AN ESSAY 
 
 OEIGIN AND FORMATION OF THE 
 KOMANCE LANGUAGES: 
 
 CONTAININa- 
 
 AN EXAMINATION OF -y . .RAYNOUARD'S THEORY ON 
 
 THE RELATION OF THE ITALIAN. SPANISH, PROVENgAL, 
 
 AND FRENCH TO THE LATIN. 
 
 BT 
 
 Tnil 'RidilT koNORABLfei ! .'A 
 
 SIR GEORGE CORNEWALL LEWIS. 
 
 4r 
 
 SECOND EDITION. 
 
 LONDON : 
 PARKER, SON, AND BOURN, WEST STRAND. 
 
 1862. 
 
 LIBRARY 
 
 UNITE HK]T\^ OF 
 
7lf 
 
 LONDON : 
 PRINTED BY GEOEGE PHTPPS, 18 & 14, TOTHHX STEEET, 
 
 * ' i ,' \ tjnprsiwttKSTEE* 
 
 
PREFACE TO THE FIEST EDITION. 
 
 The following Essay was originally written 
 with the view of being published in the Cam- 
 bridge Philological Museum}, as a criticism of 
 M. Eaynouard's researches into the history and 
 formation of the Romance Languages. The dis- 
 continuance of that journal having left me no 
 alternative, but to suppress altogether what I 
 had written, or to print it as a separate work, I 
 resolved after some hesitation to adopt the latter 
 course. I am fully conscious that much still 
 remains to be done for the systematic exhaus- 
 tion of the subject discussed in it : but as M. 
 Raynouard's writings have now become scarce 
 even in France ; as they are rarely met with, 
 and are little known in this country : as more- 
 over a reference to many other books is re- 
 
 ^ The Cambridge Philological Museum was published dnring 
 the years 1832 and 1833. The Author contributed to it some 
 papers on classical subjects. It was edited by Archdeacon 
 Hare and the present Bishop of St. David's, Dr. ThirlwaU. 
 
IV PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. 
 
 quired which can only be procured in foreign 
 libraries ; and as there is no extant work of 
 authority which contains a general view of the 
 history and grammatical structure of the Ro- 
 mance languages, I have thought that the re- 
 sults of my researches would be acceptable to 
 some persons who might be desirous to obtain a 
 connected view of the entire question, without 
 consulting a variety of books and scattered 
 essays, of very different degrees of accuracy 
 and value, in which alone the desired informa- 
 tion can now be found. 
 
 The problem, of which a tolerably complete 
 solution is offered in the following pages, is one 
 which cannot fail to interest all who have con- 
 sidered the intimate connexion of the develop- 
 ment of languages, as well with the political 
 history of the communities by which they are 
 spoken, as with those refined processes of 
 thought, of which language is at once the ex- 
 ponent and the evidence. In this point of view 
 the origin and progress of the modern dialects 
 of the Latin are marked by peculiarities, which 
 give them a predominant title to attention. 
 Having arisen within a purely historical period, 
 they are free from the elements of uncertainty 
 
PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. V 
 
 which embarrass all enquiries into the origin of 
 most other languages ; while their descent from 
 the language of the great Roman nation, and 
 their actual diffusion over all the west of conti- 
 nental Europe, invests them with a deep interest 
 in the eyes of all who take a connected view of 
 the ancient and modern condition of these im- 
 portant communities. 
 
 On the other hand, the subject presents to 
 the linguist and metaphysician a clear and full 
 exemplification of the progress of a language 
 in discarding its synthetic, and introducing ana- 
 lytic forms ; of the progress by which, at the 
 same time that its dictionary is enriched, its 
 grammar is impoverished ; that while its sub- 
 stance is improved, its form is deteriorated : a 
 fact affording plentiful and interesting materials 
 for reflexion, inasmuch as it offers the only 
 certain instance in which the general course of 
 civilisation does not tend to refine and improve 
 all the instruments and appliances of the hu- 
 man intellect. 
 
 1835. 
 
PEEFAOE TO THE SECOND EDITION. 
 
 This Essay was composed in 1833, and was 
 published at Oxford, by Mr. Talboys, in 1835. 
 Since its publication the elaborate work of Diez, 
 on the Grammar of the Eomance Languages, 
 {Grammatik der Romanischen Sprachen, 3 vols. 
 Bonn. First edition 1836 — 1844. Second edition 
 1856 — 60,) has appeared, followed by his Ety- 
 mological Dictionary of the Eomance Languages 
 {Etymologisches Worterhuch der Romanischen 
 Sprachen, 8vo. Bonn. First edition, 1 vol. 1853. 
 Second edition, 2 vols. 1861 — 2). The langue 
 d'oil, or the French language, has likewise been 
 subsequently illustrated by the copious grammar 
 of Burguy, Grammaire de la Langue dOil ; 
 ou, Grammaire des Dialectes Frangais aux Dou- 
 zieme et Treizieme Siecles, suivie d'un Glossaire. 
 Berlin, 3 vols. 8vo, 1853, 1854, 1856. 
 
 These works have, to a great extent, super- 
 seded my Essay, and might seem to have rendered 
 
 * The references in the foUowing Essay are made to the 
 second edition of this book. 
 
IV PREFACE TO THE FIEST EDITION. 
 
 quired which can only be procured in foreign 
 libraries ; and as there is no extant work of 
 authority which contains a general view of the 
 history and grammatical structure of the Ro- 
 mance languages, I have thought that the re- 
 sults of my researches would be acceptable to 
 some persons who might be desirous to obtain a 
 connected view of the entire question, without 
 consulting a variety of books and scattered 
 essays, of very different degrees of accuracy 
 and value, in which alone the desired informa- 
 tion can now be found. 
 
 The problem, of which a tolerably complete 
 solution is offered in the following pages, is one 
 which cannot fail to interest all who have con- 
 sidered the intimate connexion of the develop- 
 ment of languages, as well with the political 
 history of the communities by which they are 
 spoken, as with those refined processes of 
 thought, of which language is at once the ex- 
 ponent and the evidence. In this point of view 
 the origin and progress of the modern dialects 
 of the Latin are marked by peculiarities, which 
 give them a predominant title to attention. 
 Having arisen within a purely historical period, 
 they are free from the elements of uncertainty 
 
PREFACE TO THE FIEST EDITION. V 
 
 which embarrass all enquiries into the origin of 
 most other languages ; while their descent from 
 the language of the great Roman nation, and 
 their actual diffusion over all the west of conti- 
 nental Europe, invests them with a deep interest 
 in the eyes of all who take a connected view of 
 the ancient and modern condition of these im- 
 portant communities. 
 
 On the other hand, the subject presents to 
 the linguist and metaphysician a clear and full 
 exemplification of the progress of a language 
 in discarding its synthetic, and introducing ana- 
 lytic forms ; of the progress by which, at the 
 same time that its dictionary is enriched, its 
 grammar is impoverished ; that while its sub- 
 stance is improved, its form is deteriorated : a 
 fact affording plentiful and interesting materials 
 for reflexion, inasmuch as it offers the only 
 certain instance in which the general course of 
 civilisation does not tend to refine and improve 
 all the instruments and appliances of the hu- 
 man intellect. J 
 
 1835. 
 
PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. 
 
 This Essay was composed in 1833, and was 
 published at Oxford, by Mr. Talboys, in 1835. 
 Since its publication the elaborate work of Diez, 
 on the Grammar of the Romance Languages, 
 {Grammatik der Romanischen Sprachen, 3 vols. 
 Bonn. First edition 183 6 — 1844. Second edition 
 1856 — 60,) has appeared, followed by his Ety- 
 mological Dictionary of the Romance Languages 
 {Etymohgisches Worterhicch der Romanischen 
 Sprachen, 8vo. Bonn. First edition, 1 vol. 1853. 
 Second edition, 2 vols. 1861 — 2). The langue 
 d'oil, or the French language, has likewise been 
 subsequently illustrated by the copious grammar 
 of Burguy, Grammaire de la Langue dOil ; 
 ou, Grammaire des Dialectes Fran^ais aux Dou- 
 zieme et Treizieme Siecles, suivie d'un Glossaire. 
 Berlin, 3 vols. Svo, 1853, 1854, 1856. 
 
 These works have, to a great extent, super- 
 seded my Essay, and might seem to have rendered 
 
 * The references in the following Essay are made to the 
 second edition of this book. 
 
Vlll PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. 
 
 its republication superfluous. Having, however, 
 been informed that its re-issue in a new edition 
 would be acceptable to English students in- 
 terested in the science of language, I consented 
 to reprint it, for the following reasons : — My 
 Essay had a special object ; namely, the refuta- 
 tion of M. Eaynouard's theory on the derivation 
 of the Eomance languages from the langue 
 d'oc, or language of the Troubadours; — and 
 this object is consistently pursued throughout 
 the entire enquiry. Now, the grammars of Diez, 
 or Burguy, though they do not adopt this theory, 
 nevertheless contain no detailed investigation of 
 it, and they assume the truth of the opinions 
 which my Essay endeavours to establish by 
 proof. The grammars in question, moreover, 
 although they afford more copious illustrations 
 of the Romance languages, and particularly of 
 their syntax, than my Essay, consistently with 
 its limited scope, pretends to furnish ; yet do 
 not present the theory of their derivation from 
 the Latin in so compact a form. I may add that 
 my Essay still remains the only English work 
 in which this problem is treated at length, and 
 in such a manner as to enable a student to form 
 an independent judgment respecting its solution. 
 
PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. IX 
 
 In revising this Essay for republication, at an 
 interval of nearly thirty years since its com- 
 position, I have not attempted to make any 
 material alterations either in its substance or in 
 its form. With the exception of a few unim- 
 portant corrections, I have limited myself to the 
 addition of such references to the works of Diez 
 and others, published since the first edition, as 
 seemed to me to be likely to be useful to a 
 reader. These insertions in the notes are in- 
 cluded within brackets. 
 
 The importance and interest of the philological 
 problem, which is treated in the following pages, 
 are much increased by the fact that it lies en- 
 tirely within the historical period ; and that not 
 only the original and the derivative languages, 
 but also the circumstances attending the transi- 
 tion, are known by authentic evidence, and by 
 an unbroken tradition. It is therefore a problem 
 which admits of solution by demonstrative ar- 
 guments, and without a recourse to a series of 
 hypotheses and conjectures, weakening as the 
 chain lengthens. 
 
 London, 
 
 October y 1862, 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 tV ^ 
 
 CHAP. PAGE 
 
 I. The Obigin of the Romance Languages . 1 
 § 1. Statement of M. Raynouard's Theory 
 
 RESPECTING THE OrIGIN OF THE ROMANCE 
 
 Languages 1 
 
 § 2. Examination of this Theory in the 
 
 PRESENT Work proposed 6 
 
 § 3. Preliminary Examination op the Hy- 
 pothesis THAT the Italian Language was 
 formed from a Plebeian Form op the Latin 
 
 Language 10 
 
 4. Nature op the Changes in the Latin 
 Language produced by the Teutonic In- 
 vasions 18 
 
 § 5. Variety of these Changes ... 28 
 § 6. General Objections to M. Raynouard's 
 Proofs of the Derivation of all the Ro- 
 mance Languages from the Provenqal . 34 
 § 7. Use op the word Romance ... 60 
 
 II. The Formation op the Romance Articles and 
 
 Nouns prom the Latin 64 
 
 § 1. Articles ib. 
 
 § 2. Forms and Inflexions op Nouns . . 67 
 
 § 3. Genders of Nouns 112 
 
 § 4. Formation op new Nouns by Affixes . 119 
 
 [II. Degrees op Comparison, Pronouns, and Nu- 
 merals IN the Romance Languages . . 147 
 § 1. Degrees of Comparison . , . . ib. 
 
 § 2. Pronouns 160 
 
 § 3. Numerals 162 
 
Xii CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAP. FAQE 
 
 IV. Formation, Conjugation, and Syntax op Verbs 
 
 IN THE KOMANCE LANGUAGES .... 166 
 
 § 1. Formation and Conjugation op Verbs ib. 
 
 § 2. Syntax of Verbs 191 
 
 V. Prepositions, Adverbs, and Conjunctions, in 
 
 the Romance Languages .... 197 
 
 § 1. Prepositions ib. 
 
 § 2. Adverbs 209 
 
 § 3. Conjunctions 224 
 
 § 4. Concluding Remarks on M. Raynouard's 
 
 Hypothesis . 243 
 
 Appendix 261 
 
 I 
 
 /o! 
 
a.^ A ^ -». 
 
 UNIVKRSITV Ui^ 
 
 CALIFORNIA. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 THE ORIGIN OF THE EOMANCE 
 LANGUAGES. 
 
 § 1. It is now nearly twenty years since M. Raynouard 
 published at Paris two grammatical treatises on the 
 Romance language, one containing an account of the 
 rules of that language before the year 1000 : the other, 
 a complete grammar of the language of the Trouba- 
 dours as preserved in their extant poems. These two 
 grammars, accompanied with an introduction on the 
 antiquity of the Romance language, and researches on 
 its origin and formation, composed the first volume 
 of the series which he has since continued under the 
 name of Selections from the Poetry of the Troubadours. 
 The poems, which form the four next volumes of his 
 collection, were published by him from various manu- 
 scripts belonging to different pubKc libraries of France 
 and Italy, but especially from a manuscript in the king's 
 Library at Paris. Before the publication of this work, 
 there was no printed collection of the poetry of the 
 Troubadours in existence ; and the few single poems con- 
 tained in the treatise of the Abbe Millet and some other 
 works of French and Italian writers, had for the most 
 part been derived from inaccurate copies, and had been 
 
2 CHAPTER I. 
 
 imperfectly explained by the editors^ As forming part 
 of tlie same series, though, not so closely connected as the 
 preceding volumes, M. Eaynouard afterwards put forth a 
 comparative grammar of the modern Latin languages, 
 considered in their relation to the language of the Trou- 
 badours. His entire undertaking will have been com- 
 pleted, when the dictionary of the Romance language, 
 which he announced some years ago as being in a state of 
 forwardness, shall have been laid before the public^. To 
 those who are acquainted with M. Raynouard's labours, 
 it is unnecessary to speak in praise of publications of 
 which the merits have been so generally and so justly 
 admitted : to those who may not have met with them, it 
 may be proper to say, that by his industry and original 
 researches he has made known an European language 
 and literature almost whoUy forgotten since the extinc- 
 tion of the independence of Provence : and has thrown a 
 greater light on the origin of the modem Latin lan- 
 
 * See an account of these works in Diez, Poesie der Troubadours 
 (Zwickau, 1827), p. v.— ix. ! 
 
 2 M. Raynouard died on the 27th of [October, 1836, at the age 
 of seventy-five, in the year following the original publication of this 
 essay. His Lexique Roman ; ou, Dictionnaire de la Langue des Trou- 
 badours, was published after his death, under the editorship of 
 M. Paquet, in six vols. 8vo, the first of which bears the date of 1838, 
 the second of 1836, the third of 1840, the fourth of 1842, the fifth of 
 1843, and the sixth of 1844. The first volume contains, ' Recherches 
 Philologiques sur la Langue Romane,' p. ix. — xhi. ; • Resum6 de la 
 Grammaire Romane,' p. xliii. — Ixxxviii. ; and ' Nouveau Choix des 
 Poesies originales des Troubadours,' 1 — 580. Vols. ii. to v. inclusive, 
 contain the Lexique Roman, or Dictionary of the ancient Provencal 
 language ; the sixth volume contains a short Appendice to the Lexique, 
 and a Vocahulaire Alphahitique des Mots disposes par Families dam 
 le Lexique Roman. 
 
 In the introduction to vol. ii., consisting of pp. i. — xcii., M. Ray. 
 nouard declares that he expounds the numerous affinities between the 
 
THE ORIGIN OP THE ROMANCE LANGUAGES. 3 
 
 guages, their mutual relations, and their early structure 
 and syntax, than perhaps all the other writers on these 
 subjects collectively. In addition to the works here men- 
 tioned, his criticisms in the Journal des Savans form 
 a complete history of the various pubKcations of ancient 
 French poems, and other writings connected with the 
 philology of the Romance languages, called forth by that 
 taste for the early native literature which his example 
 and investigations have greatly contributed to create of 
 late years in France. It is not indeed without reason 
 that M. Raynouard's fame has spread itself through the 
 learned public in Europe ; that Schlegel has said that he 
 has done more for the history of the French language 
 than aU the academicians of his country^ ; that by his 
 means the study of the Troubadour poetry has taken 
 root both in Germany and Italy, and that parts of his 
 labours have been reproduced by writers of both those 
 countries. In England, however, as far as I am aware, 
 M. Raynouard^s works have not attracted even among 
 scholars and philologists the attention which they un- 
 questionably deserve : and therefore I propose in the 
 
 six neolatin languages, namely, — 1, the language of the Troubadours ; 
 2, the Catalonian; 3, the Spanish ; 4, the Portuguese; 5, the Italian; 
 6, the French. He proceeds thus : — 
 
 *J'entreprends, pour la lexicographie des ces idi6mes, ce que j'ai 
 tache d'executer pour la comparaison de leurs formes grammaticales. 
 
 • J'ose esperer que le r6sultat de mes investigations demontrera 
 4videmment I'origine commune des diverses langues de I'Europe 
 latine, et ne laissera plus aucun doute sur I'existence ancienne d'uii 
 type primitif, c'est-a-dire d'une langue intermediaire, idiome encore 
 grossier sans doute, mais qui pourtant 6tait dirige par des principes 
 rationnels, notamment quand il s'appropriait, sous des formes nou- 
 velles, plusieurs des mots de la langue latine,' p. i. [Note added in 
 1862.] 
 
 * Krititche Schriften, vol. i.,page 356. 
 
 B 2 
 
4 CHAPTER I. 
 
 present work to lay before the reader such an account of 
 the principal parts of them as may enable him to form a 
 judgment of the nature and value of their contents ; 
 though at the same time I shall sometimes take the 
 liberty of departing from the order in which M. Eay- 
 nouard has arranged his materials, and shall investigate 
 some collateral questions relating to the origin of the 
 Romance languages, on which he has not fully expressed 
 his opinion. 
 
 In order to effect this purpose, I shall proceed to give 
 an abstract of the principal contents of M. Eaynouard's 
 Grammar of the Troubadour language, inserting in their 
 proper places the corresponding forms and idioms in the 
 Italian, Spanish, and French languages, which are ad- 
 duced in his Qomjparative Crrammar^ : so as to present in 
 the most important points a tolerably complete parallel- 
 ism of the Romance tongues. In this manner it will be 
 made evident what relation the Provencal language, or 
 the language of the Troubadours, bears to its cognate 
 dialects of the Latin : and the reader will be enabled to 
 judge of the truth of M. Raynouard's theory with 
 respect to their origin, which I will now state as nearly 
 as possible in his own words. He conceives that the 
 Romance language, formed from the corruption of the 
 Latin, was common to all the countries of Europe in 
 which the Latin had been spoken, and is preserved in a 
 pure form in the poetry of the Troubadours (G-r. B. p. 5, 
 
 1 In this Grammar M. Raynouard constantly compares the forms of 
 the Portuguese as well as of the Spanish language. For the sake of 
 brevity and clearness I have omitted the Portuguese; as, although it 
 deviates in many respects from the Spanish, nevertheless there is such 
 a fundamental resemblance between them, that the same general ai-gu- 
 mentB apply to both. 
 
THE ORIGIN OF THE ROMANCE LANGUAGES. 5 
 
 6.y. It was a regular fixed language, having constant 
 rules {Gr. Comp. p. ii.) and was universally understood 
 over Roman Europe {G-r. Gomp. p. xxix.) And this was 
 the common source from which all the modem Latin 
 languages were derived {Gr, Gomp. p. ii.) ; so that all the 
 characteristic marks and idioms of each of these lan- 
 guages are traceable in the mother tongue (ib. p. iv.), 
 and the resemblance of the forms of certain words in 
 these languages is sufficient to prove, not only a com- 
 munity of origin, but also the existence of a common 
 intermediate type, which has modified both the Latin 
 and other languages by operations of which the charac- 
 teristic marks and the perfect unity may still be recog- 
 nised {Gr. Gomp. p. 30). 
 
 §2. Such is M. RajTiouard^s theory with respect 
 to the origin of the Italian, Spanish, and French, and 
 their dialects. He does not place them on the same line 
 with the ancient Proven9al or Langue d'oc, deriving 
 them all, as sister languages, directly from the Latin: 
 but he considers the Romance as an universal language, 
 which arose from the corruption of the Latin in the 
 middle ages, which was severally modified into ^the 
 Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, modem Provencal, and 
 French, and of which we have a faithful transcript 
 in the poems of the Troubadours. In establishing this 
 theory, M. Rajmouard in some degree resembled the 
 prophet mentioned in the Bible, who was required not 
 only to interpret the dream, but also to divine what the 
 
 * In the following pages, the references are made to the separate 
 edition of the Grammaire de la Langue Romane; but the miscellaneous 
 treatises which belong to it are quoted as they are collected in the first 
 yol. of the Ghoix des Poisies des Troubadours. 
 
6 CHAPTER I. 
 
 dream was : for before he could trace the relations of the 
 modern Latin languages with the Romance, he had first 
 to discover the Romance itself, to explain its structure, 
 and to ascertain its grammatical rules^. When we con- 
 sider the novelty of M. Raynouard's investigations, the 
 multiplicity of unperceived relations which he brought 
 to light, the extent of his erudition, his unwearied in- 
 dustry, and his scrupulous accuracy of citation, it is no 
 wonder that his theory should have obtained general 
 assent, as his works deserved general admiration, among 
 persons occupied about the history of the Romance lan- 
 guages. Even before the pubHcation of his Compara- 
 tive Grammary and when his theory had merely been 
 put forward as an hypothesis, Perticari, in a treatise 
 which has been much admired in Italy, adopted his 
 views on the origin of the Italian : considering (to 
 use his own words) *that the Latin was the grand- 
 mother, while the Romance was the mother of the new 
 
 * The same theory had indeed been previously advanced by others 
 as a conjecture, but only as a conjecture. M. Raynouard's merit 
 consists in assigning definite reasons for that which was before a 
 mere guess. Smollett, the novelist, in his Travels in France and 
 Italy, gives an account of the origin of the Romance and its relation to 
 the other dialects of the Latin, which exactly agrees with M. Ray- 
 nouard's views, though I am not aware whence he borrowed it. * The 
 Patois, or native tongue of Nice (he says), is no. other than the 
 ancient Provencal, from which the Italian, Spanish, and French lan- 
 guages have been formed. This is the language that rose upon the 
 ruins of the Latin tongue, after the irruption of the Goths, Vandals, 
 Huns, and Burgundians, by whom the Roman empire was destroyed. 
 It was spoke all over Italy, Spain, and the southern part of France 
 until the thirteenth century, whence the Italians began to polish it 
 into the language which they now call their own. The Spaniards 
 and French too improved it into their respective tongues. From its 
 great affinity to the Latin, it was called Romance, a name which 
 the Spaniards still give to their own language.' Letter tctj, vol. i. 
 
THE ORIGIN OF THE ROMANCE LANGUAGES. 7 
 
 languages now spoken over a large part of Europe^ : ' 
 which. Romance (he says in another place) was the 
 common language of Europe for more than five hundred 
 years'^. The same theory has heen adopted hy Cham- 
 pollion-Figeac, by Sismondi in the later editions of his 
 work on the Literature of Southern Europe, by Nicco- 
 Hni^, Lampredi, and Ugo Foscolo : and it is received by 
 Balbi as the established opinion in his Ethnographic 
 Atlas*. A few writers, such as Daunou, in the Journal 
 des Savans^, Galvani, who has published an Italian work 
 on the Troubadour poetry^, and a contributor to the 
 Florence Antologia^ have faintly expressed a dissenting 
 opinion, or rejected some of the arguments by which the 
 doctrine has been supported : Schlegel alone has ex- 
 pressed his entire dissent from this theory; and has 
 stated succinctly in a short work published at Paris many 
 years ago^, what appears to me to be the true explanation 
 
 p. 334. The mention of the Huns is prohably an oversight, as they 
 did not establish themselves in a part of Europe where, according to 
 Smollett's view, the Romance language was ever spoken. 
 
 * * Quindi possiamo dire che la latina veramente fu avola, ma la 
 romana fu madre delle nuove favelle che ora si parlano in tanta 
 parte d'Europa.' Scrittori del Trecento, lib. i. cap. 7 ; and see Difesa 
 di Dante, cap. vii. ad fin. et 10. 
 
 * * Quel comun sermone romano che per 500 e piii anni tutta occupo 
 I'Europa latina.' Difesa di Dante, c. 44. 
 
 ' Discorso in cui si ricerca qual parte aver possa il popolo nella 
 formazione d'una lingua, (Florence, 1819,) p. 8. 
 
 * See Balbi, Introduction a r Atlas Ethnographique du Globe, p. 166 
 — 76. Bemhardy likewise, in his Grundlinien zur Encycl-opddie der 
 FMlologie, p. 188, appears to consider the Provencal as intermediate 
 between the Latin and the other Romance languages. 
 
 * Journal des Savans, 1823, p. 88—90. 
 
 « Osservazioni sulle Poesie dei Trovatori, p. 515, note. 
 
 ' Observations sur la Langue et la Litterature Provengales, par 
 A. W. de Schlegel. Paris, 1818. [The theory of M. Raynouard, as 
 to the derivation of the Romance languages from a common type, in- 
 
8 CHAPTER I. 
 
 of the origin of the modern Latin languages, and some 
 of the chief objections to which M. EajTiouard's system 
 is liable : but no one has undertaken to refute, or even 
 to examine in detail, M. E-aynouard's demonstrations, 
 although it might have been expected that among a 
 nation so jealous of the honour of their language and 
 literature as the ItaHan, some critic would have arisen to 
 question the truth of a theory which takes from that 
 language the reputation which it has hitherto enjoyed of 
 being the first-born of the ancient Latin. The objections 
 which I shall propose to M. Eaynouard's system do not, 
 however, arise from any national feeling, or literary 
 jealousy : the diihculties which I find in his argument 
 presented themselves unsought ; and it is only because no 
 one better versed than myself in the literature of the 
 middle ages has undertaken the task of examining his 
 theory, that I shall in this work lay before the reader my 
 grounds for venturing to reject an explanation supported 
 with so much erudition and ingenuity. 
 
 There is perhaps no problem connected with language 
 
 which admits of a completer solution than that which 
 
 respects the modern European languages formed from the 
 
 Latin^. Unlike the origin of most languages, it lies 
 
 ^ within a purely historical period : the language of the 
 
 termediate between them and the Latin, is examined and rejected by 
 Ampere, Histoire de la Litt^rature Fran^aise au Moyen Age (Paris, 
 1841), p. 23—33.] 
 
 * « La langue Romane (says M. Raynouard) est peut-ltre la seule k 
 la formation de laquelle il soit permis de remonter ainsi, pour de- 
 couvrir et expliquer le secret de son industrieux mecanisme : j'ai mis 
 d. cette recherche autant de patience que de franchise, et dans le cours 
 de mes investigations grammaticales, j'ai eu souvent occasion de recon- 
 noitre la v6rit6 de I'axidme, " non quiadifficilia sunt.non audemus, sed 
 quia non audemus, difficilia sunt," ' vol. i. p. 104=. Among the other 
 
THE ORIGIN OF THE ROMANCE LANGUAGES. 9 
 
 native population, the changes whicli took place in their 
 political condition, the race and languages of the in- 
 vaders and of the other foreign nations with which they 
 came in contact, all are certainly known : and although 
 the early stages of these Latin dialects, when they were 
 merely harharous and unfixed jargons, formed hy the in- 
 tercourse of natives and strangers, spoken chiefly among 
 illiterate persons, and used neither as the language of the 
 government, of legal instruments, nor of books, are not 
 only (with the exception of a few words) wholly un- 
 known, but lost without hope of recovery ; yet the events 
 which accompanied and occasioned their origin are 
 matter of historical record ; and if we cannot always say^ 
 with certainty to what precise cause the changes which 
 the Latin underwent were owing, our information enables 
 ns at least to obtain negative results, and to exclude un- 
 doubtingly many hypotheses which might be tenable 
 if we had merely the languages without a contemporary 
 history of the times when they arose. The same is the 
 case with the English language : without looking to its 
 structure or examining the etymology of its words, we 
 should be justified in rejecting an hypothesis which 
 should derive it from an union of the Anglo-Saxon and 
 the Greek, or the Anglo-Saxon and the Celtic ; as 
 we know that the invaders, who formed a new tongue by 
 their intercourse with the native Anglo-Saxon population, 
 spoke not Celtic, or Greek, but Norman-French. When 
 on the other hand we look at the Latin, we find by 
 analyzing its forms and words, that it contains a Hellenic 
 and a barbarous element, and is therefore probably a 
 
 t European languages, however, the English, as weU as the modem 
 Greek, has heen formed since the time of memory. 
 
10 CHAPTER I. 
 
 mixed language formed by the union of difiPerent races in 
 one community^ : but what were the component parts of 
 the nation (though the historical traditions afford mate- 
 rials for conjecture) is a matter of extreme uncertainty, 
 and we may as well infer such a mixture of populations 
 from the form of the language, as account for the form of 
 
 '"the language by the mixture of the populations. It 
 is therefore peculiarly important to explain, so far as the 
 present state of our knowledge permits, the formation 
 of the Romance languages : as they may furnish a sure 
 point of comparison for other mixed languages whose 
 origin lies before the dawn of history, and which can 
 only be illustrated by means of their analogy with those 
 
 ^of a more recent date. 
 
 § 3. Before I proceed to examine M. Raynouard's 
 account of the Provengal language, it will be proper 
 to say something on a theory of the origin of the Italian, 
 proposed by some native writers ; since, if it could be 
 established, it would apply with equal force to the other 
 languages of the same family. The hypothesis to which 
 
 * Lassen, in Welcker's Rheinisches Museum, vol. i. p. 361 — 4, ob- 
 jects to dividing the Latin into a Grecian and non-Grecian part, and 
 says that it might as well be divided into an Indian and non-Indian, 
 or a Teutonic and non-Teutonic part. It is however to be observed, 
 that though all these languages are derived from a common source, yet 
 there is a closer affinity between the Latin and the Greek, than between 
 the Latin and the Sanscrit or the Gothic. Moreover, when Lassen 
 Bays that the Latin bears no marks of being a mixed language, like 
 the English and Persian, he forgets Otfried Muller's remark with 
 respect to the Latin passive voice, and the progress which it has made 
 towards analytic forms. The want of a power of forminfj compound 
 words in Latin, which its cognate tongues possess in so remarkable a 
 degree, (see Livy, xxvii. 11, ' Faciliore ad duplicanda verba Greeco ser- 
 mone,') seems likewise to prove that the mixture of a heterogeneous 
 element had enfeebled the capacities of the original language. 
 
THE ORIGIN OP THE ROMANCE LANGUAGES. 1 1* 
 
 I allude is that in ancient Rome, and in Italy, after the 
 extension of the Roman dominion, there were two dia- 
 lects or forms of the Latin language : one spoken by the 
 upper classes, and educated persons, and used as the lan- 
 guage of government, of the tribunals, of the laws, and 
 of literature ; while the other, universally spoken by the 
 lower classes, and differing essentially in structure from 
 the high Latin, was never written until the middle ages, 
 when it became the general language of Italy, or (as it 
 is now called) the Italian, This theory, first proposed by 
 some writers of little note^ is illustrated at length by 
 Maffei, in his history of Yerona : the same view, in its 
 immitigated shape, is likewise followed by Lanzi, in his 
 work on the Etruscan language^; by Bonamy, in the 
 Memoirs of the Academy of Inscriptions^ ; and has been 
 more recently maintained by Ciampi, a Florentine writer, 
 in a separate dissertation*. A nearly similar account of 
 the existence of a low Latin dialect is given by Muratori 
 and Perticari, although both these writers admit the 
 influence of the Teutonic invaders on the native language 
 of Italy, which Maffei and Lanzi altogether exclude ; 
 
 * See their names mentioned in Perticari, Scrittori del Trecento, c. 5. 
 
 ' ' Non furono straniere lingue che in Italia lo (il latino) estinsero : 
 fu un linguaggio di volgo, che fin da antichissimi tempi annidato in 
 queste contrade, anzi in Eoma stessa, e restatosi occulto nei miglior 
 secoli, si riprodusse nei peggiori ; e dilatandosi a poco e prendendo 
 forza, degener6 in quella che anco per questa sua origine possiam 
 chiamare volgar lingua d'ltalia.' Lanzi, Saggio deUa Lingtui Etrusea^ 
 vol. i. p. 331. 
 
 ' Vol. xxiv. p. 697 — 666. Bonamy's explanation embraces the 
 Italian, Spanish, and French. 
 
 ■* Ciampi, Be Usu Lingua Italica. Pisis, 1817, 4to. An excellent 
 reriew of this book (which cannot now be procured even in Tuscany), 
 and a refutation of the arguments on which it is founded, by M. Kay- 
 nouard, may be seen in the Journal des Savans, 1818, p. 323—31. 
 
12 CHAPTER I. 
 
 Muratori in particular has laid great stress on the 
 changes introduced by the conquerors of Italy, and has 
 pointed out the German origin of a whole series of 
 Italian words. It is not indeed very easy to ascertain the 
 precise opinions of Muratori^ and Perticari^ on this sub- 
 ject; for, as they rest on a confusion of things which 
 ought to be distinguished, the statements of their argu- 
 ments naturally partake of the ambiguity on which the 
 
 » Thus he says, Dissert. It. Med. ^vi, vol. ii. p. 1013, E., 14 A. 
 
 * Incompertum sane est, ne dicam falsum, eo praecipue tempore, quo 
 Gothi et liangobardi in Italia dominati sunt, natam, atque ad culmen 
 suum perductam fuisse vulgarem Italicam linguam, quam ad expri- 
 mendas cogitationes nostras nunc usurpamus.* But he adds, p. 1016 E. 
 
 * Itaque non immerito opinemur, praecipue sub Langobardorum regno 
 Latinum sermonem, antea in barbariem multam prolapsum, gravius 
 corruptum atque immutatum fuisse, ita ut faciem novse linguae lingua 
 Italici populi tunc praeferre coeperit. Nam quod nonnulii sensisse 
 videntur, earn ipsam Italicam linguam, qua nunc utimur, a Latina seu 
 Romana adeo diversam, vel jlorente romani imperii fortuna, viguisse, 
 somnium est nulla confutatione dignum.' And again, Diss. 33, p. 1101 C. 
 *Quum tamen longe plures semper abundarint in ItaHcis urbibus 
 et agris incolae Latini, propterea primas retinuit ubique Latinorum 
 lingua, sed simul impedire nequiit quin ex tanta colluvione septen- 
 trionaUum populorum potentius in dies corrumperetur et antiquas 
 voces adulteraret, aut iis voces gentis dominatricis immisceret ; prae- 
 sertim quod officia fere omnia, et publica munera tum sacra tum pro- 
 fana Langobardis dominantibus conferrentur.' 
 
 * See Scrittori del Trecento, c. 5 — 7. In c. 6, speaking of the ef- 
 fects of the invasion of the barbarians, he says : ' Seguendo adunqiie 
 la partizione dantesca, diremo essere presto mancato il latino illustre, 
 ma il rustico essere in quel tempi limaso.' In c. 7, he says that he 
 ' has traced the history of the lingua rustica, discovered its ancient 
 origin, showed how it prevailed for a long period of time, and after- 
 wards under the name of Romance was polished in a better age.' In 
 another place he says, * non dalla barbarie Vandala n^ dalla Gota, ma 
 da questo volgar romano propriamente I'ltalico fu prodotto.' Difesa 
 di Dante, c. 7. Nevertheless he distinctly admits the influence of the 
 Teutons, ib. c. 8 : thus he says : ' non fu nh perduto nh rinnovato in 
 quel devastamento Italico tutto il vecchio parlare.' 
 
THE OEIGIN OP THE ROMANCE LANGUAGES. 1 3 
 
 arguments themselves are* founded. The confusion in 
 question has (as M. Eaynouard has remarked^) arisen 
 from overlooking the distinction between style and struc- 
 ture, from inferring that because the lower classes of 
 ancient Italy used ungrammatical and vulgar forms of 
 expression, therefore they spoke a language which dif- 
 fered in its inflexions and syntax from that written 
 in books and current among educated persons. Doubt- 
 less illiterate people in ancient Italy, as in aU other 
 countries, frequently committed grammatical errors^ and 
 used low words in their conversation : doubtless the 
 countrymen employed words which had been disused in 
 the towns, and had become provincialisms : doubtless 
 professions, as soldiers, lawyers, farmers, etc., had certain 
 peculiar terms not generally current through the com- 
 munity. On the other hand there was a style of writing 
 and speaking adopted by the upper classes, correct in 
 grammar, admitting no mean and vulgar expressions, free 
 from provincialisms, and the cant phrases of the camp, 
 the country, or the forum ; the standard of composition 
 as established by critics and grammarians on the models 
 of classical writers ; the lingua aulica or cortigiana, as it 
 was called by Dante, after the political institutions of his 
 day, in opposition to the lingiLa pleheay the unpolished 
 idiom of clowns. It was this pure and correct style 
 which the grammarians of Eome taught to their scholars, 
 
 * Gr. Comp. p. xlvii.— viii. See also the criticism cited above 
 in p. 11, *. 
 
 ' Thus Quintilian, I. 6, 45, says : * Quemadmodum vulgo imperiti 
 loquuntur, tola ssepe theatra et omuem circi turbam exclamasse bai-bare 
 scimus.' Hence in c. 6, § 27, he says : ' Non invenuste dici videtur 
 aliud esse Latine aliud grammatice loqui,' that is, it is one thing to 
 speak a language, another to speak it correctly. 
 
14 CHAPTER I. 
 
 and of wMch they treated in their works ; like the Greek 
 rhetoricians and elocutionists who taught their pupils to 
 use a more elevated and grammatical diction, but not to 
 speak in a different language from the vulgar. In Latin, 
 as in other languages, *many things (as Maffei says^) 
 had two names : one of which was used by educated per- 
 sons and by writers, the other was current among the 
 lower orders and in common use.' Th*us in an elevated 
 style a writer or speaker would use os, equus, jimus, 
 pumilio, puIcheTy ruber ^ percutere, ducere : but in famiHar 
 conversation, or in works sermoni propioraj the corre- 
 sponding terms, bucca, caballus, Icetamen, nanus, bellus, 
 russus, batuere, menare, would be employed^. So Yarro 
 tells us that what the inhabitants of towns call quiritare^ 
 the country people called yw5*7are, that where the former 
 said pellicula, the latter said scortum^. PHny calls con- 
 terraneus a castrense verbum, GelHus says the same of 
 copior*; and we know that Livy was reproached with his 
 Patavinity. But when Maffei would infer from such 
 facts as these that there was a dialect spoken by the 
 lower orders of ancient Italy, resembling the modern 
 Italian rather than the Latin^, his reasoning has just as 
 little weight as his proofs of the use of articles and 
 
 * * Di molte cose v'eran due vocaboli; un dei quali si adoprava dalla 
 gente colta e dagli scrittori, I'altro era proprio della plebe ed usuale*' 
 Verona Illustrata, part I. col. 313. [For a list of plebeian Latin 
 words, see Diez, Rom. Gramm., vol. i. p. 7 — 28.] 
 
 * These instances are given by Maffei. 
 » De L. L. vi. 68, vii. 84, ed. MUller. 
 
 * Plin. Praf. ad Nat. Hist., $ 1. Gellius, xvii. 2. 
 
 * See his entire argument, col. 312 — 20. Maffei's conclusion is re- 
 jected as absurd by Tiraboschi, Storia della Litteratura Italiana, Pre- 
 face to torn, iii. part I.; by Pignotti, Storia di Toscana, vol. ii. : DelV 
 Origine e Progressi della Lingua Italiana ; by Diez Poesie der Trouba- 
 
THE ORIGIN OF THE ROMANCE LANGUAGES. 1 5 
 
 auxiliary verbs in ancient Italy^. There is no doubt that 
 Latin writers sometimes prefix the pronoun ille to a noun, 
 much in the same way that the Italian uses its definite 
 article, there is no doubt that they sometimes used habeo 
 and a past participle, after the manner of the modem 
 conjugation with avere ; but these are anomalous in- 
 stances, not rules ; they are only the rudiments and germs 
 of a system wbicb bad not tben come into being ; and 
 notwithstanding these idioms the Latin bad no articles, 
 and no active conjugation with auxiliary verbs. The 
 very examples cited by Maffei make against him : for we 
 find that the purest and most elegant writers of Latin 
 did not avoid his plebeian words, and that tbey used 
 them moreover with the Latin terminations and in- 
 flexions. Instead therefore of producing an exclusively 
 plebeian word with an Italian termination, he quotes 
 from Lucretius, Horace, and Juvenal such words as 
 russus, bellus, and cahallus with a purely Latin form. 
 There can be little doubt that the state of the Latin 
 language in ancient Italy exactly resembled that of the 
 EngHsh in most parts of England, and that of the 
 French in Paris and its neighbourhood : viz., — that the 
 language spoken by the whole population was the same 
 in its structure and form, but that the upper and educated 
 classes spoke it without solecisms, and coarse or vulgar 
 expressions, while the lower orders and the country peo- 
 ple used an ungrammatical, homely, and sometimes anti- 
 
 <!owr», p. 288; and by other writers. See also Hallam's Middle Ages ^ 
 ch. 9, part I. vol. iii. p. 320. 
 
 ' lb. col. 318, 319. By the same mode of reasoning it might be 
 shown that the Greek, which sometimes said KaXvxpag exw, jSejSovXevKwc 
 exw. used auxiliary verbs. See Matthiee's Gr. Gr., § 559. 
 
l6 CHAPTER I. 
 
 quated mode of diction. It would be easy to make in 
 English a list of passages from writers on style who give 
 cautions against the use of plebeian expressions : and to 
 collect a series of double synonyms, of which one is 
 suited to a serious, poetical, and lofty, the other to 
 a ludicrous, familiar, or humble style. This, according 
 to Maffei's way of reasoning, would be a proof of the ex- 
 istence of two languages in England, one spoken by the 
 upper, the other by the lower classes. The orthography 
 of the Latin, as of all other languages before the use of 
 printing, was completely unfixed, and from the practice 
 which prevailed in ancient, as it prevails in modern 
 Italy, of representing the exact sounds of the voice with 
 letters, (instead, Kke English and French, of often 
 making a word an arbitrary symbol to represent a sound,) 
 many peculiarities of local pronunciation were introduced 
 by the stone-cutters into public and private monuments : 
 but there is no trace of the existence in ancient Italy of 
 a language spoken among the lower orders, differing from 
 the Latin in its grammatical structure, of a, patois or dia- 
 letto^y standing to the Latin in the same relation as the 
 Provencal or Gascon to the French, as the Catalonian^to 
 the Spanish, as the Genoese, Mantuan, or Bolognese, to 
 
 * We have no word in English to express the idea signified by these 
 words, of an unwritten language spoken by the inferior classes, difler- 
 ing in structure or in origin from the national or common language. The 
 Welsh, the Gaelic, and the Irish, as spoken in Wales, Scotland, and 
 Ireland, are indeed properly patois Uke the Bas-breton : but the pro- 
 vincial languages of Norfolk, Somersetshire, Yorkshire, and Scotland, 
 cannot in strictness be so called, as they have the same inflexions as the 
 written English, though they contain many peculiar words not generally 
 understood. A Norfolk or Yorkshire peasant would underetand a play 
 of Shakspeare, or a speech made in pure English, but a Provenval 
 learns French as he would leam Spanish, and there are translations of 
 
 
THE ORIGIN OF THE ROMANCE LANGUAGES. 1 7 
 
 the Italian : which are languages with different inflexions 
 and syntax, and the one is not intelligible to a person ac- 
 quainted; with the other, although both belong to the 
 same stock. But the language popularly spoken in Tus- 
 cany has the same inflexions and grammar as the pure 
 Italian, the Koivq SloXcktos of Italy, though it may contain 
 many words peculiar to itself^ ; and such, I conceive, was 
 the relation which the plebeian language of Rome bore 
 to the style in which Cicero addressed the senate, or 
 composed a philosophical treatise. It was only a less 
 perfect, refined, and correct form of the self-same Latin 
 language. Without further discussion, therefore, we may 
 reject, as wholly destitute of evidence, the theory of 
 Maffei, which finds the Italian, and of Perticari^, which 
 
 Tasso into Venetian, Milanese, Bolognese, and other Italian dialects. 
 The definition of dialetto in the Vocab. delta Crusca, ^iz., — ' Spezie 
 particolare di pronuuzia di alcun linguaggio,' is veiy imperfect. The 
 Dictionnaire de I'Academie defines patois to be ' langage du peuple et 
 des paysans paiticuUer a chaque province.' Baretti, in his Italian and 
 English Dictionary, explains dialetto to be ' a manner of speech pecu- 
 liar to some part of a country, yet all using the same radical language.* 
 The latter limitation is probably true of the word dialetto, as used in 
 Italian : but it does not appear to apply to the French term patois : for 
 the Basque in Navarre, or the Bas-breton in Britany, would, I con- 
 ceive, be properly termed patois, though they belong to a diflferent stock 
 from the French and Spanish. 
 
 * See the Lamento di Gecco di Varlungo, a pastoral poem in the lan- 
 guage of the Tuscan peasants. Some remarks on the much contro- 
 verted point of tlie relation of the Tuscan to the written Italian, and 
 the other Italian dialects, will be found in note (A.) at the end. 
 
 ' The following statements of Balbi, in his Atlas Ethnographique, 
 agree nearly with Perticari's theory; tab. xii., par. 161. 'Latine. 
 C'etait la langue ecrite et commune au beau monde de I'ltalie et de 
 tout le vaste empire remain ; elle etait tres diflFerente de la lingua ple- 
 beia ou rustica, parlee dans les campagnes de la p6ninsule, et par les 
 personnea des classes inferieures dans les Espagnes, les Gaules, et 
 autres provinces.' lb. 162 : * Ro inane ou Romana rustica parlee daus 
 
 C 
 
1 8 CHAPTER I. 
 
 finds the Provengal, in the dialect of the lowest classes of 
 ancient Italy*. 
 
 § 4. The extension of the Latin language over the 
 countries of Western Europe occupied by the Romans, is 
 a fact more easily proved" than accounted for. As the 
 native tribes of Italy, Gaul, and Spain, yielded succes- 
 sively to the Roman arms, so their multifarious dialects 
 gave way before the language of their conquerors. In 
 many instances the language of conquering nations has 
 disappeared, or left only faint traces of its existence in 
 the native dialect of the country. Thus the Normans 
 adopted the language of their subjects and neighbours in 
 Northern France** ; and the English tongue, though com- 
 
 les beaux temps de Eome par les basses classes de la societe dans tout 
 le midi de I'Europe romaine; la Grece et quelques autres pays exeeptes. 
 Apres avoir subi des modifieations plus ou moins considerables, la ro- 
 mane parait encore subsister dans les dialectes vulgaires qu'on parle 
 dans une grande partie de I'Espagne, de la France, de la Suisse, et dans 
 quelques cantons de I'ltaUe.' For a similar view of this subject in a 
 more recent work on the modem European languages see note (B.) at 
 the end. i 
 
 • On an assertion of Niebuhr's, with respect to the mention of a 
 lingua volgare subordinate to the Latin, by Priscus, in relation to an 
 embassy which took place in 448, a.d., see note (C.) at the end. 
 
 ' See Raynouard, vol. i., p. 1 — 6. * Exploratum est (says Muratori) 
 per universam Italiam, Galliam, et Hispaniam propagatum ita fuisse 
 Latinffi linguae usum, ut non docti tantum viri, sed et plebes et rustici 
 denique omnes eamdem usurparint.' Antiq. It. Med. J^vi, Diss. 32, 
 vol. ii., p. 1014 A. On the universality of the Latin language in Gaul, 
 see Histoire Littdraire de la France, vol. vii., avertisseraent, { 1. The 
 universal prevalence of the Latin language is proved by the use of the 
 word Latin for language generally, in old French and Italian: see 
 Orell, Alt-franz68. Grammatik, p. 28. Vocab. della Crusca in v. On 
 the universality of the Latin language in Spain, see Mayans i Siscar, 
 Origenei de la Lengua Espanola, vol. ii., p. 20. 
 
 3 On this change of language see Gibbon, c. 56, note 17. Gley, 
 Langue et Litterature des Anciens Francs, p. 275. liaynouard, Obser- 
 
THE ORIGIN OF THE ROMANCE LANGUAGES. 1 9 
 
 pletely subverted by their influence, nevertheless retains 
 in substance its original Saxon character. But the Latin, 
 having at the same time the advantages accruing from 
 the influence of government, which imposed on the go- 
 verned the necessity of understanding it^ seems like the 
 Greek, to have propagated itself by a sort of magical 
 power among the inhabitants of Western Europe^. In 
 Italy the Etruscan disappeared before it under the early 
 emperors, and every trace of that singular language has 
 been lost except the inexplicable inscriptions : the Oscan 
 and other dialects of the native Italian tribes underwent 
 the same fate^: the Celtic was forgotten in Gaul and 
 Spain, and was only preserved among the inhabitants of 
 
 vations sur le Reman de i?ow, p. 16 — 21. Heeren, Ueber den Einfluss 
 der Normannen auf die Franzosische Sprache und Litteratur, Werke^ 
 vol. ii., p. 367— 9. 
 
 ' The Komans used their own language in all acts of the govern- 
 ment even in Greece (see EajTiouard, vol. i., p. 2, 4), and did not, like 
 the Austrians and the French in Italy, employ the language of the 
 conquered nation. The Latin however did not supplant the Greek 
 either in Greece or in Magna Graecia; and in the former country 
 it was not constantly used as the language of government, as we know 
 from the many extant Greek inscriptions relating to pubHc matters 
 which belong to the time of the Empire : but it was introduced by the 
 influence of government into Asia Minor, Syria, and Constantinople; 
 see the Quarterly Review, vol. xxui., p. 142. 
 
 ^ ' The facility with which they were thus moulded into Greeks is a 
 characteristic of the Pelasgian tribes, and a main cause of the dissolu- 
 tion and extinction of the nation. It is natural to view it as resulting 
 from the affinity between the two races, which yet were not on that ac- 
 count the less essentially different : and such I believe to have been 
 the case ; yet we may observe a magical power exercised by the Greek 
 language and national character over foreign races that came in contact 
 with them, even where no such affinity can be conceived.' Niebuhr, 
 Hist, of Rome, vol. i., p. 50. 
 
 ^ On the extension of the Latin in Italy, see Lanzi, Saggio della 
 Lingua Etrusca, vol. i., p. 27. 
 
 02 
 
20 CHAPTER I. 
 
 Armorica^ : tlie Iberian gave way in Spain, and only 
 lived in the modern Basque among the mountaineers of 
 the Pyrenees : the Ligurian became extinct on the shores 
 of the Mediterranean. The use of the Latin language 
 gradually became as universal over Western Europe, as 
 the dominion of the Roman laws and political institu- 
 tions. As this language had been spread by conquest, so 
 it was destined to be destroyed by conquest ; and when 
 the Teutonic races of the Herulians, Goths, Lombards, 
 
 * On the diffusion of the Latin language in Gaul, see Bonamy, 
 M€moires de I'Acad. des Inscriptions, vol. xxiv., p. 587 — 94. The 
 Celtic however still lingered in some of the Eastern and Southern 
 parts in the third and fourth centuries. Alex, von Humboldt has the 
 following remarks on this subject : ' I believe (he says) that we must 
 look into the character of the natives and the state of their ciAiUzation, 
 and not into the structure of their language, for the reason of this 
 rapid introduction of Latin among the Gauls. The Celtic nations with 
 brown hair, were certainly different from the race of the Germanic na- 
 tions with hght hair, [see Niebuhr, vol. ii., n. 1160 :] and though the 
 Druid caste recals to our minds one of the institutions of the Ganges, 
 this does not demonstrate that the idiom of the Celtic belongs, like 
 that of the nations of Otlin, to a branch of the Indo-J^elasgic lan- 
 guages. • [This affinity has now been proved by Dr. Prichard.] From 
 analogy of structure and of roots, the Latin ought to have penetrated 
 more easily on the other side of the Danube, than into Gaul; but an 
 uncultivated state, joined to great moral inflexibility, opposed probably 
 its introduction among the Germanic nations.' Personal Narrative, 
 vol. vi., p. 249, note. Although it may be true that the Celtic is in- 
 ferior in natural capacity to the Teutonic race, yet the reason why the 
 Latin made no way in Germany, is, that the Germans were not subju- 
 gated and their country occupied by the Eomans. It is certainly diffi- 
 cult to explain how the Romans should have completely eradicated the 
 Celtic language from a large part of Gaul, while the same causes which 
 appear at tliat time to have produced so great an effect, have during 
 the last eight or nine centuries produced so little effect, among 
 the Celts of Britany, Wales, Scotland, and Ireland. In Cornwall 
 alone the Celtic language has become extinct, and that within less than 
 a century. 
 
THE ORIGIN OF THE ROMANCE LANGUAGES. 21 
 
 Burgundians and Franks, successively overran the "West 
 of Europe in the fifth and sixth centuries, and estabHshed 
 themselves in it as rulers by the power of the sword, 
 it was to be expected that the language of the conquered 
 people would undergo great changes ; such as in Eng- 
 land and Scotland were produced by the invasion of the 
 Normans, and in Greece by the irruption of the Scla- 
 vonic tribes. If the relative numbers of the invaders 
 and the native population had been reversed, if the 
 Teutonic armies had formed a large majority, instead of 
 a small minority of the entire nation, the Latin would 
 probably have become extinct ; as the Celtic in England 
 disappeared before the Saxons and Angles, who not only 
 vanquished but exterminated the ancient Britons. As it 
 was, the numbers of the natives were too large to allow 
 of the extinction of their language^ ; while the conquerors 
 would naturally be as little willing to yield the use of their 
 native tongue, as to surrender any other of the privileges 
 of conquest. But as it was necessary that the two parties 
 should coriimunicate with each other, the one in order to 
 give, the other in order to receive commands ; the less 
 numerous party abated something of their privileges, and 
 
 * * Tunc (says Muratori, speaking of the Lombard invasion of Italy) 
 immanis turba promiscui sexus, Germanicam linguam a teneris ungui- 
 culis edocta, in Italiam effusa est, et provinciis fere universis dominari. 
 coepit. Didicere illi quidem debellat^e gentis linguam, utpote dul- 
 ciorem, et nimis altis radicibus stabilitam ; nam ut ut exhausta habi- 
 tatoribus tunc Italia fuerit, longe tamen major Italicorum stiperstitum 
 quam Langobardorum novorum hospitum numerus fuit. Didicerant, 
 inquam, sed ita ut nova ipsi quoque vocabula in sermonem Italicum 
 intulerint, et ad immutandam gravius quam antea pronuntiationem et 
 desinentiam Latinarum vocura, inscitia potissimum ubique grassante, 
 operam suam et ipsi contulerint.* Antiq. It. Med. jEvi, vol. ii., 
 p. 1014 A. And on the numbers of the German invaders of Italy, see 
 ibid., p. 1100 A- p. 1103 B. 
 
22 CHAPTER I. 
 
 submitted to attempt to explain themselves in the lan- 
 guage of their subjects. Being, however, more versed in 
 war than in letters, they used a form of speech which in- 
 stead of faithfully imitating the Latin only approximated 
 to it^, and by introducing the use of articles and auxiHary 
 verbs, by destroying the inflexions of cases which was too 
 complex a system to be easily learnt, and by infusing 
 a number of Teutonic words, they formed a hybrid lan- 
 
 * The following account of this change is given by Sismondi. 
 « Ignorant les uns et les autres tout principe de grammaire generale, 
 lis ne songeaient point a etudier la langue de leurs^ ennemis ; ils 
 s'accoutumaient seulement a entendre r^ciproquement le jargon dans 
 lequel ils cherchaient h se rencontrer. Ainsi nous voyons encore 
 aujourd'hui des gens du peuple transportes dans un pays Stranger, se 
 faire avec ceux dont ils ont besoin, un patois de convention qui n'est 
 le leur, ni celui de leurs hdtes, mais que tons deux comprennent, et 
 qui empdche tons deux d'arriver, k la langue de I'un ou de I'autre. 
 Ainsi dans le bagnes de I'Afrique et de Constantinople des esclaves 
 Chr6tiens de toutes les parties de I'Europe meles avec les Maures, 
 n'ont point enseign^ a ceux-ci leur langage, et n'ont point appris celui 
 des Maures ; mais ils se rencontrent avec eux dans un jargon barbare 
 qu'on nomme langue franque ; il est compost des mots romans les plus 
 n^cessaires a la vie commune depouilles des terminaisons qui mar- 
 quent les temps etles cas, et unis ensemble sans syntaxe. Ainsi dans 
 des colonies d'Am6rique, les planteurs s'entendaient avec les n^gres 
 dans la langue Creole, qui est de meme le Fran^ais mis ^ la port6e 
 d'un peuple barbare, en le depouillant de tout ce qui donne de la pr6. 
 cision, de la force, ou de la souplesse.' Literature du Midi, vol. i. 
 p. 19, and compare p. 33. ' The Moravians have translated the Bible 
 an^ a book of hymns into the Talkee-talkee, or negi-o language, 
 of which they have also composed a grammar. It is curious that this 
 patois of the blacks, though it includes many African words, should 
 have for its basis the English language, pared of inflexions, and soft- 
 ened by a multitude of vowel terminations.' Bolingbroke, Voyage to 
 Demerary, cited in the Quarterly Review, vol. xliii. p. 653, where speci- 
 mens are given of a similar niegro corruption of the Dutch language, 
 in which the inflexions are also obscured. On the change of the 
 Latin into the Romance language of France, see also Histoire LittS- 
 raire de la France, vol. vii. avertissement p. 28. And compare Brere- 
 
THE ORIGIN OF THE ROMANCE LANGUAGES. 23 
 
 guage, generated from tlie corruption of the Latin, and 
 differing essentially from its parent, though still retaining 
 a strong resemblance to it^ 1 
 
 It is likewise to be remembered that in contending ■ 
 with the language of the Teutonic invaders, the Latin 
 enjoyed the advantage which is derived from the posses- 
 sion of a classical literature and a high cultivation, both . 
 of grammatical form and rhetorical style ; an advantage 
 which was wanting to the German language, when the 
 Goths, Lombards, Vandals, Franks and Burgundians 
 overran the Western Empire. The maintenance of the 
 Boman law in its original form, and of the constitution \i 
 and worship of the Roman church also tended to uphold ^^^ 
 the Latin language, and to preserve it from oblivion. If \ 
 these circumstances had been reversed, if the Germans 
 with a cultivated language and Hterature, and a code of 
 laws already written in their native tongue, had overrun 
 a less civilized people, (which was the case with the Latin, 
 when brought in collision with the Celtic, Iberian, Etrus- 
 can, etc.) the probability is, that not even the large 
 numbers of the native Roman population would have 
 saved their language from almost total destruction^. 
 
 From what has been said, it follows, that the change 
 
 wood's Enquiries touching the Diversity of Languages, c. 5. Wachs- 
 muth's Europdische Sittengeschichte, vol. i. p. 254. 
 
 ^ The following conceit of an Italian writer cited by Galvani, Osser- 
 vazioni suite Poesie dei Trovatori, p. 20, correctly expresses the origin 
 of the modern languages. * La lingua latina . . . della gravidezza 
 dei Unguaggi barbari partort la nostra volgare, e ne mort a mezzo il 
 parto.' 
 
 * On the difficulty of eradicating a language, particularly a culti- 
 vated language, with a literature, see Heeren's Essay Ueber die Mittel 
 zur Erhaltung der Nationalitdt besiegter Volker: HistoriscJie Werke, 
 vol. ii. p. 17 sqq. 
 
24 ' CHAPTER I. 
 
 undergone by the Latin, in consequence of the Teutonic 
 invasion, was three-fold : viz. — a change of structure^ 
 'affecting the terminations and inflexions of nouns, partici- 
 ples, and pronouns, and the conjugations of verbs : a 
 change of syntax^ including the introduction of new idioms ; 
 and the introduction of numerous foreign terms, relating in 
 great part to military and political subjects^ On the two 
 first of these changes, which alone concern the grammar 
 of the Eomance tongues, I shall hope to be able to give 
 a satisfactory account in the course of the present work : 
 the latter, which is a question of etymological research, 
 scarcely admits of being treated in a connected form, 
 though a discussion of it might lead to highly interesting 
 
 * ' In comparing (says Gibbon, speaking of the Lombard kingdom 
 in Italy) the proportion of the victorious and vanquished people, the 
 change of language will aflford the most probable inference. Accord- 
 ing to this standard it will appear that the Lombards of Italy, and the 
 Visigoths of Spain, were less numerous than the Franks or Burgun- 
 dians; and the conquerors of Gaul must yield in their turn to the 
 multitude of Saxons and Angles, who almost eradicated the idioms of 
 Britain. The modern Italian has been insensibly formed by the mix- 
 ture of nations ; the awkwardness of the barbarians in the nice man- 
 agement of declensions and conjugations reduced them to the use of 
 articles and auxiliary verbs, and many new ideas have been expressed 
 by Teutonic appellations. Yet the principal stock of technical and 
 familiar words is found to be of Latin derivation.' Decline and Fall, 
 c. 45. This passage appears to me to contain a just view of the 
 origin of the Italian : but although the French has departed further 
 than the Italian or Spanish from the Latin, I am not aware that 
 it contains a greater number of Teutonic words. Moreover, the con- 
 fusion and loss of cases gave rise not to the use of articles, but to that 
 of prepositions, to express the relation previously signified by the in- 
 flexion. Savigny, Geschichte des Rbmischen Eechts im Mittelalter, 
 vol. i. c. 3, p. 181 — 2, infers from the difference of the legal relations, 
 that in Northern France the Franks settled in large numbers, and 
 expelled the chief part of the natives, while in Southern France their 
 number was smaller, and most of the Romans were spared. 
 
THE ORIGIN OF THE ROMANCE LANGUAGES. 25 
 
 results, as regards the liistory both of nations and lan- 
 guages^ 
 
 By this change the Latin language of Western Europe 
 passed from the synthetic to the analytic class : that is to 
 say, instead of declining nouns and conjugating verbs by 
 the inflexion of their terminations, it resolved the ideas 
 into their component parts, and expressed them by means 
 of prepositions and of participles with auxiliary verbs : 
 as will be explained in detail when we come to examine 
 those parts of speech. It has been supposed by some 
 writers that this grammatical system was transferred 
 from the Teutonic to the Latin language ; and that the 
 Germans, accustomed to analytical forms in their own 
 tongue, copied them faithfully in the jargon which they 
 prodticed by literally translating German thoughts into 
 Latin words. But this hypothesis, though it affords 
 an easy solution of the problem, is not entirely consistent 
 with fact. The ancient German or Gothic was un- 
 doubtedly a synthetic language, like the Greek ; and at 
 the time when the Teutonic tribes settled over the 
 Western Empire, it had as yet made but little progress to 
 the adoption of anal3i;ic fonns. It still used the inflexion 
 of cases ; it had no indefinite article, and of the definite 
 article it made little use ; nor does it exhibit more than 
 the rudiments of conjugation by auxiliary verbs-. Con- 
 sequently, although there appear to be some few in- 
 stances (which will be pointed out hereafter) of German 
 idioms having been adopted into Romance languages, yet 
 we must seek some other explanation of the new charac- 
 ter assumed by the Latin at the time of the German con- 
 
 * See note (D.) at the end. 
 
 « Schlegel, Observations, p. 19, 21, 34, 87. , 
 
a6 CHAPTER I. 
 
 quest. This explanation is doubtless to be found in tbe 
 remark of Scblegel, that * when synthetic languages have 
 at an early period been fixed by books which served 
 as models, and by a regular instruction, they retained 
 their form unchanged : but when they have been aban- 
 doned to themselves, and exposed to the fluctuations of 
 all human affairs, they have shown a natural tendency to 
 become analytic, even without having been modified by 
 the mixture of any foreign language^.' He illustrates 
 this position by the history of the German language, 
 * which, not having been fixed by any artificial means till 
 the beginning of the sixteenth century, had full liberty 
 to follow its natural course ; and the progress which 
 it made during that time towards analytical forms, by 
 losing part of its synthetical forms, is immense^.' It 
 : cannot be doubted that the natural tendency of language 
 is to substitute analytical for synthetical forms : but this 
 principle being admitted, there are two ways of account- 
 ing for the predominance of the latter in the Romance 
 languages. One is that adopted by Diez, who, without 
 going to the same length as Maffei, thinks that the fami- 
 liar language of the people had adopted a number of 
 analytical forms, and that the German influence only in- 
 creased and hastened the disposition to change which 
 already existed in the popular Latin. And he cites as a 
 parallel instance the modem German ; which, as the lan- 
 guage of the educated classes, retains the use of cases ; 
 while in the mouths of the lower orders the cases 
 are supplanted, as in Dutch, by a preposition or pronoun^. 
 But although there might be strong reason, on the 
 
 * Schlegel, Observations, p. 18. ' Ibid. p. 19. 
 
 , * Poesie der Troubadours, p. 286 — 90. 
 
THE ORIGIN OF THE ROMANCE LANGUAGES. 27 
 
 ground of analogy, for accepting this explanation, still 
 there is no historical evidence in its favour : on the con- 
 trary, we know that not only compositions meant for 
 general perusal, but that private letters, such as those of 
 Cassiodorus, were, either at or immediately after the 
 settlement of the Goths in Italy, written in a Latin, 
 which, however impure or inelegant, retains its synthetic 
 character as strongly as that of Ennius or Lucretius. 
 Notwithstanding the powerful tendency which may exist 
 to break down synthetic forms, it may perhaps be con- 
 jectured with some reason, that as the Latin had a fixed 
 classical standard, it would have retained its grammatical 
 character unchanged in Italy, Spain, and France, as it 
 has in the mouths of the people in some parts of Hun- 
 gary, if the German invasion had never taken place. 
 The explanation of Schlegel, that the change produced 
 in the Latin was purely the efiect of the German con- 
 quest^, seems therefore preferable. The conquerors, not 
 understanding the complicated and refined system of in- 
 
 * 'Les conquerans barbares (ils adopterent eux-memes ce nom 
 qu'ils croyoient honorable, puisqu'il signifioit I'oppose de romain) 
 trouvant dans les pays conquis une population toute latine, ou, selon 
 I'expression du temps, romaine, furent en effet forces d'apprendre aussi 
 le latin pour se fatre entendre, mais ils le parloient en general fort 
 incorrectement ; surtout ils ne savoient pas manier ces inflexions sa- 
 vantes, sur lesquelles repose toute la construction latine. Les Ro- 
 mains, c'est-a-dire les habitans des provinces, a force d'entendre mal 
 parler leur langue, en oubli^rent k leur tx)ur les regies, et imiterent le 
 jargon de leurs nouveaux maltres. Les desinences variables etant em- 
 ployees arbitrairement, ne servoient plus qu' a embrouiller les phrases : 
 on finit done par les supprimer et par tronquerles mots. Voild ce qui 
 distingrie les dialectes romans, des leur origine, de la latinite mime 
 la phis herissSe de barbarismes. Mais ces desinences supprimees ser- 
 voient k marquer d'une maniere tres-sensible la construction des 
 phrases, et la liaison des idees ; il falloit done y substituer une autre 
 
ZS CHAPTER I. 
 
 flexions on whicli the Latin language depended, naturally 
 sought to express their ideas by the more circuitous but 
 less artificial method of analysis ; according to which 
 each phrase is, as it we're, built up of the single ideas 
 which compose it, instead of their being all expressed by 
 the modifications of one word. It was in this way that 
 the Normans mutilated the Anglo-Saxon inflexions, and 
 produced the modern English ; and that other nations 
 have, as Sismondi expresses it^, by a mutual compromise 
 formed a sort of neutral language, which properly belongs 
 to neither party, but is the language of the one or the 
 other, deprived of its characteristic forms. By degrees 
 the Germans, forming a small minority of the entire na- 
 tion, disused their own language, even among them- 
 selves^: and the native population, forced to adapt 
 themselves to the habits and convenience of their 
 masters, and actuated by the disposition just noticed 
 to analyse grammatical forms, substituted the several 
 Romance languages for the ancient Latin. 
 
 § 5. It is natural to suppose that the mode of speech 
 formed by the process just described would be unsettled 
 and fluctuating, and would vary in different parts of 
 • western Europe, according to the greater or less purity 
 of the Latin spoken by the natives, the different pro- 
 portions of the natives and invaders, and the different 
 Teutonic dialects spoken by the latter: while it would 
 
 m^thode, et c'est ce qui donna naissance k la grammaire analytique.' 
 Schlegel, p. 24. 
 
 » See above, p. 22, note. 
 
 « German, however, was still used in the French court at the end 
 of the ninth century : Thierry, Lettres sur VHistoire de France, p. 43, 
 220. See also Schlegel, p. 101 . Bonamy , Mm. de I'Acad. dei Inscrip- 
 tions, vol. xxiv. p. 657. 
 
