AN ESSAY
OEIGIN AND FORMATION OF THE
KOMANCE LANGUAGES:
CONTAININa-
AN EXAMINATION OF -y . .RAYNOUARD'S THEORY ON
THE RELATION OF THE ITALIAN. SPANISH, PROVENgAL,
AND FRENCH TO THE LATIN.
BT
Tnil 'RidilT koNORABLfei ! .'A
SIR GEORGE CORNEWALL LEWIS.
4r
SECOND EDITION.
LONDON :
PARKER, SON, AND BOURN, WEST STRAND.
1862.
LIBRARY
UNITE HK]T\^ OF
7lf
LONDON :
PRINTED BY GEOEGE PHTPPS, 18 & 14, TOTHHX STEEET,
* ' i ,' \ tjnprsiwttKSTEE*
PREFACE TO THE FIEST EDITION.
The following Essay was originally written
with the view of being published in the Cam-
bridge Philological Museum}, as a criticism of
M. Eaynouard's researches into the history and
formation of the Romance Languages. The dis-
continuance of that journal having left me no
alternative, but to suppress altogether what I
had written, or to print it as a separate work, I
resolved after some hesitation to adopt the latter
course. I am fully conscious that much still
remains to be done for the systematic exhaus-
tion of the subject discussed in it : but as M.
Raynouard's writings have now become scarce
even in France ; as they are rarely met with,
and are little known in this country : as more-
over a reference to many other books is re-
^ The Cambridge Philological Museum was published dnring
the years 1832 and 1833. The Author contributed to it some
papers on classical subjects. It was edited by Archdeacon
Hare and the present Bishop of St. David's, Dr. ThirlwaU.
IV PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION.
quired which can only be procured in foreign
libraries ; and as there is no extant work of
authority which contains a general view of the
history and grammatical structure of the Ro-
mance languages, I have thought that the re-
sults of my researches would be acceptable to
some persons who might be desirous to obtain a
connected view of the entire question, without
consulting a variety of books and scattered
essays, of very different degrees of accuracy
and value, in which alone the desired informa-
tion can now be found.
The problem, of which a tolerably complete
solution is offered in the following pages, is one
which cannot fail to interest all who have con-
sidered the intimate connexion of the develop-
ment of languages, as well with the political
history of the communities by which they are
spoken, as with those refined processes of
thought, of which language is at once the ex-
ponent and the evidence. In this point of view
the origin and progress of the modern dialects
of the Latin are marked by peculiarities, which
give them a predominant title to attention.
Having arisen within a purely historical period,
they are free from the elements of uncertainty
PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. V
which embarrass all enquiries into the origin of
most other languages ; while their descent from
the language of the great Roman nation, and
their actual diffusion over all the west of conti-
nental Europe, invests them with a deep interest
in the eyes of all who take a connected view of
the ancient and modern condition of these im-
portant communities.
On the other hand, the subject presents to
the linguist and metaphysician a clear and full
exemplification of the progress of a language
in discarding its synthetic, and introducing ana-
lytic forms ; of the progress by which, at the
same time that its dictionary is enriched, its
grammar is impoverished ; that while its sub-
stance is improved, its form is deteriorated : a
fact affording plentiful and interesting materials
for reflexion, inasmuch as it offers the only
certain instance in which the general course of
civilisation does not tend to refine and improve
all the instruments and appliances of the hu-
man intellect.
1835.
PEEFAOE TO THE SECOND EDITION.
This Essay was composed in 1833, and was
published at Oxford, by Mr. Talboys, in 1835.
Since its publication the elaborate work of Diez,
on the Grammar of the Eomance Languages,
{Grammatik der Romanischen Sprachen, 3 vols.
Bonn. First edition 1836 — 1844. Second edition
1856 — 60,) has appeared, followed by his Ety-
mological Dictionary of the Eomance Languages
{Etymologisches Worterhuch der Romanischen
Sprachen, 8vo. Bonn. First edition, 1 vol. 1853.
Second edition, 2 vols. 1861 — 2). The langue
d'oil, or the French language, has likewise been
subsequently illustrated by the copious grammar
of Burguy, Grammaire de la Langue dOil ;
ou, Grammaire des Dialectes Frangais aux Dou-
zieme et Treizieme Siecles, suivie d'un Glossaire.
Berlin, 3 vols. 8vo, 1853, 1854, 1856.
These works have, to a great extent, super-
seded my Essay, and might seem to have rendered
* The references in the foUowing Essay are made to the
second edition of this book.
IV PREFACE TO THE FIEST EDITION.
quired which can only be procured in foreign
libraries ; and as there is no extant work of
authority which contains a general view of the
history and grammatical structure of the Ro-
mance languages, I have thought that the re-
sults of my researches would be acceptable to
some persons who might be desirous to obtain a
connected view of the entire question, without
consulting a variety of books and scattered
essays, of very different degrees of accuracy
and value, in which alone the desired informa-
tion can now be found.
The problem, of which a tolerably complete
solution is offered in the following pages, is one
which cannot fail to interest all who have con-
sidered the intimate connexion of the develop-
ment of languages, as well with the political
history of the communities by which they are
spoken, as with those refined processes of
thought, of which language is at once the ex-
ponent and the evidence. In this point of view
the origin and progress of the modern dialects
of the Latin are marked by peculiarities, which
give them a predominant title to attention.
Having arisen within a purely historical period,
they are free from the elements of uncertainty
PREFACE TO THE FIEST EDITION. V
which embarrass all enquiries into the origin of
most other languages ; while their descent from
the language of the great Roman nation, and
their actual diffusion over all the west of conti-
nental Europe, invests them with a deep interest
in the eyes of all who take a connected view of
the ancient and modern condition of these im-
portant communities.
On the other hand, the subject presents to
the linguist and metaphysician a clear and full
exemplification of the progress of a language
in discarding its synthetic, and introducing ana-
lytic forms ; of the progress by which, at the
same time that its dictionary is enriched, its
grammar is impoverished ; that while its sub-
stance is improved, its form is deteriorated : a
fact affording plentiful and interesting materials
for reflexion, inasmuch as it offers the only
certain instance in which the general course of
civilisation does not tend to refine and improve
all the instruments and appliances of the hu-
man intellect. J
1835.
PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION.
This Essay was composed in 1833, and was
published at Oxford, by Mr. Talboys, in 1835.
Since its publication the elaborate work of Diez,
on the Grammar of the Romance Languages,
{Grammatik der Romanischen Sprachen, 3 vols.
Bonn. First edition 183 6 — 1844. Second edition
1856 — 60,) has appeared, followed by his Ety-
mological Dictionary of the Romance Languages
{Etymohgisches Worterhicch der Romanischen
Sprachen, 8vo. Bonn. First edition, 1 vol. 1853.
Second edition, 2 vols. 1861 — 2). The langue
d'oil, or the French language, has likewise been
subsequently illustrated by the copious grammar
of Burguy, Grammaire de la Langue dOil ;
ou, Grammaire des Dialectes Fran^ais aux Dou-
zieme et Treizieme Siecles, suivie d'un Glossaire.
Berlin, 3 vols. Svo, 1853, 1854, 1856.
These works have, to a great extent, super-
seded my Essay, and might seem to have rendered
* The references in the following Essay are made to the
second edition of this book.
Vlll PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION.
its republication superfluous. Having, however,
been informed that its re-issue in a new edition
would be acceptable to English students in-
terested in the science of language, I consented
to reprint it, for the following reasons : — My
Essay had a special object ; namely, the refuta-
tion of M. Eaynouard's theory on the derivation
of the Eomance languages from the langue
d'oc, or language of the Troubadours; — and
this object is consistently pursued throughout
the entire enquiry. Now, the grammars of Diez,
or Burguy, though they do not adopt this theory,
nevertheless contain no detailed investigation of
it, and they assume the truth of the opinions
which my Essay endeavours to establish by
proof. The grammars in question, moreover,
although they afford more copious illustrations
of the Romance languages, and particularly of
their syntax, than my Essay, consistently with
its limited scope, pretends to furnish ; yet do
not present the theory of their derivation from
the Latin in so compact a form. I may add that
my Essay still remains the only English work
in which this problem is treated at length, and
in such a manner as to enable a student to form
an independent judgment respecting its solution.
PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. IX
In revising this Essay for republication, at an
interval of nearly thirty years since its com-
position, I have not attempted to make any
material alterations either in its substance or in
its form. With the exception of a few unim-
portant corrections, I have limited myself to the
addition of such references to the works of Diez
and others, published since the first edition, as
seemed to me to be likely to be useful to a
reader. These insertions in the notes are in-
cluded within brackets.
The importance and interest of the philological
problem, which is treated in the following pages,
are much increased by the fact that it lies en-
tirely within the historical period ; and that not
only the original and the derivative languages,
but also the circumstances attending the transi-
tion, are known by authentic evidence, and by
an unbroken tradition. It is therefore a problem
which admits of solution by demonstrative ar-
guments, and without a recourse to a series of
hypotheses and conjectures, weakening as the
chain lengthens.
London,
October y 1862,
CONTENTS.
tV ^
CHAP. PAGE
I. The Obigin of the Romance Languages . 1
§ 1. Statement of M. Raynouard's Theory
RESPECTING THE OrIGIN OF THE ROMANCE
Languages 1
§ 2. Examination of this Theory in the
PRESENT Work proposed 6
§ 3. Preliminary Examination op the Hy-
pothesis THAT the Italian Language was
formed from a Plebeian Form op the Latin
Language 10
4. Nature op the Changes in the Latin
Language produced by the Teutonic In-
vasions 18
§ 5. Variety of these Changes ... 28
§ 6. General Objections to M. Raynouard's
Proofs of the Derivation of all the Ro-
mance Languages from the Provenqal . 34
§ 7. Use op the word Romance ... 60
II. The Formation op the Romance Articles and
Nouns prom the Latin 64
§ 1. Articles ib.
§ 2. Forms and Inflexions op Nouns . . 67
§ 3. Genders of Nouns 112
§ 4. Formation op new Nouns by Affixes . 119
[II. Degrees op Comparison, Pronouns, and Nu-
merals IN the Romance Languages . . 147
§ 1. Degrees of Comparison . , . . ib.
§ 2. Pronouns 160
§ 3. Numerals 162
Xii CONTENTS.
CHAP. FAQE
IV. Formation, Conjugation, and Syntax op Verbs
IN THE KOMANCE LANGUAGES .... 166
§ 1. Formation and Conjugation op Verbs ib.
§ 2. Syntax of Verbs 191
V. Prepositions, Adverbs, and Conjunctions, in
the Romance Languages .... 197
§ 1. Prepositions ib.
§ 2. Adverbs 209
§ 3. Conjunctions 224
§ 4. Concluding Remarks on M. Raynouard's
Hypothesis . 243
Appendix 261
I
/o!
a.^ A ^ -».
UNIVKRSITV Ui^
CALIFORNIA.
CHAPTER I.
THE ORIGIN OF THE EOMANCE
LANGUAGES.
§ 1. It is now nearly twenty years since M. Raynouard
published at Paris two grammatical treatises on the
Romance language, one containing an account of the
rules of that language before the year 1000 : the other,
a complete grammar of the language of the Trouba-
dours as preserved in their extant poems. These two
grammars, accompanied with an introduction on the
antiquity of the Romance language, and researches on
its origin and formation, composed the first volume
of the series which he has since continued under the
name of Selections from the Poetry of the Troubadours.
The poems, which form the four next volumes of his
collection, were published by him from various manu-
scripts belonging to different pubKc libraries of France
and Italy, but especially from a manuscript in the king's
Library at Paris. Before the publication of this work,
there was no printed collection of the poetry of the
Troubadours in existence ; and the few single poems con-
tained in the treatise of the Abbe Millet and some other
works of French and Italian writers, had for the most
part been derived from inaccurate copies, and had been
2 CHAPTER I.
imperfectly explained by the editors^ As forming part
of tlie same series, though, not so closely connected as the
preceding volumes, M. Eaynouard afterwards put forth a
comparative grammar of the modern Latin languages,
considered in their relation to the language of the Trou-
badours. His entire undertaking will have been com-
pleted, when the dictionary of the Romance language,
which he announced some years ago as being in a state of
forwardness, shall have been laid before the public^. To
those who are acquainted with M. Raynouard's labours,
it is unnecessary to speak in praise of publications of
which the merits have been so generally and so justly
admitted : to those who may not have met with them, it
may be proper to say, that by his industry and original
researches he has made known an European language
and literature almost whoUy forgotten since the extinc-
tion of the independence of Provence : and has thrown a
greater light on the origin of the modem Latin lan-
* See an account of these works in Diez, Poesie der Troubadours
(Zwickau, 1827), p. v.— ix. !
2 M. Raynouard died on the 27th of [October, 1836, at the age
of seventy-five, in the year following the original publication of this
essay. His Lexique Roman ; ou, Dictionnaire de la Langue des Trou-
badours, was published after his death, under the editorship of
M. Paquet, in six vols. 8vo, the first of which bears the date of 1838,
the second of 1836, the third of 1840, the fourth of 1842, the fifth of
1843, and the sixth of 1844. The first volume contains, ' Recherches
Philologiques sur la Langue Romane,' p. ix. — xhi. ; • Resum6 de la
Grammaire Romane,' p. xliii. — Ixxxviii. ; and ' Nouveau Choix des
Poesies originales des Troubadours,' 1 — 580. Vols. ii. to v. inclusive,
contain the Lexique Roman, or Dictionary of the ancient Provencal
language ; the sixth volume contains a short Appendice to the Lexique,
and a Vocahulaire Alphahitique des Mots disposes par Families dam
le Lexique Roman.
In the introduction to vol. ii., consisting of pp. i. — xcii., M. Ray.
nouard declares that he expounds the numerous affinities between the
THE ORIGIN OP THE ROMANCE LANGUAGES. 3
guages, their mutual relations, and their early structure
and syntax, than perhaps all the other writers on these
subjects collectively. In addition to the works here men-
tioned, his criticisms in the Journal des Savans form
a complete history of the various pubKcations of ancient
French poems, and other writings connected with the
philology of the Romance languages, called forth by that
taste for the early native literature which his example
and investigations have greatly contributed to create of
late years in France. It is not indeed without reason
that M. Raynouard's fame has spread itself through the
learned public in Europe ; that Schlegel has said that he
has done more for the history of the French language
than aU the academicians of his country^ ; that by his
means the study of the Troubadour poetry has taken
root both in Germany and Italy, and that parts of his
labours have been reproduced by writers of both those
countries. In England, however, as far as I am aware,
M. Raynouard^s works have not attracted even among
scholars and philologists the attention which they un-
questionably deserve : and therefore I propose in the
six neolatin languages, namely, — 1, the language of the Troubadours ;
2, the Catalonian; 3, the Spanish ; 4, the Portuguese; 5, the Italian;
6, the French. He proceeds thus : —
*J'entreprends, pour la lexicographie des ces idi6mes, ce que j'ai
tache d'executer pour la comparaison de leurs formes grammaticales.
• J'ose esperer que le r6sultat de mes investigations demontrera
4videmment I'origine commune des diverses langues de I'Europe
latine, et ne laissera plus aucun doute sur I'existence ancienne d'uii
type primitif, c'est-a-dire d'une langue intermediaire, idiome encore
grossier sans doute, mais qui pourtant 6tait dirige par des principes
rationnels, notamment quand il s'appropriait, sous des formes nou-
velles, plusieurs des mots de la langue latine,' p. i. [Note added in
1862.]
* Krititche Schriften, vol. i.,page 356.
B 2
4 CHAPTER I.
present work to lay before the reader such an account of
the principal parts of them as may enable him to form a
judgment of the nature and value of their contents ;
though at the same time I shall sometimes take the
liberty of departing from the order in which M. Eay-
nouard has arranged his materials, and shall investigate
some collateral questions relating to the origin of the
Romance languages, on which he has not fully expressed
his opinion.
In order to effect this purpose, I shall proceed to give
an abstract of the principal contents of M. Eaynouard's
Grammar of the Troubadour language, inserting in their
proper places the corresponding forms and idioms in the
Italian, Spanish, and French languages, which are ad-
duced in his Qomjparative Crrammar^ : so as to present in
the most important points a tolerably complete parallel-
ism of the Romance tongues. In this manner it will be
made evident what relation the Provencal language, or
the language of the Troubadours, bears to its cognate
dialects of the Latin : and the reader will be enabled to
judge of the truth of M. Raynouard's theory with
respect to their origin, which I will now state as nearly
as possible in his own words. He conceives that the
Romance language, formed from the corruption of the
Latin, was common to all the countries of Europe in
which the Latin had been spoken, and is preserved in a
pure form in the poetry of the Troubadours (G-r. B. p. 5,
1 In this Grammar M. Raynouard constantly compares the forms of
the Portuguese as well as of the Spanish language. For the sake of
brevity and clearness I have omitted the Portuguese; as, although it
deviates in many respects from the Spanish, nevertheless there is such
a fundamental resemblance between them, that the same general ai-gu-
mentB apply to both.
THE ORIGIN OF THE ROMANCE LANGUAGES. 5
6.y. It was a regular fixed language, having constant
rules {Gr. Comp. p. ii.) and was universally understood
over Roman Europe {G-r. Gomp. p. xxix.) And this was
the common source from which all the modem Latin
languages were derived {Gr, Gomp. p. ii.) ; so that all the
characteristic marks and idioms of each of these lan-
guages are traceable in the mother tongue (ib. p. iv.),
and the resemblance of the forms of certain words in
these languages is sufficient to prove, not only a com-
munity of origin, but also the existence of a common
intermediate type, which has modified both the Latin
and other languages by operations of which the charac-
teristic marks and the perfect unity may still be recog-
nised {Gr. Gomp. p. 30).
§2. Such is M. RajTiouard^s theory with respect
to the origin of the Italian, Spanish, and French, and
their dialects. He does not place them on the same line
with the ancient Proven9al or Langue d'oc, deriving
them all, as sister languages, directly from the Latin:
but he considers the Romance as an universal language,
which arose from the corruption of the Latin in the
middle ages, which was severally modified into ^the
Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, modem Provencal, and
French, and of which we have a faithful transcript
in the poems of the Troubadours. In establishing this
theory, M. Rajmouard in some degree resembled the
prophet mentioned in the Bible, who was required not
only to interpret the dream, but also to divine what the
* In the following pages, the references are made to the separate
edition of the Grammaire de la Langue Romane; but the miscellaneous
treatises which belong to it are quoted as they are collected in the first
yol. of the Ghoix des Poisies des Troubadours.
6 CHAPTER I.
dream was : for before he could trace the relations of the
modern Latin languages with the Romance, he had first
to discover the Romance itself, to explain its structure,
and to ascertain its grammatical rules^. When we con-
sider the novelty of M. Raynouard's investigations, the
multiplicity of unperceived relations which he brought
to light, the extent of his erudition, his unwearied in-
dustry, and his scrupulous accuracy of citation, it is no
wonder that his theory should have obtained general
assent, as his works deserved general admiration, among
persons occupied about the history of the Romance lan-
guages. Even before the pubHcation of his Compara-
tive Grammary and when his theory had merely been
put forward as an hypothesis, Perticari, in a treatise
which has been much admired in Italy, adopted his
views on the origin of the Italian : considering (to
use his own words) *that the Latin was the grand-
mother, while the Romance was the mother of the new
* The same theory had indeed been previously advanced by others
as a conjecture, but only as a conjecture. M. Raynouard's merit
consists in assigning definite reasons for that which was before a
mere guess. Smollett, the novelist, in his Travels in France and
Italy, gives an account of the origin of the Romance and its relation to
the other dialects of the Latin, which exactly agrees with M. Ray-
nouard's views, though I am not aware whence he borrowed it. * The
Patois, or native tongue of Nice (he says), is no. other than the
ancient Provencal, from which the Italian, Spanish, and French lan-
guages have been formed. This is the language that rose upon the
ruins of the Latin tongue, after the irruption of the Goths, Vandals,
Huns, and Burgundians, by whom the Roman empire was destroyed.
It was spoke all over Italy, Spain, and the southern part of France
until the thirteenth century, whence the Italians began to polish it
into the language which they now call their own. The Spaniards
and French too improved it into their respective tongues. From its
great affinity to the Latin, it was called Romance, a name which
the Spaniards still give to their own language.' Letter tctj, vol. i.
THE ORIGIN OF THE ROMANCE LANGUAGES. 7
languages now spoken over a large part of Europe^ : '
which. Romance (he says in another place) was the
common language of Europe for more than five hundred
years'^. The same theory has heen adopted hy Cham-
pollion-Figeac, by Sismondi in the later editions of his
work on the Literature of Southern Europe, by Nicco-
Hni^, Lampredi, and Ugo Foscolo : and it is received by
Balbi as the established opinion in his Ethnographic
Atlas*. A few writers, such as Daunou, in the Journal
des Savans^, Galvani, who has published an Italian work
on the Troubadour poetry^, and a contributor to the
Florence Antologia^ have faintly expressed a dissenting
opinion, or rejected some of the arguments by which the
doctrine has been supported : Schlegel alone has ex-
pressed his entire dissent from this theory; and has
stated succinctly in a short work published at Paris many
years ago^, what appears to me to be the true explanation
p. 334. The mention of the Huns is prohably an oversight, as they
did not establish themselves in a part of Europe where, according to
Smollett's view, the Romance language was ever spoken.
* * Quindi possiamo dire che la latina veramente fu avola, ma la
romana fu madre delle nuove favelle che ora si parlano in tanta
parte d'Europa.' Scrittori del Trecento, lib. i. cap. 7 ; and see Difesa
di Dante, cap. vii. ad fin. et 10.
* * Quel comun sermone romano che per 500 e piii anni tutta occupo
I'Europa latina.' Difesa di Dante, c. 44.
' Discorso in cui si ricerca qual parte aver possa il popolo nella
formazione d'una lingua, (Florence, 1819,) p. 8.
* See Balbi, Introduction a r Atlas Ethnographique du Globe, p. 166
— 76. Bemhardy likewise, in his Grundlinien zur Encycl-opddie der
FMlologie, p. 188, appears to consider the Provencal as intermediate
between the Latin and the other Romance languages.
* Journal des Savans, 1823, p. 88—90.
« Osservazioni sulle Poesie dei Trovatori, p. 515, note.
' Observations sur la Langue et la Litterature Provengales, par
A. W. de Schlegel. Paris, 1818. [The theory of M. Raynouard, as
to the derivation of the Romance languages from a common type, in-
8 CHAPTER I.
of the origin of the modern Latin languages, and some
of the chief objections to which M. EajTiouard's system
is liable : but no one has undertaken to refute, or even
to examine in detail, M. E-aynouard's demonstrations,
although it might have been expected that among a
nation so jealous of the honour of their language and
literature as the ItaHan, some critic would have arisen to
question the truth of a theory which takes from that
language the reputation which it has hitherto enjoyed of
being the first-born of the ancient Latin. The objections
which I shall propose to M. Eaynouard's system do not,
however, arise from any national feeling, or literary
jealousy : the diihculties which I find in his argument
presented themselves unsought ; and it is only because no
one better versed than myself in the literature of the
middle ages has undertaken the task of examining his
theory, that I shall in this work lay before the reader my
grounds for venturing to reject an explanation supported
with so much erudition and ingenuity.
There is perhaps no problem connected with language
which admits of a completer solution than that which
respects the modern European languages formed from the
Latin^. Unlike the origin of most languages, it lies
^ within a purely historical period : the language of the
termediate between them and the Latin, is examined and rejected by
Ampere, Histoire de la Litt^rature Fran^aise au Moyen Age (Paris,
1841), p. 23—33.]
* « La langue Romane (says M. Raynouard) est peut-ltre la seule k
la formation de laquelle il soit permis de remonter ainsi, pour de-
couvrir et expliquer le secret de son industrieux mecanisme : j'ai mis
d. cette recherche autant de patience que de franchise, et dans le cours
de mes investigations grammaticales, j'ai eu souvent occasion de recon-
noitre la v6rit6 de I'axidme, " non quiadifficilia sunt.non audemus, sed
quia non audemus, difficilia sunt," ' vol. i. p. 104=. Among the other
THE ORIGIN OF THE ROMANCE LANGUAGES. 9
native population, the changes whicli took place in their
political condition, the race and languages of the in-
vaders and of the other foreign nations with which they
came in contact, all are certainly known : and although
the early stages of these Latin dialects, when they were
merely harharous and unfixed jargons, formed hy the in-
tercourse of natives and strangers, spoken chiefly among
illiterate persons, and used neither as the language of the
government, of legal instruments, nor of books, are not
only (with the exception of a few words) wholly un-
known, but lost without hope of recovery ; yet the events
which accompanied and occasioned their origin are
matter of historical record ; and if we cannot always say^
with certainty to what precise cause the changes which
the Latin underwent were owing, our information enables
ns at least to obtain negative results, and to exclude un-
doubtingly many hypotheses which might be tenable
if we had merely the languages without a contemporary
history of the times when they arose. The same is the
case with the English language : without looking to its
structure or examining the etymology of its words, we
should be justified in rejecting an hypothesis which
should derive it from an union of the Anglo-Saxon and
the Greek, or the Anglo-Saxon and the Celtic ; as
we know that the invaders, who formed a new tongue by
their intercourse with the native Anglo-Saxon population,
spoke not Celtic, or Greek, but Norman-French. When
on the other hand we look at the Latin, we find by
analyzing its forms and words, that it contains a Hellenic
and a barbarous element, and is therefore probably a
t European languages, however, the English, as weU as the modem
Greek, has heen formed since the time of memory.
10 CHAPTER I.
mixed language formed by the union of difiPerent races in
one community^ : but what were the component parts of
the nation (though the historical traditions afford mate-
rials for conjecture) is a matter of extreme uncertainty,
and we may as well infer such a mixture of populations
from the form of the language, as account for the form of
'"the language by the mixture of the populations. It
is therefore peculiarly important to explain, so far as the
present state of our knowledge permits, the formation
of the Romance languages : as they may furnish a sure
point of comparison for other mixed languages whose
origin lies before the dawn of history, and which can
only be illustrated by means of their analogy with those
^of a more recent date.
§ 3. Before I proceed to examine M. Raynouard's
account of the Provengal language, it will be proper
to say something on a theory of the origin of the Italian,
proposed by some native writers ; since, if it could be
established, it would apply with equal force to the other
languages of the same family. The hypothesis to which
* Lassen, in Welcker's Rheinisches Museum, vol. i. p. 361 — 4, ob-
jects to dividing the Latin into a Grecian and non-Grecian part, and
says that it might as well be divided into an Indian and non-Indian,
or a Teutonic and non-Teutonic part. It is however to be observed,
that though all these languages are derived from a common source, yet
there is a closer affinity between the Latin and the Greek, than between
the Latin and the Sanscrit or the Gothic. Moreover, when Lassen
Bays that the Latin bears no marks of being a mixed language, like
the English and Persian, he forgets Otfried Muller's remark with
respect to the Latin passive voice, and the progress which it has made
towards analytic forms. The want of a power of forminfj compound
words in Latin, which its cognate tongues possess in so remarkable a
degree, (see Livy, xxvii. 11, ' Faciliore ad duplicanda verba Greeco ser-
mone,') seems likewise to prove that the mixture of a heterogeneous
element had enfeebled the capacities of the original language.
THE ORIGIN OP THE ROMANCE LANGUAGES. 1 1*
I allude is that in ancient Rome, and in Italy, after the
extension of the Roman dominion, there were two dia-
lects or forms of the Latin language : one spoken by the
upper classes, and educated persons, and used as the lan-
guage of government, of the tribunals, of the laws, and
of literature ; while the other, universally spoken by the
lower classes, and differing essentially in structure from
the high Latin, was never written until the middle ages,
when it became the general language of Italy, or (as it
is now called) the Italian, This theory, first proposed by
some writers of little note^ is illustrated at length by
Maffei, in his history of Yerona : the same view, in its
immitigated shape, is likewise followed by Lanzi, in his
work on the Etruscan language^; by Bonamy, in the
Memoirs of the Academy of Inscriptions^ ; and has been
more recently maintained by Ciampi, a Florentine writer,
in a separate dissertation*. A nearly similar account of
the existence of a low Latin dialect is given by Muratori
and Perticari, although both these writers admit the
influence of the Teutonic invaders on the native language
of Italy, which Maffei and Lanzi altogether exclude ;
* See their names mentioned in Perticari, Scrittori del Trecento, c. 5.
' ' Non furono straniere lingue che in Italia lo (il latino) estinsero :
fu un linguaggio di volgo, che fin da antichissimi tempi annidato in
queste contrade, anzi in Eoma stessa, e restatosi occulto nei miglior
secoli, si riprodusse nei peggiori ; e dilatandosi a poco e prendendo
forza, degener6 in quella che anco per questa sua origine possiam
chiamare volgar lingua d'ltalia.' Lanzi, Saggio deUa Lingtui Etrusea^
vol. i. p. 331.
' Vol. xxiv. p. 697 — 666. Bonamy's explanation embraces the
Italian, Spanish, and French.
■* Ciampi, Be Usu Lingua Italica. Pisis, 1817, 4to. An excellent
reriew of this book (which cannot now be procured even in Tuscany),
and a refutation of the arguments on which it is founded, by M. Kay-
nouard, may be seen in the Journal des Savans, 1818, p. 323—31.
12 CHAPTER I.
Muratori in particular has laid great stress on the
changes introduced by the conquerors of Italy, and has
pointed out the German origin of a whole series of
Italian words. It is not indeed very easy to ascertain the
precise opinions of Muratori^ and Perticari^ on this sub-
ject; for, as they rest on a confusion of things which
ought to be distinguished, the statements of their argu-
ments naturally partake of the ambiguity on which the
» Thus he says, Dissert. It. Med. ^vi, vol. ii. p. 1013, E., 14 A.
* Incompertum sane est, ne dicam falsum, eo praecipue tempore, quo
Gothi et liangobardi in Italia dominati sunt, natam, atque ad culmen
suum perductam fuisse vulgarem Italicam linguam, quam ad expri-
mendas cogitationes nostras nunc usurpamus.* But he adds, p. 1016 E.
* Itaque non immerito opinemur, praecipue sub Langobardorum regno
Latinum sermonem, antea in barbariem multam prolapsum, gravius
corruptum atque immutatum fuisse, ita ut faciem novse linguae lingua
Italici populi tunc praeferre coeperit. Nam quod nonnulii sensisse
videntur, earn ipsam Italicam linguam, qua nunc utimur, a Latina seu
Romana adeo diversam, vel jlorente romani imperii fortuna, viguisse,
somnium est nulla confutatione dignum.' And again, Diss. 33, p. 1101 C.
*Quum tamen longe plures semper abundarint in ItaHcis urbibus
et agris incolae Latini, propterea primas retinuit ubique Latinorum
lingua, sed simul impedire nequiit quin ex tanta colluvione septen-
trionaUum populorum potentius in dies corrumperetur et antiquas
voces adulteraret, aut iis voces gentis dominatricis immisceret ; prae-
sertim quod officia fere omnia, et publica munera tum sacra tum pro-
fana Langobardis dominantibus conferrentur.'
* See Scrittori del Trecento, c. 5 — 7. In c. 6, speaking of the ef-
fects of the invasion of the barbarians, he says : ' Seguendo adunqiie
la partizione dantesca, diremo essere presto mancato il latino illustre,
ma il rustico essere in quel tempi limaso.' In c. 7, he says that he
' has traced the history of the lingua rustica, discovered its ancient
origin, showed how it prevailed for a long period of time, and after-
wards under the name of Romance was polished in a better age.' In
another place he says, * non dalla barbarie Vandala n^ dalla Gota, ma
da questo volgar romano propriamente I'ltalico fu prodotto.' Difesa
di Dante, c. 7. Nevertheless he distinctly admits the influence of the
Teutons, ib. c. 8 : thus he says : ' non fu nh perduto nh rinnovato in
quel devastamento Italico tutto il vecchio parlare.'
THE OEIGIN OP THE ROMANCE LANGUAGES. 1 3
arguments themselves are* founded. The confusion in
question has (as M. Eaynouard has remarked^) arisen
from overlooking the distinction between style and struc-
ture, from inferring that because the lower classes of
ancient Italy used ungrammatical and vulgar forms of
expression, therefore they spoke a language which dif-
fered in its inflexions and syntax from that written
in books and current among educated persons. Doubt-
less illiterate people in ancient Italy, as in aU other
countries, frequently committed grammatical errors^ and
used low words in their conversation : doubtless the
countrymen employed words which had been disused in
the towns, and had become provincialisms : doubtless
professions, as soldiers, lawyers, farmers, etc., had certain
peculiar terms not generally current through the com-
munity. On the other hand there was a style of writing
and speaking adopted by the upper classes, correct in
grammar, admitting no mean and vulgar expressions, free
from provincialisms, and the cant phrases of the camp,
the country, or the forum ; the standard of composition
as established by critics and grammarians on the models
of classical writers ; the lingua aulica or cortigiana, as it
was called by Dante, after the political institutions of his
day, in opposition to the lingiLa pleheay the unpolished
idiom of clowns. It was this pure and correct style
which the grammarians of Eome taught to their scholars,
* Gr. Comp. p. xlvii.— viii. See also the criticism cited above
in p. 11, *.
' Thus Quintilian, I. 6, 45, says : * Quemadmodum vulgo imperiti
loquuntur, tola ssepe theatra et omuem circi turbam exclamasse bai-bare
scimus.' Hence in c. 6, § 27, he says : ' Non invenuste dici videtur
aliud esse Latine aliud grammatice loqui,' that is, it is one thing to
speak a language, another to speak it correctly.
14 CHAPTER I.
and of wMch they treated in their works ; like the Greek
rhetoricians and elocutionists who taught their pupils to
use a more elevated and grammatical diction, but not to
speak in a different language from the vulgar. In Latin,
as in other languages, *many things (as Maffei says^)
had two names : one of which was used by educated per-
sons and by writers, the other was current among the
lower orders and in common use.' Th*us in an elevated
style a writer or speaker would use os, equus, jimus,
pumilio, puIcheTy ruber ^ percutere, ducere : but in famiHar
conversation, or in works sermoni propioraj the corre-
sponding terms, bucca, caballus, Icetamen, nanus, bellus,
russus, batuere, menare, would be employed^. So Yarro
tells us that what the inhabitants of towns call quiritare^
the country people called yw5*7are, that where the former
said pellicula, the latter said scortum^. PHny calls con-
terraneus a castrense verbum, GelHus says the same of
copior*; and we know that Livy was reproached with his
Patavinity. But when Maffei would infer from such
facts as these that there was a dialect spoken by the
lower orders of ancient Italy, resembling the modern
Italian rather than the Latin^, his reasoning has just as
little weight as his proofs of the use of articles and
* * Di molte cose v'eran due vocaboli; un dei quali si adoprava dalla
gente colta e dagli scrittori, I'altro era proprio della plebe ed usuale*'
Verona Illustrata, part I. col. 313. [For a list of plebeian Latin
words, see Diez, Rom. Gramm., vol. i. p. 7 — 28.]
* These instances are given by Maffei.
» De L. L. vi. 68, vii. 84, ed. MUller.
* Plin. Praf. ad Nat. Hist., $ 1. Gellius, xvii. 2.
* See his entire argument, col. 312 — 20. Maffei's conclusion is re-
jected as absurd by Tiraboschi, Storia della Litteratura Italiana, Pre-
face to torn, iii. part I.; by Pignotti, Storia di Toscana, vol. ii. : DelV
Origine e Progressi della Lingua Italiana ; by Diez Poesie der Trouba-
THE ORIGIN OF THE ROMANCE LANGUAGES. 1 5
auxiliary verbs in ancient Italy^. There is no doubt that
Latin writers sometimes prefix the pronoun ille to a noun,
much in the same way that the Italian uses its definite
article, there is no doubt that they sometimes used habeo
and a past participle, after the manner of the modem
conjugation with avere ; but these are anomalous in-
stances, not rules ; they are only the rudiments and germs
of a system wbicb bad not tben come into being ; and
notwithstanding these idioms the Latin bad no articles,
and no active conjugation with auxiliary verbs. The
very examples cited by Maffei make against him : for we
find that the purest and most elegant writers of Latin
did not avoid his plebeian words, and that tbey used
them moreover with the Latin terminations and in-
flexions. Instead therefore of producing an exclusively
plebeian word with an Italian termination, he quotes
from Lucretius, Horace, and Juvenal such words as
russus, bellus, and cahallus with a purely Latin form.
There can be little doubt that the state of the Latin
language in ancient Italy exactly resembled that of the
EngHsh in most parts of England, and that of the
French in Paris and its neighbourhood : viz., — that the
language spoken by the whole population was the same
in its structure and form, but that the upper and educated
classes spoke it without solecisms, and coarse or vulgar
expressions, while the lower orders and the country peo-
ple used an ungrammatical, homely, and sometimes anti-
<!owr», p. 288; and by other writers. See also Hallam's Middle Ages ^
ch. 9, part I. vol. iii. p. 320.
' lb. col. 318, 319. By the same mode of reasoning it might be
shown that the Greek, which sometimes said KaXvxpag exw, jSejSovXevKwc
exw. used auxiliary verbs. See Matthiee's Gr. Gr., § 559.
l6 CHAPTER I.
quated mode of diction. It would be easy to make in
English a list of passages from writers on style who give
cautions against the use of plebeian expressions : and to
collect a series of double synonyms, of which one is
suited to a serious, poetical, and lofty, the other to
a ludicrous, familiar, or humble style. This, according
to Maffei's way of reasoning, would be a proof of the ex-
istence of two languages in England, one spoken by the
upper, the other by the lower classes. The orthography
of the Latin, as of all other languages before the use of
printing, was completely unfixed, and from the practice
which prevailed in ancient, as it prevails in modern
Italy, of representing the exact sounds of the voice with
letters, (instead, Kke English and French, of often
making a word an arbitrary symbol to represent a sound,)
many peculiarities of local pronunciation were introduced
by the stone-cutters into public and private monuments :
but there is no trace of the existence in ancient Italy of
a language spoken among the lower orders, differing from
the Latin in its grammatical structure, of a, patois or dia-
letto^y standing to the Latin in the same relation as the
Provencal or Gascon to the French, as the Catalonian^to
the Spanish, as the Genoese, Mantuan, or Bolognese, to
* We have no word in English to express the idea signified by these
words, of an unwritten language spoken by the inferior classes, difler-
ing in structure or in origin from the national or common language. The
Welsh, the Gaelic, and the Irish, as spoken in Wales, Scotland, and
Ireland, are indeed properly patois Uke the Bas-breton : but the pro-
vincial languages of Norfolk, Somersetshire, Yorkshire, and Scotland,
cannot in strictness be so called, as they have the same inflexions as the
written English, though they contain many peculiar words not generally
understood. A Norfolk or Yorkshire peasant would underetand a play
of Shakspeare, or a speech made in pure English, but a Provenval
learns French as he would leam Spanish, and there are translations of
THE ORIGIN OF THE ROMANCE LANGUAGES. 1 7
the Italian : which are languages with different inflexions
and syntax, and the one is not intelligible to a person ac-
quainted; with the other, although both belong to the
same stock. But the language popularly spoken in Tus-
cany has the same inflexions and grammar as the pure
Italian, the Koivq SloXcktos of Italy, though it may contain
many words peculiar to itself^ ; and such, I conceive, was
the relation which the plebeian language of Rome bore
to the style in which Cicero addressed the senate, or
composed a philosophical treatise. It was only a less
perfect, refined, and correct form of the self-same Latin
language. Without further discussion, therefore, we may
reject, as wholly destitute of evidence, the theory of
Maffei, which finds the Italian, and of Perticari^, which
Tasso into Venetian, Milanese, Bolognese, and other Italian dialects.
The definition of dialetto in the Vocab. delta Crusca, ^iz., — ' Spezie
particolare di pronuuzia di alcun linguaggio,' is veiy imperfect. The
Dictionnaire de I'Academie defines patois to be ' langage du peuple et
des paysans paiticuUer a chaque province.' Baretti, in his Italian and
English Dictionary, explains dialetto to be ' a manner of speech pecu-
liar to some part of a country, yet all using the same radical language.*
The latter limitation is probably true of the word dialetto, as used in
Italian : but it does not appear to apply to the French term patois : for
the Basque in Navarre, or the Bas-breton in Britany, would, I con-
ceive, be properly termed patois, though they belong to a diflferent stock
from the French and Spanish.
* See the Lamento di Gecco di Varlungo, a pastoral poem in the lan-
guage of the Tuscan peasants. Some remarks on the much contro-
verted point of tlie relation of the Tuscan to the written Italian, and
the other Italian dialects, will be found in note (A.) at the end.
' The following statements of Balbi, in his Atlas Ethnographique,
agree nearly with Perticari's theory; tab. xii., par. 161. 'Latine.
C'etait la langue ecrite et commune au beau monde de I'ltalie et de
tout le vaste empire remain ; elle etait tres diflFerente de la lingua ple-
beia ou rustica, parlee dans les campagnes de la p6ninsule, et par les
personnea des classes inferieures dans les Espagnes, les Gaules, et
autres provinces.' lb. 162 : * Ro inane ou Romana rustica parlee daus
C
1 8 CHAPTER I.
finds the Provengal, in the dialect of the lowest classes of
ancient Italy*.
§ 4. The extension of the Latin language over the
countries of Western Europe occupied by the Romans, is
a fact more easily proved" than accounted for. As the
native tribes of Italy, Gaul, and Spain, yielded succes-
sively to the Roman arms, so their multifarious dialects
gave way before the language of their conquerors. In
many instances the language of conquering nations has
disappeared, or left only faint traces of its existence in
the native dialect of the country. Thus the Normans
adopted the language of their subjects and neighbours in
Northern France** ; and the English tongue, though com-
les beaux temps de Eome par les basses classes de la societe dans tout
le midi de I'Europe romaine; la Grece et quelques autres pays exeeptes.
Apres avoir subi des modifieations plus ou moins considerables, la ro-
mane parait encore subsister dans les dialectes vulgaires qu'on parle
dans une grande partie de I'Espagne, de la France, de la Suisse, et dans
quelques cantons de I'ltaUe.' For a similar view of this subject in a
more recent work on the modem European languages see note (B.) at
the end. i
• On an assertion of Niebuhr's, with respect to the mention of a
lingua volgare subordinate to the Latin, by Priscus, in relation to an
embassy which took place in 448, a.d., see note (C.) at the end.
' See Raynouard, vol. i., p. 1 — 6. * Exploratum est (says Muratori)
per universam Italiam, Galliam, et Hispaniam propagatum ita fuisse
Latinffi linguae usum, ut non docti tantum viri, sed et plebes et rustici
denique omnes eamdem usurparint.' Antiq. It. Med. J^vi, Diss. 32,
vol. ii., p. 1014 A. On the universality of the Latin language in Gaul,
see Histoire Littdraire de la France, vol. vii., avertisseraent, { 1. The
universal prevalence of the Latin language is proved by the use of the
word Latin for language generally, in old French and Italian: see
Orell, Alt-franz68. Grammatik, p. 28. Vocab. della Crusca in v. On
the universality of the Latin language in Spain, see Mayans i Siscar,
Origenei de la Lengua Espanola, vol. ii., p. 20.
3 On this change of language see Gibbon, c. 56, note 17. Gley,
Langue et Litterature des Anciens Francs, p. 275. liaynouard, Obser-
THE ORIGIN OF THE ROMANCE LANGUAGES. 1 9
pletely subverted by their influence, nevertheless retains
in substance its original Saxon character. But the Latin,
having at the same time the advantages accruing from
the influence of government, which imposed on the go-
verned the necessity of understanding it^ seems like the
Greek, to have propagated itself by a sort of magical
power among the inhabitants of Western Europe^. In
Italy the Etruscan disappeared before it under the early
emperors, and every trace of that singular language has
been lost except the inexplicable inscriptions : the Oscan
and other dialects of the native Italian tribes underwent
the same fate^: the Celtic was forgotten in Gaul and
Spain, and was only preserved among the inhabitants of
vations sur le Reman de i?ow, p. 16 — 21. Heeren, Ueber den Einfluss
der Normannen auf die Franzosische Sprache und Litteratur, Werke^
vol. ii., p. 367— 9.
' The Komans used their own language in all acts of the govern-
ment even in Greece (see EajTiouard, vol. i., p. 2, 4), and did not, like
the Austrians and the French in Italy, employ the language of the
conquered nation. The Latin however did not supplant the Greek
either in Greece or in Magna Graecia; and in the former country
it was not constantly used as the language of government, as we know
from the many extant Greek inscriptions relating to pubHc matters
which belong to the time of the Empire : but it was introduced by the
influence of government into Asia Minor, Syria, and Constantinople;
see the Quarterly Review, vol. xxui., p. 142.
^ ' The facility with which they were thus moulded into Greeks is a
characteristic of the Pelasgian tribes, and a main cause of the dissolu-
tion and extinction of the nation. It is natural to view it as resulting
from the affinity between the two races, which yet were not on that ac-
count the less essentially different : and such I believe to have been
the case ; yet we may observe a magical power exercised by the Greek
language and national character over foreign races that came in contact
with them, even where no such affinity can be conceived.' Niebuhr,
Hist, of Rome, vol. i., p. 50.
^ On the extension of the Latin in Italy, see Lanzi, Saggio della
Lingua Etrusca, vol. i., p. 27.
02
20 CHAPTER I.
Armorica^ : tlie Iberian gave way in Spain, and only
lived in the modern Basque among the mountaineers of
the Pyrenees : the Ligurian became extinct on the shores
of the Mediterranean. The use of the Latin language
gradually became as universal over Western Europe, as
the dominion of the Roman laws and political institu-
tions. As this language had been spread by conquest, so
it was destined to be destroyed by conquest ; and when
the Teutonic races of the Herulians, Goths, Lombards,
* On the diffusion of the Latin language in Gaul, see Bonamy,
M€moires de I'Acad. des Inscriptions, vol. xxiv., p. 587 — 94. The
Celtic however still lingered in some of the Eastern and Southern
parts in the third and fourth centuries. Alex, von Humboldt has the
following remarks on this subject : ' I believe (he says) that we must
look into the character of the natives and the state of their ciAiUzation,
and not into the structure of their language, for the reason of this
rapid introduction of Latin among the Gauls. The Celtic nations with
brown hair, were certainly different from the race of the Germanic na-
tions with hght hair, [see Niebuhr, vol. ii., n. 1160 :] and though the
Druid caste recals to our minds one of the institutions of the Ganges,
this does not demonstrate that the idiom of the Celtic belongs, like
that of the nations of Otlin, to a branch of the Indo-J^elasgic lan-
guages. • [This affinity has now been proved by Dr. Prichard.] From
analogy of structure and of roots, the Latin ought to have penetrated
more easily on the other side of the Danube, than into Gaul; but an
uncultivated state, joined to great moral inflexibility, opposed probably
its introduction among the Germanic nations.' Personal Narrative,
vol. vi., p. 249, note. Although it may be true that the Celtic is in-
ferior in natural capacity to the Teutonic race, yet the reason why the
Latin made no way in Germany, is, that the Germans were not subju-
gated and their country occupied by the Eomans. It is certainly diffi-
cult to explain how the Romans should have completely eradicated the
Celtic language from a large part of Gaul, while the same causes which
appear at tliat time to have produced so great an effect, have during
the last eight or nine centuries produced so little effect, among
the Celts of Britany, Wales, Scotland, and Ireland. In Cornwall
alone the Celtic language has become extinct, and that within less than
a century.
