great extent, fused together, and the outer sur- 
 face of the chimney or mound had simply a nodulated appear- 
 ance, and the structure was much longer in drying out. Various 
 different phases were to be seen between these two extremes. I 
 tried to dig to the bottom of one of these passages, but owing to 
 the nature of things in these wet lowlands of Louisiana, this was 
 not feasible, for abundance of water was soon reached, and to 
 follow the course of the passage was not possible by any ordinary 
 means. 
 
 Often I have seen the crayfish in these abodes, and have cap- 
 tured them there, and I once caught one in the act of sealing in 
 the top of its chimney, but I have never seen them at work dur- 
 ing the actual building process. Mr. Balph Tarr, who has writ- 
 ten upon this subject (Nature, vol. xxx., p. 27), believes that the 
 chimneys result from the excavation of the burrow, without im- 
 plying design on the part of the crayfish. This is also the opin- 
 ion entertained by myself, while Dr. C. C. Abbott holds the con- 
 verse view, as does also his nephew, Mr. Jos. De B. Abbott, who 
 has, by the aid of the light of a candle at night, seen the crays 
 engaged in building their chimneys. 
 
 A few years ago, in Southern Maryland, I found the chimney 
 of a Barton's crayfish. It was nine and a half inches in height, 
 very smooth inside, and with the pellets distinctly individual- 
 ized outside. Many of these were piled up about the base, 
 and forty-two of them had rolled out beyond the latter. It was 
 erected on level ground with a firm turf, and about ten feet 
 from a small stream. In attempting to follow down the 
 burrow, water was met with at fifteen inches, but the bur- 
 row 7 was still followed for twenty-seven inches more, when 
 it passed between two large rocks, too large to move, and so 
 rendered further progress out of the question. In a few nights 
 the cray abandoned this site, and burrowed again close at hand. 
 In the same vicinity, right on the bank of the streamlet, I 
 opened another; it only passed down eleven inches, when 
 it terminated in a chamber about as big as my two fists, and 
 placed at the side. It was below the water level, and contained a 
 fine living specimen of C. diogenes. Beyond this was a low mound 
 in wetter soil. Unlike the other two, the top of this one was 
 sealed over, and the pellets nearly all run together. Upon tak- 
 ing this one up in my hand (it is before me now 7 as I write), I 
 found the sealing-in was very thorough, and the top as thick as 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 57 
 
 the side walls. Inside, the cylindrical passage was as smooth 
 as usual, and terminated in a smooth, concave, hemispherical 
 end. 
 
 As to the manner of building, Mr. J. De B. Abbott gives a good 
 account as cited by Faxon. The crayfish is seen to emerge par- 
 tially from its burrow, bearing "on the back of its right claw a 
 ball of clay mud, which, by a dexterous tilt of the Tlaw, was 
 placed on the rim of the chimney. Then the crayfish remained 
 perfectly quiet for a few seconds, when it suddenly doubled up 
 and dropped to the bottom of its burrow. There elapsed some 
 three or four minutes between each appearance; but every time 
 it came, it brought a ball of clay and deposited it in the manner 
 I have described. About two-fifths of the balls were not placed 
 with sufficient care, and rolled down outside of the chimney." 
 Professor Faxon remarks further that "Dr. Abbott believes that 
 the closing of the orifice of a chimney is merely the result of 
 accidental falling in of pellets from the rim, loosened perhaps by 
 atmospheric moisture. In some localities where the burrowing 
 crayfish abounds, there is a weather proverb to the effect that, 
 when the crayfish closes the opening of his chimney in dry 
 weather, there will be a rainfall within twenty-four hours." 
 
 So far as I am aware, it is not known yet how the crayfish seals 
 up the orifice of his tower. Possibly it may do it by backing up 
 the burrow, and by turning around and about, manipulate the 
 moistened clay or mud into place by the use of its lateral tail-fins 
 and telson. That it is not due to the in-tumbling of the loose 
 pellets on top, there can be no doubt, for in the specimen at hand 
 the top of the sealed-up part is as thick as the sides (fully an 
 inch), and exactly resembles them, while the closed apex of the 
 passage inside is very smooth and carefully polished off. Why 
 it closes in its tower is hard to tell. It may be that finding the 
 orifice contracting too much, the cray seals up in order to pre- 
 vent the upper rim of the tower falling back into the burrow ; 
 it may be in order to shut out rain or rising water; it may be 
 to prevent attacks of enemies ; or it may be done while the 
 parent is laying her eggs at the bottom of the burrow. This all 
 requires further observations on the part of naturalists. It is 
 surely far easier for a crayfish to build a tower, even if two-fifths 
 of the pellets do roll down outside, than it would be for the 
 animal to carry all the pellets away from the mouth of its 
 burrow, and submit itself to capture by an enemy every time it 
 passed out with one. In short, it is the most convenient and 
 
58 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 most safe way to get rid of the pellets, besides being the least 
 troublesome, and the method by which they are the least likely 
 to roll back into the burrow. 
 
 Why crayfish build at all, I think, is due to the fact that they 
 must have a safe place to lay and hatch their eggs, and also a 
 place to escape at times from their enemies. That it does not 
 always effect this latter will be seen from Audubon's account 
 of the towers of C. diogenes which he figured in the plate with the 
 White ibis (Vol. vi., p. 57). He says: "The crayfish often bur- 
 rows to the depth of three or four feet in dry weather, for before 
 it can be comfortable it must reach the water. This is generally 
 the case during the prolonged heats of summer, at which time 
 the White Ibis is most pushed for food. The bird, to procure the 
 crayfish, walks with remarkable care toward the mounds of mud 
 which the latter throws up while forming its hole, and breaks 
 up the upper part of the fabric, dropping the fragments into the 
 deep cavity that has been made by the animal. Then the Ibis 
 retires a single step, and patiently waits the result. The crayfish, 
 incommoded by the load of earth, instantly sets to work anew, 
 and at last reaches the entrance of its burrow ; but the moment 
 it comes in sight, the Ibis seizes it with its bill." It would ap- 
 pear from this that Audubon did not believe that the crayfish 
 towers were structures erected upon some architectural design ; 
 and his observations further go to prove that even the burrow 
 does not always protect the unfortunate crustacean from its 
 enemies. I do not place much credit in this story of Audubon's, 
 however, for to fill a burrow having a " depth of three or four 
 feet " with little bits of mud, from a mound rarely higher than 
 ten inches, would take an ibis the best part of two hours; then 
 it is not at all likely that all the pellets would go the bottom 
 and fill the chamber there existing, even were the burrows per- 
 fectly straight and vertical, which they very rarely or never are. 
 To say the least of it, Audubon, as a naturalist, was very imagi- 
 native sometimes, and I am strongly inclined to think that this 
 ibis story is simply another example of it. 
 
 In this locality (Washington, D. C.) the burrowing crayfishes 
 remain under ground during the winter, at points safe from 
 freezing. This they do in a torpid condition, coming out early 
 in the spring, after the cold weather is well by ; and it is soon 
 after this that we begin to notice the appearance of their towers 
 in their accustomed places. They feed, as Huxley says, upon 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 59 
 
 "larvae of insects, water-snails, tadpoles, or frogs, which corne 
 within reach " of its claws as the animal stands at the entrance 
 of its burrow. Even ik the water-rat is liable to the same fate. 
 Passing too near the fatal den, possibly in search of a stray cray- 
 fish, whose flavor he highly appreciates, the vole is himself 
 seized and held till he is suffocated, when his captor easily re- 
 verses the conditions of the anticipated meal." 
 
 " In fact, few things in the way of food are amiss to the cray 
 fish ; living or dead, fresh or carrion, animal or vegetable, it 
 is all one." But I cannot in this short chapter say more in re- 
 gard to these wonderful little animals; my space will not admit 
 of it, and the subject is a very large one. It reads like a good 
 novel in Huxley's celebrated treatise upon the group. 
 
 Crabs differ from the crays in having a much reduced and 
 shortened abdomen, that would easily escape the notice of an 
 ordinary observer, and is not used as a swimming organ, as is 
 that part of the economy of a crayfish, from which latter they 
 present many wide differences both in the matter of structure 
 and habits, though " attentive examination shows that the plan 
 of construction of the crab is, in all fundamental respects, the 
 same as that of the crayfish." (Huxley). 
 
 I have availed myself of the opportunities to study many kinds 
 of crabs, in not a few countries, and a great many parts of this 
 country. One afternoon, when walking up over the steep hills 
 in the rear of the town of Cape Haytien, Hayti, my attention 
 w r as called to the numerous burrows in the clayey soil upon either 
 side of the roadway. Further along in the forests these became 
 still more numerous. These excavations were made by a species 
 of burrowing land crabs, belonging to a genus well represented 
 in the West Indian islands. In Jamaica, for example, there are 
 thousands of them, and from their coloration they are called the 
 Violet land crabs. I have made a drawing of one of these, and it 
 is given here as an illustration of land crabs in general. They 
 frequently live in the mangrove swamps and subsist upon fruits, 
 though they will eat almost anything. 
 
 About the graves in the cemeteries of Jamaica hundreds of 
 these burrows are to be seen, and the land crabs that inhabit 
 them are know r n to go down and feed upon the corpses. West 
 Indians, nevertheless, eat quantities.of them, but they are very 
 careful to capture only those that live a long way from the 
 burying grounds. The natives catch them in ordinary box-traps, 
 
60 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 baited with a fruit of which this land crab is very fond. Often 
 they are kept alive and fattened for the market. Once a year 
 these Violet land crabs form in immense processions, a mile or 
 more in length sometimes and over 100 feet in width. In this 
 order they march down to the sea, and deposit their eggs. At 
 other times they are nocturnal in habit, and come out of their 
 burrows only to feed at night. Late in the evening I have seen 
 them sitting at the entrances of their subterranean abodes, 
 waiting for the deeper shades of night. They have large, power- 
 ful claws, which they use with great effect. After taking a hold 
 with their big, merciless pincer, the limb suddenly becomes de- 
 tached, and while you are doing your best to free yourself of the 
 instrument of torture, the crab, minus its claw, makes off to its 
 burrow. 
 
 Another very interesting crab is the famous Hermit or Soldier 
 crab, of the Atlantic coast. In these the abdominal portion of 
 the body is soft, and to protect this the animal runs it, tail first, 
 as it were, into any dead and empty shell of suitable size and 
 spiral form. In this the Hermit lives, with only his fore parts 
 protruding, until he outgrows his house, when he quits it, to 
 scramble into another of more convenient proportions. The 
 structure and habits of these crabs are both interesting and in- 
 structive, and a great deal has been written about them. Spider 
 crabs have a peculiar growth of a hairy appearance on their 
 backs. Their legs are long, and their locomotion on land ex- 
 tremely awkward. Most of their time they spend in moderately 
 deep water, and I have often taken them on the oyster beds of 
 Long Island Sound, and the fishermen have told me that they 
 play fearful havoc with the oysters, devouring great quantities 
 of them. Fiddler crabs, of which thousands upon thousands 
 lived in the short sea-grass that skirted the salt water, are very 
 interesting. Such places were literally riddled with their bur- 
 rows, and one had no trouble in capturing a pailful of these 
 fellows. They make capital bait for the fishing of Black fish. 
 Fiddlers are small crabs, with a pair of very unequal pincer 
 claws. This has given them their name, for the larger claw has 
 been likened to a fiddle, and the smaller claw to the bow. 
 Females of this species have very small pincers of equal size. 
 Several species of " fiddlers "are found upon our coast. Speak- 
 ing of the naming of crabs, I would state here that the name 
 " crab " itself is derived from Carabua, it being the Latin of the 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 61 
 
 common edible species, and the one best known in ancient times 
 to the Romans. The list of crabs now known to science is a 
 long one indeed, 'and they are found in suitable localities in 
 nearly every part of the world. Most of us are familiar with the 
 little " oyster crab " found in those bivalves. The adult females 
 of this diminutive species live within the gill cavities of oysters, 
 while the males usually swim about at large. They have often 
 been described by naturalists as different species, and there has 
 been excuse for this, as the sexes are so essentially different in 
 appearance. Mussels harbor another variety of these tiny 
 crustaceans. The question as to how these little creatures orig- 
 
 FIG. 5. THE VIOLET LAND CRAB. 
 
 Drawn by the Author. 
 
 inally came to take up their abode within the shells of living 
 bivalves has not been settled. 
 
 Englishmen call these oyster-crabs " pea-crabs," and they 
 stand among the smallest representatives of the group, the big- 
 gest form known being the crab-giants of Japan, which are 
 considered a delicacy by the Japanese. A specimen of one of 
 these has pincers each five feet long. Like our marine spider- 
 crabs, its triangular body is not large in proportion. 
 
 In the islands of the Indian Ocean they have the " robber 
 crabs" species that approach the lobsters in their structure. 
 But instead of living in the water, they burrow at the feet of the 
 
62 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 cocoauut trees, and live upon that fruit. In old times it was 
 believed they used to climb the trees for these, but such a theory 
 has become obsolete. Vhey feed, doubtless, only upon the fallen 
 nuts, and two opinions seem to be in vogue as to how they get 
 the meat out of these. Some say they peel off the cocoa-fiber, 
 then insert the piiicer into the soft "' eye " of the fruit, and by 
 turning about work out the substance lining the interior. 
 Others contend that, when it gets its claw into the eye-hole, the 
 crab pounds the nut on a stone until it is broken open. 
 
 Kobber-crabs line their burrows with the cocoa-fiber they tear 
 from the nuts, and the natives in turn rob them of it to make 
 their mats. These crabs also yield an excellent oil, derived from 
 a mass of fat beneath the tail. 
 
 " Calling crabs " are remarkable fellows ; there is a species of 
 them in Ceylon that has one very small claw, while the otlfer is 
 bigger than its owner's body. When approached, this specie? 
 brandishes its ponderous pincer at you in the most threatening 
 manner possible. Less timid people than those awed by this 
 behavior say that the crab is simply beckoning to you to advance, 
 and hence the name that has been bestowed upon them. Ceylon 
 also has a " racer crab " that the inhabitants have long voted to 
 be a great nuisance. Its numerous and deep burrows made in 
 the sandy roads of the island have to be continually looked after 
 and filled up, by parties employed for that purpose. Where this 
 is not done, accidents have occurred to horses and vehicles. 
 
 We have some beautiful species of crabs on our Pacific Coast, 
 as the "Yellow shore crab" and the "Purple shore crab.'' 
 Chinamen are fond of these, and cook them by stringing them on 
 wires and hanging them over the fire. Both of these species are 
 very numerous, though of small size. 
 
 Several years ago I w r as fishing off the coast of Connecticut, 
 and was greatly annoyed by dogfish taking my hooks and bait. 
 Finally I captured one of these troublesome fellows, and opened 
 him to find my missing hooks. In his stomach were some four or 
 five handsome little crabs, with very hard shells and thick claws. 
 They were specimens of what every one there called "rock 
 crabs/' they being very common at the rocky reefs off shore, 
 when the tide was out. In Long Island Sound we also meet 
 with the "mud crabs," the "Jonah crabs," and the "stone 
 crabs," and other forms. 
 
 Many interesting books have appeared on the dovolopement of 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 63 
 
 crabs, and the student should procure and read these, with a few 
 species of crabs at hand, represented by young of both sexes. 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 
 SAWFISH, RAYS, SHARKS, AND THEIR ALLIES, WITH 
 NOTES ON DEEP-SEA FISHES. 
 
 (ElasmobranchU, etc.) 
 
 GOOD many years ago there used to be in the town of 
 Key West, Florida, a remarkable old curiosity-shop, 
 that had a great fascination for me as a boy. The 
 man that kept it was a sort of a taxidermist in his 
 
 way, and in his musty old establishment there was a varied 
 collection of odds and ends of marine relics that greatly inter- 
 ested me. And, although that was over thirty years ago, my in- 
 stincts as a naturalist had been developing for several years 
 prior to the time mentioned, and I can very well remember how I 
 enjoyed being permitted to examine the various objects he had 
 stored aw r ay on his shelves, or heaped up about the place. There 
 were jaws of great sharks; quantities of shells and corals; 
 sea weeds, big starfishes, and dried crabs; the shells of turtles 
 and of spiny sea-urchins, and what not else. Among all this 
 bric-a-brac from the depths of the sea there were to be noticed 
 a score or more long, flat, oblong bones of an earthy color, with 
 sharp, outward-projecting teeth all along the sides at near and 
 somewhat irregular intervals. Some of these double-sawlike 
 looking affairs were over four feet long, while others ranged all 
 the way down until they came to be only a foot or more in length. 
 It was the source of no little wonderment to me, then, as to what 
 kind of an animal such an extraordinary weapon could possibly 
 belong, and I am quite sure now that were this remarkable tooth- 
 armed blade known only from a fossil one, and the remainder of 
 the animal not known, it would by no means be every one who 
 would suspect its having belonged to a fish. My Key West friend 
 seemed quite familiar with the subject, however, and soon told 
 me that it was the " saw " of the sawfish that excited my curios- 
 ity, and before I left Florida and Florida waters, doubtless I 
 would see a number of these fish alive. His prediction was in 
 part fulfilled, for upon one or two occasions, at least, I have had 
 the opportunity to study the sawfish in nature. They are not 
 uncommon upon the coasts of the peninsula, while in the inland 
 everglades they are said to be very numerous. One that I read 
 

 i 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 67 
 
 about, one of those rare northward-ranging stragglers, was cap- 
 tured at Cape May in 1878. This specimen was four feet wide, 
 and over sixteen feet long, and possessed a forty-nine-toothed 
 saw, measuring over four feet in length. Sometimes they grow 
 very much bigger than this, even. Their mode of locomotion in 
 their native element is a kind of a swimming waddle, swinging 
 the head and saw from side to side. This action is powerfully in- 
 creased when they are captured in seines, which is by no means 
 an infrequent occurrence, and then the piscine Hercules soon cuts 
 his way out. Fishermen cannot endure the sawfish, as their nets 
 are thus so often ripped up. Many marvelous stories are told 
 about the feats of the sawfish, of which probably only a small 
 percentage are true. To illustrate the present contribution, I 
 have made two drawings of this fish, and they are reproduced in 
 Figs. 6 and 7. It will be observed how flat he is when view r ed 
 upon direct lateral aspect; this is quite in keeping with a habit 
 he has of spending not a little of his time on the bottom. When 
 looked at upon his under side (Fig. 7), most of his interesting 
 characters come in sight. We then gain the best idea of the 
 shape of his saw, the fins and the mouth, and other parts. 
 
 Ichthyologists have created the genus Pristis to contain the 
 sawfishes, and our Florida species is known as P. pectinatus. 
 They are most nearly related to the Bays, other very remarkable 
 fishes that I shall have something to say about a little further 
 on. Rays, Sawfishes, and Sharks all belong to the cartilaginous 
 group of fish-forms, because they have skeletons composed only 
 of cartilage. The Rays and Sharks taken together form the sub- 
 order Plagiostomata, and they are divided into a number of 
 families, to the first of which the Sawfishes are relegated. 
 
 There are only about half a dozen species of sawfishes known 
 to science, and they are all confined pretty generally to the 
 warmer seas of the world. According to Dr. Guuther, who says, 
 although " the sawfishes possess all the essential characteristics 
 of the rays proper, they retain the elongated form of the body of 
 sharks, the tail being excessively muscular, and the sole organ of 
 locomotion. The " saw " is a flat and enormously developed pro- 
 longation of the snout, with an endo-skeleton, which consists of 
 from three to five cartilaginous tubes ; these are, in fact, merely 
 the rostral processes of the cranial cartilage, and are found in all 
 rays, though they are commonly much shorter. The integument 
 of the saw is hard, covered with shagreen ; and a series of 
 
68 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 si i-on teeth, sharp in front and flat behind, are imbedded in it, 
 in alveolar sockets, on each side. The saw is a most formidable 
 weapon of offense, by means of which the fish tears pieces of 
 flesh off the body of its victim, or rips open its abdomen to feed 
 on the protruding intestines. The teeth proper, with which the 
 mouth is armed, are extremely small and obtuse, and unsuitable 
 for inflicting wounds or seizing animals." 
 
 In the world's ichthyfauna there are certainly five families 
 of Rays and Skates ; of these we have in our own waters some 
 very interesting representatives. For example, there is the fa- 
 mous Torpedo (Torpedo occidentalis) found quite abundantly 
 along our Atlantic coasts, probably as far south as Virginia. I 
 have made a drawing of this large Ray, and it is shown in Fig. 
 8 of this chapter. Physiologists have always taken great interest 
 in this remarkable fish, from the fact that it possesses a peculiar 
 organ upon either side of his body, between the pectoral fin and 
 the, head and gills. This organ is endowed with the power of 
 generating electricity, and is under the control of the animal. 
 An electric shock can be given voluntarily by the Torpedo, and it 
 uses this with great effectiveness, either as a means of defense, 
 or else to stun or kill the creatures on which it feeds. It is of 
 no economic importance whatever, and fishermen, when they 
 get them in their pound-nets, are very careful to let them alone, 
 as the electric shock, even from an average-sized Torpedo, may 
 knock a strong man down or completely paralyze his arms for 
 some little time. These Electric Rays (Torpedinidce) are also 
 very generally known as " Crampfish," as the oil extracted 
 from them is said to be a good remedy for rheumatism and 
 cramps. The oil is obtained from the livers, and it is said, also, 
 to make an admirable lamp oil. Large Torpedoes will yield as 
 much as three gallons of oil, but the average is about a gallon 
 and a half. They are captured with the harpoon. For one to 
 receive a shock from the Electric Ray, the contact must be at two 
 points, as the battery has all the characters of a manufactured 
 one, and the electricity all the known properties of that fluid 
 elsewhere. It will emit the spark; deflect the magnetic needle 
 and decompose chemical compounds. On the upper side of the 
 organ the electricity is positive, while upon the under side it is 
 found to be negative. Many other forms of Electric Rays are 
 found in different parts of the world, usually in tropical or sub- 
 tropical seas; some of the big species attain to a weight of 100 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 69 
 
 pounds, and in these, as in all other varities or kinds of electric 
 fishes, the body is without scales and smooth. Upward of thirty 
 species of Rays and Skates are found upon our United States 
 coasts, but man has no special use for any of them. The fleshy 
 flaps of the big Barndoor Skate, however, have been used for 
 food; the fishermen salting them down at Portsmouth, New 
 
 FIG. 8. 
 
 Fig. S. Torpedo(7\ occidentalis). 
 
 FIG. 9. 
 
 RAYS AND SKATES. 
 
 Fig. 9. Barndoor Skate (Raia Icevis). 
 
 FIG. 10. 
 
 Fig. 10. Sting Ray (Trygon xttbina).. 
 
 Hampshire, and the fashionable restaurants in New York City 
 serving them upon their tables. (Fig. 9). The enormous Devil- 
 fishes are Rays that may measure over thirty feet from tip to tip 
 of their lateral pectoral fins; and in another place I have de- 
 scribed the conflict I once witnessed in Key West harbor between 
 one of these great Rays and a U. S. gunboat. The latter had to 
 slip her anchor and call her crew to quarters in order to protect 
 herself against the fury of the fish's onslaught, and being carried 
 out to sea. 
 
 Skates and Rays spend most of their time upon the bottom, 
 and when disturbed they swim off for a short distance, over the 
 sand or mud, in an undulatory manner, by using the pectoral fins. 
 Voracious in the extreme, they consume quantities of Crustacea 
 and mollusks of various kinds. By their powerful jaws and pecu- 
 liar dentition, a big Ray can crush a hard-shelled crab in short 
 
70 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 order, and apparently with little effort. True Rays are egg- 
 layers, but the Torpedoes or Electric Kays are viviparous. Rays' 
 eggs are quite characteristic, resembling closely those of certain 
 Sharks and Dogfish. They are parchment-like affairs, with 
 tough, oblong, flat shells, which latter are drawn out into string- 
 like, twisted horns. These serve as means of attachment to ma- 
 rine plants and other objects, to keep the egg-case at rest during 
 the development of its contents. Female Rays are larger than 
 the males, and their breeding habits are remarkable, as well as 
 interesting. It will be seen from my figures that their tails are 
 often drawn out into whiplike appendages, and the fins of the 
 back are often modified. Sting-rays have these latter replaced 
 by a strong spine, with serrated edges. I have collected these, 
 and some of them have been as much as five or six inches long 
 (Fig. 10). Painful wounds are inflicted by this dangerous weapon, 
 for by violently lashing its whip-like tail, a sting-ray can easily 
 lacerate most unmercifully its intended victim, and then if the 
 mucus of the fish happens to enter the wounds, a poisonous ef- 
 fect ensues, thus aggravating matters still more. In some spe- 
 cies there are two of these spines, while in other Rays the entire 
 tail is bedecked with thorns, and this kind of ray is very gener- 
 ally eaten in Europe, in common with other species. Sting-rays 
 often grow 7 to be as big as the Skates, and specimens weighing 
 500 pounds are sometimes secured. Volumes have been written 
 about the Rays (Batoidei) and much of it is very entertaining and 
 instructive, but let us next pass to a brief consideration of their 
 nearest allies, or to the Sharks. 
 
 Now, although the majority of species of Sharks are very dif- 
 ferent appearing fishes from the Rays, they have, nevertheless, 
 many important characteristics in common with them. Then, 
 too, even in the matter of appearance, the Sawfish, although 
 most nearly related to the rays, has a form approaching some 
 Sharks, while the Angel-fish (Squatina), among the latter, is a 
 very ray-like looking Shark. The group contains a number of 
 families, including such well-known forms as the Dogfish or 
 Hounds. Smooth or Blue Dogfish are very common in Long 
 Island Sound, where, many years ago, I used to catch numbers 
 of them off the reefs. In the same waters, I have also frequently 
 taken the Spiny Dogfish, or " Bonefish," as the fishermen call it, 
 off the coast of Connecticut. These little sharks are very abun- 
 dant there, and in former years were of great economical impor- 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 71 
 
 tance, as barrels of oil were made from their livers, and the skins 
 are of no little value, for, owing to the fine and peculiar nature 
 of its scaling, it is used with great advantage, when dried, in pol- 
 ishing metals of various kinds, and for similar purposes. The 
 female of this fish is considerably larger than the male, and I 
 have understood that as many as 20,000 have been taken in a 
 seine at one time. We might say a great deal more ahojit dog- 
 fishes, but I prefer to pass to the consideration of some of the 
 big man-eating sharks. The common " White Shark " occurs at 
 rare intervals upon our Atlantic coast, and of it a great many 
 accounts have been given. It is a perfect pest in the Mediter- 
 ranean Sea, and as I write these lines, I have at hand the jaw of 
 an enormous specimen of this species, that was collected on the 
 coast of Italy, near the harbor of Naples. The fish was found 
 
 FIG. 11. THE WHITE SHARK (Carckarias). 
 
 Drawn by the Author and very much reduced. 
 
 dead upon the beach, and it had swallowed the entire body of a 
 Neapolitan soldier, dow r n as far as the man's knees. The victim 
 was taken out, and it was found that he had on his uniform and 
 part of his accoutrements. This jaw I have had for many years, 
 and it is armed with hideous rows upon rows of jagged teeth. 
 Only the front row of these is fully functional, and when any of 
 them are lost they are soon replaced by the tooth from the row 
 next behind. With the greatest ease, it can be slid over a large 
 man. In the British Museum there is the jaw of a shark, prob- 
 ably of this species or genus, that belongs to an individual up- 
 ward of forty feet in length. Such a shark, however, is but a 
 pigmy to the specimens that existed in former ages of the world's 
 
72 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 history. In the phosphate beds of South Carolina, for example, 
 are found fossil teeth of sharks that must have belonged to speci- 
 mens having length ranging as high as eighty or more feet. 
 Sharks of this size would have no trouble in swallowing a horse 
 entire, and probably his rider along w r ith it. In 1864 I was bath- 
 ing upon Egmont Cay, Florida, when I nearly lost my life from 
 the voracious attack of a huge shark, that was attracted to the 
 place by the barking of a little dog that belonged to a compan- 
 ion, who was in the water with him at the same time. While 
 sailing in the Gulf of Mexico I have seen these great sharks 
 about the ship for days, and when the sailors would occasion- 
 ally catch one, the contents of the stomach of the creature were 
 often most extraordinary. I have an account before me wherein 
 it says, " in one case the contents of a lady's work-basket, even 
 including the scissors, were found," and in another an entire 
 bull's hide. Upon the latter a sailor remarked that the fish had 
 swallowed a bull, but could not digest the hide. Another writer 
 says, " I was holding the heavy hook and wire rope over the side, 
 when I felt that I had caught a big fish, and pulling it cautiously, 
 a shark came to the surface. I called out for help. He struggled 
 so violently, lashing the water with his tail and trying to bite 
 the hook asunder, that we were obliged to keep dipping his head 
 under water and then haul him up two or three feet to let it run 
 down his throat. At last he was nearly drowned, when, sending 
 a running bow-line down the rope by which he was caught, and 
 making it taut under his back fin, we clapped the line around the 
 windlass and turned. Some then hauled his tail up, while all 
 available hands dragged at the other line, which held his head. 
 As soon as we got him on board, he broke off about three feet of 
 the .ship's bulwarks by a single lash of his tremendous tail. This 
 was then cut off by the boatswain with a hatchet, while a dozen 
 of us with bowie-knives finished him.. We found in his stomach 
 six large snakes, two empty quart bottles, two dozen lobsters, a 
 sheepskin and horns, and the shank-bones, which the cook had 
 thrown overboard two days before. The liver filled two large 
 washdeck tubs, and when tried out gave us ten gallons of oil." 
 The Tiger Shark, and also the great Blue Shark (Carcliarias ijlnu- 
 cus), are also very voracious and particularly dangerous species. 
 I shall never forget something I once saw from the deck of a 
 man-of-war lying in Key West harbor, Florida. The water was 
 very blue, and one could see down into it only a little way. All 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 73 
 
 at once, upon peering into its depths, I became convinced that an 
 enormous brown fish was coming gradually to the surface. As 
 the villain neared it, he became more active, but what fixed my 
 attention most of all, was the curious form of its head. On either 
 side it was produced lateral-wise, the extremity being occupied 
 by the eye. These were large and were rolled about in their sock- 
 ets in the most horrid manner. It was a specimen of the dreaded 
 Hammerhead shark (Zygcena malleus), and must have been at 
 least between eight and nine feet long, or even longer. This is 
 a very dangerous species, no less so, indeed, than the white and 
 the blue sharks. It is found all along the coast from Cape Cod 
 to Cape Sable, and to the southward. They are also of the man- 
 eating variety, and specimens have been captured in the stom- 
 achs of which portions of human bodies and plenty of clothing 
 and other objects have been found. There are between twenty 
 
 FIG. 12. HAMMERHEAD SHAKK (Zygcena malleus). 
 
 and thirty species of sharks and dogfishes found upon the Pacific 
 coast, and many of these have been described by Jordan in his 
 very useful works upon American fishes. The Thrasher and the 
 Mackerel sharks occur upon both of our coasts, and each is a 
 very distinguished species. Oil in considerable quantities is pro- 
 cured from the livers of the latter, while of the former Doctor 
 Goode says that it is known " in Europe as the Fox shark, and to 
 our fishermen most usually as the Swingle-tail. It is one of the 
 most grotesque of sea animals, the upper lobe of the tail being 
 exceedingly long, curving upw r ard and resembling in form the 
 blade of a scythe." Thrashers grow to become fifteen feet or 
 more in length, and weigh several hundred pounds. Stories 
 about their attacking whales, however, have no foundation in 
 fact. Fishermen say they kill fish by blows of their powerful 
 
74 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 tail, a questionable statement, though it is kiiowii that these 
 sharks feed upon fish. 
 
 Most of the sharks are viviparous, but the dogfishes produce 
 eggs closely resembling those brought forth by the rays. When 
 a boy, I frequently found them at low water on Long Island 
 Hound, tangled up in the salt water grass. Some sharks are 
 bottom-loving species, while a few species may almost be reck- 
 oned among the so-called deep-sea fishes. Two small species of 
 dogfishes have been taken at depths varing between 400 and 500 
 fathoms, or nearly 3,000 feet below the surface. Gunther says 
 these sharks were from three to four feet long, and " on being 
 rapidly withdrawn from the great pressure under which they 
 lived, they were killed, like other deep-sea fishes, under similar 
 circumstances." 
 
 Some naturalists claim that the oldest existing type of verte- 
 brate is a shark. It comes from Japan, and only two specimens 
 of the species have thus far fallen into the hands of science. One 
 of these is in the Museum of Harvard College, and the other is 
 in the British Museum. Our distinguished countryman, Mr. 
 Samuel Garman, of Harvard, was the first man to describe this 
 remarkable shark, and he gave it the scientific name of Glila- 
 mydoselaclius anguineus. A few years ago I received from him a 
 copy of his memoir on the subject, and I have copied his figure to 
 show the appearance of the fish here. (Fig. 13.) 
 
 As I have just said above, some of our sharks may almost be 
 classed among those oceanic forms of fishes, that living so far be- 
 neath the depths of the seas are now universally termed by nat- 
 uralists the deep-sea fishes, and by the aid of our modern 
 oceanic dredging machines we are coming to know something 
 of these remarkable forms. Many invertebrates are also thus 
 taken, but after all it is the extraordinary types of fishes that 
 from time to time have come to light whk-h have possessed the 
 keenest interest for the ichthyologist and marine naturalist. 
 Many of these have long been known, but a few years ago 
 the splendid researches of the British Challenger expedition 
 greatly increased our knowledge of them. Ingenious nets and 
 trawls have brought up, from depths varing from 200 to 2,400 
 fathoms, many genera and species of these curious fish, repre- 
 senting, as they do, some dozen or more families. As a fathom 
 is six feet, this means from 1,200 to 14,400 feet, a fact in itself 
 sufficient to excite our wonder. Most all the great oceans and 
 
FIG. 13. Chlamydoselachus anguineus. 
 
 (The oldest type of existing vertebrates.) Drawn by the Author after Carman. 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 77 
 
 seas have thus been examined, and in all such life is found to be 
 present. These fishes normally never come to the surface, and 
 when forcibly brought up in a trawl, they are visibly affected in a 
 number of ways. Some become greatly inflated by the expansion 
 of the gases within them, and where they possess scales of any 
 size, these are elevated all over the fish's body. Some of these 
 deep-sea forms are found to be blind; a number are semi-trans- 
 parent; others have peculiar phosphorescent organs on the head; 
 while nearly every one is extremely peculiar in form, great vari- 
 ance is seen to obtain with them (but this has no relation to 
 either latitude or temperature) ; and in the case of not a few their 
 geographical ranges are very wide the same species occurring 
 in many parts of the world. Notwithstanding that this is true, 
 some of these deep-sea fishes are very rare. I have in mind at 
 least one instance at the present writing where but a single in- 
 
 FIG. 14. THE TORCHFISH (Linophryne lucifer). 
 
 Drawn by the Author. 
 
 dividual of a certain species has fallen into the hands of science. 
 This was taken years ago by my friend, the distinguished Cuban 
 naturalist, Don Felipe Poey (1872), and sixteen years afterward 
 I published an illustrated account of it giving a figure of the 
 fish and a description of its skeleton. During all that time no 
 other specimen had been obtained, and so far as I am at present 
 aware, none have been secured since the appearance of my 
 memoir. 
 
 The " Torchfish," of which I give a figure above, is one of the 
 most remarkable types that has thus far been captured. From 
 its nose there stands erect upon a stem a small organ, elliptical 
 in form and phosphorescent in function, which the fish has the 
 power of making very luminous or the reverse, at its pleasure. 
 The Torchfish also has an elongated and slender filament swing- 
 
' 
 
 78 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 ing from beneath its lower jaw. Its free end is tufted. Now, 
 small fish are both attracted by. this freely moving little bait, as 
 well as by the beautiful light emitted by the " torch," and dart- 
 ing after the former by the aid of the latter they very freqently 
 land in the capacious mouth of their allurer, who quickly devours 
 them. The physiology of this phosphorescent organ is, as yet, 
 not fully understood. 
 
 Very large eyes sometimes characterize certain species of these 
 curious beings, and, as I have said above, sometimes the eyes 
 are absent, or so small as to be detected only after careful search 
 with the microscopic lens. This is the case with the little deep- 
 sea fish form known as the " Blind Angler " (Mancalias shufeldti), 
 described in 1883 by the eminent ichthyologist, Dr. Theo. Gill, of 
 the Smithsonian Institution, and obtained at 2,400 fathoms by 
 the United States Fish Commission Steamer Albatross. In re- 
 marking upon the species, Dr. Gill has said, " they have a real 
 fishing rod, and three of the types have a notable one. The rod 
 is represented by the first spine of ordinary fishes, which is situ- 
 ated on the back part of the head; it is long and borne aloft, and 
 in the typical species rod and line are developed. The rod is 
 represented by the basil joint, and the line by the distal one; the 
 rod is stiffened, but the line quite flexible, and at its end there is 
 a bait in the form of a bulb, whch is generally more or less pyri- 
 form in outline. The fish doubtless lies on the ground, carrying 
 the rod curved over its head, and other fishes are attracted by the 
 bulb, which may be moved to and fro; when the incautious in- 
 quirer approaches near enough the angler rises upward and en- 
 gulfs him in his capacious maw. The mouth, be it observed, 
 opens upward, and even to a slight extent backward, and is thus 
 eminently adapted for its angling life." 
 
 This genus of fishes belongs to the Ceratiids, and are related to 
 another group also known as " Anglers," of which the very well- 
 known and large-sized u Goose Fish " belongs (Lopliius piwu- 
 Inr'uiK (Lopliiids). 
 
 M<inciiH<iK was first obtained by the Challenger expedition, 
 near the Cape Verde Islands in 2,400 fathoms of water. This was 
 M. uranoscopus, the type of the genus; the specimen, 3J inches 
 long, is now in the British Museum. M. slnifcldti, originally de- 
 scribed as TypJtiopsara* shufeldti, was subsequently referred to 
 this genus. 
 
 We now have out a very fine work on all the deep-sea fishes. 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 79 
 
 by no less a distinguished authority than the late Professor G. 
 Brown Goode, the lamented Secretary of the United States Na- 
 tional Museum. It is fully illustrated, and covers the entire sub- 
 ject up to the date of its appearance. 
 
 During the season of 1892-93, H. M. Marine Survey Steamer 
 Investigator, Commander C. P. Oldham, K. N., commanding, 
 with a corps of naturalists aboard, did some good collecting in 
 the Bay of Bengal and adjacent waters. In addition to other 
 forms, the deep-sea fishes collected by them were described by 
 my esteemed correspondent, Mr. A. Alcock, Superintendent of 
 
 M 17 
 
 DEEP-SEA FISHES OF INDIA. 
 
 Neobythites steatilicus, n. sp. length of type, 5.25 inches 
 
 Odontostomus atrafus, n. sp. length 3.5 inches, Bay of Bengal, 573 fathoms. 
 
 (After Alcock.) 
 
 Bay of Bengal, 128 fathoms. 
 
 Fig. 15. 
 
 Fig. 16. , . . . , , . 
 
 Fig. 17. Bathypercis platyrhynchiis, n. gen. et. sp. length 4.3 inches, Bay of Bengal, 128 fathoms. 
 
 Fig 18. Ptiysiculus argyropastus, n. sp. length 9 inches, Bay of Bengal, 128 fathoms. 
 
 the Indian Museum of Calcutta, India, and he has sent me a copy 
 of the work, wherein the deep-sea fishes appear. It is illustrated 
 by plates, and the drawing used in the present article is taken 
 from a free sketch made by myself of his fishes, and, although 
 not what might be called absolutely accurate in minute details, it 
 nevertheless gives a very good idea of those types as found in the 
 Indian Ocean, or Bay of Bengal, at depths varying from 128 to 
 573 fathoms. It will be observed that these figures teach us one 
 great truth in regard to such matters, which is probably appli- 
 cable to all forms of oceanic life and that is, and we now refer 
 
80 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 to fishes, the nearer we obtain them to the surface of the sea or 
 ocean, the more do they come to resemble, both in form and 
 structure, what we see in ordinary fishes of the shallower waters. 
 All four of the forms shown in the figures belong to new species, 
 and in one case to both new genus and species (Fig. 15). This 
 latter is of the order Anacanthini of the family Ophidiidw,it being 
 in the genus Neobythites of Goode and Bean, and has been called 
 by Mr. Alcock N. steatiticus. To the order Anacanthini are also 
 referred the cods, the haddocks, the ling, and similar fishes 
 (Gadidw), also all the so-called "Flatfishes" and their kin, as 
 flounders, soles, and halibuts (Pleuronectidw), and other fam- 
 ilies. 
 
 To me, the fish shown in Fig. 15 superficially resembles the 
 common torsk of Europe (Bromius vulgaris), which last is not 
 only an Anacanthid, but also one of the cod family, a Gadoid. 
 Fig. 16 represents a small, very black fish which was taken at 
 nearly 600 fathoms, and consequently more closely resembles 
 some of the forms coming from still greater depths. Especially 
 is this true of its gaping jaws and long, slender teeth, as in the 
 " Torchfish." 0. trains (Fig. 16) belongs to the order Physoitoini, 
 and the family Scopelidw. It has no scales, and is supposed to 
 possess rows of small luminous organs on the inner border of the 
 lower jaws and elsewhere. Fig. 17 represents a very interest- 
 ing little deep-sea fish (order Acanthopterygii, fain. TrachinidcB), 
 being of the same great group to which so many of our common 
 fishes belong, as the perch .(Percidw), the mackerels (Scom- 
 bridw), the mullets (MugilidcB), and a perfect host of other fam- 
 ilies. 
 
 Fig. 18 is a fish that belongs to the same order as the species 
 shown in Fig. 15, and to the cod group (Gadidw), to which, as 
 I have said above, the latter is related. This is rather a large type, 
 of peculiar form and color, being a light pinkish-brown, with a 
 silvery sheen, the belly, throat, and gill membrane being a deep 
 black. 
 
 As time goes by, we may look with great confidence toward 
 the taking of still more remarkable forms from the ocean's 
 depths, and even at still greater distances below the surface. 
 This will not be done upon any great scale, however, until the 
 United States Government takes the matter in hand, and sends 
 to sea a fully equipped expedition, with every modern appliance 
 and facility aboard, and a select corps of working naturalists to 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 81 
 
 undertake the explorations to be made. Such an expedition 
 should occupy at least five years in foreign research, and be pre- 
 pared to carry its surveys far inland, should opportunities arise. 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 
 SEA-HORSES AND EELS. 
 
 (HippocampidcB : Anguillidce.) 
 
 N the present chapter it is my intention to briefly notice 
 the typical representatives of two very different and 
 only remotely allied orders of fishes. I refer to the 
 Sea-horses and the eels, forms that have for years 
 excited popular interest, inasmuch as the first-named appear so 
 very unfishlike, and the latter by many are suspected of having 
 some sort of kinship with the snakes. Both are teleostean fishes, 
 however, and according to Jordan, the Sea-horses belong to the 
 order Lophobranchii, and the Eels to the order Apodes. 
 
 Again, sea-horses are contained in the family Hippocampidw, 
 genus Hippocampus, and Jordan gives two species as occurring 
 in our fauna, viz.: H. heptagonus and H. ingens. The other lopho- 
 branch family associated with them are the pipefishes (Syngna- 
 thidce), of which there are a number of forms on our coasts. They 
 are very different appearing as compared with the sea-horses, as 
 they are small, slender, elongated fishes, covered with bony 
 plates. They have long raw-prehensile tails, commonly pro- 
 vided with a diminutive caudal fin. The males have egg-pouches, 
 into w r hich the eggs are received and hatched. After this the 
 pouch opens and the young escape. Our United States pipe- 
 fishes belong tp the genus Siphostoma, the common pipefish being 
 8. fuscum, which is found upon the Atlantic coast. 
 
 The Australian sea-horse also occurs in Europe, and according 
 to Goode, "there have been only one or two instances of the cap- 
 ture of this fish north of Cape Cod; one was seined with a school 
 of mackerel on George's bank in August, 1873. Two or three 
 specimens have been taken at Wood's Holl during the last ten 
 years, and instances of their capture in Connecticut and about 
 the mouth of the Hudson are not rare. On the New Jersey coast 
 and south to the Gulf of Mexico it appears to be very abundant." 
 Seen upon lateral aspect, the upper half of the sea-horse is apt to 
 remind one of the piece in a set of chessmen called the "knight," 
 and it is impossible for one not to be struck by its extraordinary 
 equine physiognomy. The lower half of the body is composed of 
 the long, tapering, prehensile tail, which is of a quadrangular 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 83 
 
 form. The body of the fish is much compressed, and it, together 
 with the tail, is overlaid with osseous plates, the borders of which 
 form raised transverse wings, armed with spines or tubercles. 
 The neck is curved, so that the axis of the head is placed at 
 nearly a right angle with the long axis of the body. Spines also 
 ornament the head. It will be seen that the dorsal fin is the 
 
 FIG. J 9. THE SEA-HORSE (Hippocampus heptagonus). 
 
 By the Author, after Goode. 
 
 largest, while the others are very small. An egg-pouch is pres- 
 ent in the male. The mouth is very small, and is found at the 
 extremity of the elongated snout, while the orbits for the eyes 
 are nearly circular. In color, our common sea-horse is of a yel- 
 lowish brown, darker dorsally. Some small pale spots are found 
 upon the sides, with the cheeks showing light brown lines of a 
 radiating character, and wavy. 
 
84 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 Hippocampus ingens, our Californian species, is said to reach a 
 length of nearly a foot, and the form of the body is rather slen- 
 der. It is of a darker brown than heptagonus, being mottled with 
 a still darker shade, and spotted over with white. 
 
 Owing to the imperishable nature of the external body armor 
 of a sea horse, many specimens of these fishes float ashore, and in 
 the curiosity shops there is no trouble in securing dried speci- 
 mens. 
 
 Here we may incidentally remark that, although the open seas 
 of the warm regions of the globe are the places where sea-horses 
 are found in the greatest abundance, they are frequently carried 
 by ocean currents to great distances. 
 
 In studying a living specimen of the common sea-horse in an 
 aquarium we note that it moves about in nearly a vertical atti- 
 
 FlG. 20. Phyllopteryx eques. 
 
 By the Author after Gunther, and reduced. 
 
 tude, and that with no great powers of locomotion. Its fins are 
 kept in a state of rapid vibratory action, and it is due to this lack 
 of inherent propulsive power that the fish is unable to withstand 
 the various forces of its element which are brought to bear upon 
 it, such as the ocean currents, and the action of the wind and the 
 waves. By means of its prehensile tail it instinctively clings to 
 sprays of seaweed, bits of broken shells, or anything of a similar 
 nature which may happen to occur in its way. 
 
 Their peculiar mode of reproduction especially attracts atten- 
 tion to these fishes, "a trait so strange," as Lockwood has said, 
 " as to suggest the seemingly abnormal habits of the marsupials 
 the opossum and the kangaroo although the eccentricity of 
 the fish is far greater than that of the land marsupial ; for, in the 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 85 
 
 latter, it is the female whose pouch receives the immature young, 
 and which are therein nourished to complete their development. 
 The parental relation of the female lophobranch, however, is re- 
 stricted to the simple emission of the unirnpregnated eggs. Be- 
 yond this, maternity she has none. The male is really father and 
 mother to the progeny/ ' 
 
 The baby sea-horses measure about five to six lines in length, 
 and notwithstanding their thread-like and rounded tails, with 
 their semi-globular heads and short, wide snouts, there can be 
 no mistaking their parentage. At the very outstart, too, they 
 are in full possession of their little whip-like caudal appendages, 
 and they will, in passing each other, mutually extend them for 
 a common intertwinement, resulting in both the owners coming 
 to a standstill as they pull away in opposite directions. A more 
 enterprising member of the host may vary the program by 
 
 FIG. 21. FRY or SEA-HORSE. 
 
 By the Author, after Lockwood. 
 
 curling its tail about the stumpy muzzle of some one of its numer- 
 ous brothers or sisters, and, for a moment, literally lead its cap- 
 tive relative about by the nose. It is said that there is no end to 
 the amusing antics they perform. 
 
 " In the matter of foetal sustenance," says Lockwood, " I find a 
 remarkable marsupial analogy in the hippocampus. The pouch 
 of the kangaroo and the opossum contain teats, with which, by 
 true lactation, the young are nourished until fully formed. Nor 
 is the embryonal sack of the sea-horse a mere receptacle for the 
 hatching of the eggs, as nourishment is supplied to the growing 
 young. We know that the bear, during hibernation, lives upon 
 the fat acquired the previous season. During a journey that re- 
 quires abstinence from food, the well-conditioned camel will sub- 
 sist on the absorption of its fattened hump. The tail of the frog, 
 which has just completed its last metamorphosis, does not pass 
 off by atrophy, but is really a wise provision for the creature's 
 
86 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 support by absorption during the few days which constitute the 
 most critical period of its life." 
 
 One of the chief protections sea-horses have against their 
 enemies is the way in which their coloration, as a rule, harmo- 
 nizes with their surroundings. This protection is still further en- 
 hanced by the very form and attitudes of the fish, and by the 
 wavy dorsal fin, and peculiar spines and tubercles which project 
 from its head and body. This protective mimicry is perhaps best 
 seen in the remarkable Australian sea-horses, which belong to 
 the genus Pliyllopteryx, an example of which is shown in Fig. 20 
 of this chapter. Here the loose, floating appendages of its body 
 have more the appearance of sprays of waving sea weed than they 
 have to anything which ought to belong to a fish. It is a very 
 singular sight to dip up a bucket of sea water containing a quan- 
 tity of sea weed of a certain species, and come to examine it ; for 
 at first no one would suspect the presence of such a thing as a 
 fish. But presently there floats away from the vegetal mass, 
 weakly swimming, a specimen of these truly extraordinary 
 lophobranchian creatures, which for all the world resembles a 
 thin bit of scraggly root, with the loose and undulating sea weed 
 clinging to it. This proves not to be the case, however, for it is 
 nothing more nor less than a Pliyllopteryx we have before us, 
 which, as Gtinther has very truly said, is "one of the most singu- 
 lar types of littoral fishes." 
 
 It is thought in the case of the young of the pipefishes that 
 they re-enter the pouch of the parent when threatened with any 
 danger, but this has not, to my knowledge, been proved to obtain 
 with respect to the fry of Hippocampus. When the male sea- 
 horse once rids himself of his descendants, he ceases to entertain, 
 as a rule, any solicitude for them, and it must be thought that 
 the mother of these helpless little animals hardly knows, or ac- 
 tually does not know, what they even look like. Strange to say, 
 nevertheless, the male sea-horse has been known to vigorously 
 protect his brood of young shortly after their escape from his 
 brood-sac, and instances are upon record of his doing this in the 
 case of an attack upon them by the female, unconscious as the 
 latter probably was that they were her own. Had she suc- 
 ceeded in devouring them, however, she would have accom- 
 plished no more than do some other species of fishes which are 
 known to feed upon their own fry. 
 
 Considering next certain representatives of the family Anguil- 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 87 
 
 lid a', it may in truth be said that there are vast numbers of 
 people who believe that our common eels are, as I have said 
 above, nothing more nor less than some kind of a water snake, 
 and in reality related to the true serpents. This opinion is en- 
 tirely an erroneous one, and eels are not only not snakes, but 
 they are not even akin to them. They are a family of apodal 
 fishes, numerous forms of which, to some extent, resemble a 
 snake in appearance, from their having a general serpentine 
 outline. 
 
 It is quite remarkable to find persons possessing a high order 
 of intelligence in many fields of information to be almost en- 
 tirely ignorant of such matters. 
 
 There has been since the days of Aristotle an enormous 
 literature devoted to the subject of eels, the structure of 
 both sexes, arid their habits and reproduction. The geo- 
 graphical distribution and migration of eels have also re- 
 ceived very considerable attention, the latter being a subject of 
 special interest. One of our best authorities on fishes, Dr. D. 
 S. Jordan, recognizes but one species of common eel occurring in 
 this country (Anguilla rostrata), which he says is "very abundant 
 from Maine to Mexico; ascending all streams, and resident 
 throughout the Mississippi Valley. Also recorded from China." 
 On the other hand, Dr. Goode assumes the specific identity of the 
 eels of the Old and the New Worlds, and makes the habitat of 
 the common eel almost cosmopolitan, designating the species as 
 A. vulgaris (Fig. 22). Still other authorities entertain views 
 at variance with the two just given, and Prof. Packard, one of 
 our best known naturalists, says " the common eel," which he 
 claims to be " Anguilla acutirostri-s, occurs on both sides of the 
 Atlantic, on the North American coast as far south as Cape Hat- 
 teras, and in inland rivers and lakes." From this it will be ad- 
 mitted that not a little yet remains to be accomplished, even in 
 the matter of the correct identification of the members of this 
 genus. 
 
 One of the most interesting facts connected with the history 
 of eels is that they are known at times to leave the water and to 
 pass over dry land to other ponds or lakes in the neighborhood. 
 By the aid of roots and branches or inequalities of the ground, 
 they have also been known to climb out of the water and up more 
 or less steep ascents, sometimes to the height of twenty feet. 
 When confined in ponds, eels will often quit these at night, and, 
 
OO CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 squirming over the moist meadow-lands or the dewy grass, pass 
 to a river in the vicinity, where they may enjoy purer water and 
 better conditions. 
 
 A great many interesting incidents might be told bearing upon 
 this chapter of the life-history of these remarkable fishes. Many 
 and peculiar have been the theories in regard to the reproduction 
 of eels. Originating probably with Aristotle, the idea was long 
 entertained that they sprang from mud; later they were sup- 
 posed to be bred in the ground; some believed eels to be vivip- 
 arous, and even to-day it is not difficult to find those who will 
 contend that young eels are produced from the hairs of the tails 
 of stallions that have been deposited in the water. Sharp in- 
 deed, in times past, have been the disputes upon this question, 
 but it is now firmly established that, agreeing with other teleos- 
 
 FIG. 22. THE COMMON EEL (Anguilla vidgaris). 
 
 Drawn by the Author, after Goode, and greatly reduced. 
 
 tean fishes, they are oviparous, and have, like them, a milt and 
 roe, which, though differing considerably in appearance, never- 
 theless functionally fulfill the same end. Eels deposit their 
 spawn in sand or mud in brackish water at the mouths of rivers, 
 and to reach these localities they migrate in autumn, dow r n vari- 
 ous w T ater-courses, to their spawning beds. This migration is 
 performed only upon the darkest nights, the reverse being the 
 case with the young eels in the springtime, they in their turn 
 passing up the rivers during the day in enormous numbers. In 
 England, says an authority at hand, " this migration 
 takes place from February to May, according to the tempera- 
 ture, and some idea of the vast numbers of young eels which an- 
 nually pass up our rivers may be formed from the fact that 1,800 
 of them, each about three inches long, have been observed to 
 pass a given point on the Thames in a single minute." 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 89 
 
 Many points in the history of eels are of interest; their pe- 
 culiar structure and wherein they differ from their near allies 
 among fishes; of their great economic value as a food, and how 
 some nations eat them and others do not; of their intolerance of 
 cold, and how in the winter time hundreds of them will huddle 
 together in the mud a foot or more beneath the surface, and 
 where fishermen will capture them in great quantities by means 
 of eel spears, especially after the tide has fallen and left them 
 dry. 
 
 Baird has said that eels will eat anything, living or dead, and 
 so far as my own personal experience goes, I believe them to 
 stand among the scavengers of the rivers and seas where they 
 occur. They are both carnivorous as well as voracious, and dur- 
 ing the summer months of their activity consume thousands of 
 young fishes, worms and larvaB of marine insects. 
 
 in ancient times the Egyptians regarded these fishes with the 
 greatest possible disgust, while, on the other hand, the Romans 
 and Greeks esteemed them among the most savory of their 
 dishes, and frequently were willing to pay enormous prices to 
 secure them as a food. It is said that in these days eels are never 
 eaten in Scotland, though in England, as well as in this country, 
 vast numbers of them are annually consumed. The greatest eel- 
 breeding establishment in the world is that at Conamachio on 
 the Adriatic, where an immense swamp, bounded and fed by two 
 of the mouths of the Kiver Po, 140 miles in circumference, has 
 been utilized for this purpose. The industry is very ancient, 
 having yielded in the sixteenth century an annual revenue to the 
 Koman Pontiffs, in whose territory it was, off 66,000. The eels are 
 cooked at Conamachio and forwarded to the principal towns of 
 Italy. 
 
 Among the allies of the common eels we find upon our coasts 
 the mura?nas, which belong to the family Murcenidce, and of 
 these there appear to be at least three well recognized American 
 species. M. mordax, of the lower California waters, is there 
 known by the fishermen as the " Conger eel," or the " Congeree," 
 who dread it on account of its ferocious disposition and the ugly 
 bite it so frequently inflicts. These great marine forms that 
 have been known to attain a length of ten feet, and weigh up- 
 wards of 150 Ibs. 
 
 It is a first-rate food-fish, and much sought after, many of them 
 being brought into the markets at Los Angeles. Another species 
 
90 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 is the " Speckled moray " (M. occlata), found from Florida and 
 Texas coasts southward, and finally, we have M. melanotis of the 
 West Indian seas, that has been captured on our Atlantic coast. 
 These eel-like fishes often attain a length of five or six feet, and 
 possess the power of striking with their tails, like some snakes. 
 Many species of them are found in the tropical seas, and a great 
 deal of interest has been written about them. The common 
 Mediterranean form is M. helence, called the " Mura3na " by the 
 ancient Eomans, who greatly esteemed its white and savory 
 flesh. They kept them alive in vivaria, and Julius Caesar dis- 
 tributed over 6,000 of these to his friends when celebrating one 
 of his triumphs. 
 
 Still another most interesting eel family are the famous elec- 
 tric eels, w r hich come to be five or six feet long, and are common 
 in the marshes of Brazil and the Guianas. We have all heard 
 the story, so well and briefly told by Gibson, who has said that 
 the natives regard this animal "with terror," owdng to the for- 
 midable electrical apparatus with which it is provided, and 
 which extends along each side of the lower portion of the tail. 
 When this natural battery is discharged in a favorable position, 
 it is sufficiently powerful to kill the largest animal ; and, accord- 
 ing to Humboldt, it has been found necessary to change the line 
 of certain roads, owing to the number of horses that were an- 
 nually killed in passing through the pools frequented by the 
 gymnoti. These eels are eaten by the Indians, who, before at- 
 tempting to capture them, seek to exhaust their electrical power 
 by driving horses into the ponds. By repeated discharges upon 
 these, they gradually expend the marvelous force; after which, 
 being defenseless, they become timid, and approach the edge for 
 shelter, when they fall an easy prey to the harpoon of the Indian. 
 It is only after long rest and abundance of food that this fish is 
 able to resume the use of its subtle weapon. 
 
CHAPTER Vll. 
 
 FROGS, TOADS, NEWTS, AND OTHER AMPHIBIANS. 
 
 (Class Amphibia.) 
 
 S distinguished from the Class Reptilia, which contains 
 the turtles, tortoises, snakes, lizards, crocodiles, etc., 
 the Class Amphibia is made to contain such groups of 
 amphibious animals as those arrayed under the Uro- 
 dela (Siren, Proteus, Menobranchus, Amphiuma, Menopoma, and 
 Cryptobranchus), the Anura (as frogs, toads, hylas, etc.), the 
 Peromela (Coecilia, etc.), and the Labyrinthodonta (fossil forms). 
 
 In the fauna of the United States we have many of this Class 
 of the Tertebrata represented, as for example we have among the 
 Urodela, the Siren (Siren lacertina), the Proteus (Necturus), the 
 Congo snake (Amphiuma means), the Three-fingered siren (Mu- 
 rwnopsis tridactylus), the Hellbender (Menopoma), a great many 
 salamanders (Amblystoma), a host of tritons and their allies 
 (Plethodon, etc., etc.); while among the Anura we have all the 
 frogs (Rana, etc.), the toads (Bufo, etc.), and the Tree frogs 
 (Hyla, etc.). 
 
 During the last fifteen years many of these forms have been 
 treated by me in a variety of publications, but it is evident that 
 in a brief chapter like the present one it will be quite out of the 
 question to do more than to briefly refer to some of the better 
 known United States Amphibia, and thus incite the reader to 
 carry his investigations further, and consult other volumes upon 
 their life-histories. As I have said in another chapter, we stand 
 very much in need of exhaustive and recent treatises upon both 
 the Reptilia of this country, as well as the Amphibia. Nearly or 
 quite all of our systematic works upon these subjects are now 
 antiquated. Professor Cope, at his death, left the manuscripts 
 for a fine volume treating of them, and I presume, sooner or 
 later, it will be published by the United States National Mu- 
 seum, but just how much of the ground it will cover I am at this 
 writing unable to state. 
 
 A good many years ago I had the opportunity to study a very 
 good representative of one branch of the Urodela group, at New 
 Orleans, Louisiana. It was the Three-toed siren, there called, in 
 
92 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 common with another form, the Congo " eel." My species, how- 
 ever, was Murcenopsis tridactylus, while Anipliiiuna means is more 
 properly known as the Congo eel among the people in the regions 
 where it occurs. Still both Htircenopsis and Aniphiuma nte<inx 
 bear this name among the negroes and less intelligent people of 
 the South, who also call them " lampreys/' and dread them as 
 they would rattlesnakes. Of course they are in no way whatever 
 venomous, but they will bite. A small one, which I kept in a 
 tank of water, if roughly handled, w^ould curl up, slowly open his 
 mouth, and make an awkward longe at the fingers or hand that 
 held him. Sometimes he would only open his mouth and hiss in 
 a subdued manner. On one occasion, however, this reptile suc- 
 ceeded in getting out of his tank during the night, and when I 
 
 FIG. 23. LIFE-SIZE HEAD OF Murcenopsis tridactylus. Adult. 
 
 Drawn from the living specimen by the Author. 
 
 found him in the morning, in a distant part of the room, he 
 snapped at me quite savagely several times before he was re- 
 taken. 
 
 It was interesting to observe his method of leaping out of his 
 tank of water, which by seven or eight inches was not full. He 
 swam round and round with increasing rapidity till the neces- 
 sary impetus was acquired, when he would prettily make a sort 
 of a spring over the side of the tank on to the floor, where he 
 would squirm round like an eel until replaced. In such situations 
 he uses his feeble legs to the full extent to which they seem ca- 
 pable of being put; in the water, too, these members are con- 
 stantly brought into use, the fore-pair when he desires to move 
 very slowly forward, in which case he may or may not, generally 
 not, use the hind pair in aiding the action. The fore-pair are 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 93 
 
 also used alternately to push himself one way or another, when 
 he wishes to change his course. A common use for the hind-pair 
 is to throw them forward and brace them against the ground he 
 may be passing over, in order to check his onward movement, 
 either partially or entirely. In swimming about he has all the 
 appearance of the common eel ; and during these times he draws 
 both pairs of limbs close beside his body, when his action is 
 graceful and interesting to behold. 
 
 When these sirens are at rest they either stretch out in gentle 
 curves, sluggishly along the bottom, or, what is not very un- 
 common for them to do, curl up tightly, in a spiral manner, the 
 latter two-thirds of their length, while the head and remaining 
 third is protruded forward in a direct line. In this curious 
 position they float near the surface, the head being lowermost. 
 If two occupy the same vessel they often curl about each other 
 in rather an affectionate manner ; but I have never witnessed 
 them quarrel or fight. One time I threw a dead king-snake into 
 the tub of my first small specimen, the snake being at least three 
 times as long as the siren. Imagine my surprise to see him fly 
 at the intruder, seize him just below the head, straighten out as 
 stiff as he could, then rapidly whirl round, as a drill does, caus- 
 ing the dead snake to be spirally coiled about his body. A 
 moment of quietude followed this strange maneuver, during 
 which time one could see a crunching movement on the part of 
 the jaws of the siren going on ; but, finding his enemy showed 
 no resistance, he slowly let go his hold, and, freeing himself from 
 the dead snake's coils, swam about the tank without paying him 
 any further attention. In a few moments, however, I repeated 
 the experiment, when he made the same attack with just as much 
 vigor as before ; but all subsequent trials failed, and I could 
 never induce him to take further heed of such a harmless enemy. 
 
 This siren will eat crayfish in confinement ; but I never could 
 induce one to take anything else, although raw T meat was the 
 common bait used by the negroes in catching them for me. 
 Sometimes before a meal, or maybe after, your captive will swim 
 gracefully about his limited quarters, and occasionally rise to the 
 surface, stick his nose out of the water, and give vent to a loud, 
 blowing sound, that may be heard anywhere in a large room, 
 even if conversation be going on. As already remarked above, 
 my collectors usually took such specimens as they brought me, 
 with the ordinary hook and line, baited with fresh meat ; but 
 
94 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 very often they are captured in hand dip-nets, or even thrown out 
 of a shallow drain or bayou with a stick. They are most often 
 seen after heavy rains, when their usual places of resort are 
 flooded over. Usually when taken they are at once dispatched 
 and wantonly mutilated, so great is the detestation in which they 
 are held by the people of the South. They are extremely te- 
 nacious of life, and may be cut all to bits, and still move after 
 the lapse of half an hour.* 
 
 Before passing to the consideration of the next group, I would 
 say that many recent writers place both of the Urodela noted 
 above, in the same genus as A. means, the Two-fingered, and A. 
 tridactylum, the Three-fingered siren; the latter being the species 
 I have described. We stand much in need of full descriptions 
 of the life-histories and morphology of our other United States 
 Urodela. 
 
 If now the question be asked. What is a salamander? that is, 
 the representative of the next group of these Urodela it may be 
 said that all sorts of opinions in history, both past and present, 
 have been entertained as to what the nature of a salamander is. 
 Aristotle, who wrote when science w r as comparatively in its in- 
 fancy, believed that there were some animals so constituted 
 that they were incombustible. In proof of this he cited the sal- 
 amander, which, " when it walks through fire, extinguishes it." 
 .Elian, too, evidently believed this to be the case, and although 
 he is careful to state that salamanders are not born of fire, nor 
 is that their natural habitat, yet when the bellows of the forger 
 fails to quicken the flame on his forge, there is a salamander near, 
 and the only remedy is to find and destroy it. Pliny, another 
 sage of early time, firmly declared that the saliva of a sala- 
 mander applied to any part of the body whatever would cause 
 the hair to fall out ; consequently we find Dioscorides referring 
 to prepared salamander oil to be used as a depilatory. According 
 to Pliny, too, the salamander was of cold complexion, and had 
 the power of emitting a cold, venom-like aconite, but of such a 
 virulent nature that it poisoned the wood of trees over which the 
 animal crept, and bread baked with such timber would kill who- 
 ever ate of it. WTiat was mythical and fabulous in the writings 
 of the early authors, passed down w r ith medieval history as act- 
 ual beliefs beliefs strongly impregnated with similar absurd- 
 
 * In Science (Vol 2. No. 27, Aug. 10, 1883, pp. 159-163). I have given rather full'noteB upon the 
 anatomy of <1f. fri<l<i<-li/lii/t, with still more on its habits than I am enabled to present here. Its skull 
 and other parts of its skeleton are also there figured. 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 95 
 
 ities. This is seen in that remarkable work of the time, the 
 Pln/siologus, which still taught that a salamander could quench 
 fire. But the Arabic Physioloyus taught that it was a stone 
 that possessed that property. Later, asbestos proved to be the 
 stone in question, asbestos was the salamander of Marco Polo, 
 and a kind of incombustible cloth was manufactured from its 
 fibers. Thus the Arabs, who knew not whether a salamander 
 was beast or bird, and in some way mixed it up with the Phoenix, 
 came to believe that asbestos cloth was made either from the 
 feathers or else the hair of a salamander. So Bacon and some 
 other writers of his time called asbestos salamander's wool. 
 Cabalistic moderns refer to the spirits of fire as the salamanders 
 of that element, and it is by no means uncommon even to-day to 
 find people in plenty who still have the salamander myth in their 
 minds, and will innocently ask if such a creature does not really 
 exist, and possess the power to pass unharmed through an ordi- 
 nary fire, quickly. I know a captain in our army whom I never 
 could convince that those spiny-coated lizards of the west, popu- 
 larly known as " horned toads," were not " some kind of a 
 salamander, or a crustacean, that could pass unharmed through 
 the flames of a camp-fire." And another officer of the same regi- 
 ment, more open to conviction, had his mind disabused by me 
 of the belief it had, that larval salamanders and the famous 
 " Gila monster" were one and the same animal, and that their 
 " bieath was poisonous," and would cause certain death to the 
 person who unfortunately happened to breathe it. 
 
 In Europe, from the very earliest times down to the present 
 day, all the tail-bearing amphibia were considered by nearly 
 everybody to be salamanders, and consequently popularly asso- 
 ciated with the mythical creatures so named by the ancient and 
 medieval writers. 
 
 Over a century and a quarter ago, or in 1768, a naturalist by 
 the name of Laurenti designated a genus of vertebrated animals 
 of the Class Amphibia, as the genus 8alainandra,&ud to this genus 
 biologists now restrict all the typical forms known to us as sal- 
 amanders. They are most interesting creatures to study, and it 
 is hardly necessary to add that they are not possessed of any of 
 the remarkable powers which the writers of the middle ages, 
 and both before and since, would have us believe. 
 
 Taken in connection with what has been pointed out above, 
 it may be said that the Salamandrida is a subgroup of the 
 
96 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 Cnnlela, and it is in its first division, the Mecodonta, that we 
 find, among numerous other genera, the genus Salamandra. 
 
 Salamanders are found distributed very generally over nearly 
 the whole of Europe, especially the central and southern parts, 
 and they occur also in Syria and in Algiers. Great Britain, or 
 the British Isles, lacks them entirely, nor are the salamanders 
 found in the fauna of the United States. These truly harmless 
 little creatures secrete themselves under the debris of the forest, 
 in damp and shady localities, where they feed upon numerous 
 kinds of insects and worms. They are viviparous, the thirty or 
 forty eggs of the female parent developing in the oviducts at one 
 time, and the young when born being deposited in sluggish, 
 stagnant water, where they live and grow for some time. To the 
 biologist the development of the young of the salamander offers 
 a chapter in science of great interest and importance, as they 
 pass through a series of stages, or a metamorphosis of a very in- 
 structive nature. Neither physiologically nor structurally are 
 they for some time as high in the animal scale as the parent ani- 
 mals. In other words, among other things, they possess external 
 feather-like gills, and consequently are comparable with the 
 adults of a group of creatures lower in the scale of creation than 
 Salamandra I refer to the Perennibranchiata. 
 
 I have said that we have no true salamanders in the United 
 States, but what we do have, are a number of genera of amphib- 
 ians, the representatives of which are more or less nearly allied 
 to Salamandra, and of these genera, the genus Amblystoma is 
 especially rich in forms, being variously distributed all over the 
 country. 
 
 Some naturalists have fallen into the habit of calling them 
 salamanders, and in reality in external appearance one of our 
 American " Elfs " or amblystouias closely resembles a conti- 
 nental salamander. Like the latter, the young pass through a 
 " tadpole stage," and a " perennibranchiatal stage," before as- 
 suming the adult form. In the latter condition they live in the 
 fresh-water pools, have four limbs, and breathe by gill-slits, that 
 possess feather-like external gills. To better appreciate the ap- 
 pearance of the adult of one of these creatures, I submit here a 
 drawing of our " tiger salamander" (AmUystoma tigrinum), made 
 from a photograph that I succeeded in obtaining in New Mexico. 
 During the aquatic existence of one of these amblystomas they 
 are known in Mexico and Southwestern United States as the 
 
i-^C 
 
 m 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 99 
 
 axolotl, what Cuvier, the great French naturalist, for a long time 
 thought to be an elf tadpole. He was the more certain of this, 
 inasmuch as they can in this immature stage reproduce their 
 kind! Axolotls were even referred by naturalists to a different 
 genus Siredon, and were there retained for a long time. Some 
 of them were kept and studied with great interest in aquaria 
 at the Jardin des Plantes, at Paris, and it was here, to the aston- 
 ishment of all, that their true nature was revealed. Without any 
 apparent reason one of the specimens one day suddenly was 
 transformed into an adult amblystoma, and the fact threw a 
 flood of light into the natural history of the entire group. Since 
 that time they have been studied by biologists all over the world, 
 and the writer of the present w^ork had an excellent oppor- 
 tunity to gratify his ow r n tastes in that direction during a so- 
 journ in New Mexico for a period of five years. Through the 
 Smithsonian Institution I sent upward of 300 of the living young 
 of the k * tiger salamander " (see Fig. 25) over the United States 
 and Europe, where they were very generally distributed in the 
 biological laboratories of the various institutions of learning 
 (see Science, Sept. 25, 1885). Fingers and toes, and even more of 
 the limbs of these creatures, will reproduce themselves after 
 having been amputated, and this is also an interesting fact about 
 them. 
 
 Personally, I have never examined the Spotted salamander of 
 Europe, but we read that the " body is covered with warty 
 glands, W 7 hich secrete a milky fluid of a glutinous and acrid 
 nature, like that of a toad, and which, if not capable of affecting 
 the larger and more highly-organized animals, appears to be a 
 destructive agent to some inferior species. Thus Laurenti pro- 
 voked two gray lizards to bite a salamander, which at first 
 attempted to escape from them, but being still persecuted, 
 ejected some of this fluid into their mouths ; one of the lizards 
 died instantly, and the other fell into convulsions for two min- 
 utes, and then expired. Some of this juice was introduced into 
 the mouth of another lizard ; it became convulsed, was paralytic 
 on the whole of one side, and soon died. This account is the only 
 foundation for the long-cherished notion of the power possessed 
 by the salamander, and attaching to it the reputation of being 
 one of the most venomous of animals." The same writer asserts 
 that " a copious secretion of this fluid might damp a moderate 
 flame for an instant or two to which a salamander had been 
 
100 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 committed, and the animal gutter no barm/' and this accounts for 
 the other long-cherished myth! Myth and miracle both have 
 their origin in ignorance, and the only radical cure for either 
 affection known to me, is a heroic dose of a full knowledge of 
 the facts pertaining to any particular subject. 
 
 A marvelous variety of interesting forms are included in the 
 Anura, being represented in this country principally by the 
 FROGS (Rana, Scaphiopus, Spea, Hyla, Acris, and others) and by 
 the TOADS (Bufo) ; while in other parts of the world both of these 
 groups have a vast number of genera and species, and a third 
 group is found created to contain the Surinam toad (Pipa) and 
 Xenopus (Dactylethra capensis). They have been classified upon 
 their anatomical peculiarities, but this classification must still 
 be considered in a degree provisional, until worked out in greater 
 detail and more extensive comparisons made. 
 
 The forms and appearances of typical frogs, a Cricket frog, 
 toads and tree-toads, are so well known, even to casual ob- 
 servers, that space will be gained here by the omission of de- 
 tailed descriptions. The literature upon this division of the 
 Amphibia is quite profuse, and the student to gain a good knowl- 
 edge of the subject should read such books and articles as the 
 very excellent work by Prof. St. George Mivart, F.K.S., on " The 
 Common Frog " (1881) ; Prof. Huxley's article "Amphibia," in the 
 ninth edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica; Gunther's Cata- 
 logue of the Batrachia Salientia; Prof. Cope's numerous works; 
 Mi vart's essay "On the Classification of the Anurous Batrach- 
 ians;" the anatomical contributions of the Parkers, of Owen, 
 of Gegenbaur, of Sabatier, and many other writers. From these 
 one will gain very general information upon the geological his- 
 tory of frogs and toads; upon their general and special structure 
 and habits; their distribution and their classification. All adult 
 frogs and toads, as the name Anura implies, are tailless, possess- 
 ing as they do four well-developed limbs, and short, squatty 
 bodies, large mouths, scaleless, smooth skins, big eyes; and 
 they may be with or without tongue, and with or without teeth. 
 Many of them habitually live in the water, while others only re- 
 sort to that element for the purpose of depositing their egg- 
 masses. In the reproduction of young frogs they pass through 
 changes (metamorphoses) corresponding to the development of 
 young fish. Anyone who has studied " pond-life " is familiar 
 with the jelly-like mass of eggs deposited in the water by female 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 101 
 
 frogs, these ova being impregnated by the male at the time of 
 their passage. In due course of time, depending largely upon 
 the temperature, these eggs hatch out the young tadpoles, that 
 pass through various stages to young frogs. These stages are 
 exceedingly interesting to study, and the far-reaching chapter 
 they cover in biology will more than repay the young naturalist 
 who will collect a mass of these eggs, take them home, and, plac- 
 ing them in the proper conditions, watch all the details of the 
 
 FIG. 25. COMMON BULLFROG. 
 
 One-half natural size. From a photograph by the Author. 
 
 development, with a complete treatise upon amphibian reproduc- 
 tion at hand. 
 
 Tadpoles of the Anura subsist upon a vegetable diet, while the 
 adult frog lives upon insects, crustaceans and the smaller fishes. 
 It is said that our common Bull-frog takes about five years to 
 attain its full growth, and its life is supposed to extend to about 
 ten years more thereafter. They have a host of enemies; as 
 
102 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 num. and many other mammals, raptorial birds, and snakes and 
 other reptiles. Some fishes also prey upon them. 
 
 In the June number of Appleton's Popular Science Monthly 
 (1896) I contributed an article, entitled " Frogs and their Uses," 
 it being illustrated by a reproduction of a photograph of our 
 Bullfrog (Rana catesbiana) (p. 181), and this figure is given here 
 as one well showing the external form of this species. 
 
 Mivart claims a frog to be "' a tailless, lung-breathing, branch- 
 iate vertebrate, with, four limbs typically differentiated, under- 
 going a complete metamorphosis, and provided with teeth along 
 the margins of the upper jaw." This last character is one that 
 distinguishes the frogs from the toads, while from other batrach- 
 ians the frogs are at once separated by the absence of a tail. 
 Both frogs and toads hibernate in the winter, coming forth in the 
 spring. The process of development in toads is very similar to 
 that of the frogs, only the eggs are strung out in links instead of 
 being in a mass. These long chains of eggs are drawn out of the 
 body of the female by the hind legs of the male, while she is in 
 the water. 
 
 In this country we also have in the Northern and Eastern 
 States one of the best known of all those little arboreal batrach- 
 ians, vernacularly known as tree-toads, or more properly tree- 
 frogs, though I will call them " toads " here, because they are so 
 generally known as such. This is the northern tree-toad, or, as it 
 is called by others, the chameleon liyla. Hi/la is the scientific 
 appellation of the genus to which all the true tree-toads have 
 been referred; and our common tree-toad is called H. versicolor, 
 from the w 7 ell-known fact that it possesses the power of varying 
 the shade of its skin. At certain times this little toad is of a very 
 pale ash color above, variegated with marbled markings, while 
 beneath it is nearly white, and the low^er and inner sides of the 
 thighs are of a beautiful yellow, with a few darker maculations. 
 From this livery I have seen it slowly pass through a pale olive 
 shade to one of a rich snuff-brow r n, with the mottlings on the 
 back nearly black, while very little change was to be observed 
 upon the lower parts. This all happened when the creature was 
 placed on a very dark and wet piece of pine bark in a closed jar. 
 An hour later, when I returned to look at him, he, with another 
 individual of the same species, had crept beneath the bark, and 
 were close against the glass, and by this time had assumed the 
 palest possible tint of gray, with the marbling very distinct 
 
FIG. 26. TREE-TOADS (Hyla versicolor). 
 
 From life. Photographed by the Author. 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 105 
 
 again on the back. When one comes to study them closely the 
 eyes of one of these tree-toads are very beautiful structures, as 
 are the eyes of our common toads. 
 
 It took me over an hour one summer's afternoon to secure a 
 good photograph of a pair of tree-toads, and I found them far 
 more difficult subjects than many young birds I have succeeded 
 with in half the time. They have a habit of suddenly moving, or 
 even jumping, when one least expects, and as an exposure of 
 half a minute had to be given them, owing to the very small dia- 
 phragm used, the task came to be one of great difficulty. One 
 might be easy enough, but two was a contract. Their jumps are 
 of a very extraordinary character, for they can not only spring 
 some considerable distance, but they are able to hit the point 
 they start for with a remarkable degree of accuracy. In my 
 photograph (Fig. 26) the upper specimen is just balancing himself 
 for a leap, and from this attitude he can launch into the air for 
 two or three feet, and with certainty land upon any selected leaf 
 in a tree he may care to, it being no bigger than the leaves shown 
 in the picture. They can also jump to a horizontal place, alight- 
 ing back downward, and a vertical plane surface gives them 
 no trouble at all to land upon. All this is accomplished by 
 means of the little disk-like suckers on the under side of the ends 
 of each and all the toes and fingers. No doubt the moisture ever 
 present on the under side of the body aids, too, in their sticking to 
 the variously inclined surfaces they alight on in their leaps 
 among the leaves and branches of their haunts. 
 
 Frequently, when at rest, a tree-toad will assume the posture 
 seen in the lower specimen of my photograph, and it is when thus 
 resting that they give vent to their peculiar pipings during 
 cloudy or rainy weather. Often I have heard them set up a 
 clamorous chorus in the night time, and they are simply tremen- 
 dously noisy during the breeding season. Some claim that these 
 tree-toads likewise possess ventriloquial powers, that deceive 
 the ears of those in pursuit of them, but I have relied only upon 
 my eyes to capture all the specimens taken by me. The large, 
 handsome insect in Fig. 26 is a more or less abundant species in 
 the summer time in many localities. Children call it a "knicker," 
 from the contrivance it has for springing or snapping up, when 
 placed upon its back. In science we call it Alaus ocelata, the 
 more respectable name, I think, and fully as descriptive. 
 