THE ORIGIN OF THE ROMANCE LANGUAGES. 29 
 
 [ I preserve a general resemblance on account of the simi- 
 J larity of the causes which produced it. In the mean time 
 \ the Latin retained its place in literature, in legal instru- 
 ; ments, and in the service of the church, not only on 
 : account of its superior cultivation, but as being the lan- 
 ; guage of the clergy, who were then the only depositories 
 of learning. The invaders indeed for some time continued 
 to use their native tongue : but the mass of the people 
 or the Romans (as the subjects of the empire were called, 
 in Gaul, Spain, and Italy 1), spoke a mixed dialect, which 
 (as distinguished both from the Latin and Teutonic) was 
 thence called lingua Momana, and from being the lan- 
 
 ' Ducange in harharus and Romani shows that Roman was a gene- 
 ral name of Roman provincials as opposed to the barbarians. Galvani, 
 Osserv. sulla Poesia dei Trov. p. 433-7, has some remarks on the op- 
 position of the Roman and Latin. The title of king of. the Romans 
 was even applied to the head of the Gothic kingdom in Spain by an 
 Arabian historian (Gibbon, c. 51, vol. vi. p. 478), in the same way 
 that the Anglo-Saxons and Normans of England are called Britons; 
 and that Machiavelli, in his Discourses on Livy, speaks of the taking 
 of Rome by the French. See also Sismondi, Lift, du Midi. tom. i. p. 
 260, ed. 3. Perticari, Difesa di Dante, c. 12, says, that the ' lingua 
 romana' was * veramente degnissima di tal nome ; perche in Roma h 
 ancora parlata quasi interamente, dopo il giro di HOC anni.' The in- 
 habitants of Gaul and Spain however were probably quite ignorant 
 what language was spoken at Rome, when they called their vulgar 
 tongue the lingua Romana rustica. Smollett, above quoted, p. 6*, 
 says that it was called Romance from its great affinity to the Latin ; 
 which comes nearer to the truth. The right explanation is also given 
 by Wachsmuth, Athenaum, vol. L p. 301. After speaking of the 
 Lingua Romana rustica he says : * The origin of the appellation 
 Romana appears to have been, that the inhabitants remembering that 
 they had been from an early period distinguished from the Germans 
 by their language, thought less of pure Latinity than of the political 
 dominion of the Roman people : whence it arose that the natives, as 
 opposed to the Germans, were called Romani, (Menage, Orig. de la 
 Langue Fr. in Rom^an,) and France itself had the epithet Romana, 
 (Liutprand, L I. Franciam quam Romanam vocant.) ' 
 
30 CHAPTER I. 
 
 guage of the rural population, lingua rustica Romana, or 
 simply lingua rustica. This was a general term for aU 
 the varieties of language formed by the union of the 
 Teutonic and Latin^ The language used by Lewis the 
 Germanic in the oath of 842, and by Charles king of 
 France in the treaty of 860, is called lingua Romana^, 
 In the acts of the council of Tours, a.d. 813, the bishops 
 are warned, * ut — homilias quisque aperte transferre 
 studeat in rusticam Eomanam linguam aut Theotiscam, 
 quo facilius cuncti possint intelligere quae dicuntur/ A 
 monk of Bobbio who wrote an account of the miracles 
 of St. Columbanus about 950 a.d., describes a mountain 
 near Bobbio thus, * Alter vero qui est ad laevam nuncu- 
 patur rustica lingua Groppo altum,' i. e. G-roppo alto^. 
 The modern language spoken in Italy seems not to have 
 been called lingua Romana in the middle ages, but to 
 have been usually known by the name of lingua vulgaris 
 or volgare"^, as opposed to the lingua erudita, the Latin : 
 numerous instances however occur where that name is 
 applied to tbe languages of France and Spain, to the 
 
 * See Schlegel, p. 40. Daunou, Journal des Savans, 1823, p. 89. 
 
 * Kaynouard, vol. ii. p. 2, 3. Thierry, Lettres sur VHistoire de 
 France, p. 204-6. Kochefort, Glossaire de la Langue Romane, vol. i. p. 
 XX. xxi. Muratori, Diss. 32, citing Baluz. Capit. vol. ii, p. 144. 
 
 ^ These passages are cited by Muratori, Diss. 32. 
 
 * See Muratori, Diss. 32, vol. ii. p. 1019, D. Learned writers at 
 a later period have however given the name of romanzo to the Italian : 
 Eaynouard, Gr. Comp. p. 374. In the following extract from the Tre- 
 8or of Brunetto, Dante's master, it seems tliat, ' Romance after the 
 manner of France,' is equivalent to 'French.' 'Et se aucuns de- 
 mandoit pourquoi chis livre est ecris en roumana selon la raison de 
 France, pour chou que nous sommes Italien, je diroie que c'est pour 
 chou que nous sommes en France ; I'autre pour chou que la parleure 
 en est plus delitable et plus commune a toutes gens.' Cited in Gin- 
 guen6, Uist. Litt, d' Italic, vol. i. p. 369. 
 
THE ORIGIN OF THE ROMANCE LANGUAGES. 3 1 
 
 Provencal, the Frencli, the Spanish, and the Portuguese^ 
 This community of appellation does not afford any rea- 
 son for supposing that the corruptions of the Latin in 
 the different parts of western Europe were identical: 
 there was a sufficient resemblance in their character, in 
 the circumstances under which they had arisen, and in 
 the classes of persons by whom they were spoken, to 
 warrant their being included under a common name, in 
 spite of minor differences. At the same time it cannot 
 be doubted that the differences between them were not at 
 first so great as they are now, and that in their early 
 youth the children more resembled their common parent 
 and one another^ : as the English and Scotch, which were 
 formed independently under the same circumstances have 
 a closer resemblance both in words and structure, the 
 nearer they approach their respective sources'*. This is 
 particularly seen in the French language, which formerly 
 used the masculine and feminine terminations in o and a, 
 since modified into e, as in the article lo for /e, Cellas, 
 
 * See Ducange in Lingua Romana, romancier, romanitas, romane, 
 romanire, roraanum, romancium, romantium. Muratori, Diss. 32. 
 Raynouard, Gr. Covip. p. 371-4. The modern Latin laugufiges of 
 "VValachia and Switzerland, although they have departed widely from 
 the original type, are called in those countries by the name of Ro- 
 mance, viz. Unguaig romansch or rumonsch, and limba romanesca. See 
 Diefenbach, Ueber die Eomanischen Schriftsprachen, (Leipzig, 1831,) 
 p. 2L 
 
 2 ' Naturam enim ac genium linguarura considerans, quae sensim 
 mutationem patiuntur, veri simile reor, Italici popuH liuguam, quo 
 propius accessit ad fontes sive ad saecula latinitatis eo minus Lum verbis 
 tum modis dicendi a Latina matre potissimum sua dissensis.se.' Mu- 
 ratori, vol. ii. p. 1037, C. 
 
 3 Willan, in Archceologia, vol. xvii. p. 164. On the independent 
 origin of the Southern English and Scotch, see Jamieson, Dissertation 
 on the Origin of the Scottish Language, p. 24, 25 (prefixed to his 
 Dictionary), 
 
32 CHAPTER I. 
 
 Fontanas, Ferrerias, names of places, afterwards changed 
 into OeUeSf Fontaines, Ferrieres^. The affinity indeed 
 was so great that a person who spoke the vulgar Roman 
 dialect would probably have been able to make himself 
 understood in any part of western Europe : as we find 
 it narrated by a monkish writer that in the reign of 
 Charlemagne an Italian priest, who happened to meet a 
 Spanish pilgrim in Germany, understood the conversation 
 of the Spaniard as being an Italian'^ ; whence it is evi- 
 dent that the Italian and Spanish were not then so 
 
 * See Raynouard, Gr. Comp. p. xii. Diez, Poesie der Troub. p. 325. 
 The final a has in French passed into the e muet, as 7nusa, muse, 
 domina, dame, etc. In la however (which in old French was some- 
 times made le, Rayn. in J. des S. 1820, p. 199) ma, ta, and sa, it was 
 retained. On le for la, see Orel!, ibid. p. 7 — 9. 
 
 ' Mabillon, Act. SS. Bened. sec. 3, Part II. p. 258, coiTectly ex- 
 plained by Raynouard, vol. i. Introd. p. xvi. Gr. Comp. xxix. and 
 after him by Perticari, vol. i. p. 805. The remarks of the critic of 
 Perticari, in the Florence Antologia, No. III. p. 350, tliat perhaps the 
 pilgrim could talk Italian, or the monk understand Spanish, are un- 
 tenable ; for it is distinctly said that the priest, as being an Italian, 
 understood the language of the Spaniard ('quoniam lingua; ejus, eo 
 quod esset Italus, uotitiam habebat :') plainly implying that he under- 
 stood it, not as having learned it, but in his character of an Italian. 
 Schlegel, p. 50, remarks that this statement affords no proof of the 
 identity of the languages then spoken in Italy and Spain, as even now 
 an Italian and Spaniard understand one another tolerably without an 
 interpreter. The general resemblance of these two languages is in- 
 deed so great, that a Venetian writer of the sixteenth century, intro- 
 duced into a drama a Spanish character speaking his native language : 
 thus putting the Spanish on the same footing with an Italian dialetto. 
 See Gamba, Serie degli Scritti Impressi in Dialetto Veneziano (Venice, 
 1832), p. 75. Mr. Planta, in his Paper on the Romansh Language, 
 says, that he had heard it stated as a fact, that two Catalonians travel- 
 ling in the Grisons, found to their surprise ' that their native tongue 
 was understood by the inhabitants, and that they could comprehend 
 most of the language of the country.' Philos. Transactions, vol. 65, 
 p. 154. 
 
THE ORIGIN OP THE ROMANCE LANGUAGES. 33 
 
 different as not to be mutually intelligible to natives of 
 both countries. As has been already observed, M. Ray- 
 nouard does not adopt the absurd fancy that the Romance 
 or the Italian existed as the language of the lower orders 
 of ancient Italy, in a shape little different from that 
 which they bore in the thirteenth century : his theory is^ 
 that the Latin, by the influence of the Germans, was 
 corrupted into an uniform language, called the Romance^ 
 spoken for some centuries, and at least as late as the reign, 
 of Charlemagne, over the whole of western Europe : that 
 this language is preserved unchanged in the Troubadour 
 poetry and the early literature of Provence : and that it 
 was gradually modified into the Italian, Spanish, Por- 
 tuguese, French, modem Provencal and their various 
 dialects, all of which he believes to have been derived 
 indirectly indeed from the Latin, but directly from the 
 Romance, and to have retained with different degrees of 
 fidehty the forms of that language. 
 
 On the first statement of this hypothesis, it is obvious 
 to enquire in what manner M. Rajmouard understands] 
 that an uniform language arose on the ruins of the Latin. 
 Languages may be diffused by colonisation or conquest ; 
 as the Greek was propagated in Asia Minor, Africa, 
 Italy, Sicily, and Gaul ; as the Latin in Gaul and Spain ; 
 as the Spanish and English in North and South America 
 and the West Indies ; but where were the conquests or 
 the colonies of the Provencals? Or does he suppose 
 that the Romance was diffused from Provence by the 
 influence of the Troubadour literature ? Nations how- 
 ever do not learn languages from poets, least of all from 
 foreign poets ; and some other cause must be found for 
 the propagation of the Provencal language than the fame 
 
34 CHAPTER I. 
 
 of the Proven9al minstrels^. If on the other hand, 
 M. Raynouard does not suppose that the Romance was 
 diffused from Provence as from a centre, he must con- 
 ceive that the Romans over the chief part of Italy, 
 Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica, Gaul, and Spain, when invaded 
 at different periods hy different Teutonic races, agreed 
 without communication to corrupt the Latin into the 
 self-same language; but unless he here calls in the 
 assistance of a miracle, and supposes that as at Babel 
 the tongues were confounded, so after the invasion of the 
 Germans they were made uniform, it is difficult to under- 
 stand how he accounts for such a prodigy. If he means 
 that the Romance was spread over western Europe from 
 a common centre^, he is contradicted by history, which 
 ]?ecords no movements of population capable of bring- 
 ing about this effect ; if he means that accidentally 
 all the natives of Italy, Gaul, and Spain, coincided in 
 forming one and the same new language, he supposes 
 an agreement to which no parallel can be furnished, and 
 /which is utterly incredible. 
 
 g 6. The proofs of the original coincidence of the 
 modem Romance languages with the Provencal, which 
 M. Rayuouard collects with great industry and learning, 
 and which will be presently examined in detail, are of two 
 kinds. 1. Words and forms in which the Italian, 
 
 * Muratori, Diss. 33, says, that the few words which came from 
 Provence into Italy, were indeed used by some writers, but not adopted 
 by the people. On the small influence of literature on the language of 
 the lower orders, see PhiloU Museum, vol. ii. p. 248. 
 
 ' It would seem that this is M. Kaynouard's meaning, as in the 
 Journal des Savans, 1839, p. 672, he states, that nessuno was received 
 into the Italian from the Trouv^res, that adesso, was taken from ades 
 as used by the Troubadours and Trouveres. 
 

 J THE ORIGIN OF THE ROMANCE LAl^UAG^Sl / ,35 
 
 Spanisli, and French agree with the Provencal,- hut in '* 
 which the Provencal agrees with the Latin. 2. Words ^^^ 
 and forms in which the Itahan, Spanish, and French 
 agree with the Provengal, bdt in which the Provencal 
 disagrees with the Latin. Of these two kinds of proofs, 
 the first is obviously open to the following objection. 
 Everybody admits that the ItaHan, Spanish, Provencal, 
 and French, were derived from the Latin: M. Ray- 
 nouard's position is that the Proven9al, under the name 
 of the Romance, was intermediate between the Latin 
 and the other modem languages. Now in order to sup- 
 port this assertion, it behoves him to show forms in 
 those languages which can only be accounted for on the 
 supposition of such an intermediate language, and could 
 not have been directly derived from the Latin. Instead 
 of confining himself to this species of proof, he often 
 alleges forms in Italian, Spanish and French, which he 
 derives from the Provencal, but which may just as well 
 be referred to the Latin, and by no means necessitate 
 the hjrpothesis of a transition language. Whenever the 
 Proven9al form is not a necessary condition for the exist- 
 ence of the Italian, Spanish, or French form, the coin- 
 cidence of the two goes for nothing in proof of the 
 interposition of the Proven9al between the Latin and 
 the modem language, or at most is only consistent with 
 it. M. Raynouard might have put his argument in this 
 shape : part of the Italian, Spanish, and French lan- 
 guages can only be accounted for on the supposition of 
 the Provenpal having succeeded the Latin ; the other 
 part, though consistent with the supposition that those 
 languages immediately succeeded the Latin, is equally 
 consistent with the supposition that they did not imme- 
 
 J)2 
 
36 CHAPTER I. 
 
 diately succeed it. Without making this distinction^ 
 M. Raynouard is liable to the objection that a large part 
 of his proofs are good for nothing, which may induce an 
 inconsiderate reader to condemn the whole because the 
 majority are untenable. He himself clearly points out 
 this distinction in some passages of his treatise, which 
 will be hereafter noticed^ : nevertheless he has not kept 
 it constantly in view, and has often alleged in proof of 
 the derivation of the modem Latin languages from the 
 Provenpal, facts which can be equally well accounted for 
 on the supposition of their being all parallel languages 
 derived from a common source. 
 
 The second class of proofs above mentioned refers to 
 words, forms, and idioms, in which all the modern lan- 
 guages differ from the Latin ; such as, the use of articles, 
 and the disuse of cases, the formation of nouns from the 
 accusative of Latin nouns of the third declension, the 
 use of affirmative expletives, which afterwards became 
 negative, as the derivatives of •mica, res, passus^ etc. ; the 
 introduction of foreign words, as the adverb tosto, tost, 
 quick ; the derivatives of the German herberge, frisch, 
 reich, mark, helm, fein, lassen, and many others which 
 occur in all the Romance languages*. The argument 
 founded on these facts is, however, one which may as 
 well be employed against M. Raynouard's theory as in 
 its support : for why does the agreement of the Pro- 
 ven5al with the Italian, Spanish, or French, in forms or 
 words not traceable to the Latin, prove that the latter 
 languages borrowed them from the Proven9al rather 
 
 » Gram. Comp. p. 70, 265. 
 ' See note (D.) at the end. 
 
THE OKIGIN OF THE ROMANCE LANGUAGES. 37 
 
 ttaii the converse ? All we know is, tliat the Latin' 
 disappeared as a living language from western Europe 
 soon after the sixth century, and that a new form of 
 speech was substituted in its place ; which, as far as we 
 can learn from the earliest monuments of it, had a dif- 
 ferent character in Spain, in Italy, in Northern and in 
 Southern France : in these several Latin dialects we find 
 numerous forms, idioms, and words, not borrowed from 
 the Latin, but corresponding or identical with one 
 another. On what ground are we to conclude, from 
 the mere fact of agreement and apart from historical 
 evidence, that one of these dialects in particular made 
 the innovations in question, and afterwards communi- 
 cated them to the others? The Proven9al may have 
 had a literature and a standard of composition before 
 the others, but there is no reason to suppose that as 
 a language it existed before them^. No error indeed has 
 been more frequent among speculators in language, nor 
 is there any which it requires greater vigilance to avoid, 
 than the confusion of cognate with affiliated languages. 
 "Where we see in two languages corresponding forms or 
 words, nothing is easier, or apparently safer, than to 
 derive one from the other. Thus if we find that thej 
 Greeks said l3ovs, Fovvo^, FoIkos, ^aw, Xeyw, that the 
 
 * Specimens of Italian forma, chiefly names of places, occuning in 
 documents of the eighth and following centuries, are collected in Mu- 
 ratori, Diss. 32. The language of the notaries, which, as Muratori 
 has shown, was evidently not a spoken language, is an unquestionable 
 proof of the disuse of the Latin soon after the invasion of Italy, Spain, 
 and Gaul. Schlegel, p. 5, calls the Provencal the eldest daughter of 
 the Latin : an assumption for which there appears to me to be no 
 ground, if it means that the Provencal existed as a spoken language 
 before the other Eomance tongues. 
 
38 CHAPTER I. 
 
 Romans said hos, vinum, vicus, faor, lego : it is imme- 
 diately concluded that the latter were borrowed from the 
 former : and a Latin lexicographer would think that he 
 had not performed his duty unless he had duly registered 
 the Greek as the originals of the Latin words. In like 
 manner a German et5miologist will inform his readers 
 that werh is derived from Fipyov, and wein from Folvo^. 
 But what evidence have we that these words were not 
 separately derived from a common source ; and that the 
 Latins might not have used vinvm and has, the Germans 
 werh and wein, if the natives of Greece had never de- 
 veloped their language, and had been crushed in their 
 germ by a barbarous immigration ? It is on this mis- 
 taken principle, that Dr. Johnson has arranged the 
 etymological part (which however he chiefly borrowed 
 from others) of his English dictionary. Whenever he 
 is at a loss for an etymology, he sets down the corre- 
 sponding word in Dutch or German, or he derives an 
 English from a German word^ ; and sometimes he even 
 makes a parallel increased form the origin of the English 
 word*^ : as if we had not only borrowed our radical words, 
 but even our formations from our neighbours ! In kin- 
 dred languages derived from a common stock, there is 
 always a correspondence both of roots and formations ; 
 more or less close, according to the length of time since 
 
 • * From are, an eagle, I beKeve our word eyrie derived ; Johnson 
 derived it from ei, an e^^, properly ey, German : but I do not believe 
 there is a word in the English language, (unless very modem,) of 
 German origin .... The words which we have in common with the 
 Germans are not borrowed from them, but drawn from a higher source.' 
 Herbert's Icelandic Poetry, p. 121, note. 
 
 * For instance, he derives the word manikin from mannilten Dutch. 
 See FUL Mus, vol. i. p. 680. 
 
r 
 
 THE ORIGIN OF THE EOMANCE LANGUAGES. 39 
 
 they parted from the parent-stem, and tlie various dis- 
 turbing causes to which both or either have since that 
 divergence been exposed. It is therefore of no avail, in ' 
 proof of a derivation or dependence, to show a scheme 
 of parallel forms, idioms, and words, in several lan- 
 guages : they may have arisen from a common source 
 under similar circumstances; and we may be led to 
 mistake for cause and effect, what in truth are only 
 similar effects of the same cause. Now such, as I con- 
 ceive, is the case of the Romance languages : they all 
 owed their origin to the same cause, viz. the permanent 
 subjugation by Teutonic races of a people speaking 
 Latin; and there is nothing in their character which 
 cannot be explained without supposing a nearer affinity. 
 They have just the amount of resemblance which might 
 have been expected in languages derived from the same 
 original, and just the amount of difference which might 
 have been expected in languages formed under similar 
 circumstances independently of each other : 
 
 Facies non omnibns una, 
 Neo diversa tamen, qualem decet esse sororum. 
 
 A comparison of the analogous forms in cognate lan- 
 guages is calculated to throw light both on their relation 
 to each other, and on the causes to which their affinity is 
 owing : as the sculpture of the Greeks may be illustrated 
 by comparing it with their poetry, and their poetry by 
 comparing it with their sculpture. The mistake too 
 often committed with respect to languages consists, not 
 in comparing them, but in making a wrong use of the 
 comparison, by discovering parentage where there is only 
 fraternity ; as any one would err who should derive the 
 
40 CHAPTER I, 
 
 sculpture of tlie Greeks from their poetry, or their poetry 
 from their sculpture ; the truth being that they are both 
 the products of the national taste and genius of that 
 people, which they serve in common to illustrate. 
 
 M. Baynouard, in answer to some remarks of Schlegel 
 on the independent origin of the Romance languages, 
 says that ' if each nation had formed its language sepa- 
 rately, doubtless one of those languages would have pre- 
 sented several essential and indispensable forms which 
 the other languages would have wanted, such for instance 
 as the use of a passive voice, as in Latin^' This ex- 
 ample is unhappily chosen. There is no part of the 
 Latin language which was more likely to disappear 
 im.der the Grerman influence than the formation of a 
 passive voice by inflexion. The Germans themselves 
 made the passive by means of auxihary verbs; and 
 would therefore according to their way of speaking 
 Latin doubtless imitate their own idiom. The passive 
 voice of the Latin verb had already degenerated from 
 its original model, and the Greek system of inflexion 
 had been much encroached upon by the formation of 
 some tenses with auxiliary verbs introduced by a foreign 
 influence at some early period of the Latin language*. 
 The inflexions of the Latin are precisely that part of it 
 , which was mutilated by the German influence ; and 
 ' there is only one instance in which any trace of them 
 
 1 ' Si chaque peuple avait composS son idiome isol^ment, sans doute 
 quelqu'un de ces ididmes eut offert plusieurs formes essentielles et in- 
 dispensables qui ne se fussent pas trouv6es dans les autres idi6mes, 
 telles par exemple que de conserver un paseif ainsi que les Latins,' etc. 
 Journal des Savans, 1818, p. 591. 
 
 3 See above, p. 10*. Miiller's Etnisker, vol. i p. 23. Philol. Mus. 
 vpl. i. p. 669. 
 
THE OKIGIN OP THE ROMANCE LANGUAGES. 4I 
 
 has been preserved. But in this instance, viz. the re- 
 tention of the nominative and accusative cases, all the 
 languages do not agree ; for we find that while this 
 inflexion was preserved in the languages of oc and oU, 
 there is no trace of its having ever existed in ItaKan 
 and Spanish^. This therefore is an example, in respect 
 of a rule which M. Raynouard himself calls funda- 
 mental, of the occurrence of an essential form in some 
 of those languages which is absent in others. 
 
 When we come to the detailed examination of the 
 corresponding forms in the E-omance languages, it will be 
 shown that there are many traces of the Latia preserved 
 in the Italian and Spanish which have been lost in 
 the Provencal ; and consequently could not have been 
 preserved in those languages if they had been derived 
 from the latter in which those features of the model had 
 been obliterated. There are however other difficulties of 
 a more general nature to which M. Raynouard's theory 
 gives rise, and of which it affords no explanation. If the 
 Romance of the Troubadours was once the universal lan- 
 guage of western Europe, which was afterwards modified 
 into distinct dialects ; there appears to be no reason why 
 any one of these dialects should be more like it than 
 another. Now there is no doubt, and it is distinctly ad- 
 mitted by M. Raynouard^, that the modem Provencal 
 
 » See below, ch. 2, § 2. 
 
 * ' n (I'idiome proveii<?al) a pen varie deptds les troubadours ' : says 
 M. Raynouard, in the Journal des Sav. 1818, p. 589. See him also in 
 Journal des Sav. 1824, p. 92 — 7, in a review of a dictionary of the 
 Limousin patois, and ibid. p. 174 — 80, in a review of a Languedocian 
 dictionary. In p. 96, he points out some words in Low Limousin 
 which occur in the language of the Troubadours, and not in the other 
 Bomance languages. 
 
42 CHAPTER I. 
 
 has a far closer resemblance than any other modem lan- 
 guage to the Romance of the Troubadour poetry : espe- 
 cially if we take specimens of that language as it existed 
 about the eleventh century^, at which time the ItaKan 
 and Spanish had been completely fixed in their present 
 form. But if the Romance, as used by the early Pro- 
 ven9al poets, was once the language of Italy and Spain, 
 there is no reason why the Italian and Spanish should 
 have departed from it so much more widely than the mo- 
 dern Proven9al. It seems far more natural to suppose 
 that the Troubadours wrote in the language of their 
 country, the langue d'ocy which was from the beginning 
 distinct from the Italian, and the Spanish, and the langue 
 d^oily (although it resembled the latter much more closely 
 than the others,) and that the modem Provencal has 
 arisen from the natural development of it, in the same 
 way that the mod^m French has been developed from 
 the language of Yillehardouin and the Trouveres. 
 
 Another important fact, directly opposed to the theory 
 of an universal Romance language, is the vast number of 
 modem Romance dialects which prevail in France, Spain, 
 Switzerland, the Tyrol, Italy, and the neighbouring 
 islands. The patois of the langue d^oil in Northern 
 France and Flanders^ : of the langue d*oc in Southern 
 
 * See a relation of the arrival of Charles, Duke of Savoy, at Nice, in 
 1488, in the langue vulgaire, published in Durante, Histoire de Nice^ 
 vol. ii. p. 182—4, (Turin, 1823.) 
 
 2 Champollion-Fig^ac in Balbi's Atlas Ethnogr. du Globe, tab. 12, 
 enumerates the following dialects of the French. 1. Picard. 9. 
 Flemish. 3. Norman. 4. Walloon or Kouchi: spoken in Picardy, 
 Normandy, French and Dutch Flanders, and the Dutch provinces of 
 Namur and Liege. 5. French Breton. 6. Champenois. 7. Lorrain 
 and Bourgnignon. 8. Franc-comtois. 9. Neufch&telois. 10. Or- 
 
r 
 
 THE ORIGIN OF THE ROMANCE LANGUAGES. 43 
 
 France, Savoy, Piedmont, the Grisons, and the county of 
 Mce, are very numerous, and are distinguished by im- 
 portant differences^. In Spain there are the dialects of 
 
 I Leon, the Asturias, Aragon, Andalusia, Murcia, Galicia, 
 Catalonia, and Valencia : the two latter of which, as well 
 
 I as the language of the Balearic islands^, resemble the 
 langue d'oc more than the Castilian or written Spanish^. 
 The islands of Corsica and Sardinia appear to possess na- 
 tive dialects different from any other Romance tongue*. 
 
 \ In Italy not only are the languages of the northern and 
 
 16anais. 11. Angloin. 12. Manceau : spoken in a part of Britany, 
 in Champagne, Lorraine, a part of Burgundy, in Franche comt6, the 
 Swiss canton of Neufchatel, the Orleanese, Anjou, and Maine. See 
 also Raynouard, Journal des Sav. 1818, p. 282. Melanges sur lea 
 Langues, (Paris, 1831,) where numerous specimens of the different 
 French patois are collected, and Adelung's Mithridates, vol. ii. p. 578 
 — 97. [Compare Burguy, Grammaire de la Langue d'Oil (Berlin, 1853), 
 vol. i. p. 14.] 
 
 * There are several dictionaries of different dialects of the langue 
 d'oc: two are mentioned above, p. 41^. There are also two dic- 
 tionaries of the Eastern Provenijal, published in the last century, and 
 a more recent work published at Marseilles in a cheap form. There 
 are likewise a few books in the same language; particularly some 
 
 V poems by M. Diouloufet of Aix, and a poem in the Nice dialect, (which 
 partakes more of the Genoese,) by M. Ranchez of Nice. A curious 
 specimen of the popular Provencal may be seen in Mr. Hayward's 
 Translation of Faust, p. 286, ed. 2. 
 
 * Bastero, Crusca ProvemaU, p. 21, quoted by Diez, p. 5. 
 
 3 On the relation of the Valencian and Catalonian to the Provencal, 
 see Eaynouard, vol. i. Intro, p. xiii. ; Gr. Comp. p. xxxviii. In the 
 Universities of Vicenza and Vercelli, the schools were divided into four 
 universities of nations, as follows. 1. French, English and Normans. 
 2. Italians. 3. Provencals, Spanish, and Catalans. 4. Germans. 
 Savigny, Gesch. des E. R. c. 21. On the Catalonian language and 
 literature, see Jaubert de Passa, Recherches Historiques sur la Langue 
 Catalane, in Melanges sur les Langues, p. 297 — 431. 
 
 ^ Diefenbach, Ueher die Jetzigen Romanischen SchriftspracTien, p. 21, 
 (Leipzig, 1831,) states that he was informed by a Sardinian of good 
 
44 CHAPTER I. 
 
 southern districts distinguished from each other by cer- 
 tain broad marks of difference, but almost every town 
 which was once independent has a dialect of its own, 
 'differing from the common or written ItaHan, both in its 
 inflexions and its terms^. Muratori says, that there is 
 scarcely a city of Italy which is not distinguished from 
 others by its pronunciation, the sound of its accents, the 
 terminations of its words, and its peculiar terms. Much 
 more does the dialect of one province differ from that of 
 another ; sometimes there is such a difference that even 
 the Italians of other provinces, although they speak the 
 common language, can with difficulty understand each 
 other^. How are diversities of this kind to be reconciled 
 with the theory of an uniform language, formed on the 
 ruins of the Latin ? Is it to be supposed that these 
 irregularities and discordancies grew up spontaneously in 
 
 authority that, * hesides the language of foreign introduction, the Cata- 
 lonian and Italian, there are in Sardinia three Romance dialects, one 
 verging towards the Spanish, another towards the south Italian, the 
 third still a kind of Romana nistica closely resembling the ancient 
 Latin both in forms and words. This latter is still spoken in about 
 twenty-four villages in the interior of the country.' See Adelung's 
 Mithridates, vol. ii. p. 528 — 34. Niebuhr, vol. i. p. 144, says, that 
 * specimens of the Sardinian language from the civilized districts ex- 
 hibit peculiarities which are more than varieties of dialect, and indi- 
 cate a Romance language of a distinct kind.' 
 
 * The literature of the ItaHan dialects is very rich, and there are 
 few of any importance (except that of Genoa,) which have not their 
 dictionary. Thus dictionaries have been published of the Sicilian, 
 Neapolitan, Venetian, Bolognese, Ferrarese, Veronese, Mantuan, Bres- 
 cian, Bergamasque, Milanese, and Piedmontese dialects. See Ade- 
 lung's Mithridates, \o\. ii. p. 496 — 628; [and concerning the dialects of 
 northern Italy with consonant terminations, Biondelli, Saggio del 
 Dialetti Oallo-Italici, 2 vols. 8vo. Milan, 1863.] 
 
 « Dissert. 32, vol. ii. p. 1038, A. See also Denina, Observations sur 
 let Dialectes, particulierement sur ceux d'ltalie. M^moires de I'Acad^. 
 
THE ORIGIN OF THE BOMANCE LANGUAGES. 45 
 
 the midst of an universal Roman language, as the multi- 
 farious CKristian sects arose out of the bosom of the 
 universal Eoman Church ? Such a hypothesis would 
 be directly opposed to aU experience. The progress of 
 language is to widen the dominion of prevailing analo- 
 gies; to enlarge rules, and to diminish anomaHes: to 
 root out what is local, partial, and pecuHar : to carry the 
 speech of the towns into the country : to abolish provin- 
 cialisms : and to spread the language of literature and of 
 educated persons in the place of dialects less cultivated 
 and less generally imderstood. Thus the EngHsh gra- 
 dually encroaches on the Welsh, along the borders of 
 Wales; thus the Gaelic and Irish are slowly giving way 
 in Scotland' and Ireland^, and the Cornish language, 
 though spoken in the memory pf Hving persons, has been 
 completely extirpated in Cornwall. The diffusion of the 
 Latin over Italy, in the place of the Etruscan, the Oscan, 
 the Umbrian, the Ligurian, and other native dialects, has 
 been already noticed. Much easier however is this pro- 
 cess when the inferior dialect is threatened by a language 
 
 mie de Berlin, 1797. Classe des Belles Lettres, p. 64 — 90, and Baretti's 
 Account of Italy, vol. ii. c. 30. There is also the Romance language of 
 Walachia, on the origin of which see the Wiener Jahrhucher, voL 46, 
 p. 77 — 88. [Diez, Rom. Gramm. vol. i. p. 89.] 
 
 1 Johnson, Journey to the Hebridet, p. 277, speaking of the High- 
 landers, says, ' Of what they had before the late conquest of their 
 country, there remain only their language and their poverty. Their 
 language is attacked on every side. Schools are erected, in which 
 English only is taught, and there were lately some who thought it rea- 
 sonable to refuse them a version of the holy Scriptures, that they 
 might have no monument of their mother tongue.' See also note (E.) 
 at the end. 
 
 2 On the measures taken by the government to diflfuse the English 
 and to extinguish the Irish language in Ireland, see Anderson, Histori- 
 cal Sketches 0/ the Native Irish, sect. 3. 
 
46 CHAPTER I. 
 
 of the same family ; as was the case with the propagation 
 of the Attic Greek in the age of Philip and Alexander ; 
 and such is the case with the French, the ItaHan, and 
 the Spanish, as they come in contact with the dialects 
 spoken in the countries where they are the ruhng lan- 
 ^guages^. As the progress of civilization is to destroy 
 local usages and laws, to hreak down distinctions hoth 
 of place and rank, and to fuse large hodies of men into 
 an uniform and compact whole ; so the progress of lan- 
 guage is to substitute one polished idiom in the place of 
 numerous uncultivated dialects. In supposing, there- 
 fore, that the multiplicity of Eomance dialects which 
 now prevail over western Europe, were capricious aber- 
 rations from a single type, as established after the dis- 
 turbance of the German invasion, and that their differ- 
 ence, having once been almost imperceptible, became such 
 as we now see it^, M. Baynouard makes a supposition at 
 
 * Mr. Marshall, in explaining his refisons for making a collection of 
 the Provincialisms of Yorkshire, has a remark which appHes to this 
 subject. * Finding (he says) in this particular instance, a declining 
 language which is unknown to the public, but which, it is highly pro- 
 bable, contains more ample remains of the ancient language of the 
 central parts of this island, than any other which is now spoken, I was 
 willing to do my best endeavour towards arresting it in its present 
 form, before the general blaze of fashion and refinement, which has al- 
 ready spread its dawn even over this secluded district, shall have buried 
 it irretrievably in obscurity.' Rural Economy of Yorkshire, vol. ii. 
 p. 302. 
 
 * ' Anche senza prova di fatto la ragione fa congetturare, ch' essen- 
 dovi fra gli antichi Italiani minor cultura e minor commercio, la diffe- 
 renza tra le loro favelle dovea essere maggiore di quella che d ai nostri 
 tempi.' Niccolini, DUcorso, etc. p. 22, note. See also Lanzi, vol. i. 
 p. 34. ' The little connection there is in mountainous countries be- 
 tween the inhabitants of the difierent vallies, and the absolute inde- 
 pendence of each jurisdiction in this district, which still lessens the 
 frequency of their intercourse, also accounts in a great measure for the 
 
THE ORIGIN OF THE ROMANCE LANGUAGES. 47 
 
 variance with, all analogy, and represents the stream of 
 language as flowing back upon its source. 
 
 Perticari attempts to get rid of tliis difficulty by say- 
 ing, that as the empire of Chariemagne was partitioned, 
 so the common Romance language was dfvided into dia- 
 lects, as languages follow the government^. But if lan- 
 guages follow the government, how came the universal 
 Romance language to be formed ? When the East and 
 West Goths, the Lombards, Burgundians, and Franks, 
 had separate and independent empires, how could an uni- 
 form language arise through their influence? And if 
 each of these several states had a peculiar dialect, it 
 surely will not be contended that Charlemagne by uniting 
 them into one empire, could during his lifetime have re- 
 moved all these varieties, and established a common mode 
 of speech. There is scarcely any change which requires'' 
 more time than a change of language. Obedience to 
 foreign laws may be enforced after the loss of a battle : 
 outward observance of a new religion may in a short 
 time be brought about by persecution or conquest ; but 
 no terror can inculcate the use of a new language, even 
 if there were any motive for introducing it : for its use 
 does not depend on the mere desire to use it, but is the 
 result of early and long-continued habit. All explana- 
 
 variety of secondary dialects subsisting in almost every different com- 
 munity or even village : ' says Mr. Planta, Philos. Transactions, 
 vol. Ixvi. p. 144, speaking of the Romance of the Grisons. 
 
 * ' Ma intanto quella lingua, che prima era una, si divise in molte : 
 perciocchd le lingue seguono le condizioni de' govemi. E come per la 
 novit^ de' feudi e de' baronaggi quel francese imperio si squarcio a 
 brani cos! il comune romano anch'esso fu partito nel Limosino, nel 
 Provenzale, nell* Italico, nel Vallone, nel Catalano, ed in altri.' Perti- 
 cari, Difesa di Dante, c. 11. 
 
48 CHAPTER I. 
 
 tions therefore which suppose sudden and extensive revo- 
 lutions of language produced by the mere influence of 
 government, unassisted by the mixture of population, are 
 Jiable to strong objections^ It would moreover be easy 
 to show that the Eomance dialects have not always fol- 
 owed the government ; for instance, the French of Dutch 
 Flanders has existed not in consequence but in spite of 
 the government. If Perticari had said that the Romance 
 languages followed the original government, that is, the 
 number and influence of the German invaders, who 
 first occupied the country when its inhabitants spoke 
 Latin, he probably would have been much nearer the 
 truth. 
 
 Nevertheless, when it is said that the natural course of 
 things is, that difierences of dialects are softened down ; 
 it is necessary to distinguish between changes arising 
 from the natural development of a language, and from 
 the introduction of new or foreign words, and those 
 caused by the fresh creation of separate forms and analo- 
 gies, so as to give rise to a new dialect. If there is 
 a nation speaking the same language, which by colonisa- 
 
 1 As to the small influence of government in producing changes of 
 language, see Prichard on the Eastern Origin of the Celtic Nations, 
 p. 8. • The pertinacious adherence of mankind to their mother tongue, 
 (says Mr. Anderson, in his work on the Irish language,) might he veri- 
 fied by a number of remarkable proofs. *' It is a curious fact, (says a 
 ■writer in the Statistical Account of Scotland, vol. xx. p. 490,) that the 
 hills of King's seat and Craigy Bams, which form the lower boundary of 
 Dowally (parish in Perthshire) have been for centuries the separatory 
 barrier of the English and Gaelic. In the first house below them, the 
 English is and has been spoken, and the Gaelic in the first house, not 
 above a mile distant, above them." In diflerent parts of Ireland some- 
 thing similar to this will be found. It is said, that on crossing 
 the river Barrow, a very striking difierence is observable; on the 
 eastern bank, English is spoken, and Irish scarcely known ; a little 
 
I 
 
 THE ORIGIN OF THE ROMANCE LANGUAGES. 49 
 
 tion or conquest forms two new societies, the languages of 
 those three nations, which at first were identical, will be- 
 come continually more and more unlike one another, and 
 their common stock, in proportion as the time elapsed 
 since their separation increases. Analogies which one 
 nation will extend, another will narrow or even disuse : 
 in one language the exception will supplant the rule, in 
 another the rule will swallow up all exceptions : different 
 words will be contracted ; different contractions will be 
 used : different modes of forming new derivatives will be 
 followed ; accidents of literature, taste, form of govern- 
 ment, manners, foreign influence and intercourse, will 
 variously affect the growth of the respective languages of 
 each nation. Thus the Portuguese of Brazil has become_^ 
 in many respects different from that of the mother 
 country, chiefly by the introduction of many new words^ : 
 and the language of the North American states would, 
 within no short time, have differed widely from that of 
 England, in using many peculiar idioms, in introducing 
 new words, and attaching different senses to the same 
 words, (the grammatical forms and syntax remaining 
 indeed the same ;) if the frequent and rapid communica- 
 tion between the two countries, and the mutual influence 
 of their literature had not kept up an uniform standard 
 of composition. In like manner I conceive that the^ 
 Itahan and Spanish, and the languages of oc and oil, 
 being together with their dialects formed independently 
 by the German working on the Latin, had in their origin 
 fundamental differences, but still bore a strong likeness to \ 
 
 way interior it is quite the reverse.' Hist. Sketches of the Native 
 Irish, p. 195. 
 
 » See Balbi, Atlas Ethnogn 
 
50 CHAPTER I. 
 
 each other : as years rolled on, each language assumed 
 a more peculiar form by dealing differently with the 
 wreck which it had saved from the Latin : by altering 
 more or less the original forms, and by following different 
 principles of inflexion. In this respect languages are 
 like human beings : the older they become, the more 
 strongly marked are their distinctive features. The same 
 would doubtless be the course of the several dialects of 
 each language : every dialect would doubtless assume in 
 the process of time a more distinct and individual charac- 
 ter. But there is nothing in the development of lan- 
 guage, independently of political circumstances, which 
 leads to the arbitrary creation of separate dialects distin- 
 guished by their inflexions and forms : on the contrary, 
 the influence of government and literature tends always 
 to spread the use of the language of the ruling classes 
 and the writers, to the prejudice of local dialects : an 
 effect which in modern times has been immensely assisted 
 by the use of printing, and the facihties given to the cir- 
 culation of newspapers and books, and to the carriage of 
 persons. It seems to me, therefore, that although the 
 difference of actually existing dialects is increased in the 
 lapse of time, yet that dialects are not formed by mere 
 caprice, without external and political influence : and 
 that the spontaneous generation of the countless Ro- 
 mance dialects now spoken in Europe from an universal 
 language, which has existed since the extinction of the 
 Latin, is just as improbable as the spontaneous genera- 
 tion of insects and reptiles. 
 
 § 7. Having offered these general considerations on 
 M. Eaynouard's views with regard to the origin of the 
 modem Latin languages, I shall proceed to a detailed 
 
THE ORIGIN OF THE ROMANCE LANGUAGES. 5 1 
 
 examinatioii of his proofs : for which purpose it will be 
 necessary to repeat at length the principal parts of his 
 Romance Qrammar^ as the language to which it refers, 
 and the rules which it contains, are not generally known, 
 like those of the living languages to which it is allied. 
 But before this comparison is begun, it is first necessary 
 to determine what name shall be given to the language 
 which is to serve as the standard of comparison. * There 
 is (as Schlegel has remarked) some difficulty in finding a 
 proper designation for the language of the Troubadours. 
 The names of Proven<;;al, Limousin, ai^ Catalonian, 
 which have been appHed to it, are too narrow, as they 
 only comprehend one of the districts where it was 
 spoken, and as its use extended over a much wider 
 territory. On the other hand, the name of Romance is 
 too indefinite^' M. Eaynouard constantly applies the 
 name of Romance to the language of the Troubadours : 
 and M. Champollion-Figeac, who has since discussed this 
 subject, adheres to his use of the word, and makes the 
 Romance language a common term for the dialects of 
 Provence, Dauphiny, the Lyonese, Auvergne, Limousin, 
 Languedoc, Gascony, and Catalonia^. In the following 
 pages, however, I shall attempt to show that although 
 
 * Observations, p. 40. See also Blester on Oc and Oyl, PhiloL Mus. 
 vol. ii. p. 340. 
 
 * Charte de Commune en Langue Romans, (Paris, 1829,) p. 7 — 18. 
 M. Roquefort has pubUshed a dictionary of the ancient French lan- 
 guage, which he has entitled ' Glossaire de la Langue Romune.' As 
 well might the author of an Anglo-Saxon dictionary call it a dictionary 
 of the Teutonic language. M. Roquefort has, however, full as much 
 right to call the ancient langue d'oil, as M. Raynouard has to call the 
 ancient langue d'oc, the Romance language. Compare Berrington's 
 Literary History of the Middle Ages, p. 337. [Concerning the use of 
 the word Romance, see Diez, Rom. Gramm. vol. i. p. 72.] 
 
 E2 
 
52 CHAPTER I. 
 
 the ancient language of oc, the language spoken in 
 Southern France and Catalonia, was a Romance lan- 
 guage, it was not the Romance language : that it was 
 merely one of the dialects arising out of the change 
 produced in the Latin by the Teutonic invasion^ Nor 
 does M. Raynouard merely employ an ambiguous, and 
 therefore an inconvenient term : but he founds an argu- 
 ment in favour of his theory upon that ambiguity ; when 
 he attempts to show that the Italian, the Spanish, and 
 the French, were once identical with the Troubadour lan- 
 guage, becaus| they were all called Romance languages^. 
 In this mode of reasoning, however, he appears to me to 
 have committed the same error as a person who having 
 undertaken to write a history of trees, and described those 
 kinds, such as the ash and the oak, which are deciduous, 
 should thence conclude that the ilex and the olive are 
 deciduous, because they are also trees. The language of 
 Southern France was doubtless a Romance language, as 
 were the languages of Northern France, Spain, Italy, 
 Savoy, and parts of Switzerland and the Tyrol. But it 
 does not follow that what is true of the language of 
 
 ' *It is generally admitted that the word Romance was first em- 
 ployed to signify the Eoman language as spoken in the European pro- 
 vinces of the empire ; and that in its most extensive sense it comprised 
 all the dialects of which the basis was the vulgar liatin, whatever might 
 be the other materials which entered into their construction. The 
 name was therefore equally applicable to the Italian, the Spanish, and 
 French, and was sometimes, though incorrectly, applied to the vulgar 
 languages of other countries.' Ellis, Specimem of Early English 
 Romances, vol. i. p. 1. See also Walter Scott's article on Komance, 
 near the beginning, in the Supplement to tlie Encyclopedia Britannica. 
 A passage occurs in Qiraldm Camhrensis, where the common English 
 is called Romance. See Ritson's Ancient English Romances, vol. i. 
 p. 12—18. 
 
 * Gr, Comp. p. 371. 
 
THE ORIGIN OF THE ROMANCE LANGUAGES. 53 
 
 Southem France is also true of the Spanish or Italian, 
 because they were all three Romance languages, any 
 more than it foUows that Hons ruminate, as weU as 
 oxen, because they are both animals. There is perhaps 
 no name for the language in question which is whoUy 
 unexceptionable : nevertheless the appellation Provencal, 
 as Diez remarks, deserves the preference. The historians 
 of the Crusades apply the term Provincia to aU the south 
 of France, distinguishing the inhabitants of the northern 
 and southern parts of that country by the names Fran- 
 cigerm and Provinciales : an ancient Grammar of the 
 langtte d^oc is called Bonatus Provincialis ; and Dante, 
 as well as a contemporary biographer of a troubadour, 
 speaks of the Provencal language^ It may be more- 
 over remarked, that although it might be inconvenient 
 to give the name of Provencal to the language of Cata- 
 lonia, the examples cited by M. Raynouard are almost 
 without exception taken from the poems of troubadours 
 who were strictly natives of Provence, in the extended 
 sense of that word. 
 
 * Diez, Poesie der Troubadours, p. 5 — 12. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 Formation of the Romance Articles and Nouns from 
 the Latin, 
 
 § 1. ARTICLES. 
 
 The utility of articles, and especially of tlie definite 
 article, is so obvious, that there is no wonder that they 
 should be gradually introduced by the effort which is 
 constantly perceivable in language, to analyse and sepa- 
 rately to express every idea. Thus we know that in the 
 early Greek language there were no definite articles : 
 but in the interval of time which elapsed between the 
 ancient epic poets and the first prose writers, the pro- 
 noun 6 had become a definite article. The same transfer 
 of the German demonstrative pronoun e?er, and of the 
 Anglo-Saxon pronoun thcet^^ to the sense of a definite 
 article, likewise took place in the gradual development 
 of the language, and without external influence. In 
 those languages likewise the numeral one, by a similar 
 process of abstraction, obtained the sense of the indefinite 
 article. It is probable that the sudden change which 
 the Latin underwent in this respect, at the time of the 
 German invasion, was the consequence rather of the 
 
 * See Bask, A. S. Grammar, § 146. 
 
 I 
 
ROMANCE ARTICLES AND NOUNS. 55 
 
 tendency just described, than of the imitation of the 
 Teutonic idiom. It seems more than doubtful whether 
 the use even of the definite article had at that era been 
 introduced into the Teutonic languages : and it is pro- 
 bable that we shall most nearly approach the truth, if we 
 suppose that when the Latin was by that event put into 
 a state favourable to a new development of its gram- 
 matical forms, it obtained the use of articles, and adopted 
 for them those words which appear naturally to suggest 
 themselves as most convenient for this purpose. Hence 
 unus was taken as the indefinite, and ille as the definite 
 article : and their forms and inflexions underwent those 
 changes which will be explained when we speak of the 
 formation of the modem nouns. 
 
 The following scheme exhibits the structure of the 
 Provencal definite article : the masculine singular (as 
 will be shown below) is formed from the Latin accusative 
 illum^ by rejecting either the first or the last syllable : 
 the masculine plural is partly formed from the Latin 
 nominative, partly from the accusative : els and los being 
 made out of illos ; ill and li from illi : the feminine plural 
 is formed from the Latin accusative illas. The genitive, 
 dative, and ablative cases have completely disappeared, 
 and their forms are replaced by the use of prepositions ; 
 de being prefixed in order to give the sense of the geni- 
 tive and ablative, a (from ad) of the dative, and a (from 
 ah) of the ablative^. It will be observed that in the 
 masculine plural, de li and de los, a li and a los, the forms 
 derived from both the Latin nominative and accusative, 
 are placed after the preposition : in general, however, as 
 
 * See below in these prepositions. 
 
56 CHAPTER II. 
 
 will appear wlien we come to the nouns, the prepositions 
 govern the Proven9al accusative. 
 
 { 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 
 Masc. 
 
 Fem. 
 
 Masc. 
 
 Fem. 
 
 El, lo 
 
 ill, la 
 
 m, li, els, los 
 
 las 
 
 de lo, del 
 
 de la 
 
 de li, de los, dels, des 
 
 de las 
 
 a lo, al, el. 
 
 a la 
 
 a li, a los, als, as 
 
 a las'. 
 
 a 11, a 10s, ais, as a las'. 
 
 Vol. i. p. 38—44. Gr. Rom. p. 13—24. 
 
 All the modern Latin languages have formed their de- 
 finite article from ille, and exhibit nearly the same modi- 
 fications as those which appear in the Provencal. Ely 
 which is the common Spanish form, occurs in old 
 French and Italian: lo also occurs in old French, as 
 well as del, al, dels, als, and els, from which have been 
 formed by the suppression of I or its change into u^ so 
 prevalent in that language, deu, du, au, des, aux, and es : 
 los and las, by changes likewise of frequent occurrence, 
 became les. It should be observed that the Spanish ex- 
 hibits no trace of li, (from illi,) and the Italian no trace 
 of los, (from illos,) and that the Italian made the feminine 
 plural le, (from illce,) whereas the Spanish agreed with 
 the Proven9al in forming it from illas. These charac- 
 teristic differences will be again adverted to, when we 
 speak of the nouns. (G-r. Oomp. p. 2 — 19.) 
 
 Several modem grammarians have thought that the 
 articles in the Romance languages have supplied the 
 place of the Latin inflexions of the nouns to which they 
 are prefixed. Thus the Italian grammarians call their 
 articles segnacasi ; and M. Raynouard says, that 'the 
 
 1 I have not inserted the mere varieties of orthography, as elh for el^ 
 til for il, etc. See Gr, Rom. p. 79—116. 
 
ROMANCE ARTICLES AND NOUNS. 57 
 
 use of articles has delivered the modem languages from 
 the slavery of the Latin declensions, without diminishing 
 the clearness of the expression.' (Yol. i. p. 44.) This 
 is, however, an erroneous view of the subject. The use 
 of the Latin nominative and accusative has been supplied 
 by a certain collocation of words, of the genitive, dative, 
 and ablative, by prepositions. Neither of the articles 
 has any influence whatever in giving to nouns the mean- 
 ings expressed by the Latin cases. In languages which 
 have both cases and articles, the article is as much in- 
 flected as the noun to which it belongs. 
 
 § 2. FORMS AND INFLEXIONS OF NOUNS. 
 
 We come now to the nouns, which we shall consider 
 under the heads of their form, their mode of declension, 
 their gender, and their derivative terminations ; and by 
 these means be enabled to judge how far the changes 
 which they underwent in the several modern languages 
 support M. Raynouard's theory with regard to the 
 universal prevalence of the Proven9al, and the deri- 
 vation of the other Romance languages from it as a 
 common type. 
 
 The entire confusion of cases which prevailed in the 
 Latin language after the German invasion, may be seen 
 in many legal instruments of the middle ages ; and 
 although we may concede to Muratori that the Latin of 
 the notaries was not a spoken language, still it is impos- 
 sible to conceive that charters and deeds would have 
 been composed in a barbarous and ungrammatical jargon, 
 
58 CHAPTEK II. 
 
 when the pure language was current in any part of tlie 
 community. The following extract from a Pisan deed of 
 sale, of 720 a.d. may serve as a specimen of this lan- 
 guage. * In nomine Domini dei nostris Jesum Christi, 
 regnante domno nostro Liutprand rege, anno hoctavo 
 sup die quartam kalendis Februari, per inditione tertia, 
 constant me Sunduald, vir honorabilis, hac dies arvitrium 
 bone mee voluntatis . . . eniente, neque aliquis me sua- 
 dente, nisi bono animus mens, vindedisse et vindedi, 
 tradedisse et tradedi tivi Filicausi medietatem de casa 
 meas infra civitatem cum gronda sua livera tam sola- 
 mentum sine grondas, etc^/ In this language it is not 
 always possible to distinguish between the proper termi- 
 nations of the cases and the corruptions of a vicious 
 pronunciation : thus in some of the above instances, as 
 
 * in nomine Domini nostris Jesum Christi,' * hac dies ' 
 
 * aliquw suadente,' * bono animus mens,' * de casa meas,' 
 the Latin cases are used at random : in others however, 
 such as * sub die quartam,' * per inditione tertia,' it is 
 uncertain whether it is not the pronunciation which is in 
 fault, and whether the final m was not dropped from 
 diem and indidionem tertiam, as ' hono animus mens ' pro- 
 bably meant * bonum animus mens.' The omission of the 
 final m and n occurs again in the same instrument in 
 other words, as ligname for lignamen, nove for novemy hanc 
 cartula for hanc cartulamj venditionem a me facta for ven- 
 ditionem a me factam^ dece for decem, etc. 
 
 A rhythmical poem, written in vulgar Latin about 
 871 A.D. on the imprisonment of the Emperor Lewis 11. 
 by Adelchis duke of Beneventum, ofiers another speci- 
 
 » Murat. Ant. It. vol. iii. p. 1003. 
 
FORMS AND INFLEXIONS OF ROMANCE NOUNS. 59 
 
 men of the state of the ancient during its transition into 
 the modem language^. 
 
 Audite omnes fines terrsB orrore cum tristitia 
 Quale scelus fuid factum Benevento civitas. 
 Lluduicum comprenderunt santo pio Augustio*. 
 Beneventani se adunarunt ad unum consilium. 
 Adalferio loquebatur, et dicebant principi : 
 * Si nos eum vivum dimitemus, certe nos peribimus. 
 Celus magnum praeparavit in istam provintiam : 
 Eegnum nostrum nobis tollit ; nos habet pro nihilum : 
 Plures mala nobis fecit : rectum est ut moriad^.' 
 Deposuerunt sancto pio de suo palatio. 
 Adalferio ilium ducebat usque ad pretorium, etc. 
 
 These verses offer numerous instances of the confusion 
 of cases : but Lluduicum sancto pio Augustio, Adalferio 
 loquebatur, deposuerunt sancto pio, Adalferio ducehat, appear 
 to be corruptions by pronunciation of sanctum piumAugus- 
 Hum, Adalferium and sanctum pium : as in the same poem 
 
 * leto animo habebat de illo quo fecerat ' is put instead of 
 
 * letum animum habebat de illo quod fecerat*/ not by a 
 confusion of the ablative and accusative cases, but by the 
 corruption of the termination of the accusative. So in 
 the following instances collected by M. Eaynouard, (voL 
 i. p. 18 — 22,) from Italian, Spanish, and French instru- 
 ments of the middle ages, the accusative case is probably 
 
 * Murat. Ant. It. vol. iii. p. 711. An explanation of the circum- 
 stances which occasioned this popular poem is given by Sismondi, 
 Litt&. du Midi, torn. i. p. 23. 
 
 * Augustio is a conjecture mentioned by Muratori. The MS. has 
 Augusta. In the first line, for errore I have written orrore, i. e. horrore. 
 
 * That is, moriat, for moriatur. 
 
 * Muratori mistakes the meaning of this Una, in supposing habebat 
 to be here put for dbibat. 
 
60 CHAPTER II. 
 
 everywhere meant, though its characteristic letter is often 
 dropped for facility of pronunciation. 
 
 * Ab hodiernum die : absque uUo dolo aut vim : ad 
 die presente : ad ipso rio ; adversus apostoHco viro : ante 
 valneo et orto : contra hoste barbaro : cum omnes res ad 
 se pertinentes : cum pectus inscium : de quam prsefatam 
 portionem ; ex successionem : infra valle : intra comitatu 
 nostro : per mandate suo : per arte : pro panem : pro 
 supradictas sex uncias : pro mercedem animae meae : prop- 
 ter amorem dei et vita aetema : sine praemium : sine rixas : 
 usque memorato loco : versum palude : ubi nepte mea 
 instituemus abbatissam : bona intentione monstrant mihi 
 e faciunt Saracenis bona acolhenza/ The tendency to 
 the use of the accusative case in particular appears in 
 many places : thus in two sentences cited by M. Ray- 
 nouard, * Si aliquas causas adversus isfud monasterium 
 ortas fuerint : * ' ipsas monachas vel earum abbate (for 
 abbatem) debeant possidere:' so a charter of 761 a.d. 
 begins thus : * Regnante domno Desiderio et Adelgis viros 
 excellentissimos reges/ and a Lucchese plea of 853 a.d. 
 as follows : ' Dum ap (^. e, ab) celsa potestatem Domni 
 nostri BQudovici magni imperatoris directi fuissent Johan- 
 nem venerabilem sancte Pisensis ecclesie episcopus, nec- 
 non et Adalpertum Marchionem, seu Gausbertum Yassum 
 et ministrum minor ipsius imperialis potestatem, et con- 
 juncti ftdssent hie civitate Luca,* etci. 
 
 » Muratori, Ant, It. vol. iii. p. 167. See other specimens of this 
 language in Muratori, Diss. 82, vol. ii. p. 1025 E— 1048. Muratori 
 argues with considerable force and ingenuity that the language of the 
 notaries was never a spoken language, but was a barbarous jargon 
 made in imitation of the old Latin, by illiterate scribes : he says justly 
 that there is no dialect spoken by any class of persons, which does 
 
FORMS AND INFLEXIONS OF ROMANCE NOUNS. 6 1 
 
 The ancient system of cases being thus completely 
 confounded, we need not be surprised to find that in 
 the Italian and Spanish languages the nouns were 
 formed, not from the nominative, but from some in- 
 flected case of the Latin word. In nouns of the first 
 and second declension this fact cannot be perceived, as 
 the Italian and Spanish musa and muro might come 
 from either the nominative, accusative, or ablative cases 
 of the Latin musa and murus. The nouns of the third 
 declension which increase in the genitive case, furnish 
 a criterion for ascertaining this fact : and from the fol- 
 lowing table it will be seen that not only the Italian and 
 Spanish, but also the Provencal and French nouns, take 
 the increment of the genitive, and consequently are not 
 derived from the Latin nominative. 
 
 not observe some rules of grammar. This is undoubtedly true : a 
 language without a grammar is not a language ; unless there were some 
 rules settled by general usage, people could not understand one 
 another. But this does not appear to be precisely the case with the 
 Latin of the notaries : although there is often a confusion both of 
 number, gender, and tense, yet the chief confusion is that of the cases 
 or inflexions of nouns and participles. The most probable explanation 
 of this matter seems to be that the Latin of the early ItaUan deeds is 
 the tradition of the corrupted language caused by the influence of the 
 German on the Latin : that although the people in the eighth and 
 ninth centuries may have spoken a language like the Itahan, yet the 
 Latin was not yet considered a dead language to be learned from books, 
 and that the notaries who could not use the vulgar dialect, wrote in the 
 jargon which they received by oral communication from those who 
 spoke the bastard Latin which had sprung from the invasion. The 
 verses which are cited in the text moreover exhibit the very same cha- 
 racter of style as the legal instruments ; and to them Muratori's re- 
 mark with respect to the notaries does not apply : for they must have 
 been written in a language intelligible to the public. [Additional 
 examples of the accusative swallowing up the other inflected cases in 
 low Latin are given hjDiez, Bomanische Grammatik, vol. ii. p. 10 — 14.] 
 
62 
 
 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 
 
 
 Latin. 
 
 Italian. 
 
 Spanish. 
 
 Provenpal. 
 
 French. 
 
 B 
 
 plebs 
 
 plebe 
 
 plebe 
 
 pleb 
 
 
 C 
 
 dux 
 
 duca 
 
 duque 
 
 due 
 
 duo 
 
 D 
 
 laus 
 
 lode 
 
 
 
 
 G 
 
 lex 
 
 legge 
 
 ley 
 
 leg or leyi 
 
 loy 
 
 N 
 
 caro 
 
 came 
 
 carne 
 
 earn 
 
 carn^ 
 
 
 natio 
 
 nazione 
 
 nacion 
 
 nacion 
 
 nation 
 
 
 virgo 
 
 vergine 
 
 virgen 
 
 virgen 
 
 
 B 
 
 genus 
 
 genere 
 
 genero 
 
 genre 
 
 genre 
 
 T 
 
 salus 
 
 salute 
 
 salud 
 
 salut 
 
 salut 
 
 NT 
 
 gigas 
 
 gigante 
 
 gigante 
 
 gigant 
 
 geant 
 
 V 
 
 nix 
 
 neve 
 
 nieve 
 
 nev 
 
 nief 
 
 The above instances show that the derived nouns exhibit 
 all the different increments of the Latin genitive : the 
 following nouns from the Italian and Spanish are ar- 
 ranged according to the termination of the nominative, 
 in order to show the diversity of forms derived from 
 Latin nouns having the same termination in the nomi- 
 native, which, if they had all been derived from that 
 case, would have been impossible. 
 
 as 
 
 ax 
 
 Latin, 
 
 Italian, 
 
 Spanish. 
 
 Leonid-as 
 
 Leonid-a 
 
 Leonid-as 
 
 Nai-as 
 
 Nai-ade 
 
 Nay-ada 
 
 libert-as 
 
 libert-ate 
 
 libert-ad 
 
 eleph-as 
 
 elef-ante 
 
 elef-ante 
 
 v-as 
 
 v-ase, v-aso 
 
 v-aso 
 
 p-ax 
 
 p-ace 
 
 p-az 
 
 Astyan-ajt 
 
 Astian-acte 
 
 Astian-ax 
 
 ' The final ^r easily passes into y ; thus the Anglo-Saxon anig, blodig, 
 dreorig, become in English any, bloody, dreary, etc. see Grimm, D, Gr. 
 vol ii., p. 302—306. 
 
 ^ The old French used cam (Or. Comp. p. 63,) which it afterwards 
 changed into cham, char, and chair, the latter probably in order to 
 distinguish it from char from the Teutonic car. It also used nief, 
 neif, and noif for neige. 
 
FORMS AND INFLEXIONS OF ROMANCE NOUNS. 63 
 
 
 I^atin. 
 
 Italian. 
 
 Sporawft. 
 
 
 magist-er 
 
 maest-ro 
 
 maest-ro 
 
 6T ^ 
 
 carc-er 
 
 carc-ere 
 
 carc-el * 
 
 
 pat-er 
 
 pad-re 
 
 pad-re 
 
 
 Jupit-er 
 
 Giove 
 
 Jupit-er 
 
 
 ' fid-es 
 
 fid-e 
 
 fe 
 
 
 her-es 
 
 er-ede 
 
 
 
 Cer-es 
 
 Cer-ere 
 
 Cer-es 
 
 es 
 
 interpr-es 
 
 interpr-ete 
 
 interpr-ete 
 
 
 lim-es 
 
 lim-ite 
 
 lim-ite 
 
 
 w sp-es 
 
 sp-eme 
 
 
 : 
 
 cin-is 
 
 cen-ere 
 
 
 
 fin-is 
 
 fin-e 
 
 fin 
 
 is ^ 
 
 Nere-is 
 
 Nere-ide 
 
 Nere-ida 
 
 
 , l-is 
 
 1-ite 
 
 l-id 
 
 
 nutr-ix 
 
 nutr-ice 
 
 nutr-iz 
 
 ix ' 
 
 St-yx 
 
 St-ige 
 
 Est-ige 
 
 
 n-ix 
 
 n-eve 
 
 n-ieve 
 
 
 1-ynx 
 
 1-ince 
 
 1-ince 
 
 ynx . 
 
 sph-ynx 
 
 sf-inge 
 
 esf-inge 
 
 
 
 ord-o 
 serm-o 
 
 ord-ine 
 
 ord-en 
 
 serm-one 
 
 serm-on 
 
 
 ^ horiz-on 
 
 orizz-onte 
 
 horiz-onte 
 
 on ■ 
 
 Cle-on 
 
 Cle-one 
 
 Cle-on 
 
 
 phsenomen-on 
 
 fenomen-o 
 
 fenomen-o 
 
 9^ 
 
 r fl-os 
 
 fl-ore 
 
 fl-or 
 
 OS ' 
 
 b-os 
 
 b-ove 
 
 b-oy, b-uey 
 
 
 OS 
 
 osso 
 
 hueso 
 
 
 ' popul-ns 
 
 popolo 
 
 puebl-o 
 
 
 Tirt-us 
 
 virt-ute 
 
 virt-ud 
 
 
 pal-US 
 
 pal-ude 
 
 pal-ude 
 
 us ' 
 
 gen-US 
 
 gen-ere 
 
 gen-ero 
 
 
 gr-us 
 
 gr-ue (grii) 
 
 
 
 1-aus 
 
 1-ode 
 
 
 
 Selin-us 
 
 Selin-unte 
 
 
 ,,■ / 
 
 . lep-us 
 
 lep-re 
 
 lieb-re 
 
64 CHAPTER II. 
 
 These examples prove incontestably that the Italian and 
 Spanish nouns are not formed from the Latin nominative ; 
 it now remains to ascertain from which of the remaining 
 cases they were formed. The Provencal nouns above 
 cited might have been formed from either of the oblique 
 cases by simply rejecting the termination, thus due or 
 nazion might have been equally formed from due-is, duc-i, 
 dttc-einy or duc-ey nation-is, nation-i, nation-em^ or nation-e, 
 by simply omitting the termination is, i, em, or e ; any 
 one of which might be supported by examples. Many 
 of the Spanish terminations, as luz, lid, margen, ley, are 
 of the same nature : others, however, end with a vowel, 
 which is universally the case with the Italian nouns. 
 On comparing these vowel terminations with the Latin 
 cases, it will appear that there is little resemblance be- 
 tween the terminations of the modern nouns and those 
 of the Latin genitive and dative cases : and that the 
 forms in question are evidently derived from either the 
 accusative or the ablative. Of these two cases the pre- 
 ference might seem due to the ablative, as it accounts 
 for most of the forms, derived both from the second and 
 third declensions of Latin nouns : thus modu^s, abl. modo, 
 modo Ital. and Span. ; lignum, abl. ligno, legno, Ital., 
 lerto Span. ; limes, abl. limite, limite Ital. and Span. 
 These, and nearly all other instances of Italian words 
 derived from Latin nouns of the second and third de- 
 clensions, exhibit the precise form of the Latin ablative^ : 
 
 ^ Galvani, Otaerv. mlla Poesia dei Trovatori, p. 515 n., considers 
 the Latin ablative as the type of the Italian nouns : ' Dal sesto caso 
 dei nomi (he says) si formano quasi tutti i nomi volgari.' The same is 
 £ilso the opinion of Diefenbach, Ueber die liomanischen Schri/tsprachen, 
 p. 119. Schlegel, 06«en;., p. 38, says that 'il est incontestable que 
 
 
FORMS AND INFLEXIONS OF ROMANCE. NOUNS. 65 
 
 / } ■ ; 
 
 and tlie Spamsh for the most part, thougli ^teri witTiout 
 the final vowel. Nevertheless, it seems to me certain 
 that the Italian and Spanish nouns were formed not 
 from the ablative, but from the accusative case, as I 
 shall now attempt to show. 
 
 In the first place, it may be observed that the nomi- 
 native and accusative are more easily confounded than 
 the nominative and the other cases; as the accusative 
 merely signifies the government of a verb or preposition, 
 without those additional meanings expressed by the geni- 
 tive, dative, and ablative. It is natural that the termi- 
 
 dans I'italien la plupart des mots sont formes de I'ablatif latin.' Maffei 
 does not decide between the ablative and the accusative : ' Siccome non 
 era possibile (he says) che la gente idiota senza studio di grammatica 
 regolarmente secondo la varia esigenza dei verbi usasse le inflessioni 
 dei nomi, e dovea quasi sempre valersi dell* accusativo, o dell' abla- 
 tivo, cosi da quel due casi venne I'ltalico.' Verona Ultistrata, P. I, 
 c. 316. M. Eaynouard remarks, vol. i, p. 38. * Une observation me 
 semble decisive pour nous convaincre que les noms romans ont 6t6 
 formes du nominatif et principalement de I'accusatif des Latins. Par 
 ce systeme toutes les difficultes s'expliquent, tandis que les autres cas, 
 tels que le ginitif et I'ablatif, n'offrent pas le meme avantage.' Diez, 
 Poesie der Troubadours, p. 294, shows briefly, but convincingly, that 
 the Italian nouns were formed from the accusative, and not from the 
 ablative of the Latin. Sismondi, Litt. du Midi, vol. i., p. 15, has \he 
 following remarks on this subject : ' Elle (la gram m aire) n'a dans 
 aucune des langues du midi conserve les cas dans les noms ; mais 
 choisissant entre les terminaisons diverses du mot latin, elle a fait le 
 mot nouveau avec le nominatif en italien, avec I'accusatif en espagnol, 
 avec une contraction qui s'61oigne de tons deux en francais.' He 
 then adds in a note : ' cette regie doit s'entendre surto.t du plurieL' 
 It will, however, be shown below, that the formation of the plural is 
 governed by different principles from the formation of the singular 
 noun. Burguy, Grammaire de la Langue d'Oil, vol. i., p. 22, thinks 
 that the Eomance nouns were formed, not from any determinate case 
 of the Latin noun, but from the root, denuded of any characteristic 
 termination. 
 
66 CHAPTER II. 
 
 nations denoting the subject and object of a verb should 
 be confounded, especially by ignorant or unobservant 
 persons. Thus in vulgar English, him says, her says, 
 and them say, are of frequent occurrence; and the use 
 of hi and lei (the modern objective cases) for egli and 
 ella is established in the most correct Italian. The 
 proneness of the Low Latin to the use of the accusative 
 case, where the ancient language would have required 
 the nominative or the ablative, has been abeady pointed 
 out in numerous instances. 
 