THE ORIGIN OF THE ROMANCE LANGUAGES. 21
Burgundians and Franks, successively overran the "West
of Europe in the fifth and sixth centuries, and estabHshed
themselves in it as rulers by the power of the sword,
it was to be expected that the language of the conquered
people would undergo great changes ; such as in Eng-
land and Scotland were produced by the invasion of the
Normans, and in Greece by the irruption of the Scla-
vonic tribes. If the relative numbers of the invaders
and the native population had been reversed, if the
Teutonic armies had formed a large majority, instead of
a small minority of the entire nation, the Latin would
probably have become extinct ; as the Celtic in England
disappeared before the Saxons and Angles, who not only
vanquished but exterminated the ancient Britons. As it
was, the numbers of the natives were too large to allow
of the extinction of their language^ ; while the conquerors
would naturally be as little willing to yield the use of their
native tongue, as to surrender any other of the privileges
of conquest. But as it was necessary that the two parties
should coriimunicate with each other, the one in order to
give, the other in order to receive commands ; the less
numerous party abated something of their privileges, and
* * Tunc (says Muratori, speaking of the Lombard invasion of Italy)
immanis turba promiscui sexus, Germanicam linguam a teneris ungui-
culis edocta, in Italiam effusa est, et provinciis fere universis dominari.
coepit. Didicere illi quidem debellat^e gentis linguam, utpote dul-
ciorem, et nimis altis radicibus stabilitam ; nam ut ut exhausta habi-
tatoribus tunc Italia fuerit, longe tamen major Italicorum stiperstitum
quam Langobardorum novorum hospitum numerus fuit. Didicerant,
inquam, sed ita ut nova ipsi quoque vocabula in sermonem Italicum
intulerint, et ad immutandam gravius quam antea pronuntiationem et
desinentiam Latinarum vocura, inscitia potissimum ubique grassante,
operam suam et ipsi contulerint.* Antiq. It. Med. jEvi, vol. ii.,
p. 1014 A. And on the numbers of the German invaders of Italy, see
ibid., p. 1100 A- p. 1103 B.
22 CHAPTER I.
submitted to attempt to explain themselves in the lan-
guage of their subjects. Being, however, more versed in
war than in letters, they used a form of speech which in-
stead of faithfully imitating the Latin only approximated
to it^, and by introducing the use of articles and auxiHary
verbs, by destroying the inflexions of cases which was too
complex a system to be easily learnt, and by infusing
a number of Teutonic words, they formed a hybrid lan-
* The following account of this change is given by Sismondi.
« Ignorant les uns et les autres tout principe de grammaire generale,
lis ne songeaient point a etudier la langue de leurs^ ennemis ; ils
s'accoutumaient seulement a entendre r^ciproquement le jargon dans
lequel ils cherchaient h se rencontrer. Ainsi nous voyons encore
aujourd'hui des gens du peuple transportes dans un pays Stranger, se
faire avec ceux dont ils ont besoin, un patois de convention qui n'est
le leur, ni celui de leurs hdtes, mais que tons deux comprennent, et
qui empdche tons deux d'arriver, k la langue de I'un ou de I'autre.
Ainsi dans le bagnes de I'Afrique et de Constantinople des esclaves
Chr6tiens de toutes les parties de I'Europe meles avec les Maures,
n'ont point enseign^ a ceux-ci leur langage, et n'ont point appris celui
des Maures ; mais ils se rencontrent avec eux dans un jargon barbare
qu'on nomme langue franque ; il est compost des mots romans les plus
n^cessaires a la vie commune depouilles des terminaisons qui mar-
quent les temps etles cas, et unis ensemble sans syntaxe. Ainsi dans
des colonies d'Am6rique, les planteurs s'entendaient avec les n^gres
dans la langue Creole, qui est de meme le Fran^ais mis ^ la port6e
d'un peuple barbare, en le depouillant de tout ce qui donne de la pr6.
cision, de la force, ou de la souplesse.' Literature du Midi, vol. i.
p. 19, and compare p. 33. ' The Moravians have translated the Bible
an^ a book of hymns into the Talkee-talkee, or negi-o language,
of which they have also composed a grammar. It is curious that this
patois of the blacks, though it includes many African words, should
have for its basis the English language, pared of inflexions, and soft-
ened by a multitude of vowel terminations.' Bolingbroke, Voyage to
Demerary, cited in the Quarterly Review, vol. xliii. p. 653, where speci-
mens are given of a similar niegro corruption of the Dutch language,
in which the inflexions are also obscured. On the change of the
Latin into the Romance language of France, see also Histoire LittS-
raire de la France, vol. vii. avertissement p. 28. And compare Brere-
THE ORIGIN OF THE ROMANCE LANGUAGES. 23
guage, generated from tlie corruption of the Latin, and
differing essentially from its parent, though still retaining
a strong resemblance to it^ 1
It is likewise to be remembered that in contending ■
with the language of the Teutonic invaders, the Latin
enjoyed the advantage which is derived from the posses-
sion of a classical literature and a high cultivation, both .
of grammatical form and rhetorical style ; an advantage
which was wanting to the German language, when the
Goths, Lombards, Vandals, Franks and Burgundians
overran the Western Empire. The maintenance of the
Boman law in its original form, and of the constitution \i
and worship of the Roman church also tended to uphold ^^^
the Latin language, and to preserve it from oblivion. If \
these circumstances had been reversed, if the Germans
with a cultivated language and Hterature, and a code of
laws already written in their native tongue, had overrun
a less civilized people, (which was the case with the Latin,
when brought in collision with the Celtic, Iberian, Etrus-
can, etc.) the probability is, that not even the large
numbers of the native Roman population would have
saved their language from almost total destruction^.
From what has been said, it follows, that the change
wood's Enquiries touching the Diversity of Languages, c. 5. Wachs-
muth's Europdische Sittengeschichte, vol. i. p. 254.
^ The following conceit of an Italian writer cited by Galvani, Osser-
vazioni suite Poesie dei Trovatori, p. 20, correctly expresses the origin
of the modern languages. * La lingua latina . . . della gravidezza
dei Unguaggi barbari partort la nostra volgare, e ne mort a mezzo il
parto.'
* On the difficulty of eradicating a language, particularly a culti-
vated language, with a literature, see Heeren's Essay Ueber die Mittel
zur Erhaltung der Nationalitdt besiegter Volker: HistoriscJie Werke,
vol. ii. p. 17 sqq.
24 ' CHAPTER I.
undergone by the Latin, in consequence of the Teutonic
invasion, was three-fold : viz. — a change of structure^
'affecting the terminations and inflexions of nouns, partici-
ples, and pronouns, and the conjugations of verbs : a
change of syntax^ including the introduction of new idioms ;
and the introduction of numerous foreign terms, relating in
great part to military and political subjects^ On the two
first of these changes, which alone concern the grammar
of the Eomance tongues, I shall hope to be able to give
a satisfactory account in the course of the present work :
the latter, which is a question of etymological research,
scarcely admits of being treated in a connected form,
though a discussion of it might lead to highly interesting
* ' In comparing (says Gibbon, speaking of the Lombard kingdom
in Italy) the proportion of the victorious and vanquished people, the
change of language will aflford the most probable inference. Accord-
ing to this standard it will appear that the Lombards of Italy, and the
Visigoths of Spain, were less numerous than the Franks or Burgun-
dians; and the conquerors of Gaul must yield in their turn to the
multitude of Saxons and Angles, who almost eradicated the idioms of
Britain. The modern Italian has been insensibly formed by the mix-
ture of nations ; the awkwardness of the barbarians in the nice man-
agement of declensions and conjugations reduced them to the use of
articles and auxiliary verbs, and many new ideas have been expressed
by Teutonic appellations. Yet the principal stock of technical and
familiar words is found to be of Latin derivation.' Decline and Fall,
c. 45. This passage appears to me to contain a just view of the
origin of the Italian : but although the French has departed further
than the Italian or Spanish from the Latin, I am not aware that
it contains a greater number of Teutonic words. Moreover, the con-
fusion and loss of cases gave rise not to the use of articles, but to that
of prepositions, to express the relation previously signified by the in-
flexion. Savigny, Geschichte des Rbmischen Eechts im Mittelalter,
vol. i. c. 3, p. 181 — 2, infers from the difference of the legal relations,
that in Northern France the Franks settled in large numbers, and
expelled the chief part of the natives, while in Southern France their
number was smaller, and most of the Romans were spared.
THE ORIGIN OF THE ROMANCE LANGUAGES. 25
results, as regards the liistory both of nations and lan-
guages^
By this change the Latin language of Western Europe
passed from the synthetic to the analytic class : that is to
say, instead of declining nouns and conjugating verbs by
the inflexion of their terminations, it resolved the ideas
into their component parts, and expressed them by means
of prepositions and of participles with auxiliary verbs :
as will be explained in detail when we come to examine
those parts of speech. It has been supposed by some
writers that this grammatical system was transferred
from the Teutonic to the Latin language ; and that the
Germans, accustomed to analytical forms in their own
tongue, copied them faithfully in the jargon which they
prodticed by literally translating German thoughts into
Latin words. But this hypothesis, though it affords
an easy solution of the problem, is not entirely consistent
with fact. The ancient German or Gothic was un-
doubtedly a synthetic language, like the Greek ; and at
the time when the Teutonic tribes settled over the
Western Empire, it had as yet made but little progress to
the adoption of anal3i;ic fonns. It still used the inflexion
of cases ; it had no indefinite article, and of the definite
article it made little use ; nor does it exhibit more than
the rudiments of conjugation by auxiliary verbs-. Con-
sequently, although there appear to be some few in-
stances (which will be pointed out hereafter) of German
idioms having been adopted into Romance languages, yet
we must seek some other explanation of the new charac-
ter assumed by the Latin at the time of the German con-
* See note (D.) at the end.
« Schlegel, Observations, p. 19, 21, 34, 87. ,
a6 CHAPTER I.
quest. This explanation is doubtless to be found in tbe
remark of Scblegel, that * when synthetic languages have
at an early period been fixed by books which served
as models, and by a regular instruction, they retained
their form unchanged : but when they have been aban-
doned to themselves, and exposed to the fluctuations of
all human affairs, they have shown a natural tendency to
become analytic, even without having been modified by
the mixture of any foreign language^.' He illustrates
this position by the history of the German language,
* which, not having been fixed by any artificial means till
the beginning of the sixteenth century, had full liberty
to follow its natural course ; and the progress which
it made during that time towards analytical forms, by
losing part of its synthetical forms, is immense^.' It
: cannot be doubted that the natural tendency of language
is to substitute analytical for synthetical forms : but this
principle being admitted, there are two ways of account-
ing for the predominance of the latter in the Romance
languages. One is that adopted by Diez, who, without
going to the same length as Maffei, thinks that the fami-
liar language of the people had adopted a number of
analytical forms, and that the German influence only in-
creased and hastened the disposition to change which
already existed in the popular Latin. And he cites as a
parallel instance the modem German ; which, as the lan-
guage of the educated classes, retains the use of cases ;
while in the mouths of the lower orders the cases
are supplanted, as in Dutch, by a preposition or pronoun^.
But although there might be strong reason, on the
* Schlegel, Observations, p. 18. ' Ibid. p. 19.
, * Poesie der Troubadours, p. 286 — 90.
THE ORIGIN OF THE ROMANCE LANGUAGES. 27
ground of analogy, for accepting this explanation, still
there is no historical evidence in its favour : on the con-
trary, we know that not only compositions meant for
general perusal, but that private letters, such as those of
Cassiodorus, were, either at or immediately after the
settlement of the Goths in Italy, written in a Latin,
which, however impure or inelegant, retains its synthetic
character as strongly as that of Ennius or Lucretius.
Notwithstanding the powerful tendency which may exist
to break down synthetic forms, it may perhaps be con-
jectured with some reason, that as the Latin had a fixed
classical standard, it would have retained its grammatical
character unchanged in Italy, Spain, and France, as it
has in the mouths of the people in some parts of Hun-
gary, if the German invasion had never taken place.
The explanation of Schlegel, that the change produced
in the Latin was purely the efiect of the German con-
quest^, seems therefore preferable. The conquerors, not
understanding the complicated and refined system of in-
* 'Les conquerans barbares (ils adopterent eux-memes ce nom
qu'ils croyoient honorable, puisqu'il signifioit I'oppose de romain)
trouvant dans les pays conquis une population toute latine, ou, selon
I'expression du temps, romaine, furent en effet forces d'apprendre aussi
le latin pour se fatre entendre, mais ils le parloient en general fort
incorrectement ; surtout ils ne savoient pas manier ces inflexions sa-
vantes, sur lesquelles repose toute la construction latine. Les Ro-
mains, c'est-a-dire les habitans des provinces, a force d'entendre mal
parler leur langue, en oubli^rent k leur tx)ur les regies, et imiterent le
jargon de leurs nouveaux maltres. Les desinences variables etant em-
ployees arbitrairement, ne servoient plus qu' a embrouiller les phrases :
on finit done par les supprimer et par tronquerles mots. Voild ce qui
distingrie les dialectes romans, des leur origine, de la latinite mime
la phis herissSe de barbarismes. Mais ces desinences supprimees ser-
voient k marquer d'une maniere tres-sensible la construction des
phrases, et la liaison des idees ; il falloit done y substituer une autre
ZS CHAPTER I.
flexions on whicli the Latin language depended, naturally
sought to express their ideas by the more circuitous but
less artificial method of analysis ; according to which
each phrase is, as it we're, built up of the single ideas
which compose it, instead of their being all expressed by
the modifications of one word. It was in this way that
the Normans mutilated the Anglo-Saxon inflexions, and
produced the modern English ; and that other nations
have, as Sismondi expresses it^, by a mutual compromise
formed a sort of neutral language, which properly belongs
to neither party, but is the language of the one or the
other, deprived of its characteristic forms. By degrees
the Germans, forming a small minority of the entire na-
tion, disused their own language, even among them-
selves^: and the native population, forced to adapt
themselves to the habits and convenience of their
masters, and actuated by the disposition just noticed
to analyse grammatical forms, substituted the several
Romance languages for the ancient Latin.
§ 5. It is natural to suppose that the mode of speech
formed by the process just described would be unsettled
and fluctuating, and would vary in different parts of
• western Europe, according to the greater or less purity
of the Latin spoken by the natives, the different pro-
portions of the natives and invaders, and the different
Teutonic dialects spoken by the latter: while it would
m^thode, et c'est ce qui donna naissance k la grammaire analytique.'
Schlegel, p. 24.
» See above, p. 22, note.
« German, however, was still used in the French court at the end
of the ninth century : Thierry, Lettres sur VHistoire de France, p. 43,
220. See also Schlegel, p. 101 . Bonamy , Mm. de I'Acad. dei Inscrip-
tions, vol. xxiv. p. 657.
THE ORIGIN OF THE ROMANCE LANGUAGES. 29
[ I preserve a general resemblance on account of the simi-
J larity of the causes which produced it. In the mean time
\ the Latin retained its place in literature, in legal instru-
; ments, and in the service of the church, not only on
: account of its superior cultivation, but as being the lan-
; guage of the clergy, who were then the only depositories
of learning. The invaders indeed for some time continued
to use their native tongue : but the mass of the people
or the Romans (as the subjects of the empire were called,
in Gaul, Spain, and Italy 1), spoke a mixed dialect, which
(as distinguished both from the Latin and Teutonic) was
thence called lingua Momana, and from being the lan-
' Ducange in harharus and Romani shows that Roman was a gene-
ral name of Roman provincials as opposed to the barbarians. Galvani,
Osserv. sulla Poesia dei Trov. p. 433-7, has some remarks on the op-
position of the Roman and Latin. The title of king of. the Romans
was even applied to the head of the Gothic kingdom in Spain by an
Arabian historian (Gibbon, c. 51, vol. vi. p. 478), in the same way
that the Anglo-Saxons and Normans of England are called Britons;
and that Machiavelli, in his Discourses on Livy, speaks of the taking
of Rome by the French. See also Sismondi, Lift, du Midi. tom. i. p.
260, ed. 3. Perticari, Difesa di Dante, c. 12, says, that the ' lingua
romana' was * veramente degnissima di tal nome ; perche in Roma h
ancora parlata quasi interamente, dopo il giro di HOC anni.' The in-
habitants of Gaul and Spain however were probably quite ignorant
what language was spoken at Rome, when they called their vulgar
tongue the lingua Romana rustica. Smollett, above quoted, p. 6*,
says that it was called Romance from its great affinity to the Latin ;
which comes nearer to the truth. The right explanation is also given
by Wachsmuth, Athenaum, vol. L p. 301. After speaking of the
Lingua Romana rustica he says : * The origin of the appellation
Romana appears to have been, that the inhabitants remembering that
they had been from an early period distinguished from the Germans
by their language, thought less of pure Latinity than of the political
dominion of the Roman people : whence it arose that the natives, as
opposed to the Germans, were called Romani, (Menage, Orig. de la
Langue Fr. in Rom^an,) and France itself had the epithet Romana,
(Liutprand, L I. Franciam quam Romanam vocant.) '
30 CHAPTER I.
guage of the rural population, lingua rustica Romana, or
simply lingua rustica. This was a general term for aU
the varieties of language formed by the union of the
Teutonic and Latin^ The language used by Lewis the
Germanic in the oath of 842, and by Charles king of
France in the treaty of 860, is called lingua Romana^,
In the acts of the council of Tours, a.d. 813, the bishops
are warned, * ut — homilias quisque aperte transferre
studeat in rusticam Eomanam linguam aut Theotiscam,
quo facilius cuncti possint intelligere quae dicuntur/ A
monk of Bobbio who wrote an account of the miracles
of St. Columbanus about 950 a.d., describes a mountain
near Bobbio thus, * Alter vero qui est ad laevam nuncu-
patur rustica lingua Groppo altum,' i. e. G-roppo alto^.
The modern language spoken in Italy seems not to have
been called lingua Romana in the middle ages, but to
have been usually known by the name of lingua vulgaris
or volgare"^, as opposed to the lingua erudita, the Latin :
numerous instances however occur where that name is
applied to tbe languages of France and Spain, to the
* See Schlegel, p. 40. Daunou, Journal des Savans, 1823, p. 89.
* Kaynouard, vol. ii. p. 2, 3. Thierry, Lettres sur VHistoire de
France, p. 204-6. Kochefort, Glossaire de la Langue Romane, vol. i. p.
XX. xxi. Muratori, Diss. 32, citing Baluz. Capit. vol. ii, p. 144.
^ These passages are cited by Muratori, Diss. 32.
* See Muratori, Diss. 32, vol. ii. p. 1019, D. Learned writers at
a later period have however given the name of romanzo to the Italian :
Eaynouard, Gr. Comp. p. 374. In the following extract from the Tre-
8or of Brunetto, Dante's master, it seems tliat, ' Romance after the
manner of France,' is equivalent to 'French.' 'Et se aucuns de-
mandoit pourquoi chis livre est ecris en roumana selon la raison de
France, pour chou que nous sommes Italien, je diroie que c'est pour
chou que nous sommes en France ; I'autre pour chou que la parleure
en est plus delitable et plus commune a toutes gens.' Cited in Gin-
guen6, Uist. Litt, d' Italic, vol. i. p. 369.
THE ORIGIN OF THE ROMANCE LANGUAGES. 3 1
Provencal, the Frencli, the Spanish, and the Portuguese^
This community of appellation does not afford any rea-
son for supposing that the corruptions of the Latin in
the different parts of western Europe were identical:
there was a sufficient resemblance in their character, in
the circumstances under which they had arisen, and in
the classes of persons by whom they were spoken, to
warrant their being included under a common name, in
spite of minor differences. At the same time it cannot
be doubted that the differences between them were not at
first so great as they are now, and that in their early
youth the children more resembled their common parent
and one another^ : as the English and Scotch, which were
formed independently under the same circumstances have
a closer resemblance both in words and structure, the
nearer they approach their respective sources'*. This is
particularly seen in the French language, which formerly
used the masculine and feminine terminations in o and a,
since modified into e, as in the article lo for /e, Cellas,
* See Ducange in Lingua Romana, romancier, romanitas, romane,
romanire, roraanum, romancium, romantium. Muratori, Diss. 32.
Raynouard, Gr. Covip. p. 371-4. The modern Latin laugufiges of
"VValachia and Switzerland, although they have departed widely from
the original type, are called in those countries by the name of Ro-
mance, viz. Unguaig romansch or rumonsch, and limba romanesca. See
Diefenbach, Ueber die Eomanischen Schriftsprachen, (Leipzig, 1831,)
p. 2L
2 ' Naturam enim ac genium linguarura considerans, quae sensim
mutationem patiuntur, veri simile reor, Italici popuH liuguam, quo
propius accessit ad fontes sive ad saecula latinitatis eo minus Lum verbis
tum modis dicendi a Latina matre potissimum sua dissensis.se.' Mu-
ratori, vol. ii. p. 1037, C.
3 Willan, in Archceologia, vol. xvii. p. 164. On the independent
origin of the Southern English and Scotch, see Jamieson, Dissertation
on the Origin of the Scottish Language, p. 24, 25 (prefixed to his
Dictionary),
32 CHAPTER I.
Fontanas, Ferrerias, names of places, afterwards changed
into OeUeSf Fontaines, Ferrieres^. The affinity indeed
was so great that a person who spoke the vulgar Roman
dialect would probably have been able to make himself
understood in any part of western Europe : as we find
it narrated by a monkish writer that in the reign of
Charlemagne an Italian priest, who happened to meet a
Spanish pilgrim in Germany, understood the conversation
of the Spaniard as being an Italian'^ ; whence it is evi-
dent that the Italian and Spanish were not then so
* See Raynouard, Gr. Comp. p. xii. Diez, Poesie der Troub. p. 325.
The final a has in French passed into the e muet, as 7nusa, muse,
domina, dame, etc. In la however (which in old French was some-
times made le, Rayn. in J. des S. 1820, p. 199) ma, ta, and sa, it was
retained. On le for la, see Orel!, ibid. p. 7 — 9.
' Mabillon, Act. SS. Bened. sec. 3, Part II. p. 258, coiTectly ex-
plained by Raynouard, vol. i. Introd. p. xvi. Gr. Comp. xxix. and
after him by Perticari, vol. i. p. 805. The remarks of the critic of
Perticari, in the Florence Antologia, No. III. p. 350, tliat perhaps the
pilgrim could talk Italian, or the monk understand Spanish, are un-
tenable ; for it is distinctly said that the priest, as being an Italian,
understood the language of the Spaniard ('quoniam lingua; ejus, eo
quod esset Italus, uotitiam habebat :') plainly implying that he under-
stood it, not as having learned it, but in his character of an Italian.
Schlegel, p. 50, remarks that this statement affords no proof of the
identity of the languages then spoken in Italy and Spain, as even now
an Italian and Spaniard understand one another tolerably without an
interpreter. The general resemblance of these two languages is in-
deed so great, that a Venetian writer of the sixteenth century, intro-
duced into a drama a Spanish character speaking his native language :
thus putting the Spanish on the same footing with an Italian dialetto.
See Gamba, Serie degli Scritti Impressi in Dialetto Veneziano (Venice,
1832), p. 75. Mr. Planta, in his Paper on the Romansh Language,
says, that he had heard it stated as a fact, that two Catalonians travel-
ling in the Grisons, found to their surprise ' that their native tongue
was understood by the inhabitants, and that they could comprehend
most of the language of the country.' Philos. Transactions, vol. 65,
p. 154.
THE ORIGIN OP THE ROMANCE LANGUAGES. 33
different as not to be mutually intelligible to natives of
both countries. As has been already observed, M. Ray-
nouard does not adopt the absurd fancy that the Romance
or the Italian existed as the language of the lower orders
of ancient Italy, in a shape little different from that
which they bore in the thirteenth century : his theory is^
that the Latin, by the influence of the Germans, was
corrupted into an uniform language, called the Romance^
spoken for some centuries, and at least as late as the reign,
of Charlemagne, over the whole of western Europe : that
this language is preserved unchanged in the Troubadour
poetry and the early literature of Provence : and that it
was gradually modified into the Italian, Spanish, Por-
tuguese, French, modem Provencal and their various
dialects, all of which he believes to have been derived
indirectly indeed from the Latin, but directly from the
Romance, and to have retained with different degrees of
fidehty the forms of that language.
On the first statement of this hypothesis, it is obvious
to enquire in what manner M. Rajmouard understands]
that an uniform language arose on the ruins of the Latin.
Languages may be diffused by colonisation or conquest ;
as the Greek was propagated in Asia Minor, Africa,
Italy, Sicily, and Gaul ; as the Latin in Gaul and Spain ;
as the Spanish and English in North and South America
and the West Indies ; but where were the conquests or
the colonies of the Provencals? Or does he suppose
that the Romance was diffused from Provence by the
influence of the Troubadour literature ? Nations how-
ever do not learn languages from poets, least of all from
foreign poets ; and some other cause must be found for
the propagation of the Provencal language than the fame
34 CHAPTER I.
of the Proven9al minstrels^. If on the other hand,
M. Raynouard does not suppose that the Romance was
diffused from Provence as from a centre, he must con-
ceive that the Romans over the chief part of Italy,
Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica, Gaul, and Spain, when invaded
at different periods hy different Teutonic races, agreed
without communication to corrupt the Latin into the
self-same language; but unless he here calls in the
assistance of a miracle, and supposes that as at Babel
the tongues were confounded, so after the invasion of the
Germans they were made uniform, it is difficult to under-
stand how he accounts for such a prodigy. If he means
that the Romance was spread over western Europe from
a common centre^, he is contradicted by history, which
]?ecords no movements of population capable of bring-
ing about this effect ; if he means that accidentally
all the natives of Italy, Gaul, and Spain, coincided in
forming one and the same new language, he supposes
an agreement to which no parallel can be furnished, and
/which is utterly incredible.
g 6. The proofs of the original coincidence of the
modem Romance languages with the Provencal, which
M. Rayuouard collects with great industry and learning,
and which will be presently examined in detail, are of two
kinds. 1. Words and forms in which the Italian,
* Muratori, Diss. 33, says, that the few words which came from
Provence into Italy, were indeed used by some writers, but not adopted
by the people. On the small influence of literature on the language of
the lower orders, see PhiloU Museum, vol. ii. p. 248.
' It would seem that this is M. Kaynouard's meaning, as in the
Journal des Savans, 1839, p. 672, he states, that nessuno was received
into the Italian from the Trouv^res, that adesso, was taken from ades
as used by the Troubadours and Trouveres.
J THE ORIGIN OF THE ROMANCE LAl^UAG^Sl / ,35
Spanisli, and French agree with the Provencal,- hut in '*
which the Provencal agrees with the Latin. 2. Words ^^^
and forms in which the Itahan, Spanish, and French
agree with the Provengal, bdt in which the Provencal
disagrees with the Latin. Of these two kinds of proofs,
the first is obviously open to the following objection.
Everybody admits that the ItaHan, Spanish, Provencal,
and French, were derived from the Latin: M. Ray-
nouard's position is that the Proven9al, under the name
of the Romance, was intermediate between the Latin
and the other modem languages. Now in order to sup-
port this assertion, it behoves him to show forms in
those languages which can only be accounted for on the
supposition of such an intermediate language, and could
not have been directly derived from the Latin. Instead
of confining himself to this species of proof, he often
alleges forms in Italian, Spanish and French, which he
derives from the Provencal, but which may just as well
be referred to the Latin, and by no means necessitate
the hjrpothesis of a transition language. Whenever the
Proven9al form is not a necessary condition for the exist-
ence of the Italian, Spanish, or French form, the coin-
cidence of the two goes for nothing in proof of the
interposition of the Proven9al between the Latin and
the modem language, or at most is only consistent with
it. M. Raynouard might have put his argument in this
shape : part of the Italian, Spanish, and French lan-
guages can only be accounted for on the supposition of
the Provenpal having succeeded the Latin ; the other
part, though consistent with the supposition that those
languages immediately succeeded the Latin, is equally
consistent with the supposition that they did not imme-
J)2
36 CHAPTER I.
diately succeed it. Without making this distinction^
M. Raynouard is liable to the objection that a large part
of his proofs are good for nothing, which may induce an
inconsiderate reader to condemn the whole because the
majority are untenable. He himself clearly points out
this distinction in some passages of his treatise, which
will be hereafter noticed^ : nevertheless he has not kept
it constantly in view, and has often alleged in proof of
the derivation of the modem Latin languages from the
Provenpal, facts which can be equally well accounted for
on the supposition of their being all parallel languages
derived from a common source.
The second class of proofs above mentioned refers to
words, forms, and idioms, in which all the modern lan-
guages differ from the Latin ; such as, the use of articles,
and the disuse of cases, the formation of nouns from the
accusative of Latin nouns of the third declension, the
use of affirmative expletives, which afterwards became
negative, as the derivatives of •mica, res, passus^ etc. ; the
introduction of foreign words, as the adverb tosto, tost,
quick ; the derivatives of the German herberge, frisch,
reich, mark, helm, fein, lassen, and many others which
occur in all the Romance languages*. The argument
founded on these facts is, however, one which may as
well be employed against M. Raynouard's theory as in
its support : for why does the agreement of the Pro-
ven5al with the Italian, Spanish, or French, in forms or
words not traceable to the Latin, prove that the latter
languages borrowed them from the Proven9al rather
» Gram. Comp. p. 70, 265.
' See note (D.) at the end.
THE OKIGIN OF THE ROMANCE LANGUAGES. 37
ttaii the converse ? All we know is, tliat the Latin'
disappeared as a living language from western Europe
soon after the sixth century, and that a new form of
speech was substituted in its place ; which, as far as we
can learn from the earliest monuments of it, had a dif-
ferent character in Spain, in Italy, in Northern and in
Southern France : in these several Latin dialects we find
numerous forms, idioms, and words, not borrowed from
the Latin, but corresponding or identical with one
another. On what ground are we to conclude, from
the mere fact of agreement and apart from historical
evidence, that one of these dialects in particular made
the innovations in question, and afterwards communi-
cated them to the others? The Proven9al may have
had a literature and a standard of composition before
the others, but there is no reason to suppose that as
a language it existed before them^. No error indeed has
been more frequent among speculators in language, nor
is there any which it requires greater vigilance to avoid,
than the confusion of cognate with affiliated languages.
"Where we see in two languages corresponding forms or
words, nothing is easier, or apparently safer, than to
derive one from the other. Thus if we find that thej
Greeks said l3ovs, Fovvo^, FoIkos, ^aw, Xeyw, that the
* Specimens of Italian forma, chiefly names of places, occuning in
documents of the eighth and following centuries, are collected in Mu-
ratori, Diss. 32. The language of the notaries, which, as Muratori
has shown, was evidently not a spoken language, is an unquestionable
proof of the disuse of the Latin soon after the invasion of Italy, Spain,
and Gaul. Schlegel, p. 5, calls the Provencal the eldest daughter of
the Latin : an assumption for which there appears to me to be no
ground, if it means that the Provencal existed as a spoken language
before the other Eomance tongues.
38 CHAPTER I.
Romans said hos, vinum, vicus, faor, lego : it is imme-
diately concluded that the latter were borrowed from the
former : and a Latin lexicographer would think that he
had not performed his duty unless he had duly registered
the Greek as the originals of the Latin words. In like
manner a German et5miologist will inform his readers
that werh is derived from Fipyov, and wein from Folvo^.
But what evidence have we that these words were not
separately derived from a common source ; and that the
Latins might not have used vinvm and has, the Germans
werh and wein, if the natives of Greece had never de-
veloped their language, and had been crushed in their
germ by a barbarous immigration ? It is on this mis-
taken principle, that Dr. Johnson has arranged the
etymological part (which however he chiefly borrowed
from others) of his English dictionary. Whenever he
is at a loss for an etymology, he sets down the corre-
sponding word in Dutch or German, or he derives an
English from a German word^ ; and sometimes he even
makes a parallel increased form the origin of the English
word*^ : as if we had not only borrowed our radical words,
but even our formations from our neighbours ! In kin-
dred languages derived from a common stock, there is
always a correspondence both of roots and formations ;
more or less close, according to the length of time since
• * From are, an eagle, I beKeve our word eyrie derived ; Johnson
derived it from ei, an e^^, properly ey, German : but I do not believe
there is a word in the English language, (unless very modem,) of
German origin .... The words which we have in common with the
Germans are not borrowed from them, but drawn from a higher source.'
Herbert's Icelandic Poetry, p. 121, note.
* For instance, he derives the word manikin from mannilten Dutch.
See FUL Mus, vol. i. p. 680.
r
THE ORIGIN OF THE EOMANCE LANGUAGES. 39
they parted from the parent-stem, and tlie various dis-
turbing causes to which both or either have since that
divergence been exposed. It is therefore of no avail, in '
proof of a derivation or dependence, to show a scheme
of parallel forms, idioms, and words, in several lan-
guages : they may have arisen from a common source
under similar circumstances; and we may be led to
mistake for cause and effect, what in truth are only
similar effects of the same cause. Now such, as I con-
ceive, is the case of the Romance languages : they all
owed their origin to the same cause, viz. the permanent
subjugation by Teutonic races of a people speaking
Latin; and there is nothing in their character which
cannot be explained without supposing a nearer affinity.
They have just the amount of resemblance which might
have been expected in languages derived from the same
original, and just the amount of difference which might
have been expected in languages formed under similar
circumstances independently of each other :
Facies non omnibns una,
Neo diversa tamen, qualem decet esse sororum.
A comparison of the analogous forms in cognate lan-
guages is calculated to throw light both on their relation
to each other, and on the causes to which their affinity is
owing : as the sculpture of the Greeks may be illustrated
by comparing it with their poetry, and their poetry by
comparing it with their sculpture. The mistake too
often committed with respect to languages consists, not
in comparing them, but in making a wrong use of the
comparison, by discovering parentage where there is only
fraternity ; as any one would err who should derive the
40 CHAPTER I,
sculpture of tlie Greeks from their poetry, or their poetry
from their sculpture ; the truth being that they are both
the products of the national taste and genius of that
people, which they serve in common to illustrate.
M. Baynouard, in answer to some remarks of Schlegel
on the independent origin of the Romance languages,
says that ' if each nation had formed its language sepa-
rately, doubtless one of those languages would have pre-
sented several essential and indispensable forms which
the other languages would have wanted, such for instance
as the use of a passive voice, as in Latin^' This ex-
ample is unhappily chosen. There is no part of the
Latin language which was more likely to disappear
im.der the Grerman influence than the formation of a
passive voice by inflexion. The Germans themselves
made the passive by means of auxihary verbs; and
would therefore according to their way of speaking
Latin doubtless imitate their own idiom. The passive
voice of the Latin verb had already degenerated from
its original model, and the Greek system of inflexion
had been much encroached upon by the formation of
some tenses with auxiliary verbs introduced by a foreign
influence at some early period of the Latin language*.
The inflexions of the Latin are precisely that part of it
, which was mutilated by the German influence ; and
' there is only one instance in which any trace of them
1 ' Si chaque peuple avait composS son idiome isol^ment, sans doute
quelqu'un de ces ididmes eut offert plusieurs formes essentielles et in-
dispensables qui ne se fussent pas trouv6es dans les autres idi6mes,
telles par exemple que de conserver un paseif ainsi que les Latins,' etc.
Journal des Savans, 1818, p. 591.
3 See above, p. 10*. Miiller's Etnisker, vol. i p. 23. Philol. Mus.
vpl. i. p. 669.
THE OKIGIN OP THE ROMANCE LANGUAGES. 4I
has been preserved. But in this instance, viz. the re-
tention of the nominative and accusative cases, all the
languages do not agree ; for we find that while this
inflexion was preserved in the languages of oc and oU,
there is no trace of its having ever existed in ItaKan
and Spanish^. This therefore is an example, in respect
of a rule which M. Raynouard himself calls funda-
mental, of the occurrence of an essential form in some
of those languages which is absent in others.
When we come to the detailed examination of the
corresponding forms in the E-omance languages, it will be
shown that there are many traces of the Latia preserved
in the Italian and Spanish which have been lost in
the Provencal ; and consequently could not have been
preserved in those languages if they had been derived
from the latter in which those features of the model had
been obliterated. There are however other difficulties of
a more general nature to which M. Raynouard's theory
gives rise, and of which it affords no explanation. If the
Romance of the Troubadours was once the universal lan-
guage of western Europe, which was afterwards modified
into distinct dialects ; there appears to be no reason why
any one of these dialects should be more like it than
another. Now there is no doubt, and it is distinctly ad-
mitted by M. Raynouard^, that the modem Provencal
» See below, ch. 2, § 2.
* ' n (I'idiome proveii<?al) a pen varie deptds les troubadours ' : says
M. Raynouard, in the Journal des Sav. 1818, p. 589. See him also in
Journal des Sav. 1824, p. 92 — 7, in a review of a dictionary of the
Limousin patois, and ibid. p. 174 — 80, in a review of a Languedocian
dictionary. In p. 96, he points out some words in Low Limousin
which occur in the language of the Troubadours, and not in the other
Bomance languages.
42 CHAPTER I.
has a far closer resemblance than any other modem lan-
guage to the Romance of the Troubadour poetry : espe-
cially if we take specimens of that language as it existed
about the eleventh century^, at which time the ItaKan
and Spanish had been completely fixed in their present
form. But if the Romance, as used by the early Pro-
ven9al poets, was once the language of Italy and Spain,
there is no reason why the Italian and Spanish should
have departed from it so much more widely than the mo-
dern Proven9al. It seems far more natural to suppose
that the Troubadours wrote in the language of their
country, the langue d'ocy which was from the beginning
distinct from the Italian, and the Spanish, and the langue
d^oily (although it resembled the latter much more closely
than the others,) and that the modem Provencal has
arisen from the natural development of it, in the same
way that the mod^m French has been developed from
the language of Yillehardouin and the Trouveres.
Another important fact, directly opposed to the theory
of an universal Romance language, is the vast number of
modem Romance dialects which prevail in France, Spain,
Switzerland, the Tyrol, Italy, and the neighbouring
islands. The patois of the langue d^oil in Northern
France and Flanders^ : of the langue d*oc in Southern
* See a relation of the arrival of Charles, Duke of Savoy, at Nice, in
1488, in the langue vulgaire, published in Durante, Histoire de Nice^
vol. ii. p. 182—4, (Turin, 1823.)
2 Champollion-Fig^ac in Balbi's Atlas Ethnogr. du Globe, tab. 12,
enumerates the following dialects of the French. 1. Picard. 9.
Flemish. 3. Norman. 4. Walloon or Kouchi: spoken in Picardy,
Normandy, French and Dutch Flanders, and the Dutch provinces of
Namur and Liege. 5. French Breton. 6. Champenois. 7. Lorrain
and Bourgnignon. 8. Franc-comtois. 9. Neufch&telois. 10. Or-
r
THE ORIGIN OF THE ROMANCE LANGUAGES. 43
France, Savoy, Piedmont, the Grisons, and the county of
Mce, are very numerous, and are distinguished by im-
portant differences^. In Spain there are the dialects of
I Leon, the Asturias, Aragon, Andalusia, Murcia, Galicia,
Catalonia, and Valencia : the two latter of which, as well
I as the language of the Balearic islands^, resemble the
langue d'oc more than the Castilian or written Spanish^.
The islands of Corsica and Sardinia appear to possess na-
tive dialects different from any other Romance tongue*.
\ In Italy not only are the languages of the northern and
16anais. 11. Angloin. 12. Manceau : spoken in a part of Britany,
in Champagne, Lorraine, a part of Burgundy, in Franche comt6, the
Swiss canton of Neufchatel, the Orleanese, Anjou, and Maine. See
also Raynouard, Journal des Sav. 1818, p. 282. Melanges sur lea
Langues, (Paris, 1831,) where numerous specimens of the different
French patois are collected, and Adelung's Mithridates, vol. ii. p. 578
— 97. [Compare Burguy, Grammaire de la Langue d'Oil (Berlin, 1853),
vol. i. p. 14.]
* There are several dictionaries of different dialects of the langue
d'oc: two are mentioned above, p. 41^. There are also two dic-
tionaries of the Eastern Provenijal, published in the last century, and
a more recent work published at Marseilles in a cheap form. There
are likewise a few books in the same language; particularly some
V poems by M. Diouloufet of Aix, and a poem in the Nice dialect, (which
partakes more of the Genoese,) by M. Ranchez of Nice. A curious
specimen of the popular Provencal may be seen in Mr. Hayward's
Translation of Faust, p. 286, ed. 2.
* Bastero, Crusca ProvemaU, p. 21, quoted by Diez, p. 5.
3 On the relation of the Valencian and Catalonian to the Provencal,
see Eaynouard, vol. i. Intro, p. xiii. ; Gr. Comp. p. xxxviii. In the
Universities of Vicenza and Vercelli, the schools were divided into four
universities of nations, as follows. 1. French, English and Normans.
2. Italians. 3. Provencals, Spanish, and Catalans. 4. Germans.
Savigny, Gesch. des E. R. c. 21. On the Catalonian language and
literature, see Jaubert de Passa, Recherches Historiques sur la Langue
Catalane, in Melanges sur les Langues, p. 297 — 431.
^ Diefenbach, Ueher die Jetzigen Romanischen SchriftspracTien, p. 21,
(Leipzig, 1831,) states that he was informed by a Sardinian of good
44 CHAPTER I.
southern districts distinguished from each other by cer-
tain broad marks of difference, but almost every town
which was once independent has a dialect of its own,
'differing from the common or written ItaHan, both in its
inflexions and its terms^. Muratori says, that there is
scarcely a city of Italy which is not distinguished from
others by its pronunciation, the sound of its accents, the
terminations of its words, and its peculiar terms. Much
more does the dialect of one province differ from that of
another ; sometimes there is such a difference that even
the Italians of other provinces, although they speak the
common language, can with difficulty understand each
other^. How are diversities of this kind to be reconciled
with the theory of an uniform language, formed on the
ruins of the Latin ? Is it to be supposed that these
irregularities and discordancies grew up spontaneously in
authority that, * hesides the language of foreign introduction, the Cata-
lonian and Italian, there are in Sardinia three Romance dialects, one
verging towards the Spanish, another towards the south Italian, the
third still a kind of Romana nistica closely resembling the ancient
Latin both in forms and words. This latter is still spoken in about
twenty-four villages in the interior of the country.' See Adelung's
Mithridates, vol. ii. p. 528 — 34. Niebuhr, vol. i. p. 144, says, that
* specimens of the Sardinian language from the civilized districts ex-
hibit peculiarities which are more than varieties of dialect, and indi-
cate a Romance language of a distinct kind.'
* The literature of the ItaHan dialects is very rich, and there are
few of any importance (except that of Genoa,) which have not their
dictionary. Thus dictionaries have been published of the Sicilian,
Neapolitan, Venetian, Bolognese, Ferrarese, Veronese, Mantuan, Bres-
cian, Bergamasque, Milanese, and Piedmontese dialects. See Ade-
lung's Mithridates, \o\. ii. p. 496 — 628; [and concerning the dialects of
northern Italy with consonant terminations, Biondelli, Saggio del
Dialetti Oallo-Italici, 2 vols. 8vo. Milan, 1863.]
« Dissert. 32, vol. ii. p. 1038, A. See also Denina, Observations sur
let Dialectes, particulierement sur ceux d'ltalie. M^moires de I'Acad^.
THE ORIGIN OF THE BOMANCE LANGUAGES. 45
the midst of an universal Roman language, as the multi-
farious CKristian sects arose out of the bosom of the
universal Eoman Church ? Such a hypothesis would
be directly opposed to aU experience. The progress of
language is to widen the dominion of prevailing analo-
gies; to enlarge rules, and to diminish anomaHes: to
root out what is local, partial, and pecuHar : to carry the
speech of the towns into the country : to abolish provin-
cialisms : and to spread the language of literature and of
educated persons in the place of dialects less cultivated
and less generally imderstood. Thus the EngHsh gra-
dually encroaches on the Welsh, along the borders of
Wales; thus the Gaelic and Irish are slowly giving way
in Scotland' and Ireland^, and the Cornish language,
though spoken in the memory pf Hving persons, has been
completely extirpated in Cornwall. The diffusion of the
Latin over Italy, in the place of the Etruscan, the Oscan,
the Umbrian, the Ligurian, and other native dialects, has
been already noticed. Much easier however is this pro-
cess when the inferior dialect is threatened by a language
mie de Berlin, 1797. Classe des Belles Lettres, p. 64 — 90, and Baretti's
Account of Italy, vol. ii. c. 30. There is also the Romance language of
Walachia, on the origin of which see the Wiener Jahrhucher, voL 46,
p. 77 — 88. [Diez, Rom. Gramm. vol. i. p. 89.]
1 Johnson, Journey to the Hebridet, p. 277, speaking of the High-
landers, says, ' Of what they had before the late conquest of their
country, there remain only their language and their poverty. Their
language is attacked on every side. Schools are erected, in which
English only is taught, and there were lately some who thought it rea-
sonable to refuse them a version of the holy Scriptures, that they
might have no monument of their mother tongue.' See also note (E.)
at the end.
2 On the measures taken by the government to diflfuse the English
and to extinguish the Irish language in Ireland, see Anderson, Histori-
cal Sketches 0/ the Native Irish, sect. 3.
46 CHAPTER I.
of the same family ; as was the case with the propagation
of the Attic Greek in the age of Philip and Alexander ;
and such is the case with the French, the ItaHan, and
the Spanish, as they come in contact with the dialects
spoken in the countries where they are the ruhng lan-
^guages^. As the progress of civilization is to destroy
local usages and laws, to hreak down distinctions hoth
of place and rank, and to fuse large hodies of men into
an uniform and compact whole ; so the progress of lan-
guage is to substitute one polished idiom in the place of
numerous uncultivated dialects. In supposing, there-
fore, that the multiplicity of Eomance dialects which
now prevail over western Europe, were capricious aber-
rations from a single type, as established after the dis-
turbance of the German invasion, and that their differ-
ence, having once been almost imperceptible, became such
as we now see it^, M. Baynouard makes a supposition at
* Mr. Marshall, in explaining his refisons for making a collection of
the Provincialisms of Yorkshire, has a remark which appHes to this
subject. * Finding (he says) in this particular instance, a declining
language which is unknown to the public, but which, it is highly pro-
bable, contains more ample remains of the ancient language of the
central parts of this island, than any other which is now spoken, I was
willing to do my best endeavour towards arresting it in its present
form, before the general blaze of fashion and refinement, which has al-
ready spread its dawn even over this secluded district, shall have buried
it irretrievably in obscurity.' Rural Economy of Yorkshire, vol. ii.
p. 302.
* ' Anche senza prova di fatto la ragione fa congetturare, ch' essen-
dovi fra gli antichi Italiani minor cultura e minor commercio, la diffe-
renza tra le loro favelle dovea essere maggiore di quella che d ai nostri
tempi.' Niccolini, DUcorso, etc. p. 22, note. See also Lanzi, vol. i.
p. 34. ' The little connection there is in mountainous countries be-
tween the inhabitants of the difierent vallies, and the absolute inde-
pendence of each jurisdiction in this district, which still lessens the
frequency of their intercourse, also accounts in a great measure for the
THE ORIGIN OF THE ROMANCE LANGUAGES. 47
variance with, all analogy, and represents the stream of
language as flowing back upon its source.
Perticari attempts to get rid of tliis difficulty by say-
ing, that as the empire of Chariemagne was partitioned,
so the common Romance language was dfvided into dia-
lects, as languages follow the government^. But if lan-
guages follow the government, how came the universal
Romance language to be formed ? When the East and
West Goths, the Lombards, Burgundians, and Franks,
had separate and independent empires, how could an uni-
form language arise through their influence? And if
each of these several states had a peculiar dialect, it
surely will not be contended that Charlemagne by uniting
them into one empire, could during his lifetime have re-
moved all these varieties, and established a common mode
of speech. There is scarcely any change which requires''
more time than a change of language. Obedience to
foreign laws may be enforced after the loss of a battle :
outward observance of a new religion may in a short
time be brought about by persecution or conquest ; but
no terror can inculcate the use of a new language, even
if there were any motive for introducing it : for its use
does not depend on the mere desire to use it, but is the
result of early and long-continued habit. All explana-
variety of secondary dialects subsisting in almost every different com-
munity or even village : ' says Mr. Planta, Philos. Transactions,
vol. Ixvi. p. 144, speaking of the Romance of the Grisons.