 Tree-toads subsist largely upon various kinds of insects that 
 
106 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 they capture in the trees where the}' live. There are about a 
 dozen other species of hylas found in the southern and western 
 parts of this country, while the species now being described is 
 likewise found in the west. On one occasion I remember cap- 
 turing four large specimens of them in the crevices of the dark 
 moss-covered rocks that inclosed a well-known spring near Fort 
 Wingate, New Mexico. It w r as marvelous to see how closely 
 their mottled skins matched the rocks upon which they were, 
 both in color and appearance. 
 
 These tree-toads will live a long time without taking either 
 food or water; they exhibit but little evidence of inconvenience 
 from such treatment, even after a fortnight, and then if they 
 have access to fresh water they appear as well as ever. Many 
 times I have kept them with the hope of studying their mode of 
 reproduction, but have never succeeded in getting them to breed 
 in captivity. 
 
 The history of the true toads (Bufo) is full of interest, and 
 would fill a goodly volume. One of their chief characters con- 
 sists in the large, protuberant w r arts on their skin, which secrete 
 an acrid fluid, very obnoxious to carnivorous animals, and prob- 
 ably protects them against their attacks. These batrachians 
 have four toes in front and five behind, as in the frogs. On the 
 latter they are joined usually by complete webs of membrane. 
 In speaking of the Common toad of Europe (B. vulgaris) a popu- 
 lar writer at hand truly remarks that instances have occurred of 
 these animals having been found imbedded in indurated clay, the 
 solid trunks of trees, and even in rocks, where it was believed 
 they had remained for years, perhaps for ages; yet on being lib- 
 erated, came fully to life. The general opinion of scientific nat- 
 uralists is, that these accounts are either untrue or inaccurate. 
 They believe that toads may subsist for a long time, perhaps 
 for years, with very little food or air, and that they may have 
 been found apparently inclosed in solid substances, but that in 
 point of fact there was some crack or crevice through which they 
 obtained air and small insects sufficient to support life. 
 
 The " croakings " of toads and frogs are often very remark- 
 able, and, taken in connection with the anatomy of their voice 
 organs, well worthy of study. Shakespeare speaks of the myth 
 of the jewel in the head of a toad, and this is probably founded 
 upon the great beauty of its bright eyes, in which the iris fre- 
 quently has all the brilliancy of a fine opal or sapphire. 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 107 
 
 It is interesting to note the method, by the use of its very exten- 
 sible tongue, how toads capture their insect prey so different 
 from the frog, that leaps at it with gaping jaws. In fact, there is 
 so much to write about pertaining to these curious animals, that 
 the danger is one's pen may run away with its holder, and so I 
 very reluctantly bring this chapter to a close, and only trust 
 that it may incite the reader to look more carefully into the 
 literature of the Amphibia and record, what we much need, fuller 
 histories of our United States forms of them. 
 
CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 SOME OBSERVATIONS ON LIZARDS. 
 
 (LacertUia.) 
 
 E very much need a complete treatise upon the United 
 States Reptilia, fully illustrated, with a companion 
 volume upon the Amphibia of this country. No such 
 work has as yet been published, and our herpetologists 
 are, at this writing, still depending upon a literature of the sub- 
 ject, which is rapidly becoming more or less antiquated. Usu- 
 ally, naturalists include in the Reptilia a variety of orders of ex- 
 tinct reptiles, as well as the more modern groups of Crocodilia, 
 LacertUia, Ophidia, and Chelonia, while in the Amphibia we find 
 the Urodela, the Anura, the Peromela, and the Labyrinthodonta. 
 
 Such a work should fully review up to date the entire history 
 and literature of the subject; give the general characters of the 
 Class Reptilia; their taxonomy or classification; their morphol- 
 ogy or anatomy; the known extinct forms of Keptiles and Am- 
 phibians (palaeontology) ; and the distribution and biology of the 
 existing orders. 
 
 It is possible that the U. S. National Museum may publish 
 before long a valuable work upon our United States reptiles, as 
 I am aware that shortly before his lamented death, Professor 
 E. D. Cope had completed a work of the kind. 
 
 As Dr. Gtinther of the British Museum has remarked, " The 
 name Lizard (Latin lacerta) originally referred only to the small 
 European species of four-legged reptiles, but is now applied to a 
 whole order (Lacertilia), which is represented by extremely nu- 
 merous species in all temperate and tropical parts of the globe. 
 Lizards may be described as reptiles with a more or less elon- 
 gated body terminating in a tail, and with the skin either folded 
 into scales (as in snakes) or granular or tubercular; legs are 
 generally present usually four, rarely two in number but 
 sometimes they are reduced to rudiments or entirely hidden be- 
 low the skin; the jaws are toothed, and the two mandibles firmly 
 united in front by an osseous suture. Eyelids are generally pres- 
 ent. The vent is a transverse slit, and not longitudinal, as in 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 109 
 
 Crocodilians. Other structural characteristics, especially of the 
 skeleton, separate lizards from the other orders of reptiles." We 
 have a large number of species and subspecies of lizards in this 
 country a list altogether too long to think of enumerating here. 
 One of my first contributions to herpetology was published as 
 long ago as 1881 by the TJ. S. National Museum, the paper giving 
 a description of the skeleton of our legless lizard, popularly 
 known as the " glass-snake " (Ophisaurus). This very interesting 
 and perfectly harmless lizard is quite common in the woods of 
 our Southern States. A good-sized one may attain a length of 
 eighteen or twenty inches, being of a serpentine form, with no 
 external legs. When struck smartly with a stick, the " glass- 
 snake " usually fractures into a number of pieces, but all the seg- 
 ments are post-anal, and really only take place in the tail of the 
 reptile. There is a popular notion that these pieces may come 
 together again, and grow so that complete recovery results, and 
 things were as before the injury, but this is only one of not a few 
 zoological myths still entertained by the uninformed. The 
 " Glow-worm " of Europe (Anguis) is a similar kind of lizard, 
 possessing an equal brittleness of its caudal extremity. 
 
 Those Spined or Horned lizards (Phrynosoma) of the western 
 part of our country, called Horned toads by so many people, are 
 not toads at all, but are representatives of one of the most in- 
 teresting genera of lizards we have in our fauna. 
 
 As I said when writing to The American Naturalist from New 
 Orleans in 1883, about our American chameleon (Anolis princi- 
 palis), that under all circumstances lizards are interesting crea- 
 tures, meet them where we may; as one evidence of this, how 
 often do we find them chosen, and that, too, for many ages gone 
 by, as objects to adorn pottery, vases, and china, or modeled in 
 silver and gold to be worn as jewelry, or cast in the baser metals 
 for other purposes, such as bronze ornaments. There is some- 
 thing very mysterious at times, in their very look, their dignified 
 mien, their almost provoking silence; this is changed in us to a 
 sense of curious interest that is quickened as the reptile assumes 
 its livelier air, darts along the tree branch that it may be on, or 
 shoots with the rapidity of an arrow up the trunk of some old 
 tree. This singular interest amounts to positive fascination as 
 we come to know the Anolidai, and I assure you our little Ameri- 
 can chameleon is one of the most engaging of the group, at the 
 same time being one of the commonest of all the lizards found 
 
110 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 throughout the lowlands ot Louisiana; indeed, I have known in- 
 stances of two or three children capturing as many as twenty- 
 five or thirty in some old magnolia grove in the course of an hour 
 or two, and we may well imagine the number that would escape 
 from our juvenile collectors. It is certainly the exception, 
 though, that any one ever disturbs or injures, either in city or 
 forest, this inoffensive and harmless little creature; entitled as 
 we are, however, to claim this for ourselves, it must be remem- 
 bered, and it is a fact, not commonly known, that in the town and 
 its immediate neighborhood the chameleon has an uncompro- 
 mising enemy in the domestic cat. This animal, I have been in- 
 formed upon undoubted authority, will, when the opportunity 
 presents itself, pass anything, meat, birds, and even fish, if there 
 is the slightest chance of securing one of these lizards, of which 
 it seems to be so inordinately fond. The cat will stalk one, just 
 as w r e all have seen them attack some unsuspecting sparrow. 
 Should the lizard be on the trunk of a tree, and low down near 
 the ground, and the cat miss it in her spring, she will frequently, 
 in her disappointment, chase it up the tree, where of course the 
 reptile wins in such an unequal race. 
 
 In the forest, Anolis, no doubt, has many another animal foe 
 that makes it its prey. Our smaller hawks often seize and de- 
 vour them, when they appear, and are exposed in the open. 
 
 In addition to this, the chameleon is subject to other acci- 
 dents; its long tail is frequently broken off; this may grow out 
 again as it does in Ophisaurus, though I have in my possession a 
 specimen where this extremity healed over instead. Another 
 specimen in my collection has, some time or other, apparently 
 long anterior to capture, lost a foot ; in this case a very pretty lit- 
 tle stump has resulted, leaving a member of considerable use. 
 
 I have, perched up before me, one of these little fellows that 
 was taken for my special benefit several days ago ; the reader is 
 presented with a very careful and accurately measured drawing 
 that I have made of him. They sometimes attain a length to ex- 
 ceed this one, by two or three centimeters, rarely more. His en- 
 tire form is covered with the most delicate and minute scales, 
 which are found to be larger along the borders of the jaws and 
 top of the head, where they are regularly arranged. The nostrils 
 are seen within the rounded border of the snout above, and the 
 bright, black little eyes peep out through longitudinal slits form- 
 ing the eyelids, the latter being at the base of rather sunken 
 

OF THE UNITED STATES 113 
 
 orbits. The oral gape is capacious, and the aperture leading to 
 the internal ear is found a few millimeters to the rear of its com- 
 missure. In some specimens a jet black patch is found between 
 the eye and ear, and another above the forearm on the side, sur- 
 rounded by a whitish border; one or both of these markings may 
 be absent, the anterior "one being by far the most persistent. 
 During deep inspiration eight ribs may be counted on either side 
 of this lizard's body; these rarely show when the specimen is at 
 rest and in good condition. See what peculiar feet he has, par- 
 ticularly the hinder pair, and I have taken unusual pains to rep- 
 resent these correctly, and to the best advantage. The fore feet 
 are arranged quite symmetrically, but the toes on the rear pair 
 can be spread out as shown in the cut, or drawn down, side by 
 side, to form a very narrow and, we must own, much more sightly 
 foot. Lying in the median plane, beneath the throat and reach- 
 ing back as far as the sternal space, Anolis possesses a peculiar 
 ornament; this consists in a fold of the common integument, con- 
 trolled by an exceedingly interesting apparatus that gives it the 
 power of protruding downward and slightly forward at will, 
 carrying the fold with it, to fully the extent shown in the figure, 
 or even more. Upon complete retraction this appendage is 
 scarcely discernible. Its sudden appearance has a very striking 
 eft'ect, as the skin of which it is composed is of a bright red color, 
 being decked over with the white scales, which are here larger 
 than usually found elsewhere on the body, that stand apart by 
 the stretching. Out of the large number of specimens that I 
 have examined alive, this curious aft'air never appeared to be 
 missing, though in some it was very much more prominent than 
 in others, so we are forced not to attach to it any sexual distinc- 
 tion. The males are also crested along the dorsum, another 
 feature w r hich becomes more prominent when this reptile is ex- 
 cited. Under nearly all conditions the ventral parts of Anolis, 
 except the continuity of the tail, are white, longitudinally striped 
 w r ith irregular dusky lines that are much more decided at the 
 throat, and almost amount to a mottling on the belly and chest. 
 A certain amount of mottling occurs high up and along the back. 
 This lizard can assume, apparently at will, one of two colors, or 
 an irregularly distributed combination of both of them; these 
 colors are a bright pea-green, the alternative being a very hand- 
 some shade of brownish-bronze, very dark in some old specimens, 
 very light in others. 
 
114 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 The first time he comes under your observation he may be de- 
 scending the trunk of some old cypress; you pause and cau- 
 tiously approach him; he gradually slows down his advance to a 
 deliberate walk, then stops, slowly raises the fore part of his 
 body, turns his head to one side, and surveys you with a pecul- 
 iarly knowing gaze, and perhaps even coldly winks once or 
 twice, at long intervals. While this performance is going on his 
 entire body becomes a dead brownish-bronze, ever and anon im- 
 perceptibly flushing a lighter tint. You make a step nearer, and 
 he suddenly wheels and heads his course up the trunk, squatting 
 very low as he does so; you come still a little nearer, and he ad- 
 vances up the tree in a spiral direction, until he is on the opposite 
 side of the trunk and out of your sight. At this moment per- 
 haps the thought seizes you to effect his capture, and you spring 
 forward to head him off; but in his cunning he has outgeneraled 
 3011; he is nowhere to be seen on the sides of the rugged old 
 trunk; so for a more general inspection you back away a few 
 steps, when, to your surprise, far above your head you behold 
 him stretched out along the first horizontal limb that extends 
 from the main trunk. Who would believe it, though; who would 
 take him for the same nimble little fellow that had just escaped 
 your attack. He is now almost completely clothed in a suit of 
 bright green, his crimson gular pouch protruding and retracting, 
 reminding one of the opening and shutting of some tropical but- 
 terfly in the noon-day sun. At other times, when the surround- 
 ing circumstances seemed to demand it, he would have donned a 
 coat made up of irregular patches of the two colors, with their 
 various shades, at his command. This power of protective mim- 
 icry on the part of Anolis, for as an example of this we must 
 certainly regard it, serves him best when he resorts, which he 
 frequently does, to the bright green stalks of certain fresh-water 
 reeds and plants that are found growing luxuriantly about the 
 bayous and canals of his native haunts. It was in some such 
 locality as this that, the other day, I observed one of the pretties! 
 examples of this very same protective resemblance, that OIK* 
 would care to witness, almost equal to that famous butterfly that 
 Wallace so admirably figures in his work upon the Malay Archi- 
 pelago, now so familiar to all of us. 
 
 I had just scrambled over one of these so-called canals, that 
 divided, by the aid of an old fence, an extensive marshy trad 
 from a deserted field; this field was overgrown, in addition to 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 115 
 
 various other kinds of undergrowth, with a tall, bright-green, 
 ribbon-like grass. As I pushed my way into this, a shower of 
 grasshoppers arose, making off in every direction; by accident, 
 however, I discovered that two species did not resort to this 
 mode of escape. One of these was of a shade of green that nearly 
 matched the grass in question; the other, larger, was about the 
 shade of the grass after it was dead and dried by the sun. They 
 both had about the same form ; the head wqs long and pointed in 
 front, its apparent length increased by the insect bringing its 
 antennae together and sticking them out straight forward. Be- 
 hind, the wrinkled wings trailed out to a sharp point, like the 
 pointed extremities of the grass blades, and the heavy pair of 
 limbs that spring from the metathorax were long and slender, 
 so as to assist it in the deception. These insects, upon being 
 alarmed, instead of taking to flight as the other varieties did, 
 simply, and with marked deliberation, shuffled down backward 
 to the pointed end of one of the leaves upon which it was resting 
 at the time, and quietly hung there, where it demanded a pretty 
 sharp pair of eyes to detect them, particularly if a breeze kept 
 the grass in motion at the time. 
 
 Chameleons placed in alcohol for preservation change in all 
 manners of ways; the larger share of the green usually disappears, 
 the under parts often becoming so mottled as to mask the white 
 entirely; it commonly brings out in strong relief the longitudinal 
 stripes on the gular space; the mottling on the upper parts is 
 likewise made far more evident than in the living reptile. The 
 iris of Anolis, during life, is of a bright hazel, with a perfectly 
 round pupil. When taken in the hand, they generally throw the 
 jaws apart, and viciously seize any part of that member that may 
 come within their reach. The bite of the larger specimens is 
 quite a severe little nip, but I have never seen a case where their 
 delicate teeth could inflict a wound of sufficient depth, so as to 
 bring the blood. They will hang on for a long time, longer 
 usually than our patience will hold out, and it generally results 
 in our detaching them by the free hand. No doubt, as trifling as 
 this bite may be, it often saves the life of our chameleon, as the 
 unsuspicious, or children who pick them up out of curiosity's 
 sake, upon being suddenly pinched in that way, are very apt to 
 involuntarily wring the hand until the lizard looses its hold and 
 promptly makes its escape in the grass or elsewhere. 
 
 During the morning hours, among the trees, the chameleons 
 
116 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 are rarely seen, but as the sun approaches the zenith, and the 
 recesses of the forest begin to be thoroughly warmed, these little 
 fellows may be observed descending the trunks of the trees to 
 engage in their favorite hunting expeditions, about the gnarled 
 roots that are exposed above the ground at their bases. Here 
 they capture all manners of insects, which constitute their food, 
 and it is during these feeding times that we have the opportunity 
 to behold some of their quaintest movements. I was so fortu- 
 nate, not long ago, as to catch one in the act, the instant after he 
 had made a successful spring upon rather a large butterfly. The 
 body of the insect was in his mouth, while the wings were vio- 
 lently flapping at the side of the lizard's face. The reptile would 
 clinch his jaws together spasmodically two or three times, shut- 
 ting his eyes with a very tight squeeze each time he did so. At 
 last his prey was silent, when with a few energetic kicks he tore 
 off the creature's wings, and disposed of his body MIIIX ccrcmoHic. 
 
 Anolis principalis no doubt renders, by its constant destruction 
 of these insects which infest the trees of our Southern cities, a 
 great service, and that, too, in a very modest and unassuming 
 way. In this respect how much better they are than that miser- 
 able and noisy little foreigner, the so-called English sparrow, 
 that we have taken so much pains to introduce and foster; a bird 
 now found in every city of our Union, from Boston to New Or- 
 leans, in alarming numbers; I say alarming, because I know, full 
 well, as every ornithologist in the land knows, that the day is 
 sure to come when we shall have seen enough of his dappled 
 brown coat, so constantly and impertinently intruded upon us, 
 at the expense of our own avian favorites, and we shall learn to 
 regard him, perhaps only when it is too late, as one of the agri- 
 cultural pests of the Fnited States. 
 
 The season approaches when Louisiana, recovering from the 
 temporary shock caused by her mock winter, again puts forth the 
 natural jewels of her animal and vegetable kingdoms, again pre- 
 sents us with fresh flowers and fresh fields, after so short a re- 
 lapse. Birds onc*e more stream northward, mammals throw off 
 their semi-torpidity and resume their usual a vocal ions. In the 
 overflown bayous, rendered almost unendurable by an a linos 
 phere charged with the aromatic odors of a budding Southern 
 spring, we at this time, too, see the gaudy representatives of the 
 reptilian world gradually make their several appearances. Frogs 
 croak, livlas peep, and in some sunny nook the deadly moccasin 
 
FIG. 28. GIL A MONSTERS (Heloderma suspectum), AND DOUGLASS'S 
 HORNED TOAD (P. douglassii). 
 
 From life, and considerably reduced. 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 119 
 
 warms his snuff-brown coils, alone, dreaded and shunned. All 
 rejoice that this happy season once more opens, and the feeble 
 grasp of the winter god is withdrawn. Where is Anolis now? we 
 have not far to go, indeed, to find our bi-colored masquerader; 
 see the emerald-clad scamp as he eyes you from the brawny limb 
 of the pecan, under which you stand. But what is he up to! 
 You quietly watch him, and his employment seems to be of such 
 a nature that he soon completely ignores you, and proceeds with 
 it at all risks, and at all costs. The mystery is soon solved, and 
 we can readily appreciate this agitation, this bowing and strut- 
 ting and all manners of oddmotions,as if the very last drop of his 
 quaint lacertilian blood was on fire for coyishly, and with all 
 
 
 
 FIG. 29. RIGHT LATERAL VIEW OF THE HEAD OF HELODEKMA 
 
 SUSPECTUM. 
 
 Life size. From a photograph of the living specimen, by the Author. 
 
 due deference, reclines before his lordship his chosen mate, ex- 
 erting her every chameleonic power to hide her blushes by vain 
 endeavors to match the colored pattern of her couch, with all the 
 bronzes and browns at her command. He can withstand her 
 charms no longer, and for the moment, laying aside all dignity, 
 and the object of his affections not unwillingly submitting, in the 
 next instant finds herself in the passionate embraces of her lord, 
 who, to make sure that he has actually won his coveted prize, 
 winds about her lithe form, perhaps in some mystic love-knot, his 
 entire caudal extremity, and blinds her eyes, first on one side and 
 
120 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 then on the other, by the extension of the flaming ornament at 
 his throat. 
 
 What a very different reptile we have in our big, sluggish Gila 
 Monster (Heloderma suspectum) of the southwestern regions of 
 the United States. These large lizards, still resting, in the eyes of 
 ninny, under the suspicion of the charge of being venomous, I have 
 had in captivity upon several occasions, and in former years have 
 written and published a great deal about them. In Figs. 29-31, 
 illustrating the present chapter, I reproduce some photographs 
 of a large heloderma that I had for a long time alive, and these 
 figures originally appeared in an article of mine in a New York 
 medical journal in 1891, wherein the poisonous bite of the lizard 
 was fully discussed up to date. There will also be found many 
 references to the literature of the subject, and a comparison of 
 views upon the poisonous or non-poisonous character of the 
 saliva of the Gila Monster. In 1890 I published, with several 
 plates, in the P. Z. S., of London, a one-hundred page memoir 
 upon the anatomy of two species in the genus Heloderma that 
 is, Jiorridum and suspectum, and eight years previous to that I 
 printed in The American Naturalist an account of a severe bite I 
 had received from one of the reptiles. 
 
 Professor E. D. Cope, when a guest at my house a number of 
 years ago, told me that these figures that is, the ones illustrat- 
 ing this chapter " gave a better idea of the form of a heloderma 
 than any of the many figures that had thus far been published, 
 either here or in Europe." Between systematic persecution and 
 the greed of zoological collectors, the Gila Monsters are now 
 becoming very scarce in those regions where formerly they 
 were abundant, and doubtless at the end of another half 
 century, not one will be found in nature anywhere in the terri- 
 tory of what is now called Arizona. 
 
 While at Fort Wingate, in New Mexico, I also had a photog- 
 rapher make me a picture of two live helodermas I there had at 
 the time. These are reproduced in Fig. 28; the large one is the 
 same specimen shown in Figs. 29-31, while the smaller one I 
 dissected from the London anatomical memoir. This figure gives 
 an excellent idea of how these handsome lizards appear crawling 
 over the rocks in n state of nature. Perched up on top of one of 
 the stones will also be seen a small specimen of Douglass's 
 Horned Toad (Phrynosoma douglassii) . Big helodermas may at- 
 tain a length of twenty inches, they being orange and black in 
 
li 
 
 H *S 
 
 H o 
 
 S 1 
 
 Q ^ 
 
 CO 
 
 2 
 fi 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 125 
 
 color, and covered with hard, rounded, tuberculated scales. They 
 are very fond of birds' eggs, either raw or boiled, but prefer them 
 raw. As they are by no means arboreal in habit, they can only 
 secure such eggs of birds as build their nests upon the ground, or 
 else very near it. 
 
 Besides the helodernis, I found while in New Mexico quite a 
 number of other lizards, but they were all of the smaller species, 
 perfectly harmless, and with more or less interesting habits. The 
 genus ticcloporus was represented, and a little further on I shall 
 say something about our eastern forms of these. Another pretty 
 little fellow 7 was found, though not very abundantly, which the 
 Mexicans, or New Mexicans, called the Whipped-tailed Lizard, 
 and which is more generally known as the Collared Lizard (Grola- 
 phytus collar is). They are bright pea-green little fellows, orna- 
 mented with a black collar, and are very nimble in action. From 
 a beautiful living specimen of one of these I secured a fine photo- 
 graph, and this is reproduced in Fig. 32. Crotaphytus is a 
 wood lizard, and is found in the heavy pine forests of New Mex- 
 ico, but it also occurs in Texas, Arizona, Nevada, Utah, Arkan- 
 sas, California, Indiana, and elsewhere. 
 
 The lizard called the ''Six-lined Lizard" has a somewhat simi- 
 lar distribution, and I found specimens of these also in New Mex- 
 ico. They are beautiful forms, gentle, shapely, graceful, and 
 handsomely marked with narrow, jet-black, longitudinal lines 
 upon a light-green body. 
 
 It was my practice to capture these lizards by shooting them 
 with a cane-gun, loaded with No. 13 shot; it was the very rarest 
 occurrence that they could be secured otherwise. 
 
 In making photographs of various species of our lizards, I 
 found them to be a much easier class of subjects than many an- 
 other kind of vertebrate, as, for example, any of the snakes, frogs, 
 or toads, and very much easier than any of the land tortoises or 
 the turtles; the latter constituting a very difficult class of sub- 
 jects. 
 
 Last summer several successes were obtained in the case of the 
 common little alligator lizard so plentiful in nearly all parts of 
 the country. This is the Sceloporus u. undulatus of most herpe- 
 tologists, but as the pretty, nimble little fellows have never re- 
 minded me in the least bit of an alligator, I have generally desig- 
 nated them as "wood lizards," from the fact that they are very 
 fond of running up trees, and are rarely found out in the open 
 
126 
 
 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 country. These interesting little reptiles have frequently been 
 kept in confinement by me for great lengths of time. A good- 
 sized male lizard of this species may measure as much as seven 
 or eight inches long, being earthy brown above, and a soiled 
 white beneath. A patch of brilliant cobalt blue is found upon 
 either side beneath, bounded with a deep black, while the back 
 is transversely marked with wavy bars of a dark tint. Fig. ">:> 
 shows the male of one of this species, life size; I got him just as 
 
 FIG. 32. THE COLLARED LIZARD {Crotaphytus collaris) 
 
 Photographed from life, and reduced about one-third. 
 
 he jumped from my finger on to the pine limb upon which he is 
 represented; so his attitude is perfectly natural. 
 
 In captivity this lizard will readily feed upon flies and many 
 other varieties of soft insects. They will also breed; the female 
 resembling the male much in appearance, although she is lighter 
 tinted and show r s scarcely any of the cobalt coloring beneath. I 
 have had them to go, as a matter of experiment, for two or three 
 months without eating or drinking anything at all, and then they 
 did not show the etl'ects of the prolonged fast very much. How 
 
FIG. 33. Sceloporus undulatus. 
 
 Life size. From a photograph taken by the Author. 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 129 
 
 ever, after such an ordeal they always appear to be very glad to 
 get a chance at some big fat flies. This reptile is perfectly harm- 
 less, and its bite amounts, at the best, to but a good little nip, its 
 delicate teeth being unable even to break the skin, So far as my 
 observations go, they usually lay from six to eight pretty white 
 eggs of an ellipsoidal form, placing them in a line in some dry 
 crevice, either in an old dried tree trunk, or in a suitable place in 
 a rock. Young ones are extremely cunning little fellows, and 
 active from the very first. 
 
 Should one of these lizards have its tail fractured oft by acci- 
 dent, the appendage will grow out again, the bones being re- 
 placed by firm cartilaginous nodules. Sometimes it happens that 
 two tails take the place of the one lost, a-s I have seen on several 
 specimens of the American chameleon (Anolis principaUs), many 
 of which species, as I have said above, were captured and studied 
 by me fourteen or fifteen years ago at New Orleans, La. 
 
 Many of the most remarkable lizards in the world are found in 
 the tropics, especially in the tropical parts of the East and West 
 Indies, Africa and South America. To gain a full knowledge of 
 the class Lacet'tlUa, the student should take occasion to study 
 these as far as opportunity will admit, and in doing so especial 
 attention should be directed to such species as the Monitor of 
 the Nile (Monitor nilot-mis); to the peculiar limbless lizards of 
 Australia (LiaJidw, etc.); to the Skinks (Scincus); to the various 
 species of Iguanas (J</n(tni(hr) ; to the various so-called Dragons 
 (Draco); to the truly extraordinary frilled lizard of Queensland 
 (Chldmydowurus) ; to the rhaimeleons of Africa and Madagascar 
 (Chamwleonj etc.); to the peculiar Geckos that are found in many 
 parts of the world, and have the most remarkable habits. 
 
CHAPTER IX. 
 
 PROTECTIVE COLORATION IN SNAKES, WITH OTHER NOTES 
 ABOUT THEM. 
 
 (Ophidia.) 
 
 PEAKING of protective mimicry and protective colora- 
 tion in snakes, one of the prettiest examples of it 
 known to me among those reptiles in eastern North 
 America is often seen in our common little Summer 
 snake, described by naturalists as Cyclopliis vcrnalis. One warm 
 day last spring, as I was passing through a thin, broken piece of 
 maple woods, with an undergrowth of brambles and bushes of 
 various kinds, my attention was drawn to a mass of smilax vine, 
 the stems of which were as green as green could be, and its beau- 
 tiful leaves had attained only about half their full size and 
 growth. Something moved in a peculiar gliding manner adown 
 its thorn-bedecked branches, that was of a shade of green cor- 
 responding exactly with that of the vine itself, and in an instant 
 I realized that it was a large specimen of the Summer snake. The 
 reptile was over 20 inches long, and as slender as the lash to a 
 boy's whip. It was of a very pale yellowish green upon its nether 
 aspect, while the entire dorsum was of an emerald hue. Small 
 and delicate in structure, its oval head was but a trifle larger 
 than the continuation of the neck, and knowing the creature to 
 be as gentle and as harmless as any living thing in the world, I 
 carefully drew it away from the vine with my hand, and coiled it 
 up in a paper cone, which I duly placed in my pocket. Then with 
 my knife I cut clear the very part of the vine in which I had first 
 discovered the Cyclophis, and with this I came direct home, be- 
 fore the leaves had any opportunity to wilt. Within an hour a 
 good photograph of this pretty subject was obtained, and the re- 
 production of this is shown in Fig. 34 of the present chapter. 
 These gentle little snakes are preyed upon by other snakes, by 
 hawks and other birds, and maybe by some mammals. So their 
 green color and extremely slender form greatly protects them 
 against their enemies, and renders them far less likely to be seen 
 by them. Some contend, and very erroneously I think, that this 
 particular coloration in the snake is to make it less likely to be 
 observed by the insects upon which it lives, and thus insures the 
 
FIG. 34. SUMMER SNAKE (CydopMa vernalix) IN SMILAX VINE. 
 
 One-third natural size. Example of protective coloration. Photograph by the Author from life. 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 133 
 
 snake of a more certain chance of getting its food and sustaining 
 life. 
 
 There is one other representative of this genus of snakes with 
 us, closely resembling C.rernalisin form and size, but is of a bright 
 bluish-green color, instead of being green; and, be it said here, it 
 is truly remarkable how well eA'en this tint protects the creature 
 in many situations in its natural haunts. I saw this especially 
 among the bayous of low r er Louisiana, where this snake is fre- 
 quently to be observed among the stalks of a species of pond lily 
 that are likewise of a bluish-green tint, and for one of which it 
 can easily be mistaken. Cyclophis (estiva is the name science has 
 bestowed upon this species, and its delicate scales are longitudi- 
 nally keeled or carinated, instead of being smooth, as in C. vernalis. 
 In this connection -it will be remembered by many how w r ell the 
 coloration of the various species of Rattlesnakes and Moccasins 
 protects them by closely matching the compositions of their par- 
 ticular environments. Among the bogs and fens found in cer- 
 tain localities about Washington, D. (\, I found, during May, 
 1S<)(>, many of the young of the common Water Snake (Xatrix si- 
 licdon), and these little dusky colored fellows often so closely re- 
 sembled in shade the blackish mud over which they cautiously 
 moved as to nearly escape my keenest observation. In Fig. 35 
 will be seen the reproducticn of a photograph I made last spring 
 of the young of this very species. He was coiled up upon the 
 dark earth, where grew several species of ferns and other swamp 
 plants; and where lay dead twigs and leaves, dark and stained by 
 partial or complete decomposition. His form was hardly to be 
 noticed amid such growths and debris, as it could easily be mis- 
 taken for some twisted and water-soaked root coiled up there. 
 Indeed, I did not notice him until he began to take himself off. 
 
 IJeddard speaks of the protection in snakes often being due to 
 the multiplicity of surrounding objects, and says when " a con- 
 jurer intends to surprise his audience by the production of an ob- 
 ject from some unsuspected quarter, he places it beforehand, 
 with no attempt at concealment, upon the table, which is gener- 
 ally covered with various mysterious objects not meant in the 
 least for use. It is concealed until the right moment among a 
 multitude of objects, some more, some less like it. Every one 
 knows from experience how difficult it is to find an object which 
 has fallen upon a carpet with a complicated pattern. We find 
 exactly the same principle in nature," 
 
134 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 Professor Drimimond gives a good instance of this in his work 
 upon tropical Africa. " One of the most beautiful and ornate of 
 all the tropical reptiles is the puff-adder. This animal, the bite 
 of which is certain death, is from three to five feet long and dis- 
 proportionately thick, being in some parts almost as thick as the 
 lower part of the thigh. The whole body is ornamented with 
 strange devices in green, yellow, and black; and lying in a mu- 
 seum its glittering coils certainly form a most striking object. 
 But in nature the puff-adder has a very different background. 
 It is essentially a forest animal, its true habitat being among the 
 fallen leaves in the deep shade of the trees by the banks of 
 streams. Now, in such a position, at the distance of a foot or 
 two, its appearance so exactly resembles the forest bed as to be 
 almost indistinguishable from it." 
 
 Our brilliantly colored little Coral snake of the Southern 
 States (Elaps) is also very conspicuous with its shiny transverse 
 bands of alternate red and black; but this serves a very different 
 purpose, and is to be treated under the subject of " Warning Col- 
 oration," a matter our space will not admit of touching upon in 
 this chapter. 
 
 While engaged last spring (1896) in making photographic pic- 
 tures of various kinds of animals, snakes among the others were 
 by no means overlooked or neglected. In using the word animal 
 here I do so in its zoological sense, for when a naturalist speaks 
 of an animal, he may or he may not mean a mammal, which is the 
 ordinary application of the term, but any organized form from 
 those found in the lowest orders to the highest, including even 
 man. As thus applied, not only are mammals spoken of ns ani- 
 mals, but such types as birds, frogs, or fish, and the like. 
 
 My first attempts at photographing snakes were made some 
 five or six years ago, when several fairly good pictures of the 
 Blowing viper (H etc rod on) were made; but these were by no 
 means so good as those obtained last May, at which time various 
 other species were taken. 
 
 During the year just mentioned above, there occurred about 
 the city of Washington, in the District of Columbia, an unusual 
 number of the snake known as the Blotched King snake; more, 
 indeed, than any of this species that had ever been noticed in 
 this locality in former years. It is a harmless snake, that may 
 attain the length of some thirty inches, or rather more, and is 
 characterized by having a darkish body, lighter beneath, and 
 
FIG. 35. YOUNG OF WATER SNAKE (Natrix sipcdon). 
 
 From a photograph j;aken by^the Author, and intended to show protective coloration. 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 137 
 
 blotched over with numerous irregular spots or patches of a bay 
 or pale chestnut color. Formerly, in technical parlance, this 
 species was known as Ophibolus rJiombomaculatus, but the ac- 
 cepted general name is, at this writing, Lampropeltis. Its specific 
 name was given it because the spots or blotches upon its body 
 most frequently were rhomboidal in outline, or very nearly so. 
 The juvenile collectors in my vicinity often brought me in, dur- 
 ing the time mentioned, numerous examples of this reptile; and 
 one fine morning, there being an unusually handsome example 
 presented, it was chosen for a photograph. A small forked 
 branch of a pine tree was placed in position in the proper light in 
 my studio, and his snakeship allowed to coil himself about one 
 of the limbs. Being a little sluggish in movement at first, it did 
 this in a very deliberate manner, giving me abundant time after- 
 ward to focus upon the subject. After my shutter to the camera 
 had been closed and set, and the slide to the plate-holder with- 
 drawn, something called me suddenly away, and, upon return- 
 ing in a few moments, the snake had partially lowered itself 
 down the limb, and was prepared to make its escape. 
 
 I cautiously reached for the pneumatic bulb of the shutter, and 
 succeeded in getting a hold of it with my right hand, while the 
 movement was sufficient to cause an arrest in the descent of my 
 snake. The fore part of its body, including the head, was out- 
 stretched freely into space, and presented a beautiful double 
 curve. 
 
 For an instant I observed this part of its length with the clos- 
 est possible scrutiny, and it did not appear to move in the least; 
 but my diaphragm was of very small aperture, and I hardly 
 dared to expose the plate. Nevertheless, we must take many 
 risks in such matters, and expose I did, with a very firm and 
 steady squeeze. Then in a few seconds the shutter was slowly 
 allowed to close, and the attempt completed. T T pon developing 
 my plate it proved a success, and the reproduction of my picture 
 is shown in Figure 3(> of the present chapter. 
 
 \Ye have in this country upward of two dozen species and sub- 
 species of King snakes, the common one being L. g. (/etui us a 
 very handsome reptile, though one most mercilessly destroyed 
 whenever met with in its haunts by the ignorant and thought- 
 less. 
 
138 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 Upsides the long list of harmless and useful snakes in this 
 country, belonging to many genera, we have three kinds of ven- 
 omous ones. These are the Rattlesnakes (Crotalus, caudisona), 
 the true Moccasins (Ancistrodon), and the Harlequin snakes 
 
 (Efaps)* 
 
 Taken as a whole, the order Oi>lii<li(i of the Class AY/>//7w has 
 
 been created to contain all the snakes, closely allied as they arc 
 to Lizards (Luccrtilia), there being not a few forms that connect 
 the two groups. Gtinther tersely characterizes the O/>/w/w in 
 the following terms: Snakes are vertebrates with "an exceed- 
 ingly elongate body, cylindrical or subcylindrical, and termi- 
 nating in a tapering tail. The integuments are folded into flat 
 imbricate scales, which are rarely tubercular or granular. The 
 spinal column consists of a very great number of vertebra*, with 
 which the numerous ribs are movably articulated. Limbs arc 
 entirely absent, or only rudiments of the posterior occur more or 
 less hidden below the skin; there is no sternum. The bones of 
 the palate and jaws are movable; the mandibles are united in 
 front by an elastic ligament, and are very distensible. Gener- 
 ally both jaws and the palate are toothed, the teeth being thin 
 and needle-like. There are no eyelids, no ear-opening. The vent 
 is a transverse slit." There are probably about 2,000 snakes 
 known, and many more yet remain to be described, the tropics 
 being the region in. which their occurrence is most abundant. 
 There, too, do we find the most venomous as well as the largest 
 forms of them. 
 
 There are species of snakes that live in burrows, rarely coming- 
 out, and there are snakes that habitually live upon the 
 ground, while others are typical tree-snakes. Besides these 
 there arc* fresh- water and sea snakes; the latter (with the excep- 
 tion of one genus) never quitting that element. 
 
 The majority of the ophidia lay eggs; some, on the other hand, 
 are viviparous. In the matter of food they vary greatly: the non 
 venomous burrowing-snakes subsist principally upon insects and 
 other invertebrates; the ground-snakes, which may be poisonous 
 or the reverse, live largely upon various vertebrata; some of 
 the tree-snakes are also venomous, and they prey upon arboreal 
 animals and the eggs of birds; finally, nearly all the fresh-water 
 snakes are innocuous, and they live upon aquatic animals, which 
 is likewise the case of the sea-snakes, but these latter are all 
 highly poisonous. In habit, we meet with both diurnal and noc 
 
FK;. 86. THE BLOTCHED KING SNAKE (Lampropeltis rhomboma- 
 
 vulatus). 
 
 From a photograph from life, taken by the Author. About one-third natural size. 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 141 
 
 turnal varieties, while as a rule they are stationary by prefer- 
 ence, remaining 1 long in any particular locality, or as long as the 
 food in it is plenty. In them the action of the ribs takes the place 
 of limbs, and constitute their organs of locomotion, the various 
 movements of snakes being a very interesting study. These 
 movements consist in their action upon the ground, in the water, 
 in trees; in their modes of attack; in their fighting each other, 
 and in copulation, ovulation, and the struggles of death. As 
 with other vertebrates, snakes are classified in accordance with 
 their anatomical structure and habits. Many of the structural 
 characters found in snakes are worthy of the closest study. For 
 example, the difference between the dental armature of a truly 
 venomous snake and an innocuous one is very characteristic. 
 The pattern of the tooth-marks, when the teeth of either kind are 
 driven into the flesh, are distinctly different. In the case of a 
 poisonous snake, we note the two roughly parallel rows of cen- 
 tral teeth, while in front, upon either side of these, the row of 
 two or three punctures made by the poison fangs. These last 
 two rows of wounds are parallel to each other. Now, the two rows 
 of central tooth-punctures in a harmless snake are similar to 
 those of a venomous one, but the difference occurs in the lateral 
 or outside rows. They are long and curved, the curves corre- 
 sponding to those of the upper jaw of the reptile, the entire mar- 
 gin of which is usually armed for its whole length by a long, 
 single row of minute teeth upon either side, but the rows not 
 meeting in front. Then, again, there is that interesting struc- 
 ture, the "rattle" of the rattlesnake, and upon this an authority 
 at hand has said : " The bone by which the root of the rattle is 
 supported consists of the last caudal vertebrae, from three to 
 eight in number, which are enlarged, dilated, compressed, and 
 coalesced. This bone is covered with thick and vascular cut is, 
 transversely divided by two constrictions into three portions, of 
 which the proximal is larger than the median, and the median 
 much larger than the distal. This cuticular portion constitutes 
 the matrix of a horny epidermoid covering which closely fits the 
 shape of the underlying soft part, and which is the first com- 
 mencement of the rattle, as it appears in very young rattlesnakes 
 before they have shed their skin for the first time. When the 
 period of a renewal of the skin approaches, a new covering of the 
 extremity of the tail is formed below the old one, but the latter, 
 instead of being cast off with the remainder of the epidermis, is 
 
142 
 
 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 n-t allied by the posterior swelling of the end of the tail, forming 
 now the first loose joint of the rattle. This process is repeated 
 on succeeding exuviations the new joints being always larger 
 than the old ones, as long as the snake grows. Perfect rattles, 
 therefore, taper toward the point, but generally the oldest (ter- 
 minal) joints wear away in time and are lost. As rattlesnakes 
 shed their skins more than once every year, the number of joints 
 of the rattle does not indicate the age of the animal, but the num- 
 ber of exuviations which it has undergone." 
 
 Another interesting structure is found in our common Bull or 
 Pine snake (Pityopliis sayi bellona). Years ago, when I was as- 
 sisting in the work of the Keptile Department of the Smithsonian 
 Institution, Dr. Charles A. White, the distinguished paleontolo- 
 gist, came to me one day and asked if I had ever examined the 
 
 FIG. 37. FLOOR OF THE MOUTH OF A BULL SNAKE (P. ,s. Mlona). 
 
 Seen directly from above (reduced), a, Sheath of Tongue ; />, Epiglottis ; <-, Glottis. 
 
 peculiar structure of the epiglottis in the Bull snake, and how 
 that by forcibly blowing and the consequent violent vibration of 
 the epiglottis, the snake could produce the threatening noise 
 that it did. Replying in the negative, I further remarked that. 
 the fact had not ever been published that I was aware. Shortly 
 after, Dr. White gave an excellent description of the mouth parts 
 of one of those snakes, and it was published in Tin- American 
 XtttiiruUst for January, 1884 (p. 19). My own figures illustrated 
 the paper, and these are here reproduced in Figs. .'57 and MS, and 
 will show how the vertical plate of the movable epiglottis />, 
 standing directly in the middle line and in front of the glottis c, 
 would vibrate whenever the breath was driven out of the aper- 
 ture of the latter. 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 143 
 
 Several years after, Professor Cope, of Philadelphia, found this 
 structure developed in other genera of American snakes, and he 
 published a very important and interesting article upon the sub- 
 ject (Amer. Nat., Feb., 1891, p. 156). Bull snakes are entirely 
 harmless, and at the same time very handsome and most engag- 
 ing reptiles to study. It was in The American Naturalist, too, 
 that I published the first recorded instance of our common Black 
 snake attacking man. It was a personal instance, and was 
 printed in the April number of that journal for 1891. 
 
 In a former paragraph of this chapter it was stated that in ac- 
 cordance with the opinion of Dr. Gtinther, of the British Mu- 
 seum, that the ribs of snakes were their principal organs of loco- 
 motion. I do not altogether concur in this opinion, but rather 
 
 FIG. 38. LEFT LATERAL VIEW OF THE HEAD OF A BULL SNAKE. 
 
 Natural size. Lettering the same. Drawn as in Fig. 37 by the Author. 
 
 incline to the view of Packard as expressed in his Zoology (pp. 
 496, 497). This eminent American naturalist there says: "The 
 peculiar gliding motion of snakes is effected by the movements of 
 the large ventral scales, which are successively advanced, the 
 hinder edges of the scales resting on the ground and forming 
 fulcra; resting on these, the body is then drawn or pushed rap- 
 idly forward." It seems to be now a well-settled fact that snakes 
 never move over the ground by alternate bends of the body's 
 length, the movement being in a vertical plane. On the contrary, 
 they glide over the surface by a wriggling motion in the horizon- 
 tal plane. Then, again, in striking at their enemy or prey, they 
 never entirely quit the ground, or lose contact with it. The part 
 that does that is only about the anterior fourth of the body, 
 
144 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 which is suddenly straightened out and again as rapidly with- 
 drawn when the reptile strikes. Speaking of the snake's body, 
 the question has often been asked me, What part of the creature 
 is body and what part is tail'! The answer to this is that the 
 body and tail of a snake, although they seem to imperceptibly 
 merge into each other, are, in reality, quite distinct, for the divid- 
 ing line is at the animal's anus, beyond which, on the ventral 
 ,side, the arrangement of the scales is usually different. 
 
 Several times every twelve months most snakes shed their en- 
 tire skin, which latter normally slips off in one unbroken piece. 
 The surfaces of the eyes are included in this " shed," and it is dur- 
 ing this operation that snakes are popularly pronounced to be 
 blind. The brilliantly colored varieties are redoubled in their 
 beauty as the old skin comes away. An adult King snake is truly 
 a lovely object to behold just after the moult, with his new, shin- 
 ing coat of gorgeous black and yellow coloring. 
 
 The accounts of young snakes of certain species running down 
 the throats of their mothers when alarmed, or to escape danger 
 of any kind, are now well authenticated, and such statements 
 can doubtless be taken as true. 
 
 In closing this chapter I would say that of all animals that 
 now live upon the globe, or ever have lived upon the globe, few 
 there are that can boast of having cut a more remarkable figure 
 in written history than can that group of reptiles which for ages 
 have been known as snakes. 
 
 From time immemorial these creatures have been talked about 
 and sung about by nearly all the races of people, both living and 
 departed; their written history, popular and scientific, would to- 
 day make of itself a very large library of many hundreds of vol- 
 umes. Snakes have been shunned and have been widely perse- 
 cuted; have been worshiped, dreaded, despised, and glorified. 
 They have stood as emblems of wisdom, of evil, and of deceit. 
 They have played their part in witchcraft, in medicine, and have 
 been eaten as food. Indeed it would be impossible in our limited 
 space here to one-half enumerate the many-faced phases their 
 history has won, especially in view of the fact that better pens 
 than mine have already done much of this for us. However, 
 science will be well served if young and observing naturalists in 
 this country will intelligently make records of the habits of our 
 snakes, or scientific accounts of their anatomy, geographical dis- 
 tribution, and all else pertaining to their biology. We still need 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 145 
 
 a great deal along these very lines, and the study is as engag- 
 ing a one as any naturalist, young or old, would care to enter 
 upon. 
 
CHAPTER X. 
 
 TURTLES AND TORTOISES. 
 
 (Chelonia.) 
 
 S has been stated in a previous chapter, naturalists 
 place all the existing forms of turtles and tortoises 
 in an order, Chelonia, it constituting one of the groups 
 of the Class Reptilia. There are upward of 250 
 species of them known, the majority of which are fresh- water 
 types, being most numerous in tropical and sub-tropical regions, 
 where the country is well watered by ponds, rivers, lakes, and 
 marshes. Taken as an assemblage of vertebrated animals, the 
 existing forms are a well-circumscribed group, and are not rep- 
 resented by any true aberrant species. It is with the Batrachia 
 only that they can claim any affinity, as is shown by their struc- 
 ture. From all other existing reptiles they are clearly distin- 
 guished by the hard osseous shell that incases their bodies, 
 divided as it is into an upper or domed portion called the cara- 
 pace, and a ventral or flat part, termed the plastron. Further on 
 I shall describe these structures a little more in detail. 
 
 Chelonians have the skin of the head, neck, legs, and tail, either 
 covered with scales or tubercles, or else soft and smooth, as in 
 our soft-shelled turtles. Sometimes an osseous nucleus occurs in 
 the scales or tubercles, such as we find in Heloderma or on the 
 back of our crocodiles. 
 
 Peculiarities of the greatest interest to the anatomist mark 
 the skeleton and other structures of these animals. A short tail 
 is always possessed by them, and this in some species may be 
 more or less elongate. Without exception, the entire order is 
 toothless, the margins of the jaws being armed with a horny 
 sheath, with cultrate edges, corresponding to the same structure 
 as we find it in hard-beaked birds, as, for example, a parrot. 
 
 In the United States we have the Chelonia represented by up- 
 ward of fifty species, and many subspecies. There are among 
 these the more lowly organized, paddle-footed, great marine 
 turtles, such as the Loggerhead, the Green Turtle, and the 
 Hawk's-bill. Many of these live to be of great age, and grow to 
 immense proportions, in some cases coming to weigh as much as 
 1,200 pounds, at the same time attaining a length of eight or nine 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 147 
 
 feet (Spargis coriacea). In our fresh-water turtles the toes of 
 the limbs are distinct, clawed, and the feet are usually webbed, 
 if not always so. 
 
 In speaking of this group in his Zoology, Professor Packard re- 
 marks : " The terrapins belong to the genus Pseudemys; the pretty 
 painted turtle (Clirysemys picta Agassiz) is common in the East- 
 ern States, while the Nanemys guttatus (Agassiz), or spotted tor- 
 toise, is black, spotted with orange. In the land tortoises the feet 
 are short and stumpy. The Testudo indica of India is three feet in 
 length. The great land tortoises of the Galapagos Islands, the 
 Mascarine Islands (Mauritius and Kodriguez), and also of the 
 Aldabra Islands, lying northwest of Madagascar, are in some 
 cases colossal in size, the shells being nearly two metres (six 
 feet) in length. The fierce Mascarine species were contempora- 
 ries of the Dodo and Solitaire, and are now extinct. The bones 
 of extinct similar species have been found in Malta and in one 
 of the West Indian islands. The land tortoises are long-lived 
 and often reach a great age. Certain tortoises of the Tertiary 
 Period, as the Colossochelys of the Himalayas, had a shell twelve 
 feet long and six feet high. The turtles extend back in geological 
 time to the Jurassic, a species of Compsemys being characteristic 
 of the Upper Jurassic beds of the Kocky Mountains. (Marsh.) 
 
 " The eggs of turtles, as those of birds, are of large size ; they 
 are buried in June in the sand, and left to be hatched by the 
 warmth of the sun. It is probable that turtles do not lay eggs 
 until eleven to thirteen years of age. The development of turtles 
 is much as in the chick. By the time the heart becomes three- 
 chambered, the vertebra develop as far as the root of the tail, and 
 the eyes are completely inclosed in their orbits. The shield be- 
 gins to develop as lateral folds along the sides of the body, the 
 narrow ribs extending to the edge of the shield. In the lower 
 forms of turtles (Chelonioidce), the paddle-like feet are formed by 
 the bones of the toe becoming very long, while the web is har- 
 dened by the development of densely packed scales, so that the 
 foot is nearly as rigid as the blade of an oar." 
 
 During the summer of 1885 I paid not a little attention to the 
 study of a few species of our common tortoises and turtles, and 
 read something about them in the books. The ordinary land tor- 
 toise, or box-tortoise, is very abundant where I live, near Wash- 
 ington, D. C., and many of them, of all ages and sizes, fell into my 
 hands that year. Several of these I kept alive and observed their 
 
148 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 habits; some of them I photographed in different attitudes, and 
 one of these (one about two-thirds grown) is presented as an illus- 
 tration here. Naturalists call this species Cistudo Carolina, being 
 one of the terrestrial representatives of the group. It is known 
 as a tortoise, a word probably derived from the old French term 
 tort is, twisted, referring to the apparent twist in its fore-limbs. 
 We usually call the aquatic forms turtles, and some of them 
 terrapins. The beautiful orange and black and brown markings 
 of our box-tortoise do not show in his picture, because they will 
 not take in an ordinary photograph. It requires a great deal of 
 patience to secure these photographs of living tortoises, because 
 the animal is frequently very unruly and hard to manage. Some 
 twenty-five or thirty years ago I collected an unusually fine speci- 
 men of this box-tortoise, that had a shell that was most beauti- 
 fully marked, and particularly perfect in form and other re- 
 spects. This shell I preserved and kept, and it is before me at 
 the present writing. Its superior, or dome-part, as stated above, 
 we call the carapace, while the breast-plate below, that has the 
 transverse hinge in it, is known as the plastron. These dorsal 
 and ventral shields that protect the entire body of the box-tor- 
 toise are joined at the sides by the lateral arches. Now the 
 carapace and plastron are overlaid by their hardened and brittle 
 plates. These belong to the skin-system, and so have been termed 
 epidermoid scutes. As has already been said, they are varie- 
 gated in color and in pattern in Cistudo, and have a definite ar- 
 rangement, as in other chelonians. Viewing our specimen from 
 above, it will be seen that there is a longitudinal row of these 
 plates, with a lateral row upon either side, and, finally, there is 
 a row of similar scutes all the way round the border. Upon the 
 plastron there is simply a double longitudinal row of much big- 
 ger plates. These epidermoid plates do not match, either in 
 form or arrangement, the bones of the true carapace and plas- 
 tron. To show this well, I have made drawings that I adapted 
 for the present purpose from figures given us by Dr. Gfinther, 
 formerly of the British Museum. They are shown below in Fig- 
 ures 40 and 41, and represent the carapace (Fig. 40) and the 
 plastron (Fig. 41) of Testudo pardulix. The first-named is 
 seen from above, and the latter is viewed upon its ventral sur- 
 face. The margins of the integumental scutes are indicated by 
 entire lines, while the sutures or borders of the bones of the os- 
 seous carapace are shown in dotted lines. Biologists for many 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 151 
 
 years have designated these dermal scutes by certain names. 
 Those of the median row are termed vertebrals (v) ; the lateral 
 rows are the costals (co) ; while the ones round the border are 
 called the marginals (m). On the plastron, the dermal scutes are 
 known as the gulars (Fig. 41) ; the postgulars (pg) ; the pectorals 
 (p) ; the abdominals '(ab) ; the prseanals (pa) ; and the anals 
 (an). These scutes may be easily removed by the application of 
 heat, or steam, or boiling, and then the white bones of the true 
 carapace and plastron are exposed to our view for study. In the 
 figures these are defined by the dotted lines, and are termed the 
 costals (co) ; the neurals (ne) ; the nuchal (nu) ; the pygal (py) ; 
 the marginals (m) ; the entoplastron (ent) ; the epiplastron (ep) ; 
 the hyoplastron (liyo)', the hypoplastron (hyp), and the xyphi- 
 plastron (xyp). 
 
 Young naturalists will have no trouble in acquiring these 
 names, and they are of no little importance in the study of che- 
 lonians. In classification the arrangement of the bones and the 
 dermal scutes is very convenient for the designation of species. 
 To appreciate this fact, I would advise the student to secure in 
 the market or elsewhere a small turtle of any species, and make 
 out for himself the structures to which I have just invited atten- 
 tion. 
 
 In the big marine turtles found in different parts of the world, 
 the same general arrangement of the scutes will be found to hold 
 good. At the present writing I have at hand the carapace of a 
 young Hawk's-bill turtle (Caretta imbricata), and of it I made the 
 sketch shown in Fig. 42. This is the upper view, and the let- 
 tering is the same as Fig. 40. The vertebrals and costals in 
 Caretta always together number thirteen, and they are at once 
 recognized by their peculiar imbrication, hence the specific name 
 this species has received. The marginals form a serrated border 
 to its carapace, as shown in the cut (m). It is the Hawk's-bill tur- 
 tle that furnishes the famous tortoise-shell of commerce, and 
 owing to the demand for this, the animal is gradually being ex- 
 terminated. The scutes are removed by suspending the living 
 turtles over the fire until they start free from the carapace; they 
 are then detached and the tortured turtle allowed to return to 
 the sea. In this partly baked condition some doubtless survive, 
 but many must die ; but the only interest that this has for men is 
 the fact that the scutes are probably never reproduced so as to 
 even be fit for anything, or to be toasted off a second time. Chi- 
 
152 
 
 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 nese tortoise-shell, which is obtained from the Celebes, is the 
 finest that conies to us, but the natives that collect it kill the 
 turtles outright by knocking them on the head, and the dermal 
 scutes are removed by boiling the shell of the animal in water. 
 In the carapace of the young Hawk's-bill I have before me, it 
 wxmld hardly seem possible that the dermal scutes could be re- 
 produced again, provided they were once removed, and the speci- 
 men survived the baking. This I judge from the fact that the 
 outer halves of all the costals of the osseous carapace are quite 
 
 FIGS. 40, 41. SHELL OF Testudo pardalis. 
 
 To show the divisions of the integument, which are marked by entire lines, and of the osseous cara- 
 pace, these being marked by dotted lines. 
 
 Fig. 37. Upper or dorsal aspect. 
 
 Fig. 38. Lower or ventral aspect. 
 
 Dermal Scutes : co, costals ; v, vertebrals ; m, marginals ; #, gulars ; pg, postgulars ; p, pectorals ; 
 ab, abdominals ; pa, praeanals ; an, anals. 
 
 Bones of the Carapace : co', costals ; ne, neurals ; nu, nuchal ; py, pygal ; m', marginals ; ent, 
 entoplastron : ep, epiplastron ; hyo, hyoplastron ; hyp, hypoplastron ; xyp, xyphiplastron. (Drawn by 
 the author after Giinther.) 
 
 rib-like in structure, and separated from each other by very con- 
 siderable intervals. It is over these intervals that the imbricated 
 costal dermal scutes are placed, and in their removal the visceral 
 cavity of the animal would surely be left more or less unpro- 
 tected and exposed. 
 
 Marine turtles, as before remarked, have their fore and hind 
 limbs completely modified, so as to form paddles for swimming, 
 and nothing I enjoyed more when sailing in the Southern seas 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 153 
 
 than when I would occasionally observe a big green turtle (Ghe- 
 lonia viridis), come to the surface to breathe. It is a beautiful 
 sight to watch them and the marvelous rapidity by which they 
 can propel themselves through the water is astonishing. They 
 also have great command over their other movements, while on 
 land they are as awkward and as helpless as any seal that ever 
 lived. 
 
 Frequently I have eaten the eggs of the green turtle on the 
 Bahama Islands, and found them very good, indeed. Upon one 
 occasion I was much amused at a sailor with whom I was 
 
 FIG. 42. THE CAKAPACE OF A YOUNG HAWK'S-BILL TURTLE 
 
 ( Caretta imbricata). 
 
 v, vertebrals ; co, costals ; m, marginals. Seen from above and greatly reduced. 
 
 searching for turtle's nests, for w r hen least expecting it he 
 slipped into it through the sand, in which the coveted eggs were 
 concealed by the turtle that laid them; and it may be imagined 
 what his white trousers looked like after the accident. How- 
 ever the eggs were not all crushed, for nearly 200 were taken out 
 in good condition. 
 
 In 1883 while collecting in Louisiana for the Smithsonian In- 
 stitution, under the direction of Professor Spencer F. Baird, I 
 met with not a few different species of the fresh-water turtles of 
 this country. Among these I succeeded in taking a few of the 
 
154 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 Soft-shelled turtle (Aspidonectes fcrox as well as A. spinifer), a 
 well-known species in many localities. 
 
 They are very ferocious, and difficult to find and capture. This 
 is due to the fact that they are usually found in muddy water, 
 either of the ponds or the rivers, and, being wonderfully quick in 
 their movements, netting them was not an easy matter. My col- 
 lectors rarely brought them in, and when they did I take it they 
 caught the specimens by baiting for them. There was a druggist 
 living in southern New Orleans in those days who had a young 
 one of these soft-shelled turtles in a jar alive in his shop, and it 
 was an extremely interesting form to study. It had the habit 
 of settling itself down in the sand on the bottom of the recepta- 
 cle, with no part of its body showing, save its snaky-looking 
 head. Carnivorous and voracious in the extreme, it only required 
 a tadpole, small frog or fish to come near it, when out shot its 
 neck, as quick as thought, and the victim was seized in its rapa- 
 cious jaws to be ravenously eaten in a trice. Big Soft-shelled 
 turtles have the power, when searching for food in shallow water, 
 to throw their entire body forward to seize upon it. These tur- 
 tles are fine eating themselves, and many people prefer them 
 even to the delicate green turtle, so long famous in the making of 
 soups. 
 
 Giinther adheres to the name Trionyx for this genus, and 
 briefly describes some of them in his article " Tortoise " in the 
 Encyclopedia Britannica (Vol. xxiii, p. 459). 
 
 In many of the city stores where birds, fish, and animals of all 
 kinds are sold as pets we frequently see a tank containing many 
 young turtles, ranging all the way in size from that of a nickel 
 five-cent piece to that of a silver dollar. These are usually of 
 four well-known species, viz., the Pond Terrapin (Clirysemys 
 picta) ; the Spotted Turtle or Peep-turtle (Nanemys guttatus) ; the 
 Snapping Turtle (Clielydra serpentina) ; and the Musk Turtle (Cin- 
 osternum p. pennsylvanicum). The first is known by the red and 
 black alternate bars on the under marginal surface of the cara- 
 pace; the second by the small orange spots sparsely distributed 
 over the black surface of its dorsum or back; the third by its long 
 tail, and its rough dermodorsal scutes; and the last by its 
 smooth, light-brownish carapace, and the yellowish, longitudinal 
 stripes on its head. Specimens of all of these and at all ages 
 have been taken by me in various parts of the country from New 
 England to the mouth of the Mississippi River. 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 155 
 
 A young Snapping turtle I recently had in confinement in a 
 suitable vessel of water lived in apparent comfort without any 
 food whatever for a period of three months. When food was par- 
 taken of by it (young snails) at the end of that time, the turtle 
 died on the third day thereafter. Box-tortoises have been kept 
 by me for a year, without food or water, and what is generally 
 not known about this species, they are pretty good swimmers 
 for short distances, and this power is frequently of advantage to 
 them. 
 
 Many people in the country districts are in a habit often of 
 keeping a Snapping turtle in the barrel of swill, where, in course 
 of time, it naturally grows to be of great size ; very tender ; loses 
 much of its normal musky odor; and, in short, becomes capital 
 meat for the table, either to be made into soups or otherwise 
 cooked. 
 
 The largest fresh-water turtle known (Macroclemmys tem- 
 minckii) is related to the Snapping turtle, and is found in the 
 rivers tributary to the Gulf of Mexico. It is often called the Alli- 
 gator turtle from its being so ferocious, and its shell may attain 
 a length of at least three feet. (Giinther.) 
 
 We stand much in need of a fuller knowledge of many of the 
 habits of our United States Chelonians, as well as their exact 
 geographical distribution. In some departments of this subject 
 we are indeed quite ignorant; knowing little or nothing about 
 the breeding habits of many of the fresh-water species. 
 
 A good provisional classification for the Chelonia is found in 
 Gtinther's article " Tortoise," to which I have referred above. 
 It is largely based upon structural characters, especially those 
 of the shell, as this part is so convenient. Little is known of the 
 detail of morphology, or rather internal morphological detail, in 
 many of the species. A good proportion of the existing families 
 are represented by one or more fossil forms. 
 
CHAPTER XI. 
 
 ALLIGATORS AND CROCODILES. 
 
 (Crocodilia.) 
 
 N the Order Crocodil'm we have a remarkable group of 
 reptiles, representatives of which occur in various 
 parts of the world. Naturalists divide the living croc- 
 odiles in three families, and these are known as the 
 Gavials, the true Crocodiles, and the Alligators. In former ages 
 of the earth's history, however, as has been pointed out by the 
 writers upon the fossil remains of animals, there were not only a 
 great many more different kinds of these reptiles, but they had 
 a far wider range over the surface of the globe, and formed a 
 more important figure in its fauna. 
 
 Restricted as they now are in their present distribution, it is 
 safe to assert that the crocodiles and their near kin are marked 
 as a declining group, and they will eventually be exterminated 
 entirely. Anatomists have clearly shown them to be, by their 
 structure, the highest order of reptiles now in existence, while 
 literature of every description teems with accounts of them, both 
 true and mythical, as far back as the very dawn of history; nor 
 were figures of them by any means forgotten upon the monu- 
 ments of the ancients. 
 
 Alligators are confined to America, and we have a very well 
 known form of them in the United States, that occurs in all suit- 
 able localities throughout the South, being quite abundant in 
 certain places. According to Professor Packard and other 
 writers, we also have in Florida the Florida crocodile, described 
 by Cuvier, the great French naturalist, as Crocodilus acutus. This 
 reptile, which may attain to a length of fourteen feet, is rare 
 upon the peninsula, becoming far more abundant in the West 
 Indies and South America. 
 
 We may state here that the alligator and the crocodile are dis- 
 tinctly different structurally. In two points of external struc- 
 ture, this distinction is very well marked. In the alligator the 
 fourth tooth, known as the canine or prehensile tooth of the 
 lower jaw, fits into a pit in the upper jaw, whereas in the croc- 
 odile, or among the crocodiles, this tooth has, in the upper jaw, 
 only a notch or furrow to accommodate it when the animal's 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 157 
 
 mouth is closed. Again, the toes of the crocodile are almost 
 completely webbed, being much less so in the case of the alliga- 
 tor, although the latter is doubtless just as good a swimmer. 
 Finally, there is a jagged fringe of skin bordering the hind legs 
 and feet of the crocodile, a development of doubtful ornamenta- 
 tion, that is not to be found in any alligator. 
 
 FIG. 43. HEAD OF CROCODILE. 
 
 ^Drawn by the Author.) 
 
 This word alligator seems to probably have been derived from 
 the Spanish, as a lizard, either big or little, is known to them as 
 el lagarto; while in the South the writer has frequently heard 
 the negroes speak of alligators as simply " 'gaters." In South 
 America there are two or three more species of these reptiles 
 
158 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 known; the most conspicuous being the Caiman or Cayman, oc- 
 curring principally in Guiana and Surinam; while in Brazil we 
 find the Spectacled alligator or Jacare'. Either of these are repre- 
 sentative of the genus to which they belong, namely, the genus 
 Caiman, containing several species; and the genus Jacare, also 
 including five or six species more. 
 
 It is said that the Caimans never grow to be as large as an alli- 
 gator, nor are they ever so dangerous or voracious. Men are 
 never attacked by them, either on shore or in the water, so long 
 as the limbs are kept in motion. Caimans also differ from alli- 
 gators in placing their eggs in a single layer, and for the utter 
 neglect of their young after hatching. Now when a female alli- 
 gator is about to lay, she first digs a deep hole in the sand, in 
 which she deposits her eggs in layers, placing dry grass and 
 leaves between each layer. In the United States this occurs, as 
 a rule, but once during the season, as the eggs must be hatched 
 out by the heat of the sun. Caimans on the other hand, although 
 they lay each time a far fewer number of eggs, breed several 
 times during the year; especially this is the case in the hottest 
 parts of the region where they are found. , A female alligator 
 will watch and guard her nest of eggs until they are hatched, and 
 then she immediately takes charge of the brood, affording them 
 all the protection and care in her power. In these special traits 
 they resemble the true crocodiles. 
 
 The female jacar6 also deposits her eggs in a single layer, 
 covering them likewise with leaves and straw. It is said that the 
 vultures often scratch the eggs out and consume them; while a 
 large number of the progeny are devoured by the adult males of 
 this species. When the young first make their appearance it is 
 usually at the hottest season of the year; food is scarce, and the 
 marshes nearly all dried up. This conduces to make the males 
 ravenous, and so their own young get the benefit of it, and are de- 
 voured whenever the female cannot sufficiently protect them 
 against their fierce attacks. 
 
 The egg of this species are about the size of those of an ordi- 
 nary goose, being, however, elongate and ellipsoidal in form. 
 As in the case of all the Crocodilia, they are also white wdth a 
 hard shell. The Indians of Brazil are very fond of jacar eggs, 
 and will also eat the flesh of the reptile itself, juiceless and 
 musky as it is. Jacare"s feed principally upon water-fowl and 
 fish, and never touch any animal that they may by chance have 
 destroyed in guarding their nest or young. 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 159 
 
 In suitable localities, along the banks of the Amazon, these 
 reptiles may be often seen asleep stretched out enjoying the 
 hot sun in the day time; where, upon being disturbed, they quick- 
 ly take to the water. At night they are both noisy and active, 
 keeping to the water entirely, exposing only their heads as they 
 swim about in search of their prey. Humboldt, in his South 
 American travels, frequently saw jacar^s basking in the sun 
 during the day time " with open jaws, motionless, their uncouth 
 bodies often covered with birds." 
 
 It has been said that our Florida alligator may attain a length 
 of at least 18 feet, though the average adult rarely exceeds 15 
 feet. They are far more fierce and dangerous than their South 
 American cousins, and will, whenever opportunity offers, attack 
 both men and many quadrupeds. Strange to say, negro flesh is 
 preferred above all other kinds by the alligator, and as a conse- 
 quence these people are the avowed enemies of this famous rep- 
 tile. Alligators get into the soft mud and lie dormant during 
 the winter season. This fact is well known to the southern 
 negro, and he unearths him from such places, with the double 
 intention of destroying his enemy and obtaining his tail, which, 
 cooked after their fashion, they esteem a great delicacy. 
 
 Many years ago when in Mexico, the writer heard, for the first 
 time, the terrific roaring of the old male alligators. This oc- 
 curred during the evenings, and especially during the mating 
 season," when the forest-lined banks of the Coatzacoalcos River 
 were made to resound with the harsh bellowings of this dreaded 
 amphibian. The sounds emitted by a lot of bulls are no more to 
 be compared to the concert of several of these than are the prat- 
 tlings of so many babies to the boomings of a battalion of bit- 
 terns. Some say that they have even imagined that the very 
 earth seemed to tremble beneath their feet when the performers 
 were at no great distance off. 
 
 Although alligators are generally supposed to be polygamous, 
 still during the pairing season the males engage in the most 
 deadly combats, choosing the shallower parts of the elements in 
 which they live as the place for the battle-ground. They work 
 each other up to the fighting point by several not-to-be-despised 
 taps with their tails. These increase in severity as the anger of 
 the combatants begins to boil, and then the powerful jaws come 
 into play, and when they do take hold, the grip of the biggest 
 
160 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 vise is but the nip of a fiddler-crab to it. They do not rest satis- 
 fied until the victim is pulled beneath the surface of the water, 
 and made away with. 
 
 A good observer of the habits of the alligator has said " on 
 some occasions the alligators beset the mouth of some retired 
 creek, into which they have previously driven the fish, bellowing 
 so loud that they may be heard at the distance of a mile. To 
 catch the fish they dive under the shoal, and having secured one, 
 rise to the surface, toss it into the air to get rid of the water 
 which they necessarily take in along with it, and catch it again in 
 its descent. When, however, they succeed in capturing a land 
 animal which is too large to be swallow r ed at a single mouthful, 
 they conceal the body beneath the bank till it begins to putrefy, 
 for as their teeth are not formed for cutting or masticating, they 
 are unable to tear the tough flesh in its fresh state; it is then 
 dragged on shore and devoured at leisure." 
 
 In the winter-time, in the most of our southern States where 
 the alligator is found, especially in the more northern localities, 
 it buries itself in the mud at the bottom of marshes and swamps, 
 where it hibernates until the return of spring. If the season be 
 an unusually severe one, they may in these situations become al- 
 most frozen, and it is said that, when in this condition, the rep- 
 tile may be almost sliced into pieces without exhibiting any signs 
 of life. If brought into a good warm place, however, this lethar- 
 gic state is soon dispelled, and the fellow quickly resumes the 
 power he possesses in the summer-time, and his wonted fierce- 
 ness returns. 
 
 Bartram, one of the early naturalists in this country, a great 
 many years ago, claims to have observed in a mineral spring near 
 the Mosquito Kiver, in Florida, great numbers of alligators and 
 fish, although the water was nearly at the boiling point, and 
 " strongly impregnated with copper and vitriol." In the opinion 
 of the present writer, had the alligators been left out, this would 
 at least have made a tip-top fish story. 
 
 Our alligator has a very formidable relative in Asia, known as 
 the Gavial or Nakoo. As the species is principally confined to 
 the Eiver Ganges, it is best known as the Gangetic Gavial. They 
 are easily distinguished from either alligators or crocodiles by 
 their long and narrow jaws, furnished with teeth of uniform size, 
 with the exception of the six anterior pairs, and by the male pos- 
 sessing a great swelling in front of the nostrils. 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 161 
 
 Gavials may attain a length of nearly 20 feet, and, as in the 
 case of the South American jacare's and caimans, they are not 
 dangerous to either man or beast. Their chief occupation con- 
 sists in devouring the dead carcasses that find their way into In- 
 dia's great sacred river Ganges, and in this particular they per- 
 form a very useful office. ^Elian, one of the historians of the an- 
 cients, knew of the existence of this reptile in the rivers of In- 
 dia, and he mentioned it in his writings as the crocodile that had 
 a horn at the distal end of its snout. 
 
 Speaking of the literature of the group, however, the great 
 bulk of it has been devoted to the true crocodiles. This, of 
 course, is due to the fact that crocodiles of the Old World were 
 known and written about long, long before America was even 
 discovered or her alligators dreamed of by natural historians. 
 In the manner of rearing their young, procuring and consuming 
 food, methods of attack upon man and the larger quadrupeds, 
 and, indeed, in their general habits, the crocodiles and alligators 
 closely agree in all. Both the eggs and young have many destroy- 
 ers, as birds, fish, turtles, man, and the male of the species so 
 that it is not likely that more than one young crocodile in forty 
 comes to maturity, and this, far from the settlements of men. 
 
 Crocodiles when captured alive frequently feign death to a re- 
 markable degree. Tennant, while traveling in Ceylon, I think, 
 states that " on one occasion his party came upon a sleeping 
 crocodile, which on being struck, after it had awakened and seen 
 itself surrounded, lay perfectly quiet and apparently dead; in a 
 little while it was seen to glance furtively about, and then make 
 a rush towards the water. On receiving a second blow it again 
 feigned death, and this time no amount of poking could elicit the 
 slightest sign of life, until a lad, by gently tickling it under the 
 fore leg, caused the reptile so far to forget itself as to draw up its 
 limb." 
 
 An alligator, or a crocodile, can go a whole year without eating 
 or drinking, a feat that can be performed in a lesser degree by 
 most lizards, as the writer has often proved. The crocodile re- 
 sorts to numerous stratagems to secure its larger quadrupedal 
 prey, and, as it has a most formidable weapon at either end of its 
 body, the probabilities in favor of certain statements, whether 
 authenticated or not, are simply doubled. A blow from its tail 
 will knock down and stun a big animal, while a powerful lever 
 will not force its jaws apart when once it has taken a good hold. 
 
162 
 
 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 Prevalent among the myths about crocodiles is the one that 
 states the reptile never ceases to grow, and consequently the 
 limits of its size and age are not exactly known. 
 
 Fig. 44. THE GAVIAL. 
 
 Drawn by the Author. 
 
 Ever since the days of Herodotus, it has been known that the 
 crocodiles of the Mle, in Africa, frequently lie basking in the 
 sun, with open and w r ide-gaping mouths, while a small species of 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 163 
 
 plover is allowed by these great reptiles to enter and feed upon 
 the parasitic worms in its tongue, thereby affording no small re- 
 lief. This fact is illustrated in Fig. 43 of the present chap- 
 ter. The plovers belong to a group known in ornithology 
 as Coursers, and they are forms of great beauty. Sometimes, on 
 the Upper Nile, it is not an uncommon sight to see an old croco- 
 dile in the water, looking for all the world like a floating log, with 
 two or three of these pretty plovers disporting themselves upon 
 its back. They have a peculiar note to alarm the sleeping and 
 ponderous amphibian, in the event of approaching danger. 
 
 On the Lower Mle the crocodiles have been rendered nearly 
 extinct; man has shot them out. In the same locality, in ancient 
 times, the Egyptians held them to be sacred; they kept many of 
 them tame, feeding them in the most extravagant manner, and 
 ornamenting many parts of their bodies with gold bracelets, jew- 
 els, and precious stones. Thus decked out, they were worshiped 
 by the people. Many were brought to Kome, especially in the 
 time of Augustus, where they were introduced at the Amphi- 
 theater. Temples were raised at Memphis in the reptile's honor, 
 and in them, as in other cities too, living crocodiles were kept as 
 divinities. After death they were mummified with the utmost 
 care and regard. In other parts and cities of ancient Egypt, 
 however, the very opposite sentiments obtained, and crocodiles 
 received no mercy at the hands of the inhabitants. Many natives 
 in Africa eat them with great relish, but Sir Samuel Baker re- 
 garded the flesh with the utmost disgust. 
 
 To return to our own crocodile and alligator, I may say that a 
 full knowledge of their breeding habits has as yet not been se- 
 cured by science, so that accurate observations by any natural- 
 ists will be very acceptable, and constitute a positive contribu- 
 tion to a remarkable form of reptile that sooner or later must 
 utterly disappear from this country. 
 
CHAPTER XII. 
 
 GREBES, LOONS, AND AUKS. 
 
 (Pygopodes: Alcce.) 
 
 O far as my observation goes, it is only the better 
 informed, or else those who have some knowledge 
 of ornithology, apart from professional naturalists, 
 who apply the name " Grebe " to the birds so desig- 
 nated in science. As a rule, the representatives of this 
 family are popularly called " divers " or more often " hell- 
 divers," and sometimes " waterwitches," or " dippers," and 
 the little Pied-billed Grebe (Podilymbus podiceps), probably the 
 best-known form of all the genera, not only has all these names 
 applied to it, but likewise in the vernacular tongue passes under 
 the other ones of " dab-chick," " die-dapper " and the like. 
 
 It is not so very long ago since the present writer paid consid- 
 erable attention to the osteology of these birds as well as to that 
 of many of their relatives, both near and remote. These studies 
 led me to believe that the Grebes have their nearest allies in the 
 Loons, and that they each constitute a superf amily ; the first- 
 mentioned birds forming the Podicipoidea, and the latter the 
 Urinatoroidea. Taken together these two superfamilies form the 
 suborder Pygopodes. In a paper I recently published in London 
 upon this group, I remarked that formerly the Pygopodes were 
 considered by a number. of ornithological systematists to be a 
 group of birds containing but one family the ColymUdw, em- 
 bracing, in this country, at least, all those species known to us as 
 the Grebes and Loons. By some this group was placed in the 
 old order NATATORES, which was created in times gone by, to con- 
 tain nearly every kind of water-bird, from a Flamingo to an Auk. 
 Even as late as 1839 Brandt* included the Penguins in this order, 
 and prior to his day Illiger had associated the Phalaropes with 
 them. Passing by these earlier taxonomies, we find the writers 
 of the later years of the present century removing group 
 after group from this natatorial assemblage, so that at the pres- 
 ent time the majority of avian classifiers place in the order Pygo- 
 podes only the Auks, Grebes, and Loons. Mr. Sclater has com- 
 mitted himself to the opinion that the Pygopodes " seem to form 
 
 * Beitrage zur Kenntiss der Naturgeschichte der Vogel. 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 167 
 
 a, natural transition between " the Gulls and the Penguins ; and 
 to my friend Professor Alfred Newton " it appears questionable 
 whether the Grebes, Podicipedidce, have any real affinity to the 
 two families (ColymMdce and Alcidce) with which they are usually 
 associated, and this is a point deserving of more attention on the 
 part of morphologists than it has hitherto received." 
 
 Within the confines of the United States we find no outlying 
 types in her avifauna to this group Pygopodes, when constituted 
 as I have above suggested no bird-forms about which the mor- 
 phologists have any doubt as to whether they belong to this sub- 
 order or not; and I conceive that such forms, among other avi- 
 fauna, as we find in the genera Heliornis and Podica, are too un- 
 mistakably stamped with ralline characters, according to recent 
 investigators of their anatomy, to ever be associated again with 
 the Grebes, much less with the Loons. 
 
 The present writer is of the opinion that both the Grebes and 
 the Loons are the descendants of a now extinct ancestral stock 
 of birds, from which those remarkable fossil forms of toothed 
 divers of the cretaceous beds of Kansas described by Marsh the 
 Hesperornithidw were an offshoot. If we designate that ancient 
 stock as the Hesperornoidea, I conceive them to have been forms 
 possessing ample powers of flight and swimming in short, pon- 
 derous flying divers with teeth in their jaws. From those birds 
 it is probable that such types as Hesperornis regalis and H. cras- 
 sipes were a branch, in later time, that for some reason or other 
 ceased to resort to flight, lost their wings in consequence, but 
 became divers of enormous power. 
 