 The supposition that the Italian and Spanish nouns 
 and participles were formed from the Latin accusative 
 by rejecting the final consonant, and changing the final 
 u into 0, accounts for all the phenomena, with a few 
 exceptions of little importance. The omission of the 
 final m is paralleled by meco, sefte, nove, died, undid, 
 dodici, cento, amava, Ital. ; migo, siete, nueve, diez, once, 
 doce, ciento, amaha, Span. ; from mecum, septem, novem, 
 decem, undedm, duodedm, centum, amabam. In the four- 
 teenth century the Latin words pax tecum, Te Deum, 
 regnum tuum, flagellum Dei, gaudeamus, were commonly 
 known in Italy by the corruptions pasteco, tadeo, reg- 
 nontuo,flagellondeo,galdeamo^. The elision of the final 
 m in Latin proves that it had a dead sound 2, which was 
 easily lost : and the interchange of the forms cum and 
 con in ancient Latin (as coneo and coeo for cumeo) prove 
 the close affinity between the sounds of the Latin um 
 
 1 See Perticari, Scrittori del Trecento, 1. 1, c. 12, 
 
 * What Quintilian calls a mugiens sonus : ' Quid quod pleraque 
 nos ilia, quasi mugiente littera cludimus M, qua nullum Greece ver- 
 bum cadit.' xii. 10, 31. On tlie elision of the final m in Latin, see 
 Scheller's Latin Grammar, vol. i., p. 12. Engl. Transl. 
 
fORMS AND INFLEXIONS OF ROMANCE NOUNS. 67 
 
 and on ; which, last (as will be shown below) was prob- 
 ably the transition between the Latin um and the modern 
 0. The change of the final u into also occurs in the 
 first persons plural of Italian and Spanish verbs: as 
 fummo, amiamo, temiamOy sentiamo, Ital. ; fuimos, amamos^ 
 tememos, sentimos, Span. The change of the short Latin 
 u into in the interior of Italian words, is likewise of 
 frequent occurrence^. It is, moreover, a circumstance 
 of some weight as regards this question, that in the 
 Sicilian dialect the masculine termination is not but u : 
 thus camjpu, funnu, (fondo^) arcu, argentu, cornu^ corpu^ 
 capu. It is true that the Sicilian often changes the 
 Latin into u, as in. maggiuri, minuriy inferiuri, funte, 
 from major, minor, inferior , fons : but in many other 
 instances, as in cornu, corpu, just cited, it does not; 
 
 * Both in Italian and Spanish the Latin u, when long by nature, is 
 with few exceptions retained unchanged : as musa, palnde, muro, uno, 
 duro, etc. In Italian, when it was long by position, it is occasionally 
 retained : as ultimo, gusto ; but usually changed into 0, as sepolcro, 
 polvere, mondo, molto, nozze, mosca, sommo, sotto, giomo, hocca, rotto, 
 colto, etc. The short u was almost invariably changed into o, as 
 popolo, noce, croce, Tivoli, etc. : though in some few cases it was not 
 changed, as numero, furore, subito, due, lupo. j^he Italian o, formed 
 from the Latin u, is shut like torn, but if not thus changed it is open, 
 like thorn. Hence volto from vultu^ is not pronounced lite volto 
 from volutus.\lji Spanish the u long by position has sometimes been 
 retained, as mundo, sumo, and sometimes been changed into 0, as boca, 
 soto ; the short u (except in termiaations where it is changed into o, as 
 Dios, Carlos, huehos, amamos, etc.) has usually become ue, as pueblo, 
 nuez ; probably, however, the u was first changed into o, and then the 
 o was changed into ue : as bueno, cuello, fu£go, fuente, muerte, suerte, 
 etc. came from bonus, coUum, focus, fons, mars, sors.J In like manner 
 the Italian made nv/}ra from nurus ; that is, nurus, nora, nuora, like 
 novo, nu,ovo, ruota, buono,fuoco, from ovum, novus, rota, bonus, focus, etc. 
 Compare Diez, Bom. Gramm., vol. i., p. 152. 
 
 F2 
 
68 CHAPTER II. 
 
 and it seems that in Italian u has more frequently 
 passed into o than the converse^. 
 
 The supposition that the Italian and Spanish nouns 
 were derived from the Latin ablative, does not account 
 for many of the forms. 
 
 1. Although the derivation from the ablative explains 
 such words as popolo, collo, Ital. ; puehio, cuello, Span. ; 
 from populo, collo ; it does not explain such words as 
 mano^ canto, Ital. and Span., from manu, cantu : whereas 
 the other hypothesis equally weU explains mano from 
 manum, as populo and pueblo from populum. It is true 
 that mano might come from manu, as weU as gielo and 
 yelo from gelu: but the very object of the derivation 
 from the ablative is to obtain the o, without having 
 recourse to the supposition of a change of letters. 
 
 2. Where the Latin nominative of a neuter noun in- 
 creasing in the genitive case ended in a vowel, as poema, 
 idioma, diadema, the termination remained unchanged in 
 the Italian and Spanish ; but where the nominative of a 
 masculine or feminine noun increasing in the genitive 
 case ended in a vowel, the increment of the genitive was 
 adopted, as nazione, nacion, imagine, imagen, sermone, ser- 
 mon, Ital. and Span., from natio, imago, sermo. IS'ow if 
 the modem nouns had been formed from the ablative, 
 poema would have become poemate, as sermo became ser- 
 mone and sermon, Ital. and Span. : whereas, if they are 
 
 * See Pasquilino, Vocaholario Siciliano, Palermo, 1785, 4to. The 
 dialect of Corsica likewise makes the final masculine vowel u and not 
 o, see Micali, Storia degli Antichi Popoli Italiani, vol. ii.j). 5i, note. 
 On the occurrence of the final u in other modern Italian dialects, see 
 Lanzi, Saggio di Lingua Etmsca, vol. 1. p. 342, note, ed. 2. 
 
FORMS AND INFLEXIONS OF EOMANCE NOUNS. 
 
 69 
 
 derived from tlie accusative, this difference is explained, 
 as neuter did not, like masculine and feminine nouns, 
 take the increment of the genitive in the accusative case. 
 3. The Latin neuter nouns, indeed, increasing in the 
 genitive case, whatever may he their termination, furnish 
 a test, an instantia crucis, hy which to try whether the 
 jnodem nouns were formed from the ahlative or accu- 
 sative : for if they were formed from the ablative, they 
 ought to exhibit the augmentative syllable of the genitive 
 case ; whereas, if they were formed from the accusative, 
 they ought not. Conies made in the accusative and ab- 
 lative cases comitem and comite, from either of which 
 conte and conde might be formed : but the accusative and 
 ablative of tempus were not tempore and temporem^ but 
 tempore and tempus : so that we are enabled to distinguish 
 which of these cases was the type of the modem form. 
 "Now from the following table of neuter nouns of the 
 third declension, and their modem derivatives, it will be 
 perceived that the derivatives in no instance assume the 
 augmentative syllable which characterizes the ablative 
 case. 
 
 Latin. 
 
 Italian. 
 
 Spanuh. 
 
 abdomen 
 
 addome 
 
 abdomen 
 
 acumen 
 
 acume 
 
 
 seramen 
 
 rame 
 
 alambre 
 
 albumen 
 
 albume 
 
 
 cacumen 
 
 cacume 
 
 
 caput 
 
 capo 
 
 cabo 
 
 carmen 
 
 carme 
 
 
 certamen 
 
 certame 
 
 
 cetus (from Kijroe) 
 
 ceto 
 
 
 corpus 
 
 corpo 
 
 cuerpo 
 
 crimen 
 
 crime 
 
 crimen 
 
fO 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 
 Latin. 
 
 Italian. 
 
 Spanish. 
 
 
 ( esame 
 \ sciame 
 
 ( examen 
 ( exambre 
 
 examen 
 
 flumen 
 
 fiume 
 
 flumen' 
 
 foramen 
 
 forame 
 
 foramen 
 
 gravamen 
 
 gravame 
 
 gravamen 
 
 jns 
 
 gius 
 
 
 Isetamen 
 
 letame 
 
 
 latus 
 
 lato 
 
 lado 
 
 legumen 
 
 legume 
 
 legumbre 
 
 ligamen 
 
 legame 
 
 
 litus 
 
 lito or lido 
 
 
 lumen 
 
 lume 
 
 lumbre 
 
 marmor 
 
 marmo 
 
 marmol 
 
 nomen 
 
 nome'* 
 
 nombre 
 
 numen 
 
 nume 
 
 numen 
 
 opus 
 
 uopo 
 
 huebos' 
 
 /-^pectus 
 
 petto 
 
 pecho 
 
 pignus 
 
 pegno 
 
 . 
 
 piper 
 
 pepe 
 
 
 pondus 
 
 pondo 
 
 
 semen 
 
 seme 
 
 semen 
 
 stamen 
 
 stame 
 
 estambre 
 
 — stercus 
 
 stereo 
 
 
 stramen 
 
 strame 
 
 
 sulphur 
 
 solfo 
 
 
 -- tempus 
 
 tempo 
 
 tiempo 
 
 velamen 
 
 velame 
 
 velamen 
 
 vellus 
 
 vello 
 
 vello 
 
 vimen 
 
 vime 
 
 vimbre 
 
 volumen 
 
 volume 
 
 volumen* 
 
 * Flumen occurs in the Vida de S. Domingo, v. 229. Sanchez, 
 Colleccion de Poesias Castellanas Anteriores al Siglo XV., vol. ii., 
 p. 30. 
 
 ' The Provencal likewise made lum and nom from lumen and nom£n, 
 although in masculine and feminine nouns it adopted the increment of 
 the genitive. 
 
 ' See Sanchez, ibid., vol. i. Index in huebos and huevos. 
 
 * The French has evidently formed its nouns in the same way as 
 
FORMS AND INFLEXIONS OF ROMANCE NOUNS. 7 1 
 
 In these words tlie Italian, in order to avoid a consonant 
 termination, rejects tlie last letter of the Latin accu- 
 sative, and where the termination includes w, it changes 
 that vowel into 0. In this manner acumen, flumen, he- 
 come acume^Jiume^ etc. ; as fenomeno, lessico, are formed 
 from phcenomenon, lexicon, forse from forsan, amme from 
 amen, in Dante, {Paradiso, xiv. 64 :) and latus, sulphur, 
 marmor, caput, hecome lato, solfo, marmo, capo. The 
 Spanish is less regular, hut in no word does it assume 
 the increment of the genitive : like the Italian it changes 
 us and ut into 0, (with the exception of the old word 
 huehos from opus) ; hut the termination en it sometimes 
 exhibits entire, as examen, volumen, and sometimes 
 changes it into re, as lumhre, nombre ^ In marmor the 
 Italian rejects the final r, the Spanish softens it into L 
 
 the Italian and Spanish : thus from caput, chap, or chef, from carmen, 
 charme, from corpus, corps, from nomen, nom, from pondus, poids, from 
 stamen, Staim, from tempus, temps : in some of which words the final 
 Latin s is still preserved. From marmor and sulfur it has likewise 
 made marhre and soufre ; hut in these words the formation from the 
 uninflected case is not so ohvious. [For modem Eomance nouns, 
 formed with these terminations, see Diez, Rom. Gramm., vol. ii., 
 p. 308—10.] 
 
 . » The old Spanish said name, luvfie, etc. Rayn. Gr. Comp. p. xxxiv. 
 .It will be observed, however, that now all words from neuter nouns in 
 en, which have not retained that termination unchanged, end in re ; 
 as enxamhre, legumbre, etc. There are likewise the forms sangre, hombre, 
 and hamhre, from the masc. and fem. sanguis, homo, and /awes. This 
 termination has been caused by the easy transition of the liquids into 
 one another, and has originated thus : homine-m, homne, (which form 
 occurs, Sanchez, vol i., p. 396,) homre, hombre; sanguine-m, sangne, 
 (which occurs in the Sacrijicio de la Misa 16, Sanchez, vol. ii., p. 183,) 
 sangre ; lumen, lumne, (by transposition, used in old Spanish, Sanchez, 
 vol. i., p. 396,") lumre, lumbre. So in Italian anima, anma, alma, arma, 
 (see Marrini on the Lamento di Cecco, p. 176,) and in S-p&nish femina, 
 marmor, career, arbor, became hembra, marmol, carcil, arbol ; in French 
 
72 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 In the following words the Italian, and sometimes the 
 Spanish, adds a vowel to the Latin accusative case : 
 
 Latin. 
 
 Italian. 
 
 Spanish. 
 
 animal 
 
 aniraale 
 
 animal 
 
 cor 
 
 cuore 
 
 cuer 
 
 ebur 
 
 ebure 
 
 
 fel 
 
 fiele 
 
 fiel 
 
 fulgur 
 
 folgore 
 
 
 lac 
 
 
 leche 
 
 mel 
 
 miele 
 
 miel 
 
 nectar 
 
 nettare 
 
 nectar 
 
 OS 
 
 esse 
 
 hueso 
 
 sal 
 
 sale 
 
 sal 
 
 tribunal 
 
 tribunale 
 
 tribunal 
 
 vas 
 
 vase or vase 
 
 vase 
 
 That in these words the Jfinal e is euphonic, and is not 
 the e of the Latin ablative, is proved by cuore, cuer, ehure, 
 fiele, and miele, which if they were derived from the 
 ablative would be cuorde, cuerde, ehore, felle, and melle. 
 The Spanish fel, miel, etc., indeed, prove nothing either 
 way, as they might be curtailed from the ablative : but 
 leche is evidently formed from lac with an euphonic vowel, 
 
 crdine-m became ordre, pampinus pampre, altare first alter, (Gr, Comp, 
 p. 35,) then auter, then autel ; in Provencal /emiwa has become /r«TOa, 
 i. e. femna, fnema, frema. The b in lumhre, honibre, etc. is inserted on 
 account of the difficulty of pronouncing a liquid following m: as in 
 hombro, Span, from humerus; comble, chambre, humble, and nombre, 
 French, from cumulus, camera, humilis, and numerus : in Greek ydfi^pog 
 (for ydfiepoQ) from ydfioQ, Trap/il/xjSXwKrt for TrapntXoXuKe, fxtorj/xPpivos 
 for fiearjfispivog, %j3porov for tjfwprov (i. e. ijnopTOv, -ijfipoTov, rjufSpoTOv,) 
 etc. So in English ramble and tumble correspond to rammeln German, 
 and taumeln German, tommelen Dutch : Hamblet for Hamlet, Hambleton 
 for Hamilton : solemn and damned were formerly written solempne and 
 dampned : 'Jimble hemp' for 'fertile hemp' occurs in Tusser, o. 45, § 8, 
 etc. 
 
FORMS AND INFLEXIONS OP ROMANCE NOUNS. 
 
 73 
 
 since if it came ifrom the ablative it would be lette^ like 
 tbe Italian latte. That the final e is bare only euphonic, 
 and was added in order to avoid tbe consonant termination, 
 is also shown by the circumstance that when the neuter 
 noun ended in a, the form of the Latin nominative or 
 accusative was preserved without alteration, as in the 
 following words : 
 
 Latin. 
 
 Italian. . 
 
 Spanish. 
 
 senigma 
 
 enimma 
 
 enigma 
 
 anathema 
 
 anatema 
 
 anatema 
 
 axioma 
 
 assioma 
 
 axioma 
 
 baptisma 
 
 battesmo' 
 
 bautismo — 
 
 chrisma 
 
 cresima and -esimo 
 
 crisma - 
 
 clima 
 
 clima 
 
 clima 
 
 diadema 
 
 diadema 
 
 diadema 
 
 diploma 
 
 diploma 
 
 diploma 
 
 dogma 
 
 domma 
 
 dogma 
 
 drama 
 
 dramma 
 
 drama 
 
 epigramma 
 
 epigramma 
 
 epigrama 
 
 idioma 
 
 idioma 
 
 idioma 
 
 problema 
 
 problema 
 
 problema ~ 
 
 psalma 
 
 salmo 
 
 salmo -> " 
 
 sagma 
 
 salma 
 
 salma 
 
 sophisma 
 
 Bolfisma or -mo 
 
 sofisma Cy 
 
 spasma 
 
 spasimo 
 
 espasmo 
 
 system a 
 
 sistema 
 
 sistema 
 
 thema 
 
 tema 
 
 tema 
 
 theorema 
 
 teorema 
 
 teorema 
 
 That in these words (which passed into the Latin from 
 the Greek) the inflexion of the genitive case was not 
 forgotten, and that they would have been anatemate, 
 idiomate, etc., if the Latin accusative had been anathe- 
 matenif idiomaterriy appears from the Italian form stimati, 
 
 ^ The reason of the change of the final a into o in neuter nouns is 
 Explained below under the head of the genders, ch. II. § 3. 
 
74 CHAPTER II. 
 
 from the plural stigmata. In the words of most frequent 
 use, the final a has been changed into o, on account of the 
 gender. 
 
 There are a few words in which the Italian form ex- 
 hibits the increment of the Latin neuter noun : as numine, 
 esamine, crimine, where nume, esame, crime, are the more 
 common forms^ ; vimine also occurs, as well as vime, the 
 form used by Dante. But in the words fulmine, genere, 
 latfe, and pettine, there is no variation : in the latter word, 
 the preference of the genitive form seems to have been 
 due to a desire of avoiding a confusion with petto from 
 pectus. Ustiercol, Spanish, is derived from some inflected 
 case of stercm. 
 
 The ItaKan appears at first sight to offer some in- 
 stances of the formation of nouns from the Latin nomi- 
 natives of the third declension, as uomo^ ladro, margo, 
 imago : but it is evident that these are modem forms 
 which have undergone different modifications, and that 
 the original words were homine, or uomine, ladrone, 
 margine, imagine^, (^he Italian, however, sometimes 
 
 ' Also ulcero from ulcus, where ulcera (from the plural) is the more 
 common form : on the origin of ulcera see below, ch. II. § 3. 
 
 2 The original form of uomo was probably homine, regularly formed 
 from hominem. This form is still extant in the plural uomini, anciently 
 homini. It then became omin or omen, a form preserved in the Mi- 
 lanese dialect. Omen was then shortened into ome, by the rejection of 
 the final n, like volume from volumen, etc. above p. 70,) and om£ be- 
 came omo or uomo, as in many other words where the termination 
 vacillates between e and o. Thus cespite and gurgite were first con- 
 tracted into cespe and gurge, (which last occurs in Dante,) and then 
 changed into cespo and gorgo. (See Castelvetro on Bembo, vol. ii. p. 
 18.) The same explanation applies to margo and imago: which 
 originally were doubtless margine and imagine (the common forms,) 
 contracted into image (which occurs in Dante,) and marge, and then 
 the terminations were confounded. The word ladro shortened tram 
 
FORMS AND INFLEXIONS OF ROMANCE NOUNS. 75 
 
 preserved tlie Latin nominative in proper names, as 
 Peleus in the early writers, Feton^ Semiramis, Minos, 
 in Dantei : in some names likewise there are two forms, 
 one from the nominative, and the other from the accu- 
 sative : as Plato, Platone, Oato, Catone, PlutOy Plutone^. 
 The Spanish presents several instances of the Latin 
 nominative in proper names; as Jupiter, Palas, Apolo, 
 Fenix, Carlos, etc. : and has also retained it in the single 
 word dios^. But with these exceptions there is not (as 
 far as I am aware) in either language any noun or par- 
 ticiple which has retained the termination of the Latin 
 nominative/ 
 
 It may therefore, I conceive, he laid down as the 
 general result of the above remarks, that Italian and 
 
 ladrone, (ladrone, ladron, ladro,) furnishes another instance of the 
 rejection of the final n. Words in constant use like uomine, were 
 most liable to contraction : thus mulierem has now become moglie, 
 though the form mogliere occurs in ancient writers ; and sanguine has 
 been contracted into sangue : the Spanish still has sangre, (see above, 
 note, p. 71.) See Schlegel, p. 36 : • Ces mots, qui reviennent sans cesse 
 dans le langage populaire, ressemblent a la petite monnoie d'argent : 
 elle perd son empreinte a force de passer d'une main £l I'autre, tandis 
 que les gros §cus la conservent.* 
 
 * See Perticari, Difesa di Dante, c. 13. 
 
 ' See Castelvetro on Bemho, vol. ii. p. 17. 
 
 ' Whence it has formed the fem. diosa, a goddess. Corns from 
 conies in Provencal, (conte Ital., conde Span., comte French,) affords 
 an instance of the preservation of the Latin nominative in a masculine 
 noun of the third declension. In the Poeme sur Boece, v. 34. Corns 
 fo de Roma, and v. 138—40. Molt fort blasmava Boecis sos amigs. 
 Qui lui laudaven dereer euz dias antix, Qu'el era corns, molt onraz e 
 rix: Ra}-nouard in both places translates consul. Perhaps count 
 (comes) is the word meant. The French has likewise retained the 
 ancient form of the nominative in some proper names, as Charles^ 
 Hugues, (instead of Challon, Hugon, which were the ancient accusa- 
 tive,) though it now has universally adopted the form of the Latin ac- 
 casative. 
 
76 CHAPTER II. 
 
 Spanish, nouns and participles are formed from the Latin 
 accusative : sometimes retaining it unaltered, as jpoema, 
 diadema, Ital. and Span. ; semerif volumen, Span. ; some- 
 times by rejecting the final consonant, as musa, limite, 
 amante, gente, nume, fiume^ marmo ; sometimes by reject- 
 ing the final consonant and changing u into 0, as modo, 
 amato, mano, solfo, caj)o, corpo, caho, cuerpo : and the 
 Spanish sometimes by rejecting the final syllable, as 
 imagen, trinidad, luz^. 
 
 On comparing this system of forming nouns and par- 
 ticiples from the Latin with that prevalent in the other 
 Bomance languages, it will appear that there was an im- 
 portant and frmdamental difference between the method 
 adopted by the Italian and Spanish on the one hand, and 
 the Provencal and French on the other. It has been 
 shown above that the Proven9al and French nouns adopt 
 the increment of the Latin genitive*^, and so far all the 
 four languages agree. The Proven9al, however, in form- 
 ing its nouns and participles from Latin forms in us, 
 sometimes preserved the termination of the Latin nomi- 
 native entire, as us, (for uns,) mieuSy Deus, or where us 
 was preceded by a consonant, it omitted the u and pre- 
 served the s, as philosojfhs, hels, amies, fers, amatz, from 
 
 * Speme in Italian is evidently spem, the accusative of spes, as ren 
 in Provencal (like rien in French) is the accusative of res, both which 
 forms occur. This explanation accounts for the double form speme 
 and spene, since the final m was in ItaHan (as has been already shown) 
 often changed into n. Aria likewise, as will be explained below, 
 comes from aera : as also lampara Span., from lampada ; (on the change 
 of d and r, as in fedire for ferire, rado for raro, Ital. see Muratori, 
 Ant. It. vol. ii. p. 532, A. vol. ui. p. 1090, A. : so in EngUsh pad' 
 dock is parrock, (parruc, A. S.) whence park is contracted : see Ar- 
 chaologia, vol. xvii. p. 138.) [See Diez, Rom. Gr. vol. i. p. 219.] 
 
 » Above, p. 62. 
 
FORMS AND INFLEXIONS OF ROMANCE NOUNS. 77 
 
 pMIosophuSf heUuSf amicus, ferus, amatus. By analogy 
 this termination was then transferred to all nominatives, 
 even to those which were not terminated with s in Latin, 
 as amors, talens, valors, to comparatives, as maiers, mielhers, 
 and even to infinitives used substantively, as sabers, 
 plazers. This analogy was not, however, extended to 
 Latin substantives in a, to the definite article, or to 
 personal pronouns. 
 
 Pursuing this system of imitating the terminations of 
 the Latin cases, the Provencal rejected the final s from 
 its accusative singular, the only oblique case which it 
 preserved from the Latin : and in the plural number 
 formed the nominative without, and the accusative with 
 the 5. The following example, therefore, may serve as a 
 general type for the declension of Provencal nouns and 
 participles, and at the same time by the comparison 
 with the Latin show the reason of the changes. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 Lat. Prov. Lat. Prov. 
 
 Nom. amicus amies amici amic 
 
 Ace. amicum amic amicos amies' 
 
 The Provenpal has moreover a declension of proper 
 names founded on the same principles, and ia which 
 the traces of the Latin, are more distinctly visible. 
 These nouns sometimes made the nominative sing, in 
 
 * These are traces of the rule with regard to the final s not applying 
 to nouns where it was not present in Latin : thus jpaire, maire, horn, 
 from ipater, mater, homo, sometimes have the $ and sometimes have it 
 not. Thus el drax, nominative plural, i. e. e li dracs, (dracones,) Gr, 
 B. p. 109; whereas la drac, nominative singular, p. 141 (draco): 
 according to the rule these forms ought to he just reversed : hut from 
 the same translation of the Apocalypse in which these forms occur, 
 Johans, nominative singular, i. e. Johannes, p. 141. See Diez, PoetU 
 der Troubadours, p. 296. w 
 
78 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 s or es, and tlie accusative in on, the final n of whicli 
 might be omitted, when the Provenpal accusative became 
 the same as the Italian and Spanish form. Thus we 
 find, nom. Aimes, Sugues, Odiels ; ace. Aimon or Aimo, 
 Ugon, Odilo, {G-r. Qomp, p. 85, 86.) This declension 
 has probably preserved the intermediate steps between 
 the Latin and the common Provenpal form : viz. campis^ 
 camjpes^ camps : campum^ cawpon, campo^ campe, camp. 
 
 The declension of the nouns is further illustrated by a 
 comparison of the Latin and Provenpal possessive pro- 
 nouns, {au B. p. 96-^114.) 
 
 Singular. 
 Masc. Fem. 
 
 Lat. 
 
 Prov. 
 
 
 Lat. 
 
 
 Prov. 
 
 meus 
 meum 
 
 meus, mos 
 meu, mon 
 
 mea 
 meam 
 
 } 
 
 mia, mieua, ma 
 
 tuus 
 tuum 
 
 teus, tos 
 teu, ton 
 
 
 tua 1 
 tuam ) 
 
 
 tua, tieua, ta 
 
 8UUS 
 
 suum 
 
 seus, SOS 
 seu, son 
 
 
 sua ■> 
 suam J 
 
 
 sua, sueua, sa 
 
 noster 
 
 nostres 
 
 
 nostra 
 
 } 
 
 nostra 
 
 nostrum 
 
 nostre 
 
 
 nostram 
 
 vester 
 
 vostres 
 
 
 vestra 
 
 } 
 
 vostro 
 
 vestrum 
 
 vostre 
 
 
 vestram 
 
 
 
 Plu 
 
 RAL. 
 
 
 
 Lat. 
 
 Masc. 
 
 Prov. 
 
 
 Lat. 
 
 
 Fem. 
 
 Prov. 
 
 mei 
 meos 
 
 mei, meu ) 
 mos, meus ) 
 
 meas 
 
 
 mias, mieuas, mas 
 
 tui 
 tuos 
 
 tei, teu 
 tos, teus 
 
 } 
 
 tuas 
 
 
 tuas, tieuas, tas 
 
 sui 
 suos 
 
 sei, seu 
 SOS, seus 
 
 1 
 
 suas 
 
 
 suas, sueuas, sas 
 
 nostri 
 nostros 
 
 nostre "> 
 nostres J 
 
 
 nostras 
 
 
 nostras 
 
 vestri 
 vestros 
 
 vostre •» 
 VQjitres / 
 
 
 vestras 
 
 
 vostras 
 
FORMS AND INFLEXIONS OF ROMANCE NOUNS. 79 
 
 With all classes of nouiis except those ending in a, 
 and another kind to be mentioned below, the Provencal 
 exactly imitated the Latin declension in W5, in making the 
 I nominative singular, and the accusative plural in 5, and 
 the nominative plural and the accusative singular with- 
 out s. "With those ending in a, however, it preserved 
 the Latin nominative singular unchanged, but formed 
 the plural of all cases after the Latin accusative, as 
 musas, domnas, mias, etc. 
 
 In the declension of its adjectives the Provencal ob- 
 serves the same rules, founded on the same reasons. 
 
 Thus bons, good, is declined as follows : 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 Nom. bons or bos bona 
 
 bon 
 
 bonas 
 
 Ace. bon bona 
 
 bons 
 
 bonas 
 Gr, R. p. 42. 
 
 Past participles of verbs are declined in the same man- 
 ner: thus 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 Nom. amatz amata amat amadas 
 
 Ace. amat amata amatz amadas 
 
 Gr. R. p. 200. 
 
 Some adjectives, however, are common to both gen- 
 ders, and these in the singular number omit the s in the 
 accusative case, but in the plural preserve it for both the 
 cases. Grans, great, will furnish an example of this 
 declension. 
 
 Singular. Plural, 
 
 Norn, grans grans 
 
 Ace, gran 
 
80 CHAPTER II. 
 
 The reason of tliis difference is obvious, viz. that 
 whereas the Latin adjectives which took a feminine 
 termination, ending in ns, made i in the nominative 
 plural ; those which did not take a feminine termina- 
 tion ending in ens, ans, is, etc. made es in the nominative 
 plural, though they made em in the accusative singular : 
 consequently the Provencal, after the model of the Latin 
 adjective, omitted the s in the accusative singular, hut 
 preserved it in the nominative plural. 
 
 The present participles of verbs active were declined 
 on the same principle, only they showed in the accu- 
 sative case the letter of the increased genitive : as 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 Nom. amans amans or -anz/or amants 
 
 Ace. amant 
 
 Gr, R. p. 197. 
 
 The ace. singular is often written without the final t, 
 as the Proven9al used mon for mond from mundus, and 
 generally omitted the final d or t after n : thus cJiantj the 
 first person of the present indie, of chantar, became chariy 
 atend from atendre became aten, sent from sentir became 
 sen, etc. ((7r. K p. 209.) 
 
 In old French the same system of declension is ob- 
 served, as M. Raynouard has shown by a multitude of 
 examples, which prove beyond a doubt the retention 
 in that language of the same two Latin cases. Thus in 
 the nom. singular, * Qui ere amirals des galies : ' * Johans 
 li rois de Blaquie venoit ; ' * Nus n*est joyeux com TJiie- 
 lauz* (i. e. Thiebauds, Theobaldws) ; * Que ce fut lajlors 
 
FORMS AND INFLEXIONS OF KOMANCE NOUNS. 8 1 
 
 des barons^' In the ace. singular, * del plus has enfern;^ 
 * Ested e ivern tu as fait.' Nom. plural, * Celui cui li 
 Franc avoient chacie de Constantinople ; ' * tout mi 
 penser sont a ma douce amie ; ' * dont li nom ne sont mie 
 en escrit.' Ace. plural, * Li rois mande ses arcevesqueSy 
 Ses meillors clercs et ses evesqnes ;' *sur les chevels de 
 mun chief;* * Sire Dens ^de vertuz,' (i.e. vertutz.) Gr. 
 (7(wwp. p. 71— 84. 
 
 The old French likewise, as well as the Provengal, ex- 
 tended this inflexion to the infinitives of verbs, when 
 used as substantives : thus in the nom. singular, * Si la 
 blonde savoit Com li departirs m'ocira : ' but in the ace. 
 singular, * mainte larme i fii ploree de pitie al departir de 
 lors pays.' {G-r. Comp. p. 96.) 
 
 The same inflexion of proper names as that above 
 pointed out in the Proven9al also occurs in the old 
 French: thus Hues^ Pieres, Bueves are nom. Emn, 
 Pierorij BuevoUy are ace. {G-r, Comp. p. 86, 87.)^ Many- 
 traces of this ancient form of the accusative still appear 
 in the modem French proper names ; thus Hugon, Pier- 
 rony or Perroriy Odilony Guy on y (from Gtiy,) GuilloUy (from 
 Guille for Gmllaume,) Giraudoriy (from Giraudy) Girardon, 
 
 > In modem French the words /fe, {from Jiliu8)fonds, {from fundus,) 
 lacs, (from laqueus,) tiers, (from tertius,) and Artus, (from Arturs,) for 
 Arthur, are remnants of this ancient form : also corps, poids, temps, 
 (see above, p. 70, note*) choux, (from caulis,) puits, {from putem,) and 
 proper names, such as Charles, Hugues, Jules, Georges, Jacques, Louis, 
 ViUars or Villiers, (from ViUarius,) Londres, (from London, Hke 
 Havre, from the German hafen.) Anciently the final s in these words 
 was doubtlessly sounded, and Jils nom. was distinguished from. Jil ace., 
 to the ear as well as the eye. 
 
 2 On the inflexions of the ancient French nouns, see also Kaynouard, 
 Jmmal des Savans, 1836, p. 297, 298 ; 1828, p. 136, 137. Observations 
 fur le Roman de BoUy p. 48 — 58. 
 
 Q 
 
82 CHAPTER II. 
 
 f 
 
 (from Grirard,) Morelon or Morion, (from Morel,) Philip^ 
 
 pon, (from Philippe,) Vernon, (from Verne,) etc.^ 
 
 It is unnecessary to repeat any of M. Raynouard's in- 
 stances of the declension of French, adjectives, as it is a 
 mere repetition of the declension of the substantives, 
 (Gr. Comp. p. 129—36.) 
 
 The French also anciently used mes, tes, ses, formed 
 from mos, tos, sos, in the nom. singular, and mon^ ton, son^ 
 in the ace. singular : thus ' je suis ses fils, il est mes 
 pere.' Nostres and vostres were likewise used as nom. 
 singular, as * saces que nostres sires m'a pardonnez mes 
 pechiez.' The latter forms have, however, been sup- 
 planted by the ace. nostre or notre, vostre or voire, and the 
 former by the ace. mon^ ton, son, (Grr, Comp. p. 1G2 — 
 170.) 
 
 The Provengal had a peculiar exception to the general 
 rule with regard to the final 5, for substantives ending 
 in aire, eire, ire, which made the ace. singular, and 
 the nom. and ace. plural, in ador, edor, and idor. Thus 
 trohaire, cantaire, amaire, entendeire, servire, were nom. 
 singular ; but in the ace. singular, trobador, cantador, 
 amador, entendedor, servidor, and in both cases of the 
 plural, trohadors, cantadors, amadors, entendedors, servi- 
 dors. (Gr. R. p. 33 — 5.) The reason of this singular 
 declension is that these words, or the words from which 
 the analogy was derived, were formed from Latin nouns 
 in dtor, itor, and itor; and in such words asanidtar, domitor, 
 auditor, in the nom. singular, the last syllable being 
 short, the o was easily slurred over, and ator, itor, and 
 
 * [For a copious illustration *of this subject,' see Burguy, Gr. de la 
 Langiie d'Oil, vol. i. p. 63 — 98; Ampdre, Hist, de la Litt. Franz, p. 4i) 
 
 — ti9.] . . . , 
 
FOKMS AND INFLEXIONS OF ROMANCE NOUNS. 83 
 
 itor^ contracted into aire, eire, and ire ; bnt in all the 
 other cases, singular and plural, amatorem, amatores, 
 domitorem, domitores, etc. ; the or being long, it had a 
 stronger hold on the tongue, and only the last syllable, 
 according to the constant practice of the Provencal lan- 
 guage, was omitted. In like manner the Italian has 
 formed lepre from leporem, eliminating the short 0, but 
 has preserved the long in lepore from leporem. The fol- 
 lowing scheme, therefore, explains this declension. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 ■~N 
 
 Lat. Prov. Lat. Prov. 
 
 Nom, amator amaire amatores amadors 
 
 Ace. amator-em amador 
 
 An analogous change may be observed iu those Pro- 
 vengal comparatives which have been derived from the 
 LatiQ. These form the nom. singular in ers, the ace. 
 singular and nom. plural in or, and the ace. plural in ors. 
 The reason of this change is, that in the nom. singular 
 the final or, being short in Latin, lost its ftdl sound of 0, 
 and became er ; then, according to the analogy above ex- 
 plained, it took the final s in the nom. siagular : but in 
 the augmented cases the or being long, the vowel was 
 not changed into the thinner sound of e^. 
 
 This remarkable declension of nouns in aire, reappears 
 in the old French : which in the substantives correspond- 
 ing to the Latin nouns in ator and itor made the nom. 
 singular in eres, erres, and ieres^, but the other three 
 
 * So it may be observed in the declension of proper names, the Pro- 
 ven9al changed the final us of the nom. into es, because it was short, 
 but changed the final urn of the ace. into on, because it was long, 
 
 ' None of the Provencal examples cited by M. Raynouard, Gr. B. 
 
 G2 
 
84 CHAPTER II. 
 
 cases in eor or or. Tlius nom. singular, ' Diex tu ies rois 
 et conseiUeres, et gouvernieres, etJugieresJ * Courones em- 
 pereres i fu.' Ace. singular, *il deguerpit Deu sxmfaitor.* 
 Nom. plural, * Yous estes dui enchanteor^ et li nostre 
 enemi sunt jugeorJ Ace. plural, * Que il est dieu des 
 jongleors, et dieu de tons Ies chanteorsJ The modem 
 French, has formed these nouns from the ancient termi- 
 nation, not of the nominative, hut of the accusative sin- 
 gular: thus from empereor, chanteor, came emperor ^ 
 cliantor, changed first into emperour, chantourj then into 
 empereur, chanteur^. The word troubadour, from trohador, 
 has never undergone the last change and become trouha- 
 deur. The modern Provencal on the other hand has 
 formed all these nouns in aire from the termination of the 
 nominative, as chantaire, triounfaire, troumjpaire, etc. ; but 
 like the French it has lost the inflexion. 
 
 Of the distinction between the cases of comparatives 
 derived from the Latin, there appears to be no trace in 
 any Eomance language except the Proven9al. (G-r, Comp. 
 p. 138.) 
 
 Now when we come to compare the system of forma- 
 tion and declension which has been just described, with 
 
 p. 33, take the final 8 after aire ; the French nouns, however, take it 
 invariably. Gr. Comp. p. 87 — 94. 
 
 * This series of changes may be observed in many other French 
 words, thus illorum, lor, lour, leur; morir, mourir, meurs; probus, 
 proux (whence prouesse,) preux, etc. : also in the substantives derived 
 from Latin nouns in or, as honor, honour, honneur, etc., (see below § 3.) 
 Some of these preserved the ancient termination unchanged, as amour, 
 labour ; in others it can be perceived in their derivatives, as vigoureux, 
 douloureux, rigoureuz, tavoureux, etc. : valeureux has been formed 
 after the termination eur came into use. Soporeux and liquoreux have 
 preserved the Latin form in or. Nous from no8, vous from vos, bou4;he 
 from boca, (bucca, Lat.) mouvoir from mover, vouloir from voler, are 
 
FORMS AND INFLEXIONS OF ROMANCE NOUNS. 85 
 
 that wHcli prevails in the ItaKan and Spanish, we shall 
 find the strongest and most marked dissimilarity. 
 
 1. In the first place there is no trace in the Italian 
 and Spanish languages of any distinction of cases : where- 
 as the Provencal distinguished between the nominative 
 and accusative, both in the singular and plural, by at 
 least four different manners : viz. the retention or omis- 
 sion of s, the change of es and on, of aire and ador, and of 
 ers and or. Three of these methods of distinguishing 
 cases likewise appear in the old French. 
 
 2. The Provencal in aU nouns and participles derived 
 from Latin nouns and participles in us, formed its deriva- 
 tive from the nominative by omitting the last but one, 
 and preserving the last letter, as amic-u-s, amies; amaU 
 U'S^ amatz : the Italian and Spanish, on the other 
 hand, formed their derivative from the accusative by pre- 
 serving the last but one, and omitting the last letter ; 
 
 * thus amicu-m, amico, atnatu-m, amatoK 
 
 instances of the change of into ou ; le from lo, les from hs, ce froni 
 fo, of the change of into e. [Compare Diez, Rom. Gramm. vol. i. 
 p. 147.] 
 
 ' M. Eaynouard, having shown that the Italian formerly used meo 
 for mio, goes on to say that * the Eomance (i. e. Provencal) pronoun 
 Ttum was adopted and still exists in Monsignor. This remarkable ves- 
 tige is a fresh proof of the ancient community of language,' Gr. Comp. 
 p. 164. This vestige, which is certainly remarkable, proves no more 
 than this : that the Italian, as well as the Provencal, corrupted the 
 Latin meum into mon: the Provencal used it as an ace. case; in 
 Italian it was the only case. Afterwards mon became mo, as in the 
 ancient expressions fratelmo, patremo, cuginomo : see Menage Etym. 
 Ital. in cuginomo. If M. Raynouard can show that the Italian, like 
 the Proven<;al, used mexis and mos in the nom. case, he will then indeed 
 have gone far to prove a community of language. It is not improbable 
 that in Italian, as it appears to have been the case in Provencal, (see 
 above, p. 78,) the transition of um into took place in this manner : 
 
86 CHAPTER II. 
 
 M. Raynouard himself, speaking of tlie strong reseni- 
 blance which the Catalonian and Yaudois languages bear 
 to the Proven9al, remarks that their chief difference con- 
 sists in their wanting the fundamental rule with regard to 
 the final s. He then adds : * it appears that this rule 
 has never been able to cross either the Pjrrenees or the 
 Alps.' {G-r. Oomp. p. xxxix.) By these words, M. Ray- 
 nouard, if I rightly understand him, means to say, that 
 the rules for the formation and declension of nouns and 
 participles were originally different in the Provencal and 
 French on the one hand, and in the languages spoken in 
 Italy and Spain on the other. If this be so, his theory 
 of the universality of the Provenpal language must, accord- 
 ing to his own admission, be considerably circumscribed. 
 
 It might, indeed, be argued, that as the Provencal 
 and French, although they adopted as their type 
 the accusative of Latin nouns increasing in the genitive 
 case, yet retained the s of the nominative case of noujis 
 and participles in us ; so the Italian and Spanish, though 
 they formed from nouns and participles increasing in the 
 genitive, by taking the accusative case, yet formed from 
 nouns and participles in us, by taking not the accusative 
 but the nominative, with the rejection of the final s, 
 which, we know, was often suppressed in Latin before a 
 consonant^ : thus mondo, buono, amato, would come from 
 mundu\ bonu\ amatu\' and in some Italian dialects the 
 final vowel is still u and not o*. 
 
 viz. urn, om, on, o ; amicum, amicom, amicon, amico. The suppression 
 of the final n is very frequent in the Pro venial. Gr. R. p. 340. Gr. 
 Comp. p. 163. So likewise in Italian con il and non il are conti-acted 
 into col and nol, in Genuan von dem into vom. 
 I See Lanzi, LingUa Etnisca, vol. i. p. 01. ' See above, p. 68. 
 
FORMS AND INFLEXIONS OF ROMANCE NOUNS. 8^ 
 
 This hypothesis, however, would not account for such 
 forms as tenero, suocero, genero, ministro, maestro, Ital. 
 tier7io, suegro, yerno, ministro, maestro, Span., etc., the 
 originals of which have not u in the nominative case. 
 We are, therefore, compelled to suppose that the Latiu 
 accusative was the universal tjrpe for the ItaHan and 
 Spanish nouns. We know, likewise, from the Provenpal 
 and French form of the nominative case, that the final s 
 kad not been in the corrupt period of Latinity, dropped 
 from the terminations of nouns even in conversation ; 
 although it was frequently elided before a consonant by 
 the early Latin poets. 
 
 3. In forming the plurals of masculine nouns, the Pro- 
 venpal and Italian so far agree, that both follow the 
 Latin nominative case in i : the Proven9al rejecting, the 
 Itahan retaining, the final vowel. The Spanish, how- 
 ever, forms its masculine plural after the model of the 
 Latin a<jcusative, not of the Latin nominative, by adding 
 s : thus the Italian and Provencal have amici and amic, 
 like the Latin amici, the Spanish amigos like arnicas: 
 desiderj, pensamenti, Ital. desir, pensamen, Prov., but 
 deseoSf pensamientos, Span. The Spanish forms its mas- 
 culine plurals simply by adding s, from the analogy of 
 the ace. plur. of Latin nouns in us, while the Italian 
 forms its masc. plur. in i, from the analogy of the nom. 
 plur. of nouns in tcs. Thus the Italian says indifierently, 
 modi, mani, onori, poemi ; the Spanish modos, manos, 
 onores, poemas. 
 
 4. In forming the plurals fem. of nouns and participles 
 in a, the Proven9al and Spanish agree in following the 
 Latin accusative, and in simply adding s : thus domnas, 
 bonas, amatas, Prov., dueuas, bmnas, amadas. Span. Here, 
 
8d 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 however, the Italian disagrees, as it forms the plural in 
 these instances from the Latin nom. in oe, which, not 
 having any diphthongs, it changes into e ; thus donne, 
 hitone, amate, nuptice, nozze. 
 
 The characteristic varieties of the several Eomance 
 languages in forming their masculine and feminine nouns 
 from Latin nouns in us and a, are shown by the follow- 
 ing scheme, which at the same time proves that each 
 language derived its terminations directly from the Latin, 
 and independently of any of its cognate languages. 
 
 Sing. 
 PL 
 
 Lat. 
 
 C caballus 
 \ caballum 
 1 caballi 
 \ caballos 
 
 Italian. 
 
 cavallo 
 cavalli 
 
 Spanish. 
 
 caballo 
 caballos 
 
 Prov. French. 
 
 cavals chevals 
 caval cheval 
 caval cheval 
 cavals chevals 
 
 
 Sing. 
 
 rmusa 
 ( musam 
 
 musa 
 
 musa 
 
 musa muse (musa) 
 
 
 TmusaB 
 1 musas 
 
 muse 
 
 
 
 
 FL 
 
 
 musas 
 
 musas muses (mi 
 
 ism 
 
 It has been shown that the Italian and Spanish nouns 
 were formed from the Latin ace. singular : and that the 
 Provencal and French nouns also took the increment of 
 the genitive case ; the same languages (as is shown in 
 the above table) also formed the plural of feminine nouns 
 in a from the Latin accus., and the Spanish formed the 
 plural of all nouns from the accusative. The same ten- 
 dency to employ the accusative as a nominative case is 
 also visible in the progress of the Proven9al and French 
 languages ; and, when the distinction of cases was gra- 
 dually given up, led to the disuse of the nominative, and 
 the retention of the accusative form in each number. 
 Thus in both those languages, the singular number of 
 
FORMS AND INFLEXIONS OF ROMANCE NOUNS. 89 
 
 nouns ending with, a consonant is now marked by tlie 
 absence of a final s, and tbe plural by its addition : 
 which is the rule observed in the ancient accusative cases 
 of nouns, but in the nominative cases the rule was just 
 reversed. The gradual progress of this change can be 
 observed in the remains of the early Provencal literature, 
 in which the distinction between the nom. and ace. is by 
 no means constantly observed ; and in almost every in- 
 stance it may be seen that the disposition is to use the 
 accusative and not the nominative as the invariable form. 
 In general, the observation of the distinction of cases is 
 in proportion to the antiquity of the writing : thus in the 
 Poeme sur Boece, the earliest work in the Romance lan- 
 guages now extant, the rule as to the final s is constantly 
 observed ; in the Nohla Leyczon it is almost constantly 
 neglected in the singular number. The same progress is 
 also discernible in other parts of speech ; thus mon, ton, 
 son, nostre and vostre, sometimes occur as nominatives 
 singular, and mos, tos, sos, as nominatives plural, although 
 for the most part they are only accusatives : but this 
 licence (as M. Ra3rnouard states) rarely occurs in the 
 compositions taken from the best and most ancient monu- 
 ments {Gr. R. p. 116). It is not improbable that a simi- 
 lar change took place in the formation of the plural of 
 Proven$al nouns in a ; and that at a very early period of 
 that language, prior to the date of any remains of it 
 which we possess, muse was the nom., and musas only the 
 ace. case ; so that there were two cases in the fem. as in 
 the masc. plural. This proneness to abandon the nom. 
 and employ only the ace. case, however prevailing, was 
 not invariable; thus it has been already shown that, 
 although the modem French forms, empereur, chanteur. 
 
9© CHAPTER II. 
 
 etc. have been formed from the ancient ace. empereor, 
 chanteovy and not from the ancient nom. empereres, chan- 
 tereSy yet the modern Proven9al forms cliantairey trioun- 
 faire, etc. have followed the analogy of the ancient 
 nominatives cantaire, amaire, and not of the ancient ace. 
 cantador, amador^. The Italian, moreover, although it 
 completely deserted the traces of the Latin nominatives 
 in the singular number, still retains their terminations 
 unchanged in the plural. However it cannot be doubted 
 that, on the whole the Romance languages show a decided 
 tendency to the accusative in preference to the nomina- 
 tive case; a tendency, likewise, pointed out above in 
 some specimens of the Latin of the middle ages^ : and it 
 seems to me that this disposition affords a better explana- 
 tion of the forms of the modern nouns than the remark 
 of Schlegel that the oblique cases served as a type, 
 because taken together they were more numerous, and 
 therefore occurred oftener than the nominative^. All the 
 cases except the nom. and ace. appear to have become 
 obsolete at a very early period after the German invasion : 
 and therefore this remark does not explain why, when 
 only those two cases remained, the preference should, in 
 almost every instance, have been given to that case which 
 seems to have the less obvious claim. But although the 
 existence of a disposition to abandon the subjective and 
 
 * See above, p. 84. ' See above, p. 58 — 61. 
 
 ' ♦ Toutes les langues derivees du Latin ont donne la preference & 
 un cas oblique quelconque. Et pourquoi? parce que tous les cas 
 obliques pris ensemble etant d'un usage plus frequent que le nomina- 
 tif, la forme du substantif commune k tous ces cas s'etoit mieux im- 
 prim6e dans la memoire de ceux qui ne savoient pas le latin d'une 
 mani^re savante.' Observ. p. 38. The same explanation is also given 
 by Diefenbach, p. 119. 
 
FORMS AND INFLEXIONS OF ROMANCE NOUNS. 9 1 
 
 use the objective case as the invariable form, appears to 
 me to be con\diicingly proved by a wide induction^ I am 
 unable to suggest any very satisfactory explanation of the 
 causes which induced the mind to make this preference. 
 
 In explaining the formation of the Italian noims from 
 the ace. case, I had occasion to remark that when the 
 final syllable was um or us, the last letter was rejected, 
 and u became 0; that where it was em, the last letter 
 was rejected and the e retained. According to this 
 hypothesis, there could be nothing arbitrary in the final 
 vowel of the Italian nouns, and the harshness of a con- 
 sonant termination was avoided, not by adding a vowel 
 
 ' It may be observed that foreigners, in attempting to speak a lan- 
 guage which they do not understand, ahnost always use the accusative 
 as the nominative of the pronoun in speaking of themselves : e. g. moi 
 in French, and me in English. The accusative seems to be more em- 
 phatic than the nominative, and to be preferred to it on that account : 
 thus in French, where a sti-ess is laid on the pronoun, the accusative 
 case is invaiiably used : as c'est moi, c'est toi, and not c'estje, c'est tu; 
 which the strict rule of syntax would require. Thus when Nisus, in 
 Virgil, wishes to direct instant attention to himself, he exclaims, 
 Me, me, adsum qui feci, in me convertite ferrum 
 O RutuU, mea fraus omnis, etc. 
 The West Indian negroes have made the same change in the pro- 
 nouns, in their corruption of the Enghsh language : thus in a song 
 written in the negro dialect of Jamaica, 
 
 Peter, Peter, was a black boy ; 
 Peter Mm puU foot one day : 
 Buckra girl, him Peter's joy; 
 
 Lilly white girl entice him away. 
 {Journal of a West India Proprietor, by M. G. Lewis, p. 120). ' The 
 negroes (the author of this song adds in a note) never distinguished be- 
 tween '• him " and " her " in their conversation.' They have therefore 
 not only abolished the distinction between the two cases by making 
 the accusative serve for both, but they have also abolished the distinc- 
 tion between the two genders, by making the masculine sene for 
 both. 
 
9^ CHAPTER II. 
 
 after a consonant, but by suppressing a consonant after a 
 vowel. M. Ra}Tiouard, however, takes an entirely dif- 
 ferent view of this subject. Conceiving that the Italian 
 was derived from the Provencal^ he represents the Italian 
 nouns and participles as having been first reduced to the 
 Proven9al form, and then being augmented with a vowel, 
 for the sake of euphony, in order to avoid a consonant 
 termination. Hence he considers such words as largo^ 
 porco, tardo, campo, came, altare, toro, falso, furto, partCy 
 as formed by the addition of the euphonic e or o, from 
 the ancient forms larg, pore, tard, camp, cam, altar, tor, 
 fdls,furt,part : he even goes further, and supposes that 
 the ancient e has sometimes been changed into o : thus 
 the original forms diahle, seek, sepidcre, nostre, vostre,. 
 clergue, evesque, were, according to him, changed in 
 Italian into diavolo, secolo, sepolcro, nostra, vostro, cherico, 
 vescovo. In support of this assertion he cites the autho- 
 rity of GiambuUari, a Florentine writer of the sixteenth 
 century, who states that in ancient times most of the 
 Florentine words ended with consonants, and that the 
 Florentines, seeing the softness of the vowel terminations 
 of the Sicilians, adopted the Sicilian rule. This ancient 
 usage, he thinks, is preserved in many of the Italian 
 dialects, which reject the final vowels, and have the same 
 consonant terminations as in the corresponding words of 
 the Proven9al : and a remnant is retained by the AiVTitten 
 Italian, in the power of omitting the final vowel of cer- 
 tain words ending with a liquid. He further adds that 
 Boccacio called his great collection of novels Decameron, 
 without the final e, which was not added till afterwards : 
 and that in a poem of Barsape, an early Milanese writer, 
 the final e is never added to substantives in on, and 
 
FORMS AND INFLEXIONS OF ROMANCE NOUNS. 93 
 
 is often wanting after those ending in x, as pax, lux, 
 verax, which are now always pace, litce, verace^. 
 
 To this doctrine I must object, in the first place, that 
 the Provencal nouns were not as M. Raynouard repre- 
 sents them, but largs, pores, tard^, camps, etc., with the 
 final s, the mark of the nominative, which there is no 
 reason to believe ever existed in Italian. Moreover if the 
 Italian nouns originally ended in consonants, and the 
 final vowel was afterwards added for the sake of eu- 
 phony, how comes it that attention should in almost all 
 cases have been paid to the Latin termination, and that 
 where the Latin accusative ended in urn or us, the final 
 vowel was 0, where it ended in em or en, the final vowel 
 was e f Is it conceivable that if the Latin terminations 
 had been long cut off and forgotten, we should never 
 (with a very few exceptions) find monde from mundum, 
 or monto from montemf^ Let us take ten Italian sub- 
 stantives which M. Raynouard has deprived of their ter- 
 minations in order to exhibit their agreement with the 
 Proven9al forms, viz. animal, cardinal, cristal, mal, metal, 
 
 ^ See Gr. Comp. p. Ix. Iv. — vii. and for the consonant terminations 
 of the Italian dialects, p. 397 — 409. He makes the same supposition 
 with regard to the addition of the euphonic vowel to the Spanish 
 nouns, ib. p. xxxv. 
 
 ^ Sometimes e is used for 0, as in stile for stilo from stilus, padrone 
 from patronus, and in the termination iere from arius : (see below, § 4,) 
 sometimes o is used for e, as vimo for vime from vimen, povero from 
 pauper, lavoro from labor, albero from arbor, consolo from consul, subero 
 from suber : sometimes a is used for e, as sirena from siren, duca from 
 dux. Some changes of final vowels produced by the genders will be 
 explained below, § 3. Duolo, which Castelvetro on Bembo, Prose, vol. ii. 
 p. 19, (Naples, 1714,) mentions as an irregular form, is probably not 
 derived from dolor, but from the ancient Teutonic word dol, suffering, 
 preserved in the Scotch dule. See Meidinger in Bvlden. The Italian 
 has dolore, regularly formed from dolor. 
 
94 CHAPTER II. 
 
 quintal, sal, senescal, signal, val, (Gr, Oomp. p. 33,) and I 
 will ask him to calculate how many million chances to 
 one there are, that a person ignorant of Latin (which 
 we must take to be the condition of his Eomance eu- 
 phonist) does not err in adding to these words their 
 vowel terminations ? Nor is this all : but we are called 
 on to believe that where the Provencal had reduced the 
 Latin u to the meagre sound of e, as in diahle, seek, etc., 
 the Italian retraced its steps and returned to the fuller 
 vowel. The invariable progress of language is to shorten 
 long forms, and to attenuate fall sounds : and we would 
 as willingly believe that the Tiber and Ebro in the mid- 
 dle ages ran up to their sources, as that the languages 
 of Spain and Italy, having once been identical with the 
 Provencal, returned to their present state. It cannot be 
 doubted that when the practice had once been estab- 
 lished, that aU the Italian words ended with a vowel, 
 the euphonic e and o were sometimes added to consonant 
 terminations, and I have already had and shall hereafter 
 have occasion to point out some instances, such as sjjeme, 
 animale, sono, Jianno, etc., where the final vowel is plainly 
 owing to the love of euphony^ : the difference between 
 my opinion and M. Eaynouard's is, that what he con- 
 siders the rule, I consider as the exception, and what he 
 considers as arbitrary, I consider as regulated by fixed 
 principles. 
 
 The argument which M. Eaynouard founds on the 
 absence of vowel terminations in the dialects of Upper 
 Italy deserves a full investigation, as there can be no 
 doubt that the lower orders and provincial districts com- 
 
 * See above, p. 72. 
 
FORMS AND INFLEXIONS OF ROMANCE NOUNS. 95 
 
 monly preserve the ancient language with the greatest 
 fidelity. In most of these dialects the nouns, verbs, 
 participles, prepositions, adverbs, and other parts of 
 speech, have not the vowel terminations which prevail 
 in the written Italian language, but foUow the system 
 perceptible in the Proven9al and French. Thus they 
 say sacc, vin, hianch, nemic, fuog^ hoscy mond, camp, nav, 
 paradis, ahiss, sahhat, libertat, argent, digest, sacerdot, nativ, 
 etc. Numerals from five to nine are sinch, ses, sett, ott, 
 nov : participles, present and past, and gerunds, parland, 
 volend, tocat, fatt, miss, mort : first persons of verbs, perd, 
 pari, demand : third persons of verbs, dorm, pend, cognoss: 
 adverbs and prepositions, poc, quand, trop, ades, apress, 
 vers, mezz, inanz, altrament. The examples collected by 
 M. Raynouard (from which the above words are taken) 
 refer only to the dialects of Piedmont, Engaddine in the 
 Tyrol, Milan, Bergamo, Mantua, Friuli, Ferrara, and 
 Bologna. It would require more local knowledge than 
 a foreigner can pretend to possess in order to trace the 
 exact line of demarcation between the Italian dialects 
 which have the vowel terminations, and those which 
 have not ; but the following description may probably be 
 considered as an approximation to the truth. The dia- 
 lects of the Provencal run into Piedmont both on the 
 west and north : in Piedmont, however, an Italian dialect 
 with consonant terminations begins, and it reaches through 
 part of the Grisons, over the districts of Milan, Bergamo, 
 Pavia, Parma, Brescia, Cremona, Mantua, Modena, the 
 Italian vaUies of the Tyrol, Friuli, the territory of Tre- 
 viso, and those of Ferrara and Bologna. In the west 
 and east, it does not extend into the Genoese, Venetian, 
 Yicentine, Paduan, and Ye^o^ese territories : and towards 
 
96 CHAPTER II. 
 
 the south the vowel terminations first appear in Tuscany 
 and Romagna. Throughout all the rest of Italy the 
 vowel terminations are as prevalent in the local dialects 
 and in the mouths of the lowest classes, as in the 
 written language' : and, as far as our knowledge extends, 
 have ever been so : the anonymous history of Roman 
 affairs in the fourteenth century written by a contem- 
 porary in the Roman dialect^, and the Chronicle of M. 
 SpineUo written in the thirteenth century in the Apulian 
 dialect^ precisely agree in this respect with the language 
 of the present day. M. Raynouard's argument would 
 have great weight, if over the whole of Italy the lower 
 orders used a dialect which wanted the final vowels : in 
 that case it might be said that the ancient language 
 is always most faithfully preserved among uneducated 
 persons, and in mountainous or secluded districts ; and 
 that the upper classes, from their love of a harmonious 
 and flowing language, had softened the rough pronun- 
 ciation of their forefathers. But this is not so : the lower 
 orders of southern Italy and Sicily speak a language 
 which even luxuriates in vowels beyond the written 
 Italian : and although the vowel terminations may have 
 been introduced among the upper ranks of northern 
 Italy, there is no reason to suppose that they were not 
 
 » For an account of tlie dialects of Southern Italy see the Foreign 
 Quarterly Review, vol. v. p. 158 — 90. [Compare the work of Biondelli, 
 above, page 44, note '.] 
 
 « This history (which contains the life of the celebrated Cola di 
 Eienzo) is printed in Muratori, Ant. It. vol. iii. p. 251 — 548. It is 
 written, according to Muratori, p. 249, ' vulgi Eomani dialecto, qua 
 fortassis a Neapolitana eo tempore parum distabat.' See a passage of 
 it rendered into the Roman of the present day in Perticari, Di/, di D, 
 c. 36. 
 
 * Murat, Script. Rer, It. vol, viii. 
 
FORMS AND INFLEXIONS OF ROMANCE NOUNS. 97 
 
 always in use among the rudest peasants in tlie remotest 
 comers of Tuscany', the states of the Churcli, of Is'aples, 
 Calabria, and Sicily. It appears to me that the Italian^ 
 must be considered as divided into two principal dialects, 
 one with vowel, the other with consonant terminations. 
 The latter of these, (which closely resembles the French 
 and Provencal) probably owed its characteristics to the 
 same causes which gave a peculiar form to the latter 
 languages ; viz. the larger proportion of Germans who 
 occupied Gaul and northern Italy, as compared with 
 those who settled in southern Italy and Spain. The 
 Lombard kingdom, which was the principal Teutonic 
 establishment of Italy, had its head quarters at Pavia ; 
 and along the Alps and in the TyroP, the Italians came 
 in actual contact with a German population. FriuH, 
 moreover, and the north-eastern angle of Italy, was the 
 highroad by which armies of Germans continually poured 
 into Italy. And generally it may be observed, that it 
 was in the country lying between the Alps, the Apen- 
 nines, and the Exarchate, that the German influence 
 was most strongly felt*. It is remarkable, however, that 
 
 * Any body who has heard the harsh and guttural pronunciation of 
 the peasants of Tuscany will not easily believe that considerable changes 
 were introduced into their language for the sake of euphony. 
 
 ^ By the Italian I understand that language which makes the masc. 
 plural in i and the fem. plural in e. 
 
 ' M. Eaynouard remarks that ' le voisinage et mime le melange de 
 la langue allemande ont influ4 surtout sur la prononciation du patois 
 d'Engaddine.' Gr. Comp. p. Uii. Engaddine is tlie valley of the 
 Inn on the west of the Tyrol. The language of the Sette Communi, a 
 part of the Vicentine territory, is a nearly pure Teutonic dialect, as 
 may be seen from the specimens of it given in Rose's Letters from the 
 North of Italy, vol. i. p. 257—8, and in the Journal of Education, 
 No. xii. p. 353. 
 
 * Few Germans established themselves in the Duchy of Rome 
 
 H 
 
98 CHAPTER II. 
 
 althoiigli the consonant dialect occupies so considerable a 
 space in the north-eastern part of Italy, it misses the 
 districts of Yenice and Padua, as it does the two rivieras 
 of Grenoa on the west. Whether this is owing to the 
 influence of the sea-coast in the formation of language 
 (according to the opinion of some philologists^) or to the 
 comparative exemption enjoyed by those countries from 
 the inroads and dominion of the Teutonic races, (par- 
 ticularly in the case of Venice,) I shall not pretend to 
 determine: certain, however, it is, that the dialects of 
 these districts, though widely differing both from the 
 written Italian and from one another, have not the chief 
 part of the consonant terminations which distinguish aU 
 the other dialects of northern Italy^. 
 ' The statement which M. Ila3rQouard quotes from 
 Giambullari's treatise on the origin of the Florentine 
 language, seems at first sight to prove that the con- 
 sonant terminations once extended so far south as the 
 city of Florence, and therefore requires our attention. 
 GiambuUari was a Florentine, born in 1495, who in 
 1546 published the first work written by a Tuscan on 
 his native tongue. In this treatise (composed in the 
 form of a dialogue) he undertakes to refute the common 
 
 and the Exarchate, according to Savigny, Gesch. des Edm. RechU^ 
 vol. i., p. 395. 
 
 * See Muller's Dorians, vol. ii. p. 488. 
 
 « The Venetian dialect is divided between the southern and northern 
 dialects : thus it says, amigo, capo, came, caritd, caratere, potente, 
 abate, fiume ; but carbon, corezion, Jior, amorin; and it omits the final 
 e of the infinitive, and says amar, perder, sentir. See Boerio, 
 Dizionario del Dial. Veneziano. Venice, 1829. A specimen of the 
 Paduan dialect of the sixteenth century (which closely resembles the 
 Venetian) may be seen in Sismondi, Litt. du Midi, vol. ii. p. 239, 
 c. 15, ad fin. 
 
FORMS AND INFLEXIONS OF ROMANCE NOUNS. 99 
 
 opinion, that the Florentine or written Italian language, 
 was a corruption of the Latin ; and proposes to show 
 that it was derived from the ancient Etruscan : which 
 language he conceives to have heen aUied to the Hebrew 
 and Chaldean. Having offered various proofs of the 
 affinity of the Etruscan, Hebrew, and Florentine lan- 
 guages, he represents one of the interlocutors in the 
 dialogue as quoting a sonnet written by a certain Aga- 
 tone Drusi of Pisa, in which the poet says, that ' if his 
 grande avolo, who was the first to join the Sicilian with 
 the Tuscan mode of speech, had left any works, as he 
 intended, he would be greater than aU. the modem poets, 
 including Dante ^/ The person referred to (Giambullari 
 proceeds to say) is supposed to have been named Lucio 
 Drusi, who wrote a poem on virtue, and another on the 
 life of a lover, which were lost in the sea as he was 
 taking them to the king in Sicily. The writer then 
 argues, that as this Lucio Drusi was not great, either 
 in arms or learning, Agatone does not mean by grande 
 avolOf * the great man his grandfather,' but ' his ancestor 
 beyond the fifth degree : ' whence he reckons five gene- 
 rations, or one hundred and fifty years, from the time of 
 
 Se'l grande avolo mio, che fu'l primiero 
 Che'l parlar Sicilian giunse col nostra, 
 Lassato avesse un' opera d'inchiostro, 
 Come sempre che visse ebbe in pensiero, 
 Non sarebbe oggi in pregio il buon Komiero, ' 
 Arnaldo provenzal, ne Beltram vostro. 4. >y 
 ♦ *♦**♦* 1 ^ 
 Non Brunellesco o Dante sarian letti. jr 
 Che la luce di questo unico sole \s 
 
 Sola riluceria lungi e da presso. 
 
 Giamb. Origine della Lingua Fiorentinat 
 p. 243. ed MHan, 1837. 
 
 H2 
 
100 CHAPTER II. 
 
 Agatone Drusi, and thus fixes Lucio Drusi in 1170 
 A. D., the tenth year of William, king of Sicily ; the 
 latter is therefore the king who was so unfortunate as 
 not to receive the two poems. The date of L. Drusi 
 being thus ascertaiaed, it is asked in what manner he 
 joined the Sicilian and Tuscan modes of speech : and 
 Giambullari answers this question by saying that 'the 
 ancient Tuscans ended most of their words with conso- 
 nants, as might he seen from the very ancient Etruscan 
 words before mentioned in the dialogue, while the Sicilians, 
 on the other hand, ended them with vowels : that L. 
 Drusi (as it is said) began to soften that harshness, not 
 by adopting foreign words, but by adding vowels at the 
 end of all the Tuscan words. This custom (he continues) 
 did not please many persons in Drusi's lifetime, but after 
 his death the Tuscans began to foUow the practice intro- 
 duced by him, not only in poetry, but even in prose and 
 in conversation.' This is the substance of GiambuUari's 
 argument ; and in the first place it may be remarked, 
 that the proceeding by which the date of L. Drusi's 
 compositions is fixed, appears somewhat arbitrary : for 
 Agatone Drusi might have called his ancestor a great 
 man, especially as he doubts not of his superiority to 
 Dante, even if he had never been a great commander or 
 doctor^. But the statement which more concerns the 
 subject in question, viz. that the Tuscans formerly ended 
 
 * The existence of Ag. Drusi was at first doubted by Tiraboschi, 
 Stor. della Litt. Ital,, torn, iv., lib. 3. c. 3 § 2, and after him by Pignotti, 
 Storia di Toscana, vol. iv. p. 68. Tiraboschi, however, in the later 
 editions of his work, showed that his foi-mer suspicion was unfounded, 
 but justly considered Giambullari's argument as to the antiquity of L. 
 Drusi as untenable. L. Drusi probably wrote in the last half of the 
 thirteenth century. 
 
FORMS AND INFLEXIONS OF ROMANCE NOUNS. lOI 
 
 all their words in consonaiits, seems to me notliiiig more 
 than an imagination of Giambullari, made in order to 
 support his baseless speculations on the affinity of the 
 ancient and modern languages of Tuscany. The ex- 
 pression in the sonnet refers, as I conceive, to the in- 
 fluence of the Sicilian poetry on the ancient writers of 
 Tuscany, and to their imitation of the earliest Italian 
 compositions in an elevated and refined style ^: and not 
 to any change in the structure of the Tuscan language. 
 Giambullari, however, seizes on this passage, grafts on it 
 a false interpretation, supported by a statement which he 
 gives only as a report^, in order to strengthen his proofs 
 of a theory which now would on all hands be admitted 
 to be utterly devoid of foundation : and he would have 
 us beheve that a certain Lucio Drusi, who wrote in the 
 middle of the twelfth century two poems that were lost 
 in the sea, persuaded the whole population of Tuscany 
 to change one of the most important characteristics of 
 their language. It has been said, that Augustus, though 
 master of the Eoman world, could not alter the meaning 
 of a Latin word : how fortunate then was this obscure 
 rhymer, whose example induced a whole nation, iu an 
 unlettered age, not merely to change the meaning of a 
 word, but to remodel their entire language^ ! The stress 
 
 * See Perticari, Bifesa di Dante, c. 4 — 7. 
 
 ' Dicono adunque che Lucio, considerando la nostra pronunzia e la 
 Siciliana, etc. p. 245. 
 
 ' If the ancient Tuscan had really been characterised by consonant 
 terminations, the attempt of any individual to change that characteristic 
 would probably have been as successful as that of Frederic the Great 
 to add vowels at the end of the German words, or of Dr. Murray to 
 effect the same improvement in the EngUsh language. See the article 
 on English orthography in the Philol. Mus. vol. i. The only instance 
 of such a change with which I am acquainted, is in some of the negro 
 
102 CHAPTER II. 
 
 whicli M. Raynouard lays on this passage of a treatise 
 evidently belonging to the infancy of philology, and 
 abounding in the wildest dreams about the history and 
 languages of Italy, would have reminded me of the 
 eagerness with which a drowning man catches at a 
 -straw, if his views were not supported by so many other 
 proofs of a more substantial character^. 
 