* ' Ma intanto quella lingua, che prima era una, si divise in molte :
perciocchd le lingue seguono le condizioni de' govemi. E come per la
novit^ de' feudi e de' baronaggi quel francese imperio si squarcio a
brani cos! il comune romano anch'esso fu partito nel Limosino, nel
Provenzale, nell* Italico, nel Vallone, nel Catalano, ed in altri.' Perti-
cari, Difesa di Dante, c. 11.
48 CHAPTER I.
tions therefore which suppose sudden and extensive revo-
lutions of language produced by the mere influence of
government, unassisted by the mixture of population, are
Jiable to strong objections^ It would moreover be easy
to show that the Eomance dialects have not always fol-
owed the government ; for instance, the French of Dutch
Flanders has existed not in consequence but in spite of
the government. If Perticari had said that the Romance
languages followed the original government, that is, the
number and influence of the German invaders, who
first occupied the country when its inhabitants spoke
Latin, he probably would have been much nearer the
truth.
Nevertheless, when it is said that the natural course of
things is, that difierences of dialects are softened down ;
it is necessary to distinguish between changes arising
from the natural development of a language, and from
the introduction of new or foreign words, and those
caused by the fresh creation of separate forms and analo-
gies, so as to give rise to a new dialect. If there is
a nation speaking the same language, which by colonisa-
1 As to the small influence of government in producing changes of
language, see Prichard on the Eastern Origin of the Celtic Nations,
p. 8. • The pertinacious adherence of mankind to their mother tongue,
(says Mr. Anderson, in his work on the Irish language,) might he veri-
fied by a number of remarkable proofs. *' It is a curious fact, (says a
■writer in the Statistical Account of Scotland, vol. xx. p. 490,) that the
hills of King's seat and Craigy Bams, which form the lower boundary of
Dowally (parish in Perthshire) have been for centuries the separatory
barrier of the English and Gaelic. In the first house below them, the
English is and has been spoken, and the Gaelic in the first house, not
above a mile distant, above them." In diflerent parts of Ireland some-
thing similar to this will be found. It is said, that on crossing
the river Barrow, a very striking difierence is observable; on the
eastern bank, English is spoken, and Irish scarcely known ; a little
I
THE ORIGIN OF THE ROMANCE LANGUAGES. 49
tion or conquest forms two new societies, the languages of
those three nations, which at first were identical, will be-
come continually more and more unlike one another, and
their common stock, in proportion as the time elapsed
since their separation increases. Analogies which one
nation will extend, another will narrow or even disuse :
in one language the exception will supplant the rule, in
another the rule will swallow up all exceptions : different
words will be contracted ; different contractions will be
used : different modes of forming new derivatives will be
followed ; accidents of literature, taste, form of govern-
ment, manners, foreign influence and intercourse, will
variously affect the growth of the respective languages of
each nation. Thus the Portuguese of Brazil has become_^
in many respects different from that of the mother
country, chiefly by the introduction of many new words^ :
and the language of the North American states would,
within no short time, have differed widely from that of
England, in using many peculiar idioms, in introducing
new words, and attaching different senses to the same
words, (the grammatical forms and syntax remaining
indeed the same ;) if the frequent and rapid communica-
tion between the two countries, and the mutual influence
of their literature had not kept up an uniform standard
of composition. In like manner I conceive that the^
Itahan and Spanish, and the languages of oc and oil,
being together with their dialects formed independently
by the German working on the Latin, had in their origin
fundamental differences, but still bore a strong likeness to \
way interior it is quite the reverse.' Hist. Sketches of the Native
Irish, p. 195.
» See Balbi, Atlas Ethnogn
50 CHAPTER I.
each other : as years rolled on, each language assumed
a more peculiar form by dealing differently with the
wreck which it had saved from the Latin : by altering
more or less the original forms, and by following different
principles of inflexion. In this respect languages are
like human beings : the older they become, the more
strongly marked are their distinctive features. The same
would doubtless be the course of the several dialects of
each language : every dialect would doubtless assume in
the process of time a more distinct and individual charac-
ter. But there is nothing in the development of lan-
guage, independently of political circumstances, which
leads to the arbitrary creation of separate dialects distin-
guished by their inflexions and forms : on the contrary,
the influence of government and literature tends always
to spread the use of the language of the ruling classes
and the writers, to the prejudice of local dialects : an
effect which in modern times has been immensely assisted
by the use of printing, and the facihties given to the cir-
culation of newspapers and books, and to the carriage of
persons. It seems to me, therefore, that although the
difference of actually existing dialects is increased in the
lapse of time, yet that dialects are not formed by mere
caprice, without external and political influence : and
that the spontaneous generation of the countless Ro-
mance dialects now spoken in Europe from an universal
language, which has existed since the extinction of the
Latin, is just as improbable as the spontaneous genera-
tion of insects and reptiles.
§ 7. Having offered these general considerations on
M. Eaynouard's views with regard to the origin of the
modem Latin languages, I shall proceed to a detailed
THE ORIGIN OF THE ROMANCE LANGUAGES. 5 1
examinatioii of his proofs : for which purpose it will be
necessary to repeat at length the principal parts of his
Romance Qrammar^ as the language to which it refers,
and the rules which it contains, are not generally known,
like those of the living languages to which it is allied.
But before this comparison is begun, it is first necessary
to determine what name shall be given to the language
which is to serve as the standard of comparison. * There
is (as Schlegel has remarked) some difficulty in finding a
proper designation for the language of the Troubadours.
The names of Proven<;;al, Limousin, ai^ Catalonian,
which have been appHed to it, are too narrow, as they
only comprehend one of the districts where it was
spoken, and as its use extended over a much wider
territory. On the other hand, the name of Romance is
too indefinite^' M. Eaynouard constantly applies the
name of Romance to the language of the Troubadours :
and M. Champollion-Figeac, who has since discussed this
subject, adheres to his use of the word, and makes the
Romance language a common term for the dialects of
Provence, Dauphiny, the Lyonese, Auvergne, Limousin,
Languedoc, Gascony, and Catalonia^. In the following
pages, however, I shall attempt to show that although
* Observations, p. 40. See also Blester on Oc and Oyl, PhiloL Mus.
vol. ii. p. 340.
* Charte de Commune en Langue Romans, (Paris, 1829,) p. 7 — 18.
M. Roquefort has pubUshed a dictionary of the ancient French lan-
guage, which he has entitled ' Glossaire de la Langue Romune.' As
well might the author of an Anglo-Saxon dictionary call it a dictionary
of the Teutonic language. M. Roquefort has, however, full as much
right to call the ancient langue d'oil, as M. Raynouard has to call the
ancient langue d'oc, the Romance language. Compare Berrington's
Literary History of the Middle Ages, p. 337. [Concerning the use of
the word Romance, see Diez, Rom. Gramm. vol. i. p. 72.]
E2
52 CHAPTER I.
the ancient language of oc, the language spoken in
Southern France and Catalonia, was a Romance lan-
guage, it was not the Romance language : that it was
merely one of the dialects arising out of the change
produced in the Latin by the Teutonic invasion^ Nor
does M. Raynouard merely employ an ambiguous, and
therefore an inconvenient term : but he founds an argu-
ment in favour of his theory upon that ambiguity ; when
he attempts to show that the Italian, the Spanish, and
the French, were once identical with the Troubadour lan-
guage, becaus| they were all called Romance languages^.
In this mode of reasoning, however, he appears to me to
have committed the same error as a person who having
undertaken to write a history of trees, and described those
kinds, such as the ash and the oak, which are deciduous,
should thence conclude that the ilex and the olive are
deciduous, because they are also trees. The language of
Southern France was doubtless a Romance language, as
were the languages of Northern France, Spain, Italy,
Savoy, and parts of Switzerland and the Tyrol. But it
does not follow that what is true of the language of
' *It is generally admitted that the word Romance was first em-
ployed to signify the Eoman language as spoken in the European pro-
vinces of the empire ; and that in its most extensive sense it comprised
all the dialects of which the basis was the vulgar liatin, whatever might
be the other materials which entered into their construction. The
name was therefore equally applicable to the Italian, the Spanish, and
French, and was sometimes, though incorrectly, applied to the vulgar
languages of other countries.' Ellis, Specimem of Early English
Romances, vol. i. p. 1. See also Walter Scott's article on Komance,
near the beginning, in the Supplement to tlie Encyclopedia Britannica.
A passage occurs in Qiraldm Camhrensis, where the common English
is called Romance. See Ritson's Ancient English Romances, vol. i.
p. 12—18.
* Gr, Comp. p. 371.
THE ORIGIN OF THE ROMANCE LANGUAGES. 53
Southem France is also true of the Spanish or Italian,
because they were all three Romance languages, any
more than it foUows that Hons ruminate, as weU as
oxen, because they are both animals. There is perhaps
no name for the language in question which is whoUy
unexceptionable : nevertheless the appellation Provencal,
as Diez remarks, deserves the preference. The historians
of the Crusades apply the term Provincia to aU the south
of France, distinguishing the inhabitants of the northern
and southern parts of that country by the names Fran-
cigerm and Provinciales : an ancient Grammar of the
langtte d^oc is called Bonatus Provincialis ; and Dante,
as well as a contemporary biographer of a troubadour,
speaks of the Provencal language^ It may be more-
over remarked, that although it might be inconvenient
to give the name of Provencal to the language of Cata-
lonia, the examples cited by M. Raynouard are almost
without exception taken from the poems of troubadours
who were strictly natives of Provence, in the extended
sense of that word.
* Diez, Poesie der Troubadours, p. 5 — 12.
CHAPTER II.
Formation of the Romance Articles and Nouns from
the Latin,
§ 1. ARTICLES.
The utility of articles, and especially of tlie definite
article, is so obvious, that there is no wonder that they
should be gradually introduced by the effort which is
constantly perceivable in language, to analyse and sepa-
rately to express every idea. Thus we know that in the
early Greek language there were no definite articles :
but in the interval of time which elapsed between the
ancient epic poets and the first prose writers, the pro-
noun 6 had become a definite article. The same transfer
of the German demonstrative pronoun e?er, and of the
Anglo-Saxon pronoun thcet^^ to the sense of a definite
article, likewise took place in the gradual development
of the language, and without external influence. In
those languages likewise the numeral one, by a similar
process of abstraction, obtained the sense of the indefinite
article. It is probable that the sudden change which
the Latin underwent in this respect, at the time of the
German invasion, was the consequence rather of the
* See Bask, A. S. Grammar, § 146.
I
ROMANCE ARTICLES AND NOUNS. 55
tendency just described, than of the imitation of the
Teutonic idiom. It seems more than doubtful whether
the use even of the definite article had at that era been
introduced into the Teutonic languages : and it is pro-
bable that we shall most nearly approach the truth, if we
suppose that when the Latin was by that event put into
a state favourable to a new development of its gram-
matical forms, it obtained the use of articles, and adopted
for them those words which appear naturally to suggest
themselves as most convenient for this purpose. Hence
unus was taken as the indefinite, and ille as the definite
article : and their forms and inflexions underwent those
changes which will be explained when we speak of the
formation of the modem nouns.
The following scheme exhibits the structure of the
Provencal definite article : the masculine singular (as
will be shown below) is formed from the Latin accusative
illum^ by rejecting either the first or the last syllable :
the masculine plural is partly formed from the Latin
nominative, partly from the accusative : els and los being
made out of illos ; ill and li from illi : the feminine plural
is formed from the Latin accusative illas. The genitive,
dative, and ablative cases have completely disappeared,
and their forms are replaced by the use of prepositions ;
de being prefixed in order to give the sense of the geni-
tive and ablative, a (from ad) of the dative, and a (from
ah) of the ablative^. It will be observed that in the
masculine plural, de li and de los, a li and a los, the forms
derived from both the Latin nominative and accusative,
are placed after the preposition : in general, however, as
* See below in these prepositions.
56 CHAPTER II.
will appear wlien we come to the nouns, the prepositions
govern the Proven9al accusative.
{
Singular.
Plural.
Masc.
Fem.
Masc.
Fem.
El, lo
ill, la
m, li, els, los
las
de lo, del
de la
de li, de los, dels, des
de las
a lo, al, el.
a la
a li, a los, als, as
a las'.
a 11, a 10s, ais, as a las'.
Vol. i. p. 38—44. Gr. Rom. p. 13—24.
All the modern Latin languages have formed their de-
finite article from ille, and exhibit nearly the same modi-
fications as those which appear in the Provencal. Ely
which is the common Spanish form, occurs in old
French and Italian: lo also occurs in old French, as
well as del, al, dels, als, and els, from which have been
formed by the suppression of I or its change into u^ so
prevalent in that language, deu, du, au, des, aux, and es :
los and las, by changes likewise of frequent occurrence,
became les. It should be observed that the Spanish ex-
hibits no trace of li, (from illi,) and the Italian no trace
of los, (from illos,) and that the Italian made the feminine
plural le, (from illce,) whereas the Spanish agreed with
the Proven9al in forming it from illas. These charac-
teristic differences will be again adverted to, when we
speak of the nouns. (G-r. Oomp. p. 2 — 19.)
Several modem grammarians have thought that the
articles in the Romance languages have supplied the
place of the Latin inflexions of the nouns to which they
are prefixed. Thus the Italian grammarians call their
articles segnacasi ; and M. Raynouard says, that 'the
1 I have not inserted the mere varieties of orthography, as elh for el^
til for il, etc. See Gr, Rom. p. 79—116.
ROMANCE ARTICLES AND NOUNS. 57
use of articles has delivered the modem languages from
the slavery of the Latin declensions, without diminishing
the clearness of the expression.' (Yol. i. p. 44.) This
is, however, an erroneous view of the subject. The use
of the Latin nominative and accusative has been supplied
by a certain collocation of words, of the genitive, dative,
and ablative, by prepositions. Neither of the articles
has any influence whatever in giving to nouns the mean-
ings expressed by the Latin cases. In languages which
have both cases and articles, the article is as much in-
flected as the noun to which it belongs.
§ 2. FORMS AND INFLEXIONS OF NOUNS.
We come now to the nouns, which we shall consider
under the heads of their form, their mode of declension,
their gender, and their derivative terminations ; and by
these means be enabled to judge how far the changes
which they underwent in the several modern languages
support M. Raynouard's theory with regard to the
universal prevalence of the Proven9al, and the deri-
vation of the other Romance languages from it as a
common type.
The entire confusion of cases which prevailed in the
Latin language after the German invasion, may be seen
in many legal instruments of the middle ages ; and
although we may concede to Muratori that the Latin of
the notaries was not a spoken language, still it is impos-
sible to conceive that charters and deeds would have
been composed in a barbarous and ungrammatical jargon,
58 CHAPTEK II.
when the pure language was current in any part of tlie
community. The following extract from a Pisan deed of
sale, of 720 a.d. may serve as a specimen of this lan-
guage. * In nomine Domini dei nostris Jesum Christi,
regnante domno nostro Liutprand rege, anno hoctavo
sup die quartam kalendis Februari, per inditione tertia,
constant me Sunduald, vir honorabilis, hac dies arvitrium
bone mee voluntatis . . . eniente, neque aliquis me sua-
dente, nisi bono animus mens, vindedisse et vindedi,
tradedisse et tradedi tivi Filicausi medietatem de casa
meas infra civitatem cum gronda sua livera tam sola-
mentum sine grondas, etc^/ In this language it is not
always possible to distinguish between the proper termi-
nations of the cases and the corruptions of a vicious
pronunciation : thus in some of the above instances, as
* in nomine Domini nostris Jesum Christi,' * hac dies '
* aliquw suadente,' * bono animus mens,' * de casa meas,'
the Latin cases are used at random : in others however,
such as * sub die quartam,' * per inditione tertia,' it is
uncertain whether it is not the pronunciation which is in
fault, and whether the final m was not dropped from
diem and indidionem tertiam, as ' hono animus mens ' pro-
bably meant * bonum animus mens.' The omission of the
final m and n occurs again in the same instrument in
other words, as ligname for lignamen, nove for novemy hanc
cartula for hanc cartulamj venditionem a me facta for ven-
ditionem a me factam^ dece for decem, etc.
A rhythmical poem, written in vulgar Latin about
871 A.D. on the imprisonment of the Emperor Lewis 11.
by Adelchis duke of Beneventum, ofiers another speci-
» Murat. Ant. It. vol. iii. p. 1003.
FORMS AND INFLEXIONS OF ROMANCE NOUNS. 59
men of the state of the ancient during its transition into
the modem language^.
Audite omnes fines terrsB orrore cum tristitia
Quale scelus fuid factum Benevento civitas.
Lluduicum comprenderunt santo pio Augustio*.
Beneventani se adunarunt ad unum consilium.
Adalferio loquebatur, et dicebant principi :
* Si nos eum vivum dimitemus, certe nos peribimus.
Celus magnum praeparavit in istam provintiam :
Eegnum nostrum nobis tollit ; nos habet pro nihilum :
Plures mala nobis fecit : rectum est ut moriad^.'
Deposuerunt sancto pio de suo palatio.
Adalferio ilium ducebat usque ad pretorium, etc.
These verses offer numerous instances of the confusion
of cases : but Lluduicum sancto pio Augustio, Adalferio
loquebatur, deposuerunt sancto pio, Adalferio ducehat, appear
to be corruptions by pronunciation of sanctum piumAugus-
Hum, Adalferium and sanctum pium : as in the same poem
* leto animo habebat de illo quo fecerat ' is put instead of
* letum animum habebat de illo quod fecerat*/ not by a
confusion of the ablative and accusative cases, but by the
corruption of the termination of the accusative. So in
the following instances collected by M. Eaynouard, (voL
i. p. 18 — 22,) from Italian, Spanish, and French instru-
ments of the middle ages, the accusative case is probably
* Murat. Ant. It. vol. iii. p. 711. An explanation of the circum-
stances which occasioned this popular poem is given by Sismondi,
Litt&. du Midi, torn. i. p. 23.
* Augustio is a conjecture mentioned by Muratori. The MS. has
Augusta. In the first line, for errore I have written orrore, i. e. horrore.
* That is, moriat, for moriatur.
* Muratori mistakes the meaning of this Una, in supposing habebat
to be here put for dbibat.
60 CHAPTER II.
everywhere meant, though its characteristic letter is often
dropped for facility of pronunciation.
* Ab hodiernum die : absque uUo dolo aut vim : ad
die presente : ad ipso rio ; adversus apostoHco viro : ante
valneo et orto : contra hoste barbaro : cum omnes res ad
se pertinentes : cum pectus inscium : de quam prsefatam
portionem ; ex successionem : infra valle : intra comitatu
nostro : per mandate suo : per arte : pro panem : pro
supradictas sex uncias : pro mercedem animae meae : prop-
ter amorem dei et vita aetema : sine praemium : sine rixas :
usque memorato loco : versum palude : ubi nepte mea
instituemus abbatissam : bona intentione monstrant mihi
e faciunt Saracenis bona acolhenza/ The tendency to
the use of the accusative case in particular appears in
many places : thus in two sentences cited by M. Ray-
nouard, * Si aliquas causas adversus isfud monasterium
ortas fuerint : * ' ipsas monachas vel earum abbate (for
abbatem) debeant possidere:' so a charter of 761 a.d.
begins thus : * Regnante domno Desiderio et Adelgis viros
excellentissimos reges/ and a Lucchese plea of 853 a.d.
as follows : ' Dum ap (^. e, ab) celsa potestatem Domni
nostri BQudovici magni imperatoris directi fuissent Johan-
nem venerabilem sancte Pisensis ecclesie episcopus, nec-
non et Adalpertum Marchionem, seu Gausbertum Yassum
et ministrum minor ipsius imperialis potestatem, et con-
juncti ftdssent hie civitate Luca,* etci.
» Muratori, Ant, It. vol. iii. p. 167. See other specimens of this
language in Muratori, Diss. 82, vol. ii. p. 1025 E— 1048. Muratori
argues with considerable force and ingenuity that the language of the
notaries was never a spoken language, but was a barbarous jargon
made in imitation of the old Latin, by illiterate scribes : he says justly
that there is no dialect spoken by any class of persons, which does
FORMS AND INFLEXIONS OF ROMANCE NOUNS. 6 1
The ancient system of cases being thus completely
confounded, we need not be surprised to find that in
the Italian and Spanish languages the nouns were
formed, not from the nominative, but from some in-
flected case of the Latin word. In nouns of the first
and second declension this fact cannot be perceived, as
the Italian and Spanish musa and muro might come
from either the nominative, accusative, or ablative cases
of the Latin musa and murus. The nouns of the third
declension which increase in the genitive case, furnish
a criterion for ascertaining this fact : and from the fol-
lowing table it will be seen that not only the Italian and
Spanish, but also the Provencal and French nouns, take
the increment of the genitive, and consequently are not
derived from the Latin nominative.
not observe some rules of grammar. This is undoubtedly true : a
language without a grammar is not a language ; unless there were some
rules settled by general usage, people could not understand one
another. But this does not appear to be precisely the case with the
Latin of the notaries : although there is often a confusion both of
number, gender, and tense, yet the chief confusion is that of the cases
or inflexions of nouns and participles. The most probable explanation
of this matter seems to be that the Latin of the early ItaUan deeds is
the tradition of the corrupted language caused by the influence of the
German on the Latin : that although the people in the eighth and
ninth centuries may have spoken a language like the Itahan, yet the
Latin was not yet considered a dead language to be learned from books,
and that the notaries who could not use the vulgar dialect, wrote in the
jargon which they received by oral communication from those who
spoke the bastard Latin which had sprung from the invasion. The
verses which are cited in the text moreover exhibit the very same cha-
racter of style as the legal instruments ; and to them Muratori's re-
mark with respect to the notaries does not apply : for they must have
been written in a language intelligible to the public. [Additional
examples of the accusative swallowing up the other inflected cases in
low Latin are given hjDiez, Bomanische Grammatik, vol. ii. p. 10 — 14.]
62
CHAPTER II.
Latin.
Italian.
Spanish.
Provenpal.
French.
B
plebs
plebe
plebe
pleb
C
dux
duca
duque
due
duo
D
laus
lode
G
lex
legge
ley
leg or leyi
loy
N
caro
came
carne
earn
carn^
natio
nazione
nacion
nacion
nation
virgo
vergine
virgen
virgen
B
genus
genere
genero
genre
genre
T
salus
salute
salud
salut
salut
NT
gigas
gigante
gigante
gigant
geant
V
nix
neve
nieve
nev
nief
The above instances show that the derived nouns exhibit
all the different increments of the Latin genitive : the
following nouns from the Italian and Spanish are ar-
ranged according to the termination of the nominative,
in order to show the diversity of forms derived from
Latin nouns having the same termination in the nomi-
native, which, if they had all been derived from that
case, would have been impossible.
as
ax
Latin,
Italian,
Spanish.
Leonid-as
Leonid-a
Leonid-as
Nai-as
Nai-ade
Nay-ada
libert-as
libert-ate
libert-ad
eleph-as
elef-ante
elef-ante
v-as
v-ase, v-aso
v-aso
p-ax
p-ace
p-az
Astyan-ajt
Astian-acte
Astian-ax
' The final ^r easily passes into y ; thus the Anglo-Saxon anig, blodig,
dreorig, become in English any, bloody, dreary, etc. see Grimm, D, Gr.
vol ii., p. 302—306.
^ The old French used cam (Or. Comp. p. 63,) which it afterwards
changed into cham, char, and chair, the latter probably in order to
distinguish it from char from the Teutonic car. It also used nief,
neif, and noif for neige.
FORMS AND INFLEXIONS OF ROMANCE NOUNS. 63
I^atin.
Italian.
Sporawft.
magist-er
maest-ro
maest-ro
6T ^
carc-er
carc-ere
carc-el *
pat-er
pad-re
pad-re
Jupit-er
Giove
Jupit-er
' fid-es
fid-e
fe
her-es
er-ede
Cer-es
Cer-ere
Cer-es
es
interpr-es
interpr-ete
interpr-ete
lim-es
lim-ite
lim-ite
w sp-es
sp-eme
:
cin-is
cen-ere
fin-is
fin-e
fin
is ^
Nere-is
Nere-ide
Nere-ida
, l-is
1-ite
l-id
nutr-ix
nutr-ice
nutr-iz
ix '
St-yx
St-ige
Est-ige
n-ix
n-eve
n-ieve
1-ynx
1-ince
1-ince
ynx .
sph-ynx
sf-inge
esf-inge
ord-o
serm-o
ord-ine
ord-en
serm-one
serm-on
^ horiz-on
orizz-onte
horiz-onte
on ■
Cle-on
Cle-one
Cle-on
phsenomen-on
fenomen-o
fenomen-o
9^
r fl-os
fl-ore
fl-or
OS '
b-os
b-ove
b-oy, b-uey
OS
osso
hueso
' popul-ns
popolo
puebl-o
Tirt-us
virt-ute
virt-ud
pal-US
pal-ude
pal-ude
us '
gen-US
gen-ere
gen-ero
gr-us
gr-ue (grii)
1-aus
1-ode
Selin-us
Selin-unte
,,■ /
. lep-us
lep-re
lieb-re
64 CHAPTER II.
These examples prove incontestably that the Italian and
Spanish nouns are not formed from the Latin nominative ;
it now remains to ascertain from which of the remaining
cases they were formed. The Provencal nouns above
cited might have been formed from either of the oblique
cases by simply rejecting the termination, thus due or
nazion might have been equally formed from due-is, duc-i,
dttc-einy or duc-ey nation-is, nation-i, nation-em^ or nation-e,
by simply omitting the termination is, i, em, or e ; any
one of which might be supported by examples. Many
of the Spanish terminations, as luz, lid, margen, ley, are
of the same nature : others, however, end with a vowel,
which is universally the case with the Italian nouns.
On comparing these vowel terminations with the Latin
cases, it will appear that there is little resemblance be-
tween the terminations of the modern nouns and those
of the Latin genitive and dative cases : and that the
forms in question are evidently derived from either the
accusative or the ablative. Of these two cases the pre-
ference might seem due to the ablative, as it accounts
for most of the forms, derived both from the second and
third declensions of Latin nouns : thus modu^s, abl. modo,
modo Ital. and Span. ; lignum, abl. ligno, legno, Ital.,
lerto Span. ; limes, abl. limite, limite Ital. and Span.
These, and nearly all other instances of Italian words
derived from Latin nouns of the second and third de-
clensions, exhibit the precise form of the Latin ablative^ :
^ Galvani, Otaerv. mlla Poesia dei Trovatori, p. 515 n., considers
the Latin ablative as the type of the Italian nouns : ' Dal sesto caso
dei nomi (he says) si formano quasi tutti i nomi volgari.' The same is
£ilso the opinion of Diefenbach, Ueber die liomanischen Schri/tsprachen,
p. 119. Schlegel, 06«en;., p. 38, says that 'il est incontestable que
FORMS AND INFLEXIONS OF ROMANCE. NOUNS. 65
/ } ■ ;
and tlie Spamsh for the most part, thougli ^teri witTiout
the final vowel. Nevertheless, it seems to me certain
that the Italian and Spanish nouns were formed not
from the ablative, but from the accusative case, as I
shall now attempt to show.
In the first place, it may be observed that the nomi-
native and accusative are more easily confounded than
the nominative and the other cases; as the accusative
merely signifies the government of a verb or preposition,
without those additional meanings expressed by the geni-
tive, dative, and ablative. It is natural that the termi-
dans I'italien la plupart des mots sont formes de I'ablatif latin.' Maffei
does not decide between the ablative and the accusative : ' Siccome non
era possibile (he says) che la gente idiota senza studio di grammatica
regolarmente secondo la varia esigenza dei verbi usasse le inflessioni
dei nomi, e dovea quasi sempre valersi dell* accusativo, o dell' abla-
tivo, cosi da quel due casi venne I'ltalico.' Verona Ultistrata, P. I,
c. 316. M. Eaynouard remarks, vol. i, p. 38. * Une observation me
semble decisive pour nous convaincre que les noms romans ont 6t6
formes du nominatif et principalement de I'accusatif des Latins. Par
ce systeme toutes les difficultes s'expliquent, tandis que les autres cas,
tels que le ginitif et I'ablatif, n'offrent pas le meme avantage.' Diez,
Poesie der Troubadours, p. 294, shows briefly, but convincingly, that
the Italian nouns were formed from the accusative, and not from the
ablative of the Latin. Sismondi, Litt. du Midi, vol. i., p. 15, has \he
following remarks on this subject : ' Elle (la gram m aire) n'a dans
aucune des langues du midi conserve les cas dans les noms ; mais
choisissant entre les terminaisons diverses du mot latin, elle a fait le
mot nouveau avec le nominatif en italien, avec I'accusatif en espagnol,
avec une contraction qui s'61oigne de tons deux en francais.' He
then adds in a note : ' cette regie doit s'entendre surto.t du plurieL'
It will, however, be shown below, that the formation of the plural is
governed by different principles from the formation of the singular
noun. Burguy, Grammaire de la Langue d'Oil, vol. i., p. 22, thinks
that the Eomance nouns were formed, not from any determinate case
of the Latin noun, but from the root, denuded of any characteristic
termination.
66 CHAPTER II.
nations denoting the subject and object of a verb should
be confounded, especially by ignorant or unobservant
persons. Thus in vulgar English, him says, her says,
and them say, are of frequent occurrence; and the use
of hi and lei (the modern objective cases) for egli and
ella is established in the most correct Italian. The
proneness of the Low Latin to the use of the accusative
case, where the ancient language would have required
the nominative or the ablative, has been abeady pointed
out in numerous instances.
The supposition that the Italian and Spanish nouns
and participles were formed from the Latin accusative
by rejecting the final consonant, and changing the final
u into 0, accounts for all the phenomena, with a few
exceptions of little importance. The omission of the
final m is paralleled by meco, sefte, nove, died, undid,
dodici, cento, amava, Ital. ; migo, siete, nueve, diez, once,
doce, ciento, amaha, Span. ; from mecum, septem, novem,
decem, undedm, duodedm, centum, amabam. In the four-
teenth century the Latin words pax tecum, Te Deum,
regnum tuum, flagellum Dei, gaudeamus, were commonly
known in Italy by the corruptions pasteco, tadeo, reg-
nontuo,flagellondeo,galdeamo^. The elision of the final
m in Latin proves that it had a dead sound 2, which was
easily lost : and the interchange of the forms cum and
con in ancient Latin (as coneo and coeo for cumeo) prove
the close affinity between the sounds of the Latin um
1 See Perticari, Scrittori del Trecento, 1. 1, c. 12,
* What Quintilian calls a mugiens sonus : ' Quid quod pleraque
nos ilia, quasi mugiente littera cludimus M, qua nullum Greece ver-
bum cadit.' xii. 10, 31. On tlie elision of the final m in Latin, see
Scheller's Latin Grammar, vol. i., p. 12. Engl. Transl.
fORMS AND INFLEXIONS OF ROMANCE NOUNS. 67
and on ; which, last (as will be shown below) was prob-
ably the transition between the Latin um and the modern
0. The change of the final u into also occurs in the
first persons plural of Italian and Spanish verbs: as
fummo, amiamo, temiamOy sentiamo, Ital. ; fuimos, amamos^
tememos, sentimos, Span. The change of the short Latin
u into in the interior of Italian words, is likewise of
frequent occurrence^. It is, moreover, a circumstance
of some weight as regards this question, that in the
Sicilian dialect the masculine termination is not but u :
thus camjpu, funnu, (fondo^) arcu, argentu, cornu^ corpu^
capu. It is true that the Sicilian often changes the
Latin into u, as in. maggiuri, minuriy inferiuri, funte,
from major, minor, inferior , fons : but in many other
instances, as in cornu, corpu, just cited, it does not;
* Both in Italian and Spanish the Latin u, when long by nature, is
with few exceptions retained unchanged : as musa, palnde, muro, uno,
duro, etc. In Italian, when it was long by position, it is occasionally
retained : as ultimo, gusto ; but usually changed into 0, as sepolcro,
polvere, mondo, molto, nozze, mosca, sommo, sotto, giomo, hocca, rotto,
colto, etc. The short u was almost invariably changed into o, as
popolo, noce, croce, Tivoli, etc. : though in some few cases it was not
changed, as numero, furore, subito, due, lupo. j^he Italian o, formed
from the Latin u, is shut like torn, but if not thus changed it is open,
like thorn. Hence volto from vultu^ is not pronounced lite volto
from volutus.\lji Spanish the u long by position has sometimes been
retained, as mundo, sumo, and sometimes been changed into 0, as boca,
soto ; the short u (except in termiaations where it is changed into o, as
Dios, Carlos, huehos, amamos, etc.) has usually become ue, as pueblo,
nuez ; probably, however, the u was first changed into o, and then the
o was changed into ue : as bueno, cuello, fu£go, fuente, muerte, suerte,
etc. came from bonus, coUum, focus, fons, mars, sors.J In like manner
the Italian made nv/}ra from nurus ; that is, nurus, nora, nuora, like
novo, nu,ovo, ruota, buono,fuoco, from ovum, novus, rota, bonus, focus, etc.
Compare Diez, Bom. Gramm., vol. i., p. 152.
F2
68 CHAPTER II.
and it seems that in Italian u has more frequently
passed into o than the converse^.
The supposition that the Italian and Spanish nouns
were derived from the Latin ablative, does not account
for many of the forms.
1. Although the derivation from the ablative explains
such words as popolo, collo, Ital. ; puehio, cuello, Span. ;
from populo, collo ; it does not explain such words as
mano^ canto, Ital. and Span., from manu, cantu : whereas
the other hypothesis equally weU explains mano from
manum, as populo and pueblo from populum. It is true
that mano might come from manu, as weU as gielo and
yelo from gelu: but the very object of the derivation
from the ablative is to obtain the o, without having
recourse to the supposition of a change of letters.
2. Where the Latin nominative of a neuter noun in-
creasing in the genitive case ended in a vowel, as poema,
idioma, diadema, the termination remained unchanged in
the Italian and Spanish ; but where the nominative of a
masculine or feminine noun increasing in the genitive
case ended in a vowel, the increment of the genitive was
adopted, as nazione, nacion, imagine, imagen, sermone, ser-
mon, Ital. and Span., from natio, imago, sermo. IS'ow if
the modem nouns had been formed from the ablative,
poema would have become poemate, as sermo became ser-
mone and sermon, Ital. and Span. : whereas, if they are
* See Pasquilino, Vocaholario Siciliano, Palermo, 1785, 4to. The
dialect of Corsica likewise makes the final masculine vowel u and not
o, see Micali, Storia degli Antichi Popoli Italiani, vol. ii.j). 5i, note.
On the occurrence of the final u in other modern Italian dialects, see
Lanzi, Saggio di Lingua Etmsca, vol. 1. p. 342, note, ed. 2.
FORMS AND INFLEXIONS OF EOMANCE NOUNS.
69
derived from tlie accusative, this difference is explained,
as neuter did not, like masculine and feminine nouns,
take the increment of the genitive in the accusative case.
3. The Latin neuter nouns, indeed, increasing in the
genitive case, whatever may he their termination, furnish
a test, an instantia crucis, hy which to try whether the
jnodem nouns were formed from the ahlative or accu-
sative : for if they were formed from the ablative, they
ought to exhibit the augmentative syllable of the genitive
case ; whereas, if they were formed from the accusative,
they ought not. Conies made in the accusative and ab-
lative cases comitem and comite, from either of which
conte and conde might be formed : but the accusative and
ablative of tempus were not tempore and temporem^ but
tempore and tempus : so that we are enabled to distinguish
which of these cases was the type of the modem form.
"Now from the following table of neuter nouns of the
third declension, and their modem derivatives, it will be
perceived that the derivatives in no instance assume the
augmentative syllable which characterizes the ablative
case.
Latin.
Italian.
Spanuh.
abdomen
addome
abdomen
acumen
acume
seramen
rame
alambre
albumen
albume
cacumen
cacume
caput
capo
cabo
carmen
carme
certamen
certame
cetus (from Kijroe)
ceto
corpus
corpo
cuerpo
crimen
crime
crimen
fO
CHAPTER II.
Latin.
Italian.
Spanish.
( esame
\ sciame
( examen
( exambre
examen
flumen
fiume
flumen'
foramen
forame
foramen
gravamen
gravame
gravamen
jns
gius
Isetamen
letame
latus
lato
lado
legumen
legume
legumbre
ligamen
legame
litus
lito or lido
lumen
lume
lumbre
marmor
marmo
marmol
nomen
nome'*
nombre
numen
nume
numen
opus
uopo
huebos'
/-^pectus
petto
pecho
pignus
pegno
.
piper
pepe
pondus
pondo
semen
seme
semen
stamen
stame
estambre
— stercus
stereo
stramen
strame
sulphur
solfo
-- tempus
tempo
tiempo
velamen
velame
velamen
vellus
vello
vello
vimen
vime
vimbre
volumen
volume
volumen*
* Flumen occurs in the Vida de S. Domingo, v. 229. Sanchez,
Colleccion de Poesias Castellanas Anteriores al Siglo XV., vol. ii.,
p. 30.
' The Provencal likewise made lum and nom from lumen and nom£n,
although in masculine and feminine nouns it adopted the increment of
the genitive.
' See Sanchez, ibid., vol. i. Index in huebos and huevos.
* The French has evidently formed its nouns in the same way as
FORMS AND INFLEXIONS OF ROMANCE NOUNS. 7 1
In these words tlie Italian, in order to avoid a consonant
termination, rejects tlie last letter of the Latin accu-
sative, and where the termination includes w, it changes
that vowel into 0. In this manner acumen, flumen, he-
come acume^Jiume^ etc. ; as fenomeno, lessico, are formed
from phcenomenon, lexicon, forse from forsan, amme from
amen, in Dante, {Paradiso, xiv. 64 :) and latus, sulphur,
marmor, caput, hecome lato, solfo, marmo, capo. The
Spanish is less regular, hut in no word does it assume
the increment of the genitive : like the Italian it changes
us and ut into 0, (with the exception of the old word
huehos from opus) ; hut the termination en it sometimes
exhibits entire, as examen, volumen, and sometimes
changes it into re, as lumhre, nombre ^ In marmor the
Italian rejects the final r, the Spanish softens it into L
the Italian and Spanish : thus from caput, chap, or chef, from carmen,
charme, from corpus, corps, from nomen, nom, from pondus, poids, from
stamen, Staim, from tempus, temps : in some of which words the final
Latin s is still preserved. From marmor and sulfur it has likewise
made marhre and soufre ; hut in these words the formation from the
uninflected case is not so ohvious. [For modem Eomance nouns,
formed with these terminations, see Diez, Rom. Gramm., vol. ii.,
p. 308—10.]
. » The old Spanish said name, luvfie, etc. Rayn. Gr. Comp. p. xxxiv.
.It will be observed, however, that now all words from neuter nouns in
en, which have not retained that termination unchanged, end in re ;
as enxamhre, legumbre, etc. There are likewise the forms sangre, hombre,
and hamhre, from the masc. and fem. sanguis, homo, and /awes. This
termination has been caused by the easy transition of the liquids into
one another, and has originated thus : homine-m, homne, (which form
occurs, Sanchez, vol i., p. 396,) homre, hombre; sanguine-m, sangne,
(which occurs in the Sacrijicio de la Misa 16, Sanchez, vol. ii., p. 183,)
sangre ; lumen, lumne, (by transposition, used in old Spanish, Sanchez,
vol. i., p. 396,") lumre, lumbre. So in Italian anima, anma, alma, arma,
(see Marrini on the Lamento di Cecco, p. 176,) and in S-p&nish femina,
marmor, career, arbor, became hembra, marmol, carcil, arbol ; in French
72
CHAPTER II.
In the following words the Italian, and sometimes the
Spanish, adds a vowel to the Latin accusative case :
Latin.
Italian.
Spanish.
animal
aniraale
animal
cor
cuore
cuer
ebur
ebure
fel
fiele
fiel
fulgur
folgore
lac
leche
mel
miele
miel
nectar
nettare
nectar
OS
esse
hueso
sal
sale
sal
tribunal
tribunale
tribunal
vas
vase or vase
vase
That in these words the Jfinal e is euphonic, and is not
the e of the Latin ablative, is proved by cuore, cuer, ehure,
fiele, and miele, which if they were derived from the
ablative would be cuorde, cuerde, ehore, felle, and melle.
The Spanish fel, miel, etc., indeed, prove nothing either
way, as they might be curtailed from the ablative : but
leche is evidently formed from lac with an euphonic vowel,
crdine-m became ordre, pampinus pampre, altare first alter, (Gr, Comp,
p. 35,) then auter, then autel ; in Provencal /emiwa has become /r«TOa,
i. e. femna, fnema, frema. The b in lumhre, honibre, etc. is inserted on
account of the difficulty of pronouncing a liquid following m: as in
hombro, Span, from humerus; comble, chambre, humble, and nombre,
French, from cumulus, camera, humilis, and numerus : in Greek ydfi^pog
(for ydfiepoQ) from ydfioQ, Trap/il/xjSXwKrt for TrapntXoXuKe, fxtorj/xPpivos
for fiearjfispivog, %j3porov for tjfwprov (i. e. ijnopTOv, -ijfipoTov, rjufSpoTOv,)
etc. So in English ramble and tumble correspond to rammeln German,
and taumeln German, tommelen Dutch : Hamblet for Hamlet, Hambleton
for Hamilton : solemn and damned were formerly written solempne and
dampned : 'Jimble hemp' for 'fertile hemp' occurs in Tusser, o. 45, § 8,
etc.
FORMS AND INFLEXIONS OP ROMANCE NOUNS.
73
since if it came ifrom the ablative it would be lette^ like
tbe Italian latte. That the final e is bare only euphonic,
and was added in order to avoid tbe consonant termination,
is also shown by the circumstance that when the neuter
noun ended in a, the form of the Latin nominative or
accusative was preserved without alteration, as in the
following words :
Latin.
Italian. .
Spanish.
senigma
enimma
enigma
anathema
anatema
anatema
axioma
assioma
axioma
baptisma
battesmo'
bautismo —
chrisma
cresima and -esimo
crisma -
clima
clima
clima
diadema
diadema
diadema
diploma
diploma
diploma
dogma
domma
dogma
drama
dramma
drama
epigramma
epigramma
epigrama
idioma
idioma
idioma
problema
problema
problema ~
psalma
salmo
salmo -> "
sagma
salma
salma
sophisma
Bolfisma or -mo
sofisma Cy
spasma
spasimo
espasmo
system a
sistema
sistema
thema
tema
tema
theorema
teorema
teorema
That in these words (which passed into the Latin from
the Greek) the inflexion of the genitive case was not
forgotten, and that they would have been anatemate,
idiomate, etc., if the Latin accusative had been anathe-
matenif idiomaterriy appears from the Italian form stimati,
^ The reason of the change of the final a into o in neuter nouns is
Explained below under the head of the genders, ch. II. § 3.
74 CHAPTER II.
from the plural stigmata. In the words of most frequent
use, the final a has been changed into o, on account of the
gender.
There are a few words in which the Italian form ex-
hibits the increment of the Latin neuter noun : as numine,
esamine, crimine, where nume, esame, crime, are the more
common forms^ ; vimine also occurs, as well as vime, the
form used by Dante. But in the words fulmine, genere,
latfe, and pettine, there is no variation : in the latter word,
the preference of the genitive form seems to have been
due to a desire of avoiding a confusion with petto from
pectus. Ustiercol, Spanish, is derived from some inflected
case of stercm.
The ItaKan appears at first sight to offer some in-
stances of the formation of nouns from the Latin nomi-
natives of the third declension, as uomo^ ladro, margo,
imago : but it is evident that these are modem forms
which have undergone different modifications, and that
the original words were homine, or uomine, ladrone,
margine, imagine^, (^he Italian, however, sometimes
' Also ulcero from ulcus, where ulcera (from the plural) is the more
common form : on the origin of ulcera see below, ch. II. § 3.
2 The original form of uomo was probably homine, regularly formed
from hominem. This form is still extant in the plural uomini, anciently
homini. It then became omin or omen, a form preserved in the Mi-
lanese dialect. Omen was then shortened into ome, by the rejection of
the final n, like volume from volumen, etc. above p. 70,) and om£ be-
came omo or uomo, as in many other words where the termination
vacillates between e and o. Thus cespite and gurgite were first con-
tracted into cespe and gurge, (which last occurs in Dante,) and then
changed into cespo and gorgo. (See Castelvetro on Bembo, vol. ii. p.
18.) The same explanation applies to margo and imago: which
originally were doubtless margine and imagine (the common forms,)
contracted into image (which occurs in Dante,) and marge, and then
the terminations were confounded. The word ladro shortened tram
FORMS AND INFLEXIONS OF ROMANCE NOUNS. 75
preserved tlie Latin nominative in proper names, as
Peleus in the early writers, Feton^ Semiramis, Minos,
in Dantei : in some names likewise there are two forms,
one from the nominative, and the other from the accu-
sative : as Plato, Platone, Oato, Catone, PlutOy Plutone^.
The Spanish presents several instances of the Latin
nominative in proper names; as Jupiter, Palas, Apolo,
Fenix, Carlos, etc. : and has also retained it in the single
word dios^. But with these exceptions there is not (as
far as I am aware) in either language any noun or par-
ticiple which has retained the termination of the Latin
nominative/
It may therefore, I conceive, he laid down as the
general result of the above remarks, that Italian and
ladrone, (ladrone, ladron, ladro,) furnishes another instance of the
rejection of the final n. Words in constant use like uomine, were
most liable to contraction : thus mulierem has now become moglie,
though the form mogliere occurs in ancient writers ; and sanguine has
been contracted into sangue : the Spanish still has sangre, (see above,
note, p. 71.) See Schlegel, p. 36 : • Ces mots, qui reviennent sans cesse
dans le langage populaire, ressemblent a la petite monnoie d'argent :
elle perd son empreinte a force de passer d'une main £l I'autre, tandis
que les gros §cus la conservent.*
* See Perticari, Difesa di Dante, c. 13.
' See Castelvetro on Bemho, vol. ii. p. 17.
' Whence it has formed the fem. diosa, a goddess. Corns from
conies in Provencal, (conte Ital., conde Span., comte French,) affords
an instance of the preservation of the Latin nominative in a masculine
noun of the third declension. In the Poeme sur Boece, v. 34. Corns
fo de Roma, and v. 138—40. Molt fort blasmava Boecis sos amigs.
Qui lui laudaven dereer euz dias antix, Qu'el era corns, molt onraz e
rix: Ra}-nouard in both places translates consul. Perhaps count
(comes) is the word meant. The French has likewise retained the
ancient form of the nominative in some proper names, as Charles^
Hugues, (instead of Challon, Hugon, which were the ancient accusa-
tive,) though it now has universally adopted the form of the Latin ac-
casative.
76 CHAPTER II.
Spanish, nouns and participles are formed from the Latin
accusative : sometimes retaining it unaltered, as jpoema,
diadema, Ital. and Span. ; semerif volumen, Span. ; some-
times by rejecting the final consonant, as musa, limite,
amante, gente, nume, fiume^ marmo ; sometimes by reject-
ing the final consonant and changing u into 0, as modo,
amato, mano, solfo, caj)o, corpo, caho, cuerpo : and the
Spanish sometimes by rejecting the final syllable, as
imagen, trinidad, luz^.