 From a consideration of the osteological characters, I consider 
 the Grebes to be an earlier offshoot of the pygopodous stem than 
 the Loons, and more nearly related to Hesperornis than are the 
 latter birds. The morphology of the pelvis and the pelvic limb, as 
 well as certain characters in the skull and trunk skeleton, point 
 in favor of this view, I think. So far as the affinities of the Pygo- 
 podes are concerned with other groups of existing birds, I have 
 shown in other places that they present a number of osteological 
 characters exhibited in common with the Auks and their allies 
 (Alcce) and the Gulls (Longipennes, etc.). More with the first, 
 and more or fewer with the latter groups. 
 
 The following list gives the genera, species, and subspecies of 
 grebes that are now recognized as occurring in various parts of 
 
 "Encyclo. Brit., 9th ed., vol. XVIII, art. " Ornithology," p. 45. 
 
168 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 the United States, viz.: The Western grebe (sEchmophorus occi- 
 dentalis) ; Holbcell's grebe (Colynibns holboellii) ; the Horned grebe 
 (C. auritus) ; American eared grebe (C. nigricollis calif ornicus) ; 
 the St. Domingo grebe (C. dominions), and the Pied-billed grebe 
 (Podttymbus podiceps). Other forms of these birds are found in 
 many parts of the world, and at least five distinct species occur in 
 Great Britain. Many of the habits of these birds are character- 
 istic of all the members of the group, and are .well exemplified in 
 the Horned grebe, of which I present a figure, and which will be 
 the species chosen for the purposes of description. In suitable lo- 
 calities, this grebe is found to inhabit the entire northern hemi- 
 sphere, and in this country breeds from northern United States 
 northward. During the breeding season, the head of one of these 
 birds is ornamented with a very handsome full tuft of feathers, 
 of a rich black, with glossy greenish reflections. This is set off by 
 the remainder of the crest being of a deep chestnut, and with a 
 yellowish stripe over each eye. As in all grebes, the lower parts 
 are of a glistening white, the plumage being very dense, while its 
 upper parts are for the most part of a brownish black. The wings 
 are of a chocolate brown, with the secondary feathers white. 
 Its irides are of a bright carmine, and the bill black, tipped with 
 yellow. Its neck and sides are of a purplish tint, which becomes 
 mixed with dusky on the flanks. In its winter plumage the bird 
 becomes far less conspicuous by the nearly complete absence of 
 the head ornament, and much of the general coloration becom- 
 ing plain black and white, as shown in the figure. Fledglings 
 have their heads curiously striped with white, gray, and rufous, 
 and are expert divers from the very first, as is the case with all 
 grebes. This bird has a length of about fourteen inches, and an 
 extent of two feet, it being of medium size as compared with 
 other species of the family. Usually, they select the shores of 
 ponds as their breeding places, constructing the nest at the 
 water's edge, or a few feet distant from it on the broken-down 
 rushes or other vegetation found in such localities, and it is of 
 this same material, too, that the nest is built, it being rudely in- 
 terwoven and piled up for several inches with a shallow concav- 
 ity on top. Sometimes, the waters of the pond rising, due to 
 heavy rains, these rude nests are floated, but I doubt that the 
 birds ever build them so originally, as has been stated by some 
 writers. When the parent leaves the nest for any purpose, and 
 has the time to do so, it makes a practice of covering the eggs 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 169 
 
 over with loose weeds and grass, so as to nearly or quite conceal 
 them from view. A set of these usually numbers from six to 
 eight, being smooth, unmarked, plain, and of a whitish color, or 
 creamy. They are elongated or of an ellipsoidal form. 
 
 The Horned grebe is a bird of powerful flight, and during the 
 seasons of migration makes long aerial journeys, often at con- 
 siderable heights. On land, however, he is an awkward fowl, 
 with a waddling locomotion, and when at rest generally assum- 
 ing the erect attitude with his curiously lobed feet spread out in 
 front of him, and the body supported on the backs of the tarsi 
 and on the distal end of the body the true feathery tail being 
 absent and represented only by a downy tuft, quite rudimentary 
 in character. Nestlings, when placed on the ground, crawl about 
 in a peculiar manner, reminding one very much of the action of 
 bats under similar conditions. Many years ago, when out in a 
 boat shooting on a lake in Wisconsin, I came upon several of 
 these grebes in an open space among the reeds near the shore. 
 One or two of them dived, but their companions quietly sank in 
 the water until only their beaks were to be seen above that ele- 
 ment, and in this position they stealthily swam into the denser 
 vegetal growth of the border of the lake. Nearly all grebes re- 
 sort to this peculiar means of making their escape when thus 
 alarmed. They will dive, and as quick as a flash, at the slightest 
 provocation, thus often rendering them difficult birds to kill even 
 with a gun. These dives often extend for some considerable dis- 
 tance, and they pop up again at the most unexpected places. 
 Grebes feed upon small fish, frogs and reptiles, as well as the 
 seeds of certain water plants, Crustacea and aquatic insects. In 
 speaking of the Horned grebe, Audubon has said : " I have ob- 
 served in the stomachs of almost all that I have examined, a 
 quantity of hair-like substances rolled together like the pellets 
 of owls, but have not ascertained whether or not these masses 
 are disgorged. They certainly cannot pass through the intes- 
 tines. But unless birds of this kind are kept in an aviary and 
 watched, this matter must remain unknown." This question is 
 not referred to in any other ornithological work the writer hap- 
 pens to have at hand at this moment, and it would seem to be one 
 into which an examination would not be altogether uninterest- 
 ing. 
 
 Our loons are all of the genus Urinator, there being five species 
 of them. These species are known as Urinator imber, the Loon; 
 
170 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 T. adamsii, the Yellow-billed Loon; U. arctic us, the Black-throated 
 Loon; V. paeificus-, the Pacific Loon; and V. lumme, the Red- 
 throated loon. They are all markedly handsome birds; that is, 
 the males in breeding plumage are, and although they have 
 habits very much alike in all the species those habits are fre- 
 quently found to be very interesting. Both in America and the 
 Old World loons are widely known as divers the Great North- 
 ern diver being the name frequently applied to the largest spe- 
 cies that has a black bill (U. imber). As a rule they far exceed 
 the grebes in size, but like them their legs are placed almost at 
 the extreme posterior end of the body, and they have short wings 
 and tails. Unlike the grebes, however, the toes of loons are en- 
 tirely webbed in front, instead of being lobed, and there are a 
 number of other anatomical differences distinguishing the two 
 families. 
 
 All the loons have excellent powers of flight, but they are most 
 at home in the water, in which element they are divers of the ut- 
 most expertness and endurance. On shore their locomotion is of 
 an exceedingly clumsy character, they merely being able to push 
 themselves along on their breasts by means of their legs. As 
 they build their nests on the ground, sometimes as far as thirty 
 or forty yards from the water's edge, of either some lake or 
 marsh, their mode of progression has the effect of making a regu- 
 lar path to and fro from the nest to the water. They generally 
 lay but two eggs, and these have been described in general terms 
 as being of an elongate-ovate form, deep brown or olive color, and 
 somewhat sparsely spotted or speckled over with a darker brown 
 or black spots. Newton says : " The divers live chiefly on fish, 
 and are of eminently marine habit, though invariably resorting 
 for the purpose of breeding to fresh-water lakes, where they lay 
 their two dark-brown eggs on the very brink ; but they are not in- 
 frequently found far from the sea, being either driven inland by 
 stress of weather, or exhausted in their migrations." Further on, 
 in speaking of their flight, he observes that it " is strong and they 
 can mount to a great height, whence on occasion they will rush 
 down with a velocity that must be seen to be appreciated, and 
 this sudden descent is accompanied by a noise for which those 
 who have witnessed it will agree in thinking that thunder is too 
 weak an epithet." 
 
 All the loons have a loud and penetrating cry, which in the 
 Oreat Northern diver is peculiarly harsh, clear, and resonant. 
 
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OF THE UNITED STATES 173 
 
 This appears to be especially the case before a storm, and old 
 sailors on our coast, who are very familiar with it, claim that 
 they know when a tempest is approaching by observing the rest- 
 lessness of the loons, and the vigor with which they utter their 
 notes at such times. It is said that this shrill scream of the loon 
 can be heard at a distance of a mile or more from the vessel, a 
 statement we can very easily believe. Years ago, or in 1868, 
 when the present writer was collecting water fowl on the lakes of 
 Wisconsin, he distinctly heard the cry of the Great Northern 
 diver at even a longer distance than that, for when the air was 
 clear and motionless, its sound was carried to the ear nearly 
 across La Belle Lake, at a point where it was over two miles 
 wide. 
 
 In a brief chapter, such as the one we are now writing must 
 necessarily be, it is quite out of the question to attempt to offer 
 descriptions of the beautiful plumages of all our species of di- 
 vers; for those the reader must be content to refer to any one of 
 our now many excellent standard works upon descriptive orni- 
 thology. Nevertheless with respect to this part of our subject, 
 I would fain invite attention to the exquisite plumage of the 
 male of the Black-throated diver. There is a magnificent mount- 
 ed specimen of this bird, with others of the same family, in one 
 of the cases at the Smithsonian Institution at Washington. In 
 conversation with Mr. Eidgway the other day the curator of 
 that department he informed me that that species was now very 
 rare in our avifauna, and the Institution possessed but a few 
 mounted examples, with no skins. He kindly placed at my dis- 
 posal the individual in the case, and I made an accurate, life-size 
 sketch of its head, the reproduction of which, one-third reduced, 
 is shown in Fig. 46 of this chapter. 
 
 The bill of this species is black, while the irides of the eyes are 
 a, bright red. Behind, the neck is a clear gray which gradually 
 deepens as we pass to the top of the head and about the eyes. 
 In front, the neck is black with purplish reflections, and this 
 region is divided by a transverse bar of black and white feathers. 
 Below this, on the sides of the neck, somewhat similar black and 
 white longitudinal bars form a distinct area. Above, the bird 
 is black with greenish reflections, shading to brown behind. 
 Longitudinal areas of white spots embellish this region two 
 upon each side. The lower parts are white. Young divers of this 
 species are different, but the females resemble the males though 
 
174 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 smaller in size. An old male will measure nearly 30 inches ire 
 length. 
 
 Audubon says: " I once caught one of these birds on the Ohio, 
 it having been incapacitated from diving by having swallowed 
 a large mussel, which stuck in its throat. It was kept for several 
 days, but refused food of every kind, exhibited much bad hunior r 
 struck with its bill, and died of inanition. The food of this spe- 
 cies consists of fish, aquatic reptiles, testaceous mollusca, and all 
 sorts of small crustaceous animals. Its flesh resembles that of 
 the loon, and is equally unfit to be eaten." 
 
 Audubon figures the male, female, and young of this species,, 
 as he does the Loon and the Red-throated diver. These were all 
 the forms of Urinator known to him at the time he completed his 
 great work, as occurring in our waters. Since his time both the 
 Yellow r -billed loon and the Pacific loon have been added. His 
 account of the Great Northern diver is one of the best that has 
 ever been written, and like a good story I have read it many 
 times at varying intervals, but always with the same interest. 
 
 Some authorities group the auks along with the divers, mak- 
 ing the two families constitute the Pygopodes. But such an ar- 
 rangement is not borne out by their morphology, and in my class- 
 ification of birds, I have long ago abandoned it as being unnat- 
 ural. Indeed, some forms of auks are more nearly related to 
 the gulls (Longipennes) than they are to the loons and grebes, 
 as a study of their osteology plainly shows. In short, I make a 
 suborder for the auks and their immediate allies, designating 
 them as the Alcce, as has been done by Sharpe and others. They 
 are birds more or less confined to the circumpolar regions, rarely 
 occurring to the southward. In our United States avifauna they 
 are represented by the puffins, the auklets, the murrelets, the 
 guillemots, the murres, the auks proper, and the Dovekie. Of 
 these several genera the genus Uria or the murres are the most 
 nearly related to the gulls of all the Alcce, while the famous ex- 
 tinct Great Auk was the most lowly organized species of the 
 group and should be awarded a place in accordance in future 
 schemes of avian classification. 
 
 As is well known, the literature and the published figures of 
 the Great Auk are both very extensive, and no doubt every one 
 who will read the present article is more or less familiar with its 
 history. A number of years ago the Smithsonian Institution had 
 collected on the Funk Islands a great quantity of the bones of the 
 
*' '' M **'"-fg^x^;;. : : H*V:;G 
 
 
 FIG. 47. WHISKERED AUKLET. 
 
 Adult in breeding plumage. 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 177 
 
 Great Auk, and it will be remembered that it was upon these 
 islands that this bird was known to be last alive on our shores. 
 Of all existing Auks perhaps the species as near related to the 
 Great Auk (Plautus impennis) is the Razor-billed auk (Alca 
 torda), a form which is abundant upon certain of the islands and 
 parts of the coasts of the North Atlantic, and which in winter 
 may sometimes be found as far south as southern New England. 
 An adult specimen of this auk has a length of about eighteen 
 inches and an extent of twenty-seven. During the summer 
 months both the bill and the feet are black, the former having an 
 oblique white line across each mandible. The mouth within is a 
 bright yellow. Audubon, who examined many fresh specimens, 
 says the iris is deep hazel; others state that it is bluish. All the 
 lower parts are white, as is also the lower part of the neck in 
 front. For the rest of the general plumage they are black, tinged 
 with deep brown and green. From the bill to the eye, upon each 
 side, runs a narrow line of white; the tips of the secondaries are 
 also white, the rest of the wing being a deep brown. The sexes 
 a iv alike, but the young are duller and mottled with white about 
 the sides of the head and throat. These auks are good flyers, 
 swimmers, and divers. They live largely upon shrimps and other 
 marine animals. With other Alcidw they breed in the fissures 
 and other apertures among the high rocky cliffs of their northern 
 home. The eggs, one or two in number, are generally laid in May 
 or June. 
 
 Another very interesting auk, one of the smaller species, 
 which rightly claims a place in our avifauna is the Dovekie (Alle 
 dllc). This bird is found upon nearly all the coasts and off-lying 
 islands of the North Atlantic ocean and Arctic seas, where it 
 breeds. In the winter-time it has been found as far south as New 
 Jersey. A male of this species has a length of something over 
 seven inches, having a black bill, hazel irides, and flesh-colored 
 feet. The head and all the upper parts are of a glossy blue-black, 
 while below the bird is pure white. The female has the throat 
 white in winter, and the black is considerably duller. The eggs 
 of the dovekie are two, being of a pale greenish-blue color. 
 
 \Yhen it occurs off our coasts in the winter, it is sometimes 
 blown inland during heavy storms, but this is by no means fre- 
 quently the case. 
 
 We also have interesting genera in our anklets and murrelets, 
 which are represented by at least a dozen species too many in- 
 
178 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 deed to attempt to describe in the present chapter. Most of these 
 are to be found in the North Pacific and are nearly entirely ab- 
 sent from the Atlantic ocean. In size they range all the way from 
 the Least auklet ( Simorhynchus putt'iHux). which has a length of 
 about 0.50 inches, to the Khinoceros auklet (('rrorliiiird inoiioccr- 
 <it), which has a length of more than fifteen inches. They also 
 vary most remarkably in appearance, plumage, and general char- 
 acter, especially in the extraordinary changes that are under- 
 gone by the bill during the breeding season, and of certain orna- 
 ments about the eyes in some of the related species (puffins). 
 About sixteen years ago these changes were closely studied and 
 ably described by the eminent French naturalist, Louis Bureau, 
 who showed the times and methods of moulting of these peculiar 
 horny appendages. All these birds are excellent flyers, and swim 
 under water with the greatest possible facility. During the 
 breeding season they are highly gregarious, and congregate in 
 millions at their breeding stations the rocky islands of their 
 northern home. They lay from one to three eggs, are supposed 
 to be monogamous; and these exclusively marine f owlets have 
 no notes beyond occasional harsh cries. They all subsist upon 
 such animals, as small fish and Crustacea, they capture in the sea. 
 In the summer many of them possess handsome crests and 
 plumes upon the top or the sides of the head, and the young when 
 first hatched are covered with down, which is long and soft. 
 During the year they assume a plumage which differs from their 
 parents, and the latter also have, as a rule, a different winter and 
 summer dress. In order to give the reader an idea of the appear- 
 ance of an adult. specimen of one of these auklets in breeding 
 plumage, I present a drawing of the Whiskered auklet (tfim- 
 orhyiicliHH itfH/nta'us), which I copied from a colored plate of Ridg- 
 way's, illustrating Turner's " Contributions to the Natural His- 
 tory of Alaska" (p. 120). These little fellows are very clumsy 
 walkers on the land, and some of the species but shuffle about in 
 the most helpless manner imaginable. At rest they stand erect 
 from the fact that their legs are placed at the posterior extremity 
 of their bodies. 
 
 Other species of the suborder we have under consideration are 
 seen in the murres and guillemots of the genera I'r'm and 
 Cepphus respectively, there being about three representatives 
 of the latter, and four of the former genus. As a rule they 
 are very different appearing birds as compared with (he 
 
FIG. 48. THE GREAT AUK (Phiutus impennis*). 
 
 *In Tin' di'i/f //>// Magazine for January, 188G (pp. 352-365), I published an article entitled 
 " Feathered Forms of Other Days," illustrated by a number of figures, and among them one of the 
 Great Auk, it being a copyrighted copy of my original painting of that famous bird. Century Company 
 having declined to loan me an electro for the figure published by them, I was compelled to make a 
 photograph of my original, and figure 48 (above) is the half-tone reproduction of that photograph. 
 
 The Century figure appeared reduced under the word Alca in The Century Dictionary, where it 
 is stated that I copied my Figure from Audubon. Such, however, was by no means the case, and who- 
 ever it was that compiled the ornithological articles of that great work, either was not familiar with 
 Audubon's figure of the bird, or else no artist -or both. In making this drawing I used the mounted 
 specimen of the Great Auk in the Smithsonian Institution chiefly as my guide and model, and made 
 use of the Audubon plate only in part. 
 
 Fig. 48 then is a fac-simile of my original, and appears now for the first time. R. W. S. 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 181 
 
 anklets and murrelets, especially the first-named. This fact 
 will at once be appreciated by turning to the best known 
 form among the guillemots, namely the Black guillemot or 
 Sea Pigeon (C. grylle). When in full breeding plumage, the 
 adult of this species is a sooty black bird, the feathers being tint- 
 ed or tinged with green in certain lights. The wings, tail, bill, 
 and claws are all black, the wings being ornamented witlra targe 
 white area upon each surface. Its feet and mouth are bright red. 
 This plumage only lasts a short time and the seasonal changes 
 for both young and adult are marked. Black guillemots occur 
 on the North Atlantic, European and American coasts. A great 
 deal has been written about the murres which are found in the 
 same localities with the last. This is the common murre (U. 
 frolic), and myriads of these "congregate to breed on rocky is 
 lands, incubating their single eggs as closely together as they can 
 find standing room on the shelves of the cliffs; their ranks serried 
 on ledge after ledge, and clouds of birds whirling through the 
 air. The eggs, so numerous as to have commercial value, are 
 notorious for their variability in coloration." Briinnich's murre 
 (U. lomvia) is also found upon the coasts and islands of the north 
 Atlantic and eastern Arctic oceans, while in similar localities 
 of the north Pacific and western Arctic oceans, these two species 
 are represented by the California murre (U. t. calif ornica) and 
 Pall as's murre (U. I. arra). 
 
 Finally in the suborder Alcce belong the puffins, and these are 
 placed in two genera, viz., Lunda and Fratercula. They are re- 
 markable, big-billed auks of grotesque appearance, very differ- 
 ent from any of the other members of the group. When on the 
 land they stand well on their feet and do not squat down as other 
 auks do. The Tufted puffin (Lunda cirrhata) and the Horned 
 puffin (Fratercula corniculata) are found in the north Pacific; 
 only stragglers of the former having been occasionally taken on 
 the coasts of Maine. From Spitsbergen to Baffin's Bay we find 
 the Large-billed puffin (F. a. glacialis), while the Common puf- 
 fin (F. arctica) is the north Atlantic representative of this sub- 
 family. 
 
 Among their structural peculiarities the puffins are noted for 
 their remarkable bills, for naked and skinny rosettes at the an- 
 gles of the mouth, and for curious appendages over and below 
 the eyes. As a rule the bill is about as long as the head, trian- 
 gular on lateral aspect, greatly compressed from side to side, 
 
182 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 and as deep as it is long. It is, during; certain seasons of the 
 year, incased with bright colored, horny, deciduous elements, 
 that are regularly moulted. The history of this peculiar moult is 
 extremely interesting and varies in the different species. The 
 sexes are alike, and their plumage does not exhibit much season- 
 al change. They lay their single egg in the crevices of the 
 rocks or in burrows in the ground. Lunda lacks the horny ap- 
 pendages about the eye, but has pendant tufts of silky, straw- 
 colored feathers at the sides of the head. 
 
 The Common puffin has the " throat and sides of the head 
 white, that color extending over the eye and passing in a narrow 
 line behind the occiput. Upper part of the head blackish gray, 
 tinged with olive, paler anteriorly. The middle of the neck all 
 round, and all the upper parts of the body, deep black, with blue 
 reflections, the quills tinged with brown. The whole under sur- 
 face white, except the upper parts of the sides, which are dusky." 
 It has a length of about 13^ inches. Audubon, from whom I 
 quote this description, gives us quite a long and very interesting 
 account of this species. But the natural history of these extraor- 
 dinary birds would make a very extended chapter, and occupy 
 far more space than can be devoted to the subject here, as much 
 as the writer would like to enlarge upon it. 
 
CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 GULLS AND THEIR ALLIES. 
 
 (Longipennes.) 
 
 HE transition from the Auk group to the GnH-grwip is 
 easy and not far to seek. If one will take the skeleton 
 of any one of the typical Murres (Uria) and critically 
 compare it with the skeleton of a typical Gull (Larus), 
 it at once becomes evident that the two genera, although belong- 
 ing to different suborders, are not by any means so far separated 
 but what the relationship is easily recognized. Other structures 
 than the skeleton give support to the facts derived from a com- 
 parison of this kind. Now the Gull group constitutes the sub- 
 order LOXGIPENNES, and so far as our American avifauna is con- 
 cerned, it includes representatives of the skuas, the jaegers, the 
 gulls, the terns, and the skimmers. But one skua is known to 
 occur upon our coast the common one (Megalestris skua), and 
 but three jaegers, all of the genus Stercorariits. The gulls are 
 far more numerous, and are represented by a number of genera, 
 as Gavia, Larus, Rissa, RJiodostethia, and Xema; including in all 
 nearly thirty species, the vast majority of which belong to the 
 genus Larus, which is the typical one. Terns are not quite as nu- 
 merous as the gulls, but there are still nearly twenty species of 
 them belonging to our fauna. They are distributed through the 
 four genera Gcloclidulon, tfterna, TTi/drochelidon, and A nows, most 
 of them belonging to the more typical genus Sterna. Finally, in 
 an entirely distinct family, we have the Black skimmer (Ryn- 
 clwps). 
 
 At different times during the past few years the present writer 
 has made extensive comparative studies of the morphology of 
 this group of birds, and especially of their osteology, and from 
 these investigations has been led to the opinion that the follow- 
 ing scheme of classification expresses the relations of these birds 
 to each other within the suborder. 
 
 ) Sternitii 
 
 >M. 
 
 { RYNCHOPIDJE. 
 
 So far as anatomy goes, and to some extent habit and appear- 
 ance, the gulls merge almost insensibly into the terns, as, for 
 example, the gnll known as Sabine's gull (Xema sabinii) is quite 
 
184 
 
 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 nearly related to such a Tern as the Arctic tern (Sterna para- 
 disvcu), while on the other hand the Gull-billed tern (Gelochelidon 
 nilotica) more or less nearly approaches some of the stouter - 
 1'ormed gulls of the genus Larus. As for the Black skimmer 
 
 FIG. 49. Ross's GULL (Rhodostethia rosea). (Reduced.) 
 
 The upper figure is an adult male in winter plumage ; the lower one, a young female of the first 
 autumn. Drawn by the Author.* 
 
 ( l\i/nchops nigra), I have elsewhere called attention to what is by 
 no means either an uninteresting nor insignificant fact, that in 
 some parts of its osteology it bears a striking resemblance to that 
 
 *In making this drawing I was assisted by the two plates (colored) of Mr. John L. Ridgway, il- 
 lustrating the " Report of the International Polar Expedition to Point Barrow, Alaska," by Lieut. P. 
 H. Ray, U.8 A. (Government). 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 185 
 
 remarkable extinct cretaceous bird Ichthyornis, of which several 
 species have been found. Heretofore the Black skimmer has been 
 very generally considered by ornithologists to be but a sort of 
 a tern with a different kind of a head; but this is by no means 
 the case, for if any one will take the pains to structurally examine 
 an example of this species, he will soon be confronted by the fact 
 that, instead of being but a "modified tern," it is "separated 
 from the other longipennine families by gaps of no mean width. 
 In other words, it is a very distinct family. The skuas and jae- 
 gers stand between the Rynchopidce and the Laridw, and from 
 what has just been said w r e are prepared to learn that they are 
 far more closely allied to the latter than they are to the skimmers. 
 We have already stated above how this gull group is allied to 
 the auks, and upon carrying our investigations still further we 
 can find no objection to Huxley's observation that " the gulls 
 grade insensibly into the Proccllariidce" while, on the other hand, 
 my own studies fully convince me, in so far as their osteology 
 goes, an even closer relation exists between the gulls and the 
 representatives of the great plover group of birds, or the Litni- 
 co1<r. The Procellariidce are generally considered to include such 
 families as the albatrosses, the fulmars, the shearwaters, and the 
 petrels; and of these perhaps the fulmars, in their general ex- 
 ternal appearance, are more gull-like than any of the others 
 mentioned. 
 
 Tracing our Longipennes back into geological times, there can 
 be no question but what we can see at least some of their ances- 
 tors in the genus of toothed birds of the cretaceous beds of Kan- 
 sas the genus Ichthi/orni-s, already mentioned above; and, in tht* 
 various geological horizons existing between those comparatively . 
 early times and the present epoch, many fossil skeletons of gulls 
 and gull-like birds have occurred. Many of these are in the 
 hands of science, both here and abroad. A few years ago the 
 present writer described a large collection of fossil birds from the 
 Equus beds of Oregon (late tertiary, U. S.), belonging to Professor 
 Thomas Condon and our very distinguished paleontologist, the 
 late Professor E. D. Cope, of Philadelphia. In that collection I 
 found the fossil bones of several gulls and terns, which were 
 identical with those of existing species of our present avifauna. 
 Others were extinct, but nevertheless very closely resembled 
 forms now in existence. In short, this material threw but little 
 light upon the question of the line of longipennine ancestry. 
 
186 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 There must have been a great many forms that became extinct 
 between the times of the cretaceous and the tertiary, and many 
 of these yet remain to be found. 
 
 The gull selected for illustration in the present connection is 
 the species known as Boss's gull, or Ross's rosy gull, it having 
 been likewise called the Wedge-tailed gull, from the fact that 
 its tail is of the cuneate form. Beyond this latter peculiarity, 
 and its lovely rose-tinted breast in the adult, it has most of the 
 characters common to any of our smaller and typical gulls. Dur- 
 ing the breeding season it has a plumage somewhat different 
 from that, as shown in the figure; the adult being white, beauti- 
 fully shaded with rose, with a pearly-blue mantle, and a black 
 collar about the neck. The bill is black, while the feet, eyelids, 
 and gape are a bright red. It has a length of about fourteen 
 inches. This is a circumpolar species, of the Arctic regions, a 
 tVw stragglers only occasionally coming south to the most north- 
 ern parts of the North Temperate Zone. At one time it was ex- 
 ceedingly rare in museums and collections, but about ten or more 
 years ago a large number were taken at Point Barrow by one of 
 the United States Government expeditions. I believe that its 
 breeding stations still remain unknown, and we yet remain in 
 ignorance of many of the habits of this, one of the most beautiful 
 of all the existing gulls. 
 
 Red, white, black, pearly-blue, and rarely, rose, are the pre- 
 vailing colors of this family of birds. The young may show vari- 
 ous shades of brown or gray, or are dusky. Adults in the breed- 
 ing season are, as a rule, white, with a mantle of pearly-blue. 
 Some of the species have black heads, and often much black is 
 seen at the wing-tips or the primary feathers of the same. Marked 
 changes of plumage take place with age, and different seasons, 
 though usually the sexes are always alike. Several years elapse 
 before the mature plumage is attained, the color of the bill and 
 feet changing at the same time. The latter are invariably 
 webbed, and not illy fitted for ambulatorial purposes. Commonly 
 the tail of a gull is even, rarely forked or wedge-shaped, and 
 iH'ver has median projecting feathers as in many of the jaegers. 
 All the bigger forms have powerfully hooked beaks, apt to soize 
 the small fishes upon which they largely feed. Indeed, the Great 
 bin rk -backed gull is a very marine raptorial pirate, who will not 
 only rob other gulls and their kind of their prey, but will make 
 excursions inland and hunt for the young and eggs of other birds 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 187 
 
 to devour them. As a group they are cosmopolitan, and in suitable 
 locations on our coasts, and over our great lakes and rivers, they 
 occur in vast numbers. 
 
 As a rule, gulls build their nests upon the ground, and lay from 
 two to three eggs, and these vary much in appearance, but are 
 commonly of a cream color, heavily and variously blotched with 
 dark spots and markings. I have eaten the eggs of numy of the 
 species and always found them excellent. Many of these birds 
 procure their food by plunging in the water for it; others skim 
 over the surface and pick it up; some rob other birds of it; while 
 some may gather shell-fish and other marine invertebrates on the 
 beaches and flats at low water. They are all good flyers, and 
 swim with great buoyancy, ease, and grace. Loud, harsh notes 
 are given vent to by the big species, while the smaller forms have 
 shriller voices, and the young ones have a querulous whine, which 
 is peculiar to them. 
 
 According to a writer at hand, " Several circumstances con- 
 spire to render the study of these birds difficult. With some ex- 
 ceptions, they are almost identical in form; while in size they 
 show an unbroken series, individual variability in size is high; 
 northerly birds are usually appreciably larger than those of the 
 same species hatched further south; the male exceeds the female 
 a little (usually); very old birds are likely to be larger, with 
 especially stouter bill, than young or middle-aged ones. There 
 is, besides, a certain plasticity of organization, or ready suscepti- 
 bility to modifying influences, so marked that the individuals 
 hatched at a particular spot may be appreciably different in some 
 slight points from others reared but a few miles away. Incredible 
 as it may appear, species and even genera have been based upon 
 such shadowy characters. 7 ' Some of the most extensive and 
 highly interesting accounts of our commoner species of gulls are 
 given by A udubon in his great work upon American birds, but to 
 be appreciated these must be read in extenso, and I would be 
 guilty of an injustice to quote any one of them only in part. 
 
 Many of the terns are of small size, and the largest of them 
 rarely equal in this respect the average-sized gulls. With but 
 few exceptions, the tail in them is deeply forked, the wings long 
 and pointed, and the bill slender and acutely sharp, having much 
 the form of the head of a narrow lance. On land they do not 
 walk as well as the gulls, as their feet are more posteriorly 
 placed, while the webbing of the same is not as perfect as a rule. 
 
188 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 Delicate and slender in general contour, the sexes are barely to 
 be distinguished by external characters, while the plumages for 
 season and age markedly vary. 
 
 Confining ourselves to the North American forms, it is to be 
 observed that the pattern of their coloration is quite constant for 
 the majority of them. White predominates, and this, in some 
 species, may be rose-tinted upon the under parts. Most fre- 
 quently the head is black-capped, and the back, or mantle, as it 
 is here called, is of a delicate pearl-blue or clear gray. The pri- 
 maries of the wings are black, or dark-colored. As exceptions 
 we mav note that Trudeau's tern has a white head with a black 
 
 FIG. 50. TRUDEAU'S TERN. 
 
 Natural size. Drawn by the Author. 
 
 stripe upon either side (Fig. 50); and in others the black cap is in- 
 terrupted by a white frontal crescent. In the genus Hydroclicli- 
 don the species are nearly entirely black, while the Noddy terns 
 have the whole body of a fine fuliginous brown. The bill is vari- 
 ously colored, the chief shades being yellow, red, black, and 
 orange, often two of the colors being combined. Structurally, 
 they depart but slightly from the gulls, and this departure is 
 \<T\ gradual as we pass from the more laro-sternine types to the 
 distinctly tern-end of the series. In flight they are buoyant, 
 while at other times they far exceed the gulls in dash and vigor. 
 p]specially is this last the case when they are feeding, for they 
 have the habit of balancing themselves on wing over the water 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 189 
 
 with bill pointed directly downward, w r hen with a sudden dive 
 they plunge into that element to capture the small fish upon 
 which most the species largely subsist. Others, and usually the 
 smaller forms of terns, skim, swallow fashion, over marshes and 
 similar wet places, to gratify their more or less insectivorous 
 tastes. Thus they have gained for themselves the almost world- 
 wide name of sea-swallow, and it is quite suited to thenr -Terns 
 are very indifferent swimmers, however, being far behind the 
 gulls in this particular. A writer upon this subject says, " The 
 eggs are laid in a slight depression in the ground, generally the 
 shingle of beaches, or in a tussock of grass in a marsh, or in a 
 rude nest of sticks in low bushes. They are one to three in num- 
 ber, variegated in color. Most of the species are maritime, and 
 such is particularly the case with noddies, but nearly all are 
 found inland. They are noisy birds, of shrill penetrating voice, 
 and no less gregarious than gulls, often assembling in multitudes 
 to breed, and generally moving in company. Species occur near 
 water in almost every part of the world, and most of them are 
 widely distributed. Of those occurring in North America, the 
 majority are found in corresponding latitudes in the Old World. 
 Some seventy species are currently reported. The true number 
 is apparently just about that of the gulls (about fifty)." 
 
 The present writer has collected the Black tern in the marshes 
 of Wisconsin, and as far in the interior as Wyoming. I have 
 taken the Least tern frequently on Long Island Sound and the 
 Potomac river, while the Noddy has often fallen to my gun on 
 the coast of Florida and in the Bahamas, as has also the Sooty 
 tern (Sterna fuliginosa). There, too, I have collected the lovely 
 Roseate tern, and numerous other species. But wherever we 
 find them, or of whatever species, they cannot fail to command 
 our attention and excite our interest, for among sea fowl, at 
 least, they are to be reckoned with the loveliest forms of bird- 
 life that cleave the air or fearlessly plunge into the waters to 
 capture their finny prey. 
 
 We have in our United States avifauna four different and 
 well-marked species of jaegers or skua gulls. These have been 
 placed in two distinct genera, that of Megalestris and of Stercor- 
 uriufi; the first-named containing the Common skua (M. skua), 
 and the latter the Fomarine jaeger, the Parasitic jaeger, and 
 the Long-tailed jaeger (tf. pontariH-us, $. parasiticus, and *Sf. longi- 
 x* respectively). 
 
190 
 
 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 The word skua is of Fieroese origin, and jaeger, or more prop- 
 erly jaeger, is the German word for hunter, having reference, as 
 w<> shall soon see, to the habits of the bird. Their technical 
 names are equally well chosen, and we have but to remind the 
 reader that Stercorarius is from the Latin and signifies " a scav- 
 enger," while poniarinus is derived from the Greek and refers to 
 the large horny " cere " surmounting the external narial aper- 
 tures of the superior mandibles in these birds a character quite 
 unique among marine forms. The presence of this structure there 
 is interesting from another point of view, for the jaegers are dis- 
 tinctly rapacious in habit, as are the cered-beaked raptores 
 
 FIG. 51. THE LONG-TAILED JAEGER. 
 
 among the terrestrial birds of prey. Skuas or jaegers have pow- 
 erful beaks, as a rule, and strong feet, that are full webbed, with 
 the claws all large and curved. Another peculiarity is seen in 
 the tail, the main part of which is not especially long, being 
 square, with the two central feathers more or less elongated. 
 Tliis character is particularly well developed in the Long-tailed 
 jaeger, of which I present a drawing. There are some good 
 mounted specimens of this species in the collections of the Smith- 
 sonian Institution, and upon examining them I find the plumage 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 191 
 
 in the two sexes to be practically alike, but in the female the 
 middle-tail feathers are not so long as they are in the male. 
 
 The parts below, as well as the neck, are white, the latter being 
 shaded with light yellow. The head behind is sub-crested, the 
 feathers being of a brownish-black color, which is also extended 
 to include the area anterior to the cheeks and the top of the head. 
 Above, this species is of a deep slate color, with the exception of 
 the primaries and secondaries of the wings, the lateral tail-feath- 
 ers and the posterior halves of the central pair, all these parts 
 being of a blackish-brown, more or less lustrous in tint. It is not 
 uncommon, I learn, to meet with melanotic phases of plumage in 
 the jaegers, to an extent to be considered almost a normal spe- 
 cial condition. As a rule, these birds inhabit the sea coasts and 
 great lakes of the arctic and sub-arctic regions, but there are ex- 
 ceptions to this, and the Long-tailed jaeger in winter occurs as 
 far south as the Gulf of Mexico. With us, however, they all pass 
 to the far northward to breed. Their habits of nidification are 
 more or less like the gulls, and they lay from two to three dark- 
 colored eggs, variously spotted. 
 
 In the matter of flight, the jaegers are pre-eminently powerful 
 and rapid, and as they are the most relentless avian pirates that 
 infest the high seas, they put their varied aerial accomplishments 
 to no less base a purpose than persistently harassing all the 
 smaller species of gulls and the terns, forcing them to either dis- 
 gorge their food or robbing them of such as they may have in 
 their beaks at the time of their making their attacks. 
 
 A great deal more might be said here about these voracious 
 longipennine robbers, but we will pass now to a consideration of 
 the remaining subfamily of the group of the terns. Of these we 
 have many species, for which some four genera have been cre- 
 ated, as mentioned above. 
 
 Unless others have been discovered within the past very few 
 years, I am familiar with but three species of the birds we call 
 skimmers, of the genus Ryncliops. Two of them are found in 
 Asia, and there is our own species, known as the Black skimmer 
 or Razor-bill, which on the Atlantic coast ranges as far north as 
 New Jersey, but has been occasionally taken in as high latitude 
 as that of the Bay of Fundy. 
 
 Audubon has an excellent colored drawing of the Black skim- 
 mer (R. niger), in his work, and this I have copied to illustrate 
 this bird (Fig. 52). 
 
192 
 
 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 A Skimmer has the proximal half of its bill a bright carmine 
 red, the balance being black. But the curious form of this bird's 
 beak is what commands the attention of every one who may 
 study the species. " Among the singular bills of birds/' says 
 a writer, " that frequently excite our wonder, that of the skim- 
 mers is one of the most anomalous. The under mandible is much 
 longer than the upper, compressed like a knife-blade; its end is 
 obtuse; its sides come abruptly together, and are completely 
 
 FIG. 52. THE BLACK SKIMMER. 
 
 About one-third the size of life. 
 
 soldered; the upper edge is as sharp as the under, and fits a 
 groove in the upper mandible; the jawbone, viewed apart, looks 
 like a short-handled pitchfork. The upper mandible is also com 
 pressed, but less so, nor is it so obtuse at the end; its substance 
 is nearly hollow, with light cancellated structure, such as is in a 
 toucan; it is freely movable by means of an elastic hinge at the 
 forehead." 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 193 
 
 Speaking in a general way, the Black skimmer may be said 
 to have a plumage of black and white, while its feet in life are 
 red. They range in length from sixteen to twenty inches, and 
 the females are smaller than the males. During the breeding 
 season the white of the under parts is tinted with a cream or 
 rose color, calling to mind similar changes in some gulls. The 
 young are duller in color, being of a light grayish-brown, though 
 they are white below. The form of the bill is not so decided, and 
 the upper and lower mandibles are of more equal length. Nest- 
 lings of this species are extremely interesting subjects for study. 
 A great many years ago, or in 18G5, I had abundant opportunity 
 to observe the habits of skimmers on the coasts of Florida, as 
 well as on the Bahama Islands and the West Indies. Along the 
 shore line of western and southern Florida especially, I saw thou- 
 sands of them in those days. They lit in extensive " flocks " on 
 the sand bars, or in loose, scattering parties skimmed over the 
 surface of the water, often sallying up the large rivers for some 
 little distance or extending their flights to include the great 
 bayous that were not too far removed from the coast. They feed 
 principally at night or evening time, or upon cloudy days. Ac- 
 cording to Audubon, who has left us an excellent account of 
 Ryncliops, " they spend the w r hole night on the wing, searching 
 diligently for food. Of this I had ample and satisfactory proof 
 when ascending the St. John river, in east Florida, in the United 
 States schooner Hpark. The hoarse cries of the skimmers never 
 ceased more than an hour, so that I could easily know whether 
 they were passing upward or downward in the dark. Being 
 aware of the observations being made on this species by M. Les- 
 son, I paid all imaginable attention to them, always aided by an 
 excellent glass, in order to find whether or not they fed on bi- 
 valve shellfish found in the shallows of sand bars and other 
 places at low water, but not in one single instance did I see any 
 such occurrence, and in regard to this matter I agree with Wil- 
 son in asserting that, while with us, these birds do not feed on 
 shellfish. While watching the movements of the Black skim- 
 mer as it was searching for food, sometimes a full hour before it 
 w r as dark, I have seen it pass its lower mandible at an angle of 
 about forty-five degrees in the water, whilst its movable upper 
 mandible was elevated a little above the surface. In this man- 
 ner, with wings raised and extended, it plowed, as it were, the 
 element in which its quarry lay to the extent of several yards at 
 
194 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 ti time, rising and falling alternately, and that as frequently as 
 it thought it necessary for securing its food when in sight of it; 
 for I am certain that these birds never immerse their lower man- 
 dible until they have observed the object of their pursuit, for 
 which reason their eyes are constantly directed downward, like 
 those of terns and gannets." 
 
 The flight of the Skimmer is elegant in the extreme, being more 
 interesting and superior to that of any of the terns. Their cries, 
 however, when upon wing, are harsh and more or less discordant. 
 A slight excavation in the sand is the sole apology for a nest that 
 this bird ever attempts to make. In this it lays, about the first 
 week in May, three eggs. These are pure white, heavily blotched 
 with black and various shades of dark brown, and often patches 
 of a light purple color. 
 
 One of the earliest, and at the same time one of the best ac- 
 counts of the Black skimmer is given by Darwin in his famous 
 work entitled Journal of Researches into the Natural History and 
 Geology of the Countries visited during the voyage of H. M. 8. 
 Beagle round the world, under the command of Captain Fitz-Roy, 
 R. N. It is found in the first volume (p. 174), and a figure of the 
 head of the skimmer is given: one of the earliest drawings of the 
 species known to me (1846). 
 
CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 PELICANS AND THEIR RELATIVES. 
 
 (Steganopodes.) 
 
 E have three forms of Pelicans (Pelecanidce) in-the avi- 
 fauna of this country. These are the American White 
 Pelican (Pelecanus erythrorhynchus), the Brown Peli- 
 can (P. fuscus), and the California brown pelican (P. 
 calif orniciis). The White pelican has been found in the interior 
 as high north as Latitude 01, and ranges south into Central 
 America. Plenty of them are found in suitable localities in the 
 valley of the Mississippi, along the Gulf coast, on the coast of 
 California, and southward. In the northeastern States they are 
 now only found as rare stragglers. Brown pelicans are Atlantic 
 coast birds, and occur plentifully in the Bahamas and the West 
 Indies. They rarely come north of North Carolina, and they range 
 southward along the Mexican and Central American coast lines. 
 In a few instances they have been found in the interior (Illinois). 
 I am not familiar with the California brown pelican, but it is a 
 form said by its describers to be found on the Pacific coast from 
 the latitude of San Francisco southward. 
 
 As the name indicates, the plumage of the American white 
 pelican is principally white, but the primaries of the wings are 
 black. Sometimes the tail feathers are tinged with rose, and the 
 lengthened feathers of the back of the head and the breast are a 
 fine straw yellow. Its bill and feet are also generally of this 
 color. This bird is remarkable for the peculiar triangular horny 
 excrescence which is developed on the upper side of the bill of 
 the male during the breeding season, and which after that time 
 falls off without leaving a trace of its ever having existed there. 
 This species lays two or three eggs. The brown pelican, of which 
 I give a figure, has a dark plumage that is considerably varie- 
 gated. Most of the head is white, shaded with yellow on the 
 crown; the former color bordered with dark chestnut, runs down 
 the neck. The wings are mostly blackish and the tail is gray. 
 Above, the body is dusky, becoming gray on the wing coverts, 
 while below it is inclined to be more brown, with lateral white 
 stripes. A mixture of yellow, blackish, and chestnut feathers 
 are found on the forepart of the neck, low down towards the 
 
196 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 breast. It lays from two to three eggs, which are while, with 
 chalky shells. As we all know, the principal character of these 
 truly magnificent birds is the great skinny pouch attached to the 
 
 FIG. 53. THE BKOWN PELICAN. 
 
 By the author, after Audubou, and greatly reduced. 
 
 entire borders of their very weak lower jaws. This pouch is best 
 developed in the Brown Pelican, where it extends at least half 
 \v;iy down the neck. 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 197 
 
 Pelicans consume myriads of small fishes, rarely large ones, 
 and they dip them up by means of the pouch just described. At 
 one time I was among the Brown pelicans for months on the 
 Bahama Cays, and it was very interesting to watch them fishing. 
 They would plunge down from on wing sometimes, and at others 
 dive while swimming on the water. By a muscular contrivance 
 they can both contract their pouch or expand it by a lateral ex- 
 tension of the sides of the jaw to which it is attached. The little 
 fishes are swallowed by the bird tossing its head backwards, con- 
 tracting its pouch, and swallowing the prey. During this act 
 the water taken up at the dive runs out at the angles of the 
 mouth. In feeding their young they disgorge into their opened 
 mouths a quantity of partially-digested fish from their crops, and 
 do not, as is commonly supposed, carry living fishes to them in 
 their pouches. Still less is it hardly necessary for me here to 
 disprove the story that a pelican feeds its young with blood from 
 its own breast such a myth may answer for the decorative pur- 
 poses of great stained-glass windows in churches, but surely the 
 truth-loving natural historian of animals finds no use for the 
 statement. Our space is too valuable here to enter into the ques- 
 tion of the many ingenious suggestions which have been advanced 
 to explain the origin of this mythical legend. We leave that to 
 others. Pelicans are both excellent swimmers and divers. Flight 
 is greatly enhanced by the air which thoroughly permeates their 
 skeletons and other parts, while their large, completely webbed 
 feet account fully for the possession of their swimming propensi- 
 ties. These birds are often kept alive in zoological gardens and 
 private parks, and those who visited Chicago at the time of the 
 World's Fair may remember the number of Brown pelicans that 
 were kept on the waters of the beautiful and picturesque lagoons 
 that formed such a distinctive feature of the magic White City, 
 now a thing of the past. 
 
 It is quite a rare thing to see a White pelican perch in a tree, 
 though less so to see a Brown one in such a situation. Neither 
 species has any great fear of man, the White ones during flight 
 often passing close to him, or to buildings in towns and cities 
 during their migrations. After gorging themselves with food 
 they will often doze for a long time on the water, or on some sand 
 bar or similar place. Under these circumstances, if suddenly 
 sin-prised, they may be taken alive, as they rise on the wing with 
 difficulty, due not only to the state they are in, but also from the 
 
198 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 faH that they may have their pouches half filled with fish. They 
 are great gluttons. In some of the Bahama isles I have ob- 
 served as many as fifty Brown pelicans in one flock, with others 
 on the water fishing. On the coasts of Cuba and Hayti and the 
 Mosquito coast of Mexico, I have observed both species. In 
 southeastern Europe and the adjacent countries of Asia and 
 Africa they have a species of pelican (P. onocrotalus) much re- 
 sembling our White pelican. Some ten or a dozen other kinds 
 are found in various parts of the w r orld. I have described the 
 bones of a fossil pelican from Oregon, and similar remains have 
 been found in England. P. onocrotalus was well known to the an- 
 cients, and was frequently figured on their monuments. 
 
 Some very interesting birds of the suborder ^tenanopodes are 
 the relatives of our pelicans in the avifauna of this country. 
 There are in the first place the two species of Tropic birds of the 
 genus Pl}actlion\ then there are six species of gannets (Sula) ; 
 the curious Snake bird, also known as the Darter or Anhinga 
 (AnJiinga) ; at least eleven different kinds of cormorants (Plia- 
 lacrocorov) : and finally the famous Man-o'-War bird (Frcyata 
 
 According to Newton, the Tropic birds have been so called by 
 " sailors from early times, because, as Dampier (Toy. i, p. 53), 
 among others, testifies, it is " never seen far without either Trop- 
 ick," and hence, indulging a pretty fancy, Linnaeus bestowed 
 upon it the generic term, continued by modern writers, of Phaeton, 
 in allusion to its attempt to follow the path of the sun. There 
 are certainly three well-marked species of this genus, but their 
 respective geographical ranges have not yet been definitely laid 
 down. All of them can be easily known by their totipalmate 
 condition, in which the four toes of each foot are united by a web, 
 and by the great length of the two middle tail-quills, which pro- 
 ject beyond the rest, so as to have gained for the birds the names 
 of "Rabijunco," "Paille-en-queue," and "Pijlstaart," among mar- 
 iners of different nations. These birds fly to a great distance 
 from land and seem to be attracted by ships, frequently hovering 
 round or even settling on a mast-head. 
 
 " The Yellow-billed Tropic-bird, P. flavirostris or candiflus, ap- 
 pears to have habitually the most northerly, as well, perhaps, as 
 the widest range, visiting Bermuda yearly to breed there, but 
 also occurring numerously in the southern Atlantic, the Indian 
 and a great part of the Pacific Ocean, In some islands of all 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 199 
 
 these three it breeds, sometimes on trees, which the other species 
 are not known to do. However, like the rest of its congeners, it 
 lays but a single egg, and this is of a pinkish-white, mottled, 
 spotted, and smeared with brownish-purple, often so closely as to 
 conceal the ground-color. This is the smallest of the group, and 
 hardly exceeds in size a large pigeon; but the spread of its wings 
 and its long tail make it appear more bulky than it reaTlylsr Ex- 
 cept some black markings on the face (common to all the species 
 known), a large black patch partly covering the scapulars and 
 wing-coverts, and the black shafts of its elongated rectrices, its 
 general color is white, glossy as satin, and often tinged with 
 roseate. Its yellow bill readily distinguishes it from its larger 
 congener P. aefhereus, but that has nearly all the upper surface of 
 the body and wings closely barred with black, while the shafts 
 of its elongated rectrices are white. This species has a range al- 
 most equally wide as the last; but it does not seem to occur in 
 the western part of the Indian Ocean. The third and largest 
 species, the Ked-tailed Tropic-bird, P. mibricanda or pJicenicurm, 
 not only has a red bill, but the elongated and very attenuated 
 rectrices are of a bright crimson-red, and when adult the whole 
 body shows a deep roseate tinge. The young are beautifully 
 barred above with black arrow-headed markings. This species 
 has not been known to occur in the Atlantic, but is perhaps the 
 most numerous in the Indian and Pacific Oceans, in which last 
 great value used to be attached to its tail-feathers to be worked 
 into ornaments." (Diet. Birds; Pt. IV, pp. 989-991.) 
 
 Of all our various species of Gannets, the one probably widest 
 known is the common Gannet, or, as it is often called, the Solan 
 Goose, the Sula bassana of science. This large water -fowl occurs 
 upon the coasts of the north Atlantic, migrating to the south- 
 ward as far south as the Gulf of Mexico in the winter time. 
 Adult Gannets are as large as a small goose, having, however, 
 the wings and the tail considerably longer. At three years of 
 age they gain their full plumage, which is almost wholly white, 
 the head and neck alone being shaded with a buffy color, while 
 the large feathers of the wings are black. Around the eyes and 
 on the throat the skin-tracts are bare and tinted a deep blue. 
 Young birds of the first year are dark brown, spotted with white, 
 and the nestlings, when first hatched, are nude and blind, but 
 they soon gain a plumage of thick, white down, quite equal to 
 that of the swan, and much sought after by the manufacturers 
 
200 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 of muffs and tippets. This Gannet builds a shallow nest of sea- 
 weed, placed upon the ground, and in it lays its single white egg, 
 that is not unlike the egg of some of the Cormorants, having the 
 same chalky covering overlaying the shell. Fishes that go in 
 great shoals near the surface are followed by these birds, and 
 through this circumstance fishermen often detect the presence of 
 the former, at considerable distances. Gannets are but indiffer- 
 ent swimmers and divers, while, on the other hand, their " prey 
 is almost invariably captured by plunging upon it from a height. 
 and a company of Gannets fishing presents a curious and inter- 
 esting spectacle. Flying in single file, each bird, when it comes 
 over the shoal, closes its wings and dashes perpendicularly, and 
 with a velocity that must be seen to be appreciated, into the 
 waves, whence it emerges after a few seconds, and, shaking the 
 water from its feathers, mounts in a wide curve, orderly taking 
 its place in the rear of the string, to repeat its headlong plunge 
 so soon as it again finds itself above its prey." (Newton.) 
 
 These birds are not used for food, but are simply captured for 
 their feathers alone. This is sometimes effected by tying a her- 
 ring on a shingle and towing it behind a row-boat. The Gannet 
 plunges down upon the bait, and it either kills itself by the shock 
 of the blow received, or else thrusts its beak clean through the 
 floating shingle, and is thus easily taken by being draw r n up to 
 the boat by the tow-string. At many of their former places of 
 resort the Gannets are rapidly decreasing in numbers, where for- 
 merly they w r ere present in immense legions. While in Florida 
 and on the Bahama Banks, I frequently collected specimens of 
 the blue-faced gannet, or " Booby," as it is otherwise known 
 (tfitla ci/anops), and have also had in my possession living speci- 
 mens of the Blue-footed booby and Brewster's booby (8. yossi and 
 &. In-ctrstcri ) . They w^ere taken for me on the coasts of Lower 
 California, and gave me the opportunity of thoroughly working 
 out their osteology. 
 
 Even a more interesting form than any of the gannets is the 
 species of Snake bird we have in this country, occurring, as il 
 does, in the inland waters of the southern States, especially those 
 of Florida. Specimens, however, have been taken as far north 
 as the Carolinas, the mouth of the Ohio River, and southern 
 Kansas. 
 
 Approaching in some respects some of the smaller species of 
 cormorants, this bird is nevertheless easily distinguished from 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 201 
 
 them, in so far as external appearances go, by its long and ex- 
 tremely slender neck and beak; its trimmer body, and more elon- 
 gated tail. Either the male or female is a bird of beautiful plu- 
 mage, particularly during the breeding season, as different as 
 they are in this respect. A male at this time is largely clothed 
 in black feathers, exhibiting a greenish gloss. Its eyes are 
 bright crimson, while the naked skin around them is green ,~and 
 of the throat, orange. A white stripe runs down either side of 
 the neck, showing lilac reflections. White markings occur upon 
 the long feathers of the shoulders and the lesser coverts of the 
 wings. The wings and tail are black, the latter being tipped 
 with reddish brown. In the female the head, neck, and pectorial 
 region is of a buffy color, a reddish tinted band limiting the lat- 
 ter below. These birds have the habit of perching upon the out- 
 standing and dead limbs of trees overhanging the pools of their 
 habitat. From these points of observance they watch for their 
 finny prey in the waters beneath, and by rapidly darting down 
 upon it, plunging beneath the surface, secure the same with their 
 dagger-like beaks. Upon coming into view again, nothing is 
 seen save the snake-like upper parts of the Anhinga, stealthily 
 making off with its capture. Hence the popular name of the 
 species. Under water, its powers of swimming are simply un- 
 rivaled, being able to capture a fish, however agile the latter may 
 be, and in these subaqueous excursions it exhibits the most re- 
 markable maneuvers, spreading its tail and shooting about in a 
 manner most extraordinary. None of the smaller fishes upon 
 which it feeds can escape the attacks of this consummate fisher- 
 man. It exhibits even these qualities in captivity, " taking 
 apparently without effort fish after fish," as Newton remarks, 
 " that may be introduced into its tank, however rapidly they may 
 swim and twist, and only returning to its perch when its vora- 
 cious appetite is for the moment appeased or its supply of food 
 temporarily exhausted." 
 
 These birds lay four eggs in a large, bulky nest, placed in a 
 tree, and usually overhanging the water. 
 
 Cormorants of one species or another are found upon all the 
 coasts of the United States, her offlying islands, and on the great 
 lakes and largest rivers. In many of these places they are like- 
 wise known as Shags, which by many people they are popularly 
 called. They, as in the case of Anhinga, are also most voracious 
 fishermen, and are, too, extremely expert swimmers beneath the 
 
202 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 surface of the water. In former times fishing with cormorants 
 was a favorite pastime in England, and in China is still followed 
 in a manner that it there has been, in that country, for many gen- 
 erations. The birds are kept in confinement or are so far domesti- 
 cated as not to require restraint of any kind. They are seen 
 perched upon the prows of the river-boats, and when in use their 
 masters buckle a ring around the neck of the bird in order to pre- 
 vent deglutition, then the fishes it captures are taken away from 
 it upon its coming up to the boat. The signal for the bird to com- 
 mence is announced by the boatman striking the water with his 
 oar. Fish after fish is taken until the master is satisfied, where- 
 upon the cervical ring is removed and the birds are allowed to 
 satisfy their ow y n demands. In nature they frequently gorge 
 themselves to the very verge of gluttonous inebriety; then repair- 
 ing to the crags of rarely frequented rocks and cliffs, dose away, 
 safe from the disturbance of their enemies, until digestion over, 
 they once more seek the fishing-grounds. 
 
 Thirty or forty species of cormorants are found in various 
 parts of the world, but although varying not a little in size, plu- 
 mage, and to a lesser degree in structure, their habits are much 
 the same wherever we find them in nature. Many excellent ac- 
 counts have been published in regard to them, and considerable 
 attention been given to their anatomy. 
 
 The Men-o'-War birds I have seen upon a great many occasions 
 in the harbors of Havana, Matanzas, and Cardenas, upon the 
 north coast of Cuba, as well as at points around the entire coast 
 line of the Gulf of Mexico. In the matter of oceanic, open-air 
 flight they are hardly without a rival. On the ground they are 
 as clumsy as a Kingfisher, and for much the same reason, as their 
 feet and legs are aborted to an extraordinary degree. Tn body, 
 too. speaking comparatively, they are likewise small, but their 
 immense expanse of wing and long, forked tails give them pecu- 
 liar powers of buoyancy in the air. From tip to tip of wing they 
 have an expanse equal to that of a swan, but with a trunk no 
 bigger than that of a large jaeger. Often I have seen them sail- 
 ing, like so many turkey buzzards, high above the surface of the 
 ocean, and this usually after feeding. When the latter time ar- 
 rives, however, their habits are entirely different, for it is then 
 that the Frigate-birds displav their very tyrannical dispositions, 
 and as in the case of the White-headed eagle, they are the rob- 
 bers of all the boobies and gulls in the neighborhood, as is the 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 203 
 
 former the despoiler of the Osprey. They breed in communities, 
 as a rule, upon high trees near the water. In their big, shift- 
 lessly constructed nests each bird deposits her single white egg, 
 it having a chalky shell, not at all unlike that of a cormorant's. 
 Nestling birds have a plumage of dense white dow r n, as in the 
 case of vultures (Cathartes), and the feathers of the adult come 
 out .through this coat as the individual matures. Adult males 
 are blackish brown above, having a metallic sheen to it; the fe- 
 males showing white beneath, with feet of pink. But the males 
 have black feet and a scarlet gular pouch, the last being easily 
 observable while the birds are upon the wing. 
 
CHAPTER XV. 
 
 MEADOW-LARKS AND PARTRIDGES. 
 
 (Genus Sturnella: Perdicinw.) 
 
 E have in this country, as elsewhere, quite an extensive 
 list of birds that, although they are not considered by 
 true sportsmen to be typical game birds, yet they are 
 very generally shot by gunners not only for table use, 
 but for sale in the game markets where they are frequently dis- 
 played. Some of these are esteemed by many to be very excel- 
 lent eating, and the truth of the matter is, it is not easy to draw 
 a hard and fast line between what a stickler among sportsmen 
 and an all-round gunner would call game. 
 
 In my time I have met with people who were very fond of 
 nighthawks (Chordeiles), and would spend a whole evening in 
 shooting a sufficient number of these caprimulgine birds for their 
 table; while upon the other hand, most surely wild pigeons, 
 turtle doves, the smaller plovers, and sandpipers come far nearer 
 to being true game. It is in this latter list that the Meadow-lark 
 belongs, rather than with other pseudo-game birds, as robins, 
 flickers, blackbirds, and coots. 
 
 In the present chapter it is my intention to write of the natural 
 history of the meadow-larks, and while upon this subject of game 
 birds it may be said that they offer not a few characters and hab- 
 its that almost entitle them to a place upon the list with them. 
 First of all, if the birds be not too old, they are by no means an 
 indifferent fowl upon the table, and in truth two-third grown 
 ones are excellent eating, having the qualities of sufficient size 
 and tender flesh. During the autumn months, and in those 
 fields where the meadow-grass is not too meager and short, these 
 birds will occasionally stand for a dog, but they cannot invari- 
 ably be relied upon for this, and will most often run through the 
 verdure ahead of the. animal, to arise at will further off. When 
 once in the air, however, and within range, they offer tempting 
 shots and not always easy targets. Sometimes in flight they are 
 quite erratic enough to suit the tastes of the most fastidious of 
 sportsmen; often-this flight is more than swift, while usually, as 
 noted by AVilson, it is " in the manner of the Grouse and Par- 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 205 
 
 tridge, laborious and steady, sailing, and renewing the rapid ac- 
 tion of the wings alternately." 
 
 Meadow-larks, too, sometimes congregate in large, loose flocks, 
 so the sport of hunting them, where they are plenty, does not 
 flag, and a good bag can be made in a few hours. Then the colora- 
 tion of the upper parts" of the bird is decidedly gamy, although 
 the rich yellow of the under parts rather inclines the orthodox 
 sportsman to look at it askant, and with an expression of con- 
 tempt often pronounce it to be nothing more than a passerine 
 bird, belonging to the group of song birds known as the oscines, 
 and most likely related to the orioles, starlings, and blackbirds, 
 all of which is true enough, to be sure. 
 
 Notwithstanding this, young America will nevertheless, as 
 heretofore, still continue to hunt the Old Field Lark, as it is 
 termed in so many sections of the country, and in doing so, gain 
 the first necessary lessons of shooting on the fly. For one, I 
 know my experience with them as far back as 1863, in the salt 
 marshes of Long Island Sound, taught me the tricks of the art, 
 and it was through that practice that I sooner gained the neces- 
 sary control of eye and hand that permitted me to drop in succes- 
 sion ten woodcock in the cover, and that, too, when the birds 
 were stimulated with the crisp air of an October morning, and 
 flew as though they had been shot out of a catapult. 
 
 The plumage and appearance of our Meadow-lark is so well 
 known to all of those who are familiar with our common birds, 
 that a detailed description would obviously be superfluous, espe- 
 cially as such a description would probably not be read or used 
 by those who take no interest in matters of this kind, a charge 
 that I am quite sure cannot be brought to the door of any reader 
 of the present work. For many years the bird has been known 
 to science as Sturnella magna, the first or generic name being the 
 Latin diminutive of the word sturnus, a starling, and the second, 
 or specific name, likewise from the Latin, being derived from 
 wagnus, large or great; a most incongruous combination, indicat- 
 ing as it does a little big starling. There are two sub-species in 
 the genus namely, the Mexican meadow-lark (8. m. mexicana), 
 and the Western meadow-lark (8. m. neglecta), the first named 
 being found from the lower Rio Grande valley .to Panama, and 
 the second in western United States southward through certain 
 parts of Mexico. 
 
 In southern America there is also another representative of 
 
206 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 this genus, small in size, generally darker above, but what is 
 most striking, it has a red breast and throat instead of a brilliant 
 yellow, as in iS. muyim. Mr. Kidgway, who is probably the best 
 authority we have upon birds among us, says that the Mexican 
 Meadow-lark is smaller than our eastern form, with " smaller 
 bill, but larger feet." The Western meadow r -lark is even more 
 conspicuously distinguished, being paler and grayer above, with 
 the black markings not nearly so pronounced. This latter bird 
 I have shot in a great many western localities, and have noticed 
 especially the marked difference in its note as compared with our 
 eastern form (8. magna). Some of the individuals I shot in 
 New Mexico were markedly pale above and light beneath, and as 
 to a female of this sub-species, one could never confound it with 
 our bird here in the Atlantic States. In some portions of the 
 Mississippi valley the ranges of the two forms often widely over- 
 lap, and in consequence hybrids are occasionally to be found; but 
 these facts only likewise tend to prove the distinctness of 8. 
 magna and $. m. neglecta, the latter having gained its sub-specinc 
 name for having been so long overlooked by ornithologists. 
 
 Our eastern Meadow-lark can be considered to be but partially 
 migratory, and I have found not a few of them in the winter time 
 in Central New York, and Wilson remarks, " It is probable that, 
 in the more rigorous regions of the north they may be birds of 
 passage, as they are partially so here; though I have seen them 
 among the meadows of New Jersey and those that border the 
 rivers Delaware and Schuylkill, in all seasons, even when the 
 ground was deeply covered with snow." Wilson, by the way, 
 also adds that in his day throughout the season these birds were 
 exposed for sale in the Philadelphia markets, being considered 
 for the table but little inferior to quail. 
 
 When Meadow-larks do not alight upon the ground they most 
 frequently select the very top of some tree or shrub or end of 
 projecting fence rail in a fence, and the like, and from such 
 points as these it is that he pours forth his prolonged notes, so 
 famous for their clarity, tenderness, and sweet tone. They also, 
 at times, give vent to a rattling clatter of note so different 
 from the other, that one would hardly believe it was uttered by 
 the same bird. It is said that the female does this more often 
 than the male bird. 
 
 Among the rice fields of the south, during the winter, those 
 birds arc some! lines very abundant, coming often close to the 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 209 
 
 dwelling houses and outbuildings upon the plantation, exhibiting 
 but little fear of man; while in the north during the same season 
 I have many times noticed three or four of them in the middle 
 of a country road where the snow has disappeared and left a 
 small patch of ground bare. Here they would be engaged in 
 picking the grain from the droppings of horses that had passed, 
 and were often in company with Juncos and Snow buntings. 
 Practically it may be said that the Meadow-lark rarely or never 
 does any serious injury to our grain fields, as he is more partial 
 during all the warmer parts of the year to a varied list of insects 
 upon which he feeds, as well as the seeds of certain grasses and 
 other plants. 
 
 Just at this writing I do not happen to remember of ever hav- 
 ing seen a Meadow-lark very far within the boundary line of 
 heavy timber, although one may occasionally be met with in a 
 limited open space more or less closely surrounded with trees. 
 Into such places they alight sometimes in order to capture or 
 feed upon the insects that have perchance congregated there. 
 
 When mating time arrives, as spring comes round, the old 
 male birds of this species exhibit a very considerable amount of 
 excitement, and the study of their quaint courtship is replete 
 with interest. Two males will sometimes chase a female, only 
 apparently reluctant, all about some old pasture field, singing to 
 her at the top of their voices; while in flight their wings, by the 
 tremulousness of their motion, indicate the passion so keenly 
 felt by their owners. 
 
 Should the semi-blind trio become exhausted by these efforts, 
 all may come to alight upon some convenient fence-rail, where, 
 with a fervent consort upon either side of her, the coveted fe- 
 male is treated to a united shower of notes, accompanied by a 
 wing-flipping and a tail-spreading, such as no hen in all the 
 genus could resist, whereupon she is obliged to make her choice 
 quickly, and with her chosen one flies away. 
 
 Meadow-larks build their nests upon the ground, usually some- 
 what below the surface, where it is overgrown by some tussock 
 of grass, a bramble-briar, or other like protection. This chosen 
 and natural excavation is lined neatly with fine grasses, the 
 same also being used to form a partial overarching dome, the 
 latter being helped out by the growing grass or leaves above the 
 spot. From four to seven eggs are laid during the early part of 
 June, the young hatching out in about fifteen days thereafter. 
 
210 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 South of Maryland they probably breed earlier, about the middle 
 of May, and in those regions two broods may be the rule. Both 
 sexes take part in incubation, the female being the closest sit- 
 ter, however, while the male is easily alarmed, thus frequently 
 betraying the location of the nest. Major Bendire says the 
 " eggs of the Meadow-lark vary considerably both in shape and 
 size; the majority are ovate, while others are short elliptical, 
 and elongate ovate. The shell is strong, closely granulated, and 
 moderately glossy. The ground color is usually pure white; this 
 is occasionally covered with a pale pinkish suffusion, and is 
 very rarely pale greenish white. The eggs are more or less pro- 
 fusely spotted, blotched, and speckled over the entire surface 
 with different shades of brown, ferruginous, pale heliotrope, 
 purple, and lavender; these markings generally predominate 
 about the larger end of the egg, and are rarely heavy enough to 
 hide the ground color. 
 
 " In some sets the markings consist mainly of a profusion of 
 fine dots ; in others the spots are well rounded and fewer in num- 
 ber; and again they occur in the shape of irregular and coarse 
 blotches, mixed with finer specks and dots; in fact, there is an 
 endless variation in the style of markings." 
 
 The material described by Major Bendire has been examined 
 by the present writer at the United States National Museum, 
 and it is remarkable to observe the great variety of patterns of 
 the eggs of this species. The same remark applies to the eggs of 
 the western Meadow-lark, they averaging but slightly smaller 
 than those of the eastern bird. 
 
 On the 18th of June, 1897, my little daughter, Sarah A. Shu- 
 feldt, discovered within a short distance of my home at Takoma, 
 D. C., a nest of the Meadow-lark that contained but two young, 
 and these would have been ready to shift for themselves in a few 
 days. My son dug up the entire sod that supported this nest, 
 bringing the whole, young and all, to my study, in as perfect a 
 condition as possible, and not in the least disturbed. By me it 
 was taken out of doors, and everything being favorable, I suc- 
 ceeded in obtaining a good photographic picture of a typical nest 
 of this well-known species, and a copy of this is here reproduced 
 in order to show how the young Meadow-larks appear within it. 
 
 The original of this picture was taken exactly natural size, 
 and was only reduced in the reproduction. 
 
 Either one of these nestlings has the coloration of the upper 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 213 
 
 parts a good deal as we find it to be in the adult, but the lower 
 parts are of a dull, brownish yellow, while the pectoral crescent 
 is simply indicated by brown dashes upon the central part of 
 each feather, the margins having the color of the breast below. 
 Tufts of down occur in several places upon the head (behind the 
 eyes) and in the wings; but what constitutes the most striking 
 feature in one of these speciments is the great length of the legs 
 and the very big feet. Young Meadow-larks leave the nest before 
 they are able to fly, but so cute are they about hiding close that 
 it is very rare to find one at this time ; the coloration of the back 
 likewise being greatly in their favor. The pair I refer to above 
 were very clumsy and awkward, but nevertheless could squat 
 and hide with all the skill of a young kildeer. 
 
 Since obtaining the above referred-to picture, my son has cap- 
 tured alive an adult male Meadow-lark, and I succeeded also in 
 making a photograph of this specimen, one of the most difficult 
 pieces of photography in which I was ever successful. The result 
 is shown in Figure 55. 
 
 Sometimes the Cowbird lays its egg in the nest of this spe- 
 cies, and Bendire cites a case where a second nest was built over 
 the one containing the parasitic egg. Besides being shot by man, 
 destroyed by numerous kinds of vermin, as weasels and the like, 
 and by hawks; many Meadow-larks are never hatched out 
 in those places where mowing machines are in constant use. Thus 
 it is that in such regions the bird is becoming annually more rare, 
 and this is unfortunate, in so far as man is concerned, for Stur- 
 nella is the best bird friend that the farmer has, and kills thou- 
 sands of noxious insects every season. 
 
 Some of the habits of the other species and sub-species of the 
 birds of this genius are extremely interesting, but the limita- 
 tions of space forbid my touching upon these in the present chap- 
 ter. The Meadow-lark is not found in the Old World, and, in fact, 
 no bird that may be said to be very closely akin to it. 
 
 As has been said above, our Partridges belong to the group 
 including the typical game-birds. 
 
 When I speak of the American partridges, I mean, in the pres- 
 ent instance, the representatives of the sub-family Perdicince that 
 legitimately belong to the avifauna of the United States. It will 
 naturally include, however, all the partridges that occur north of 
 the United States and Mexican boundary, on the North Ameri- 
 can continent; and these, as recognized in the second and last 
 
214 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 edition of the A. O. U. Check List of North American Birds, 
 number seven species and six sub-species. Either in describing 
 or arranging these birds, we usually commence with those par- 
 tridges commonly known among us as the Bob-white. They con- 
 stitute the genus Colinus, and lead off with our favorite eastern 
 Bob-white, a bird which, broadly speaking, is called Quail in the 
 north, and Partridge throughout the southern districts. Science 
 knows the form simply as Colinus virginianus, and its geographi- 
 cal distribution has been given in the Check List as " eastern 
 United States and southern Ontario, from southern Maine to the 
 South Atlantic and Gulf States; west to central South Dakota, 
 Nebraska, Kansas, Oklahoma, and eastern Texas. Of late years 
 has gradually extended its range westward along lines of rail- 
 road and settlements; also introduced at various points in Colo- 
 rado, New Mexico, Utah, Idaho, California, Oregon, and Wash- 
 ington. Breeds throughout its range." This partridge is re- 
 placed in Florida by the Florida Bob- white (C. v. floridanus), and 
 in " southern and western Texas, south to central Tamaulipas 
 and southern Nuevo Leon, Mexico," and " western Mexico and 
 Guadalajara," by the Texan Bob-white. The race of Bob-white 
 that is restricted to the Floridan peninsula is both darker and 
 smaller than the species of the north and east, while, according 
 to Eidgway, in the Texan Bob-white the upper parts are some- 
 what of a rusty color (except anteriorly), " an olive-grayish tint 
 prevailing, the scapulars, tertials, and lower back usually with- 
 out conspicuous black blotches, and the general surface usually 
 barred with lighter; black markings of lower parts usually 
 broad and nearly transverse, as in C. v. floridanus. Adult male 
 usually with a very distinct band of uniform pale cinnamon 
 across chest, immediately beneath the black collar." From So- 
 nora to southern Arizona, we met with the Masked Bob-w r hite 
 (Colinus ridgwayi), which was first discovered by Mr. Herbert 
 Brown, of Tucson, Arizona, and described by Mr. William Brew- 
 ster. It is a beautiful species, and a very different looking bird 
 as compared with our eastern Bob-w r hite. There is an excellent 
 account of its habits and range in Bendire's grand work on the 
 " Life Histories of North American Birds," and, to the best of 
 my recollection, it was figured in colors and published by Dr. 
 Allen several years ago in the reports of the American Museum 
 of Natural History. The genus Colinus, then, is made to contain 
 f wo species and two subspecies of Partridges, commonly known 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 215 
 
 as Bob-white; and we next pass to the genus Oreortyx. These are 
 elegant Partridges of great beauty of plumage, there being one 
 species of them and two subspecies, all confined to the western 
 part of the United States. The type of the genus is the moun- 
 tain Partridge (0. pictus), w r hich was described by Douglass in 
 the Transactions of the Linnean Society in 1829. As far as now 
 known, its present geographical distribution includes ~Eh(T " Pa- 
 cific coast region, from San Francisco Bay north to Washing- 
 ton." It has also been introduced on Vancouver Island. 
 
 A paler race of these birds, distinguished as the Plumed Par- 
 tridge (O.pictus plumiferus), occurs upon both slopes of the Sierra 
 Nevada Mountains, and eastward to the Panamint range, thence 
 to Mount Magruder in Nevada; it is also found south in the coast 
 ranges from San Francisco Bay to Lower California. (Campos.) 
 They are wonderfully handsome birds, more so, I think, than the 
 remaining subspecies of this genus; namely, the San Pedro Par- 
 tridge (O.p.confinus), which, although much like its plumed rela- 
 tive, has a somewhat thicker bill, and is grayer above. So far 
 as at present known, it is a race confined to the San Pedro Moun- 
 tains of Lower California, where it was discovered by A. W. An- 
 thony, and described by him in 1889 in the Proceedings of the 
 California Academy of Sciences. 
 
 Our largest genus of American Partridge is the genus Calli- 
 pepla, containing as it does three species and two subspecies. 
 The Scaled Partridge (C. squamata) is, according to the A. O. U. 
 List, found upon the " tablelands of Mexico, from the valley of 
 Mexico north to central and western Texas." It occurs also 
 about Santa F, New Mexico, and in certain localities in south- 
 ern Arizona. I have seen specimens in the flesh of this bird, shot 
 fifty miles east of Fort Wingate, New Mexico. It is replaced in 
 northeastern Mexico and the lower Eio Grande valley in Texas by 
 the sub-species known as the Chestnut-bellied Scaled Partridge 
 (C. s. castanogastris). A very different-appearing species is the 
 California partridge (C. californica ) , known along the coast re- 
 gion of California, where it occurs as the " Valley " or " Top-knot 
 quail." It is found as far south as Monterey, and it has been suc- 
 cessfully introduced into Oregon, Washington, and British Co- 
 lumbia. Bendire says, " Their favorite haunts are the under- 
 growth and thickets along water courses, brush-covered side 
 hills, and canyons, frequenting the roads, cultivated fields, vine- 
 yards, and edges of clearings to feed. It is a constant resident, 
 
216 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 and breeds wherever found." A subspecies of this form is also 
 called the valley partridge (C. c. vallicola), but it is a gayer-col- 
 ored bird, with a paler-tinted plumage and a different range. It 
 inhabits the valleys of the mountains and foothills of the interior 
 of the State of California, especially the Sierra Nevadas as far 
 south as Cape St. Lucas, and eastward to the Panamint moun- 
 tains. In western Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, and throughout 
 the southern portions of California, Nevada, and Utah; in the 
 valley of the Colorado, and thence southward into northwestern 
 Mexico, we meet with Gambel's partridge (C. gambelii), a de- 
 served favorite and a very handsome species. 
 
 Finally, this list of very interesting game birds is completed 
 by the Massena Partridge (Cyrtonyx montezumce), which is by far 
 one of the very finest and handsomest species in the United 
 States. Geographically, it is distributed over the tablelands of 
 Mexico, from the city of Mexico north to western Texas, and is 
 also found in Arizona and New Mexico. It is a strikingly col- 
 ored species and peculiarly marked in plumage, as will be ob- 
 served in my figure of it that illustrates the present chapter. In 
 Arizona and New Mexico they call this Partridge the " Fool 
 Quail," while in western Texas it is known as the Black-bellied 
 Quail, or simply as the " Black." I have never shot this bird, but 
 while in New 7 Mexico a number of years ago I was presented with 
 some specimens of it in the flesh that had been killed only a few 
 days before by Colonel Bates, of the Thirteenth U. S. Infantry. 
 At the time I thought them to be among the handsomest game 
 birds I had ever had in my hands. 
 
 In reference to the nidification and habits of the Massena Par- 
 tridge, Mr. G. W. Todd wrote Major Bendire to the following ef- 
 fect : " I first met with the Massena Partridge in Bandera County, 
 Texas, in 1883, where they were very scarce, and I learned but 
 little of its habits for a long time. They are very simple and un- 
 suspicious, and apparently live so much in such barren and 
 waste places that they do not see enough of man to make them 
 afraid. On seeing a person they generally squat at once, or run 
 a little way and hide. They will hardly fly until one is almost on 
 them, but when they finally do fly they go much further than 
 either the Texan Bob-white or the Scaled Partridge, and on 
 alighting they run rapidly for a little distance and then squat 
 ji^Jiin, generally flushing easier the second time. It is rare to see 
 more than six together; two or three are more often met with. 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 219 
 
 In the fall of 1886 I found a covey of five on a wet and misty day, 
 and killed three of them with a Winchester rifle before the re- 
 maining two flew. I never found their nest nor met with small 
 young until this year. I saw but a single young bird this sea- 
 son, and this seemed to be entirely alone. They are not very 
 abundant here, and are always found in the most barren places, 
 among rocks and wastes, where even the prickly pear is" stunted, 
 and no bush grows over three feet high. When scared they 
 utter a kind of whistling sound, a curious combination between 
 a chuckle and a whistle, and while flying they make a noise a 
 good deal like a Prairie Hen, though softer, and less loud, like 
 i chuc-chuc-chuc ' rapidly repeated." " The only nest of this spe- 
 cies I have ever seen was situated under the edge of a big bunch 
 of a coarse species of grass, known as * hickory grass.' This 
 grass grows out from the center and hangs over on all sides until 
 the blades touch the ground. It is a round, hard-stemmed grass, 
 and only grows on the most sterile soil. According to my obser- 
 vations the Massena Partridge is seldom seen in other localities 
 than where this grass grows. I was riding at a walk up the 
 slope of a barren hill when my horse almost stepped on a nest, 
 touching just the rim of it. The bird gave a startled flutter, 
 alighting again within three feet of the nest and not over six 
 feet from me; thence she walked away with her crest slightly 
 erected, uttering a low chuckling whistle until lost to view 
 behind a Spanish bayonet plant (yucca), about thirty feet off. I 
 was riding a rather unruly horse, and had to return about thirty 
 yards to tie him to a yucca before I could examine the nest. This 
 was placed in a slight depression, possibly dug out by some ani- 
 mal, the top of the nest being on a level with the earth around it. 
 It was well lined with fine stalks of wire-grass almost exclu- 
 sively, the cavity being about five inches in diameter and two 
 inches deep. At the back, next to the grass, it was slightly 
 arched over, and the overhanging blades of grass hid it entirely 
 from sight. The nest was more carefully made than the average 
 Bob-white's nest, and very nicely concealed." Major Bendire, in 
 describing these eggs, has said that they were " ten in number, 
 were fresh when found, pure white in color, rather glossy, and 
 the majority of them are more elongated than those of the Bob- 
 white. A few of these eggs resemble those of the latter some- 
 what in shape, but the greater number are distinctly ovate and 
 much more glossy. Some are slightly granulated, and corruga- 
 
220 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 -tions converge from near the middle to the small end." (Life 
 Histories of North American Birds, pp. 39, 40.) These were the 
 first fully identified eggs of the Massena Partridge that had 
 ever fallen into the hands of science, and it is interesting to 
 know that they were not discovered until the year 1890. We 
 have nowhere in the English language better and fuller accounts 
 of the life-histories of our North American Partridges than are 
 to be found in Bendire's great work from which I have just 
 quoted, and it is greatly to be regretted that so useful and accu- 
 rate an ornithological treatise should have, in being a govern- 
 ment publication, received, at least at the outstart, such a lim- 
 ited circulation. It offers a great temptation to me to quote 
 more extensively from its pages, but were I to do so I would 
 soon exceed the scope of the present volume and the proper lim- 
 its of this chapter. 
 