 As to the practice of cutting off the final vowel after 
 a liquid consonant in ItaKan, which M. Eaynouard con- 
 siders as a proof that the vowel was originally added for 
 the sake of euphony, it is to be observed that the Italian 
 writers, especially in poetry, assume the privilege of sup- 
 pressing it, not merely where M. Eaynouard supposes 
 it to have been arbitrarily added, but also in cases where 
 it has manifestly been retained from the Latin : thus the 
 poets contract both amore and amori into amor, both Ro- 
 mano and Romani into Roman^, 
 
 For example, in the verses of Dante : 
 
 Perchfe i Pisan veder Lucca non ponno 
 
 Inf., c. 33, 1. 30. 
 
 Poiche i vicini a te punir son lenti 
 ib. 1. 81. 
 
 son is contracted from sono by the rejection of a final 
 
 corruptions of the English (see above, p. 22, note'); and this, we 
 may be assured, was not made at the suggestion, or by the authority 
 of any individual. Comp. p. 34, note*. 
 
 * The same passage of Giambullari is likewise cited with approba- 
 tion by Perticari, Dif. di D., c. 20 ; who adds the equally unfounded 
 supposition that the Sicilians derived their final vowels from the ^olic 
 dialect of the Greeks inhabiting their island. 
 
 ' ' E da sapere (says Castelvetro) che tutti i nomi i quali potevano 
 nel numero minore lasciare la g o vero lo o, potranno similmente nel 
 maggiore lasciare lo i.' Bembo, Prose, vol. i. p. 80. 
 
I 
 
 FORMS AND INFLEXIONS OF ROMANCE NOUNS. IO3 
 
 vowel not traceable to the Latin, and evidently added 
 for the mere sake of euphony : veder and punir are con- 
 tracted from veder e and punire by the rejection of the 
 final e, which appears unquestionably to be retained from 
 the Latin, though this is denied by M. Ra}Tiouard : Pisan, 
 however, contracted from Pisani, is evidently not formed, 
 according to M. Raynouard's own view, by the rejection 
 of an euphonic termination : so that his mode of account- 
 ing for the practice of the Italian writers in omitting 
 Snal vowels is not applicable in all cases ; and conse- 
 quently there is no reason for supposing that those 
 vowels which may be elided were originally added for 
 the sake of euphony. M. RajTiouard, likewise, men- 
 tions in proof of his assertion with respect to the recent 
 addition of the final vowels in Italian, the name of 
 Boccacio's collection of novels, which by the author was 
 written Decameron, but was afterwards changed into 
 Decamerone. This example, however, has no weight : 
 Decameron was a Greek word which had not passed 
 through the Latin into popular usage, but was first 
 employed by Boccacio himself. If it had thus come 
 into general use, it would doubtless, like fenomeno and 
 lessico, have been modified into Decamero. As it was, 
 Boccacio introduced it into Italian without any change, 
 as Dante employed many uncommon proper names with 
 their consonant terminations, as Minos, Semiramis, Mn- 
 pedocles, Austeric, etc. The vowel terminations of the 
 Italian nouns were, however, as firmly and universally 
 estabhshed in the times of Dante and Boccacio as at 
 the present day. As to the peculiarities of Barsape, 
 mentioned by M. Rajniouard, they may probably be 
 referred to the dialect of his native city, from which 
 
104 CHAPTER II. 
 
 this early Milanese writer had perhaps not quite eman- 
 cipated himself: nevertheless the language of this poet 
 (in Perticari's opinion) little differs from that of the 
 early classical writers of Itahan^ 
 
 It appears, therefore, that there is no ground for as- 
 senting to M. Eaynouard's conclusion that the final 
 vowels in Italian were arbitrarily added, at a recent 
 date, for the sake of euphony. Indeed it appears to 
 me that the written remains of that language, so far as 
 they reach, afford every reason for believing that the 
 prevalence of vowel terminations was one of its earliest 
 characteristics : in the Latin documents of Italy, which 
 are of an earlier date than any compositions in the 
 Eomance languages, whenever any Italian word or name 
 is accidentally inserted, it almost invariably exhibits the 
 vowel termination, even in charters belonging to the 
 northern states'^: whence it seems to me much more 
 
 ' Dif. di Dante, c. 29. 
 
 ' For example, the names Fetro, Martino, Geminiano, Benedicto, 
 Domminico, Bonoaldo, Eaginberto, Lanfranco, Sigefredo, Ingelberto, 
 some of which are of Roman, others of German origin, occur in a 
 document of Lemonte near Lake Como, a.d. 882: and another of 
 Modena, about 980 a.d. published in Muratori, Ant. It. vol. iii. 
 p. 747, 723 : and see other instances, from deeds, of the use of the 
 vowel terminations in Italian, during the tenth and eleventh centuries, 
 in Murat. Diss. 32, vol. ii. p. 1030, B.— 1037, D. Muratori, vol. ii. 
 p. 1047, B. cites the following verses, which were inscribed in the 
 ancient cathedral of Ferrara : 
 
 II mile cento trempta cinque nato 
 Fo questo templo a Zorzi consecrate. 
 Fo Nicolao scolptore 
 E Glielmo fo lo autore. 
 If this inscription was not set up in the year 1135 a.d. its date, 
 probably, is not much later. A diploma of Roger, Count of Calabria 
 and Sicily, in 1122 a.d., published in UgheUi, Italia Sacra, tom. viii. 
 Part I. col. 291, contains many Italian words with vowel terminations. 
 
FOKMS AND INFLEXIONS OF ROMANCE NOUNS. IO5 
 
 probable tbat the dialects of upper Italy originally fiad 
 vowel terminations, and afterwards lost them, than tbat 
 the dialects of southern Italy, having originally wanted 
 them, afterwards added them for the sake of euphony. 
 
 The impossibility of the derivation of the Italian 
 and Spanish languages from the Provenfal is evidenced 
 not only by the retention of the final vowels from the 
 Latin which the Provencal had thrown away, but by the 
 contraction or alteration of many Latin words in the 
 latter language, which the former languages exhibit in 
 a completer and less altered state. But if they had 
 come from the Latin through the medium of the Pro- 
 ven9al, this difference could not have been perceptible : 
 the water must have tasted of the impure channel 
 through which it had passed. 
 
 Latin. 
 
 Provencal. 
 
 French. 
 
 Italian. 
 
 Spanish. 
 
 medicus 
 
 nietge> 
 
 
 medico 
 
 medico 
 
 lingua 
 
 lengua 
 
 langue 
 
 lingua 
 
 lengua 
 
 saBculum 
 
 segle 
 
 si^cle 
 
 secolo 
 
 siglo 
 
 oculus 
 
 huel 
 
 oeuil 
 
 occhio 
 
 ojo 
 
 auricula 
 
 aurelha 
 
 oreille 
 
 orecchia 
 
 oreja 
 
 diabolus- 
 
 diable 
 
 diable 
 
 diavolo 
 
 diablo 
 
 latro 
 
 lairon 
 
 larron 
 
 ladrone 
 
 ladron 
 
 pater 
 
 paire 
 
 pere 
 
 padre 
 
 padre 
 
 pavor 
 
 paor 
 
 peur 
 
 2 
 
 pavor 
 
 frater 
 
 fraire 
 
 frfere 
 
 frate 
 
 fratre 
 
 mundus 
 
 mon 
 
 monde 
 
 mondo 
 
 mundo 
 
 nepos 
 
 nibot 
 
 neveu 
 
 nipote 
 
 nepote 
 
 undecim 
 
 unze 
 
 onze 
 
 undici 
 
 once 
 
 1 In this list both the Proven(?al and French mascuUne nouns are 
 exhibited without the final s, as the object is merely to compare the 
 internal changes in the words. 
 
 ' The Italian has not preserved the word pavor. Paura, Hke the 
 Spanish pavura, is a fern, substantive in ura, formed from the verb 
 pavere : see below, § 4, on the termination ura. 
 
lOD 
 
 
 CHAPTEE 
 
 II. 
 
 
 Latin. 
 
 sol 
 
 Provenpal, 
 
 solel 
 
 French. 
 
 soleil 
 
 Italinn. 
 
 sole 
 
 Spanish. 
 
 sol 
 
 spes 
 eleemosyna 
 
 esper 
 almorna 
 
 espoir* 
 aumosne 
 
 speme 
 limosina 
 
 limosna 
 
 episcopus 
 
 evesque 
 
 evesque 
 
 vescovo 
 
 obispo^ 
 
 * The French oi sometimes came from the Latin e, as in the ter- 
 minations of verbs, avoir from aver, valoir from valer, etc. (Gr. Comp. 
 p. 257 — 60), te toi ; tres trois ; tect-um, toit ; mes, mois ; sometimes 
 from the Latin i, as digitus, degt, doigt, pix, pe<?, poix: sometimes 
 from 0, as gloria, gloire, vox, voix, Ambrosius, Ambroise : sometimes 
 from u, as punctum point, unctum oint, jungere joindre ; sometimes 
 from au, as claustrum cloitre. In the two latter cases, u and au 
 doubtless became first o, then oi. 
 
 ^ Bispo, the Portuguese form of episcopus, occurs in a Latin charter 
 of Alboacem, a Moorish king of Coimbra, of the year 734. Eayn. 
 vol. i. Introd. p. xi. At so early a period (as Schlegel remarks, p. 49,) 
 were the peculiarities of the Eomance languages developed. The 
 genuineness of the document in question has, however, been doubted: 
 thus Southey, Chronicle of the Cid, p. 406, has the following remarks 
 on it. * This charter, like the funeral urn of Achilles, the tomb of 
 Alexander, and the relics of the archangel Michael, is the more to be 
 suspected because it would be of such exceeding value, if genuine. It 
 may be doubted whether a Moorish governor, at so early an age, 
 •would give charters in Latin, whether at any age he would use the 
 sign of the cross for his mark, and whether the language into which 
 the Latin is corrupted be not of a more modem complexion. But the 
 exemption, if it be forged, could be of no use after Coimbra was re- 
 covered by the Christians : so that even in that case it is of very cu- 
 rious antiquity, and may truly state the laws to which the Christians 
 were subject.' There does not, however, appear to be any reason why 
 a Moorish governor should not have given a charter to his Christian 
 subjects in the language which they understood, and which was at that 
 time and long afterwards universally employed by all the Christians of 
 western Europe for the composition of both public and private docu- 
 ments. As to the use of the cross, it is expressly mentioned in the 
 charter that he employed it 'rogatu Christian orum,' in compliance 
 with the wishes of the grantees : and there is no reason to doubt that 
 80 many years after the invasion of the Goths, a Romance language 
 was currently spoken in Spain. Gibbon, c. 51, n. 187, citing the sub- 
 stance of this charter from Fleury's Ecclesiastical History says : • I 
 have not the original before me ; it would confirm or destroy a dark 
 
FORMS AND INFLEXIONS OF ROMANCE NOUNS. IO7 
 
 On comparing these instances it will be seen that in 
 some cases the Italian and Spanish, and especially the 
 former, do not exhibit the modifications of the Latin 
 word which appear in the Provencal: in others, that 
 the same Latin word has been modified differently in 
 the three languages. The Provencal likewise admits 
 many occasional contractions and changes which do not 
 appear in the Italian : thus 
 
 Latin. 
 
 nox 
 septimana 
 
 Provenpal. French. 
 
 nueyt or nueg nuit 
 
 setmana or semaine 
 semmana 
 
 Italian. Spanish. 
 
 notte noche 
 
 settiraana semana 
 
 Another difference between the several Romance lan- 
 guages consists in prefixing the vowel e to words begin- 
 ning with s followed by a consonant^ ; a practice which 
 the Spanish always observes, the Proven9al and French 
 often, the Italian never. The following examples will 
 illustrate the manner in which the Italian has avoided 
 this change admitted by the Proven9al. 
 
 LaHn. 
 
 stare 
 
 Italian. 
 
 stare 
 
 Provenpal. 
 
 estar 
 
 Spanish. 
 
 estar 
 
 French. 
 
 estre (etre) 
 
 spiritus 
 strata 
 
 spirito 
 strada 
 
 esperit 
 estrada 
 
 espiritu 
 estrada 
 
 esprit 
 estrade 
 
 sperare 
 scutum 
 
 sperare 
 scudo 
 
 esperar 
 
 esperar 
 escudo 
 
 esperer 
 escu (ecu) 
 
 sclavns 
 
 schiavo 
 stoppa 
 
 esclav 
 estopa 
 
 esclavo 
 estopa 
 
 esclave 
 estoupe (etoupe) 
 
 suspicion that the piece has been forged to introduce the immunity of 
 a neighbouring convent.' Gibbon, however, was prone to suspect 
 fraud when ecclesiastics were concerned. 
 
 * Meidinger, in his Teutogothic Dictionary, p. 82, completely mis- 
 takes the nature of this euphonic vowel prefixed only to words begin- 
 ning with s followed by a consonant, in calling it a ' particle,' and 
 comparing it with significant prefixes, such as ^e in High German, 
 and a in Anglo-Saxon. 
 
I08 CHAPTER II. 
 
 The Spanisli has no word beginning with s followed 
 by a consonant : invariably it prefixes e to avoid the 
 concourse of consonants : the Italian, on the other hand, 
 seems rather to seek this sound, since in some cases it 
 even rejects an initial e before s with a consonant, as 
 state for estate from cestas, stimare for estimare from 
 CBstimare, sperto for esperto from expertus; in some cases 
 it prefixes 5 to a word beginning with a consonant, as 
 spergiuro from perjurus^ sprofondare from profundus^ 
 etc. ; and the prefix dis is always curtailed to a simple 
 5, as spietatOy sharcare, scavalcare, etc. It is to be ob- 
 served, however, that although the ItaKan rather seeks 
 than avoids the concourse of s with a consonant at the 
 beginning of a word, yet when the preceding word ends 
 with a consonant (which rarely happens) it prefixes the 
 vowel ^, as con isdegno^ and not con sdegno. 
 
 The French seems originally to have had the same 
 tendency as the Spanish of prefixing e to 5 followed by a 
 consonant ; but the tendency was not so strong as to make 
 the practice universal, and many words were formed in it 
 without this change. It is obvious, on looking through 
 the two classes of words which have and which have not 
 undergone this change, that the former belong to an early 
 period of the French language, and that the latter are of 
 a more learned and less popular character, and have been 
 formed with a view of adhering closely to the Latin ori- 
 ginals : thus scapula, scJioIa, spatha, spatiuniy spina, sponsus, 
 stagnum, stannum, stahulum, status, stella, scabinus, schaum^ 
 have become espaule, escole, espee, espace, espine, espoux, 
 estang, estain, estable, estat, estoile, eschevin, escume : while 
 scandalum, sculptor, statua, statutum, stipulatio, stratagema, 
 structura, stylus, have become scandale, sculpteur, statue, 
 
FORMS AND INFLEXIONS OF ROMANCE NOUNS. IO9 
 
 statuty stipulation, stratagems, structure, style. In some 
 cases there is both an ancient and a modern derivative 
 from the same Latin root : thus from stomachus is the old 
 word estomac, but from stomachicus comes the modem 
 medical term stomachique ; from studium etude, but from 
 stvdiosus studieux. 
 
 There are also many words in which the Italian has 
 retained the Latin p, while the Provencal and Spanish! 
 have changed it into J, the French into v^ : thus / 
 
 Latin. 
 
 Italian. 
 
 Spanish. 
 
 Proven pal. 
 
 French. 
 
 aperire 
 
 aprire 
 
 abrir 
 
 ubrir 
 
 ouvrir 
 
 aprilis 
 
 aprile 
 
 abril 
 
 abril 
 
 avril 
 
 capillus 
 
 capello 
 
 cabello 
 
 cabel 
 
 cheveu 
 
 capra 
 
 capra 
 
 cabra 
 
 cabra 
 
 cbevre 
 
 capistrum 
 
 capestro 
 
 cabestro 
 
 cabestre 
 
 chevestre 
 
 juniperus 
 
 ginepro 
 
 enebro 
 
 genibre 
 
 genievre 
 
 opera 
 
 opera 
 
 obra 
 
 obra 
 
 oeuvre 
 
 sepelire 
 
 seppellire 
 
 sepelir 
 
 sebelir 
 
 en-sevelir 
 
 sapere 
 
 sapere 
 
 saber 
 
 saber 
 
 savoir 
 
 sapor 
 
 sapore 
 
 sabor 
 
 sabor 
 
 saveur 
 
 In some cases, however, the Italian has changed the 
 Latin j? into v; as in riva from ripa, and in povero from 
 pauper. 
 
 In the Proven9al likewise may be discerned the 
 tendency which has been very prevalent in the French, 
 but of which there is scarce a trace in Italian and Spanish, 
 of changing c before a into ch : thus from cantare the 
 Prov. has both cantar and chantar, chanter French ; from 
 cantio, canson and chanson, chanson French. 
 
 The following differences have prevailed in the Romance 
 
 * See Eayn. Gr. Comp. p. xxvi., Grimm, Deutsche Rechtsalterthumer, 
 p. 776. On this change in Spanish, see Mayans i Siscar, vol. ii. p. 146. 
 
no CHAPTEK II. 
 
 languages with respect to the changes undergone hy the 
 Latin c before vowels. 
 
 In Latin c before all vowels was equivalent to h; thus 
 ca, ce, c^, CO, m=ka, Jce, H, Jco, hu. 
 
 In Italian c has retained the sound of h before a, o, and 
 u; as caroy ccro, cur a: but it has become ch before e and 
 *, as Oerere, cinque (according to the EngHsh pronuncia- 
 tion, cherere, chinque^). 
 
 . In Spanish, as in Italian, the c retains the sound of k 
 before a, (?, and u; but before e and i it has the force of 
 thy as Qeres, cinco, (pronounced theres, thinco.) 
 
 The French c before a has usually become ch^ as carv^^ 
 cher ; caro, chair; camera , chamhre ; cajpra, chevre ; castanea, 
 chataigne ; carmen, charme ; caput, chef; calidus, chaud ; 
 calvuSjChauve; cauUsyChoux; scahinuSyCschevin ; Jcarr,char; 
 bucca, louche ; musca, mouche, etc. : before e and i it is 
 pronounced like s, as ceci, (pronounced sesi ;) before o and 
 u it has (as in ItaHan and Spanish) retained the sound of 
 ky as comme, contre, couleur, col, cordcy corpSy cultCy cure, 
 courbe. Not unfrequently, however, the Latin c has re- 
 mained unchanged before a: but (as has been already 
 remarked of the prefix e before s and a consonant) in 
 words which belong to a later period of the language, 
 and which have a more learned aspect ; as cadavre, 
 calomnicy canaly candidcy canoUy capablcy capitulery caractere, 
 cataractCy categorie, etc. Sometimes there is a doubly 
 derivative from the same word, as in the following 
 examples : 
 
 » It will be observed that this statement only applies to the southern 
 Italian dialect with vowel terminations : that of the north with con- 
 sonant terminations, pronounces the c like the French. (See above, 
 p. 05). In Tuscany the sound of c before e and i has been softened, 
 so that it is pronounced like sh in EngKsh. 
 
FORMS AND INFLEXIONS OF ROMANCE NOUNS. 1 1 1 
 
 Latin. 
 
 Antient French. 
 
 Recent French. 
 
 calx 
 
 chaux 
 
 calquer 
 
 canonicus 
 
 chanoine 
 
 canonique 
 
 capitulus 
 
 chapitre^ 
 
 capitule 
 
 captivus 
 
 chetif 
 
 captif 
 
 capra 
 
 chevre 
 
 caprice 
 
 carbo 
 
 charbon 
 
 carbon 
 
 carta 
 
 charte 
 
 carte 
 
 causa 
 
 chose 
 
 cause 
 
 CJievalier and chevalerie were the ancient forms from cheval 
 (cahallus;) cavalier and cavalerie were probably borrowed 
 from the Italian. From canis was formed chien; but from 
 canicula canicule; from candela chandelle ^hut from candela- 
 brum candelabre. 
 
 It is obvious that these diversities of pronunciation 
 could not have been borrowed by the Romance languages 
 from each other, or from any one common origin: but 
 that they must have been produced by the separate work- 
 ings of each, and by the different vocal organization of 
 the populations by which they were spoken. Nor is there 
 any reason to suppose that they were of recent introduction : 
 for we know that at the Sicilian vespers the French were 
 distinguished from the Italians by being made to pronounce 
 the words ceci and ciceri ; and consequently the charac- 
 teristic peculiarities of the French and Itahan pronuncia- 
 tion were as firmly estabhshed at the end of the thirteenth 
 century as at the present day ; and it will be observed 
 that in the pronunciation of c before e and **, both these 
 languages differed from the Latin ; thus ceci according 
 to the Latin pronunciation would be kehi^ according to the 
 Italian chechi, according to the French sesi. 
 
 Chapitre from capitulus like ^itre from epistola, litre from titulua. 
 
112 CHAPTER 11. 
 
 § 3. GENDERS OF NOUNS. 
 
 With regard to the genders of nouns, it may be ob- 
 served that as the use of tbem, like that of cases, re- 
 quires some knowledge and discrimination, tbey are 
 naturally destroyed or confounded by tbe same causes 
 wbicb lead to tbe destruction of inflexions, and tbe sub- 
 stitution of analytic for synthetic forms. Thus the 
 Anglo-Saxon genders were lost at the Norman conquest : 
 and the English only retains the natural genders ; that 
 is to say, no nouns have any gender which do not de- 
 signate male or female individuals^. The influence of 
 
 1 This appears to me to be a correct statement of the English usage 
 of genders : our language never marks genders except by the use of the 
 pronouns he and she, the former of which refers to males, the latter to 
 females : of the relative who, which refers either to males or females, 
 and of it and which, which refer only to inanimate things. The neuter 
 forms it and which are commonly used in speaking of brute animals, 
 especially where the sex is not apparent, as in insects, fish, birds, etc. : 
 but never in speaking of the human race, except sometimes of infants. 
 Whenever he and she are applied to an inanimate thing, as to the sun, 
 the moon, a country, or a quality of the mind, the object is personified : 
 the same is also the case with a ship, which a sailor personifies, in order 
 to represent it as an object of afiection. In all case's where he or she is 
 applied to an inanimate thing, it would be correct, though perhaps not 
 so energetic or suitable to the expression, to employ the neuter pro- 
 noun. It appears to me, therefore, that the state of things which Grimm 
 anticipates, viz. that ' the English language will at some future time 
 Kmit the use of he and she to persons, and in all other cases employ it,' 
 (vol. iii. p. 547,) has already arrived, and has indeed existed for some 
 centuries. Our language has no grammatical genders : the masculine, 
 feminine, and neuter pronouns are applied with reference, not to the 
 noun itself, but to that which the noun signifies. Whereas in languages 
 which have grammatical genders, the noun itself has a certain gender, 
 without reference to the sex or animation of the object signified: thus 
 in Greek Tratdiov is neuter, Trirpa is feminine, and aiyiaXbg masculine, 
 although a child is either male or female, and a rock and a shore are 
 lifeless objects. 
 
GENDERS OF EOMANCE NOUNS. II3 
 
 the German conquest on the Latin language, as in other 
 respects it was not so great as that of the [N'orman 
 conquest on the Anglo-Saxon language, so likewise in 
 respect of genders it did not produce so considerable a 
 change : but it left the masculine and feminine genders 
 of nouns, and only destroyed the neuter gender. In 
 all the E-omance languages the Latin genders of nouns 
 were, for the most part, preserved unchanged, with this 
 general exception, that all the neuter nouns became 
 masculine!. The close coincidence of the inflexions of 
 masculine and neuter nouns in Latin, as cahallus and 
 damnum, sol and sal, naturally led to this confusion^. 
 The resemblance of these two genders, sufficiently great 
 in the Latin, was moreover increased by the changes 
 in the form of nouns which took place in the Eomance 
 languages : for in the Ital. and Span, the forms in us 
 and um were identified by the use of the ace. case ; since 
 cahallum, damnum, or their derivatives in 0, had the same 
 invariable termination ; and in the Prov. and French the 
 general adoption of the Latin nom. terminations pro- 
 duced a similar identity, as those words became cavals 
 and dans. Hence in Ital. and Span, the nouns in 0, 
 and in Prov. and French those in s, were together as 
 masculines generally opposed to feminine nouns in a.^* 
 Besides this universal change of neuter into masculine 
 nouns, there are, however, particular deviations in the 
 Eomance nouns from the Latin gender ; in some of 
 which the reason is apparent, in others it is more 
 obscure. 
 
 1 Some pronouns in ProvenQal and Spanish preserved the neuter 
 form ; see below, chap. 3. 
 
 2 See Grimm, vol. iiL p. 542. 
 
 I 
 
114 CHAPTER II. 
 
 / In the first place the Italian changed the gender of 
 6ome nouns of the third declension, as arhore, fronte^ 
 aere^ carcere^ cenere, fine, folgore, fonte, margine, ordine, 
 which it made both mascuKne and feminine'. Whereas 
 in Latin the two first were always feminine, and the 
 eight last always masculine. The Spanish, likewise, has 
 changed the gender of several nouns of this declension : 
 thus carcel, fuente, leche, legumbre, miel, sal, are feminine ; 
 arte, dote, canal, mar, margen, orden, fuente, are of both 
 genders. In Provencal career, dens,fons, mar, are femi- 
 nine; arhre is masculine. In French, likewise, many 
 \ Latin nouns have changed their gender without any 
 \ apparent reason, as dent, font^ mer, mode, ohole, have 
 become feminine ; corn in old French was masculine, 
 (6rr. Comp, p. 65 ;) cor is now masculine, but come is 
 feminine ; arbre, art, ete, ongle, salut, sort, have become 
 
 \ masculine; hymne is of both genders^. Moreover, in 
 the Latin nouns making orem in the accusative singular, 
 
 ^ which the Proven9al adopted without further alteration, 
 than the addition of s to the truncated accusative, it 
 changed the gender from masculine to feminine, except 
 in those words which signified a male. Thus from the 
 Latin amor, color, dolor, dulcor, flos, honor, sapor, iimor, 
 valor, were formed the Proven9al amors, colors, dolors, 
 doussors, flors, honors, sahors, temors, valors, feminine ; 
 lavors, however, from labor, retained its masculine gen- 
 der^. The old French preserved the same terminations, 
 
 * Castelvetro on Berribo, vol. ii. p. 26. 
 
 ' Grimm, vol. iii. p. 560, cites souris fem. from sorex masc. as an 
 instance of this change of gender in French. Sorex, however, being 
 the name of an animal, was doubtless of both genders, and perhaps 
 the feminine was familiarly used in preference, as in kvwv and canis. 
 
 * The following Proven9al passage from Dante's Purgatory, canto 
 
GENDERS OF ROMANCE NOUNS. JII5 
 
 but likewise changed the gender : thus ' la bonne amor,* 
 
 * V amors que Diex m'a commandee/ * de bone amor,* 
 
 * sous la color de pitie/ * la dolors,^ * la fiors,' * dont la 
 tenors estoit telle/ * une des plus altes honors,^ (Gr. Comp. 
 p. 59 — 61, 84.) This termination in or, when the s 
 had been disused, and the form of the ace. had sup- 
 planted that of the nom., was in French successively- 
 changed into our and eur : and, with the exception of 
 words such as acteur, auteur, seigneur, from actor, alitor, 
 senior, etc. which are necessarily masculine, and the 
 forms labour, and labeur, from labor, and honneur from 
 honor^, which have retained the Latin gender, this ter- 
 mination is always feminine. Thus ardeur^ clameur, 
 chaleur, couleur, douleur, erreur, Jleur, fureur, horreuTy 
 
 26, as restored from the Mss. by M. Raynouard, Joum. des Sav. 1830, 
 p. 67—78, clearly exhibits this change of gender: 
 
 Tan m' abeUis vostre cortes deman 
 
 Ch'ieu non me puesc ni-m voil a vos cobrire ; 
 
 leu sui Amautz, che plor e vai cantan ; 
 
 Consiros vei la passada follor, 
 
 E veijauzen lo joi qu'esper denan; 
 
 Aras vos prec, per aquella valor • 
 
 Que us guida al som sens freich e sens calina, 
 
 Sovegna vos atenprar ma dolor. 
 
 That is, literally translated : * So much does your courteous demand 
 please me that I neither can nor will conceal myself from you. I am 
 Amald, who weep and go singing. Grieved I see the past folly, and 
 I see with pleasure the joy which I hope for the future. Now I en- 
 treat you by that virtue which guides you to the summit without cold 
 and without heat, that you will remember to assuage my grief.' For 
 further details relating to this passage, see Raynouard, Joum. des. Sav, 
 ubi sup. ILexique Roman, vol. i. p. xUi. Blanc, Vocabolario Dantesco^ 
 Art. Tan m' abeUis.] 
 
 1 Honneur was, however, feminine in old French, as in one of the 
 instances above cited, 
 
 12 
 
Il6 CHAPTER II. 
 
 Jmmeur, liqueur, mceurs, odeur, paleur, 'peur, pudeur, 
 rigueur, rumeur, saveur, splendeur, sueur, terreur, torj)eur, 
 tumeur, vakur, vapeur, vigueur, are feminine, althougli 
 the Latin nouns from wliicli they were derived are mas- 
 culine. In their derivatives from these same noims, the 
 Iltalian and Spanish have constantly preserved the mas- 
 jculine gender^. It is difficult to say what induced both 
 the Provencals and French to change the gender of so 
 many Latin masculine nouns in or: probably, however, 
 it was the tendency to designate abstract qualities by 
 feminine nouns, so observable in the Latin language-, 
 which led to the deviation in question. 
 
 Other variations of gender, of which we can trace the 
 cause, arose from the changes in the terminations of 
 nouns which took place in the Romance languages. 
 Thus in the modem languages o was generally the mas* 
 culine, and a the feminine termination ; and hence many 
 forms in o derived from Latin feminine nouns became 
 masculine, and many forms in a derived from Latin 
 masculine or neuter nouns became feminine. In this 
 manner all Latin feminine nouns of the second and 
 fourth declensions became masculine in Italian, as il 
 pero, il melo, il fico, il dtcomo, except la mano from 
 Tnanus^. The same change has likewise been made in 
 Spanish : which, however, has preserved the feminine 
 gender of manus. On the other hand, some mascu- 
 line and neuter nouns in a have become feminine, as 
 
 * Flor, however, is feminine in Spanish, and flore was sometimes 
 made feminine in old Italian : Perticaii, Dif. di Dante, c. 13, vol. i. 
 p. 323. 
 
 ' See Grimm, vol. ui. p. 531. 
 
 ' Castelvetro on Bembo, voL L p. 19. 
 
GENDEKS OF ROMANCE NOUNS. II7 
 
 aria, (from aera^ cometa, cresima, Jkmma, salma, Ital. ; 
 asma, Span.; anagramme, enigme, Frencli^; fantasima 
 ^and tema in Ital., have both genders. On the other 
 I hand, baptisma, psalma, sophisma, having retained their 
 genders, became battesimo, salmo, sofismo, in Ital. ; bau^ 
 tismOy salmo, in Span., while stigmata plural in Ital. 
 became stimati. Sometimes, however, the Ital. noun 
 not only formed its plural according to the regular 
 analogy, but also preserved the Latin plural in ora or 
 a, as i corpi and le corpora^ i tempi and le tempora, i prati 
 and le prata, i corni and le corna, gli ornamenti and le or- 
 namenta, etc. ; and as in these cases the plural in a 
 became feminine, it was sometimes changed into e, the 
 regular feminine plural, as gli ossi, le ossay and le osse, 
 i legni, le legna, and le legne^. In some cases, moreover, 
 the neuter plural of the Latin became the feminine 
 /singular of the Italian noun, thus arma, strata, spolia, 
 insignia^, fata* y pecor a, folia, vela, w/cera, became in Ital. 
 Parm/i, la strada, la spoglia, Vinsegna, la fata, la pecoray 
 la foglia, la vela, (the sail,) la ulcera^: so likewise in 
 Span, arma, bona, claustra, dona, fata, folia, insigniay 
 plana, pecora, signa, strata, vehy ulcera, Latin, became 
 Parma, la bona, la claustra, la dona, la fada, la hoja, la 
 
 ' Popular usage had already made this change in Latin, in some 
 words : thus schema {(rxrjiuz) is made feminine by Plautus and Sue- 
 tonius, glaucoma (yXavKtufia) by Plautus, etc. ; see Scheller's Latin 
 Grammar, by Walker, vol. i. p. 474. 
 
 ' Castelvetro, ib., p. 21. 
 
 * Castelvetro, ib., p. 35. 
 
 * Menage, Etym. Ital., in v, 
 
 5 The Italian, however, likewise had the form ulcero, irregularly 
 formed from ulciis, (above, p. 74, note *,) now obsolete. It likewise 
 preserved il velo, for the veil. 
 
Il8 CHAPTER 11. 
 
 insegma, la lana, la pecora, la seha, la estrada, la vela, la 
 ulcer a^. In French, likewise, we find depouilles, dette, 
 etude, fee, feuille, huile, idole, levre, jpomme, ulcere, of tlie 
 feminine gender. In Italian the Latin millia has become 
 miglia, in the sense of miles; from the femiQiiie plural 
 miglia, the masculine singular miglio has been formed. 
 In Spanish the Latin millia has become the feminine 
 singular milla, in the sense of a mile ; which makes 
 millas in the plural. So in English kitten the plural 
 of cat, chicken the plural of chick, twin the plural of 
 two, stocken, (stocking) the plural of stock-, and garden 
 the plural of geard or yard, have become singular, 
 because the ancient plural termination in en, like the 
 Latin neuter plural in a, is no longer understood^. 
 
 From this comparison of the changes which have 
 taken place m the Latin genders, it appears that though 
 aU the Romance languages agree in retaiuing the mas- 
 culine and feminine, and rejecting the neuter gender, 
 and in changing the neuter into the masculine, yet that 
 the Provencal has introduced innovations from which 
 the Italian and Spanish are free, and in which it agrees 
 remarkably with the French ; and that the Italian has 
 retained vestiges of the Latin which do not appear in 
 the Provenpal. These facts therefore are inconsistent 
 with the supposition that the Provenjal was the most 
 ancient form of the Italian and Spanish languages. 
 
 1 See Sanchez, Poes. Castell, vol. i. p. 392, 386, vol. iii. p. 392, 
 439, vol. iv. p. 307. [Other examples are given hy Diez, Rom. Chr., 
 vol. ii., p. 21.] 
 
 2 See Johnson, in stocking. 
 
 3 Holstein, the proper name, (whence Holsteiner,) has in like 
 manner been corrupted from Holsten, the plural of HolsU : see 
 Grimm's Deutsche Recht*alterthiimer, p. 810, note. 
 
NEW ROMANCE NOUNS FORMED BY AFFIXES. II9 
 
 § 4. FORMATION OF NEW ROMANCE NOUNS 
 BY AFFIXES. 
 
 M. Raynouard enters into a long comparison of the 
 terminations of substantives in tlie Romance languages, 
 and shows a great resemblance between the Provengal 
 and the others, whence he would, as usual, infer the 
 derivation of the latter from the former. {G-r. Comp, 
 p. 23 — 71.) These similarities may be reduced to three 
 heads. 
 
 1. TJiose in which the Provengal has preserved the 
 Latin word unchanged, such as barha, Jierha, cmnedia, 
 hestia, formay pluma, persona, aurora, animal^ etc. The 
 agreement of the other languages with the Provencal 
 in these forms evidently furnishes no proof of their 
 derivation from the Provencal, as the Provencal and 
 Latin are here the same. M. Raynouard seems occa- 
 sionally to forget that the presumption is in favour of 
 the Latin, and that the burden of proof lies on him to 
 show that the Italian and Spanish came not from the 
 Latin, but from another modern language. 
 
 2. Those terminations which were formed from the in- 
 flexion of the Latin nouns, as has been above explained. 
 There would be nothing singular in different nations 
 forming new substantives from the inflected cases, when 
 they were influenced by the same causes, even if the 
 agreement was perfect, which, as we have shown, it was 
 not : inasmuch as the Provencal and French retained 
 the termination of the Latin nom., of which there is no 
 trace in the Italian and Spanish. Hence the agreement 
 of the Italian and Spanish with the Provengal in such 
 terminations as metal, val, man, mar, part, trinitat, magis- 
 
120 CHAPTER II. 
 
 trat^fren, orient^ argument, mes,Jin, marit, titol, leon, amoff 
 cam, etc., affords no argument in favour of the deriva- 
 tion from tlie Provencal, as they are merely Latin words 
 deprived of their terminations, a process which each lan- 
 guage could doubtless have performed for itself without 
 the intervention of the Proven5aL Nor is it by any 
 means true that the • terminations of nouns agree in the 
 different Romance languages ; for M. Raynouard has 
 only produced this exact correspondence by cutting off 
 the only characteristic peculiarity which belongs to each 
 language, and leaving what they have in common, the 
 Latin type. Thus when he has omitted the final s of 
 the Provenyal and French, and the final vowel of the 
 Italian and Spanish nouns, which are their distinctive 
 and proper marks, it is easy to say that amor and metal 
 are the same in all the four tongues : whereas in fact the 
 Provencal and French forms are amors and metals, the 
 Italian a^nore and metallo, the Spanish amor and metallo. 
 
 3. Those substantives whose termination does not agree 
 with the Latin, hut is the same in the Romance languages. 
 M. Raynouard himself perceives the difference between 
 this and the other two classes, and the assistance which 
 these examples afford to his argument, though he does 
 not admit that the other forms are just as consistent 
 with the falsity as with the truth of his theory. ' If (he 
 says) many of the . terminations pointed out come from 
 the Latin, by the preservation of the entire word, as 
 animal, etc., or by the omission of the final syllable 
 which marked the case, as pont-em, there are many 
 others which do not come directly from the Latin, and 
 which have been introduced into all these languages, 
 and joined to words to which the Latin annexed another 
 
NEW ROMANCE NOUNS FORMED BY AFFIXES. 121 
 
 termination, as eorage, lengu^^e, linkage, message^ omen- 
 age, yiage, etc., signal, belted, agne/, annel, ramel, vasse?, 
 cavaU'er, corrier, eampi(w, cubertor, mirador, servidor, 
 etc. How could these different languages have agreed 
 in rejecting the original Latin termination, in order to 
 substitute a new one? Is it not evident that for this 
 process a common type was indispensable?' Gr. Oomp, 
 p. 70. Now with regard to the words in question, it is 
 to be observed that they have not rejected the Latin 
 termination and substituted another of their own, like 
 altitvdoy for which the Italian and French said altezza 
 and hauteur, but they are derivatives from Latin roots 
 adopted in the Provenpal : thus from cor, lengua, via, vas, 
 hel, servir, etc., were formed cor -age, lengu-age, vi-age, 
 vas-sel, hel-tat, servi-dor : the Latin, however, had no 
 such substantives formed from cor, lingua, via, vas, helluSy 
 servire, etc. Consequently these are not words which 
 have rejected the Latin in order to substitute a different 
 termination, but they are new derivatives formed in the 
 Provencal from roots of its own. In order, however, to 
 ascertain how far this argument of M. Raynouard's 
 avails in support of his system, it will be necessary to 
 examine, at some length, the subject of the terminations 
 of nouns in the Romance languages. 
 
 With this view I will in the first place set down the 
 formative terminations of nouns which the Romance 
 languages have borrowed from the Latin, but have sub- 
 jected respectively to various modifications. 
 
 Ago, fem., as m farrago, imago, indago, sartago, virago^ 
 vorago, etc. The Romance languages, in forming their 
 nouns from the accusative case, have subjected this ter- 
 mination to nearly the same changes : thus from imago 
 
122 CHAPTER II. 
 
 the Italian makes imagine, tlie Spanish imagen, the Pro- 
 vencal and French, by the rejection of the final n, image} 
 . Of all the modern languages the Italian alone appears to 
 \ have formed new nouns with the termination agine, or 
 aggine, as dappocaggine, fanciullaggine, fantasticaggine, 
 injingardaggine, insensataggine, scempiaggine, sciaguratag- 
 gine, seccagine, etc.^ 
 
 I Antia, entia. Feminine nouns having this termina- 
 I tion in Latin were derived from participles or participial 
 adjectives in ans or ens, as ahundantia^ diligentia^ obe- 
 diential petulantia, sapientia. The Eomance languages 
 varied these terminations as follows ; anza, enza Ital. and 
 Pro v., anza, encia Span., ance, ence French. Sometimes 
 all the languages agreed in forming new derivatives with 
 these terminations, as tardanza Ital. and Span., tarzanza 
 Prov., tardance French, decadenza Ital., decadencia Span., 
 descaienza Prov., decadence French. Sometimes each 
 language formed separate words of its own, not occur- 
 ring in the others : thus, mancanza, vicinanza Ital., eche- 
 ance, hienviellance, jactance, nuance Fr. Sometimes also 
 the corresponding words are derived from the forms pecu- 
 liar to each language ; iihMS, fidanza Ital., ivGm fidare, but 
 Jianza Span., and fiance French, from fiar and fier. Ore- 
 denza Ital., from credere, credencia, and also creencia Span., 
 
 * The Italian, likewise, has used the form image, which it has like- 
 wise changed into imago, like uome and uomo, etc., see above, p. 74. 
 Image occurs in Dante, Purg. xxv. 26 ; Par. ii. 181 ; xiii. 2 ; xix. 2 ; 
 on which latter place Lombardi says, ' Image qui come altrove, ad- 
 opera alia francese, per immagine.' M. Eaynouard mistakes the form 
 of this word by comparing it with the masc. termination in aggio : 
 Gr. Comp. p. 31. See below, in this termination. 
 
 ' See Diez, Rom. Gramm, vol. ii. p. 317. 
 
NEW ROMANCE NOUNS FORMED BY AFFIXES. 1 23 
 
 from creer^ credence, creance, and croyance Frencli, from 
 proire; possanza Itoi., pujanza SipQn.., puissance Frencli^. 
 / Anus, ianus. In Latin this was properly an adjec- 
 ' tival termination, as Momanus, urbanus, Cliristianus. As 
 proper names were often inflected with it, adjectives of 
 this form frequently were used substantively, as Romani, 
 Pompeiani, Christiani, etc. In the Romance languages 
 it is usually a substantive termination : in Ital. ano, in 
 Span, ano and an, in Pro v. an, in French an, ain and en. 
 Thus from paganus the Ital. and Span, have made pagano, 
 the Prov. pajan, the French payen. Many modem words 
 have been formed in the several languages with this ter- 
 mination : thus scnvano Ital., escrihano Span., escrivain 
 French, sagrestano Ital., sacristan Span., sacristain French. 
 Parmigiano, partigiano, maomettano Ital., carmanos, lozano, 
 mahvmetano Span., hautain, lutherien, magicien, malumietan, 
 parrain, paysan, Peruvien, prochain French^. 
 / Artus, aris. The first of these terminations was 
 ' common to both kinds of nouns in Latin, though pro- 
 perly belonging to adjectives, as armentarius, nefarius, 
 senarius: the latter was confined to adjectives, as mili- 
 taris, vexillaris. From arius the Italian has modified the 
 several terminations ario, aro, aio, iero, iere^, the Span. 
 ario, ero, er: the Prov. ari, ar, er, and ier; the French 
 aire, er, ier, (Grr. Oomp. p. 35, 48.)* Aris in Ital. and 
 Span, becomes are and ar : the French confounds it with 
 the derivatives of ariiis under the terminations aire and 
 ier, as the Prov. confounds them under the termination 
 
 ■ Diez, Rom. Gramm. vol. ii. p. 357. 
 
 2 Diez, ib. p. 310. 
 
 3 See Castelvetro on Bemho, vol. ii. p. 23, and above p. 93, note \ 
 * See also Raynouard, 06s. sur le Roman de Ron, p. 10. 
 
124 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 an thus hom. falsarius^ militarise Januarius, and singu- 
 laris, the French made faussaire, militaire, Janvier, sin- 
 gulier; and from scholar ius eLiid familiaris the Prov. made 
 escolar and familiar, {Gr. Comp. p. 35, 110.) The fol- 
 lowing table of some Latin words shows the relation 
 which the modern terminations bear to the ancient one. 
 
 Latin. 
 
 dena^rius 
 
 ferrarius 
 
 granarium 
 
 Januarius 
 
 librarius 
 
 primarius 
 
 scutarius 
 
 Italian. 
 
 danai:Q^jiaiiaio 
 
 ferraio 
 
 granaio 
 
 Gennaro, Gennaio 
 
 libraio 
 
 primario, primaio, 
 
 primiero 
 scudiere 
 
 Spanish. 
 
 dinero 
 herrero 
 
 French. 
 
 denier 
 ferrier 
 
 granero grenier 
 
 Enero Janvier 
 
 librero libraire 
 
 primario, primaire, premier 
 
 priraero 
 
 escudero escuyer 
 
 When these modifications had once been established, a 
 great number of new substantives were formed with them 
 in all the languages. 
 
 Italian. 
 
 Spanish. 
 
 Prov. 
 
 French. 
 
 cavaliere 
 
 caballero 
 
 cavalier 
 
 cavalier of 
 chevalier' 
 
 corriere or -ero 
 
 corriere 
 
 corrier 
 
 courrier 
 
 destriere' 
 
 
 destrier 
 
 destrier 
 
 falconiere 
 
 halconero 
 
 falconier 
 
 fauconier 
 
 guerriero 
 
 guerrero 
 
 guerrier 
 
 guerrier 
 
 pensiere or -ero 
 
 
 
 
 prigionere -ero 
 
 prisionero 
 
 presonier 
 
 prisonier 
 
 sparviere -iero 
 
 
 esparvier 
 
 espervier 
 
 straniere 
 
 extrangero 
 
 estranher 
 
 estranger 
 
 This termination has been much used in all the lan- 
 guages for the formation of new nouns, and in particular 
 it has been employed after the model of the Latin, 
 
 * See above, p. 111. 
 
 ^ i. e, dextrarius. See Muratori in v. 
 
NEW ROMANCE NOUNS FORMED BY AFFIXES. 1 25 
 
 ■whicli made librarius, Ugnarius^ferrariuSyVestiarius, sellu- 
 lariuSy lapidarius, cerarius, etc. to form nouns which, sig- 
 nify certain orders, professions, or trades. This may be 
 observed in several of the modern words, such as cavalier^ 
 courrier, fauconier, already mentioned, and it may be 
 farther perceived in several forms common to the Ital. 
 and Span., as cameriere Ital., camerero Span. ; caffetiere 
 Ital., cafetero Span. ; forastiere Ital., for aster 0^ Span., tan- 
 chiere or hanchiero Ital., banquero Span. ; carceriere Ital., 
 carcelero Span. In other cases these two languages have 
 respectively forms of this kind peculiar to each, as cala- 
 maio, masnadiere, condottiere, dardiero, girellaio, Ital. ; 
 agujero, mercadero, tintero Span. The French nouns in 
 er and ier, forming their fem. in ere and ihre, are in great 
 number, and comprehend most of the words signifying 
 the persons belonging to different kinds of trades, pro- 
 fessions, orders, etc., as aumonier, hanquier, houlayiger^ 
 houcher, chancellery contrebandier, cordonnier, cuisinier, 
 douanier, fermier, huissier, heritier, mercier, meunier, 
 rentier, roturier, sorcier, usurier, etc. The French has 
 likewise modern nouns in aire, as societaire, fonctionnaire, 
 factionnaire^. 
 
 The various modifications of the Latin ministerium 
 (menester Span., mistero^, mestieri, mestiere or rmstiero 
 
 * From the Latin /o?*as ; see Muratori in v. 
 
 2 The French nouns in aire are probably of a later date than those 
 in er, and the two classes appear to stand to each other in the same 
 relation as those pointed out above, p. 108, 111. 
 
 3 Perticari, Scrittori del Trecento, lib. i. c. ii. vol. i. p. 58, who 
 calls the ancient use of mistero for mestiero a ' bruttissima, anzi sacri- 
 lega permutazione,' does not see that mistero is nearer than the com- 
 mon form to rainisteriiim, and that it was evidently corrupted into 
 mestiero in order to avoid the confusion with mistero derived from 
 mysterium. 
 
126 CHAPTEE II. 
 
 Ital., mestier Pro v., metier Frencli) do not belong to the 
 modern words formed witli the termination er or ier, but 
 are corrupted and contracted from the Latin word. 
 Bicchiere Ital., and picker French, are derived from the 
 German hecher\ (beaker Eng., bicker Scotch) : alfiere Ital., 
 and alferez Span., are said to be derived from the Arabic 
 alpheres^. 
 
 J Aster. This termination had in Latin a diminutive 
 
 ^ibrce, which, as in many other instances, sometimes 
 
 passed into a contemptuous sense, as JiUaster, a stepson, 
 
 calvaster, a little bald, oleaster, a wild, bad olive, poetaster, 
 
 a worthless poet, etc.^ Hence the Ital. and Span, have 
 
 derived the termination as^ro, the Pro v. and French the 
 
 termination asfre, which the latter has softened into qtre. 
 
 ThMs figliastro Ital., hij astro S-psLJi.,JiIhastre VroY.,filastre 
 
 or Jildtre Fr. The French and Span, have marastre or 
 
 mardtre and madrasta for stepmother, which word does not 
 
 /occur in ItaHan. The French uses this termination as a 
 
 / diminutive, (like the English ish,) as hlanchdtre, blevMre, 
 
 doucedtre, grisdtre, foldtre, Jaundtre, rougedtre, saumdtre, 
 
 ; etc.* The Ital. and Span, sometimes give it an oppro- 
 
 • brious force, Sisfilosof astro, medicastrOiteologastrOj etc. which 
 
 it likewise has in the French acaridtre and opinidtre^. 
 
 ' See Menage, Et. It. in bicchiere, 
 
 * Menage in alfiere. [Compare Diez, Rom. Gr. vol. ii., p. 327.] 
 ' See Grimm, vol. ii. p. 372. 
 
 * See Muratori, in salmastro, and Menage in falcastro from falx. 
 
 * Also in mardtre: 'L'opinion qu'en general on a des mar&tres 
 dont le nom seul parmi notes est devenu presqu'une injure, est justifi;6e 
 par les faits.' Guerry, Statistique Morale de la France, p. 22. The 
 word commonly used in Frencli for stepmother is belle-mere, which 
 also signifies mother-in-law : in Italian suocera, not having the termi- 
 nation in astra, has not, as far as I am aware, ohtained a reproachful 
 
i 
 
 NEW ROMANCE NOUNS FORMED BY AFFIXES. 12^ 
 
 
 Atium, as in palatium. In Latin, however, tlie more 
 common form was itium, as exitium, servitmmy being a 
 neuter form of the fem. termination itia, as in Icetitia, 
 scevitia, which, will be noticed under another head. From 
 atium the Ital. made agio, forming palagio from palatium^ 
 as servigio from servitium; in other Ital. words likewise 
 t was changed into g^ as sfagione, ragioney from sfatio, 
 ratio. In all the Homance languages this termination 
 has assumed nearly the same form : thus it is agio or 
 aggio in Ital. azgo or age in Span.^, atge or age in Prov., 
 and age in French : and although it is of rare occurrence 
 hi Latin, has in all the modem Latin dialects served to 
 /form a great variety of new nouns. And from the Eo- 
 ' mance languages it was translated into Low Latin, under 
 the neuter form of agium; thus from maritagio or mari- 
 tage came maritagium, from homagio or homage homagium. 
 If these words had been formed in Latin according to 
 the true analogy, they would have been maritatium and 
 hominatium. Sometimes, however, a Low Latin form in 
 aticus corresponds to a Eomance form in agio or age, as 
 formxiticus (cheese) ioformagio andfromage^, hostaticus to 
 
 force, although the character of stepmothers in Italy (unless they have 
 greatly improved since ancient times) is probably not at all superior to 
 that of stepmothers in France. [Compare Diez, Bom. Gr, vol. ii. 
 p. 363.] 
 
 * The Spanish varies more in this termination than the other lan- 
 guages : thus it had not merely patronazgo corresponding to padron- 
 aggio and. patronage, hnt ventaja corresponding to vantaggio and avan- 
 tage, ultraje corresponding to oltraggio and outrage. The popular 
 dialect of Eome formerly made this termination in ajo, as lennajo for 
 Unnaggio, dannajo for danneggio, in the Eoman history in Muratori, 
 Ant. It. vol. iii. p. 399, 501. This, however, was rather a variety of 
 orthography than of form, a.sj was pronounced hard as in French. 
 
 2 See .Menage in formaggio, Schwenck's Etymological Eemarks io 
 
128 CHAPTER II. 
 
 ostaggio and ostage^, silvaticus to salvage and selvaggio, 
 (although the Ital. and Span, likewise have selvatico.) 
 Many of the substantives formed with this termination 
 run through all the languages, as the instances cited by 
 M. Raynouard, corraggio, lignaggio, messaggio, omaggio, 
 viaggio Ital. ; corage, linage, mensage, omenage, viage 
 Span. ; cor age ^ linkage, message, omenage, viage Pro v. ; 
 courage, lignage, message, hommage, voyage French, {Grr. 
 Comp. p. 31.) So likewise we find in Ital., Span., and 
 French, padronnaggio, patronazgo, and patronage, potaggio 
 and potage, passeggio, pasage, and passagge, villaggio and 
 village, etc. In other cases, however, these forms occur 
 only in two languages : thus the Prov. and French 
 formed auratge and orage from aura : in Span, and Ital., 
 however, there is no trace of this word. So in Ital. and 
 French there are heveraggio and hreuvage, formaggio and 
 fromage, ostaggio and ostage, rivaggio and rivage, but 
 there are no corresponding words in Span. Frequently 
 each language has substantives of this form peculiar to 
 itself, as alegratge, agradatge Prov., appagaggio'^, fardag- 
 gio, farangaggio, figliuolaggio, parlagio^, vasellaggio Ital., 
 aguage, cahezage, cabestrage, pontage, or pontazgo, primazgo, 
 serage, villanage, Span., arrivage, bocage, chauffage, cirage, 
 etage, fermage, feuillage, menage, mirage, nuage, ouvrage, 
 ramage, ravage, roulage, rouage, tapage, tirage, triage 
 French. Sometimes one language has preserved the 
 
 Welcker's Rhein. Museum, vol. i. art. kase. Formaticus for cheese 
 occurs in a charter of the Amhrosian monastery at Milan, of 967 aj). 
 in Murat. Ant. It. vol. iii. p. 719, B. cf. 718, c. 
 
 * Muratori in v. 
 
 ' A Sienese word from (ypacus : see Menage, Etym, It. in abbacinare. 
 
 * The name of the place where the Florentines anciently held their 
 parliaments; see Perticari, Dif. di Dante, c. 86, vol. ii p. 163. 
 
NEW ROMANCE NOUNS FORMED BY AFFIXES. 1 29 
 
 Latin noun, where another has made a new form in age, 
 thus testimomo Ital. and Span., but temoignage French : 
 sometimes one language has used the termination agey 
 where others have used different terminations : thus 
 schiavitu Ital., esclavitvd Span., but esclavage French, 
 vicinanza Ital., voisinage French : vecinad is preserved in 
 Span, from the Latin vicinitas; the other two words 
 translated into Latin forms would be vicinantia and 
 vicinatium. Sometimes again the corresponding words do 
 not precisely agree, but appear to have been formed from 
 similar roots variously modified in the several languages : 
 thus linguaggio Ital. from lingua, lenguage^ Prov. and 
 lengage Span, from lengua, langage French from langue : 
 so maritaggio Ital. fi'om maritare, maridage Span, from 
 marido, manage French from marier ; danneggio ^ Ital. 
 doinmage French ; redaggio Ital. from redare, but Jieritage 
 French from heriter; pedaggio Ital. peage Span, peage 
 French ; romitaggio Ital. from romito corrupted from 
 eremita, hermitage French from hermite-. 
 I Ia, Itia. The first of these terminations occurs in 
 the Latin words gratia, inopia, miseria, etc.^ The Italian 
 has preserved and used it in forming pazzia from pazzo, 
 
 ' Dammaggio occurs in a Neapolitan sonnet of the thirteenth cen- 
 tury, cited by Perticari, Dif. di Dante, c. 7, vol. i. p. 289, who calls 
 aggio a 'Neapolitan termination.* It may prevail in the Neapolitan 
 dialect, but it is common to all the Romance languages. 
 
 ' The English having adopted the termination age from the Norman 
 French used it as a formative termination, and added to it Saxon roots : 
 thus bondage, carriage, cottage, package, stoppage, stowage, steerage, 
 thirlage, tillage, etc. [Compare Diez, Rom. Gr. vol. ii. p. 287.] 
 
 ^ See Grimm, vol. iii. p. 507. The terminations are here classed 
 with reference not to the Latin, but to the Romance languages ; other- 
 wise the terminations antia and entia above treated would come under 
 the general head of ia (p. 122). 
 
 K 
 
130 CHAPTER II. 
 
 hizzarria from hizzarro, signoria from signore, follia from 
 foUe, etc. So likewise in the Span, fulkria, fusileria, plu- 
 mageria and in the French houlangerie, boucherie, seigneurie. 
 Sometimes the Ital. used the simpler form in a, as lega 
 from legare, tema from temere. The Latin termination 
 itia (e. g. justitia, nequitia^ mcestitia) has in Ital. past into 
 izia and ezza, in Span, into icia and eza, in French into 
 ice and esse. Thus justitia, tristitia Latin giustizia, 
 tristezza Ital. justicia, tristeza Span, justizia, tristeza, Prov. 
 justice, tristesse French. Paresse Fr. from pigritia, like 
 »w?iV from wz^er, and rozWe from rigidus^. With regard to 
 these two terminations from ^^m it is however to he oh- 
 served that the former only occurs in words of Latin 
 origin, 2i^ justitia, militia, malitia, notitia, etc. and that all 
 the new nouns formed with this termination take the 
 latter in ezza, eza or esse. The modem languages have 
 formed in this manner a great variety of nouns which do 
 not occur in Latin : thus they have all substantives of this 
 form derived from altus, largus, probus, and from the words 
 fein and reich adopted from the German (in Proven. 
 alteza, largueza, proeza, fineza, richeza, Crr. Oomp. p. 30). 
 Sometimes they have made a new noun of this form 
 where the Latin employed a different termination ; thus 
 altezza, alteza and altesse correspond to altitudo, agrezza to 
 acritudo, giovanezza and jeunesse to juventus, nobilezza, 
 nobleza and noblesse to nobilitas, secheresse to siccitas, 
 chaitiveza in the Poeme sur Boece, v. 88, to captivitas. 
 Sometimes the different languages have used the corre- 
 sponding terminations for the same words, as in the 
 instances mentioned above : sometimes some of the 
 
 * See Grimm, vol. ii. p. 329. [Burguy in parece.'] 
 
NEW ROMANCE NOUNS FORMED BY AFFIXES. I3I 
 
 languages used tlie termination derived from itia, and 
 some another termination : thus from the various de- 
 rivatives of the German frisch ^ came frescura and 
 freschezza ItaL, frescura and frescor Span., frescor or 
 fraichor Proven., fraicheur French. So agrezza, ItaL, 
 aigrura Span., aigreur French ; grandezza ItaL, grandeza 
 Span., grandeur French ; frigidezza ItaL, frigidez Span., 
 froideur French; rigidezza ItaL, rigideza Span., roideur 
 French ; tepidezza ItaL, tihieza Spa^-, tiedeur French. 
 Lunghezza ItaL, corresponds to longueur French ; the Span, 
 uses the Latin longitud. Yvoim Jievole andfaible modified 
 from Jlehilis, the ItaL and French have made Jievokzza and 
 faiblesse : the Span, has not this word ^. Sometimes each 
 language has forms of this kind peculiar to itself, as 
 ampiezza, amorevolezza, dappochezza, mattezza ItaL, hon- 
 radez, idiotez, insensatez, pobreza Span., chaitiveza Proven., 
 ivresse, rudesse, souplesse, vitesse French^. 
 
 The fem. termination of nearly the same form, which 
 prevails in the Romance languages, as duchessa Ital., 
 duquesa Span., duquessa Pro v., and duchesse French, is 
 considered hy Grimm as a lengthened form of the Latin 
 ix, as in netrix, piscatrix, etc.* This view is liable to 
 the objection that the Romance words formed from Latin 
 fem. in ix have kept nearer to the Latin form, as the 
 derivatives of nutrix, cicatrix, calyx, matrix. It seems 
 therefore more probable, that the fem. termination in issa, 
 as in the words mantissa, favissa, of more frequent usage in. 
 the Greek, as paxrOua-aay KiXurcra, etc. was the origin of the 
 Romance form.^ 
 
 * See Muratori m fresco. * Muratori mjietole. 
 
 3 [Diez, Eom. Gr. vol. ii. p. 280, 338.] * Vol. ii. p. 328. 
 
 « [Diez, Rom. Gr. vol. ii. p. 276, 326, 344.] 
 
 K2 
 
132 CHAPTER II. 
 
 ) Inus. TMs is a termination of nearly tlie same kind 
 as anuSy and is chiefly confined to adjectives, as cabalUnus, 
 Latinus, marinus, mascuUnuSy matutinus, ^eregrinus, supi- 
 nus, vicinus. It occurs, however, in substantives of the 
 fern, and neut. gender, as farina, medicinal rapina, ruina^ 
 salina, lupinum, salinum. The Ital. and Span., which 
 have made it inOy the Prov. and French, which have 
 made it in, used it for the formation of substantives, as 
 festino andfestin derived from festus. (G-r. Comp. p. 50.) 
 In Italian this termination is still in great use, with a 
 diminutive sense, as ragazzino, tavolino, bambino from 
 hambo (i. e. babe^). It likewise has a diminutive force 
 in Spanish. The French has also used it for the form- 
 ation of new words, but without a diminutive force, as 
 angevin, bavardin, chevrotin, diablotin, fagotin, patelin, 
 Poitevin, becassine, routine : so also names of parties in 
 the French revolution, Brissotin^ Girondin ^. 
 
 IsTA. This termination, introduced into the Latin at 
 a late period from the Grreek, has passed into the modem 
 languages : thus copista, legista, algebrista, cabalista, Ital. 
 and Span. ; copiste, legiste, algebriste, cabaliste, Tnodiste, 
 dentiste, French.^ 
 
 0, ONis, masculine, as in caupo, latro, sernio, commilito, 
 and in proper names, as Scipio, Ocesio, Ccepio, Mara. 
 Hence the Ital. one, the Span. Prov. and French on {G-r, 
 Comp. p. 56, 7). Thus bastone Ital., baston Span., Prov. 
 and Fr. ; falcone Ital., halcon Span., falcon Prov., faucon 
 
 * In Italian this termination has commonly a sense of tenderness, 
 but sometidies the sense of contempt which belongs to diminutives : 
 see Marrini on the Lamento di Cecco, p. 166. Payne Knight's Essay 
 on Taste, p. 239. Philol. Museum, vol. ii. p. 679, 685. 
 
 » See Grimm, vol. iii. p. 703. [Diez, Rom. Gr., p. 313.] 
 
 ' [Diez, ib. p. 363.] 
 
NEW ROMANCE NOUNS FORMED BY AFFIXES. 1 33 
 
 French ; miUone Ital., millmi Span., million Fr. ; campione 
 Ital., campeon Span., campion Prov., champion Frencli. 
 Many of the modem nouns of this form are derived from 
 a German root: thus hastone comes from hat or hast, 
 campione from kampf^ spione from spdhen, to spy, halcone 
 from halk, marrone from marre, a chesnut, poUrone from 
 polster, prigione from prisundy sperone from sporn^ fellone 
 from fell '. Antrustione, harone, and garzone ^ have like- 
 wise German roots. In French it has been used for the 
 formation of many words, as aiguillon, caisson, chamon^ 
 hrouillon, jamhon, mentony monton, rejeton, teton, vallon, 
 pieton ; and in this language it is sometimes a diminutive 
 termination, as in mignon, salon, anon, and in the familiar 
 proper names Alison, Lison, Rohichon, Fanchon, Jeanneton, 
 Louison, Grothon, Marion, Namn, Ninon, Suson^, In 
 Italian likewise it frequently occurs, sometimes as a mere 
 formative termination, as in hurrone, falcione, montone, and 
 other instances above cited, and sometimes with an aug- 
 mentative force, as donnone, salone, cavallone. In Spanish, 
 
 * See Menage in bastone and fellone, Muratori in spia, halcone, 
 marrone, poltrone and poltrire, prigione and sperone. I have not 
 thought it necessary to repeat the Spanish and French forms of the 
 words mentioned in the text. 
 
 ^ Garzone, according to Muratori, is derived from an ancient 
 Frankish word, which is written Gartio in an Italian document of the 
 ninth centur5\ Ant. It. vol. ii. p. 1118, A — C. Garziine in the Nib, 
 Lied, V. 905, is probahly borrowed from the Romance. In Low Latin 
 a marquis is marchio, a noun of this form, and not marchensis, the 
 form used in the Romance languages. 
 
 3 Grrimm, vol. iii. p. 705, is mistaken in supposing that the old 
 French proper names in on, as Charlon, are of this form. They are 
 the ancient accusative case from the nominative in ^s or s : see above, 
 p. 81. 
 
134 CHAPTER II. 
 
 likewise, on is sometimes an augmentative : thus hombron 
 from homhre, calaveron from calavera'^. 
 
 On the feminine termination ^o, ionis, and its use in 
 the modem languages it is unnecessary to say any thing. 
 
 Or. This masculine termination is of two kinds ; first, 
 when it denotes qualities, as amcyr, honor, color, and 
 secondly, when it denotes persons, as imperator, Udor, 
 possessor. Among the rfiodern languages, it has become 
 ore in Italian, or in Spanish and Proven9al, and in old 
 . French ; in which language it has since been modified 
 into our and eur. (Gr. Comp. p. 59 — 61, above, p. 84.) 
 The modern languages have formed, with this termination, 
 some new words corresponding to the former class of 
 Latin nouns, as hollore, malore, rancore, tristore'^, sentore, 
 . verdore, Ital. ; frescor, rencor, verdor, Span. ; frescor or 
 fraichor, verdor, Prov. ; fraicheur, lueicr, lenteur, rancueur, 
 pesanteur, profondeur, verdeur, French. The chief part 
 of the new substantives formed with this termination be- 
 long, however, to the other class of nouns signifying 
 persons, as miratore, servitore, Ital., mirador, servidor, 
 Span, and Prov., servifeur, French. So likewise amhas- 
 ciatore, coniatore, conoscitore, confettatore, Ital., emhaxador, 
 matador, picador, sangrador. Span. ; accapareur, accoucheur, 
 agioteur, escamoteur, farceur, siffleur, vendangeur, French. 
 
 It has been already remarked that the Proven9al and 
 French changed the gender of the nouns in or signifying 
 qualities, and said la dolor, la color, la frescor, la verdor, 
 etc., while the ItaHan and Spanish preserved the mascu- 
 line gender not only in the words retained from the Latin, 
 
 » On the Italian and Spanish augmentatives of this form see Grimm, 
 vol. iii. p. 706. [Diez, Rom. Gr. vol. ii. p. 318.] 
 ' On trUtore, see Perticari, Dif. di Dante, c. 26, vol. ii. p. 36. 
 
NEW ROMANCE NOUNS FORMED BY AFFIXES. 135 
 
 as amore, colore, amor, color, but also in the words newly 
 formed, as in rancor e, verdore, Ital., frescor, rericor, verdor, 
 Spanish^. 
 
 Tas, talis, Tus, tutis, as in servitus, virtus, bonitas, 
 lihertas. Since (as has been above shown) aU the modem 
 languages, in forming nouns from Latin substantives of 
 the third declension, took the accusative case as their 
 type, these terminations became in Ital. tate and tute; in 
 Span, tad and tvd, anciently tat and tut; in Pro v. tat and 
 4ut; in French tet and tut. In Italian the terminations 
 in tate and tute were formerly written at full length, as 
 cittate, veritate, virtute, or cittade, veritade, virtude ; for 
 some time, however, they have, by the omission of the 
 last consonant, been contracted into ta and tu^ (i. e. toe 
 and tue), so that these words have now become citta, ve- 
 rita, virtu : this change, nevertheless, has only affected the 
 termination tute or tude, q,s salute and palude have preserved 
 their ancient form. Cittate or cittade, virtute or virtude, 
 and other similar nouns were contracted into citta and 
 virtu in order to avoid the repetition of the double ty or of 
 the t and d ; but salute and palude were not contracted, 
 because there was no such cacophony to avoid. The 
 French having, as in many other instances, changed the 
 a into e, made originally libertet, citet, nativitet, vohntet : 
 , it has since suppressed the final t, and indicated its sup- 
 pression by the acute accent, as liherte, cite, nativite, vo- 
 lonte^ : in the termination tut, it has merely suppressed the 
 
 » See above, p. 114. [Diez, Rom. Gr. vol. ii. p. 325.] 
 2 When the ancient termination was not at but ata, the French, 
 following its two rules of changing the final a into e muet, and at in a 
 termination into e, converted it into ^e : thus, amat (from amo) became 
 aime, amata, aiinee. So likewise fum^e, French, corresponds to fum- 
 mata Ital. j armee French, to armata Ital. and armada Span.; f^e 
 
136 CHAPTER 11. 
 
 final t, and from vertut made vertu, (Gr. Oomp. p. xix. 
 37 — 42, 68, 69.) Many new substantives have been 
 formed in tbe modem languages with, this termination, as 
 heltate or helta Ital., heldad Span., heltat Prov., heauU 
 French ; lealta, sovranita Ital., lealtad, sovranidad Span., 
 loyaute^ souverainete French. So likewise schiavitu Ital., 
 esclavitud Span., dehonnairete, gaite, honnetete, nettete, 
 toisivete, papaute French^. 
 
 \ Ulus, ellus, iLLUs. TJlus, or olus, in Latin, was ori- 
 ginally a mere formative termination, as in sedulus, gar- 
 ruIiiSj famulus, credidus, gerulus, ungula, regida, fabula, 
 G-rceculus, Pcenulus, Romidus, Sccevola: afterwards it 
 obtained a diminutive sense, as in regulus, filiolus, and 
 in Hadrian's address to his soul, animula vagula, hlan- 
 dtda^. The Italian in adopting this termination changed 
 it into olOf or uolo, asfavola, tavola,JigIiuolo, horn, fahula^ 
 tabula, fiUolus; and has formed with it many new words, 
 as hussolo, nuvola, gocciolo, piccolo, (from pidus,) legnaiuolo, 
 etc. The Spanish modified this termination into uelo, as 
 aguelo, or ahuelo, (corresponding to the Ital. avolo,) cox- 
 tielo, ojuelo^. The French has made it eul, but has rarely 
 used it: thus ///e?/? answers to the Ital. Jigliuolo and the 
 Span, hijuelo. Sometimes the Latin lengthened the ter- 
 mination idus by a syllable, making it aculus or iculus, as 
 in ccenaculum, obstacidum, miraculum, auricula, curriculus, 
 
 French, to fata Ital., and hada Span. ; joumh French, to giomata 
 Ital. Jornada Span, (see Machiav. Disc. ii. 17, ad init.); valUe Fr., 
 to vallata Ital., and not to valle : as is implied by M. Eaynouard, 
 who speaks of " Le mot val roman qui a produit en fraugais valUe." 
 Joum. des Sav. 1823, p. 111. 
 