On comparing this system of forming nouns and par-
ticiples from the Latin with that prevalent in the other
Bomance languages, it will appear that there was an im-
portant and frmdamental difference between the method
adopted by the Italian and Spanish on the one hand, and
the Provencal and French on the other. It has been
shown above that the Proven9al and French nouns adopt
the increment of the Latin genitive*^, and so far all the
four languages agree. The Proven9al, however, in form-
ing its nouns and participles from Latin forms in us,
sometimes preserved the termination of the Latin nomi-
native entire, as us, (for uns,) mieuSy Deus, or where us
was preceded by a consonant, it omitted the u and pre-
served the s, as philosojfhs, hels, amies, fers, amatz, from
* Speme in Italian is evidently spem, the accusative of spes, as ren
in Provencal (like rien in French) is the accusative of res, both which
forms occur. This explanation accounts for the double form speme
and spene, since the final m was in ItaHan (as has been already shown)
often changed into n. Aria likewise, as will be explained below,
comes from aera : as also lampara Span., from lampada ; (on the change
of d and r, as in fedire for ferire, rado for raro, Ital. see Muratori,
Ant. It. vol. ii. p. 532, A. vol. ui. p. 1090, A. : so in EngUsh pad'
dock is parrock, (parruc, A. S.) whence park is contracted : see Ar-
chaologia, vol. xvii. p. 138.) [See Diez, Rom. Gr. vol. i. p. 219.]
» Above, p. 62.
FORMS AND INFLEXIONS OF ROMANCE NOUNS. 77
pMIosophuSf heUuSf amicus, ferus, amatus. By analogy
this termination was then transferred to all nominatives,
even to those which were not terminated with s in Latin,
as amors, talens, valors, to comparatives, as maiers, mielhers,
and even to infinitives used substantively, as sabers,
plazers. This analogy was not, however, extended to
Latin substantives in a, to the definite article, or to
personal pronouns.
Pursuing this system of imitating the terminations of
the Latin cases, the Provencal rejected the final s from
its accusative singular, the only oblique case which it
preserved from the Latin : and in the plural number
formed the nominative without, and the accusative with
the 5. The following example, therefore, may serve as a
general type for the declension of Provencal nouns and
participles, and at the same time by the comparison
with the Latin show the reason of the changes.
Singular. Plural.
Lat. Prov. Lat. Prov.
Nom. amicus amies amici amic
Ace. amicum amic amicos amies'
The Provenpal has moreover a declension of proper
names founded on the same principles, and ia which
the traces of the Latin, are more distinctly visible.
These nouns sometimes made the nominative sing, in
* These are traces of the rule with regard to the final s not applying
to nouns where it was not present in Latin : thus jpaire, maire, horn,
from ipater, mater, homo, sometimes have the $ and sometimes have it
not. Thus el drax, nominative plural, i. e. e li dracs, (dracones,) Gr,
B. p. 109; whereas la drac, nominative singular, p. 141 (draco):
according to the rule these forms ought to he just reversed : hut from
the same translation of the Apocalypse in which these forms occur,
Johans, nominative singular, i. e. Johannes, p. 141. See Diez, PoetU
der Troubadours, p. 296. w
78
CHAPTER II.
s or es, and tlie accusative in on, the final n of whicli
might be omitted, when the Provenpal accusative became
the same as the Italian and Spanish form. Thus we
find, nom. Aimes, Sugues, Odiels ; ace. Aimon or Aimo,
Ugon, Odilo, {G-r. Qomp, p. 85, 86.) This declension
has probably preserved the intermediate steps between
the Latin and the common Provenpal form : viz. campis^
camjpes^ camps : campum^ cawpon, campo^ campe, camp.
The declension of the nouns is further illustrated by a
comparison of the Latin and Provenpal possessive pro-
nouns, {au B. p. 96-^114.)
Singular.
Masc. Fem.
Lat.
Prov.
Lat.
Prov.
meus
meum
meus, mos
meu, mon
mea
meam
}
mia, mieua, ma
tuus
tuum
teus, tos
teu, ton
tua 1
tuam )
tua, tieua, ta
8UUS
suum
seus, SOS
seu, son
sua ■>
suam J
sua, sueua, sa
noster
nostres
nostra
}
nostra
nostrum
nostre
nostram
vester
vostres
vestra
}
vostro
vestrum
vostre
vestram
Plu
RAL.
Lat.
Masc.
Prov.
Lat.
Fem.
Prov.
mei
meos
mei, meu )
mos, meus )
meas
mias, mieuas, mas
tui
tuos
tei, teu
tos, teus
}
tuas
tuas, tieuas, tas
sui
suos
sei, seu
SOS, seus
1
suas
suas, sueuas, sas
nostri
nostros
nostre ">
nostres J
nostras
nostras
vestri
vestros
vostre •»
VQjitres /
vestras
vostras
FORMS AND INFLEXIONS OF ROMANCE NOUNS. 79
With all classes of nouiis except those ending in a,
and another kind to be mentioned below, the Provencal
exactly imitated the Latin declension in W5, in making the
I nominative singular, and the accusative plural in 5, and
the nominative plural and the accusative singular with-
out s. "With those ending in a, however, it preserved
the Latin nominative singular unchanged, but formed
the plural of all cases after the Latin accusative, as
musas, domnas, mias, etc.
In the declension of its adjectives the Provencal ob-
serves the same rules, founded on the same reasons.
Thus bons, good, is declined as follows :
Singular. Plural.
Nom. bons or bos bona
bon
bonas
Ace. bon bona
bons
bonas
Gr, R. p. 42.
Past participles of verbs are declined in the same man-
ner: thus
Singular. Plural.
Nom. amatz amata amat amadas
Ace. amat amata amatz amadas
Gr. R. p. 200.
Some adjectives, however, are common to both gen-
ders, and these in the singular number omit the s in the
accusative case, but in the plural preserve it for both the
cases. Grans, great, will furnish an example of this
declension.
Singular. Plural,
Norn, grans grans
Ace, gran
80 CHAPTER II.
The reason of tliis difference is obvious, viz. that
whereas the Latin adjectives which took a feminine
termination, ending in ns, made i in the nominative
plural ; those which did not take a feminine termina-
tion ending in ens, ans, is, etc. made es in the nominative
plural, though they made em in the accusative singular :
consequently the Provencal, after the model of the Latin
adjective, omitted the s in the accusative singular, hut
preserved it in the nominative plural.
The present participles of verbs active were declined
on the same principle, only they showed in the accu-
sative case the letter of the increased genitive : as
Singular. Plural.
Nom. amans amans or -anz/or amants
Ace. amant
Gr, R. p. 197.
The ace. singular is often written without the final t,
as the Proven9al used mon for mond from mundus, and
generally omitted the final d or t after n : thus cJiantj the
first person of the present indie, of chantar, became chariy
atend from atendre became aten, sent from sentir became
sen, etc. ((7r. K p. 209.)
In old French the same system of declension is ob-
served, as M. Raynouard has shown by a multitude of
examples, which prove beyond a doubt the retention
in that language of the same two Latin cases. Thus in
the nom. singular, * Qui ere amirals des galies : ' * Johans
li rois de Blaquie venoit ; ' * Nus n*est joyeux com TJiie-
lauz* (i. e. Thiebauds, Theobaldws) ; * Que ce fut lajlors
FORMS AND INFLEXIONS OF KOMANCE NOUNS. 8 1
des barons^' In the ace. singular, * del plus has enfern;^
* Ested e ivern tu as fait.' Nom. plural, * Celui cui li
Franc avoient chacie de Constantinople ; ' * tout mi
penser sont a ma douce amie ; ' * dont li nom ne sont mie
en escrit.' Ace. plural, * Li rois mande ses arcevesqueSy
Ses meillors clercs et ses evesqnes ;' *sur les chevels de
mun chief;* * Sire Dens ^de vertuz,' (i.e. vertutz.) Gr.
(7(wwp. p. 71— 84.
The old French likewise, as well as the Provengal, ex-
tended this inflexion to the infinitives of verbs, when
used as substantives : thus in the nom. singular, * Si la
blonde savoit Com li departirs m'ocira : ' but in the ace.
singular, * mainte larme i fii ploree de pitie al departir de
lors pays.' {G-r. Comp. p. 96.)
The same inflexion of proper names as that above
pointed out in the Proven9al also occurs in the old
French: thus Hues^ Pieres, Bueves are nom. Emn,
Pierorij BuevoUy are ace. {G-r, Comp. p. 86, 87.)^ Many-
traces of this ancient form of the accusative still appear
in the modem French proper names ; thus Hugon, Pier-
rony or Perroriy Odilony Guy on y (from Gtiy,) GuilloUy (from
Guille for Gmllaume,) Giraudoriy (from Giraudy) Girardon,
> In modem French the words /fe, {from Jiliu8)fonds, {from fundus,)
lacs, (from laqueus,) tiers, (from tertius,) and Artus, (from Arturs,) for
Arthur, are remnants of this ancient form : also corps, poids, temps,
(see above, p. 70, note*) choux, (from caulis,) puits, {from putem,) and
proper names, such as Charles, Hugues, Jules, Georges, Jacques, Louis,
ViUars or Villiers, (from ViUarius,) Londres, (from London, Hke
Havre, from the German hafen.) Anciently the final s in these words
was doubtlessly sounded, and Jils nom. was distinguished from. Jil ace.,
to the ear as well as the eye.
2 On the inflexions of the ancient French nouns, see also Kaynouard,
Jmmal des Savans, 1836, p. 297, 298 ; 1828, p. 136, 137. Observations
fur le Roman de BoUy p. 48 — 58.
Q
82 CHAPTER II.
f
(from Grirard,) Morelon or Morion, (from Morel,) Philip^
pon, (from Philippe,) Vernon, (from Verne,) etc.^
It is unnecessary to repeat any of M. Raynouard's in-
stances of the declension of French, adjectives, as it is a
mere repetition of the declension of the substantives,
(Gr. Comp. p. 129—36.)
The French also anciently used mes, tes, ses, formed
from mos, tos, sos, in the nom. singular, and mon^ ton, son^
in the ace. singular : thus ' je suis ses fils, il est mes
pere.' Nostres and vostres were likewise used as nom.
singular, as * saces que nostres sires m'a pardonnez mes
pechiez.' The latter forms have, however, been sup-
planted by the ace. nostre or notre, vostre or voire, and the
former by the ace. mon^ ton, son, (Grr, Comp. p. 1G2 —
170.)
The Provengal had a peculiar exception to the general
rule with regard to the final 5, for substantives ending
in aire, eire, ire, which made the ace. singular, and
the nom. and ace. plural, in ador, edor, and idor. Thus
trohaire, cantaire, amaire, entendeire, servire, were nom.
singular ; but in the ace. singular, trobador, cantador,
amador, entendedor, servidor, and in both cases of the
plural, trohadors, cantadors, amadors, entendedors, servi-
dors. (Gr. R. p. 33 — 5.) The reason of this singular
declension is that these words, or the words from which
the analogy was derived, were formed from Latin nouns
in dtor, itor, and itor; and in such words asanidtar, domitor,
auditor, in the nom. singular, the last syllable being
short, the o was easily slurred over, and ator, itor, and
* [For a copious illustration *of this subject,' see Burguy, Gr. de la
Langiie d'Oil, vol. i. p. 63 — 98; Ampdre, Hist, de la Litt. Franz, p. 4i)
— ti9.] . . . ,
FOKMS AND INFLEXIONS OF ROMANCE NOUNS. 83
itor^ contracted into aire, eire, and ire ; bnt in all the
other cases, singular and plural, amatorem, amatores,
domitorem, domitores, etc. ; the or being long, it had a
stronger hold on the tongue, and only the last syllable,
according to the constant practice of the Provencal lan-
guage, was omitted. In like manner the Italian has
formed lepre from leporem, eliminating the short 0, but
has preserved the long in lepore from leporem. The fol-
lowing scheme, therefore, explains this declension.
Singular. Plural.
■~N
Lat. Prov. Lat. Prov.
Nom, amator amaire amatores amadors
Ace. amator-em amador
An analogous change may be observed iu those Pro-
vengal comparatives which have been derived from the
LatiQ. These form the nom. singular in ers, the ace.
singular and nom. plural in or, and the ace. plural in ors.
The reason of this change is, that in the nom. singular
the final or, being short in Latin, lost its ftdl sound of 0,
and became er ; then, according to the analogy above ex-
plained, it took the final s in the nom. siagular : but in
the augmented cases the or being long, the vowel was
not changed into the thinner sound of e^.
This remarkable declension of nouns in aire, reappears
in the old French : which in the substantives correspond-
ing to the Latin nouns in ator and itor made the nom.
singular in eres, erres, and ieres^, but the other three
* So it may be observed in the declension of proper names, the Pro-
ven9al changed the final us of the nom. into es, because it was short,
but changed the final urn of the ace. into on, because it was long,
' None of the Provencal examples cited by M. Raynouard, Gr. B.
G2
84 CHAPTER II.
cases in eor or or. Tlius nom. singular, ' Diex tu ies rois
et conseiUeres, et gouvernieres, etJugieresJ * Courones em-
pereres i fu.' Ace. singular, *il deguerpit Deu sxmfaitor.*
Nom. plural, * Yous estes dui enchanteor^ et li nostre
enemi sunt jugeorJ Ace. plural, * Que il est dieu des
jongleors, et dieu de tons Ies chanteorsJ The modem
French, has formed these nouns from the ancient termi-
nation, not of the nominative, hut of the accusative sin-
gular: thus from empereor, chanteor, came emperor ^
cliantor, changed first into emperour, chantourj then into
empereur, chanteur^. The word troubadour, from trohador,
has never undergone the last change and become trouha-
deur. The modern Provencal on the other hand has
formed all these nouns in aire from the termination of the
nominative, as chantaire, triounfaire, troumjpaire, etc. ; but
like the French it has lost the inflexion.
Of the distinction between the cases of comparatives
derived from the Latin, there appears to be no trace in
any Eomance language except the Proven9al. (G-r, Comp.
p. 138.)
Now when we come to compare the system of forma-
tion and declension which has been just described, with
p. 33, take the final 8 after aire ; the French nouns, however, take it
invariably. Gr. Comp. p. 87 — 94.
* This series of changes may be observed in many other French
words, thus illorum, lor, lour, leur; morir, mourir, meurs; probus,
proux (whence prouesse,) preux, etc. : also in the substantives derived
from Latin nouns in or, as honor, honour, honneur, etc., (see below § 3.)
Some of these preserved the ancient termination unchanged, as amour,
labour ; in others it can be perceived in their derivatives, as vigoureux,
douloureux, rigoureuz, tavoureux, etc. : valeureux has been formed
after the termination eur came into use. Soporeux and liquoreux have
preserved the Latin form in or. Nous from no8, vous from vos, bou4;he
from boca, (bucca, Lat.) mouvoir from mover, vouloir from voler, are
FORMS AND INFLEXIONS OF ROMANCE NOUNS. 85
that wHcli prevails in the ItaKan and Spanish, we shall
find the strongest and most marked dissimilarity.
1. In the first place there is no trace in the Italian
and Spanish languages of any distinction of cases : where-
as the Provencal distinguished between the nominative
and accusative, both in the singular and plural, by at
least four different manners : viz. the retention or omis-
sion of s, the change of es and on, of aire and ador, and of
ers and or. Three of these methods of distinguishing
cases likewise appear in the old French.
2. The Provencal in aU nouns and participles derived
from Latin nouns and participles in us, formed its deriva-
tive from the nominative by omitting the last but one,
and preserving the last letter, as amic-u-s, amies; amaU
U'S^ amatz : the Italian and Spanish, on the other
hand, formed their derivative from the accusative by pre-
serving the last but one, and omitting the last letter ;
* thus amicu-m, amico, atnatu-m, amatoK
instances of the change of into ou ; le from lo, les from hs, ce froni
fo, of the change of into e. [Compare Diez, Rom. Gramm. vol. i.
p. 147.]
' M. Eaynouard, having shown that the Italian formerly used meo
for mio, goes on to say that * the Eomance (i. e. Provencal) pronoun
Ttum was adopted and still exists in Monsignor. This remarkable ves-
tige is a fresh proof of the ancient community of language,' Gr. Comp.
p. 164. This vestige, which is certainly remarkable, proves no more
than this : that the Italian, as well as the Provencal, corrupted the
Latin meum into mon: the Provencal used it as an ace. case; in
Italian it was the only case. Afterwards mon became mo, as in the
ancient expressions fratelmo, patremo, cuginomo : see Menage Etym.
Ital. in cuginomo. If M. Raynouard can show that the Italian, like
the Proven<;al, used mexis and mos in the nom. case, he will then indeed
have gone far to prove a community of language. It is not improbable
that in Italian, as it appears to have been the case in Provencal, (see
above, p. 78,) the transition of um into took place in this manner :
86 CHAPTER II.
M. Raynouard himself, speaking of tlie strong reseni-
blance which the Catalonian and Yaudois languages bear
to the Proven9al, remarks that their chief difference con-
sists in their wanting the fundamental rule with regard to
the final s. He then adds : * it appears that this rule
has never been able to cross either the Pjrrenees or the
Alps.' {G-r. Oomp. p. xxxix.) By these words, M. Ray-
nouard, if I rightly understand him, means to say, that
the rules for the formation and declension of nouns and
participles were originally different in the Provencal and
French on the one hand, and in the languages spoken in
Italy and Spain on the other. If this be so, his theory
of the universality of the Provenpal language must, accord-
ing to his own admission, be considerably circumscribed.
It might, indeed, be argued, that as the Provencal
and French, although they adopted as their type
the accusative of Latin nouns increasing in the genitive
case, yet retained the s of the nominative case of noujis
and participles in us ; so the Italian and Spanish, though
they formed from nouns and participles increasing in the
genitive, by taking the accusative case, yet formed from
nouns and participles in us, by taking not the accusative
but the nominative, with the rejection of the final s,
which, we know, was often suppressed in Latin before a
consonant^ : thus mondo, buono, amato, would come from
mundu\ bonu\ amatu\' and in some Italian dialects the
final vowel is still u and not o*.
viz. urn, om, on, o ; amicum, amicom, amicon, amico. The suppression
of the final n is very frequent in the Pro venial. Gr. R. p. 340. Gr.
Comp. p. 163. So likewise in Italian con il and non il are conti-acted
into col and nol, in Genuan von dem into vom.
I See Lanzi, LingUa Etnisca, vol. i. p. 01. ' See above, p. 68.
FORMS AND INFLEXIONS OF ROMANCE NOUNS. 8^
This hypothesis, however, would not account for such
forms as tenero, suocero, genero, ministro, maestro, Ital.
tier7io, suegro, yerno, ministro, maestro, Span., etc., the
originals of which have not u in the nominative case.
We are, therefore, compelled to suppose that the Latiu
accusative was the universal tjrpe for the ItaHan and
Spanish nouns. We know, likewise, from the Provenpal
and French form of the nominative case, that the final s
kad not been in the corrupt period of Latinity, dropped
from the terminations of nouns even in conversation ;
although it was frequently elided before a consonant by
the early Latin poets.
3. In forming the plurals of masculine nouns, the Pro-
venpal and Italian so far agree, that both follow the
Latin nominative case in i : the Proven9al rejecting, the
Itahan retaining, the final vowel. The Spanish, how-
ever, forms its masculine plural after the model of the
Latin a<jcusative, not of the Latin nominative, by adding
s : thus the Italian and Provencal have amici and amic,
like the Latin amici, the Spanish amigos like arnicas:
desiderj, pensamenti, Ital. desir, pensamen, Prov., but
deseoSf pensamientos, Span. The Spanish forms its mas-
culine plurals simply by adding s, from the analogy of
the ace. plur. of Latin nouns in us, while the Italian
forms its masc. plur. in i, from the analogy of the nom.
plur. of nouns in tcs. Thus the Italian says indifierently,
modi, mani, onori, poemi ; the Spanish modos, manos,
onores, poemas.
4. In forming the plurals fem. of nouns and participles
in a, the Proven9al and Spanish agree in following the
Latin accusative, and in simply adding s : thus domnas,
bonas, amatas, Prov., dueuas, bmnas, amadas. Span. Here,
8d
CHAPTER II.
however, the Italian disagrees, as it forms the plural in
these instances from the Latin nom. in oe, which, not
having any diphthongs, it changes into e ; thus donne,
hitone, amate, nuptice, nozze.
The characteristic varieties of the several Eomance
languages in forming their masculine and feminine nouns
from Latin nouns in us and a, are shown by the follow-
ing scheme, which at the same time proves that each
language derived its terminations directly from the Latin,
and independently of any of its cognate languages.
Sing.
PL
Lat.
C caballus
\ caballum
1 caballi
\ caballos
Italian.
cavallo
cavalli
Spanish.
caballo
caballos
Prov. French.
cavals chevals
caval cheval
caval cheval
cavals chevals
Sing.
rmusa
( musam
musa
musa
musa muse (musa)
TmusaB
1 musas
muse
FL
musas
musas muses (mi
ism
It has been shown that the Italian and Spanish nouns
were formed from the Latin ace. singular : and that the
Provencal and French nouns also took the increment of
the genitive case ; the same languages (as is shown in
the above table) also formed the plural of feminine nouns
in a from the Latin accus., and the Spanish formed the
plural of all nouns from the accusative. The same ten-
dency to employ the accusative as a nominative case is
also visible in the progress of the Proven9al and French
languages ; and, when the distinction of cases was gra-
dually given up, led to the disuse of the nominative, and
the retention of the accusative form in each number.
Thus in both those languages, the singular number of
FORMS AND INFLEXIONS OF ROMANCE NOUNS. 89
nouns ending with, a consonant is now marked by tlie
absence of a final s, and tbe plural by its addition :
which is the rule observed in the ancient accusative cases
of nouns, but in the nominative cases the rule was just
reversed. The gradual progress of this change can be
observed in the remains of the early Provencal literature,
in which the distinction between the nom. and ace. is by
no means constantly observed ; and in almost every in-
stance it may be seen that the disposition is to use the
accusative and not the nominative as the invariable form.
In general, the observation of the distinction of cases is
in proportion to the antiquity of the writing : thus in the
Poeme sur Boece, the earliest work in the Romance lan-
guages now extant, the rule as to the final s is constantly
observed ; in the Nohla Leyczon it is almost constantly
neglected in the singular number. The same progress is
also discernible in other parts of speech ; thus mon, ton,
son, nostre and vostre, sometimes occur as nominatives
singular, and mos, tos, sos, as nominatives plural, although
for the most part they are only accusatives : but this
licence (as M. Ra3rnouard states) rarely occurs in the
compositions taken from the best and most ancient monu-
ments {Gr. R. p. 116). It is not improbable that a simi-
lar change took place in the formation of the plural of
Proven$al nouns in a ; and that at a very early period of
that language, prior to the date of any remains of it
which we possess, muse was the nom., and musas only the
ace. case ; so that there were two cases in the fem. as in
the masc. plural. This proneness to abandon the nom.
and employ only the ace. case, however prevailing, was
not invariable; thus it has been already shown that,
although the modem French forms, empereur, chanteur.
9© CHAPTER II.
etc. have been formed from the ancient ace. empereor,
chanteovy and not from the ancient nom. empereres, chan-
tereSy yet the modern Proven9al forms cliantairey trioun-
faire, etc. have followed the analogy of the ancient
nominatives cantaire, amaire, and not of the ancient ace.
cantador, amador^. The Italian, moreover, although it
completely deserted the traces of the Latin nominatives
in the singular number, still retains their terminations
unchanged in the plural. However it cannot be doubted
that, on the whole the Romance languages show a decided
tendency to the accusative in preference to the nomina-
tive case; a tendency, likewise, pointed out above in
some specimens of the Latin of the middle ages^ : and it
seems to me that this disposition affords a better explana-
tion of the forms of the modern nouns than the remark
of Schlegel that the oblique cases served as a type,
because taken together they were more numerous, and
therefore occurred oftener than the nominative^. All the
cases except the nom. and ace. appear to have become
obsolete at a very early period after the German invasion :
and therefore this remark does not explain why, when
only those two cases remained, the preference should, in
almost every instance, have been given to that case which
seems to have the less obvious claim. But although the
existence of a disposition to abandon the subjective and
* See above, p. 84. ' See above, p. 58 — 61.
' ♦ Toutes les langues derivees du Latin ont donne la preference &
un cas oblique quelconque. Et pourquoi? parce que tous les cas
obliques pris ensemble etant d'un usage plus frequent que le nomina-
tif, la forme du substantif commune k tous ces cas s'etoit mieux im-
prim6e dans la memoire de ceux qui ne savoient pas le latin d'une
mani^re savante.' Observ. p. 38. The same explanation is also given
by Diefenbach, p. 119.
FORMS AND INFLEXIONS OF ROMANCE NOUNS. 9 1
use the objective case as the invariable form, appears to
me to be con\diicingly proved by a wide induction^ I am
unable to suggest any very satisfactory explanation of the
causes which induced the mind to make this preference.
In explaining the formation of the Italian noims from
the ace. case, I had occasion to remark that when the
final syllable was um or us, the last letter was rejected,
and u became 0; that where it was em, the last letter
was rejected and the e retained. According to this
hypothesis, there could be nothing arbitrary in the final
vowel of the Italian nouns, and the harshness of a con-
sonant termination was avoided, not by adding a vowel
' It may be observed that foreigners, in attempting to speak a lan-
guage which they do not understand, ahnost always use the accusative
as the nominative of the pronoun in speaking of themselves : e. g. moi
in French, and me in English. The accusative seems to be more em-
phatic than the nominative, and to be preferred to it on that account :
thus in French, where a sti-ess is laid on the pronoun, the accusative
case is invaiiably used : as c'est moi, c'est toi, and not c'estje, c'est tu;
which the strict rule of syntax would require. Thus when Nisus, in
Virgil, wishes to direct instant attention to himself, he exclaims,
Me, me, adsum qui feci, in me convertite ferrum
O RutuU, mea fraus omnis, etc.
The West Indian negroes have made the same change in the pro-
nouns, in their corruption of the Enghsh language : thus in a song
written in the negro dialect of Jamaica,
Peter, Peter, was a black boy ;
Peter Mm puU foot one day :
Buckra girl, him Peter's joy;
Lilly white girl entice him away.
{Journal of a West India Proprietor, by M. G. Lewis, p. 120). ' The
negroes (the author of this song adds in a note) never distinguished be-
tween '• him " and " her " in their conversation.' They have therefore
not only abolished the distinction between the two cases by making
the accusative serve for both, but they have also abolished the distinc-
tion between the two genders, by making the masculine sene for
both.
9^ CHAPTER II.
after a consonant, but by suppressing a consonant after a
vowel. M. Ra}Tiouard, however, takes an entirely dif-
ferent view of this subject. Conceiving that the Italian
was derived from the Provencal^ he represents the Italian
nouns and participles as having been first reduced to the
Proven9al form, and then being augmented with a vowel,
for the sake of euphony, in order to avoid a consonant
termination. Hence he considers such words as largo^
porco, tardo, campo, came, altare, toro, falso, furto, partCy
as formed by the addition of the euphonic e or o, from
the ancient forms larg, pore, tard, camp, cam, altar, tor,
fdls,furt,part : he even goes further, and supposes that
the ancient e has sometimes been changed into o : thus
the original forms diahle, seek, sepidcre, nostre, vostre,.
clergue, evesque, were, according to him, changed in
Italian into diavolo, secolo, sepolcro, nostra, vostro, cherico,
vescovo. In support of this assertion he cites the autho-
rity of GiambuUari, a Florentine writer of the sixteenth
century, who states that in ancient times most of the
Florentine words ended with consonants, and that the
Florentines, seeing the softness of the vowel terminations
of the Sicilians, adopted the Sicilian rule. This ancient
usage, he thinks, is preserved in many of the Italian
dialects, which reject the final vowels, and have the same
consonant terminations as in the corresponding words of
the Proven9al : and a remnant is retained by the AiVTitten
Italian, in the power of omitting the final vowel of cer-
tain words ending with a liquid. He further adds that
Boccacio called his great collection of novels Decameron,
without the final e, which was not added till afterwards :
and that in a poem of Barsape, an early Milanese writer,
the final e is never added to substantives in on, and
FORMS AND INFLEXIONS OF ROMANCE NOUNS. 93
is often wanting after those ending in x, as pax, lux,
verax, which are now always pace, litce, verace^.
To this doctrine I must object, in the first place, that
the Provencal nouns were not as M. Raynouard repre-
sents them, but largs, pores, tard^, camps, etc., with the
final s, the mark of the nominative, which there is no
reason to believe ever existed in Italian. Moreover if the
Italian nouns originally ended in consonants, and the
final vowel was afterwards added for the sake of eu-
phony, how comes it that attention should in almost all
cases have been paid to the Latin termination, and that
where the Latin accusative ended in urn or us, the final
vowel was 0, where it ended in em or en, the final vowel
was e f Is it conceivable that if the Latin terminations
had been long cut off and forgotten, we should never
(with a very few exceptions) find monde from mundum,
or monto from montemf^ Let us take ten Italian sub-
stantives which M. Raynouard has deprived of their ter-
minations in order to exhibit their agreement with the
Proven9al forms, viz. animal, cardinal, cristal, mal, metal,
^ See Gr. Comp. p. Ix. Iv. — vii. and for the consonant terminations
of the Italian dialects, p. 397 — 409. He makes the same supposition
with regard to the addition of the euphonic vowel to the Spanish
nouns, ib. p. xxxv.
^ Sometimes e is used for 0, as in stile for stilo from stilus, padrone
from patronus, and in the termination iere from arius : (see below, § 4,)
sometimes o is used for e, as vimo for vime from vimen, povero from
pauper, lavoro from labor, albero from arbor, consolo from consul, subero
from suber : sometimes a is used for e, as sirena from siren, duca from
dux. Some changes of final vowels produced by the genders will be
explained below, § 3. Duolo, which Castelvetro on Bembo, Prose, vol. ii.
p. 19, (Naples, 1714,) mentions as an irregular form, is probably not
derived from dolor, but from the ancient Teutonic word dol, suffering,
preserved in the Scotch dule. See Meidinger in Bvlden. The Italian
has dolore, regularly formed from dolor.
94 CHAPTER II.
quintal, sal, senescal, signal, val, (Gr, Oomp. p. 33,) and I
will ask him to calculate how many million chances to
one there are, that a person ignorant of Latin (which
we must take to be the condition of his Eomance eu-
phonist) does not err in adding to these words their
vowel terminations ? Nor is this all : but we are called
on to believe that where the Provencal had reduced the
Latin u to the meagre sound of e, as in diahle, seek, etc.,
the Italian retraced its steps and returned to the fuller
vowel. The invariable progress of language is to shorten
long forms, and to attenuate fall sounds : and we would
as willingly believe that the Tiber and Ebro in the mid-
dle ages ran up to their sources, as that the languages
of Spain and Italy, having once been identical with the
Provencal, returned to their present state. It cannot be
doubted that when the practice had once been estab-
lished, that aU the Italian words ended with a vowel,
the euphonic e and o were sometimes added to consonant
terminations, and I have already had and shall hereafter
have occasion to point out some instances, such as sjjeme,
animale, sono, Jianno, etc., where the final vowel is plainly
owing to the love of euphony^ : the difference between
my opinion and M. Eaynouard's is, that what he con-
siders the rule, I consider as the exception, and what he
considers as arbitrary, I consider as regulated by fixed
principles.
The argument which M. Eaynouard founds on the
absence of vowel terminations in the dialects of Upper
Italy deserves a full investigation, as there can be no
doubt that the lower orders and provincial districts com-
* See above, p. 72.
FORMS AND INFLEXIONS OF ROMANCE NOUNS. 95
monly preserve the ancient language with the greatest
fidelity. In most of these dialects the nouns, verbs,
participles, prepositions, adverbs, and other parts of
speech, have not the vowel terminations which prevail
in the written Italian language, but foUow the system
perceptible in the Proven9al and French. Thus they
say sacc, vin, hianch, nemic, fuog^ hoscy mond, camp, nav,
paradis, ahiss, sahhat, libertat, argent, digest, sacerdot, nativ,
etc. Numerals from five to nine are sinch, ses, sett, ott,
nov : participles, present and past, and gerunds, parland,
volend, tocat, fatt, miss, mort : first persons of verbs, perd,
pari, demand : third persons of verbs, dorm, pend, cognoss:
adverbs and prepositions, poc, quand, trop, ades, apress,
vers, mezz, inanz, altrament. The examples collected by
M. Raynouard (from which the above words are taken)
refer only to the dialects of Piedmont, Engaddine in the
Tyrol, Milan, Bergamo, Mantua, Friuli, Ferrara, and
Bologna. It would require more local knowledge than
a foreigner can pretend to possess in order to trace the
exact line of demarcation between the Italian dialects
which have the vowel terminations, and those which
have not ; but the following description may probably be
considered as an approximation to the truth. The dia-
lects of the Provencal run into Piedmont both on the
west and north : in Piedmont, however, an Italian dialect
with consonant terminations begins, and it reaches through
part of the Grisons, over the districts of Milan, Bergamo,
Pavia, Parma, Brescia, Cremona, Mantua, Modena, the
Italian vaUies of the Tyrol, Friuli, the territory of Tre-
viso, and those of Ferrara and Bologna. In the west
and east, it does not extend into the Genoese, Venetian,
Yicentine, Paduan, and Ye^o^ese territories : and towards
96 CHAPTER II.
the south the vowel terminations first appear in Tuscany
and Romagna. Throughout all the rest of Italy the
vowel terminations are as prevalent in the local dialects
and in the mouths of the lowest classes, as in the
written language' : and, as far as our knowledge extends,
have ever been so : the anonymous history of Roman
affairs in the fourteenth century written by a contem-
porary in the Roman dialect^, and the Chronicle of M.
SpineUo written in the thirteenth century in the Apulian
dialect^ precisely agree in this respect with the language
of the present day. M. Raynouard's argument would
have great weight, if over the whole of Italy the lower
orders used a dialect which wanted the final vowels : in
that case it might be said that the ancient language
is always most faithfully preserved among uneducated
persons, and in mountainous or secluded districts ; and
that the upper classes, from their love of a harmonious
and flowing language, had softened the rough pronun-
ciation of their forefathers. But this is not so : the lower
orders of southern Italy and Sicily speak a language
which even luxuriates in vowels beyond the written
Italian : and although the vowel terminations may have
been introduced among the upper ranks of northern
Italy, there is no reason to suppose that they were not
» For an account of tlie dialects of Southern Italy see the Foreign
Quarterly Review, vol. v. p. 158 — 90. [Compare the work of Biondelli,
above, page 44, note '.]
« This history (which contains the life of the celebrated Cola di
Eienzo) is printed in Muratori, Ant. It. vol. iii. p. 251 — 548. It is
written, according to Muratori, p. 249, ' vulgi Eomani dialecto, qua
fortassis a Neapolitana eo tempore parum distabat.' See a passage of
it rendered into the Roman of the present day in Perticari, Di/, di D,
c. 36.
* Murat, Script. Rer, It. vol, viii.
FORMS AND INFLEXIONS OF ROMANCE NOUNS. 97
always in use among the rudest peasants in tlie remotest
comers of Tuscany', the states of the Churcli, of Is'aples,
Calabria, and Sicily. It appears to me that the Italian^
must be considered as divided into two principal dialects,
one with vowel, the other with consonant terminations.
The latter of these, (which closely resembles the French
and Provencal) probably owed its characteristics to the
same causes which gave a peculiar form to the latter
languages ; viz. the larger proportion of Germans who
occupied Gaul and northern Italy, as compared with
those who settled in southern Italy and Spain. The
Lombard kingdom, which was the principal Teutonic
establishment of Italy, had its head quarters at Pavia ;
and along the Alps and in the TyroP, the Italians came
in actual contact with a German population. FriuH,
moreover, and the north-eastern angle of Italy, was the
highroad by which armies of Germans continually poured
into Italy. And generally it may be observed, that it
was in the country lying between the Alps, the Apen-
nines, and the Exarchate, that the German influence
was most strongly felt*. It is remarkable, however, that
* Any body who has heard the harsh and guttural pronunciation of
the peasants of Tuscany will not easily believe that considerable changes
were introduced into their language for the sake of euphony.
^ By the Italian I understand that language which makes the masc.
plural in i and the fem. plural in e.
' M. Eaynouard remarks that ' le voisinage et mime le melange de
la langue allemande ont influ4 surtout sur la prononciation du patois
d'Engaddine.' Gr. Comp. p. Uii. Engaddine is tlie valley of the
Inn on the west of the Tyrol. The language of the Sette Communi, a
part of the Vicentine territory, is a nearly pure Teutonic dialect, as
may be seen from the specimens of it given in Rose's Letters from the
North of Italy, vol. i. p. 257—8, and in the Journal of Education,
No. xii. p. 353.
* Few Germans established themselves in the Duchy of Rome
H
98 CHAPTER II.
althoiigli the consonant dialect occupies so considerable a
space in the north-eastern part of Italy, it misses the
districts of Yenice and Padua, as it does the two rivieras
of Grenoa on the west. Whether this is owing to the
influence of the sea-coast in the formation of language
(according to the opinion of some philologists^) or to the
comparative exemption enjoyed by those countries from
the inroads and dominion of the Teutonic races, (par-
ticularly in the case of Venice,) I shall not pretend to
determine: certain, however, it is, that the dialects of
these districts, though widely differing both from the
written Italian and from one another, have not the chief
part of the consonant terminations which distinguish aU
the other dialects of northern Italy^.
' The statement which M. Ila3rQouard quotes from
Giambullari's treatise on the origin of the Florentine
language, seems at first sight to prove that the con-
sonant terminations once extended so far south as the
city of Florence, and therefore requires our attention.
GiambuUari was a Florentine, born in 1495, who in
1546 published the first work written by a Tuscan on
his native tongue. In this treatise (composed in the
form of a dialogue) he undertakes to refute the common
and the Exarchate, according to Savigny, Gesch. des Edm. RechU^
vol. i., p. 395.
* See Muller's Dorians, vol. ii. p. 488.
« The Venetian dialect is divided between the southern and northern
dialects : thus it says, amigo, capo, came, caritd, caratere, potente,
abate, fiume ; but carbon, corezion, Jior, amorin; and it omits the final
e of the infinitive, and says amar, perder, sentir. See Boerio,
Dizionario del Dial. Veneziano. Venice, 1829. A specimen of the
Paduan dialect of the sixteenth century (which closely resembles the
Venetian) may be seen in Sismondi, Litt. du Midi, vol. ii. p. 239,
c. 15, ad fin.
FORMS AND INFLEXIONS OF ROMANCE NOUNS. 99
opinion, that the Florentine or written Italian language,
was a corruption of the Latin ; and proposes to show
that it was derived from the ancient Etruscan : which
language he conceives to have heen aUied to the Hebrew
and Chaldean. Having offered various proofs of the
affinity of the Etruscan, Hebrew, and Florentine lan-
guages, he represents one of the interlocutors in the
dialogue as quoting a sonnet written by a certain Aga-
tone Drusi of Pisa, in which the poet says, that ' if his
grande avolo, who was the first to join the Sicilian with
the Tuscan mode of speech, had left any works, as he
intended, he would be greater than aU. the modem poets,
including Dante ^/ The person referred to (Giambullari
proceeds to say) is supposed to have been named Lucio
Drusi, who wrote a poem on virtue, and another on the
life of a lover, which were lost in the sea as he was
taking them to the king in Sicily. The writer then
argues, that as this Lucio Drusi was not great, either
in arms or learning, Agatone does not mean by grande
avolOf * the great man his grandfather,' but ' his ancestor
beyond the fifth degree : ' whence he reckons five gene-
rations, or one hundred and fifty years, from the time of
Se'l grande avolo mio, che fu'l primiero
Che'l parlar Sicilian giunse col nostra,
Lassato avesse un' opera d'inchiostro,
Come sempre che visse ebbe in pensiero,
Non sarebbe oggi in pregio il buon Komiero, '
Arnaldo provenzal, ne Beltram vostro. 4. >y
♦ *♦**♦* 1 ^
Non Brunellesco o Dante sarian letti. jr
Che la luce di questo unico sole \s
Sola riluceria lungi e da presso.
Giamb. Origine della Lingua Fiorentinat
p. 243. ed MHan, 1837.
H2
100 CHAPTER II.
Agatone Drusi, and thus fixes Lucio Drusi in 1170
A. D., the tenth year of William, king of Sicily ; the
latter is therefore the king who was so unfortunate as
not to receive the two poems. The date of L. Drusi
being thus ascertaiaed, it is asked in what manner he
joined the Sicilian and Tuscan modes of speech : and
Giambullari answers this question by saying that 'the
ancient Tuscans ended most of their words with conso-
nants, as might he seen from the very ancient Etruscan
words before mentioned in the dialogue, while the Sicilians,
on the other hand, ended them with vowels : that L.
Drusi (as it is said) began to soften that harshness, not
by adopting foreign words, but by adding vowels at the
end of all the Tuscan words. This custom (he continues)
did not please many persons in Drusi's lifetime, but after
his death the Tuscans began to foUow the practice intro-
duced by him, not only in poetry, but even in prose and
in conversation.' This is the substance of GiambuUari's
argument ; and in the first place it may be remarked,
that the proceeding by which the date of L. Drusi's
compositions is fixed, appears somewhat arbitrary : for
Agatone Drusi might have called his ancestor a great
man, especially as he doubts not of his superiority to
Dante, even if he had never been a great commander or
doctor^. But the statement which more concerns the
subject in question, viz. that the Tuscans formerly ended
* The existence of Ag. Drusi was at first doubted by Tiraboschi,
Stor. della Litt. Ital,, torn, iv., lib. 3. c. 3 § 2, and after him by Pignotti,
Storia di Toscana, vol. iv. p. 68. Tiraboschi, however, in the later
editions of his work, showed that his foi-mer suspicion was unfounded,
but justly considered Giambullari's argument as to the antiquity of L.
Drusi as untenable. L. Drusi probably wrote in the last half of the
thirteenth century.
FORMS AND INFLEXIONS OF ROMANCE NOUNS. lOI
all their words in consonaiits, seems to me notliiiig more
than an imagination of Giambullari, made in order to
support his baseless speculations on the affinity of the
ancient and modern languages of Tuscany. The ex-
pression in the sonnet refers, as I conceive, to the in-
fluence of the Sicilian poetry on the ancient writers of
Tuscany, and to their imitation of the earliest Italian
compositions in an elevated and refined style ^: and not
to any change in the structure of the Tuscan language.
Giambullari, however, seizes on this passage, grafts on it
a false interpretation, supported by a statement which he
gives only as a report^, in order to strengthen his proofs
of a theory which now would on all hands be admitted
to be utterly devoid of foundation : and he would have
us beheve that a certain Lucio Drusi, who wrote in the
middle of the twelfth century two poems that were lost
in the sea, persuaded the whole population of Tuscany
to change one of the most important characteristics of
their language. It has been said, that Augustus, though
master of the Eoman world, could not alter the meaning
of a Latin word : how fortunate then was this obscure
rhymer, whose example induced a whole nation, iu an
unlettered age, not merely to change the meaning of a
word, but to remodel their entire language^ ! The stress
* See Perticari, Bifesa di Dante, c. 4 — 7.
' Dicono adunque che Lucio, considerando la nostra pronunzia e la
Siciliana, etc. p. 245.
' If the ancient Tuscan had really been characterised by consonant
terminations, the attempt of any individual to change that characteristic
would probably have been as successful as that of Frederic the Great
to add vowels at the end of the German words, or of Dr. Murray to
effect the same improvement in the EngUsh language. See the article
on English orthography in the Philol. Mus. vol. i. The only instance
of such a change with which I am acquainted, is in some of the negro
102 CHAPTER II.
whicli M. Raynouard lays on this passage of a treatise
evidently belonging to the infancy of philology, and
abounding in the wildest dreams about the history and
languages of Italy, would have reminded me of the
eagerness with which a drowning man catches at a
-straw, if his views were not supported by so many other
proofs of a more substantial character^.
As to the practice of cutting off the final vowel after
a liquid consonant in ItaKan, which M. Eaynouard con-
siders as a proof that the vowel was originally added for
the sake of euphony, it is to be observed that the Italian
writers, especially in poetry, assume the privilege of sup-
pressing it, not merely where M. Eaynouard supposes
it to have been arbitrarily added, but also in cases where
it has manifestly been retained from the Latin : thus the
poets contract both amore and amori into amor, both Ro-
mano and Romani into Roman^,
For example, in the verses of Dante :
Perchfe i Pisan veder Lucca non ponno
Inf., c. 33, 1. 30.
Poiche i vicini a te punir son lenti
ib. 1. 81.
son is contracted from sono by the rejection of a final
corruptions of the English (see above, p. 22, note'); and this, we
may be assured, was not made at the suggestion, or by the authority
of any individual. Comp. p. 34, note*.
* The same passage of Giambullari is likewise cited with approba-
tion by Perticari, Dif. di D., c. 20 ; who adds the equally unfounded
supposition that the Sicilians derived their final vowels from the ^olic
dialect of the Greeks inhabiting their island.
' ' E da sapere (says Castelvetro) che tutti i nomi i quali potevano
nel numero minore lasciare la g o vero lo o, potranno similmente nel
maggiore lasciare lo i.' Bembo, Prose, vol. i. p. 80.
I
FORMS AND INFLEXIONS OF ROMANCE NOUNS. IO3
vowel not traceable to the Latin, and evidently added
for the mere sake of euphony : veder and punir are con-
tracted from veder e and punire by the rejection of the
final e, which appears unquestionably to be retained from
the Latin, though this is denied by M. Ra}Tiouard : Pisan,
however, contracted from Pisani, is evidently not formed,
according to M. Raynouard's own view, by the rejection
of an euphonic termination : so that his mode of account-
ing for the practice of the Italian writers in omitting
Snal vowels is not applicable in all cases ; and conse-
quently there is no reason for supposing that those
vowels which may be elided were originally added for
the sake of euphony. M. RajTiouard, likewise, men-
tions in proof of his assertion with respect to the recent
addition of the final vowels in Italian, the name of
Boccacio's collection of novels, which by the author was
written Decameron, but was afterwards changed into
Decamerone. This example, however, has no weight :
Decameron was a Greek word which had not passed
through the Latin into popular usage, but was first
employed by Boccacio himself. If it had thus come
into general use, it would doubtless, like fenomeno and
lessico, have been modified into Decamero. As it was,
Boccacio introduced it into Italian without any change,
as Dante employed many uncommon proper names with
their consonant terminations, as Minos, Semiramis, Mn-
pedocles, Austeric, etc. The vowel terminations of the
Italian nouns were, however, as firmly and universally
estabhshed in the times of Dante and Boccacio as at
the present day. As to the peculiarities of Barsape,
mentioned by M. Rajniouard, they may probably be
referred to the dialect of his native city, from which
104 CHAPTER II.
this early Milanese writer had perhaps not quite eman-
cipated himself: nevertheless the language of this poet
(in Perticari's opinion) little differs from that of the
early classical writers of Itahan^
It appears, therefore, that there is no ground for as-
senting to M. Eaynouard's conclusion that the final
vowels in Italian were arbitrarily added, at a recent
date, for the sake of euphony. Indeed it appears to
me that the written remains of that language, so far as
they reach, afford every reason for believing that the
prevalence of vowel terminations was one of its earliest
characteristics : in the Latin documents of Italy, which
are of an earlier date than any compositions in the
Eomance languages, whenever any Italian word or name
is accidentally inserted, it almost invariably exhibits the
vowel termination, even in charters belonging to the
northern states'^: whence it seems to me much more
' Dif. di Dante, c. 29.
' For example, the names Fetro, Martino, Geminiano, Benedicto,
Domminico, Bonoaldo, Eaginberto, Lanfranco, Sigefredo, Ingelberto,
some of which are of Roman, others of German origin, occur in a
document of Lemonte near Lake Como, a.d. 882: and another of
Modena, about 980 a.d. published in Muratori, Ant. It. vol. iii.
p. 747, 723 : and see other instances, from deeds, of the use of the
vowel terminations in Italian, during the tenth and eleventh centuries,
in Murat. Diss. 32, vol. ii. p. 1030, B.— 1037, D. Muratori, vol. ii.
p. 1047, B. cites the following verses, which were inscribed in the
ancient cathedral of Ferrara :
II mile cento trempta cinque nato
Fo questo templo a Zorzi consecrate.