 In many other parts of the world we meet with numerous 
 kinds of partridges, belonging to various genera not represented 
 in this country. Perdico cinerea the Gray Partridge is the 
 game bird of Great Britain. Subspecies of it are found in Siberia 
 and Tibet. Europe also has the Ked-legged partridge (Gaccdbis 
 rufa), and another of the same genus, while fine* forms of the sub- 
 family also occur in Africa and elsewhere. 
 
CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 AMERICAN VULTURES. 
 
 (Super family Cathartoidea.) 
 (Family Cathartidce.) 
 
 ULTUEES of one species or another occur in nearly 
 all parts of the world, but our forms of Ameri- 
 can Vultures constitute a family quite distinct 
 from the falconine types of them found in the 
 Old World and elsewhere. This difference has no especial refer- 
 ence to the habits of the birds in the two groups, but is seen in 
 the anatomical structure of their representatives, and in this 
 particular the distinction is a very radical one. Upon various 
 occasions during the past twenty years I have published a num- 
 ber of accounts of the Vultures of this country, including one or 
 two more or less elaborate memoirs upon their structure, illus- 
 trated by numerous plates. Several years ago, while living in 
 New Mexico, I had a Turkey Vulture alive for a number of weeks, 
 and at different times endeavored to secure satisfactory photo- 
 graphs of him, but owing to my inexperience in the art in those 
 days, my success in the matter was not nearly as good as it has 
 been recently. During the summer of 1896 my son slightly 
 wounded a fine male specimen of our common Turkey Buzzard, 
 and I kept him alive for nearly a fortnight. After he had practi- 
 cally recovered from his wounds, he was made the subject for 
 my camera upon one or two occasions, and at the second attempt 
 I succeeded in obtaining a life-size picture of his head, that for 
 the exhibition of characters and general appearance was quite 
 satisfactory. He proved to be not the easiest subject in the 
 world, and those who have ever tried this experiment can appre- 
 ciate the pride I feel upon presenting the fine reproduction of 
 my attempt shown in the accompanying figure. 
 
 Passing by, as we must in as brief a chapter as the present one, 
 any description of that biggest of all the world's vultures, the 
 Condor of South America, and such other species as are strictly 
 confined to that country and to Central America and Mexico, I 
 shall confine my observations here to those forms only that are 
 known to regularly occur north of the southern boundary of the 
 United States. 
 
222 
 
 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 Some have claimed to have seen Burrough's Turkey Vulture 
 (Catliartes burrovianus) within our boundaries, but it is a matter 
 of considerable doubt; while that the King Vulture (Gypagits 
 
 FIG. 57. HEAD OF THE TURKEY VULTURE (Catharf.es aura] 
 
 $ ; Adult. 
 
 Left lateral aspect; nat. size. From a photograph taken from life by the Author. 
 
 papa) has been seen in Arizona is far less likely, as the striking 
 black and white plumage of that large bird could hardly have 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 223 
 
 been mistaken for any other species, and it is more than probable 
 that the single alleged occurrence in its case is based upon an 
 entirely erroneous statement. Not taking into account, then, 
 these and others alluded to, we find that the group is represented 
 in our United States avifauna by three very remarkable species. 
 These are the California Vulture (Pseudogryplms calif ornianus), 
 the Turkey Vulture (Cathartes aura) (see figure), and the Black 
 Vulture (Catharista atrata). If we accept the geographical dis- 
 tribution of these several species as given in the Check List of 
 the American Ornithologists' Union, we find that the California 
 Vulture is confined to the " coast ranges of southern California, 
 from Monterey Bay southward into Lower California, formerly 
 north to Frazer Kiver" ; that the Turkey Vulture is found in "tem- 
 perate North America, 'from New Jersey, Ohio valley, Saskatch- 
 ewan region, and British Columbia, southward to Patagonia and 
 the Falkland islands; casual in New England"; and finally, the 
 Black Vulture occurs in the " South Atlantic and Gulf States, 
 north regularly to North Carolina and the lower Ohio valley, 
 west to the Great Plains, and south through Mexico and Central 
 America, the West Indies, and most of South America, strag- 
 gling north to New York, New England, and South Dakota; 
 breeds in the United States from North Carolina coastwise to 
 Texas, and in the interior to Indiana, Illinois, and Kansas." 
 
 In these vultures we find at the base of the middle and inner 
 toes a distinct web to exist, and their weak feet are entirely unfit 
 for grasping, being totally different in this particular from the 
 talons of a falcon. Excepting the young, their heads are prac- 
 tically unfeathered, the openings to the nostrils being placed 
 longitudinally. Their beaks are hooked, and their gape wide. 
 In the main, as a rule, their plumage is of a dull black, but in the 
 Turkey Vulture this is glossed with a greenish or violet shade, 
 and the upper plumage shows a 4 ee P emargination of brown 
 to the feathers. Old Turkey Buzzards exhibit transverse wrinkles 
 on the top of the head and below the gape, while the distal or 
 horny part of the beak is pure white, and the skinny parts about 
 the nostrils and eyes are of a livid red color. Numerous small, 
 white caruncles occur here beyond the eyes, while in the subadult 
 individuals all these parts are blackish. They make their nests, 
 as a rule, in cavities, either upon or near the ground ; frequently 
 in hollow logs or stumps. The Black and Turkey Vultures lay 
 large and beautifully marked eggs, while on the other hand the 
 
224 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 of the California Vulture are of a dull white with a green- 
 ish shade. From one cause or another, this latter bird is now 
 nearly extinct, and personally I have never enjoyed the oppor- 
 tunity of studying its habits in its native haunts. Among oolo- 
 gists its eggs are in great demand, and easily command f 100 
 apiece, and good skins of this species will doubtless fetch an 
 equal price. 
 
 Best known, perhaps, of all the characteristics of these pecu- 
 liar birds is their habit of feeding upon carcasses, and as this 
 fact is universally known, man, in the countries where vultures 
 occur, regards them w r ith great favor as useful scavengers. 
 These habits have given rise to two very interesting problems in 
 regard to them; one is the explanation for the soaring flight of 
 vultures, and the exact manner of its accomplishment; and the 
 other is the solution of the problem as to how they detect the 
 presence of their food. Neither of these questions has been de- 
 cided to the satisfaction of all minds. There is a large literature 
 extant upon the first problem, and many interesting contribu- 
 tions to the second, which perhaps comes the nearer being under- 
 stood. So far as my personal observation goes, I am satisfied 
 that the carcass of a dead animal is made known to vultures 
 almost entirely through the sense of sight, and not through the 
 sense of smell. They are as far-sighted and as keen-eyed as 
 hawks, while my anatomical studies of their olfactory apparatus 
 revealed nothing indicative of unusual development. By this I 
 by no means intend to convey the idea that they are at all lack- 
 ing in the sense of smell, for if the air be tainted by the odor 
 from carrion, and the wind in the right direction, they can de- 
 tect the presence of the putrefying flesh for a very long distance, 
 as I have personally observed, and that, too, when the carcass is 
 completely concealed from view. 
 
 Young turkey vultures are^ largely covered with white down, 
 which gives them a very remarkable appearance; added to this, 
 they stand in a peculiar attitude, with the wings partly spread, 
 and the head and neck curved forward, so as to place the former 
 almost between the legs in front. 
 
 During the early part of the summer of 1897 a nestling of this 
 species (Cathartes aura) came alive into the hands of Mr. Will- 
 iam Palmer, chief taxidermist of the United States National Mu- 
 seum. This specimen he kindly loaned me, and I succeeded in 
 making a very good photograph of it. The reproduction of this 
 
FIG. 58. YOUNG TURKEY VULTURE (Cathartea'aura). 
 
 Greatly reduced. Reproduced from a photograph made from life by the Author. 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 227 
 
 is shown in Fig. 58 of the present chapter, and it will be seen 
 that it is only in the wings (primaries and secondaries) that black 
 feathers appear at this age, while the face of the bird is naked to 
 a distance a little back of the eye upon either side. Such parts 
 of the posterior limbs and feet as are not covered with down are 
 of a rather light soiled gray color, and always more or less whit- 
 ened by the excrement passed by the bird itself. This bird fed 
 ravenously upon carrion and raw meat of any kind, gorging him- 
 self at every meal; it likewise took water freely. When dis- 
 turbed or handled it gave vent to a peculiar complaining cry, not 
 easily described. It showed no fear of man at all, and is now, 
 at this writing, still in possession of Mr. Palmer, who keeps it in 
 his shops at the Museum (September 6, 1897), where it has be- 
 come thoroughly domesticated. All its beautiful black plumage 
 is out, and only a little of the white down left, and that is upon 
 the upper part of the neck. Mr. Palmer tells me that it has the 
 habit of standing with its back exposed to the full glare of the 
 sun, and in doing this stretches out its wings to their full capac- 
 ity, apparently enjoying the " sun bath " in the highest degree. 
 
 Old vultures, when slightly wounded, have a way of " playing 
 'possum " so successfully that cases, not a few, are upon record 
 where the device has saved their lives. Frequently, after gorg- 
 ing themselves upon carrion, turkey vultures will in numbers all 
 fly up and alight upon the limbs of some great dead tree in the 
 neighborhood, when, allowing their wings to hang down in a list- 
 less manner, they will sun themselves for hours, while the slow 
 process of digestion is in progress. When kept in confinement 
 they feed readily upon fresh raw meat, drink plenty of water, 
 and are fond of standing in a gentle rain storm. They are like- 
 wise so careful of their plumage and so inoffensive in habits that 
 one in time forgets that in nature they are naturally devourers 
 of carrion. Where turkey vultures abound, however, I am in- 
 clined to believe it is only rarely that they devour putrid flesh, 
 for an animal is no sooner dead and exposed in a favorable place 
 for them than it will be immediately attacked by dozens of these 
 birds at a time; so that even a horse will be devoured by the 
 crew in an incredibly short period, and nothing left but the skele- 
 ton, and long before the flesh has an opportunity to decompose. 
 It requires a heavy load of shot to down one of these vultures, 
 and I have often seen one escape when I knew it had a small 
 lead mine in the shape of No. 4's pretty equally distributed 
 throughout its system. 
 
228 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 Among the best of the earlier accounts given of the Turkey 
 Vulture is that by Wilson, who remarked in his American Orni- 
 thology that in " New Jersey the Turkey Buzzard hatches in May, 
 the deep recesses of the solitary swamps of that State affording 
 situations well suited to the purpose. The female is at no pains 
 to form a nest with materials; but, having chosen a suitable 
 place, which is either a truncated hollow tree, an excavated 
 stump, or log, she lays on the rotten wood from two to four eggs, 
 of a dull dirty white, or pale cream color, splashed all over with 
 chocolate, mingled with blackish touches, the blotches largest 
 and thickest toward the great end; the form something like the 
 egg of a goose, but blunter at the small end; length, two inches 
 and three-quarters; breadth, two inches. The male watches 
 often while the female is sitting; and, if not disturbed, they will 
 occupy the same breeding place for several years. The young 
 are clothed with a whitish down, similar to that which covers 
 young goslings. If any person approaches the nest and attempts 
 to handle them, they will immediately vomit such offensive mat- 
 ter as to compel the intruder to a precipitant retreat. 
 
 " The Turkey Buzzards are gregarious, peaceable, and harm- 
 less, never offering any violence to a living animal, or, like the 
 plunderers of the Falco tribe, depriving the husbandman of his 
 stock. Hence, though, in consequence of their filthy habits, they 
 are not beloved, yet they are respected for their usefulness; and 
 in the Southern States, where they are most needed, they, as well 
 as the Black Vultures, are protected by a law which imposes a 
 fine on those who wilfully deprive them of life. They generally 
 roost in flocks, on the limbs of large trees ; and they may be seen 
 on a summer morning spreading out their wings to the rising 
 sun, and remaining in that posture for a considerable time. 
 Pennant conjectures that this is " to purify their bodies, which 
 are most offensively fetid." But is it reasonable to suppose that 
 that effluvia can be offensive to them which arises from food per- 
 fectly adapted to their nature, and which is constantly the object 
 of their desires? Many birds, and particularly those of the 
 granivorous kind, have a similar habit, which doubtless is at- 
 tended with the same exhilarating effects as an exposure to the 
 pure air of the morning has on the frame of one just risen from 
 repose. 
 
 " These birds, unless when rising from the earth, seldom flap 
 their wings, but sweep along in ogees, and dipping and rising 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 229 
 
 lines, and move with great rapidity. They are often seen in 
 companies, soaring at an immense height, particularly previous 
 to a thunder-storm. Their wings are not spread horizontally, 
 but form a slight angle with the body upward, the tips having 
 an upward curve. Their sense of smelling is astonishingly ex- 
 quisite, and they never fail to discover carrion, even when at the 
 distance of several miles from it. When once they have found a 
 carcass, if not molested, they will not leave the place until the 
 whole is devoured. At such times they eat so immoderately that 
 frequently they are incapable of rising, and may be caught with- 
 out much difficulty; but few that are acquainted with them will 
 have the temerity to undertake the task. A man in the State of 
 Delaware, a few years since, observing some Turkey Buzzards re- 
 galing themselves upon the carcass of a horse which was in a 
 highly putrid state, conceived the design of making a captive of 
 one, to take home for the amusement of his children. He cau- 
 tiously approached, and, springing upon the unsuspicious group, 
 grasped a fine, plump fellow in his arms, and was bearing off 
 his prize in triumph, when lo ! the indignant vulture disgorged 
 such a torrent of filth in the face of our hero that it produced all 
 the effects of a most powerful emetic, and forever cured him of 
 his inclination for Turkey Buzzards." 
 
 Wilson in this account omits to mention the great beauty of 
 the eggs of this species; and, as I have said above, I feel sure 
 that he is in error in regard to the manner in which vultures 
 detect carrion. It is undoubtedly largely by the sense of sight 
 and not that of smell, although the latter, as stated above, often 
 greatly assists them. In commencing their feast upon a dead 
 animal I have frequently noticed that they first pick out the eyes 
 of the carcass and then attack the softer structures. Advancing 
 putrefaction soon helps them out. If many of the birds are pres- 
 ent at the entertainment they will, in the course of a few days, 
 clean off the skeleton of either a cow or a horse, and then for 
 over a week afterward sit round in the trees nearby, if there be 
 any, or on the ground, contemplating their feat. 
 
 Dr. William L. Kalph, writing to Major Bendire, has said, 
 " Many times I have seen these birds in company with the Black 
 Vulture floating down a stream on a dead alligator, cow, or other 
 large animal, crowded so closely together that they could hardly 
 keep their balance, and followed by a number on the wing. I 
 never have seen them fight very much when feeding, but they 
 
230 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 will scold and peck at one another, and sometimes two birds will 
 get hold of the same piece of meat and pull against each other 
 until it breaks or until the weaker one has to give it up." (Life 
 Hixt. Am. Birds.) 
 
 In the South, as in the Gulf States and the seaports and for- 
 ests of the entire length of the eastern coast of Mexico, I have 
 seen a far greater number of Black Vultures (Catharista atrata) 
 than the Turkey Buzzards. The two species do not associate 
 together, and by the careful observer are very easily told apart. 
 Both in the matter of habits and flight they are distinctly differ- 
 ent. Black vultures actually swarm in the neighborhood of 
 many of our Southern cities. Around the slaughter houses be- 
 low New Orleans I have been able to count as many as a thou- 
 sand at a time; the ground, the fences, housetops, and many 
 other places being black with them. They are as tame as barn- 
 yard fowls, and are by no means difficult to capture, though I 
 advise against the experiment, especially if they have just been 
 heartily feeding upon some offal, more odorous and ripe than 
 otherwise. Wilson gives us some excellent accounts of these 
 birds; in fact, he has been more widely quoted than any other 
 one of our ornithologists who may have written of their natural 
 history. Darwin, as well as Gosse, were likewise much inter- 
 ested in these famous birds, and contributed not a little to what 
 has been published concerning them. 
 
 Bendire, in his work, has said " the Black Vulture is more or 
 less gregarious in its habits at all times, breeding frequently in 
 small communities, making little or no nest, and the eggs, usu- 
 ally two in number, are, perhaps with exceedingly rare excep- 
 tions, always placed on the ground, in canebrakes, under bushes, 
 old logs, on rocks, and again in perfectly open and unsheltered 
 situations. Occasionally but one egg will be laid, and very rarely 
 three. In the more Southern States nidification begins about 
 the first of March, and later northward. 
 
 " Probably but one brood is raised in a season. The young 
 when first hatched are covered with light buff-colored down, 
 and they are fed in the same manner as the young of the preced- 
 ing species." [C. aura.] 
 
 None of our vultures have the restricted range that the Cali- 
 fornia vulture (Pseudoyryphus calif ornianus ) has, it being found 
 only in a very limited area of the State the name of which it 
 bears. Formerly this species was far more abundant, and had a 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 231 
 
 much greater distribution. It is being rapidly exterminated; 
 Indeed, they are more than rare at the present writing. Nearly 
 all the early describers of this great vulture gave its eggs as 
 being two in number, and jet Uack in color. It is now well known 
 that they are of a uniform tint, unspotted, and of a light grayish- 
 green color. According to Bendire, " the mode of nidiflcation of 
 the California vulture is similar to that of the common" Turkey 
 vulture, and that as a rule they make but little of a nest, usually 
 laying their eggs on rubbish on the ground found in the immedi- 
 ate vicinity of the nesting site, alongside or in a hollow log, or in 
 crevices of rocky cliffs. It is possible that at times they make 
 use of the abandoned nests of the Golden Eagles, which are com- 
 mon in that part of California, and the nest described to Mr. 
 Flint as being placed in a large redwood tree in the Santa Cruz 
 Mountains was probably such an one, and was made use of by 
 the vultures after being abandoned by the eagles." 
 
 Some of the reports sent to Bendire, and published in his Life 
 Histories of North American Birds, go to show that this vulture 
 is likely to increase in numbers in the future, as its great thin- 
 ning out in former years was largely due to its feeding upon the 
 poisoned carcasses, placed as bait for the carnivora by cattle- 
 raisers. This practice has, at the present time, been largely 
 -abandoned. 
 
CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 SOME OF THE OWLS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 (Striges.) 
 
 HEEE is a very interesting list of owls in the 
 avifauna of the United States and British Amer- 
 ica, while others occur in Mexico south to the 
 Isthmus, that as yet are not known to cross our 
 southern boundary-line. Of all these no species is handsomer, 
 more graceful in action, or of greater value to man, than the 
 American Barn Owl (Striw pratincola), a form of very general 
 distribution in this country, though not common in northern or 
 northeastern sections. I have heard some people call this the 
 monkey-faced owl, and others the white owl, the latter from 
 the fact that so much white occurs in its plumage. In Europe 
 there is also a Barn owl very closely akin to our own bird, and at 
 one time thought to be identical with it. 
 
 This species has a total length varying between fifteen and 
 twenty-one inches, the variance being due to age or sex, or both. 
 The white of the lower parts may be tinged with a bright tawny 
 color, while the upper plumage is chiefly of a ochraceous-yellow 
 with a continuous grayish tinge to it, the latter being more or 
 less flecked and minutely spotted with white and neutral tint. 
 The quills and tail feathers are barred, and the entire plumage 
 has an extremely soft and delicate appearance, rendering the 
 identification of the species a very simple matter. 
 
 The Barn Owl makes no nest, simply depositing its from five 
 to seven ovate white eggs in any convenient cavity, as a hollow 
 of a tree, corners in a steeple, tower, or barn, the burrows of such 
 animals as the badger, holes in cliffs, and the like. Sometimes 
 they lay large sets of eggs, but all of them do not hatch, as a rule. 
 A young bird of this species, in the mounted collection at the 
 Smithsonian Institution is nearly as large as the adult, having 
 acquired most all of its plumage, but over the latter still curi- 
 ously grows the feather-down, and although by no means dense 
 enough to mask it, yet gives the bird a very remarkable ap- 
 pearance. 
 
 Another owl that breeds more or less generally all over the 
 United States is the American Long-eared Owl, which, together 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 233 
 
 with the cosmopolitan Short-eared Owl, are the only two repre- 
 sentatives in this country of the genus Asio the first-named 
 being the A. wilsonianus of science, and the latter A. accipitrinus. 
 In my lifetime I have collected several specimens of either of 
 these forms, but more particularly the short-eared one. Long- 
 eared owls have the feather-horns very conspicuous, ornaments 
 that some authors call " ear-tufts/' although they have~nothing 
 whatever to do with the ears of the bird. Asio accipitrinus has 
 these feather-horns very small, and when one comes to handle 
 a recently shot specimen they are hardly at all apparent. They 
 only show when in life the bird becomes excited and erects them 
 to their utmost, while at the same time the other plumage of the 
 head is depressed. For one to indentify either of these two spe- 
 cies it must be remembered that we have no other mottled, 
 streaked and banded, dark-plumaged, very conspicuously tufted 
 owl in this country that has an average of only thirteen to six- 
 teen inches, except the American Long-eared Owl, while the 
 short-eared one averaging but a trifle larger, with its tawny 
 plumage, boldly striped with dark brown, can easily be told, 
 when adult, by its rudimentary feather-horns. All owls lay 
 white eggs that are usually ovate in form, approaching the 
 spherical very closely in some examples. 
 
 The Long-eared Owl commonly lays five eggs, the white shells 
 being finely granulated and rather glossy; and according to 
 Bendire this bird "rarely constructs a nest of its own; usually 
 the last year's nest of a crow is slightly repaired by being built 
 up on the sides and lined with a little dry grass, a few dead 
 leaves, and feathers; some of the latter may nearly always be 
 seen hanging on the outside of the nest. Fully three-fourths of 
 the nests found by me occupied by these owls were those of the 
 Crow. Only a very few were evidently built by the birds them- 
 selves." 
 
 Strange to relate, both Barn Owls and the long-eared species 
 have, in either case, been met with occasionally in flocks. Mr. 
 B. W. Evermann, formerly of the United States Fish Commis- 
 sion, once saw in California more than fifty of the former in a 
 flock among oak trees; while as many as fifteen of the latter 
 have been found in one tree at a time. 
 
 At this writing I have before me a fine living specimen of a 
 subadult Long-eared Owl, kindly loaned me by Mr. Ed. S. 
 Schmid, the proprietor of the Animal Pet Emporium, of Wash- 
 
234: CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 ington, D. C. When first obtained the bird was largely in late 
 nestling plumage, but during the fortnight it has been in my 
 keeping all the feathering of the breast and back has come out 
 as in the adult. The entire top of the head is as yet woolly as in 
 well-advanced nestlings; while the feather-horns or tufts are 
 but still rudimentary. This bird is taming nicely, and readily 
 feeds upon raw meat, sparrows, mice, etc. During the month of 
 June, 1897, I made several fine photographic pictures of this 
 young ow r l, and of these two are reproduced in the present chap- 
 ter as illustrations. 
 
 In Fig. 59 the bird is standing erect, facing and closely 
 watching the person near him (I say him, but this individual 
 may be a female), while in Fig. 60, a crouching and defensive 
 attitude has been assumed, caused by my teasing, in order to se- 
 cure it. As is well known, owls disgorge from time to time pecu- 
 liar pellets composed of the indigestible portions of their food, 
 as small bones, hair, and feathers. This owl has disgorged two 
 or three of such pellets since having been in my possession. 
 Each was about as big as my thumb, and made up of sparrow 
 feathers and bones; the latter including the entire skull, the 
 limb-bones, and the main ones of the trunk skeleton. This ejec- 
 tion of pellets by the mouth of this kind is done by all owls, 
 " excepting possibly the little Elf Owl," as Bendire says in his 
 Life Histories of North American Birds. Most frequently this 
 species roosts in some dense tree or shrub during the daytime, in 
 the immediate vicinity of water. Years ago, during one winter's 
 day, I surprised one of these owls in a close growth of small 
 hemlocks near Stamford, Connecticut. Upon seeing or hearing 
 me it drew itself up to its full height, and, pressing its feathers 
 close to its body, and erecting its feather-horns to their fullest 
 capacity, it appeared as long and slender as possible; and as it 
 made no movement whatsoever, I came near mistaking it for a 
 longish dead limb of the tree upon which it was perched. At the 
 time the thermometer stood several degrees below zero, the 
 ground being covered with snow, and my hands and fingers were 
 utterly benumbed with the biting cold. The timber was so 
 dense that I backed away from the fellow with decided diffi- 
 culty, holding onto, at the same time, my old muzzle-loading and 
 ice-cold gun, a shot from which, a few moments later, decided 
 the fate of that very handsome owl. Winged, it tumbled down 
 into the snow, and I made a rush for it, and incautiously seized 
 
FIG. 59. AMERICAN LONG-EARED OWL (Asio wihonianns), 
 
 Subadu t. Photographed one-half the size of life, from the living specimen, by the Author. 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 237 
 
 it by the sound one of the opposite side, when as quick as a flash 
 it had all eight of its claws sharp as needles, too plunged 
 
 FIG. 60. THE LONG-EARED OWL (Asio wllsonianus). 
 
 Subadult. Same specimen as shown in Figure 56. Photographed from life (one-half size), by the 
 
 Author. 
 
 into my nearly frozen and naked hands. There was a lively 
 tussle before that owl and myself, together with the gun, and 
 
238 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 collecting basket, were out in the clear once more. But we got 
 there, and his mounted owlship long adorned the top shelf of my 
 book-case at home afterward. 
 
 Bendire in his work devotes a long paragraph describing the 
 defiant attitudes assumed by this species, when annoyed or sur- 
 prised, after it is aware that it has been discovered. One of 
 these attitudes is beautifully shown in Fig. 60 of this chapter 
 Frequently they are even more ferocious-appearing than this, 
 and in one instance I secured a photograph that shows the bird 
 all puffed up like a great, round ball of feathers. This picture I 
 will publish in some other connection. 
 
 Owls both screech and hoot, but they likewise make a great 
 many other kinds of notes and noises, some of which are by no 
 means unpleasing to the ear. Nearly all of them snap their 
 mandibles together when irritated, an action often followed by 
 hissing sounds in some species, with certain bobbings and nod- 
 dings of the head most ludicrous to behold. Short-eared owls, at 
 variance with most all other Strigidce, are birds that frequent the 
 more open parts of the country, are largely diurnal in habit, 
 spend the greater part of their time, while not on the wing, on 
 the ground, where, usually in April, this species builds its nest 
 of grass in which it lays from four to seven eggs. Small ro- 
 dents, rarely birds, constitute the food of the Short-eared owl, 
 and in so far as man's interests are involved, the bird is deserv- 
 ing of his best protection. Upon several occasions I have shot 
 this species on cold moonlit winter's nights, when they flew low 
 over the snow hunting for mice. Two I especially remember 
 now that I shot in the winter of 1872, near New Canaan, Conn., 
 on such a night, as they flew circling about a great vacant field, 
 with not a tree in it. Whenever one of the pair passed me it 
 would rise higher in the air, and give utterance to a peculiar 
 clucking noise, probably prompted by its surprise. 
 
 Of all the owls in this country, the biggest of body, and by 
 all odds the most destructive and powerful is the well-known 
 Great Horned Owl, called also in certain localities the Cat or 
 Hoot Owl (Bubo virginianus), a species which has a geographical 
 range through eastern North America, south to Costa Rica. 
 Three subspecific forms are also known of this bird, namely, the 
 Western Horned Owl (tt. r. Niilmrcticus), the Arctic Horned 
 Owl (B. r. arcticus), and the Dusky Horned Owl (B. v. xutnnt- 
 tus) of tin* Pacific coast region. As in the case of the majority 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 239 
 
 of the family, the female of this species is a far stronger bird 
 than the male, and will doubtless, when pressed by hunger, fall 
 upon, kill, and eat him, as has been noticed several times when 
 pairs of these birds have been kept in captivity. 
 
 IS T o known owl in the world gets away with more game, chick- 
 ens and other domestic fowls, together with a long list of me- 
 dium-sized mammals and fish, than does this untamable, tyran- 
 nical, and blood-thirsty demon of the night. They are the 
 princes of nocturnal raptorical hunters, being keen of eye, power- 
 fully equipped with merciless talons, it is the rarest thing that 
 they ever go unprovided with food, or fail to amply supply their 
 big, down-covered, voracious young. When the hunting is at its 
 best these birds only deign to eat the heads of their victims, 
 seeming to kill just for the pleasure of the act. 
 
 The deep and bass-voice hooting of this species is as familiar 
 to sportsmen and bird lovers, as is the appearance, form, and size 
 of the owl itself. During the winter of 1882 or 1883 I pulled in 
 an open boat with three companions forty miles down the Ala- 
 bama river. It took the best part of the entire night, which was 
 a pitchy dark one, and for nearly all the distance the banks of 
 the river were heavily timbered. In some places we were 
 obliged to pull under the low sweeping limbs of the cypress, from 
 which swung masses of the moss called "' Spanish beard." Every 
 once in a while a Great Horned Owl would hoot out, and make 
 the very forests echo with his uncanny cry. For some time none 
 of these were very near, but about an hour after midnight, dur- 
 ing a lull, when the party had hardly spoken a word for a long 
 while, and the boat was passing near the bank in the very deep- 
 est of the shadows of the night, one of these ponderous owls 
 gave full vent to his unearthly hoot from a limb not ten feet di- 
 rectly above our heads. Out it rang in all its unchecked vigor, 
 " who-who-cooks-for-you who," and the effect upon the boat's 
 company was pretty much the same as though a royal Bengal 
 tiger had suddenly pounced down among us, and propounded 
 some similar impertinent interrogatory. This owl breeds in 
 hollow trees, in the deserted nests of the larger diurnal rap- 
 tores, rarely upon the ground or in hollow logs upon the same, 
 and in the clefts of rocks, and similar places. The set of white 
 eggs, of rounded oval form, usually numbers from two to three 
 only, and they take about twenty-eight days to hatch. There 
 is a great deal in the history of this bird of a very interesting 
 
240 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 nature, and much has been recorded in type about the species. 
 1 have seen very little of the northern and western subspecies, 
 but upon one occasion I remember, when serving as post surgeon 
 at Fort Fetterman, many years ago, I came suddenly upon a 
 pair of these birds, the Western Horned Owl as they simul- 
 taneously Hew out in great haste from some heavy undergrowth 
 upon a river's bank immediately below where I stood. My sur- 
 prise was so great that I almost intuitively sent my gun to shoul- 
 der, and cracked away at them, a bird promptly falling to each 
 barrel. Both the buff and gray tints of their plumage were very 
 light in color, and the entire bird in these respects differed con- 
 siderably from its eastern congener. Subsequently I found Ihis 
 owl to be more or less abundant in the vicinity, and always fat 
 and heavy, as the country was full of grouse and small game. 
 
 Another w r ell-known owl of this country of which I recently 
 have had an example in captivity, is the Barred Owl (tfi/ 
 iH'bulosum). The specimen with another of the same brood 
 captured near Washington, I). 0., and, for owls, they proved to 
 be very gentle and not altogether uninteresting pets, differing in 
 the rirst particular very markedly as compared with the young 
 Long-eared Owl. Photographs of this nestling Syrnium were 
 made by me with good success, in a variety of attitudes and 
 characteristic postures. Two of these are reproduced here. 
 
 In the genus to which this species belongs, there are also to be 
 found a sub-species (8. n. alleni) and the Spotted Owl (ti. nn-i- 
 flctihile) ; the first being a coastwise form, occurring from South 
 Carolina to Texas, the second, ranging over southern Colorado, 
 Xew Mexico, Arizona, the Calif ornias, and Mexico. Typical 
 I Jarred owls occur in eastern United States, west to Minne- 
 sota, and northward to Nova Scotia. 
 
 To identify a bird of this genus, we have but to remember that 
 they are large, bulky owls, without any feather-horns whatever, 
 and with the irides of the eyes nearly Mack, with a bluish tinge 
 in life. For the rest they are dark brown about, being barred 
 and spotted with buff and lighter color. The tail is six to eight 
 handed, and the wings spotted and otherwise marked. Below, 
 the parts are whitish or buffy, and are likewise barred, and 
 spotted with shades of brown. The young also show much barr- 
 ing in their plumage, as will be appreciated in my photographic 
 reproductions illustrating the present chapter. 
 
 The female is markedly larger than the male bird, exceeding 
 
FIG. 61. NESTLING OF THE BARRED OWL (Syr-nium nebulosurn). 
 
 At the time of leaving the nest. Considerably reduced, and photographed from life by the Author. 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 243 
 
 it by several inches in length: in both the bill is of a greenish 
 yellow, being more grayish in the young. Florida Barred Owls 
 I found to be very numerous in the neighborhood of New Orleans, 
 La., where in the depths of the cypress swamps and bayous, I 
 have observed several in sight at one time. Nocturnal in habit 
 by preference, this species nevertheless occasionally hunts by 
 day, its principal food being small mammals, some birds, frogs, 
 fish, and snakes; and finally a varied list of insects and other in- 
 vertebrates. Water is greatly relished by them, and in captivity 
 they will frequently bathe. Their notes are simply extraordin- 
 ary in many particulars, some of them being uttered in the day- 
 time. They build, or rather lay their eggs in holes in trees usu- 
 ally, but sometimes select for the purpose an abandoned nest of 
 crow or hawk. In flight they are absolutely noiseless, passing 
 through the air with scarcely any more disturbance than a fea- 
 ther falling in the same medium. Many years ago, I found the 
 Barred Owl very abundant in the heavy timber-forests a few 
 miles from Kingston, New York, and Wilson in his time found 
 them to be very common in the lower parts of Pennsylvania, 
 having met with forty specimens in one spring. His account of 
 the different character of the feathers of this species is quite in- 
 teresting. 
 
 Another very large owl that occurs in the northern parts of 
 this country in the winter time is the Great Gray Owl ( Scotia pte 
 cinerea), a visitant from the arctic realm. A subspecies of it 
 has accidently occurred in Alaska (S. c. lapponica). As yet we 
 have but limited information in regard to these two forms, and 
 any one supplying accurate accounts about them will be doing 
 science a good service. Recently I have obtained from Mr. Al- 
 bert Lano of Aitkin, Minnesota, the trunk skeleton of S. cinerea, 
 and this is notably smaller than the same part of the skeleton of 
 either the Snowy Owl or the Great Horned Owl, yet the Great 
 Gray Owl exceeds both of these birds in length, the difference 
 being due to the feathers and excessive development of the plum- 
 age in it. 
 
 This fact was made the subject of a letter from Mr. Lano, and 
 oilier naturalists have observed the same, Bendire remarking 
 upon it in his work. No feather-horns ornament the head in 
 Scotiaptar, and this taken in connection with its great size and 
 other characters easily distinguishes it from any of the large 
 owls of our avifauna. 
 
244 
 
 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 Of these latter, quite distinct again is the well-known SHOWN 
 Owl (\i/ctc(i Hi/ctcu), one of the handsomest of the great boival 
 
 FIG. 62. LEFT LATERAL VIEW OF THE HEAD OF A YOUNG 
 BARRED OWL (Syrnium nelmlosum). 
 
 Nearly natural size. Usual manner of posing the head when regarding objects below. From a photo- 
 graph from life by the author. (Same bird as in Figure 61.) 
 
 landlords, occurring as it does in all the northern portions of the 
 northern hemisphere. 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 245 
 
 Wherever seen, this owl is sure to command the attention of 
 the observer, be it a mounted specimen or even a skin in an orni- 
 thological collection, and still more when met with in its wild 
 native haunts. There is no trouble in identifying the Snowy Owl 
 under any circumstances: its great size, its pure white plumage 
 set off with bars and spots of slaty brown, and the absence of 
 feather-horns are alone sufficient to render identification ^certain. 
 The male is smaller and much whiter than the female, some 
 specimens being almost immaculate. Young birds of this species 
 are of a deep sooty grayish color, and like the parents heavily 
 feathered all over from base of beak to the claws. On the old 
 birds the plumage is especially dense and generous, forming a 
 coat so warm that the owner is capable of braving the severest 
 of arctic weather without the slightest discomfort. This bird 
 hunts by day and nests on the ground, and seems to take the 
 greatest possible delight in capturing his prey. Swift of wing, 
 arctic hares are taken by it, almost invariably when attempting 
 to escape at the top of their speed, and it is said, doubtless with 
 truth, that the bird prefers to flush a ptarmigan and pursue it 
 rather than pounce upon the squatting fowl as a Great Horned 
 Owl would do. Wilson remarks " Unlike most of his tribe, he 
 hunts by day as well as by twilight, and is particularly fond of 
 frequenting the shores and banks of shallow rivers, over the sur- 
 face of which he slowly sails, or sits on a rock a little raised 
 above the water, watching for fish. These he seizes with a sud- 
 den and instantaneous stroke of the foot, seldom missing his 
 aim." This owl is often harassed by other birds during the day- 
 time as other owls are, and early in the 60's I remembered having 
 seen one upon the outskirts of a piece of pine forest, where a per- 
 fect battalion of blue jays, and a motley mob of some forty crows 
 were making life miserable for him. His attackers were very 
 cautious however, and it was quite possible that the drama 
 closed with a tragedy, the owl making short work of one or 
 more of his corvine tormentors. 
 
 Among the medium-sized owls of the country we have the 
 Hawk Owls, and of these there are two, the European form 
 (8urnia ulula), a casual in Alaska, and the American Hawk owl 
 (8. u. caparoch) confined to arctic America, and migrating only 
 in winter to the northern boundaries of the United States. This 
 is a dark-colored bird (black and brownish) with spots and mot- 
 lings on the wings, and bars on its long tail. There are no fea- 
 
24G CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 ther-horns, and in habit the species is a diurnal one. Much in its 
 history, so far as at present known, is extremely interesting, and 
 for what we have of it we are chiefly indebted to our northern 
 explorers. Sometimes they build a nest of their own or they may 
 simply deposit their eggs, from six to seven in number, in the 
 hollow stump of a tree, without making any nest whatever. 
 They are fearless in the defense of their young or eggs, and will 
 attack a man without hesitation if molestation on his part be 
 attempted. The bird is easily captured, even in some rare cases 
 by the hand alone. In the Yukon district, Turner approached 
 within six feet of one sitting on a post, and only induced 
 it to fly after loud shouting and throwing a stick at it; 
 while Dall, when engaged in taking a set of its eggs in 
 Alaska, had his cap knocked off his head by the bird making a 
 fierce dash at him. Hawk owls prey upon small mammals, 
 rarely birds, and insects. Science stands in need of a fuller his- 
 tory of this species. 
 
 Apart from those thus far referred to, all the remaining species 
 and subspecies of owls in this country are comparatively small 
 forms, and more or less numerous in kind. Some of them are the 
 veriest pigmies of the family with histories that even the most 
 indifferent student of bird-life among us must read with pleas- 
 ure and entertainment. 
 
 Saw- whet Owls are rather small of size, ranging from seven 
 and a quarter inches in length to twelve, being without feather- 
 horns, brown in color above, more or less white-spotted, and 
 white on the under parts, where they are striped with brown. 
 In the northern part of the country we meet with, in the winter- 
 time, Richardson's Owl (Nyctala tengmalmi richardsoni), but the 
 host known species of the genus with us, is the common Saw- 
 whot Owl (N. acadica), which inhabits North America at large, 
 and in the western mountain ranges passes south into Mexico. 
 
 The bird gains its name from its note, which resembles the 
 filing of a saw, and this is not difficult to imitate and thus lure 
 the performer thereby, making its capture an easy matter. In 
 the woods they are wonderfully tame and unsuspicious, allowing 
 themselves to be stroked by the hand as they sleepily roost upon 
 their perches. This has been accomplished by numerous orni- 
 thologists in the field, and many specimens have thus been taken 
 alive. They prey principally upon moles and mice, and other 
 small animals, and are extremely useful in aiding to check the 
 undue increase of such forms in nature. 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 247 
 
 But the Burrowing Owls of the western plains and southern 
 Florida (Speotyto cunicularia Tiypogcea and 8. c. floridana) are 
 probably the greatest enemies that the rodents of the region in 
 which they live have among all the birds of this family. In fact 
 the Burrowing Owl of the west actually takes up its camp direct- 
 ly upon the ground where its principal prey lives in communities, 
 and it, with its voracious young, absolutely kill and consume 
 thousands of various species of terrestrial squirrels every year, 
 such as prairie dogs, spermophiles, and chipmunks, to say noth- 
 ing about the gophers, mice, snakes, the destructive black crick- 
 ets, and many other kinds that constitute their prey. Bendire, 
 who, in my opinion, has written the best account of the life his- 
 tory of this owl now extant, has proved that each individual 
 bird will eat fully its own weight, or more, in food of the above 
 character every twenty-four hours, and his work upon the birds 
 of this genus will have more to do with contradicting the ridic- 
 ulous stories about the happy and harmonious living together 
 of rattlesnakes, prairie dogs, and owls in the burrows of the dogs, 
 than anything that has appeared in print. During the time I was 
 collecting my material in the west for a complete account of the 
 anatomy of this owl, I had abundant opportunity for over five 
 years to study Speotyto every day, and I can attest to the excel- 
 lence of his work and the truthfulness of his statements. 
 
 Passing to the Screech Owls of the genus Meyascops we find 
 them represented by no less than two species and nine sub- 
 species, with the group through these occurring in suitable lo- 
 calities in every part of North America. These owls are so well 
 known in nearly all particulars to those who take any interest 
 in birds whatever, that descriptions here would be quite super- 
 fluous. What the ornithologist still demands fuller information 
 about however, is the cause of the distinct variation in the plum- 
 age of the members of this genus. There are two well-marked 
 phases of this, the rufous and the gray, and it is not at present 
 understood to what these differences are due. Hence Screech 
 Owls are likewise called Mottled, Ked, or Gray Owls, depending 
 upon the phase of plumage they happen to be in at the time. 
 The very young nestlings are white, resembling little puff-balls 
 of down. Speaking of Screech owls reminds me of a curious 
 incident in regard to one of them that occurred within my own 
 personal experience. At the time referred to, I was not more 
 than fourteen or fifteen years of age, and my entire spare time 
 
248 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 was given over to making a collection of birds of the neighbor- 
 hood where my parents lived. Frequently I was up long before 
 daylight and out in the field or forest, and sometimes did not. 
 return home until eight or nine o'clock in the evening. Upon 
 one of these latter occasions, and when within a very short dis- 
 tance of the house, I shot at a Screech owl in a neighbor's apple 
 tree. It fell in the soft snow that had fallen during the day, and 
 as I picked its apparently lifeless body up, I saw that it was one 
 of the rufous-plumaged varieties. My specimen was at once con- 
 signed to a pocket in my gunning-coat, and I hastened home in 
 order to be present at family prayers in the evening, as my good 
 mother desired this, in order not to offend my reverend uncle, 
 who was a very distinguished man in the Episcopal faith, and a 
 guest with us at the time. His aged mother, my grandmother, 
 was also with us, and she was an extremely devout old lady 
 indeed, too, and invariably frowned upon any member of the 
 family that failed to appear promptly at evening prayers. As I 
 hastily entered the dining-room I realized at once that I had 
 earned a black mark in my grandmother's estimation, as the 
 entire family brothers, aunts, guests and all, were down kneel- 
 ing at the chairs, and uncle was apparently half way through the 
 service of the hour. Hastily slipping on my wrapper, and tossing 
 my gunning-coat upon a sofa in the corner of the room where 
 they were assembled, I, too, as quietly as possible knelt at my 
 chair, and this latter happened to be so placed that I could see 
 my coat where I had laid it. Uncle prayed long and well, and 
 had a way of pausing, for a moment or more, between his sen- 
 tences. During one of these periods of deathly silence, I noticed 
 a peculiar movement of my gunning-coat, that soon became more 
 and more vigorous, to terminate in the sudden emergence of my 
 owl, who, having at last mastered the mysteries of the abnormal 
 cavity he was in, bounced out to sit bolt upright upon the gar- 
 ment. Angrily he clicked his mandibles; wildly he stared about 
 the room; and politely he ducked his head to every one present 
 there. But clickings, bows, and stares were all lost, save upon 
 myself and two brothers, who likewise had caught sight of his 
 resurrected owlship, and were doing their best to smother their 
 laughter. Uncle's mind as well as those of the ladies were far, 
 far off in the regions of space. The owl had evidently never seen 
 anything like this before, human or otherwise, and having suf- 
 ficiently recovered his senses, and the knockdown he had gotten 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 249 
 
 from my shot, lie, as noiselessly as a puff of smoke, sailed thrice 
 about the room, to alight upon an unlit burner of the gas-chan- 
 delier overhead. Not satisfied with this performance however, 
 nor the misery myself and brothers were in to keep silent, he 
 quickly essayed another aerial survey, and that not a lofty one, 
 but, to my horror, low down and close to the kneelers. Having 
 taken in the situation to his satisfaction, he was evidently" rolling 
 round in his mind where he would alight a second time. This to 
 my infinite concern, and much distorted feelings, he soon settled, 
 for with a lightness that none but an owl can equal, he gracefully 
 lit upon the thin white cambric cap that ornamented my grand- 
 mother's head. Instantly her hand was carried there to discover 
 the cause of the unusual interruption, and this movement, so un- 
 expected, nearly frightened the owl into fits. AYhat followed all 
 happened within a second or two. The owl could not clear his 
 sharp little talons from the head-dress, so he, with all his might, 
 drove their eight needle-like points firmly into grandma's scalp. 
 Tncle was in one of his long, most devout pauses, when the un- 
 earthly shriek burst upon the silence of the room, mingled as it 
 was with the brutal outburst of long suppressed merriment of 
 my brothers and, the funniest of all, the peculiar Indian-like 
 yell that my uncle let loose, which of itself was sufficient to break 
 up the entire meeting. 
 
 In the west and southwest we meet with the most engaging 
 members of the whole family StriflidiBj I refer to the little Pygmy 
 and Elf owls. They belong to the genera Glaucidiuin and Micro- 
 l><fUd$< three species and a subspecies in the first, and a single 
 species in the second. Some of these are no bigger than spar- 
 rows, and have wonderfully interesting habits and history, but 
 accounts of these would far exceed the limitations of the present 
 chapter. 
 
CHAPTER XVIII. 
 
 THE CAROLINA PAROQUET AND OTHER NOTES. 
 
 (Conurus carolinensis.) 
 
 E have but one species of paroquet iu the avifauna of 
 the United States the pretty little green Carolina 
 paroquet, with its red and yellow head. Formerly 
 this bird had a very general distribution all over the 
 eastern part of the country, from Texas and Colorado to the At- 
 lantic coast line. It is at the present time, however, nearly ex- 
 tinct, being confined to extremely local areas in Florida, Indian 
 Territory, and Arkansas. 
 
 This killing off of one of our most beautiful birds has been al- 
 most entirely due to man's agency, and in a few years more not a 
 living specimen of this species will be in existence. It seems 
 quite incredible that this slaughter should have occurred in so 
 short a space of time, especially when one comes to read of its 
 great former abundance in the very interesting account left us 
 by Wilson and others. Not long ago a beautiful pair ( $ and 9 ) 
 of those paroquets came into ithe possession of Edward T. 
 Schmid, the proprietor of the well-known bird emporium of 
 Washington, P. C., who, with marked generosity, permitted me to 
 take them out to my home for the purpose of making photo- 
 graphs of them. The birds were in beautiful plumage, fine 
 health, and in full possession of their powers of flight. After 
 studying their cage habits for a few days, I made my prepara- 
 tions to take their pictures. 
 
 In life these paroquets are extremely fond of the seeds of ilie 
 plant commonly known as the cocklebur (Xanthlum strunmrium. 
 Linn.), and I was determined to secure my photographs with the 
 birds shown upon a specimen of it. Without much difficulty ex- 
 amples were found growing in vacant lots about Washington, 
 and a good big bunch brought to my studio. At the outstarl, 
 however, I had no idea of the trouble that was before me ere I 
 succeeded in securing even a passable picture of these birds. 
 But my stock of patience is great, and my enthusiasm unlimited, 
 when the subject happens to be a form so near extinction as is 
 this bird. There is a certain fascination that irresistibly con- 
 trols the student of nature when he appreciates the fact that he 
 
FIG. 63. CAROLINA PAROQUET (Conurus carolinensis). 
 
 Two-tliirds natural size. From a photograph from life by the Author. 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 253 
 
 is engaged upon the task of making a photographic picture of a 
 form, living examples of which will cease to be within possibly 
 the span of his own lifetime. There are not a few hand paintings 
 or drawings of the Carolina paroquet extant, but I very much 
 doubt that anyone has, as yet, 'made and published photographs 
 of them; certainly not as they have been perched upon twigs of 
 Ihe Xanthium. 
 
 Upon taking the cage containing these birds into the room 
 prepared for my work, they exhibited a very considerable amount 
 of restlessness, and when they came to understand that I in- 
 tended to let them out, they at once showed a high degree of ex- 
 citement. Screaming hardly expresses the nature of their pene- 
 trating notes, that could easily be heard a square away. After 
 receiving several severe bites through the fingers of a thick pair 
 of gloves, wherewith I had undertaken to protect my hands, they 
 were finally turned loose in the room. Here they flew about in 
 the wildest possible manner, despite all my efforts to quiet them 
 down; alighting on the tops of the window curtains, the camera, 
 and even my own person, and were not content until they had 
 knocked over the stand containing the bunch of cockleburs. 
 Next whang! they both flew against the big window pane, and 
 then down on the floor, only to waddle off and try to climb up the 
 legs of my tripod. 
 
 Quietly putting things to rights again, I waited in patience 
 for a subsidence of their excitement, when to my intense satis- 
 faction they both flew from the top of the door and lit on the 
 cockleburs, as I w r anted them. Here was new trouble for me, 
 however, for the presence of their favorite food set them off 
 again, and I thought they would pull off every single seed pod be- 
 fore I could get a snap on them. Trial after trial was now made 
 without success, and three or four hours had passed without a 
 good result, and, as the light was going fast, I determined to try 
 a single bird, rather than not have anything. The result of this 
 attempt is reproduced as an illustration to the present chapter, 
 and it gives a very good idea of the form of our Conurus. To get 
 the brilliant red and yellow of the head and the bright green 
 body is of course out of the question in a photograph. What 
 may be done in this way in years to come is another matter, and 
 one of the problems for solution by the photographer of the 
 future. 
 
 The following two or three days were cloudy, and so my plans 
 
v ::':%. 
 
 254 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 to make more trials were frustrated. The price of the birds ($20), 
 too, had a soothing effect upon my shallow purse; for, to tell the 
 truth, I felt terribly like photographing this pair of pretty little 
 green rascals with iny shotgun, upon more occasions than one. 
 As it was they were returned to their owner at an unfortunate 
 time, for a number of his cages had been repainted, and to one of 
 these the paroquets were consigned. During the night they botii 
 nibbled off a quantity of the fresh paint, which proved a fatal 
 dose. 
 
 A number of years ago I published in London an account of 
 the skeleton of this paroquet, illustrating my work with litho- 
 graphic plates; but so far as 1 know, the other systems of its an- 
 atomy have not been touched upon. It is not likely, of course, 
 that its structure departs very much from other representatives 
 of the genus; still, this supposition should have no weight, and 
 its anatomy should be fully described ere the species becomes 
 totally extinct. There have frequently been morphological sur- 
 prises, even in closely allied forms, and to this our Carolina paro- 
 quet may otter no exception. As usual, only skins were made of 
 this pair, and " the characters thrown away." Many skins of 
 the form are now to be found in museums, and perhaps a few 
 alcoholic specimens are in existence. 
 
 It is exceedingly interesting to read the admirable account of 
 this species left us by Wilson, to whom the bird was also known 
 as the " Illinois Parrot." He writes without a shadow of sus- 
 picion as to the utter extinction that awaited the species in our 
 time. He speaks of it as being resident as far west as he knew 
 the country, and as far north in one direction as Lake Michigan, 
 adding," from these circumstances of the northern residence of 
 this species, we might be justified in concluding it to be a very 
 hardy bird, more capable of sustaining cold than nine-tenths of its 
 tribe; and so I believe it is, having myself seen them, in the 
 month of February, along the banks of the Ohio, in a snowstorm, 
 flying about like pigeons, and in full cry." W T ilson also very viv- 
 idly describes the immense flocks of them he met with at Iig 
 Bone Lick in Kentucky, where, when " they alighted on the 
 ground, it appeared at a distance as if covered with a carpet of 
 the richest green, orange, and yellow." Their beautiful, swift, and 
 graceful flight he refers to with great truthfulness; and speaking 
 of this reminds me of what Mr. Robert Ridgway, the ornitholo- 
 gist, told me not very long ago. He had met with a flock of these 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 255 
 
 paroquets in a certain locality in Florida, during a visit in the 
 winter of 1896-97. While standing in thickish cover, near a small 
 sheet of clear spring water, the flock of birds dashed in to drink. 
 This they accomplished by all hovering together over the surface 
 of the spring. The sun at the time shown in directly upon them, 
 and, as Mr. Kidgway says, with the effect of not only reflecting 
 the beautiful picture of these elegant forms into the water, over 
 which they gracefully sustained themselves en masse, while they 
 drank of it, but at the same time enhanced to a marvelous de- 
 gree the exquisite tints of the birds themselves. 
 
 Personally, I have seen this paroquet alive in a wild state only 
 a few times. Once, I saw a single specimen in a cornfield in the 
 eastern part of the State of Kansas. It was early in the 80's. 
 I have, up to the present time, never collected the bird. 
 
 Further on in his account Wilson says " they are particularly 
 attached to the large sycamores, in the hollow of the trunks and 
 branches of which they generally roost, thirty or forty, and some- 
 times more, entering at the same hole. Here they cling close to 
 the sides of the tree, holding fast by the claws and also by the 
 bills. They appear to be fond of sleep, and often retire to their 
 holes during the day, probably to take their regular siesta. They 
 are extremely sociable, and fond of each other, often scratching 
 each other's heads and necks, and always, at night, nestling as 
 close as possible to each other, preferring, at that time, a perpen- 
 dicular position, supported by their bill and claws." This nest- 
 ling as close together as possible while in the hollow trunk of a 
 tree, I purposely quote, because we find in the Ornithological 
 Hall of the Smithsonian Institution a large hollow trunk of a 
 tree, in the inside of which a number of mounted specimens of 
 the Carolina paroquet have been placed, clinging to the inner 
 surface in the manner described by Wilson, with the exception 
 that the individuals have been suspended at very unsociable dis- 
 tances apart, something, I am quite sure, these birds would never 
 have been guilty of in a state of nature. 
 
 When these paroquets were plenty in this country a very gen- 
 eral opinion prevailed that their heads and intestines, if eaten 
 by cats, would surely prove fatal to them. This was universally 
 said to be because the cockleburs upon which the birds so com- 
 monly fed would invariably act as a fatal poison to the afore- 
 said felines. Wilson tried many times to prove or disprove the 
 truth of this statement, but usually some trivial circumstance 
 
256 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 stood in the way of his success. Either the cat could not be se- 
 cured at the time, or the paroquet had not been feeding upon 
 cockleburs, or something else of the kind. After a long talk 
 upon the subject he closes by saying, " Since the foregoing was 
 written, I have had an opportunity, by the death of a tame Caro- 
 lina paroquet, to ascertain the fact of the poisonous effects of 
 their head and intestines on cats. Having shut up a cat and her 
 two kittens, the latter only a few days old, in a room with the 
 head, neck, and whole intestines of the Paroquet, I found, on the 
 next morning, the whole eaten, except a small part of the bill. 
 The cat exhibited no symptom of sickness; and, at this moment, 
 three days after the experiment has been made, she and her 
 kittens are in their usual health. Still, however, the effect might 
 have been different had the daily food of the bird been cockle- 
 burs instead of Indian corn." From this, I think it is clear that 
 Wilson never did quite satisfy himself upon this point, or if he 
 did, he never published the fact. He did seem to prove, how- 
 ever, that while using their feet in feeding, some of these birds 
 were naturally left-footed, as it were, as others were invariably 
 right-footed. 
 
 Bendire, in his Life Histories of North American Birds, has left 
 us an excellent contribution to the natural history of this species. 
 In that account we read that formerly when the birds were ex- 
 tremely abundant in Florida, a reliable observer there " used to 
 find them breeding in large colonies in the cypress swamps. Sev- 
 eral of these colonies contained at least a thousand birds each. 
 They nested invariably in small cypress trees, the favorite posi- 
 tion being on a fork near the end of a slender branch. Every 
 such fork would be occupied, and he has seen as many as forty 
 or fifty nests in one small tree. Their nests closely resembled 
 those of the Carolina dove, being similarly composed of cypress 
 twigs put together so loosely that the eggs were often visible 
 from the ground beneath. The twigs of the cypress seemed to 
 be preferred to those of any other kind of tree. The height at 
 which the nests were placed varied from 5 or 6 feet to 20 or 30 
 feet." 
 
 The eggs were described by this observer " as being of a green- 
 ish-white color, unspotted. He did not remember the maximum 
 number which he had found in one set, but thought it was at 
 least four or five. He had often taken young birds from the 
 nests to rear or to give to his friends." To this Bendire adds the 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 257 
 
 remarkable statement that " We have no positive information 
 about the number of eggs laid by this species in a wild state. 
 . . . Mr. Robert Ridgway's birds would not use the nest- 
 ing boxes provided for them, and both females deposited their 
 eggs on the floor of the cage ; they were laid in July, August, and 
 September, respectively/ None of these eggs can be called round; 
 they vary from ovate to short ovate, and are rather pointed. 
 They are white, with the faintest yellowish tint, ivory-like and 
 quite glossy; the shell is rather thick, close grained, and deeply 
 pitted, not unlike the eggs of the African Ostrich (Struthio- 
 camelus), but of course not as noticeable. Holding the egg in a 
 strong light, the inside appears to be pale yellow." Bendire suc- 
 ceeded in getting together very considerable information in re- 
 gard to this species, and, with others in his work, printed the 
 usual prediction that " the total extermination of the Carolina 
 paroquet is only a question of a few more years, and the end of 
 the present century will probably mark their disappearance." 
 
 It may be safely predicted that all birds all over the world are 
 upon the road toward extinction, but some are very much nearer 
 to that fate than are others. Besides the Carolina paroquet in 
 this country, the Roseate spoonbills (Ajaja ajaja) are nearly gone, 
 and so are some of the other waders. Wild turkeys and many 
 other game birds are rapidly being shot out, and the Passenger 
 pigeon (Ectopistes) is now rare where it formerly existed in mill- 
 ions. Skins of the California vulture (Pseudogryphus califor- 
 nianus) will fetch f 100 each, and so does an egg of the same 
 species, while some of the raptorial birds are becoming very 
 scarce. Ivory-billed woodpeckers are nearly gone, and the Pile- 
 ated woodpecker will doubtless meet with the same fate later on, 
 while every now and then we hear of the threatened extinction of 
 even some of the smaller passerine types, as occurred not long 
 ago in the case of the bluebird. 
 
 But we must not carry our paragraphs here into the realms of 
 philosophy, and be tempted to draw pictures in futurity, of times 
 when there may be nothing remaining save man and the English 
 sparrows, with all that remains of our forests converted into 
 fancy parks and preserves. 
 
 So much for what I have to say about the present status and 
 probable extinction of the Carolina paroquet, but it is believed by 
 not a few that we have within the boundaries of the United 
 States still another representative of the family Psittacidw, or 
 
258 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 parrots. This is the Thick-billed Parrot (Rhynchopsitta pachy- 
 rhyncha). On page 330 of the 1895 edition of the A. O. U. Check 
 List, in the ''hypothetical list" of species, we find this form there 
 recorded, with the somewhat remarkable statement beneath it, 
 to the effect that " There is said [sic] to be a specimen in " the 
 collection of the Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences, 
 labeled Eio Grande, Texas, J. W. Audubon, "but there is doubt 
 as to whether the specimen was really taken within the limits of 
 the United States. Its occurrence in Texas is not improbable, 
 but the evidence is unsatisfactory." 
 
 Judging from the name of the collector, I should think the 
 evidence might be both unsatisfactory as well as unreliable, as the 
 compilers of the aforesaid A. O. U. Check List candidly aver. In 
 reference to the occurrence of this species within the boundaries 
 of this country, I would further say that my attention has been 
 called to what Mr. Eobert Kidgway says on page 269 of his 1887 
 edition of A Manual of North American Birds, where that eminent 
 ornithologist states that the species occurs in " southwestern 
 Texas and southern New Mexico." A footnote to this goes to 
 show that from a letter of mine written to Mr. Kidgway, I am 
 held accountable for its having been seen in New Mexico. The 
 words of the letter are not given, nor do I fully recall them, but 
 I do know that personally I never saw the Thick-billed parrot in 
 New Mexico. What I wrote was to the effect that, while serving 
 at Fort Wingate, New Mexico (1884-89), there was at one time a 
 necessity to send a troop of cavalry into southern New Mexico, 
 and Captain Kendall, of the 6th Cavalry, was detailed to the 
 duty. On the return of that officer, he informed me that one 
 morning, when at some considerable distance north of the Mexi- 
 can boundary, he was, while laying in his tent, greatly disturbed 
 by the " infernal noise " created by a flock of parrots, that had 
 " great, big bills," and which nearly covered a tree in the imme- 
 diate vicinity of his camp. This is the only report of the kind 
 that came to me during my entire stay in New Mexico. Captain 
 Kendall knew practically nothing of ornithology, nor had I told 
 him anything about the parrot in question before his leaving, 
 the information coming wholly unsolicited from him upon his re- 
 turn to the Fort. I should have attributed the report to the 
 Captain's having seen a flock of Groove-billed ani (Crotophaga 
 sulcirostris) had he not been so positive about their being par- 
 rots, with big bills, with green bodies, with red on their heads. 
 

 OF THE UNITED STATES 259 
 
 He even testified to the fact that he left his tent and went over 
 to the tree to look at them. 
 
 Professor Alfred Newton, F.R.S., in his very excellent Diction- 
 ary of Birds, concludes his article " Parrot " (pt. iii, p. 691) with 
 the following statement : " Considering the abundance of Parrots 
 both as species and individuals, and their wide extent oyer the 
 globe, it is surprising how little is known of their habits in a wild 
 state. Even the species with which Englishmen and their de- 
 scendants have been more in contact than any other has an al- 
 most unwritten history, compared with that of many other birds ; 
 and, seeing how many are oppressed by and yielding to man's 
 occupation of their ancient haunts, the extirpation of some is 
 certain, and will probably be accomplished before several inter- 
 esting and some disputed points in their economy have been de- 
 cided. The experience of small islands only foreshadows what 
 will happen in tracts of greater extent, though there more time is 
 required to produce the same result; but, the result being in- 
 evitable, those who are favorably placed for observations should 
 neglect no opportunities of making them ere it be too late." 
 
 A number of fine monographs have been devoted to this very 
 thoroughly isolated group of birds, and much has also been writ- 
 ten upon their anatomy, habits, and distribution, with schemes 
 for their classification, yet a great deal remains, as Professor 
 Newton remarks, to be said about them. 
 
CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 THE UNITED STATES CUCKOOS. 
 
 (Family Cuculidce). 
 
 UCKOOS of one kind or another are found in nearly all 
 parts of the world, and, taken as a group, it is one that 
 possesses especial interest for the ornithologist. It 
 is but a fairly well circumscribed family, containing 
 as it does at least a few somewhat aberrant forms. Within the 
 family, cuckoos very widely differ, not only in structure and gen- 
 eral appearance, but in their habits of life, nidification, and affini- 
 ties. If what we know of them were collected together it would 
 make a very large volume indeed ; but if on the other hand, could 
 be printed what we do not know about them, quite a good 
 sized library would be the result. Even in the case of the one 
 species, the well-known Old World Cuckoo (Cuculus canorus) the 
 learned British ornithologist Newton has said : " No single bird 
 has perhaps so much occupied the attention both of naturalists 
 and of those who are not naturalists, or has had so much written 
 about it, as this, and of no bird perhaps have more idle tales been 
 told. Its strange and, according to the experience of most peo- 
 ple, its singular habit of entrusting its offspring to foster-parents 
 is enough to account for much of the interest which has been so 
 long felt in its history ; but this habit is shared probably by many 
 of its Old World relatives, as well as in the New World by birds 
 which are not in any near degree related to it," as, for example, 
 our Cowbird (Molothrus). In this country we have no cuckoos 
 that are given to the habit of laying or otherwise depositing their 
 eggs in the nests of other birds, unless it be the habit of the Si- 
 berian cuckoo to do so, and Bendire has said in regard to this 
 species that as " far as I can learn, nothing definite has as yet 
 been ascertained regarding its nesting habits and eggs. They 
 undoubtedly correspond closely to those of its well-known west- 
 ern relative, the common European Cuckoo, Cuculus canorus, and 
 Dr. Stejneger tells me that in its general habits and call notes he 
 could not detect the slightest difference from those of the latter." 
 (Life Hist., N. A. ., p. 32, 1895.) 
 
 It will be remembered that the Siberian Cuckoo (C. c. tele- 
 phonus [Heine] ) is, at the best, but a subspecies of Cuculus cano- 
 

OF THE UNITED STATES 263 
 
 r~us, and has been added to our avifauna upon the strength of a 
 single example taken by Mr. William Palmer at Northeast Point, 
 St. Paul's Island, Alaska, on the fourth of July, 1890. This speci- 
 men is now in the collections of the U. S. National Museum. 
 (See The Auk, Vol. xi, 1894, p. 325.) The addition of this species 
 of cuckoo to our fauna might be sufficient excuse for me to give an 
 account of some of the habits of its western, ally, the~coinmon 
 cuckoo of the Old World, but as I have never had the oppor- 
 tunity of studying that species in nature, this would simply re- 
 sult in my culling from the records of others for the purpose; 
 and, rather than do this, I prefer to invite the student's attention 
 to what is doubtless the best brief history of Cuculus canorus 
 extant; and I refer to Professor Newton's in his Dictionary of 
 Birds, under the title " Cuckoo." (Part I, p. 118.) In connec- 
 tion with this, and in the same excellent work, under the title 
 "Nidification," should be read what Professor Newton has to say 
 in regard to the origin of the practice of certain birds, and among 
 them Cuculus, of placing their eggs in the nests of other species, 
 to be incubated by the latter, and the young fostered. Without 
 question, the nearest relatives which Cuculus canorus has in this 
 country are the various specific and subspecific representatives 
 of the genus Coccyzus. These are the Mangrove cuckoo (C. 
 minor), it having been taken in Louisiana and Florida; May- 
 nard's cuckoo (C. minor maynardi), also having been collected in 
 Florida (Key West); the Yellow-billed cuckoo (C. americanus) of 
 Eastern North America; the California cuckoo (C. a. occidenta- 
 lis) of Western North America; and, finally, the Black-billed 
 cuckoo (C. erythrophthalmus), also of Eastern North America. 
 
 Personally, I have never enjoyed the opportunity to study more 
 than two of these various forms, namely, the Yellow-billed and 
 the Black-billed cuckoos, but they all are more or less alike in 
 structure, habits, appearance, form, plumage, and some other 
 characters. They all have curved bills ; the feathering of the en- 
 tire head and trunk is soft and blended; the tail and wings are 
 long, giving the whole bird a long and slender appearance; in 
 color they are unstriped, being of a grayish brown above, with a 
 slight bronzy tint to it, while beneath they may be either white, 
 white and buft'y gray, or of a deep ochraceous (C. minor). The 
 graduated tail is also tipped with grayish white, save the middle 
 pair of feathers. The feet are zygodactyle that is, two toes in 
 front and two behind a character that in the entire history of 
 
264 CHAPTERS .ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 ornithology in epochs past has been accountable for no end of 
 unnatural classification, and even at the present time is respon- 
 sible in the schemes of not a few taxonomers for grouping birds 
 together, often otherwise but remotely related. As an example 
 of this in the present family, is the case of the anis (Crotophaga) 
 and the Road-runners (Geococcyx), both considered Cuckoos, and 
 yet utterly different kinds of birds. 
 
 It is probable that the Mangrove cuckoo occurs in this country 
 all along the Gulf coast line from Key West to include Louisiana, 
 being found only in the skirting timber, and never inland. They 
 build a shiftless, flat nest on a horizontal limb, rarely over twelve 
 feet above the ground. The eggs are from three to four; pale 
 green in color, and usually rather larger than those of C. ameri- 
 canus, which they are a good deal like. Contrary to the practice 
 of other members of the genus, this Cuckoo, it is said, does not 
 begin to incubate until she has laid her entire clutch of eggs; 
 and, if setting, will defend these latter, much in the same man- 
 ner as some domestic fowls do that is, flying at the intruder 
 with ruffled plumage and a clucking note. Although almost en- 
 tirely an insectivorous species, it likewise has the reputation of 
 sucking the eggs of other birds. Audubon, when at Key West, 
 constantly mistook this well-marked form, " in the course of his 
 walks, for the common yellow-billed species," and did not ap- 
 preciate the difference until it was pointed out for him by Major 
 Glassel, of the army, who was serving in the fort there at the 
 time. 
 
 Maynard's cuckoo is a rather smaller and lighter colored bird 
 than the Mangrove, and thus far in this country has only been 
 taken upon the Island of Key West. In all respects, so far as at 
 present known, this subspecies closely resembles the two eastern 
 North American forms. 
 
 One of these latter, our Yellow-billed cuckoo, has a wide distri- 
 bution all over the eastern part of the country and southern 
 Canada, breeding in suitable localities over the entire range. It 
 is a retiring, secretive bird, and would be but rarely noticed in 
 the tree-tops were it not for its peculiar, often somewhat pro- 
 longed gutteral and croaking notes. These are frequently heard 
 just prior to the advent of a shower or storm, and hence the 
 species is known in many places as the "Rain-crow." They are 
 very awkward upon the ground, with their weak feet and short 
 legs, so they rarely alight there. In the air, however, their flight 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 265 
 
 is graceful in the extreme, and often varied, the bird turning a 
 little sideways, and sometimes undulating as it passes with no 
 little swiftness from tree to tree. They always remind me of a 
 slick-dressed Quaker, with a Quaker-gray coat on, and white 
 waistcoat. Most often they hide in the densest part of the foli- 
 age, and flit in a quaint way from branch to branch^ silently 
 hunting their insect prey. I have had this bird alive a number 
 of times, and several years ago took a fine, large male in the 
 archa3ological hall of the Smithsonian Institution. One of the 
 attendants and myself kept him flying about till he came down 
 exhausted to the floor. I have also had the young nestlings, just 
 after quitting the nest; they have short tails, big heads, and the 
 lower bill, instead of being of a deep yellow, as in the adults, is of 
 a pale lead blue. 
 
 These birds consume simply hundreds of noxious insects, all 
 kinds of caterpillars and worms, and occasionally indulge in 
 some of the small fruits and berries. I have never known of a 
 case where either this species of cuckoo or the Black-billed one 
 was guilty of sucking birds' eggs, and am strongly in- 
 clined to discredit all such stories. Were it true, the other small 
 feathered denizens of our forests would surely raise a row every 
 time a cuckoo put in an appearance, just as they now salute a 
 jay. So far as man is concerned, these birds stand among the 
 most valuable of the friends he has to the agriculturist, and fully 
 deserve all the protection he can extend to them. 
 
 They are rather late breeders, but in the South may have two 
 broods to the season. Their nests are slovenly, loose, platform- 
 like affairs, composed of short, dry twigs, a few leaves, and a little 
 moss sometimes. In some cases to these may be added pine 
 needles, the catkins of certain trees, and so forth. Many eggs of 
 this bird are destroyed by being blown or otherwise shaken out 
 of their shallow nests; and if one stand below one of them the 
 eggs can often be seen through the flimsy thing. The number of 
 eggs vary from two to five, but sets of six and seven have been 
 taken, and in these latter cases the nest may have been laid in 
 by another female. Sometimes incubation begins after the first 
 egg is laid, but usually the hen completes her clutch ere she 
 commences to hatch. This species occasionally lays in the nest 
 of the Black-billed cuckoo, and vice versa; while on the other 
 hand, both species sometimes lay in the nests of other birds, as 
 their eggs have been found in those of the Robin, Mourning dove, 
 
266 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 Cedar bird and others. These cases, however, are not common, 
 and moreover, the act has been detected among other species of 
 birds, and those remotely affined to the Cuculidce. 
 
 In speaking of the species now being considered, Bendire has 
 said : " Incubation, I think, lasts about fourteen days, and I be- 
 lieve the female performs the greater portion of this duty. The 
 young when first hatched are repulsive, black, and greasy-looking 
 creatures, nearly naked, and the sprouting quills only add to 
 their general ugliness. If the eggs are handled the bird fre- 
 quently forsakes the nest, either throwing them out or abandon- 
 ing them. The eggs are elliptical oval in shape, about equally 
 obtuse at either end; the shell is close-grained, rather thin, and 
 without gloss. The ground color varies from a uniform Nile 
 blue to pale greenish blue when fresh, fading out in time to a 
 pale greenish yellow. They are unspotted, but occasionally one 
 or two eggs in a set present a sort of mottled appearance, the 
 ground varying somewhat on different parts of the shell. Their 
 color is one of those subtle tints which it is difficult to describe 
 accurately. Many of the eggs resemble in tint some of the 
 lighter-colored Heron's eggs." 
 
 In habits and much else the California cuckoo greatly resem- 
 bles its eastern cousin, and requires no special description here. 
 It is rather a larger bird, with a somewhat heavier and stouter 
 beak. It ranges east as far as the eastern slopes of the Rocky 
 Mountains. Slightly smaller than its conjener, the Yellow-billed 
 cuckoo, the Black-billed species resembles it in most particulars. 
 It is, however, a hardier bird, ranging further north during its 
 migrations in the spring. By the ordinary observer it is often 
 mistaken in the woods for the Yellow-billed, yet the black bill, 
 lesser size, and slightly appreciable difference in its notes are 
 usually sufficient to at once distinguish it in the eyes of the 
 trained ornithologist. " From personal observations," says Ben- 
 dire, " I am inclined to believe that the Black-billed cuckoo is 
 more irregular in its nesting habits than the Yellow-billed, and 
 that cases of parasitism are of more frequent occurrence. I also 
 think their eggs are much oftener found in different stages of in- 
 cubation than appears to be the case with the Yellow-billed 
 species." Usually they build a better nest than C. americanus, 
 and the two to five (rarely seven) eggs, are considerably darker in 
 color; they are also unspotted. Bendire, in his great work, gives 
 several very interesting accounts of the often erratic nidification 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 267 
 
 of this remarkable cuckoo. Collectors of repute have discovered 
 numbers of pairs nesting together; they have been seen laying 
 their eggs in the nests of other birds; when the clutch is large 
 (5-7) the birds hatch out irregularly often, as the parents com- 
 mence sitting as soon as one egg is laid; they will lay, as already 
 stated, in the nest of the Yellow-billed cuckoo ; they easily desert 
 their nests if any way disturbed, and they have severaT ofher ec- 
 centricities of this nature. Perhaps one of the most curious in- 
 stances is that given by Mr. J. L. Davison, of Lockport, New 
 York, who says on "June 17, 1882, I found a Black-billed cuckoo 
 and a Mourning dove sitting on a Robin's nest together. The 
 cuckoo was the first to leave the nest. On securing this I found 
 it contained two eggs of the Cuckoo, two of the Mourning dove, 
 and one Robin's egg. The Robin had not quite finished the nest 
 when the Cuckoo took possession of it and filled it nearly full of 
 rootlets; but the Robin got in and laid one egg. Incubation had 
 commenced in the Robin and Cuckoo eggs, but not in the Mourn- 
 ing dove's eggs. I have the nest and eggs in my collection." 
 
 The non-arboreal Road-runner or Chaparral cock (Geococcyx 
 calif ornianus) is chiefly found in the southwestern regions of our 
 country, being largely confined to the desert lands, and far less 
 often found in the foothills of the skirting mountain ranges. This 
 bird is a large, handsome Ground cuckoo, of an aberrant type, 
 and evidently affined with other avian groups. Years ago I 
 printed an account of its anatomy in the Proceedings of the Zoo- 
 logical Society of London; its osteology in the Journal of Anatomy, 
 of Edinburgh, and a colored figure of its head in The Ibis (Lon- 
 don). In the latter I pointed out the naked skin tract on the 
 back of the head, which during life is of a brilliant scarlet color. 
 
 These birds are usually found singly on the prairies, though 
 the half-grown young follow their mother about some time after 
 leaving the nest. This latter, a shallow, flat affair is commonly 
 built on the ground, in low bushes, on cactus plants, or even in 
 small trees, very rarely above sixteen feet from the ground. It is 
 made of small sticks and lightly lined with grass. The unspotted 
 white eggs vary from two to nine in the set, and the bird has a 
 few of the incubatory vagaries of the arboreal cuckoos described 
 above. However, they do not desert their nests when discov- 
 ered, and the parents are very solicitous of their young. Often 
 I have seen both chicks and adults of this species kept in cages, 
 and they make very interesting and affectionate pets. Geococcyx 
 
268 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 has an easy and swift flight, while on the ground it can for a 
 short distance run and outstrip the fleetest of horses. It has a 
 peculiar call-note, and feeds principally upon insects, lizards, 
 snakes, young birds, etc. Snakes nearly two feet long have been 
 killed and swallowed by them. The stories about the remark- 
 able way in which they pen in rattlesnakes with cactus joints, 
 and then stir up the reptile by dropping a joint on him, which 
 causes it to thrash round till exhausted and is finally killed by 
 the cunning Eoad-runner, are to use a fitting phrase all gam- 
 mon. It is a cowboy yarn, and paralleled by numbers of others 
 equally mythical, told to comers from the east, in times now 
 nearly past forever. 
 
 Still more remarkable among our Cuculidce are the curious 
 cuckoos called Anis; also known in various localities as Black 
 Witches, Savanna Blackbirds, and other names. Two species of 
 these birds are recognized as belonging to our fauna the Ani 
 (Crotophaga ani) and the Groove-billed ani (G. sulcirostris). 
 They are small black forms, each species about a foot long, with 
 the upper bill elevated and much compressed laterally. C. ani 
 has been taken in southern Florida and Louisiana, while the 
 other species occurs in the valley of the Kio Grande, Texas, and 
 in Lower California. These are arboreal, gregarious birds of 
 very social disposition. They not only perch close together upon 
 the trees, but a number of individuals build a nest together, and 
 in this several females lay their eggs, to the number of six or 
 eight. Of these Bendire says they " are glaucous-blue in color, 
 and this is overlaid and hidden by a thin, chalky, white deposit; as 
 incubation advances the eggs become more or less scratched, and 
 the blue underneath is then plainly visible in places, giving them 
 a very peculiar appearance." The nest is placed well up in some 
 tree, and is composed of twigs and lined with leaves. Some- 
 times the eggs are placed in layers with leaves between them, 
 but the eggs of the lower layer have been found to be infertile. 
 Anis are awkward birds both in flight and when in the trees, or 
 upon the ground; they also have a peculiar wail of a cry like a 
 sick kitten; and they also attend upon pasturing cattle after the 
 fashion of our Cowbirds (Molothrus). They feed upon small 
 lizards and eggs of other birds. In fact, the Anis are among the 
 most curious and interesting of any of the cuculine forms known 
 to me, and, some years ago, I studied with especial interest some 
 skeletons of these birds sent me from southern Texas. 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 269 
 
 Some remarkable and beautiful Cuckoos are found in Africa 
 and the island of Madagascar. The Great Spotted cuckoo of the 
 former country is a very famous bird of this family. Their eggs 
 so closely resemble those of one of the Pies, in the nest of which 
 they are often deposited, that even, as Newton remarks, expert 
 oologists have been deceived by them, and not discovered which 
 was which until in opening the egg and finding either the embryo 
 Pie or the embryo Cuckoo. 
 