 » [Diez, Rom. Gr. vol. ii. p. 836.] 
 
 « See Niebuhr's Rome, vol. i. p. 55. Grimm, vol. iii. p. 696. 
 Scheller's Latin Grammar, vol. i. p. 39. 
 
 » See above, p. 67, note '. 
 
NEW ROMANCE NOUNS FORMED BY AFFtXES'. ' I37 - /i 
 
 fasciculus J ridiculus, ^quiculus from ^qims^. These 
 terminations were softened by the Ital. into acchio and / 
 icchio, as in oculus, occhio, circulus, cerchio, macula, mac- 
 chia, gracuhy gracchia, auricula, orecchia, pariculus, parec- 
 chio, speculum, speccJiio'^. The change took place thus, 
 auricula, auricla, aurichia^, cl being softened into chi, as 
 in chiave from clavis, chiostro from claustrum, etc. After 
 these models were formed the Ital. pistacchio, pecchia, 
 (i. e. apicula,) lentecchia, ginocchio, birracchio*; and by 
 a change of acchio and icchio into accio and iccio, fos- 
 saccia, mostaccio, cappriccio, pasticcio^, fantoccio. The 
 termination accio, as is often the case with diminutives, 
 has sometimes in Ital. a contemptuous sense, as don- 
 naccia, giovinaccio, pitturaccia, robaccia. While the Ital. 
 changed the Latin termination iculus or icula into icchia 
 or icchio, the Span, changed it into ejo and eja, the Prov. 
 into el and elha, the French into eil and eille ; thus 
 auricula, apicula, ocidus, pariculus Lat., orecchia, pecchia, 
 
 ' Niebuhr, vol. i. n. 419, speaking of the Poediculi, says that * the 
 simpler forms Poedi and Poedici have not been preserved in books.' 
 There is no doubt that the termination in iculus originated in the 
 manner here indicated, and was a double affix : nevertheless in many 
 words the simpler derivative form probably never existed, and it is 
 perhaps as unsafe to infer from Poediculus the existence of a form 
 Poedicus, as to infer from auricula, curriculus, and ridiculus, the ex- 
 istence of such words as aurica, curricus, and ridicus. 
 
 ' See Muratori in parecchio, and Menage in abbacchiare, which he 
 derives from baculus, and in conocchia, which he makes equivalent to 
 colucula from colus. Also Pasqualini, Vocabolario Siciliano, vol. ii. 
 p. X. xi. 
 
 ' Muratori in serchio. * Muratori in v. 
 
 * The termination iccio sometimes comes from itius or iciu^, as 
 posticcio from posticius (Mnrat. in v.), fatticcio from facticius : but in 
 other cases accio and iccio seem to be slightly modified from acchio 
 and icchio. 
 
138 CHAPTER II. 
 
 occhio,parrecchio Ital., oreja, abeja, ojo,pareJo, Span., aurelha, 
 aheiha, huels Prov., oreille, abeille, oeuil, pareil Frencli. 
 
 The Latin sometimes augmented the termination ulus 
 by prefixing to it el or il; so that from novus it formed 
 novelulus, from pusus pusilulus. These three syllables 
 were afterwards contracted into two, so as to make ellus 
 or illus^ and thus were formed the words noveUus,pusiUus, 
 miscellus, Sahellus, Terentilla, codicillus, fur cilice, etc. The 
 same termination was, however, sometimes produced in 
 a different manner, viz. by the softening of r into I : thus 
 UberuluSy miseruhcs, puerulus, became libellus, misellus, 
 puellus^. Of these two forms in ellus and illus the Ital. 
 made ello, the Span, ello and illo, the Prov. and French 
 el {G-r, Qomp. p. 43.) The modern French has changed 
 the termination el into eau : thus instead of the ancient 
 chastel, drapel, faiscel, tonnel, etc., it now says chateau^ 
 drapeaUj faisceau, tonneau : the trace of the ancient form 
 is, however, preserved in the inflexions, as cervelle from 
 cervel (cerveau), nouvelle from nouvel (nouveau) ; and in the 
 derivatives, as niveler from nivel {niveau), chapelier from 
 chapel {chapeau)y sceller from seel (sceau), morceler from 
 morcel'^ [morceau), Bordelais from Bordel (Bordeau), 
 When the French language was introduced into England 
 this change had not been made : hence the English 
 castle, flail, mackerel, morsel, muzzle, tressel tunnel, vessel, 
 etc., correspond to the modern French cJidteau, fleau^, 
 macquereau, morceau, museau, treteau, tonneau, vaisseau, 
 
 * See Grimm, vol. iii. p. 696. 
 
 ' That is morsel, a little bit (bite) from mors, an old Frencli word 
 from worsts. See Kaynouard in JoMr». dcs Savaws, 1831, p. olG. 
 
 3 The old French had^a^el, and also ^aeZ, whence our word is taken. 
 It had likewise the word flaeler. On the French termination in el, see 
 Orel], p. 32. [Burguy in JlaeL;\ 
 
NEW ROMANCE NOUNS FORMED BY AFFIXES. 1 39 
 
 This termination has been much used by the modem 
 languages for the formation of new nouns. Sometimes 
 •the several languages agree remarkably in forming cor- 
 responding derivatives from the same root, as mantello 
 ItaL, mantel Span. Prov. and French ; martello Ital., 
 martillo Span., martel Prov. and French ; vassel Prov., 
 vaisseau French, vascello Ital., which latter form, how- 
 ever, partakes of a variety which will be presently 
 noticed ; batello^, agnelb, anello, coltello, capello Ital., batel, 
 anillo, cucMUo, cahello Span., hatel^ agnel, annel, coutel, 
 chapel French. The Italian has substituted several of 
 these derivatives for the ancient underived forms : thus 
 fratello and sorella for /rate and sorore^ : it has likewise 
 stiQ the power of using ello as a diminutive termination, 
 as ragazzello from ragazzo. Other derivatives of this 
 simple form in Span, are camarilla, corcillo, guerilla, la- 
 drillo, lagrimilla, lamparilla, pecadillo, etc. ; in French 
 her eel, boissel, chalumel, faiscel, ^mnel^, tomhel, troupel. 
 ' Sometimes the form of this termination became more 
 complicated, as fiumicello, donzello, (domtcellus*,) leoncello, 
 madamigella, monticello, vermicello, violoncello^ , vecchierelloy 
 pazzarello Ital. ; leoncello , manecilla S-pan. ; lioncel Yvench.. 
 Of the same form as leoncello is vascello, noticed above ; 
 as also augello or uccello, Ital.^, contracted from 'avicello, 
 
 ' From bat, boat, Murat. in v. 
 
 ' Sorella comes from sore, contracted from sorore, a,s fratello comes 
 from frate, contracted from fratre. The old Ital. writers likewise use 
 sirocchia for sister, i. e. sororcula. 
 
 ' On paneau see Murat. in pania. * See Manzoni's notes to AdelcMs. 
 
 * Leon-cello, violon-cello, etc. do not fall under the same class as the 
 Latin hom-unculus, av-U7iculus, etc. (Grimm, vol. ii. p. 347,) as the n 
 belongs not to the termination but to the root. 
 
 * See Menage in augello, who quotes aucellus, arpovOiov, from an 
 ancient gloss. 
 
140 CHAPTER II. 
 
 like the Span, avecillo : the French oisel arose in a like 
 manner. 
 
 Sometimes the French added to the termination el the 
 termination et^ of which I shall speak presently : hence 
 having formed oisel from avis^ from oisel it formed oiselet; 
 having formed chapel from chap, from chapel it formed 
 chapelef; having formed roitel from roi, from roitel it 
 formed roitelet^, 
 
 TIra, as in censura, junctura, cultura. This termina- 
 tion remained the same in all the modem languages 
 except the French, which as usual changed the final a 
 into e. Several new words were formed with it, as aven- 
 tura, armadura, verdura Ital., Span., and Prov., aventure, 
 armure, verdure, French, cosidura or cucitura Ital., costura 
 Span., cosdura Prov., couture French. {Gr. Comp. p. 28.) 
 Other new words of this form are altura, bruitura, cam- 
 hiatura, caricatura,fatatura, lordura, raagagnatura^pianuray 
 paura, seccatura Ital., domadnra, emharradura, echadura^ 
 enjalhegadura, rebosadura, pavura Span., blessure, coiffure, 
 decoupure, doublure, ferrure, nourriture, ordure, souillure 
 .French^. 
 
 There are likewise some Eomance terminations of 
 nouns adjective derived from the Latin, of which the 
 following may he here noticed. 
 
 Ensis, as in forensis. The Italian has preserved the 
 termination under the form ese, as Veronese, I/ucchese, 
 
 * See above, p. 70, note *. Schapel, which occurs several times in the 
 Nibelungen Lied, in the sense of an oniament or covering for the head, 
 is borrowed from the French chapel, and not from chapelet, as is stated 
 by V. Hagen in v. 
 
 ^ [Compare Diez, Rom. Gr. vol. ii. p. k99.] 
 
 » [Diez, Rom, Gr, vol. ii. p. 323.] 
 

 NEW ROMANCE NOUNS FORMED BY AFFIXES. I4I 
 
 paese from pagensis^, which in Span, is pais, in French 
 pays. It occurs in the derivatives of German roots, as 
 from marke and hurg^ marchese and horghese Ital., marques 
 Span., marquis and bourgeois French : so likewise cortese 
 Ital., cortes Span, and Pro v., courtois French. From the 
 old German hardnesJcJa, lorica, (now harnischj) were formed 
 arnese Ital., arnes Span., harnois French". 
 
 Ivus, as in cestivus, fugitivus, captivus, lascivus. The 
 modern languages have formed new adjectives with this 
 termination, as tardivo, distruttivo Ital., destructive Span., 
 craintif, naif, oisif, pensif, tardif French^. 
 
 Osus, as in generosus, formosus, numerosus. The Ital. 
 and Span, made this termination in oso, the Prov. in as, 
 and the French in os or ox, which latter termination it 
 changed first into oux, and then into etix. Thus the Ital. 
 and Span, have formed amoroso, perilloso, maraviglioso, 
 maravilloso, the Prov. amoros, perillos, enuios, saboros, the 
 French amoros, perillos, enuios, merveillos, doutos, envios, 
 which were sometimes written with a final x, as in 
 amorox, perillox, etc. (6rr. Oomp. p. 122.) Afterwards 
 the was changed into ou, so that the termination be- 
 
 ^ Muratori in v. 
 
 * See Grimm, vol. ii. p. 373, n. [Diez, Rom. Gr. vol. ii. p. 854.] 
 ^ Landor in his Imaginary Conversations, vol. i. p. 212, speaking 
 of the moral inferences to be drawn from the use of words in Italian, 
 says * Misfortune is criminal : the captive is a wicked man, cattivo.' 
 The same remark applies to the French chetif, whence the EngUsh 
 caitiff. Nor does it appear that there is any peculiarity in this transfer 
 of meanings : a prisoner usually became a slave, and there are nu- 
 merous instances in both Komance and Teutonic languages of a close 
 association of the ideas of slavery and of meanness, cowardice, and 
 moral abasement. Thus the word thraell or thrall meant both a slave 
 and a bad man. See Grimm, Deutsche Rechtsalterthiimer, p. 303, 
 308. Arndt in the Rheinisches Museum, vol. ii. p. 348 — 52. [Compare 
 Diez, ib., p. 339.] 
 
14^ CHAPTER II. 
 
 came ous or oicx^ : which is still preserved in the word 
 jaloux ; and this is the form of the termination in ques- 
 tion in modem Provencal, as argentous, cendrillous, famlous^ 
 pietouSj ponderous. Such also was its form when the 
 French language was introduced into England, and hence 
 our adjectives generous, clamorous, callous, famous, vigorous, 
 monstrous, etc. Each language has new words of this 
 form peculiar to itself, as noioso, neghittoso'^, ritroso, pen- 
 sieroso, scMzzinoso Ital., guardoso, hastioso, presagioso, pri- 
 moroso Span., chanceux, fdcheux, heureux, oiseux, nuagmx 
 French^. 
 
 There are some other terminations of nouns which do 
 not appear to he derived from the Latin, hut which are 
 used in all or some of the Romance languages. They 
 are three in numher, and of these two evidently spring 
 from a Teutonic source, and the third prohahly has the 
 same origin. 
 
 Ard. This German* termination has been received into 
 the Romance languages, and has served to form a great 
 variety of new nouns, especially in the Ital. and French. 
 Thus hugiardo, (probably from a German root^) azardo, 
 hastardo, homharda, chiavardo, codardo, (from cauda, a per- 
 son who lingered at the rear of an army,) gagliardo, in- 
 fingardo, leardo, maliardo, moscardo, mostarda, saccardo, 
 tabarro, testardo, vecchiardo, Ital., coharde, gallardo. Span., 
 
 * See Eayn. Ohs, sur le Roman de liou, p. 11, 19. Enviome, 
 gloriouse, delitouse, and amorouz, occur in a poem of Raoul de Coucy, 
 who was killed in 1240, published in Sismondi, Litt. du Midi, vol i. 
 p. 329. Compare Orell, p. 30. 
 
 * From negligere, see Muratori in v. 
 » [Diez, Rom. Gr. vol. ii. p. 330.] 
 
 * See Grimm, vol. ii. p. 339, vol. iii. p. 707. 
 
 * See Murat. in v. [Diez in hug\a.'\ 
 
NEW ROMANCE NOUNS FORMED BY AFFIXES. I43 
 
 campagnard, havard, babillard, couard, gagliard, billard^ 
 brancard, brouiUard, fuyard, milliard, pendard, etc. French. 
 Many nouns have likewise been formed with this termi- 
 nation in English, as braggart, drunkard, wizard, haggard, 
 pollard, steward, (from to stow,) custard (from cost, food,) 
 mazzard, froward, etc.^ 
 
 Etto, ito, ete, et; otto, ote, ot. These termina- 
 tions occur in Ital. in the words boschetto, cavalletto, gio- 
 vanotto, merlotto, signorotto : in Span, in caballete, senorito, 
 muleto, papeleta, capote : in French in ballet, bonnet, filet, 
 billet, couplet, poulet, sommet, violet, ballot, cachot, chariot, 
 matelot, mignot, poulot. It has been already mentioned 
 that in French et is sometimes added to the termifiation 
 el, as in agnelet, batelet, bracelet, carrelet, chdtelet, rondelet. 
 In cailletel and louvetel {cailleteau and louveteau) this 
 process has been reversed. 
 
 In some words these terminations merely serve to form 
 new nouns ; in others they have a diminutive sense, as 
 merlotto^, senorito, poulet: in Span., however, ote has an 
 augmentative force, as hombrote, capote. Their origin, 
 though it is probably to be found in some Teutonic 
 formative syllable-', is quite obscure. 
 
 Asco, Esco, isco, ESC, ESQUE. In Italian asinesco, 
 Bergamasco, buffonesco, burasca*, cagnesco, cavaleresco, 
 Dantesco, duchesco, donnesco, gigantesco, giovanesco, mari- 
 neresco, naveresco, pittoresco, soldatesco : in Span, borrasca, 
 
 » [Diez, Rom. Gr. vol. ii. p. 358.] 
 
 ' Grimm is mistaken, vol. iii. p. 705, in stating that otto in Ital. 
 has an augmentative force : it is always a diminutive, according to 
 Marrini on the Lamento di Cecco, p. 106, who gives numerous ex- 
 amples of it. 
 
 3 Grrimm, vol. iii. p. 702. [Diez, ib. p. 345.] 
 
 * See Muratori. in v. 
 
144 CHAPTER II. 
 
 gatesco, gigantesco, mariscOy Morisco, marinesco, pintoresco, 
 soldadesco, etc. : in Pro v. Uspanesc, Francesc, Gfrezesc^ Ser- 
 razinesc, and joglaresc. Probably the French words of 
 this form, as burlesque, grottesque, gigantesque, pittoresque^ 
 are borrowed from the Italian : the two latter, if they 
 had been formed in French, would have been geantesque, 
 peinteuresque ; and the roots of the two former, hurlo and 
 grotto, are wanting in the same language. 
 
 This termination is derived from the German termi- 
 nation in isc]i^\ thus Tedesco in Ital. corresponds to 
 Theotiscus or Theotisch (Teutsch), as fresco was formed 
 from frisch. Thus Arabesco, barbaresco, Turchesco Ital., 
 answer to Arabisch, barbarisch, TUrkisch, National names 
 were often formed with this termination in the Romance 
 languages, as they are both in German and English. 
 
 Now it cannot be contended that the result of this 
 summary examination of the Romance terminations of 
 nouns by any means necessitates M. Raynouard's hy- 
 pothesis with respect to the parentage of the living 
 Latin dialects, or indeed is at all favourable to it. We 
 see, indeed, that the different languages subjected the 
 Latin terminations to similar modifications, and used 
 them for similar purposes ; but in this fact there is 
 nothing which compels us to suppose that they had any- 
 thing more in common than their derivation from the 
 Latin. In their corresponding words there is just that 
 degree of resemblance and of difference which might 
 have been expected in languages formed under the same 
 circumstances from the same original. Thus there are 
 some new nouns not derived from the Latin, such as 
 
 * See Grimm, vol. ii. p. 379. [Diez, Rom. Gr. vol. ii. p. 361.] 
 
NEW ROMANCE NOUNS FORMED BY AFFIXES. 1 45 
 
 those formed with aggio and age from lingua and cor, 
 with ezza^ eza, and esse from largus and prohus, with one 
 and (m from kampf, with ^aife or tat from bellus, with ^fra 
 from viridis, which occur in all the languages : some- 
 times the different languages formed the same root with 
 different terminations, as allegrezza and allegria Ital., 
 alegria Span., alegrage Pro v., allegresse French ; vicinanza 
 Ital., voisinage French ; frescor Prov., freschezza Ital., 
 frescura Span. ; schiavitu Ital., esclavage French : some- 
 times each language had words of the several forms 
 peculiar to itself, of which many examples have been 
 cited above ; and sometimes the corresponding words are 
 formed from the differently modified roots belonging to 
 each language, as maritaggio, maridage, and manage; 
 romitaggio and hermitage; credencia, creencia, and croy- 
 ance. As these latter words could not have been derived 
 from the same source, but were formed by means of the 
 same terminations from similar roots ; it is fair to con- 
 clude that the agreement in others where the roots were 
 the same was the effect of chance, and does not necessi- 
 tate the hypothesis of a common language in which 
 these nouns were formed. It is not to be wondered that 
 having the same terminations to work with, and the same 
 roots to work tipon, the languages should have often co- 
 incided in the new forms. Nor can it be doubted that 
 nations, whose territories lay so near together, which 
 were governed by institutions so closely resembling, be- 
 tween which there was so constant an intercourse, and 
 whose languages had so strict an afB.nity, should fre- 
 quently have borrowed words from each other. Under 
 these circumstances such words as omaggio, vassallagio, 
 and other political terms, would naturally pass from one 
 
 L 
 
146 CHAPTER II. 
 
 to another country. The influence of the Church had, 
 moreover, the efiect of binding all the Romance nations 
 into a species of federal republic, by making all the 
 clergy members of a community dependent on the See 
 of Rome. And on the whole, such a communication 
 existed between these countries, as rendered it impossible 
 that their cognate languages could have been developed 
 altogether independently of one another^ 
 
 The similarity of effects produced on language by 
 similar causes, may likewise be perceived in the foreign 
 words introduced into the Romance tongues during the 
 middle ages, such as the derivatives of werra, herberge, 
 wante, harnisch, reim, sclavus, spatha, etc., which pro- 
 bably were in most cases adopted by each language 
 independently of the others. The subject of the non- 
 Latin part of the Romance languages is, however, of 
 sufficient importance to require a separate investigation^ ; 
 and in this essay I shall confine myself to that which 
 concerns the grammar, without endeavouring to explain 
 that which concerns the dictionary of the modern Latin 
 dialects. 
 
 * On the influence of the Italian on the French see Muratori, Ant. 
 le. vol.ii. p. 1112, B. 
 ' See note (D) at the end. [Diez, Rom. Gram. vol. i. p. 56 — 72.] 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 Degrees of Comparison, Pronouns^ and Numerals in the 
 Romance Languages. 
 
 § 1. DEGREES OF COMPARISON. 
 
 The Provengal formed its degrees of comparison by- 
 means of the adverb plus: which word prefixed singly 
 to an adjective denoted the comparative, and together 
 with the article, the superlative degree: as hels^ plus 
 hels, el plus hels. Sometimes it preserved the Latin in- 
 j flexion in or for the comparative, as majers, mielhers, 
 \gensers, (from gent, gentilis Latin,) ausers {altior^,) and 
 rarely that in issimus for the superlative, as altismes, 
 X^ltissimus. The superlative might likewise be expressed 
 by means of the article and the Latin comparative: 
 thus * la genser^ was equivalent to ' la plus genta.' * Am 
 la plus hella et la meillorf *I love the fairest and the 
 best.' 
 
 After the comparative degree, the relation between 
 the two things compared is signified by the particle que, 
 (derived from the Latin quam,) as * plus riex qu'el senher 
 de Marroc,' * more powerful than the lord of Morocco.' 
 Sometimes the que was omitted between verbs, as 
 
 ^ The manner in which the Latin termination in or hecame er in 
 Proven9al, and received a final s, has been explained above, p. 83. 
 
 L2 
 
148 CHAPTER III. 
 
 * E am la mais no faz cozin ni oncle : ' ' and I love her 
 more (than) I do cousin or uncle/ 
 ; Or the preposition might be used before substantives 
 and pronouns, as *plus fresca de lei/ 'fresher than her;' 
 *mielhs de mi/ * better than me;' *mas de cen/ 'more 
 than a hundred/ M. Raynouard says that this usage 
 was imitated from the Greek, {G-r. Rom. p. 55,) but 
 there seems no reason for supposing that it was bor- 
 rowed from a language which could not have exercised 
 any influence on the Provencal, or indeed on any of 
 the Romance languages. When two objects are com- 
 pared, it is natural to say that one is the better, the 
 worse, the more beautiful, etc. of the two ; and it is an 
 easy transition to say that one is better of the other : 
 though it is an idiom which our language does not 
 admit, {G-r, Bom. p. 51 — 8.) 
 
 The other Romance languages have in like manner 
 lost the Latin mode of forming the degrees of compa- 
 rison by inflexion, with the exception of a few words re- 
 tained from the Latin, as maggiore, maggio, meno, peggiore, 
 peggio, migliore, meglio Ital., may or ^ peor^ mejor^ menos 
 Span., majeur^ meiUeur, mieux, pire, moins French ; and 
 ^the Italian and French, like the Proven9al, form the 
 ^comparative with piu and plus, the superlative with il 
 piu and le plus : while the Spanish uses mas (from magis) 
 for the same purpose. M. Raynouard says that the 
 provengal alone possesses both plus and mais (G-r. Qomp. 
 p. 137,) : but he forgets that the Latin equally possesses 
 them both ; and the Provencal does not prefix mais^ like 
 the Spanish, to adjectives, but uses it only as an adverb 
 of comparison. The Latin termination of the superla- 
 tive, as has been already remarked, rarely occurs in 
 
\ 
 
 DEGREES OF COMPABISON. I49 
 
 Provencal, and M. Raynouard cites a few instances of 
 it in old French, in wHch language, with the exception 
 of a few relics of the ancient form, such as illustrissimey 
 reverendissime, etc., it is now disused. The Italian 
 and Spanish have, however, preserved the use of this 
 termination, and can annex it to any adjective^ : but it 
 has lost its proper superlative meaning, and only has 
 an intensive force : thus * maximus omnium ' would be 
 in Italian ' il piu grande di tutti,' while ' vir maximus ' 
 would be 'uomo grandissimo.' Wherever it is meant 
 that none possess the quality in an equal degree, the 
 article and the adverb must be used : where it is meant 
 that the subject possesses the quality in a high degree, 
 the termination is proper. The same rule also applies 
 to the Spanish. It should be remarked that in the re- 
 tention of the superlative termination, the latter lan- 
 guages have adhered more closely than the Proven9al to 
 the Latin. 
 
 The employment of que after comparatives, and of de 
 before substantives and pronouns, occurs in all the Ro- 
 mance languages ; and of the suppression of die before 
 verbs M. Raynouard gives some instances from old 
 Italian : as * E pio soave dorme in vile e picciol letto 
 ... no face segnore en grande e caro suo :' G-uit. d* 
 Arezzo, Lett. I. p. 4^. {Or. Oomp. p. 137—42.) 
 
 * The Italian only preserved the Latin termination in issimus: it 
 has, however, retained some Latin superlatives of a different formation, 
 as ottimo, pessimo, minimo, injimo, supremo, acerrimo, celeherrimo. 
 These are collected by Biagioli, Gr. Ital. p. 62, who, however, ought 
 not to have called benissimo a Latin superlative. 
 
 ^ This construction resembles the vulgar English idiom, ' better nor 
 me,' * older jior him,' etc. 
 
150 CHAPTER III. 
 
 § 2. PKONOUNS. 
 
 The Proven9al personal pronouns have for the most 
 part only two cases in the singular, and one in the plural 
 number, distinguished by the termination: the others 
 are formed by prepositions. They are as follows : 
 
 
 Singular. 
 
 
 Plural. 
 
 Nom. 
 Ace. 
 
 eu, ieu, me, 
 me, mi 
 
 mi 
 
 nos 
 
 Nom. 
 Ace. 
 
 tu 
 
 tu, te, ti 
 
 
 Masc. 
 
 Nom. 
 Ace. 
 
 il, el 
 
 il, el, lo, li. 
 
 lui 
 
 il, els 
 
 els, los, li : lor only after 
 de or a 
 
 
 Singular. 
 
 
 Fkm. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 Nom. ella, il, lei, leis ellas 
 Ace. la, lei, leis las 
 
 after a and de ella and not after a and de ellas or lor 
 la was used. and not las was used. 
 
 Se and si were used either in the singular or the plural, 
 either in the nominative or accusative case, and with the 
 prepositions de and a, {G-r. Rom. p. 59 — 86.) 
 
 In these forms the greatest confusion prevails : while 
 me and mi are used in the nom. case, together with eu 
 derived from egOy tu is used in the ace. case, together 
 with te and ti: although eu is never the accusative, or te 
 the nominative. 77, e7, and elhy in the nom. singular 
 come from ille and ilia: ily el, lo, ella, and la, in the ob- 
 
PRONOUNS. 151 
 
 lique case are formed from ilium and illam: U, lui, lei, 
 and leis^ from illi. The two latter feminine forms are 
 likewise used as nominatives. In tlie nom. plural, il, elsy 
 and ellas, come from illiy illos, and illas; while lor, com- 
 mon to hoth genders, is derived from illorum. Li from 
 illi nom. was transferred to the oblique case plural, as lei 
 from illi dat. was transferred to the nom. singular. 
 
 To the personal pronouns were sometimes joined in the 
 Proven9al other pronouns, which had the effect of giving 
 additional force to the affirmation; such as eis, (from 
 ipse,) mezies, (the origin of which word will be explained 
 presently,) and altres. Thus ' elh eis dieus la fetz,' * God 
 himself made her,' * ille ipse Deus ;' * ah qu'el mezeis se 
 balaya,' *with which he himself flogs himself;' *de se 
 mezeis nos fe do,' *he made us a gift of himself;' * son 
 ves els mezeis trachor,' * they are traitors towards them- 
 selves/ Altre is only joined to nos and vos: thus 'Et 
 afermi que mays valh Mahomet que ton Xrist loqual vos 
 autres adoratz ;' * and I affirm that Mahomet is worth 
 more than thy Christ whom you adore.' 
 
 j En and ne were used in Proven9al to mean, of him, 
 hier, it, them; i, y, and hi, to mean, to him, her, it, them. 
 Although (says M. RajTiouard) en and ne derived from 
 inde, and i, y, or hi derived from ihi, ought only to have 
 been used for the pronoun when they signified inanimate 
 things, yet the Provencal used them to signify persons, 
 ' both in the singular and plural, and both masculine and 
 feminine, {G-r, Rom, p. 86.) 
 
 The modifications of the Latin personal pronouns 
 made by the Proven9al reappear, for the most part, in 
 
 * On this final s see below, ch. v. § 1. 
 
1S2 CHAPTER III. 
 
 the other Eomance languages. The old Italian eo and 
 the modern io, the Spanish yo, and the old French jeo, 
 i have retained the o of the Latin ego, which has become 
 u in the Provencal. The use of mi in the nominative 
 appears likewise to have anciently existed in Italian and 
 Portuguese^ : but that of tu in the ace. is peculiar to the 
 Proven9al. The Italian, from its intolerance of final 
 j consonants, has changed nos and vos into noi and voi^ : 
 'notwithstanding which (says M. Eaynouard) the Ro- 
 mance (i. e. Proven9al) nos and vos appear in ItaHan 
 joined with the preposition co,' {G-r. Comp. p. 148,) : a 
 singular assertion ; for in the first place, nos and vos are 
 as much Latin as Proven9al, and if they were the com- 
 mon forms in Italian would not prove any connexion 
 i with the Proven9al, and secondly, nosco and vosco are 
 evidently contracted from nohiscum and vobiscum, forms 
 of which there is no trace in the Proven9al or any other 
 Romance language. 
 
 / It is remarkable that the practice of adding alter to 
 jnos and vos, occurs in all the Romance languages, and 
 ' in Spanish particularly it has become inseparably joined 
 to those pronouns, so that nosotros and vosotros are the 
 common forms for the nom. case, nos and vos being re- 
 served for the accusative. 
 
 "With regard to the derivatives of the pronoun ilk, it 
 
 ' On the tendency to substitute the accusative for the nominative, 
 as being more emphatic, some remarks have been already made, above, 
 pp. 90, 91, and the same explanation probably applies to such expressions 
 as *io mi sono,' 'io non so ch'io mi dica o ch'io mi faccia' (Boc- 
 caccio), * io mi vivea' (Petrarch), which occur in old Italian: the mi 
 was doubtless added in order to give force to the affirmation, and 
 afterwards might be used merely from habit, (see Gr. Comp, p. 146.) 
 
 " Vi, the accusative, appears to be merely a contraction of vox. 
 
PRONOUNS. 153 
 
 I is to be observed tbat from tbis word all tbe Romance 
 i languages bave formed tbeir definite article^; and it is 
 curious to observe bow eacb language bas cbosen different 
 forms, originally synonymous, to distinguisb tbe one 
 sense from tbe otber. Tbe Proven9al used el as an 
 \ article, and botb el and il as tbe pronoun : tbe Italian 
 1 originally used botb el and il as tbe article, and el as tbe 
 pronoun : tbe latter bas now substituted egli^ apparently 
 from illi^ as tbe Prov. used lei also from illi in tbe femi- 
 nine gender. Tbe Proven9al used botb el and lo (from 
 H Ulum) as tbe nom. of tbe article, but lo as a pronoun was 
 ^ / only ace. Tbe old Frencb used both el and lo as tbe 
 / article, and lo as tbe accusative of tbe pronoun : but it 
 bas since disused el as an article, for wbicb it uses le (lo,) 
 and bas retained il only as tbe nom. of tbe pronoun. 
 Lei, tbougb derived from illi tbe Latin dative, was used 
 in old Italian, as well as in tbe Provencal, as a nom. : 
 tbus Petrarcb, 
 
 E ho si avezza 
 La mente a contemplar sola costei 
 Ch' altro non vede, e cio, che non e lei, 
 Gia per antica usanza odia e disprezza. 
 
 (See other instances in Gr. Comp. p. 155.) Tbe same 
 idiom is still retained in Italian in tbe language of con- 
 versation. With regard to li, los, ellas in Italian and 
 Spanish, the same observation appHes as to li, los, and 
 laSy the plural of the article; and lor^ which in the 
 5 Italian loro retains one more letter of illorum, does not 
 
 ' Except the Sardinian dialect, in which the definite article is so, sa, 
 from ipse : Eaynouard, vol. i. p. 41. For the definite ai'ticle in the 
 ^ Komance languages, see above, p. 56. 
 
'54 CHAPTER III. 
 
 appear as a personal pronomi in Spanish and Portu- 
 guese. 
 
 The Proven9al use of se occurs in all the other lan- 
 guages, of en and ne in French, of ne in Italian, and of i 
 or 2/ in all, {G-r. Qomp. p. 143 — 58.) 
 
 The Proven9al moreover often omitted the vowels of 
 Its personal pronouns, and affixed the remaining conso- 
 / nant or consonants to the preceding word : thus me, ti, se, 
 nos, vos, were represented hy m, t, s, ns, us : thus we find 
 * 'No sai en qual guiza-m^ fui natz,' ' I know not in what 
 guise I was born.' * Per aisso-t tem amors,' ' For this I 
 fear thee, Love.' ' Mos coratges no-s pot partir de vos,' 
 ' my heart cannot part itself from you.' * Lo jom que-ns 
 ac amor amdos eletz,' ' the day that love had chosen us 
 both.' ' Tolre no-m podetz que no-us am,' ' You cannot 
 prevent me from loving you.' iV is likewise used as an 
 affix for ne or en, (Gr. Rom. p. 91 — 5.) In poetry the 
 pronoun was necessarily affixed to the preceding word, 
 and could not be used in its uncontracted form*^. 
 
 This remarkable system of affixed pronouns occurs 
 in old French, and is still preserved in some of the 
 French patois: it was likewise very prevalent in old 
 Spanish : . but there is no trace of its existence either 
 in Portuguese or Italian, though it still prevails in 
 many of the dialects of Upper Italy, {Grr, Comp. p. 
 158—61, 402.) 
 
 The declension of the possessive pronouns has been 
 
 * In the manuscripts the affixed pronouns are written as part of the 
 word with which they are in pronunciation combined. I have sepa- 
 rated them (after Schlegel and Diez) with a hyphen for the sake of 
 clearness. 
 
 ' See Raynouard in the Journal des Savans, 1831, p. 348. 
 
 / 
 
PKONOUNS. 155 
 
 already given^ and it only remains to be remarked tliat 
 lor Prov. as not being derived from a word declinable in 
 Latin, is itself indeclinable. The Proven9al having ob- 
 tained an article, naturally employed it before possessive 
 pronouns used substantively, as in Greek : tbus ' E non 
 es benestan qu'hom eys los sieus aucia,* ' and it is not 
 good that man should kill even his own.' *Yos Q^lhs 
 vostres foratz totz mortz,' ' You and yours would be all 
 dead,' {Gr. Rom. p. 96—116.) 
 
 The Proven9al demonstrative pronouns are eel, aicel, 
 aquel, est, cest, aquest. The three first appear to be com- 
 pounded of hie or Mcce, and ille ; est, from iste, com- 
 pounded with the same word, likewise appears to have 
 made cest and aquest. The following is the declension 
 , of these words : 
 
 I 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Masc. Fem. 
 
 Nom. eel, celui Nom. cella, oil 
 
 and aicel aicella, aicil 
 
 Ace. aquel aquella, aquil 
 
 I 
 
 f Ace. cella, celleis 
 
 aicela 
 aquella, aquelleis 
 
 Nom. est Nom. esta, ist 
 
 and cest cesta, cist 
 
 Ace. aquest aquesta, aquist 
 
 Ace. esta 
 cesta 
 
 aquestj 
 
 I 
 
 f ' ' * See above, p. 78. 
 
156 CHAPTEK III. 
 
 Plural. 
 Masc. Fem. 
 
 Nom, cil, eels Nom. cellas 
 
 aicil, aicels and aicellas 
 
 aquil, aquels Ace. aquellas 
 
 Ace. eels 
 aicels 
 aquels 
 
 Nom, ist, est Nom. estas 
 
 cist, cest and cestas 
 
 aquist, aquest Ace. aquestas 
 
 Ace. ests 
 cests 
 aquests 
 
 The remarks above made on the personal pronoun el 
 apply with little variation to these forms. It will be ob- 
 served that celui masc. from illi dat. is used in all the 
 cases, though celleis and aquelleis fem., derived from the 
 same case, are never nominatives. Moreover cily aicil, 
 aquil, ist, cist, and aquist, are used as nom. feminines, 
 though in the ace. the final a is never omitted : probably 
 because the former are derived from ilia and ista, the 
 latter from illam and istam. Besides these masculine and 
 feminine forms, aisso, so, and aqux), are the neuter forms : 
 they appear to have retained their final on account of 
 the u in the neuter ipsum and illud, which does not appear 
 in the other genders, {Gr, Mom, p. 117 — 131.) So like- 
 wise in Spanish aquel is masculine and aquello neuter, 
 Gfr, Oomp, p. 175.) 
 
 Nearly all these pronouns with their variations occur 
 in the difierent languages. The Italian uses only the 
 abbreviated form quello, which M. Raynouard compares 
 
PRONOUNS. 157 
 
 with, aicel and aquel, but which seems rather to correspond 
 with eel, while the Spanish has not the shorter form, but 
 only uses aquel, (Gr. Oomp. p. 171 — 6.) 
 
 Of the Provencal relative pronouns it is only necessary 
 to mention qui, which is used in the nom. and ace, both 
 as masc. and fem. Que (derived from quod) is used in all 
 cases, and as both masc. and fem. : and it is alone used 
 after neuter demonstrative pronouns. Qui and cut some- 
 times perform the function of genitives, datives, and 
 ablatives : cui, however, is commonly preceded by a pre- 
 position, which che always requires. 
 
 Don, derived from de unde, and indeclinable, had the 
 /sense of whence, whose, by or from whom. On, from imde, 
 leant where, to whom, in whom. 
 
 The Proven9al used another pronoun relative formed 
 by prefixing the article to qiialis : viz. lo qual, la qual, 
 los quals, etc. 
 
 In Proven9al, as in Latin, the antecedent is often 
 understood : thus ' no say que dire,' * nescio quid dicam/ 
 ^Trobat avem qu' anam queren.* 'Invenimus quod 
 qugerimus,' etc. * Qui en gang semena, plazer cuelh,' 
 * (He) who sows in joy, reaps pleasure.* 'La premiera 
 ley denrostra a qui ha sen e raczon,' ' The first law proves 
 to (him) who has sense and reason.' ' Ai cum par franch 
 e de bon aire qui Tau parlar,* *Ah, how frank and 
 debonair sh.e appears (to him) who hears her speak.' 
 Sometimes, on the other hand, the antecedent being a 
 substantive, and not a pronoun, the relative was sup- 
 pressed, particularly in poetry : thus ' Car anc no vi dona 
 tan mi plagues,' ' For never saw I lady (who) pleased me 
 so much,' (Qr. Rom. p. 131—43.) 
 
 The corruptions of the Latin qui appear with little 
 
158 CHAPTER in. 
 
 difference in tlie other languages, wliicli likewise some- 
 . times suppress the antecedent, and rarely the relative. 
 I Onde in Ital. has retained the form of the Latin unde more 
 faithfully than the Prov. on : it has, however, occasionally 
 the sense of a relative pronoun, which it has obtained by 
 the same process of abstraction which has rejected the 
 notion of time in the prepositions de and ad, as used in 
 the Romance languages to express the relation of the 
 genitive and dative cases, and in the verb venire, when 
 used as an auxiliary verb, equivalent to essere, in ItaHan. 
 Dont likewise remains in French as a relative pronoun^ 
 and in old Italian and Spanish donde and don had the 
 same sense, {G-r, Oomp. 176 — 86.) 
 
 Of the Proven9al indefinite pronouns, the first to be 
 noticed is hom, or om, from the Latin . homo, which, 
 followed by the verb in the singular number, had a 
 distributive sense, and signified mankind in general, or a 
 large number of people. Thus ' Hom ditz che gang non 
 es senes amor,' ' Man says (i. e. it is said) that there is 
 no joy without love.' This very convenient idiom (which 
 our language unfortunately wants) seems to have been 
 introduced into the Romance languages by the Germans, 
 who used the substantive man in this manner. In French, 
 as is well known, this use of on is very prevalent ; which 
 word in ancient times was spelt very variously, retaining 
 sometimes evident traces of its original form, viz. hom, 
 hon, hum, om, um, on. The Italian^, Spanish, and Por- 
 tuguese, formerly used tioTUO, omne, and ome, in the same 
 manner : but in them this idiom has now become obsolete, 
 (ar. Comp. p. 187—9.) 
 
 * See Menage, Etym. Ital. in uom dice. 
 
PRONOUNS. 159 
 
 The Proven9al had two pronouns qiiecx, and usquecx, 
 signifying whoever^ every-one, derived from quisqiie and 
 wiusquisque ; but no other Romance language had any 
 derivatives of these words. 
 
 Cadauns or caduns, cac, cascuns, meant everyone ; 
 alcuns, some one ; nulsj neguns, deguns, nessiins, no one. 
 Of these words cadauns or caduns appears to have been 
 formed from qiwtus unus or quottinus, cac and cascuns^ 
 from quisqtie and quisque unus {unusquisque) : alcuns was 
 formed from aliquis unus, like alicuhi in Latin from aliquo 
 uhi : nuls from mdlus, neguns and perhaps nessuns^ from 
 nee unus. The origin of deguns, unless it was a corruption 
 of neguns, does not appear. Being derived from Latin 
 pronouns in us, they were declined according to the rules 
 given above : thus nom. cascuns or cascus, cascuna ; ace. 
 cascun, cascuna. Cada or cad is sometimes used in the 
 sense of every : thus * A Carduel una pentecosta On cad 
 an gran pobels s*ajosta/ * At Carduel, an Easter, where 
 every year many people assemble' : in which passage cad 
 an appears to answer to the Latin quot annis, both in form 
 and meaning. Cada has the same sense both in Italian 
 and Spanish^. The French has it not, but only chasque, 
 which, like the Provencal cac, probably comes from 
 quisque; and chascun, which, as well as ciascuno Ital., 
 probably comes from quisque unus. The lialian'likewisd 
 
 * If cac came from quisque, it would be the same word as quecx 
 mentioned above, without the final x or s. 
 
 ' There are instances in Provencal of the confusion of the final c 
 and s : see below, ch. v. § 1. Muratori in v. derives nessuno from 
 nescio unum, without any probability. 
 
 3 The Spanish nada and nadie appear to be allied to cada : but I am 
 unable to ofier even a conjecture as to their origin. 
 
i6o 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 i has cadaunOy compounded of cada)-. Every language has 
 
 ' the derivatives of aliquis-unus and nullus : but the ItaHan 
 
 and French have neuno and neun formed from ne unus, as 
 
 well as n^ssuno and nesun from nee unus : the Spanish 
 
 r alone has from nee unus made mngwio, like the Provencal 
 
 neguns^. The Portuguese had nenhum. 
 
 From alter the Prov. made altres or altre declined, 
 altrui undechned, (which appears to have been formed 
 from the dative alteriy like lui from illi, costui Ital. from 
 isti ;) and lastly by contraction al. The other languages 
 likewise have these forms, and particularly al, which 
 (sometimes changed into el) occurs in old French, is stiU 
 used in Spanish and Portuguese, and appears in some 
 Italian words, as alsi. 
 
 Eis, eissa, meteis, metissa, signifying self or own, were 
 used after all persons : thus * Eu eis mi son traire,' ' I am 
 a traitor to myself,' (ego ipse mihi sum traditor.) * En 
 eysa la semana,' 'in the very week.' *Per mo mezeis 
 follatge,' * through my own folly.' ' Altresi com la can- 
 dela Que si meteissa destrui,' * like the candle which 
 destroys itself.' 
 
 Ms, es, or eps, (as it is sometimes written in the more 
 ancient monuments of the Proven9al,) is derived from 
 ipse^. 3feteis (sometimes written medeis or medes, mezeis, 
 
 ^ Gatauno occurs in an ancient Italian letter published by Muratori, 
 Diss. It. vol. ii. p. 1047, E. [See Diez in cadauno.] 
 
 5» See Grimm, vol. iii. p. 70 note. It will be observed that all the 
 Romance languages have lost the Latin nemo. 
 
 3 Ips or eps (the corruptions of ipse) sometimes became eis, and 
 sometimes es. From the latter of these forms came the compounds 
 des and ades, from the fonner the compounds ncis and anceis, (Gr. 
 Rom. p. 251,) as will be shown below, ch. v. §. 2. On isso and esso 
 in Italian derived from ipse, see Perticari, Dif. di Dante, c. 13, vol. i. 
 p. 321. Muratori, Diss. 32, vol. ii. p. 991, B. 
 
t 
 
 PKONOUNS. l6l 
 
 and messeis) is evidently formed by the composition of 
 eis with the emphatic particle met, which is subjoined to 
 the Latin personal pronoims : thus the latter example 
 would be word for word in Latin, * velut candela quae se 
 met ipsam destruit.' When the suffix had been detached 
 from the pronoun to which it belongs, and permanently 
 prefixed to the following word, it is no wonder that the 
 compound thus formed should be used without a pronoun 
 immediately before it, as when it occurs as an adverb in 
 the sense of even. It is remarkable that all the other 
 Romance languages should agree in this pecuHar corrup- 
 tion, although they have taken for their type the Latin 
 superlative of ipse, and from met-ipsissimus have formed 
 medesimo Ital., mismo Span., mesme French^. 
 
 From the Latin totus the Provencal made tots or totz, 
 dechned according to the rule given above : it was some- 
 times compounded with the adverb tras, or tres, very ; 
 making trastotz, which had a stronger sense than the 
 simple word. Tras (as will be mentioned below 2) ap- 
 pears to be derived from extra by the addition of s and 
 the suppression of the first syllable. The old French 
 likewise had the compound trestoz or trestout. It is re- 
 markable that the Latin word omnis was abandoned in 
 all the Romance languages (except the Italian, which 
 has ogni) and totus substituted for it. 
 
 From the Latin multus are derived the Ital. molto,^ the 
 Prov. molts, the French malt, mult, or moult, arid the 
 Port, muito. From the German manch are derived the 
 Trov. mantz or maintz, the French maint, and the Ital. 
 
 > See Menage and Muratori in medesimo, Grimm, vol. iii. p. 13. 
 [Burguy, Gr. de la Langue d'Oil, vol. i. p. 179.] 
 » Ch. V. §. 2. 
 
1 62 CHAPTER III. 
 
 manto. The Span, instead of these words has muchq, 
 which M. Raynouard derives from multus, but which 
 appears to be of Teutonic origin, and to be derived fromy 
 an ancient word preserved in the English much, (mik-ils 
 G-oth., mik-il old H. German^.) Flusor, formed fronx* 
 plus, appears in the Ital., Prov., and French : in Span* 
 and Port, it is wanting. On the derivatives of talis and 
 qualis, tantus and quantus, it is unnecessary to make any 
 remark, {G-r. Rom. p. 145—60. Qr, Comp. p. 186—96.) 
 
 3. NUMERALS. 
 
 The cardinal numbers of the Provencal, which will 
 furnish an easy means of comparison for the different 
 languages, are as follows : uns or us, dui, trei, quatre, cinq, 
 sex and sei, set, och and ot, nov, deze and dex, unze, doze, 
 treze, quatorze, quinze, seize, vint, trenta, quaranta, cent, 
 mil. The ordinal numbers are premiers, segons, ters, 
 quarts, quints, seizens, setens, ochens, novens, dezens, unzens, 
 dotzens, trezens, quatorzens, quinzins, sezemes, vintesmes, 
 trentesmes, quarantesmes, centes, milles. Of these forms 
 uns or us was declined like the adjectives hons or hos : dui 
 was nom. masc, dos ace. masc, and doas was fem. of both 
 cases. The Prov. likewise used ams masc. and amhas 
 fem. from amho : by combining which word with dui it 
 formed likewise the compound ambedui or amdui, de- 
 clined like dui. Trei is nom. masc, and tres ace. masc. 
 and also fem. of both cases. In the other cardinal num- 
 bers, the Prov., like the Latin, made no distinction of 
 
 » See Grimm, vol. iii. p. 608, 610. 
 
NUMERALS. 1 63 
 
 cases. The ordinal numbers were declined like adjectives 
 of both genders in 5, except ters, which (as being con- 
 tracted from tert-ius) was invariable in the masc. gender, 
 and in the fem. made tersa. It is to be observed, more- 
 over, that segons made in the fem. segonda ; centes, cen- 
 tesma ; milles, millesma : the fem. retaining in the middle 
 the letter which had dropped from the masc. where it 
 was a final ; as in the French heau, belle, etc^ This was 
 also the case with the ordinals in ens, of which the masc. 
 was commonly in es, the fem. in ena, as seizes, seizena. 
 Several ordinals had the termination esmes, as well as 
 ens, thus sezesmes, as weU as seizens, {G-r. Rom. p. 161 — 6.) 
 On comparing the numerals in the other Romance 
 languages with the Pro v. forms, it will be observed that 
 ( the Ital., in deriving quattro from quattuor, otto from odo, 
 undid, dodici, etc. from undecim, duodecim, etc. kept 
 / nearer to the Latin than did the Pro v., which made 
 quatre, ot, unze, doze, etc. It is inconceivable, as has 
 been already remarked in a similar case, that the Latin 
 qtmtttior, odo, and undecim, should first have been con- 
 tracted or attenuated into quatre, ot, and unze, and then 
 I restored to quattro, otto, and undid. The old French 
 / used the cases dui and dos, like the Prov., as also the 
 compound ambedui or emhedui : it likewise distinguished 
 between troi and tres for the nom. and ace, (G-r. Comp, 
 p. 198—9.) 
 
 The first of the ordinals the Prov. took not from the 
 
 /heitm primiis, but ivovo. primarius ; in which it has been 
 
 ( imitated by the French : the Ital. and Span., though 
 
 ) they have primiero and primero from primarius, never- 
 
 See above, p. 138. 
 
 M 2 
 
j64 CHAPTER III. 
 
 tiieless use primo from primus as their ordinal. In the 
 /derivatives of secundus, tertius, quartus, and quintus, (ex- 
 f cept that the Spanish makes tercero from tertiarius,) all 
 the languages agree. At this point, however, a dis- 
 agreement takes place : for whereas the Ital. and Span, 
 use the derivatives of the common Latin forms sextus, 
 Septimus, octavuSy nonus, decimus, undecimus, duodecimus ; 
 the Prov. used the termination perceptible in the less 
 common Latin forms septenus, cdonus, novenus, denus, etc. 
 to form ordinals of its own, by which means it made 
 seizen, seten, ochen, etc. from sei, set, och, etc, 
 I It is a singular circumstance that all the Romance 
 /languages should agree in deviating from the Latin with 
 / regard to the formation of the three numerals before 
 ( twenty. The Latin forms all its cardinal numbers from 
 eleven to nineteen inclusive, by annexing decem to the 
 unit number : thus undecim, duodecim^, tredecim, etc. to 
 novendecim. The modern languages follow the same rule 
 till they come to seventeen, when instead of affixing the 
 word ten to the unit number, they reverse the order of 
 the words, and to correspond to septendecimy ododecim, 
 novendecim, we have in Prov. deze set, deze ot, deze nov^ ; ^ 
 
 * There is this difference between the Greek and Latin -with its 
 dialects on the one hand, and the Teutonic languages on the other, 
 that in the former the numerals eleven and twelve are compounded of 
 ■one and two and the word ten : whereas in the latter they are deriva- 
 tives of one and two, and the word ten does not enter into them. Thus 
 svStKa and undecim, SvudeKa and duodecim : but eilf and zwelf or 
 zwSlf from ein and zwei or zwo. Andlefen Goth, and einlef or endlef 
 old H. Germ, show the relation of eilf to eleven. See Meidinger's 
 Dictionary, p. 507. 
 
 ' At least I suppose that this is M. Raynouard's meaning, as he 
 omits the numerals between sixteen and twenty, (Gr. Rom. p. 161.) 
 
NUMERALS. 1 65 
 
 /m Ital. diciasette, diciotto, diciannove : in Span, diez y 
 siete, diez y ocho, diez y neuve ; in French dix sept, dix huit, 
 dix neuf. Tlie change is the same as if in Enghsh after 
 sajring thirteen, fourteen, fifteen, sixteen^ we were to pro- 
 ceed tenseven, teneight, tennine. 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 Formation^ Conjugation, and Syntax of Verbs in the 
 Romance Languages. 
 
 I 1. FORMATION AND CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 
 
 The ProvenQal verbs are arranged by M. Eaynouard in 
 three conjugations, viz. tbose whose infinitive mood ends 
 in ar, in er or re, and ir or ire. The Proven9al has three 
 auxiliary verbs, aver from the Latin habere, esser from 
 the Latin esse, and estar from the Latin stare^. 
 
 The Latin had itself degenerated from the more per- 
 fect type of conjugation preserved in the Greek verb, and 
 had admitted the use of an auxiliary verb in some tenses 
 of the passive voice : the use of the auxiliary verb was, 
 however, much extended in the Romance languages by 
 the influence of the Germans, who, accustomed to this 
 \ method of conjugation in their own language, and mis- 
 understanding or not knowing the force of the Latin 
 terminations, employed the easier method of compound- 
 ing a tense out of an auxiliary verb and the past parti- 
 I ciple. Nevertheless it is to be observed that in the active 
 I voice all, or nearly all, the Latin tenses were preserved, 
 / and the compound tenses of the Romance languages 
 were added to those of the Latin verb, and not substituted 
 for them. 
 
 » On the use of stare for esse in Latin see Menage, Orig. Ital. in v. 
 
CONJUGATION OP VERBS. 
 
 167 
 
 I will now set down tlie conjugations of tlie tkree Pro- 
 ven9al auxiliary verbs, omitting the compound tenses. 
 
 Infin. 
 
 esser estar 
 
 aver 
 
 Pres. Part. 
 
 essens estaiis 
 
 avens 
 
 Past Part. 
 
 estatz 
 
 agutz 
 
 Gerund 
 
 essen estan 
 
 Indicative Mood. 
 
 Present. 
 
 aven 
 
 son, soi, sui 
 
 estai, au 
 
 ai 
 
 est, iest 
 
 as 
 
 as 
 
 es 
 
 a,ai 
 
 a 
 
 sem, em 
 
 am 
 
 avem 
 
 etz 
 
 atz 
 
 avetz 
 
 son, son 
 
 an, on 
 Imperfect. 
 
 an 
 
 era 
 
 estava 
 
 avia 
 
 eras 
 
 avas 
 
 ias 
 
 era, er 
 
 ava 
 
 ia 
 
 eram 
 
 avam 
 
 iam 
 
 eratz 
 
 avatz 
 
 iatz 
 
 eran, eron 
 
 avan, avon 
 Perfect. 
 
 ian, ien, ion 
 
 fui 
 
 estei 
 
 aigui, aic 
 
 fust 
 
 est 
 
 aguist, aguest 
 
 fo, fon 
 
 et 
 
 aguet, ac 
 
 fom 
 
 em 
 
 aguem 
 
 fotz 
 
 etz 
 
 aguetz 
 
 foren, foron 
 
 erem, eron 
 Future. 
 
 agueren, agueron 
 
 er, serai 
 
 estarai 
 
 anrai 
 
 seras 
 
 aras 
 
 as 
 
 er, sera 
 
 ara 
 
 a 
 
 serem 
 
 arem 
 
 em 
 
 seretz 
 
 aretz 
 
 etz 
 
 seran 
 
 aran 
 
 an 
 
i68 
 
 » 
 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 
 
 
 Conditional. 
 
 
 eria fora 
 
 estaria 
 
 auria agra 
 
 as 
 
 as 
 
 as 
 
 as as 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 a a 
 
 am 
 
 am 
 
 am 
 
 am am 
 
 atz 
 
 atz 
 
 atz 
 
 atz atz 
 
 an, on an, en, 
 
 on an, on 
 
 an, on an, on 
 
 
 
 Imperative Mood. 
 
 
 Bias 
 
 
 estas 
 
 aias 
 
 a 
 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 am 
 
 
 em 
 
 am, em 
 
 atz 
 
 
 atz 
 
 atz 
 
 an, on 
 
 
 en, on 
 
 an, on 
 
 
 
 Subjunctive Mood. 
 
 
 
 Present, 
 
 
 sia 
 
 
 este 
 
 aia 
 
 as 
 
 
 es 
 
 as 
 
 a 
 
 
 e 
 
 a 
 
 am 
 
 
 em 
 
 am 
 
 atz 
 
 
 etz 
 
 atz 
 
 an, on 
 
 
 an, on 
 Imperfect. 
 
 an, on 
 
 fos 
 
 
 estes 
 
 agues 
 
 fosses 
 
 
 esses 
 
 esses 
 
 fos 
 
 
 es 
 
 es 
 
 fossem 
 
 
 essem 
 
 essem 
 
 fossetz 
 
 
 essetz 
 
 essetz 
 
 fossen, 1 
 
 on 
 
 essen, esson 
 
 essen, esson 
 
 It will be time to speak generally of the relation 
 wliicli tlie Proven9al system of conjugation bears to tbat 
 of tbe Latin and the other Romance languages, when we 
 come to the three regular conjugations : here I shall only 
 
CONJUGATION OP VEIlBg^ V// '^/'•, 
 
 mention those circumstances which are peculiar to-^ft^. 
 three auxiliary verbs. ^-^ .^^ / 
 
 The three auxiliary verbs occur in all the Romance- _^ 
 languages : the French alone has not the infinitive formed 
 from esse, {^sserejltal.^ esser Pro v., ser Span. ;) etre being 
 the modem form of ester^ Jtoto. estar : ~s6^\ikewise jested^ 
 the ancient French participle from estai, became first 
 £.§te^ and then ete. All the modem languages agree in I 
 changing the b of habere into v : but this change is so 
 common as not to have anything remarkable. M. Kay- 
 nouard goes regularly through every tense, comparing 
 the Provencal forms with those of the other languages, 
 and in many places he shows that the Italian and Spanish 
 anciently used forms more resembling the Proven9al than 
 those now in use : for the most part, however, there is 
 nothing worthy of notice in these coincidences : thus the 
 Italian formerly said avemo, and not abbiamo, which is 
 nearer to the Latin habemus; eramo, and not eravamOy 
 which is nearer to the Latin eramus: so likewise instead 
 of fu it said, like the Proven9al, fo : but the vowels u 
 and are so frequently interchanged in Itahan that this 
 variation is of no importance. 
 
 It is to be observed that the Proven9al, like the French, 
 ' declines the verb etre with the auxiliary aver, as ai estatz, 
 ^j'ai ete; while the Italian declines stare with the verb 
 essere, as sono stato. 
 
 The conjugations of the regular verbs, which have 
 been mentioned above, are as follows : 
 
 Infin. 
 
 amar 
 
 temer 
 
 sentir 
 
 Pres. Part. 
 
 amans 
 
 temens 
 
 sentens 
 
 F^ast. Part. 
 
 amatz 
 
 temutz, sutz 
 
 sentitz 
 
 Gerund 
 
 aman 
 
 temen 
 
 senten 
 
^d 
 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 
 
 
 Indicative Mood. 
 
 
 
 
 Present. 
 
 
 am, ami 
 
 
 tem, temi 
 
 sent, sente 
 
 amas 
 
 
 temes 
 
 sentis 
 
 ama, am 
 
 
 teme, tem 
 
 senti, sent 
 
 amam 
 
 
 temem 
 
 sentem 
 
 amatz 
 
 
 temetz 
 
 sentitz 
 
 aman, on 
 
 , en 
 
 temen, on 
 Imperfect. 
 
 senten, on 
 
 amava 
 
 
 temia 
 
 sentia 
 
 avas 
 
 
 ias 
 
 ias 
 
 ava 
 
 
 ia 
 
 ia 
 
 avam 
 
 
 iam 
 
 iam 
 
 avatz 
 
 
 iatz 
 
 iatz 
 
 avail, 
 
 avon 
 
 ian 
 
 Perfect. 
 
 ian 
 
 amci, ici 
 
 
 temi, ei 
 
 senti 
 
 est, iest 
 
 ist, est 
 
 ist 
 
 et 
 
 
 i, et 
 
 1 
 
 em 
 
 
 em, im 
 
 im 
 
 etz 
 
 
 etz, itz 
 
 itz 
 
 eren, eron 
 
 eren, eron 
 
 iren, iron 
 
 
 
 Future. 
 
 
 amarai 
 
 
 temerai 
 
 sentirai 
 
 avas 
 
 
 eras 
 
 iras 
 
 ava 
 
 
 era 
 
 ira 
 
 arem 
 
 
 erem 
 
 iram 
 
 aretz 
 
 
 eretz 
 
 iratz 
 
 aran 
 
 
 eran 
 Conditional, 
 
 iran 
 
 amaria, era 
 
 temeria, era 
 
 sentiria 
 
 arias, 
 
 eras 
 
 erias, eras 
 
 irias 
 
 aria, era 
 
 eria, era 
 
 iria 
 
 ariam, 
 
 eram 
 
 eriam, eram 
 
 iriam 
 
 ariatz, 
 
 , eratz 
 
 eriatz, eratz 
 
 iriatz 
 
 arian, 
 
 eran 
 
 erian, eran 
 
 irian 
 
CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 
 
 171 
 
 
 Imperative Mood. 
 
 
 ama, am 
 
 teme 
 
 senti, sent 
 
 a 
 
 e, tern 
 
 i 
 
 em 
 
 em 
 
 am 
 
 etz 
 
 etz 
 
 etz 
 
 en, on 
 
 en, on 
 
 Subjunctive Mood. 
 Present. 
 
 an, on 
 
 ame 
 
 tema 
 
 senta 
 
 es 
 
 as 
 
 as 
 
 e 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 em 
 
 am 
 
 am 
 
 etz 
 
 atz 
 
 atz 
 
 en, on 
 
 an 
 
 ImperfecU 
 
 an 
 
 ames 
 
 temes 
 
 sentls 
 
 esses 
 
 esses 
 
 esses 
 
 es 
 
 es 
 
 is 
 
 essem 
 
 essem 
 
 issem 
 
 essetz 
 
 essetz 
 
 issetz 
 
 essen, esson 
 
 essen 
 
 issen, on 
 
 On comparing with this scheme of the Provencal verbs 
 the conjugations of the ItaHan and Spanish verbs, analo- 
 gous remarks to those already made on the terminations 
 of nouns naturally suggest themselves. In almost all 
 instances the Proven9al cut off or contracted the final 
 syllable of the Latin word : thus from amare it made 
 amar, from amo it made am, from amamus it made amam, 
 from amasti it made amest, from amando it made aman : 
 the Italian, however, where the Latin word ended with 
 a vowel, retained it unchanged, as amare, amo, amasti, 
 amando; where the Latin word ended in us, instead, like 
 the Proven9al, of omitting altogether the final syllable, 
 
17^ CHAPTER IV. 
 
 / it only rejected tlie 5, and changed the ii into o, as amamus 
 amiamOy amabamus amavamo, like littus lido, pondus pondo, 
 subtus sotto, etc. The Spanish in some respects adhered 
 j less closely than the Italian to the Latin : thus it made 
 /the infinit. amar: and in the second person sing, of the 
 / preterite it made amaste, and not amasti: it retained, 
 / however, the final o in the first person sing, of the pre- 
 sent, as amo, and in the gerund, as amando, and in the 
 first person plural it only changed us into os, as ammnos, 
 amahamos, Now it is inconceivable that this close ad- 
 herence to the Latin should have been accidental, and 
 that the Latin terminations should be preserved in the 
 Italian and Spanish, if these languages had been derived 
 from the Proven9al, in which all the terminations in 
 question had been cut off. Nobody can believe that 
 amarCy amo, amasti, and amando, were first contracted 
 into amar, am, amast, and aman, and then restored, by 
 accident, for the sake of euphony, to their original forms : 
 that amamus was changed into amam, and then lengthened 
 into amiamo and amamos. These differences between the 
 Proven9al and the Italian and Spanish, pervading every 
 tense of every verb, make it evident that the latter lan- 
 guages did not pass through the alembic of the former 
 language in the process of their transmutation from the 
 Latin. 
 
 The only instances in which the Italian appears to 
 have arbitrarily added to its verbs a final vowel for the 
 / sake of euphony, are the third persons plural, such as 
 I amano, amavano, amarono, lengthened from aman, amavariy 
 amaron, (the contractions of amant, amahant, amarunt,) 
 which are the only forms used in Spanish : and in the 
 third persons singular of the preterite in ette, thus stetit 
 
CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 
 
 173 
 
 and dedit, having been contracted into stet and det, were 
 lengthened into stette and dette, (G-r. Qomp. p. 252.) The 
 Italian like\vise having changed sum as well as sunt into 
 
 / son, added to it the euphonic 0, both in the first and 
 
 ( third person. 
 
 '' The most remarkable divergence from the Latin verb, 
 and one in which all the Eomance languages agree, is 
 in the future tense, as may be seen from the following 
 table. 
 
 Latin. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Span. 
 
 Prov. 
 
 French. 
 
 amabo 
 
 amero 
 
 amar^ 
 
 amarai 
 
 aimer^i 
 
 timebo 
 
 temero 
 
 temerd 
 
 temerai 
 
 
 sentiam 
 
 sentiro 
 
 sentire 
 
 sentirai 
 
 sentirai 
 
 The Latin has two modes of forming its future active, 
 one for the two first conjugations by adding ho, and 
 another for the two last conjugations by adding am to 
 the characteristic letter : thus ama-bo, time-bo, reg-am, 
 senti-am. In its derivative languages, both these modes 
 of formation have been lost, and in their place a single 
 termination has been substituted, viz. r followed by a 
 vowel or diphthong. There is no trace of the formation 
 of the Latin future by this consonant, except in ero, the 
 future of the verb esse. 
 
 M. Eaynouard supposes that the modem futures have 
 been formed by annexing the present tense of avere, haber, 
 aver, or avoir, to the infinitive mood of each verb, and in 
 proof of this assertion he cites several passages where the 
 infinitive mood of the auxiliary verb is in the Proven9al 
 separated by the interposition of another word : thus * Et 
 quant cobrat Tavran, tornar Van e so poder per fe e senes 
 engan,' where the French exactly renders this idiom : 
 
174 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 * Et quand recouvre Tauront, tourner Font en son pouvoir 
 par foi et sans tromperie/ 
 
 So likewise in poems of the Troubadours ; * E si li 
 platz, alherguar m'a' * and if it pleases him, he has to 
 lodge me.* 
 
 E pos mon cor non aus dir a rescos, 
 Pregar vos a/, s' en aus, en ma chansos. 
 
 ' And since I do not dare to express my wish in secret, 
 I have to entreat you, if I dare, in my song.' 
 
 Amarai ? oc ; si li platz ni I'es gens, 
 E si nol platz, amar Vai eissamen. 
 
 * Shall I love ? Yes ; if it pleases her and she is kind, 
 and if it does not please her, I have to love her (i. e. I 
 will love her) equally/ 
 
 In Provencal, too, the verbs aver and esser, with the 
 preposition a before another verb, were used to express 
 the future : as ' ab Keys ai a guerir,' * with her I have to 
 recover :' i. e. 'I shall recover.' * A Tadvenement del qual 
 tuit an a ressuscitar,' * at whose coming all have to rise 
 again :' i.e. * all will rise again.' * Tem que m'er a morir,' 
 
 * I fear it will be to me to die,' i. e. * I fear I shall die, {Gr. 
 Rom. p. 221—2. comp. vol. i. p. 70, 81. Gr. Oomp.^. 206.) 
 
 Of these idioms the latter occurs, though with a sense 
 not so closely allied to the future, in all the Romance lan- 
 guages : of the former, examples are to be found only in 
 the Spanish and Portuguese ; in the Italian and French 
 this usage does not appear ever to have prevailed. The 
 following arc examples from the Spanish : * Non te diran 
 Jacob, mas decir te han Israel.' * Castigar los M como 
 
CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 
 
 175 
 
 avran a far/ ' Haher les hemos come alevosos perjurados,' 
 {Qr. Oomp. p. 297—81.) 
 
 These examples appear to prove the truth of M. E>ay- 
 nouard's assertion with respect to the origin of the 
 Romance future ; as becomes more evident by comparing 
 the future tense in each language with the modern present 
 tense of habere : thus 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Span. 
 
 Prov. 
 
 French. 
 
 ho 
 
 he 
 
 ai 
 
 ai 
 
 amer 6 
 perder 6 
 sentir 6 
 
 amar 4 
 perder ^ 
 sentir 6 
 
 aiuar ai 
 perder ai 
 sentir ai 
 
 aimer ai 
 perdr ai 
 sentir ai 
 
 In old Italian, moreover, haggio and ahho were used for 
 hOy (i. e. habeo,) as the first person of the present tense of 
 havere : and thus we likewise find futures in aggio and 
 ahbo, as faraggio, veniraggio, diraggio, torrabbo^. 
 
 When this form had once been estabHshed in the active 
 verb, it was transferred to the auxiliary verbs, so that the 
 verb habere was inflected by itself, ((7r. Oomp. p. 206^.) 
 
 • This origin of the Komance future is doubted, upon insuflficient 
 grounds, by Ampere, Hist, de la Litt. Fr. p. 160. 
 
 * See this fully explained by Castelvetro on Bemho, vol. ii. p. 
 203 — 5 : compare Perticari, vol. i. p. 302, note 7, to col. 2. Galvani, 
 Poesie dei Trovatori, p, 36, n. 1. Lanzi, Lingua Etrusca, vol. i. 
 p. 338. 
 
 3 The story which M. Raynouard citeS' from Almoin, De Gestis 
 Francorum, ii. 5, about Dara taking its name from the Emperor 
 Justinian saying Daras, (thou shalt give,) and which he calls ' a fact 
 difficult to explain,' (vol. i. p. x.) is, as Schlegel has remarked, 
 evidently an etymological fable, (p. 45, 102,) Uke those which the 
 Greeks so often invented about the origin of their cities, and not more 
 authentic than the derivation of the name of Britain from Brutus the 
 grandson of ^neas. [This city of Mesopotamia is called Doras in 
 Pasch. Chron. vol. i. p. 608, ed. Bonn, and Malalas, p. 399, ed. Bonn. 
 
176 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 As the future tense was formed by means of the present 
 tense, so the conditional was probably formed by means 
 of the imperfect, of habere : in Spanish some instances 
 occur where this tense is, as it were, analysed into its 
 component parts ; as ' dexar me ias con el sola ;' ^ E mas 
 pechere me Jiia en pia diez mil maravedis ;' ' Pechar nos 
 ya toda aquella pena,' {G-r. Comp. p. 278.) All the 
 languages except the French have a double form of this 
 tense. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Span. 
 