Fo Nicolao scolptore
E Glielmo fo lo autore.
If this inscription was not set up in the year 1135 a.d. its date,
probably, is not much later. A diploma of Roger, Count of Calabria
and Sicily, in 1122 a.d., published in UgheUi, Italia Sacra, tom. viii.
Part I. col. 291, contains many Italian words with vowel terminations.
FOKMS AND INFLEXIONS OF ROMANCE NOUNS. IO5
probable tbat the dialects of upper Italy originally fiad
vowel terminations, and afterwards lost them, than tbat
the dialects of southern Italy, having originally wanted
them, afterwards added them for the sake of euphony.
The impossibility of the derivation of the Italian
and Spanish languages from the Provenfal is evidenced
not only by the retention of the final vowels from the
Latin which the Provencal had thrown away, but by the
contraction or alteration of many Latin words in the
latter language, which the former languages exhibit in
a completer and less altered state. But if they had
come from the Latin through the medium of the Pro-
ven9al, this difference could not have been perceptible :
the water must have tasted of the impure channel
through which it had passed.
Latin.
Provencal.
French.
Italian.
Spanish.
medicus
nietge>
medico
medico
lingua
lengua
langue
lingua
lengua
saBculum
segle
si^cle
secolo
siglo
oculus
huel
oeuil
occhio
ojo
auricula
aurelha
oreille
orecchia
oreja
diabolus-
diable
diable
diavolo
diablo
latro
lairon
larron
ladrone
ladron
pater
paire
pere
padre
padre
pavor
paor
peur
2
pavor
frater
fraire
frfere
frate
fratre
mundus
mon
monde
mondo
mundo
nepos
nibot
neveu
nipote
nepote
undecim
unze
onze
undici
once
1 In this list both the Proven(?al and French mascuUne nouns are
exhibited without the final s, as the object is merely to compare the
internal changes in the words.
' The Italian has not preserved the word pavor. Paura, Hke the
Spanish pavura, is a fern, substantive in ura, formed from the verb
pavere : see below, § 4, on the termination ura.
lOD
CHAPTEE
II.
Latin.
sol
Provenpal,
solel
French.
soleil
Italinn.
sole
Spanish.
sol
spes
eleemosyna
esper
almorna
espoir*
aumosne
speme
limosina
limosna
episcopus
evesque
evesque
vescovo
obispo^
* The French oi sometimes came from the Latin e, as in the ter-
minations of verbs, avoir from aver, valoir from valer, etc. (Gr. Comp.
p. 257 — 60), te toi ; tres trois ; tect-um, toit ; mes, mois ; sometimes
from the Latin i, as digitus, degt, doigt, pix, pe<?, poix: sometimes
from 0, as gloria, gloire, vox, voix, Ambrosius, Ambroise : sometimes
from u, as punctum point, unctum oint, jungere joindre ; sometimes
from au, as claustrum cloitre. In the two latter cases, u and au
doubtless became first o, then oi.
^ Bispo, the Portuguese form of episcopus, occurs in a Latin charter
of Alboacem, a Moorish king of Coimbra, of the year 734. Eayn.
vol. i. Introd. p. xi. At so early a period (as Schlegel remarks, p. 49,)
were the peculiarities of the Eomance languages developed. The
genuineness of the document in question has, however, been doubted:
thus Southey, Chronicle of the Cid, p. 406, has the following remarks
on it. * This charter, like the funeral urn of Achilles, the tomb of
Alexander, and the relics of the archangel Michael, is the more to be
suspected because it would be of such exceeding value, if genuine. It
may be doubted whether a Moorish governor, at so early an age,
•would give charters in Latin, whether at any age he would use the
sign of the cross for his mark, and whether the language into which
the Latin is corrupted be not of a more modem complexion. But the
exemption, if it be forged, could be of no use after Coimbra was re-
covered by the Christians : so that even in that case it is of very cu-
rious antiquity, and may truly state the laws to which the Christians
were subject.' There does not, however, appear to be any reason why
a Moorish governor should not have given a charter to his Christian
subjects in the language which they understood, and which was at that
time and long afterwards universally employed by all the Christians of
western Europe for the composition of both public and private docu-
ments. As to the use of the cross, it is expressly mentioned in the
charter that he employed it 'rogatu Christian orum,' in compliance
with the wishes of the grantees : and there is no reason to doubt that
80 many years after the invasion of the Goths, a Romance language
was currently spoken in Spain. Gibbon, c. 51, n. 187, citing the sub-
stance of this charter from Fleury's Ecclesiastical History says : • I
have not the original before me ; it would confirm or destroy a dark
FORMS AND INFLEXIONS OF ROMANCE NOUNS. IO7
On comparing these instances it will be seen that in
some cases the Italian and Spanish, and especially the
former, do not exhibit the modifications of the Latin
word which appear in the Provencal: in others, that
the same Latin word has been modified differently in
the three languages. The Provencal likewise admits
many occasional contractions and changes which do not
appear in the Italian : thus
Latin.
nox
septimana
Provenpal. French.
nueyt or nueg nuit
setmana or semaine
semmana
Italian. Spanish.
notte noche
settiraana semana
Another difference between the several Romance lan-
guages consists in prefixing the vowel e to words begin-
ning with s followed by a consonant^ ; a practice which
the Spanish always observes, the Proven9al and French
often, the Italian never. The following examples will
illustrate the manner in which the Italian has avoided
this change admitted by the Proven9al.
LaHn.
stare
Italian.
stare
Provenpal.
estar
Spanish.
estar
French.
estre (etre)
spiritus
strata
spirito
strada
esperit
estrada
espiritu
estrada
esprit
estrade
sperare
scutum
sperare
scudo
esperar
esperar
escudo
esperer
escu (ecu)
sclavns
schiavo
stoppa
esclav
estopa
esclavo
estopa
esclave
estoupe (etoupe)
suspicion that the piece has been forged to introduce the immunity of
a neighbouring convent.' Gibbon, however, was prone to suspect
fraud when ecclesiastics were concerned.
* Meidinger, in his Teutogothic Dictionary, p. 82, completely mis-
takes the nature of this euphonic vowel prefixed only to words begin-
ning with s followed by a consonant, in calling it a ' particle,' and
comparing it with significant prefixes, such as ^e in High German,
and a in Anglo-Saxon.
I08 CHAPTER II.
The Spanisli has no word beginning with s followed
by a consonant : invariably it prefixes e to avoid the
concourse of consonants : the Italian, on the other hand,
seems rather to seek this sound, since in some cases it
even rejects an initial e before s with a consonant, as
state for estate from cestas, stimare for estimare from
CBstimare, sperto for esperto from expertus; in some cases
it prefixes 5 to a word beginning with a consonant, as
spergiuro from perjurus^ sprofondare from profundus^
etc. ; and the prefix dis is always curtailed to a simple
5, as spietatOy sharcare, scavalcare, etc. It is to be ob-
served, however, that although the ItaKan rather seeks
than avoids the concourse of s with a consonant at the
beginning of a word, yet when the preceding word ends
with a consonant (which rarely happens) it prefixes the
vowel ^, as con isdegno^ and not con sdegno.
The French seems originally to have had the same
tendency as the Spanish of prefixing e to 5 followed by a
consonant ; but the tendency was not so strong as to make
the practice universal, and many words were formed in it
without this change. It is obvious, on looking through
the two classes of words which have and which have not
undergone this change, that the former belong to an early
period of the French language, and that the latter are of
a more learned and less popular character, and have been
formed with a view of adhering closely to the Latin ori-
ginals : thus scapula, scJioIa, spatha, spatiuniy spina, sponsus,
stagnum, stannum, stahulum, status, stella, scabinus, schaum^
have become espaule, escole, espee, espace, espine, espoux,
estang, estain, estable, estat, estoile, eschevin, escume : while
scandalum, sculptor, statua, statutum, stipulatio, stratagema,
structura, stylus, have become scandale, sculpteur, statue,
FORMS AND INFLEXIONS OF ROMANCE NOUNS. IO9
statuty stipulation, stratagems, structure, style. In some
cases there is both an ancient and a modern derivative
from the same Latin root : thus from stomachus is the old
word estomac, but from stomachicus comes the modem
medical term stomachique ; from studium etude, but from
stvdiosus studieux.
There are also many words in which the Italian has
retained the Latin p, while the Provencal and Spanish!
have changed it into J, the French into v^ : thus /
Latin.
Italian.
Spanish.
Proven pal.
French.
aperire
aprire
abrir
ubrir
ouvrir
aprilis
aprile
abril
abril
avril
capillus
capello
cabello
cabel
cheveu
capra
capra
cabra
cabra
cbevre
capistrum
capestro
cabestro
cabestre
chevestre
juniperus
ginepro
enebro
genibre
genievre
opera
opera
obra
obra
oeuvre
sepelire
seppellire
sepelir
sebelir
en-sevelir
sapere
sapere
saber
saber
savoir
sapor
sapore
sabor
sabor
saveur
In some cases, however, the Italian has changed the
Latin j? into v; as in riva from ripa, and in povero from
pauper.
In the Proven9al likewise may be discerned the
tendency which has been very prevalent in the French,
but of which there is scarce a trace in Italian and Spanish,
of changing c before a into ch : thus from cantare the
Prov. has both cantar and chantar, chanter French ; from
cantio, canson and chanson, chanson French.
The following differences have prevailed in the Romance
* See Eayn. Gr. Comp. p. xxvi., Grimm, Deutsche Rechtsalterthumer,
p. 776. On this change in Spanish, see Mayans i Siscar, vol. ii. p. 146.
no CHAPTEK II.
languages with respect to the changes undergone hy the
Latin c before vowels.
In Latin c before all vowels was equivalent to h; thus
ca, ce, c^, CO, m=ka, Jce, H, Jco, hu.
In Italian c has retained the sound of h before a, o, and
u; as caroy ccro, cur a: but it has become ch before e and
*, as Oerere, cinque (according to the EngHsh pronuncia-
tion, cherere, chinque^).
. In Spanish, as in Italian, the c retains the sound of k
before a, (?, and u; but before e and i it has the force of
thy as Qeres, cinco, (pronounced theres, thinco.)
The French c before a has usually become ch^ as carv^^
cher ; caro, chair; camera , chamhre ; cajpra, chevre ; castanea,
chataigne ; carmen, charme ; caput, chef; calidus, chaud ;
calvuSjChauve; cauUsyChoux; scahinuSyCschevin ; Jcarr,char;
bucca, louche ; musca, mouche, etc. : before e and i it is
pronounced like s, as ceci, (pronounced sesi ;) before o and
u it has (as in ItaHan and Spanish) retained the sound of
ky as comme, contre, couleur, col, cordcy corpSy cultCy cure,
courbe. Not unfrequently, however, the Latin c has re-
mained unchanged before a: but (as has been already
remarked of the prefix e before s and a consonant) in
words which belong to a later period of the language,
and which have a more learned aspect ; as cadavre,
calomnicy canaly candidcy canoUy capablcy capitulery caractere,
cataractCy categorie, etc. Sometimes there is a doubly
derivative from the same word, as in the following
examples :
» It will be observed that this statement only applies to the southern
Italian dialect with vowel terminations : that of the north with con-
sonant terminations, pronounces the c like the French. (See above,
p. 05). In Tuscany the sound of c before e and i has been softened,
so that it is pronounced like sh in EngKsh.
FORMS AND INFLEXIONS OF ROMANCE NOUNS. 1 1 1
Latin.
Antient French.
Recent French.
calx
chaux
calquer
canonicus
chanoine
canonique
capitulus
chapitre^
capitule
captivus
chetif
captif
capra
chevre
caprice
carbo
charbon
carbon
carta
charte
carte
causa
chose
cause
CJievalier and chevalerie were the ancient forms from cheval
(cahallus;) cavalier and cavalerie were probably borrowed
from the Italian. From canis was formed chien; but from
canicula canicule; from candela chandelle ^hut from candela-
brum candelabre.
It is obvious that these diversities of pronunciation
could not have been borrowed by the Romance languages
from each other, or from any one common origin: but
that they must have been produced by the separate work-
ings of each, and by the different vocal organization of
the populations by which they were spoken. Nor is there
any reason to suppose that they were of recent introduction :
for we know that at the Sicilian vespers the French were
distinguished from the Italians by being made to pronounce
the words ceci and ciceri ; and consequently the charac-
teristic peculiarities of the French and Itahan pronuncia-
tion were as firmly estabhshed at the end of the thirteenth
century as at the present day ; and it will be observed
that in the pronunciation of c before e and **, both these
languages differed from the Latin ; thus ceci according
to the Latin pronunciation would be kehi^ according to the
Italian chechi, according to the French sesi.
Chapitre from capitulus like ^itre from epistola, litre from titulua.
112 CHAPTER 11.
§ 3. GENDERS OF NOUNS.
With regard to the genders of nouns, it may be ob-
served that as the use of tbem, like that of cases, re-
quires some knowledge and discrimination, tbey are
naturally destroyed or confounded by tbe same causes
wbicb lead to tbe destruction of inflexions, and tbe sub-
stitution of analytic for synthetic forms. Thus the
Anglo-Saxon genders were lost at the Norman conquest :
and the English only retains the natural genders ; that
is to say, no nouns have any gender which do not de-
signate male or female individuals^. The influence of
1 This appears to me to be a correct statement of the English usage
of genders : our language never marks genders except by the use of the
pronouns he and she, the former of which refers to males, the latter to
females : of the relative who, which refers either to males or females,
and of it and which, which refer only to inanimate things. The neuter
forms it and which are commonly used in speaking of brute animals,
especially where the sex is not apparent, as in insects, fish, birds, etc. :
but never in speaking of the human race, except sometimes of infants.
Whenever he and she are applied to an inanimate thing, as to the sun,
the moon, a country, or a quality of the mind, the object is personified :
the same is also the case with a ship, which a sailor personifies, in order
to represent it as an object of afiection. In all case's where he or she is
applied to an inanimate thing, it would be correct, though perhaps not
so energetic or suitable to the expression, to employ the neuter pro-
noun. It appears to me, therefore, that the state of things which Grimm
anticipates, viz. that ' the English language will at some future time
Kmit the use of he and she to persons, and in all other cases employ it,'
(vol. iii. p. 547,) has already arrived, and has indeed existed for some
centuries. Our language has no grammatical genders : the masculine,
feminine, and neuter pronouns are applied with reference, not to the
noun itself, but to that which the noun signifies. Whereas in languages
which have grammatical genders, the noun itself has a certain gender,
without reference to the sex or animation of the object signified: thus
in Greek Tratdiov is neuter, Trirpa is feminine, and aiyiaXbg masculine,
although a child is either male or female, and a rock and a shore are
lifeless objects.
GENDERS OF EOMANCE NOUNS. II3
the German conquest on the Latin language, as in other
respects it was not so great as that of the [N'orman
conquest on the Anglo-Saxon language, so likewise in
respect of genders it did not produce so considerable a
change : but it left the masculine and feminine genders
of nouns, and only destroyed the neuter gender. In
all the E-omance languages the Latin genders of nouns
were, for the most part, preserved unchanged, with this
general exception, that all the neuter nouns became
masculine!. The close coincidence of the inflexions of
masculine and neuter nouns in Latin, as cahallus and
damnum, sol and sal, naturally led to this confusion^.
The resemblance of these two genders, sufficiently great
in the Latin, was moreover increased by the changes
in the form of nouns which took place in the Eomance
languages : for in the Ital. and Span, the forms in us
and um were identified by the use of the ace. case ; since
cahallum, damnum, or their derivatives in 0, had the same
invariable termination ; and in the Prov. and French the
general adoption of the Latin nom. terminations pro-
duced a similar identity, as those words became cavals
and dans. Hence in Ital. and Span, the nouns in 0,
and in Prov. and French those in s, were together as
masculines generally opposed to feminine nouns in a.^*
Besides this universal change of neuter into masculine
nouns, there are, however, particular deviations in the
Eomance nouns from the Latin gender ; in some of
which the reason is apparent, in others it is more
obscure.
1 Some pronouns in ProvenQal and Spanish preserved the neuter
form ; see below, chap. 3.
2 See Grimm, vol. iiL p. 542.
I
114 CHAPTER II.
/ In the first place the Italian changed the gender of
6ome nouns of the third declension, as arhore, fronte^
aere^ carcere^ cenere, fine, folgore, fonte, margine, ordine,
which it made both mascuKne and feminine'. Whereas
in Latin the two first were always feminine, and the
eight last always masculine. The Spanish, likewise, has
changed the gender of several nouns of this declension :
thus carcel, fuente, leche, legumbre, miel, sal, are feminine ;
arte, dote, canal, mar, margen, orden, fuente, are of both
genders. In Provencal career, dens,fons, mar, are femi-
nine; arhre is masculine. In French, likewise, many
\ Latin nouns have changed their gender without any
\ apparent reason, as dent, font^ mer, mode, ohole, have
become feminine ; corn in old French was masculine,
(6rr. Comp, p. 65 ;) cor is now masculine, but come is
feminine ; arbre, art, ete, ongle, salut, sort, have become
\ masculine; hymne is of both genders^. Moreover, in
the Latin nouns making orem in the accusative singular,
^ which the Proven9al adopted without further alteration,
than the addition of s to the truncated accusative, it
changed the gender from masculine to feminine, except
in those words which signified a male. Thus from the
Latin amor, color, dolor, dulcor, flos, honor, sapor, iimor,
valor, were formed the Proven9al amors, colors, dolors,
doussors, flors, honors, sahors, temors, valors, feminine ;
lavors, however, from labor, retained its masculine gen-
der^. The old French preserved the same terminations,
* Castelvetro on Berribo, vol. ii. p. 26.
' Grimm, vol. iii. p. 560, cites souris fem. from sorex masc. as an
instance of this change of gender in French. Sorex, however, being
the name of an animal, was doubtless of both genders, and perhaps
the feminine was familiarly used in preference, as in kvwv and canis.
* The following Proven9al passage from Dante's Purgatory, canto
GENDERS OF ROMANCE NOUNS. JII5
but likewise changed the gender : thus ' la bonne amor,*
* V amors que Diex m'a commandee/ * de bone amor,*
* sous la color de pitie/ * la dolors,^ * la fiors,' * dont la
tenors estoit telle/ * une des plus altes honors,^ (Gr. Comp.
p. 59 — 61, 84.) This termination in or, when the s
had been disused, and the form of the ace. had sup-
planted that of the nom., was in French successively-
changed into our and eur : and, with the exception of
words such as acteur, auteur, seigneur, from actor, alitor,
senior, etc. which are necessarily masculine, and the
forms labour, and labeur, from labor, and honneur from
honor^, which have retained the Latin gender, this ter-
mination is always feminine. Thus ardeur^ clameur,
chaleur, couleur, douleur, erreur, Jleur, fureur, horreuTy
26, as restored from the Mss. by M. Raynouard, Joum. des Sav. 1830,
p. 67—78, clearly exhibits this change of gender:
Tan m' abeUis vostre cortes deman
Ch'ieu non me puesc ni-m voil a vos cobrire ;
leu sui Amautz, che plor e vai cantan ;
Consiros vei la passada follor,
E veijauzen lo joi qu'esper denan;
Aras vos prec, per aquella valor •
Que us guida al som sens freich e sens calina,
Sovegna vos atenprar ma dolor.
That is, literally translated : * So much does your courteous demand
please me that I neither can nor will conceal myself from you. I am
Amald, who weep and go singing. Grieved I see the past folly, and
I see with pleasure the joy which I hope for the future. Now I en-
treat you by that virtue which guides you to the summit without cold
and without heat, that you will remember to assuage my grief.' For
further details relating to this passage, see Raynouard, Joum. des. Sav,
ubi sup. ILexique Roman, vol. i. p. xUi. Blanc, Vocabolario Dantesco^
Art. Tan m' abeUis.]
1 Honneur was, however, feminine in old French, as in one of the
instances above cited,
12
Il6 CHAPTER II.
Jmmeur, liqueur, mceurs, odeur, paleur, 'peur, pudeur,
rigueur, rumeur, saveur, splendeur, sueur, terreur, torj)eur,
tumeur, vakur, vapeur, vigueur, are feminine, althougli
the Latin nouns from wliicli they were derived are mas-
culine. In their derivatives from these same noims, the
Iltalian and Spanish have constantly preserved the mas-
jculine gender^. It is difficult to say what induced both
the Provencals and French to change the gender of so
many Latin masculine nouns in or: probably, however,
it was the tendency to designate abstract qualities by
feminine nouns, so observable in the Latin language-,
which led to the deviation in question.
Other variations of gender, of which we can trace the
cause, arose from the changes in the terminations of
nouns which took place in the Romance languages.
Thus in the modem languages o was generally the mas*
culine, and a the feminine termination ; and hence many
forms in o derived from Latin feminine nouns became
masculine, and many forms in a derived from Latin
masculine or neuter nouns became feminine. In this
manner all Latin feminine nouns of the second and
fourth declensions became masculine in Italian, as il
pero, il melo, il fico, il dtcomo, except la mano from
Tnanus^. The same change has likewise been made in
Spanish : which, however, has preserved the feminine
gender of manus. On the other hand, some mascu-
line and neuter nouns in a have become feminine, as
* Flor, however, is feminine in Spanish, and flore was sometimes
made feminine in old Italian : Perticaii, Dif. di Dante, c. 13, vol. i.
p. 323.
' See Grimm, vol. ui. p. 531.
' Castelvetro on Bembo, voL L p. 19.
GENDEKS OF ROMANCE NOUNS. II7
aria, (from aera^ cometa, cresima, Jkmma, salma, Ital. ;
asma, Span.; anagramme, enigme, Frencli^; fantasima
^and tema in Ital., have both genders. On the other
I hand, baptisma, psalma, sophisma, having retained their
genders, became battesimo, salmo, sofismo, in Ital. ; bau^
tismOy salmo, in Span., while stigmata plural in Ital.
became stimati. Sometimes, however, the Ital. noun
not only formed its plural according to the regular
analogy, but also preserved the Latin plural in ora or
a, as i corpi and le corpora^ i tempi and le tempora, i prati
and le prata, i corni and le corna, gli ornamenti and le or-
namenta, etc. ; and as in these cases the plural in a
became feminine, it was sometimes changed into e, the
regular feminine plural, as gli ossi, le ossay and le osse,
i legni, le legna, and le legne^. In some cases, moreover,
the neuter plural of the Latin became the feminine
/singular of the Italian noun, thus arma, strata, spolia,
insignia^, fata* y pecor a, folia, vela, w/cera, became in Ital.
Parm/i, la strada, la spoglia, Vinsegna, la fata, la pecoray
la foglia, la vela, (the sail,) la ulcera^: so likewise in
Span, arma, bona, claustra, dona, fata, folia, insigniay
plana, pecora, signa, strata, vehy ulcera, Latin, became
Parma, la bona, la claustra, la dona, la fada, la hoja, la
' Popular usage had already made this change in Latin, in some
words : thus schema {(rxrjiuz) is made feminine by Plautus and Sue-
tonius, glaucoma (yXavKtufia) by Plautus, etc. ; see Scheller's Latin
Grammar, by Walker, vol. i. p. 474.
' Castelvetro, ib., p. 21.
* Castelvetro, ib., p. 35.
* Menage, Etym. Ital., in v,
5 The Italian, however, likewise had the form ulcero, irregularly
formed from ulciis, (above, p. 74, note *,) now obsolete. It likewise
preserved il velo, for the veil.
Il8 CHAPTER 11.
insegma, la lana, la pecora, la seha, la estrada, la vela, la
ulcer a^. In French, likewise, we find depouilles, dette,
etude, fee, feuille, huile, idole, levre, jpomme, ulcere, of tlie
feminine gender. In Italian the Latin millia has become
miglia, in the sense of miles; from the femiQiiie plural
miglia, the masculine singular miglio has been formed.
In Spanish the Latin millia has become the feminine
singular milla, in the sense of a mile ; which makes
millas in the plural. So in English kitten the plural
of cat, chicken the plural of chick, twin the plural of
two, stocken, (stocking) the plural of stock-, and garden
the plural of geard or yard, have become singular,
because the ancient plural termination in en, like the
Latin neuter plural in a, is no longer understood^.
From this comparison of the changes which have
taken place m the Latin genders, it appears that though
aU the Romance languages agree in retaiuing the mas-
culine and feminine, and rejecting the neuter gender,
and in changing the neuter into the masculine, yet that
the Provencal has introduced innovations from which
the Italian and Spanish are free, and in which it agrees
remarkably with the French ; and that the Italian has
retained vestiges of the Latin which do not appear in
the Provenpal. These facts therefore are inconsistent
with the supposition that the Provenjal was the most
ancient form of the Italian and Spanish languages.
1 See Sanchez, Poes. Castell, vol. i. p. 392, 386, vol. iii. p. 392,
439, vol. iv. p. 307. [Other examples are given hy Diez, Rom. Chr.,
vol. ii., p. 21.]
2 See Johnson, in stocking.
3 Holstein, the proper name, (whence Holsteiner,) has in like
manner been corrupted from Holsten, the plural of HolsU : see
Grimm's Deutsche Recht*alterthiimer, p. 810, note.
NEW ROMANCE NOUNS FORMED BY AFFIXES. II9
§ 4. FORMATION OF NEW ROMANCE NOUNS
BY AFFIXES.
M. Raynouard enters into a long comparison of the
terminations of substantives in tlie Romance languages,
and shows a great resemblance between the Provengal
and the others, whence he would, as usual, infer the
derivation of the latter from the former. {G-r. Comp,
p. 23 — 71.) These similarities may be reduced to three
heads.
1. TJiose in which the Provengal has preserved the
Latin word unchanged, such as barha, Jierha, cmnedia,
hestia, formay pluma, persona, aurora, animal^ etc. The
agreement of the other languages with the Provencal
in these forms evidently furnishes no proof of their
derivation from the Provencal, as the Provencal and
Latin are here the same. M. Raynouard seems occa-
sionally to forget that the presumption is in favour of
the Latin, and that the burden of proof lies on him to
show that the Italian and Spanish came not from the
Latin, but from another modern language.
2. Those terminations which were formed from the in-
flexion of the Latin nouns, as has been above explained.
There would be nothing singular in different nations
forming new substantives from the inflected cases, when
they were influenced by the same causes, even if the
agreement was perfect, which, as we have shown, it was
not : inasmuch as the Provencal and French retained
the termination of the Latin nom., of which there is no
trace in the Italian and Spanish. Hence the agreement
of the Italian and Spanish with the Provengal in such
terminations as metal, val, man, mar, part, trinitat, magis-
120 CHAPTER II.
trat^fren, orient^ argument, mes,Jin, marit, titol, leon, amoff
cam, etc., affords no argument in favour of the deriva-
tion from tlie Provencal, as they are merely Latin words
deprived of their terminations, a process which each lan-
guage could doubtless have performed for itself without
the intervention of the Proven5aL Nor is it by any
means true that the • terminations of nouns agree in the
different Romance languages ; for M. Raynouard has
only produced this exact correspondence by cutting off
the only characteristic peculiarity which belongs to each
language, and leaving what they have in common, the
Latin type. Thus when he has omitted the final s of
the Provenyal and French, and the final vowel of the
Italian and Spanish nouns, which are their distinctive
and proper marks, it is easy to say that amor and metal
are the same in all the four tongues : whereas in fact the
Provencal and French forms are amors and metals, the
Italian a^nore and metallo, the Spanish amor and metallo.
3. Those substantives whose termination does not agree
with the Latin, hut is the same in the Romance languages.
M. Raynouard himself perceives the difference between
this and the other two classes, and the assistance which
these examples afford to his argument, though he does
not admit that the other forms are just as consistent
with the falsity as with the truth of his theory. ' If (he
says) many of the . terminations pointed out come from
the Latin, by the preservation of the entire word, as
animal, etc., or by the omission of the final syllable
which marked the case, as pont-em, there are many
others which do not come directly from the Latin, and
which have been introduced into all these languages,
and joined to words to which the Latin annexed another
NEW ROMANCE NOUNS FORMED BY AFFIXES. 121
termination, as eorage, lengu^^e, linkage, message^ omen-
age, yiage, etc., signal, belted, agne/, annel, ramel, vasse?,
cavaU'er, corrier, eampi(w, cubertor, mirador, servidor,
etc. How could these different languages have agreed
in rejecting the original Latin termination, in order to
substitute a new one? Is it not evident that for this
process a common type was indispensable?' Gr. Oomp,
p. 70. Now with regard to the words in question, it is
to be observed that they have not rejected the Latin
termination and substituted another of their own, like
altitvdoy for which the Italian and French said altezza
and hauteur, but they are derivatives from Latin roots
adopted in the Provenpal : thus from cor, lengua, via, vas,
hel, servir, etc., were formed cor -age, lengu-age, vi-age,
vas-sel, hel-tat, servi-dor : the Latin, however, had no
such substantives formed from cor, lingua, via, vas, helluSy
servire, etc. Consequently these are not words which
have rejected the Latin in order to substitute a different
termination, but they are new derivatives formed in the
Provencal from roots of its own. In order, however, to
ascertain how far this argument of M. Raynouard's
avails in support of his system, it will be necessary to
examine, at some length, the subject of the terminations
of nouns in the Romance languages.
With this view I will in the first place set down the
formative terminations of nouns which the Romance
languages have borrowed from the Latin, but have sub-
jected respectively to various modifications.
Ago, fem., as m farrago, imago, indago, sartago, virago^
vorago, etc. The Romance languages, in forming their
nouns from the accusative case, have subjected this ter-
mination to nearly the same changes : thus from imago
122 CHAPTER II.
the Italian makes imagine, tlie Spanish imagen, the Pro-
vencal and French, by the rejection of the final n, image}
. Of all the modern languages the Italian alone appears to
\ have formed new nouns with the termination agine, or
aggine, as dappocaggine, fanciullaggine, fantasticaggine,
injingardaggine, insensataggine, scempiaggine, sciaguratag-
gine, seccagine, etc.^
I Antia, entia. Feminine nouns having this termina-
I tion in Latin were derived from participles or participial
adjectives in ans or ens, as ahundantia^ diligentia^ obe-
diential petulantia, sapientia. The Eomance languages
varied these terminations as follows ; anza, enza Ital. and
Pro v., anza, encia Span., ance, ence French. Sometimes
all the languages agreed in forming new derivatives with
these terminations, as tardanza Ital. and Span., tarzanza
Prov., tardance French, decadenza Ital., decadencia Span.,
descaienza Prov., decadence French. Sometimes each
language formed separate words of its own, not occur-
ring in the others : thus, mancanza, vicinanza Ital., eche-
ance, hienviellance, jactance, nuance Fr. Sometimes also
the corresponding words are derived from the forms pecu-
liar to each language ; iihMS, fidanza Ital., ivGm fidare, but
Jianza Span., and fiance French, from fiar and fier. Ore-
denza Ital., from credere, credencia, and also creencia Span.,
* The Italian, likewise, has used the form image, which it has like-
wise changed into imago, like uome and uomo, etc., see above, p. 74.
Image occurs in Dante, Purg. xxv. 26 ; Par. ii. 181 ; xiii. 2 ; xix. 2 ;
on which latter place Lombardi says, ' Image qui come altrove, ad-
opera alia francese, per immagine.' M. Eaynouard mistakes the form
of this word by comparing it with the masc. termination in aggio :
Gr. Comp. p. 31. See below, in this termination.
' See Diez, Rom. Gramm, vol. ii. p. 317.
NEW ROMANCE NOUNS FORMED BY AFFIXES. 1 23
from creer^ credence, creance, and croyance Frencli, from
proire; possanza Itoi., pujanza SipQn.., puissance Frencli^.
/ Anus, ianus. In Latin this was properly an adjec-
' tival termination, as Momanus, urbanus, Cliristianus. As
proper names were often inflected with it, adjectives of
this form frequently were used substantively, as Romani,
Pompeiani, Christiani, etc. In the Romance languages
it is usually a substantive termination : in Ital. ano, in
Span, ano and an, in Pro v. an, in French an, ain and en.
Thus from paganus the Ital. and Span, have made pagano,
the Prov. pajan, the French payen. Many modem words
have been formed in the several languages with this ter-
mination : thus scnvano Ital., escrihano Span., escrivain
French, sagrestano Ital., sacristan Span., sacristain French.
Parmigiano, partigiano, maomettano Ital., carmanos, lozano,
mahvmetano Span., hautain, lutherien, magicien, malumietan,
parrain, paysan, Peruvien, prochain French^.
/ Artus, aris. The first of these terminations was
' common to both kinds of nouns in Latin, though pro-
perly belonging to adjectives, as armentarius, nefarius,
senarius: the latter was confined to adjectives, as mili-
taris, vexillaris. From arius the Italian has modified the
several terminations ario, aro, aio, iero, iere^, the Span.
ario, ero, er: the Prov. ari, ar, er, and ier; the French
aire, er, ier, (Grr. Oomp. p. 35, 48.)* Aris in Ital. and
Span, becomes are and ar : the French confounds it with
the derivatives of ariiis under the terminations aire and
ier, as the Prov. confounds them under the termination
■ Diez, Rom. Gramm. vol. ii. p. 357.
2 Diez, ib. p. 310.
3 See Castelvetro on Bemho, vol. ii. p. 23, and above p. 93, note \
* See also Raynouard, 06s. sur le Roman de Ron, p. 10.
124
CHAPTER II.
an thus hom. falsarius^ militarise Januarius, and singu-
laris, the French made faussaire, militaire, Janvier, sin-
gulier; and from scholar ius eLiid familiaris the Prov. made
escolar and familiar, {Gr. Comp. p. 35, 110.) The fol-
lowing table of some Latin words shows the relation
which the modern terminations bear to the ancient one.
Latin.
dena^rius
ferrarius
granarium
Januarius
librarius
primarius
scutarius
Italian.
danai:Q^jiaiiaio
ferraio
granaio
Gennaro, Gennaio
libraio
primario, primaio,
primiero
scudiere
Spanish.
dinero
herrero
French.
denier
ferrier
granero grenier
Enero Janvier
librero libraire
primario, primaire, premier
priraero
escudero escuyer
When these modifications had once been established, a
great number of new substantives were formed with them
in all the languages.
Italian.
Spanish.
Prov.
French.
cavaliere
caballero
cavalier
cavalier of
chevalier'
corriere or -ero
corriere
corrier
courrier
destriere'
destrier
destrier
falconiere
halconero
falconier
fauconier
guerriero
guerrero
guerrier
guerrier
pensiere or -ero
prigionere -ero
prisionero
presonier
prisonier
sparviere -iero
esparvier
espervier
straniere
extrangero
estranher
estranger
This termination has been much used in all the lan-
guages for the formation of new nouns, and in particular
it has been employed after the model of the Latin,
* See above, p. 111.
^ i. e, dextrarius. See Muratori in v.
NEW ROMANCE NOUNS FORMED BY AFFIXES. 1 25
■whicli made librarius, Ugnarius^ferrariuSyVestiarius, sellu-
lariuSy lapidarius, cerarius, etc. to form nouns which, sig-
nify certain orders, professions, or trades. This may be
observed in several of the modern words, such as cavalier^
courrier, fauconier, already mentioned, and it may be
farther perceived in several forms common to the Ital.
and Span., as cameriere Ital., camerero Span. ; caffetiere
Ital., cafetero Span. ; forastiere Ital., for aster 0^ Span., tan-
chiere or hanchiero Ital., banquero Span. ; carceriere Ital.,
carcelero Span. In other cases these two languages have
respectively forms of this kind peculiar to each, as cala-
maio, masnadiere, condottiere, dardiero, girellaio, Ital. ;
agujero, mercadero, tintero Span. The French nouns in
er and ier, forming their fem. in ere and ihre, are in great
number, and comprehend most of the words signifying
the persons belonging to different kinds of trades, pro-
fessions, orders, etc., as aumonier, hanquier, houlayiger^
houcher, chancellery contrebandier, cordonnier, cuisinier,
douanier, fermier, huissier, heritier, mercier, meunier,
rentier, roturier, sorcier, usurier, etc. The French has
likewise modern nouns in aire, as societaire, fonctionnaire,
factionnaire^.
The various modifications of the Latin ministerium
(menester Span., mistero^, mestieri, mestiere or rmstiero
* From the Latin /o?*as ; see Muratori in v.
2 The French nouns in aire are probably of a later date than those
in er, and the two classes appear to stand to each other in the same
relation as those pointed out above, p. 108, 111.
3 Perticari, Scrittori del Trecento, lib. i. c. ii. vol. i. p. 58, who
calls the ancient use of mistero for mestiero a ' bruttissima, anzi sacri-
lega permutazione,' does not see that mistero is nearer than the com-
mon form to rainisteriiim, and that it was evidently corrupted into
mestiero in order to avoid the confusion with mistero derived from
mysterium.
126 CHAPTEE II.
Ital., mestier Pro v., metier Frencli) do not belong to the
modern words formed witli the termination er or ier, but
are corrupted and contracted from the Latin word.
Bicchiere Ital., and picker French, are derived from the
German hecher\ (beaker Eng., bicker Scotch) : alfiere Ital.,
and alferez Span., are said to be derived from the Arabic
alpheres^.
J Aster. This termination had in Latin a diminutive
^ibrce, which, as in many other instances, sometimes
passed into a contemptuous sense, as JiUaster, a stepson,
calvaster, a little bald, oleaster, a wild, bad olive, poetaster,
a worthless poet, etc.^ Hence the Ital. and Span, have
derived the termination as^ro, the Pro v. and French the
termination asfre, which the latter has softened into qtre.
ThMs figliastro Ital., hij astro S-psLJi.,JiIhastre VroY.,filastre
or Jildtre Fr. The French and Span, have marastre or
mardtre and madrasta for stepmother, which word does not
/occur in ItaHan. The French uses this termination as a
/ diminutive, (like the English ish,) as hlanchdtre, blevMre,
doucedtre, grisdtre, foldtre, Jaundtre, rougedtre, saumdtre,
; etc.* The Ital. and Span, sometimes give it an oppro-
• brious force, Sisfilosof astro, medicastrOiteologastrOj etc. which
it likewise has in the French acaridtre and opinidtre^.
' See Menage, Et. It. in bicchiere,
* Menage in alfiere. [Compare Diez, Rom. Gr. vol. ii., p. 327.]
' See Grimm, vol. ii. p. 372.
* See Muratori, in salmastro, and Menage in falcastro from falx.
* Also in mardtre: 'L'opinion qu'en general on a des mar&tres
dont le nom seul parmi notes est devenu presqu'une injure, est justifi;6e
par les faits.' Guerry, Statistique Morale de la France, p. 22. The
word commonly used in Frencli for stepmother is belle-mere, which
also signifies mother-in-law : in Italian suocera, not having the termi-
nation in astra, has not, as far as I am aware, ohtained a reproachful
i
NEW ROMANCE NOUNS FORMED BY AFFIXES. 12^
Atium, as in palatium. In Latin, however, tlie more
common form was itium, as exitium, servitmmy being a
neuter form of the fem. termination itia, as in Icetitia,
scevitia, which, will be noticed under another head. From
atium the Ital. made agio, forming palagio from palatium^
as servigio from servitium; in other Ital. words likewise
t was changed into g^ as sfagione, ragioney from sfatio,
ratio. In all the Homance languages this termination
has assumed nearly the same form : thus it is agio or
aggio in Ital. azgo or age in Span.^, atge or age in Prov.,
and age in French : and although it is of rare occurrence
hi Latin, has in all the modem Latin dialects served to
/form a great variety of new nouns. And from the Eo-
' mance languages it was translated into Low Latin, under
the neuter form of agium; thus from maritagio or mari-
tage came maritagium, from homagio or homage homagium.
If these words had been formed in Latin according to
the true analogy, they would have been maritatium and
hominatium. Sometimes, however, a Low Latin form in
aticus corresponds to a Eomance form in agio or age, as
formxiticus (cheese) ioformagio andfromage^, hostaticus to
force, although the character of stepmothers in Italy (unless they have
greatly improved since ancient times) is probably not at all superior to
that of stepmothers in France. [Compare Diez, Bom. Gr, vol. ii.
p. 363.]
* The Spanish varies more in this termination than the other lan-
guages : thus it had not merely patronazgo corresponding to padron-
aggio and. patronage, hnt ventaja corresponding to vantaggio and avan-
tage, ultraje corresponding to oltraggio and outrage. The popular
dialect of Eome formerly made this termination in ajo, as lennajo for
Unnaggio, dannajo for danneggio, in the Eoman history in Muratori,
Ant. It. vol. iii. p. 399, 501. This, however, was rather a variety of
orthography than of form, a.sj was pronounced hard as in French.
2 See .Menage in formaggio, Schwenck's Etymological Eemarks io
128 CHAPTER II.
ostaggio and ostage^, silvaticus to salvage and selvaggio,
(although the Ital. and Span, likewise have selvatico.)
Many of the substantives formed with this termination
run through all the languages, as the instances cited by
M. Raynouard, corraggio, lignaggio, messaggio, omaggio,
viaggio Ital. ; corage, linage, mensage, omenage, viage
Span. ; cor age ^ linkage, message, omenage, viage Pro v. ;
courage, lignage, message, hommage, voyage French, {Grr.
Comp. p. 31.) So likewise we find in Ital., Span., and
French, padronnaggio, patronazgo, and patronage, potaggio
and potage, passeggio, pasage, and passagge, villaggio and
village, etc. In other cases, however, these forms occur
only in two languages : thus the Prov. and French
formed auratge and orage from aura : in Span, and Ital.,
however, there is no trace of this word. So in Ital. and
French there are heveraggio and hreuvage, formaggio and
fromage, ostaggio and ostage, rivaggio and rivage, but
there are no corresponding words in Span. Frequently
each language has substantives of this form peculiar to
itself, as alegratge, agradatge Prov., appagaggio'^, fardag-
gio, farangaggio, figliuolaggio, parlagio^, vasellaggio Ital.,
aguage, cahezage, cabestrage, pontage, or pontazgo, primazgo,
serage, villanage, Span., arrivage, bocage, chauffage, cirage,
etage, fermage, feuillage, menage, mirage, nuage, ouvrage,
ramage, ravage, roulage, rouage, tapage, tirage, triage
French. Sometimes one language has preserved the
Welcker's Rhein. Museum, vol. i. art. kase. Formaticus for cheese
occurs in a charter of the Amhrosian monastery at Milan, of 967 aj).
in Murat. Ant. It. vol. iii. p. 719, B. cf. 718, c.
* Muratori in v.
' A Sienese word from (ypacus : see Menage, Etym, It. in abbacinare.
* The name of the place where the Florentines anciently held their
parliaments; see Perticari, Dif. di Dante, c. 86, vol. ii p. 163.
NEW ROMANCE NOUNS FORMED BY AFFIXES. 1 29
Latin noun, where another has made a new form in age,
thus testimomo Ital. and Span., but temoignage French :
sometimes one language has used the termination agey
where others have used different terminations : thus
schiavitu Ital., esclavitvd Span., but esclavage French,
vicinanza Ital., voisinage French : vecinad is preserved in
Span, from the Latin vicinitas; the other two words
translated into Latin forms would be vicinantia and
vicinatium. Sometimes again the corresponding words do
not precisely agree, but appear to have been formed from
similar roots variously modified in the several languages :
thus linguaggio Ital. from lingua, lenguage^ Prov. and
lengage Span, from lengua, langage French from langue :
so maritaggio Ital. fi'om maritare, maridage Span, from
marido, manage French from marier ; danneggio ^ Ital.
doinmage French ; redaggio Ital. from redare, but Jieritage
French from heriter; pedaggio Ital. peage Span, peage
French ; romitaggio Ital. from romito corrupted from
eremita, hermitage French from hermite-.
I Ia, Itia. The first of these terminations occurs in
the Latin words gratia, inopia, miseria, etc.^ The Italian
has preserved and used it in forming pazzia from pazzo,
' Dammaggio occurs in a Neapolitan sonnet of the thirteenth cen-
tury, cited by Perticari, Dif. di Dante, c. 7, vol. i. p. 289, who calls
aggio a 'Neapolitan termination.* It may prevail in the Neapolitan
dialect, but it is common to all the Romance languages.
' The English having adopted the termination age from the Norman
French used it as a formative termination, and added to it Saxon roots :
thus bondage, carriage, cottage, package, stoppage, stowage, steerage,
thirlage, tillage, etc. [Compare Diez, Rom. Gr. vol. ii. p. 287.]
^ See Grimm, vol. iii. p. 507. The terminations are here classed
with reference not to the Latin, but to the Romance languages ; other-
wise the terminations antia and entia above treated would come under
the general head of ia (p. 122).
K
130 CHAPTER II.
hizzarria from hizzarro, signoria from signore, follia from
foUe, etc. So likewise in the Span, fulkria, fusileria, plu-
mageria and in the French houlangerie, boucherie, seigneurie.
Sometimes the Ital. used the simpler form in a, as lega
from legare, tema from temere. The Latin termination
itia (e. g. justitia, nequitia^ mcestitia) has in Ital. past into
izia and ezza, in Span, into icia and eza, in French into
ice and esse. Thus justitia, tristitia Latin giustizia,
tristezza Ital. justicia, tristeza Span, justizia, tristeza, Prov.
justice, tristesse French. Paresse Fr. from pigritia, like
»w?iV from wz^er, and rozWe from rigidus^. With regard to
these two terminations from ^^m it is however to he oh-
served that the former only occurs in words of Latin
origin, 2i^ justitia, militia, malitia, notitia, etc. and that all
the new nouns formed with this termination take the
latter in ezza, eza or esse. The modem languages have
formed in this manner a great variety of nouns which do
not occur in Latin : thus they have all substantives of this
form derived from altus, largus, probus, and from the words
fein and reich adopted from the German (in Proven.
alteza, largueza, proeza, fineza, richeza, Crr. Oomp. p. 30).
Sometimes they have made a new noun of this form
where the Latin employed a different termination ; thus
altezza, alteza and altesse correspond to altitudo, agrezza to
acritudo, giovanezza and jeunesse to juventus, nobilezza,
nobleza and noblesse to nobilitas, secheresse to siccitas,
chaitiveza in the Poeme sur Boece, v. 88, to captivitas.
Sometimes the different languages have used the corre-
sponding terminations for the same words, as in the
instances mentioned above : sometimes some of the
* See Grimm, vol. ii. p. 329. [Burguy in parece.']
NEW ROMANCE NOUNS FORMED BY AFFIXES. I3I
languages used tlie termination derived from itia, and
some another termination : thus from the various de-
rivatives of the German frisch ^ came frescura and
freschezza ItaL, frescura and frescor Span., frescor or
fraichor Proven., fraicheur French. So agrezza, ItaL,
aigrura Span., aigreur French ; grandezza ItaL, grandeza
Span., grandeur French ; frigidezza ItaL, frigidez Span.,
froideur French; rigidezza ItaL, rigideza Span., roideur
French ; tepidezza ItaL, tihieza Spa^-, tiedeur French.
Lunghezza ItaL, corresponds to longueur French ; the Span,
uses the Latin longitud. Yvoim Jievole andfaible modified
from Jlehilis, the ItaL and French have made Jievokzza and
faiblesse : the Span, has not this word ^. Sometimes each
language has forms of this kind peculiar to itself, as
ampiezza, amorevolezza, dappochezza, mattezza ItaL, hon-
radez, idiotez, insensatez, pobreza Span., chaitiveza Proven.,
ivresse, rudesse, souplesse, vitesse French^.