CHAPTER XX. 
 
 WOODPECKERS: PHOTOGRAPHICALLY AND PTERYLOGRAPHICALLY 
 
 CONSIDERED. 
 
 (PM.) 
 
 T different times during the last few years I Lave 
 pointed out in the pages of various journals some of 
 the advantages to be gained by making good photo- 
 graphic pictures of living birds, and I believe it is safe 
 to say that, at the present time, these advantages are now hardly 
 questioned by any one. We often see in properly taken photo- 
 graphs of birds characters that are never recorded by any other 
 means. My opportunities to make such pictures of living ani- 
 mals of all kinds have never been better- than they are to-day, 
 and no chance of the kind is allowed to slip by. By .close study 
 of previous failures and experiences, present successes are now 
 of more frequent occurrence, and it is not altogether a rare thing 
 to produce a result worthy of permanent record. 
 
 Recently I have been doing something with the woodpeckers, 
 and have been enabled to secure one or two pretty good things. 
 This was my fortune, upon the 21st of last March (1896) and the 
 day following, when I captured alive an adult male specimen of 
 the Downy woodpecker (Dryobates pubescens), and brought him 
 to my studio in excellent condition. He at once gave evidence 
 of being a gentle and the very best kind of subject. It was too 
 late to do anything with him the first day, so he was confined in 
 a cage until next morning, at which time he drank very freely of 
 water with great apparent relish, and, being placed upon a hori- 
 zontal limb with a shallow, scooped out place on top of it, he rap- 
 idly devoured upward of fifty soft Iarva3 that I put in there be- 
 fore him as his breakfast. His extreme gentleness was remark- 
 able, and he made scarcely any objection to being freely handled, 
 seeming perfectly at home in half an hour after his capture. 
 Owing to his great activity I found it difficult to get a photograph 
 of him upon a horizontal limb, for he betrayed all the restless- 
 ness of his genus the moment he was placed upon it in that posi- 
 tion. Sometimes he seemed to be upon all sides of it at once, 
 so quick were his movements. Every once in a while he would 
 stop and pound away at the bark, diligently searching for the 
 
FIG. 65. PHOTOGRAPH OF A LIVE SPECIMEN OF DOWNY WOOD- 
 PECKER (D. pubescens) ; Adult. 
 
 Two-thirds natural size. Taken by the Author. 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 273 
 
 small larvse that I had concealed in the interstices for him. This 
 would not do, for I had not a particularly good light to work in, 
 and I was using a small " stop," so as to obtain all the detail pos- 
 sible. In order, then, to check his movements a little, it occurred 
 to me to bring his perch to the vertical position. This seemed to 
 make but very little difference to him at first, and he ran_up and 
 down the limb and peeped about it, first upon one side, and then 
 upon the other, in a manner most interesting to behold. Several 
 exposures were made upon him, and immediately developed in 
 the dark room near by, but from one cause or another they were 
 not fully satisfactory. At last, however, I got him. He had been 
 playing at hide and seek with me all around his stump, and I 
 had engaged with him at the same game behind the ground glass 
 at the back of my camera, when suddenly he stopped for a couple 
 of seconds, missing me as I hid my head beneath the focussing 
 cloth. The opportunity was too good to be lost, and I squeezed 
 the bulb as long as I dared, and then let go, and the snap of the 
 shutter informed me that he was my woodpecker at last. 
 
 The reproduction of this picture is offered here as an illustra- 
 tion and is shown in Fig. 65. It is one of the best photo- 
 graphs of a living woodpecker that I have thus far met with, in- 
 asmuch as it is over two-thirds the size of life; sharp to a fault, 
 and exhibits the bird in a very characteristic attitude. It prac- 
 tically consumed an entire day to obtain this picture, and fre- 
 quently I have spent a great deal more than that amount of time 
 in securing the result desired. In order to get even as simple 
 a picture as the one here given, it is absolutely necessary that 
 several things be taken into consideration. The operator must 
 possess an intimate knowledge of his subject in a state of nature; 
 he must have taste, and an enormous stock of patience; and 
 finally, in everything only the very best of material must be em- 
 ployed. 
 
 Nestlings of a great many species of birds are, at their best, 
 very extraordinary looking objects, but of all these, young wood- 
 peckers are, I think, the most remarkable. 
 
 Last May, my son and myself were rambling through the woods 
 of the southern part of Montgomery county, Maryland, within 
 a few miles of Washington. Here, in a great, lofty stump of a 
 limb of an old tree, long dead, he discovered, twenty or more feet 
 above the ground, the entrance to a new nest of the Golden- 
 winged woodpecker (CoTaptes auratus). As I was photograph- 
 
274 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 ing everything living I could lay my hands on in those days, the 
 thought occurred to me that to make a picture of these nestling 
 woodpeckers would be a unique idea. My son, upon climbing the 
 barkless trunk of the dead tree, and examining the nest as well as 
 could be done by listening at the entrance, for it was too deep to 
 reach with the arm and hand, the conclusion was arrived at that 
 the eggs had not as yet been hatched, so we withdrew to await 
 that event. 
 
 About a fortnight afterward we returned to the spot, and a 
 second examination convinced us that the nest contained young. 
 By standing on a slippery limb that branched out below the hole 
 of entrance, and by the laborious use of a small hatchet, my boy 
 cut that old tree in two well below the nest, after nearly an 
 hour's constant chopping. Down it toppled with a rush, break- 
 ing into several pieces in its fall, but in such manner that w r e 
 were enabled to carry home the entire portion containing the 
 nest and the young. 
 
 There were seven of these latter, and, as I have said, they were 
 surely the oddest looking creatures alive. They varied some- 
 what in point of size and in gradation, the smallest one being not 
 more than two-thirds the size of the biggest fellow, which I took 
 to be a male. They were a lively flesh-color in hue, and feather- 
 less, all to the pinfeathers of the feather tracts, which, by the 
 way, showed the woodpecker pattern most beautifully, being full 
 of interest to the pterylographist, or to the one who describes the 
 different feather tracts upon the bodies of birds. Their eyes had 
 not as yet opened, and their necks were long and snake-like, and 
 none too strong to balance their big heads. Another very remark- 
 able feature was the chalky, hard, knob-like growth at either 
 angle of the mouth, and I am quite unable to say anything about 
 the origin of this protuberance, or its use; it is well known, of 
 course, that it gradually disappears as the birds grow, and in the 
 fully feathered nestling it has about all disappeared. 
 
 This brood was placed in a suitable box, half full of dry saw- 
 dust, and the entire lot huddled together down in one of the 
 corners. Assuredly to the eye they presented a curious, tangled 
 mass, that kept up a continuous shivering motion, accompanied 
 by an unharmonious baby-picine snoring, low in pitch, peculiar in 
 nature, and that could be heard for some little distance from the 
 box. 
 
 Upon the slightest disturbance in their neighborhood, each 
 
FIG. 66. VERTICAL SECTION OF TREE SHOWING NEST OF GOLDEN- 
 WINGED WOODPECKER, CONTAINING Six YOUNG. 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 277 
 
 bird at once disengaged itself, and with an awkward, quivering 
 stagger, arose as best it could, semi-erect, and stretching out its 
 neck to its utmost capacity, gave vent to a grunting, hissing, 
 noisy quaver that, when added to the voices of the other six, 
 could be heard only too distinctly all over the house. At this 
 time all their mouths gaped wide open, and they relished both 
 water dropped into them, as well as a bolus of bird food", big 
 enough in each case for a half-grown chicken. A moment or so 
 after the source of their alarm was withdrawn they gradually 
 settled back into their former huddled mass, and with equal de- 
 liberation lowered their voices to again resume the low snoring 
 sounds above described. It was surprising how little it took to 
 arouse them; one might hold over the group the expanded hand, 
 at the distance of a foot or more away, and then, by an up and 
 down gentle movement, so as to fan the bunch in the very slight- 
 est degree imaginable, they would at once arise en masse, and 
 create the same unearthly disturbance I have already attempted 
 to describe. There is no question but that the least breath from 
 a parent's wing at the nest's entrance would be ample to thus 
 excite this strange crew; and I suppose this has been brought 
 about from the fact that they have nothing else to do but lie there 
 and await being fed, with all their mental armament concen- 
 trated upon listening for the coming of the old bird with the juicy 
 Iarva3. As there seemed to be no end to their appetites, I'll war- 
 rant the old ones are kept busy to supply their hungry maws, and 
 are pretty tired by the time nightfall comes round. 
 
 One thing about these young woodpeckers struck me as very 
 peculiar, and that was the remarkable size of the excrementitious 
 mass any one of them passed at a time, as well as the fact that it 
 seemed to require the action of the whole body to accomplish the 
 feat and no wonder. On every occasion, in nature, this is at 
 once removed from the nest by a parent bird, who carries it out 
 and drops it at some little distance. 
 
 In cutting this nest, I believe the birds had simply very slightly 
 enlarged the hollow heart already destroyed by rot, and carried 
 their work down for about two feet. Below this point for sev- 
 eral feet the tree was likewise hollow, and the strange part of it 
 was, that the bottom of the nest was composed of sawdust not 
 very strongly stuck together, but strong enough to compose a 
 partition a little over an inch thick, that horizontally and com- 
 pletely divided off the nest part from the continued hollow of the 
 
278 
 
 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 tree below it. On the upper side of this partition the seven 
 young " flickers," or " high holes," as they call them in New Eng- 
 land, had been hatched. 
 
 FIG. 68. PTERYLOSIS OF HARRIS'S WOODPECKER. 
 
 Left lateral view of a plucked specimen of Harris's woodpecker (D. v. harrisii) ; adult male ; d, upper 
 part of the "inferior space " (Apt. mesogastr&i ; k, the uropygial gland of the left side ; /, its exter- 
 nal papilla with opening at its summit, which is also " tufted." 
 
 On May 31, 1896, I vertically divided this nest directly through 
 its median plane, and placing it in a favorable position for light, 
 and allowing six of these young birds to settle down in normal 
 
*&* 
 
 t,.^ 
 ''- 
 
 
 &; 
 
 w 
 
 FIG. 67. NESTLING GOLDEN-WINGED WOODPECKER. 
 
 Nearly life-size. From a Photograph from life by the Author. 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 281 
 
 attitudes on the shelf bottom of their former home, I made the 
 photograph, a copy of which appears as one of the accompanying 
 illustrations. The birds shown in this picture I take to be about 
 ten or twelve days old, and it must be several days after this be- 
 fore any feathers begin to appear upon them. 
 
 Later in the season my son found another nest of this species, 
 and from it succeeded in capturing a nestling that was just about 
 to shift for itself. Of this bird I succeeded in getting a number 
 of good photographs, and one of these is reproduced here, ex- 
 hibiting him in a peculiar attitude that he assumed when he 
 jumped from the horizontal part of a limb to another portion 
 growing out from it at nearly right angles. Coming to a rest 
 after this jump, he frequently held on to the bark with his foot in 
 the awkward manner illustrated in the picture shown on this 
 page. 
 
 In closing this chapter I desire to say a few words about the 
 pterylography of woodpeckers, and were the question pro- 
 pounded to any person who had never given the matter a thought 
 are the feathers of birds implanted in their skin in such a way 
 as to spring from it by an even and unbroken distribution over 
 the entire surface of the body, or are the feathers arranged 
 upon any plan, so that were they all trimmed down close to the 
 skin there would be presented to us some definite pattern of ar- 
 rangement duly outlined by the remaining extremities of the 
 quill-butts? I am inclined to suspect that not only that person 
 but perhaps a great many people would at first say, " Why, a 
 bird's body is entirely covered with feathers, of course, and they 
 arise by an even distribution all over it." Now, the truth of the 
 matter is that there are but a very few birds indeed that at all 
 approach any such condition (penguins, toucans, and ostrich-like 
 birds), the vast majority of the class having their feathers ar- 
 ranged upon their bodies after some definite plan. This partic- 
 ular arrangement of a bird's plumage is technially designated 
 by those engaged in investigating their structure as its ptery- 
 losis. From the several parts of the body the feathers spring 
 from the skin along certain lines, or from definite circumscribed 
 areas, in either case known as " tracts " (pterylce), while the un- 
 feathered portions which occur in between these are defined as 
 "spaces" (apteria). Such being the case, science in due time 
 seized upon this discovery and enlisted so useful a character as 
 an aid to the classification of birds, as men were not long in find- 
 
282 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 ing out that the pterylosis differed in the several families and 
 orders of the class. A great continental naturalist, Mtzsch, has 
 done more for us in this direction than any one else, and I may 
 add that the pterylosis of a great many of our United States 
 birds remains yet to be described, and that, too, in many impor- 
 tant forms demanding a more correct classification than has 
 thus far been awarded them. Further on I will demonstrate this 
 latter statement by an example, and as the pterylosis of 
 a bird with due care can easily be described and- worked out, it is 
 the chief object of this part of the present chapter to excite the 
 interest of naturalists and others in this subject, with the hope 
 that further investigation in the field will be duly undertaken. 
 
 Nitzsch employed four principal methods of studying the ptery- 
 olsis of a bird: (1) by examining nestlings; (2) by plucking adult 
 specimens; (3) by clipping off all the feathers, wetting the body, 
 and then examining it ; and (4) by skinning the bird, and studying 
 the pterylce and apteria upon the inner surface of the skin. 
 
 In the present connection it is not the writer's intention to en- 
 ter upon the subject of the study of the structure of the numer- 
 ous forms that feathers themselves are known to assume, for as 
 interesting as this is, space alone would prevent such a step here. 
 Nor do I intend to dwell, and for the same reason, for any length 
 upon the arrangement or number of the feathers-in-chief of the 
 wings (remiges) or the tail (rectrices), both of which are known 
 to be so various in birds. Much less do I intend to enter upon 
 the character of plumage itself, and the fantastic variations it 
 may display in a great many of the representatives of the Class. 
 
 On the other hand, I shall aim to present the several names 
 which have been bestowed upon the feather-tracts, to designate 
 them ; and by pointing them out by the aid of my drawings, here- 
 with presented, show their relative position in one of our birds; 
 and finally will offer another bird, nearly related, and with ap- 
 propriate figures endeavor to point out the value of pterylosis in 
 classification. 
 
 By this means I hope to lay a safe guide before any one, who 
 in the future may have the opportunity to study the pterylosis 
 of our birds, and especially in those forms which, up to the pres- 
 ent writing, have not fallen into the hands of science except in 
 dried skins, which are useless for such purposes. 
 
 Any accurately recorded pterylographical notes are of the high- 
 est importance to the science of ornithology. 
 
FIG. 69. PTERYLOSIS OF HARRIS'S WOODPECKER. 
 
 A. Dorsal aspect of the same specimen shown in Fig. 68; 6, capital apterium; c, the medianf(at 
 the point indicated) elevation of the skin caused by the epibranchials of the hyoidean apparatus beneath 
 it; </, spinal tract;/, inner humeral tract; , humeral tract; A, lower dilation of spinal tract (the saddle) ; 
 j, lower part of spinal tract (rump tract); ?', crural tract; o. femoral tract (very faintly seen in a wood- 
 pecker i;p, caudal tract; <?, alar .tract. B. Anterior or ventral aspect of the same specimen, with 
 its head turned to the left; a, capital tract; n, the ventral tract, and m, its external branch. All the 
 figures drawn by the Author from the specimen. 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 285 
 
 Let us next investigate this matter in the way I have already 
 proposed above, and for this purpose I choose an adult male 
 specimen of Harris's woodpecker (Dryobates villosus harrisii) 
 
 FIG. 70. VENTRAL VIEW OF A PLUCKED SPECIMEN OF THE RED- 
 NAPED WOODPECKER {Sphyrapicus v. nuchalis). 
 
 Showing its pterylosis or feather-tracts. Life size, by the Author, from nature. 
 
 and an adult male specimen of the Bed-naped woodpecker 
 (Sphyrapicus varius nuchalis). These birds are now before me; 
 
286 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 and first we will pluck them both carefully, coniuienciug at the 
 base of the mandibles in each case, and extending it down as far 
 as the root of the neck. 
 
 It will at once be observed that in these two woodpeckers the 
 head-tract or capital pteryla (P. capitis) is very different. In 
 Harris's woodpecker there is a median naked space on top, for 
 the most part overlying the elevation caused by the epibranchials 
 of the hyoidean arches, which Mtzsch says occurs in all the 
 woodpeckers he ever examined, but this authority never in- 
 spected a specimen of our Sphyrapictts, and in this bird the head 
 is completely covered with feathers (Figs. 70 and 71), and no such 
 median naked space is to be found. Another apterium, also de- 
 scribed by Mtzsch, occurs on the sides of the head in the tem- 
 poral space. I find this in Dryobates and Colaptes, and it may be 
 present in Sphyrapicus. Moreover, as Sphyrapicus has a hyoidean 
 apparatus very much as we find it in the majority of birds where 
 the epibranchials are not curled over the top of the skull as 
 shown in Fig. 69 at c, the skin is not elevated along that region. 
 In some birds, of course, as the condors, the head is destitute of 
 feathers. The head-tract, as a rule, however, includes the head 
 and the lateral tracts of the neck, merging below into the ventral 
 and spinal tracts (Figs. 68 and 69). We may next completely fin- 
 ish the plucking of our two specimens, closely observing the posi- 
 tion of the feathers as we deliberately remove them. Now it will 
 be found that with some few birds, very few comparatively, a 
 strip of feathers of uniform width runs down the entire length of 
 the back, but as a rule the greatest amount of variation exists in 
 this particular. In the case of the two woodpeckers before us a 
 marked difference is again seen, for this spinal-tract in Harris's 
 woodpecker commences above as a narrow, median, longitudinal 
 strip, which dilates at the middle of the back as a bifurcated 
 " saddle-tract " (Fig. 69, g and h) ; then occurs an interruption 
 when a rump division of the spinal-tract commences and extends 
 down over the tufted oil-gland (j), while that part which is car- 
 ried over the caudal region (the true tail of a bird) is designated 
 as the CAUDAL-TRACT. Turning to Sphyrapicus we note that there 
 is no interruption in the spinal-tract, and that the " saddle por- 
 tion " is a lozenge-shaped area, as shown in Fig! 71. This is par- 
 ticularly interesting when taken in connection with the condi- 
 tion of the hyoid in this bird, for the arrangement is quite similar 
 to the spinal-tract as it is found in passerine birds generally. 
 
FIG. 71. DORSAL ASPECT OF THE SAME SPECIMEN OF Sphyrapicus. 
 
 SHOWN IN FIG. 70, DESIGNED TO ILLUSTRATE ITS PTERYLOSIS. 
 Life size, by the Author. 
 

 OF THE UNITED STATES 289 
 
 Birds also exhibit a great variation in their spinal tracts, and I 
 trust some of the readers of this chapter will demonstrate this 
 to their own satisfaction. 
 
 Still referring to Figure 69, we note that the humeral region of 
 each arm is obliquely crossed by a narrow feather strip (e), 
 which is known as the humeral-tract (the single long bone of the 
 arm is the hurnerus), while in our woodpeckers we see a character 
 quite peculiar to them, being present in both of our specimens, 
 and shown at /, a little separate tract, called the inner humeral- 
 tract. Mtzsch found only one woodpecker that lacked this char- 
 acteristic feature, a Sumatran type (P. luridus). Such feather- 
 ing as a wing may show, aside from the flight feathers, is col- 
 lectively spoken of as the ALAR TRACT (Fig. 69, q). 
 
 Over the region of the thigh there is a tract known as the 
 FEMORAL TRACT (Fig. 69, o), which is but very faintly indicated in 
 woodpeckers, not noticeable at all in most specimens and spe- 
 cies. 
 
 Then across the leg there is a well defined strip which we call 
 the CRURAL TRACT, shown in Fig. 69 at i, and is even more con- 
 spicuously seen in Sphyrapicus (Fig. 71). 
 
 We may also see from these figures that the apteria, or naked 
 spaces, are sparsely covered over in some places by small, downy 
 feathers of an elementary character. 
 
 Turning next to Figures 69 B and 70, we are enabled to study 
 the feather tracts as they are found to occur upon the ventral 
 aspect of the body and here again we note that no little differ- 
 ence obtains between our two specimens of woodpeckers. 
 
 Most often the VENTRAL TRACT is a single broad one, extending 
 from the region of the shoulder in front down to the vent, being 
 situated about half way between the middle line of the body and 
 the side, and not so well marked for its lower moiety as it is 
 above (Fig. 69 B, m and n). In these woodpeckers, however, the 
 upper part of this ventral-tract bifurcates, giving rise to an ex- 
 ternal tract seen at m and of quite a different form in Dryobates 
 and Sphyrapicu-8. 
 
 A circlet of feathers usually surrounds the vent, and in Har- 
 ris's Woodpecker there extends down over the anterior aspect of 
 the coccygeal region, from this point, on either side, a narrow 
 feather tract, which, taken in connection with the median line 
 over the same part, we might collectively name the POSTVENTRAL 
 TRACT, in the absence of any other designation known to me for 
 it. 
 
290 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 We have, then, the following feather tracts to study and com- 
 pare in birds with the view of assisting us in our classification of 
 this group of vertebrates, viz. : 
 
 1. The spinal tract (Pteryla spinaUs) . 
 
 2. The humeral tract (Pteryla humeralis). 
 
 3. The femoral or lumbar tract (Pteryla femoralis seu lum- 
 balis) . 
 
 4. The ventral tract (Pteryla gastroei). 
 
 5. The lateral neck tract (Pteryla colli lateralis). 
 
 6. The head tract (Pteryla capitis). 
 1. The wing tract (Pteryla alaris). 
 
 8. The crural tract (Pteryla cruralis). 
 
 9. The caudal tract (Pteryla caudalis). 
 
 10. The postventral tract (Pteryla postventralis). 
 
 There will, too, of course, be some anomalies to be on the look- 
 out for, as we see in the " internal humeral tract " and such 
 others like it. 
 
 This chapter will not have been contributed in vain if it but 
 prove to be the means of inciting even one careful observer to 
 enter upon this very fruitful field of research. 
 
 As for myself, I was never so fully impressed with the value 
 of pterylography as an aid to correct taxonomy in birds as I was 
 when I came to investigate this character and compare it in the 
 swifts and humming birds, forms by many supposed to be re- 
 lated to each other closely enough at least to place them in the 
 same order. I found the pterylosis in a swift very different from 
 the pterylosis in a humming bird, a fact which further supports a 
 former suggestion of mine, elsewhere published, to the effect 
 that these birds be placed in entirely different groups. 
 
CHAPTER XXI. 
 
 THE CEDAR BIRDS: WITH NOTES ON WHERE BIRDS LAY THEIR 
 
 EGGS. 
 
 (Ampelidw, Turdus, Vireo, etc.) 
 
 ANY of our birds are far better known to people at large 
 than are others. As, for example, bluejays, robins, 
 catbirds, wrens, crows, bluebirds, and the like, are 
 recognized upon sight by almost any one certainly 
 by any intelligent person; but this is by no means the case when 
 such forms as vireos, kinglets, pipits, leucostictes, blue-headed 
 euphonias, and others come to be considered. 
 
 Cedar birds most emphatically belong to the first class men- 
 tioned, and the graceful form of this species and its exquisitely 
 delicate plumage are so well known that neither require any de- 
 tailed description here. As I write, I have before me twenty-one 
 beautiful skins of cedar birds belonging to my son's private col- 
 lection. They were all taken by ourselves last summer, near 
 Washington, D. C., and prepared by him. Both sexes are fully 
 represented, as well as the young, and the series as a whole ex- 
 hibits various plumage phases. There are also before me many 
 photographs of cedar birds taken by myself last spring and sum- 
 mer, from living specimens that we captured. One of these lat- 
 ter, a fine adult male, I likewise possess at this time, he having 
 been kept as a cage bird by me for nearly six months. At pres- 
 ent (October 10) he is in molt, and the process in this species is 
 most interesting to observe and study. Figs. 72 and 73, here 
 shown, are reproduced from photographs I made of this bird 
 when he was in full plumage, while in Fig. 74 we have him again, 
 in company with a female which I had alive at that time. 
 
 These birds tame very easily, and are quite as easily kept. 
 They are passionately fond of a variety of berries, as any of the 
 small garden fruits, as they likewise are of gumberries, pokeber- 
 ries, and cedarberries. In nature, when these latter are ripe, the 
 cedar birds flock to the trees, often in considerable numbers, to 
 feed, and owing to this circumstance it has received one of its 
 names. Although its plumage in confinement seems to be kept 
 in the very neatest possible trim, I have never seen the bird 
 bathe; yet they are very fond of having their cage placed out so 
 they may gain the advantage of a gentle shower. 
 
292 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 This specimen of mine is very dainty about his plumage, and 
 when hopping across the floor of his cage to reach his drinking- 
 cup, he goes by short leaps, holding his tail erect in a very pecu- 
 liar manner. As is well known, they have no true note, and it is 
 only occasionally, in a cage, that they give vent to their charac- 
 teristic shrillish lisp, that may be easily heard and quickly recog- 
 nized at some little distance away. He is very fond of sitting 
 quietly on his perch, and fluffing himself up to enjoy a sun bath; 
 at which time he slowly erects and lowers his beautiful crest, 
 occasionally uttering a low lisp, with the intention of calling 
 such others of his species as may be in the neighborhood. 
 
 Cedar birds are distributed over North America at large, and 
 are known in various localities by different names. They are 
 widely known, for example, as Cedar Waxwings, or simply Wax- 
 w r ings, from the peculiar growths found upon the terminal ends 
 of the shafts of the secondary feathers of the wings, and fre- 
 quently ornamenting the tail feathers in a similar manner. On 
 a wing these appear like small, graduated, elongated scales of 
 red sealing wax, but really are a modification and development 
 of the feather shaft. By some they are supposed to protect the 
 ends of the secondaries when the bird is fluttering in the dense 
 foliage of the cedar trees after its food; but I am of the opinion 
 that they serve no such purpose whatever, being merely orna- 
 mental in character. They vary in number from a few to nine, 
 and on the tail they may be minute, or as large as the largest on 
 the wings. Some ornithologists state that they sometimes occur 
 on the primaries of the wings, or even on the inferior tail coverts, 
 but I believe the statement to be erroneous. Both sexes possess 
 them, but they are of more frequent occurrence on the males. 
 During the molt these appendages develop within the " pin- 
 feather," and are of full size when the latter bursts and the 
 feather makes its appearance. In young birds of the first year, if 
 they are present at all, they are white and very minute. 
 
 We have another bird of this genus in our avifauna, and indeed 
 it is distributed over the northern parts of the entire northern 
 hemisphere. This species is the Bohemian Waxwing (AnipcTw 
 garrulus), and though a good deal like our cedar bird in appear- 
 ance, is a much larger form, with white upon its wings, and with 
 some other differences in its plumage. Ampelis phoenicoptertix, of 
 southeastern Siberia and Japan, is a Waxwing that resembles the 
 Bohemian, but instead of the yellow tips to the feathers of the 
 
FIG. 72. CEDAR WAXWING (Ampelis cedrorum). 
 
 Photograph from life. 
 
FIG. 73. CEDAR BIRD (Ampelis cedrorum). 
 
 Ad. $ Life size, from living specimen. From a photograph by the Author. 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 297 
 
 tail and wings, they are red, and the waxy ornaments are ab- 
 sent. 
 
 Cedar birds are also known as cherry birds in some localities, 
 and in other parts as chatterers; this latter name being totally 
 unmerited, as we have but few birds so silent by nature, being 
 almost devoid of either note or song. They say the Cedar Mrd has 
 lost the desire to sing from the fact that owing to its voracious 
 appetite for berries, and its throat being constantly choked with 
 them, no time can be given to any such accomplishment. 
 
 The name chatterer came first to be applied to the Bohemian 
 Waxwing from a misinterpretation of the word garrulus, the spe- 
 cific term of its name. In certain parts of Europe the cinnamon- 
 brown of the Waxwing was a reminder of the somewhat similar 
 color of their Jay (Garrulus glandarius), a very garrulous bird, to 
 be sure, and a chatterer by nature. Waxwings are crested like 
 Jays, hence its specific name, and hence, too, the confusion and 
 mistranslation and application of its real English meaning. 
 When grouped together the Waxwings constitute the family Am- 
 pelidw, and they probably see their nearest allies in this country 
 in our Phainopepla (Phainopepla nitens), of the southwestern 
 parts of the United States. Bohemian Waxwings found in 
 northern United States in winter are extremely erratic birds 
 in their migrations, often visiting certain localities suddenly and 
 in vast numbers. Thirty-five years ago Kennicott found it breed- 
 ing on the Yukon, in Alaska. 
 
 Toward the middle of June the Cedar birds disperse over the 
 country in pairs to breed. They usually build in cedar, chestnut, 
 or orchard trees, a somewhat bulky nest, placed in a fork from 
 ten to thirty feet from the ground. They lay some three or four 
 beautiful bluish white eggs, which are handsomely marked, and 
 the young are hatched on or about the first of July. These latter 
 are peculiar little fellows with spotted or coarsely streaked 
 breasts, and they have a habit of sitting bolt upright, with their 
 heads and necks stretched out to their utmost lengths in a line 
 with the axis of their bodies. While thus posed and the adults 
 are likewise given to this habit they are perfectly motionless 
 and silent. I have fine photographs of both old and young while 
 assuming this attitude. Parent cedar birds first feed their young 
 upon insects and larva?, but as the latter grow, upon various 
 kinds of berries. 
 
 Often near eventide, I have noticed a small flock of Cedar birds 
 
298 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 in the liuibs of some tall, isolated tree, while ever and anon, first 
 one individual and then another, or even perhaps two or three 
 at a time, will launch listlessly off their perches, and sail silently 
 and obliquely upward into the air, to capture insects upon the 
 wing that they may observe from a few to some fifteen or twenty 
 feet or more from the tree occupied by the flock. This practice 
 they will keep up for an hour or more, and the sight is a very in- 
 teresting one to the beholder. 
 
 Comparatively speaking, we find but few nests of the Cedar 
 bird, owing to the muteness of the species and its habit of flying 
 aw r ay upon the slightest alarm and at a distance watching the in- 
 truder. The latter may even examine either eggs or young with- 
 out the parents coming near, much less exhibiting any concern 
 or distress. 
 
 Frequently in the fall and winter these birds are shot for the 
 market and the table. At this season they are often very fat, 
 and quite as palatable as a Keed bird. They usually fly in dense 
 flocks, and the present writer has killed as many as fifty or sixty 
 at a discharge of a double-barrel gun. 
 
 Wilson, who has written one of the most truthful accounts of 
 the Cedar bird that I have ever had the pleasure of reading, says 
 this "species is also found in Canada, where it is called Eecollect, 
 probably, as Dr. Latham supposes, from the color and appear- 
 ance of its crest resembling the hood of an order of friars of that 
 denomination." It may be also said here that the species bears a 
 variety of different names throughout Mexico, Central America, 
 and the West Indies, in the parts of those countries where the 
 bird is distributed. 
 
 Speaking of the nidification of the cedar birds reminds me of 
 the homes that other of our feathered favorites build for them- 
 selves, and among these I recall the nest that the Wood Thrush 
 builds, and, one afternoon last summer, as the lovely month of 
 May was drawing to a close, I had rambled a half mile or more 
 away from my home, over the low hills of southern Maryland, to 
 a spot where a pair of whip-poor-wills had been observed the 
 evening before, and w r here I was led to believe their eggs might 
 be found. 
 
 The air was balmy to a fault, and the piece of woods I was in, 
 radiant and lovely with all that makes the budding summer so 
 < -lu rming. Chestnuts, maples, gums, and many other beautiful 
 trees were in full and delicate leaf, while beneath mv feet the 
 
FIG. 74. A PAIR OF CEDAR BIRDS. Ad. $ and 9 
 
 (Lower figure male.) Reduced one-third. From photograph of living specimens \>y the Author. 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 301 
 
 ground was carpeted with an hundred and one plants or mosses, 
 and other "' things that growin the woods,'' upon which it seemed 
 almost a sacrilege to step, or crush beneath one's feet. 
 
 Hope of finding the object of my search had been abandoned, 
 although the female bird had been flushed. In turning to retrace 
 my steps homeward, I chanced to peer among the trees that tim- 
 bered a considerable hollow directly below where I stood." The 
 sun poured its generous rays down in there, and the new, fresh 
 leaves of the half-grown maples appeared almost a livid green, 
 as, motionless, they seemed really to revel in the warm solar 
 bath. Thirty feet or more beyond me there flourished a particu- 
 larly handsome tree of this kind, and as I gazed at it in my admi- 
 ration of its sylvan beauty, my eye caught the sight of a new- 
 made nest in its first fork, and upon this sat its owner, that most 
 winning of all the thrushes known to me, the Wood Thrush. With 
 her great, warm eyes she watched my every movement, and I, in 
 turn, enjoyed to the fullest extent her avian charms. No wonder 
 her mate had fallen in love with her, for was ever a creamy white 
 breast more elegantly dappled with great, round, brown spots, 
 any one of which would vie with the mole upon the alabaster 
 shoulder of the veriest Venus alive; or did the sun ever shine 
 upon a back of any rarer, or any richer russet than hers? She 
 permitted me to come very close to her, but then taking alarm, 
 she appeared in an instant upon the edge of her nest, and in the 
 next moment darted through the trees and was gone. 
 
 Passing my hand into her warm nest, I found it to contain 
 three eggs of a uniform light blue color, and without any further 
 disturbance I withdrew. On another day the spot was revisited 
 by me, and this time my lady exhibited a far greater degree of 
 concern, and her cries soon " called the neighbors in." There 
 were now two callow nestlings in the place of the three eggs for- 
 merly seen; and they crouched very low, and, side by side, were 
 as rigid as two lifeless little models during my entire examina- 
 tion of them. 
 
 Lifting one of these turdine babies out, by seizing hold of its 
 delicate flesh-colored legs, its entire demeanor at once changed, 
 for 'twixt struggles, squeals, and squalls, it raised a merry row, 
 that at least had the effect of causing the parents and their sym- 
 pathizers to redouble their bewailments, and so far excite my 
 compassion that I soon replaced the little scamp in the nest. 
 
 A few days after this event I was enabled to get a fine photo- 
 
302 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 graph of this entire structure in x/7w, with the thrushlings in it 
 fast asleep. It represents a typical specimen of the nest of this 
 species, and the bird seems to have followed a certain plan of 
 building for many years. Upon carefully observing this plan, 
 and taking cognizance of the materials employed, I find it to 
 agree exactly with a description of the Wood Thrush's nest given 
 us by the observant Wilson, perhaps full ninety years ago. He 
 said : " Outwardly it is composed of withered beech leaves of 
 the preceding year, laid at bottom in considerable quantities, no 
 doubt to prevent damp and moisture from ascending through, 
 being generally built in low, wet situations ; above there are lay- 
 ers of knotty stalks of withered grass, mixed with mud, and 
 smoothly plastered, above which is laid a slight lining of fine, 
 black, fibrous roots of plants." Surely it is a remarkable fact 
 that this species should always use in the basic structure of its 
 nest the " withered beech leaves of the preceding year," and not 
 occasionally select something else. Yet they never seem to, in 
 this latitude, at least. I suppose, where they breed in the far 
 south, and where, perhaps, beech trees do not grow, they are 
 obliged to choose otherwise, and it would be interesting to know 
 more about this. 
 
 Notice in my photograph (Fig. 75) how beautifully the horizon- 
 tally expanded maple leaves growing above this nest shade its 
 tender inmates from the, perhaps, too warm sun's rays of early 
 summer. This canopy must likewise be grateful to the sitting 
 parent during the time she covers her eggs and performs her 
 incubatory duties. 
 
 Birds' nests are difficult and extremely tedious objects for the 
 ornithological artist to draw, and I dare say more or less sur- 
 prise would be expressed by Wilson, were it possible for him to 
 see my photograph of the nest of this species, and know that 
 such an accurate representation of it had been secured by me in 
 the fraction of a second. Most of the pictures of birds' nests 
 that I have seen in works devoted to such subjects, where they 
 have been reproduced from hand drawings,, have been very un- 
 natural looking affairs. They never fail to remind me of the 
 story of the little boy who showed his father his juvenile attempt 
 to depict one of these objects. His father, after contemplating 
 the work of art for several minutes with marked care and pride, 
 and being after all at a total loss to perceive what it was intended 
 to represent, exclaimed: "Yes, my son, that is capital; to have 
 
FIG. 75. NEST OF WOOD THRUSH (Turdus mustelinus'). 
 
 Reduced. From a photograph by the Author. 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 305 
 
 been done by one so young, it is the best drawing of a cyclone 
 that I have ever seen." 
 
 One of the most extraordinary things about young thrushes is 
 to observe the rapidity with which they grow. Those which I 
 have kept and there have been many of them and fed upon in- 
 sects and bird food, have thriven marvelously. They by^ a_week's 
 growth double their bulk, and from not handsome, pinfeather- 
 bedecked younglings, they pass into a stage when they become 
 very trim and pretty little fellows. One at about this period of 
 its existence I have likewise made a photographic picture of, 
 and its reproduction is well shown in Fig. 76. About this time 
 they require not a little care and attention, being hearty eaters, 
 and but slowly become accustomed to cage life. Once reared, 
 however, a wood thrush is an elegant bird for a pet beautiful 
 in plumage, graceful in demeanor, and rich in vocal powers. 
 
 The supreme admiration in which I held the Wood Thrush, as 
 a boy, has by no means diminished with advancing years. In- 
 deed, I believe my appreciation of him is greater now than it was 
 then. Prince of thrushes, he has no peer in all this land, save the 
 Mocking bird; and, for one, I must believe that in reality he is a 
 handsomer bird even than old Mimus himself. Plump in form, 
 and with fluffy feathering; delicately fashioned legs, of a clear 
 flesh color; an unusually broad tail; dainty, yet dignified in car- 
 riage; and with an extremely attractive general contour, made 
 the more so by the possession of such large and expressive brown 
 eyes surely, he stands without a rival amidst all the Turdidce. 
 Above, his feathers take on a rich fulvous color, that passes to 
 a bright reddish on the crown, and to a fine brown olivaceous on 
 rump and tail. Beneath he is white, the throat and breast being 
 tinged with a cream buffy. Upon either side, from the angles of 
 the mouth, pass down a chain of blackish flecks; these becoming 
 gradually larger, spread out finally over all the breast as an ele- 
 gant array of rounded or subtriangular spots. The white belly 
 is only in part similarly ornamented, and they cease entirely be- 
 fore arriving at the vent. Inside, the mouth is a clear, fine yel- 
 low, while the beak is a dusky brown, being much higher colored 
 at the base of the lower mandible. On top of the head the feath- 
 ers are inclined to be a little longish, and these, as well as those 
 of the rump, he has a way of elevating when anything especially 
 interests him, and that in a manner quite fascinating to the ad- 
 mirer of the behavior of birds of this kind. Withal, he is an un- 
 
306 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 doubted beauty, nor do his Charms cease here, for as a songster 
 he commands a talent and a power peculiarly his own. None of 
 our avian performers possess the wonderful ringing, bell-like 
 notes of the Wood Thrush. Usually he is silent in the middle part 
 of the day, unless, perchance, it be a gray day, when as is in- 
 variably the rule for him morning and evening he will mount 
 to the top of some tree taller than the surrounding ones in some 
 dense piece of timber land, and from there he will pour out, in 
 mellow, reverberating cadence, his several flute-like notes, with 
 a peculiar rippling harmony that once heard can never be forgot- 
 ten. They are soon answered hither and far in the forest by rival 
 performers of the same species, and that with an apparently in- 
 creasing ardor and ecstasy, until one can almost believe these 
 feathered challengers are vieing with each other in their efforts 
 to produce the sw r eetest and softest responses. They close only 
 as night draws on, first one bird and then another rendering its 
 clear, quavering finale, as a parting good-night, to tranquillize 
 the mind of the weary rambler as he trudges homeward, after a 
 long and pleasurable day spent far afield. 
 
 Be it said here that next to the fact that all birds possess feath- 
 ers, is the common character that every representative of this 
 group of vertebrates lay eggs, from the hatching of which their 
 young are brought forth. No such corresponding rules can be 
 drawn in the case of mammals, however, for there are mammals 
 in existence that do not possess hair, as some of the whales for 
 example; nor do they all bring forth their young alive, as the 
 Monotremes, of Australia and the East Indies, lay eggs from 
 which the young are produced. 
 
 Now, although all birds lay eggs, the places where those eggs 
 are deposited for hatching are nearly as various as the species of 
 birds themselves, surely far more so than the number of families 
 of the class. Not confining ourselves to any particular country, 
 we may have in the first place plenty of species of birds that 
 make no nests at all to contain their eggs. They simply lay 
 them upon the bare rocks, or the ground. Most all those marine 
 forms known as auks have this habit well marked, as do a great 
 many other species among the lower groups, as for example the 
 albatrosses. Bennett, in describing the King penguins of Mar 
 quarrie island, in the south Pacific ocean, said: "The females 
 hatch the eggs by keeping them close between the thighs, and if 
 approached during the time of incubation, move away, carrying 
 their ejrjrs with them." 
 
FIG. 76. YOUNG WOOD THRUSH (T. mustelinus), 
 
 Slightly reduced. From a photograph from life by the Author. 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 309 
 
 Passing to other sea fowl and shore birds, we soon meet with 
 species that form a very slender nest upon the ground. This 
 may vary all the way from a shallow excavation the bird scoops 
 out to contain its eggs, to where they, in other species, use an 
 extremely meager supply, of some material, as grass or moss, to 
 form a very slender nest in the aforesaid hollow. These ^re- rudi- 
 mentary ground nests of the simplest character ; and many gulls, 
 snipe, plover, and their kin, never construct any other kind. On 
 the other hand the puffins dig a shallow burrow for themselves, 
 or they may occupy the burrow of some animal as that of a 
 rabbit in which to lay their single egg for hatching (Frater- 
 cula) ; while many cormorants build quite a massive nest of sea- 
 weed upon the rocks near the sea, and lay several eggs. 
 
 Flamingoes birds related to certain waders upon one hand 
 and to the swans, geese, and their allies upon the other con- 
 struct upon the ground a most remarkable nest, totally unlike 
 anything found in either group. It is several feet high and com- 
 posed of mud, with a shallow excavation at the smaller end on 
 top, in which the eggs of this species are laid. 
 
 Still more singular are the habits of the megapodes of some 
 parts of the Australian region. These birds, as a rule, are about 
 as large as a ptarmigan, and they bury their eggs in the ground, 
 or else cover them over with a mound of earth, sticks, leaves, 
 and similar material. In these situations the young are hatched 
 out without any assistance from the old birds, and the former are 
 highly developed at birth, being full-feathered and fully capable 
 of caring for themselves. 
 
 Most ducks, geese, and swans build their nests upon the ground 
 near the water's edge, but in Africa they have at least one species 
 of goose that builds high up in trees, while our own common 
 woodduck builds in the hollow trunk of some dead tree, or usu- 
 ally in a hollow, horizontal limb many feet above the ground. 
 
 As we pass to some of the higher groups of birds, we meet with 
 quite a number that build or lay their eggs in the hollows o'f 
 trees. These hollows may simply be the natural ones, or the nat- 
 ural ones cleaned out by the birds; or they may be excavations 
 made wholly by the birds themselves, as among the woodpeck- 
 ers. Among some of the great hornbills of the east we find cer- 
 tain species that breed in holes of trees, and the male bird, after 
 the hen begins to sit, plasters up the entrance with mud, leaving 
 only a small hole, through which he feeds her during the time 
 incubation lasts. 
 
310 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 Many of the herons and their allies build great rough nests 
 of sticks and twigs in tall trees, several pairs building on the 
 same tree. The habit of the storks of Europe of constructing 
 their nests on chimney tops is well known, while some of the 
 nests of the African and Oriental species of this group are most 
 remarkable affairs. 
 
 In the days when our wild pigeons were in millions in this 
 country, they frequently built as many as 150 nests in one tree, 
 legions of these birds congregating together in the forests for the 
 purpose during the breeding season, and hundreds of trees were 
 thus occupied. Parrots, as a rule, lay five or six eggs in the hol- 
 low trunks of dead or decayed trees, making little or no nest. 
 But when we come to study such forms as the European cuckoo, 
 or our own Cow blackbird, an entirely new departure is met with, 
 for these birds never make any nest of their own at all, prefer- 
 ring to lay their eggs in the nests of other species, where they are 
 hatched and the young ones reared by the foster parent. 
 
 Quite a number of our vireos build beautiful pensile nests, 
 twixt the forks of some small branch of a low tree. In Fig. 77 I 
 present a photograph of one of these neat nests from my own col- 
 lection. Strange to say, it only contained one young at the time 
 of its discovery. This bird is abundant in eastern North 
 America. 
 
 Various species of humming birds build nests that are truly 
 wonders as examples of avian architecture. Some are extremely 
 small; some are pensile, others are sessile; many closely mimic 
 their surroundings, as the knots or other growths upon trees; 
 often they are most delicately constructed, and covered over with 
 moss or lichens; finally, there are others of odd shapes. It would 
 be simply out of the question to pretend to give even a brief de- 
 scription of a few of these remarkable structures, and the num- 
 ber of species of humming birds now known to naturalists runs 
 far into the hundreds. 
 
 What may be deemed a conventional " nest," as built by an 
 average small bird, is well exemplified in any of those con- 
 structed by many of our common sparrows, finches, buntings, 
 and their kin. A very neat one is seen in the nest of our little 
 Indigo bunting (Passerma cyanea), and one of these I have pho- 
 tographed in situ to illustrate the kind usually built in a small 
 tree, bush, or thicket. It is composed of dry leaves, grasses, 
 fibers, and finer materials for a lining. In the case of this nest 
 

 ^^n^H 
 
 FIG. 77. NEST AND YOUNG OF THE RED-EYED VIREO (Vireo 
 
 ollvaceuii). 
 
 Photographed natural size from life by the Author. 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES ^r_ 313 
 
 the birds did not place it close down in the fork; other fringilline 
 species do; while many others, as some sparrows and townees, 
 build on or very near the ground. 
 
 All of the passerine birds, however, by no means build these 
 conventional nests, for many of the orioles, for example, con- 
 struct pendent, pouch-like affairs, with an opening at- or near 
 the top, the structure, as a whole, hanging from the extremity 
 of the slender, waving twiglets of such trees as the willows, or 
 similar varieties where these do not occur. 
 
 In Africa and India we meet with many genera and species of 
 small birds that have been familiarly called weaver birds from 
 the very fact that they do weave such ingenious as well as curi- 
 ous nests. For example, in the genus Euplectes, we find a bird 
 weaves a nest having the form of a chemist's retort. This is 
 swung at the extremities of the twigs of any willow-like tree in 
 such a manner that the globular portion is uppermost, while 
 the elongated neck just clears the water beneath. By such a 
 contrivance the eggs of this species are comparatively safe 
 against the attacks of monkeys and snakes. 
 
 Still more remarkable are the nests of the sociable weavers, 
 birds which unite in a community of several hundreds, and in 
 some tree construct a common thatch roof, often as much as ten 
 feet square, under which they build their nests in common. An 
 entire chapter might be written upon the habits in this particu- 
 lar of this species, but the limitations of space forbids it in the 
 present connection. Related species to these African weavers 
 also make the most remarkable specimens of architecture. The 
 Bengal weaver bird also makes a purse-shaped nest, suspending 
 it over the water. Each year it weaves a new nest to this, at- 
 taching it below, so that in a few years a number of them are 
 strung together, giving the entire structure the appearance of a 
 cylinder of woven grass, with bulbous enlargements at various 
 intervals. 
 
 Many of the warblers, the kinglets, the wrens, and others con- 
 struct wonderful nests. Our marsh wrens also make what are gen- 
 erally termed " cock nests," in which the birds do not lay, but 
 are built here and there about the real or occupied nest, appar- 
 ently with no other object than to deceive those searching for 
 their eggs. East India has its tailor bird (8. sutoria Lath.j, that 
 as a means of deception, actually sews with a thread the living 
 leaves about its pouch-like nest together in such a manner as to 
 completely conceal it. 
 
314 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 Titmice often construct long, pendulous nests, and many swal- 
 lows and swifts attach their nests to the surfaces of various 
 kinds, the nests being really but half a nest. As examples of this 
 we have our common Barn swallow and the Chimney swift. The 
 latter, however, uses only small twigs for the purpose, and these 
 are made to adhere together by the aid of an adhesive secretion, 
 the product of two glands possessed by the bird that are in some 
 respects analogous to salivary glands. 
 
 The nests of the Esculent sw r ift (Collocalia esculenta), so exten- 
 sively used as an article of food in China, are somewhat of this 
 variety. Entire books have been written about the nidification 
 of this extraordinary species. Unique nests are likewise made 
 by the famous Hornero (Furnarius rufus), or Oven bird; the 
 Water ousel (Cinclus), the Hammer-head (Scopus) , and a perfect 
 host of others. Nests as made by hundreds of other birds, as, for 
 example, the birds of paradise and other East Indian forms too 
 numerous to mention, are as yet entirely unknown to science, nor 
 have our naturalists as much as even seen them. 
 
FIG. 78. NEST AND YOUNG OF THE INDIGO BUNTING. 
 
 From a photograph taken by the Author. Natural size, from life. 
 
OHAPTP:R xxu. 
 
 THE AMERICAN WARBLERS AND SPARROWS. 
 
 (Mntdtiltidce and Fringillidce.) 
 
 ANY naturalists and classifiers of vertebrate forms rec- 
 ognize in birds an Order Oscines, or those representa- 
 tives of the Class Aves that are distinguished by the 
 possession of true song-muscles. In natural classifi- 
 cation, however, the Oscines form but a suborder of vertebrates, 
 but class the group as we may, the fact still remains, that in so 
 far as the United States avifauna is concerned at least, two of 
 the largest families we have represented in the passerine group, 
 or oscines, are the warblers and the fringilline assemblage, or 
 Sparrow-finch family. 
 
 In the present chapter it is your author's aim to say something 
 in regard to the number, habits, migrations, and characteristics 
 of these two numerous families of birds, namely, the Warblers 
 of the family Mniotiltidce, and the Sparrow-finch assemblage of 
 the family Fringillidce. 
 
 Everyone that knows anything of United States ornithology, 
 knows that the great bulk of our birds pass south during the fall 
 to remain until spring, when they return to breed. Millions of 
 both land- and water-birds perform these autumnal and vernal 
 migrations every year. Many, but not all, pass as far south as 
 the West Indies and South America, every autumn; many, but 
 not all, migrate as far north every spring as the Canadas, while 
 some, especially the water fowl, may go even as far north as the 
 circumpolar regions. Similar migrations of birds take place in 
 the Old World, and, moreover, the phenomena hold true for the 
 avifaunse of the southern hemisphere. If one should slowly 
 travel from Maine to Florida during the months of March, April, 
 and May, carefully observing the birds along the route, in all 
 kinds of localities, that traveler would find that as he gradually 
 passed southward, new bird-forms were constantly being met 
 with not found in the regions left behind. In other words, for 
 reasons or laws little or not at all known to us, birds, or rather 
 certain birds, have their normal limits, some species during the 
 spring migration coming so far north but no farther. So, too, 
 with the northern forms. For example, in the fall migration, 
 
318 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 snowy owls might pass as far south as the middle, or even south- 
 central part of the country, whereas the great gray owls would 
 not be found south of the Great Lakes. Exceptional stragglers, 
 of course, violate these laws occasionally, and instances may oc- 
 cur where a bird is taken way off its range, far from its normal 
 habitat, but just why the Swainson w r arblers in the spring come 
 no further north than southern Virginia, while the Yellow war- 
 blers (D. cestiva) will extend their migration at the same time as 
 far north as the fur countries, is something that, as yet, no one 
 has satisfactorily explained. On the Pacific coast, and through- 
 out the great central valley of the Mississippi, the same phenom- 
 ena confront us. Then in nearly all geographical areas there are 
 a few birds that are resident, or never perform ordinarily any 
 migrational passages at all, but remain the year round in the 
 land of their birth. We have a great deal to learn in these prem- 
 ises yet; in fact, we have but very little information as to the 
 causes or the origin of facts such as have here been pointed out. 
 
 Now if one, familiar perhaps only with our better known birds, 
 as robins, jays, flickers, chewinks, and the like, will take the 
 pains some morning at daylight to go into the forests, and along 
 the timber-lined streams, either in the spring or autumn, that 
 person will be surprised at the host of various species and sub- 
 species that swarm in the tree-tops and in the undergrowth, the 
 great majority of which average about the size of a chippy spar- 
 row, and are quite unknown to him. If the student undertake to 
 collect these, say in any favorable region in the mid-Atlantic 
 States' district, he will soon find, as his collection runs up into 
 the hundreds, that there will be a long series of the small varie- 
 ties to which I have just made reference. They have a great 
 similarity of form and size; some are exquisitely beautiful in 
 plumage (especially the male in nearly all cases); while, apart 
 from a few individual specific habits, the behavior of all, in their 
 haunts, is nearly the same. Omitting such species as the kinglets, 
 the tits, wrens, vireos, and, of course, all the fringilline birds, 
 and some of the smaller flycatchers and pewees, we can safely 
 say, in so far as the passerine species go, that the residue of this 
 extensive group belongs to the great American family MnlntU- 
 ti(hi\ or the Warblers. 
 
 Taken together there are certainly in this country some sixty- 
 four or sixty-five species and subspecies of these warblers; and 
 in thus reckoning, the water-thrushes and chats (8-htrns and Tctc- 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 319 
 
 ria) are not considered, as they do not properly belong within the 
 lines drawn. They have, to be sure, been placed there in the A. 
 O. U. Check List, but I expect that that was done because the 
 compilers of that volume knew of no other taxonomic position 
 for them. As the male, and female in nearly all warblers, or at 
 least in a great many of them, have a different pattern: ad color- 
 ation of plumage, this, in a collection of them, makes the forms 
 appear to be even still more abundant; while, in the autumn, 
 the plumages of the grown young are often likewise different and 
 apparently increase the number of kinds yet still more. Close 
 study, extending over many seasons can alone familiarize the 
 student with these problems, and render him capable of selecting 
 and naming (technically and in English) the various species and 
 subspecies in such a collection, designating at the same time the 
 females and grown young in their various plumage phases. Very 
 few American ornithologists indeed can, offhand, perform this 
 feat to-day, and if the young plumages are entered in the list, it 
 is safe to say that there is no one living that can do it. These 
 warblers may be classified in about a dozen genera, the vast ma- 
 jority of them falling in the genus Dendroica, it containing nearly 
 thirty specific and subspecific forms; while about a dozen occur 
 in the genus HelminthophUa, and nine or ten in Geothlypis, and so 
 on, some genera being represented by only one, or sometimes 
 two or three, birds. Warblers are denizens of the forests and 
 woods, and are rarely found beyond their confines. Hardly one 
 of them can be said to warble, as their notes, often low and mo- 
 notonous, in no way partake of any such character of vocal 
 music. Some of their notes are very sweet, however, and as a 
 whole they materially add to the great avian choir of sylvan per- 
 formers during the flood of the vernal migrations, at a time when 
 the entire bird-host is in full song. Most of these birds are tree- 
 lovers; others delight in the more humble undergrowth; while a 
 few spend the greater part of their time in bramble or brake, or 
 even upon the ground. All are partial to a great variety of the 
 smaller insects and their Iarva3; and of such food they are almost 
 constantly in search. Indeed, were it not for the check caused 
 by our warblers, many insects would soon swarm to an alarming 
 extent, and plant life would suffer accordingly. A great many 
 kinds of nests are built by these birds, as a rule most of them 
 being tree- or shrub-builders, and exhibit wonderful taste and 
 delicacy in the structures. Great ingenuity is also shown in the 
 
320 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 selection of sites, and it is the exception in all these particulars 
 to find a warbler's nest that is not a real object of beauty, with 
 lovely surroundings. Taken as a group, the predominating col- 
 ors of the plumages are black, white, yellow, brown, olives, blues, 
 grays, the duller greens, but very rarely any of the reds or scar- 
 let, or other intensity of coloration. The young have different 
 plumages, always being duller, during the subadult stages. As 
 a rule, warblers lay from two to five eggs, or three to four; they 
 are usually white, and exhibit various kinds of speckling. Ridg- 
 \vay says the Black and White warbler (M. varia) embeds its 
 nest in the ground in the woods; w r hile the beautiful Prothono- 
 tary warbler (P. citrea) selects some cavity in a tree, or a de- 
 serted woodpecker's nest, the site being always near the water. 
 
 At different times I have succeeded in making photographs of 
 a few of the warblers, with the nests and young of others. From 
 these I select two examples to illustrate the present chapter. 
 The first of these, shown in Figure 76, is a life-size picture of a 
 male specimen of the Black-poll warbler (Dendroica striata), a 
 black and white species, that during some years is very abun- 
 dant in certain localities. Usually, they are among the last of the 
 family to arrive in the spring, coming after the foliage is well 
 advanced, and, at first, confining themselves to the tree-tops, 
 but subsequently are found diligently searching for their favorite 
 insects among the lower branches. According to the A. O. U. 
 Check-List the geographical range of this species is " eastern 
 North America, west to the Rocky Mountains, north to Green- 
 land, the Barren Grounds, and Alaska, breeding from northern 
 New England and the Catskills northward. South in winter to 
 northern South America, but not recorded from Mexico or Cen- 
 tral America." Wilson never saw the nest of this species, and 
 gives but a very meager account of the bird. What there is of it, 
 however, is honest and correct, and this is more than can be 
 said of Audubon's description. Writing of the latter, Dr. T. M. 
 Brewer in the first volume of The American Naturalist (p. 120) 
 says, and we may " even be pardoned if we enjoy a quiet laugh 
 over some [of his] conclusions, now known to be visionary, but 
 which his exuberant imagination, now and then, led him to put 
 into printed words." It seems that when on their way with an 
 exploring party to Labrador, they stayed several days at East- 
 port, Maine. One morning when scrambling round through the 
 (or thickets of trees as he called them) with his son John. 
 
a I 
 
 3 .1 
 
 pq 
 
 I 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 323 
 
 the latter flushed a female Black-poll warbler from her nest. 
 At this the over-sanguine rather than always truthful, father 
 boiled over, and in his record he wrote the following words: 
 " Eeader, just fancy how this raised my spirits. I felt as if the 
 enormous expense of our voyage had been refunded. There, said 
 I, we are the first white men who have seen such a nest/ 7 Com- 
 menting upon this absurd statement, Dr. Brewer further re- 
 marks, " But when we know that Mr. Audubon's whole party 
 started in the expedition from Eastport, in Maine, where they 
 also spent several days before they commenced their voyage to 
 Labrador, and that one of his party was a near resident to East- 
 port; and when we further know that all around Eastport, and 
 especially on the islands, the Black-poll Warbler is one of the 
 most common birds, we must see at once how far a vivid imagina- 
 tion has supplied the material for his conclusions, and that they 
 had but little foundation in reality." When a vivid imagination 
 supplies the material for conclusions, and that the latter have 
 no foundation in reality, it is very bad, and usually has to be 
 paid for in the long run. W T e all admit that Audubon was a great 
 painter, but in not a few of his ornithological descriptions he 
 too frequently drew his inferences from insufficient data. 
 
 As a matter of fact this species builds rather a bulky nest, usu- 
 ally on the lower limbs of pine-trees, and lines it well with soft 
 feathers. Further to the northward they may even build upon 
 the ground, as has been stated by competent authority. Ridgway 
 has described the young at various stages. Here is where the 
 bulk of the work remains to be done in this splendid group of 
 birds by ornithologists. We need to know a great deal more 
 about the autumnal plumages of all these species and subspecies 
 of the Mniotiltidce. But this applies even more directly to the 
 young, that is from the time they assume the first nestling plum- 
 age, through the various stages until it becomes completely adult. 
 This can only be done by collecting long series of birds of the 
 same species or subspecies for all the variations. My son has 
 been engaged upon this lately, and this spring succeeded in tak- 
 ing several birds of this group in plumages not possessed in the 
 immense collections of the United States National Museum. 
 Even one or two of these the ornithologists in that institution 
 have failed to identify, while in some cases the young or sub- 
 adults have been taken in plumages heretofore undescribed, or 
 even unknown. There is a superb field still open here for work 
 
324 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 of great value in this, one of our most interesting groups of birds, 
 and one exclusively American, as these Warblers have no near 
 representatives in the Old World. A handsome volume, giving 
 full descriptions of everything known of our warblers, with a 
 complete set of colored plates giving life-size figures of the mem- 
 bers of the family, would at this writing be a magnificent contri- 
 bution to ornithology. In such plates all the various color phases 
 of the young and subadult, for each and every species or subspe- 
 cies could be shown, as well as half-tone figures in the text (from 
 photograph) showing their nests. All the eggs could be exhibited 
 upon three or four plates in the same masterly manner in which 
 Bendire has done for other groups. 
 
 Speaking of the nests of these birds, I discovered this spring 
 (1897) a most beautiful one of the common Yellow warbler. 
 Strange to say it was built obliquely (see Fig. 80) upon the side of 
 one of the upgrowing shoots of a honey locust. The foliage was 
 very dense, and apparently a secondary growth from an old 
 stump; it was upon the "flats" of south Washington, a semi- 
 swampy area on the north side of the Potomac, but less than a 
 quarter of a mile from the Washington Monument. The last 
 young one of the brood was just about to leave it, but was cap- 
 tured; the male parent only exhibiting any concern. Now, al- 
 though the old birds of this species are of a bright yellow all 
 over, this young, fluffy one was white beneath and a pale pearl 
 gray upon all the upper parts. In fact, not at all suggestive as 
 to the species to which it belonged. The nest is an extremely 
 neat little affair, and securely fastened to the limb or shoot. My 
 friend, Mr. Chas. R. Dodge, of the United States Department of 
 Agriculture, has kindly examined the fibers of which this nest 
 is chiefly composed, and he writes me that they are doubtless 
 those of the common swamp milkweed (Asclepias incarnata). 
 
 Another warbler that constructs a pretty nest is the Prairie 
 warbler (Dendroica discolor), and several of these were found by 
 my son and myself during our collecting trips in the spring of 
 1897, in the neighborhood of the city of Washington, D. C. They 
 are fond of building in the low, second-growth timber, composed 
 of scrub-oak, chestnut, dogwood, and similar trees. On the 
 eighth of last June (1896) a very pretty specimen of the nest of 
 this species w r as discovered in the fork of a small oak, not more 
 than three feet above the ground. It contained four eggs, and 
 these hatched out in the course of the next few da vs. At first. 
 
ttt 
 
 FIG. 80. NEST AND YOUNG OF THE YELLOW WARBLER (Den- 
 
 droica cestirci}. 
 
 Taken natural size, in sifit, from nature by the Author. 
 
FIG. 81. NEST AND THREE YOUNG OF PRAIRIE WARBLER. 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 329 
 
 the birds are not much bigger than young humming-birds, but 
 they grow rapidly, and, at about the time they were ready to quit 
 the nest I made a photograph of both, taking it of natural size. 
 (See Fig. 81.) Upon examining the structure of this nest I find 
 it to be composed of the following materials: inside it is some- 
 what thickly lined with the very finest kinds of grass, vegetable 
 fibers, and the white hair of some animal, the three being beau- 
 tifuly interwoven in such a way as to give a smooth and even 
 surface. This lining is completely blended with the outer struc- 
 ture of the nest, in which latter much of the same material is 
 used, but to this part of the structure the birds had added bits 
 of white string, feathers, rather coarser grasses, scraps of cot- 
 ton, and tiny pieces of wool, and similar materials. The weav- 
 ing is extremely intricate and close, and the nest below is built 
 around little limbs of the fork that supports it. In form it is 
 deeper than it is broad, being somewhat sub-ellipsoidal in general 
 contour. They do not vary much, though one that my son found 
 had a good deal of cotton in its composition. 
 
 Some of these warblers are ver^ beautiful birds, as, for exam- 
 ple, the Prothonotary (P. citrea), the Magnolia (D. maculosa), 
 the Cerulean warbler (D. ccerulea), the Blackburnian (D. Uack- 
 fturnice), and others; some are rare, as Swainson's or Kirtland's 
 (H. swainsonii and D. Tcirtlandi) ; others again are extremely 
 plain in plumage and seclusive in habit. They are, however, all 
 deserving of our closest study, and any one adding reliable data 
 to the known chapters in the history of any of them will be doing 
 ornithological science a distinct service and benefit. 
 
 Passing next to the family Fringillidw. we find it to be repre- 
 sented in liio United States avifauna by a large and varied col- 
 lection or assemblage of birds, of which the Grosbeaks, the Bunt- 
 ings, the Towhees, the Finches of different species and subspe- 
 cies, the Sparrows, the Snowbirds and others, are all characteris- 
 tic examples. The study of this large and extensive group of 
 forms is extremely interesting and important, especially when 
 we come to consider their number, their habits, their wide geo- 
 graphical range, their morphology, and their economic relation 
 to man. But it is not my intention to enter upon any of these 
 subjects in the present connection, as even a general considera- 
 tion of them would far exceed the limitations of our space. It is 
 my desire simply to bring before my readers certain comparative 
 data by means of which I hope to make clear to them the growth 
 
330 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 of American ornithology along certain lines during the past cen- 
 tury. This is the reason why I select a large and familiar group 
 of birds (of the suborder Passeres) to illustrate what I have in 
 view, for nearly everyone in the land knows the more common 
 representatives of this tribe; as, for instance, the American Gold 
 finch, the Chipping sparrow (see Figure), the Snowbirds, the 
 Chewinks (Pipilo), and others. 
 
 Not long ago the American Ornithologists' Union published a 
 second edition of its Check-List of North American Birds, and in 
 it is given the scientific and English name of every species and 
 subspecies of bird of this country. The first edition of this work 
 appeared over ten years ago, and the present writer has com- 
 pared the two volumes in such a manner, in addition to other 
 data, as to show the number of new birds made known to science 
 and named in the last one. These results were duly published in 
 The American Naturalist, of Philadelphia, of last year (1896). But 
 these show only the number of new species and subspecies of 
 birds discovered in this country during the past ten or twelve 
 years, whereas it can be shown that the widening of our knowl- 
 edge in similar fields during the past century has been simply 
 wonderful. 
 
 Let us start from the time of Wilson, for example, and his 
 name, that of " the American ornithologist," as he has been 
 fondly called, is known to all of us. Alexander Wilson was born 
 in 176G, and died in 1813, so the most of his ornithological work 
 was performed about a century ago, and it is proposed here to 
 compare, in a general way, the number of Fringillidce (Sparrows, 
 etc.) known to Wilson, with the number named in the A. O. U. 
 Check-List. With such a selected example as this before us, it 
 will not be difficult for those who are more or less interested in 
 American ornithology to gain some idea of what the entire ex- 
 tension of our knowledge has been in these fields. 
 
 I have before me what I take to be an alphabetical list of the 
 birds of this country as they were known to Wilson, and quite 
 apart from the synopsis of Dr. Brewer that subsequently ap- 
 peared in some of the later editions of the former's work. The 
 first birds to be dealt with in this list are the Buntings, and these, 
 as have the majority of birds since Wilson's time, have all had 
 their scientific, or classical names, changed for them. Of this, 
 little or nothing w r ill be said here, and only to an extent in paren- 
 theses as will indicate to the modern student of the science, the 
 
FIG. 82. YOUNG CPIIPPING SPARROWS (Spizella 
 
 Three days out of the nest, waiting to be fed. Photographed natural size, from life, by the Author, 
 from specimens captured and presented to him by Miss Alfhild D. Lowum. 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 333 
 
 genus dealt with in comparison, the one in the A. O. U. List being 
 used. Wilson knew of but eight birds that he called buntings, 
 the first of these being the Bay-winged bunting, now called the 
 Vesper sparrow (Pooccetes), and to it two subspecies have been 
 added since his time. . The Black-throated bunting (2), now 
 widely known as the Dickcissel (Spiza), still remains 4he sole 
 representative of its genus. The Cow bunting, as well as the 
 Bice bunting of this author, are members of the family Icteridce, 
 so this reduces his list of these birds to six. Next, of the genus 
 Passerina, Wilson knew of the Painted bunting (P. ciris), still 
 so called (3), and the Indigo bird (P. cyama), our Indigo bunt- 
 ing. Two other beautiful species and a subspecies have been 
 here added since his time. One Snow bunting (4) was known to 
 Wilson, our Snowflake (Plectroplienax), abd the genus has been 
 increased by another species and a subspecies; and while he 
 knew of but the one Towhee (Pipilo) (5), we now recognize no 
 less than four species of this familiar bird, and eight subspecies. 
 Equally remarkable i's the record for the White-crowned bunt- 
 ing (6), our White-crowned sparrow (Zonotrichia), of which he 
 knew but the one species, while the genus now contains four spe- 
 cies and two subspecies, the only other one of it known to him 
 being the White-throated Sparrow (Z. alMcollis). 
 
 Wilson knew both species of those very interesting birds 
 known as crossbills (Loxia), to which is now to be added the 
 Mexican crossbill (L. c. stricMandi), and the American crossbill 
 has been reduced to a subspecies (L. curmrostra minor Gurvi- 
 rostra americana). These birds are so remarkable, meriting as 
 they do a special description, that I shall at the close of the pres- 
 ent chapter, give a special account of them. 
 
 Of the genus Spinus, Wilson knew of but one little common 
 Yellowbird, or Goldfinch, and the Pine siskin, or, as he called it, 
 the Pine finch, while we have since discovered or added to the 
 avifauna no less than three other goldfinches with their three 
 subspecies. Our well-known Purple finch (Carpodacus) was, of 
 course, familiar to him, but the genus now contains, in addition, 
 two other species and two subspecies. 
 
 Wilson also described the Savanna finch, the Seaside finch, 
 and the Sharp-tailed finch, all of which he retained in the genus 
 Fringilla. These birds are now placed in the genus Ammodramus, 
 and including those just mentioned, it contains no less than ten 
 species and eleven subspecies. But even still more interesting 
 
334 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 is the fact that he placed all the grosbeaks known to him in the 
 genus Loxia; these were the Blue grosbeak, the Cardinal, the 
 Pine, and the Kose-breasted. At the present time an Evening 
 grosbeak is known to us, with its subspecies (Coceothraustes) ; 
 the Pine grosbeak still remains unique (Pinicola) ; three sub- 
 species of the Cardinal grosbeak have been discovered (Curdi- 
 nalis), and an entire new related genus (Pyrrhuloxia), contain- 
 ing the Texas cardinal with its two subspecies; the Rose-breast- 
 ed grosbeak is now associated in the genus Habia with the beau- 
 tiful western form, the Black-headed grosbeak, the existence of 
 which Wilson never even had a suspicion. The Blue-headed 
 grosbeak is also in a separate genus (Guiraca) with its western 
 subspecies. He knew only of one Redpoll, our well-known little 
 type of the north (Acanthis linaria), and to this genus has been 
 added another species and four subspecies. 
 
 When we come to the Sparrows, we find that our modern list 
 has been enormously increased since the early part of this cen- 
 tury, for Wilson mentions but eight Sparrows, every one of 
 which he retains in the genus Fringilla, along, as has been point- 
 ed out above, with some of his finches. The genus Spizella con- 
 tains seven species and three subspecies, and it is in this that 
 we find the Chipping sparrow, the Tree sparrow, and the Field 
 sparrow, the only ones known to Wilson. He knew, also, the 
 Fox sparrow (Passerella), calling it the Fox-colored sparrow, 
 and we have found since his day three subspecies of this beauti- 
 ful bird. 
 
 It is curious to note here that Wilson called the male of our 
 Savanna sparrow (Ammodramus s. savanna) a finch, while the 
 female of the same bird he called a sparrow; he, however, recog- 
 nized the fact that it was one and the same species. 
 
 Everyone knows the Song sparrow (Melospiza fasciata), and it 
 alone was known to Wilson. In these days, however, this genus 
 contains no less than four additional species, together with ten 
 subspecies. Of these, Wilson only knew, besides the Song spar- 
 row (already mentioned), the Swamp sparrow (M. georgiana 
 Fringilla palustris). He was familiar with the White-throated 
 sparrow of the genus Zouotrichia, already referred to above; as 
 he was with the Yellow-winged sparrow, now called by many 
 the Grasshopper sparrow of the genus Ammodramus, also men- 
 tioned in a former paragraph. 
 
 Finally, Wilson knew of but one Snowbird, his Fringilla hud- 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 335 
 
 sonia, the form now called, in the A. O. U. Check-List, the Slate- 
 colored junco (Junco hyemaUs), to which genus has since been 
 added no less than seven additional species and seven subspe- 
 cies. Many of the modern genera of the family Fringillidce were 
 totally unknown to Wilson as, for example, Leucosticte, Rhyncho- 
 phanes, Chondestes, Amphispiza, Euetheia, and Calamospim, and 
 of course the forms that represent them. 
 
 In slimming up, then, it will be seen that Wilson knew of but 
 thirty species of birds that belong to the family Fringillidce, 
 while in our Check-List of 1895 the same family is represented by 
 no fewer than eighty-nine species and seventy-four subspecies 
 163 birds in all. A large part of this augmentation has been 
 due to the activity of modern ornithologists collecting west of 
 the Mississippi river, over areas which, to Wilson, were totally 
 unknown. 
 
 In other lands than the United States, the fringilline or finch- 
 group includes an enormous number of specific and subspecific 
 forms, famous among these we find the Weaver-birds of Africa; 
 the European Haw-finch or Common Grosbeak of Europe; the 
 Common Sparrow, which has been so successfully introduced 
 into this country; the foreign Linnets, the Common Goldfinch of 
 Europe, the Canary, the European Ortalan, the Bullfinch, the 
 Java Sparrow, and a perfect host of others. 
 
 As stated above, I shall now give a brief account of the species 
 of crossbills found in this country. These birds average about 
 the size of an English sparrow (Passer domesticus), but they pre- 
 sent a character no less unique than the crossing of their bills, 
 a feature not at present known to exist in any other species of 
 the entire class Aves. Both the upper and lower bills are subcres- 
 centic in form, the margins being sharp, and the apices ex- 
 tremely acute. Passing from base to apex, the lower bill is grad- 
 ually curved to one side, the upper mandible having a correspond- 
 ing curve to the opposite side, and both present a decided curva- 
 ture of their own. This arrangement admits of the mandibles 
 crossing each other near their middle thirds, and in this crossing 
 the point of the lower jaw turns out to the right side. I have met 
 with about one specimen in fifteen where the crossing takes place 
 in the other direction. The peculiar conformation of the beak 
 of these birds is not confined only to their horny sheaths, but 
 the asymmetry is still more profound, being entered into by the 
 osseous mandibles of the skull, while certain muscles of the head. 
 
336 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 the ligaments, and other parts, exhibit a corresponding and pro- 
 portionate distortion. 
 
 By this contrivance the bird has the power of forcibly pressing 
 apart the firm leaflets of the cones of various pine trees, and by a 
 dexterous use of the tongue, whipping into its mouth the seeds 
 concealed in the deeper recesses. These seeds form the principal 
 food of the crossbills, though they, in a similar manner, obtain 
 seeds from the " cones " of the tulip-tree or poplar. Apples are 
 also split open in this manner, the birds being very fond of the 
 seeds of this fruit. I have, in Nebraska, seen these birds feed- 
 ing upon the seeds of the sunflower, in the winter time. 
 
 In my drawing illustrating this chapter, I have shown a pair 
 of American crossbills (Loxia curvirostra minor), the male bird 
 being in the act of parting the horny leaflets of a pine cone. 
 While drawing this bird, I had a specimen before me that I shot 
 near Washington, D. C., a number of years ago, and it shows 
 several traces of albinism, the top of the head being nearly en- 
 tirely white. Crossbills are finches, but they are very curious 
 kinds of finches, having many habits not exhibited by other mem- 
 bers of the same family. Wilson used the word Curvirostra for 
 the genus containing these birds, but Gesner applied the term 
 Loxia (Greek, loxos oblique), and this appellation was continued 
 by Linne", and is now the term used by the vast majority of or- 
 nithologists the world over. We have three species of them in 
 this country, viz.: the American crossbill, mentioned above; the 
 Mexican crossbill (L.. c. stricklandi) , and the White-winged 
 crossbill (Loxia leucoptera). 
 
 As a rule they are boreal birds, being confined to the northern 
 parts of the eastern United States, except the Mexican cross- 
 bill, which is said to be found in the mountains of Wyoming and 
 Colorado, west to the Sierra Nevada, and south through New 
 Mexico and beyond our boundaries. In the winter-time the other 
 two species also come south, especially the American crossbill, 
 which has been taken occasionally in the southern states. The 
 type of the genus, or the Common crossbill, is found in the Old 
 World (Loxia curvirostra), where three other forms of the genus 
 also occur " two of them so closely resembling the common 
 bird that their specific validity has been often questioned. The 
 first of these, of large stature, the Parrot crossbill, L. pityopsit- 
 tacus, comes occasionally to Great Britain, presumably from 
 Scandinavia, where it is known to breed. The second, L. Mmalay- 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 337 
 
 ana, which is a good deal smaller, is known only from the Hima- 
 laya Mountains. The third, the Two-barred crossbill, L. tceniop- 
 tera, is very distinct, and its proper home seems to be the most 
 northern forests of the Russian Empire, but it has occasionally 
 occurred in Western Europe and even in England." (A. New- 
 ton.) 
 
 Adult males of the American crossbill are of a more or less 
 bright reddish brick color, with dusky w r ings and tail. Females 
 are of a plain olive, often tinged with gray or yellow, and gener- 
 
 FIG. 83. A .PAIR OF CROSSBILLS. 
 
 ally dashed with darker markings; the latter are always present 
 in the young birds, the grayish-green in them being lighter than 
 it is in the female. Male Mexican crossbills are more brilliant 
 than the males of the common one. A male of the white-winged 
 species will measure from 6 to 6 1-2 inches in length, and is a 
 more graceful bird than the others. It has black wings and tail, 
 the body being of a rich purplish carmine, dusky on the back. 
 Tw r o broad white bands are seen upon either wing, a character 
 that at once distinguishes this species, and which gives it its 
 
338 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 name. About twenty-five years ago I shot several males and 
 females of this white-winged species near Stamford, Connecti- 
 cut, in August, and found them common in central New York 
 in the winter-time. Females of this variety are also olive-green- 
 ish, light-yellowish upon their under parts. Common crossbills 
 are interesting cage-pets, but their bright red tints of plumage 
 frequently, indeed always, I believe, change to a variety of shades 
 of yellowish-red, greenish-yellow, or dull orange. These tints 
 are also found sometimes in adult males in a state of nature. 
 The cause for these changes is not as yet known to us, but the 
 food they eat in a state of confinement may have something to do 
 with it. 
 
 Marked variation in size of the individuals is also to be noticed, 
 and their beaks likewise vary greatly in this particular, while in 
 the white-winged species the latter are not so distinctly crossed. 
 Buffon, the great French naturalist, always contended that this 
 crossing was a deformity, and never changed his opinion, and 
 be it added here, probably never saw a flock of them engaged in 
 extracting the seeds from pine-cones. Beyond all doubt, this ar- 
 rangement has been produced by gradual development in time; 
 and in time, too, the descendants of other species may also pos- 
 sess it for examples, both siskins and goldfinches constantly 
 feed upon the seeds in pine cones, thrusting their sharp beaks, 
 in the case of the siskins, far in to reach the seeds. A little cross- 
 ing of the bills would insure their survivance with greater cer- 
 tainty, no doubt. 
 
 Wilson, who left us a very excellent account of the American 
 crossbill, says that in the winter they appear in large flocks in 
 Pennsylvania where they feed " on the seeds of the hemlock and 
 white pine, have a loud, sharp, and not unmusical note; chatter 
 as they fly; alight, during the prevalence of deep snows, before 
 the door of the hunter, and around the house, picking off the clay 
 with which the logs are plastered, and searching in corners where 
 urine, or any substance of a saline quality had been thrown. At 
 such times they are so tame as only to settle on the roof of the 
 cabin when disturbed, and a moment after descend to feed as be- 
 fore. They are then easily caught in traps; and they will fre- 
 quently permit one to approach so near as to knock them down 
 with a stick." 
 
 When kept in cages they have many interesting habits, some 
 of which, as holding small cones in their claws while feeding, 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 339 
 
 and using their bills when climbing along the wires, remind us 
 of some of the smaller parrots. Collectors for bird dealers often 
 capture crossbills during snowstorms, with a hair-noose at the 
 end of a short pole. They are thus taken on the cones while 
 feeding. 
 
 Sometimes thousands of crossbills will suddenly appear in 
 districts where conifers abound, and after attracting the atten- 
 tion of everyone in the neighborhood, will as suddenly disappear, 
 perhaps after a stay of less than twenty-four hours. Such a 
 flight of the American crossbill I observed here near Washing- 
 ton, D. C., last season, during the latter part of November (1896). 
 Next day all of them appeared to have taken their departure. 
 Occasionally, in New York, I saw both species in the same flock, 
 both being extremely noisy, timid, and restless. 
 