 Prov. 
 
 French. 
 
 amerei 
 
 amara 
 
 amera 
 
 aimerei 
 
 ameria 
 
 amaria 
 
 amaria 
 
 
 perderei 
 
 perdiera 
 
 perdera 
 
 perderei 
 
 perderia 
 
 perderia 
 
 perderia 
 
 
 sentirei 
 
 sentiera 
 
 sentiria 
 
 sentireie 
 
 sentiria 
 
 sentiria 
 
 
 
 / The simple forms in ara and era appear to be corrupted 
 /from the Latin amarem^ 'perderem, sentirem : the form in 
 / ia M. Eaynouard considers as taken from avia, {aveie in 
 French,) the imperfect of avere. Nor would there be any 
 doubt about this derivation, if it were certain that ia ever 
 had the force of avia, and that such is its meaning in the 
 passages quoted above from the Spanish. The Itahan 
 form in ei, however, is evidently borrowed, not from the 
 imperfect, but from the preterite, of avere, ehhi, anciently 
 ei, as may be seen from the inflexion of the different 
 
 in which passages it is said to have received its name, from being the 
 place where Alexander the Great conquered Darius with the spear 
 ($6pv). Almoin, a French Benedictine monk, was born about 1)50, and 
 died in 1008 a.d. His History of the Franks abounds in fables. The 
 reign of Justinian terminated in 565 a.d. Concerning the town in 
 question, see Dr. Smith's Diet, of Anc. Geogr. art, Daras.] 
 
CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 1 77 
 
 persons^. Tlie Yenetian dialect has vorave, sarave, for 
 vorrei, sarei, etc., whicli more distinctly shows the Latia 
 habui^. Parrave for parrebbe was used by Dante da 
 Maiano^. 
 
 With regard to the other tenses of the regular verb& 
 in the Italian and Spanish, and their relation to the LatiQ 
 and Proven9al, there is nothing which calls for particular 
 notice- The formation of the French verb, however, 
 having undergone more changes, and having departed 
 further from its original type, requires a more detailed 
 explanation. 
 
 The final s now added to the first and third persons of 
 the present, to the second person of the imperative, and 
 to the first person plural, of the French verb, formerly did 
 not exist : and those tenses which have now ois as the 
 termination of the first and second persons singular, 
 origiaally made eie or oie in the first, and eies or oies in 
 the second person : thus je mand,je voi,je regard, je bais, 
 il aim, il chant, pren-tu, fui-t-en, nous avum, nous devunty 
 nous parlum, nous prion, nous gardon, j^aveie, je fereie,je 
 sole, festoie, tu saveies, tu consenteies, tu devoies, tu tenoies. 
 In these respects the French verb approached nearer to 
 the Latin and Proven9al forms (6rr. Comp. 225 — 38.) 
 
 The French imperfect has undergone remarkable 
 changes : amabam, the Latin form of the first conjugation, 
 first, by a slight modification, as in the other languages 
 became amava: then the internal a was, as in other French 
 words, changed into o, and the final a underwent the 
 regular change into the e muet : by which means amava 
 
 * Castelvetro on Bembo, vol. ii. p. 224. 
 
 * Denina, in the MSm. de I'Acad. de Berlin, 1797, p. 76, 
 3 Castelvetro, ibid. 
 
 N 
 
i'J^ CHAPTER IV. 
 
 became amoue^. M. Kaynouard cites many examples of 
 this form ; as je crioue, je parlowe, je quidoue, tu parloes, 
 U cuveitoue, Us alouent, ils contrariowent, Us errouent ; 
 afterwards u was changed into i, so that amoue became 
 amoie : the final e was then suppressed, when the im- 
 perative was written festoy, fescoutoy, and lastly, a final 
 s was added, which brought it to its present form. The 
 other forms of the Latin imperfect, eham and ibam, 
 appear to have been changed in French, as in Proven9al, 
 into m, then ^e, eie, or oie, then o^, and lastly into ois : by 
 which means the termination of the imperfect became 
 uniform in all the conjugations, {Gfr. Comp. p. 244 — 8, 
 271.) 
 
 In the preterite of the first conjugation the French has 
 adhered more closely than the Proven9al to the Latin 
 original, as from amavi, amavit, it makes j^aimai, il aima, 
 (anciently aimat,) whereas the Pro v. has amei and amet 
 The Prov., however, sometimes, though rarely, used the 
 termination ai in the first person {G-r. Horn. p. 217) ; 
 and the terminations in ei and et or eit sometimes occur 
 in old French : thus Je trouvey, Je sahiey, it chanteit, il 
 desarmeitf etc. (Gr, Oomp.-p. 248^). The first and third 
 persons of the perfect, in the two other French conjuga- 
 tions, anciently were not as now terminated in s and t, 
 but wanted those consonants, as Je perdi, Je vi, il nasqui, 
 il rendi, Je converti, J^establi, il se departi, il failli, (Gr, 
 
 » An intennediate form of the French imperfect hetween amava and 
 ajnoue, yiz. ameve, omitted by M. Kaynouard, is pointed out by Orell, 
 p. 100 — 3 : thus ' Certes li paiz ne cessevet,' (Si quidem non oessabat 
 pax,) St. Bernard. ' lu jueyve par defors en la place,' (ludebam ego 
 foris in platea,) St. Bernard. * Alsi com eles en apres racontevent' (ut 
 post ipsae referebant,) St. Gregory. [See also Burguy, vol. i. p. 218.] 
 
 * On the third person of the French preterite, see Orell, p. 107. 
 
CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 179 
 
 Comp. p. 271, 281.) The addition of s to tlie first person 
 of the preterite is an arbitrary change, which likewise 
 sometimes occurred in the Provencal {Gr, Rom. p. 217) : 
 the final t of the third person appears, however, to have 
 been retained from the Latin. 
 
 On the passive voice of the Proven9al and the other 
 languages there is little to be said, as it is formed in all 
 by means of the past participle and the verb substantive. 
 The destruction of the more perfect form of conjugation 
 which is shown in the Greek verb, had already been 
 begun by the change which compounded the Latin lan- 
 guage of a Hellenic and a foreign element : so that some 
 of the Latin passive tenses are formed by inflexion, as 
 aTnoTj amabor, others by means of the verb substantive, 
 amatus sum, eram^ ero, forem, etc. All these remains of 
 inflexion were destroyed by the influence of the Germans, 
 and the Romance languages form their passive tenses 
 without exception by an auxiliary verb, (^r. Mom, p. 192. 
 Qmip. p. 285.) 
 / All these languages Hkewise agree in giving a passive 
 r sense to the third person of the verb active together with 
 the pronoun se\ as in Proven9al, *czo que se conten 
 en aquesta leiczon,' Hhat which is contained in that 
 lesson,' {Ghr. Oomp. p. 287.) By this use of se, as weU as 
 of the other pronouns, a verb obtains a reflective sense, 
 which at length becomes merely passive. The Italian 
 makes great use of this mode of expression, and employs 
 it as a substitute for the French on, which the ItaHan had 
 originally copied from the German, but which never came 
 into general use, and for some centuries has fallen into 
 complete desuetude, (see above, p. 158.) 
 
 The Proven9al infinitive has preserved the Latin ter- 
 
 N2 
 
l80 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 mination, rejecting the final vowel, as amar from amarCy 
 sentir from sentire, far from facere, etc. Sometimes, how- 
 ever, there are two forms of the infinitive, one retaining 
 the final vowel, which the other form rejected, and some- 
 times suppressing an internal vowel, which the other 
 form preserved ; thus far and faire from facere, querer 
 and querre from qitcerere, seguir and segre from sequiy 
 (modified into sequire, according to a principle which will 
 be presently explained,) (Gr. Mom. p. 194 — 7.) 
 
 Of the other Romance languages the Italian has pre- 
 / served unchanged the Latin terminations of the active 
 ' infinitive : the Spanish, like the Proven9al, has sup- 
 pressed the final vowel. The French, suppressing the 
 final e, has retained unchanged the termination in ir, as 
 isentir; that in ar it has, as usuaP, changed into er, as 
 Imander from mandar, aimer from amar. The Latin infini- 
 tives of the second and third conjugations it subjected 
 to greater modifications : in some it suppressed the penul- 
 timate vowel of the termination, as defendre from defen- 
 . dere^ fondre from fundere^ rompre from rumpere, connoistre 
 j from cognoscere^; in others it suppressed the final vowel, 
 I and then changed the last syllable into sir, and lastly into 
 oir: thus habere, aver, aveir, avoir; mover e^ mover, moveir, 
 mouvoir; seder e, seer, seeir, seoir; videre, veer, veeir or 
 Iveir, voir. It will be observed that for the most part the 
 .'French suppressed the penult vowel when it was shorty 
 
 ' See above, p. 123, on the termination in arius, which the French 
 sometimes changed into aire, but more frequently into er. 
 
 ' Anciently, however, these terminations were sometimes written 
 with er : thus aprender, committer, deffender, discender, mitter, prender^ 
 etc. M. Raynouard by an oversight cites ester, from Littleton, s. 376, 
 as an instance of this form, which, as he himself has explained, is for 
 estar from $tare. 
 
I 
 
 CONJUGATION OP VERBS. l8l 
 
 that is, in verbs of tlie tliird conjugation, as in rendre, 
 vendre, fendre, perdre, croire, naitre^ etc. ; and suppressed 
 tlie final vowel when the penult was long, as in avoir y 
 chaloir, douloir, mouvoir, souloir, valoir, voir, etc. This 
 distinction, however, is by no means invariably observed, 
 as on the one hand there are taire from tacere, rire from 
 ridere; on the other there are decevoir, falloir, percevoir, 
 pleuvoir, savoir, cheoir^, from decipere, fallere, percipere, 
 pluere^ sapere, cadere : pouvoir and vouloir are derived 
 from potere and volere, barbarous forms for posse and 
 velle^, which may perhaps have had the penult long from 
 the beginning, as they are now pronounced by the Ital- 
 ians, who (it may be remarked) likewise lengthen the 
 penult of sapere, (G-r. Oomp. p. 239, 257 — 63.) 
 
 The Latin termination in ere has often become ire in 
 the Eomance languages : thus in the Proven9al delir 
 and florir from delere and florere Lat. The following 
 table exhibits some verbs in the three principal Ro- 
 mance languages, which have respectively imdergone 
 this change. 
 
 From ere of the second Latin conjugation : ^ 
 
 Latin. 
 
 abolere 
 
 Ital. 
 
 abolire 
 
 Span. 
 
 abolir 
 
 French. 
 
 abolir 
 
 implere 
 florere 
 
 empiere and 
 
 empire 
 fiorire 
 
 
 emplir 
 fleurir 
 
 * On the verb cheoir, see Orell, p. 213, Burguy, vol. ii. p. 18. 
 
 * Other instances of the reduction of anomalous Latin infinitives to 
 the regular terminations in the Eomance languages are afibrded by the 
 word esse, which became essere or esser: and hyferre, which, though 
 lost in its simple form, has been variously modified in its compound 
 forms into deferire, profferire, riferire, sofferire, trasferire Ital., deferir, 
 prqferir, referir, sufrir, transferir Span., souffrir French. 
 
82 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 
 Latin. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Span. 
 
 French. 
 
 languere 
 poenitere 
 
 tenere 
 
 languire 
 ripentere and 
 
 ripentire 
 tenere 
 
 arrepentir 
 tenir 
 
 languir 
 repentir 
 
 tenir 
 
 From ^e of the tliird Latin 
 
 conjugation : 
 
 
 Latin, 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Span. 
 
 French. 
 
 adquirere 
 
 
 adquirir 
 
 acqu^rir 
 
 agere 
 applaudere 
 
 advertere 
 
 agire 
 applaudere and 
 
 applaudire 
 avvertire 
 
 aplaudir 
 advertir 
 
 agir 
 applaudir 
 
 avertir 
 
 capere 
 
 capire 
 
 
 
 currere 
 
 correre 
 
 currer 
 
 courir 
 
 concurrere 
 
 concorrere 
 
 concurrir 
 
 concourir 
 
 convertere 
 
 convertere and 
 convertire 
 
 convertir 
 
 convertir 
 
 fallere 
 
 fallire 
 
 fallir 
 
 faillir 
 
 fremere 
 
 fremere and 
 fremire 
 
 
 fr^mir 
 
 fugere 
 
 fuggire 
 
 huir 
 
 fuir 
 
 gemere 
 
 gemere and 
 
 gemir 
 
 g^mir 
 
 includere 
 
 gemire 
 inchiudere 
 
 incluir 
 
 
 incidere 
 
 incidere 
 
 incidir 
 
 
 regere 
 
 reggere 
 
 regir 
 
 r^ir 
 
 reprimere 
 tradere 
 
 reprimere 
 tradire 
 
 reprirair 
 
 r^primer 
 trahir 
 
 traducere 
 vomere 
 
 tradurre 
 
 traducir 
 
 traduire 
 vomir> 
 
 The Eomance languages substituted for the inflected 
 form of the passive infinitive mood, the past participle 
 and the verb substantive : as for amari, essere amato Ital., 
 ser amado Span., esser amatz Prov., etre aime French. 
 
 ^ [Compare Diez, Rom. Gr. vol. ii. p. 126.] 
 
CONJUGATION OP VERBS. 
 
 183 
 
 In tlie deponent verbs this expedient would not suffice : 
 therefore the infinitive was by different means reduced 
 to an active form. The following are instances of this 
 change. 
 
 Latin. 
 
 Ital 
 
 SpaTU 
 
 Ptov. 
 
 French. 
 
 exhortari 
 
 esortare 
 
 exhortar 
 
 
 exhorter 
 
 irasci 
 
 
 
 irascer 
 
 
 luctari 
 
 lottare 
 
 luchar 
 
 luchar 
 
 lutter 
 
 mori 
 
 morire 
 
 morir 
 
 morir 
 
 mourir 
 
 mentiri 
 
 mentire 
 
 mentir 
 
 mentir 
 
 mentir 
 
 nasci 
 
 nascere 
 
 nacer 
 
 nascer 
 
 naitre* 
 
 pati 
 
 patir 
 
 padecer 
 
 
 
 progredi 
 
 progredire 
 
 
 
 
 recordari 
 
 ricordare 
 
 recordar 
 
 
 
 sequi 
 
 seguire 
 
 seguir 
 
 seguir and 
 segre 
 
 suivir and 
 suivre'* 
 
 sortiri 
 
 sortire 
 
 
 sortir 
 
 sortir 
 
 The principle of declension for present and past parti- 
 ciples in the Provencal has been already stated in con- 
 nexion with that of nouns, (above, p. 79, 80) : it now 
 only remains to ascertain the manner of their formation. 
 
 The present participle was in all the Romance lan- 
 guages preserved from the Latin without change, except 
 that those of the second and third conjugation were the 
 same, as temens from temery sentens from sentivj Prov. 
 
 The past participles in the Prov. followed the track 
 of the Latin, except that the penult vowel of the parti- 
 ciple of the second conjugation was slightly altered, as is 
 shown in the following scheme. 
 
 * Naistre (naitre) from nascere, like paistre (pattre) from pascere, 
 and croitre from crescere. 
 
 ' Suivir was used in old French, Orell, p. 257. Koquefort in v. 
 8uir. [Burguy, vol. ii. p. 210.] 
 
1^4 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 First Conj. 
 
 Lat. amatus 
 Prov, amatz 
 
 Second Conj. 
 
 placitus, perditus 
 plazutz, perdutz 
 
 Third Conj. 
 
 auditus 
 auzitz 
 
 This is the regular mode of formation ; and new 
 participles were thus created iadependently of the Latin, 
 and in cases where the Latin verh had no participles, or 
 where they were different ; as in the subjoined examples. 
 
 Lat. infin. 
 
 Lat. part. 
 
 Prov. infin. 
 
 Prov. part. 
 
 florere' 
 
 
 florir 
 
 floritz 
 
 lucere 
 
 
 luzer 
 
 luzitz' 
 
 timere 
 
 
 temer 
 
 temutz 
 
 cadere 
 
 casus 
 
 cazer 
 
 cazutz 
 
 recipere 
 
 receptus 
 
 recebre 
 
 recebutz 
 
 mordere 
 
 morsus 
 
 mordre 
 
 mordutz 
 
 vivere 
 
 victus 
 
 vivre 
 
 viscutz 
 
 In other cases, however, the Provencal verb did not 
 form its participle according to the rule, but retained 
 only the anomalous Latin form. 
 
 Lat. infin, 
 
 aperire 
 
 claudere 
 
 coquere 
 
 frangere 
 
 mori 
 
 nasci 
 
 occidere 
 
 Lat. part. 
 
 apertus 
 
 clausus 
 
 coctus 
 
 fractus 
 
 mortuus 
 
 natus 
 
 occisus 
 
 Prov. infin. 
 
 ubrir 
 
 clorre 
 
 cozer 
 
 fraaher 
 
 morir 
 
 nascer 
 
 occir 
 
 Gr, Rom, p. 197—204. 
 
 Prov. part. 
 
 ubertz 
 claus 
 cotz 
 frach 
 mortz 
 natz 
 occis 
 Camp. p. 289, 90, 
 
 In other instances, however, the Prov. verb had two 
 
 * M. Raynouard gives Jlorescere, not Jiorere, as the original of the 
 Prov. jiorir : but see the explanation above, p. 181 — 2. 
 
 * These words are perhaps not the participles of Jiorir and luzer, 
 but adjectives from floridus and lucidus. 
 
CONJUGATION OP VERBS. 
 
 i8s 
 
 participles, one anomalous retained from the Latin, and 
 one regular formed according to the Prov. analogy. 
 
 LaLpart. 
 
 irreg. Prov. part. 
 
 reg. Prov. part. 
 
 absconsus 
 
 rescons 
 
 rescondutz 
 
 corruptus 
 
 corrotz 
 
 corromputz 
 
 electus 
 
 eleitz 
 
 eligitz, eligutz 
 
 defensus 
 
 defes 
 
 defendutz 
 
 iratus 
 
 iratz 
 
 irascutz 
 
 redemptus 
 
 rezemtz 
 
 rezemutz 
 
 ruptus 
 
 rotz 
 
 romputz 
 
 
 Gr, Rom. p. 202, 
 
 205. Comp. p. 290, 91 
 
 The formation of the past participles of the first and 
 third conjugations in the other Romance languages offers 
 
 * M. Raynouard, Gr. Rom. p. 204, makes an anomalous class of 
 *past participles in at, which changing the Latin termination have 
 passed into the conjugation in or, although originally they belonged to 
 another Latin conjugation.' His examples are 
 
 Lot. infin. 
 
 1 cupere 
 
 2 oblivisci 
 
 3 uti 
 
 4 tremere 
 
 5 calefacere 
 
 6 dulcescere 
 
 Lat part. 
 cupitus 
 oblitus 
 usus 
 
 calefactus 
 dulcitus 
 
 Prov. infin. 
 cobeitar 
 oblidar 
 usar 
 tremblar 
 calfar 
 adolzar 
 
 Prov. part. 
 
 cobeitatz 
 
 oblidatz 
 
 usatz 
 
 tremblatz 
 
 calfatz 
 
 adolzatz 
 
 In the first four of these instances the Prov. does not correspond to 
 the Latin verb : in the three first it is a derivative formed from the 
 Latin participle or supine, viz., cupitare from cupitum, oblitare from 
 dblitum, usitare from usum, (like ventitare from ventum, excitare from 
 excitum, etc.) : the fourth, which in Latin would be tremulare, appears 
 to be formed from tremulus : the Ital. and Span, have tremolare and 
 tremolar, (see above, p. 71, note '.) Calfar is contracted from calfacere^ 
 as far from facer e : calfatz is likewise contracted from calefactus ; where 
 the final a belongs not to the termination, but to the body of the word. 
 Adolzar is likewise a new verb formed from dulcis or dulcor, and h&s no 
 reference to dulcescere. These words, therefore, ought not to be ar- 
 ranged, with M. Kaynouard, under the head of anomalous participles. 
 
i86 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 no difficulty or anomaly: from atus and itus tlie Ital. 
 and Span., according to the rule already explained, make 
 ato and ito^ and the French, so long as it observed the 
 distinction of cases, made ets or ez, it^ or iz in the nom., 
 et and it in the ace. : which latter forms it now retains 
 in use, having rejected the final t, as aimet, aime, sentity 
 senti: the former, like Ubertat, Ubertet, liberie y (above, 
 p. 135. Or. Comp. p. 239—41, 277—9.) It is curious 
 to observe the number of changes to which the past 
 participle of the first conjugation has been subjected in 
 different Romance languages : thus from amatus, amatz 
 Pro v., from amaturriy amat Pro v., (whence aimet, aime 
 French,) amato Ital., amado Span., amaOy arm, and amby 
 in different Italian dialects'. 
 
 In the second conjugation the Prov., as we have al- 
 ready seen, constantly changed the i ia the penult of the 
 Latin participle into w, and formed new participles ac- 
 cording to that analogy, making, for example, perdutz 
 from perder, and irascutz from irascer. The Italian like- 
 wise makes the same change, and says perdutOy temuto^ 
 tenutOy etc. The Span, now makes these participles in 
 idoy as temido, perdidoy tenido: anciently, however, their 
 termination was sometimes vdoy as connozudoy contenudo, 
 perdudo, tenudo, vendudo, etc. The regular termination 
 of the French participles of this conjugation was like- 
 wise tm or uty now simply u, as venditus, venduts, venduz, 
 vendut, vendu, like virtutem, vertut, vertUy (Gr, Comp, 
 p. 239—41, 263—8.) 
 
 M. Raynouard appears to lay great stress on the 
 coincidence of terminations just stated, and he thinks 
 
 » See Gamba, Serie di Scrittori Venexiani, p. 28, 74. 
 
CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 1 87 
 
 tHat sucli an agreement is a decisive proof that some of 
 the Romance languages were derived from a language 
 intermediate between them and the Latin. *I will 
 remark/ he says, *that the participles in iido which 
 occur ia ancient Spanish cannot have been borrowed 
 directly from the Latin, as the corresponding Latiu par- 
 ticiples were not in utus.* (p. 265.) If the change had 
 been very considerable, for instance, if for the Latin 
 termination in itits, all the Romance languages had sub- 
 stituted the Greek termination ofxevos, and had made 
 perdomenOy temomeno, etc., then every one would agree 
 with M. Raynouard that it would be necessary to look 
 for a common cause independent of the Latin usage. 
 But when the change is so iuconsiderable as that in 
 question, when it is a mere modification of a vowel 
 sound, it does not appear to warrant any such hypothesis 
 as that attempted to be raised upon it. The i in the 
 penult of the Latin participle became u in the Ital., 
 Prov., and French : in ancient Span, it was sometimes 
 one and sometimes the other : but usage has now given 
 imiversal currency to the Latin vowel. In Span, more- 
 over, the Latin t has become d : a change of perpetual 
 occurrence, and which Kkewise appears to have taken 
 place in the Proven9al, as the feminiues of the past 
 participles all exhibit that letter ; thus amatz, amada, 
 amadas: temutz, temuda, temudas; sentitz, sentiday sentidas, 
 (Gr, Bom, p. 206 — 7^) In these variations from the 
 
 * The modem Provencal makes the same change in past participles, 
 as well as in adjectives formed from ancient participles, though it has 
 lost the final t of the masc. gender : thus, masc. sing, houliga moved, 
 fem. sing, bouligado, fem. pi. bouligados : bandi, hanished, fem. sing. 
 bandido, fem. pi. bandidos : oousi^ heard, fem. sing, oousido, fem. pi. 
 
1 88 CHAPTER rv. 
 
 Latin tliere seems to me to be nothing wliicli eacli lan- 
 guage may not reasonably be conceived to have effected 
 for itself, independently of any foreign influence : in the 
 Span., moreover, the Latin termination has been uni- 
 versally restored, which would scarcely have happened if 
 it had not been retained by an uninterrupted tradition, 
 and if the modem language had been entirely derived 
 from the Prov. It is to be remarked that the change of 
 i into u has only taken place in participles where, like 
 tacitus, jperditus, vendituSy it was short, and where probably 
 it had a thick indistinct sound, which might easily pass 
 into u : in participles of the last conjugation, as sentituSy 
 avditus^ ferituSy where the i was long, that vowel is in all 
 the modern forms preserved unchanged. 
 
 As in the Proven 9al, so in the other Romance lan- 
 guages, many participles of the second and third con- 
 jugations were not formed according to the rules just 
 explained, but were derived immediately from the Latin : 
 thus in Italian rom'pere makes not romputo but rotto, 
 cuocere not cociuto but cotto^ morire not morito but morto : 
 in Span, poner not ponido but puesto : ahrir not abrido 
 but aperto : in French the participles ncy cloSy mis, ouvert, 
 are borrowed directly from the Latin participles natus, 
 clausus^ missuSy apertuSy and not formed regularly from 
 naUre, clorre, mettre, ouvrivy etc. M. Raynouard describes 
 the derivation in question, by saying that * the irregular 
 Latin participles, 'having become Romance, passed into 
 
 oousidos : pouli, beautiful, from politm ; fortuna, fortunate, from for- 
 tunatm, fem. sing, poulido, fortunado, fern. pi. poulidos, fortunados. 
 See Grammaire Fran^aise expliqu€e au moyen de la Langue Provengalef 
 (Marseille, 1826,) p. 32, 73, 78, 86. 
 
CONJUGATION OP VERBS. 
 
 189 
 
 the other Latin languages':' a supposition perfectly 
 gratuitous, as there is no reason why these forms should 
 not have passed directly from the Latin into each modem 
 language without any foreign assistance. 
 
 The Ital. and Span., moreover, like the Prov., have in 
 many instances not only preserved the Latin participle, 
 hut have also formed another according to their own 
 analogy. In this manner many verbs have two past 
 participles, one irregular, the other regular, one ancient 
 and the other modem. 
 
 Lat. part. 
 
 Ital. irreg. part. 
 
 natus 
 
 nato 
 
 occisus 
 
 ucciso 
 
 prensus 
 
 preso 
 
 qusestus 
 
 chiesto 
 
 rasus 
 
 raso 
 
 tonsus 
 
 tonso 
 
 Lat. part. 
 
 Span, irreg. part. 
 
 conversus 
 
 converse 
 
 extinctus 
 
 extincto 
 
 natus 
 
 nado 
 
 prensus 
 
 preso 
 
 ruptus 
 
 rotto 
 
 scriptus 
 
 escrito 
 
 Ital. reg. part. 
 
 nasciuto (nascere) 
 ucciduto (uccidere) 
 prenduto (prendere) 
 chieduto (chiedere) 
 raduto (radere) 
 tonduto (tondere) 
 
 Span. reg. part. 
 
 convertido (convertir) 
 extinguido (extinguir) 
 nacido (nacer) 
 prendido (prender) 
 rompido (romper) 
 escribido (escribir)' 
 Gr, Comp. p. 289—97. 
 
 * 'Ces participes, devenus romans, passdrent dans les autres langues 
 de TEurope latine.' Chr. Comp. p. 290. By Romance, it is to be 
 observed, M. Eaynouard means Provengal. 
 
 2 These double forms, it will be observed, properly belong to the 
 same verb, like hxnpa and trvrrov ; and they are altogether different 
 from those cases in which a more recently formed verb has not only 
 its own regular participle, but also a participle of an obsolete form, 
 which is assigned to it as having no owner, and being a sort of waif or 
 
Jf?9Q CHAPTER IV. 
 
 A system of double forms, exactly analogous to those 
 pointed out in the participles of some of the Romance 
 languages, prevails in the preterites and participles of 
 many English verbs, which have preserved their ancient 
 Saxon form, and at the same time coined a new one 
 according to the more prevailing analogy. Thus the 
 common participle of acquaint is acquainted, in Scotch it 
 is acquent : on the other hand the common preterites of 
 wind and grind are wound and ground, in Scotch they are 
 winded and grinded : in many other cases the original 
 form has become antiquated and the modern form is alone 
 in use, as cbmb and climbed^ spat and spit, clave and cleft^ 
 puck and picked, squoze and squeezed: although these 
 ancient preterites still retain their currency as pro- 
 vincialisms^. Some English nouns likewise have a dou- 
 ble plural, as brethren and brothers, one formed according 
 to the ancient, one according to the more recent practice; 
 like the Ital. nouns mentioned above, such as corpo, pi. 
 corpora and corpi ; prato pi. prata and prati, which have 
 the Latin as well as the Ital. form of the plural 2. The 
 double genitive case in English, one formed by synthesis* 
 the other by analysis, (as Shahspeare' s plays, an edition of 
 Shahspeare,) is another example of an ancient and a 
 modern form running parallel in a language, without the 
 one supplanting the other. 
 
 estray. Thus in Spanish juntar and soltar (solutare) have their regular 
 passive participles juntado and soltado : but, besides these, they Uke- 
 "wise lay claim to junto and suelto, from junctus and solutus, the parti- 
 ciples of the obsolete Latin verbs jungere and solvere. See Gr. Comp. 
 p. 293. 
 
 ' See Philol. Museum, vol. ii. p. 198 and 214, and other parts of the 
 same article, where this subject is treated at length and fuUy explained. 
 
 * Above, p. 117. 
 
SYNTAX OF VERBS. 19 1 
 
 § 2. SYNTAX OF VERBS. 
 
 Having thus examined the structure of the Provencal 
 and the other Eomance verbs, I will now transcribe from 
 M. Eaynouard a few remarks on their syntax, and their 
 relations with other parts of speech. 
 
 The Prov. sometimes uses its gerund Hke the Latia, as 
 * aman viv e aman morrai,* ' I live in loving and I shall die 
 in loving :' sometimes it prefixed the preposition en or «, 
 as * en ploran serai chantaire,' * in weeping I shall be a 
 singer.' * Al pareissen de las flors,' * at the appearing of 
 the flowers,' (Gr. Bom. p. 230.) 
 
 All the Romance languages, like the Greek and some- 
 times the Latin, used the infinitive mood as a substantive, 
 (which indeed it must in strictness be considered,) and 
 prefixed prepositions to it, as in Prov. ' En agradar et en 
 voler Es Tamors de dos fis amans,' * In pleasiog and in 
 wishing is the love of two pure lovers.' In the other 
 languages this idiom is too well known to require the 
 repetition of examples, (Gr. Bom. p. 231. Comp. p. 300i.) 
 
 In Latin, as is weU known, pronoims when the subjects 
 of verbs were rarely expressed. In all the Romance 
 languages this usage was retained, both when the sup- 
 pressed pronoun signified a person, and when it signified 
 a thing, ia which case a verb is said to be employed im- 
 personally. In French the ellipsis of the pronoun has 
 now become obsolete : but it was anciently universal, and 
 used in aU styles whether lofty or familiar ; nor was it 
 to the jocular poetry of Marot, or to the style known in 
 France by the name of Marotiqm, that this idiom was 
 
 » [See Diez, JRom. Gr. vol. iii. p. 208.] , . , 
 
19^ CHAPTER IV. 
 
 confined, as some writers have supposed, (6rr. Rom. 
 p. 233—7. Comp. p. 301.) 
 
 The infinitive preceded by a negation was in Prov. 
 sometimes used with an imperative force ^ : as * Non 
 temer, Maria,' ' Fear not, Mary.' ' Ai amors, no m'au- 
 cire,* * ah, love, do not kill me.' This idiom is still 
 used in Italian'^, and it existed in old French ; but M. 
 Raynouard states that he has not been able to find any 
 instance of it in Spanish or Portuguese, (G-r. Rom. p. 237. 
 Comp. p. 302.) 
 
 All the Romance languages have used the custom of 
 ■addressing a person in the plural number of the verb, any 
 /adjective which refers to the subject nevertheless re- 
 maining in the singular, {(Jr. Oomp. p. 238. Oomp.-p. 303.) 
 The Proven9al, moreover, like the Latin, often put the 
 verb in the sing, number after several nouns : as 
 
 Dieus sal vos, en cui es assis 
 Mos joys, mos desportz e mos ris. 
 
 * God save you, in whom is placed my joy, my happiness, 
 and my laughter.' 
 
 The Prov. likewise used the plural after a noun of 
 multitude, as 
 
 Amor hlasmon per non saber 
 Fola genSf mais lei non es dans. 
 
 * Foolish people blame love from ignorance, but it does 
 not suffer.' 
 
 * The infinitive is never thus used except in a negative address : see 
 Raynouard, Journ. des Sav. 1825, p. 184. 
 
 * See Perticari, Dif. di Dante, c. 18. vol. i. p. 375. [Diez, Rom. Or, 
 vol. iii. p. 204.] 
 
SYNTAX OF VERBS. 
 
 193 
 
 M. Raynouard says that *tlie following form is re- 
 markable : ah, with, is considered as a conjunction.' 
 
 E pueis lo reis, ab sos baros, 
 Pueion e lor spazas ceinzon. 
 
 * And then the king with his barons get up and gird their 
 swords.' 
 
 This is one of those forms which are called ungram- 
 
 V matical; that is, the sentence is formed according to the 
 
 . ^sense, and not according to the structure of the words. 
 
 Instances of this peculiar idiom occur in Latin, and 
 
 it is of frequent occurrence in English, {Gr. Bom. 
 
 p. 239—401.) 
 
 M. E-aynouard closes his remarks by an explanation of 
 the use of que in connexion with verbs. Que, as a pro- 
 noun, is derived, as has been already mentioned (p. lS7,) 
 from quod: as a conjunction it is taken from quia^, to which 
 word the lower Latinity attributed the senses both of that 
 
 * The following are Latin examples of this construction. Livy, 
 xxi. 60. Ipse dux cum aliquot principibus capiuntur ; where see 
 Ruperti. Sallust. Jug. c. 38. Cohors una ligurum cum duabus turmis 
 Thracum. . .transiere ad regem. c. 101. Bocchus cum peditibus . . . 
 postremam Eomanorum aciem invadunt. 
 
 * Ca for that, used by the early Ital. poets, shows its original more 
 plainly than che : thus in some verses of Euggerone of Palermo, written 
 about 1230 a.d. ' E la mi priega per la sua bontate Ca mi deggia 
 tenere lealtate :' see Perticari, Dif. di Dante, c. 22, vol. ii. p. 5. Cha 
 occurs in the Lamento di Cecco, st. 9. 
 
 W.. E si da un ago il cor nfii sentii punto, 
 
 Cha'n vederti restai magio e balordo. 
 
 Ca (for quia) occurs frequently in old Spanish : see for example Mila- 
 gros de N. Senora, v. 37, 47, 71, 77, 84, 87, etc. Sanchez, vol. ii. 
 
194 CHAPTER It. 
 
 and because^. The Prov. conjunction que thus obtained 
 two senses : 1. where it either replaced the nse of the 
 Latin accusative before a second verb in the infinitive 
 mood, according to the German construction, as *E 
 conosc be que ai die gran follatge/ * I know well that I 
 have said a great absurdity/ where the classical Latin 
 would say ' scio me dixisse :' or where the Latin would 
 use ut, quod, or some other particle, as * vos prec que m' 
 entendatz,' * I pray you that you will hear me/ ' Guart 
 si que res no mi cambi/ * Let him take care that nothing 
 changes me.' And 2dly where it replaces quia, in the 
 ordinary classical sense of because, as ' Alberguem lo tot 
 plan e gen. Que ben es mutz,* * Let us lodge him plainly 
 and well, since he is dumb.' * M contra mi malvat con- 
 selh non creia, Qu'eu sui sos hom liges,' * And let him not 
 beheve evil coimsel against me, since I am his liegeman.' 
 M. Eajmouard mentions that the manuscripts often have 
 the various reading quar or car (from quare) for que in 
 this sense, (Grr. Rom. p. 241 — 4.) 
 
 All the other Romance languages have this double use 
 
 j 
 
 * Matth. xxvi. 21, is in the Vulgate translated 'Amen dico vobis 
 quia unus vestrum me traditurus est.' Aiori in Greek also properly 
 and originally meant because : but it obtained the sense of that at a 
 • comparatively early period of the language, and is used for on by good 
 writers, as Herodotus and Plato : see Welcker's Rheinisches Museum, 
 vol. ii. p. 265. Dobrie, Adversaria, vol. i. p. 403. Perche in Ital. has 
 also a similar ambiguity ; and like quia and ^lori its original sense is 
 because. 
 
 The well known assertion, • credo quia impossibile est,' is commonly 
 taken as a declaration of passive belief : but the truth is, that no man 
 in his senses ever believed a thing because it is impossible, though he 
 might believe a thing in spite of its apparent impossibility : this sen- 
 tence merely means, as has been remarked by others, * I believe tJiat it 
 is impossible.' 
 
SYNTAX OF VERBS. 1 95 
 
 of the particle que (in Ital. che) in the sense botli of that 
 and because, and employ it with, verbs in the same man- 
 ner. The French alone has disused the causal sense of 
 que, which, however, occurs in old writers, as in Amyot's 
 
 translation of Plutarch, 
 
 ■t 
 
 H faut qu'il soit assists d'un des dieux, 
 Qw'il est si fort au combat furieux. 
 
 Gr. Ccmp. p. 304—8. 
 
 The Prov. and the other languages sometimes sup- 
 pressed the particle that betw^een two verbs, as iu Prov. 
 .*Ben sapchatz . . . s'ieu tan non I'ames, Ja no saupra far 
 vers ni sos.' * Know weU, if I did not love her so, I should 
 never know how to make verses or sounds.' So iu Ital. 
 ' Dubitava . . . non fosse alcuna dea :' in. Span. * temo . . . 
 sere culpado :' in old French, * Ne nous ne pourrions nier 
 . . . Ne nous aiez par armes pris,' {Gr. Rom. p. 245. 
 Qomp, p. 308—11.) 
 
 M. Raynouard concludes his chapter on the comparison 
 of the Romance verbs, with a brief enumeration of some 
 of their most important points of resemblance : and he 
 then enquires whether any one who sees such conformities 
 can believe that these different languages could have 
 presented them, if they had not been derived from a 
 common origiu^. There is no doubt or difference of 
 opinion about the answer to be given to this question : 
 every one admits that the Romance languages had a 
 common origin ; that common origiu has generally been 
 supposed to be the Latin, and the Latin alone: M. 
 
 * • Quand on voit de telles conformites, peut-on croire que ces di- 
 verges langues auraient pu les offrir, sielles n'avaieiit eu primitiveinent 
 une origine comnnine.' p. 311. 
 
 O 2 
 
196 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 Eaynouard undertakes to show that it was the ancient 
 Provenpal: but his argument is not assisted by proofs 
 which, however consistent with the truth of his own 
 hypothesis, are equally consistent with the truth of that 
 which he is attempting to overthrow. 
 
CHAPTER Y. 
 
 Prepositions, Adverhsy and Conjunctions in the 
 Romance Languages, 
 
 § 1. PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 In examining the indeclinable parts of speech in the 
 Romance languages, viz. prepositions, adverbs, and con- 
 junctions or particles, it will be convenient to begin with 
 the prepositions, as many are used adverbially, and need 
 not be repeated under the head of adverbs. 
 
 Ab, a. This Latin preposition was preserved in the 
 Proven9al, but its meaning was entirely changed, as it 
 received the sense of with instead of from or ly. This 
 wide departure from the original meaning of prepositions 
 will be pointed out below in other instances. 
 
 Thus in the oath of 842 ; ^Ah Ludher nul plai nun- 
 quam prindrai,' *I will never make any treaty with 
 Lothaire ;' in the poem on Boethius, * Ella ah Boeci parla 
 ta dolzament,' ' She spoke so sweetly with Boethius.^ Or 
 the b was omitted, as * Es a dreit jugatz,' * he is judged 
 iwith justice/ The Ital., Span., and French Hkewise 
 i sometimes used the preposition a in the sense of with, as 
 *Furo ricevuti tutti a grandissimo honore,' (G-iov, Villani.) 
 * La cinta fue obrada a muy grant maestria,' {Poema de 
 Alexandro.) * Et furent re9u a grant feste et a grant joie/ 
 
198 CHAPTER V. 
 
 (Yilleliardoiiin.)^ These languages, however, had other 
 prepositions which they commonly employed in that 
 sense^. 
 
 The Provencal subjected this word to a change of which 
 there are examples in other languages^, by inserting m 
 before 5, when it became amh ; as * Et aqui atrobero lor 
 fraire Thomas et Tarcevesque Turpi amh elhs^ * And there 
 they found their brother Thomas and the archbishop 
 Turpin with them.'^ Afterwards the final h after m was 
 rejected, as was also the case with the final d 01 1 after 
 n^, and the preposition became am, as * Am Tajutori de 
 Dieu,' * With the help of God.' From the completest of 
 these forms the modern Proven9al has derived its pre- 
 position emhe, which is in common use in the sense of 
 with. 
 
 The French on the other hand has formed its preposition 
 avec^ from ah, by the addition of a suffix, to which I am 
 not aware of any parallel, {Crr, Rom, p. 249 — 51. Comp. 
 p. 318—206.) 
 
 * Galvani, Osservazioni sullaPoesia dei Trovatori, p. 131, quotes some 
 instances of the use of ab for cum in Latin authors, as ' Et tenerum 
 molli torquet ah arte latus,' Ovid. Amor. ii. 4, 30. ' Ne possent tacto 
 stringere ah axe latus,' Propert. iii. 11, 24. 
 
 2 Some instances of a heing used in ancient French with the sense 
 of the Latin ab, as * apreneiz a moi,' ' discite a me,' in St. Bernard, 
 are cited hy OreU, Alt-franzosische Grammatik, p. 317, (Zurich, 1830.) 
 
 ^ Thus oftpifiog and ofiPpifioc, dirXaicku) and dixTrXaKsu), ^ijXvPpia 
 and 'STiXvfi^pLa, TvippijaTOQ and Tvfi(ppi]<TTOg, Oi^pbg and Oifi^pog, Ot- 
 /3pwv and Qifi(3p(t)v (see Meineke, Euphor. Fragm. p. 149, 157,) in 
 Greek: Robert is VotiTriprog in the Byzantine writers. See above, 
 p. 71, note ^ 
 
 * See above, p. 80. 
 
 » See Orell, ibid. p. 318. 
 
 « [See Diez, Rom. Gr. vol. ii. p. 463, vol. iii. p. 167, and Burguy, 
 Gr. de la Langue d'Oil, vol. ii. p. 345, who, relying upon the ancient 
 
PREPOSITIONS. 199 
 
 Ad, a. This preposition was preserved in tlie Pro- 
 ven9al, tlie final consonant being always suppressed 
 before a consonant, and sometimes before a vowel. M. 
 Raynouard says that * sometimes the d is for the sake of 
 euphony changed into 2 ; thus in the Roman de Jaufre, 
 of which there are two manuscripts, one has * El pros eran 
 ad anar,^ the other * az anar,' {Gr. Rom, p . 66.) Az in 
 the latter instance is ads, (like Thiebanz for Thiehauds,) 
 and is obtained by the addition of s, many other examples 
 of which wiU be noticed. 
 
 All the other Romance languages have retained a from 
 the Latin ad, and use it prefixed to a noun as a substitute 
 for the Latin dative^ {G-r, Rom, p. 251.) 
 
 Ante. This preposition underwent the following 
 changes in Proven9alj, ant, an, ans or anz ; of which form 
 the first only occurs as an adverb, the last is formed by 
 the addition of a final s. The second only occurs in 
 composition, as enan, denan, adenant, abans, davan or 
 devan, which resolved into their elements are in ante, de 
 in ante, ad in ante, ab ante, de ab ante ; antan, ' formerly,' 
 comes from ante annum ; derenan and deserenan, * hence- 
 forth,' M. Raynouard derives from *de hora in antea,' 
 and * de ipsa hora in antea.' 
 
 forms avoc and avuec, derive- the word from ab hoc. Ampere, p. 292, 
 thinks that ove was the original form of avec, and derives it from «6i.] 
 ^ Cinonio in his Treatise on the Italian particles, c. 1, does not dis- 
 tinguish between a derived from ab, and a derived from ad : which, 
 although, they have the same sound, are, like che from quod and che 
 from quia, etymologically different words. The same observation like- 
 wise applies to the preposition da, which in such expressions as ' da 
 sera a mane,' ' fatto da me,' comes from de ab ; in such expressions as 
 * verro da voi,' ' I will come to your house,' ' gioje da donne,' ' eta da 
 marito,' ' carta da scrivere,' ' da diecimesi,' ' about ten months,' it comes 
 fix)m de ad. [Compare Diez, Eom. Gr. vol- id. p. 150.] 
 
3»pO ' CHAPTER V. 
 
 The other Eomance languages had also various deri- 
 vatives of this preposition. The Italian once used ante 
 unchanged : its common forms are, however, avanti and 
 davanti (anciently avante and davante^) from ah ante and 
 de ah ante ; also dianzi and dinanzi from de antius and de 
 in antius. The Span, has retained ante as a preposition 
 unchanged ; as an adverb it used antes, with a final s. 
 Ant for ante, and avant for avante, occur in ancient 
 writers. It has likewise antano in the same sense and 
 with the same origin as the Prov. antan. The French 
 has avant and devant, like the Prov. and Ital. and dore- 
 navant from de hora in ah ante, which does not precisely 
 agree with the Prov. derenan or deserenan^ and moreover 
 adheres more closely to the Latin, {G-r, Rom. p. 258 — 61. 
 Oomp. p. 344.) 
 
 From antius the neuter comparative of ante, YikQpropivs 
 from prope. Menage derives anzi Ital., antes Span., and 
 ainsi, anciently anz and ains, French. The Prov. has 
 ans or aintz, in the sense of rather, which confirms this 
 et5rmology. The Ital. uses anzi not only in the sense of 
 rather, but also as a preposition equivalent to ante^. 
 
 Apud. From this preposition the Ital. has made appo, 
 like capo from caput ; none of the other Romance lan- 
 guages appear to have preserved it. 
 
 Circa. Preserved unchanged in Italian : the Spanish 
 makes it cerca. M. Raynouard does not mention any 
 Proven9al derivative of this preposition, nor is it pre- 
 served in French'. 
 
 ' Cinonio, Trattato delle ParticeUe, c. 86, 76, 82, 89. 
 * Cinonio, c. 27. [Diez, Rom. Or. vol. iii. p. 176. Burguy, vol. ii. 
 p. 271.] 
 » [Diez, ib.p. 176.] 
 
PREPOSITIONS. ^01 
 
 Contra. The Ital., Span., and Prov., have this pre- 
 position unchanged : the French has softened the final a 
 into e. The Ital. likewise has the form contro, whence it 
 has formed incontro : the Span, also has the adverb al en- 
 cuentro. The Prov. has enconira, {Gr. Bom. p. 264^.) 
 
 Cum. In Ital. and Span, this preposition has been 
 preserved under the form con^ : in Prov. and French its 
 place has been supplied (as already stated) by ab and 
 avec. .Nevertheless the Prov. used it as an adverb or 
 conjunction in the sense of as or how, sometimes in its 
 Latin form, sometimes making it con or co : thus * no sai 
 com,* * I know not how ;' * Fresca cum rosa en mai/ * fresh 
 as rose in May;' 'Si com in isto pergamen es scrit,* *as 
 it is written in that parchment ;' * Aissi col peis an en 
 Paigua lor vida,' * Like as the fishes have their Hfe in the 
 water.' 
 
 The Ital. and Span, have from cum formed come and 
 como, which they use in the same manner as the Prov. 
 com^ : the French has made comme (anciently com) and 
 comment, which latter is a lengthened form corresponding 
 to the Ital. comente employed by ancient writers. The 
 Ital. likewise sometimes used chente for che, and finente 
 hrjino : which Perticari compares with Moisente for Mose, 
 which occurs in the Nohla Leycon'^ : it will be shown 
 hereafter that niente is probably a paragogic form of this 
 kind, from the ace. of the Latin res, {Gr, Bom, p. 265 
 —7. Comp. p. 3425.) 
 
 ' See above, p. 66. 
 
 3 Com occurs without the euphonic vowel in both Italian and 
 Spanish. 
 * Difesa di Dante, c. 12, n. 12 to the text. 
 » [Diez, ib. p. 167. Burguy, vol. ii. p. 281.] 
 
202 CHAPTER V. 
 
 De. All the languages derived from tlie Latin have 
 retained this preposition unchanged, (except the Ital. 
 which now, except in certain cases, uses di;) and employ 
 it before a noun to express the meaning conveyed in 
 Latin by the genitive and sometimes by the ablative case, 
 {ar, Rom, p. 267. Comp, p. ^21\) 
 
 Extra. From this word the Prov. made estra, ester, 
 and esters, used both as prepositions and adverbs. The 
 latter forms appear to have arisen thus : estra, estre, ester ^ 
 and with the final s, esters, (Grr, Horn. p. 272.) The 
 Span, has preserved this preposition unchanged : it like- 
 i wise occurs as estre in old French". 
 
 From extra, by the suppression of the first syllable and 
 the addition of a final s, appears to be derived the Prov. 
 adverb tras, as well as the French tres : in Ital. stra and 
 tra occur sometimes in the same sense, which show their 
 origin more distinctly, as * straricco,* *■ strahhmidanzay 
 * strahuono,^ * travalente e tranobile imperadore,' etc.^ 
 
 In. The Prov. changed this preposition into en, and 
 before a consonant sometimes suppressed the n : the Span, 
 and French likewise use en, but never omit the n : the 
 Ital. alone has preserved in unchanged, though en some- 
 times occurs in ancient writers, (Grr. Bom. p. 267. Oomp, 
 p. S22K) 
 
 . Infra. The Ital. alone (as it appears) has retained 
 this preposition, which it has changed into fra, giving it 
 the sense of among and in. There appears to be no way 
 of accounting for so great a change of signification as 
 
 1 [Diez, Rom. Gr. p. 156.] 
 
 2 OreU, p. 324. [Diez, ib. p. 181. Burguy, vol. ii. p. 353.] 
 
 * Annot. 59 to Cinonio, c. 191. [Burguy, vol. ii. p. 363.] 
 
 * [Diez, ib. p. 163.] 
 
PREPOSITIONS. 2Q3 
 
 this word has undergone, except by supposing that fra 
 and tra have been confounded, (see Cinonio, c. 112, 134.) 
 
 Inter or intra. Hence the Span., Prov., and French 
 formed their preposition entre ; the Ital. sometimes pre- 
 serves the Latin form without change, sometimes it omits 
 the first syllable, and makes tra from intra, like fra from 
 infra. Probably in both these words the first syllable 
 was omitted, as being taken for the preposition in, and a 
 separate word ; in the same way that swper lost its last 
 syllable, which was mistaken for the preposition jjer^. 
 
 Mdtre in Prov. was sometimes used as a conjunction 
 with que in the sense of whilsty as ' entre qu'es tos,' 
 * while he is young :' which particle at other times took 
 the form of mentre with the same sense. This latter 
 word, which likewise occurs in Ital., in Span, under the 
 form of mientraSy (anciently sometimes written mientre,) 
 and in French as endementres or endementiers, appears to 
 be compounded of dum intra : for in old Ital. domentre 
 sometimes occurs^, which evidently betrays its origin. 
 Domentre was doubtless corrupted into di mentre or de- 
 mentre, and the first syllable being taken for the preposition 
 de was rejected as superfluous. 
 
 From intro the Prov. made a preposition entro, which 
 had the sense of until, as ' entro a la fin del mont,' * imtil 
 the end of the world.' Sometimes the first syllable was 
 omitted, and it became tro, as the Ital. made tra from 
 intra, as ' del cap tro al talo,' ' from the head to the heel.' 
 
 * See below in super, p. 207. [Diez, Rom. Gr. p. 180.] 
 2 See Cinonio,. c. 171, who gives examples both of domentre and di 
 mentre, and Muratori in v. who derives domentre from dum interea, or 
 dum interim. Dementre occurs in Provencal, see Galvani, p. 262. 
 See also Orell, p. 334. [Burguy, vol. ii. p. 380.] 
 
204 CHAPTER V. 
 
 In both these forms it could be used as a conjunction. 
 
 j From intro the Ital. has made entro, and by prefixing de, 
 
 I dentrOf in the sense of within. The Span, likewise made 
 
 dentro, and likewise adentro by prefixing a as well as de, 
 
 (ar. Bom. p. ^68— 71. Oomp. p. 323, 343.) 
 
 JuxTA. The Prov. changed this preposition into justa, 
 
 Josta, and, prefixing de, dejosta. The Ital. has giusta and 
 
 giusto, the old Yvenckjouxte^, {Gr. Rom. p. 283 — 4.) 
 
 ! Per. The Prov. and Ital. made no change in this 
 
 /preposition : the Span, made it por and jpara^ the French 
 
 \ pour and par^ but the original form occurs in old writers 
 
 . of both these languages. The Prov. as well as the Ital. 
 
 has the particle pero from per hocy {(Jr. Rom. p. 300 — 2. 
 
 Camp. p. 3221) 
 
 Post. This word the Prov. changed into the forms 
 pos, pois, puois, poisas, pus, and pueis : using it, however, 
 as an adverb and conjunction, and not as a preposition. 
 It likewise, as in many other instances, prefixed the pre- 
 position de and thus made de pois. From post the Ital. 
 /made poi, which once was sometimes used as a preposition^; 
 but now is only used as an adverb or conjunction. Dopo, 
 which appears to be compounded of de and post, (dopoi 
 from depoi, like domani from demane, and domandare from 
 deynandare,) has taken the place of the Latin preposition. 
 The Span, made anciently pos and pois, and, by a com- 
 1 position with de, depos^. Afterwards, as in other instances^, 
 f it changed pos into pues, and by adding a final s after de, 
 
 » Orell, p. 326. [Diez, Rom. Gr. p. 174.J 
 2 [Diez, ib. p. 169.] 
 « Cinonio, c. 201, § 4. 
 
 * Poema de Alexandra, 1842. Sanchez, vol. ii. p. 261. 
 
 * See above, p. 67, n. K 
 
PREPOSITIONS. 205 
 
 made depos into desjpueSy the modem form. So the French 
 made puis and depuis ; the former of which was formerly, 
 the latter is now, used as a preposition. It may be re- 
 / marked that the Ital. has^oscm ^om. postea^ a form which 
 all the other Romance languages have lost, {G-r. Bom. 
 p. 303. Qomp.^. 326^.) . 
 
 Prope. From this word the Prov. formed as adverbs 
 and prepositions prop and pres^ and by composition apropy 
 apreSy en apres, de prop. Pres appears to have been 
 formed from prope as follows : prop, pro, pre, pres : aU 
 which changes, viz. the rejection of a final consonant, 
 the change of into e, and the addition of a final s, may 
 be paralleled by many instances in the Romance lan- 
 guages. The corresponding forms are presso and appresso 
 in Ital. apres in old Span, pres, apres, (anciently aprop^^) 
 and aupres in French. 
 
 In Prov. as in French, apres or aprop signified after: 
 thus 
 
 Cal prezatz mais e respondetz premiers ; 
 Et aprop vos respond En Perdigos. 
 
 'which prize you most and answer first, and after you, 
 let Lord Perdigon answer.' 
 
 This change of meaning took place on account of the 
 facility of transition from the notion of place to that of 
 time. As prope meant near, from signifying next in the 
 order of place, it came to mean next in order of time : 
 after which it was easy to pass to the notion of mere 
 posteriority. This transition in Ital. may be distinctly 
 traced in the uses of the word appresso : thus ' La giovane 
 
 ^ [Diez, Rom. Gr. p. 177. Burguy, vol. ii. p. 363.] 
 2 See OreU, p. 318. 
 
206 CHAPTER V. 
 
 subitamente si levd in pie e comincid a fuggire verso iL 
 mare, e i cani appresso di lei:' (Boccaccio, Giorn. 5, 
 nov. 8,) where appresso di lei means * close upon her.' 
 Again, *Yenuta era Elisa alia fine della sua novella, 
 quando la reina ad Emilia voltatasi le mostro voler che 
 eUa appresso d'Elisa la sua raccontasse,' (ibid, Giorn. 
 4, nov. 1,) where appresso d* Elisa means * next after EKsa 
 in order of time :' as in Dante, 
 
 Per6 non lagrimai n^ rispos'io 
 
 Tutto quel giorno n^ la notte appresso. 
 
 Inferno, c. 33*. 
 
 Appresso, however, in Ital. never obtained the general 
 sense which belonged to apres in French, but was (as it 
 appears) only used to signify immediate succession, without 
 anything intervening. The confusion between succession 
 of place and time may be observed in many words, as in 
 interval from intervallum^, and in after, which has both 
 significations, (6rr. Bom. p. 304 — 6. Comp. p. 323^.) 
 
 Secundum. From this preposition the Prov. made 
 segont, and by a change most frequent in that language 
 segon. The Ital. adhering closely to the Latin made 
 secondo, the Span, segun, anciently segund and segunt, the 
 French originally segont, which has now become selon, 
 {Gr. Bom. p. 308. Comp. p. 325.) 
 
 Sine. From this preposition the Prov. by adding s 
 made series, modified into sens, ses, and sans. The Ital. 
 senza or sanza has been formed fi'om sens or sans, by the 
 addition of an euphonic vowel, which the French sans 
 
 1 Cinonio, c. 31. 
 
 * See D. Stewart's Essay 1, on the Beautiful, c. 1. 
 
 » [Burguy, vol. ii. p. 362.] 
 
PREPOSITIONS. 207 
 
 has not taken : the old Ital., however, used both san and 
 seri^. The Span, alone has remained faithful to the Latin, 
 and says sin : anciently, however, it nsed sen and senes, 
 like the Prov., ((7r. R(m. p. 308. Comp. p. 3242.) 
 
 Super. This word was used by the ItaKan without 
 change, but each syllable was written separately, so that 
 the latter part was taken for the preposition per^ and the 
 first syllable became an independent preposition in the 
 sense of on : thus * Tutte . . . su per la nave quasi morte 
 giacevano,' (Bocc. Giom. 2, nov. 7.) ' E lei segnendo 
 su per Terbe verdi, TJdi dir alta voce di lontano,' (Petr. 
 p. 1, mad. 2.) ^u was then used by itself, as ' Siede la 
 terra dove nata fiii Su la marina dove il Po discende Per 
 aver pace, etc' (Dante^.) The form sur, however, con- 
 tracted from super y also occurs in Italian*. 
 
 It should be observed that su the preposition in Ital. 
 has quite a different origin from su the adverb : see 
 below in jusum. 
 
 Supra. Changed by the Prov. into sohrey and com- 
 pounded with de into desohre, which latter was also used 
 adverbially. The Ital. slightly modified it into sopra or 
 sovra : the Span, has sobre : the French changed sovre or 
 soure into sore by omitting the v, into seure by modifying 
 the into e : whence came the modem form siir : unless 
 indeed it was formed more compendiously from super, 
 {Or. B(m. p. 313. Comp. p. 3245.) 
 
 * Vocdb. della Crusca in san. Cento Osservazioni al Dizionario 
 Dantesco di Viviani (Turin, 1830), p. 56. 
 
 » [Diez, Rom. Gr. p. 181. Burguy, vol. ii. p. 364.] 
 » Cinonio, c. 233, § 1—4. 
 
 < Annot. 74, to Cinonio, c. 231. [Diez, ib. p. 179.] 
 5 [Burguy, vol. ii. p. 366.] 
 
ao8 CHAPTER V. 
 
 SuBTUs. As from supra the Prov. made sobre and 
 desohrey so from suhtus it made sotz and desotz. The Ital. 
 and Span, following their own mode of formation changed 
 suhtus into sotto and soto : the French has contracted it 
 into sous, anciently soubs, (Gr, Bom. p. 21 3^) 
 
 Trans. This word the Prov. changed into tras, and 
 by composition made atras and detras, adverbs. The 
 identical forms recur in Span, and they bear in both lan- 
 , guages the sense of behind. The old French likewise 
 used tres and tries in the sense of behind^. The transition 
 from the ancient to the modern sense is easily explained : 
 thus in a passage of the Roman de Jaufre cited by M. 
 Raynouard, * Et abaitant us nas issi Qui estava tras un 
 boison,' 'and at the instant a dwarf came out who was 
 behind a bush -J it comes to the same thing whether he is 
 said to hem the other side of the bush or behind it. From 
 this particular to the more general sense of behind, the 
 distance is not great. The Ital. has not, as far as I am 
 aware, any derivative of trans, (Grr. Mom. p. 261.) 
 
 Versus.' The Prov. modified this word into vers, ves, 
 vais, and vas, and by composition made deves, envers^ 
 mvas, enves. The Ital. has verso and inverso: the French 
 vers, envers, and devers. The Span, has lost this pre- 
 position, {Gr. Bom. p. 3193.) 
 
 Ultra. The Prov. has ultra j oltra, and outra; the 
 Ital. oltra and oltre ; the Span, ultra ; the French ultre, 
 now outre, {Gr. Bom. p. 271, Comp. p. 328*.) 
 
 » [Burguy, vol. ii. p. 365.] 
 
 2 [Burguy, ib. p. 369.] 
 
 ' [Diez, Rom. Gr, vol. iii. p. 178.] 
 
 * It is possible that the Prov. adverb tras (see above, p. 202,) and 
 the French adverb tris have been derived from ultra by the addition of 
 the final « : thus the Ital. has oUracotanza and tracotanza, different 
 
ADVERBS. 209 
 
 TJsQUE. By combining with this word the particles dum 
 and tro (the latter of which has been explained above, 
 p. 203,) the Prov. made the prepositions duesca and 
 troesctty which had the sense of until. M. Raynouard 
 considers the former word as compounded of de and 
 usque : but the composition just suggested seems more 
 probable, (6rr. Horn. p. 318.). To duesca the French 
 jusque appears to correspond, the final a being softened 
 into e. 
 
 In Ital. the word usque has been lost and its place is 
 supplied by infino and Jlno, derived from Jinis, and often 
 corrupted into sino and insino. Muratori (in v.) cites a 
 passage from an Italian charter belonging to the year 899, 
 * Qui habet fines de capu fine via publica antiqua, de 
 alio latu finem flumen Galore, de aha parte fine flumen 
 Cottia'.' 
 
 The Span, has substituted for usque the word Jiastay of 
 the origin of which I am ignorant. 
 
 § 2. ADVERBS. 
 
 The most common and at the same time the most 
 remarkable class of adverbs in the Romance languages is 
 that formed by the union of an adjective with the ab- 
 lative case of the Latin word menSy so that instead of 
 retaining the classical forms alte, large, dure, they said 
 
 forms of the same word, {outrecuidance French.) The derivation from 
 extra suggested above, seems, however, preferable. Trapassare Ital. 
 and trespasser French appear evidently to be compounded of ultra 
 not extra. [Diez, Rom. Gr. p. 197.] 
 
 * For an explanation of these accusative cases, see above, pp. 69, 60 
 sqq. [Compare Diez, vol. iii. p. 155.] 
 
 P 
 
210 CHAPTER V. 
 
 alta-mente, larga-mente, dura-mente}. The Ital. and Span, 
 have preserved these forms unchanged ; though the Span, 
 often omitted the final vowel 2. The Prov. and French, 
 as usual, did the same: and the French likewise, ac- 
 cording to its custom, softened the a into e, and made 
 altement (Jiautement,) largement, durement. This mode of 
 forming adverbs was naturally resorted to, when the 
 ancient inflexions had been lost, and when in some of 
 the Romance languages, as the Prov. and French, the 
 vowel terminations had been altogether suppressed, so 
 that all distinction between the adjective and the adverb 
 formed from it was obliterated^. 
 
 Sometimes when two or more of these adverbs were 
 used in succession, the termination mente, as if it were 
 still a separate word, was only placed at the end of one of 
 the adjectives : thus in Provencal : 
 
 Dona non deu parlar mas gen 
 E suau e causidament . . . 
 Amatz suau e hellament. 
 Mostret lur grans reliquias 
 Qu' avia lone temps guardat 
 Sanctament e devota, 
 
 E Guarentz respondet 
 Follament et irada. 
 
 M. Eaynouard gives examples of the same construction 
 
 * Maffei, Verona Illustrata, part i. col. 318, finds some traces of this 
 formation of adverbs in Latin, as ' Insistam forti mente,' in Ovia, 
 Am. m. 2, 10, and ' jucunda mente respondit,' in Apuleius. 
 
 * On the ancient Spanish adverbs of this form see Raynouard^ 
 Joum. des Sav. 1818, p. 480. 
 
 ' See Grimm, vol. iii. p. 123. 
 
ADVERBS. 211 
 
 in Italian : * Quanto prudente e giudiziosamente m' am- 
 maestro Aristotile,' (Yarclii, Ercolano :) in Span. ' Los 
 trata cortes y amigablemente,' (Cervantes :) in Portuguese 
 * onde 50^*7 e artificiosamente estava lavrada e esculpida 
 toda a maniera de sua vida,' [Palmeirim de Inglaterra :) 
 and in French ^ Son chef trecie moult richement, Bien, 
 et hel et estroitement,' (Mom. de la Rose.) Some parallel 
 idioms occur in English and German ^ where of two 
 consecutive compounds having the first part different and 
 the last part the same, the part which agrees is only 
 expressed once. Thus as the Germans say ein-und 
 ausgehen, as the English say a wine and spirit merchant^ 
 so the Romance languages said suau e bellament, sane- 
 tament e devota, cortes y amigablemente, etc. It will he 
 observed, however, that the Romance languages some- 
 times used mente after the first word, which is intelligible 
 when it is rememl^red that these adverbs are not pro- 
 per compounds, but two words, with their grammatical 
 structure, which have as it were coalesced together : 
 hence if the sentence is resolved into its elements, it is as 
 easy to say * sancta mente et devota,' as ' sancta et devota 
 mente : ' whereas such expressions as ' a wine merchant 
 and spirit,' * a teadealer and coffee,' do not make sense, 
 a& these are proper compounds, the elements of which 
 reassume their original meaning when disjoined from 
 their composition, (G-r. Mom. p. 322 — 3. Comp. p. 
 312—6.) 
 
 In adverbs of this kind the Ital., Span., and Prov. 
 omitted the final vowel of the adjective when it was not 
 a ; thus generalmente Ital. and Span., humilmen, soptilmen 
 
 ^ See PhUol, Museum, voL ii. p. 257. 
 
 P 2 
 
212 CHAPTER V. 
 
 Prov. : tte Frencli now inserts e after tlie final consonant 
 of tlie adjective, as for temerity generalement : anciently, 
 however, it followed the same orthography as the others, - 
 and wrote imperialmenty loyalment, cruelmentj vilment, {Crr. 
 Comp. p. 316— 7^) 
 
 The adverhs which do not belong to any general class 
 distinguished by the termination may be conveniently 
 considered under two heads, 1. Those derived directly 
 with slight modifications from corresponding Latin ad- 
 verbs, and 2. Those formed anew in the modern lan- 
 guages. 
 
 The following are the principal adverbs derived from 
 the Latin. 
 
 Aliorsum. From this word the Prov. made alhors and 
 ailJiors, the French ailleurs. The Ital. and Span, have 
 not retained it. 
 
 Aliquoties. In Prov. alques, whicl^ language alone (as 
 it appears) has a derivative of this adverb. 
 
 FoRAS. In Prov. this adverb has various forms, viz. 
 foras, farSy fora, for : and compounded, as deforas, defor. 
 The Ital. has both/wm from foris, ox^difuora homforas. 
 The Span, now has only/wem, formerly it used foras and 
 fueras : the French has fors, {Gr. Horn. p. 272. Oomp. 
 p. 327.) 
 
 HoDiE, HERi. The first of these adverbs became in 
 Prov, hoi, oiy ui, uoi, huei : in Ital. hoggi or oggi : in 
 Span, hoy or oi : in French oi and huy. In Prov. this 
 word was sometimes compounded with moAs, as hueimai 
 or oimaiy when it signified * henceforth :' sometimes desser 
 hueimais was used, which resolved into its Latin ele- 
 
 I [See Diez, vol. ii. p. 432. Burguy, vol. ii. p. 263. Ampdre, p. 266.] 
 
ADVERBS. 
 
 213 
 
 ments is, ' de ipsa hora hodie magis/ like tlie Frencli 
 desormais. 
 
 The modem languages, forgetting the composition of 
 hodie {hoc die), sometimes compounded it again with the 
 same words : thus the Pro v. had enchoy or encoiy i.e. * in 
 hoc hodie ; ' which occurs in Ital. under the form ancoi : 
 in like manner the French and Ital. compound it with 
 jour and di, saying aujourd^hui and oggidi'^. 
 
 From heri the Ital. made hieri or ieri, the Prov. her^ 
 the French hier^ the Span. ayer. 
 
 Jam. Jft, and with the final s Jasse, (that is, ja, jas, 
 jasse, like anc from unquam, ancs, ancse : see helow ;) and 
 compounded with mais (from magis) jamais in Prov., 
 which exactly corresponds to the English evermore, and 
 the German immermehr. Hence jamais is always used 
 with reference to future times, whereas anc from unquam 
 always has reference to past times. Ja, like the Latin 
 jam and the English ever, may refer hoth to the past and 
 the future. Jasse means always, as ' vos am e us amarai 
 jasse,' * I love you, and shall ever love you.* Sometimes 
 ja and mais are separated, as * E ja non volria mais esser 
 residatz,' * I would not wish ever to be awakened.' The 
 Ital. has gia, and compounded with mai, giammai, which 
 words are used both of past and future times ^i the Span, 
 has jamas : the French had formerly ja, whence are 
 formed deja (i.e. desja) andjadis, and it now uses jamais ^ 
 {Or. Rom. p. 280. Oomp, p. 332 ^) 
 
 Ibi. The Prov. contracted this adverb into i, y, and 
 hi, which combined with aisso and aqvx) neuter demon- 
 
 1 [Burguy, vol. ii. p. 296.] 
 
 ' Cinonio, c. 114. 
 
 » See Grimm, vol. iii. p. 223. [Burguy, vol. ii. p. 300.] 
 
214 CHAPTER V. 
 
 strative pronouns, made aisst, aqui; witb. ipse (sa) and 
 ille (la) sai and lai, sometimes written sa and la. 
 
 The Ital. has preserved the Latin word in its integrity 
 under the form of ivi, which it sometimes contracts into 
 vi: formerly it sometimes used i, as in Dante, Inf. c. 8, 
 V. 4, 'Per due iiammette che i vedremmo porre/ It 
 likewise has the double forms la and U, qua and qui: 
 which doubtless were respectively contracted from lai 
 and quai, as from Trpoaros came the double forms Trpwros 
 and TT/aaros. 
 
 The French has y from ihi; it formerly used lai, and 
 doubtless also ^ai, now la and ga. Oi from gai is pre- 
 served in the word void. 
 