The fem. termination of nearly the same form, which
prevails in the Romance languages, as duchessa Ital.,
duquesa Span., duquessa Pro v., and duchesse French, is
considered hy Grimm as a lengthened form of the Latin
ix, as in netrix, piscatrix, etc.* This view is liable to
the objection that the Romance words formed from Latin
fem. in ix have kept nearer to the Latin form, as the
derivatives of nutrix, cicatrix, calyx, matrix. It seems
therefore more probable, that the fem. termination in issa,
as in the words mantissa, favissa, of more frequent usage in.
the Greek, as paxrOua-aay KiXurcra, etc. was the origin of the
Romance form.^
* See Muratori m fresco. * Muratori mjietole.
3 [Diez, Eom. Gr. vol. ii. p. 280, 338.] * Vol. ii. p. 328.
« [Diez, Rom. Gr. vol. ii. p. 276, 326, 344.]
K2
132 CHAPTER II.
) Inus. TMs is a termination of nearly tlie same kind
as anuSy and is chiefly confined to adjectives, as cabalUnus,
Latinus, marinus, mascuUnuSy matutinus, ^eregrinus, supi-
nus, vicinus. It occurs, however, in substantives of the
fern, and neut. gender, as farina, medicinal rapina, ruina^
salina, lupinum, salinum. The Ital. and Span., which
have made it inOy the Prov. and French, which have
made it in, used it for the formation of substantives, as
festino andfestin derived from festus. (G-r. Comp. p. 50.)
In Italian this termination is still in great use, with a
diminutive sense, as ragazzino, tavolino, bambino from
hambo (i. e. babe^). It likewise has a diminutive force
in Spanish. The French has also used it for the form-
ation of new words, but without a diminutive force, as
angevin, bavardin, chevrotin, diablotin, fagotin, patelin,
Poitevin, becassine, routine : so also names of parties in
the French revolution, Brissotin^ Girondin ^.
IsTA. This termination, introduced into the Latin at
a late period from the Grreek, has passed into the modem
languages : thus copista, legista, algebrista, cabalista, Ital.
and Span. ; copiste, legiste, algebriste, cabaliste, Tnodiste,
dentiste, French.^
0, ONis, masculine, as in caupo, latro, sernio, commilito,
and in proper names, as Scipio, Ocesio, Ccepio, Mara.
Hence the Ital. one, the Span. Prov. and French on {G-r,
Comp. p. 56, 7). Thus bastone Ital., baston Span., Prov.
and Fr. ; falcone Ital., halcon Span., falcon Prov., faucon
* In Italian this termination has commonly a sense of tenderness,
but sometidies the sense of contempt which belongs to diminutives :
see Marrini on the Lamento di Cecco, p. 166. Payne Knight's Essay
on Taste, p. 239. Philol. Museum, vol. ii. p. 679, 685.
» See Grimm, vol. iii. p. 703. [Diez, Rom. Gr., p. 313.]
' [Diez, ib. p. 363.]
NEW ROMANCE NOUNS FORMED BY AFFIXES. 1 33
French ; miUone Ital., millmi Span., million Fr. ; campione
Ital., campeon Span., campion Prov., champion Frencli.
Many of the modem nouns of this form are derived from
a German root: thus hastone comes from hat or hast,
campione from kampf^ spione from spdhen, to spy, halcone
from halk, marrone from marre, a chesnut, poUrone from
polster, prigione from prisundy sperone from sporn^ fellone
from fell '. Antrustione, harone, and garzone ^ have like-
wise German roots. In French it has been used for the
formation of many words, as aiguillon, caisson, chamon^
hrouillon, jamhon, mentony monton, rejeton, teton, vallon,
pieton ; and in this language it is sometimes a diminutive
termination, as in mignon, salon, anon, and in the familiar
proper names Alison, Lison, Rohichon, Fanchon, Jeanneton,
Louison, Grothon, Marion, Namn, Ninon, Suson^, In
Italian likewise it frequently occurs, sometimes as a mere
formative termination, as in hurrone, falcione, montone, and
other instances above cited, and sometimes with an aug-
mentative force, as donnone, salone, cavallone. In Spanish,
* See Menage in bastone and fellone, Muratori in spia, halcone,
marrone, poltrone and poltrire, prigione and sperone. I have not
thought it necessary to repeat the Spanish and French forms of the
words mentioned in the text.
^ Garzone, according to Muratori, is derived from an ancient
Frankish word, which is written Gartio in an Italian document of the
ninth centur5\ Ant. It. vol. ii. p. 1118, A — C. Garziine in the Nib,
Lied, V. 905, is probahly borrowed from the Romance. In Low Latin
a marquis is marchio, a noun of this form, and not marchensis, the
form used in the Romance languages.
3 Grrimm, vol. iii. p. 705, is mistaken in supposing that the old
French proper names in on, as Charlon, are of this form. They are
the ancient accusative case from the nominative in ^s or s : see above,
p. 81.
134 CHAPTER II.
likewise, on is sometimes an augmentative : thus hombron
from homhre, calaveron from calavera'^.
On the feminine termination ^o, ionis, and its use in
the modem languages it is unnecessary to say any thing.
Or. This masculine termination is of two kinds ; first,
when it denotes qualities, as amcyr, honor, color, and
secondly, when it denotes persons, as imperator, Udor,
possessor. Among the rfiodern languages, it has become
ore in Italian, or in Spanish and Proven9al, and in old
. French ; in which language it has since been modified
into our and eur. (Gr. Comp. p. 59 — 61, above, p. 84.)
The modern languages have formed, with this termination,
some new words corresponding to the former class of
Latin nouns, as hollore, malore, rancore, tristore'^, sentore,
. verdore, Ital. ; frescor, rencor, verdor, Span. ; frescor or
fraichor, verdor, Prov. ; fraicheur, lueicr, lenteur, rancueur,
pesanteur, profondeur, verdeur, French. The chief part
of the new substantives formed with this termination be-
long, however, to the other class of nouns signifying
persons, as miratore, servitore, Ital., mirador, servidor,
Span, and Prov., servifeur, French. So likewise amhas-
ciatore, coniatore, conoscitore, confettatore, Ital., emhaxador,
matador, picador, sangrador. Span. ; accapareur, accoucheur,
agioteur, escamoteur, farceur, siffleur, vendangeur, French.
It has been already remarked that the Proven9al and
French changed the gender of the nouns in or signifying
qualities, and said la dolor, la color, la frescor, la verdor,
etc., while the ItaHan and Spanish preserved the mascu-
line gender not only in the words retained from the Latin,
» On the Italian and Spanish augmentatives of this form see Grimm,
vol. iii. p. 706. [Diez, Rom. Gr. vol. ii. p. 318.]
' On trUtore, see Perticari, Dif. di Dante, c. 26, vol. ii. p. 36.
NEW ROMANCE NOUNS FORMED BY AFFIXES. 135
as amore, colore, amor, color, but also in the words newly
formed, as in rancor e, verdore, Ital., frescor, rericor, verdor,
Spanish^.
Tas, talis, Tus, tutis, as in servitus, virtus, bonitas,
lihertas. Since (as has been above shown) aU the modem
languages, in forming nouns from Latin substantives of
the third declension, took the accusative case as their
type, these terminations became in Ital. tate and tute; in
Span, tad and tvd, anciently tat and tut; in Pro v. tat and
4ut; in French tet and tut. In Italian the terminations
in tate and tute were formerly written at full length, as
cittate, veritate, virtute, or cittade, veritade, virtude ; for
some time, however, they have, by the omission of the
last consonant, been contracted into ta and tu^ (i. e. toe
and tue), so that these words have now become citta, ve-
rita, virtu : this change, nevertheless, has only affected the
termination tute or tude, q,s salute and palude have preserved
their ancient form. Cittate or cittade, virtute or virtude,
and other similar nouns were contracted into citta and
virtu in order to avoid the repetition of the double ty or of
the t and d ; but salute and palude were not contracted,
because there was no such cacophony to avoid. The
French having, as in many other instances, changed the
a into e, made originally libertet, citet, nativitet, vohntet :
, it has since suppressed the final t, and indicated its sup-
pression by the acute accent, as liherte, cite, nativite, vo-
lonte^ : in the termination tut, it has merely suppressed the
» See above, p. 114. [Diez, Rom. Gr. vol. ii. p. 325.]
2 When the ancient termination was not at but ata, the French,
following its two rules of changing the final a into e muet, and at in a
termination into e, converted it into ^e : thus, amat (from amo) became
aime, amata, aiinee. So likewise fum^e, French, corresponds to fum-
mata Ital. j armee French, to armata Ital. and armada Span.; f^e
136 CHAPTER 11.
final t, and from vertut made vertu, (Gr. Oomp. p. xix.
37 — 42, 68, 69.) Many new substantives have been
formed in tbe modem languages with, this termination, as
heltate or helta Ital., heldad Span., heltat Prov., heauU
French ; lealta, sovranita Ital., lealtad, sovranidad Span.,
loyaute^ souverainete French. So likewise schiavitu Ital.,
esclavitud Span., dehonnairete, gaite, honnetete, nettete,
toisivete, papaute French^.
\ Ulus, ellus, iLLUs. TJlus, or olus, in Latin, was ori-
ginally a mere formative termination, as in sedulus, gar-
ruIiiSj famulus, credidus, gerulus, ungula, regida, fabula,
G-rceculus, Pcenulus, Romidus, Sccevola: afterwards it
obtained a diminutive sense, as in regulus, filiolus, and
in Hadrian's address to his soul, animula vagula, hlan-
dtda^. The Italian in adopting this termination changed
it into olOf or uolo, asfavola, tavola,JigIiuolo, horn, fahula^
tabula, fiUolus; and has formed with it many new words,
as hussolo, nuvola, gocciolo, piccolo, (from pidus,) legnaiuolo,
etc. The Spanish modified this termination into uelo, as
aguelo, or ahuelo, (corresponding to the Ital. avolo,) cox-
tielo, ojuelo^. The French has made it eul, but has rarely
used it: thus ///e?/? answers to the Ital. Jigliuolo and the
Span, hijuelo. Sometimes the Latin lengthened the ter-
mination idus by a syllable, making it aculus or iculus, as
in ccenaculum, obstacidum, miraculum, auricula, curriculus,
French, to fata Ital., and hada Span. ; joumh French, to giomata
Ital. Jornada Span, (see Machiav. Disc. ii. 17, ad init.); valUe Fr.,
to vallata Ital., and not to valle : as is implied by M. Eaynouard,
who speaks of " Le mot val roman qui a produit en fraugais valUe."
Joum. des Sav. 1823, p. 111.
» [Diez, Rom. Gr. vol. ii. p. 836.]
« See Niebuhr's Rome, vol. i. p. 55. Grimm, vol. iii. p. 696.
Scheller's Latin Grammar, vol. i. p. 39.
» See above, p. 67, note '.
NEW ROMANCE NOUNS FORMED BY AFFtXES'. ' I37 - /i
fasciculus J ridiculus, ^quiculus from ^qims^. These
terminations were softened by the Ital. into acchio and /
icchio, as in oculus, occhio, circulus, cerchio, macula, mac-
chia, gracuhy gracchia, auricula, orecchia, pariculus, parec-
chio, speculum, speccJiio'^. The change took place thus,
auricula, auricla, aurichia^, cl being softened into chi, as
in chiave from clavis, chiostro from claustrum, etc. After
these models were formed the Ital. pistacchio, pecchia,
(i. e. apicula,) lentecchia, ginocchio, birracchio*; and by
a change of acchio and icchio into accio and iccio, fos-
saccia, mostaccio, cappriccio, pasticcio^, fantoccio. The
termination accio, as is often the case with diminutives,
has sometimes in Ital. a contemptuous sense, as don-
naccia, giovinaccio, pitturaccia, robaccia. While the Ital.
changed the Latin termination iculus or icula into icchia
or icchio, the Span, changed it into ejo and eja, the Prov.
into el and elha, the French into eil and eille ; thus
auricula, apicula, ocidus, pariculus Lat., orecchia, pecchia,
' Niebuhr, vol. i. n. 419, speaking of the Poediculi, says that * the
simpler forms Poedi and Poedici have not been preserved in books.'
There is no doubt that the termination in iculus originated in the
manner here indicated, and was a double affix : nevertheless in many
words the simpler derivative form probably never existed, and it is
perhaps as unsafe to infer from Poediculus the existence of a form
Poedicus, as to infer from auricula, curriculus, and ridiculus, the ex-
istence of such words as aurica, curricus, and ridicus.
' See Muratori in parecchio, and Menage in abbacchiare, which he
derives from baculus, and in conocchia, which he makes equivalent to
colucula from colus. Also Pasqualini, Vocabolario Siciliano, vol. ii.
p. X. xi.
' Muratori in serchio. * Muratori in v.
* The termination iccio sometimes comes from itius or iciu^, as
posticcio from posticius (Mnrat. in v.), fatticcio from facticius : but in
other cases accio and iccio seem to be slightly modified from acchio
and icchio.
138 CHAPTER II.
occhio,parrecchio Ital., oreja, abeja, ojo,pareJo, Span., aurelha,
aheiha, huels Prov., oreille, abeille, oeuil, pareil Frencli.
The Latin sometimes augmented the termination ulus
by prefixing to it el or il; so that from novus it formed
novelulus, from pusus pusilulus. These three syllables
were afterwards contracted into two, so as to make ellus
or illus^ and thus were formed the words noveUus,pusiUus,
miscellus, Sahellus, Terentilla, codicillus, fur cilice, etc. The
same termination was, however, sometimes produced in
a different manner, viz. by the softening of r into I : thus
UberuluSy miseruhcs, puerulus, became libellus, misellus,
puellus^. Of these two forms in ellus and illus the Ital.
made ello, the Span, ello and illo, the Prov. and French
el {G-r, Qomp. p. 43.) The modern French has changed
the termination el into eau : thus instead of the ancient
chastel, drapel, faiscel, tonnel, etc., it now says chateau^
drapeaUj faisceau, tonneau : the trace of the ancient form
is, however, preserved in the inflexions, as cervelle from
cervel (cerveau), nouvelle from nouvel (nouveau) ; and in the
derivatives, as niveler from nivel {niveau), chapelier from
chapel {chapeau)y sceller from seel (sceau), morceler from
morcel'^ [morceau), Bordelais from Bordel (Bordeau),
When the French language was introduced into England
this change had not been made : hence the English
castle, flail, mackerel, morsel, muzzle, tressel tunnel, vessel,
etc., correspond to the modern French cJidteau, fleau^,
macquereau, morceau, museau, treteau, tonneau, vaisseau,
* See Grimm, vol. iii. p. 696.
' That is morsel, a little bit (bite) from mors, an old Frencli word
from worsts. See Kaynouard in JoMr». dcs Savaws, 1831, p. olG.
3 The old French had^a^el, and also ^aeZ, whence our word is taken.
It had likewise the word flaeler. On the French termination in el, see
Orel], p. 32. [Burguy in JlaeL;\
NEW ROMANCE NOUNS FORMED BY AFFIXES. 1 39
This termination has been much used by the modem
languages for the formation of new nouns. Sometimes
•the several languages agree remarkably in forming cor-
responding derivatives from the same root, as mantello
ItaL, mantel Span. Prov. and French ; martello Ital.,
martillo Span., martel Prov. and French ; vassel Prov.,
vaisseau French, vascello Ital., which latter form, how-
ever, partakes of a variety which will be presently
noticed ; batello^, agnelb, anello, coltello, capello Ital., batel,
anillo, cucMUo, cahello Span., hatel^ agnel, annel, coutel,
chapel French. The Italian has substituted several of
these derivatives for the ancient underived forms : thus
fratello and sorella for /rate and sorore^ : it has likewise
stiQ the power of using ello as a diminutive termination,
as ragazzello from ragazzo. Other derivatives of this
simple form in Span, are camarilla, corcillo, guerilla, la-
drillo, lagrimilla, lamparilla, pecadillo, etc. ; in French
her eel, boissel, chalumel, faiscel, ^mnel^, tomhel, troupel.
' Sometimes the form of this termination became more
complicated, as fiumicello, donzello, (domtcellus*,) leoncello,
madamigella, monticello, vermicello, violoncello^ , vecchierelloy
pazzarello Ital. ; leoncello , manecilla S-pan. ; lioncel Yvench..
Of the same form as leoncello is vascello, noticed above ;
as also augello or uccello, Ital.^, contracted from 'avicello,
' From bat, boat, Murat. in v.
' Sorella comes from sore, contracted from sorore, a,s fratello comes
from frate, contracted from fratre. The old Ital. writers likewise use
sirocchia for sister, i. e. sororcula.
' On paneau see Murat. in pania. * See Manzoni's notes to AdelcMs.
* Leon-cello, violon-cello, etc. do not fall under the same class as the
Latin hom-unculus, av-U7iculus, etc. (Grimm, vol. ii. p. 347,) as the n
belongs not to the termination but to the root.
* See Menage in augello, who quotes aucellus, arpovOiov, from an
ancient gloss.
140 CHAPTER II.
like the Span, avecillo : the French oisel arose in a like
manner.
Sometimes the French added to the termination el the
termination et^ of which I shall speak presently : hence
having formed oisel from avis^ from oisel it formed oiselet;
having formed chapel from chap, from chapel it formed
chapelef; having formed roitel from roi, from roitel it
formed roitelet^,
TIra, as in censura, junctura, cultura. This termina-
tion remained the same in all the modem languages
except the French, which as usual changed the final a
into e. Several new words were formed with it, as aven-
tura, armadura, verdura Ital., Span., and Prov., aventure,
armure, verdure, French, cosidura or cucitura Ital., costura
Span., cosdura Prov., couture French. {Gr. Comp. p. 28.)
Other new words of this form are altura, bruitura, cam-
hiatura, caricatura,fatatura, lordura, raagagnatura^pianuray
paura, seccatura Ital., domadnra, emharradura, echadura^
enjalhegadura, rebosadura, pavura Span., blessure, coiffure,
decoupure, doublure, ferrure, nourriture, ordure, souillure
.French^.
There are likewise some Eomance terminations of
nouns adjective derived from the Latin, of which the
following may he here noticed.
Ensis, as in forensis. The Italian has preserved the
termination under the form ese, as Veronese, I/ucchese,
* See above, p. 70, note *. Schapel, which occurs several times in the
Nibelungen Lied, in the sense of an oniament or covering for the head,
is borrowed from the French chapel, and not from chapelet, as is stated
by V. Hagen in v.
^ [Compare Diez, Rom. Gr. vol. ii. p. k99.]
» [Diez, Rom, Gr, vol. ii. p. 323.]
NEW ROMANCE NOUNS FORMED BY AFFIXES. I4I
paese from pagensis^, which in Span, is pais, in French
pays. It occurs in the derivatives of German roots, as
from marke and hurg^ marchese and horghese Ital., marques
Span., marquis and bourgeois French : so likewise cortese
Ital., cortes Span, and Pro v., courtois French. From the
old German hardnesJcJa, lorica, (now harnischj) were formed
arnese Ital., arnes Span., harnois French".
Ivus, as in cestivus, fugitivus, captivus, lascivus. The
modern languages have formed new adjectives with this
termination, as tardivo, distruttivo Ital., destructive Span.,
craintif, naif, oisif, pensif, tardif French^.
Osus, as in generosus, formosus, numerosus. The Ital.
and Span, made this termination in oso, the Prov. in as,
and the French in os or ox, which latter termination it
changed first into oux, and then into etix. Thus the Ital.
and Span, have formed amoroso, perilloso, maraviglioso,
maravilloso, the Prov. amoros, perillos, enuios, saboros, the
French amoros, perillos, enuios, merveillos, doutos, envios,
which were sometimes written with a final x, as in
amorox, perillox, etc. (6rr. Oomp. p. 122.) Afterwards
the was changed into ou, so that the termination be-
^ Muratori in v.
* See Grimm, vol. ii. p. 373, n. [Diez, Rom. Gr. vol. ii. p. 854.]
^ Landor in his Imaginary Conversations, vol. i. p. 212, speaking
of the moral inferences to be drawn from the use of words in Italian,
says * Misfortune is criminal : the captive is a wicked man, cattivo.'
The same remark applies to the French chetif, whence the EngUsh
caitiff. Nor does it appear that there is any peculiarity in this transfer
of meanings : a prisoner usually became a slave, and there are nu-
merous instances in both Komance and Teutonic languages of a close
association of the ideas of slavery and of meanness, cowardice, and
moral abasement. Thus the word thraell or thrall meant both a slave
and a bad man. See Grimm, Deutsche Rechtsalterthiimer, p. 303,
308. Arndt in the Rheinisches Museum, vol. ii. p. 348 — 52. [Compare
Diez, ib., p. 339.]
14^ CHAPTER II.
came ous or oicx^ : which is still preserved in the word
jaloux ; and this is the form of the termination in ques-
tion in modem Provencal, as argentous, cendrillous, famlous^
pietouSj ponderous. Such also was its form when the
French language was introduced into England, and hence
our adjectives generous, clamorous, callous, famous, vigorous,
monstrous, etc. Each language has new words of this
form peculiar to itself, as noioso, neghittoso'^, ritroso, pen-
sieroso, scMzzinoso Ital., guardoso, hastioso, presagioso, pri-
moroso Span., chanceux, fdcheux, heureux, oiseux, nuagmx
French^.
There are some other terminations of nouns which do
not appear to he derived from the Latin, hut which are
used in all or some of the Romance languages. They
are three in numher, and of these two evidently spring
from a Teutonic source, and the third prohahly has the
same origin.
Ard. This German* termination has been received into
the Romance languages, and has served to form a great
variety of new nouns, especially in the Ital. and French.
Thus hugiardo, (probably from a German root^) azardo,
hastardo, homharda, chiavardo, codardo, (from cauda, a per-
son who lingered at the rear of an army,) gagliardo, in-
fingardo, leardo, maliardo, moscardo, mostarda, saccardo,
tabarro, testardo, vecchiardo, Ital., coharde, gallardo. Span.,
* See Eayn. Ohs, sur le Roman de liou, p. 11, 19. Enviome,
gloriouse, delitouse, and amorouz, occur in a poem of Raoul de Coucy,
who was killed in 1240, published in Sismondi, Litt. du Midi, vol i.
p. 329. Compare Orell, p. 30.
* From negligere, see Muratori in v.
» [Diez, Rom. Gr. vol. ii. p. 330.]
* See Grimm, vol. ii. p. 339, vol. iii. p. 707.
* See Murat. in v. [Diez in hug\a.'\
NEW ROMANCE NOUNS FORMED BY AFFIXES. I43
campagnard, havard, babillard, couard, gagliard, billard^
brancard, brouiUard, fuyard, milliard, pendard, etc. French.
Many nouns have likewise been formed with this termi-
nation in English, as braggart, drunkard, wizard, haggard,
pollard, steward, (from to stow,) custard (from cost, food,)
mazzard, froward, etc.^
Etto, ito, ete, et; otto, ote, ot. These termina-
tions occur in Ital. in the words boschetto, cavalletto, gio-
vanotto, merlotto, signorotto : in Span, in caballete, senorito,
muleto, papeleta, capote : in French in ballet, bonnet, filet,
billet, couplet, poulet, sommet, violet, ballot, cachot, chariot,
matelot, mignot, poulot. It has been already mentioned
that in French et is sometimes added to the termifiation
el, as in agnelet, batelet, bracelet, carrelet, chdtelet, rondelet.
In cailletel and louvetel {cailleteau and louveteau) this
process has been reversed.
In some words these terminations merely serve to form
new nouns ; in others they have a diminutive sense, as
merlotto^, senorito, poulet: in Span., however, ote has an
augmentative force, as hombrote, capote. Their origin,
though it is probably to be found in some Teutonic
formative syllable-', is quite obscure.
Asco, Esco, isco, ESC, ESQUE. In Italian asinesco,
Bergamasco, buffonesco, burasca*, cagnesco, cavaleresco,
Dantesco, duchesco, donnesco, gigantesco, giovanesco, mari-
neresco, naveresco, pittoresco, soldatesco : in Span, borrasca,
» [Diez, Rom. Gr. vol. ii. p. 358.]
' Grimm is mistaken, vol. iii. p. 705, in stating that otto in Ital.
has an augmentative force : it is always a diminutive, according to
Marrini on the Lamento di Cecco, p. 106, who gives numerous ex-
amples of it.
3 Grrimm, vol. iii. p. 702. [Diez, ib. p. 345.]
* See Muratori. in v.
144 CHAPTER II.
gatesco, gigantesco, mariscOy Morisco, marinesco, pintoresco,
soldadesco, etc. : in Pro v. Uspanesc, Francesc, Gfrezesc^ Ser-
razinesc, and joglaresc. Probably the French words of
this form, as burlesque, grottesque, gigantesque, pittoresque^
are borrowed from the Italian : the two latter, if they
had been formed in French, would have been geantesque,
peinteuresque ; and the roots of the two former, hurlo and
grotto, are wanting in the same language.
This termination is derived from the German termi-
nation in isc]i^\ thus Tedesco in Ital. corresponds to
Theotiscus or Theotisch (Teutsch), as fresco was formed
from frisch. Thus Arabesco, barbaresco, Turchesco Ital.,
answer to Arabisch, barbarisch, TUrkisch, National names
were often formed with this termination in the Romance
languages, as they are both in German and English.
Now it cannot be contended that the result of this
summary examination of the Romance terminations of
nouns by any means necessitates M. Raynouard's hy-
pothesis with respect to the parentage of the living
Latin dialects, or indeed is at all favourable to it. We
see, indeed, that the different languages subjected the
Latin terminations to similar modifications, and used
them for similar purposes ; but in this fact there is
nothing which compels us to suppose that they had any-
thing more in common than their derivation from the
Latin. In their corresponding words there is just that
degree of resemblance and of difference which might
have been expected in languages formed under the same
circumstances from the same original. Thus there are
some new nouns not derived from the Latin, such as
* See Grimm, vol. ii. p. 379. [Diez, Rom. Gr. vol. ii. p. 361.]
NEW ROMANCE NOUNS FORMED BY AFFIXES. 1 45
those formed with aggio and age from lingua and cor,
with ezza^ eza, and esse from largus and prohus, with one
and (m from kampf, with ^aife or tat from bellus, with ^fra
from viridis, which occur in all the languages : some-
times the different languages formed the same root with
different terminations, as allegrezza and allegria Ital.,
alegria Span., alegrage Pro v., allegresse French ; vicinanza
Ital., voisinage French ; frescor Prov., freschezza Ital.,
frescura Span. ; schiavitu Ital., esclavage French : some-
times each language had words of the several forms
peculiar to itself, of which many examples have been
cited above ; and sometimes the corresponding words are
formed from the differently modified roots belonging to
each language, as maritaggio, maridage, and manage;
romitaggio and hermitage; credencia, creencia, and croy-
ance. As these latter words could not have been derived
from the same source, but were formed by means of the
same terminations from similar roots ; it is fair to con-
clude that the agreement in others where the roots were
the same was the effect of chance, and does not necessi-
tate the hypothesis of a common language in which
these nouns were formed. It is not to be wondered that
having the same terminations to work with, and the same
roots to work tipon, the languages should have often co-
incided in the new forms. Nor can it be doubted that
nations, whose territories lay so near together, which
were governed by institutions so closely resembling, be-
tween which there was so constant an intercourse, and
whose languages had so strict an afB.nity, should fre-
quently have borrowed words from each other. Under
these circumstances such words as omaggio, vassallagio,
and other political terms, would naturally pass from one
L
146 CHAPTER II.
to another country. The influence of the Church had,
moreover, the efiect of binding all the Romance nations
into a species of federal republic, by making all the
clergy members of a community dependent on the See
of Rome. And on the whole, such a communication
existed between these countries, as rendered it impossible
that their cognate languages could have been developed
altogether independently of one another^
The similarity of effects produced on language by
similar causes, may likewise be perceived in the foreign
words introduced into the Romance tongues during the
middle ages, such as the derivatives of werra, herberge,
wante, harnisch, reim, sclavus, spatha, etc., which pro-
bably were in most cases adopted by each language
independently of the others. The subject of the non-
Latin part of the Romance languages is, however, of
sufficient importance to require a separate investigation^ ;
and in this essay I shall confine myself to that which
concerns the grammar, without endeavouring to explain
that which concerns the dictionary of the modern Latin
dialects.
* On the influence of the Italian on the French see Muratori, Ant.
le. vol.ii. p. 1112, B.
' See note (D) at the end. [Diez, Rom. Gram. vol. i. p. 56 — 72.]
CHAPTER III.
Degrees of Comparison, Pronouns^ and Numerals in the
Romance Languages.
§ 1. DEGREES OF COMPARISON.
The Provengal formed its degrees of comparison by-
means of the adverb plus: which word prefixed singly
to an adjective denoted the comparative, and together
with the article, the superlative degree: as hels^ plus
hels, el plus hels. Sometimes it preserved the Latin in-
j flexion in or for the comparative, as majers, mielhers,
\gensers, (from gent, gentilis Latin,) ausers {altior^,) and
rarely that in issimus for the superlative, as altismes,
X^ltissimus. The superlative might likewise be expressed
by means of the article and the Latin comparative:
thus * la genser^ was equivalent to ' la plus genta.' * Am
la plus hella et la meillorf *I love the fairest and the
best.'
After the comparative degree, the relation between
the two things compared is signified by the particle que,
(derived from the Latin quam,) as * plus riex qu'el senher
de Marroc,' * more powerful than the lord of Morocco.'
Sometimes the que was omitted between verbs, as
^ The manner in which the Latin termination in or hecame er in
Proven9al, and received a final s, has been explained above, p. 83.
L2
148 CHAPTER III.
* E am la mais no faz cozin ni oncle : ' ' and I love her
more (than) I do cousin or uncle/
; Or the preposition might be used before substantives
and pronouns, as *plus fresca de lei/ 'fresher than her;'
*mielhs de mi/ * better than me;' *mas de cen/ 'more
than a hundred/ M. Raynouard says that this usage
was imitated from the Greek, {G-r. Rom. p. 55,) but
there seems no reason for supposing that it was bor-
rowed from a language which could not have exercised
any influence on the Provencal, or indeed on any of
the Romance languages. When two objects are com-
pared, it is natural to say that one is the better, the
worse, the more beautiful, etc. of the two ; and it is an
easy transition to say that one is better of the other :
though it is an idiom which our language does not
admit, {G-r, Bom. p. 51 — 8.)
The other Romance languages have in like manner
lost the Latin mode of forming the degrees of compa-
rison by inflexion, with the exception of a few words re-
tained from the Latin, as maggiore, maggio, meno, peggiore,
peggio, migliore, meglio Ital., may or ^ peor^ mejor^ menos
Span., majeur^ meiUeur, mieux, pire, moins French ; and
^the Italian and French, like the Proven9al, form the
^comparative with piu and plus, the superlative with il
piu and le plus : while the Spanish uses mas (from magis)
for the same purpose. M. Raynouard says that the
provengal alone possesses both plus and mais (G-r. Qomp.
p. 137,) : but he forgets that the Latin equally possesses
them both ; and the Provencal does not prefix mais^ like
the Spanish, to adjectives, but uses it only as an adverb
of comparison. The Latin termination of the superla-
tive, as has been already remarked, rarely occurs in
\
DEGREES OF COMPABISON. I49
Provencal, and M. Raynouard cites a few instances of
it in old French, in wHch language, with the exception
of a few relics of the ancient form, such as illustrissimey
reverendissime, etc., it is now disused. The Italian
and Spanish have, however, preserved the use of this
termination, and can annex it to any adjective^ : but it
has lost its proper superlative meaning, and only has
an intensive force : thus * maximus omnium ' would be
in Italian ' il piu grande di tutti,' while ' vir maximus '
would be 'uomo grandissimo.' Wherever it is meant
that none possess the quality in an equal degree, the
article and the adverb must be used : where it is meant
that the subject possesses the quality in a high degree,
the termination is proper. The same rule also applies
to the Spanish. It should be remarked that in the re-
tention of the superlative termination, the latter lan-
guages have adhered more closely than the Proven9al to
the Latin.
The employment of que after comparatives, and of de
before substantives and pronouns, occurs in all the Ro-
mance languages ; and of the suppression of die before
verbs M. Raynouard gives some instances from old
Italian : as * E pio soave dorme in vile e picciol letto
... no face segnore en grande e caro suo :' G-uit. d*
Arezzo, Lett. I. p. 4^. {Or. Oomp. p. 137—42.)
* The Italian only preserved the Latin termination in issimus: it
has, however, retained some Latin superlatives of a different formation,
as ottimo, pessimo, minimo, injimo, supremo, acerrimo, celeherrimo.
These are collected by Biagioli, Gr. Ital. p. 62, who, however, ought
not to have called benissimo a Latin superlative.
^ This construction resembles the vulgar English idiom, ' better nor
me,' * older jior him,' etc.
150 CHAPTER III.
§ 2. PKONOUNS.
The Proven9al personal pronouns have for the most
part only two cases in the singular, and one in the plural
number, distinguished by the termination: the others
are formed by prepositions. They are as follows :
Singular.
Plural.
Nom.
Ace.
eu, ieu, me,
me, mi
mi
nos
Nom.
Ace.
tu
tu, te, ti
Masc.
Nom.
Ace.
il, el
il, el, lo, li.
lui
il, els
els, los, li : lor only after
de or a
Singular.
Fkm.
Plural.
Nom. ella, il, lei, leis ellas
Ace. la, lei, leis las
after a and de ella and not after a and de ellas or lor
la was used. and not las was used.
Se and si were used either in the singular or the plural,
either in the nominative or accusative case, and with the
prepositions de and a, {G-r. Rom. p. 59 — 86.)
In these forms the greatest confusion prevails : while
me and mi are used in the nom. case, together with eu
derived from egOy tu is used in the ace. case, together
with te and ti: although eu is never the accusative, or te
the nominative. 77, e7, and elhy in the nom. singular
come from ille and ilia: ily el, lo, ella, and la, in the ob-
PRONOUNS. 151
lique case are formed from ilium and illam: U, lui, lei,
and leis^ from illi. The two latter feminine forms are
likewise used as nominatives. In tlie nom. plural, il, elsy
and ellas, come from illiy illos, and illas; while lor, com-
mon to hoth genders, is derived from illorum. Li from
illi nom. was transferred to the oblique case plural, as lei
from illi dat. was transferred to the nom. singular.
To the personal pronouns were sometimes joined in the
Proven9al other pronouns, which had the effect of giving
additional force to the affirmation; such as eis, (from
ipse,) mezies, (the origin of which word will be explained
presently,) and altres. Thus ' elh eis dieus la fetz,' * God
himself made her,' * ille ipse Deus ;' * ah qu'el mezeis se
balaya,' *with which he himself flogs himself;' *de se
mezeis nos fe do,' *he made us a gift of himself;' * son
ves els mezeis trachor,' * they are traitors towards them-
selves/ Altre is only joined to nos and vos: thus 'Et
afermi que mays valh Mahomet que ton Xrist loqual vos
autres adoratz ;' * and I affirm that Mahomet is worth
more than thy Christ whom you adore.'
j En and ne were used in Proven9al to mean, of him,
hier, it, them; i, y, and hi, to mean, to him, her, it, them.
Although (says M. RajTiouard) en and ne derived from
inde, and i, y, or hi derived from ihi, ought only to have
been used for the pronoun when they signified inanimate
things, yet the Provencal used them to signify persons,
' both in the singular and plural, and both masculine and
feminine, {G-r, Rom, p. 86.)
The modifications of the Latin personal pronouns
made by the Proven9al reappear, for the most part, in
* On this final s see below, ch. v. § 1.
1S2 CHAPTER III.
the other Eomance languages. The old Italian eo and
the modern io, the Spanish yo, and the old French jeo,
i have retained the o of the Latin ego, which has become
u in the Provencal. The use of mi in the nominative
appears likewise to have anciently existed in Italian and
Portuguese^ : but that of tu in the ace. is peculiar to the
Proven9al. The Italian, from its intolerance of final
j consonants, has changed nos and vos into noi and voi^ :
'notwithstanding which (says M. Eaynouard) the Ro-
mance (i. e. Proven9al) nos and vos appear in ItaHan
joined with the preposition co,' {G-r. Comp. p. 148,) : a
singular assertion ; for in the first place, nos and vos are
as much Latin as Proven9al, and if they were the com-
mon forms in Italian would not prove any connexion
i with the Proven9al, and secondly, nosco and vosco are
evidently contracted from nohiscum and vobiscum, forms
of which there is no trace in the Proven9al or any other
Romance language.
/ It is remarkable that the practice of adding alter to
jnos and vos, occurs in all the Romance languages, and
' in Spanish particularly it has become inseparably joined
to those pronouns, so that nosotros and vosotros are the
common forms for the nom. case, nos and vos being re-
served for the accusative.
"With regard to the derivatives of the pronoun ilk, it
' On the tendency to substitute the accusative for the nominative,
as being more emphatic, some remarks have been already made, above,
pp. 90, 91, and the same explanation probably applies to such expressions
as *io mi sono,' 'io non so ch'io mi dica o ch'io mi faccia' (Boc-
caccio), * io mi vivea' (Petrarch), which occur in old Italian: the mi
was doubtless added in order to give force to the affirmation, and
afterwards might be used merely from habit, (see Gr. Comp, p. 146.)
" Vi, the accusative, appears to be merely a contraction of vox.
PRONOUNS. 153
I is to be observed tbat from tbis word all tbe Romance
i languages bave formed tbeir definite article^; and it is
curious to observe bow eacb language bas cbosen different
forms, originally synonymous, to distinguisb tbe one
sense from tbe otber. Tbe Proven9al used el as an
\ article, and botb el and il as tbe pronoun : tbe Italian
1 originally used botb el and il as tbe article, and el as tbe
pronoun : tbe latter bas now substituted egli^ apparently
from illi^ as tbe Prov. used lei also from illi in tbe femi-
nine gender. Tbe Proven9al used botb el and lo (from
H Ulum) as tbe nom. of tbe article, but lo as a pronoun was
^ / only ace. Tbe old Frencb used both el and lo as tbe
/ article, and lo as tbe accusative of tbe pronoun : but it
bas since disused el as an article, for wbicb it uses le (lo,)
and bas retained il only as tbe nom. of tbe pronoun.
Lei, tbougb derived from illi tbe Latin dative, was used
in old Italian, as well as in tbe Provencal, as a nom. :
tbus Petrarcb,
E ho si avezza
La mente a contemplar sola costei
Ch' altro non vede, e cio, che non e lei,
Gia per antica usanza odia e disprezza.
(See other instances in Gr. Comp. p. 155.) Tbe same
idiom is still retained in Italian in tbe language of con-
versation. With regard to li, los, ellas in Italian and
Spanish, the same observation appHes as to li, los, and
laSy the plural of the article; and lor^ which in the
5 Italian loro retains one more letter of illorum, does not
' Except the Sardinian dialect, in which the definite article is so, sa,
from ipse : Eaynouard, vol. i. p. 41. For the definite ai'ticle in the
^ Komance languages, see above, p. 56.
'54 CHAPTER III.
appear as a personal pronomi in Spanish and Portu-
guese.
The Proven9al use of se occurs in all the other lan-
guages, of en and ne in French, of ne in Italian, and of i
or 2/ in all, {G-r. Qomp. p. 143 — 58.)
The Proven9al moreover often omitted the vowels of
Its personal pronouns, and affixed the remaining conso-
/ nant or consonants to the preceding word : thus me, ti, se,
nos, vos, were represented hy m, t, s, ns, us : thus we find
* 'No sai en qual guiza-m^ fui natz,' ' I know not in what
guise I was born.' * Per aisso-t tem amors,' ' For this I
fear thee, Love.' ' Mos coratges no-s pot partir de vos,'
' my heart cannot part itself from you.' * Lo jom que-ns
ac amor amdos eletz,' ' the day that love had chosen us
both.' ' Tolre no-m podetz que no-us am,' ' You cannot
prevent me from loving you.' iV is likewise used as an
affix for ne or en, (Gr. Rom. p. 91 — 5.) In poetry the
pronoun was necessarily affixed to the preceding word,
and could not be used in its uncontracted form*^.
This remarkable system of affixed pronouns occurs
in old French, and is still preserved in some of the
French patois: it was likewise very prevalent in old
Spanish : . but there is no trace of its existence either
in Portuguese or Italian, though it still prevails in
many of the dialects of Upper Italy, {Grr, Comp. p.
158—61, 402.)
The declension of the possessive pronouns has been
* In the manuscripts the affixed pronouns are written as part of the
word with which they are in pronunciation combined. I have sepa-
rated them (after Schlegel and Diez) with a hyphen for the sake of
clearness.
' See Raynouard in the Journal des Savans, 1831, p. 348.
/
PKONOUNS. 155
already given^ and it only remains to be remarked tliat
lor Prov. as not being derived from a word declinable in
Latin, is itself indeclinable. The Proven9al having ob-
tained an article, naturally employed it before possessive
pronouns used substantively, as in Greek : tbus ' E non
es benestan qu'hom eys los sieus aucia,* ' and it is not
good that man should kill even his own.' *Yos Q^lhs
vostres foratz totz mortz,' ' You and yours would be all
dead,' {Gr. Rom. p. 96—116.)
The Proven9al demonstrative pronouns are eel, aicel,
aquel, est, cest, aquest. The three first appear to be com-
pounded of hie or Mcce, and ille ; est, from iste, com-
pounded with the same word, likewise appears to have
made cest and aquest. The following is the declension
, of these words :
I
Singular.
Masc. Fem.
Nom. eel, celui Nom. cella, oil
and aicel aicella, aicil
Ace. aquel aquella, aquil
I
f Ace. cella, celleis
aicela
aquella, aquelleis
Nom. est Nom. esta, ist
and cest cesta, cist
Ace. aquest aquesta, aquist
Ace. esta
cesta
aquestj
I
f ' ' * See above, p. 78.
156 CHAPTEK III.
Plural.
Masc. Fem.
Nom, cil, eels Nom. cellas
aicil, aicels and aicellas
aquil, aquels Ace. aquellas
Ace. eels
aicels
aquels
Nom, ist, est Nom. estas
cist, cest and cestas
aquist, aquest Ace. aquestas
Ace. ests
cests
aquests
The remarks above made on the personal pronoun el
apply with little variation to these forms. It will be ob-
served that celui masc. from illi dat. is used in all the
cases, though celleis and aquelleis fem., derived from the
same case, are never nominatives. Moreover cily aicil,
aquil, ist, cist, and aquist, are used as nom. feminines,
though in the ace. the final a is never omitted : probably
because the former are derived from ilia and ista, the
latter from illam and istam. Besides these masculine and
feminine forms, aisso, so, and aqux), are the neuter forms :
they appear to have retained their final on account of
the u in the neuter ipsum and illud, which does not appear
in the other genders, {Gr, Mom, p. 117 — 131.) So like-
wise in Spanish aquel is masculine and aquello neuter,
Gfr, Oomp, p. 175.)
Nearly all these pronouns with their variations occur
in the difierent languages. The Italian uses only the
abbreviated form quello, which M. Raynouard compares
PRONOUNS. 157
with, aicel and aquel, but which seems rather to correspond
with eel, while the Spanish has not the shorter form, but
only uses aquel, (Gr. Oomp. p. 171 — 6.)
Of the Provencal relative pronouns it is only necessary
to mention qui, which is used in the nom. and ace, both
as masc. and fem. Que (derived from quod) is used in all
cases, and as both masc. and fem. : and it is alone used
after neuter demonstrative pronouns. Qui and cut some-
times perform the function of genitives, datives, and
ablatives : cui, however, is commonly preceded by a pre-
position, which che always requires.
Don, derived from de unde, and indeclinable, had the
/sense of whence, whose, by or from whom. On, from imde,
leant where, to whom, in whom.
The Proven9al used another pronoun relative formed
by prefixing the article to qiialis : viz. lo qual, la qual,
los quals, etc.
In Proven9al, as in Latin, the antecedent is often
understood : thus ' no say que dire,' * nescio quid dicam/
^Trobat avem qu' anam queren.* 'Invenimus quod
qugerimus,' etc. * Qui en gang semena, plazer cuelh,'
* (He) who sows in joy, reaps pleasure.* 'La premiera
ley denrostra a qui ha sen e raczon,' ' The first law proves
to (him) who has sense and reason.' ' Ai cum par franch
e de bon aire qui Tau parlar,* *Ah, how frank and
debonair sh.e appears (to him) who hears her speak.'
Sometimes, on the other hand, the antecedent being a
substantive, and not a pronoun, the relative was sup-
pressed, particularly in poetry : thus ' Car anc no vi dona
tan mi plagues,' ' For never saw I lady (who) pleased me
so much,' (Qr. Rom. p. 131—43.)
The corruptions of the Latin qui appear with little
158 CHAPTER in.
difference in tlie other languages, wliicli likewise some-
. times suppress the antecedent, and rarely the relative.
I Onde in Ital. has retained the form of the Latin unde more
faithfully than the Prov. on : it has, however, occasionally
the sense of a relative pronoun, which it has obtained by
the same process of abstraction which has rejected the
notion of time in the prepositions de and ad, as used in
the Romance languages to express the relation of the
genitive and dative cases, and in the verb venire, when
used as an auxiliary verb, equivalent to essere, in ItaHan.
Dont likewise remains in French as a relative pronoun^
and in old Italian and Spanish donde and don had the
same sense, {G-r, Oomp. 176 — 86.)
Of the Proven9al indefinite pronouns, the first to be
noticed is hom, or om, from the Latin . homo, which,
followed by the verb in the singular number, had a
distributive sense, and signified mankind in general, or a
large number of people. Thus ' Hom ditz che gang non
es senes amor,' ' Man says (i. e. it is said) that there is
no joy without love.' This very convenient idiom (which
our language unfortunately wants) seems to have been
introduced into the Romance languages by the Germans,
who used the substantive man in this manner. In French,
as is well known, this use of on is very prevalent ; which
word in ancient times was spelt very variously, retaining
sometimes evident traces of its original form, viz. hom,
hon, hum, om, um, on. The Italian^, Spanish, and Por-
tuguese, formerly used tioTUO, omne, and ome, in the same
manner : but in them this idiom has now become obsolete,
(ar. Comp. p. 187—9.)
* See Menage, Etym. Ital. in uom dice.
PRONOUNS. 159
The Proven9al had two pronouns qiiecx, and usquecx,
signifying whoever^ every-one, derived from quisqiie and
wiusquisque ; but no other Romance language had any
derivatives of these words.
Cadauns or caduns, cac, cascuns, meant everyone ;
alcuns, some one ; nulsj neguns, deguns, nessiins, no one.
Of these words cadauns or caduns appears to have been
formed from qiwtus unus or quottinus, cac and cascuns^
from quisqtie and quisque unus {unusquisque) : alcuns was
formed from aliquis unus, like alicuhi in Latin from aliquo
uhi : nuls from mdlus, neguns and perhaps nessuns^ from
nee unus. The origin of deguns, unless it was a corruption
of neguns, does not appear. Being derived from Latin
pronouns in us, they were declined according to the rules
given above : thus nom. cascuns or cascus, cascuna ; ace.
cascun, cascuna. Cada or cad is sometimes used in the
sense of every : thus * A Carduel una pentecosta On cad
an gran pobels s*ajosta/ * At Carduel, an Easter, where
every year many people assemble' : in which passage cad
an appears to answer to the Latin quot annis, both in form
and meaning. Cada has the same sense both in Italian
and Spanish^. The French has it not, but only chasque,
which, like the Provencal cac, probably comes from
quisque; and chascun, which, as well as ciascuno Ital.,
probably comes from quisque unus. The lialian'likewisd
* If cac came from quisque, it would be the same word as quecx
mentioned above, without the final x or s.
' There are instances in Provencal of the confusion of the final c
and s : see below, ch. v. § 1. Muratori in v. derives nessuno from
nescio unum, without any probability.