 These birds breed in the pine forests of the north, the western 
 form further south than the other two species. The season 
 chosen is either in winter, or very early spring. Kidgway, in de- 
 scribing the nidification of the American crossbill, says " nest 
 rather a flat structure, in coniferous trees, composed externally 
 of spruce twigs, shreds of soft bark, etc., lined with horse-hair, 
 fine rootlets, etc., cavity about 2.50 across by 1.25 deep, external 
 diameter about 4.00. Eggs usually four, .75 by .57, pale greenish, 
 spotted with various shades of brown, mixed with purplish-gray." 
 
 Crossbills, in common with so many other animals, have given 
 rise to their special myths. Therefore, we find those who aver 
 that this bird received its crossbill and its blood-tinted plumage 
 " in recognition of the pity it bestowed on the suffering Saviour 
 at the crucifixion." (!) It has been hinted that even Buff on was 
 not altogether averse to this explanation of these two charac- 
 teristics of the males of this genus, quite ignoring the fact that 
 the females show no red in their plumage. Pathologically, crows 
 (and other Corvidce) often exhibit a crossing of the mandible as 
 do some other species of birds. 
 
CHAPTEK XXIII. 
 
 THE YELLOW-BREASTED CHAT, CAT-BIRDS, AND THE OVEN-BIRD. 
 
 (Icteria virens, Galeoscoptes carolinensis, and Siurus auricapillus.) 
 
 N the pesent chapter it is my intention to notice one of 
 the most remarkable of all the passerine birds in the 
 avifauna of the United States. Its vernacular name 
 has, ever since the discovery of the species, been the 
 
 Yellow-breasted chat, and so far as at present known to me, it 
 has, with but few exceptions, passed under no other. But in the 
 hands of the classifiers of birds, and those who christen them 
 with their technical or scientific names, the fate of this species 
 has been very different. 
 
 Gmelin, Latham, and Pennant, with their followers, arrayed 
 it with the flycatchers; Desmarest had it among the tanagers; 
 Sparrman and others placed it with the cedar birds, while Lin- 
 naeus, Buffon, and Brisson believed it was a thrush. The 
 Prince of Musignano took Wilson to task for presuming to think 
 that it could be one of the manakins, and Vieillot adopted its 
 present genus, Icteria, for it. This generic appellation, together 
 with the specific one of virens, is recognized by the American 
 Ornithologists' Union, and in the Check List of North American 
 Birds, the Yellow-breasted chat, with its western subspecific rep- 
 resentative, the long-tailed chat, are made to stand between two 
 genera of warblers, but just why it would be difficult to say. 
 
 The bird's exact position in the system will probably not be 
 known, however, until its anatomical structure has been care- 
 fully studied, and this compared with that of many other species 
 of suspected alliance. Even this side of the history of the Yellow- 
 breasted chat would incline us to believe we had under considera- 
 tion one of the ornithological puzzlers, apart from anything else; 
 but its affinities are no more problematical than are the habits 
 of this singular species unique. 
 
 Probably few of those who read what I am writing here have 
 ever seen a Yellow-breasted chat, and it is said of Mr. Catesby, 
 who was the first to figure this species, that he was never able to 
 shoot one of them, and finally employed an Indian for the pur- 
 pose, and even the latter did not succeed until all his skill had 
 been put to the test. Doubtless this story is a little overdrawn, 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 341 
 
 or else Catesby did not collect as well as he wrote; and no one 
 has ever questioned the influence of Mark Catesby's writings. 
 To those accustomed, however, to the collection of all kinds of 
 birds, difficulty is experienced in the case of the present species 
 only from the habit it has of keeping concealed, and that its 
 notes are frequently ventriloquistic in character. Securing spec- 
 imens of them in plenty has never given me much trouble, either 
 during the vernal or autumnal migrations. Few, though, have 
 fallen to my gun, as to destroy the life of one of those splendid 
 fellows gives me quite as severe a pang and feeling of remorse as 
 it does to shoot a mockingbird. 
 
 Wilson, in describing this species, has said that the Yellow- 
 breasted chat "is seven inches long, and nine inches in extent; 
 the whole upper parts are of a rich and deep olive green, except 
 the tips of the wings and interior vanes of the wing and tail 
 feathers, which are dusky brown; the whole throat and breast 
 are of a most brilliant yellow, which also lines the inside of the 
 wings and spreads on the sides immediately below ; the belly and 
 vent are white; the front [forehead] slate colored, or dull cin- 
 ereous; lores black; from the nostril a line of white extends to 
 the upper part of the eye, which it nearly encircles; another 
 spot of white is placed at the base of the lower mandible; the bill 
 is strong, slightly curved, sharply ridged on top, compressed, 
 overhanging a little at the tip, not notched, pointed, and alto- 
 gether black; . . . legs and feet light blue, hind claw rather 
 the strongest, the two exterior toes united to the second joint." 
 
 Very little difference distinguishes the sexes, and the above 
 description is accurate for a number of specimens of this species 
 I have in my private collections. When you catch a glimpse of 
 one of the birds in the thicket, you are at once struck by the mar- 
 velous brilliancy of the yellow of its breast; and if the specimen 
 be secured, this is even enhanced by a closer examination. It is 
 surely a rich, pure, and gorgeous shade of that color, verging as 
 it does upon a clear orange in tone. 
 
 In the neighborhood of Washington the male chats begin to 
 arrive from the south about the last part of April, the females 
 following in a few days. They depart very early, and it is a rare 
 thing to see one after the first week in September. I remember 
 that in southern New England they used to come early in May, 
 and leave again in August, thus making their stay only a few 
 months. 
 
342 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 If upon any fine spring morning in the country, where the Yel- 
 low-breasted chat is found, one chances to pass in his rambles 
 into some thicket of hazel bushes, or into the dense undergrowth 
 of brambles, suiilax, and wild grape vines, his ears may be sud- 
 denly saluted with the grotesque notes of this bird, as he scolds 
 you from the heart of his haunts for the intrusion. You listen, 
 and peer into the thicket with the hope of catching sight of the 
 singular performer, but, for a while at least, all your efforts in 
 this direction are in vain. Although apparently very near at 
 hand comes the anxious and angry repetitions of a series of pecu- 
 liar whistling notes, the flame-breasted scamp is not to be seen. 
 
 These notes pass to a hoarse and guttural squawking as they 
 appear to gradually vanish in the distance, and become slower 
 and slower in their utterance. Suddenly, however, and perhaps 
 directly over your head, in the most remarkable manner, they 
 break out again in a loud and perfect jumble of alternate, rapid 
 and slow, cat-mewings and puppy-barkings, intermixed with a 
 selection of other notes quite defying the powers of description. 
 Now they are upon this hand, and now upon that, high pitched 
 and low pitched, until you verily believe the thicket is truly be- 
 witched and full of unseen sprites. In your despair at being 
 unable of even catching a glimpse of the author of this extraordi- 
 nary tirade, you take on to imitate him. This has a telling effect 
 almost immediately, and in many cases, so to speak, draws him 
 out, for, for the time putting aside his wonderful powers of ven- 
 triloquism, and his scoldings taking on a greater degree of ve- 
 hemence, he at last launches into the air above his retreat, and 
 with cawing notes uttered in varied key, he with jerky flight 
 appears in full view. After ascending some thirty feet or more, 
 he essays to again descend to the brush. This he does with slow 
 flapping wings and dangling legs, in manner indulged in by no 
 other bird known to me. If you persist in your imitations he may 
 follow you along from copse to copse for a quarter of a mile or 
 more, joined, sooner or later, perhaps, by others of the same spe- 
 cies. Wilson has very truly remarked : " If the weather be mild 
 and serene, with clear moonlight, he continues gabbling in the 
 same strange dialect, with very little intermission, during the 
 whole night, as if disputing with his own echoes, but probably 
 with a design of inviting passing females to his retreat; for, when 
 the season is further advanced, they are seldom heard during the 
 night." 
 
FIG. 84. NEST AND YOUNG OF YELLOW-BREASTED CHAT. 
 
 From a photograph from life by the Author, and reduced about one-third. 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 345 
 
 Some time in May these birds build in the thick undergrowth, 
 near the ground, a light and tasteful nest. They usually lay four 
 eggs of a creamy white color, speckled all over with fine light 
 brown spots. Considerable variation is seen, both in form and 
 color of these eggs, and I have found specimens that were nearly 
 round in contour, and the markings very sparse. 
 
 Early last June, near Washington, in a low dogwood bush 
 that grew in the thickest kind of a bramble, I discovered one of 
 these nests containing five young. The former was a very pretty 
 structure, and rested most lightly upon the slender twigs of the 
 chosen bush. In a few days I succeeded in making an excellent 
 photograph of it, at a time it contained two young, ready to leave 
 the place of their birth. This has been reproduced to illustrate 
 the present account, and it gives an excellent idea of the nest 
 of this species. 
 
 The young are a dull olive green all over, being lighter and 
 ashy beneath, and the nest I found to be outwardly composed of 
 a layer of very dry dead leaves, followed by a layer of dry grasses 
 and very slender slivers of grapevine bark, to be finally lined 
 with tender, hair-like straws of various kinds. In form it is semi- 
 globular, and quite deep. Contrary to the report usually made 
 by ornithologists, the old birds made no particular disturbance 
 while the examination was being made of either the nest or their 
 young, but simply flipped about from bush to bush, uttering now 
 and then a low, angry, chuckling note. 
 
 Often I have found these nests in the smilax vines, or black- 
 berry, or even in a low cedar tree, but never above ten feet from 
 the ground. This is quite in keeping with the habits of the bird, 
 for he is essentially a thicket lover, and it is only through some 
 chance that he is ever seen in the forest or out afield, neither of 
 which haunts are normally frequented by him. 
 
 Passing to another family of the passerine birds, namely, the 
 family Troglodytidw, we find a group, in so far as this country 
 is concerned, containing the Wrens, the Thrashers, the Mocking- 
 birds, and the Catbird, and of all of these forms none are more 
 deserving of our study and regard than the often-neglected and 
 abused Catbirds. Now Alexander Wilson was a very close ob- 
 server of birds, and at the time when he wrote, our feathered fa- 
 vorites in this country had no equal as a describer of their habits 
 and their characters. In my opinion, the description of the Cat- 
 bird given us by this most charming of ornithological writers is 
 
346 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 an unrivaled chapter upon the life history of this species, and 
 stands to-day as the most complete account, apart from its anat- 
 omy, upon record. He seems to have overlooked nothing in all 
 that goes to make up the history of this, to me, one of the loveli- 
 est representatives of the entire group of birds in America. 
 
 During the months of May, June, and July of the summer just 
 past, there were an unusual number of catbirds bred in the vicin- 
 ity of the City of Washington, D. C. Without special search for 
 them, as many as fifty nests of this species must have been seen 
 by me during the period mentioned. As usual, the birds built in 
 the brier and bramble thickets, in the dense vine of the honey- 
 suckle, in the hedge-rows of the osage orange, or in the saplings 
 of the scrub oaks or other trees found in this section of the coun- 
 try. 
 
 Last summer a pair of catbirds built a fine nest in the honey- 
 suckle that grows over my porch, close to the dining-room win- 
 dow, and .reared five young ones ; but I regret to say they did not 
 repeat the performance this year, although the same pair appar- 
 ently returned and inspected the site of their former home, and 
 then for some reason or other changed base, and built in a thick 
 honeysuckle vine at the foot of the garden. Here they met with 
 dire misfortune, however, for when their eggs were about half 
 incubated, a huge black snake came along one day and devoured 
 them. The pair, assisted by a friend or two of the same species, 
 made it lively for his snakeship for a few moments, in an open 
 space in the garden, but it could be nothing more than by way 
 of retaliation, for the damage had been done then, and the reptile 
 made good his escape through the grass and leaves beneath the 
 thick brush beyond the fence. 
 
 When June came about I selected for study a particularly 
 pretty nest of a pair of these birds, with the intention of making 
 photographs of it and of the young it contained. They had laid 
 four eggs when the nest was first discovered, and they were, as 
 usual, of a uniform greenish-blue color, and unspotted. Later, 
 one of these eggs disappeared, and but three of the birds were 
 hatched out. 
 
 Nearly every day I visited the small oak sapling in the piece 
 of woods where the pair had built, and one morning toward the 
 latter part of the month it became evident that my brood in gray 
 meant very soon to quit the premises. The moment had arrived 
 for the capture, but this, owing to the denseness of the shrubbery. 
 
* * **! r/ 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 349 
 
 was only two-thirds successful in so far as the fledglings were 
 concerned, for one of their number made good its escape in the 
 high grass near by. Both the others, however, were promptly 
 secured in safety, and together with the fork containing the nest, 
 were shortly afterward carried to my home. Here in due course, 
 sun, wind, and time permitting, I made two or three wonderfully 
 successful photographic pictures of my little prisoners and the 
 nest in which they had been bred and reared. 
 
 Two of the best of these results are reproduced in the present 
 connection, and are confidently offered to the reader as fine fac- 
 similes of the originals. Beneath these pictures their legends 
 give nearly all the information that is required in regard to them. 
 In fact they speak for themselves. When we come to take into 
 consideration the fact that a brood of birds had been reared in 
 it, the nest was a wonderfully clean and compact affair, and this 
 is usually the case in this species. Internally this nest was lined 
 with fine black rootlets of some plant, and of a kind, apparently, 
 that is invariably chosen for this purpose by the Catbird. The 
 middle layer of this nest is more or less firm and compact, being 
 composed of a fine grass, good big bits of newspaper and brown 
 paper, of a few pine needles, leaves, and strippings of the fibrous 
 bark of the grapevine. Externally, numerous twigs of various 
 lengths, and from various plants and trees, loosely woven to- 
 gether, complete the structure. 
 
 Having secured a photograph to my liking, the inmates were 
 next induced to stand together upon a rather slenderish pine 
 twig, when, by an absolutely instantaneous snap, I secured a life- 
 size picture of the pair at my first trial. (See Fig. 86.) 
 
 With care, young Catbirds are easily reared from the nestling 
 stage, and soon become accustomed to a commodious cage. They 
 are good bathers, drink plenty of water, and thrive well upon 
 prepared food, berries in season, and meal worms. One of the 
 best cage pets I ever saw among birds was an individual of this 
 species, raised from the nest, and most assuredly he was a very 
 charming songster. How well Wilson describes what has been 
 the experience of many an ornithologist when he writes : 
 
 " In passing through the woods in summer, I have sometimes 
 amused myself with imitating the violent chirping or squeaking 
 of young birds, in order to observe what different species were 
 around me; for such sounds at such a season, in the woods, are 
 no less alarming to the feathered tenants of the bushes than the 
 
350 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 cry of fire or murder in the streets is to the inhabitants of a large 
 and populous city. 
 
 " On such occasions of alarm and consternation, the Catbird is 
 the first to make his appearance; not singly, but sometimes a half 
 dozen at a time, flying from different quarters to the spot. At 
 this time, those who are disposed to play with his feelings may 
 almost throw him into fits, his emotion and agitation are so great 
 at the distressful cries of what he supposes to be his suffering 
 young. Other birds are variously affected, but none show symp- 
 toms of such extreme suffering. He hurries backward and for- 
 ward, with hanging wings and open mouth, calling out louder 
 and faster, and actually screaming with distress, till he appears 
 hoarse with his exertions. He attempts no offensive means, but 
 he bewails he implores in the most pathetic terms with which 
 nature has supplied him, and with an agony of feeling which is 
 truly affecting. Every feathered neighbor within hearing has- 
 tens to the place, to learn the cause of the alarm, peeping about 
 with looks of consternation and sympathy. But their own power- 
 ful parental duties and domestic concerns soon oblige each to 
 withdraw. At any other season the most perfect imitations have 
 no effect whatever on him.-' 
 
 In this last statement the present writer can hardly agree with 
 the learned Wilson, for at this time, the very last days of Sep- 
 tember, when only a few of the summer stragglers are left in the 
 north, including a handful of Catbirds, I have seen individuals 
 of the latter exhibit not a little curiosity, at least, when I have 
 vigorously imitated the squeaks given vent to by a young bird 
 that has just been seized upon. They will come some little dis- 
 tance to ascertain the cause of the disturbance, and, upon arriv- 
 ing in the neighborhood, will, in a listless manner withal, ac- 
 companied by barely audible and querulous notes, and by slow, 
 lateral movements of the tail, give evidence at least of interest 
 in the supposed trouble. But, as Wilson w r ell remarks, identi- 
 cally the same notes produced in the breeding season will drive 
 every Catbird within hearing nearly out of its senses. 
 
 At other times this bird possesses a song, and a series of pecu- 
 liar notes and semi-imitations quite as full of pathos and interest 
 as are those of some of the very best of our avian performers. 
 He has the greatest confidence in man, and if studied in the way 
 he ought to be, exhibits an hundred and one most interesting 
 traits, and a character peculiar to itself, that under all circum- 
 
FIG. 86. A PAIR OF YOUNG CATBIRDS. 
 
 Life size anrt the same ones seen in Fip. 85. 
 From a photograph of the living specimens by the Author. 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 353 
 
 stances can but charm the true lover of nature and captivate 
 anyone in sympathy with rural life and associations. 
 
 Fortunately, this is the case with many, while on the other 
 hand, farmers and farmers' sons have, for over a century past in 
 this country, treated this lovely species with the utmost con- 
 tempt, prejudice, and persecution. Thousands of the birds have 
 sacrificed their gentle lives and fallen to the guns of these har- 
 dened, ignorant, and thoughtless people. Why? Simply because 
 the Catbirds help themselves to a little fruit in season, and the 
 boys are directed to watch the trees and strawberry beds, and 
 shoot all Catbirds on sight. 
 
 This is a particularly disagreeable duty, and calculated to 
 foster the aforesaid prejudice, and pass it down from one genera- 
 tion to another. Add to this the farmer's illiberality and the 
 sense of injury at the loss of half a peck of fruit, and the story is 
 complete. Such feelings are never entertained by the generous 
 and broad-minded among us; for notwithstanding the cat-like 
 mewing of this bird, the plainness of its plumage, its marked fa- 
 miliarity and familiarity, they say, breeds contempt people 
 thus endowed possess only interest and admiration for the quaint 
 and modest little Quaker among the host of the feathered tribes. 
 
 Not far removed from the family Troglodyticlce is the family 
 Mniotiltid(B, containing our great host of American warblers, and 
 in this group has been placed the genus Siurus, containing the 
 Oven-bird and water thrushes. Strictly speaking, we have but 
 one bird in the avifauna of the United States to which the name 
 Oven-bird has been applied, and it likewise has been called the 
 Golden-crowned thrush by some writers, notwithstanding the 
 fact that it has neither a golden crown nor is it a thrush. It 
 gained the name of Oven-bird from the form of nest it builds, al- 
 though our Dipper of the West (Cinchis) likewise constructs an 
 oven nest, with a side entrance, as well as Siurus, and the two 
 species are in a way related. 
 
 Those who have paid any attention to the birds of eastern 
 North America are perfectly familiar with our Oven-bird, and it 
 has, too, been taken by collectors in Alaska. It comes to us just 
 so soon as spring has thoroughly opened, and it is usually heard 
 a few times before one catches sight of it. As Wilson has said, 
 " It has no song, but a shrill, energetic twitter, formed by the 
 rapid reiteration of two notes, peche, peche, peche, for a quarter 
 of a minute at a time." 
 
354 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 A little later in the season the number of individuals increases, 
 and there is no trouble in finding them almost anywhere in the 
 heavily shaded parts of the forest, for it is to such localities that 
 the bird confines itself. Most of its time it spends upon the 
 ground, sedately walking not hopping about among the dry 
 fallen leaves of the previous year, where it searches for the in- 
 sects that constitute its principal food. Ever and anon it will fly 
 up into a tree, or into the underbrush, and give vent to its monot- 
 onous notes, which may be heard at a considerable distance 
 away. This may be during the very middle of the day, when, as 
 a rule, the notes of all other songsters are hushed, so it can be 
 the more appreciated, relieving as it does the otherwise silent 
 forest. Often, when upon the horizontal branch of a tree, it will 
 walk along it, with lateral movements of its tail, in precisely the 
 same manner as it assumes when upon the ground. 
 
 The Oven-bird has an average length of about six inches, with 
 a coloration of plumage that reminds one of some of the smaller 
 thrushes. The top of its head (adult male), has a broad longi- 
 tudinal stripe of orange-rufous, bounded upon either side by a 
 narrower one of blackish. These latter start from the nostrils, 
 and are carried backward to the neck. Either eye is surrounded 
 by a pale whitish ring, bounded in front by a semicircular one 
 of dusky. A small black stripe likewise bounds the white throat 
 upon either side. Above, the bird is greenish olive, while below 
 it is pure white, with the breast and sides streaked with blackish 
 feathers. Its feet and lower bill are of a pale horn-color, while 
 the superior mandible is darker. 
 
 In my son's collection I find a number of specimens of this 
 species collected by him and myself near Washington, D. 0., and 
 it is from an adult male of these that I have made the aboA'e 
 brief description. We have also taken the young most rest- 
 less and nervous little fellows that I failed to obtain any pho- 
 tographic pictures of, although several attempts were made. 
 Owing to the careful manner in which it is concealed, it is by no 
 means a common occurrence to find a nest of the Oven-bird, and I 
 believe I have never found more than four of them altogether 
 in my life. Near my home in Takoma, however, this spring 
 (1897), iny son and I met with a very beautiful example of the 
 nest of Siurus, it being situated as usual upon the ground, and 
 on a side hill of gentle slope. It was in the timber-land, com- 
 posed of scattered poplars, oaks, and chestnuts, with a sparse 
 undergrowth of a variety of shrubs and young trees. 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 357 
 
 I never knew of but one case where this bird built upon level 
 ground, and where there was not an abundance of dead leaves 
 about. My observations, however, have been confined to New 
 England, and south to southern Maryland. Then, too, the side 
 entrance to this nest faced nearly north, while, I am given to un- 
 derstand, they usually build so as to have this opening_face the 
 south. 
 
 The presence of the nest was first suspected by my son, by his 
 seeing the female spring up suddenly only a foot or so in front 
 of him, and run like a mouse over the ground and then disappear 
 in the underbrush. After a search of several minutes I found the 
 nest, and it certainly was one of the most skillfully concealed 
 structures of the kind one could imagine. Built flush with the 
 level of the ground, the nest itself was composed of dry leaves, 
 fine dry grass, a few pine needles, and sparsely lined with horse- 
 hair. Dry leaves and fine dry grass were also used to construct 
 a dome that completely arched over the nest proper, the former 
 having been built around the stem of a small maple about a foot 
 high, that had every appearance of having sprouted out of the 
 top of the arch. But what made the deception still more perfect 
 was the fact that the entire affair was built beneath some large 
 chestnut leaves and pine needles, that still remained attached to 
 some small dead limbs on the ground. In short, the whole nest 
 with its dome was in complete harmony with the little low 
 plants, moss, dead leaves, and twigs that surrounded it all about. 
 It contained five eggs, almost incubated. These were nearly uni- 
 form both in size and color; one of them I find measuring about 
 .80 by .60, being white and meagerly speckled over with pale red- 
 dish brown, but chiefly in a broad, well-defined band near the 
 larger end. A few large lilac spots are also to be seen, but chiefly 
 in the aforesaid bands. 
 
 One afternoon about 3 o'clock, several days afterward, I took 
 my camera over to the spot, and succeeded in getting a photo- 
 graph of this nest in situ, and the picture is reproduced in Fig. 88. 
 
 Wilson, in speaking of this bird, says : " When alarmed, it 
 escapes from the nest with great silence and rapidly running 
 along the ground like a mouse, as if afraid to tread too heavily 
 on the leaves ; if you stop to examine its nest it also stops, droops 
 its wings, flutters and tumbles along, as if hardly able to crawl, 
 looking back now and then to see whether you are taking notice 
 of it. If you slowly follow, it leads you fifty or sixty yards off, 
 
358 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 iii a direct line from its nest, seeming at every advance to be gain- 
 ing fresh strength; and when it thinks it has decoyed you to a 
 sufficient distance, it suddenly wheels off and disappears.-' 
 
 The bird practiced no such deception in our case. Wilson also 
 states that the Cow bird frequently selects the nest of Siurus in 
 which to deposit its egg, " and leaves the result to the mercy and 
 management of the Thrush, who generally performs the part of a 
 faithful and affectionate nurse to the foundling." 
 
 Swainson, the well-known naturalist, is responsible for the 
 name of this genus (Phil. Mag. I, May, 1827), and he wrote it 
 Seirus, from two Greek words, signifying to wave or wag the tail ; 
 but as Newton has pointed out, the more correct spelling is 
 Siurus, and this has been adopted here. 
 
 In this country the genus likewise contains the Water-Thrush 
 (8. noveboracensis), Grinnell's water-thrush (8. n. notabilis), 
 and the Louisiana water-Thrush (8. motacilla). In the classifi- 
 cation adopted in the A. O. U. Check-List this genus is placed be- 
 tween two genera of warblers, where it by no means belongs. 
 As I have said, it comes much nearer the American dipper ( C In- 
 dus), the pipits (Anthus), and the true wagtails (Motacilla). 
 This was pointed out by me many years ago, when I examined 
 the skeletal structure of Siurus (Bull. Nutt. Ornitlio. Club* VII, 
 No. 4, October, 1882). 
 
 In England there are a number of birds locally called oven- 
 birds, but the name is applied more particularly to the Willow- 
 wren, which, as in the case of the others, all build dome nests. 
 
 But none of these birds, nor, for the matter of that, our own 
 Siurus auricapillus, are to be considered the true Oven-bird, as 
 strictly considered by ornithologists; for properly speaking* it 
 should be applied only to those South American species which 
 the genus Furnarius was created to contain. F. rufus is perhaps 
 the best known form of all these, and among the Spanish- 
 speaking people of that country it is known as the Hornero 
 (Baker), and also as the Casara. This bird I have never had the 
 opportunity of studying in its native haunts, but long ago, Dar- 
 win, in his famous Voyage of a Naturalist, wrote of it, and said: 
 
 " The genus Furnarius contains several species, all small birds, 
 living on the ground and inhabiting open, dry countries. In 
 structure they cannot be compared to any European form. Or- 
 nithologists have generally included them among the creepers, 
 although opposed to that family in every habit. The best known 
 
I 
 
 a 
 
 & 
 
 I 
 
 
 oo 
 
 QO 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 361 
 
 species is the common Oven-bird of La Plata, the Casara, or 
 housemaker, of the Spaniards. The nest, whence it takes its 
 name, is placed in the most exposed situations ; as on the top of a 
 post, a bare rock, or on a cactus. It is composed of mud and bits 
 of straw, and has strong^ thick walls; in shape it precisely resem- 
 bles an oven, or depressed beehive. The opening is^large and 
 
 FIG. 89. (Upper figure) NEST OF OVEN-BIKD (Furnarivs). 
 
 FIG. 90. (Lower figure) VERTICAL SECTION OF THE SAME NEST 
 OF OVEN-BIRD SHOWN IN FIG. 89. 
 
 Both drawings by the Author, after Newton. 
 
 arched, and directly in front ; within the nest there is a partition, 
 which reaches nearly to the roof, thus forming a passage or ante- 
 chamber to the true nest." (Vol. I, pp. 121, 122). 
 
 In Part III of Newton's Dictionary of Birds at pages 669 and 
 670, 1 find two excellent drawings of the nest of Furnarius rufus, 
 
362 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 and of these I have personally made careful copies, exhibiting 
 them in the present connection in Figs. 89 and 90 : 
 
 "Another and smaller species of Farnarius (F. cunicularius)," 
 says Darwin, in continuation of what I have quoted above, " re- 
 sembles the Oven-bird in the general reddish tint of its plumage, 
 in a peculiar shrill, reiterated cry, and an odd manner of running 
 by starts. From its affinity, the Spaniards call it Casarita (or 
 little housebuilder), although its modification is quite different. 
 The Casarita builds its nest at the bottom of a narrow cylindrical 
 hole, which is said to extend horizontally to nearly six feet under 
 ground. Several of the country people told me that when boys 
 they had attempted to dig out the nest, but had scarcely ever suc- 
 ceeded in getting to the end of the passage. The bird chooses any 
 low bank of firm, sandy soil by the side of a road or stream. 
 Here (at Bahia Blanca) the walls round the houses are built of 
 hardened mud, and I noticed that one, which inclosed a court- 
 yard where I lodged, was bored through by round holes in a 
 score of places. On asking the owner the cause of this, he bit- 
 terly complained of the little Casarita, several of which I after- 
 ward observed at work. It is rather curious to find how incap- 
 able these birds must be of acquiring any notion of thickness, 
 for although they were constantly flitting over the low wall, they 
 continued vainly to bore through it, thinking it an excellent bank 
 for their nests. I do not doubt that each bird, as often as it came 
 to daylight on the opposite side, was greatly surprised at the mar- 
 velous fact." 
 
 One can easily imagine how much an instance of this nature 
 must have interested Mr. Darwin, who was so constantly em- 
 ployed in search of facts to illustrate the various grades of rea- 
 son as exemplified in all kinds of animals. 
 
 Numerous other naturalists besides Darwin have written about 
 these wonderfully interesting oven-birds of South America, ;m<l 
 special reference may be made to the works of Durnford, Hudson, 
 Gibson, Burmeister, and Dorbigny. Each or any of these may be 
 read with profit and interest. As Professor Newton tells us, 
 however, the figures of the nests of Furnarius are, as a rule, very 
 poor indeed; that is, apart from the one here reproduced, which 
 was presented to the Cambridge Museum, of England, by Mr. J. 
 Young. 
 
 In concluding this chapter I am prompted to say I hope it will 
 at least have the effect of inciting its readers who, either 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 363 
 
 professionally or otherwise, may be naturalists, to study 
 more closely the habits of our common birds. It is a mar- 
 vel to me sometimes how very imperfect our knowledge is in 
 such matters. I have found ornithologists of repute who will 
 aver that " our Oven-bird never builds except upon a sidehill " ; 
 the entrance to its nest " always faces south," and that the bird 
 by structure is nothing more nor less than a big American war- 
 bler and so on. Frequent and carefully recorded observations 
 are the only methods known to me by means of which such myths 
 as these may be dissipated, and the truth introduced in their 
 place. 
 
CHAPTER XXIV. 
 
 THE COMMON OPOSSUM AND ITS KIN. 
 
 (Didelpliys virginiana.) 
 
 HE Common Opossum stands the lowest in point of de- 
 velopment of all the members representing the mam- 
 malian fauna of the United States; therefore in any 
 list of mammals of this country, presented in linear se- 
 ries, the Opossums are given first, in order to indicate this fact. 
 Belonging, however, as they do to the marsupial group of ani- 
 mals, the opossums are in another sense the most typically mam- 
 malian of all the class Mammalia. The reason assigned for this 
 is, that in them respiration, as performed by the lungs, and the 
 maternal secretion of milk appear earlier and thus antedate all 
 other modes in supplying the requisite amount of oxygen and 
 nutriment for the development of the young. As in other mar- 
 supials the presence of the mammary glands in this group, and 
 the healthy operation of their milk-secreting function is abso- 
 lutely essential to the perpetuation of the species. Taken as an 
 order the marsupial animals are confined to the American con- 
 tinent and to the Australian region, and although in their exter- 
 nal forms and internal structure they exhibit very notable di- 
 versity, yet for the sake of convenience naturalists continue to 
 thus group them as the Marsupialia. As thus restricted they 
 constitute the subclass (of the class Mammalia) termed the Meta- 
 theria or DidelpMa. 
 
 Opossums, or the family Didelpliidce, are peculiar to the conti- 
 nent of America, not now being found in any other part of the 
 world, though they there formerly existed, as fossil remains of 
 them have been found in the Eocene and early Miocene periods 
 of Europe. 
 
 Mr. Oldfield Thomas, of the British Museum, a great author- 
 ity upon mammals, says of the existing forms that " opossums 
 are small animals, varying from the size of a mouse to that of a 
 large cat, with long noses, ears, and tails, the latter being, as a 
 rule, naked and prehensile, and with great toes so fully oppos- 
 able to the other digits as to constitute a functionally perfect 
 posterior pair of ' hands. 7 These opposable great toes are with- 
 out nail or claw, but their tips are expanded into broad, flat pads. 
 
FIG. 91. YOUNG OF AMERICAN OPOSSUM (D. virc/ininnd). 
 
 Natural size; about two months old. Photograph from life by the Author. 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 367 
 
 which are, no doubt, of the greatest use to such a climbing ani- 
 mal as an opossum. On the anterior limbs all the five digits 
 are provided with long sharp claws, and the pollex or thumb is 
 but little opposable. Their numerous teeth are covered with 
 minute sharply pointed cusps, with which to crush the insects 
 on which they feed, for the opossums seem to take in South 
 America the place in the economy of nature filled in other coun- 
 tries by the true Insectivora, the hedgehogs, moles, and shrews. 
 
 " The family consists of two well-recognized genera only, viz., 
 Didelphys, containing all the members of the family, with the ex- 
 ception of the Tapock, a curious animal which forms by itself 
 the second genus, CMronectes, and is distinguished from all other 
 opossums by its webbed feet, non-tuberculated soles, and pecu- 
 liar coloration. Its ground color is light gray, with four or five 
 sharply contrasted brown bands passing across its head and 
 back, giving it a very peculiar mottled appearance. It is almost 
 wholly aquatic in its habits, living on small fish, crustaceans, 
 and other water animals; its range extends from Guatemala to 
 southern Brazil." 
 
 As has already been stated above, the genus Didelphys con- 
 tains all the other forms of opossums, and a very heterogeneous 
 collection they are; D. virginiana or our common Virginia or 
 American opossum being by far the best known representative 
 of the genus. This genus Didelphys could doubtless with truth 
 and propriety be split up into several well-defined genera, each 
 possessing good generic characters. For example, some of the 
 species of opossums are large-sized ones, like our United States 
 form, with coarse, long, dark-colored pelage, big leafy ears, com- 
 pletely developed marsupial pouches, and with distinguishing 
 internal anatomical characters. The Crab-Eating opossum (D. 
 cancrivora) of South and Central America, is another well- 
 known type of this group, and not very unlike the American 
 opossum. 
 
 " The second group, or subgenus, named Metachirus" as re- 
 marked by Thomas, " contains a considerable number of species 
 found all over the tropical parts of the New World. They are of 
 medium size, with short, close fur, very long, scaly, and naked 
 tails, and have less developed ridges on their skulls. They have, 
 as a rule, no pouches in which to carry their young, and the lat- 
 ter therefore commonly ride on their mother's back, holding on 
 by winding their prehensile tails round hers." The Lord Derby's 
 
368 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 Opossum (D. derbiana) typifies this group, the third one having 
 been named Micoureus (or Gri/mironiys of Burmeister), it " differ- 
 ing only from Metachirus by the comparatively smaller size of 
 its members and by certain slight differences in the shape of 
 their teeth. Its best known species is the Murine opossum (D. 
 murina), no larger than a house-mouse, of a bright-red color, 
 which is found as far north as central Mexico, and extends 
 thence right down to the south of Brazil. The last subgenus 
 contains three or four wonderfully shrew-like species, of very 
 small size, with short, hairy, and non-prehensile tails, not half 
 the length of the trunk, and with wholly unridged skulls. The 
 most striking member of this group is the Three-striped opos- 
 sum (D. tristriata) , from Brazil, which is of a reddish-gray col- 
 or, with three clearly defined deep-black bands down its back, 
 very much as in some of the striped mice of Africa. This sub- 
 genus has been named Hemiurus or " half-tail " by Geoffroy 
 Saint-Hilaire (Microdelphys of Burmeister), and should perhaps 
 be allowed full generic rank." 
 
 Very considerable attention has been paid to the anatomy of 
 the DidelphyidcB, and some of this is from the pens of American 
 writers; still the subject has by no means been exhausted, and 
 good contributions to it are still in order, and will be highly ap- 
 preciated by science, come from what quarter they may. Espe- 
 cially is it to be desired that the morphology of the young of this 
 family be thoroughly worked out, giving the various stages of 
 development from the time of conception to the time of subadult 
 life. 
 
 In speaking in a general way of the anatomy of the Marsu- 
 pialia, Sir William Henry Flower, now in charge of the Nat- 
 ural History Departments of the British Museum, has said 
 the " mammae vary much in number, but are always abdom- 
 inal in position, have long teats, and in most of the species 
 are more or less enclosed in a fold of the integument, 
 forming a pouch or marsupium, though in some this is entirely 
 wanting, and the newly-born, blind, naked, and helpless young, 
 attached by their mouths to the teat, are merely concealed and 
 protected by the hairy covering of the mother's abdomen. In 
 this stage of their existence they are fed by milk injected into 
 their stomach by the contraction of the muscles covering the 
 mammary gland, the respiratory organs being modified tempor- 
 arily, much as they are permanently in the Cetacea, the elonga- 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 369 
 
 ted upper part of the larynx projecting into the posterior nares, 
 and so maintaining a free communication between the lungs and 
 the external surface independently of the mouth and gullet, thus 
 averting the danger of suffocation while the milk is passing 
 down the latter passage." 
 
 Our American opossum is chiefly found in the southern and 
 southwestern States, as far north as New Jersey and Pennsyl- 
 vania. It has also been found, I believe, in California, and they 
 are very abundant all over the State of Virginia, and, during the 
 proper season, a great many of them are exposed for sale, ready 
 dressed, in the markets of Washington, D. C. 
 
 A year or more ago I was greatly indebted to Professor W. P. 
 Hay, who has charge of the biological department of the Central 
 High School of Washington, D. C., for the loan of an old female 
 opossum (D. virginiana) with her brood of young ones. To the 
 best of my recollection there were nine of these latter originally, 
 but when I received the animal she had only seven, they all hav- 
 ing been born about two months previous, and two had died 
 quite early in the career of the family. A large box was pre- 
 pared for her as a temporary habitation, one side of it being 
 covered by a coarse wire netting, and the bottom made comfort- 
 able by a generous layer of coarse sawdust. 
 
 She fed somewhat sparingly upon raw flesh of various kinds, 
 and would drink about a pint of milk in the course of twenty- 
 four hours, her feeding being generally done at night. She did 
 not appear to be very solicitous of her young, and made barely 
 any resistance when one picked them up to be examined. Fre- 
 quently she would roll up partially into a ball, and then when a 
 young one was taken away from her she simply gave vent to a 
 kind of gutteral hiss, accompanied by a sluggish grin. 
 
 Shortly after coming into my possession, she, through care- 
 lessness, I believe, killed another one of her brood, while one or 
 two more fell into the water or milk and were drowned; she 
 meanwhile not seeming to care very much, nor did she, appar- 
 ently, make any attempt to rescue them from their fate. Her 
 young ones, when fully as large as small rats, would nurse her 
 many times a day, sometimes three or four of them attaching 
 themselves to her teats at once ; sprawling over each other, being 
 in her pouch, partially in it, or just having the head within the 
 hairy margins of the entrance. 
 
 I found these young opossums extremely difficult subjects to 
 
370 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 get good photographs of, from the fact that they were so rest- 
 less when taken away from their mother. They were not 
 sprightly at all, but simply kept sluggishly on the move; first 
 gaping, then twitching their ears or curling up their tails, and 
 finally, when kept away too long, they would commence to shiver 
 all over. However, I succeeded at last, after many trials, and 
 reproductions of two of my attempts are presented as illustra- 
 tions to the present chapter. 
 
 If there be such a thing in nature as " a chip of the old block," 
 then we most assuredly find it in a young opossum, for any one 
 of these little fellows was the veriest chip alive of its sleepy old 
 dame. It would walk along a twig, holding on in the same curi- 
 ous manner with its hand-like feet, just as the mother pro- 
 gressed upon a larger branch; while thus engaged, its little pre- 
 hensile tail also came into use, and it would curl its delicate 
 distal end about the twig in a gingerly sort of way, with some 
 evident infantile misgivings that it could be much relied upon in 
 event its tiny feet became exhausted from the task. 
 
 During the daytime they were almost continually gaping, and 
 made up a most ludicrous face when they did, that was sure to 
 excite the laughter of those that beheld it, even after a number 
 of repetitions. 
 
 Their marsupial pouches at this age are quite rudimentary, 
 but still perfectly evident, while the bushy extension of the hair 
 at the root of the tail is distinctly seen. The hair of the body is 
 long and coarse, being much shorter and finer upon the head, 
 while upon the rather large white ears it is sparse and extremely 
 fine. Long white hairs are produced from either side of the 
 snout and from above either eye, the latter being round, not 
 large, black, and twinkling. The mouth has a capacious gape, 
 and the entire face and snout are pointed, as in the old one. By 
 the use of tail and feet these young opossums are enabled to 
 hang on to the coat of the mother, and when they all got into the 
 hair of her back they presented a very odd and amusing picture, 
 to say nothing of the enjoyment they exhibited, howbeit it was 
 shown in such a sleepy way. 
 
 A popular writer and observer at my hand says an old opos- 
 sum of this species " is very prolific, producing from six to fifteen 
 at a birth. The young at this period are well formed, and weigh 
 from three to four grains each. As soon as produced they are 
 shoved into the pouch by the mother with her snout, and pushed 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 371 
 
 near the nipples, which they find and grasp by instinct. Their 
 growth is very rapid; at a week old they weigh thirty grains. 
 They remain in the pouch, attached to the nipple, till they are 
 able to move about. At the age of four weeks they occasionally 
 leave the nipple, and may be seen peeping out of their sack; a 
 week afterward they venture forth, but keep close to the mother, 
 and hold on to her by their tails. Sometimes, with a dozen 
 young ones of the size of rats thus clinging around her legs, 
 neck, and body, and some of them dragging along on the ground, 
 
 FIG. 92. YOUNG OF AMERICAN OPOSSUM (D. virginiana). 
 
 Natural size; about two months old; right lateral view of the same specimen shown in Fig. 88. Photo- 
 graph from life by the Author. 
 
 she may be seen going about in search of food. At this age these 
 animals are pretty. They remain with the mother till about two 
 months old; they then learn to take care of themselves, but con- 
 tinue in the vicinity, seeming still to be under maternal guard- 
 ianship in a certain degree. Meantime another brood is pro- 
 duced, and during the season a third, and some of all these may 
 be seen at once with their prolific parent." 
 
 Some of the Australian marsupials have been called there 
 " opossums " by the settlers, but, as has already been stated, there 
 are no true opossums in Australia. That great continent, how- 
 ever, is the headquarters for the order, and many of the remark- 
 
372 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 able kin of our common Opossum in this country are to be met 
 with there. 
 
 Taken as a group, naturalists find that the marsupials readily 
 fall into six very natural families, the divisions being based 
 chiefly upon dental and other anatomical characters. 
 
 Following the Didelphidw, we have the Dasyuridw, represented 
 by the famous Thylacine, better known as the Tasmanian Wolf 
 or Devil, or Zebra Wolf or Zebra Opossum (Thylacinus cyano- 
 cephalus), the only species of the genus known. It is a dog-like 
 looking animal confined now to the island of Tasmania, and the 
 largest marsupial of predaceous habit now in existence. The 
 conspicuous transverse bars on its back and loins constitute a 
 marked character, the general color being grayish-brown. 
 
 Rapid extermination now seems to be this animal's fate, and 
 the savage havoc it formerly committed among the sheep of the 
 Tasmanian settlers, is now largely an early chapter in its life- 
 history. Another voracious animal confined to the same country 
 and belonging to the same family is the " Native Devil," a crea- 
 ture about the size of a badger, and likewise with fossorial 
 habits. (D. ursinus). 
 
 Belated forms are found in Australia, and in New Guinea, 
 where likewise occur the peculiar rat-like marsupials of the 
 genus Phascogale, and perhaps the still more remarkable Myrme- 
 cobius, of which latter only one species is known, the M . fasciatus 
 of western and southern Australia. " It is about the size of an 
 English squirrel, to which animal its long bushy tail gives it some 
 resemblance; but it lives entirely on the ground, especially in 
 sterile, sandy districts, feeding on ants. Its prevailing color is 
 chestnut-red, but the hinder part of the back is elegantly marked 
 with broad, white, transverse bands on a dark ground." 
 (Flower.) 
 
 In the family Peramelidw we also find some of the most re- 
 markable and remote kin of our American opossum. Recently 
 some very interesting anatomical developments have come to 
 light in regard to animals of this group, giving them an impor- 
 tance in the study of the law of evolution not previously seen 
 in them. Various species make up the genera, and in Australia 
 they are widely known by the names of " Bandicoots " (Pera- 
 meles), "Native Babbits" (M acrotis) ; and in the case of the 
 peculiar little Chceropus castanotis, the " Pig-footed Bandicoot." 
 
 Other famous marsupials are all the forms of kangaroos of 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 373 
 
 the family Macro pod idee, as well as the remarkable animals con- 
 stituting the family Phalangistidce, and the family Phascolo- 
 myidce, but these are only referred to in order to show what a 
 great variety of relatives our common United States Opossum 
 has in those far-off regions; howbeit, it must not be forgotten 
 that although the marsupial family Didelphidce are thus related, 
 the gap sometimes separating them is quite profound, as for ex- 
 ample, the one that divides the Didelphidce from the Peramelidce. 
 In other words, an American Opossum and a Bandicoot (P. 
 gunnli) are two wonderfully different animals, and in the future, 
 the more we know of their anatomy, the more will this fact come 
 to be appreciated. 
 
 The fossil bones of opossums found in the bone-caves of Brazil, 
 belonged to types of didelphian species either identical with or 
 closely allied to those forms now existing in the same country. 
 
CHAPTER XXV. 
 
 WHALES AND MANATEES. 
 
 (Cetacea: Sirenia.) 
 
 WING to the enormous extent of coast-line belonging 
 to the United States, washed as it is by the Arctic 
 Seas, the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, and the Gulf 
 of Mexico, it permits of adding to the fauna of the 
 country many of the order Cetacea, or those marine mammals 
 known as whales, dolphins, and porpoises. Outside of the few 
 who have especially studied these great oceanic animals, of more 
 or less fish-like form, it is but a limited number who realize how 
 numerous are the species we can lay claim to as having occurred 
 some time or other upon our coasts. 
 
 Some years ago the United States National Museum of Wash- 
 ington, D. C., published a provisional list of these highly interest- 
 ing mammals, and this I here present, simply in order to give 
 some idea of what an extensive group the Cetacea really is : 
 
 ORDER CETACEA. CETACEANS. 
 
 SUBORDER DENTICETE. TOOTHED WHALES. 
 
 Family PHYSETERID^. The Sperm Whales. 
 
 Sotalia pallida, Gervais. Florida (?). 
 
 ? Steno fuscus, Gray. Cuba. 
 
 Steno compressus, Gray. Gulf of Mexico (?). 
 
 Delphinus bairdii, Dall. Baird's Dolphin. Coast of California. 
 
 Delphinus delphis, Linn6. Common Dolphin. Atlantic Ocean. 
 
 Delphinus janira, Gray. The Janira. Newfoundland (Gray). 
 
 ? Prodelphinus euphrosyne (Gray), True. North Atlantic Ocean. 
 
 Leucorhamphus borealis (Peale), Gill. Right-whale Porpoise. 
 Pacific coast of North America. 
 
 Lagenorhynchus acutus, Gray. Eschricht's Dolphin. North 
 Atlantic Ocean. 
 
 Lagenorhynchus albirostris, Gray. White-beaked Bottlenose. 
 North Atlantic Ocean. 
 
 Lagenorhynchus oUiquidens, Gill. Striped or Common Dolphin. 
 Pacific coast of the United States. 
 
 Lagenorhynchus thicolea, Gray. West coast of North America. 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 375 
 
 Lagenorhynchus gubenator, Cope. Skunk Porpoise. Coast of 
 New England. 
 
 Lagenorhynchus perspicillatus, Cope. Atlantic coast of the 
 United States. 
 
 Tursiops tursio (Bonnaterre), Van Ben. & Gervais. Bottle- 
 nosed Dolphin. North Atlantic Ocean. 
 
 Tursiops gillii, Ball. Cowfish. Pacific coast of the United 
 States. 
 
 Tursiops erebennus, (Cope) Gill. Black Dolphin. Atlantic coast 
 of the United States. 
 
 Orca gladiator, (Bonnaterre) Gray. Atlantic Killer. Atlantic 
 Ocean. 
 
 Orca atra, Cope. Pacific Killer. Pacific coast of North Ameri- 
 ca. 
 
 Orca pacifica, (Gray). North Pacific Ocean. (?) 
 
 Globiocephalus melas, (Traill). Blackfish. North Atlantic 
 Ocean. 
 
 Globiocephalus brachypterus, Cope. Short-finned Blackfish. 
 Coast of New Jersey. 
 
 Globiocephalus scammoni, (Cope). Scammon's Blackfish. Paci- 
 fic coast of North America and southward. 
 
 Grampus griseus, (Cuvier) Gray. Grampus. North Atlantic 
 Ocean. 
 
 Grampus stearnsii, Dall. Mottled or White-headed Grampus. 
 Pacific coast of North America. 
 
 Delphinapterus catodon, (Linn6) Gill. White Whale. Arctic 
 and Subarctic seas. 
 
 Monodon monoceros, Linne'. Narwhal. Arctic seas. 
 
 Phocwna cummunis. Lesson. Puffing-Pig. Herring-Hog. North 
 Atlantic Ocean. 
 
 Phoc&na lineata, Cope. Striped Porpoise. Atlantic coast of 
 the United States. 
 
 Phocwna vom,erina, Gill. California Bay Porpoise. Pacific 
 coast of the United States. 
 
 Family ZIPHIID^:. Bottle-nose Whales. 
 
 Berardius bairdii, Stejneger. Baird's Whale. Bering Island. 
 Hyperoodon rostratus, (Chemnitz) Wesmael. Bottle-nose Whale. 
 North Atlantic Ocean. 
 
 Ziphius cavirostris, Cuvier. Temperate and tropical seas. 
 ? Ziphius semijunctus, (Cope). Atlantic Ocean. 
 
376 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 Ziphius grebnitzkii, Stejneger. Grebnitzky's Bottle-nose Whale. 
 Bering Island. 
 
 Mesoplodon soicerbiensis, Gervais. Sowerby's Whale. Temper- 
 ate North Atlantic. 
 
 Family PHYSETERIDAE. The Sperm, Whales. 
 
 Physeter macrocephalus, Linne*. Sperm Whale. Temperate and 
 tropical seas. 
 
 Kogia breviceps, (De Blainville) Gray. Pygmy Sperm Whale. 
 Temperate and tropical seas. 
 
 SUBORDER MYSTICETE. WHALEBONE WHALES. 
 Family BALAENIDAE. 
 
 Rhachianectes glaucus, Cope. Devil-fish. Gray Whale. Pacific 
 oast of North America. 
 
 Agaphelus gibbosus, Cope. (?) Scragg Whale. North Atlantic. 
 
 Megaptera longimana (Rud.), Gray. Humpback Whale. North 
 Atlantic Ocean. 
 
 Megaptera bellicosa, Cope. Caribbean Humpback Whale. Car- 
 ibbean Sea. 
 
 Megaptera versabilis, Cope. Humpback Whale. North Pacific 
 Ocean. 
 
 Physalus antiquorum, (Fischer) Gray. Finback Whale; Razor- 
 back. North Atlantic Ocean. 
 
 Physalus sibbaldiij Gray. North Atlantic Ocean. 
 
 Balcenoptera rostratus, (Muller) Gray. Piked Whale (? Gram- 
 pus of New England Fishermen). North Atlantic Ocean. 
 
 Balwnoptera davidsoni, Scammon. Finback Whale. North- 
 eastern Pacific Ocean. 
 
 Sibbaldius laticeps, Gray. Rudolphi's Rorqual. North Atlan- 
 tic Ocean. 
 
 Sibbaldius tuberosus, Cope. Mob jack Bay, Virginia. 
 
 Sibbaldius veliferus, (Cope). Finback Whale. Pacific Coast of 
 North America. 
 
 Sibbaldius tectirostris, Cope. Coast of Maryland. 
 
 Sibbaldius sulfureus, Cope. Sulphur-bottom Whale. Pacific 
 coast of North America. 
 
 Balcena japonica, Gray. Right Whale of North Pacific. North 
 Pacific Ocean. 
 
 Balcena biscayensis, Gray. Black Whale; Right Whale of the 
 North Atlantic. Temperate North Atlantic. 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 377 
 
 Balwna mysticetus, Linne. Bowliead Whale. Arctic Seas. 
 
 It will be observed of the species enumerated in this formid- 
 able list, that the vast majority of them actually do occur in our 
 own w r aters, but this fact obviously prevents me from doing more 
 in the present chapter than giving some of the general characters 
 and habits of cetaceans, with very brief notice of the more inter- 
 esting and important forms. It would require a large volume 
 alone to do full justice to all the species given in the above list. 
 
 So far as geology up to the present time has been enabled to 
 indicate it for us, we are obliged to confess that the ancestry of 
 the Cetacean in past ages is still involved in much obscurity. 
 Huge serpent-like forms (Zenglodon) have been found in the fos- 
 sil state in certain parts of Alabama, which for a long time were 
 considered as being in the cetacean line of descent, but more re- 
 cent investigation seems to point to the fact that the seals have a 
 better claim upon those ancient forms than the whales have. In 
 other parts of the world fossil forms have been discovered which 
 have helped us to a better solution, but, as I say, we are still a 
 long ways from being in possession of an exact knowledge of the 
 origin of this group, as we are in the case of many other ani- 
 mals. One thing, however, must be borne fully in mind, and that 
 is, the Whales are just as truly mammalian in all respects, as are 
 such animals as seals, pigs, or bears. Indeed, they are nothing 
 more nor less than monster marine mammals that have become 
 specially modified in time to lead strictly an aquatic life in recent 
 epochs. 
 
 The general external characters of W 7 hales can be readily ap- 
 preciated from the figures of the species illustrating this 
 chapter; the fish-like form is to be noted, with the enormous 
 head in some of the species, and with the total absence of any- 
 thing like unto a neck in all the forms; the peculiar pattern of 
 the horizontally placed tail with its diverging, lateral " flukes," 
 posteriorly divided by the median notch; the form of the ante- 
 rior paddles, and the entire absence of a hinder pair; that a few 
 of the species may have a showing of scattered hairs on the body, 
 more especially near the mouth ; the small eyes, the simple aper- 
 ture of the ears, the valvular openings of the nostrils situated on 
 top of the head; and a number of other points. Whales also 
 possess immediately beneath the skin a thick layer of fat known 
 as the "blubber," from which the oil is manufactured, and for 
 which men hunt and capture them. As in the case of the topo- 
 
378 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 graphical anatomy, the internal structure of these ponderous 
 creatures is highly interesting and instructive, but our space will 
 admit of none of it here. But it will be proper to note, however, 
 that, with but few exceptions, all Whales have teeth, and that 
 these vary greatly in number ; never being preceded by a milk set, 
 while in the adult right whales in which family the teeth are ab- 
 sent, the well-known whalebone is seen (baleen). It would be as 
 well to remark, too, that the mammse in the female Whales are 
 situated on either side of the genital fissure, being two in num- 
 ber, and each being under the control of a special compressor 
 muscle by means of which the milk of the mother can be injected 
 into the mouth of her young one (there being rarely two), and the 
 latter is thus enabled to nurse under water. 
 
 Whales of all species subsist on animal food of some kind or 
 other, such as for example, fish, squids, crustaceans, and the me- 
 dusae. The Killers (Orca) alone prey upon the species of their 
 own order, and upon such other warm-blooded animals as seals 
 and their kind. 
 
 During a year that I spent at sea in the Gulf of Mexico and the 
 South Atlantic, I had many opportunities to observe the various 
 kinds of whales and porpoises, which I availed myself of to the 
 fullest extent, and have seen an old Sperm whale blow many and 
 many a time. Professor Flower well describes this act and ac- 
 cording to this eminent authority, when speaking of what a help- 
 less creature a whale is on shore, he says that when in their ele- 
 ment, the sea, " they have, however, to rise very frequently to the 
 surface for the purpose of respiration; and, in relation to the 
 constant upward and downward movement in the water thus 
 necessitated, their principal instrument of motion, the tail, is ex- 
 panded horizontally, quite unlike that of a fish, whose move- 
 ments are mainly in straightforward or lateral directions. The 
 position of the respiratory orifice or nostril on the highest part of 
 the head is very important for this mode of life, as it is the only 
 part of the body the exposure of which above the surface is ab- 
 solutely necessary. Of the numerous erroneous ideas connected 
 with natural history, few are so widespread and still so firmly be- 
 lieved, notwithstanding repeated expositions of its falsity, as 
 that the Cetacea spout out through their blowholes water taken 
 in at the mouth. The fact is, the ' spouting,' or more properly 
 < blowing,' of the Whale is nothing more than the ordinary act of 
 expiration, which taking place at longer intervals than in land 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 379 
 
 animals, is performed with a greater amount of emphasis. The 
 moment the animal rises to the surface it forcibly expels from its 
 lungs the air taken in at the last inspiration, which, of course, 
 is highly charged with watery vapor in consequence of the nat- 
 ural respiratory changes. This, rapidly condensing in the cold 
 atmosphere in which the phenomenon is generally observed, 
 forms a column of steam or spray, which has been erroneously 
 taken for water. It also often happens, especially when the sur- 
 face of the ocean is agitated into waves, that the animal com- 
 mences its expiratory puff before the orifice has quite cleared the 
 top of the water, some of which may thus be driven upward with 
 the blast, tending to complete the illusion. In hunting Whales 
 the harpoon often pierces the lungs or air passages of the unfort- 
 unate victim, and then fountains of blood may be forced high in 
 the air through the blowholes, as commonly depicted in scenes of 
 
 FIG. 93. COMMON DOLPHIN (Delphinus delphis). (After Flower.) 
 
 Length of adult, 10 feet. 
 
 arctic adventure; but this is nothing more (allowance being made 
 for the Whale's peculiar mode of breathing) than what always 
 follows severe wounds of the respiratory organs of other ani- 
 mals." 
 
 The refined oil known as " spermaceti " is manufactured from 
 that oil which is found in the great cavity above the skull in the 
 Sperm Whale, while " ambergris," so extensively used by per- 
 fumers in their art, is found in the intestines of the same animal, 
 and sometimes floating on the surface of the seas they inhabit. 
 
 By the aid of modern appliances, the chase and capture of 
 these huge mammals has within recent times been reduced al- 
 most to a science, but an account of such matters would, in the 
 opinion of the writer, be out of place in the present connection, 
 dealing as we are more particularly with the life histories of 
 these Cetaceans; it will be as well to add, however, that their 
 constant pursuit and destruction by man must in due time tell 
 markedly on their numbers, if it does not lead to their actual ex- 
 termination. 
 
380 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 Glancing again at our List above we find that these Cetaceans 
 are primarily divided into Families of TOOTHED WHALES, BOTTLE- 
 NOSE WHALES, SPERM WHALES, and WHALEBONE WHALES. Among 
 
 the first of these we find the Common Dolphin (see Fig. 93) (D. 
 delphis), and who that has ever been out for an ocean voyage 
 over the seas that he inhabits, does not know him. Suddenly a 
 " school " of them will appear under the very bows of your ves- 
 sel, plunging in and out of the water in graceful curves, and in a 
 manner most fascinating to the observer, who never wearies of 
 the sight. Their powerful, tooth-armed beaks are the very terror 
 of the small fishes upon which they habitually prey, and it is an 
 extraordinary thing to see the agility with which they effect 
 such captures. 
 
 Captain Scammon, speaking of the Common Porpoise of the 
 Pacific coast, says, " They are seen in numbers varying from a 
 dozen up to many hundreds tumbling over the surface of the sea, 
 or making arching leaps, plunging again on the same curve, or 
 darting high and falling diagonally sidew T ise upon the water 
 with a spiteful splash, accompanied by a report which may be 
 heard at some distance. In calm weather they are seen in num- 
 erous shoals, leaping, plunging, lobtailing and finning, while the 
 assemblage moves swiftly in various directions. They abound 
 more along the coasts where small fish are found. Occasion- 
 ally a large number of them will get into a school of fish, frighten 
 them so much that they lose nearly all control of their move- 
 ments, while the Porpoises fill themselves to repletion." This 
 species is the L. oNiquidens of our List. On our New England 
 coast the best known form is the " Skunk porpoise," shown in 
 Fig. 94 of the present chapter, and its habits are fully as interest- 
 ing as those of the Dolphin of which we have just been speaking. 
 Even at the present time, it is by no means a rare thing to dis- 
 cover a new species of this group, and undoubtedly there still 
 remain a number of forms as yet unknown to science. 
 
 The Orcas or Killer whales constitute another genus of this 
 family, and they are only too well known to the whalemen as the 
 veriest wolves of the high seas, often robbing them of their hard- 
 earned spoils. They are possessed of enormous strength and 
 speed, and even at a distance at sea they can be easily recognized 
 by their lofty dorsal fins, an appendage which, in the High-finned 
 killer, attains to the enormous height of six feet. These merci- 
 less animals will ravenously attack and kill the biggest whale 
 
^' g 
 
 OS 1 
 
 gl 
 
 s 
 
 r i 02 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 383 
 
 that ever plowed the ocean, and devour the carcass afterward, 
 piecemeal ; they are also very destructive of the seals about the 
 islands inhabited by those valuable animals, and according to 
 Professor Goode, Eschricht says that thirteen porpoises and four- 
 teen seals were found in the stomach of an Atlantic Killer, six- 
 teen feet in length. 
 
 The Blackfishes (Fig. 95) are a medium-sized whale that range 
 over their oceanic habitat in schools sometimes numbering sev- 
 eral hundreds; they are not especially valuable to the whalers, 
 but are mercilessly preyed upon by the Killer whales. 
 
 Earer than the last-mentioned species, though often associated 
 with them, are the Grampuses (Fig. 96), a smaller whale than they 
 though with very similar habits, and we are told that they make 
 their appearance in our waters only about once in ten years. 
 Professor Flower has proved beyond all manner of doubt that the 
 
 FIG. 96. THE GKAMPUS (Grampus griseus). 
 
 By the Author, after Elliott. Length of adult, 20 feet. 
 
 fantastic markings on the body of this animal are normal and are 
 not due to scars from conflicts with their fellows or other species. 
 A fine cast of a Grampus may be seen and studied at the Smith- 
 sonian Institution, where it used to surmount the doorway of the 
 main entrance, down-stairs. 
 
 One of the most interesting of all Cetaceans is the Narwhal 
 (Fig. 100), an animal which stands responsible for the Unicorn of 
 fancy, and which is now restricted in its range to the northern 
 shores of our Alaskan territories. The spiral tusk growing from 
 the left side of its upper jaw is a modified tooth which may at- 
 tain a length of eight or ten feet. It is absent in the female, 
 the sex being practically toothless, or at least the teeth are con- 
 cealed in the jaw as is the case on the right side in the male Nar- 
 whal. This tusk is without enamel, and a single one is valued 
 at |50, the ivory being put to a variety of purposes. Occasion- 
 ally both tusks are developed, in which case the spirals each 
 
384 
 
 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 turn the same way, or the twist has the same direction. Nor- 
 whals feed upon small fish and crustaceans. 
 
 Herring Hogs (Phoccena) are representatives of another very 
 interesting genus (Fig. 97) ; these animals are also known as the 
 Harbor porpoises or " puffing pigs " ; they have earned their last 
 name from their habit of puffing and grunting as they disport 
 themselves in the surf or as they roll in the breakers at the 
 mouths of harbors and rivers. These Herring hogs are very de- 
 structive of several species of the small edible fish, and of oys- 
 ters, but they in turn are often attacked and killed by the Por- 
 poises. 
 
 To represent the next family, the Bottle-nose whales, I have 
 given a figure of Hyperoodon Udens. But very little is known of 
 these forms and the nomenclature of the group is not in a very 
 satisfactory condition. 
 
 FIG. 94. THE " HERRING HOG" (Phoccena communis). 
 
 Copied by the Author from a photograph by the U. S. Fish Commission. Length of adult, rather more 
 
 than 4 feet. 
 
 Passing next to the family of the true Sperm whales 
 (Physeteridce), we find them represented by the Giant Sperm and 
 the Pigmy Sperm whales. 
 
 The Sperm whale or Cachalot (P. macrocephalus) is a very well- 
 known cetacean, one of wide distribution and of great commer- 
 cial importance (Fig. 98). In this species the male may attain the 
 enormous length of 84 feet, whereas the females are not more 
 than one-third as large, and are slenderer. In color these animals 
 are of a blackish brown above, paler on their sides, and grayish on 
 the under parts; very old ones are gray on top of the head and 
 about the nostrils. They feed on small fish principally, and 
 squids; it is related that several hundred mackeral have been 
 taken from the stomach of a third grown one. All times of the 
 year is the breeding season for them, and one at a birth is the 
 rule, never more than two. The female nurses her young by re- 
 
OF^THB UNITED STATES 387 
 
 dining quietly on her side, as she floats passively on the sur- 
 face of the ocean. The period of gestation is said to be ten 
 months. 
 
 Its actions and habits under various circumstances are famil- 
 iar to the most of us, and have been well described by Scam- 
 mon ; the " blowing " of this whale, and the usual products it 
 yields, I have already alluded to above. 
 
 Turning to the Suborder MYSTICETE of our List, we find a 
 splendid array of species representing the animals known as the 
 Whalebone whales, all of which are creatures of great size, and 
 valuable for the products they yield to men. Of no little im- 
 portance among these is the whalebone of commerce, but this is 
 principally obtained from the Bowhead whale (Fig. 99) of the 
 Polar Seas. The habits of the Bowhead partake of the habits of 
 whales generally, with a number of very interesting ones peculi- 
 arly its own. Professor Goode remarks that " The food of the 
 Bowhead consists of floating animals, classed by the whalemen 
 under the names t right whale feed ' and ' brit.' Many kinds of 
 invertebrates are, of course, included under these general terms, 
 one of the most abundant of which is, perhaps, a kind of winged 
 or pteropod mollusk, the Clio borealis, which occurs in the north- 
 ern seas, floating in great masses. When the Bowhead is feeding 
 it moves with considerable velocity near the surface, its jaws 
 being open to allow the passage of currents of water into the cav- 
 ity of the mouth and through the layers of baleen at the sides. 
 All eatable substances are strained out by the fringes of the ba- 
 leen and are swallowed." Much more could be said about these 
 whalebone whales, but I find my space already nearly exhausted, 
 and I still have a few concluding remarks to make of no little im- 
 portance. 
 
 My studies of the Cetaceans and my reading about them have 
 both convinced me that the Order has by no means received the 
 attention at the hands of descriptive zoologists and anatomists 
 that it so justly deserves. This neglect can be atoned for in 
 many ways, and more especially by such persons as reside the 
 year round either upon the Atlantic or Pacific seaboards, or by 
 capable observers who lead a seafaring life. Lighthouse keep- 
 ers and whalemen both have excellent opportunities to thus 
 powerfully aid science in such work. Whalemen should be en- 
 couraged by some means to systematically capture specimens 
 
388 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 of the smaller Cetaceans when the opportunity is afforded them, 
 and from these to take accurate measurements of the specimens 
 at the time of capture. Skeletons could also be made, and 
 viscera placed in crude spirits, both being brought home and 
 turned over to the proper authorities for description. And, 
 when it so happens that somebody chances to be on board w r ho 
 can make a serviceable sketch of the animal, this essential aid 
 should never be overlooked; the habits of whales in their normal 
 habitat should also be constantly recorded, and particularly as 
 soon after the observation as possible. Lighthouse keepers and 
 other seashore observers can effect all this, and much more be- 
 sides, for where any of the whale tribe are driven ashore in their 
 vicinity, they can, in addition to what is suggested above, often 
 be enabled to take a good series of photographs of the specimen, 
 as well as a very complete set of measurements. When within a 
 reasonable distance of Washington, they can, too, immediately 
 send a telegram to Mr. F. W. True, Executive Curator of the U. 
 S. National Museum, that such and such suspicious looking 
 specimens have gone ashore at such and such a point, thus giving 
 the proper authorities the opportunity to dispatch a responsible 
 person to the spot should they desire to do so. There are un- 
 doubtedly a number of the smaller species of Cetaceans in our 
 waters as yet undescribed.* 
 
 From the consideration of the Whales we may pass to an en- 
 tirely distinct order of large aquatic mammals, that by nature 
 are partly amphibious. I refer to the Manatees of the Order 
 Sirenia (Sea Cows), including the family Trichecliidce, which 
 contains two forms or species, namely the South American Man- 
 atee (TrichecJim manatus, Linne") and the Florida Manatee (T. 
 Intirostris, Harlan), True. 
 
 My personal knowledge of the Manatees is principally based 
 upon having carefully studied the skeletons and other material 
 afforded by the Museums, and having seen a live one once on the 
 west coast of Florida, and another, some twenty-seven or eight 
 years ago, about half a mile up the Coatzacoalcos Kiver on the 
 
 * Those of my readers desiring to further inform themselves upon the subject which of necessity I 
 have been compelled to deal with so briefly in this chapter, can do no better than consult some of the 
 following works : 
 
 Bibliography of Cetacea: D. F. Eschricht. " Untersuchungen ttber die Nordischen Wallthiere." 1849. 
 " OsWographie des ' "e'tace's," by P. J Van Beneden and P. Gervais. 18H8-79. C. M. Scammon, "Marine 
 Mammals of the N W. Coast of North America." 1874. For the structure of whalebone, see Hunter. 
 14 Observations on the Structure and Economy of Whales," Phil. Trans., 1787 ; Eschricht and Rhein- 
 hardt. "On the Greedland Right Whale." English translation by the Ray Society. 186G. pp. 07-78 ; and 
 Sir W. Turner, in Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin.. 1870, Thomas Beale ; " Natural History of the Sperm 
 Whale," London, 1836, Andrew Murray ; "The Geographical Distribution of Mammals," London, isr.c,. 
 p. 212. T.N.Gill; " Sperm- Whales, Giant and Pigmy," Amer Nat. iv. p 738, fig. 167. C apt. David 
 Gray ; Land and Water, Dec. 1, '77, p. 4fi8, and many other special monographs. 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 391 
 
 Isthmus of Tehuantepec, southern Mexico. This last one I saw 
 from the deck of a steamer, and I remember very well that it was 
 in shallow water, and that it had drawn itself partly out on the 
 muddy ooze of the bank, so that its form was very fairly exposed 
 to my view. 
 
 Nevertheless I am quite familiar with this Order of Mammals, 
 and it will be my aim here to review some of the more important 
 parts of the history of them so far as it is at present known to 
 naturalists. 
 
 Geology goes to show that the early Pliocene and Miocene seas 
 of Europe swarmed with several species of animals, which zo- 
 ologists have good reason to believe were the latter extinct an- 
 cestors of existing Sirenians (Halitherium). But the intermedi- 
 ate forms which connected our living types, such as the Manatee, 
 with the ancient ones, to which I refer, have not as yet been dis- 
 covered. Zoologists have also held, and I think it is very proba- 
 ble too, that the Manatees and their kind are in some way related 
 links, remotely affined to the Cetaceans on the one hand, and the 
 Ungulata on the other; but even of this kinship the evidence is 
 as yet not satisfactorily demonstrated. Various other extinct 
 sirenian species have received different names at the hands of 
 paleontologists, but it is not our object to further pursue this part 
 of the subject here; one form, however, recently exterminated, 
 fully deserves a word of passing notice, and I have reference of 
 course to the Northern Sea-cow (Rhytina stelleri) . 
 
 Of it, Professor Flower has said, " Only one species of this 
 genus is known, R. stelleri, the Northern Sea-cow, by far the 
 largest animal of the order, attaining the length of 20 to 25 ft. It 
 was formerly an inhabitant of the shores of two small islands in 
 the North Pacific, Behring's and the adjacent Copper Island, on 
 the former of which it was discovered by the ill-fated navigator 
 whose name the island bears, when, with his accomplished com- 
 panion, the German naturalist, Steller, he was wrecked upon it 
 in 1741. Twenty-seven years afterward (1768), as is commonly 
 supposed, the last of the race was killed, and its very existence 
 would have been unknown to science but for the interesting ac- 
 count of its anatomy and habits left by Steller, and the few more 
 or less perfect skeletons which have recently rewarded the re- 
 searches carried on in the frozen soil of the islands around 
 which it dw r elt. There is no evidence at present of its having in- 
 habited any other coasts than those of the islands just named, 
 
392 
 
 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 though it can hardly be supposed that its range was always so 
 restricted. When first discovered it was extremely numerous in 
 the shallow bays round Behring's Island, finding abundant nutri- 
 ment in the large laminarisp growing in the sea. Its extirpation 
 
 102. 
 
 104. 
 
 FIG. 102. SKULL OF AFRICAN MANATEE (Manatus Senegal ensis). 
 
 Xl-5. (After Flower). 
 
 FIG. 103. THE FRONT VIEW OF THE HEAD OF THE AMERICAN 
 
 MANATEE. 
 
 Showing the eyes, nostrils and mouth, and with the lobes of the upper lip divaricated. 
 
 FIG. 104. THE SAME. 
 
 With the lip contracted. (After Flower, from Murie.) These figures all copied by the Author. 
 
 is entirely due to the Russian hunters and traders who followed 
 upon the track of the explorers, and who, upon Steller's sugges- 
 tion, lived upon the flesh of the great Sea-cows. Its restricted 
 distribution, large size, inactive habits, fearlessness of man, and 
 even its affectionate disposition toward its own kind when 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 393 
 
 wounded or in distress, all contributed to accelerate its final ex- 
 tinction." 
 
 Professor Nordenskjold has claimed and in the writer's opin- 
 ion upon too insufficient evidence, that living specimens of this 
 sirenian were known to exist in the locality above referred to as 
 late as the year 1854. This matter has been more carefully exam- 
 ined into by Dr. Stejneger, who it would seem has very success- 
 fully refuted this erroneous notion. 
 
 We now pass to the existing types of these interesting animals, 
 and find that there are but two genera of them, viz.: Halicore 
 and Manatus (or Trichechus of other authors, and as given above), 
 the first contains the famous Dugongs, sirenians very distinct in 
 their structure from our Manatees, but as they are denizens of 
 "the shallow bays and creeks of the Ked Sea, east coast of Africa, 
 Ceylon, islands of the bay of Bengal and the Indo-Malayan Archi- 
 pelago, ranging from Barrow Reefs on the west to Moreton Bay 
 on the east/' they cannot roperly claim our time and space here, 
 as interesting as they are in many particulars. Even our own 
 Manatee has a closely related African cousin (M. senegalensis), 
 and of which form I have given a view of the skull in the present 
 chapter (Fig. 102), as I had not one of the American ones at my 
 hand. 
 
 There are two species of American Manatees, but only one of 
 these belong to our United States fauna, the Florida manatee, a 
 form that, so far as this country is concerned, is now confined 
 to the coasts of the peninsula from which it takes its name. Ow- 
 ing to the fact that most of the specimens of Manatees that have 
 reached Europe are the South American animals, and further, 
 as it was very natural that they should figure that form in the 
 " Transactions," this will account for my presenting here a group 
 of those animals in lieu of our own species; however, when re- 
 duced to this small size they are hardly distinguishable in the 
 drawing which illustrates the present chapter. 
 
 Manatees are enabled to use the paddles formed by their 
 forearms with considerable facility, and this is undoubtedly the 
 way in which they originally came by their name, it being derived 
 from the Latin word for hand. Manatus, moreover, is the tech- 
 nical name applied by some zoologists to the genus that has been 
 created to contain them. According to True, Mr. W. A. Conklin, 
 director of the Central Park menagerie, in New York city, gives 
 the following dimensions of a specimen kept alive in that estab- 
 
394 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 lishiuent in 1873, these being the only reliable measurements of 
 a Florida Manatee, under its proper name, on record : " Length, 
 6 ft. 9 in.; circumference around the body, 4 ft. 9 in.; length of 
 Hipper, 1 ft.; width of same, 4J in.; width of tail joining body, 1 
 ft. 6J in.; greatest width of tail, 1 ft. 8J in.; weight, 450 Ibs. It is 
 very likely, however, that the animal may attain to a length of at 
 least 8 or 9 ft., as trustworthy authorities so state, in which case 
 they would come to weigh something between five and six hun- 
 dred pounds. 
 
 The figures here given so thoroughly portray the general form 
 of the Manatee, that it hardly seems necessary to enter upon any 
 very extended description in this place ; we are to especially note, 
 however, the fish-like form of the body, terminating behind in the 
 broad, somewhat rounded and horizontal tail; the constricted 
 neck connecting this body with a rather small, oblong head ; the 
 complete absence of hind limbs, with the fingerless paddlelike 
 forelimbs, the latter tipped on either side with three small nails; 
 the total absence of all fins; the wonderful minute eyes and ears, 
 the latter being without any external pinna; the great tumid 
 upper lips overarching rather a large mouth, the former having a 
 sparse growth of stiff bristles growing upon them; the wrinkled 
 skin, which is of rather a deep gray color, and having a few scat- 
 tered hairs growing over it in some specimens, more especially in 
 the younger individuals. But of all the external characters of a 
 Manatee none are so noteworthy as the fleshy pads, one on either 
 side, that go to form the extraordinary upper lip. Professor 
 Garrod in alluding to these, says of them that, " These pads have 
 the power of transversely approaching toward and receding from 
 one another simultaneously (see Figs. 103 and 104). When the 
 animal is on the point of seizing, say, a leaf of lettuce, the pads 
 are diverged transversely in such a way as to make a median gap 
 of considerable breadth. Directly the leaf is within the grasp 
 the lip-pads are approximated, the leaf is firmly seized between 
 their contiguous bristly surfaces, and then drawn inward by a 
 backward movement of the lower margin of the lip as a whole." 
 
 It is said that Manatees have the power of carrying their young 
 about within the grasp of their forelimb or limbs, and that their 
 appearance at these times has given rise to the fabulous mermaid 
 of nursery tale renown, but so far as the writer is concerned, if 
 these mythical maids of the sea, which so often filled my dream- 
 head in boyish days, or my fanciful reveries of perhaps riper 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 397 
 
 years, bore any resemblance to the beauty that sits up on the tip 
 of her tail in the group herewith presented, I beg to be excused 
 an introduction. Certain it is, however, that these animals can 
 make considerable use of these paddles of theirs, for with them 
 they assist in tucking their food into their mouths, and in moving 
 about on the bottom of the river or lagoon where they may be 
 feeding, they use them in conjunction with the tail, in assisting 
 their locomotory acts. 
 
 Manatees avoid getting into the open sea, but habitually re- 
 sort to the shallower waters of rivers, bays, and lagoons, where 
 they move sluggishly about on the bottom, browsing much in the 
 same way that the terrestrial herbivora do upon land, their food 
 consisting exclusively of the aquatic plants which so abundantly 
 grow in such situations. In quiet weather, they sometimes seem 
 to enjoy getting into deep water, where by the assistance of 
 their lungs, they are permitted to float at the surface, which they 
 do arching their body in a peculiar manner. Indeed, their lungs 
 seem to act very much in the same manner as the swim-bladder 
 of fishes is known to operate, and while Manatees are feeding 
 they may be seen to rise every few minutes to the surface to 
 breathe, but instances of their getting completely out on the land 
 remain yet to be proved, and when placed there, their acts are in 
 the extreme most awkward. So far as their senses are concerned 
 these creatures have fair eyesight, acute powers of hearing, and 
 the other powers probably well developed. They are not known 
 to be possessed of the ability of emitting any voice-sound. They 
 seem to bear captivity well, and living specimens have been stud- 
 ied with great interest and advantage at the Zoological Gardens 
 of London, where they have been successfully kept. In behavior, 
 they always seem to be gentle and inoffensive, exhibiting on all 
 occasions great concern and affection for their young. Indeed, 
 man has proved to be their greatest enemy, and they are forever 
 pursued and captured for their flesh and skin and the oil which 
 they yield. Thus it is that Manatees are on the road to extinc- 
 tion, which, everything considered, in time is sure to come about. 
 The methods of capturing the Manatee are many: (1) they may be 
 shot as they rise to the surface to breathe, an operation that re- 
 quires great skill and quickness; (2) they are taken in some lo- 
 calities by means of an ingenious kind of net ; (3) finally, they are 
 captured by the various modes of spearing and the use of the har- 
 poon. 
 
398 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 So far as the breeding habits of the Manatee are concerned, but 
 little or nothing is known; the best authorities have it that the 
 period of gestation lasts eleven months, and the young follow 
 their mother about for six months or perhaps longer. It is a 
 well known fact, of course, that the dam suckles her young at 
 her breasts, there being two mamma?, which are post-axillary in 
 position. 
 
 In concluding, it gives me pleasure to state that in my account 
 of this animal, I have been much assisted through my perusal of 
 True's history of it in that admirable work, published by the 
 United States Commission of Fish and Fisheries, entitled " The 
 Fisheries and Fishery Industries of the United States." Mr. 
 True in closing his article in that work, says, " In the Manatee,, 
 then, we have an animal of great size, of gentle disposition and 
 apparently of rapid growth, which lives in places readily accessi- 
 ble to man, and is easily captured, and which furnishes meat 
 which is not inferior, oil which is remarkably fine, and leather 
 which possesses great toughness. From these considerations it 
 would seem evident that, with the proper protection, it would 
 furnish no small revenue to the people in those portions of our 
 country which it inhabits, for centuries to come " (p. 128). 
 