 The Span, has lost ibi, but has the compound forms 
 aqui, alle, and alia, (G-r. Bom. p. 276 — 8. Oomp. p. 
 340—11.) 
 
 Inde. Changed by the Prov. into ent, eiiz, (i. e. ents,) 
 en, and ne, as ' Yeder enz pot Tom per quaranta ciptaz,' 
 * One can see from thence over forty cities/ ' leu m'en 
 anarai en eyssilh/ * I will go hence in exile.' The use 
 of ne or en as a pronoun has been explained above, 
 p. 151. 
 
 The Ital. and French have the same, double sense of 
 the derivatives of inde ; in Ital. ne, (that is, ine, ne,) in 
 French en (that is, ind, end, en:) thus andarsene, ien 
 aller; averne bisogno, en avoir besoin, (Gr. Bom. p. 268.) 
 
 Insimul. In Prov. ensems and essems, by the rejec- 
 tion of the last syllable and the addition of s: in Ital. 
 insieme, in French ensemble^, {Chr, Bom. p. 270.) 
 
 1 [Diez, Rom. Gr. vol. iii. p. 03.] 
 
 ' There seems to be no reason for suspecting with Muratori in v. 
 that insieme comes from the German sammen : though doubtless simul 
 
ADVERBS. 215 
 
 Intus, deintus. From these two words tlie Prov. 
 made ins and dins, by composition dedins: the former 
 word compounded with, ipsa and ilia made lainz and 
 sainz. Parallel forms in French are dans, dedans, and 
 the old words leans and ceans, (G-r. Horn. p. 278 — 9.) 
 
 JusuM, susuM. Of these two words which occur in 
 Low Latin writers, the latter appears evidently to come 
 from sursiim, the former according to Muratori {Diss. 32,) 
 is a different word from deorsum. The Prov. changed 
 them into jos and sus : the Ital. into giuso and giu, suso 
 and sv}: the old Span, hadjuso and jus, and suso, desuso, 
 and desus : the old French had jus and sus, whence the 
 compound dessus, {G-r. Rom. p. 282. Comp. p. 338.) 
 
 Magis. Changed by the Prov. into mais, mas, and 
 mai, and used sometimes as an adverb in its primitive 
 sense of more; sometimes as a conjunction in the sense 
 of hut, which it acquired through the intermediate sense 
 of rather. In Ital. maggio from majus bore the adverbial 
 sense of magis : it uses, however, mai from magis as a 
 conjunction^ : as also mai, in the expressions mai si and 
 mai no. The French formerly had mais both as an. 
 adverb and conjunction : it now only retains this word 
 in the sense of hut^: the Span, has mas (formerly mais,) 
 
 and sammen are cognate words. The same writer thinks that assem- 
 hrare Ital., and assembrer [ov assembler) and ensemble French, come 
 from sammelen. Ensemble is probably from insimul, i. e. emseml, en- 
 semble, like cumulo, comle,comble; marmor, marmer, marmre, marmbre, 
 marbre. 
 
 ' The forms gioso, gio, and soso likewise occur : Perticari, Dif. di 
 Dante, c. 16, vol. i. p. 347. Compare Facciolati in susum. [Burguy, 
 vol. ii. p. 301.] 
 
 * See Muratori in v. 
 
 ' [Burguy, vol. ii. p. 303.] 
 
2l6 CHAPTER V. 
 
 in both, acceptations : whence by composition with a 
 and c?e, ademas, ' besides/ {G-r. Mom, p. 285. Comp. p. 
 335.) 
 
 Mane. The modern languages having all lost the 
 Latin adverb cras^, supply its place by means of this 
 word : the Ital., Prov., and French, by compounding it 
 with de, have dimane, dimani, or domani^, deman, and 
 demain; the Span, has formed from it the substantive 
 manana, which it uses adverbially, (G-r. Rom. p. 274.) 
 
 Medium. Mezzo or mezo as an adverb in Ital. and 
 jfrequently used as an adjective, like the Latin medius: 
 as *in mezza strada,' *a mezza state,' *per mezzo il 
 sangue.' Sometimes it became indeclinable, as *per 
 mezzo questa oscura valle,' Petrarch (Cinonio, c. 173.) 
 The Prov. changed this word into miei, mieg, and mest; 
 and used it without declination, sometimes with a pre- 
 position, as * per miei lo cors/ * per mieg la giardina/ 
 * en mieg la via,' ' per mest las bonas gens.' The French 
 made this word into mi; whence le mi Urn, * the middle 
 place,' and par mi, * through the middle,' used without 
 declination, like the Ital. per mezzo, and the Prov. per 
 miei. Mezzo Ital. is formed from medius, like aguzzo 
 from acutus, prezzo from pretium, pozzo from puteus, Arezzo 
 from Arretium, Ahruzzi from Bruttii. It still, however, 
 preserves the trace of the Latin, as it is pronounced 
 medso from medius, as prezzo from pretium is pronounced 
 pretso. The Prov. mest appears to have originated in a 
 
 * Cras was, however, preserved in old Spanish : thus, Poema del 
 Cid, V. 545. • Cras a la mahana pensemos de cavalzar;' and Poesias 
 de Arcipreste de Hita, v. 1433. ' Quando a ti sacaren i judgar hoy 6 
 eras.' 
 
 ^ Muratori in v. 
 
ADVERBS. 217 
 
 like manner, with a transposition of letters, i. e. mest Tor 
 mets (mez), (Grr. Rom. p. 290.) 
 
 Minus, pejus, plus. Meno, peggio, piu (plu) in Ital., 
 mens and meinSj pietz and piegz, plits and pus in Prov., 
 moins and phis in French. The Span, and French have 
 no derivative of pejus, but have peor and pire from pejor, 
 (ar. Bom. p. 289, 302. Corjip. p. 334, 336.) 
 
 QuANDO. Quant and qtian in Prov., which had also 
 the compound word lanquan, i. e. Van quan, * the year (or 
 the time) when.' The French has quand: the Ital. and 
 Span, have retained the Latin form unchanged: the 
 ancient Span., however, sometimes used quand and quant , 
 {ar. Rom, p. 306. Comp. p. 343.) 
 
 QuARE. Qu^r and car in Prov. properly signifying 
 for, but sometimes having the sense of that: like quia in 
 Latin and ^erc^ in Ital. The Ital. and Span, have lost 
 this word, which is preserved in the French car, with the 
 single sense oi for, {Gr. Rom. p. 307^) 
 
 Eetro. This adverb, compounded with a and de, 
 became areire and dereer or derer in Prov., arriere and 
 derriere in French, and diretro or dietro in Ital. {Grr, 
 Rem, p. 2612.) 
 
 Satis. Compounded with a became asatz or assatz in 
 Prov., assaz in Span., assez in French, assai in Ital., (Grr, 
 Rom. p. 262.) 
 
 M. Raynouard remarks {Grr. Oomp, p. 336,) that, * V assai 
 italien prouve que cette langue a souvent fait des modifi- 
 cations tres importantes aux desinences des mots pour les 
 accommoder a Feuphonie locale :' but the Ital. has made 
 
 1 [Burguy, vol. ii. p. 377.] 
 ^ [Burguy, ib. p. 277.] 
 
2l8 CHAPTER V. 
 
 no greater change than the Prov. : it has only made a dif- 
 ferent change. The Prov. always contracting, and not 
 objecting to final consonants, changed satis into sats; the 
 Ital., not so fond of contractions, but always avoiding 
 final consonants, changed satis into sai. 
 
 Semper. Sempre Ital. and Prov., siempre Span., 
 sempres in old Span. (Gr, B. 308. Comp, 332.) 
 
 Sic. Si in Prov. and compounded aissi and cossi: 
 the latter of which words is com si, i. e. ut sic instead of 
 sicut: the former is perhaps ac sic. It had also altresi or 
 atresi, from alterum sic. The Ital. has si and cost (the 
 same as siccome, the elements of composition being only 
 reversed), and altresi. The Span, has si, assi, and otrosi: 
 the French, si^ aussi, and anciently altresi or autresi^. 
 
 On the use of si as an afiirmative particle I shall 
 speak lower down. {G-r, B. p. 309 — 12. Comp, p. 337.) 
 
 SuBiNDE. Sovente Ital., sovent and soven Prov. smt- 
 vent French. M. Raynouard {G-r. Bom. p. 314,) derives 
 sovent from scepe: but Menage's etjonology (in sovente) 
 appears evidently true^. 
 
 Tunc. In Prov. done, which by different modifica- 
 tions became adonc, doncas, doncx, adoncas, adonx; ad 
 tunc, which occurs in Low Latin, is, as M. Eaynouard 
 remarks, borrowed from the Romance adonc. In Ital. 
 dunque and adunque, anciently likewise dunqiia, donqiia 
 and adonqua^: in old Span, doncas: in French, donCy 
 
 » [Diez, vol. iii. p. 387.] 
 
 a [The etymology of Menage is followed by Diez, Rom. Gram, vol. 
 ii. p. 444. It is confirmed by the use of soventre for after, in old 
 French, which approaches closely to the Latin sense of subinde, 
 Burguy, vol. ii. p. 368.] 
 
 ' See Annotat. 6, to Cinonio, Part. c. 8. 
 
ADVERBS. 219 
 
 formerly dune and adunc, donhes and adonkes. The Span. 
 
 has moreover the form entonces, compounded with the 
 
 preposition en. {Crr. B. p. 254 — 6. Comp, 331.) 
 
 Ubi. Ou and in Prov., ove in Ital., in wkicli the 
 
 forms u^ and likewise occur : 6 in old Span., ou in 
 
 French. {Gr, B. p. 298. Coinp. 340^.) 
 
 Unde. Ont, on, and by comparison with de^ dunt or 
 
 don in Prov. ow^e and donde in Ital. (^<7e in Span. 
 
 which anciently had the forms ond, onty and don: dont 
 
 and formerly nut or ont in French, ((rr. B. p. 296. 
 
 Ci^m;?. 3393.) 
 TJnquam, nunquam. In Prov. ongan, oan, unca, anc, 
 
 and by the addition of a final 5, oncas, and a/icse from 
 ancs, like /owse from /as (above p. 213.) From nunquam 
 there is only the form nonca. The Ital. has unqua and 
 also nguanno, used by Boccaccio*: the Span, has nunca: 
 the French one and oncques are now obsolete, ((rr. i2. 
 p. 29P.) 
 
 I will now set down the most remarkable Provencal 
 adverbs, not derived from corresponding Latin adverbs, 
 nor formed from them by a simple composition ; and 
 compare them with similar forms in the other Romance 
 languages. 
 
 Amon, aval. These adverbs, sometimes daman and 
 daval, are derived from mons and vallis, in French a mont 
 and a val, in Ital. a monte and a valle^, formed after the 
 
 ' Cinonio, Part. c. 193, § 11, 12. 
 
 » [Diez, vol. iii. p. 354.] 
 
 » [Diez, ib. p. 353.] 
 
 ■* See Perticari, Dif. di Dante, c. 15, vol. i. p. 339. 
 
 * [Burguy, vol. ii. p. 311.] 
 
 • A monte occurs in the Tesoro of Brunetti, (Voc. delta Crusca in 
 v.): a valle is used by many writers (ibid, in v.), for instance by 
 
220 CHAPTER V. 
 
 model of tlie German zetal and zeherge^. From aval the 
 French, has made avaler, to swallow (i.e to put down the 
 throat,) and the Span, avalar, to tremble like the earth 
 (i.e. to sink down.) Gr. B. p. 257. 
 
 Ades, now; adesse or des, since: formed with ad and 
 de, and es, from ipse (above p. 160,) The Ital. has adesso : 
 the French, des, Neis *even,' and anceis *on the con- 
 trary,' Prov. were formed by compounding the same pro- 
 noun with in and ante. {G-r, R. p. 251 — 9.) 
 
 Entorn, environ, from tornare and girare. The Ital. 
 has intorno, dHntorno, a torno or attorno, and dattorno : the 
 French, a Fentour, and autour without the preposition en^. 
 It has likewise environ. (G-r. R. p. 271.) 
 
 Dante, Inferno, xii. 46. Ba valle and da monte are still in use among 
 all the inhabitants of the Apennines, according to Perticari, Dif. di 
 Dante, c. 16, vol. i. p. 340. 
 
 ^ See V. Hagen, Glossary to Nibelungen Lied, in tal. Grimm, vol. iii. 
 pp. 148, 163. [Burguy, vol. ii. p. 271.] 
 
 * Tour comes from torn, or turn, as jour from jorn, chair from cam, 
 enfer from enfern, cor from corn, four from furn : see Gr. Comp. p. 
 63—4. [See Diez, vol. iii. p. 176.] 
 
 Giorno and jour come from diurnum, as invemo and hiver come 
 from hibernum (tempus being understood,) which I should have thought 
 it unnecessary to mention if a modem Italian critic had not derived 
 giorno from horn German, because the Alemans and Franks announced 
 the day by the sound of the horn ! (Benci on Malispini, vol. ii. p. 
 433, ed. Leghorn, 1833.) 
 
 It may be observed that the Spanish has alone retained the deriva- 
 tive of the Latin dies, dia, in common use : the Ital. has the word di 
 but commonly uses giorno : the French has only jour. The substi- 
 tution of the periphrasis diurnum {tempus) for dies is paralleled by 
 hybemum (tempus) for hyems, {invemo Ital., inviemo Span., hiver , 
 anciently hyvern French ; cestivum (tempus) for astas (estio Span., the 
 Ital. and French have estate and estS,) and. matutinum (tempus) for 
 mane (mattino Ital., matin French, the Span, has mahana, i.e. hora 
 matutina.) Autumnus is retained in all three languages ; ver is lost 
 in French, which has printemps, but is retained by the Ital. and Span, 
 in the oompound prima,vera. 
 
ADVERBS. 221 
 
 Lev, from leve^ which had the double sense of the 
 English word lightly^ viz. quickly and (joined with hen) 
 easily, whence it came to ^i^iiy perhaps ; as 
 
 D'amor non dei dire mas be, 
 Quar non ai ni petit ni re, 
 Quar ben leu plus no m'en cove. 
 
 * Of love I ought not to speak well more, as I have not 
 any, either small or great, for perhaps more does not be- 
 seem me/ 
 
 It is probable that this adverb, which appears to be 
 peculiar to the Provencal, was imitated from the German. 
 [ar. R. p. 284.) 
 
 Malgrat. This word is used in aU the Romance lan- 
 guages, with a personal pronoun often inserted imme- 
 diately before grat: thus malgrat vosfre, mal mongraty mal 
 ltd grat Prov., man grc sien, man gre lor French, mal su 
 grado Span., mal mio gradoy mal grado suo Ital. These 
 expressions may be rendered, * with my ill pleasure,' 
 * with his ill pleasure,' etc. If a possessive pronoun is 
 not used, the phrase takes a different turn, as * malgrat 
 de Karle' ' with the ill pleasure of Charles.' G-rat (from 
 gratum) is here used substantively as grato or grado in 
 Ital., ( Voc, della Orusca in v.), agrado in Span., and gre 
 in French, in the expressions savoir gre^ a mon gre, etc. 
 (Gr. B. p. 286. Comp, 359—611.) 
 
 Mantenen, sometimes de mantenen, from manu tenens; 
 mantenente, immantenente Ital.^, maintenant French, a man 
 teniente in Span., has a different meaning. De manes, 
 another Prov. adverb, signifying suddenly, appears evi- 
 
 i [Burguy, vol. ii. p. 357.] 
 
 * Perticari, Dif. di Dante, c. 16, vol. i. p. 349. 
 
222 CHAPTER V. 
 
 dently to come from manus, corresponding to ' offhand' 
 English, * aus der Hand * German ; and not from mane in the 
 sense of early, as M. Raynouard supposes. [G-r, R. p. 28^) 
 HoRA. This Latin word was first used in Provencal 
 adverbially, with the preposition a, as ora, in the sense of 
 now : afterwards the preposition was omitted, and it he- 
 came ara^ ar^ era, er, and with a final 5, oras, eras. From 
 in hanc horam was derived encar or encara, with the final 
 5, encar as or enqueras, * hitherto : ' from des Vora (i.e. de 
 ipsa ilia hora) deslor, ' henceforth ; ' from qua hora, qtwra, 
 
 * when ; ' derenan has been already mentioned (p. 200.) 
 Ora occurs as an adverb with the same sense in Ital., 
 which also has ancora. Ore, or, ores were formerly used 
 in French, which now uses encor and deslors. M. Ray- 
 nouard cites a passage from an ancient French chronicle, 
 which well illustrates this application of hora : * Barcinone 
 est une cite qui siet en la marche d'Espaigne : une heure 
 estoit des Sarrazins, et une heure estoit des Crestiens.* 
 (Comjp. K p. 293—6. Qomp. 330 2.) 
 
 Pron or Pro. This word occurs in Prov. with the 
 sense of Satis : 
 
 Del papa sai che dara largamen 
 Pron del pardon e pane de son argen. 
 
 * Of the pope I know that he will give liberally plenty of 
 indulgences and little of his money.' 
 
 The old French had prou in the same sense. M. Eay- 
 nouard offers no suggestion on the derivation of these 
 words, {ar. K p. 263 ^) 
 
 ' [Burguy, vol. ii. p. 304.] ' [Burguy, ib. p. 311.] 
 
 » [Diez, Rom. Gr. vol. iii. p. 148. Rom. Wdrterbuch, p. 273. Bur- 
 guy, ib. p. 320.J 
 
ADVERBS. 223 
 
 Tost. This enigmatic word occurs m all tlie Eomance 
 languages : tosto Ital., tost old Span, and Prov., toste old 
 Portug., tost now tot French. No probable explanation 
 of its origin has hitherto been given. (See Muratori in 
 V. ar. R. p. 316. Cornp. 333 1.) 
 
 Trop. In Prov. this word meant very, and too much : 
 thus *Sap trop ben violar' *he knew very well how to 
 play on the viol.' * Per qu'om no-s deu per gaug trop 
 esjuazir, M per ira trop esser anguoyssos.' * Wherefore 
 one ought not for joy to exult too much, Nor for sadness 
 to be too much cast down.' Troppo in Ital., has both 
 these senses (Ciaonio, c. 243) trop French, only the last. 
 As troppus is used in the Latin of the middle ages with 
 the sense of a herd or flock, Muratori (in v.) thinks that 
 it is derived from some German word, whence the French 
 troupe and troupeau, (also truppa Ital.) Troppo, a sub- 
 stantive, is preserved in Ital. (Gr. R. p. 317 ^.) 
 
 Yeti, i.e. * See thou,' or in the plural vecvos (softened 
 into veus) * see ye,' used adverbially like the French void 
 and voilhy which are compoimded with the particles ci 
 here, and Ih there. The Ital. alone has preserved ecco, 
 from the Latin eccum. (Gr. Rom. p. 320^.) 
 
 ' [Diez, Gr. Rom. vol. ii.p. 442, derives the word from tot cite; Bur- 
 guy, vol. ii. p. 329, from tostus.'} 
 
 * It might be thought that the French adverb tres is formed from 
 trop, Uke pres from prop : but the Prov. form tras, shows that it had 
 not this origin, and that one of the two derivations above suggested is 
 correct : see p. 208. [Concerning trop, see Burguy, voL ii. p. 330.] 
 
 * So sih-tir was used in old German, Grimm, vol. iii. p. 247. 
 
224 CHAPTER V. 
 
 § 3. CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 I shall next proceed to the conjunctions and the 
 affirmative and negative particles, which may be con- 
 veniently treated apart, as they are marked with some 
 peculiar features in the Eomance languages. 
 
 AuT. In Prov. and old French this word became o or 
 ou ; in modern French the latter form alone is used ; in 
 the Span, it is 6. The Ital. alone has retained the con- 
 sonant changed into d, and has made the word od ; before 
 a consonant, however, the d is dropped, as in English the 
 n of an is only used before a vowel, {Ghr. Bom. p. 336. 
 Comp. p. 346.) 
 
 Et. Preserved unchanged in Prov., but. the t was 
 generally dropped before consonants : in Ital. et or ed, 
 subject to the same rule. The French now only has 
 et, but the t is not pronounced : e is sometimes written in 
 old French : the Spanish formerly used both et and e, now 
 it has only y, {Grr, Rom. p. 328. Comp. p. 345.) 
 
 All the modern derivatives of aut and et have retained 
 their ancient sense unchanged. 
 
 Gatre or GUAiRE in Prov., guari in Ital., gtiere or 
 gyh-es French. These adverbs are evidently derived from 
 the German gar or wahr, (very Eng.)^ : the force of which 
 (much) has been retained in each language, though in 
 French gy^re is generally supposed to have a contrary 
 meaning. The confusion has arisen from this particle 
 being almost constantly used in negative propositions : 
 thus in Prov. ' Que sciensa no pretz gaire S'al ops no la 
 vey valer,' * As I do not value knowledge much, If I do 
 
 ' See Muratori in guari. 
 
o h. ^ ^ 
 
 ^l, 
 
 
 CONJUNCTIONS. % X^ > 225 
 
 not see it avail in time of need.' * JViw istette gwiri die /* 
 trapasso/ ' lie was not long before he died/ Boccaccio ^ 
 (CLQonio, c. 121.) * Et w'eut pas gueres demeure a Sparte, %y 
 qu'il fut incontinent soupconne,' etc., Amyot Pint. Vih^ 
 d^Agesilas. * La plupart des ceuvres d'Aristote et de 
 Theophraste qui w'estoient pas gueres encore cogneus, 
 etc' Id. Vie de Sylla. Being constantly used in this 
 manner, it appeared to acquire a negative force, indepen- 
 dently of the proper negation ; and thus while guari 
 in ItaL is explained to mean muchy gtwre in French is 
 explained to mean little. Nevertheless guere is never used 
 by itself with a negative force, like pas, point, personne^ 
 and other words which originally being affirmatives in a 
 negative sentence, at first like guere were used constantly 
 with a negative particle, from which they seemed to catch 
 a negativer force by contact ; and then were employed by 
 themselves as negatives, (Gr. Bam. p. 274, 333. Journ. 
 des Sav. 1824, p. 180i.) 
 
 Gens. The Prov. used gens or ges as an expletive 
 particle of affirmation : thus, * EUa-s fen sorda : gens a 
 lui non atend,' * She feigns herself deaf : she does not 
 attend to him at all.' * No-m mogui ges,' ' I did not move 
 at aU.' M. Eaynouard derives this particle from the 
 Latin gens ; in which case it would probably be gent or 
 gen (from gentem;) the meanings of the Latin and Prov. 
 words moreover do not at all correspond : the suggestion 
 of SchlegeP, who derives it from the Teutonic gaiiz (like 
 gaire from gar) is far more probable^, {G-r. Rom. p. 333. 
 Galvani, Poesie dei Trovat. p. 39, n. 1. Orell, p. 303.) 
 
 » See OreU, p. 303. [Burguy, vol. ii. p. 394.] 
 
 ' Observations, p. 115. 
 
 ^ Grinmi, vol. iii. p. 749, says that M. Kaynouard's explanation is 
 
 Q 
 
226 CHAPTER V. 
 
 Mica. Sometimes used unchanged, sometimes modified 
 into miga, mingay and mia in Prov.^ mica and minga in 
 Ital., mie in French. In Prov. it is always used in 
 negative sentences, to give force to the negation, as * Pero 
 no desesper mia,' * wherefore do not despair at all.' In 
 Ital. this is generally the case, as * Fosse nascosto un dio ? 
 I^Ton mica un dio Selvaggio, o della plebe degli dei.' 
 Tasso, Aminta, * Signer mio, non sogno mica.' Bocc. 
 Giom. 7, n. 92. 
 
 In the following passage, however, of a poem written 
 in the language of the Tuscan peasants, it does not add 
 force to a negative : 
 
 Gli h rigoglioso, come un berlingaccio, 
 Talch^ non par, che morir voglia mica^ 
 
 In French it has a similar force : * Mais com me un harenc 
 ne faut mie Que tousjours le bee aye en Teau,' Basselin*. 
 In Italian it is sometimes used familiarly by itself, 
 with a negative sense, Hke other particles, which will be 
 presently noticed^ 
 
 probably incorrect, as a notion of a thing, not a person, is required. 
 He then adds, *ges must signify something small : in Italian ghezzo is 
 a mushroom, ghiozzo is a little bit.' Schlegel's etymology is, however, 
 confirmed by gaire. 
 » Gr. Rom. p. 3;M. 
 
 * See Annot. 56, to Cinonio, c. 58. Marrini on the Lamento di Gecco 
 da Varlungo, p. 185. 
 
 * Marrini, ibid, p. 103. 
 
 * Cited by M. Eaynouard, Joum. des Sav. 1823, p. 116. See 
 Orell, p. 307. Mie is still used in some familiar phrases ; see Diet, 
 de I'Acad. in v. which defines it to be a ' particule negative, qui sig- 
 nifie, Fas, point' Properly speaking, neither mie, pas, nor point, are 
 negative particles. 
 
 * [Concerning this class of negative particles, formed from aflfirm- 
 
CONJUNCTIONS. 227 
 
 N'ec. iVe and ni in Prov. and Frencli, ne in Ital., 
 ni in Span. In Prov. ne or ni sometimes retained its 
 Latin sense of a negative disjunction, as * Davans son vis 
 nulz om no-s pot celar ; Ne eps li onme qui sun ultra la 
 mar/ * Before his face man can conceal himself, nor even 
 the men who are beyond the sea.' ' Non avent macula 
 ni ruga,' ' not having stain nor wrinkle.' Now where a 
 negative precedes a disjunctive negative particle, the 
 repetition of the negation is unnecessary to the sense, 
 though it may add force to the expression : thus it is the 
 same thing to say ' he has neither wife nor children,' or 
 
 * he has not wife and children.' Hence as nee is composed 
 of et noUy in such cases as that just described it was in- 
 different whether it was understood to have an affirmative 
 or a negative sense, and thus it vacillated between the 
 two, in Prov. generally having the former, and being 
 S}Tionymous with et : thus St. John, viii. 14 is translated 
 
 * Quar ieu sai don venc ni on vauc' This use never be- 
 came common in any other Romance language except the 
 Provencal : instances of it, however, occur both in old 
 French and Ital., as * Des que Diex fit Adan ne Eve.* 
 
 * Se gli occhi suoi ti fur dolci ne cari,' Petrarch^. This 
 .use of ne stiU prevails in the Piedmontese and Lombard 
 dialects, {G-r, Rom. p. 329—30. Ccmip. p. 347.) 
 
 NoN, Preserved without change of meaning in aU 
 the Romance languages. The Prov. used both non and 
 no in the same manner as the Latin 7ion. The Ital. has 
 both forms : but it uses the former in connection with 
 
 ative substantives, see Diez, Rom. Gr. vol. ii. p. 447, vol. iii. p. 413. 
 Ampere, p. 273—6. Burguy, vol. ii. p. 352.] 
 
 » See Cinonio, c. 178, s. 2, 4, 7. Perticari, Dif. di DanU, c. 18, 
 YoL ii, p. 373, 
 
 Q2 
 
228 CHAPTER V. 
 
 other words, as ' non e 1^ ;* * non lungo tempo dopo ;' the 
 latter as an answer, as ' Sta dentro ? No^' The Span, 
 now only uses no : it formerly had the full Latin form. 
 The French has non : hut the other form no has been 
 attenuated into ne, like lo into le, (above, p. 56^.) 
 
 A very peculiar use of the particles si non 'except' 
 occurs in all the Eomance languages : not only are they 
 used together, as in Latin, but they are often separated 
 by several words interposed : thus 
 
 Tant es mortals lo danz, che no i a sospeisson 
 Que jamais si revenha, s'en aital guisa non 
 Qu'om li traga lo cor. 
 
 ' The loss is so great that there is no suspicion that 
 ever it can be repaired, except, in such guise, that they 
 take his heart, etc' 
 
 So in Ital. * Nullo ^ buono s'ello h buon no,' and in 
 Span. * De al no li membraba si de esto solo non.' In 
 old French it is of frequent occurrence : thus * Maintes 
 gens dient que en songes N'a se fables non et mensonges*"*.' 
 
 > See this difference explained in the Philol. Museum^ vol. ii. 
 p. 322. 
 
 ' See Grimm, vol. iii. p. 746. 
 
 3 These two verses are taken from the beginning of the Roman de 
 la Rose, which were modernized as follows by Marot, in an edition of 
 that poem published by him in the sixteenth century : 
 
 Maintes gens vont disant que songes 
 Ne sont que fables et mensonges. 
 
 By which means (says M. Kaynouard, Gr. Comp. p. 364,) he changed 
 fables and mensonges from the singular to the plural number. This 
 appears to be an oversight : fable, from fabula, had not the final s in 
 the singular number, but took it in the plural, which was modified 
 from fabulat. 
 
CONJUNCTIONS. 229 
 
 ' II ne parle se de toi non/ {G-r. Bom. p. 332. Comp. 
 p. 348—50.) 
 
 Passus. The Prov. used pas as an expletive particle, 
 but always with a negation, as * non pas dos joms ni tres/ 
 ' not two days nor three. ^ The French, as is well known, 
 has the same use of this particle. In both languages it 
 appears to have obtained this sense from being originally 
 used with verbs of motion, as * ne bougez un pas,' or 
 
 * ne bougez pas,' * do not stir a step ;' and this being 
 equivalent to ' do not stir at all* by a process of ab- 
 straction of perpetual occurrence in the use of words, it 
 was transferred to other verbs in the more general sense : 
 and thus it was said, * je ne I'aime pas,' * je ne veux pas,' 
 
 * I do not love him at all,' ' I do not wish it at aU,' * non 
 pas,' *not at all.' Being constantly used in negative 
 propositions, pas thus seemed to have itself a negative 
 sense, and by degrees came to be used independently as 
 a negative particle : thus * pas un,' ' pas mal,' ' pas 
 souvent,' ' not one,' ' not ill,' * not often,' for * non pas 
 un,' * non pas mal,' * non pas souvent,' ' not even one,' 
 
 * not at all ill,' * not at all often,' {G-r. Rom. p. 335. 
 Orell, p. 313.) 
 
 Persona. Both Ital. and French use this substantive 
 for alcuno and aucun in both affirmative and negative 
 phrases, as * Guatiam per I'orto, se persona ci ^, e s'egli non 
 c'e persona, che abbiamo noi a fare, etc' Boccaccio, 
 Nov. xxi. 14. So in French, * Si jamais personne est 
 assez hardi pour I'entreprendre, il reussira,' * Personne 
 ne sera assez hardi,' i. e. ^ any person will not be bold 
 enough,' in other words ^ No person will be bold enough.* 
 From being used frequently in negative propositions, 
 personne has sometimes a negative sense : thus * Y a-t-il 
 
230 CHAPTER V. 
 
 quelqu'un ici ? Personne,' i. e. * Personne n^est ici,' ' a 
 person is not here.' 
 
 PuNCTUM. This was adopted as an expletive affirma- 
 tory particle, as signifying a very small quantity, like 
 mica or mie a grain of salt, goutte a drop, hrin a small 
 leafi, and in English * not a jot,* 'not a bit,' 'not a . 
 morsel,' etc. In Ital. it is sometimes used in affirmative, I 
 sometimes in negative propositions, as ' Qual di questa 
 greggia S'arresta punto giace poi cent' anni.' Dante, 
 Inf. XV. 37. ' Who ever stops an instant.^ * A cui il 
 pelegrin disse : Madonna, Tebaldo non e punto morto.' 
 Bocc. Gr. 3 nov. 7. Hence it sometimes denies without a 
 negative particle, as * Y'e egli piaciuto quelle stile ? 
 Punto,' i. e. ' not at all^.' In French from being used in 
 
 ' These words are used familiarly in the very same manner as pas, 
 point, mica, punto, and other expletives, as in the phrases, ' ne voir 
 goutte,' 'n'entendre goutte,' 'il n'y en a brin.' See Diet, de I'Acad. 
 in V. The Bolognese has likewise an expletive of this kind, as is ex- 
 plained in the following extract from a dictionary of that dialect : 
 
 ' Brisa. Voce rimarcata da' forestieri, per cui in vece di nomar 
 Bologna la citta del sipa, la direi piuttosto la cittd del hrisa. Equivale 
 al point o pan de' fran/esi, e s'usa da noi in tutti i casi, in cui da essi 
 si adopera. Corrisponde al punto de' Toscani. Detto assolutamente 
 vale la negativa, e sempre in rispondendo ad altri, p. e. Sei stato n£l 
 tal luogo? Brisa. No (Point du tout.) Nel discorso poi serve di 
 riempitivo come il point de' Francesi. An'i n'd brisa. Non ve n' pa 
 punto (il n'y en a point.) — An'i n'6 brisa brisa. Non ve n' ha punto 
 punto (il n'y en a point du tout.) — An'i son brisa sta. Non ci sono 
 gtato (je n'y ai pas ete,) An' ho brisa seid. Non ho sete (je n'ai 
 point de soif.) — Brisa si volge molte volte in Toscano col mica nello 
 stesso modo che noi diciam mega. Al n'e brisa v^ira, al n'e mega 
 veira, Non e mica vero. — Brisa sembra aver origine da hrisla, che vale , 
 briciola ; siccome briciola significa qu^si niente.* Ferrari, Vocaho- 
 lario Bolognese, p. 45, (Bologna, 1820.) 
 
 ' See Tommaseo, Nuovo Diz. dei Sinonimi deUa Ling. Ital. in mica. 
 And Cinonio, c. 205, 
 
CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 231 
 
 order to give force to negative propositions, as * il n'est 
 point mort/ * il ne s'arrete point,' ' he is not by any means 
 dead,' * he does not stop at all,* it contracted, Hke other 
 words already mentioned, a negative sense, and was used 
 by itself as a negation, as * point du tout,* * not at all.' 
 
 * Lisez vous ces vers ? Point.' * Are you reading those 
 verses.' By no means.' 
 
 Res. This substantive was retained unchanged in the 
 Prov., making res in the nominative, and ren or re in the 
 accusative case. Thus * Qu'ieu non soi alegres per al, M 
 al res no-m fai viure,' ' For I am not joyftd for another, 
 and another thing does not make me live,' i. e. * no other 
 thing makes me live.' {G-r. Rom. p. 152.) ' leu am la 
 plus debonaire Del mon mais que nulla re,' 'I love the 
 fairest woman in the world more than an}i;hing. (lb. 
 p. 76.) *Nuls homs ses amor ren non vau,' 'No man 
 without love is (not) worth anything.' * Ja ren non dirai,' 
 
 * Never wiU I say anything.' (lb. p. 333.) ' Res mas mer- 
 ces no i es a dire,' * Anything except mercy is not wanting,' 
 i. e. * nothing except mercy is wanting.' (lb. p. 337.) 
 
 The Ital. used the accusative case of res, doubtless 
 first changed into ren and rien^, in the same manner; 
 but subjected it to farther alterations, by adding a para- 
 gogic syllable, as in come^ comente, che, cJiente, already 
 observed 2, by which means it became riente ; and by 
 changing r into w, (as in the Span. hombrCy nomhre, lumbre, 
 
 • Perticari, Dif. di Dante, c. 15, p. 334, n. 4, says that the Italians 
 used rien, referring to the Cento Novelle Antiche, No. 61. In c. 21, 
 however, p. 413, n. 6, he shows that rien in that place is a jProven^al, 
 not an Italian word, which occurs in a Provencal song introduced by 
 the novelist, and he blames Lombardi for introducing it into the 
 Vocab. delta Crusca on the authority of that passage. 
 
 2 Above, p. 201, 
 
232 CHAPTER V. 
 
 from hominem^ nomen, hmen'^,) which, made it nienfe^, 
 Niente sometimes retains its ancient afB.rmative sense, as 
 * Rispose che egli non ne voleva far niente/ Bocc. Giorn. 
 X. noY. 2. ' Et in questa maniera fece due notti, senza 
 che la donna di niente s'accorgesse.' Bocc. Giorn. 2, 
 nov. 9. Sometimes it has a negative sense, acquired in 
 the manner already explained with respect to other 
 words, as ' Ma fin a qui niente mi rileva Pianto sospiro 
 o lagrimar ch'io faccio/ Petrarch, P. 1, canz. 1. * El 
 fuggir val niente Dinanzi a I'ali, che'l segnor nostro usa/ 
 Petrarch, (Cinonio, c. 181.) The rule at present estah- 
 lished in Ital. with respect to the use of niente is, that 
 where it precedes the verh, it has a negative, where it 
 follows, it has an affirmative, sense : as * niente ho,' * I 
 have nothing,' ' non ho niente,' ' I have not anything.' 
 In answer to a question, moreover, niente has a negative 
 sense : as ' cosa fate ? Niente.' * What are you doing ? 
 Nothing.' 
 
 The old Span, likewise used the accusative ren from 
 res : thus Milagros de N. Senora, v. 195. 
 
 Vidien que de ladrones non era degollado, 
 Ca nol toUieron nada nil avien ren robado. 
 
 Also V. 293. 
 
 Cata non aias miedo, por ren non te demudes, 
 Piensa como me fables h como me pescudes'. 
 
 • See above, p. 71, note *. 
 
 * Bien and niente from rem are like miei from mei, Dieu from Deiis, 
 etc. Muratori in v. rejects the absurd derivation of niente from ne 
 ens ; em was a scholastic, not a popular term. The French nSant 
 appears to come from negam : ' a negative quantity.' See Orell, p. 309. 
 
 ' Sanchez, vol. ii. p. 311—324. 
 
coisrjuNCTioNS. 233 
 
 The use of Hen in French is precisely analogous to 
 that of niente in Italian^. Sometimes it retains its 
 original affirmative sense, as 'Y a-t-il rien de si beau 
 que cela/ * II ne sait rien de rien,' i. e. ' he knows, 
 nothing of anything' But from being used after ne, it 
 has itself acquired a negative force, and sometimes means 
 nothing instead of anything, as * Dieu a cree le monde de 
 rien.' * On ne fait rien de rien,' i. e. * Ex nihilo nil fit/ 
 * Qu' avez vous trouve ? Rien/ 
 
 Sic. This word, changed into si^, became the affirmative 
 particle of the Ital. and Span. : in French it is still often 
 employed in famihar style ^, and it also occurs in the old 
 Prov. : thus in the Nohla Leygon : 
 
 La ley velha deflfent solament perjurar, 
 E plus de si de no non sia en ton parlar. 
 
 The last line being a translation of St. Matthew, ' and 
 let thy conversation be yea, yea, nay, nay.* {Q-r. Rom. 
 p. 312. Crnnp, p. 346.) 
 
 It is known that the difference of the affirmative par- 
 ticle was used to distinguish the three Romance languages, 
 of Italy, northern and southern France : the former being 
 called the language of si, the latter of oil and oc. The 
 agreement of aU these languages in the use of si may 
 therefore seem a proof of their derivation from a lan- 
 guage posterior to the Latin, in which this particle had a 
 
 * Schlegel's Kritische Schriften, vol. i. p. 358. On rien, used in old 
 French as a feminine substantive for chose, see Orell, p. 70. 
 
 a Grimm, Deutsche Rechtsalterthumer, p. 606, cites a formula from 
 the Lombard laws : ' Spondes ita? Sic facio,' comparing the French 
 si fats and the Italian si. 
 
 3 [See Burguy, vol. ii. p. 391.] 
 
234 CHAPTER V. 
 
 different sense. It is, however, easy to conceive that the 
 use of the Latin sic for yes should have heen introduced 
 by the Germans, with whom so had a familiar sense ; or 
 that sic should have been used without reference to the 
 German practice, as the Latin formerly employed ita^ a 
 nearly s3monymous particle. But although the languages 
 of oil and oc sometimes used si in the same sense as the 
 Italian, yet they had other particles which they com- 
 monly used in that sense. The characteristic of the 
 ItaKan, as opposed to the languages of France, was not 
 that it used si, but that it used si alone ; the characteristic 
 of the languages of France, as opposed to that of Italy, 
 was not that they did not use si, but that they commonly 
 used oil and oc, particles of which no trace is to be found 
 in any Italian dialect. 
 
 The Bolognese dialect has been characterized by its 
 use of sipa : 
 
 E non pur io qui piango Bolognese : 
 Anzi n'^ questo luogo tanto pieno, 
 Che tante lingue non son ora apprese 
 A dicer sipa tra Savena e'l Keno. 
 
 Dante, Inf. xviii. 58. 
 
 Sipa or sepa, however, now no longer in use, is a peculiar 
 form of sia, and is not connected with si'^ : though it 
 appears evidently to have been used as equivalent to si, 
 since Dante elsewhere takes this affirmative particle as 
 the distinguishing mark of a language. 
 
 With regard to the affirmative particles oil and oc, 
 it cannot be doubted that they are both derived from the 
 form 0, which was used in old French. Oil is doubtless 
 
 * See Menage, Orig. Ital. in sipa. Ferrari, Vocab. Bologn, in sepa. 
 
CONJUNCTIONS. 235 
 
 formed by the addition of the pronoun il, like nenil from 
 non or nen. Oc is considered by Grimm as equivalent 
 to jd ich: an etymology of which the probability is 
 much increased, if, as Grimm suggests, and as appears 
 likely, the Romance is borrowed from the German jd^. 
 Should this explanation be received, the adoption of a 
 German affirmative particle in France, while in Italy and 
 Spain a Latin word was used for this purpose, must be 
 considered as a proof of the greater amount of German 
 influence in the former than in the latter countries. 
 
 The modern French out appears to be formed from oil 
 by dropping the final I, as nenni from nennil, the before 
 i being pronounced like ou, as Louis, anciently Loys^. 
 The final I has in French commonly passed into u, as 
 seel, sceau, morcel, morceau^ : but if oil had suffered a 
 change of this kind, it would have become oiu, and not 
 oui. 
 
 Among the particles which have been just enumerated 
 it will be observed that several having originally had an 
 affirmative sense, and having been introduced into nega- 
 tive propositions for the sake of strengthening the nega- 
 tion, in process of time themselves contracted a negative 
 force. Negation may, as Grimm states, be strengthened 
 in two ways : either by a repetition of the proper negative 
 
 * Grimm, vol. iii. p. 768. See Philol. Museum, vol. ii. p. 324. Some 
 instances of the change of the broad a into o are mentioned there, 
 p. 326. [Burguy, vol. ii. p. SOD, 407—9, approves of the derivation of 
 oil from o and il. He rejects the derivation of oc from the Latin hocj 
 and thinks that the origin of the word is quite uncertain.] 
 
 ^ This is satisfactorily proved by Blester on oc and oyl, Philol. 
 Museum, vol. ii. p. 342, cf. ib. 324. 
 
 ' See above, p. 138. 
 
236 CHAPTER V. 
 
 particles, or by the addition of a positive word. "With 
 regard to the latter of these he remarks : * A positive 
 expression may sometimes expel and replace the simple 
 negation : the proper negative force of the lost negative 
 particle then falls upon it, and it denies by means of it, 
 as the moon shines with borrowed light. Such words, 
 however, though not properly negative, must yet originally 
 have some natural fitness for expressing negation. Words 
 of this kind commonly convey a notion of smallness, and 
 as it were of nullity. At first they appear to have sug- 
 gested a sensible image, which afterwards was lost, and a 
 mere grammatical abstraction remained^.' The intro- 
 duction of words signifying small, insignificant, worthless 
 and mean objects, prevailed to a great extent in the old 
 German, and numerous examples of this usage are cited 
 by Grimm from poets of the thirteenth century. Among 
 these are blat, a leaf, bast bark, her a berry, stro a straw, 
 hone a bone, nuz a nut, ei an egg, hrot a loaf of bread, 
 drof a drop, Mr a hair, fuoz a foot, iwint a twinkle, wiht 
 a thing, etc.^ For the most part these words were used 
 after a negation : as * daz hulfe niht ein blat ;' ' wan ez 
 half niht ein bast ;' * ich waere niht einer bone wert.' 
 Sometimes, however, the same word occurs both with and 
 without the negative particle, as ' dat halp aUent nicht 
 ein stof, (i.e. stoup, an atom,) with the negative particle ; 
 but ' ez was in aUez ein stoup,' without it. It appears 
 probable, as Schlegel^ had remarked before Grimm, that 
 
 » Grimm, vol. iii. p. 726—8. 
 
 ' Grimm, vol. iii. p. 728 — 40. [Similar expressions are cited from 
 the classical Latin writers by Diez, Rom. Gr. vol. iii. p. 413.] 
 
 ' Observ. sur la Litt. Prov. p. 34^ Schlegel's remark is, however, 
 limited to the French language. 
 
CONJUNCTIONS. 237 
 
 the system of expletive particles in negative plirases was 
 formed in the Romance languages on the model of the 
 German idiom ; as in the Latin there are no traces of 
 any idiom to which the usage in question can he referred^. 
 The Italian has some, hut not many, particles of this 
 kind, viz. mica^ niente, persona^ punto, derived from Latin 
 words, and giiari from a German word. The Provencal 
 has pas J ren, mica, from the Latin, gaire and gens from 
 the German. The Spanish does not appear to have any 
 particles belonging to this class. The French, on the 
 other hand, formerly luxuriated in the use of this idiom : 
 among the instances cited by Grimm, are gant^ ail, feuille^ 
 oef, pome, poire, houton, etc.'^ Mie, goutte, and 5rm, still 
 retain a certain currency in the same manner : but pas, 
 point, gvere, personne, and rien, are in constant use, and 
 show in the clearest manner the transition from the af- 
 firmative to the negative sense. 
 
 The Romance and Teutonic words of this kind often 
 correspond lq their meaning, as pas and fiioz, drof and 
 
 * However, it is possible that in the case of this idiom, as of others 
 which have been incorrectly derived from the influence of the German, 
 (above, p. 25,) the change may have developed itself in the spon- 
 taneous working of the language : for analogous changes have taken 
 place in several Greek words, as I am informed by a friend who is well 
 acquainted with modem Greek. Thus KadoXov and irori have, as 
 answers to a question, a negative sense, (precisely analogous to ;foint 
 du tout &ad jamais:) for example, adg apkati IkHvo', kuBoXov. 'Does 
 that please you ? Not at aU.' YraQriKaTt icoTf dg Tag 'AOrjvag ; ttots. 
 * Have you ever been at Athens ? Never.' So in other words : fiag 
 ^sptTe riiroTe vkov ; %va riiroTa. ' Do you bring us any news ? None,' 
 (i.e. un rien, a mere nothing.) Tivcig is used for * no one:' also 
 Kavkvag, [le Kavkva rpoirov, ' in no wise : ' TravTtXuig, ' by no means : * 
 oXorcXa, ' in no way,' (sometimes used affirmatively :) aKOfii] means 
 both ' again,' and ' not yet.' 
 
 ' Grimm, vol. iii. p. 750. 
 
238 CHAPTER V. 
 
 goutte, oef and e^, hiat and feuille, tliougli tHs cannot be 
 considered as a proof that the one is derived from the 
 other. It will be observed that nihil has not been re- 
 tained in any of the Romance languages, three of which 
 have agreed in substituting for it a derivative of res, pre- 
 ceded by a negative particle, in the same manner that 
 the German nichts or nicht was formed from nivaihts or 
 niowiht, nothing^. 
 
 The other mode of strengthening a negation, viz. a 
 repetition of the negative particles, likewise occurs in the 
 Teutonic languages^ : whence it was probably derived 
 to those formed from the Latin, as will appear from the 
 following examples. 
 
 Nullo, niuno, and nessuno in Ital., neguns and nuls in 
 Prov., are equivalent to nullus and nemo in Latin, and 
 thus they are often used : nevertheless a negative particle 
 is often added to the proposition, the sense remaining 
 the same, contrary to the rule that two negatives make 
 an affirmative. Thus in Ital., ' non dice nulla,' * non v'e 
 niuno,' ' non e neuna cosa si bella che eUa non rincresca 
 altrui,' Bocc. * Che Annibale non fusse maestro di guerra, 
 nessuno mai non lo dira,* Machiavelli, Disc. iii. 10. In 
 Proven9al, ' Negus vezers mon bel pensar no-m val,* * No 
 sight is (not) worth to me my thoughts.' * Nuls hom non 
 pot ben chantar sens amar,' * No man can (not) sing well 
 without loving 3.' All of which are affirmative, not nega- 
 tive propositions. Now in Latin the use was in this 
 respect completely reversed : non-nullus meant some, non- 
 nemo meant somebody; and whereas 'non c'e nessuno' is 
 
 » Gidmm, vol. iii. p. 748. 
 » Grimm, vol. iii. p. 727. 
 » Cinonio, c. 180, 188. Kayn. Gr, Bom. p. 149. 
 
f 
 
 CONJUNCTIONS. 239 
 
 in Italian a negative, * non nulli adfuerunt * is in Latin 
 an affirmative proposition. Tlie confusion has indeed 
 gone a step further, and as affirmative particles, such as 
 mica, niente, rien, pas, point, etc. by being continually 
 used in negative sentences acquired a negative sense ; so 
 the negative pronouns by being used after a negation 
 which absorbed their own meaning, retained only an af- 
 firmative force. Thus Machiavel says in the preface to 
 his History : * Se niuna cosa diletta o insegna nella istoria, 
 e quella che particolarmente si descrive,' that is, if any- 
 
 On the other hand, affiLrmative terms sometimes con- 
 tract a negative meaning, and make a proposition nega- 
 tive which in its form is affirmative. Of this we have 
 seen many examples in the words, niente, rien, personne, 
 etc. : but these are not the only instances of such a 
 change. Thus mai in Ital., which properly signifies ever, 
 from being used in negative sentences, came to signify 
 never : thus * Ti priego che mai ad alcuna persona dichi 
 d'avermi veduta,' Bocc. G. 2. n. 7, i.e. ' non mai,' never^. 
 So in French, * Avez vous jamais ete la ? Jamais.' 
 * Have you ever been there ? Never, ^ Veruno in Italian 
 is another word of this kind, which, though properly 
 synonymous with aliquis, sometimes has a negative sense : 
 thus * I peccati veniali in verun modo si perdonano sanza 
 i mortali,' i.e. *in no way*.' Whether alcuno in Italian 
 ever had a negative meaning seems doubtful^ : in French, 
 
 * See other instances in Cinonio, c. 164, s. 2. 
 
 * Cinonio, c. 250. Veruno appears to be derived from vel unus, in 
 the same manner that medesmo came from met ipsissimus, and dimentre 
 from dum interea. Thus, for example, such a sentence as ' ut non vel 
 unus sciret,' might be rendered in Italian by • che non veruno sapesse,' 
 
 « See Cinonio, c. 13, s. 6. 
 
24^ CHAPTER V. 
 
 however, aucun frequently denies ; as, Ce livre merite-t-il 
 aucune confiance ? Aucune,' i. e. None^. 
 
 The use of expletive particles in negative propositions, 
 their subsequent assumption of a negative sense, the re- 
 petition of negative particles, and the confusion of af- 
 firmation and negation which prevail in the Romance 
 languages, have all been introduced since the Latin, in 
 which none of these idioms are to be observed. Never- 
 theless the comparison just made proves that there is 
 only an analogy, and not an identity in the words which 
 have undergone these changes, and that the conformity 
 is to be accounted for, not by deriving one idiom from the 
 other, but by referring them all partly to the disposition 
 (which appears to be general to all men) to strengthen 
 negation by additional words, and to confound affirmative 
 and negative meanings : partly to the existence of the 
 idioms in question among the nations who mixed their 
 languages with the Latin. 
 
 It is moreover to be remarked that in the Spanish 
 language (as far as I am aware) expletive particles of 
 affirmation are not used in negative propositions, that 
 consequently these particles have never acquired a nega- 
 tive sense, and in general that there are fewer examples 
 
 * The present rule with respect to aucun is that its negative sense 
 is limited to the singular number, with certain narrow exceptions. 
 Eacihe, in the Phedre, has the following couplet : 
 
 Qu' aucuns monstres par moi domt^s jusqu' aujourd'hui 
 Ne m'ont acquis le droit de faiUir comme lui. 
 
 (Act i. sc. i.) 
 
 Where the commentator says : ' aucun signifiant nul, pas un, ne pent 
 s'employer au pluriel, si ce n'est avant les mots qui n'ont pas de singu- 
 lier, ou qui dans certain sens doivent n6cessairement 6tre au plurieL' 
 
CONJUNCTIONS. 24I 
 
 of tlie confiisioii of negation so common in its sister 
 tongues. Thus the Spanish does not use a negative be- 
 tween the comparative and the verb, like the Proven9a], 
 Italian, and French ; and the words nada and nadie, 
 though their derivation is not very obvious, appear at 
 any rate to be allied to the negative particle no, and not 
 like niente, rien, and personne, to have a negative force, 
 having originally been affirmative terms. 
 
 In reviewing the various prepositions, adverbs, and par- 
 ticles, compared in this chapter, it appears that although 
 the several languages sometimes agree in remarkable de- 
 viations from the Latin, as in making pres and presso 
 from prope, sens and senza from sine, and in introducing 
 new words not found in the Latin, as the adverbs malgrat 
 and malgrado, tost and tosto, trop and troppo: yet the 
 Italian, the Spanish, and the French, and especially the 
 two former, exhibit peculiarities which could not have 
 been borrowed from the Proven9al, and could not have 
 been derived from any other source than the Latin itself. 
 Thus the Ital. has preserved apicd, circa, infra, and eccum, 
 which the Prov. has lost : so likewise the Ital. and Prov. 
 in modifying the Latin forms followed the different 
 analogies respectively observed by them in other parts of 
 speech : thus from suhtus, versus, minus, pejus, secundum, 
 jusum, susum, medium, the Ital. made sotto, verso, meno, 
 peggio, secondo, giuso, suso, mezzo, like petto and mostro 
 from pectus and monstrum: whereas the Prov. made sotz 
 from suUus, ves from versus, mens from minus, pietz from 
 pejus, like amatz from amatus : and segont from secundum, 
 miei or mieg from medium, jos and sos from jusum and 
 susum, like amic from amicum. It will be observed. 
 
242 CHAPTER V. 
 
 moreover, that the Ital. retained in many words the 
 final Latin vowel unchanged, which the Prov. either 
 modified or cut off : thus intra and sopra Ital., intre and 
 sohre Prov. ; sovente, onde Ital., sovent, ont Prov. ; fuori^ 
 hieri, assai Ital., fors^ hier, assatz Prov. Sometimes also 
 a Latin consonant which had disappeared in the Prov. 
 was preserved in the Ital. : as from hodie and ibi, hoggi 
 and ivi Ital., oi and i Prov. The Prov. likewise has 
 several peculiar words, such as the derivatives of aliquoties 
 and aUorsum, and the use of gens as an expletive in the | 
 sense of ' something : ' the adverhs pron, moreover, and 
 pas employed as an affirmative (or negative) particle, are 
 common only to the French with the Prov., and are 
 wanting in Ital. and Span. If, however, the Proven9al 
 had heen the mother tongue of the Italian and Spanish, 
 it is inconceivable that they should have preserved traces 
 of the Latin, which the other had not : and it is very im- 
 probable that there should be any words peculiar to the 
 original language, and not retained in any of the various 
 dialects which, according to the supposition, sprung from \ 
 it. It would be easy to carry this analysis further, and 
 to point out other peculiarities in the latter languages, 
 which could not have been derived from the Proven9al : 
 but enough has been said to illustrate the differences now 
 in question, and to indicate the numerous difficulties to 
 which M. Eaynouard's theory is liable. I wiU only in 
 conclusion remark, that with respect to the indecKnable 
 parts of speech last examined, the Spanish departs widely 
 from its sister languages, and bears strong marks of an 
 independent origin. 
 
CONCLUDING REMARKS. 243 
 
 § 4. CONCLUDING REMARKS ON M. RAYNOUARD's 
 HYPOTHESIS. 
 
 M. Eaynouard concludes his proofs of tlie derivation 
 of the Italian, Spanish, and French, from the Provencal, 
 by collecting several pecuHar idioms not traceable to the 
 Latin, in which these languages agree, as the use of 
 mere instead of essere, of lasciare stare, far la fica, aver 
 nome^y etc. This kind of proof has been much insisted 
 on by Perticari, who has collected a long series of cor- 
 responding idioms and expressions in Italian and the 
 language of the Troubadours^, which is interesting as 
 
 ' Gr. Comp. p. 351 — 61. The expression nomen habere is, however, 
 Latdn, as M. Eaynouard himself shows : 
 
 Est via sublimis, ccelo manifesta sereno, 
 Lactea nomen Jiahet, candore notabilis ipso. 
 
 Ovid. Met. 1, 168-9. 
 
 '^ Dif. di Dante, c. 13-19. The reader must, however, be on his 
 guard against an artifice practised by Perticari, in order to render the 
 resemblances which he points out more stinking, by assimilating the 
 inflexions and terminations, as well as the syntax. In almost all the 
 passages which he quotes, he obliterates the more salient peculiarities 
 of the Provengal, and brings the forms nearer to the Italian, without 
 informing his readers that the words are not faithfully transcribed, and 
 then he calls on them to observe how close the Provengal is to the 
 Italian. Thus in his very first example, c. 13, taken from the poem 
 on Boethius, he says: 'questi sono versi citati dal dottissimo 
 Benuardo : 
 
 D'avant son vis null' om non se pot celar, 
 
 N^ ess H omen chi sun ultra la mar.' 
 
 Which by adding the final vowels becomes, as he says, Italian : 
 
 D' avanti '1 suo vise null' omo non si pote celare, 
 Nd essi li omini che son oltra 1 mare. 
 
 Vol. i. p. 318. 
 
 R 2 
 
244 CHAPTER V. 
 
 throwing light on both those languages, and as showing 
 the close ajB&nity which subsisted between them, but 
 which cannot be considered as proving the derivation of 
 one from the other, more than a table of parallel idioms 
 in German, Dutch, and EngUsh, would prove the mutual 
 dependence of those three sister languages. The close 
 analogy between many of the idioms, no less than between 
 the words and forms of the Eomance languages, for the 
 most part arises not from their propagation from one 
 language into another, but from the similarity of effects 
 produced by similar causes. Not only were the circum- 
 stances attending the mixture of the conqueriag and 
 conquered populations similar all over western Europe, 
 (as has been before explained,) but all the kingdoms 
 
 Now in M. Eaynouard's Gr. Rom. p. 330, these verses are cited 
 thus: 
 
 Davan son vis nulz om no s pot eelar, 
 Ne eps li omne qui sun ultra la mar. 
 
 There is no wonder that these verses should pass so easily into Italian, 
 when they had been prepared for their reduction by taking away all 
 that characterizes the language in which they were written : and even 
 after Perticari had restored the Provencal contractions to their fuller 
 form by writing d'avant for davan, and non se for no-s, after he had in- 
 troduced the Italian variations ess for eps, omen for omne, chi for gwi, ' 
 and after he had suppressed the final s retained from the Latin, the 
 distinctive mark of the Proven9al nominatives, by writing null' (mean- 
 ing nuUo) for nulz, he was unable to get rid of son instead of siio and 
 la mar instead of il mare, with the gender changed, as in Spanish and 
 French. (See above, p. 113-14.) Numerous other instances of changes 
 of this kind in passages cited by Perticari (which I fear could not 
 have been unintentional) are collected by Galvani, in his collection of 
 Troubadour poetry, p. 504-20. M. Eaynouard, whose good faith 
 and accuracy in citation cannot be exceeded, probably did not perceive 
 that Perticari had garbled the passages which he quoted, when he re- , 
 ferred to that writer as an authority, without cautioning the reader 
 against his misrepresentations. 
 
CONCLUDING REMARKS. 245 
 
 created by the invaders had nearly the same form of 
 government, the same system of laws, the same reKgion, 
 the same manners ; they existed in the same age ; and a 
 frequent communication both in peace and war, was 
 reciprocally kept up between them, especially among the 
 class of writers, whether chroniclers, theologians, or 
 poets. In this state of things similar phrases would not 
 unnaturally be suggested by similar wants, and by similar 
 ideas : and some expressions likewise would doubtless pass 
 from one language to the other (as we see at the present 
 day,) though their number would probably be incon- 
 siderable as compared with those of native growth, and 
 would chiefly be confined to poets and other writers in an 
 exotic style*. Any resemblance, therefore, whether of 
 words, forms, or idioms, in the Romance languages, is 
 quite compatible with the supposition that they were 
 derived immediately from the Latin : whereas any marked 
 dissimilarity between the Provencal and any other modem 
 language is incompatible with the supposition that the 
 latter is derived from the former. Thus it may be re-^ 
 markable that the futures of aU the modem verbs should 
 be formed by adding the future tense of Jmheo to the 
 infinitive mood of the verb : nevertheless it is conceiv- 
 able that this mode of formation should have been adopted 
 independently by different languages : but it is incon- 
 ceivable that the Ital. hebhi or hebhero, the Span, hube 
 and huhieron should have been formed from agui or aic, 
 agueron or aguererij the first person singular and the third 
 
 ^ See above, page 146, on the introduction of Italian words into 
 French. Some likewise appear to have been borrowed from the Span- 
 ish, as salade, limonade, esplanade, estrade, etc. Salade if formed ac- 
 cording to the French analogy would be saUe, 
 
246 CHAPTER V. 
 
 person plural of the perfect of aver, whereas they might 
 all three be independent corruptions of the Latin habui 
 and hahuerunt. A comparison of the Romance languages 
 with the Latin will probably convince any person who 
 examines the relations with an unbiased mind, that the 
 ItaKan is in every respect nearer to the Latin than any 
 of its cognate tongues ; that it has retained the most 
 Latin words, and subjected them to the fewest and least 
 considerable alterations of form^ Next to the Italian, 
 
 * Passages which are at once Italian and Latin serve to show the 
 close affinity of the two languages. The following couplet is well 
 known : 
 
 In mare irato, in subita procella 
 
 Invoco te, nostra benign a stella. 
 
 Matthews, Diary of an Invalid, c. 10, adds these verses : 
 
 Vivo in acerba pena, in mesto orrore, 
 Quando te non imploro, in te non spero 
 Purissima Maria, et in sincero 
 Te non adoro et in divino ardore. 
 
 The following address to Venice is a still longer composition : 
 
 Te saluto, alma Dea, Dea generosa, 
 
 gloria nostra, o Veneta regina ! 
 
 In proceUoso turbine funesto 
 
 Tu regnasti secura ; uulle membra 
 
 Intrepida prostrasti in pugna acerba. 
 
 Per te miser non fui, per te non gemo ; 
 
 Vivo in pace per te. Kegna, o beata, 
 
 Eegna in prospera sorte, in alta pompa, 
 
 In augusto splendore, in aurea sede. 
 
 Tu Serena, tu placida, tu pia, 
 
 Tu benigna ; tu salva, ama, conserva. 
 
 (Cited in the Journ. of Education, vol. vi. p. 260.) 
 
 Although these passages were doubtless composed in order to show 
 the coincidence of the two languages, I question whether it would be 
 possible to do as much in any other modem language derived from the 
 Latin. 
 
 The Latin language probably remained longer in current use in 
 Italy, especially in the central and southern parts, than in any other 
 
CONCLUDING REMARKS. 247 
 
 thougli after a long interval, comes tlie Spanish, wHch 
 has not so mucli changed the Latin form, as it has lost 
 numerous Latin words preserved in Italian. After the 
 Spanish is the language of oc, which has cHpped the 
 Latin standard much more closely than the two former 
 languages, especially the Italian, and has not only rejected 
 many vowel terminations which the others have preserved, 
 hut has introduced various contractions in the hody of 
 words which the others have not admitted. Last of all 
 comes the language of oil^, which had at a very early 
 period undergone the considerahle modifications which 
 may he seen in the modern French, and which caused it 
 to he opposed as a distinct Romance dialect to the lan- 
 guage of oc. jS'evertheless in tracing the French language 
 to its present form, it appears eiddently to have passed 
 
 part of western Europe. Of this we have a proof in the two Latin 
 songs composed in 871 and 924 a.d. referred to by M. Raynouard, 
 {Gram. Comp. p. L.) which must have been understood by a large 
 number of persons. (See above, pp. 58, 59.) Dante likewise introduces 
 Cacciaguida in the Paradise as addressing his descendant in Latin 
 (xv. 28-30,) and afterwards he says that Cacciaguida spoke to him 
 •con voce piu dolce e soave. Ma non con questa mo clem a favella,* 
 xvi. 32, which Daniello explains to mean 'that Cacciaguida spoke 
 not in Italian but in Latin, as was the custom of persons of some 
 education in his time.' It was this practice which made it so difficult 
 to eradicate the use of Latin from the modem literature of Italy, and 
 which even to a great degree banished the Italian from books after the 
 age of Dante, Petrarch, and Boccaccio : it would, however, be absurd 
 to suppose that in Cacciaguida's time the lingua volgare was not as 
 much the language of the volgo of Florence as it is at the present day. 
 The practice of preaching in Latin to mixed audiences prevailed in 
 Italy so late as the sixteenth centuiy: M'Crie's History of the Re- 
 formation in Italy, p. 51. Compare Wachsmuth in the Athenaum, 
 voL i. p. 287 note. 
 
 * ' Parmi les langues modemes, la langue fran^aise est celle qui a 
 ^prouvee le plus de variations.' Raynouard in Journal des Sav. 1818, 
 p. 282. 
 
248 CHAPTER V. 
 
 througli a stage little different from tlie language of oc, 
 as preserved in the poems of the Troubadours : thus these 
 two languages agreed in marking, in nouns and participles 
 not ending in a, the nom. sing, and the ace. plural by the 
 presence of s, the ace. sing, and nom. plural by the ab- 
 sence of s' ; and in forming the plural of feminine nouns 
 
 * M. Raynouard, at the end of his Gram. Conip. p. 389-94, con- 
 siders what would have heen the effect on the literature of France, if 
 the French court had heen established in a town south of the Loire, 
 and the langue d'oc had beconae the language of government; and he 
 appears to regret that the fates of the two languages of oc and oil had 
 not been reversed, and the former had become the subordinate instead 
 of the superior dialect. If one is to judge from the modem Provencal 
 what would have been the present form of the French language under 
 the circumstances supposed, it is difficult to assent to M. Raynouard's 
 opinion. The language would doubtless have taken a more perfect 
 form than it now bears in the southern patois, if it had been cultivated 
 by the chief writers of France: but it would unquestionably have 
 lost many of the advantages which M. Raynouard ascribes to it, and 
 which induce him to give it the preference over the language of oil. 
 Thus he says that it would have had the power of distinguishing the 
 subject and regimen in both numbers, by the absence or presence of a 
 final s; and he instances a verse of Thomas Corneille : 
 
 Le crime fait la honte et non pas I'echafaud, 
 
 which by means of this distinction would have lost its ambiguity, being 
 written, 
 
 Le crimes fait la honte et non pas I'echafauds. 
 
 I will say nothing of M. Raynouard's inconsistency in extolling the 
 superiority of the modern Romance languages over the Latin as being 
 free 'from the slavery of declensions,' (above, p. ^7.) and yet pre- 
 ferring the ancient Provencal to the modem French on the very ground 
 of its possessing declensions : but I would remark that M. Raynouard 
 appears to forget that the distinction of cases which he points out ex- 
 isted equally in ancient French, in which it has been lost, as it has 
 likewise been lost in all the dialects of the language of oc. This ad- 
 vantage, therefore, which he finds in the langue d'oc would doubtless 
 have disappeared if that language had become predominant in France, 
 and it also existed in the langue d'oil. The final a, moreover, in the 
 
CONCLUDING REMARKS. 249 
 
 in a from the Latin accusative : in both which points the 
 Ital. and Span, differ, as well from these two languages 
 as from each other. Hence when M. Raynouard selects 
 passages from Ital., Span., and French writers, which 
 are at once Ital. and Prov., Span, and Prov., French and 
 Pro v., he is forced in the former to confine himself to 
 sentences, such as *la vista angelica serena per suhita 
 partenza,' in Petrarch, where are only singular feminiue 
 nouns in a; for passages containing masculine nouns 
 either singular or plural, (unless the terminations are cut 
 off,) and feminine nouns in the plural, would have im- 
 mediately betrayed the characteristic differences of the 
 two languages. In Spanish he is less confined, for he 
 can there cite not only the singular but also the plural of 
 nouns in a, (as ' mas son que arenas in riba de la mar' 
 from Berceo,) since the Spanish, Hke the Proven9al and 
 unlike the Italian, forms its feminine plural from the 
 Latin accusative. In old French, on the other hand, he 
 has a wider field ; for there is a strong resemblance be- 
 tween the languages of northern and southern France, 
 and it is easier to find passages where even in their later 
 form they agree, than to establish any characteristic dis- 
 tinction between them in their earlier form^. 
 
 However singular the close concordance of the lan- 
 guages of oc and oil may appear, as weU of the Eomance 
 languages in general, without the hypothesis of their 
 mutual dependence, or their common derivation from a 
 language already corrupted from the Latin; yet the 
 
 verse of Comeille would be a distinction only to the eye, and not to 
 the ear, like the s of the French plural : anciently the last letter of 
 Thiebauz, chascuns, etc. was doubtless pronounced as well as written, 
 like the modem ^k. 
 » Gr. Comp, p. 37 6—84. 
 
250 CHAPTER V. 
 
 English and Scotch offer an analogy of languages be- 
 tween which there is the closest resemblance, but which 
 were nevertheless formed independently of each other. 
 Both in England and the Lowlands of Scotland the 
 Norman invaders found an Anglo-Saxon population, 
 and in both countries a new language was formed by ^ 
 mixing the language of the conquered with that of the 
 conquerors. The further we go back the closer we find 
 the relation between the Scotch and English, both in 
 structure and in words, though each language has pecu- 
 liarities of its own, which having been more strongly 
 marked in the course of years, at last have created so 
 considerable a difference between the two dialects, that a 
 large part of a Scotch composition is unintelligible to a 
 person acquainted only with modern English. 
 
 In reviewing the whole series of proofs collected by 
 M. Rajmouard, of the derivation of the Italian, Spanish, 
 and French, from the ancient language of Provence as 
 preserved in the poetry of the Troubadours, it appears to 
 me that he has failed to establish his theory, and that he 
 has shown nothing more than the close affinity which 
 exists between these languages, as being derived from 
 the Latin, their only common origin. Although, how- 
 ever, we may withhold our assent to the inference which 
 he would draw from his premises, it is impossible to be 
 blind to the light which he has thrown on the relations 
 of the languages of which he treats, or to deny the ser- 
 vice which he has rendered to the elucidation of the 
 history of the modem dialects of the Latin : nor in the 
 preceding essay do I aspire to any higher merit than of 
 having reconstructed the materials furnished by M. Ray- 
 nouard himself, into a more consistent theory than that 
 which he formed from them. 
 
APPENDIX 
 
 Note (A.) 
 