3 The Spanish nada and nadie appear to be allied to cada : but I am
unable to ofier even a conjecture as to their origin.
i6o
CHAPTER III.
i has cadaunOy compounded of cada)-. Every language has
' the derivatives of aliquis-unus and nullus : but the ItaHan
and French have neuno and neun formed from ne unus, as
well as n^ssuno and nesun from nee unus : the Spanish
r alone has from nee unus made mngwio, like the Provencal
neguns^. The Portuguese had nenhum.
From alter the Prov. made altres or altre declined,
altrui undechned, (which appears to have been formed
from the dative alteriy like lui from illi, costui Ital. from
isti ;) and lastly by contraction al. The other languages
likewise have these forms, and particularly al, which
(sometimes changed into el) occurs in old French, is stiU
used in Spanish and Portuguese, and appears in some
Italian words, as alsi.
Eis, eissa, meteis, metissa, signifying self or own, were
used after all persons : thus * Eu eis mi son traire,' ' I am
a traitor to myself,' (ego ipse mihi sum traditor.) * En
eysa la semana,' 'in the very week.' *Per mo mezeis
follatge,' * through my own folly.' ' Altresi com la can-
dela Que si meteissa destrui,' * like the candle which
destroys itself.'
Ms, es, or eps, (as it is sometimes written in the more
ancient monuments of the Proven9al,) is derived from
ipse^. 3feteis (sometimes written medeis or medes, mezeis,
^ Gatauno occurs in an ancient Italian letter published by Muratori,
Diss. It. vol. ii. p. 1047, E. [See Diez in cadauno.]
5» See Grimm, vol. iii. p. 70 note. It will be observed that all the
Romance languages have lost the Latin nemo.
3 Ips or eps (the corruptions of ipse) sometimes became eis, and
sometimes es. From the latter of these forms came the compounds
des and ades, from the fonner the compounds ncis and anceis, (Gr.
Rom. p. 251,) as will be shown below, ch. v. §. 2. On isso and esso
in Italian derived from ipse, see Perticari, Dif. di Dante, c. 13, vol. i.
p. 321. Muratori, Diss. 32, vol. ii. p. 991, B.
t
PKONOUNS. l6l
and messeis) is evidently formed by the composition of
eis with the emphatic particle met, which is subjoined to
the Latin personal pronoims : thus the latter example
would be word for word in Latin, * velut candela quae se
met ipsam destruit.' When the suffix had been detached
from the pronoun to which it belongs, and permanently
prefixed to the following word, it is no wonder that the
compound thus formed should be used without a pronoun
immediately before it, as when it occurs as an adverb in
the sense of even. It is remarkable that all the other
Romance languages should agree in this pecuHar corrup-
tion, although they have taken for their type the Latin
superlative of ipse, and from met-ipsissimus have formed
medesimo Ital., mismo Span., mesme French^.
From the Latin totus the Provencal made tots or totz,
dechned according to the rule given above : it was some-
times compounded with the adverb tras, or tres, very ;
making trastotz, which had a stronger sense than the
simple word. Tras (as will be mentioned below 2) ap-
pears to be derived from extra by the addition of s and
the suppression of the first syllable. The old French
likewise had the compound trestoz or trestout. It is re-
markable that the Latin word omnis was abandoned in
all the Romance languages (except the Italian, which
has ogni) and totus substituted for it.
From the Latin multus are derived the Ital. molto,^ the
Prov. molts, the French malt, mult, or moult, arid the
Port, muito. From the German manch are derived the
Trov. mantz or maintz, the French maint, and the Ital.
> See Menage and Muratori in medesimo, Grimm, vol. iii. p. 13.
[Burguy, Gr. de la Langue d'Oil, vol. i. p. 179.]
» Ch. V. §. 2.
1 62 CHAPTER III.
manto. The Span, instead of these words has muchq,
which M. Raynouard derives from multus, but which
appears to be of Teutonic origin, and to be derived fromy
an ancient word preserved in the English much, (mik-ils
G-oth., mik-il old H. German^.) Flusor, formed fronx*
plus, appears in the Ital., Prov., and French : in Span*
and Port, it is wanting. On the derivatives of talis and
qualis, tantus and quantus, it is unnecessary to make any
remark, {G-r. Rom. p. 145—60. Qr, Comp. p. 186—96.)
3. NUMERALS.
The cardinal numbers of the Provencal, which will
furnish an easy means of comparison for the different
languages, are as follows : uns or us, dui, trei, quatre, cinq,
sex and sei, set, och and ot, nov, deze and dex, unze, doze,
treze, quatorze, quinze, seize, vint, trenta, quaranta, cent,
mil. The ordinal numbers are premiers, segons, ters,
quarts, quints, seizens, setens, ochens, novens, dezens, unzens,
dotzens, trezens, quatorzens, quinzins, sezemes, vintesmes,
trentesmes, quarantesmes, centes, milles. Of these forms
uns or us was declined like the adjectives hons or hos : dui
was nom. masc, dos ace. masc, and doas was fem. of both
cases. The Prov. likewise used ams masc. and amhas
fem. from amho : by combining which word with dui it
formed likewise the compound ambedui or amdui, de-
clined like dui. Trei is nom. masc, and tres ace. masc.
and also fem. of both cases. In the other cardinal num-
bers, the Prov., like the Latin, made no distinction of
» See Grimm, vol. iii. p. 608, 610.
NUMERALS. 1 63
cases. The ordinal numbers were declined like adjectives
of both genders in 5, except ters, which (as being con-
tracted from tert-ius) was invariable in the masc. gender,
and in the fem. made tersa. It is to be observed, more-
over, that segons made in the fem. segonda ; centes, cen-
tesma ; milles, millesma : the fem. retaining in the middle
the letter which had dropped from the masc. where it
was a final ; as in the French heau, belle, etc^ This was
also the case with the ordinals in ens, of which the masc.
was commonly in es, the fem. in ena, as seizes, seizena.
Several ordinals had the termination esmes, as well as
ens, thus sezesmes, as weU as seizens, {G-r. Rom. p. 161 — 6.)
On comparing the numerals in the other Romance
languages with the Pro v. forms, it will be observed that
( the Ital., in deriving quattro from quattuor, otto from odo,
undid, dodici, etc. from undecim, duodecim, etc. kept
/ nearer to the Latin than did the Pro v., which made
quatre, ot, unze, doze, etc. It is inconceivable, as has
been already remarked in a similar case, that the Latin
qtmtttior, odo, and undecim, should first have been con-
tracted or attenuated into quatre, ot, and unze, and then
I restored to quattro, otto, and undid. The old French
/ used the cases dui and dos, like the Prov., as also the
compound ambedui or emhedui : it likewise distinguished
between troi and tres for the nom. and ace, (G-r. Comp,
p. 198—9.)
The first of the ordinals the Prov. took not from the
/heitm primiis, but ivovo. primarius ; in which it has been
( imitated by the French : the Ital. and Span., though
) they have primiero and primero from primarius, never-
See above, p. 138.
M 2
j64 CHAPTER III.
tiieless use primo from primus as their ordinal. In the
/derivatives of secundus, tertius, quartus, and quintus, (ex-
f cept that the Spanish makes tercero from tertiarius,) all
the languages agree. At this point, however, a dis-
agreement takes place : for whereas the Ital. and Span,
use the derivatives of the common Latin forms sextus,
Septimus, octavuSy nonus, decimus, undecimus, duodecimus ;
the Prov. used the termination perceptible in the less
common Latin forms septenus, cdonus, novenus, denus, etc.
to form ordinals of its own, by which means it made
seizen, seten, ochen, etc. from sei, set, och, etc,
I It is a singular circumstance that all the Romance
/languages should agree in deviating from the Latin with
/ regard to the formation of the three numerals before
( twenty. The Latin forms all its cardinal numbers from
eleven to nineteen inclusive, by annexing decem to the
unit number : thus undecim, duodecim^, tredecim, etc. to
novendecim. The modern languages follow the same rule
till they come to seventeen, when instead of affixing the
word ten to the unit number, they reverse the order of
the words, and to correspond to septendecimy ododecim,
novendecim, we have in Prov. deze set, deze ot, deze nov^ ; ^
* There is this difference between the Greek and Latin -with its
dialects on the one hand, and the Teutonic languages on the other,
that in the former the numerals eleven and twelve are compounded of
■one and two and the word ten : whereas in the latter they are deriva-
tives of one and two, and the word ten does not enter into them. Thus
svStKa and undecim, SvudeKa and duodecim : but eilf and zwelf or
zwSlf from ein and zwei or zwo. Andlefen Goth, and einlef or endlef
old H. Germ, show the relation of eilf to eleven. See Meidinger's
Dictionary, p. 507.
' At least I suppose that this is M. Raynouard's meaning, as he
omits the numerals between sixteen and twenty, (Gr. Rom. p. 161.)
NUMERALS. 1 65
/m Ital. diciasette, diciotto, diciannove : in Span, diez y
siete, diez y ocho, diez y neuve ; in French dix sept, dix huit,
dix neuf. Tlie change is the same as if in Enghsh after
sajring thirteen, fourteen, fifteen, sixteen^ we were to pro-
ceed tenseven, teneight, tennine.
CHAPTER IV.
Formation^ Conjugation, and Syntax of Verbs in the
Romance Languages.
I 1. FORMATION AND CONJUGATION OF VERBS.
The ProvenQal verbs are arranged by M. Eaynouard in
three conjugations, viz. tbose whose infinitive mood ends
in ar, in er or re, and ir or ire. The Proven9al has three
auxiliary verbs, aver from the Latin habere, esser from
the Latin esse, and estar from the Latin stare^.
The Latin had itself degenerated from the more per-
fect type of conjugation preserved in the Greek verb, and
had admitted the use of an auxiliary verb in some tenses
of the passive voice : the use of the auxiliary verb was,
however, much extended in the Romance languages by
the influence of the Germans, who, accustomed to this
\ method of conjugation in their own language, and mis-
understanding or not knowing the force of the Latin
terminations, employed the easier method of compound-
ing a tense out of an auxiliary verb and the past parti-
I ciple. Nevertheless it is to be observed that in the active
I voice all, or nearly all, the Latin tenses were preserved,
/ and the compound tenses of the Romance languages
were added to those of the Latin verb, and not substituted
for them.
» On the use of stare for esse in Latin see Menage, Orig. Ital. in v.
CONJUGATION OP VERBS.
167
I will now set down tlie conjugations of tlie tkree Pro-
ven9al auxiliary verbs, omitting the compound tenses.
Infin.
esser estar
aver
Pres. Part.
essens estaiis
avens
Past Part.
estatz
agutz
Gerund
essen estan
Indicative Mood.
Present.
aven
son, soi, sui
estai, au
ai
est, iest
as
as
es
a,ai
a
sem, em
am
avem
etz
atz
avetz
son, son
an, on
Imperfect.
an
era
estava
avia
eras
avas
ias
era, er
ava
ia
eram
avam
iam
eratz
avatz
iatz
eran, eron
avan, avon
Perfect.
ian, ien, ion
fui
estei
aigui, aic
fust
est
aguist, aguest
fo, fon
et
aguet, ac
fom
em
aguem
fotz
etz
aguetz
foren, foron
erem, eron
Future.
agueren, agueron
er, serai
estarai
anrai
seras
aras
as
er, sera
ara
a
serem
arem
em
seretz
aretz
etz
seran
aran
an
i68
»
CHAPTER IV.
Conditional.
eria fora
estaria
auria agra
as
as
as
as as
a
a
a
a a
am
am
am
am am
atz
atz
atz
atz atz
an, on an, en,
on an, on
an, on an, on
Imperative Mood.
Bias
estas
aias
a
a
a
am
em
am, em
atz
atz
atz
an, on
en, on
an, on
Subjunctive Mood.
Present,
sia
este
aia
as
es
as
a
e
a
am
em
am
atz
etz
atz
an, on
an, on
Imperfect.
an, on
fos
estes
agues
fosses
esses
esses
fos
es
es
fossem
essem
essem
fossetz
essetz
essetz
fossen, 1
on
essen, esson
essen, esson
It will be time to speak generally of the relation
wliicli tlie Proven9al system of conjugation bears to tbat
of tbe Latin and the other Romance languages, when we
come to the three regular conjugations : here I shall only
CONJUGATION OP VEIlBg^ V// '^/'•,
mention those circumstances which are peculiar to-^ft^.
three auxiliary verbs. ^-^ .^^ /
The three auxiliary verbs occur in all the Romance- _^
languages : the French alone has not the infinitive formed
from esse, {^sserejltal.^ esser Pro v., ser Span. ;) etre being
the modem form of ester^ Jtoto. estar : ~s6^\ikewise jested^
the ancient French participle from estai, became first
£.§te^ and then ete. All the modem languages agree in I
changing the b of habere into v : but this change is so
common as not to have anything remarkable. M. Kay-
nouard goes regularly through every tense, comparing
the Provencal forms with those of the other languages,
and in many places he shows that the Italian and Spanish
anciently used forms more resembling the Proven9al than
those now in use : for the most part, however, there is
nothing worthy of notice in these coincidences : thus the
Italian formerly said avemo, and not abbiamo, which is
nearer to the Latin habemus; eramo, and not eravamOy
which is nearer to the Latin eramus: so likewise instead
of fu it said, like the Proven9al, fo : but the vowels u
and are so frequently interchanged in Itahan that this
variation is of no importance.
It is to be observed that the Proven9al, like the French,
' declines the verb etre with the auxiliary aver, as ai estatz,
^j'ai ete; while the Italian declines stare with the verb
essere, as sono stato.
The conjugations of the regular verbs, which have
been mentioned above, are as follows :
Infin.
amar
temer
sentir
Pres. Part.
amans
temens
sentens
F^ast. Part.
amatz
temutz, sutz
sentitz
Gerund
aman
temen
senten
^d
CHAPTER IV.
Indicative Mood.
Present.
am, ami
tem, temi
sent, sente
amas
temes
sentis
ama, am
teme, tem
senti, sent
amam
temem
sentem
amatz
temetz
sentitz
aman, on
, en
temen, on
Imperfect.
senten, on
amava
temia
sentia
avas
ias
ias
ava
ia
ia
avam
iam
iam
avatz
iatz
iatz
avail,
avon
ian
Perfect.
ian
amci, ici
temi, ei
senti
est, iest
ist, est
ist
et
i, et
1
em
em, im
im
etz
etz, itz
itz
eren, eron
eren, eron
iren, iron
Future.
amarai
temerai
sentirai
avas
eras
iras
ava
era
ira
arem
erem
iram
aretz
eretz
iratz
aran
eran
Conditional,
iran
amaria, era
temeria, era
sentiria
arias,
eras
erias, eras
irias
aria, era
eria, era
iria
ariam,
eram
eriam, eram
iriam
ariatz,
, eratz
eriatz, eratz
iriatz
arian,
eran
erian, eran
irian
CONJUGATION OF VERBS.
171
Imperative Mood.
ama, am
teme
senti, sent
a
e, tern
i
em
em
am
etz
etz
etz
en, on
en, on
Subjunctive Mood.
Present.
an, on
ame
tema
senta
es
as
as
e
a
a
em
am
am
etz
atz
atz
en, on
an
ImperfecU
an
ames
temes
sentls
esses
esses
esses
es
es
is
essem
essem
issem
essetz
essetz
issetz
essen, esson
essen
issen, on
On comparing with this scheme of the Provencal verbs
the conjugations of the ItaHan and Spanish verbs, analo-
gous remarks to those already made on the terminations
of nouns naturally suggest themselves. In almost all
instances the Proven9al cut off or contracted the final
syllable of the Latin word : thus from amare it made
amar, from amo it made am, from amamus it made amam,
from amasti it made amest, from amando it made aman :
the Italian, however, where the Latin word ended with
a vowel, retained it unchanged, as amare, amo, amasti,
amando; where the Latin word ended in us, instead, like
the Proven9al, of omitting altogether the final syllable,
17^ CHAPTER IV.
/ it only rejected tlie 5, and changed the ii into o, as amamus
amiamOy amabamus amavamo, like littus lido, pondus pondo,
subtus sotto, etc. The Spanish in some respects adhered
j less closely than the Italian to the Latin : thus it made
/the infinit. amar: and in the second person sing, of the
/ preterite it made amaste, and not amasti: it retained,
/ however, the final o in the first person sing, of the pre-
sent, as amo, and in the gerund, as amando, and in the
first person plural it only changed us into os, as ammnos,
amahamos, Now it is inconceivable that this close ad-
herence to the Latin should have been accidental, and
that the Latin terminations should be preserved in the
Italian and Spanish, if these languages had been derived
from the Proven9al, in which all the terminations in
question had been cut off. Nobody can believe that
amarCy amo, amasti, and amando, were first contracted
into amar, am, amast, and aman, and then restored, by
accident, for the sake of euphony, to their original forms :
that amamus was changed into amam, and then lengthened
into amiamo and amamos. These differences between the
Proven9al and the Italian and Spanish, pervading every
tense of every verb, make it evident that the latter lan-
guages did not pass through the alembic of the former
language in the process of their transmutation from the
Latin.
The only instances in which the Italian appears to
have arbitrarily added to its verbs a final vowel for the
/ sake of euphony, are the third persons plural, such as
I amano, amavano, amarono, lengthened from aman, amavariy
amaron, (the contractions of amant, amahant, amarunt,)
which are the only forms used in Spanish : and in the
third persons singular of the preterite in ette, thus stetit
CONJUGATION OF VERBS.
173
and dedit, having been contracted into stet and det, were
lengthened into stette and dette, (G-r. Qomp. p. 252.) The
Italian like\vise having changed sum as well as sunt into
/ son, added to it the euphonic 0, both in the first and
( third person.
'' The most remarkable divergence from the Latin verb,
and one in which all the Eomance languages agree, is
in the future tense, as may be seen from the following
table.
Latin.
Ital.
Span.
Prov.
French.
amabo
amero
amar^
amarai
aimer^i
timebo
temero
temerd
temerai
sentiam
sentiro
sentire
sentirai
sentirai
The Latin has two modes of forming its future active,
one for the two first conjugations by adding ho, and
another for the two last conjugations by adding am to
the characteristic letter : thus ama-bo, time-bo, reg-am,
senti-am. In its derivative languages, both these modes
of formation have been lost, and in their place a single
termination has been substituted, viz. r followed by a
vowel or diphthong. There is no trace of the formation
of the Latin future by this consonant, except in ero, the
future of the verb esse.
M. Eaynouard supposes that the modem futures have
been formed by annexing the present tense of avere, haber,
aver, or avoir, to the infinitive mood of each verb, and in
proof of this assertion he cites several passages where the
infinitive mood of the auxiliary verb is in the Proven9al
separated by the interposition of another word : thus * Et
quant cobrat Tavran, tornar Van e so poder per fe e senes
engan,' where the French exactly renders this idiom :
174 CHAPTER IV.
* Et quand recouvre Tauront, tourner Font en son pouvoir
par foi et sans tromperie/
So likewise in poems of the Troubadours ; * E si li
platz, alherguar m'a' * and if it pleases him, he has to
lodge me.*
E pos mon cor non aus dir a rescos,
Pregar vos a/, s' en aus, en ma chansos.
' And since I do not dare to express my wish in secret,
I have to entreat you, if I dare, in my song.'
Amarai ? oc ; si li platz ni I'es gens,
E si nol platz, amar Vai eissamen.
* Shall I love ? Yes ; if it pleases her and she is kind,
and if it does not please her, I have to love her (i. e. I
will love her) equally/
In Provencal, too, the verbs aver and esser, with the
preposition a before another verb, were used to express
the future : as ' ab Keys ai a guerir,' * with her I have to
recover :' i. e. 'I shall recover.' * A Tadvenement del qual
tuit an a ressuscitar,' * at whose coming all have to rise
again :' i.e. * all will rise again.' * Tem que m'er a morir,'
* I fear it will be to me to die,' i. e. * I fear I shall die, {Gr.
Rom. p. 221—2. comp. vol. i. p. 70, 81. Gr. Oomp.^. 206.)
Of these idioms the latter occurs, though with a sense
not so closely allied to the future, in all the Romance lan-
guages : of the former, examples are to be found only in
the Spanish and Portuguese ; in the Italian and French
this usage does not appear ever to have prevailed. The
following arc examples from the Spanish : * Non te diran
Jacob, mas decir te han Israel.' * Castigar los M como
CONJUGATION OF VERBS.
175
avran a far/ ' Haher les hemos come alevosos perjurados,'
{Qr. Oomp. p. 297—81.)
These examples appear to prove the truth of M. E>ay-
nouard's assertion with respect to the origin of the
Romance future ; as becomes more evident by comparing
the future tense in each language with the modern present
tense of habere : thus
Ital.
Span.
Prov.
French.
ho
he
ai
ai
amer 6
perder 6
sentir 6
amar 4
perder ^
sentir 6
aiuar ai
perder ai
sentir ai
aimer ai
perdr ai
sentir ai
In old Italian, moreover, haggio and ahho were used for
hOy (i. e. habeo,) as the first person of the present tense of
havere : and thus we likewise find futures in aggio and
ahbo, as faraggio, veniraggio, diraggio, torrabbo^.
When this form had once been estabHshed in the active
verb, it was transferred to the auxiliary verbs, so that the
verb habere was inflected by itself, ((7r. Oomp. p. 206^.)
• This origin of the Komance future is doubted, upon insuflficient
grounds, by Ampere, Hist, de la Litt. Fr. p. 160.
* See this fully explained by Castelvetro on Bemho, vol. ii. p.
203 — 5 : compare Perticari, vol. i. p. 302, note 7, to col. 2. Galvani,
Poesie dei Trovatori, p, 36, n. 1. Lanzi, Lingua Etrusca, vol. i.
p. 338.
3 The story which M. Raynouard citeS' from Almoin, De Gestis
Francorum, ii. 5, about Dara taking its name from the Emperor
Justinian saying Daras, (thou shalt give,) and which he calls ' a fact
difficult to explain,' (vol. i. p. x.) is, as Schlegel has remarked,
evidently an etymological fable, (p. 45, 102,) Uke those which the
Greeks so often invented about the origin of their cities, and not more
authentic than the derivation of the name of Britain from Brutus the
grandson of ^neas. [This city of Mesopotamia is called Doras in
Pasch. Chron. vol. i. p. 608, ed. Bonn, and Malalas, p. 399, ed. Bonn.
176
CHAPTER IV.
As the future tense was formed by means of the present
tense, so the conditional was probably formed by means
of the imperfect, of habere : in Spanish some instances
occur where this tense is, as it were, analysed into its
component parts ; as ' dexar me ias con el sola ;' ^ E mas
pechere me Jiia en pia diez mil maravedis ;' ' Pechar nos
ya toda aquella pena,' {G-r. Comp. p. 278.) All the
languages except the French have a double form of this
tense.
Ital.
Span.
Prov.
French.
amerei
amara
amera
aimerei
ameria
amaria
amaria
perderei
perdiera
perdera
perderei
perderia
perderia
perderia
sentirei
sentiera
sentiria
sentireie
sentiria
sentiria
/ The simple forms in ara and era appear to be corrupted
/from the Latin amarem^ 'perderem, sentirem : the form in
/ ia M. Eaynouard considers as taken from avia, {aveie in
French,) the imperfect of avere. Nor would there be any
doubt about this derivation, if it were certain that ia ever
had the force of avia, and that such is its meaning in the
passages quoted above from the Spanish. The Itahan
form in ei, however, is evidently borrowed, not from the
imperfect, but from the preterite, of avere, ehhi, anciently
ei, as may be seen from the inflexion of the different
in which passages it is said to have received its name, from being the
place where Alexander the Great conquered Darius with the spear
($6pv). Almoin, a French Benedictine monk, was born about 1)50, and
died in 1008 a.d. His History of the Franks abounds in fables. The
reign of Justinian terminated in 565 a.d. Concerning the town in
question, see Dr. Smith's Diet, of Anc. Geogr. art, Daras.]
CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 1 77
persons^. Tlie Yenetian dialect has vorave, sarave, for
vorrei, sarei, etc., whicli more distinctly shows the Latia
habui^. Parrave for parrebbe was used by Dante da
Maiano^.
With regard to the other tenses of the regular verb&
in the Italian and Spanish, and their relation to the LatiQ
and Proven9al, there is nothing which calls for particular
notice- The formation of the French verb, however,
having undergone more changes, and having departed
further from its original type, requires a more detailed
explanation.
The final s now added to the first and third persons of
the present, to the second person of the imperative, and
to the first person plural, of the French verb, formerly did
not exist : and those tenses which have now ois as the
termination of the first and second persons singular,
origiaally made eie or oie in the first, and eies or oies in
the second person : thus je mand,je voi,je regard, je bais,
il aim, il chant, pren-tu, fui-t-en, nous avum, nous devunty
nous parlum, nous prion, nous gardon, j^aveie, je fereie,je
sole, festoie, tu saveies, tu consenteies, tu devoies, tu tenoies.
In these respects the French verb approached nearer to
the Latin and Proven9al forms (6rr. Comp. 225 — 38.)
The French imperfect has undergone remarkable
changes : amabam, the Latin form of the first conjugation,
first, by a slight modification, as in the other languages
became amava: then the internal a was, as in other French
words, changed into o, and the final a underwent the
regular change into the e muet : by which means amava
* Castelvetro on Bembo, vol. ii. p. 224.
* Denina, in the MSm. de I'Acad. de Berlin, 1797, p. 76,
3 Castelvetro, ibid.
N
i'J^ CHAPTER IV.
became amoue^. M. Kaynouard cites many examples of
this form ; as je crioue, je parlowe, je quidoue, tu parloes,
U cuveitoue, Us alouent, ils contrariowent, Us errouent ;
afterwards u was changed into i, so that amoue became
amoie : the final e was then suppressed, when the im-
perative was written festoy, fescoutoy, and lastly, a final
s was added, which brought it to its present form. The
other forms of the Latin imperfect, eham and ibam,
appear to have been changed in French, as in Proven9al,
into m, then ^e, eie, or oie, then o^, and lastly into ois : by
which means the termination of the imperfect became
uniform in all the conjugations, {Gfr. Comp. p. 244 — 8,
271.)
In the preterite of the first conjugation the French has
adhered more closely than the Proven9al to the Latin
original, as from amavi, amavit, it makes j^aimai, il aima,
(anciently aimat,) whereas the Pro v. has amei and amet
The Prov., however, sometimes, though rarely, used the
termination ai in the first person {G-r. Horn. p. 217) ;
and the terminations in ei and et or eit sometimes occur
in old French : thus Je trouvey, Je sahiey, it chanteit, il
desarmeitf etc. (Gr, Oomp.-p. 248^). The first and third
persons of the perfect, in the two other French conjuga-
tions, anciently were not as now terminated in s and t,
but wanted those consonants, as Je perdi, Je vi, il nasqui,
il rendi, Je converti, J^establi, il se departi, il failli, (Gr,
» An intennediate form of the French imperfect hetween amava and
ajnoue, yiz. ameve, omitted by M. Kaynouard, is pointed out by Orell,
p. 100 — 3 : thus ' Certes li paiz ne cessevet,' (Si quidem non oessabat
pax,) St. Bernard. ' lu jueyve par defors en la place,' (ludebam ego
foris in platea,) St. Bernard. * Alsi com eles en apres racontevent' (ut
post ipsae referebant,) St. Gregory. [See also Burguy, vol. i. p. 218.]
* On the third person of the French preterite, see Orell, p. 107.
CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 179
Comp. p. 271, 281.) The addition of s to tlie first person
of the preterite is an arbitrary change, which likewise
sometimes occurred in the Provencal {Gr, Rom. p. 217) :
the final t of the third person appears, however, to have
been retained from the Latin.
On the passive voice of the Proven9al and the other
languages there is little to be said, as it is formed in all
by means of the past participle and the verb substantive.
The destruction of the more perfect form of conjugation
which is shown in the Greek verb, had already been
begun by the change which compounded the Latin lan-
guage of a Hellenic and a foreign element : so that some
of the Latin passive tenses are formed by inflexion, as
aTnoTj amabor, others by means of the verb substantive,
amatus sum, eram^ ero, forem, etc. All these remains of
inflexion were destroyed by the influence of the Germans,
and the Romance languages form their passive tenses
without exception by an auxiliary verb, (^r. Mom, p. 192.
Qmip. p. 285.)
/ All these languages Hkewise agree in giving a passive
r sense to the third person of the verb active together with
the pronoun se\ as in Proven9al, *czo que se conten
en aquesta leiczon,' Hhat which is contained in that
lesson,' {Ghr. Oomp. p. 287.) By this use of se, as weU as
of the other pronouns, a verb obtains a reflective sense,
which at length becomes merely passive. The Italian
makes great use of this mode of expression, and employs
it as a substitute for the French on, which the ItaHan had
originally copied from the German, but which never came
into general use, and for some centuries has fallen into
complete desuetude, (see above, p. 158.)
The Proven9al infinitive has preserved the Latin ter-
N2
l80 CHAPTER IV.
mination, rejecting the final vowel, as amar from amarCy
sentir from sentire, far from facere, etc. Sometimes, how-
ever, there are two forms of the infinitive, one retaining
the final vowel, which the other form rejected, and some-
times suppressing an internal vowel, which the other
form preserved ; thus far and faire from facere, querer
and querre from qitcerere, seguir and segre from sequiy
(modified into sequire, according to a principle which will
be presently explained,) (Gr. Mom. p. 194 — 7.)
Of the other Romance languages the Italian has pre-
/ served unchanged the Latin terminations of the active
' infinitive : the Spanish, like the Proven9al, has sup-
pressed the final vowel. The French, suppressing the
final e, has retained unchanged the termination in ir, as
isentir; that in ar it has, as usuaP, changed into er, as
Imander from mandar, aimer from amar. The Latin infini-
tives of the second and third conjugations it subjected
to greater modifications : in some it suppressed the penul-
timate vowel of the termination, as defendre from defen-
. dere^ fondre from fundere^ rompre from rumpere, connoistre
j from cognoscere^; in others it suppressed the final vowel,
I and then changed the last syllable into sir, and lastly into
oir: thus habere, aver, aveir, avoir; mover e^ mover, moveir,
mouvoir; seder e, seer, seeir, seoir; videre, veer, veeir or
Iveir, voir. It will be observed that for the most part the
.'French suppressed the penult vowel when it was shorty
' See above, p. 123, on the termination in arius, which the French
sometimes changed into aire, but more frequently into er.
' Anciently, however, these terminations were sometimes written
with er : thus aprender, committer, deffender, discender, mitter, prender^
etc. M. Raynouard by an oversight cites ester, from Littleton, s. 376,
as an instance of this form, which, as he himself has explained, is for
estar from $tare.
I
CONJUGATION OP VERBS. l8l
that is, in verbs of tlie tliird conjugation, as in rendre,
vendre, fendre, perdre, croire, naitre^ etc. ; and suppressed
tlie final vowel when the penult was long, as in avoir y
chaloir, douloir, mouvoir, souloir, valoir, voir, etc. This
distinction, however, is by no means invariably observed,
as on the one hand there are taire from tacere, rire from
ridere; on the other there are decevoir, falloir, percevoir,
pleuvoir, savoir, cheoir^, from decipere, fallere, percipere,
pluere^ sapere, cadere : pouvoir and vouloir are derived
from potere and volere, barbarous forms for posse and
velle^, which may perhaps have had the penult long from
the beginning, as they are now pronounced by the Ital-
ians, who (it may be remarked) likewise lengthen the
penult of sapere, (G-r. Oomp. p. 239, 257 — 63.)
The Latin termination in ere has often become ire in
the Eomance languages : thus in the Proven9al delir
and florir from delere and florere Lat. The following
table exhibits some verbs in the three principal Ro-
mance languages, which have respectively imdergone
this change.
From ere of the second Latin conjugation : ^
Latin.
abolere
Ital.
abolire
Span.
abolir
French.
abolir
implere
florere
empiere and
empire
fiorire
emplir
fleurir
* On the verb cheoir, see Orell, p. 213, Burguy, vol. ii. p. 18.
* Other instances of the reduction of anomalous Latin infinitives to
the regular terminations in the Eomance languages are afibrded by the
word esse, which became essere or esser: and hyferre, which, though
lost in its simple form, has been variously modified in its compound
forms into deferire, profferire, riferire, sofferire, trasferire Ital., deferir,
prqferir, referir, sufrir, transferir Span., souffrir French.
82
CHAPTER IV.
Latin.
Ital.
Span.
French.
languere
poenitere
tenere
languire
ripentere and
ripentire
tenere
arrepentir
tenir
languir
repentir
tenir
From ^e of the tliird Latin
conjugation :
Latin,
Ital.
Span.
French.
adquirere
adquirir
acqu^rir
agere
applaudere
advertere
agire
applaudere and
applaudire
avvertire
aplaudir
advertir
agir
applaudir
avertir
capere
capire
currere
correre
currer
courir
concurrere
concorrere
concurrir
concourir
convertere
convertere and
convertire
convertir
convertir
fallere
fallire
fallir
faillir
fremere
fremere and
fremire
fr^mir
fugere
fuggire
huir
fuir
gemere
gemere and
gemir
g^mir
includere
gemire
inchiudere
incluir
incidere
incidere
incidir
regere
reggere
regir
r^ir
reprimere
tradere
reprimere
tradire
reprirair
r^primer
trahir
traducere
vomere
tradurre
traducir
traduire
vomir>
The Eomance languages substituted for the inflected
form of the passive infinitive mood, the past participle
and the verb substantive : as for amari, essere amato Ital.,
ser amado Span., esser amatz Prov., etre aime French.
^ [Compare Diez, Rom. Gr. vol. ii. p. 126.]
CONJUGATION OP VERBS.
183
In tlie deponent verbs this expedient would not suffice :
therefore the infinitive was by different means reduced
to an active form. The following are instances of this
change.
Latin.
Ital
SpaTU
Ptov.
French.
exhortari
esortare
exhortar
exhorter
irasci
irascer
luctari
lottare
luchar
luchar
lutter
mori
morire
morir
morir
mourir
mentiri
mentire
mentir
mentir
mentir
nasci
nascere
nacer
nascer
naitre*
pati
patir
padecer
progredi
progredire
recordari
ricordare
recordar
sequi
seguire
seguir
seguir and
segre
suivir and
suivre'*
sortiri
sortire
sortir
sortir
The principle of declension for present and past parti-
ciples in the Provencal has been already stated in con-
nexion with that of nouns, (above, p. 79, 80) : it now
only remains to ascertain the manner of their formation.
The present participle was in all the Romance lan-
guages preserved from the Latin without change, except
that those of the second and third conjugation were the
same, as temens from temery sentens from sentivj Prov.
The past participles in the Prov. followed the track
of the Latin, except that the penult vowel of the parti-
ciple of the second conjugation was slightly altered, as is
shown in the following scheme.
* Naistre (naitre) from nascere, like paistre (pattre) from pascere,
and croitre from crescere.
' Suivir was used in old French, Orell, p. 257. Koquefort in v.
8uir. [Burguy, vol. ii. p. 210.]
1^4
CHAPTER IV.
First Conj.
Lat. amatus
Prov, amatz
Second Conj.
placitus, perditus
plazutz, perdutz
Third Conj.
auditus
auzitz
This is the regular mode of formation ; and new
participles were thus created iadependently of the Latin,
and in cases where the Latin verh had no participles, or
where they were different ; as in the subjoined examples.
Lat. infin.
Lat. part.
Prov. infin.
Prov. part.
florere'
florir
floritz
lucere
luzer
luzitz'
timere
temer
temutz
cadere
casus
cazer
cazutz
recipere
receptus
recebre
recebutz
mordere
morsus
mordre
mordutz
vivere
victus
vivre
viscutz
In other cases, however, the Provencal verb did not
form its participle according to the rule, but retained
only the anomalous Latin form.
Lat. infin,
aperire
claudere
coquere
frangere
mori
nasci
occidere
Lat. part.
apertus
clausus
coctus
fractus
mortuus
natus
occisus
Prov. infin.
ubrir
clorre
cozer
fraaher
morir
nascer
occir
Gr, Rom, p. 197—204.
Prov. part.
ubertz
claus
cotz
frach
mortz
natz
occis
Camp. p. 289, 90,
In other instances, however, the Prov. verb had two
* M. Raynouard gives Jlorescere, not Jiorere, as the original of the
Prov. jiorir : but see the explanation above, p. 181 — 2.
* These words are perhaps not the participles of Jiorir and luzer,
but adjectives from floridus and lucidus.
CONJUGATION OP VERBS.
i8s
participles, one anomalous retained from the Latin, and
one regular formed according to the Prov. analogy.
LaLpart.
irreg. Prov. part.
reg. Prov. part.
absconsus
rescons
rescondutz
corruptus
corrotz
corromputz
electus
eleitz
eligitz, eligutz
defensus
defes
defendutz
iratus
iratz
irascutz
redemptus
rezemtz
rezemutz
ruptus
rotz
romputz
Gr, Rom. p. 202,
205. Comp. p. 290, 91
The formation of the past participles of the first and
third conjugations in the other Romance languages offers
* M. Raynouard, Gr. Rom. p. 204, makes an anomalous class of
*past participles in at, which changing the Latin termination have
passed into the conjugation in or, although originally they belonged to
another Latin conjugation.' His examples are
Lot. infin.
1 cupere
2 oblivisci
3 uti
4 tremere
5 calefacere
6 dulcescere
Lat part.
cupitus
oblitus
usus
calefactus
dulcitus
Prov. infin.
cobeitar
oblidar
usar
tremblar
calfar
adolzar
Prov. part.
cobeitatz
oblidatz
usatz
tremblatz
calfatz
adolzatz
In the first four of these instances the Prov. does not correspond to
the Latin verb : in the three first it is a derivative formed from the
Latin participle or supine, viz., cupitare from cupitum, oblitare from
dblitum, usitare from usum, (like ventitare from ventum, excitare from
excitum, etc.) : the fourth, which in Latin would be tremulare, appears
to be formed from tremulus : the Ital. and Span, have tremolare and
tremolar, (see above, p. 71, note '.) Calfar is contracted from calfacere^
as far from facer e : calfatz is likewise contracted from calefactus ; where
the final a belongs not to the termination, but to the body of the word.
Adolzar is likewise a new verb formed from dulcis or dulcor, and h&s no
reference to dulcescere. These words, therefore, ought not to be ar-
ranged, with M. Kaynouard, under the head of anomalous participles.
i86 CHAPTER IV.
no difficulty or anomaly: from atus and itus tlie Ital.
and Span., according to the rule already explained, make
ato and ito^ and the French, so long as it observed the
distinction of cases, made ets or ez, it^ or iz in the nom.,
et and it in the ace. : which latter forms it now retains
in use, having rejected the final t, as aimet, aime, sentity
senti: the former, like Ubertat, Ubertet, liberie y (above,
p. 135. Or. Comp. p. 239—41, 277—9.) It is curious
to observe the number of changes to which the past
participle of the first conjugation has been subjected in
different Romance languages : thus from amatus, amatz
Pro v., from amaturriy amat Pro v., (whence aimet, aime
French,) amato Ital., amado Span., amaOy arm, and amby
in different Italian dialects'.
In the second conjugation the Prov., as we have al-
ready seen, constantly changed the i ia the penult of the
Latin participle into w, and formed new participles ac-
cording to that analogy, making, for example, perdutz
from perder, and irascutz from irascer. The Italian like-
wise makes the same change, and says perdutOy temuto^
tenutOy etc. The Span, now makes these participles in
idoy as temido, perdidoy tenido: anciently, however, their
termination was sometimes vdoy as connozudoy contenudo,
perdudo, tenudo, vendudo, etc. The regular termination
of the French participles of this conjugation was like-
wise tm or uty now simply u, as venditus, venduts, venduz,
vendut, vendu, like virtutem, vertut, vertUy (Gr, Comp,
p. 239—41, 263—8.)
M. Raynouard appears to lay great stress on the
coincidence of terminations just stated, and he thinks
» See Gamba, Serie di Scrittori Venexiani, p. 28, 74.
CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 1 87
tHat sucli an agreement is a decisive proof that some of
the Romance languages were derived from a language
intermediate between them and the Latin. *I will
remark/ he says, *that the participles in iido which
occur ia ancient Spanish cannot have been borrowed
directly from the Latin, as the corresponding Latiu par-
ticiples were not in utus.* (p. 265.) If the change had
been very considerable, for instance, if for the Latin
termination in itits, all the Romance languages had sub-
stituted the Greek termination ofxevos, and had made
perdomenOy temomeno, etc., then every one would agree
with M. Raynouard that it would be necessary to look
for a common cause independent of the Latin usage.
But when the change is so iuconsiderable as that in
question, when it is a mere modification of a vowel
sound, it does not appear to warrant any such hypothesis
as that attempted to be raised upon it. The i in the
penult of the Latin participle became u in the Ital.,
Prov., and French : in ancient Span, it was sometimes
one and sometimes the other : but usage has now given
imiversal currency to the Latin vowel. In Span, more-
over, the Latin t has become d : a change of perpetual
occurrence, and which Kkewise appears to have taken
place in the Proven9al, as the feminiues of the past
participles all exhibit that letter ; thus amatz, amada,
amadas: temutz, temuda, temudas; sentitz, sentiday sentidas,
(Gr, Bom, p. 206 — 7^) In these variations from the
* The modem Provencal makes the same change in past participles,
as well as in adjectives formed from ancient participles, though it has
lost the final t of the masc. gender : thus, masc. sing, houliga moved,
fem. sing, bouligado, fem. pi. bouligados : bandi, hanished, fem. sing.
bandido, fem. pi. bandidos : oousi^ heard, fem. sing, oousido, fem. pi.
1 88 CHAPTER rv.
Latin tliere seems to me to be nothing wliicli eacli lan-
guage may not reasonably be conceived to have effected
for itself, independently of any foreign influence : in the
Span., moreover, the Latin termination has been uni-
versally restored, which would scarcely have happened if
it had not been retained by an uninterrupted tradition,
and if the modem language had been entirely derived
from the Prov. It is to be remarked that the change of
i into u has only taken place in participles where, like
tacitus, jperditus, vendituSy it was short, and where probably
it had a thick indistinct sound, which might easily pass
into u : in participles of the last conjugation, as sentituSy
avditus^ ferituSy where the i was long, that vowel is in all
the modern forms preserved unchanged.
As in the Proven 9al, so in the other Romance lan-
guages, many participles of the second and third con-
jugations were not formed according to the rules just
explained, but were derived immediately from the Latin :
thus in Italian rom'pere makes not romputo but rotto,
cuocere not cociuto but cotto^ morire not morito but morto :
in Span, poner not ponido but puesto : ahrir not abrido
but aperto : in French the participles ncy cloSy mis, ouvert,
are borrowed directly from the Latin participles natus,
clausus^ missuSy apertuSy and not formed regularly from
naUre, clorre, mettre, ouvrivy etc. M. Raynouard describes
the derivation in question, by saying that * the irregular
Latin participles, 'having become Romance, passed into
oousidos : pouli, beautiful, from politm ; fortuna, fortunate, from for-
tunatm, fem. sing, poulido, fortunado, fern. pi. poulidos, fortunados.
See Grammaire Fran^aise expliqu€e au moyen de la Langue Provengalef
(Marseille, 1826,) p. 32, 73, 78, 86.
CONJUGATION OP VERBS.
189
the other Latin languages':' a supposition perfectly
gratuitous, as there is no reason why these forms should
not have passed directly from the Latin into each modem
language without any foreign assistance.
The Ital. and Span., moreover, like the Prov., have in
many instances not only preserved the Latin participle,
hut have also formed another according to their own
analogy. In this manner many verbs have two past
participles, one irregular, the other regular, one ancient
and the other modem.
Lat. part.
Ital. irreg. part.
natus
nato
occisus
ucciso
prensus
preso
qusestus
chiesto
rasus
raso
tonsus
tonso
Lat. part.
Span, irreg. part.
conversus
converse
extinctus
extincto
natus
nado
prensus
preso
ruptus
rotto
scriptus
escrito
Ital. reg. part.
nasciuto (nascere)
ucciduto (uccidere)
prenduto (prendere)
chieduto (chiedere)
raduto (radere)
tonduto (tondere)
Span. reg. part.
convertido (convertir)
extinguido (extinguir)
nacido (nacer)
prendido (prender)
rompido (romper)
escribido (escribir)'
Gr, Comp. p. 289—97.
* 'Ces participes, devenus romans, passdrent dans les autres langues
de TEurope latine.' Chr. Comp. p. 290. By Romance, it is to be
observed, M. Eaynouard means Provengal.
2 These double forms, it will be observed, properly belong to the
same verb, like hxnpa and trvrrov ; and they are altogether different
from those cases in which a more recently formed verb has not only
its own regular participle, but also a participle of an obsolete form,
which is assigned to it as having no owner, and being a sort of waif or
Jf?9Q CHAPTER IV.
A system of double forms, exactly analogous to those
pointed out in the participles of some of the Romance
languages, prevails in the preterites and participles of
many English verbs, which have preserved their ancient
Saxon form, and at the same time coined a new one
according to the more prevailing analogy. Thus the
common participle of acquaint is acquainted, in Scotch it
is acquent : on the other hand the common preterites of
wind and grind are wound and ground, in Scotch they are
winded and grinded : in many other cases the original
form has become antiquated and the modern form is alone
in use, as cbmb and climbed^ spat and spit, clave and cleft^
puck and picked, squoze and squeezed: although these
ancient preterites still retain their currency as pro-
vincialisms^. Some English nouns likewise have a dou-
ble plural, as brethren and brothers, one formed according
to the ancient, one according to the more recent practice;
like the Ital. nouns mentioned above, such as corpo, pi.
corpora and corpi ; prato pi. prata and prati, which have
the Latin as well as the Ital. form of the plural 2. The
double genitive case in English, one formed by synthesis*
the other by analysis, (as Shahspeare' s plays, an edition of
Shahspeare,) is another example of an ancient and a
modern form running parallel in a language, without the
one supplanting the other.
estray. Thus in Spanish juntar and soltar (solutare) have their regular
passive participles juntado and soltado : but, besides these, they Uke-
"wise lay claim to junto and suelto, from junctus and solutus, the parti-
ciples of the obsolete Latin verbs jungere and solvere. See Gr. Comp.
p. 293.
' See Philol. Museum, vol. ii. p. 198 and 214, and other parts of the
same article, where this subject is treated at length and fuUy explained.
* Above, p. 117.
SYNTAX OF VERBS. 19 1
§ 2. SYNTAX OF VERBS.
Having thus examined the structure of the Provencal
and the other Eomance verbs, I will now transcribe from
M. Eaynouard a few remarks on their syntax, and their
relations with other parts of speech.
The Prov. sometimes uses its gerund Hke the Latia, as
* aman viv e aman morrai,* ' I live in loving and I shall die
in loving :' sometimes it prefixed the preposition en or «,
as * en ploran serai chantaire,' * in weeping I shall be a
singer.' * Al pareissen de las flors,' * at the appearing of
the flowers,' (Gr. Bom. p. 230.)
All the Romance languages, like the Greek and some-
times the Latin, used the infinitive mood as a substantive,
(which indeed it must in strictness be considered,) and
prefixed prepositions to it, as in Prov. ' En agradar et en
voler Es Tamors de dos fis amans,' * In pleasiog and in
wishing is the love of two pure lovers.' In the other
languages this idiom is too well known to require the
repetition of examples, (Gr. Bom. p. 231. Comp. p. 300i.)
In Latin, as is weU known, pronoims when the subjects
of verbs were rarely expressed. In all the Romance
languages this usage was retained, both when the sup-
pressed pronoun signified a person, and when it signified
a thing, ia which case a verb is said to be employed im-
personally. In French the ellipsis of the pronoun has
now become obsolete : but it was anciently universal, and
used in aU styles whether lofty or familiar ; nor was it
to the jocular poetry of Marot, or to the style known in
France by the name of Marotiqm, that this idiom was
» [See Diez, JRom. Gr. vol. iii. p. 208.] , . ,
19^ CHAPTER IV.
confined, as some writers have supposed, (6rr. Rom.
p. 233—7. Comp. p. 301.)