 Finally, to those interested in the progress of science in Flor- 
 ida, I should say that we have not as yet by any means a com- 
 plete history of this animal, and accurate reports upon the fol- 
 lowing subjects are very much to be desired: (1) an accurate ob- 
 servation giving all the circumstances of a Manatee voluntarily 
 coming ashore to feed or for any other purpose; (2) the manner 
 of coition, the period of gestation, the mode of delivery, the num- 
 ber of calves at a birth, how the latter are suckled, their size and 
 appearance, and how long they remain with their dam, and (3) a 
 great deal of their structure and anatomy, are all subjects almost 
 unknown to us. 
 
CHAPTER XXVI. 
 
 THE FLYING SQUIRREL AND ITS RELATIVES. 
 
 (Family Sciuridw.) 
 
 QUIRRELS, the world over, constitute a very large 
 group of mammals that naturalists associate together 
 in the family Sciuridw, it being one of the principal 
 families of the order Rodentia. In North America the 
 Sciuridw are chiefly represented by the marmots, the chipmunks, 
 the spermophiles, the squirrels, and the flying squirrels. In this 
 country we have at least two well-marked forms of the last- 
 named species; namely, the Northern flying squirrel (S. v. hud- 
 sonius), and the Southern flying squirrel (S. v. volucella), the for- 
 mer inhabiting the upper part of California and northward 
 through the Pacific regions to the Rockies, while the latter va- 
 riety occurs in all suitable localities over the United States, 
 except where hudsonius is found. It also ranges through Mexico 
 and Guatemala. 
 
 Occasionally, in the old works upon the natural history of 
 these animals, we find the American flying squirrels called Assa- 
 pans, the origin of which term has just now escaped me. There 
 are also animals in eastern Asia that have been called Tayu<nix, 
 but they are flying marmots of the genus Pteromys, allied to the 
 squirrels. Both possess lateral dermal expansions, by means of 
 which they can for certain distances sail through the air, upon 
 launching themselves into it from some elevated position. 
 
 Anatomically, our little flying squirrels very closely resemble 
 the typical members of the genus Sciurus; their large, full eyes, 
 certain dental differences, and the possession of the dermal para- 
 chute being evident distinctive differences. Flying squirrels are 
 also of small size. Sciurus volans, of Linnaeus, is the flying squir- 
 rel of Europe, popularly called the Minene in some quarters, 
 and the King of the Squirrels (Konig der Grauwerke) by the Ger- 
 mans. In many of its habits it is said to agree with our Sciurop- 
 terus, but is more solitary in disposition. 
 
 Around my present home the little flying squirrels are quite 
 plentiful, and they have taken to living under the eaves and in 
 the water pipes of the house, and not long ago a very beautiful 
 little specimen came into the kitchen one morning, where he was 
 
400 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 captured by the cook, and is now kept by me in a small cage I 
 constructed for his occupancy. About a week after I had him I 
 succeeded in getting some good photographic pictures of his 
 squirrelship, and one of the best of these has been reproduced to 
 illustrate this chapter. 
 
 They make extremely engaging pets, being gentle, soft, and 
 fluffy, with many curious little habits, and withal, stand among 
 mammals as the prettiest forms we know anything of. His silky 
 coat is brownish-ash above, pure white beneath, with a black 
 emargination above the lateral edge of the dermal expansion 
 upon either side. No tuffs ornament the ears, as in some squir- 
 rels, and his head is short and rounded, with the face lacking in 
 that acuteness seen in some members of the tribe. As I have said 
 above, his eyes are very prominent and black, while the tail is 
 soft, flat, and distichous. They vary considerably in coloration, 
 some being much darker than others ; some are very light indeed. 
 
 Where the conditions are favorable for them, these squirrels 
 become very numerous; but being chiefly nocturnal in their 
 habits, are rarely seen in the daytime by any one. Hollows of 
 trees are the favorite places for them to nestle in and slumber 
 away the hours of daylight, but other convenient excavations or 
 crevices w r ill be often utilized by them. They are very fond of 
 Indian corn; nuts, apples, and other fruits; seeds, and, agreeing 
 with most other rodents, will eat raw meat with avidity when- 
 ever they get a chance. 
 
 They produce from three to a half dozen young to the litter, 
 usually breeding once in the north during the season, but fre- 
 quently as many as three times in the extreme south. Gestation 
 is of about a month's duration. Extreme solicitation is exper- 
 ienced for the young by the parents, and the old one will often 
 carry a squirrelet back into the nest should it from any cause 
 have tumbled out. At evening time, and during most of the 
 night, these little animals are wonderfully active and frolicsome. 
 
 Many years ago I remember having once passed through a 
 stretch of forest on a moonlight night that I had frequently trav- 
 ersed during the daytime, and that without ever having sus- 
 pected a flying squirrel's presence in the place; but now dozens 
 of them were to be seen, and I paused for a long time to study 
 their antics. They would run up to the tops of the trees, then out 
 upon the extremities of the branches, from whence they would 
 leap and sail out into the open space. In the air the tail is held 
 
FIG 107, THE FLYING SQUIRREL (Sciuropterus v. voluceUa) 
 
 From a photograph from life by the Author. Nearly natural size. 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 403 
 
 in the same plane with the body, while the latter is flattened out, 
 the legs are extended, and the lateral dermal sheets put upon the 
 stretch. Forty or fifty yards are sometimes thus passed at one 
 flying leap, the trajectory being a gentle curve for its first two- 
 thirds downward, to terminate upon an upward inclination as 
 the animal makes a graceful landing upon the place for which it 
 had started. This is usually upon the trunk of another tree, or, if 
 convenient, one of the main branches. As they pass through the 
 air the flight is even, fairly swift, and very remarkable, the ani- 
 mals appearing as they pass overhead or descend near you 
 like little square pieces of white pasteboard sailing through the 
 air, much after the fashion that certain tricksters flip playing 
 cards for extraordinary distances, the curves described being 
 quite similar. 
 
 Flying squirrels evidently appear to enjoy these aerial ex- 
 ploits, for they will pass to and fro between the same two trees 
 a number of times in succession, running up to the top of one, to 
 leap and sail over to the other, which in turn is ascended only to 
 fly back to the one they had just quit. When traveling in num- 
 bers through the forests, however, these flights get them over the 
 territory traversed in very short order, a mile or more being made 
 in hardly any time at all. 
 
 Flying squirrels have but little to dread from man; but that 
 they are preyed upon by owls, weasels, and a few other animals 
 there is no room for doubt; and probably they are also frequently 
 destroyed through other agencies, or else they would so vastly 
 increase that their number would soon be immense, and their 
 existence in many localities be made far more evident. 
 
 A curious instance is recorded by a popular writer at hand, 
 " in which a brood of young squirrels of this species were kept in 
 confinement for some months. The mother suckled her young 
 ones by clinging with her forefeet to the perch of the cage, let- 
 ting her body hang down, while the little ones stood on their 
 hind legs and took their meal from her breast. This brood was 
 procured by some laborers, who, in clearing a wood by setting it 
 on fire, saw the mother carry them one by one from the burning 
 tree to a place of safety. When they took her, she was found to 
 be singed. This good and devoted mother had three of her young 
 ones killed by the rats, which got into the cage at night, and she 
 herself had one of her thighs broken and a part of her flesh eaten 
 from her body to the bone, yet she was found in the morning 
 clinging to her little ones and trying to nurse them ! " 
 
404 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 In the fore part of either * k wing," in any specimen of our flying 
 squirrels, the student will find a slender, subosseous splint ex- 
 tending from the wrist into the interdernial space of the lateral 
 extension, or " wing," as I have just termed it. Arboreal rodents 
 of the family Anomaluridw, several species of which are found in 
 West Africa, possess an homologous splint, but it articulates at 
 the elbow (the olecranon) instead of at the carpus, or wrist, as 
 in Sciuropterus. These African forms (A fulgens, for example) 
 have also peculiar scales upon the under side of the fore part of 
 the tail that assist them in climbing and alighting upon a rough 
 surface after flight. 
 
 Some of the large East Indian species of flying squirrels are 
 very elegant creatures, the fur of which is often high colored. 
 Pteromys nitidus, for instance, is larger than our gray squirrel, 
 and is of a deep chestnut above, while its nether surface is of a 
 bright red. Others show various shades of orange, bay, or black. 
 These likewise possess the splint bone in their dermal para- 
 chutes, serving as " stretchers " or " auxiliary extensors," when 
 the latter are spread in the act of sailing in the air. We have 
 much yet to learn of the habits of these Bornean, Javanese, and 
 other foreign species, and as for the details of their anatomy we 
 are even still less informed upon. 
 
 In the Australian region there is another group of animals 
 that possess flying membranes as in our flying squirrels; they 
 are representatives of the three genera, Petaurus, Belideus, and 
 Acrobata, of the family of Phalangistidw, or Phalangers, as they 
 are called. These are marsupial forms ranging in size all the w r ay 
 from that of a mouse to species as big as a cat. The habits and 
 mode of life of these peculiar animals are extremely interesting, 
 and well deserving of the study of the natural historian. 
 
 Among the insectivora we also find a flying mammal ; namely, 
 the two species called the " flying lemurs," a name given to the 
 first known one by Linnseus. They constitute the family Galeo- 
 pitJiecidcF ; the Galeopithecus volans being the type most frequently 
 seen in collections. G. philpinensis is the other species, and they 
 both occur in the forests of the Malay peninsula, Sumatra, Bor- 
 neo, and the Philippine Islands. By the natives this animal is 
 called the Kabung; others term it the Colugo; while many old 
 works on natural history have them flying lemurs, flying foxes, 
 or flying cats. 
 
 The integumentary parachute in them is even far more exten- 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 405 
 
 sive than it is in our little flying squirrels, for it is not only a 
 lateral extension, but interdigital and interfemoral (as in bats) 
 besides. They are nocturnal, too, and feed upon insects and the 
 leaves of certain trees. It is capable of taking immense flights, 
 has but a single young one at a time, possesses pectoral mammae, 
 as in bats, and has some very remarkable habits. So, from what 
 I have endeavored to present above, it will be seen that our mod- 
 est little flying squirrels apart from the bats are not the only 
 mammals that are capable of flight of a certain kind, for they are 
 indeed the least conspicuous, perhaps, among the forms thus en- 
 dowed. 
 
 Passing once more to a brief consideration of the Kodentia as 
 a whole, it is to be observed that the best authorities among 
 modern classifiers of mammals, divide the order into two sub- 
 orders, viz., the Simplicidentata, and the Duplicidentata. Both of 
 these suborders are represented in the fauna of the United 
 States; the first containing ten families, and the latter but two; 
 the Sciuridw being the first family of the Simplicidentata. This 
 family contains, in addition to the genus of flying squirrels 
 (Sciuropterus), just considered, the woodchucks or marmots 
 (Arctomys) ; the chipmunks (Tamias) ; the spermophiles (Sper- 
 mophilus) ; and the typical arboreal squirrels (Sciurus). 
 
 Of the Chipmunks or Ground Squirrels there are quite a num- 
 ber of species and subspecies in the United States, and these are 
 constantly being added to by new discoveries. As a group, they 
 are well-represented by our common eastern Chipmunk, familiar 
 to every one who knows anything of our smaller mammals of the 
 Atlantic States. Some of the other forms resemble it quite 
 closely, while others depart more or less from it in the matters 
 of size and coloration; some are distributed over a considerable 
 geographical area, others being more or less restricted to their 
 ranges, thus offering descriptive zoologists abundant oppor- 
 tunity to describe the fine intergrading forms as new subspecies, 
 an opportunity that has been fully availed of, by a few ambitious 
 mammalogists more anxious to add to a personal reputation, 
 than to be of any special use or aid to the science which they 
 pretend to advance. 
 
 While collecting in New Mexico during the 80's I obtained 
 numerous specimens of the Gila chipmunk, a subspecies wherein 
 the lateral longitudinal dorsal stripes are almost entirely ab- 
 sent (Fig. 108), though a medium one is quite distinct. 
 
406 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 These various species of Ground squirrels are known by dif- 
 ferent names in different parts of the country. In many locali- 
 ties the people call them Chipmunks, or Chipmucks; elsewhere 
 they bear the name of Hackee; while in the eastern part of the 
 United States Chipping squirrel or Striped squirrel is occasion- 
 ally applied to them. They very rarely ascend trees but spend 
 most of their time on the ground, or scampering along fence- 
 rails, over stumps and rocks, and live in holes in the ground, 
 usually among the gnarled and exposed roots of some big tree 
 or other. They are extremely frolicsome, and often exhibit but 
 little fear of man's approach, though as domesticated pets they 
 are but rarely interesting. In nature the Chipmunks have many 
 enemies, thousands of them being annually destroyed by the 
 smaller canivora, as well as by hawks and owls. In fact its life 
 is one of continuous peril from these causes. Many are shot by 
 juvenile sportsmen, be it said to their shame, for the harmless 
 little fellows add more than their share to the enlivenment of 
 our forests and glens by their merry chippings and well-known 
 gurgling scoldings common to so many of the smaller squirrels. 
 Says a popular writer: " In the autumn this creature may be seen 
 around the fields of Indian corn, and in the walnut and chestnut 
 woods, filling his ample cheek-pouches, and carrying off his store 
 to his granaries. His hole is generally placed near the roots of 
 trees, or in a decayed stump, or among a heap of rocks, or in a 
 bank of earth, and usually near the forests or fields from which 
 he draws his supplies. Sometimes his retreat has two or three 
 openings; it usually descends almost perpendicularly at first; 
 then it rises with one or two windings, and at last, at the distance 
 of eight or ten feet, terminates in a chamber lined with leaves, 
 amid which the animals sleep. Three or four occupy the place to 
 gether. There are several side-galleries, where the stores of 
 wheat, buckwheat, hazel-nuts, acorns, Indian corn, grass-seeds, 
 walnuts or chestnuts, according to the productions of the local- 
 ity, are deposited. They are exceedingly provident, continuing to 
 add to their supplies till forced into their houses by the inclem- 
 ency of the weather. Often their stores are much beyond the 
 necessities of the winter. The squirrels hibernate in these re- 
 treats, and become somewhat sluggish, but do not approach the 
 unconcious torpidity of the marmot. The young, four or five at a 
 birth, are produced in the spring, and beautiful little creatures 
 they are when first led forth by the mother." 
 
FIG. 108. THE GILA CHIPMUNK. 
 
 Adult Male, Life Size. 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 409 
 
 In our southern districts, where the winters of course are very 
 mild, these little animals remain out the entire year round, but 
 are never harmful to the crops of man, being simply gleaners 
 rather than robbers and destroyers. Other forms of the genus 
 differ but little in habit from our common eastern species, and 
 indeed, even their relatives in various parts of Europe, Asia, and 
 eastern Africa, that are also small striped ground-squirrels, are 
 very similar in these respects. 
 
 Several years ago when writing about New Mexican squirrels 
 (see Fig. 108) I said: Next, to form our acquaintance with the 
 third and last species of squirrel which occurs in this region, let 
 us, this balmy June afternoon, pick our way through the fallen 
 timber and masses of loose rock that incumber the bottom of one 
 of the vast caiions hereabouts. In such a place you seat yourself 
 for a moment upon one of the rough and partly-imbedded sand- 
 stone boulders, which long since took its plunge adown the canon 
 side to its present resting ground. Here you will be obliged to 
 wait patiently for some ten or fifteen minutes in perfect quiet, 
 when in all probability your ears will then be saluted by a not 
 unpleasing little chirrup, which but partly reminds you of a 
 sound often heard in the old, familiar woodlands at home. 
 
 With your eyes accustomed to peering into the recesses of na- 
 ture's material that goes to make up the side of one of the rugged 
 canon walls in this part of the country, you are soon enabled to 
 discover the presence of the author of this " chip-chip, chip ree, 
 r-ree, r-reee,chip-r-r-rupp" for stealthily issuing from his hiding 
 place and coming over a broad sandstone slab with little meas- 
 ured steps and many nervous twitches of his tail, which is held 
 almost vertical, you behold the timid little Gila chipmunk, one of 
 the most interesting representatives of an exceedingly interest- 
 ing genus. If you sit perfectly motionless, another, then another 
 will now soon make their appearance at different and unexpected 
 points, until fully half a dozen of these engaging little creatures 
 may be in sight at one time. But upon the slightest movement 
 of your body, off they all scamper to the weather side of rock, 
 root, or rubbish pile. You are not inclined to wait, however, 
 another quarter of an hour, or perhaps longer, for a specimen, 
 and as a fine male, bolder than the rest, has not taken part in the 
 first general rush of the stampede, but stands displaying the 
 pretty mixed gray of his back and the bright, though dark, fox 
 color of the under side of his handsome tail, you awake the echo 
 
410 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 of the place as you fire a load of dust shot up in his direction. 
 He is yours with hardly a visible mark upon him to indicate the 
 cause of his so suddenly pitching down among the rocks, a Tam- 
 ias a. dor sails stone dead. 
 
 This chipmunk is a very different appearing little animal from 
 his more handsome congener of the Eastern States (T. striatus) . 
 And although the markings, as will be seen in the figure, are 
 quite distinct upon his head, the broad, diffuse stripes down his 
 back, on the other hand, are but feebly defined, and hardly notice- 
 able in some female specimens. He is of a dull ocherish, clay 
 color beneath, and a brownish-gray on the back, while, as I have 
 already said, the under side of the tail is a reddish chestnut 
 shade, that extends to the nether aspect of the flank, on either 
 side, where it merges with the color already described for the 
 lower parts, beyond. In March here, I have found the females of 
 this species heavy with young, and in May these latter are fully 
 two-thirds the size of the adults. So I am inclined to think that 
 they raise two litters and perhaps three in a single season. 
 
 Other ground squirrels of this country belong to the genus 
 Spermophilus, one rich in species and subspecies, and of these I 
 have written not a little in other places, so they will not receive 
 especial attention in this chapter. 
 
 It is the genus Sciurus, however, that contains the true specific 
 and subspecific forms of squirrels. In it we find the numerous 
 kinds of Ked squirrels or Chickarees; the Gray squirrels; Fox 
 squirrels ; Abert's squirrel, and a number of others. 
 
 The Red squirrels are so well known as to obviate the neces- 
 sity of any detailed description. There are several well-marked 
 specific and subspecific forms of them in the United States, and 
 doubtless a few geographical races yet remain to be discovered 
 and described. In conversation with Mr. Robert Ridgway, the 
 distinguished ornithologist, a short time since, he said he be- 
 lieved that the Red squirrel was one of the very worst enemies 
 that the small birds of this country had to contend against. 
 They not only destroy nests, but they will also suck birds' eggs 
 and devour their young. Mr. Ridgway lives at his country-seat 
 very near the city of Washington, D. C., and every spring not a 
 few of the more abundant birds, such as robins, catbirds, vireos, 
 and the like breed on his place. He noticed that the nests of 
 these species were often destroyed, and in the absence of cats, 
 crows, weasels, and other predacious forms he could not account 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 for the destruction of their nests and eggs. One day, however, 
 the various robberies of the kind were made clear by discovering 
 a pair of Red squirrels in such a position that it left no doubt 
 whatever in his mind but what they were the authors of it. He 
 also said that on another occasion, in Illinois, he knew of a river 
 that had greatly overflowed its banks for a long time, and 
 through this inundation many large trees were killed on the 
 banks. In the trunks of these, numerous woodpeckers had made 
 nest-holes which had subsequently been abandoned, and in them 
 a colony of Purple Grackles had built. One day while collecting 
 in the vicinity he noticed a big Fox squirrel coming out of one 
 of the holes in one of these trees with a young Grackle in its 
 mouth, and there is no question but what the animal made a meal 
 of its capture. 
 
 In my opinion all of the rodents in this country, and doubtless 
 elsewhere, are flesh-eaters, and will eat raw meat whenever the 
 opportunity offers. A number of years ago in New Mexico, I had 
 as pets a litter of Prairie marmots, which as they grew older I 
 accidently discovered were extremely fond of raw beef, and 
 would eat it in preference to any other kind of food. It is a well- 
 known fact of course that rats and mice (domesticated rodents), 
 will consume meat uncooked whenever they get the chance to 
 do so. Muskrats eat mussels (Unios), and the male of tame rab- 
 bits will eat their own progeny. 
 
 Gray squirrels are considered to be by sportsmen legitimate 
 game, and much has been written about their habits and the 
 hunting of them. There is a black variety of this species, as well 
 as several subspecific forms of it. Albinos are also occasionally 
 met with; I saw a beautiful example of one of these latter col- 
 lected a good many years ago in the Catskill Mountains of New 
 York State. There is a northern and southern variety (Sciurus 
 carolinensis leucotis and S. c. carolinensis). "The most remark- 
 able feature in this species of squirrel," says a popular writer, 
 " is its occasional migrations, in great multitudes, over moun- 
 tains and streams, across cleared fields and dense woods, seeming 
 to be guided by some necessity as to food, or some imperious but 
 inscrutable instinct." Marvelous accounts of these migrations 
 have been given us by those who have had the good fortune to 
 witness one of them. Lapland Lemmings perform similar migra- 
 tions, and the reason for them may be an inherited impulse dat- 
 ing back perhaps to the fluctuations of climate during the glac- 
 ial epoch. 
 
412 
 
 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 In New Mexico, I had abundant opportunity to study in nature 
 those elegant forms of United States Sciuridw, the Arizona and 
 Abert's Squirrels. The latter, as to the entire upper parts, are of 
 a grizzly iron gray. Lower halves of inner aspects of ear-tufts, 
 and a median broad stripe from shoulders to near root of tail, of 
 
 FIG. 109. LIFE-SIZE HEAD OF A SPECIMEN OF ABERT'S SQUIRREL. 
 
 Adult Female. 
 
 a brilliant chestnut. Ear-tufts large, composed of straight black 
 hairs. Entire under parts, borders of tail, circumocular stripe, 
 and upper sides of feet, pure white. A rather broad dividing line 
 at either side, between white of under parts and gray above, 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 413 
 
 jetty black. Central hairs of tail for its entire length, also black, 
 forming a mid-third stripe down the member. Claws, horn-color 
 and curved. Whiskers composed of six to ten black stiff hairs. 
 (See Fig. 109.) 
 
 There is a splendid black phase or variety of this squirrel 
 which is also said to occur in that region, but I never had the 
 fortune to meet with one. However, I have seen very dark gray 
 ones which are really wonderfully handsome animals, as the 
 white parts in them are generally purer, and the specimens im- 
 proved by the contrast in the colors, which of course is still more 
 decided when they are only snowy white and jetty black, which 
 is said to be the case in the varieties. 
 
 They say that the California gray squirrel (8. fossor) is even 
 a handsomer animal than Abert's, but never having collected the 
 former it becomes impossible for me to express an opinion upon 
 this point, though it is hard to believe that anything in the shape 
 of a squirrel could surpass the present species in its spirited as- 
 pect, its grace and beauty, and then, too, it is one of our largest 
 varieties, which also adds to its otherwise fine appearance. 
 
 Abert's squirrel is fairly abundant in the high pines which oc- 
 cur upon the mountain-sides, principally to the northward and 
 eastward of Fort Wingate, New Mexico, and they have been fre- 
 quently taken within a mile of the station. A good hunter once 
 told me that he shot nine of them in two days, all within five 
 miles of this locality, and only hunted for them a few hours each 
 day. 
 
 The animal is essentially a tree lover, and rarely spends any 
 length of time upon the ground. If you suddenly surprise one in 
 the forest, it immediately seeks the nearest and largest pine tree 
 within its reach by a series of very active jumps and skips, to as- 
 cend it with great rapidity to the first branches, where it often 
 stops to take a glance at the intruder, thereby frequently afford- 
 ing the gunner a capital opportunity to bag the specimen. 
 
 Now of the Arizona squirrel I have collected a number of speci- 
 mens during my stay in those parts, and it is not infrequently 
 seen within the immediate precincts of the station. In appear- 
 ance it far more reminds one of our favorite gray squirrel of the 
 East. It lacks the ear-tufts, and differs markedly from the com- 
 mon gray squirrel in being more of a grizzly color above, and a 
 mixed tawny one beneath. As to its comparative size I cannot 
 speak with certainty, although I am inclined to believe, from 
 
414 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 recollection only, that it is rather smaller than the average gray 
 squirrel of the Eastern States. It likewise has a broadish chest- 
 nut band rather than a stripe, down its dorsal aspect, between 
 neck and root of tail. This latter coloration is but feebly marked 
 sometimes, when a glance at the animal leaves the impression 
 upon one's mind that it is of an ocherish color all over. 
 
 Unlike Abert's, the Arizona squirrel is rather partial to the 
 crests and side-walls of the great canons of that country, and is 
 very much of a ground squirrel, rarely resorting to the trees when 
 surprised by the hunter. Indeed, in recalling my captures of 
 him, I fail to recollect an instance of ever having seen more than 
 one in a tree, while on the other hand, I have frequently shot 
 them as they skipped ahead of me on the ground, or clambered 
 up the canon-wall above me. My observations, too, incline me 
 to suspect that this squirrel always rears its young in a hole, 
 often dug in the side of a clay bank, or some similar locality; 
 whereas I suspect the nest of the Abert's squirrel is placed up 
 among the pine boughs, as is the habit of our gray one. In 
 fact I have observed nests in the pine trees here, which I have 
 taken to be the habitations constructed by Sciurus aberti, as they 
 were evidently the handiwork of some representative of that 
 genus of animals. 
 
CHAPTER XXVII. 
 
 THE DEER MOUSE, WITH NOTES ON OTHER RODENTS. 
 
 (Peromyscus leucopus: Rodentia.) 
 
 EW of the smaller mammals of this country are better- 
 known to the frequenter of our fields and forests than 
 the common little White-footed mouse. This very 
 pretty little rodent is likewise known in various locali- 
 ties by the name of the Deer mouse or sometimes as the 
 Field mouse. It has all over the world a perfect host of 
 relatives, both near and remote, and even in the United 
 States alone the number of species of ferine mice are many, 
 not a few of which belong to the same genus that contains 
 our present subject. It has only been within comparatively 
 recent years, however, that many of the types and forms of 
 our mammals of the size of a Deer mouse have come to the 
 knowledge of science, and this has been greatly facilitated by 
 the use of a variety of small spring traps, which are set in num- 
 bers in the runways made by these little animals in the localities 
 they haunt. By this means naturalists have taken numerous 
 mice, shrews, and their allies, hitherto unknown to them, and the 
 systematic use of such traps in the unexplored regions of foreign 
 countries will undoubtedly result in the capture of a perfect 
 legion of small mammals, the presence of which, in former ex- 
 plorations, has been never so much as suspected by the collector. 
 A Deer mouse is but a little larger than a specimen of our com- 
 mon House mouse, and is at the same time a very different ap- 
 pearing animal, being of an ochre brown above, with all the lower 
 parts and feet pure white. It is from this latter circumstance 
 that it gets its specific name of leucopus. Their ears are rather 
 large, and their eyes are markedly so, and very prominent and 
 bright. Many of the members of this genus have the ears strik- 
 ingly large, but none more so, I believe, than True's mouse, a 
 form first described by the writer in New Mexico some ten years; 
 ago. (See Fig. 110.) Deer mice very rarely get into our dwell- 
 ings, where the House mice have for so many ages been domiciled, 
 but if we repair to any cornfield in the autumn time, and turn 
 over a corn shock or two, we are pretty sure to find among the 
 various species of mouse thus taken by surprise, a Deer mouse or 
 
416 
 
 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 so. They can be recognized at once by their big eyes and their 
 white under parts. Of course, in making this statement, I refer 
 to only such parts of the United States or elsewhere where the 
 Deer mice are geographically distributed. When I was a boy 
 and lived on Long Island Sound in southwestern Connecticut, we 
 
 FIG. 110. TRUE'S PINON MOUSE (P. truei). 
 
 Life size from nature 
 
 used to capture them in small figure-of-4 traps, and most interest- 
 ing little pets they made when properly cared for. 
 
 During the spring of 1896, at my home here near Washington, 
 D. C., while superintending the felling of a large poplar tree, the 
 victim of a hurricane that a few days before had swept the coun- 
 try, my son captured one of these mice. He was in the tree at the 
 time, when the mouse was disturbed at its roots by the axman; it 
 
FIG. 111. THE DEER MOUSE (Peromyscus leucopus). 
 
 Subadult $ , natural size. From a photograph of living specimen by the Author. 
 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 419 
 
 immediately ran up the tall tree, a feat it performed two or three 
 times, racing up and down, before it was adroitly taken by my 
 boy as it attempted to get out upon one of the broken lower 
 limbs. This specimen is now before me alive, and I take it to be 
 a subadult individual, inasmuch as its fur above is of a dark gray, 
 the color assumed by the coat in the young animals of this spe- 
 cies. In a small box it soon made a fine nest of tow, and seemed 
 to be perfectly content with a little water and a store of yellow 
 corn. The day following its capture I succeeded in getting a 
 very good photograph of my prisoner, and a copy of this is repro- 
 duced here as an illustration to the present chapter. He ran 
 down an ear of corn for me and was just prepared to jump when 
 my faithful camera caught him in the act. 
 
 These mice usually build a nest in some old decayed stump of 
 a tree or other in the fields or forests. It is made principally of 
 the slivers of the bark of the cedar tree, and lined with soft 
 grasses and similar material. They may also use corn silk, or 
 occasionally leaves, and the like. These nests are also built in 
 other localities, as up in some old red cedar tree, or in a vacated 
 hole of w r oodpecker or flying squirrel. When built up in a small 
 tree they have the appearance of a somewhat large, roundish 
 mass of the materials above mentioned, with a small hole in one 
 side for the owner to pass in and out. Not infrequently I have 
 captured these mice, and the four or five young they usually have 
 at a litter, by cautiously climbing the tree and then grabbing 
 the entire nest, being careful to slap my gloved hand over the en- 
 trance hole in so doing. 
 
 In the winter time, after a light fall of snow, if we go into the 
 woods or meadows, it is not hard to find in suitable places tracks 
 upon tracks of these little animals. They lead up some of the 
 trees, or into stumps, or to holes in the snow, where they have 
 gone down for food. They feed principally upon grains and 
 numerous kinds of seeds, and it is said they often hoard up a 
 quantity of corn for consumption during the winter months. Un- 
 like some others of their kin, however, the deer mice never seem 
 to pass fully into a dormant state, and thus hibernate during the 
 cold part of the year, for we find evidences of their activity at all 
 seasons. Farmers claim they are the source of a deal of harm in 
 their corn and grain fields ; and yet these very farmers shoot with- 
 out discrimination every hawk and owl that comes in their way. 
 Yet were it not for certain species of these raptorial birds, con- 
 
420 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 stantly feeding as they do upon small rodents of every descrip- 
 tion, the farmers' lands would literally be overrun with field mice, 
 and the raising of grain thus be rendered almost futile. It may 
 be said here, in fact, that the direst enemies the deer mice have 
 are hawks and owls, and these birds, especially at such times as 
 when rearing their young, capture and consume almost incredi- 
 ble numbers of them. Some snakes, weasels, and other animals 
 also prey upon Deer mice, but all of these put together by no man- 
 ner of means are as responsible for keeping their undue increase 
 in check as are certain hawks and owls. 
 
 These Deer mice are chiefly nocturnal in habit, and are but 
 rarely seen by men during the daytime, unless special search is 
 made for them in their hiding places. In confinement they be- 
 come very gentle and tame, and I have seen it stated in various 
 popular works that when kept in cages they will at times sit upon 
 their haunches and give vent to certain low and peculiar singing 
 notes. This accomplishment has never been noticed in them by 
 the present writer, though I have known the female of the com- 
 mon House mouse thus to " sing " during the time she has been 
 giving birth to her litter. Upon one occasion I personally ob- 
 served a case of this kind, the very distinctly audible notes in- 
 citing me to make search in a drawer containing house linen. 
 Here, by cautious search, I discovered a female House mouse, 
 with two newly born young beneath her. Upon being exposed, 
 the " notes " ceased, and she ran in among the napkins and table 
 cloths. An hour or so later the " singing " again attracted my at- 
 tention, and upon going directly to the same spot, the mother 
 mouse was once more surprised, and this time her litter had been 
 increased by the addition of two or three more young ones. 
 
 Deer mice, in common with their other near relatives, are ex- 
 tremely nervous creatures, and upon the occurence of sudden 
 sharp sounds in their immediate neighborhood, they will lay back 
 their ears, jump several inches off their feet, and at the same 
 time protruding their eyeballs, as if those organs were about to 
 pop clean out of their sockets. For short distances they can 
 swim well, but just so soon as the fur gets thoroughly wet, they 
 become exhausted and soon drown. When in the trees, Deer 
 mice are good leapers, and by this means make rapid progress in 
 passing among the smaller limbs and twigs. 
 
 Notwithstanding the extreme abundance of these little ani- 
 mals, and the great length of time they have been known to us, 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 421 
 
 we are still quite ignorant of much that pertains to their natural 
 history, and the young naturalists of this country can employ 
 their time in no better way than to make personal observations 
 upon the habits of these and other representatives of our mam- 
 
 FIG. 112. THE JUMPING MOUSE (Z. hudsonius). 
 
 Adult male . 
 
 malian fauna, recording every fact noted that may in any man- 
 ner increase our knowledge of their biology in any one of its de- 
 partments. 
 
 Several years ago when 1 wrote about the Jumping mice of this 
 country, Zapus hudsonius, the Jumping mouse was the sole spe- 
 
422 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 cies of the only genus of the family Zapodidce of the order Ro- 
 dentia. This interesting little animal measures from tip to tip, 
 when adult, between seven and eight inches, the tail being con- 
 siderably longer than the body. It is white on its lower parts, 
 while on the back and superior aspects it is of a reddish brown. 
 Ranging over North America generally, although nowhere abun- 
 dant, it is known in some localities as the Canada jerboa, it hav- 
 ing much the appearance of one of those animals, with its long 
 hind and short forelegs, and its power of taking long leaps. Mr. 
 Abbott, in comparing the habits of hibernation of the Deer mouse 
 (P. leucopus) with Zapus, says: "These two mice, popularly so 
 called, hibernate with regularity in one sense, but dift'er inter sc 
 in another. The former (Zapus) once torpid, remains so until 
 spring, a few warm days in winter failing to rouse them; but 
 the White-footed mouse seems simply to sleep soundly rather 
 than grow torpid, and responds with considerable prompt- 
 ness to any disturbance. The Jumping mouse builds a nest 
 of leaves and grass at a comfortable depth from the 
 surface of the ground (not a " ball of mud,' as stated in the Ency- 
 clopedia Britannica, Art. ' Jerboa '), and, once fairly settled 
 therein, is beyond the various sudden changes of our winters; the 
 White-footed mouse, on the contrary, utilizes an old bird's nest, 
 or has a nesting place beneath a log or in a half-decayed stump. 
 In such positions, of course, the occupant is more likely to be dis- 
 turbed, and is also directly exposed to the varying temperature. 
 Is it to meet the requirements of his condition that this mouse 
 lays up a goodly stock of food during the autumn? Something 
 the jerboa, or jumping mouse, does not do. However this may 
 be, the fact remains, that both these rodents are quite sensitive 
 to cold, and hibernate as soon as the winter sets in ; yet how dif- 
 ferently is this faculty exercised! " 
 
 Zapus may have several litters during a summer, and the fe- 
 male bring forth from three to four each time. Sometimes the 
 mother may be seen dragging her semi-hairless progeny along, 
 bumping them over the ground as they hang on like grim death 
 to her teats. This animal in leaping takes a course in zigzags, 
 clearing two or three yards at a time, springing with its hind feet, 
 but landing on its fore feet at each bound. Farmers sometimes 
 plow it up in their wheat fields, when it makes off in magnificent 
 leaps. It feeds on grain and various kinds of seeds, but rarely 
 does much damage. Strictly nocturnal in its habits, it may be 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 423 
 
 found haunting either the woods or the open cultivated fields. 
 Smaller by all odds than many of its kin in foreign lands, it is 
 when captured found to be a gentle and timid little creature, that, 
 with pains and care, is soon broken to domestication and makes 
 a very interesting little pet. 
 
 All of our United States mice belong to the Family Muridce, a 
 group that likewise includes the Muskrats (Fiber, Ncofiberj ; the 
 Lemmings (Myodes) ; and the Cotton and Wood Eats (Higmo- 
 don, Neotoma). And, as has before been said, this family of the 
 Muridce belongs to the Order Rodentia, that includes, besides the 
 Squirrels (Sciuridw) and the Mice, the Jumping Mice (Zapodidcv) ; 
 the Porcupines (Hystricidce) ; the Pikas (Lagomyidw) ; and the 
 Hares (Leporidw). Representatives of all of these families are to 
 be found within the boundaries of the United States, while others 
 of the Rodentia occur not only in Mexico and Central America, 
 but the world's fauna at large oft'ers as many more, and very re- 
 markable rodentine families, containing many species and sub- 
 species. Comparatively speaking, the order Rodentia is composed 
 of mammals of small size, the largest form known to it being 
 the famous Capybara (Hydrochoerus capybara) of South Amer- 
 ica, while some of the little pocket-mice represent, next to some 
 shrews, the smallest of all known mammals. Rodents are mostly 
 terrestrial forms rarely given to tree or aquatic life, and there are 
 probably a thousand good species of them known to science, with 
 a great many more yet to be discovered and described. Animals 
 of this group have no canine teeth, and are readily known by their 
 stout, chisel-shaped incisors, of which, with the exception of Lago- 
 morpha, there are commonly two in each jaw, just as we find them 
 in a squirrel. There are never more than two incisor teeth in 
 the lower jaw in any rodent. These incisor teeth are very re- 
 markable, growing as they do from persistent pulps, and without 
 interruption. Their roots are long and curved, extending far 
 back into the skull or the mandible, the aforesaid pulp from 
 which they continually grow being at the hinder extremities, 
 while their anterior, chisled ends are kept permanently sharp by 
 the friction between the free edges of the upper and lower pair. 
 From one cause or another it sometimes happens, as in the case of 
 a rabbit or squirrel, that the opposing surfaces or edges are dis- 
 torted, whereupon the misplaced tooth or teeth having no op- 
 posed one to wear it off, continues to grow on without interrup- 
 tion, and as the form of the tooth is curved, it usually grows back- 
 
424 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 ward into the mouth, sometimes causing the death of the animal. 
 The molars or grinders may be rootless or the reverse, but are 
 
 FIG. 113. VERTICAL, LONGITUDINAL SECTION THROUGH THE 
 SKULL OF A BEAVER (Castor fiber). 
 
 Showing the central cavity, the greatly developed turbinal laminae, the mode of implanation of the 
 large, ever-growing, chisel-edgsd incisor, and the curved, rootless molars. Drawn by the Author after 
 Flower. 
 
 FIG. 114. SIDE VIEW OF THE SKULL OF A BEAVER (Castor fiber). 
 
 Lower jaw removed, showing teeth in the natural skull. Drawn by the Author after Huxley. 
 
 FIG. 115. SIDE VIEW OF THE SKULL OF A MUSKRAT (Fiber 
 
 zibethicus). 
 
 never numerous. Their positions are well-shown in my figure of 
 the skulls of the Muskrat and Beaver, here given. In addition to 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 425 
 
 these distinctive characters presented on the part of the teeth in 
 rodents, they offer, as a whole, many other interesting and in- 
 structive anatomical structures and physiological functions. 
 The arboreal squirrels have already been touched upon in an- 
 other chapter; the cursorial Hares and Rabbits, are terrestrial 
 types, although the Water hare found in Alabama (Lepus aqua- 
 ticus) swims well. Some of the Mice are great jumpers, and their 
 organization has become fitted to meet the surprising agility 
 which they possess. Many rodents are almost typically fossor- 
 ial, as the Moles and many others ; while such forms as the Beav- 
 ers and Muskrats are essentially of a natatorial habit. 
 
 In describing the mouth in the Rodentia, Sir William H. 
 Flower has remarked that it is " divided into two cavities com- 
 municating by a constricted orifice an anterior, containing the 
 large incisors, and a posterior, in which the molars are placed, 
 the hairy integument of the face being continued inwards behind 
 the incisors. This evidently prevents substances not intended for 
 food getting into the mouth, as when the animal is engaged in 
 gnawing through an obstacle. In the Hares and Pacas the in- 
 side of the cheeks is hairy, and in some species, as in the Pouched 
 Rats and Hamsters, there are large internal cheek pouches, lined 
 with the hairy integument, which open near the angles of the 
 mouth and extend backwards behind the ears ; in the New- World 
 Pouched Rats (Geomyidce) the pouches open externally on the 
 cheeks." 
 
 Speaking of the Hares, it may be said that we have in this 
 country many species and subspecies of them, all belonging to 
 the family Leporidce; but we have no true Rabbits, a name, which, 
 by custom, has only been applied to the smaller variety of our 
 Hares, as they so closely resemble the true Rabbits of the Old 
 World. These latter by habit are gregarious, and are found in 
 the open country, where they make burrows to live in. Their 
 young are also born blind and naked, which is not the case with 
 the Hares, which last are found only in cover of some sort or 
 other, and never burrow, and are solitary by nature. The two 
 species are also very different in appearance. Lepus cunwulus 
 is the common wild rabbit of Europe, while our most common 
 Cotton-tail is the L. s. sylvaticus, an animal so well known as to 
 require no special description. 
 
 The Jackass Rabbits are large Hares found in immense num- 
 bers in the West and Southwest, and they afford excellent sport 
 
426 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 in hunting them with greyhounds. In some localities in Cali- 
 fornia and Colorado these animals constitute a veritable pest to 
 the agriculturists, and of recent years thousands of them have 
 been destroyed in " drives," where many hunters have surrounded 
 them and driven them into great pens or corrals to be subse- 
 quently killed by the hundreds. 
 
 Another family of rodents represented in the United States is 
 the Lagomyidce or the Pikas. It contains but the one genus, and 
 our fauna, but the one species, Lagomys princeps, the North Amer- 
 ican Pika, or Little Chief Hare. This animal I have never suc- 
 ceeded in taking, though on numerous occasions in the Big Horn 
 Mountains of Wyoming, I have heard its call. It seemed gener- 
 ally to come out on a pile of loose stones somewhere on the 
 mountain side, most often toward sunset, and then utter a pe- 
 culiar sharp little whistle of its own. I have seen old hunters 
 deceived by this call, as at certain distances it does not sound 
 very unlike the bleating of a Mountain sheep. Personally, I 
 know but little about this particular rodent, but know it to be a 
 vegetable feeder, and that there still remains much to be discov- 
 ered in reference to its habits. Lagomys is derived from two words 
 signifying a hare-mouse, and the few species in existence in other 
 parts of the world are all small animals. Other interesting ani- 
 mals of our Kodentia are the Porcupines, and of these we have at 
 least two good subspecies in the United States, and they present 
 many interesting habits for study. 
 
CHAPTER XXVIII. 
 
 BATS AND THEIR HABITS. 
 
 (Chiroptera.) 
 
 ATS form a restricted group of volant mammals consti- 
 tuting the order Chiroptera (i.e., hand- winged). There 
 are upward of one hundred and fifty species of them 
 known to science, but of these perhaps not more than 
 twenty-five of the smaller forms are found within the limits 
 of the United States. It is in the tropical and subtropical 
 regions of the earth, including the many islands of those 
 latitudes wherein the larger species of these truly remarka- 
 ble animals are found. On some islands bats are the only 
 mammals met with, a fact easily accounted for when taken 
 in connection with their extraordinary power of flight; a 
 power made possible in them by the possession of the extension 
 of a delicate membrane included between the greatly elongated 
 and slender digits of the fore-limbs upon either side of the body. 
 These membranes extend so as to reach the hind legs, w r hile in 
 some species they are even produced posteriorly so as to include 
 the tail. This arrangement renders them extremely awkward in 
 most cases in the matter of terrestrial locomotion, while it in- 
 variably insures movements in the air of the greatest ease and 
 grace, unequaled by any other form that flies. In fact the en- 
 tire economy of the animal is especially adapted to this power of 
 aerial progression, and to the capture of their food in that ele- 
 ment. As a rule, their organs of sight are but feebly developed 
 with respect to size, but this is fully compensated for by their 
 great keenness of hearing and smell, and to those keen senses 
 must be added the high degree of tactual sense with which their 
 wing-membranes are endowed. Indeed, in those experiments 
 wherein bats have had the powers of hearing, sight, and smell 
 practically destroyed, they find no difficulty in flying about and 
 avoiding any obstacle met with in their course, and that too, with 
 the greatest apparent ease. Some of the foreign bats are charar 
 terized by great development of the external ears; the peculiar 
 leaf -like appendages surmounting the nose ; or by the possession 
 of tubular nostrils. In the Long-eared bat of Britain, for example, 
 the external ears have a length equal to the entire length of the 
 
428 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 animal's body; in the Leaf -nosed bats the external nasal append- 
 ages are simply extraordinary, possessing a wonderful variety 
 of forms and sizes, and of the keenest tactile sense. In fact, 
 anatomically speaking, there is no order of existing mammals 
 presenting a greater number of points of structural or morpho- 
 logical interest than do the representatives of this highly varied 
 group. An entire volume, of goodly size, might with ease be 
 written upon this subject alone. 
 
 In the early days when accounts of animals first came to be 
 written, such naturalists as Pliny classified the bats with the 
 birds, an error committed likewise by one of the authors of the 
 Bible. Even at a much later day, Linmeus included them among 
 the Primates with man and the Apes, chiefly for the reasons that 
 the mammary glands w r ere found upon the fore part of the chest; 
 on account of the number of superior incisor teeth (four in many 
 species); and that the organ of generation in the male was pen- 
 d^nt. Numerous other naturalists, later on, followed suit, as a 
 few similar structures in the organs of reproduction of the fe- 
 male w r ere studied, but all these requirements were subsequently 
 explained by zoologists of more modern date, the position of the 
 mamma?, for example, being evidently related to the position the 
 young must assume during the flight of the mother. As a 
 greater number of species came to be examined with stricter re- 
 gard to anatomical detail, it remained, finally, for Professor Hux- 
 ley to point out that the bats were nothing more nor less than 
 extremely modified Insectivora with their structure almost wholly 
 subservient to the power of flight. " So thoroughly, however, 
 has this adaptation been carried out that," as Sir William Henry 
 Flower says, " of all animals the bats are the least terrestrial, 
 not one of them being equally well fitted, as most birds and in- 
 sects are, for progression on the earth. This is due to the hind as 
 well as the fore-limbs being pressed into the service of aerial lo- 
 comotion. The hind limb is so rotated outwards by the wing- 
 membrane that, contrary to what obtains in all other vertebrates, 
 the knee is directed backwards, and corresponds in position to 
 its serial homologue, the elbow. When placed on the ground, 
 therefore, the animal rests on all fours, having the knees directed 
 upwards like a grasshopper's, while, in order to bring the foot 
 into a position for forward progression, it is rotated forwards 
 and inwards, on the ankle. Walking under these circumstances 
 is at best only a species of shuffle, and that this is fully recog- 
 
FIG. 116. BATS IN AN OLD TREE STUMP. 
 
 Upper one is the Serotine Bat (Adelonyctirus fuscus, $ ) and the lower one (suspended by the feet) 
 is the Red Bat (Alalapha borealis, $ ) showing protective mimicry. Photographed natural size from 
 life by the Author. 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 431 
 
 nized by the animal is evidenced by its great anxiety to take to 
 the wing, or, if this be impracticable, to ascend to some point 
 where it can hitch itself up by the claws of the hind legs in its 
 usual position when at rest." With hints of this nature before 
 us, the study of the skeleton in various species of bats becomes 
 intensely interesting. 
 
 Mythological literature from the dawn of history has used the 
 bat as the emblem of everything uncanny, it even having been 
 made sacred to Proserpine, the Empress of Hell. Likewise, the 
 animal has by the superstitions of all ages been regarded with 
 the utmost dread and horror, or as a popular writer puts it, the 
 " use of bats for these purposes is as old as Homer, who very 
 skillfully manages them in heightening the graphic effect of the 
 splendid passage in which he describes the shrieks and wailings 
 of the ghosts in the regions of woe; and after Homer, all poets 
 and painters who have ventured upon similar delineations have 
 made use of the bats for the purposes of effect. Even to this 
 day, painters must borrow the wings of bats for their devils, in 
 the same way that they borrow the wings of doves for their 
 angels; and one has only to throw a deep Rembrandt shade over a 
 piece of canvas, and show a bat's wing partly displayed from a 
 cave, in order to give an infernal air to it, and make it, with very 
 little painting a good poetical representation of the gates of hell. 
 It is easy to see how a race which is linked with such associa- 
 tions, should have had but a scanty measure of justice meted out 
 to it by the half -superstitious naturalists of the Middle Ages; 
 and a remnant of the same superstition is no doubt the cause of 
 much of the horror which is still connected with some of the 
 larger species of warm countries." 
 
 Modern science, however, is rapidly dissipating such ideas, 
 and in time will eliminate them altogether. 
 
 Of the foreign bats we may note the great tailless, fruit-eating 
 "Flying Foxes," of the East Indies, of the family Ptero pod idee, one 
 species measuring five feet across its outstretched wings. This, 
 also known as the Roussette bat (and allied forms), often con- 
 gregate in vast numbers in the forests, and in settled parts do 
 much damage. Their history is full of interest. Several other 
 very remarkable genera belong to the same family. Then there 
 are a large number of the Leaf -nosed bats, already alluded to, 
 and the famous blood-suckers or Vampires, of both of which a 
 great deal has been said and written. 
 
432 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 Through the efforts of Peters, Dobson, Flower, Harrison Allen, 
 and others the classification of the order is now upon a very good 
 basis, and new forms from various parts of the world are con- 
 stantly being added to it. Our small, insectivorous, and for the 
 most part either nocturnal or crepuscular bats, in habit, all seem 
 to fall within the suborder Microchiroptera, being confined to the 
 families Vespertilionidd , Emballonuridw, while the Leaf-nosed 
 bats (Phyllostomidce) are found only beyond the southern border 
 of the United States. 
 
 Of the first two mentioned families the writer has studied in 
 nature and in the Museums not a few species belonging to them, 
 and especially such forms as our little Ked bat (Atalaphaborealis) ; 
 the Serotine bat ( Adelonycterls fuscus) ; the Pale bat (V. evotis) ; 
 the Hoary bat (A. cinctra) ; and a number of others. Many years 
 ago I collected in New Orleans a remarkable species (Xi/cthio- 
 mus sp ?) that had a long tail like a mouse, and not included in 
 any interfemoral membrane. It was very active on the ground, 
 where its locomotory powers were good, thus forming an excep- 
 tion to the general rule. The Hoary bat has also been shot by 
 me, when hunting its insect food during the brightest hours of 
 noonday, and in the full rays of the sun. As a rule, however, 
 all of our bats hide away during the daytime either in hollow 
 trees, caves, fissures in rocks, or frequently in deserted buildings, 
 or concealed open cavities in tenanted houses or public edifices; 
 and in such structures as wooden bridges and elsewhere. Some- 
 times the number found in such places is enormous. The little 
 Red bat, however, and other species seem to be satisfied to han<i 
 by its hinder feet, head downward, from the twigs of trees and 
 shrubs, in which situations I have frequently taken it. When in 
 large hosts and their hiding place somewiiat confined, they will 
 give vent to a variety of noises, hisses, and cheiropterine grunts 
 when disturbed, and so great is the agitation sometimes that the 
 temperature of the cavity will be elevated several degrees, a 
 fact proved by the use of the thermometer. From these hiding- 
 places they swarm out as evening comes on, and immediately pro- 
 ceed to hunt the insects upon which they subsist. Enormous 
 numbers of highly noxious pests to man are thus nightly de- 
 stroyed, in which pursuit the bats are a great benefit to us. Bats 
 as a rule, breed during the hottest part of the year, and usually 
 have two young at a birth. I have shot the female Red bat with 
 a helpless, nearly hairless, young one at each breast, vigorously 
 
FIG. 117. SEROTINE BAT (Adelonyctcris fuscus). 
 
 $ , natural si/e. Suspended upon a twig of Hazel bush (near nut); right lateral view ; showing pro- 
 tective resemblance. Photographed from life b.y the Author. 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 435 
 
 nursing away, and holding on to the hair of the mother with a 
 pertinacity, rivaling that of a young opossum. Harrison Allen 
 has published some excellent studies of the reproduction of bats, 
 that are of great importance, and we stand much in need of more 
 literature of the same high standard. Bats never build any such 
 a thing as a nest, so that their very helpless young when born 
 must wholly rely upon the one supplied by the hair of the 
 mother's breast as their only refuge. Occasionally, while nurs- 
 ing them, she will suspend herself in the usual way in her place 
 of retreat, and allow them to take their food uninterrupted by 
 her flight. 
 
 As evening comes on bats come out of their retreat in numbers, 
 some to skim up and down the bypaths of the forests and glens; 
 others take to the streets and lanes of cities, towns, and villages, 
 while some species seem to prefer to do their entomological hunt- 
 ing far up in the air. Light invariably attracts them, owing to 
 the number of insects that swarm about it. For this reason they 
 are frequently seen flitting about the street lamps or even fly 
 into our houses or other places brilliantly lit up during the hours 
 of evening and later on. So among the town people in England, 
 as also in some parts of this country, they are called Flitter-mice, 
 and by the Germans Fleder-mauser, while I may add the French 
 know them as Chauve-souris, or Ball-mice. They are, when fly- 
 ing about at dusk, easily shot with a light gun or collecting cane; 
 or they may be taken with a hand-net. Boys about the street- 
 lights frequently get them by tossing up little pebbles in the air, 
 and as the bat flits down after what it supposes to be a beetle, it 
 is knocked to the ground with a bushy bunch of leafy twigs in the 
 hand of the juvenile collector. I have also taken them with a 
 small fly-fishhook and line, flipped about skillfully in the air 
 where they have been numerous, and hunting well some special 
 locality. 
 
 During the winter, particularly in the North, our bats all hi- 
 bernate in cavities in large bodies together; although some spe- 
 cies, I believe, do the same singly or only a few together. Sev- 
 eral times in the winter, if a warm day happen to come on, I have 
 seen the Ked bat come out and hunt with quite as much activity 
 as though it were midsummer. Such sights, however, are but 
 rarely seen. 
 
 Our Serotine bat is capable to a degree of being tamed, but as a 
 rule thev are vicious, cross, little creatures, that bite with vigor 
 
436 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 whenever handled. Most all of our species possess a musky 
 smell about them, very strong under some circumstances, and 
 very disagreeable to some people. When coming into our houses 
 in the evening bats have been known to get into the hair of some 
 lady present, generally by being knocked there by some male 
 member of the family present, in his efforts to kill the specimen. 
 When thus entangled, it requires skillful handling to get the 
 poor frightened little creature free again, especially as the lady 
 will often make the feat the more difficult by her agitation and 
 screams. Foolish and thoughtless people, largely under the in- 
 fluence of superstition, have cut the hair away under such cir- 
 cumstances, a totally unnecessary procedure. 
 
 Just at this point I desire to say something about protective 
 resemblance, or, as many naturalists have termed it, protective 
 mimicry, as further on it is my intention to show how this impor- 
 tant law of nature applies to the animals being considered in the 
 present chapter. 
 
 It is a w r ell-known fact that many of the living organic forms 
 in the world, .by their close resemblance to various objects in na- 
 ture, are often hidden or made less conspicuous to their enemies, 
 and so are protected and are preserved from extinction. Many 
 insects closely imitate such natural objects as the bark of certain 
 trees, various kinds of living or dead leaves, or stones, twigs, 
 lichens, and so on, thus greatly enhancing the chances for their 
 lives against enemies that are constantly in search of them for 
 food. For example, I have seen one of our common moths rest- 
 ing with its wings closed upon the bark of any large forest tree, 
 as a chestnut or oak, and so closely did its color and markings re- 
 semble that of the tree that it required the very closest scrutiny 
 to discover it. 
 
 In the East Indies they have a small caterpillar that so closely 
 resembles the form often seen in the droppings of birds, that it 
 rests quite safe from molestation; and simply hundreds of other 
 instances of protective mimicry might be given for all kinds of 
 insects. But. this law is also extended to representatives of 
 every other group of animals of both the vertebrate and inverte- 
 brate divisions. 
 
 Again certain animals imitate others, which latter enjoy im- 
 munity from attack, and thus their imitators are protected like- 
 wise. Certain flies have such close resemblance to bees, both in 
 the matter of form and coloration, that it serves them well in the 
 matter of protection: especially when these flies likewise possess 
 
FIG. 118. SEROTINE BAT (Adeloncyteris fuscus) $ , Nat. Size. 
 
 Photographed from life 
 
 Anterior view. Same specimen as in figure 117. On twig of maple. 
 
 by the Author. 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 439 
 
 the power of even making the same buzzing that the bees do, 
 producing it upon similar occasions. Did space allow, numerous 
 examples of this variety of mimicry might be cited here. 
 
 Frequently certain animals are very obnoxious to others, for 
 one reason or another; then these are seen to be very highly 
 colored, or as we say, exhibit warning coloration. Our bright lit- 
 tle Harlequin snake (Elaps) is a familiar example of this, and the 
 skunk among mammals is very distinctly colored, and apparently 
 on this account. 
 
 Just at this moment I do not happen to recall the name of a 
 naturalist who has had anything to say about cases of protec- 
 tive mimicry in bats, yet it is frequently to be noticed. One 
 warm evening last autumn I was passing through an extensive 
 swamp, in which there was a close undergrowth of hazel, oaks, 
 dwarf magnolias, and dogwood. Many of the leaves had already 
 been changed to a great variety of shades of brown, bay, chest- 
 nut, and the like, and many had already fallen to the ground. 
 For a moment I stood quiet with my gun to re-catch the note of 
 a vireo that I had heard, but the bird had escaped me. The 
 twigs of the undergrowth came very close to my face, and I had 
 been peering among those of a small oak for several moments. 
 By the command of the advancing season, many of its leaves 
 were now curled up and changed to bright browns of divers 
 shades, and at a passing glance one of these seemed to me to pos- 
 sess unusually black vein markings, and I reached out to pull it 
 off its twig. All this took but the fraction of an instant, and just 
 before my hand came in contact with this supposed-to-be leaf I 
 discovered it .to be a fine specimen of the male of our little Red 
 bat (Atalapha borealis). This little animal had been suspended 
 w r ithin a yard of my face for certainly nearly ten minutes, and yet 
 I had noticed it only as I came to move away. As it hung there by 
 its feet, its resemblance to a dead and withered leaf was truly 
 remarkable, and I studied this effect very closely before I secured 
 the specimen. 
 
 Dr. A. K. Fisher, of the United States Agricultural Depart- 
 ment at Washington, D. C., once told me of an interesting inci- 
 dent of this kind that happened to him. He was engaged in de- 
 stroying caterpillars in a fruit tree, using for the purpose a long 
 pole with a small fire-wad upon the end of it. Some of the cater- 
 pillars were in the dead and crumbled leaves, and these he was 
 touching with the flame, passing from one to the other. In the 
 
440 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 course of this operation, and very much to his surprise, one of 
 the supposed leaves, as it got its firing, instantly spread out a 
 pair of black wings, and with an angry twitter made off with a 
 singed coat. It was a Red bat that had been thus treated, and yet 
 the doctor did not recognize it until it flew to escape a further 
 scorching. Here was a case where protective mimicry did not 
 help much. 
 
 Some of our bats have the hair of a beautiful snuff-brown color, 
 as, for instance, the Serotine bat (Adclonycteris fuscus), specimens 
 of which I have kept for months at a time. These bats become so 
 tame in confinement that they will both eat and drink while being 
 held in the hand. In drinking they are very cunning, lapping the 
 water up as they do with the tongue, after the fashion of a little 
 dog. They drink a good deal, and have simply enormous appe- 
 tites. One specimen in the course of a single night consumed 
 twenty-one full grown June bugs (Laclmosterna fusca), leaving 
 only a few legs and the hard outside wing-sheaths (elytra) as evi- 
 dences of his feast and gluttony. It was extremely interesting 
 to watch him capture and devour one of these great buzzing beet- 
 les. Often I would serve him with as many as half a dozen at a 
 time, but he always ate one up entirely before attacking a second 
 victim. In holding his prey the interfemoral apron of the bat was 
 frequently used, and sometimes he devoured an entire bug in the 
 lap of it. I have heard it said that this bat also uses its apron 
 during flight, as a net to catch the larger beetles which it feeds 
 upon. By curving the membrane forward, as it notices a June 
 beetle in its flight, it can easily scoop it in, and reaching forward, 
 seize it with its teeth in an instant. When much alarmed, many 
 of our smaller bats greatly protrude the eyeballs, even to a far 
 greater extent than is seen in many small rodents. 
 
 Now, the Serotine bat very rarely suspends itself in the trees, 
 although it occasionally does so. By far its most common prac- 
 tice is to hide away in old stumps, in crevices, and in old barns 
 and similar places. When it does hang in a tree it may be easily 
 mistaken for either a dead leaf or for the fruit. (See Figs. 116, 
 117, and 118.) 
 
 Personally I have never as yet been quite able to satisfy myself 
 as to the chief enemies of the bats of the eastern part of the 
 United States. Possibly the smaller carnivora may occasionally 
 destroy them, or snakes, and under rare conditions perhaps they 
 may be captured by certain hawks and owls. Man has every 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 441 
 
 reason to protect them, as bats destroy simply millions of destruc- 
 tive insects. Yet the smaller species of temperate countries 
 rarely seem to ever increase in number to any marked extent. To 
 be sure, they have but one or two young at a time, and in the 
 north breed but once during the season; yet with so few enemies, 
 and man not in the list of these, one would think that the smaller 
 species would become very numerous, especially in those locali- 
 ties where the majority of the conditions were favorable to them. 
 During recent years a number of new species and subspecies of 
 bats have been added to the fauna of the United States, and 
 doubtless not a few still remain to rew r ard the search of the intel- 
 ligent collector. This likewise applies to the discovery of the fos- 
 sil remains of bats, as bones of insectivorous varieties of them 
 have already been found in the tertiary deposits in various local- 
 ities. 
 
CHAPTER XXIX. 
 
 Ml SKUMS AND THEIR USES I WITH SOME OBSERVATIONS ON TAX- 
 IDERMY. 
 
 this country, as in many other parts of the world, 
 nearly all of our large cities support one or more muse- 
 ums, of one kind or another. Sometimes, too, we have 
 private museums often built by some wealthy indi- 
 vidual and devoted to the containment of special collections. 
 Occasionally the public are given, upon certain days, access to 
 these latter, and rarely is any charge made therefor. Whatever 
 their pretensions may be, whether great or small, museums are 
 the material manifestations of a variety of human desires. A col- 
 lection of objects may be gotten together simply to gratify a 
 taste to amass specimens of things curious, without any regard to 
 instructive aims, classification, or naming by a system of labels. 
 There seems to be an ever-present craving on the part of the pub- 
 lic to see the unnatural, the odd, the uncanny, and the so-called 
 freaks of nature. This trait is frequently taken advantage of by 
 the mercenary, and collections are made simply to gratify it, with 
 the sole purpose in view on the part of the collector or collectors 
 to reap the pecuniary income derived from the enterprise. A 
 large part of Barnum's success lay along upon these lines, ex- 
 ploited as they were, in his early days in New York City, upon a 
 basis of unrivaled proportions. In the same category fall the 
 pseudo-museums of anatomy, often, too, developed upon a grand 
 scale, and in w r hich are exhibited by life-size models every object 
 inclined to gratify the taste for the morbid, the predilection for 
 all that is horrible, and the gratification in a visual way, of all 
 that is unchaste, and savors of pruriency. Apropos to this as- 
 pect of my subject, I would say that for many years past the 
 War Department at Washington, D. C., has supported, upon a 
 broad and extended basis, an Army Medical Museum, devoted to 
 the exhibition of army surgery; anatomy, both pathological and 
 normal; and, in short, anything scientifically illustrating the 
 medical sciences. Years ago, I held the position of a curator in 
 that museum, and was thus enabled to study the great number of 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 443 
 
 people that daily passed through its halls. All came, both men 
 and women, and I noticed that the great attraction was the cases 
 containing the monstrosities, and, if I may so express myself 
 the usual unseeables while, on the other hand, fine collections 
 of comparative osteology, instruments, relief for the wounded, 
 were passed by, by the masses, and were studied only by the few, 
 the refined, and the progressive. While serving in the above 
 capacity, I wrote quite an extensive memoir, entitled u Outlines 
 for a Museum of Anatomy," and the same was duly published by 
 the United States Bureau of Education in Washington. The 
 objects advised to be brought together in this Museum were in- 
 tended to fully illustrate, in every possible way, upon a morpho- 
 logical basis, the law of organic evolution, and that is a plan of 
 museum we greatly need in all centers in this country. It was 
 adopted by many colleges and other institutions of learning, 
 greatly to the gratification of the hopes of its author and that is 
 one kind of a museum we should have in mind. Then there are 
 museums devoted to such fields as those of manufactures and 
 patents, of the evolution of arms, of inventions, of zoology in all 
 of its departments, of botany, of coins, stamps, and other human 
 conveniences; objects illustrating geology and paleontology, of 
 ethnology, and indeed, of any other department of which 
 the human mind takes cognizance, or into which human in- 
 quisitiveness has carried its researches. Of whatever the 
 character the collection in any museum may be, however, it 
 should always be based upon the furtherance of several 
 closely allied subjects. These, although various, are akin. 
 Above all else, the object of a museum should seek to in- 
 struct, to teach, to advance the natural progressiveness of the 
 human mind. Its collections should be thoroughly illustrative 
 of the department or field it represents. Its objects should be 
 arranged in normal sequence and made comparative. For exam- 
 ple, if the museum be an ornithological one, and ornithology has 
 very largely been considered in the foregoing chapters of the 
 present work, it should be shown or set forth at the very entrance 
 to the room or rooms containing the collections, exactly what the 
 science of ornithology, in its widest sense, purports to be. This 
 can be conveniently done by means of properly printed labels, dis- 
 played in a methodical manner. Next in order should come a 
 series of models, and such actual specimens as can be obtained, 
 representing the origin of birds in paleontologic time, and their 
 
444 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 ascent from a stock common to their class and with that of rep- 
 tiles. Here, too, a system of explanatory labels should be freely 
 employed in connection with the specimens, as well as designs 
 upon the walls giving the most recent conceptions of the avian 
 genealogical tree. Exhibited next in sequence should be natur- 
 ally mounted examples of the lowest forms of existing birds, with 
 preparations of their skeletons, and other essential systems of 
 their anatomy. The linkage of these forms with those now ex- 
 tinct should be clearly indicated, as, for example, in the case of 
 the ostriches and the moas, the modern eagles with Harpagor- 
 nis, the Loons with Hesperornis, and so on, down the entire line, 
 for every natural group of the Class. These latter should follow 
 next, the most lowly organized groups coming first, and all ar- 
 ranged upon a plan, whereby the bird itself was shown (male, 
 female, and young), its seasonal changes, its structure, geo- 
 graphical distribution (by labels and maps), and, if any, its eco- 
 nomical importance to man. The matter of affinity of the various 
 natural groups can be largely shown by their juxtaposition in the 
 exhibition rooms, and by explanatory labels. Too much import- 
 ance cannot be attached to the free use of printed labels clear 
 concise, and instructive. NOW T this is an ideal outline for a typi- 
 cal museum, designed to illustrate one class of animals in zool- 
 ogy; it also represents the highest purposes and aims a museum 
 can have that is, the permanent preservation of material, ar- 
 ranged upon a plan capable of receiving additions and altera- 
 tions, and the whole subservient to the ends of education of the 
 people. Setting aside all other kinds of museums as not prop- 
 erly falling within the scope of the present work, it may be said 
 that the same ideal plan should be applied to every other depart- 
 ment of biology, and to geology. Taken as a whole, neither the 
 people nor the government of the United States appreciate the 
 necessity of creating and sustaining such educational institutions 
 as these, but the time will come when they will. We have our 
 museums, to be sure, but in these days they are more designed 
 to serve as storehouses for material, rather than to meet the 
 demands of education. The time is now ripe for the latter class; 
 science is strong enough to throw off the yoke of myth and super- 
 stition, exemplified in a heterogeneous collection of mounted 
 animals of any kind in her museums, arrayed upon a Noahchian 
 basis, and to place in their stead scientific serial exhibits, that 
 will present to the minds of the people the true manner in which 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 445 
 
 organic life arose upon the surface of the globe. Not only thi? 
 its evolution but its distribution, and thus to account for the 
 fact why one country has one kind of a flora and fauna, and an- 
 other country another kind. 
 
 But museums and the minds that give them birth and control 
 them, evolve and develop as does anything else, and along these 
 lines, every generation is marked by improvement and progress. 
 With the future will come the ideal, educational museum of biol- 
 ogy; and this being true, our interest in these institutions as they 
 now exist should in no way be lessened. We should study them 
 as they grow, and constantly help their evolution toward better 
 ends, and their true purposes. In my lifetime I have studied a 
 few of the zoological museums in our larger cities, and written 
 about them, but circumstances have been such that the major 
 share of my attention has been directed toward the National 
 Museum, of Washington, including the Smithsonian Institution. 
 
 The Ornithological Hall of this latter is a very interesting 
 room, and will well exemplify what I have just said above in 
 regard to the present condition of modern museums in this coun- 
 try. Of this hall I am enabled to offer here an excellent picture, 
 taken for me from the left-hand side of the end gallery at the east 
 extremity of the room. This gallery corresponds with the one 
 seen in the other end in the far distance in the picture. There, 
 overhead, is suspended a California condor in the act of flight, 
 while in the gallery itself are mounted specimens of various kinds 
 of ostriches, the place being a passage from the long side gal- 
 leries upon either hand. Of these, the south one is occupied by 
 Mr. Ridgway and his assistants, while the one opposite is occu- 
 pied by Mr. James E. Benedict, assistant curator of the depart- 
 ment of marine invertebrates. Similar galleries occur on the 
 eastern half of the hall, and these are for the conchologists, there 
 being a part of the shell exhibit in cases down the entire mid- 
 length of the floor below, as may be observed in the illustration. 
 
 To this hall there are midway north and south entrances, while 
 at the east end one passes by double doors into the executive 
 part of the building, and at the opposite end into another very 
 large exhibition department containing a superb display of cor- 
 als, marine invertebrates, with fish, and casts of reptiles, and so 
 on. Near this west end door there is a narrow stairway that 
 leads up to Mr. Eidgway's corridor, and to one side of it a de- 
 scending passage to the " west basement " below. In the for- 
 
446 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 mer Mr. Ridgway does much of his work, and has there thousands 
 of bird skins conveniently arranged in cased trays, and also the 
 sectional ornithological library; while in the latter, besides vast 
 supplies of other specimens and material, there are nearly 20,000 
 bird skins stored away in cases. This is a most unfortunate cir- 
 cumstance, as in such a situation this priceless collection is not 
 only most inconveniently placed, but is far harder to defend 
 against museum pests, and in the event of fire would surely all 
 be lost. This reserve series of birds ought to be in a large, well- 
 ventilated room by itself, and so arranged as to be thoroughly 
 accessible. Indeed, another entire museum building is, and has 
 been, a long standing need, and when this is obtained it is to be 
 hoped that these splendid ornithological collections of the Gov- 
 ernment will be properly cared for and allotted a department to 
 themselves. 
 
 As will be seen in my illustration, the cases containing the 
 mounted birds in this hall are confined to alcoves between the 
 columns, and below the corridors on the main floor. There are 
 also numerous separate groups of great beauty arranged in other 
 parts of the room, and in cases about the walls in the spacious 
 vestibule to the south entrance. It will also be seen that, archi- 
 tecturally, this hall is quite imposing; it is also fairly well lighted 
 in some places by large windows, while in others the sun's rays 
 never gain access, and the recesses are gloomy beyond all de- 
 scription. Too much light in rooms where mounted series of 
 birds are permanently kept is, of course, a bad thing, but, on the 
 other hand, we ought to have sufficient to distinguish one bird 
 from another at midday. Some of the birds in these cases are 
 well mounted, especially those done in recent years; but again, 
 in the older part of the exhibition series, the specimens have been 
 prepared in the vilest possible manner imaginable, without any 
 regard whatever to form, habits, or structure. These specimens 
 stand sadly in need of a thorough going over and remounting by 
 skilled taxidermical artists. (At this writing this is being done 
 in a very satisfactory manner.) 
 
 Between the arches on the outside of the railing to the corri- 
 dors, and in some places on the columns themselves, are hung 
 various pictures of birds. Many of these are copies of Audubon's 
 plates; some are Mr. Ridgway's originals; and there are some 
 half dozen of Audubon's copper plates in frames, as the one of 
 the scarlet ibis and others. The public entrance to this depart- 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 449 
 
 ment is through the north doorway, then the guard-room vesti- 
 bule, north hallway, and under the sixth arch, counting on the 
 right-hand side of the picture from east to west. The south door- 
 way of the building is but rarely used, and not by the public 
 within the writer's recollection. 
 
 One of the chief charms about this old Smithsonian hall, to 
 me, is to reflect upon its history; to think of the many distin- 
 guished ornithologists and scientists who from time to time have 
 trod upon its floors; to dwell upon the probable history of the 
 *nany specimens of the birds in the cases (who collected them, 
 and where, and under what circumstances); and finally, to ponder 
 upon what its future fate may be. It is over twenty years ago 
 since I first put foot in this old time-honored hall, and for twenty 
 years, off and on, I have passed through it pretty constantly. A 
 few dozen of the mounted birds in the cases are of my own col- 
 lecting, and I know of other bits of history pertaining to its 
 somber alcoves that would make very interesting reading, but 
 we will defer that to some other time, and likely, too, to some 
 other place. 
 
 I shall conclude the present chapter with a few general re- 
 marks upon the taxidermy of certain mammals, birds, and fish. 
 A few years ago the United States National Museum published 
 for me, with nearly one hundred full-page plates, my work upon 
 " Scientific Taxidermy for Museums," and in that memoir the 
 systems of taxidermy employed in this country were quite fully 
 discussed, so in the present place, as a means of comparison, I 
 will direct ni3 T attention to the work in Europe, exemplifying the 
 better class of it by what has recently been accomplished in the 
 Leyden Museum, of Leyden, Holland. I am the better prepared 
 to do this inasmuch as Mr. H. H. ter Meer, Jr., the taxidermist 
 of that institution, has kindly sent me many photographs of the 
 pieces he has mounted, as well as some of those done by >his 
 father, Mr. H. H. ter Meer, Sr., who shares his labors with him. 
 Several of these photographs will be reproduced here, with brief 
 criticism upon them, and also a little of the natural history of the 
 animals themselves, which is quite entertaining. After the skin 
 has been removed and prepared, Mr. ter Meer makes a model of 
 the external form of the larger specimens out of a composition 
 known fully only to himself. Peat enters very largely into this 
 material, and it is of such a consistency that all the muscles and 
 external parts can be exactly copied, while at the same time a 
 
450 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 perfectly lifelike attitude can be given to the form, as designed by 
 the taxidermic artist. Over this the skin is placed and fastened 
 by methods that subsequently give it all the appearance of the 
 animal or specimen in life. I cannot in a brief chapter give all 
 the details necessary to accomplish this, nor the great care and 
 skill it demands, but after many years of experimentation the 
 artisans of the Leyden Museum have reduced this operation to a 
 positive science, and in most cases, as will be seen later on, the 
 results are extremely satisfactory. 
 
 One of the most recent achievements in this direction has been 
 the mounting of a remarkably fine specimen of that most extraor- 
 dinary of fishes, the Sunfish. I refer to the Mola rotunda of Cu- 
 vier, the Orthagoriscus mola of some authors, the 0. nasus of 
 others. In operating upon this specimen, the first step taken was 
 to secure as good a photograph as could be obtained of the dead 
 fish after it came into the hands of the taxidermists. Next, be- 
 fore the specimen was skinned, an accurate outline was made a 
 most important step in the procedure. Then, in much reduced 
 size, the fish was modeled in clay, and from that model the speci- 
 men was reproduced (after being skinned) in the aforesaid mate- 
 rial, the interior of this last model being left hollow, in order to 
 render it as light as possible. This model resembles exactly the 
 skinned fish, and over it the skin was placed, with every neces- 
 sary precaution to reproduce the animal as it appeared in life. 
 Thousands of pins were used to make the skin fit properly into 
 the sulci among the various muscles and elsewhere; the internal 
 surface of skin being first poisoned with a preparation of dex- 
 trine, arsenic, and water, so that after the pins were removed the 
 skin retained the exact position on the model that had been given 
 it through their use. Finally, after the skin had become thor- 
 oughly dry it was tinted with the proper pigments, so as to lend 
 to it the original color the fish had when alive. The setting of the 
 artificial eye, the restoration of the mouth parts and fins, of 
 course, all require the special care of the artist and make due 
 demands upon his skill. 
 
 Owing to the fact that there are certain osseous formations in 
 the skin at the snout, in the neighborhood of the pectoral fins, 
 and the free margins of the tail, the model in these situations 
 does not exactly agree in outline with the mounted specimen. 
 
 This preparation has been adversely criticised by some Ameri- 
 can taxidermists, who claim that the longitudinal wrinkles shown 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 451 
 
 in the piece behind and below the pectoral fin, are of postmortem 
 origin, and do not exist in the living fish. They are certainly not 
 shown in Gorde's fine figure of this form (Plate 35. The Fishery 
 Industries of the United States). 
 
 The specimen in the Leyden Museum measured from the tip of 
 the snout to the extremity of the tail 184 centimeters, and from 
 the tip of the dorsal fin to the tip of the anal fin 218 centimeters, 
 
 
 FIG. 120. MODEL OF SUNFISH, READY TO RECEIVE THE SKIN. 
 
 Prepared and photographed by Mr. H. H. ter Meer, Jr. 
 
 making it a fish of by no means an insignificant size. And, to tell 
 the truth, these Sunfish do attain to proportions not to be de- 
 spised, for, according to Goode, one was brought to the San 
 Francisco market some years ago that weighed no less than 636 
 pounds. 
 
 The Sunfish belongs to the family Orthagoriscidce, and it is 
 claimed that two species of them occur in the western Atlantic, 
 
452 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 the common one being 0. mola. Headfish is the vernacular name 
 for them in many localities, though Sunfish is the more common 
 one. They have acquired the latter appellation from the habit 
 they possess of lazily floating at the surface of the sea in a flat- 
 wise position, the whole glistening side of the creature being just 
 below the surface of the water. As thus engaged the waves 
 break over them, and the pectoral fin of the uppermost side is 
 languidly waved to and fro in the air. A dozen or more may thus 
 be seen from the deck of one's boat during the course of a day 
 almost anywhere along our coast, and owing to their conspicuous 
 size, that, too, at a considerable distance off. Many fishermen 
 find sport in harpooning them as they float in this manner, and 
 the ponderous fellows make no mean struggle for life afterward. 
 I have also read accounts of hunting them aboard a yacht or 
 steam launch with a heavy rifle or carbine. At such times ten or 
 a dozen of them are started, and swimming in the vertical atti- 
 tudes, offer no easy mark for the riflemen, as they are pursued in 
 their wake. When thus swimming the dorsal portion of the fish's 
 body is above the surface of the water, and its great dorsal fin 
 forms a very conspicuous object. 
 
 Big Sunfishes may attain a length of at least eight feet and 
 weigh as much as 800 pounds ; but after one has captured a speci- 
 men, it is fit for nothing, except to study, look at, and wonder 
 about. Goode says the " flesh is thin and hard, and, when cooked, 
 separates into oil and bunches of tough fibers." As long ago as 
 1740 Dr. Barlow, an Englishman, suggested making glue of them, 
 but his bright idea seems never to have been carried out. At 
 Cape Cod the fishermen extract the oil from the livers of Sunfish 
 and believe there is nothing equal to it as a remedy for contu- 
 sions and sprains. 
 
 In life the skin of the Sunfish has a brilliant silvery appear- 
 ance, and at night is said to be highly phosphorescent. Some 
 people say that this is the reason it has been called Sunfish, or 
 Moonfish, as others name it. Jellyfish, or Sunsqualls, are con- 
 sumed by them in great numbers, but as they are endowed with 
 powerful mandibles, it is by no means unlikely that they also 
 seek tougher foods. So far as the writer is aware, and unless the 
 knowledge has been recently acquired, we are utterly ignorant 
 as yet of the breeding habits of Mola, or even the localities fre- 
 quented by them for that purpose; every once in a while a young 
 one is captured, and that in mid-ocean. Although I sailed for an 
 
FIG. 121. ANTERIOR VIEW OF MOUNTED SUNFISH. 
 
 Same specimen as shown in Fig. 122. 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 455 
 
 entire year in the Gulf of Mexico, I never observed a Sunfish in 
 those seas, and do not believe they occur there; indeed, it is said 
 that it is not until we come to the coasts of New England and 
 that, too, in the summer-time before we begin to meet with 
 them. According to Dr. Goode two large specimens were cap- 
 tured at the mouth of the Saint John's river, Florida, during the 
 winter of 1874-75. With certain exceptions then, the Mola is 
 pretty generally distributed throughout the tropical and temper- 
 
 122. LEFT LATERAL VIEW OF A MOUNTED SPECIMEN OF A 
 SUNFISH READY FOE MUSEUM EXHIBITION. 
 
 Prepared and photographed by Mr. H. H. ter Meer, Jr., of the Leyden Museum. 
 
 ate seas of the world. Dr. Jordan assures us that a smaller spe- 
 cies, the Ranzania truncata of science, has been captured in vari- 
 ous parts of the Atlantic and Pacific, but never nearer to our 
 coasts than the Bermudas. It is distinguished by possessing a 
 much more elongated form. The Bermudan specimen measured 
 only eight inches in length, and was taken as long ago as 1878 
 When in a sportive mood, old Sunfishes have the habit of leaping 
 
456 
 
 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 out of the water something after the manner 1 of a porpoise. 
 This has been noticed oft* the coast of California, where perhaps 
 this, one of the most grotesque of all fishes, is as abundant as 
 it is in any other part of the world. 
 