 Perticari, in his acconnt of tlie formation of the Italian 
 language, and of the relation which its several dialects 
 bear to one another, perpetually confounds grammatical 
 forms and style. The question is not, whether in early 
 times, writers in other parts of Italy besides Tuscany 
 wrote in an elevated and noble style, avoiding low and 
 plebeian terms, or whether they composed good poetry : 
 but whether the forms of the Italian language, such as 
 it is now, its terminations, contractions, and inflexions, 
 existed in any other dialect except the Tuscan. There 
 can be no doubt that in all the north of Italy the same 
 character of language, which prevails now, has prevailed 
 universally from a very early period, even if it has not 
 existed since the Latin settled into its new form^. The 
 dialects of Milan, Piedmont, Bologna, and other towns 
 of northern Italy, are not confined to the lower and 
 middle classes : they are to this day used by the upper 
 classes in their familiar intercourse when no stranger 
 from southern Italy is present. That these were not in 
 the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries the languages of 
 Milan, Piedmont, etc. is by no means proved by alleging 
 a few verses written in the Tuscan Italian by the natives 
 
 1 See above, p. 94—98, 104. 
 
252 APPENDIX. 
 
 of those countries. It is remarkable to what an extent 
 the power of composition in a foreign language may be 
 acquired. We have abundant proofs of this fact in our 
 public schools, where youths of sixteen or seventeen fre- 
 quently compose even Latin poetry with a facility, ele- 
 gance, and correctness, probably far beyond many native 
 Romans who had not cultivated the art of versification. 
 Many foreigners have written in modern languages with 
 complete success, as Manzoni and Schlegel in French, 
 Baretti in English, etc. A century and a half ago, 
 when Latin was the language of Science, most mathe- 
 matical and physical philosophers probably wrote in 
 j Latin with as much facility as in their own languages, 
 ; although their thoughts were not turned to philological 
 ■studies. To Newton it would doubtless have been a 
 Vmatter of perfect indifference, as far as the facility of 
 composition was concerned, whether he wrote the Prin- 
 cipia in Latin or in EngHsh. These instances are suffi- 
 cient to show that there is not so much difficulty as 
 would at first sight appear, in thinking in one language 
 and composing in another. But when the transfusion of 
 thought takes place, not from languages of a different 
 family, as from German into Latin or French, but from 
 one to another dialect of the same language, as from 
 Milanese or Piedmontese to Tuscan, the process is far 
 easier and simpler. The most that can be conceded to 
 Perticari is that the Italian language, as written by its 
 classical authors, has borrowed its forms in great mea- 
 sure from the Roman, Neapolitan, and Sicilian, as well as 
 / / from the Tuscan dialect ; that it is in fact a refinement of 
 the dialects of central and southern Italy and of Sicily. 
 But even this concession is liable to great objections, as 
 
APPENDIX. 253 
 
 any person may see who will compare the forms of the 
 Sicilian and Roman dialects with the language of Tasso, 
 for example, or Ariosto, who were not Tuscans. To 
 argue, as Perticari does, that the written Italian was not 
 borrowed from the Tuscan, because the Tuscan has many 
 peculiar terms which are not intelligible out of Tuscany, 
 betrays a complete misapprehension of the true question 
 at issue: the Tuscan no doubt has peculiar words and 
 phrases, but has it any peculiar forms, and have other 
 dialects any forms which occur in the common Italian 
 and do not occur in the Tuscan ? 
 
 Note (B.) 
 
 Meidinger, in the Introduction to his Dictionary of the 
 Teuto-G-othic Languages, (Frankfort, 1833,) has the fol- 
 lowing remarks on the Romance languages. 
 
 * The Italian language has for its base the romana 
 riistica or vulgaris (plebeia) of the ancient Romans, 
 which at a later period, after the dominion of the 
 Franks, received the name of liiigua franca. It is the 
 mother of all the Romance languages. Among the 
 Romans it formed the popular language properly so 
 called, and the written Latin, as it is at present used, 
 was confined to the upper classes, (lingua nohilis or 
 urbana or classica.y Introd. p. xlxix. In a note he 
 adds : * Originally the romana rustica was a mixture 
 of the Pelasgo-Gothic, the Gallo-Celtic, and the Romano- 
 Latin, as may be inferred from the different races which 
 inhabited Italy.' Speaking of the French, he says, that 
 *the Gaelic ox Celtic, mixed with the Romana rtistica, 
 
254 APPENDIX. 
 
 formed tlie Romance language.' He afterwards adds : 
 *In the thirteenth century there were two principal 
 dialects of the Romance language. These were the 
 Romance language properly so called, or Proven9al- 
 Romance, or langue, d'oc, spoken in the countries to the 
 south of the Loire and in Catalonia, and 2, the langue 
 dj'oily p. 1. Of the language of Spain, he says, that 
 * the modem Spanish, like the French, has for its hasis 
 the Romana rustica, which has also undergone numerous 
 changes, and is mixed with Arahic and Gothic words.' 
 p. lii. 
 
 In this passage there is scarcely a single proposition to 
 which I am able to assent. In the first place, there 
 appears to be no evidence whatever for the opinion that 
 the Romana rustica or vulgaris was a language distinct 
 in its forms or roots from the Latin, and spoken by the 
 lower classes or the peasants of Italy : still less is there 
 any proof that this language was the base of the Italian. 
 The statement that the lingua Romana rustica after the 
 dominion of the Franks, received the name of lingua 
 franca is equally unfounded : for the lingua franca was 
 ' the corrupt and truncated language spoken by the vari- 
 ous inhabitants of the Romance nations who met in the 
 Levant and in the ports of Greece and northern Africa, 
 and was called lingua franca^ as being spoken by the 
 Franks, the general name given by the Mussulmans to 
 Europeans. So far from being identical with the lan- 
 guage which formed the base of the Italian, it is itself a 
 mutilated and imperfect form of the Italian, mixed with 
 the Spanish, Proven9al, and perhaps other languages. 
 (See above, p. 22, note ^.) Having assumed the exist- 
 ence of this inferior dialect of the Latin, the rustic or 
 
APPENDIX. 2<< 
 
 I 
 
 ^ vulgar, as opposed to the classical language, or tliat of 
 the city; he proceeds to account for its origin by the 
 races which inhabited Italy, viz. the Pelasgo-Gothic, 
 the Gallo-Celtic, and the Romano-Latin. What the 
 Pelasgo-Gothic race may be, or how it differs from the 
 Romano-Latin ; or how the language of the Romans, so 
 far as it agrees with the Hellenic, differed Jfrom that of 
 the Pelasgian part of the * Pelasgo-Gothic' tribe ; I con- 
 fess myself wholly unable to comprehend. Nor is it 
 very obvious why the Gallo-Celtic race should have pro- 
 duced so powerful an influence on the lingua rustica of 
 Italy, and have produced no influence on its lingua 
 urhana: or how, if the lingua Romana rustica was ftdl 
 of Celtic words, the languages supposed to be derived 
 from it (as the Ital. and Span.) should be nearly desti- 
 tute of them. It may be here observed, that if, in 
 ancient Italy, the inhabitants of Rome and of the other 
 large towns had spoken a language different from' that 
 of the inhabitants of the country, the latter would not 
 have been called the * Lingua Romana rustica :' as at that 
 time the appellation of Romans was not extended to the 
 inhabitants of the entire peninsula. It was only at a 
 much later period when the name of Romani was given 
 to all the provincials, to all the subjects of the Roman 
 empire, that the name of rustic Roman language could 
 by possibility have arisen. (See above, p. 29.) 
 
 With regard to the origin of the Romance languages 
 of France, Mr. Meidinger says that they were formed by 
 the mixture of the Romana rustica and the Celtic : which 
 is much the same as if any one were to say that the 
 English was formed by the mixture of the Anglo-Saxon 
 and the Celtic : for in both cases the true origin of each. 
 
256 APPENDIX. 
 
 language would be omitted, and a false origin would be 
 asserted. The Latin language of France was trans- 
 formed into the Romance by the operation of the Teu- 
 tonic, as the Anglo-Saxon language of Britain was 
 transformed into English by the operation of the Norman 
 French : nor had the Celtic, the native language both of 
 Gaul and Britain, exercised any influence on either lan- 
 guage before the invasion of Gaul and Britain by the 
 Teutons and the JSTormans. There is not (as far as I am 
 aware) any instance of a Celtic having been amalgamated 
 with either a Teutonic, a Latin, or a Romance language: 
 a remarkable circumstance, when the diffusion of the 
 Celts over the whole of western Europe is considered. 
 
 As to Mr. Meidinger's account of the Spanish, it is 
 not easy to understand why he should have mentioned 
 the influence of the Gothic invaders on the Romana rus- 
 tica of Spain, while he makes no mention of any in- 
 fluence exercised by the Teutonic invaders of France 
 on the Romana rustica of that country. Moreover the 
 influence of the Arabic on the Romance of Spain was 
 by no means equal to that of the Gothic, and ought not 
 to be placed on the same level with it. 
 
 I have selected the above passage in Mr. Meidinger's 
 introduction to his Teuto- Gothic Dictionary, as it occurs 
 in a book of reference, compiled with great industry, and 
 considerable ability, which may be supposed to express 
 the opinions on the origin of the Romance languages 
 generally current even among persons who have a more 
 than superficial acquaintance with the subject : and I 
 have examined it in order to justify myself for contri- 
 buting my mite to the destruction of accredited and re- 
 ceived errors, although they might seem to have been 
 

 APPENDIX. 
 
 257 
 
 already overthrown by former writers, such as ScUegel 
 and Diez, and in part by M. Raynouard himself. 
 
 [This theory is still maintained by Burguy, Gramm. 
 de la Langue d'Oil, vol. i. p. 7 — 10. He lays it down 
 that * les langues romanes sont un developpement or- 
 ganique du viel idiome latin vulgaire.' 1862. Diez 
 likewise attributes this origin to the Romance languages, 
 Eom. G-r. vol. i. p. 6.] 
 
 " Note (C.) 
 
 ' Ansonian in Priscus Excerpt. Legat. p. 59, B, seems 
 to mean volgare as opposed to the Latin,' says Niebuhr, 
 Hist, of Romey vol. i. note 46. The passage of Priscus 
 
 IS as lollows : AuLTpt^ovTi 8c /j-ol koI TrcpiTrarovs vrotov/xcVa) Trpo 
 Tov Trepi/SoXov twv olicrjudTOiv, Trpo(T€\Owv Tt5, ov fSaplSapov €k 
 T^S ^Kv6LKrjs (arjOriv ctvat otoX'^s, * ^XkqviK^ do-Tra^erat /xe ^wvg 
 * X^^P^ ' Trpo(T€L7ribv, ooTC fi€ OavfLOL^eiv, OTt ye 8rj iXXrjvL^eL '^KvOrjs 
 avqp. ^iryKAvScs yap 6vt€<s irpos ry cr(f>€T€pa ^ap^apoi yXwaoTy 
 t,T]Kov(nv ri rrpf Ovwaxv rj ttjv TotOwv, rj kol tt)v AvcrovtW, o<rois 
 avrwv irpo<s ^Voifiaiovs €7rt/xi^ta* koI ov pa^Loy; tl<s o-^tov cAAryvt^et 
 rfj (fxovy, 7rXr]v uiv aTnjyayov al^fiCL^^iiyrwv oltto ttjs ©paKtas icat 
 
 'lAXvpiSos Trapaktov. p. 190, ed. Bonn. It does not appear 
 to me that this passage -affords any reason for supposing 
 that there was in the time of Priscus, any language 
 spoken by the Romans different from the classical Latin. 
 Priscus had accompanied Maximus on an embassy to 
 Attila, (448 a.d.) and being in the interior of Scythia 
 he was surprised by hearing a person address him in 
 Greek: *for, says he, besides their own language the 
 Scythians in general speak either that of the Huns, or 
 of the Goths, or sometimes that of the Ausonians, in 
 
258 APPENDIX. 
 
 cases where they have had intercourse with the Romans; 
 but it rarely happens that any of them speak Greek, 
 except those who hav<e been brought captive from the 
 Thracian and Illyrian coast.' It appears to me quite 
 evident that Priscus here used Ausonians for Romans, in 
 order to avoid the repetition of the word Pw/xato?, and 
 that the two terms are precisely synonymous : his mean- 
 ing being that the Scythians, from their intercourse with 
 the Romans, occasionally learnt to use the Latin lan- 
 guage. Even if there had been a difference of dialects 
 in the spoken language of Italy, it is very unlikely that 
 Priscus, who was a Greek by education and habits, should 
 have noticed such a distinction. 
 
 Note (D.) 
 On the non-Latin part of the Romance La^iguages. 
 
 It has been stated in the text that the object of the 
 above essay is to elucidate the form and structure of the 
 Romance languages, without reference to the origin of j 
 the. words themselves, and therefore no mention was! 
 made of those foreign terms which were introduced into 
 these languages at, or soon after, the Teutonic conquest 
 of Western Europe. This is properly a question of 
 etymological research : nor could it be satisfactorily de- 
 termined without making a dictionary of all the Ro- 
 mance languages with their several dialects, in which 
 the corresponding words should be arranged together, 
 and their etymology explained. 
 
 It has, however, occurred to me that a few facts illus- 
 
APPENDIX. 259 
 
 trative of the foreign or non-Latin part of the Romance 
 languages might be conveniently given in this place ; 
 and with that view I shall first subjoin some of the <ihief 
 derivatives of German words in the Italian, Spanish, 
 and French languages, merely as instances of the manner 
 in which foreign terms were adopted in those tongues, 
 and not as making any claims to completeness. Most of 
 them are selected from Menage's Origini Italianey and 
 the Glossary attached to Muratori's thirty-third Disser- 
 tation on the Italian Antiquities of the Middle Ages : 
 from the list of French and Italian words derived from 
 the ancient northern languages in Hickes' Thesaurus 
 Ling, Vet. Septent. vol. i. p. 91 — 100, and from the 
 index of French words at the end of Wachter's Gilos- 
 sarium G-ermanicum. Other remarks on the same sub- 
 ject will also be found in the treatise of G. J. Yossius, 
 De Vitiis Sermonis et Crlossematis Latino-harharis, printed 
 in his works, vol. ii. Amsterdam, 1695, folio. [The 
 following list has been compared with the vocabularies 
 of Diez and Burguy. The number of words might be 
 much augmented. 1862.] 
 
 Words in ItaKan, Spanish, and French derived from 
 the Teutonic : 
 
 Agraffe Fr. from 'kra'ppen, to hook, to grapple, 
 
 Alabarda It. halabarda Sp. halleharde Fr. from helm- 
 harte. 
 
 Albergo It. alhergue Sp. auberge Fr. from herherge. 
 
 Alesna Sp. alesne or alene Fr. lesina It. from alansa, 
 (Grimm, D. Crr. vol. ii. p. 346.) Lesina in ItaKan is 
 for alesina, l\ke pecchia for apecchia, above p. 137. [See 
 Burguy in alesne.'] 
 
 s 2 
 
260 APPENDIX. 
 
 Aldea Sp. is probably Gotbic, according to Grimm, 
 Deutsche HechtsaUerthiimer, p. 309. [Diez approves of 
 an Arabic origin.] 
 
 AUo It. and Sp. halte Fr. from halten. 
 
 Ambasciatore It. embaxador Sp. amhassadeur Fr. from 
 amhacht, ministerium or minister. 
 
 Amuser Fr. from musse. [Compare Diez in muso.'] 
 
 Anca It. and Sp. handle Fr. from al^^e. 
 
 Andare It. a?i(?ar Sp. awc?ar and anar Prov. (Ray- 
 nouard, Gir, Comp. p. 300,) awer and oiler Fr. from awefm 
 or wanden^ tbe same as tbe Englisb to wend, of whicb tbe 
 preterite is stiU in use. (Wacbter in anden and wallen, 
 p. 1814.) Tbe initial w bas been preserved in tbe Ita- 
 lian galleria and tbe Fr. galerie, [Compare Diez in 
 andare^ 
 
 Araldo It. heraldo Sp, heraud Fr. from heroM. 
 
 Aringa It. arenga Sp. hareng Fr. from hdring, 
 
 Aringo It. arenga Sp. harangue Fr. from ringen. [Diez 
 derives it from nw^, a ciVc/e.] 
 
 Arnese It. arneses Sp. harnois Fr. from harnisch: see 
 Grimm quoted above, p. 141. 
 
 ^spo It. from hasp-el. 
 
 Astio It. ^as^io Sp. ^aiV Fr. from /ia55, hassen. See 
 Muratori in as^^o ; OreU, Altfranzosische Crrammatik, 
 p. 154. 
 
 Attaccare It. attacher Fr. from jfe^a/i Gotb. [See Diez 
 in ^acco.] 
 
 Avviso, avvisare It. a^;^50 Sp. avis, aviser Fr. from 
 weisen, [Diez, in viso, derives tbese words from visum,'] 
 
 Azza It. haz Sp. hdche Fr. from hacke, 
 
 Bacino It. and Sp. lac, bachot, bassin (i.e. bacin) Fr. 
 from becken. See Adelung in v. 
 
APPENDIX. 261 
 
 BaUo It. hand Fr. from hald. See Menage, Diet. Fr. 
 in baud. [Diez in haldo, Raynouard, Lex. Rom. vol. i. 
 p. 32.] 
 
 Bcdla It. hala Sp. halle Fr. are probably from the 
 German hall, though nearly the same word is in Latin, 
 {hullay see Philological Museum, vol. i. p. 411.) [See 
 Diez in halla.^ 
 
 Ballare It. haylar Sp., to dance, are probably fr'om 
 ballen, in the sense of turning, like waken. 
 
 Baluardo It. haluarte Sp. boulevard Fr. from hollwerJc, 
 [See Diez in boulevard.'] 
 
 Bambino It. The Greek had fid^tov; but bambo 
 (whence bamb-ino, above p. 132,) was probably derived 
 from a Teutonic form bah, (bube High German, Z/a^'e 
 English,) and the m was inserted before b, as in amb 
 Prov. from aJ, and other words mentioned above, p. 
 198. [Diez in bambo, derives the word from the Greek 
 j8a/x^aXo9, a stammerer, whence bambalio in Cicero.] 
 
 Banco It. and Sp. banc Fr. from bank. 
 
 Banda It. and Sp. bande Fr. from band. Also henda 
 and bendare It. from 5^?^c?e and binden. 
 
 Bandire It. bannir Fr. from bannen. 
 
 Bando It. and Sp. &«?^ Fr. from bann. 
 
 Bara It. &^ere Fr. from bdren. 
 
 Barone It. Jaro/i Sp. and Fr. from baro or varo. . [See 
 Diez in barone, Burguy in baron.'\ 
 
 Barca It. barco Sp. barque Fr. from Z»ar^e. 
 
 J5a550 It. baxo Sp. Jas Fr. whence bastardo It. and Sp. 
 bdtard Fr. (above, p. 142,) from bas, below. See Wach- 
 ter, p. 126. [Diez in basso, Burguy in bas.] 
 
 Batello It. {batto in Giov. Villani) bateau Fr. from bat, 
 or 5(?^. Above, p. 139. 
 
262 APPENDIX. 
 
 Beau-frere, heaupere, etc. Fr. The first word is pro- 
 bably a mistranslation. See Wacbter in Schonhruder. 
 
 Berger Fr. from hergen. See Muratori in jparco. 
 
 Biada It. hied Fr. from hlatt. [Diez in hiado, Burguy 
 in bled.~\ 
 
 Bianco It. bianco Sp. hianc Fr. from blank. 
 
 Bicchiere It. picker Fr. from becher : compare Plko<5, 
 
 Biglietto It. billete Sp. billet Fr. from bille. See above, 
 p. 143. 
 
 Biondo It. blondo Sp. 5/owc? Fr. from blonde. 
 
 Birra It. 5iere Fr. from bier. [Diez in birra.~\ 
 
 Bloquer Fr. from M«w Gotb. belocan A. Sax. ^o 5Ai<^. 
 Wacbter in luchen. 
 
 Bordello It. burdel Sp. bordel Fr. from Jor J. See above, 
 p. 138. [Diez in borda, Burguy in borde.'] 
 
 Bor go It bur go Sp. bourg Fr. from burg. 
 
 Bosco It. io52'^ie Sp. bois Fr. from Z»t<5cA. [Diez in bosco."] 
 
 Botte It. from botte, butt [Diez in v.] 
 
 Bouc Fr. from &oc^. [Burguy in boch.^ 
 
 Bout Fr. from but: abutan, or Wa/i, Ang. Sax. 
 
 Brando It. Jr«?^^ Fr. from brand. 
 
 Bravo It. and Sp. brave Fr. from Jrav. [See Diez in 
 hravo.'l 
 
 Breccia It brecha Sp. breche Fr. from brechen. 
 
 Brida It. Jr^We Fr. from brid, wbence brit-til old H. 
 German, blid-le Englisb. Tbe Ital. changed d into I 
 (see above, p. 76, note ^) and made briglia. 
 
 Bruno It. and Sp. brun Fr. from braun. [Burguy in 
 hrun^ 
 
 Busto It. and Sp. buste Fr. from hrusty according to 
 Hickes. [Tbe derivation from hrmt is rejected by Diez 
 in busto.'] 
 
APPENDIX. 263 
 
 Butiro, hutero It. heurre Fr. from butter. The Sp. has 
 not this word. 
 
 Buttare It. hotar Sp. bouter, pousser Fr. from bossen, to 
 push. Wachter in bossen. [See Diez in bottare.'] 
 
 Oanif Fr. from kneif, knife Eng. [Burguy in cnivet.'] 
 
 Canto It. and Sp. from kant. Perhaps coin Fr. may 
 have the same origin. [Diez in canto. ^ 
 
 Cacciare It. cazar Sp. chasser Fr. from hetzen, to hunt, 
 (i'.e. chetzen, according to the Frankish pronunciation.) 
 
 Wachter. [See Diez in cacciare.'] 
 
 Cappa It. capa Sp. chape Fr. with their numerous de- 
 rivatives, from kappe. [See Diez in cappa.] 
 
 Carro It. and Sp. char Fr. from karr. See Wachter 
 in V. Above, p. 62, note ^. 
 
 Chiasso It. from gasse. 
 
 Choisir Fr. from chiusan or hiusan, old H. German, 
 (now kiesen.) See Schlegel, Observ. p. 110. [Diez in 
 choisir. ~\ 
 
 Cloche Fr. from glocke. [Burguy in v.] 
 
 Coc Fr. from coc. See Wachter in kiichlein. [Burguy 
 in coc] 
 
 Baga It. and Sp. from degen. [Diez in v.] 
 
 Banzare It. danzar Sp. danser Fr. from tanzen. 
 
 Bardo It. and Sp. c?«rc? Fr. from (Zar^/. 
 
 Bogue Fr. from ^ocZ:e Germ, dog Eng. 
 
 Bouve Fr. from daube, whence adouver or adouber and 
 radouber, (Wachter,) addobbare It. [See Diez in 6/o^a, 
 who derives the word from 8ox>i, Burguy in dove.] 
 
 Brudo It. drut Pr. 6?rz* Fr. from draut or 6?rw^; see v. 
 Hagen, Glossary to the Nibel. Lied in trut, Wachter in 
 draut. [Diez in drudo, Burguy in drut.] 
 
 Elmo It. helmo Sp. heaume Fr. from ^e?m. 
 
264 APPENDIX. 
 
 Msa It. from halten, 
 
 Fallare It. foliar Sp. faillir Fr. from felilen. Fello, 
 fellmie It. follon Sp. felon Fr. also come from the same 
 root. 
 
 Falda It. and Sp. from falte, fold Eng. [Faldistorio 
 It. and Sp. fauteuil Fr. from faltstuhl.'] 
 
 Feltro It fieltro Si^.feutre Fr. from filz, felt. 
 
 Fiasco It. frasco Sp. flasqiie, fhcon Fr. from /asZ;. 
 [See Diez in^asco.] 
 
 jPmo It. and Sp. /?i Fr. from fein. 
 
 Fodero It. forro Sp. fourrier Fr. from fiihren. 
 
 Folia It. /o^«/e Fr. from /w7/e. 
 
 JPo?/e It./o/ Fr. from faul, fool Eng. [Diez in/o/Ze.] 
 
 Foresta It. foresta Sp. /ore^ (forest^ Fr. from /ors^. 
 [See Diez in foresta, Burguy in /ores^.] 
 
 Franco It. and Sp. /r«7^c Fr. from frank. 
 
 Fresco It. and Sp. frais Fr. from frisch. Above, 
 p. 131. 
 
 Freccia It. flecha Sp. ^ec^e Fr. from fitsch or ^^Vz. 
 [See Diez in freccia.^ 
 
 Frisson and affreux Fr. from, freis-lich. 
 
 Cramuza Sp. camozza It. chamois Fr. from gemse. 
 
 G-arzone It. gargon Fr. See above, p. 133, note '^. 
 [Diez in garzone, Burguy in <7ar5.] 
 
 G-aspiller i. e. ge-spillen, to spill. See Wachter in ver- 
 spillen. Spillan Ang. Sax. 
 
 6rer&e Fr. from garhe. 
 
 Grhirlanda It. guirnalda Sp. guirlande Fr. probably from 
 gairdan Goth, (gurten H. Germ. <7?'rc? Eng.) On the 
 change of t^ into a liquid, see above, p. 76, note ^. So 
 '08vo-o-€V5 and Ulysses. [Diez in ghirlanda.'\ 
 
 G-iallo It. jaulne Fr. from ^e/i. 
 
APPENDIX. 265 
 
 Criardino It. jardin Sp. and Fr. from garten. See 
 above, p. 132. 
 
 Girfalco It. girifalte Sp. gerfaut Fr. from geier. [The 
 word/a/co is Latin. The first syllable of girfalco is de- 
 rived by Diez in v. from gyrare.'\ 
 
 Glaive Fr. from glef, hasta. Wachter. [See Diez 
 and Burguy in v.] 
 
 Gramo It. gram old Fr. from gram. 
 
 Gridare It. gritar Sp. crier Fr. from gridan Goth. 
 
 G-rifo It. griffe Fr. from greifen. [Diez in griffe.'] 
 
 Grosso It. grueso Sp. ^ros Fr. from ^ro55. 
 
 Guadagnare It. ^fl7i«r Sp. gagner Fr. from winnen. 
 [Diez in guadagnare, Burguy in gaagnier.'] 
 
 Guajo It. from «<;eA. 
 
 Guancia It. from ivange. 
 
 Guunto It. gimnte Sp. ^aw^ Fr. from ivante. [Diez in 
 
 Guardare It. giiurdar Sp. garder Fr. from wahren. 
 
 Giiar entire It. garantir Fr. from weren. See Grimm, 
 Deutsche Mechtsalterthumer, p. 603. Guarire It. and 
 guerir Fr. appear to have the same origin. 
 
 Guarnire, guarnigione It. guarnacer, giiarnicion Sp. 
 garnir, garnisan Fr. from tvarnen, munire : * postea sensus 
 ab apparatu militari ad quemcumque apparatum translatus 
 est.' Wachter. [See Diez in giiarnire.~\ 
 
 Giiatare It. ^z«e^, <7?fe^er Fr. from wachen, wacht. 
 
 Gicerra It. and Sp. guerre Fr. fr'om werra. Grimm, 
 i).i2. p. 603. Schlegel, Ohserv. sur la Langue Prov., 
 p. 97. [Diez in guerra^ Burguy in ^werre.] 
 
 Guiderdone It. guerdon Fr. from widerthun. 
 
 Guisa It. and Sp. ^/wise Fr. from z^eise. 
 
 From the foregoing examples it ^oU be perceived that 
 
266 APPENDIX. 
 
 the Romance form of the Teutonic w is gu, and some- 
 times g in French. 
 
 Harpe Fr. arpa It. and Sp. from harpfe, harp. [See 
 Diez in arpa, Burguy in harpeJ] 
 
 Havre Fr. from haferij formed (as Hickes remarks) 
 like Londres from London, See above, p. 81, note ^ 
 
 Indarno It. Grimm, D. Gramm. vol. iii. p. 107, note, 
 and p. 163, explains this word from the Sclavonic darom, 
 darmo, darno, gratis from dar. 
 
 Landa It. landes Fr. from land, 
 
 Lanzichenecco It. lansquenet Fr. from lanzlmecM. 
 
 Lasciare It. dexar Sp. (above, p. 76, note ^,) laisser Fr. 
 from lassen. 
 
 Leccare It. lecher Fr. from lecken, [Diez in /eccar^.] 
 
 Lindo It. and Sp. from ge-Unde, lindern, [Diez in 
 Zzwt?6> derives the word from limpidus.'\ 
 
 Lotto It. lot Fr. from loos : Jdauts Goth. 
 
 Marca It. and Sp. marche Fr. from marke. 
 
 Masto It. mastil Sp. -ma^ Fr. from w«5if. 
 
 Matar Sp. ammazzare It. massacrer Fr. from metzen, 
 whence mdgon Fr. Wachter. [Diez in v. derives mazza 
 It. from the Latin matea, of which a lengthened form 
 mateola is used by Cato. 
 
 il[fa^^o It. from wa^^, ma6? Eng. 
 
 Meurtre Fr. from maurthr Goth. See Schlegel, OJ- 
 5erv. p. 99. [Diez in meurtre.~\ 
 
 Mignon, mignard Fr. either from minne love, or min 
 small. [Diez in mignon.'] 
 
 Milza It. me/sa Sp. from miltz. [Diez in milza.'] 
 
 Mischiare It. mezclar Sp. mesler (nielerj Fr. from 
 mischen. [Diez in mischiare derives the word from 
 
APPENDIX. 267 
 
 Mouton Fr. "Wacliter derives tliis word from mutzeriy 
 truncare: but montone It. creates a difficulty, wMcli 
 signifies a ram. See Muratori in v. [Diez in montone 
 and Burguy in molton trace the word to the Latin 
 mutilus. Compare Ducange in multo. Blanc, Voc, 
 Dant. in montone derives it from montare,~\ 
 
 Mutiner Fr. ammunitarsi It. from motjan Goth, to meet. 
 See Muratori in ammutinarsi. [Diez in meute and 
 Burguy in movoir derive meute from movere, and suppose 
 mutin to be formed from meute.'] 
 
 Nordy Slid, est, ouest Fr. from the German. The 
 German names for the points of the compass appear to 
 have been introduced into the Spanish from the French, 
 which has also been the case more recently with the 
 Italian. 
 
 Palco It. and Sp. from hoick. [Diez in halco,~\ 
 
 JPancia It. panza Sp. j)anse Fr. from hansen, paunch 
 Eng. [Diez in pancia derives these words from the Latin 
 pantex.~\ 
 
 Panziera It. horn, panzer. 
 
 Partigiana It. partesana Sp. pertuisane Fr. has probably 
 a Teutonic origin. See Muratori in partigiana^ [Com- 
 pare Diez in partigiana.] 
 
 Perla It. and Sp. perle Fr. from perle, [a word of ob- 
 scure origin, see Diez in perla.] 
 
 Pezzo, pezza, It. pieza Sp. piece Fr. from/e^z (i. e. pfetz.) 
 See Wachter in v. 
 
 Piazza It. plaza Sp. place Fr. from platz. [Diez in 
 piazza derives the word from the Ijoim platea.] 
 
 Piccare It. picar Sp. piquer Fr. from picken. 
 
 Piffero It. pifaro Sp. fifre Fr. from pfeiffer. 
 
 Poltrone It. poltron Sp. and Fr. poUrire It. from 
 
268 APPENDIX. 
 
 polster. See Muratori in poltrone and Wacliter in polster, 
 [Diez in poltro.'] 
 
 JPrigio7ie It. jprision Sp. prison Fr. from prisund Goth. 
 [Diez in prigione derives the word from prehensio or 
 prensio.~\ 
 
 Randa It. from rand. 
 
 Raspare It. raspar^ Sp. raper Fr. from r aspen. 
 
 Ratio It. ra^OTi, Sp. ra^, raifo?^ Fr. from ratte. [Diez in ratio 
 remarks that this animal was unknown to the Romans.] 
 
 Recare It. from reichen. 
 
 Ricco It. rico Sp. riche Fr. from reich, 
 
 Riga It. m2/<x Sp. homreihe. 
 
 Rima It. and Sp. from reim, 
 
 Rocca It. rueca Sp. ro^j^e Fr. co/^/s, from roche. 
 
 Ronz-ino It. roc^7^ Sp. rouss-in Fr. from ro55. See 
 above, p. 132. 
 
 Rostir Fr. arrostire It. (Muratori in v.) from rost. 
 [Diez in rostir eJ] 
 
 Ruhare It. ruhar, Sp. ro2>er, deroher, Fr. from rauhen. 
 [Compare Diez in ro&a.] 
 
 Sciahla, It. sa^re Fr. from saJeZ. [Compare Diez in 
 sciahla.'] 
 
 Sala It. and Sp. salle Fr. from sal. 
 
 Scalco It. from schalch ; whence mariscalco and 
 siniscalco. 
 
 ScJiermOy schermire It. esgrimir Sp. escrimer Fr. from 
 schirm, schirmen. 
 
 Scherzo It. from scherz. 
 
 Schiatta It. from schlacht (now ge-schlecht.) 
 
 Schiera It. eschiere old Fr. from schaar, [Burguy in 
 c5cAe/e.] 
 
 Schietto It. from schlecht. 
 
APPENDIX. 269 
 
 Scliifo It. esquife Sp. esquif Fr. from schiff. See above, 
 p. 107. 
 
 Schinca It. from schenh-el, shin Eng. 
 
 ScMvare It. esquivar Sp. esquiver Fr. from scheuen. 
 
 Schiuma It. ecume Fr. from schaum. 
 
 Schizzo It. esquisse Fr. a drawing hastily thrown down, 
 from schiessen. See Tooke, i>iV. 0/ Purley, vol. ii. 
 p. 144. [Diez in schizzo derives the word from the 
 Latin schedium.~\ 
 
 Scotto It. esco^e Sp. eco^ Fr. from schooss. 
 
 Senno It. from sinn, Bi-sogno It. and som and be-soin 
 Fr. are derived from the ancient Teutonic word which is 
 written sonnis and sunnis in the Salic law. See Muratori 
 in hisogno, 
 
 Smacco It. from schmach. 
 
 Smaltire It. from schmelzen, [The derivation from 
 maltha seems preferable. See Diez in smalto.'] 
 
 Snello It. from schnell. 
 
 Spanna It. from spann, [Diez in spannaJ] 
 
 Sparviere It. epervier Fr. from sperher. 
 
 Sperone It. espuela Sp. eperon Fr. from sporn. 
 
 Spiare It. espiar Sp. epi'er Fr. from spoken. 
 
 Spruzzareli.hom spriitzen. [See Diez in sprazzare, p.438.] 
 
 Stampare It. estamjmr Sp. etampe Fr. from stampfen. 
 
 Steccaire It. estacar Sp. from sfechen. 
 
 Stela It. from 5^{e/. 
 
 Stivale It. from stiefel. 
 
 Stocco It. estoque Sp. from s^ocA;. [Diez in s^cco.] 
 
 Stormo It. from s^wrm. 
 
 iS'^ra/e It. from s^ra^/. 
 
 /S'^i^cco It. estuque Sp. from s^mc^*, * because it is made of 
 pieces of marble.' Menage in v. [Diez in s^^^co.] 
 
270 APPENDIX. 
 
 Stufa It. estufa Sp. etuve Fr. from stube, 
 
 Tasca It. from tasche. [Diez in v.] 
 
 Toccare It. tocar Sp. toucher Fr. from ^eZ;a?i Goth, to 
 take. [Diez in toccare.'] 
 
 Tomare It. tomber Fr. from diimen, daumeln Germ. 
 tumh-le Engl. [See Diez in tomholare.'] 
 
 Tonel Sp. tonneau Fr. from ^owwe. [Diez in ^owa.] 
 
 2^or ^61 It. turha Sp. ^oz^r^e Fr. from torf^ turf Eng. 
 
 Tregua It. and Sp. ^rez;e Fr. (to which may be added 
 intrigue Fr.) from treuga, equivalent to treue. 
 
 Trincare It. trinquer Fr. from trinhen. 
 
 Tuer Fr. from todten. Wachter. [Diez and Burguy 
 derive this word from the Latin tutari.~\ 
 
 Tuff are It. etouffer Fr. from taufen. [Diez in tufa 
 derives the word from the Greek rvt^oq^ 
 
 TJosa It. heuse and houseaux Fr. from Tiosen. Menage 
 in V. [Compare Diez in uosa.] 
 
 JJrtare It. heurter Fr. from horten, to hurt. 
 
 JJshergo It. hauberc, haubergeon Fr. from halsberge. 
 
 Zanna It. from zahn. [Diez in zanna, p. 448, gives 
 the preference to the Latin sanna.] 
 
 Zuppa It. sopa Sp. souppe Fr. from 5M^^e, 5qp. [See 
 Diez in sopa.~\ 
 
 With regard to the classes of words introduced from 
 the Teutonic into the Romance languages, "Wachsmuth 
 remarks that they are for the most part the names of 
 outward objects, as food and implements, or they relate 
 to customs and institutions, especially the use of arms 
 and the feudal system. {Athenceum, vol. i. p. 298.) 
 Many words relating to warlike subjects will have been 
 observed in the list of words just given : the introduction 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 271 
 
 of wHch, as well as of political terms, is quite con- 
 sistent with, the existence of a dominant military class of 
 foreigners^. 
 
 In many cases, however, it is not ohvious why a 
 Teutonic word should have heen naturalized : as in the 
 following instances, where the original Latin term has 
 heen retained by some of the Romance languages, and a 
 new German term been substituted by others. 
 
 Latin. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Span. 
 
 French. 
 
 seramen 
 
 rame 
 
 cobre (Jcupfery 
 
 airain 
 
 attonitus 
 
 attonito 
 
 atonito 
 
 estonne {to stun) 
 
 cerevisium 
 
 birra {hier) 
 
 cerveza 
 
 bifere 
 
 pastor 
 
 pastore 
 
 pastor 
 
 berger' 
 
 saburra 
 
 savorra 
 
 lastre (from 
 last) 
 
 lest 
 
 sedes 
 
 sede 
 
 sede 
 
 siege (from sitz*) 
 
 socer 
 
 suocero 
 
 suegro 
 
 beaupfere* 
 
 spuma 
 
 spuma and 
 
 espuma 
 
 escume 
 
 
 schmma(from 
 
 
 
 schauni) 
 
 
 
 snber 
 
 suvero 
 
 corcho (from 
 kork) 
 
 liege 
 
 * The following Latin terms occurring in the Greek of the New 
 'Testament, furnish a curious parallel of the introduction of foreign 
 names for military and political subjects by a dominant nation : 
 Ko\u)via, Acts xvi. 12 ; o-7rt*covXdrwp, Mark vi. 27. ; KsvTovpicjv, 
 Mark xv. 39 ; Trpairwpwv, Matt, xx^ii. 27 ; Kovtrrujdia, Matt, xxvii. 
 65 ; fiiXiov, Matt. v. 41 ; dr]vdpiov, Luke vii. -Al ; drraapiov. Matt. 
 X. 29; Ko6pdvTT)Q, Matt. v. 26; KrjvaoQ, Matt. xvii. 25. [On the 
 introduction of military terms from the German into the Romance 
 languages, see Diez, Rom. Gramm. vol. i. p. 66.] 
 
 ' Cuprum (for as Cyprium ) was a Latin word, Spartian, Carac. 9. 
 See Ducange in v. 
 
 3 See above, p. 262. The French has pasteur, but only in a meta- 
 phorical sense. 
 
 * That siege is not derived from sedes is proved by the gender. 
 
 * See above, p. 262. 
 
272 APPENDIX. 
 
 It will be perceived that some of the words above 
 enumerated as derived from the Teutonic are among the 
 commonest and most familiar in the Romance languages, 
 as albergOj andare, bambino , basso, biancho, biccJiiere, birr a, 
 higlietto, borgo, bosco, bravo, etc. Ital. ; albergue, baxo, 
 bianco, billete, burgo, bosque, bravo, etc. Span. ; auberge, 
 airain, balle, bas, berger, blanc, biere, billet, hourg, bois, 
 brave, Fr. In this respect there is a remarkable difference 
 between the foreign words introduced by conquest into 
 the English and into the Romance languages. In Eng- 
 lish the more familiar, idiomatic, and simple the style, 
 the more exclusively Saxon it is, and the fewer are the 
 foreign or French terms : whereas in the Romance lan- 
 guages the converse is generally the case. In ItaHan, 
 for example, the more elevated the style, the more purely 
 Latin is its character : in Tasso many successive stanzas 
 often occur in which every word is of Latin origin ; but 
 if we take a composition in the familiar spoken language, 
 as a comedy or a satire, it will be found scarcely possible 
 to find a long passage entirely free from Teutonic de- 
 rivatives. Dante is a much more idiomatic writer than 
 Tasso, and uses a much less stilted style : but his lan- 
 guage abounds far more in words not of Latin origin. 
 
 Some words have passed into the Romance languages, 
 either mediately or immediately, from the Greek : as 
 spada It. espada Sp. espee Fr. from (nraO-q ; parola It. 
 palabra Sp. parole Fr. from irapajiohfj, (Schlegel, Observ., 
 p. 109.) To these ^achsmuth adds frissonner Fr. from 
 <l)pL(Tcrio, lisse Fr. from XtWos, golfo It. from koXttos, gaio It. 
 from yaioj, (Athendum, vol. i. p. 299.) With regard to 
 frisson, the Teutonic derivation mentioned above, p. 264, 
 is more probable than a Greek one ; koAttos may have 
 
I 
 
 APPENDIX. 273 
 
 been easily introduced by tbe intercourse witb the Greek 
 mariners of tbe Mediterranean: as to tbe otber two 
 words it seems unlikely, notwithstanding the agreement 
 of sound and meaning, that the etymology suggested 
 should be true. 
 
 [Diez derives liscio It. and Sp. and lisse Fr. from tbe 
 German leise (in Uscio) ; he derives gajo It. gai Fr. from 
 the German Jdhe (in gaJo). In his Romance G-rammar, 
 vol. i. p. 57 — 60, he gives a list of Greek words which 
 have passed into Romance languages : compare p. 92. 
 Many of these however made the transition through tbe 
 medium of tbe Latin. Thus zio It. tio Sp. came ulti- 
 mately from ^€105 ; but the word thius signified uncle in 
 Low Latin: see Ducange in v. Agonia It. and Sp. 
 agonie Fr. were derived from dywvta, and agognare It. 
 from dywviav; accidia It. was derived from aicqhCa; horsa 
 It. holsa Sp. bourse Fr. from pvpa-a; ermo It. from tp-qixo's; 
 emicrania It. migrano Sp. migraine Fr. from rjfjLLKpavta ; 
 salma It. and Sp. somme Fr. from a-dyfia; but agonia, 
 accidia, hyrsa, eremus, hemicrania, and sagma were also 
 used as Latin words : see Ducange G-loss. in agojiia, acedia, 
 bursa, eremus, hemigranea, sagma. In baleno It. from 
 pikcixvov; colla It. cola Sp. colle Fr. from KoAXa; fanale 
 It. from <^a»/os (Diez in falb); mustaccio It. from i-wara^; 
 paggio It. page Fr. from irai^Cov, pitocco It. from tttw^os, 
 and stuolo It. from oroXos, the passage from one language 
 to the other may have been direct. Several words con- 
 nected with navigation and trade passed directly from the 
 Greek into Romance languages, a circumstance naturally 
 growing out of the maritime communication between the 
 shores of the Mediterranean : see Diez, Etym, Wort, in 
 barca. Fanale and golfo are words of this class : noc- 
 
 T 
 
274 APPENDIX. 
 
 chiere It. and nocher old Fr. (Burguy in neif) is derived 
 from vavKk-qpo^, Latinized by Plautus as nauclerus. Calare 
 It. as * calare le vele/ calar Sp. caler Fr. derived from 
 XaA.av, is a nautical plirase. Calare is used by Yitruvius. 
 Also cola It. and Span, cale Fr. a landing place. Some 
 names of weights, as salma from o-ay/xa, mine or em*Ve 
 Fr. hemina Low Lat. from i7fttVa (Burguy in miney Du- 
 cange (t?055. Lat. in hemina, G-loss. Gr, in 17/iAtVa) belong 
 to the same class. Carato, a carat, is derived by Blanc, 
 Vocabolario Dantesco in v. from KepdrLov, the fruit of the 
 carob-tree. In like manner, the Greek word tiva was of 
 Babylonian or Phoenician origin, Boec^, Metrologie, p. 34. 
 
 The word racaille Fr. which has been traced to paKos, 
 and tapino It. which has been derived from raTretvos, have 
 probably other origins, (see Diez in raca, p. 711, in tapivy 
 p. 731, also Burguy in tapir.) Bramare It. hramer Fr. 
 which Diez in his grammar derives from ppifxea/, and 
 entamer It., which he there derives from cvre/Avctv, are in 
 his Etymological Dictionary correctly explained by other 
 etymologies. 
 
 Numerous words passed from Latin, the language of 
 the conquerors, into Greek, the language of the con- 
 quered, in later times. See the Crlossaries of Low Greek 
 by Ducange and Meursius, and the curious treatise of 
 Wannowski, Antiquitates Romance a Grcecis Fontibus ex- 
 plicatce, Regim. Pruss. 1846. 
 
 An etymological vocabulary of French words, whose 
 origins are explained in the two glossaries of Ducange, 
 is appended to his Glossarium Medioe et Infimce Qrcecitatis, 
 vol. ii. p. 251—316. 
 
 A list of French words derived from the Greek is 
 given by Yoltaire, Dictionnaire PhilosopJiique^ art. GrecJ] 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 275 
 
 On tlie introduction of Arabic words into the languages 
 of the Spanish peninsula, my entire ignorance of Arabic 
 prevents me from offering any remarks of my own : I 
 am, however, enabled, through the kindness of Dr. Rosen, 
 to annex the following notes, communicated to me by 
 that able oriental scholar. 
 
 Arabic Words in Spanish and Portuguese. 
 
 The Arabic words in the Spanish and Portuguese 
 languages have already engaged the attention of several 
 scholars, chiefly natives of the peninsula. The works of 
 some of them I have had an opportunity of consulting 
 in the library of the British Museum ; and the extracts 
 which I have made from them, and which are now before 
 me, form the basis of the following remarks. ^^ 
 
 In the Origines dela Lengua Espanola, compuestos por 
 varios autores, etc. edited by Don Gregorio Mayans i 
 Siscar, (Madrid, 1737, 2 vols. 12mo.) some observations 
 are made on the Arabic words in the Spanish language, 
 (vol. i. p. 235 — 264,) but apparently with too little know- 
 ledge of Arabic to be of much utility. 
 
 Of more value are the etymological remarks occasion- 
 ally given in the Diccionario Espanol Latino Arahigo, by 
 Francisco Canes, (Madrid, 1787, 8 vols, folio.) This 
 work is intended for a purely practical purpose as a 
 Spanish and modern Arabic dictionary ; and the author 
 seems to be familiar only with the Arabic now spoken in 
 Mauritania, etc. ; otherwise he might have given a far 
 greater number of Arabic synonymes, and would pro- 
 bably have assigned more satisfactory derivations for 
 many Spanish words from the ancient and literary Arabic. 
 
 T 2 
 
276 APPENDIX. 
 
 In the Tesoro dela Lengim Oastellana Uspanoh, by 
 D. Sebastian de Cobarruuias, (Madrid, 1611, fol.) ety- 
 mologies from the Arabic are frequently reported on the 
 authority of others, but the author seems in many in- 
 stances to admit them with reluctance, as he endeavours 
 to account differently for the origin of the words thus 
 explained. 
 
 In Portuguese there exists a separate treatise on the 
 subject of our enquiry, Joao de Sousa, Vestigios de la 
 Lingua Ardbica em Portugal, (Lisbon, 1789, 4to.) In 
 his preface the author makes an assertion which I subjoin 
 in his own words, as it is much at variance with what 
 you seem to anticipate as to the quantum of Arabic in 
 European languages^ : *c tamhem jicdmos conservando tantas 
 palavras Arahicas, que dellas hem se pdde compor hum arra- 
 zoado lexicon, como jd notou Jose Scaligero Escript. 228 ad 
 Isaac Fontan. * Tot puree Arahicce voces in Hispan, 
 reperiuntur ut ex illis justum lexicon confici possit^ — 
 Sousa makes mention of several writers that preceded 
 him in his enquiry : Duarte Nunes de Leao, who in 1606 
 published a work, Origem da Lingua Portugueza, (re- 
 printed in 1781,) containing a list of two hundred and 
 seven Arabic words in the Portuguese language ; Manoel 
 de Faria e Sousa, author of the LIuropa Portugueza ; and 
 Dom Raphael Bluteau, who in 1712 edited a Diccionario 
 da Lingua Portugueza, 
 
 I hardly know whether the remark just extracted from 
 Sousa's preface is justified by the body of his work, 
 
 • The author had ventured to express to Dr. Rosen an opinion that 
 the number of Arabic words in Spanish and Portuguese is not con- 
 siderable. 
 
APPENDIX. ', Q 27^^, 
 
 wMch consists of an alphabetic list of Portuguese ^qtM 
 explained from the Arabic, and filling one hundred ani/^ 
 sixty pages of small quarto. Many of his etymologies A 
 are stated at great and unnecessary length. Some of the %, 
 words explained do not, I apprehend, owe their existence 
 in the Portuguese language to the Arabian dominion, but 
 to the subsequent intercourse of the Portuguese with the 
 East. With regard to other expressions, it would seem 
 that they have become obsolete, and can no longer be 
 considered as forming part of the living and popular 
 language of the Portuguese nation, as Sousa finds it 
 necessary to adduce passages from Portuguese authors in 
 which they occur. 
 
 Besides Sousa's work I know only of one other treatise 
 exclusively devoted to the subject of our present enquiry : 
 it is written in English, and bears the title Remains of 
 Arabic in the Spanish and Portuguese Languages, by 
 S. "Weston, (London, 1810, 8vo.) It contains two copious 
 lists of Spanish and Portuguese words derived from the 
 Arabic and other oriental languages, but it should be 
 used with great caution, as the Arabic words are not 
 always correctly reported, and many of the etymologies 
 given are evidently farfetched and fanciful: the word 
 Alhambra, for instance, the name of the celebrated castle 
 of Granada, is by Mr. Weston derived from hem hera, 
 which words he says signify * sans souci/ whereas, accord- 
 ing to the etymology commonly received, it is the regular 
 feminine form of the Arabic adjective ahmar, ^ red,' with 
 the article prefixed, al-hamrd, i.e. ^the red {castle)^ in 
 allusion to the colour of the materials of which it was 
 built. Again, the Spanish word Alqueria, also written 
 Akarria, * a farm,* is' by Mr. Weston traced back to the 
 
278 APPENDIX. 
 
 Persian kJiargdh, * a pavilion or tent, a moveable Tur- 
 coman hut : ' but it seems much simpler to consider it as 
 identical with tbe Arabic haryah or haryat, ' a village/ 
 with the article al prefixed to it. 
 
 Sousa premises a few general remarks on the change 
 which certain letters have undergone in the passing over 
 of Arabic words into the Portuguese. One of them, of 
 which the glossary affords the most ample confirmation, 
 is on the transition of the Arabic ^into ^in Portuguese. 
 The following are examples collected from the glossary. 
 
 Alfeloa (melasse en caramel) from halwah, sweetness, 
 any thing sweet. 
 
 Azafeme from the Arabic zahmah : * Aperto de gente 
 em lugar pequeno o estreito ; tambem se toma por pressa, 
 fervor, cuidado, diligencia, etc. Deriva-se do verbo za- 
 hama, apertar, coarctar, restringir.' 
 
 Almofalla, an encampment, from the Arabic mahallah, 
 a halting place or encampment of a caravan. 
 
 Me/ens, from the Arabic raheriy a pledge. 
 
 Amojinar, from the Arabic verb mahana, to afflict, 
 to vex. 
 
 There are also a few instances in which the Arabic kk 
 (or ch as pronounced by the Germans and the Scotch) is 
 thus changed into / in Portuguese : e. g. 
 
 Alfange, from the Arabic Jchanjar, a poniard. 
 
 Alface, from the Arabic khass, pot-herbs. 
 
 The same transition from JI and Kh into F may also 
 be observed in Spanish : e. g. 
 
 Alfageme (according to Cobarruuias, a barber) from 
 liajim^ a surgeon, a barber. 
 
APPENDIX. 279 
 
 Alfomlra, the measles, from Jiomrah, redness, erysipelas. 
 Al/orja, from khurj, a portmanteau. 
 Alfayata, from khayydt, a tailor. 
 
 It is remarkable that Latin words have in Spanish 
 undergone the opposite change, substituting H for F, as 
 in Mjo, films : hacer, facere, etc. I am not aware of any 
 instance of a similar transition of an Arabic F into a 
 Spanish or Portuguese E^. 
 
 I subjoin a few more words from Sousa's list, but 
 slightly changing the spelling of the Arabic words, so as 
 to suit it to the English pronunciation of the consonants : 
 the vowels being always taken in their German or 
 Italian value. 
 
 Agougue, (in Spanish azoque,) Arabic suk, (with the 
 article, as-suk,) a market, a market-place. 
 
 Adail, Arabic dalil, (with the article, ad-daUI,) a guide. 
 
 Adarme, Arab, dirhem, {ad-dirhem,) a particular coin. 
 
 Adibo, Arab, dlb or zib, (ad-dib, az-zib,) a wolf. 
 
 Albafor, Arab. bakMr, (al-backkur,) incense. 
 
 Almofariz, Arab, mihrds, (al-mihrds,) a grinding- stone. 
 
 Azeite, Arab, zait, (az-zait,) an olive. 
 
 The great proportion of words that begin with A in 
 Sousa's and Weston's lists is striking. The Arabic 
 article, as usually pronounced, begins with that vowel, 
 and it would appear that words restricted in their mean- 
 ing to one special and definite object by the prefixed 
 article, and thus losing, as it were, according to the 
 conception of hearers unacquainted with Arabic gram- 
 mar, their general or appellative nature, and becoming a 
 
280 APPENDIX. 
 
 sort of proper name of the things designated by them, 
 found a way most easily into the vocabulary of a fo- 
 reign language. — The L of the Arabic article is always 
 assimilated to the initial consonant of the word to which 
 it is prefixed, if that consonant is either a sibilant or a 
 dental letter, or B^ or N. Sousa draws attention to this 
 euphonic rule, as it explains a number of words in his 
 glossary. 
 
 The remark as to the preponderance of words begin- 
 ning with A and Al applies equally to the Arabic terms 
 found in Spanish. I submit a few Spanish words with 
 their explanations from the Arabic. 
 
 Algehra, algehrista, from the Arab, verb jahara, to 
 restore any thing broken. 
 
 Acemita, from the Arab, samid, (as-samid,) white bread. 
 
 Agofar, (according to Cobarruuias, ces fusile,) from the 
 Arabic sofr, (as-sofr,) copper. 
 
 Alharda, Arab, barda^ah, (al-barda'ah,) a saddle. 
 
 Albeytar, Arab, baitdr, (al-baitdr,) a farrier, a horse- 
 leech. 
 
 Alboque, Arab, buk, {al-buk^) a trumpet, a clarion, a 
 pipe. 
 
 Alcala, Arab. haVah, {al-haVah,) a castle, a fort. 
 
 Alcantara^ Arab, kantarah, (al-kantarah,) a bridge. 
 
 Albufera and albuhera, probably the Arabic bohairah, 
 (al-bohairah,) a small lake. 
 
 Almaizar, Arab, mizar^ (al-mizar,) a girdle. 
 
 Alberca, Arab, birkah, (al-birkah,) a tank, a pond, a 
 reservoir. 
 
 Alcohol, Arab, kohl, (al-kohl,) antimony used as a 
 oollyrium to paint the eyelids ; hence alcoholado, said of 
 
APPENDIX. 281 
 
 animals that have around the eyelids a darker colour 
 than over the remaining part of their body. 
 
 Alhamel^ Arab, (hdmil, al-hdmil,) a carrier. 
 
 Alcayde^ Arab, hddi, (al-kadi,) a judge, a magistrate. 
 
 Alcrehite, Arab. Jcihrit, (al-Jcibit,) sulphur. 
 
 Arraez, Arab, rats (ar-raJis,) a master or lord. 
 
 Atalaya, (an observatory, a barbican,) Arab, ittild, 
 (from the verb taMa,) the ascending to a high place for 
 the purpose of taking a survey. 
 
 Bellota, Arab, ballut, oak, acorn. 
 
 Oajila, Arab, kdjilah, a caravan. 
 
 Cid, Arab, sayyed, (commonly pronounced sid,) master, 
 lord. 
 
 Fulano, Arab, fuldn, such an one, un tel. 
 
 Gruada, Arab, wddi, a river: in many proper names, 
 e. g. Gruadalquivir, i. e. Wddi-al-haUr^ ^ the Great Eiver.' 
 
 Horro^ Arab, hurr, free. 
 
 JarrOy Arab, jarrah^ a water-pot. 
 
 Naranja, Arab, ndranj, an orange. 
 
 Taga, tasi, Arab, ids, a cup. 
 
 Tahona, Arab, tahhdnat, a mill turned by either camels 
 or asses. 
 
 Matraca, (a rattle,) Arab, mitrakat, a smith's hammer, 
 a wooden rod for beating cotton or wool. 
 
 Mascara, (a cover to disguise the face,) Arab, mask- 
 karat, a buffoon, a jester ; sport, pleasantry. 
 
 Xeque, Arab, sheikh, an old man, a chief. 
 
 Xarate, Arab, shardb, any beverage. 
 
 JRambla, Arab, raw?, sand, a tract of sandy country. 
 
 F. Rosen. 
 
 [For examples of Romance words derived from the 
 
282 APPENDIX. 
 
 Arabic or from some other oriental tongue, compa,re 
 Diez, Etymological Dictionary, in alcohol, alcova, almi- 
 rante, arsenale, assassino, baracane, haracca, harhacane, 
 caracca, catrame, carmesino, feluca, fondaco, gesmino, mag- 
 azzino, mugavero, ricamare, ataballo, tamburo, zecca, (p. 448.) 
 
 On Arabic words in Spanish, see Diez, Mom. Giramm. 
 vol. i. p. 97. 
 
 For some Arabic words ' in the Sicilian dialect, see 
 Abela, Malta Mustrata, vol. i. p. 682, Ed. 1772. 
 
 For an etymological vocabulary of French words 
 derived from oriental languages, see Pihan, Glossaire des 
 Mots Frangais tires de VArabe, du Persan, et du Turc^ 
 1 vol. 8vo. Paris, 1847.] 
 
 Note (E.) 
 
 The following extract from the Evidence of Dr. Chal- 
 mers, before the Committee of the House of Commons 
 on the State of the Poor in Ireland, also throws light 
 on the gradual extinction of the Gaelic language in 
 Scotland. 
 
 * Does the use of Gaelic at the present day operate 
 to impart instruction better among the Highlanders ? — 
 It has given them an additional taste and demand for 
 knowledge in general ; so that in virtue of that change 
 they are more acquainted with English books and Eng- 
 lish literature than they were. 
 
 'Are you not of opinion that the operations of the 
 Gaelic Society have turned rapidly, though indirectly, 
 to the extinction of the Gaelic language ? — I am not 
 aware that they have had that effect. 
 
APPENDIX. 283 
 
 ' Have not thej operated considerably to give an in- 
 creased knowledge of the EngKsh language ? — They have, 
 certainly. 
 
 'Do you consider it probable that the English and 
 Gaelic language will continue to go on pari passu for any 
 considerable time in the country ? — The retrogression on 
 the part of the Gaelic language is very slow : the line of 
 demarcation between the GaeHc and the English being 
 still, I believe, very much what is was fifty years ago. 
 We can ascertain that from a circumstance that is 
 noticeable enough ; in the Gaelic parishes, the minister 
 is bound to preach in Gaelic once every Sunday. There 
 has certainly been a slow progress in a northern direction 
 towards preaching exclusively in English, but the pro- 
 gress is exceedingly slow. In a large period of time, 
 however, the tendency is to the subsiding, and at length 
 to the ultimate disappearance of the Gaelic language. 
 
 * Do you not think that the course which has been taken 
 in the management of Highland property has tended 
 materially to diminish the number of those that speak 
 the GaeHc language ? — I should think so. 
 
 'Has it ever occurred to you that the extension of 
 paper currency has had the efiect of extending the 
 knowledge of the English language? — I am not aware 
 of it:— Qu. 3361, 3665—9. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Accusative used for the nominative case in the Latin of the 
 middle ages, 59 ; tendency to substitute it for the nominative, 
 88, 152 note ', 
 
 Adjectives, Provencal, their declension, 79, 80. 
 
 Adverbs, Romance, in mente, 209, 210. 
 
 from aliorsum, 212 
 
 from medium, 216 
 
 aliguotieSf ib. 
 
 
 
 quando, ib. 
 
 hodie, heri, ib. 
 
 quare, ib. 
 
 jam, 213 
 
 retro, ib. 
 
 ibi, ib. 
 
 satis, ib. 
 
 inde, 214 
 
 semper, 218 
 
 ■ insimtd, ib. 
 
 subinde, ib. 
 
 intus, deintuSy 215 
 
 tunc, ib. 
 
 jusum, susum^ ib. 
 
 vhl, 219 
 
 
 unde, ib. 
 
 mane, 216 
 
 
 Adverbs, Romance, modem, not derived from Latin adverbs 
 
 amon, aval, 219 
 adeSf adesse, des, 220 
 entom, environ, ib. 
 lev, 221 
 m^lgrat, ib. 
 mantenen, ib. 
 
 Aora, 222 
 j7ron, ib. 
 tost, ib. 223 
 ^rop, ib. 
 veil, ib. 
 
 Aimoin, De Gestis Francorum, 175 note '. 
 
 Alboacem, charter of, its genuineness examined, 106 note '. 
 
286 INDEX. 
 
 Analytic forms of grammar, 25. 
 
 Arabic words in Spanish and Portuguese, 126, 156, 275. 
 Articles, their origin, 54 ; Romance definite article, 56. 
 At, its changes in French, 135, note \ 
 
 Auxiliary verbs, in Proven9al, 167 ; in the other Romance 
 languages, 169. • 
 
 B, inserted between m and a consonant, 71 note *. 
 
 C, its changes in the Romance languages, 109. 
 
 Cases, their confusion in Latin after the German invasion, 57. 
 
 Celtic languages, their extinction in Western Europe, 20, 
 note 1, 45 ; were not mixed with other languages, 256. 
 
 Comparison, degrees of, in Proven9al, 147 ; in the other 
 Romance languages, 148. 
 
 Conditional tense in the Romance languages, 176. 
 
 Conjunctions, Romance, from Latin : 
 
 aut, 224 et, ib. nee, 227. 
 
 Dante, his usage of proper names, 103 ; Proven9al passage 
 of, cited, 114, note ^; his use of sipa, 234. 
 Dialetto, 16 note K 
 Diez, 26. 
 
 Diminutives, 132. 
 Drusi, 99. 
 
 E^ before s, followed by a consonant, 107. 
 
 French, its ancient form 31 ; its nominative and accusative, 
 80 ; its genders, 114 ; its degrees of comparison, 148 ; its 
 pronouns, 153 ; its numerals, 163 ; its auxiliary verbs, 169 ; its 
 regular verbs, 177; its prepositions, 197; its adverbs, 214; its 
 conjunctions and particles, 224 ; it has departed further from 
 the Latin than the other Romance languages, 247. 
 
 Future tense in the Romance languages, 173. 
 
 Genders, how far changed in the Romance languages, 113. 
 German, its influence on the Latin, 21, 54, 57, 90, 97, 113, 
 142, 146, 166, 179, 190, 194, 220, 223, 224, 232, 235. 
 ■ words in the Romance languages, 258. 
 
INDEX. 287 
 
 Gibbon, 24 note 1, 106 note \ y^ 
 
 Greek, its relation to the Romance languages, 148. ^ 
 Grimm, (Jacob,) 112 note ', 114 note =*, 133 note ^ 143 note ', 
 225 note ^ 
 
 Imperfect tense in French, 177. 
 
 Infinitive mood, in the Romance languages, 179. 
 
 Italian, theory as to its origin from a plebeian dialect of 
 the Latin examined, 10—18, 225,257; its dialects, 44, 251; 
 divided into those with and without vowel terminations, 95; 
 its genders, 113, 114; its degrees of comparison, 148 ; its pro- 
 nouns, 152; its numerals, 163 ; its auxiliary verbs, 169; its 
 regular verbs, 171; its prepositions, 197; its adverbs, 209; 
 its conjunctions and particles, 224 ; its close adherence to the 
 Latin, 246. 
 
 Landor, (W. S.) on cattivo, 141 note ^ 
 
 Language of the Troubadours, difficulty in finding an un- 
 objectionable name for it, 51. 
 
 Langue d'oc, it dialects, 42. 
 
 d'oil, its dialects, ib. 
 
 Lanzi, 11. 
 
 Lassen, 10 note ». 
 
 Latin, its relation to the Greek, 9; its extension over 
 Western Europe, 18 ; changes undergone by it in consequence 
 of the Teutonic invasion, 24 ; its close agreement with the 
 Italian, 246 ; had not a patois or a dialect spoken by the 
 lower classes, 11, 257. 
 
 Lingua Franca, 22 note S 254. 
 
 Romana rustica, 30, 253. 
 
 vulgaris, 30, 257. 
 
 M, elision of final, in Latin, 66. 
 
 Maff'ei, 11. 
 
 Meidinger, 107 note *, 253. 
 
 Muratori, 11, 59 note \ 60 note ', 214 note \ 
 
 Negation, means of strengthening, 237. 
 
 Negro corruption of the English, 22 note *, 91 note •. 
 
288 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Niebuhr, 136 note ', 257. 
 
 Notaries, Latin of the, 60 note '. 
 
 Nouns, Eomance, their formation from the Latin, 61 ; 
 whether from the accusative or the ablative, 68 ; formed from 
 Latin neuter nouns, 73. 
 
 Italian and Spanish, formed from the Latin accusa- 
 
 '''^ tive, 75; Provencal and French formed from the Latin 
 nominative, 76. 
 
 Numerals, Eomance, 162. 
 
 0, in Italian, its origin, 67 note '. 
 Oz, in French, its origin, 106 note K 
 
 P, Latin, changed into b and v in Eomance languages, 109. 
 Particles, negative and affirmative, in Eomance languages : 
 
 gaire, guari^ guere, 224 
 
 persona, 229 
 
 mica, 226 
 
 punctum, 230 
 
 norij 227 
 
 res, 231 
 
 passus, 229 
 
 sic, 233 
 
 Participles, Provencal, their declension, 79, 80 ; their form- 
 ation in Provencal, 183; in the other Eomance languages, 
 185. 
 
 Patois, 16 note ^ 
 
 Perticari, 6, 11, 47, 125 note^ 129 note i, 231 note \ 243 
 note ^ 251. 
 
 Prepositions, Eomance derivatives of Latin : 
 
 db, a, 197 
 
 ad, 199 
 
 ante, ib. 
 
 apud, 200 
 
 ctrca, ib. 
 
 contra, 201 
 
 cum, ib. 
 
 de, 202 
 
 extra, ib. 
 
 tn, ib. 
 
 infra, ib. 
 
 inter or intrOj 203 
 
 juxta, 204 
 
 per, 204 
 post, ib. 
 prope, 205 
 secundum, 206 
 sine, ib. 
 subtus, 208 
 super, 207 
 supra, ib. 
 trans, 208 
 versus, ib. 
 ultra, ib. 
 usque, 209 
 
INDEX. 289 
 
 Present tense in French, 177. 
 
 Preterite tense in French, 178. 
 
 Priscus, 257. 
 
 Pronouns, possessive, in ProvenQal, 78 ; French, 82. 
 
 personal, in Provencal, 150 ; in the other Komance 
 
 languages, 151. 
 
 demonstrative, in Prov., 155; in the other Komance 
 
 languages, 156. 
 
 indefinite, 158. 
 
 relative, in Prov., 157 ; in the other Homance 
 
 languages, 158. 
 
 Proper names, declension of in French, 81. 
 
 Provencal, 53 ; its genders, 114; its degrees of comparison, 
 147 ; its pronouns, 150 ; its numerals, 162; its auxiliary verbs, 
 166 ; its regular verbs, 169 ; Its prepositions, 197 ; its adverbs, 
 209; its conjunctions and particles, 224; its relation to the 
 other Eomance languages, 247. 
 
 Eegular verbs, in Provengal, 169; in the other Eomance 
 languages, 171. 
 
 Eomance languages, M. Raynouard's theory as to their 
 origin, 4 ; generally adopted by subsequent writers, 6 ; proper 
 meaning of the word, 52. 
 
 Eomans, 29. 
 
 Sardinia, its dialects, 43 note *. 
 
 Schlegel, (A. W. von,) 7, 27, 225. 
 
 (Se, used with an active verb in a passive sense, 179. 
 
 Southey, 106 note =. 
 
 Spanish, its dialects, 43 ; its genders, 113 ; its degrees of 
 comparison, 148; its pronouns, 152; its numerals, 163; its 
 auxiliary verbs, 169 ; its regular verbs, 171 ; its prepositions, 
 197; its adverbs, 209; its particles and conjunctions, 224; 
 its relation to the Latin, 247. 
 
 Synthetic forms of Grammar, 25. 
 
 Terminations, Latin, and the corresponding Romance 
 forms, 121. 
 
 v/ 
 
^6 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 in ago, 121 
 
 — antia, entia, 122 
 
 — arius, aris, 123 
 
 — aster, 126 
 
 — atium, 127 
 
 — ia, itia, 129 
 -— inus, 1 32 
 
 — ista, ib. 
 
 in 0, onw, 132 
 
 — or, 134 
 
 — tos, #ws, 135 
 
 — uluSj ellus, illuSj 136 
 
 — ura, 140 
 
 — ensis, ib. 
 
 2VW5, 141 
 
 — osus, ib. 
 
 Terminations, Komance, not derived from the Latin : 
 ard, 142 
 
 etto, ito, ete, et ; otto, ote, ot, 143 
 asco, esco, isco, esc, esque, ib. 
 
 U, Latin, its modifications in Komance languages, 67, 
 note ». 
 
 U, final, in Italian, 67. 
 
 Verbs, their syntax in the Romance languages, 191. 
 Vowels, final, in Italian, 91, 94, 102, 172. 
 
 THE END. 
 
ADDENDA. 
 
 Page 69. 
 
 Latin. 
 
 Italian. 
 
 cicer 
 
 cece 
 
 
 Page 73. 
 
 Latin. 
 
 Italian. 
 
 phantasma 
 
 fantasima 
 
 schisma 
 
 scisma 
 
 Spanish. 
 
 cisma 
 
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