 In the mounting of mammals the same general principles are 
 employed. This is well-shown in the group of Jackals (Canis 
 aureus), mounted at the Leyden Museum, it being composed of 
 the adult pair, five young ones, and a fowl which has been killed 
 by the robber male and brought to the pups at the entrance of 
 the den. Both the hen and the young Jackals were mounted by 
 Mr. ter Meer's father, and are fine pieces of work in each instance, 
 as may be seen in the accompanying reproduction of the proto- 
 graph of this group sent me by the artists. We have in the ac- 
 cessories an excellent representation of a North African scene 
 on the border of the desert where the sandstone soil barely sup- 
 
 FIG. 124. MODEL or JACKAL. 
 
 $ > showing superficial muscles : ready to receive the skin. Prepared by H. H. ter Meer, Jr. 
 
 ports a meager and widely scattered growth of cactus and agave. 
 The rock masses in the scene are modeled upon cardboard by the 
 use of Mr. ter Meer's own composition; while the forms of these 
 bowlders were obtained from photographs of similar scenes in 
 North Africa, kindly loaned for the purpose by Mr. Krause, con- 
 servator to the Geological Museum of Leyden ; and from the same 
 source was likewise obtained a sufficient quantity of the sand of 
 the desert from such a place as to insure the selection of the 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 459 
 
 proper color to paint the rock masses after their modeling had 
 been completed. 
 
 The female in this group of Jackals has been placed in a very 
 natural attitude, it being one of attention, complacently regard- 
 ing as she is her frolicsome progeny, two or three of which are 
 engaged in assisting in the despoliation of the victimized fowl. 
 The male Jackal is equally good, if not better, than the mate, for 
 the pose is more difficult to reproduce, yet it has been admirably 
 accomplished. 
 
 In making the model over which the skin is subsequently fixed, 
 the same principle and the same material is followed and used as 
 was described in the case of the Sunfish. But in the mammal, a 
 
 FIG. 125. MODEL OF JACKAL, 9 (Canis aureus). 
 
 Companion to Fig. 124, by Mr. terMeer, Jr. 
 
 much higher degree of skill is demanded, inasmuch as the super- 
 ficial muscles require very accurate knowledge and treatment. 
 Now in both these old Jackals all the chief muscles of the ex- 
 ternal layer were reproduced in the models, as will be seen in 
 Figs. 124 and 125. These muscles I have carefully examined in 
 the photographs, and find that they have been reproduced with 
 marked fidelity to nature; they are excellent. 
 
 This is the only way that perfection can be attained : We must 
 obtain the best possible photographs of the living animal in as 
 many attitudes as desired; we must take all necessary measure- 
 ments before the skin is removed; we must take afterward casts 
 of the carcass and make other photographs, and take plenty more 
 
460 
 
 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 measurements; we must make accurate records of the coloration 
 of all skin and other parts as they appeared in life; and finally, 
 in every step of the mounting we must keep nature in our eye, 
 so that the hands faithfully reproduce all that the mind sees and 
 our knowledge appreciates. Faultlessly reproduce nature, and 
 in a manner that the methods employed result in rendering the 
 work practically permanent, unchangeable, and indestructible 
 by the ordinary action of time, pests, and climatic influences. 
 When you can do this, fame soon follows. 
 
 Another good piece is the Fox shown in Fig. 126. It is a very 
 neat and natural piece of work, and does the artist credit. 
 
 How often it is that some sportsman loses a favorite dog, and 
 would love to have him prepared by the hands of the taxidermist 
 
 FIG. 126. MOUNTED SPECIMEN OF Fox (Canis wdpes). 
 
 By H. H. ter Meer, Jr., in the Leyden Museum of Holland. 
 
 in some natural, restful, and yet characteristic attitude, so that 
 some nook in the gun room might harbor the hero of other days, 
 and recall hours spent together afield in seasons long gone by. 
 What are the results and the outcome of such a wish in the vast 
 mjority of instances? Terrible. Stiff, awkward, and scarcely 
 recognizable. " Poor old fellow! " you say, as it is brought home, 
 and the first desire that siezes upon you is that the hideous phan- 
 tom of your old favorite be hastily and forever now removed from 
 sight. You cannot bear to look upon those senseless eyes and 
 that distorted form. Yet did you but possess a good photograph 
 of the animal, and the dead companion were prepared after the 
 methods employed at the Leyden Museum, how different the re- 
 sult would be; you would know your friend whenever your eye 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 461 
 
 fell upon it, and instead of continually wishing it out of your 
 sight, you would, ever and anon, just for old times' sake, feel like 
 patting it on the head, with the wish that you had the power to 
 restore it to life. 
 
 A Jackal has always reminded me of our well-known Coyote 
 (Canis latrans), with a strong dash of the fox and dog in it; in- 
 deed, not a few of our naturalist friends in Europe are of the 
 opinion that several of the partly domesticated breeds of dogs 
 in northern Africa and in Asia are derived from the common 
 Jackal (Canis aureus). Canine in anatomical structure, it is also 
 largely canine in external appearance; and in the region they in- 
 habit there are several well-marked varieties of them. Accord- 
 ing to a good authority at hand, the Jackal resembles any of the 
 foxy types of dogs " in dentition, in the roundness of its eye 
 pupils, in its period of gestation, and to a large extent also in 
 its habits, while, like the dog, it is subject to hydrophobia. It 
 grows to a height of 15 inches at the shoulders, and to a length 
 of about two feet, exclusive of its bushy, fox-like tail. Its fur is 
 of a grayish yellow color, darker on the back and lighter colored 
 beneath. An excresence consisting of a horny cone, half an inch 
 in length, and concealed by a tuft of hair, is, according to Emer- 
 son Tennant, sometimes found on the head of the Jackal. The 
 Singhalese aver that it is only found on the leader of the pack, 
 and they esteem it as an invaluable talisman." 
 
 Gregarious by nature, rapacious, cunning, and thieving, these 
 animals are a perfect pest to man throughout the country where 
 they occur. Poultry suffer especially, though the pack will not 
 hesitate to attack the larger quadrupeds or make prey of the 
 smaller varieties. They hunt chiefly at night, hiding in the 
 jungle during the daytime. A pack may consist of as many as 
 250 individuals; so when a raid is instituted upon the farmyard 
 by such a canine battalion, flock and fowl usually suffer pretty 
 severely. In the absence of fresh food a Jackal will eat carrion, 
 and so they score at least one point in their favor by becoming at 
 times useful scavengers. When carrion and live stock are both 
 absent, these fellows quickly take to grapes and other small 
 fruits, and so the vineyards and orchards suffer instead of the 
 farmyards and sheep pens. A hyaena-like cry, peculiar and pierc- 
 ing, is possessed by this animal, and when a whole pack opens in 
 chorus at night the effect is more or less blood-curdling and 
 alarming. Captain Beechey notices it as having something 
 
462 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 rather appalling when heard for the first time at night, and he 
 remarks that as they usually come in packs, the first shriek 
 which is uttered is always the signal for a general chorus. " We 
 hardly know," continued the captain, " a sound which partaken 
 less of harmony than that which is at present in question; and, 
 indeed, the sudden burst of the answering, long-protracted 
 scream, succeeding immediately to the opening note, is scarcely 
 less impressive than the roll of the thunder clap immediately 
 after a flash of lightning. The effect of this music is very much 
 increased when the first note is heard in the distance a circum- 
 stance which often occurs and the answering yell bursts out 
 from several points at once, within a few yards or feet of the- 
 place where the auditors are sleeping." 
 
 People residing in India often find pretty good sport in hunting 
 jackals w r ith foxhounds and greyhounds; and, as the animal is 
 endowed with no mean amount of cunning, he is not far behind 
 the average fox in the chase. It is said that their bite is more 
 than severe, and that if run down they will feign death in order 
 to escape being taken. When domesticated, in habits and much 
 else they remind one of certain breeds of dogs, wagging their 
 tails when called, or crouching upon the ground when rebuked. 
 
 Like foxes, the jackals have a peculiar, not to say offensive, 
 odor about them, due to the secretion of a gland at the base of 
 the tail. In domesticated individuals this feature is not nearly 
 so apparent as in the wild animals. 
 
 Jackals have been charged with the crime of grave-robbing, 
 and especially the shallow graves of soldiers on the field after 
 battle, but how much truth there may be in this accusation the 
 present writer is unable to say. In the case of the coyote of the 
 west, however, I know it to be true, for years ago, when stationed 
 as post surgeon at a far western post, there were hung one even- 
 ing near the fort two notorious " road-agents " (stage-robbers), 
 and they were awarded shallow graves under the cottonwood- 
 tree where they met their fate. A few days after I was collecting 
 birds in the neighborhood, and stepping over to this place of 
 burial, I observed a spacious burrow leading down to either body. 
 Three or four coyotes stood off at no great distance watching my 
 movements, and there can hardly be any doubt but that they 
 were the authors of the desecration. 
 
 Recently I have read a senseless discussion in reference to 
 Samson, who, it is claimed in ancient literature, placed firebrands 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 463 
 
 between the tails of three hundred foxes, in order that the ani- 
 mals thus dealt with might set fire to the grain-fields of the 
 Philistines. It was not the absolute impossibility of such an 
 occurrence ever having taken place, but the narrator desired to 
 have his readers inform him whether it was the more likely that 
 the animals referred to in the account were Jackals (Can is 
 aureus) or the common foxes of that region (Canis vulpes). He 
 is careful to point out, is this disputant, that near Joppa, about 
 Gaza, and in Galilee, that the Jackals are far more abundant 
 than the foxes. Speaking of foxes, there are quite a number of 
 them in our United States fauna. For example there is the com- 
 mon Red Fox (Vulpes f. fulvus), a larger and a handsomer ani- 
 mal than the common fox of Europe, shown in Figure 126 of the 
 present chapter, and with somewhat different habits. 
 
 We also have in Arctic America and northern United States 
 the Silver or Black Fox (V. f. argentatus), and the Cross Fox (V. 
 f. decussatus), while confined in the Arctic regions we have the 
 Arctic Fox (T. lagopus). In suitable localities in the west one 
 meets with the Kit or Swift Fox (V. velox), and the Prairie Fox 
 (V. macrurus), while on the Calif ornian coast occurs the Coast 
 Gray Fox, belonging to a different genus (Urocyon v. littoral is), 
 This genus also contains another species of general distribution 
 in this country southward as far as Costa Rica; I refer to the 
 Gray Fox (U. mrginianus). Doubtless there are other varieties 
 that have been found, or are yet to reward the researches of the 
 explorer. Coyotes are more closely related to the wolves (Canis 
 'latrans), as the common gray wolf of North America (C. lupus 
 griseo-albus) . What has been written about foxes would cer- 
 tainly fill many goodly volumes, and these cunning animals 
 surely deserve to have their exploits thus preserved. There are 
 about thirty or thirty-five species of Vulpes known, and by no 
 means a few good subspecies. 
 
 All of these animals of which I have been writing about here 
 belong to the very interesting group of dog-like forms, constitut- 
 ing the family Canidce. As a whole this group or section has been 
 termed by naturalists the Cynoidea, it being one of the divisions 
 of the true order of the carnivora. To it belong all the breeds 
 of the common domestic dogs, the origin of which is still a mat- 
 ter of doubt in the minds of mammalogists. Then it includes the 
 fine series of wolves and foxes of various parts of the w r orld as 
 well as certain types of small and elegant fox-like animals of 
 
464 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 Africa, that develop enormous ears, and are endowed with ex- 
 traordinary powers of hearing. The Fennec and the Otocyon 
 are good examples of these last-named genera. We have much to 
 learn about them yet. The Dingo of Australia, a fox-like dog, 
 occurs both wild and in a semi-domesticated state as a companion 
 of the aboriginal people of that land. 
 
 Many naturalists and anatomists have devoted themselves to 
 the history of this group, and the researches of the paleontolo- 
 gists in various parts of the world have been rewarded by find- 
 ing the fossil remains of different species of the Canidce, and not 
 a few of their extinct allies. 
 
 Among unskilled and thoughtless taxidermists the opinion is 
 more or less prevalent that in the case of mounting any large 
 mammal endowed with a heavy coat of hair a long and thick 
 pelage in other words it becomes unnecessary in manufacturing 
 the model to take any pains in reproducing the superficial mus- 
 cles as they occur in life. This is undoubtedly a great mistake, 
 and is doubtless best exhibited in such a group of animals as we 
 see in the bears. If a taxidermist, in making his model for a bear, 
 makes the body and limbs round and smooth, and utterly ignores 
 the sulci and elevations created thereon by the various groups of 
 muscles of the external muscular layer, he deceives himself; and 
 when the animal's skin is placed over such a model and adjusted 
 with the view of having the specimen appear life-like, it will be 
 found to be quite impossible and the result far from a natural 
 appearance, and consequently to that degree unsatisfactory. In 
 Fig. 127 is shown a reproduction of the photograph of the model 
 that was made for a Polar bear and used in its mounting. It will 
 be seen that considerable pains were taken in carving out the 
 superficial muscles as they are developed in life, and the great 
 advantage gained thereby is at once apparent in the finished 
 specimen here shown in Fig. 128. 
 
 The large tendon in each hinder limb, the muscles of the 
 thighs, of the shoulders, and the fore part of the neck, as sculpt 
 in the model, have all had their influence in giving character to 
 the finished piece, and the general result and effect are most ad- 
 mirable. 
 
 As I have remarked, the Polar bear shown in Fig. 128 is but a 
 young animal, and the subadult specimens of this species are 
 larger than the adults of some other kinds; indeed, a full grown 
 Polar bear is snid to exceed in size the largest Grizzly. Records 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 465 
 
 are not hard to find of their having attained a length of 9 feet 
 and a weight of 1,600 pounds. It is claimed by some that in the 
 case of this species the female alone hibernates, and that the 
 male may be seen abroad at all seasons. Owing to the fact that 
 this bear is an arctic variety, the sportsmen of the country but 
 rarely have the opportunity of hunting it; and consequently we 
 must turn to the accounts left us by the famous explorers of 
 those frigid regions in order to gain any knowledge of the habits 
 of this species. Sabine, Cartwright, Lyon, Sir John Boss, Sir 
 Edward Perry, Franklin, Eichardson, Dr. Kane, and a host of 
 more recent explorers have made the habits and geographical 
 range of Thalassarctos well known to us; and these narratives 
 are of a nature sufficiently exciting to arouse the enthusiasm of 
 
 FIG. 127. FINISHED MODEL FOR YOUNG POLAR BEAR 
 
 (Thalassarctos maritimus). 
 
 one who perhaps has become more or less satiated by the untold 
 numbers of black bears and grizzlies he has slain. 
 
 A peculiar character seen in the Polar bear is that this species 
 has a good growth of fine hair upon the soles of its feet. It is a 
 remarkable nice provision, for it not only keeps the animal's 
 pedal extremities warm while tramping over the ice, but it also 
 renders the slipping about upon the same footing far less likely. 
 There are some splendid bear pits here in the National Zoologi- 
 cal Gardens of Washington, D. C., and among the various species 
 of bears confined therein we also find two or three fine examples 
 of the Polar. Their habits in confinement are very interesting 
 and well deserving of close study, and this study has been 
 
466 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 bestowed upon them in many of the zoological gardens of the 
 world. 
 
 Speaking of zoological gardens and Polar bears reminds me 
 of an instance that fell within my own experience a good many 
 years ago. Dr. W. A. Conklin was, at the time referred to, the 
 superintendent of the gardens of Central Park in New York City, 
 and he was doing the writer the honor of showing him the ani- 
 mals under his charge, as well as the general arrangement of his 
 then much cramped institution. We were standing in front of 
 the bars that confined the Polar bears to their pit; an old male 
 of the species within his prison stood close to us, and he was 
 yawning most heavily. A young city Arab about fifteen years 
 old, lustily smoking a cigarette, had strolled up and stood next 
 to me in front of the bars. As the bear gave his perhaps final 
 deep yawn it appeared to be too much for this depraved son of 
 the streets, who, with a precision equaled only by the brutality 
 of the act, tossed the lighted end of his finished cigarette down 
 the gaping throat of the ursine representative of the boreal re- 
 gions of the earth. The animal, smarting under the sudden and 
 intense pain, first snapped his powerful jaws together, the pecu- 
 liar noise created thereby attracting not only the attention of Dr. 
 Conklin, but also that of all the spectators standing nearby. But 
 this was not all, for the now infuriated bear rose to his full 
 height upon his hind legs and gave vent to a roar that seems to 
 me ought to have been distinctly heard by another entirely dif- 
 ferent kind of bear, or bears, down in their Wall street dens. Dr. 
 Conklin quickly turned to me, to ascertain if I knew what in the 
 world could be the matter with the fellow, when, with equal 
 promptitude, the nature of the case was pointed out to him. 
 Without a word of warning he pounced upon the culprit, and 
 begging me to accompany him, he was, with many a hearty shake 
 and admonition, ushered into the presence of the park police 
 court, where a stiff fine was very soon imposed upon the fiendish 
 perpetrator of the deed. As we passed away from the pit I 
 turned back, and noticed the outlandish capers of the poor bear 
 as he smarted under the sudden pain to which he had been in- 
 flicted. 
 
 With respect to the small carnivora, we find a well-mounted 
 piece of the Pine Marten (Mustela martes. Linn.) that I am per- 
 mitted to present in Fig. 126, it being the reproduction of a photo- 
 graph of a specimen of that animal mounted by Mr. ter Meer, Jr. 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 469 
 
 This appears to be a very accurate piece of work, and if one will 
 compare it with the figure of this species that illustrates the ar- 
 ticle Marten in the ninth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica 
 (Vol. XV., p. 577), it will at once be appreciated that there are 
 some striking points of difference. These differences refer es- 
 pecially to the snout and the tail; the former being too acute in 
 the aforesaid drawing, and the latter not near full and bushy 
 enough. I find this to be the case with respect to other well- 
 known figures as compared with the Leyden Museum specimen. 
 Here is an instance, then, wherein the camera triumphs over the 
 unaided eye of the artist in portraying objects of this kind. And 
 the more this instrument is scientifically used in this direction, 
 so much the better will it be for the interests of pictorial zoology. 
 
 According to Sir William H. Flower, the Martens constitute a 
 small but well-defined section of the family Mustelidw, belonging 
 to theArctoid or Bear-like division of the order Carnivora. The 
 Pine Marten is one of the best known species of this group, and is 
 found in various localities throughout northern Europe and Asia. 
 It is hardly to be distinguished from the North American Sable, 
 or Marten (M. americana) , of the fur countries of this continent. 
 A closely related form, both in structure and habits, is the Beech 
 Marten (M . foina) of the more boreal districts of the Old World, 
 Sweden and Norway excepted. In eastern Siberia the true Sable 
 exists (M. zibellina) ; while in Japan we have still another species, 
 the M. melampus of science. M. flavigula occurs in some parts of 
 the Himalayas, Ceylon, Java, and the Malay Peninsula. Lastly, in 
 the more northern parts of the United States and British Ameri- 
 ca, we meet with the famous Pekan, or Fisher, sometimes called 
 Pennant's Marten; quite a remarkable animal. 
 
 Be it remembered, then, that out of the genus Mustela we have 
 at least two well-recognized species of Martens in the United 
 States, viz., the American Sable (M. americana), and the Pekan 
 (M. pennanti). With us the family Mustelidce also contains the 
 otters, the skunks, the badgers, the wolverine, the mink, the 
 ferrets, the ermine, or stoat (Putorius erminea), and the wea- 
 sels. A quite extensive literature has been devoted to the Mus- 
 telidw, that is full of interest even for the general reader, but my 
 space limits will not admit of my touching upon the natural his- 
 tory and geographical distribution .of these animals in the pres- 
 ent connection. In passing I am compelled to remark, however, 
 that I have been greatly surprised at the inaccuracy of many of 
 
470 
 
 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 the figures of the representatives of this group throughout the 
 works devoted to their biology, and that zoological photographer 
 who gives his attention to making serviceable photographic il- 
 lustrations, from life, of any of these animals, will indeed not 
 have squandered his time, nor misplaced his labor, for biological 
 science will have been distinctly benefited thereby. 
 
 In mounting a specimen like the South American Ostrich, bet- 
 ter known as the Rhea (Rhea americana), the same plan is fol- 
 lowed, and requires no detailed description here after what has 
 already been set forth above. 
 
 Existing Ostrich-birds form a distinct division of the Class 
 . 1 rex, and include such forms as the true ostriches of Africa; the 
 
 PIG. 129. MOUNTED SPECIMEN OF THE EUROPEAN PINE MARTEN 
 
 (JM. martes). 
 
 Property of the Leyden Museum, and prepared by H. H. ter Meer, Jr. 
 
 Cassowaries, emeu, and the rheas; while the extinct types 
 known to us are the moas and the roc. Some authors include 
 the kiw r is and tinamous in this group, but from such a view the 
 present writer departs. Of the genus Rhea we have three species 
 in South America, inhabiting different regions, the precise limits 
 of which have not as yet been distinctly defined. Then* are the 
 Xandu (If. (inn'rinina) (Fig. 130); the Patagoniaii rhea, or Petise 
 (R. d(inrhii) ; and the Long-billed rhea ( l\. nmcmrlii/iicha). New- 
 ton in the Dictioiiuri/ of Itirdx remarks: "On the 'pampas' A*. 
 fiim-ricana is said to associate with herds of deer (Cariacnx cain- 
 pestris), and R. darwini to be the constant companion of guana 
 cos (Lama Jiuanacus); just as in Africa the ostrich seeks the so- 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 471 
 
 ciety of zebras and antelopes. As for R. macrorhyncha, it was 
 found by Forbes (Ibis, 1881, pp. 360, 361) to inhabit the dry and 
 open t sertoes ' of northeastern Brazil, a discovery the more in- 
 teresting since it was in that part of the country that Marcgrave 
 and Piso became acquainted with a bird of this kind, though the 
 existence of any species of Rhea in the district had been long- 
 overlooked by or unknown to succeeding travelers." (Part III., 
 p. 788.) 
 
 The Nandu is not nearly so big as an African ostrich, and it, 
 among numerous other characters, is further distinguished from 
 
 FIG. 130. RHEA AMERICANA. 
 
 Collection of the Leydeu Museum in Holland. Mounted by H. H. ter Meer, Sr. 
 
 it by the structure of its plumage, the fact that it has three toes 
 upon each foot instead of only two, and by the head being nearly 
 completely feathered. Its plumes have none of the beauty of 
 those of the true ostrich, which is doubtless a very fortunate cir- 
 cumstance for the bird, as man can only find use for them in the 
 manufacture of light dusting-brooms. Although not of recent 
 date, some of the best natural history accounts of the Nandu are 
 to be found in Mr. Darwin's famous work, Tlie Voyage of tlte 
 Beagle, while not a few other authors have given descriptions of 
 
472 CHAPTERS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 the exciting hunts for these great birds of the plains, and how 
 the lasso and bolas are used in their capture by the horsemen 
 pursuing them. With the wind in their favor, however, and set- 
 ting their wings as sails, the Nandu in the race soon leaves a 
 horseman astern. Consequently the huntsmen are obliged to 
 partially surround them, several riders usually forming the hunt- 
 ing party. These birds, although slow, are by no means bad 
 swimmers, and take to the water most readily. Frequently, too, 
 they will feed upon small fish, though roots and grass compose 
 their ordinary diet. Darwin noticed that they would squat down 
 and conceal themselves in the tall rushes of the river-banks and 
 remain in such a situation until closely approached by the one 
 who observed them; and this eminent writer says the "inhabit- 
 ants of the country readily distinguish, even at a distance, the 
 cock bird from the hen. The former is larger and darker colored, 
 and has a bigger head. The ostrich, I believe the cock, emits a 
 singular, deep-toned, hissing note. When first I heard it, stand- 
 ing in the midst of some sand-hillocks, I thought it was made by 
 some wild beast, for it is a sound that one cannot tell whence it 
 comes, or from how far distant." 
 
 In a foot note to these remarks he adds, " A Gaucho assured 
 me that he had once seen a snow- white or albino variety, and that 
 it was a most beautiful bird." A nest of this species is a mere 
 shallow excavation, containing on the average from twenty to 
 thirty eggs; the male alone incubates and cares for the brood. 
 Many additional eggs are dropped by the hen over the pampas 
 that are never hatched. The cock is a close sitter, allowing him- 
 self almost to be ridden over before taking himself off; several 
 hens are said to lay in the same nest, and as many as fifty eggs 
 have been found in one. Azara says eighty. Cock birds are dan- 
 gerous when in charge of the brood, and will even attempt to kick 
 a man off a horse. 
 
 Among British ornithologists the best published accounts of 
 the three species of Khea are given by Darwin, Sclater, Newton, 
 Harting, Forbes, and Cunningham. Sir Eichard Owen, Prof. 
 Huxley, and Dr. Gadow have written much upon their anatomy; 
 while travelers of other nationalities, as Azara, Prince Max of 
 Weid, and Prof. Burmeister, have left us many interesting de- 
 scriptions of their habits and general natural history. 
 
 THE END. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 A. 
 
 Abbott, C. C., cited on Crayfishes 45, 46 
 
 Abbott, Jos. De B., on Crayfish 46, 47 
 
 Acrobata 404 
 
 /Eschua: 
 
 habits of the genus 38 
 
 heros . . . . 34 
 
 grandis 34 
 
 Agaphelus gibbosus 376 
 
 Agrioiiidse 34 
 
 Agrious, eggs of 37 
 
 Aldus ocelata. common name for 105 
 
 Alcse, as a suborder of birds 174 
 
 birds representing the 174 
 
 Alcidae, affinities of 167 
 
 Alcock, A., work with deep-sea fishes... 79 
 
 Alle alle, where found 177 
 
 Allen, Harrison, on Bats 432 
 
 Alligator: 
 
 Florida 159 
 
 habits of 159, 160 
 
 origin of name 157 
 
 spectacled 158 
 
 Alligators 156 
 
 as distinguished from Crocodiles . . 156 
 
 Amber, Fossil Spiders in 34 
 
 Amber, Insects preserved in 27 
 
 Ambergris, nature of 379 
 
 Amblystoma tegrinum 96 
 
 Amblystomas 96 
 
 American Crossbills, in confinement .... 338 
 
 myths about 339 
 
 Ampclis pJiocn icopterus 292 
 
 Ampelidae, origin of English names for 
 
 species of 297, 298 
 
 the family 297 
 
 Amphibia, animals grouped under 91 
 
 Amphibians, a group of the gnatJwsto- 
 
 mata 26 
 
 Ampliioxus 25 
 
 where classified . . . 26 
 
 AmpTiiuma means 91 
 
 AnacantMni 80 
 
 Anatomy: 
 
 defined 22 
 
 developmental 23 
 
 Fossil 23 
 
 topographical 22 
 
 Ancistrodon 138 
 
 Angel-fish 70 
 
 Anguillidae, literature of 134 
 
 Animal, zoological meaning of 134 
 
 Animals: 
 
 classification of 21 
 
 multi-celled 25 
 
 Anis, a genus of Cuckoos 268 
 
 Anolidac, a genus of Lizards 109 
 
 Anolis principalis 109, 113, 115, 116 
 
 Annulosa, groups of 44 
 
 Anomaluria, the family 404 
 
 Antelopes and Ostriches 471 
 
 Ants, protective mimicry in 33 
 
 Anura 91, 100 
 
 Apodes 82 
 
 Arachnirfa 44 
 
 amount of literature on 28 
 
 PACE 
 
 a class of invertebrates 27 
 
 a group containing the Spiders .... 28 
 
 Arthropoda 44 
 
 of the invertebrata 27 
 
 Articulata 44 
 
 Asclcpias incarnata, in nest of Yellow 
 
 Warbler 324 
 
 Asio, the genus 233 
 
 Astacidae, A revision of the 44 
 
 Astacus, a genus of Crayfishes 44 
 
 Aspidonectcs ferox 154 
 
 spinifcr 154 
 
 Assapaus, a name for Flying Squirrels. . 399 
 
 Audubon on Crayfish 48 
 
 on Loons and Divers 174 
 
 Auk: 
 
 characters of the 177 
 
 habits of 177 
 
 Razor-billed 177 
 
 Auk, the Great 174, 179 
 
 Auklet: 
 
 Least and Rhinoceros 178 
 
 Whiskered 175, 178 
 
 Auklets, genus of 177 
 
 Auks, systematic position of 174 
 
 Axolotls, history of 99 
 
 Azara on Ostriches 472 
 
 B. . 
 
 Badger 469 
 
 Baker, Sir Samuel, on Crocodiles as food 163 
 
 Balacna, species of the genus 376, 377 
 
 Balacnidae, the family 376 
 
 Balaenoptera, the speries of the genus. . . 376 
 
 Balanoglossus 25 
 
 where classified 26 
 
 Bandicoots 372 
 
 Bat: 
 
 Hoary, habits of 432 
 
 Pale 432 
 
 Red 432 
 
 Serotine 432, 435, 440 
 
 Batoidei 70 
 
 Bats: 
 
 anatomy of 427 
 
 books about 431 
 
 distribution of 427 
 
 hibernation of 435 
 
 Long-eared 427 
 
 Leaf -nosed 427 
 
 methods of capturing 435 
 
 protective resemblance in 436 
 
 superstitions about . 436 
 
 various names for 435 
 
 Beaver, teeth of 424 
 
 Beddard, cited on Snakes 133 
 
 Belidcus 404 
 
 Bendire, on the eggs of Stunu-lla 210 
 
 Berardius bairdii 375 
 
 Biologist, methods of work of a 19 
 
 Biology, definition of the science of .... 21 
 
 Birds, a group of the gnatJwstomata. . . . 26 
 
 Black and White Warbler, nest of 320 
 
 Blackfishes 383 
 
 Black-poll Warbler 320 
 
 life history of 323 
 
 Blind Angler 78 
 
INDEX 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Blotched King Snake 134, 135) 
 
 Blowing Viper 134 
 
 Bob-white, another name for Partridges 'J14 
 
 Bottle-nose Whales 3X4 
 
 Bowhead Whale 387 
 
 Box Tortoise 147 
 
 Brandt, on the Natatores ] 
 
 Brit, a whale food 387 
 
 Bubo v>r(/iti i(innt<: 
 
 habits of 238 
 
 varieties 238 
 
 Buffon, on the bill of the Crossbill 338 
 
 Itufo rnl<iariK. accounts of 100 
 
 Bullfrog, external characters of 101 
 
 Bull or Pine Snake 142 
 
 Bundy, W. F., cited on Crayfishes 45 
 
 Bureau, Loxiis, on bill of Auks 178 
 
 Burrowing O .vis, habits of 247 
 
 Buzzards: 
 
 habits of 228 
 
 powers of sight and smell in 224 
 
 Turkey 228 
 
 Cachalot Whale 
 
 California Gray Squirrel 
 
 CalUpepla, the genus 
 
 Cambarus : 
 
 a genus of Grays 
 
 bartonii robusta 
 
 dlogcncs 
 
 Canidae: 
 
 the family 
 
 fossil 
 
 Cam's, species of 
 
 Cape Haytien, Crabs at 
 
 Capybara 
 
 Carabus 
 
 Carapace 
 
 Carcharias glanciis 
 
 Carctta imbricata 151, 
 
 Carolina paroquet: 
 
 distribution of 
 
 eggs of 
 
 Catbird : 
 
 breeding near Washington 
 
 nest of 
 
 photographing the 
 rearing the 
 
 Wilson's account of the ........... 
 
 Cathartes, various species of ........... 
 
 Cayman and Caiman .................. 
 
 Cedar Birds, life history of ........ 291, 
 
 place in the system for 
 
 genus of guillemots 
 
 an/lie 
 Ofratiids 
 Ci'tact a : 
 
 bibliography of 
 
 t he order 
 
 Cetaceans families of 
 Chameleon. American 
 Chaparral cock 
 Chelonia: 
 
 number known 
 
 order of 
 
 riridis 
 Chelonians: 
 
 characters of ....... 
 
 classification of 
 Chickarees 
 Chipmunks 
 
 Ka stern States species 
 GMroneotes. the genus 
 Chiroptcra, the order 
 ChlamydosclachHS tmi/iiiiK u* 
 Cho( niiN i-dNttiinitis 
 Chordata, defined 
 f'ji,Hnx. affinity with Muni* 
 
 384 
 413 
 215 
 
 44 
 45 
 45 
 
 463 
 4(14 
 463 
 
 49 
 423 
 
 51 
 140 
 
 72 
 153 
 
 250 
 256 
 
 346 
 347 
 346 
 349 
 345 
 222 
 158 
 297 
 25 
 20 
 
 178 
 181 
 
 78 
 
 388 
 374 
 380 
 Ki'.l 
 267 
 
 140 
 140 
 
 158 
 
 146 
 155 
 
 .405, 
 
 41(1 
 307 
 427 
 
 74 
 372 
 
 25 
 358 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Cixlinlo Carolina .................... 148, 149 
 
 Classification: 
 
 artificial .......................... 24 
 
 groups employed in ............... 24 
 
 natural ........................... 23 
 
 structural resemblances in ........ 23 
 
 what based on ................... 22 
 
 Glaus, Dr., on Spiders ................. 31 
 
 Clio borcalis, eaten by Whales .......... 387 
 
 Closet-naturalists, work of ............ 16 
 
 Cyclophis : 
 
 ucstiva ........................... 133 
 
 vernalis ........................ 130, 133 
 
 Coccyzus, various species of ............ 203 
 
 Coclenterata, where classified .......... 26 
 
 Colaptcs auratns, nest of .............. 273 
 
 Colinus, various species of ............. 214 
 
 Colugo ................................ 404 
 
 Colymbidac. family of ................. 164 
 
 Conurus carolincusis: 
 
 extinction of ..................... 250 
 
 food of .......................... 250 
 
 niditleation of ................... 256 
 
 Cope, Professor, on epiglottis in Snakes. 143 
 work on Crayfishes ............... 45 
 
 Coral Snake (Elaps) ................... 134 
 
 Cormorants, species of in the United 
 States ........................ 198, 201, 202 
 
 Count De Geer, cited .................. 35 
 
 Coursus ............................... 163 
 
 protecting Crocodiles ............ 163 
 
 Cow Blackbird, breeding, habits of .... 310 
 
 Coyotes, related to foxes .............. 463 
 
 Crab: 
 
 Hermit, or Soldier ................ 50 
 
 Oyster ........................... 51 
 
 Crabs: 
 
 calling ........................... 52 
 
 Fiddler .......................... 50 
 
 how they differ from Crayfish ..... 49 
 
 Japanese ....................... . . 51 
 
 Jonah ............................ 52 
 
 Yellow shore ...... ............... 52 
 
 mud ............................. 52 
 
 pea ............................. . 51 
 
 Purple shore ......... '. ........... 52 
 
 racer ............................. 52 
 
 robber ........................... 52 
 
 rock ............................. 52 
 
 spider ............................ 50 
 
 stone ... .......................... 5ii 
 
 Violet land ....................... 4!) 
 
 where classed .................... 14 
 
 Cramp Fish ....... .................... 68 
 
 Crania In : 
 
 defined ........................... 2<5 
 
 first division of .................. 26 
 
 second division of ................ 26 
 
 Crayfish: 
 
 Barton's, near Washington, D.C ........... 45, 46 
 
 chimneys of ..................... 45 
 
 food of ........................... 4 ( .i 
 
 Huxley's ...... ................... 1S 
 
 in winter ........................ 48 
 
 method of building their chimneys. 47 
 number of species in the I'nited 
 States ....... . .................. 45 
 
 where classed .................... 44 
 
 work upon in the U. S. National 
 Museum ........................ 45 
 
 Crocodiles: 
 
 history of ..................... 101. 10.", 
 
 of the Nile ...................... 10- 
 
 1 58 
 150 
 1 ">0 
 
 335 
 
 eggs of .......................... 
 
 structure and characters of ...... 
 
 order of ......................... 
 
 acutus ...................... 
 
 Crossbills: 
 
 variation in the crossing of the bills 
 Of . . 
 
INDEX 
 
 description of 335 
 
 Crotaphytus collar is 125, 126 
 
 Crotalus caudisoiia 138 
 
 Crotaphaga ani 268 
 
 sulcirostris 268 
 
 Crustac< a : 
 
 a class of the Invertebrata 27 
 
 containing Crays and Crabs 44 
 
 Cuckoo, Black-billed: 
 
 life history of 266 
 
 California!! 266 
 
 ivat spotted 269 
 
 iberian in Alaska 260 
 
 Cuckoos: 
 
 African 269 
 
 as a group 260 
 
 nidification of 266 
 
 Cucullos 28 
 
 Cuculus canorus: 
 
 habits of 260 
 
 c. telephones in Alaska 260 
 
 Cavier, on E?f Tadpole 99 
 
 Cyclofitonwta, a division of the Craniata. 26 
 
 Cynoidra, the group 463 
 
 Cyrtonyx, the genus 216 
 
 D. 
 Daddy-long-legs, classed with the Arach- 
 
 nida 28 
 
 Dampier, work cited 198 
 
 Darwin : 
 
 on the Black Skimmer 194 
 
 on the genus Furnarius 358 
 
 on ostriches 472 
 
 Dasyuridae, the family 372 
 
 Deep-sea fishes, various species from 
 
 Bay of Bengal 80 
 
 Delpliinapterus, species of the genus .... 375 
 
 Delphi nidac. the family 374 
 
 Delphinus, species of the genus 374 
 
 Dendroica discolor, nest of 324 
 
 Denticetc, the suborder 374 
 
 Development, defined 23 
 
 Devilfishes, capture of 69 
 
 Devil's Darning-needles 34 
 
 Didclphidac 364 
 
 anatomy of 368 
 
 Didclplujs, the genus 367 
 
 DingS 464 
 
 Diplex berenice oo 
 
 rubicundula 35 
 
 Diver, Black-throated 171, 173 
 
 plumages of 173 
 
 Dogfish: 
 
 eggs of 74 
 
 feeding on crabs 52 
 
 various species of 70 
 
 Dogs, domestic 463 
 
 Doloinedcs tenebrosus 30, 31 
 
 Dovekie, history of the 177 
 
 Douglass's horned toad 120 
 
 Dragon-flies 34 
 
 duration of life in 38 
 
 fossil forms of 38 
 
 how to study 37 
 
 how classified 34 
 
 larvae of 37 
 
 literature on 34 
 
 metamorphosis of 38 
 
 number described 35 
 
 present knowledge of 39 
 
 reproduction of 35 
 
 uses of to man 37 
 
 Drummoud, on snakes 134 
 
 Dryobates pubcsceus 270 
 
 Ducks, nesting of 309 
 
 Dugongs, place in the system of the. .. . 393 
 
 Duplicidentata, the suborder 405 
 
 Dyer, work cited 21 
 
 E. 
 
 Eagles, related to Harpagorius 444 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Echinoderniata, in classification 26- 
 
 Eel, Congo 91 
 
 Eels, breeding establishment: 
 
 at Commachio 89 
 
 electric 90 
 
 habits of 87, 88 
 
 myths about 88 
 
 Eggs, of birds 306 
 
 Electric Rays 68 
 
 Elf owls . . '. 249 
 
 Emballonuridac, the family 432 
 
 Embryology, in classification 23 
 
 Ermine 469 
 
 European cuckoo, breeding habits of.... 310- 
 
 Extinction of Birds 257 
 
 F. 
 
 Faxon, Walter, on the Astacidse 44 
 
 Feather tracts, defined and named 290 
 
 Fennec 464 
 
 Ferrets 469- 
 
 Finches and Sparrows: 
 
 number known to Wilson 330, 335- 
 
 foreign forms of 335 
 
 Fisher . . T 469 
 
 Fishes: 
 
 a group of the Gnathostomata. . . . 26 
 
 deep-sea 74 
 
 Fire-flies, luminous powers of 28 
 
 Flamingoes, nidification of 309 
 
 Flower, Sir William Henry: 
 
 on bats 428 
 
 on the whales 378 
 
 on the opossums 368 
 
 Flying Foxes 431 
 
 Flying Lemurs 404 
 
 Flying Squirrels: 
 
 as pets 400 
 
 characters of 400 
 
 life-history of 40O 
 
 traits of 403 
 
 Forbes, S. A., cited on Crayfishes 45 
 
 Fox: 
 
 taxidermy of 460 
 
 Arctic 463 
 
 Cross 463 
 
 Gray 463 
 
 Kit ' or Swift 463 
 
 Silver or Black 463 
 
 Fratercula, eggs of 30& 
 
 Fringillidse, the family 317, 329 
 
 Frogs, genera of 100 
 
 Furnarius rufus: 
 
 general description of 358 
 
 Newton on 361 
 
 nest of 314 
 
 other authors on 362 
 
 G. 
 
 Galcopithecidae, the family 404 
 
 Galls, origin of 28 
 
 Gannets, various species of 199 
 
 Garman, work cited 74 
 
 Gavial 160 
 
 Generic groups in taxonomy 24 
 
 Genius, defined 24 
 
 Ckococcyx californiarus, life-history of . . 267 
 
 Giant sperm whale 384 
 
 Gila: 
 
 Chipmunk 405, 409 
 
 monster 120 
 
 Gill, Dr. Theodore, work cited 78 
 
 Glass-snake, description of 109 
 
 Glancidium, the genus 249 
 
 Globioccphaluz, species of the genus .... 375 
 
 Glow-worm 109- 
 
 Guathostomata, second division of the 
 
 Craniata 
 
 Goose fish 78 
 
 Grampus, species of the genus 375 
 
 Grampuses, markings of 383 
 
 Great Horned Owl in Alabama 231> 
 
INDEX 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Great Northern Diver, habits of 170, 173 
 
 Grebe, Horned: 
 
 habits of 165, 168, 169 
 
 various names for 164 
 
 Grebes, various species of 167 
 
 Grizzly bear, size of 465 
 
 Ground Squirrels 406 
 
 Orymmaeomys, of Burmeister 366 
 
 Guillemot: 
 
 Black 181 
 
 description of 181 
 
 Gull, Ross's 184, 186 
 
 Gulls: 
 
 as related to other birds 183 
 
 species of 183 
 
 characters of various species 186 
 
 fossil 185 
 
 habits of 187 
 
 Gum Copal, insects preserved in 27 
 
 Giiuther: 
 
 on Lizards 108 
 
 on the use of ribs of snakes in loco- 
 motion 143 
 
 work cited 67, 100 
 
 quoted on deep-sea sharks 74 
 
 Gypagus papa, iu Arizona 222 
 
 H. 
 
 Halicore, the genus 393 
 
 Halilherium, its relationships 391 
 
 Hamsters 425 
 
 Hares, species of 425 
 
 Harpagornis, relations of 444 
 
 Hay. W. P., cited on Crayfishes 45 
 
 HeUomig, ralline characters of 167 
 
 Heloderma suspectum 120 
 
 Hemiurus, the subgenus 368 
 
 Herons, nests of 310 
 
 Herring Hogs 384 
 
 Hesperornithidae, family of 167 
 
 Hesperornis regal is and crassipes. 167 
 
 related to Loons 444 
 
 Hesperornoidea, superfamily of 167 
 
 Hippocampidae 82 
 
 Hippcampus. species of 82, 83 
 
 Histology : 
 
 defined 22 
 
 developmental 23 
 
 Hagen. H. A., cited on crayfish 45 
 
 Hagfishes, place in the system for 26 
 
 Hornbills, breeding habits of 309 
 
 Horned Toads 109 
 
 Horse-stingers 34 
 
 Humming-birds, nests of 310 
 
 Huxley: 
 
 cited on Crayfish 45 
 
 on taxonomy 23 
 
 work cited 100 
 
 HydrocJielidon, a genus of Terns 188 
 
 Byla versicolor: 
 
 description of 102 
 
 photographing 105 
 
 Hyperoodon rastratus 375 
 
 I. 
 
 Ibis, White, and Crayfish 48 
 
 Ichthyopsida 26 
 
 Ichthyornis, as related to Rynchops .... 185 
 
 Icteria vireux, life-history of 340, 342, 344 
 
 Indigo bunting, nest of 310, 315 
 
 Insectivora 367 
 
 Insecta, a Class of invertebrates 27 
 
 Insects: 
 
 chapter on 27 
 
 duration of life in 27 
 
 economic importance of 27 
 
 fossil 27 
 
 fertilizing plants 27 
 
 group of the .{iinulnfta 44 
 
 luminous powers of 28 
 
 literature on _7 
 
 PAGE 
 
 main characters of 27 
 
 number of species of 27 
 
 number of species described 27 
 
 parasitism in 28 
 
 period of existence affected by tem- 
 perature 27 
 
 preserved in gum copal 27 
 
 preserved in amber 27 
 
 Invertebrata: 
 
 place in the system, of the 25 
 
 the Kingdom of 27 
 
 J. 
 
 Jacare, Eggs of 
 
 Jaegers: 
 
 habits of , 
 
 species of , 
 
 Jackals: 
 
 habits of . , 
 
 hunting 
 
 relations of 
 
 taxidermy of 
 
 Jackass Rabbits 
 
 Jamaica, Crabs of 
 
 Jellyfish, eaten by Sunfish 
 
 Jordan, D. S., work cited , 
 
 June bugs, eaten by bats 
 
 K. 
 
 Kabung 
 
 Kangaroos 
 
 Killer Whales 
 
 Killers, food of 
 
 King crabs 
 
 Kinglets, nests of 
 
 King Penguin, nidification of. , 
 
 King Snakes 
 
 King Vultiires, seen in Arizona. 
 Kogia, brcviceps 
 
 LagenorJiynchus, species of the genus. 
 
 Lagomorpha 
 
 Lagomyidac, the family 
 
 Lagomys princeps 
 
 Lama huanacus and Rhea ............... 
 
 Lampreys: 
 
 a name for Sirens ................. 
 
 classification of ................... 
 
 Lampropeltis ........................ 137, 
 
 Laucelet .............................. 
 
 Lapland Lemmings, migrations of ...... 
 
 Lcporidae .............................. 
 
 Lepus cuniculus ........................ 
 
 Leucorhamphtis borealis ................. 
 
 Libellula: 
 
 Eggs of .......................... 
 
 trimaculata, named by ............. 
 
 quadrhnrtculata ................... 
 
 Libellulidae ............................ 
 
 Limulus ............................... 
 
 Linnaeus, his classification of bats ...... 
 
 Little Chief Hare. ..................... 
 
 Living specimens, methods of study ---- 
 
 Lizards: 
 
 habits in captivity ................ 
 
 methods of capture ................ 
 
 photographing .................... 
 
 various species and genera ......... 
 
 Lockwood, on young sea-horses ........ 
 
 Longipennes : 
 
 aftinities of ....................... 
 
 classification of .................. 
 
 Loons: 
 
 as related to Grebes .............. 
 
 ancestry of ...................... 
 
 species of ........................ 
 
 Lophiids .............................. 
 
 Lophius piscatoriux ..................... 
 
 Lophobranchii .......................... 
 
 Loxin cnrrirostrd i/thiur ............... 
 
 158 
 
 190 
 
 189 
 
 461 
 462 
 461 
 456 
 425 
 
 49 
 452 
 
 87 
 440 
 
 404 
 372 
 380 
 378 
 44 
 313 
 306 
 137 
 222 
 376 
 
 374 
 423 
 426 
 426 
 471 
 
 91 
 
 26 
 
 139 
 
 25 
 
 411 
 
 425 
 
 425 
 
 374 
 
 37 
 
 35 
 
 35 
 
 34 
 
 44 
 
 428 
 
 426 
 
 16 
 
 126 
 125 
 125 
 129 
 
 85 
 
 167 
 183 
 
 167 
 
 167 
 
 170 
 
 78 
 
 78 
 
 82 
 
 336 
 
INDEX 
 
 PAGE 
 
 c. stricklandi 336 
 
 leucoptera 336 
 
 pityopsittaciis 336 
 
 taenioptcra 337 
 
 Lycosidac, a family of spiders 31 
 
 M. 
 
 Macrocltmmys tentminckii 155 
 
 Macropodldae, the family 373 
 
 Macrotis, the genus 372 
 
 Mammals, a group of the Gnathosto- 
 
 mata 26 
 
 Manatees, American: 
 
 history of 393 
 
 species of 393 
 
 young of 394 
 
 Manatees, how classified 388 
 
 Manatus, the genus 393 
 
 Mancalias shufcldti 78 
 
 uranoscopus 78 
 
 Mangrove Cuckoo, distribution and his- 
 tory of 264 
 
 Man-o'-War Bird 198, 202 
 
 Mantidae, where classified 43 
 
 Mantis: 
 
 Australian form of 43 
 
 African species of 43 
 
 external characters of 41 
 
 food of 42 
 
 folklore of 40 
 
 habits of 39 
 
 in history , . . . 39 
 
 meaning of name 39 
 
 other names for 39 
 
 protective mimicry in 42 
 
 religiosa 39 
 
 uses in China 41 
 
 worshiped by Hottentots 41 
 
 Marine Turtles 151 
 
 Marmots 405 
 
 Marsupialia, the group 364 
 
 Marsupials, how classified 372 
 
 Marten: 
 
 beech 469 
 
 Pennant's 469 
 
 pine 469 
 
 sable 469 
 
 Material, quantity necessary for study. . 18 
 Meadow-larks : 
 
 as game birds 204 
 
 habits of 205 
 
 Hegalestris, the genus 189 
 
 Megapodes, nidification of 309 
 
 Megaptera, species of the genus 376 
 
 Megascope, descriptions of various species 
 
 of 247 
 
 Mesoplodon sowerliensis 376 
 
 Metachirus, the subgenus 367 
 
 Metathcria, the subclass 364 
 
 Metazoa: 
 
 classification of 25 
 
 defined 25 
 
 invertebrate 25 
 
 Mice: 
 
 lumping 421, 423 
 
 singing of 420 
 
 Micourvus, opossums of the group 368 
 
 Micro-cliiroptera, the suborder 432 
 
 Mioronallas, n genus of owls 249 
 
 Miene 399 
 
 Migrations of birds 317 
 
 Mink 469 
 
 Mites, a group of the Arachnida 28 
 
 Mivart, St. George, \vork cited 100, 102 
 
 M'Lachlan: 
 
 cited on dragon-flies 38 
 
 cited on the relations of insects to 
 
 other Classes 27 
 
 Mniotiltidae. the family 317, 318, 353 
 
 Mola rotunda, taxidermy of 450 
 
 Mollusca, in classification 26 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Monodon Monoceros 375 
 
 Monotremes, Eggs of 306 
 
 Monteiro's Angola, cited on Mantis 43 
 
 Morphology, defined 22 
 
 Mosquito Hawk 34 
 
 Mouse. Deer 415, 419 
 
 Mud-daubers, capturing spiders 33 
 
 Muraenas 89 
 
 Muraenidae, species of 89, 90 
 
 Muraenopsis tridactylus 91 
 
 Muridae, the family 423 
 
 Murrelets, species of 177 
 
 Museums: 
 
 Army Medical 442 
 
 of anatomy 442 
 
 of the future 445 
 
 origin and growth of 442 
 
 various kinds of 442 
 
 Mustela: 
 
 americana 469 
 
 foina 469 
 
 flaviaula 469 
 
 melampiis 469 
 
 martes 469 
 
 zibellina 469 
 
 Mustelidae, the family 469 
 
 Myriapods, group of the Annulosa 44 
 
 Myriopoda, a Class of the Invertebrata. 27 
 
 Myrmecobius, the genus 372 
 
 Mysticete, the suborder 376 
 
 Myths: 
 
 about bats 431 
 
 about jackals 462 
 
 Myxine, a genus of the Cyclostomata. . 26 
 
 Nakoo or Gavial 160, 162 
 
 characters and habits 161 
 
 Nandu 470, 471 
 
 Narwhal, description and history of 383 
 
 Natatorcs 164 
 
 Native Devil 372 
 
 Rabbits 372 
 
 Natrix sipedon 133, 135 
 
 Naturalist : 
 
 armamentarium of 17 
 
 books for 17 
 
 education of young 19 
 
 qualifications for 15 
 
 former education of young 20 
 
 Ncobythites steatiticus 80 
 
 Nests of Birds: 
 
 characters of 306, 309 
 
 conventional form of 310 
 
 difficult to draw 302 
 
 some unknown 314 
 
 Neuroptera, order of 34 
 
 Newton, Alfred: 
 
 on Parrots 259 
 
 on habits of Loons 170 
 
 on the affinities of Pygopodes 167 
 
 Nighthawks, used as food 204 
 
 Noddies, habits of 189 
 
 Non-chord fita, defined 25 
 
 Nordenskjold. on the Sea Cow 393 
 
 Nyctala acadica 246 
 
 Nyctinomus, habits of the genus 432 
 
 O. 
 
 Odonata, of Kirby 34 
 
 Ophibolus rhombomacuJatus 137 
 
 Ophidiidac 80 
 
 Ophisaurus 109 
 
 Opossum : 
 
 Crab-eating 367 
 
 habits of. in confinement 369 
 
 Lord Derby's : 367 
 
 Three-striped 368 
 
 young of 370 
 
 Opossums: 
 
 fossil . 373 
 
INDEX 
 
 PAGE 
 
 systematic position of ............. 364 
 
 Orca, species of the genus .............. 375 
 
 Orcortyx, the genus ..................... 215 
 
 Ornithological Hall of Smithsonian.. .445, 447 
 
 Orthagorisnis tuola ..................... 45n 
 
 characters of ..................... 45:2 
 
 size of ............................ 451 
 
 systematic position of ............. 451 
 
 vernacular names of .............. 45:2 
 
 Orthoptera, contains the Mantidie ...... 43 
 
 Oscines, defined ....................... 317 
 
 Ostrich: 
 
 African .......................... 471 
 
 South American .................. 470 
 
 writer on ......................... 472 
 
 Otocyon ................................ 4(54 
 
 Oven-bird, description of ............... 354 
 
 Owl: 
 
 Barn, natural history of .......... 232 
 
 Long-eared ....................... 2.'!2 
 
 Short-eared ....................... 2:;:; 
 
 Snowy ........................ 238, 245 
 
 Owls: 
 
 species of ........................ 232 
 
 great gray ........................ 243 
 
 P. 
 Pacas ................................. 
 
 Packard, A. S. : 
 
 on eels ........... ................ 
 
 cited on dragonflies ................ 
 
 on chelonia ....................... 
 
 on crayfishes ..................... 
 
 on locomotion in snakes ........... 
 
 Palaeontology, science of ................ 
 
 Parasitism, in insects .................. 
 
 Parrot, Thick-billed: 
 
 Notes on its being a bird of the 
 United States .... ............... 
 
 Parrots, breeding habits of ............. 
 
 Partridges, as a group .................. 
 
 Passeres, the suborder .................. 
 
 Passcrhui Cyanca, photographing nest of. 
 Pekan ................................. 
 
 Pelican: 
 
 Brown, description of ............ 
 
 White ............................ 
 
 Pelicans, various species of, and their 
 
 habits ............................ 
 
 Pennant's Marten ..................... 
 
 Peramcles, the genus .................... 
 
 Peranicliddc, the family .............. 372, 
 
 Peromyscus Icucopus .................... 
 
 Pctaurus ............................... 
 
 Petise ................................. 
 
 Petromyzon, in classification ............. 
 
 Pies, eggs of, resembling those of cuck- 
 oos .................................. 
 
 Pigeons, breeding habits of ............. 
 
 Pigmy sperm whales ................... 
 
 Pikas ................................. 
 
 Pine Marten ........................... 
 
 Pityophis sayi bcllona, structure of Epi- 
 
 425 
 
 87 
 37 
 
 147 
 44 
 
 143 
 23 
 28 
 
 lottis 
 
 Phaeton, vernacular names for 
 Phalangistidac, the family 
 Phascogale, the genus 
 Phascolomi/idac, the family 
 Phocoena, species of the genus of 
 Photography: 
 
 of birds 
 
 warblers 
 
 PhrunOAQHM, genus of lizards 
 Phylloptcrya;, protective mimicry in 
 Physulux, species of the genus 
 Physercridae, the family 
 Phj/tftcr macroccphalus 
 
 Phalu nnistidac, the family 
 
 Plastron 
 
 Pliny, his classification of bats 
 
 258 
 310 
 213 
 330 
 310 
 469 
 
 196 
 198 
 
 195 
 469 
 372 
 373 
 415 
 404 
 470 
 26 
 
 269 
 310 
 384 
 423 
 466 
 
 142 
 198 
 373 
 372 
 373 
 375 
 
 270 
 320 
 109 
 
 86 
 376 
 
 376 
 .".Hi 
 67 
 4(4 
 if; 
 428 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Podicipoidca, superfamily of. 164 
 
 Poey, Don Felipe, work cited 77 
 
 Polar bear, taxidermy of 464 
 
 Porcupines 423, 426 
 
 Porifera, where classified 26 
 
 Porpoise, Common, where classified .... 380 
 
 Prairie Warbler, nest of 324, 327, 329 
 
 Praying Mantis 39 
 
 Pristis pcct hiatus 67 
 
 ProcelfarUdae, Huxley on the 185 
 
 ProdclpJihnis cuphrosyne 374 
 
 Protective: 
 
 coloration in snakes 130 
 
 mimicry in snakes 130 
 
 Protective resemblance 436 
 
 in Bats 439 
 
 in Harlequin snake 439 
 
 Prothonotary warbler, nest of 320 
 
 Protozoa: 
 
 defined 25 
 
 how classified 25 
 
 PscHdogrypluis californianus : 
 
 distribution of 230 
 
 eggs of % J::i 
 
 Pieromys 399 
 
 Pterpmya iiitidus 404 
 
 Pterylography : 
 
 methods of studying 281 
 
 of woodpeckers 281 
 
 terms employed in, 281, 282, 285, 286, 289 
 
 Puffing pigs 384 
 
 Puffins, species and habits of 181, 182 
 
 Putmau, F. W., cited on crayfishes .... 45 
 
 Pygmy owls 249 
 
 Pygopodes 164 
 
 Quail: 
 
 Black or Fool 216 
 
 Massena, or Partridge 219 
 
 Quail and Partridge, how distinguished. 214 
 
 K. 
 
 Rabbit, of Europe 425 
 
 Rumania truncata 455 
 
 Rattle of rattlesnake 141 
 
 Rattlesnakes 138 
 
 Rays and Skates, families of 68 
 
 Rear Horse: 
 
 beneficial to man 
 
 eggs of 39 
 
 why so named 39 
 
 Red-eyed Vireo, nest and young of 311 
 
 Reptiles, a group of the Gnathostomata. . 26 
 Reptilia: 
 
 animals referred to 91 
 
 animals representing 108 
 
 Rhabdopleura, place in the system for. . 26 
 
 RhacManectes glaucus 376 
 
 Rhea: 
 
 amcricana 470 
 
 darwini 470 
 
 macrorhyncha 470 
 
 Rhynchopaitta pachyrhyncha : 
 
 Evidence as to its being a bird of 
 
 the United States 258 
 
 Rhytina stclleri: 
 
 described by Flower 391 
 
 discovery of, by Steller 391 
 
 Road-runner, distribution of 267 
 
 Rodendia, general consideration of 405 
 
 Rodents as flesh-eaters 411 
 
 Roussette bat 431 
 
 Rynchops nigra, osteology of 184 
 
 S. 
 
 Sable, North American 469 
 
 Saint-Hilaire, work cited 368 
 
 Salamander: 
 
 description of 
 
 myths about 95 
 
INDEX 
 
 PAGE 
 
 spotted ........................... 99 
 
 Sauropsida ............................ 26 
 
 Sawfish: 
 
 capture of ......................... 67 
 
 s;t\v of ........................... 67 
 
 Sa \v-whet Owls ........................ 246 
 
 .......................... 12.", 127 
 
 family of ................. 399, 405 
 
 413 
 
 the genus ........................ 410 
 
 volans ............................ 399 
 
 Sclaler, on the Pygopodes .............. 164 
 
 Scorpions, a group of the Arachnida. . . . 28 
 
 i-incrca: 
 
 habitat of ........................ 243 
 
 c. lapponica . . . .................... 243 
 
 Screech Owls, species of ................ 247 
 
 Sea ( 1 o\vs ......... _. ................... 388 
 
 Sea horse: 
 
 description of ................... 82, 83 
 
 young of ......................... 85 
 
 Shakespeare on toad-myths ............. 106 
 
 Shark: 
 
 fossil ............................. 72 
 
 Hammerhead ..................... 73 
 
 man-eating ....................... 71 
 
 Sharks: 
 
 compared with Kays .............. 70 
 
 various species of ................ 72, 73 
 
 Shufeldt, R. W., work cited ............ 101 
 
 tfibhaldius, species of the genus ........ 376 
 
 SimpHcidentata, the suborder ........... 405 
 
 HipJioiitoinu ............................. 82 
 
 Hirlt>n, the genus ...................... 99 
 
 Siren, three-toed ..................... 91, 93 
 
 i, the order ...................... 388 
 
 awicapillus, its affinities ........ 358 
 
 Biurus: 
 
 nest of .................... 354, 357, 359 
 
 myths in regard to ............... 363 
 
 song of ........................... 353 
 
 Six-lined lizard ........................ 125 
 
 Skate, barndoor ....................... 69 
 
 Skates and Rays, habits of ............. 69 
 
 Skimmer, Black ................ 185, 191, 192 
 
 Skua, origin of the name ............... 190 
 
 Skuas and Jaegers, systematic position 
 
 of ................................... 185 
 
 Skunks ................................ 469 
 
 Smith, S. 1., cited on Crayfishes ......... 45 
 
 Snake doctor ......................... 34 
 
 Snakes: 
 
 general characters of .............. 138 
 
 teeth of ............. ............. 141 
 
 in history ........................ 144 
 
 photographing ................. 134, 137 
 
 Snapping turtles, habits of ............. 155 
 
 Sotalia pallida ......................... 374 
 
 Species, morphological ................. 24 
 
 Speotyto, the genus ..................... 247 
 
 Spermaceti ............................ 379 
 
 Spermophiles .......................... 405 
 
 Spermophilus, the genus ................ 410 
 
 Sperm whales, species of ............... 384 
 
 Suhvrapicus r. ma-iuilis, pterylography 
 
 of ... ................... ......285, 287, 289 
 
 Spiders: 
 
 as a group of insects .............. 28 
 
 characters and habits of .......... 33 
 
 diving ............................ 31 
 
 drinking water ................... 33 
 
 enemies of . . . .................... 33 
 
 fossil ............................. 34 
 
 group of the A nnulOM ............. 44 
 
 how they spin ..................... 29 
 
 plan of web of .................... 29 
 
 poisonous bites of ................. 32 
 
 protective mimicry in ............. :!."> 
 
 various kinds of ................. '_".> 
 
 Spinnerets of spiders ................... 29 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Sponges 25 
 
 Squaiina 70 
 
 Squirrels: 
 
 Abert's 410, 412 
 
 Arizona 410, 412, 413 
 
 Fox 410 
 
 Gray 410, 411 
 
 Red 410 
 
 Stagnoniantis Carolina 31) 
 
 Star fish, classification of 26 
 
 Steganopodes, the group 198 
 
 Stcno: 
 
 coinpressus 374 
 
 ftmctiH 374 
 
 Btercorariu*, the genus 189 
 
 Stigmata in larval dragon-Hies 37 
 
 Sting-rays, characters of 70 
 
 Stoat 469 
 
 Storks, nests of 310 
 
 Strigidae, western forms of 249 
 
 Sturnclla maf/na : 
 
 meaning of the name 2O5 
 
 neglecta and other species 205 
 
 nest of 207, 209 
 
 Sula: 
 
 bassaiia. characters of 1!)!) 
 
 CIHIHOPX and other species 200 
 
 Sun fish: 
 
 how mounted 450 
 
 its characters 4">ii 
 
 species of 455 
 
 Surnia ulula 245 
 
 u. caparnch, natural history of .... 245 
 
 Swainson on name of Oven-bird 358 
 
 Swamp milkweed in nest of Yellow 
 
 Warbler 324 
 
 Swifts and Swallows, nests of 314 
 
 SynffitatMdae, description of 82 
 
 &!/, iiinni iicbuJoNUin : 
 
 photographs of 240 
 
 n. allenl 240 
 
 n. occidentals 240 
 
 T. 
 
 Taguans 399 
 
 Tailor bird, nest of 313 
 
 Tapock, the opossum called 367 
 
 Tarr, Ralph S., cited on crayfish 45, 46 
 
 Tasmanian Wolf 372 
 
 Taxidermy : 
 
 at the Leyden Museum 450 
 
 models in 449 
 
 of H. H. ter Moor, Jr 44! >. 4r.C, 
 
 Scientific 459 
 
 Taxonomy : 
 
 defined 21 
 
 natural 2:> 
 
 Teeth of rodents 425 
 
 Tenuaut, work cited 161 
 
 Tern : 
 
 Black 189 
 
 Roseate 189 
 
 Trudeau's 188 
 
 Terns: 
 
 habits and characters of IS" 
 
 number of species known IS!) 
 
 Least, distribution of IS!) 
 
 Tcstudo pardalis 14S. 152 
 
 Thalassarctos. literature on 465 
 
 Thelyphonits rjigantfus 32 
 
 Thomas, Oldfield, on opossums 364 
 
 Thylaclne :>2 
 
 Thylacinus c^anoccplwlus 372 
 
 Titmice, nests of 314 
 
 Toad, Surinam 100 
 
 Toads : 
 
 history of 106 
 
 genera of 1 < >< i 
 
 voice organs of lot; 
 
 Torch fish, description of 77. 78, 80 
 
 Torpedo, capture of 68 
 
INDEX 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Tortoises, structure of shell in 148, 151 
 
 Tortoise-shell, how obtained 151 
 
 Traps for small mammals 415 
 
 Tree-toads, species of 102, 106 
 
 Trichechidar, the family 388 
 
 Trilobites, fossil crustaceans 44 
 
 Trlonyx 154 
 
 Troglodytldae, the family 346 
 
 Tropic birds, species and habits of 198 
 
 Tunicata 25 
 
 classification of 26 
 
 Turner, L. M., on Auks 178 
 
 Tursiops, species of the genus 375 
 
 Turtles: 
 
 as distinguished from terrapins. . . . 148 
 
 species of 154 
 
 Typhlopftaras shufcldti 78 
 
 Uhler, cited on dragon-flies 35 
 
 Unicorn, origin of the myth of the 383 
 
 Unlos, eaten by inuskrats 411 
 
 Uria, the genus 174 
 
 troilr, habits of 181 
 
 lomvia, and other species 181 
 
 Urinator, genus and species 169 
 
 Urinatoroidea, the superfamily 164 
 
 Urocyon, species of 463 
 
 Urodela, United States 91 
 
 V. 
 
 Vegetable morphologist defined 21 
 
 Vermes, classification of 26 
 
 Vertebrata : 
 
 as defined by Cuvier 26 
 
 characters of ; 27 
 
 classification of 26 
 
 defined and classified 25 
 
 phylum of 26 
 
 Vespertilionidac, the family 432 
 
 Vinigaroon 33 
 
 Vulpes: 
 
 the genus 463 
 
 number known 463 
 
 Vulture, Turkey 223 
 
 Vultures : 
 
 as a group 221 
 
 photographing 221 
 
 species of 223 
 
 W. 
 
 Warblers: 
 
 nests of 313 
 
 number of known 318 
 
 rare and beautiful species of 329 
 
 various habits of 319 
 
 Water fleas 44 
 
 Water-ousel, nest of 314 
 
 Water Thrushes, species of 358 
 
 Wax-wiugs: 
 
 as a name for Cedar Birds 292 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Bohemian 292 
 
 Weasels 4<>!> 
 
 Weaver-birds, nests of 313 
 
 Webster, cited on Australian Mantis. . . 43 
 Whales: 
 
 classification of 374 
 
 general character of 377 
 
 Whale-bone whales :!S7 
 
 Whip-tailed Scorpion ;;:; 
 
 White, Dr., on mouth parts of Hull 
 
 snake 142 
 
 Wilson, Alexander: 
 
 number of United States birds 
 
 known to 330 
 
 on Cross bills 338 
 
 Wolverine 469 
 
 Wolves, their relatives 463 
 
 Woodchucks 405 
 
 Woodpecker: 
 
 Golden- winged, nest of 27", 
 
 Harris's, pterylosis of 278, 28.".. L'sr. 
 
 lied-naped, pterylosis of 285, 287 
 
 Wood Bats 423 
 
 Wood Thrush : 
 
 description of 298, 305 
 
 nest of , 301, 303 
 
 young :;m. ."><>5, 307 
 
 Worms, classification of 26 
 
 Wrens, nests of 313 
 
 Xanlltium strumarium : 
 
 as a food of the Carolina Paroquet . 250 
 
 photographing Conorus on 253 
 
 Xavier, St. Francis, cited on Mantis. ... 41 
 
 Y. 
 
 Yellow-billed Cuckoo 263 
 
 Yellow-breasted Chat :uo 
 
 nest and young of ">4.", .".44 
 
 notes of ."41' 
 
 Wilson's account of 341 
 
 Yellow Warbler, nest of ."1'4 
 
 Young Flickers, characters of 274 
 
 Young Vultures 224 
 
 Zapus hudsonius 421 
 
 life history of 422 
 
 Zebra Wolf or Opossum 372 
 
 Zebras arid Ostriches 471 
 
 Zeuglodon, systematic position of 377 
 
 Ziphiidac, the family .".7.1 
 
 Kiphhis, species of the genus .""."> 
 
 Zoological Gardens, bears in 4(r> 
 
 Zoological photography of mammals.... 470 
 
 Zygacna malleus 73 
 
 Zygodactyle feet as a character in clas- 
 sification in Birds U;:; 
 
ISSUED UNDER THE AUSPICES OF THE NATURAL SCI- 
 ENCE ASSOCIATION OF AMERICA. NEW YORK, U. S. A. 
 FOUNDED 1888. INCORPORATED 1892. OBJECT : TO DIS- 
 SEMINATE AND PROMOTE NATURAL SCIENCE INFORMA- 
 TION. 
 
 w Birds of North America 
 
 . . ANNOUNCEMENT . . 
 
 To disseminate and promote natural science information, as well as to gratify 
 a universal taste, the Association takes pleasure in placing before the public, un- 
 der its auspices, a work containing artistically colored illustrations of over eight 
 hundred different species of birds, comprising nearly all that are known to exist 
 on this continent, including Mexico and Central America, accompanied by a 
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 bracing in general the observations made by the most eminent writers on 
 ornithology. 
 
 The original drawings for the work were made from nature by Theodore Jas- 
 per, A.M., M.D., an artist of superior capabilities, who has made ornithology a 
 life-study. Revised by John Graham Bell, Esq., Audubon's companion in the 
 field, and a well-known ornithologist and taxidermist. The systematic table, 
 arranged according to the classification adopted by the American Ornithologists' 
 Union, was prepared by Frank M. Chapman, Esq., Assistant Ornithologist at The 
 American Museum of Natural History, New York, includes all the additions to 
 and corrections of our North American species which have been made to date, with 
 an index to page, plate, and figure, of each species, according to the A. O. U. number. 
 
 There is no more attractive study than ornithology, the department of zoology 
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 the sage ; it is universal. Wherever human beings are found, the forms, the 
 plumage, the songs, the migrations, the loves and contests of birds, awaken curi- 
 osity and wonder. No similar work containing so many beautiful and faithful 
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 has ever been published, in this or any other country. 
 
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 on American birds issued since Audubon's, and is pronounced by some authorities superior to that 
 now rare and costly work." 
 
 From Prof. C. S. Maynard, Author of "The Birds of Florida" and " Birds of Eastern 
 North America." "I am much pleased with 'STUDER'S BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA.' In the grouping 
 of the birds, arrangement of light and shade in the perspective, and delineations of the forms and feath- 
 ers, Dr. Jasper has certainly surpassed all other artists, producing the best pictures of the species 
 which I have ever seen." 
 
 From Dr. Elliott Coues, President of the American Ornithologists' Union, Author of 
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 heartily recommend the whole work as one admirably meeting the design of a popular ornithology of 
 North America, at once instructive and entertaining, at a reasonable price. The text is perfectly re 
 liable. The technical nomenclature is correct, being that used by the best ornithologists of the country." 
 
 From Robert Caie, Yarmouth, Nova Scotia. "' THE BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA' should be 
 more generally known, and would be invaluable in our public schools. I have purchased three (3) 
 copies. One is now in the ' Milton Library ' here, another is in the possession of Wm. B. Doane, taxi- 
 dermist (who highly appreciates it), and the third copy I retained." 
 
 From Theodore N. Gill, Ph.D., M.D., Member of the National Academy of Sciences. 
 "It is a meritorious volume, and gives lovers of birds reliable information respecting their variety, 
 beauty, haunts, and habits. It is altogether so handsome as to make it a very appropriate ornament 
 for the family table." 
 
 From Secretary of Agriculture." The study of birds tends to develop some of the best attri 
 butes and impulses of our natures. Among them we find examples of generosity, unselfish devotion 
 of the love of mother for offspring, and other estimable qualities. Their industry, patience, and in- 
 genuity excite our admiration ; their songs inspire us with a love of music and poetry ; their beautiful 
 plumage and graceful manners appeal to our esthetic sense ; their long migrations to distant lands 
 stimulate our imaginations and tempt us to inquire into the causes of their periodic movements, and 
 finally, the endless modifications of form and habits by which they are enabled to live under diverse 
 conditions of food and climate on land and at sea invite the student of nature into inexhaustible 
 fields of pleasurable research." 
 
 From Mrs. Mary Mapes Dodge, New York." I consider ' THE BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA' a 
 very valuable work." 
 
 From J. G. Lane, Poughkeepsie, N. Y. " The bird books were so satisfactory I concluded to 
 have another one at the same price, bound like either of those I have." 
 
 From J. B. Wright, Akron, O. " Both Mr. Baird and myself are possessors of your mag 
 nificent and valuable work." 
 
 From Right Rev. Bishop A. Cleveland Coxe, D.D., LL. D. "Fora family of intelligent chil- 
 dren, here is a book which may furnish a never-failing fountain of interest and entertainment. 1 count 
 him a happy man who can afford to lay it before his family and his guests. How pure, how ennobling 
 such a study ! It may prompt youthful genius to further researches in these fields : and if it tempts a 
 young girl to try her hand at drawing and coloring such portraits of our feathered visitors and co-citi- 
 zens for purposes of domestic ornament, it will be a happy result. I recommend this book to pur- 
 chasers a very rare sort of commendation from me." 
 
 From Dr. James W. Ford, Pillsbury Hall, Owatonna, Minn. " I inclose check for copy of 
 ' BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA,' sent me on approval. It is all you claim for it and more a grand work 
 that will be long unsurpassed." 
 
 From Rev. Dr. Francis X. Shulack, President of St. Ignatius College, Chicago."! am 
 highly pleased with your elegant, scientific, and very instructive treatise on "THE BIRDS OF NORTH 
 
 AMERICA.' " 
 
 From Chas. H. Shepard, M.D.. 81-83 Columbia Heights, Brooklyn. " I gladly give my 
 opinion of the merits of 'THE BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA,' issued under the auspices of the Natural 
 Science Association. It is a book that every family would be proud to have on its table. Its value to 
 the young can scarcely be measured. My appreciation of the work is well expressed by having pur- 
 chased six copies." 
 
 From J. J. Jordan, Scranton, Pa. " I would not be without it for a great deal more than the 
 price I paid." 
 
 From Mrs. Wm. Emerson, Chicago, 111. " It certainly is a beautiful work 
 
 "A grand work." Recreation. "A great work." National Teacher. 
 
 "A wonderful work." Good Citizen. "A superb .work." Publishers' Weekly. 
 
 "A magnificent ornithological work." Turf, Field and Farm. 
 
 " It is one of the most ambitious publications ever attempted in this country." Cleveland Leader . 
 
 " No work evincing such perfect care and finish, at such a reasonable rate, has ever been pub- 
 lished in this country or abroad." Inter Ocean, Chicago. 
 
 "A magnificent work, equal to 'Audubon's Birds,' giving all the birds of North America with 
 elaborate plates in natural colors, accompanied by descriptions." Education, Boston. 
 
 " If artistic and beautifully colored plates, letter-press of the highest order, and scientific knowl- 
 edge reduced to the plainest terms can make up a valuable work, this certainly deserves that designa- 
 tion." A jnerican Sportsman. 
 
Imperial quarto volume, substantially bound in fine half bindings, Si.s 
 
 In addition to the artistic illustrations of our two hundred typical 
 species of birds of the world, the work contains drawings of, first, the 
 skeleton of a bird ; second, a bird's wing ; third, the position and form 
 of the feathers; fourth, the terminology of a bird, and including a 
 copious text embracing the general outlines of the Science of Orni- 
 thology with the classification of the birds of the world, as adopted by 
 Dr. Brehm, for many years Superintendent of the Zoological garden at 
 Berlin, fully describing each of these in detail. 
 
 Samples of plates and text sent on receipt of twenty-five cents in 
 two-cent stamps. 
 
 In Red Cloth, 75 cents. Paper, 50 cents 
 
 The Discovery of America by Christopher Columbus 
 
 BY HARRY HAK1ES, M.D. 
 
 The preface of the author of this interesting book is concise and 
 to the point, and tells in a few words its scope and aim: "that the mass 
 of mankind in this hurrying age will neither purchase, peruse, nor pos- 
 sess the extensive literature pertaining to the ' Discovery of America ' ; 
 then he hopes the following pages may be found to contain a suffi- 
 ciently full historical statement, to elucidate the great event. 
 
 In Foolscap 8vo, printed on antique paper, and bound in olive cloth, 51.50 
 "An interesting book and a decided step in the right direction." 
 
 PUBLISHER'S CIRCULAR. 
 
 The English Rediscovery andColonization of America 
 
 BY JOHN B. AND MARIE A. SHIPLEY 
 
 The authors trace the discovery of America from its earliest be- 
 ginnings, in a series of chapters embracing the Norse Discovery, a de- 
 piction of the motives and results of the voyages of Columbus, and the 
 actual discovery of North America by John and Sebastian Cabot, show- 
 ing how these various events were mutually inter-related, and how the 
 last named led to the existence of the present United States of America. 
 
 NATURAL SCIENCE ASSOCIATION, 114 Fifth Ave., New York 
 
Chapters on the Natural History 
 of the United States 
 
 BY DR. R. M. SHUKELDX, 
 
 Issued under the Auspices of the Natural Science 
 Association of America 
 
 New York, U. S. A. 
 
 volume is a handsomely printed royal octavo of about 400 pages, illustrated 
 by many full-page plates and numerous text figures. In scheme the book 
 consists of a series of chapters devoted to the life histories of many of the better- 
 known mammals, birds, fish, reptiles, and insects of the United States, written in 
 a thoroughly instructive and popular style. Scientific technicalities are, however, 
 not altogether ignored, but are so incorporated as not to interfere with the popular 
 presentation of the subject-matter as a whole. One of the chief features of the 
 work consists in the elegant half-tone plates reproduced from a remarkable series 
 of photographs, all made by Dr. Shufeldt himself from the living forms. Fully 
 four-fifths of these are of the size of life, and present the subjects in their most char- 
 acteristic attitudes, and frequently with all the natural surroundings of their haunts 
 in nature. From this point of view alone, these figures constitute a series highly 
 calculated to help teachers and parents throughout the world ; to educate students 
 and pupils of all ages in the correct appreciation of form of living creatures ; and 
 finally, to stand as models of great value for the use of artists and taxidermists. 
 Indeed, the work cannot fail to be but of the greatest use to teachers in the public 
 schools throughout the United States, while in the library of the general reader it 
 will fill the place of one of a class of works upon natural history, which, in this 
 age of biological literature, are only too rarely produced, given over, as the ma- 
 jority of them are, to the more technical treatment and aspects of science. The 
 author, Dr. Robert W. Shufeldt, is well known as an eminent writer on popular 
 and scientific natural history, for many years Associate Zoologist at the Smith- 
 sonian Institution. 
 
 Royal Octavo, Extra Cloth, Gold Top, Cut or 
 Uncut Edges, $3.50 net 
 
 Sent by express, charges paid, on receipt of price. 
 
 Sttader Brothers, 
 
 BUILDING, 156 KlKTH 
 
 NEW YORK 
 
THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE 
 STAMPED BELOW 
 
 AN INITIAL FINE OF 25 CENTS 
 
 WILL BE ASSESSED FOR FAILURE TO RETURN 
 THIS BOOK ON THE DATE DUE. THE PENALTY 
 WILL INCREASE TO SO CENTS ON THE FOURTH 
 DAY AND TO $1.OO ON THE SEVENTH DAY 
 OVERDUE. 
 
 BIOLOGY LIBRARY 
 
 SEP 14 1932 
 
 NOV 141934 
 
 JUL 2 8 1958 
 JUL 2 8 1958 
 
 LD 21- 
 
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