The infinitive preceded by a negation was in Prov.
sometimes used with an imperative force ^ : as * Non
temer, Maria,' ' Fear not, Mary.' ' Ai amors, no m'au-
cire,* * ah, love, do not kill me.' This idiom is still
used in Italian'^, and it existed in old French ; but M.
Raynouard states that he has not been able to find any
instance of it in Spanish or Portuguese, (G-r. Rom. p. 237.
Comp. p. 302.)
All the Romance languages have used the custom of
■addressing a person in the plural number of the verb, any
/adjective which refers to the subject nevertheless re-
maining in the singular, {(Jr. Oomp. p. 238. Oomp.-p. 303.)
The Proven9al, moreover, like the Latin, often put the
verb in the sing, number after several nouns : as
Dieus sal vos, en cui es assis
Mos joys, mos desportz e mos ris.
* God save you, in whom is placed my joy, my happiness,
and my laughter.'
The Prov. likewise used the plural after a noun of
multitude, as
Amor hlasmon per non saber
Fola genSf mais lei non es dans.
* Foolish people blame love from ignorance, but it does
not suffer.'
* The infinitive is never thus used except in a negative address : see
Raynouard, Journ. des Sav. 1825, p. 184.
* See Perticari, Dif. di Dante, c. 18. vol. i. p. 375. [Diez, Rom. Or,
vol. iii. p. 204.]
SYNTAX OF VERBS.
193
M. Raynouard says that *tlie following form is re-
markable : ah, with, is considered as a conjunction.'
E pueis lo reis, ab sos baros,
Pueion e lor spazas ceinzon.
* And then the king with his barons get up and gird their
swords.'
This is one of those forms which are called ungram-
V matical; that is, the sentence is formed according to the
. ^sense, and not according to the structure of the words.
Instances of this peculiar idiom occur in Latin, and
it is of frequent occurrence in English, {Gr. Bom.
p. 239—401.)
M. E-aynouard closes his remarks by an explanation of
the use of que in connexion with verbs. Que, as a pro-
noun, is derived, as has been already mentioned (p. lS7,)
from quod: as a conjunction it is taken from quia^, to which
word the lower Latinity attributed the senses both of that
* The following are Latin examples of this construction. Livy,
xxi. 60. Ipse dux cum aliquot principibus capiuntur ; where see
Ruperti. Sallust. Jug. c. 38. Cohors una ligurum cum duabus turmis
Thracum. . .transiere ad regem. c. 101. Bocchus cum peditibus . . .
postremam Eomanorum aciem invadunt.
* Ca for that, used by the early Ital. poets, shows its original more
plainly than che : thus in some verses of Euggerone of Palermo, written
about 1230 a.d. ' E la mi priega per la sua bontate Ca mi deggia
tenere lealtate :' see Perticari, Dif. di Dante, c. 22, vol. ii. p. 5. Cha
occurs in the Lamento di Cecco, st. 9.
W.. E si da un ago il cor nfii sentii punto,
Cha'n vederti restai magio e balordo.
Ca (for quia) occurs frequently in old Spanish : see for example Mila-
gros de N. Senora, v. 37, 47, 71, 77, 84, 87, etc. Sanchez, vol. ii.
194 CHAPTER It.
and because^. The Prov. conjunction que thus obtained
two senses : 1. where it either replaced the nse of the
Latin accusative before a second verb in the infinitive
mood, according to the German construction, as *E
conosc be que ai die gran follatge/ * I know well that I
have said a great absurdity/ where the classical Latin
would say ' scio me dixisse :' or where the Latin would
use ut, quod, or some other particle, as * vos prec que m'
entendatz,' * I pray you that you will hear me/ ' Guart
si que res no mi cambi/ * Let him take care that nothing
changes me.' And 2dly where it replaces quia, in the
ordinary classical sense of because, as ' Alberguem lo tot
plan e gen. Que ben es mutz,* * Let us lodge him plainly
and well, since he is dumb.' * M contra mi malvat con-
selh non creia, Qu'eu sui sos hom liges,' * And let him not
beheve evil coimsel against me, since I am his liegeman.'
M. Eajmouard mentions that the manuscripts often have
the various reading quar or car (from quare) for que in
this sense, (Grr. Rom. p. 241 — 4.)
All the other Romance languages have this double use
j
* Matth. xxvi. 21, is in the Vulgate translated 'Amen dico vobis
quia unus vestrum me traditurus est.' Aiori in Greek also properly
and originally meant because : but it obtained the sense of that at a
• comparatively early period of the language, and is used for on by good
writers, as Herodotus and Plato : see Welcker's Rheinisches Museum,
vol. ii. p. 265. Dobrie, Adversaria, vol. i. p. 403. Perche in Ital. has
also a similar ambiguity ; and like quia and ^lori its original sense is
because.
The well known assertion, • credo quia impossibile est,' is commonly
taken as a declaration of passive belief : but the truth is, that no man
in his senses ever believed a thing because it is impossible, though he
might believe a thing in spite of its apparent impossibility : this sen-
tence merely means, as has been remarked by others, * I believe tJiat it
is impossible.'
SYNTAX OF VERBS. 1 95
of the particle que (in Ital. che) in the sense botli of that
and because, and employ it with, verbs in the same man-
ner. The French alone has disused the causal sense of
que, which, however, occurs in old writers, as in Amyot's
translation of Plutarch,
■t
H faut qu'il soit assists d'un des dieux,
Qw'il est si fort au combat furieux.
Gr. Ccmp. p. 304—8.
The Prov. and the other languages sometimes sup-
pressed the particle that betw^een two verbs, as iu Prov.
.*Ben sapchatz . . . s'ieu tan non I'ames, Ja no saupra far
vers ni sos.' * Know weU, if I did not love her so, I should
never know how to make verses or sounds.' So iu Ital.
' Dubitava . . . non fosse alcuna dea :' in. Span. * temo . . .
sere culpado :' in old French, * Ne nous ne pourrions nier
. . . Ne nous aiez par armes pris,' {Gr. Rom. p. 245.
Qomp, p. 308—11.)
M. Raynouard concludes his chapter on the comparison
of the Romance verbs, with a brief enumeration of some
of their most important points of resemblance : and he
then enquires whether any one who sees such conformities
can believe that these different languages could have
presented them, if they had not been derived from a
common origiu^. There is no doubt or difference of
opinion about the answer to be given to this question :
every one admits that the Romance languages had a
common origin ; that common origiu has generally been
supposed to be the Latin, and the Latin alone: M.
* • Quand on voit de telles conformites, peut-on croire que ces di-
verges langues auraient pu les offrir, sielles n'avaieiit eu primitiveinent
une origine comnnine.' p. 311.
O 2
196 CHAPTER IV.
Eaynouard undertakes to show that it was the ancient
Provenpal: but his argument is not assisted by proofs
which, however consistent with the truth of his own
hypothesis, are equally consistent with the truth of that
which he is attempting to overthrow.
CHAPTER Y.
Prepositions, Adverhsy and Conjunctions in the
Romance Languages,
§ 1. PREPOSITIONS.
In examining the indeclinable parts of speech in the
Romance languages, viz. prepositions, adverbs, and con-
junctions or particles, it will be convenient to begin with
the prepositions, as many are used adverbially, and need
not be repeated under the head of adverbs.
Ab, a. This Latin preposition was preserved in the
Proven9al, but its meaning was entirely changed, as it
received the sense of with instead of from or ly. This
wide departure from the original meaning of prepositions
will be pointed out below in other instances.
Thus in the oath of 842 ; ^Ah Ludher nul plai nun-
quam prindrai,' *I will never make any treaty with
Lothaire ;' in the poem on Boethius, * Ella ah Boeci parla
ta dolzament,' ' She spoke so sweetly with Boethius.^ Or
the b was omitted, as * Es a dreit jugatz,' * he is judged
iwith justice/ The Ital., Span., and French Hkewise
i sometimes used the preposition a in the sense of with, as
*Furo ricevuti tutti a grandissimo honore,' (G-iov, Villani.)
* La cinta fue obrada a muy grant maestria,' {Poema de
Alexandro.) * Et furent re9u a grant feste et a grant joie/
198 CHAPTER V.
(Yilleliardoiiin.)^ These languages, however, had other
prepositions which they commonly employed in that
sense^.
The Provencal subjected this word to a change of which
there are examples in other languages^, by inserting m
before 5, when it became amh ; as * Et aqui atrobero lor
fraire Thomas et Tarcevesque Turpi amh elhs^ * And there
they found their brother Thomas and the archbishop
Turpin with them.'^ Afterwards the final h after m was
rejected, as was also the case with the final d 01 1 after
n^, and the preposition became am, as * Am Tajutori de
Dieu,' * With the help of God.' From the completest of
these forms the modern Proven9al has derived its pre-
position emhe, which is in common use in the sense of
with.
The French on the other hand has formed its preposition
avec^ from ah, by the addition of a suffix, to which I am
not aware of any parallel, {Crr, Rom, p. 249 — 51. Comp.
p. 318—206.)
* Galvani, Osservazioni sullaPoesia dei Trovatori, p. 131, quotes some
instances of the use of ab for cum in Latin authors, as ' Et tenerum
molli torquet ah arte latus,' Ovid. Amor. ii. 4, 30. ' Ne possent tacto
stringere ah axe latus,' Propert. iii. 11, 24.
2 Some instances of a heing used in ancient French with the sense
of the Latin ab, as * apreneiz a moi,' ' discite a me,' in St. Bernard,
are cited hy OreU, Alt-franzosische Grammatik, p. 317, (Zurich, 1830.)
^ Thus oftpifiog and ofiPpifioc, dirXaicku) and dixTrXaKsu), ^ijXvPpia
and 'STiXvfi^pLa, TvippijaTOQ and Tvfi(ppi]<TTOg, Oi^pbg and Oifi^pog, Ot-
/3pwv and Qifi(3p(t)v (see Meineke, Euphor. Fragm. p. 149, 157,) in
Greek: Robert is VotiTriprog in the Byzantine writers. See above,
p. 71, note ^
* See above, p. 80.
» See Orell, ibid. p. 318.
« [See Diez, Rom. Gr. vol. ii. p. 463, vol. iii. p. 167, and Burguy,
Gr. de la Langue d'Oil, vol. ii. p. 345, who, relying upon the ancient
PREPOSITIONS. 199
Ad, a. This preposition was preserved in tlie Pro-
ven9al, tlie final consonant being always suppressed
before a consonant, and sometimes before a vowel. M.
Raynouard says that * sometimes the d is for the sake of
euphony changed into 2 ; thus in the Roman de Jaufre,
of which there are two manuscripts, one has * El pros eran
ad anar,^ the other * az anar,' {Gr. Rom, p . 66.) Az in
the latter instance is ads, (like Thiebanz for Thiehauds,)
and is obtained by the addition of s, many other examples
of which wiU be noticed.
All the other Romance languages have retained a from
the Latin ad, and use it prefixed to a noun as a substitute
for the Latin dative^ {G-r, Rom, p. 251.)
Ante. This preposition underwent the following
changes in Proven9alj, ant, an, ans or anz ; of which form
the first only occurs as an adverb, the last is formed by
the addition of a final s. The second only occurs in
composition, as enan, denan, adenant, abans, davan or
devan, which resolved into their elements are in ante, de
in ante, ad in ante, ab ante, de ab ante ; antan, ' formerly,'
comes from ante annum ; derenan and deserenan, * hence-
forth,' M. Raynouard derives from *de hora in antea,'
and * de ipsa hora in antea.'
forms avoc and avuec, derive- the word from ab hoc. Ampere, p. 292,
thinks that ove was the original form of avec, and derives it from «6i.]
^ Cinonio in his Treatise on the Italian particles, c. 1, does not dis-
tinguish between a derived from ab, and a derived from ad : which,
although, they have the same sound, are, like che from quod and che
from quia, etymologically different words. The same observation like-
wise applies to the preposition da, which in such expressions as ' da
sera a mane,' ' fatto da me,' comes from de ab ; in such expressions as
* verro da voi,' ' I will come to your house,' ' gioje da donne,' ' eta da
marito,' ' carta da scrivere,' ' da diecimesi,' ' about ten months,' it comes
fix)m de ad. [Compare Diez, Eom. Gr. vol- id. p. 150.]
3»pO ' CHAPTER V.
The other Eomance languages had also various deri-
vatives of this preposition. The Italian once used ante
unchanged : its common forms are, however, avanti and
davanti (anciently avante and davante^) from ah ante and
de ah ante ; also dianzi and dinanzi from de antius and de
in antius. The Span, has retained ante as a preposition
unchanged ; as an adverb it used antes, with a final s.
Ant for ante, and avant for avante, occur in ancient
writers. It has likewise antano in the same sense and
with the same origin as the Prov. antan. The French
has avant and devant, like the Prov. and Ital. and dore-
navant from de hora in ah ante, which does not precisely
agree with the Prov. derenan or deserenan^ and moreover
adheres more closely to the Latin, {G-r, Rom. p. 258 — 61.
Oomp. p. 344.)
From antius the neuter comparative of ante, YikQpropivs
from prope. Menage derives anzi Ital., antes Span., and
ainsi, anciently anz and ains, French. The Prov. has
ans or aintz, in the sense of rather, which confirms this
et5rmology. The Ital. uses anzi not only in the sense of
rather, but also as a preposition equivalent to ante^.
Apud. From this preposition the Ital. has made appo,
like capo from caput ; none of the other Romance lan-
guages appear to have preserved it.
Circa. Preserved unchanged in Italian : the Spanish
makes it cerca. M. Raynouard does not mention any
Proven9al derivative of this preposition, nor is it pre-
served in French'.
' Cinonio, Trattato delle ParticeUe, c. 86, 76, 82, 89.
* Cinonio, c. 27. [Diez, Rom. Or. vol. iii. p. 176. Burguy, vol. ii.
p. 271.]
» [Diez, ib.p. 176.]
PREPOSITIONS. ^01
Contra. The Ital., Span., and Prov., have this pre-
position unchanged : the French has softened the final a
into e. The Ital. likewise has the form contro, whence it
has formed incontro : the Span, also has the adverb al en-
cuentro. The Prov. has enconira, {Gr. Bom. p. 264^.)
Cum. In Ital. and Span, this preposition has been
preserved under the form con^ : in Prov. and French its
place has been supplied (as already stated) by ab and
avec. .Nevertheless the Prov. used it as an adverb or
conjunction in the sense of as or how, sometimes in its
Latin form, sometimes making it con or co : thus * no sai
com,* * I know not how ;' * Fresca cum rosa en mai/ * fresh
as rose in May;' 'Si com in isto pergamen es scrit,* *as
it is written in that parchment ;' * Aissi col peis an en
Paigua lor vida,' * Like as the fishes have their Hfe in the
water.'
The Ital. and Span, have from cum formed come and
como, which they use in the same manner as the Prov.
com^ : the French has made comme (anciently com) and
comment, which latter is a lengthened form corresponding
to the Ital. comente employed by ancient writers. The
Ital. likewise sometimes used chente for che, and finente
hrjino : which Perticari compares with Moisente for Mose,
which occurs in the Nohla Leycon'^ : it will be shown
hereafter that niente is probably a paragogic form of this
kind, from the ace. of the Latin res, {Gr, Bom, p. 265
—7. Comp. p. 3425.)
' See above, p. 66.
3 Com occurs without the euphonic vowel in both Italian and
Spanish.
* Difesa di Dante, c. 12, n. 12 to the text.
» [Diez, ib. p. 167. Burguy, vol. ii. p. 281.]
202 CHAPTER V.
De. All the languages derived from tlie Latin have
retained this preposition unchanged, (except the Ital.
which now, except in certain cases, uses di;) and employ
it before a noun to express the meaning conveyed in
Latin by the genitive and sometimes by the ablative case,
{ar, Rom, p. 267. Comp, p. ^21\)
Extra. From this word the Prov. made estra, ester,
and esters, used both as prepositions and adverbs. The
latter forms appear to have arisen thus : estra, estre, ester ^
and with the final s, esters, (Grr, Horn. p. 272.) The
Span, has preserved this preposition unchanged : it like-
i wise occurs as estre in old French".
From extra, by the suppression of the first syllable and
the addition of a final s, appears to be derived the Prov.
adverb tras, as well as the French tres : in Ital. stra and
tra occur sometimes in the same sense, which show their
origin more distinctly, as * straricco,* *■ strahhmidanzay
* strahuono,^ * travalente e tranobile imperadore,' etc.^
In. The Prov. changed this preposition into en, and
before a consonant sometimes suppressed the n : the Span,
and French likewise use en, but never omit the n : the
Ital. alone has preserved in unchanged, though en some-
times occurs in ancient writers, (Grr. Bom. p. 267. Oomp,
p. S22K)
. Infra. The Ital. alone (as it appears) has retained
this preposition, which it has changed into fra, giving it
the sense of among and in. There appears to be no way
of accounting for so great a change of signification as
1 [Diez, Rom. Gr. p. 156.]
2 OreU, p. 324. [Diez, ib. p. 181. Burguy, vol. ii. p. 353.]
* Annot. 59 to Cinonio, c. 191. [Burguy, vol. ii. p. 363.]
* [Diez, ib. p. 163.]
PREPOSITIONS. 2Q3
this word has undergone, except by supposing that fra
and tra have been confounded, (see Cinonio, c. 112, 134.)
Inter or intra. Hence the Span., Prov., and French
formed their preposition entre ; the Ital. sometimes pre-
serves the Latin form without change, sometimes it omits
the first syllable, and makes tra from intra, like fra from
infra. Probably in both these words the first syllable
was omitted, as being taken for the preposition in, and a
separate word ; in the same way that swper lost its last
syllable, which was mistaken for the preposition jjer^.
Mdtre in Prov. was sometimes used as a conjunction
with que in the sense of whilsty as ' entre qu'es tos,'
* while he is young :' which particle at other times took
the form of mentre with the same sense. This latter
word, which likewise occurs in Ital., in Span, under the
form of mientraSy (anciently sometimes written mientre,)
and in French as endementres or endementiers, appears to
be compounded of dum intra : for in old Ital. domentre
sometimes occurs^, which evidently betrays its origin.
Domentre was doubtless corrupted into di mentre or de-
mentre, and the first syllable being taken for the preposition
de was rejected as superfluous.
From intro the Prov. made a preposition entro, which
had the sense of until, as ' entro a la fin del mont,' * imtil
the end of the world.' Sometimes the first syllable was
omitted, and it became tro, as the Ital. made tra from
intra, as ' del cap tro al talo,' ' from the head to the heel.'
* See below in super, p. 207. [Diez, Rom. Gr. p. 180.]
2 See Cinonio,. c. 171, who gives examples both of domentre and di
mentre, and Muratori in v. who derives domentre from dum interea, or
dum interim. Dementre occurs in Provencal, see Galvani, p. 262.
See also Orell, p. 334. [Burguy, vol. ii. p. 380.]
204 CHAPTER V.
In both these forms it could be used as a conjunction.
j From intro the Ital. has made entro, and by prefixing de,
I dentrOf in the sense of within. The Span, likewise made
dentro, and likewise adentro by prefixing a as well as de,
(ar. Bom. p. ^68— 71. Oomp. p. 323, 343.)
JuxTA. The Prov. changed this preposition into justa,
Josta, and, prefixing de, dejosta. The Ital. has giusta and
giusto, the old Yvenckjouxte^, {Gr. Rom. p. 283 — 4.)
! Per. The Prov. and Ital. made no change in this
/preposition : the Span, made it por and jpara^ the French
\ pour and par^ but the original form occurs in old writers
. of both these languages. The Prov. as well as the Ital.
has the particle pero from per hocy {(Jr. Rom. p. 300 — 2.
Camp. p. 3221)
Post. This word the Prov. changed into the forms
pos, pois, puois, poisas, pus, and pueis : using it, however,
as an adverb and conjunction, and not as a preposition.
It likewise, as in many other instances, prefixed the pre-
position de and thus made de pois. From post the Ital.
/made poi, which once was sometimes used as a preposition^;
but now is only used as an adverb or conjunction. Dopo,
which appears to be compounded of de and post, (dopoi
from depoi, like domani from demane, and domandare from
deynandare,) has taken the place of the Latin preposition.
The Span, made anciently pos and pois, and, by a com-
1 position with de, depos^. Afterwards, as in other instances^,
f it changed pos into pues, and by adding a final s after de,
» Orell, p. 326. [Diez, Rom. Gr. p. 174.J
2 [Diez, ib. p. 169.]
« Cinonio, c. 201, § 4.
* Poema de Alexandra, 1842. Sanchez, vol. ii. p. 261.
* See above, p. 67, n. K
PREPOSITIONS. 205
made depos into desjpueSy the modem form. So the French
made puis and depuis ; the former of which was formerly,
the latter is now, used as a preposition. It may be re-
/ marked that the Ital. has^oscm ^om. postea^ a form which
all the other Romance languages have lost, {G-r. Bom.
p. 303. Qomp.^. 326^.) .
Prope. From this word the Prov. formed as adverbs
and prepositions prop and pres^ and by composition apropy
apreSy en apres, de prop. Pres appears to have been
formed from prope as follows : prop, pro, pre, pres : aU
which changes, viz. the rejection of a final consonant,
the change of into e, and the addition of a final s, may
be paralleled by many instances in the Romance lan-
guages. The corresponding forms are presso and appresso
in Ital. apres in old Span, pres, apres, (anciently aprop^^)
and aupres in French.
In Prov. as in French, apres or aprop signified after:
thus
Cal prezatz mais e respondetz premiers ;
Et aprop vos respond En Perdigos.
'which prize you most and answer first, and after you,
let Lord Perdigon answer.'
This change of meaning took place on account of the
facility of transition from the notion of place to that of
time. As prope meant near, from signifying next in the
order of place, it came to mean next in order of time :
after which it was easy to pass to the notion of mere
posteriority. This transition in Ital. may be distinctly
traced in the uses of the word appresso : thus ' La giovane
^ [Diez, Rom. Gr. p. 177. Burguy, vol. ii. p. 363.]
2 See OreU, p. 318.
206 CHAPTER V.
subitamente si levd in pie e comincid a fuggire verso iL
mare, e i cani appresso di lei:' (Boccaccio, Giorn. 5,
nov. 8,) where appresso di lei means * close upon her.'
Again, *Yenuta era Elisa alia fine della sua novella,
quando la reina ad Emilia voltatasi le mostro voler che
eUa appresso d'Elisa la sua raccontasse,' (ibid, Giorn.
4, nov. 1,) where appresso d* Elisa means * next after EKsa
in order of time :' as in Dante,
Per6 non lagrimai n^ rispos'io
Tutto quel giorno n^ la notte appresso.
Inferno, c. 33*.
Appresso, however, in Ital. never obtained the general
sense which belonged to apres in French, but was (as it
appears) only used to signify immediate succession, without
anything intervening. The confusion between succession
of place and time may be observed in many words, as in
interval from intervallum^, and in after, which has both
significations, (6rr. Bom. p. 304 — 6. Comp. p. 323^.)
Secundum. From this preposition the Prov. made
segont, and by a change most frequent in that language
segon. The Ital. adhering closely to the Latin made
secondo, the Span, segun, anciently segund and segunt, the
French originally segont, which has now become selon,
{Gr. Bom. p. 308. Comp. p. 325.)
Sine. From this preposition the Prov. by adding s
made series, modified into sens, ses, and sans. The Ital.
senza or sanza has been formed fi'om sens or sans, by the
addition of an euphonic vowel, which the French sans
1 Cinonio, c. 31.
* See D. Stewart's Essay 1, on the Beautiful, c. 1.
» [Burguy, vol. ii. p. 362.]
PREPOSITIONS. 207
has not taken : the old Ital., however, used both san and
seri^. The Span, alone has remained faithful to the Latin,
and says sin : anciently, however, it nsed sen and senes,
like the Prov., ((7r. R(m. p. 308. Comp. p. 3242.)
Super. This word was used by the ItaKan without
change, but each syllable was written separately, so that
the latter part was taken for the preposition per^ and the
first syllable became an independent preposition in the
sense of on : thus * Tutte . . . su per la nave quasi morte
giacevano,' (Bocc. Giom. 2, nov. 7.) ' E lei segnendo
su per Terbe verdi, TJdi dir alta voce di lontano,' (Petr.
p. 1, mad. 2.) ^u was then used by itself, as ' Siede la
terra dove nata fiii Su la marina dove il Po discende Per
aver pace, etc' (Dante^.) The form sur, however, con-
tracted from super y also occurs in Italian*.
It should be observed that su the preposition in Ital.
has quite a different origin from su the adverb : see
below in jusum.
Supra. Changed by the Prov. into sohrey and com-
pounded with de into desohre, which latter was also used
adverbially. The Ital. slightly modified it into sopra or
sovra : the Span, has sobre : the French changed sovre or
soure into sore by omitting the v, into seure by modifying
the into e : whence came the modem form siir : unless
indeed it was formed more compendiously from super,
{Or. B(m. p. 313. Comp. p. 3245.)
* Vocdb. della Crusca in san. Cento Osservazioni al Dizionario
Dantesco di Viviani (Turin, 1830), p. 56.
» [Diez, Rom. Gr. p. 181. Burguy, vol. ii. p. 364.]
» Cinonio, c. 233, § 1—4.
< Annot. 74, to Cinonio, c. 231. [Diez, ib. p. 179.]
5 [Burguy, vol. ii. p. 366.]
ao8 CHAPTER V.
SuBTUs. As from supra the Prov. made sobre and
desohrey so from suhtus it made sotz and desotz. The Ital.
and Span, following their own mode of formation changed
suhtus into sotto and soto : the French has contracted it
into sous, anciently soubs, (Gr, Bom. p. 21 3^)
Trans. This word the Prov. changed into tras, and
by composition made atras and detras, adverbs. The
identical forms recur in Span, and they bear in both lan-
, guages the sense of behind. The old French likewise
used tres and tries in the sense of behind^. The transition
from the ancient to the modern sense is easily explained :
thus in a passage of the Roman de Jaufre cited by M.
Raynouard, * Et abaitant us nas issi Qui estava tras un
boison,' 'and at the instant a dwarf came out who was
behind a bush -J it comes to the same thing whether he is
said to hem the other side of the bush or behind it. From
this particular to the more general sense of behind, the
distance is not great. The Ital. has not, as far as I am
aware, any derivative of trans, (Grr. Mom. p. 261.)
Versus.' The Prov. modified this word into vers, ves,
vais, and vas, and by composition made deves, envers^
mvas, enves. The Ital. has verso and inverso: the French
vers, envers, and devers. The Span, has lost this pre-
position, {Gr. Bom. p. 3193.)
Ultra. The Prov. has ultra j oltra, and outra; the
Ital. oltra and oltre ; the Span, ultra ; the French ultre,
now outre, {Gr. Bom. p. 271, Comp. p. 328*.)
» [Burguy, vol. ii. p. 365.]
2 [Burguy, ib. p. 369.]
' [Diez, Rom. Gr, vol. iii. p. 178.]
* It is possible that the Prov. adverb tras (see above, p. 202,) and
the French adverb tris have been derived from ultra by the addition of
the final « : thus the Ital. has oUracotanza and tracotanza, different
ADVERBS. 209
TJsQUE. By combining with this word the particles dum
and tro (the latter of which has been explained above,
p. 203,) the Prov. made the prepositions duesca and
troesctty which had the sense of until. M. Raynouard
considers the former word as compounded of de and
usque : but the composition just suggested seems more
probable, (6rr. Horn. p. 318.). To duesca the French
jusque appears to correspond, the final a being softened
into e.
In Ital. the word usque has been lost and its place is
supplied by infino and Jlno, derived from Jinis, and often
corrupted into sino and insino. Muratori (in v.) cites a
passage from an Italian charter belonging to the year 899,
* Qui habet fines de capu fine via publica antiqua, de
alio latu finem flumen Galore, de aha parte fine flumen
Cottia'.'
The Span, has substituted for usque the word Jiastay of
the origin of which I am ignorant.
§ 2. ADVERBS.
The most common and at the same time the most
remarkable class of adverbs in the Romance languages is
that formed by the union of an adjective with the ab-
lative case of the Latin word menSy so that instead of
retaining the classical forms alte, large, dure, they said
forms of the same word, {outrecuidance French.) The derivation from
extra suggested above, seems, however, preferable. Trapassare Ital.
and trespasser French appear evidently to be compounded of ultra
not extra. [Diez, Rom. Gr. p. 197.]
* For an explanation of these accusative cases, see above, pp. 69, 60
sqq. [Compare Diez, vol. iii. p. 155.]
P
210 CHAPTER V.
alta-mente, larga-mente, dura-mente}. The Ital. and Span,
have preserved these forms unchanged ; though the Span,
often omitted the final vowel 2. The Prov. and French,
as usual, did the same: and the French likewise, ac-
cording to its custom, softened the a into e, and made
altement (Jiautement,) largement, durement. This mode of
forming adverbs was naturally resorted to, when the
ancient inflexions had been lost, and when in some of
the Romance languages, as the Prov. and French, the
vowel terminations had been altogether suppressed, so
that all distinction between the adjective and the adverb
formed from it was obliterated^.
Sometimes when two or more of these adverbs were
used in succession, the termination mente, as if it were
still a separate word, was only placed at the end of one of
the adjectives : thus in Provencal :
Dona non deu parlar mas gen
E suau e causidament . . .
Amatz suau e hellament.
Mostret lur grans reliquias
Qu' avia lone temps guardat
Sanctament e devota,
E Guarentz respondet
Follament et irada.
M. Eaynouard gives examples of the same construction
* Maffei, Verona Illustrata, part i. col. 318, finds some traces of this
formation of adverbs in Latin, as ' Insistam forti mente,' in Ovia,
Am. m. 2, 10, and ' jucunda mente respondit,' in Apuleius.
* On the ancient Spanish adverbs of this form see Raynouard^
Joum. des Sav. 1818, p. 480.
' See Grimm, vol. iii. p. 123.
ADVERBS. 211
in Italian : * Quanto prudente e giudiziosamente m' am-
maestro Aristotile,' (Yarclii, Ercolano :) in Span. ' Los
trata cortes y amigablemente,' (Cervantes :) in Portuguese
* onde 50^*7 e artificiosamente estava lavrada e esculpida
toda a maniera de sua vida,' [Palmeirim de Inglaterra :)
and in French ^ Son chef trecie moult richement, Bien,
et hel et estroitement,' (Mom. de la Rose.) Some parallel
idioms occur in English and German ^ where of two
consecutive compounds having the first part different and
the last part the same, the part which agrees is only
expressed once. Thus as the Germans say ein-und
ausgehen, as the English say a wine and spirit merchant^
so the Romance languages said suau e bellament, sane-
tament e devota, cortes y amigablemente, etc. It will he
observed, however, that the Romance languages some-
times used mente after the first word, which is intelligible
when it is rememl^red that these adverbs are not pro-
per compounds, but two words, with their grammatical
structure, which have as it were coalesced together :
hence if the sentence is resolved into its elements, it is as
easy to say * sancta mente et devota,' as ' sancta et devota
mente : ' whereas such expressions as ' a wine merchant
and spirit,' * a teadealer and coffee,' do not make sense,
a& these are proper compounds, the elements of which
reassume their original meaning when disjoined from
their composition, (G-r. Mom. p. 322 — 3. Comp. p.
312—6.)
In adverbs of this kind the Ital., Span., and Prov.
omitted the final vowel of the adjective when it was not
a ; thus generalmente Ital. and Span., humilmen, soptilmen
^ See PhUol, Museum, voL ii. p. 257.
P 2
212 CHAPTER V.
Prov. : tte Frencli now inserts e after tlie final consonant
of tlie adjective, as for temerity generalement : anciently,
however, it followed the same orthography as the others, -
and wrote imperialmenty loyalment, cruelmentj vilment, {Crr.
Comp. p. 316— 7^)
The adverhs which do not belong to any general class
distinguished by the termination may be conveniently
considered under two heads, 1. Those derived directly
with slight modifications from corresponding Latin ad-
verbs, and 2. Those formed anew in the modern lan-
guages.
The following are the principal adverbs derived from
the Latin.
Aliorsum. From this word the Prov. made alhors and
ailJiors, the French ailleurs. The Ital. and Span, have
not retained it.
Aliquoties. In Prov. alques, whicl^ language alone (as
it appears) has a derivative of this adverb.
FoRAS. In Prov. this adverb has various forms, viz.
foras, farSy fora, for : and compounded, as deforas, defor.
The Ital. has both/wm from foris, ox^difuora homforas.
The Span, now has only/wem, formerly it used foras and
fueras : the French has fors, {Gr. Horn. p. 272. Oomp.
p. 327.)
HoDiE, HERi. The first of these adverbs became in
Prov, hoi, oiy ui, uoi, huei : in Ital. hoggi or oggi : in
Span, hoy or oi : in French oi and huy. In Prov. this
word was sometimes compounded with moAs, as hueimai
or oimaiy when it signified * henceforth :' sometimes desser
hueimais was used, which resolved into its Latin ele-
I [See Diez, vol. ii. p. 432. Burguy, vol. ii. p. 263. Ampdre, p. 266.]
ADVERBS.
213
ments is, ' de ipsa hora hodie magis/ like tlie Frencli
desormais.
The modem languages, forgetting the composition of
hodie {hoc die), sometimes compounded it again with the
same words : thus the Pro v. had enchoy or encoiy i.e. * in
hoc hodie ; ' which occurs in Ital. under the form ancoi :
in like manner the French and Ital. compound it with
jour and di, saying aujourd^hui and oggidi'^.
From heri the Ital. made hieri or ieri, the Prov. her^
the French hier^ the Span. ayer.
Jam. Jft, and with the final s Jasse, (that is, ja, jas,
jasse, like anc from unquam, ancs, ancse : see helow ;) and
compounded with mais (from magis) jamais in Prov.,
which exactly corresponds to the English evermore, and
the German immermehr. Hence jamais is always used
with reference to future times, whereas anc from unquam
always has reference to past times. Ja, like the Latin
jam and the English ever, may refer hoth to the past and
the future. Jasse means always, as ' vos am e us amarai
jasse,' * I love you, and shall ever love you.* Sometimes
ja and mais are separated, as * E ja non volria mais esser
residatz,' * I would not wish ever to be awakened.' The
Ital. has gia, and compounded with mai, giammai, which
words are used both of past and future times ^i the Span,
has jamas : the French had formerly ja, whence are
formed deja (i.e. desja) andjadis, and it now uses jamais ^
{Or. Rom. p. 280. Oomp, p. 332 ^)
Ibi. The Prov. contracted this adverb into i, y, and
hi, which combined with aisso and aqvx) neuter demon-
1 [Burguy, vol. ii. p. 296.]
' Cinonio, c. 114.
» See Grimm, vol. iii. p. 223. [Burguy, vol. ii. p. 300.]
214 CHAPTER V.
strative pronouns, made aisst, aqui; witb. ipse (sa) and
ille (la) sai and lai, sometimes written sa and la.
The Ital. has preserved the Latin word in its integrity
under the form of ivi, which it sometimes contracts into
vi: formerly it sometimes used i, as in Dante, Inf. c. 8,
V. 4, 'Per due iiammette che i vedremmo porre/ It
likewise has the double forms la and U, qua and qui:
which doubtless were respectively contracted from lai
and quai, as from Trpoaros came the double forms Trpwros
and TT/aaros.
The French has y from ihi; it formerly used lai, and
doubtless also ^ai, now la and ga. Oi from gai is pre-
served in the word void.
The Span, has lost ibi, but has the compound forms
aqui, alle, and alia, (G-r. Bom. p. 276 — 8. Oomp. p.
340—11.)
Inde. Changed by the Prov. into ent, eiiz, (i. e. ents,)
en, and ne, as ' Yeder enz pot Tom per quaranta ciptaz,'
* One can see from thence over forty cities/ ' leu m'en
anarai en eyssilh/ * I will go hence in exile.' The use
of ne or en as a pronoun has been explained above,
p. 151.
The Ital. and French have the same, double sense of
the derivatives of inde ; in Ital. ne, (that is, ine, ne,) in
French en (that is, ind, end, en:) thus andarsene, ien
aller; averne bisogno, en avoir besoin, (Gr. Bom. p. 268.)
Insimul. In Prov. ensems and essems, by the rejec-
tion of the last syllable and the addition of s: in Ital.
insieme, in French ensemble^, {Chr, Bom. p. 270.)
1 [Diez, Rom. Gr. vol. iii. p. 03.]
' There seems to be no reason for suspecting with Muratori in v.
that insieme comes from the German sammen : though doubtless simul
ADVERBS. 215
Intus, deintus. From these two words tlie Prov.
made ins and dins, by composition dedins: the former
word compounded with, ipsa and ilia made lainz and
sainz. Parallel forms in French are dans, dedans, and
the old words leans and ceans, (G-r. Horn. p. 278 — 9.)
JusuM, susuM. Of these two words which occur in
Low Latin writers, the latter appears evidently to come
from sursiim, the former according to Muratori {Diss. 32,)
is a different word from deorsum. The Prov. changed
them into jos and sus : the Ital. into giuso and giu, suso
and sv}: the old Span, hadjuso and jus, and suso, desuso,
and desus : the old French had jus and sus, whence the
compound dessus, {G-r. Rom. p. 282. Comp. p. 338.)
Magis. Changed by the Prov. into mais, mas, and
mai, and used sometimes as an adverb in its primitive
sense of more; sometimes as a conjunction in the sense
of hut, which it acquired through the intermediate sense
of rather. In Ital. maggio from majus bore the adverbial
sense of magis : it uses, however, mai from magis as a
conjunction^ : as also mai, in the expressions mai si and
mai no. The French formerly had mais both as an.
adverb and conjunction : it now only retains this word
in the sense of hut^: the Span, has mas (formerly mais,)
and sammen are cognate words. The same writer thinks that assem-
hrare Ital., and assembrer [ov assembler) and ensemble French, come
from sammelen. Ensemble is probably from insimul, i. e. emseml, en-
semble, like cumulo, comle,comble; marmor, marmer, marmre, marmbre,
marbre.
' The forms gioso, gio, and soso likewise occur : Perticari, Dif. di
Dante, c. 16, vol. i. p. 347. Compare Facciolati in susum. [Burguy,
vol. ii. p. 301.]
* See Muratori in v.
' [Burguy, vol. ii. p. 303.]
2l6 CHAPTER V.
in both, acceptations : whence by composition with a
and c?e, ademas, ' besides/ {G-r. Mom, p. 285. Comp. p.
335.)
Mane. The modern languages having all lost the
Latin adverb cras^, supply its place by means of this
word : the Ital., Prov., and French, by compounding it
with de, have dimane, dimani, or domani^, deman, and
demain; the Span, has formed from it the substantive
manana, which it uses adverbially, (G-r. Rom. p. 274.)
Medium. Mezzo or mezo as an adverb in Ital. and
jfrequently used as an adjective, like the Latin medius:
as *in mezza strada,' *a mezza state,' *per mezzo il
sangue.' Sometimes it became indeclinable, as *per
mezzo questa oscura valle,' Petrarch (Cinonio, c. 173.)
The Prov. changed this word into miei, mieg, and mest;
and used it without declination, sometimes with a pre-
position, as * per miei lo cors/ * per mieg la giardina/
* en mieg la via,' ' per mest las bonas gens.' The French
made this word into mi; whence le mi Urn, * the middle
place,' and par mi, * through the middle,' used without
declination, like the Ital. per mezzo, and the Prov. per
miei. Mezzo Ital. is formed from medius, like aguzzo
from acutus, prezzo from pretium, pozzo from puteus, Arezzo
from Arretium, Ahruzzi from Bruttii. It still, however,
preserves the trace of the Latin, as it is pronounced
medso from medius, as prezzo from pretium is pronounced
pretso. The Prov. mest appears to have originated in a
* Cras was, however, preserved in old Spanish : thus, Poema del
Cid, V. 545. • Cras a la mahana pensemos de cavalzar;' and Poesias
de Arcipreste de Hita, v. 1433. ' Quando a ti sacaren i judgar hoy 6
eras.'
^ Muratori in v.
ADVERBS. 217
like manner, with a transposition of letters, i. e. mest Tor
mets (mez), (Grr. Rom. p. 290.)
Minus, pejus, plus. Meno, peggio, piu (plu) in Ital.,
mens and meinSj pietz and piegz, plits and pus in Prov.,
moins and phis in French. The Span, and French have
no derivative of pejus, but have peor and pire from pejor,
(ar. Bom. p. 289, 302. Corjip. p. 334, 336.)
QuANDO. Quant and qtian in Prov., which had also
the compound word lanquan, i. e. Van quan, * the year (or
the time) when.' The French has quand: the Ital. and
Span, have retained the Latin form unchanged: the
ancient Span., however, sometimes used quand and quant ,
{ar. Rom, p. 306. Comp. p. 343.)
QuARE. Qu^r and car in Prov. properly signifying
for, but sometimes having the sense of that: like quia in
Latin and ^erc^ in Ital. The Ital. and Span, have lost
this word, which is preserved in the French car, with the
single sense oi for, {Gr. Rom. p. 307^)
Eetro. This adverb, compounded with a and de,
became areire and dereer or derer in Prov., arriere and
derriere in French, and diretro or dietro in Ital. {Grr,
Rem, p. 2612.)
Satis. Compounded with a became asatz or assatz in
Prov., assaz in Span., assez in French, assai in Ital., (Grr,
Rom. p. 262.)
M. Raynouard remarks {Grr. Oomp, p. 336,) that, * V assai
italien prouve que cette langue a souvent fait des modifi-
cations tres importantes aux desinences des mots pour les
accommoder a Feuphonie locale :' but the Ital. has made
1 [Burguy, vol. ii. p. 377.]
^ [Burguy, ib. p. 277.]
2l8 CHAPTER V.
no greater change than the Prov. : it has only made a dif-
ferent change. The Prov. always contracting, and not
objecting to final consonants, changed satis into sats; the
Ital., not so fond of contractions, but always avoiding
final consonants, changed satis into sai.
Semper. Sempre Ital. and Prov., siempre Span.,
sempres in old Span. (Gr, B. 308. Comp, 332.)
Sic. Si in Prov. and compounded aissi and cossi:
the latter of which words is com si, i. e. ut sic instead of
sicut: the former is perhaps ac sic. It had also altresi or
atresi, from alterum sic. The Ital. has si and cost (the
same as siccome, the elements of composition being only
reversed), and altresi. The Span, has si, assi, and otrosi:
the French, si^ aussi, and anciently altresi or autresi^.
On the use of si as an afiirmative particle I shall
speak lower down. {G-r, B. p. 309 — 12. Comp, p. 337.)
SuBiNDE. Sovente Ital., sovent and soven Prov. smt-
vent French. M. Raynouard {G-r. Bom. p. 314,) derives
sovent from scepe: but Menage's etjonology (in sovente)
appears evidently true^.
Tunc. In Prov. done, which by different modifica-
tions became adonc, doncas, doncx, adoncas, adonx; ad
tunc, which occurs in Low Latin, is, as M. Eaynouard
remarks, borrowed from the Romance adonc. In Ital.
dunque and adunque, anciently likewise dunqiia, donqiia
and adonqua^: in old Span, doncas: in French, donCy
» [Diez, vol. iii. p. 387.]
a [The etymology of Menage is followed by Diez, Rom. Gram, vol.
ii. p. 444. It is confirmed by the use of soventre for after, in old
French, which approaches closely to the Latin sense of subinde,
Burguy, vol. ii. p. 368.]
' See Annotat. 6, to Cinonio, Part. c. 8.
ADVERBS. 219
formerly dune and adunc, donhes and adonkes. The Span.
has moreover the form entonces, compounded with the
preposition en. {Crr. B. p. 254 — 6. Comp, 331.)
Ubi. Ou and in Prov., ove in Ital., in wkicli the
forms u^ and likewise occur : 6 in old Span., ou in
French. {Gr, B. p. 298. Coinp. 340^.)
Unde. Ont, on, and by comparison with de^ dunt or
don in Prov. ow^e and donde in Ital. (^<7e in Span.
which anciently had the forms ond, onty and don: dont
and formerly nut or ont in French, ((rr. B. p. 296.
Ci^m;?. 3393.)
TJnquam, nunquam. In Prov. ongan, oan, unca, anc,
and by the addition of a final 5, oncas, and a/icse from
ancs, like /owse from /as (above p. 213.) From nunquam
there is only the form nonca. The Ital. has unqua and
also nguanno, used by Boccaccio*: the Span, has nunca:
the French one and oncques are now obsolete, ((rr. i2.
p. 29P.)
I will now set down the most remarkable Provencal
adverbs, not derived from corresponding Latin adverbs,
nor formed from them by a simple composition ; and
compare them with similar forms in the other Romance
languages.
Amon, aval. These adverbs, sometimes daman and
daval, are derived from mons and vallis, in French a mont
and a val, in Ital. a monte and a valle^, formed after the
' Cinonio, Part. c. 193, § 11, 12.
» [Diez, vol. iii. p. 354.]
» [Diez, ib. p. 353.]
■* See Perticari, Dif. di Dante, c. 15, vol. i. p. 339.
* [Burguy, vol. ii. p. 311.]
• A monte occurs in the Tesoro of Brunetti, (Voc. delta Crusca in
v.): a valle is used by many writers (ibid, in v.), for instance by
220 CHAPTER V.
model of tlie German zetal and zeherge^. From aval the
French, has made avaler, to swallow (i.e to put down the
throat,) and the Span, avalar, to tremble like the earth
(i.e. to sink down.) Gr. B. p. 257.
Ades, now; adesse or des, since: formed with ad and
de, and es, from ipse (above p. 160,) The Ital. has adesso :
the French, des, Neis *even,' and anceis *on the con-
trary,' Prov. were formed by compounding the same pro-
noun with in and ante. {G-r, R. p. 251 — 9.)
Entorn, environ, from tornare and girare. The Ital.
has intorno, dHntorno, a torno or attorno, and dattorno : the
French, a Fentour, and autour without the preposition en^.
It has likewise environ. (G-r. R. p. 271.)
Dante, Inferno, xii. 46. Ba valle and da monte are still in use among
all the inhabitants of the Apennines, according to Perticari, Dif. di
Dante, c. 16, vol. i. p. 340.
^ See V. Hagen, Glossary to Nibelungen Lied, in tal. Grimm, vol. iii.
pp. 148, 163. [Burguy, vol. ii. p. 271.]
* Tour comes from torn, or turn, as jour from jorn, chair from cam,
enfer from enfern, cor from corn, four from furn : see Gr. Comp. p.
63—4. [See Diez, vol. iii. p. 176.]
Giorno and jour come from diurnum, as invemo and hiver come
from hibernum (tempus being understood,) which I should have thought
it unnecessary to mention if a modem Italian critic had not derived
giorno from horn German, because the Alemans and Franks announced
the day by the sound of the horn ! (Benci on Malispini, vol. ii. p.
433, ed. Leghorn, 1833.)
It may be observed that the Spanish has alone retained the deriva-
tive of the Latin dies, dia, in common use : the Ital. has the word di
but commonly uses giorno : the French has only jour. The substi-
tution of the periphrasis diurnum {tempus) for dies is paralleled by
hybemum (tempus) for hyems, {invemo Ital., inviemo Span., hiver ,
anciently hyvern French ; cestivum (tempus) for astas (estio Span., the
Ital. and French have estate and estS,) and. matutinum (tempus) for
mane (mattino Ital., matin French, the Span, has mahana, i.e. hora
matutina.) Autumnus is retained in all three languages ; ver is lost
in French, which has printemps, but is retained by the Ital. and Span,
in the oompound prima,vera.
ADVERBS. 221
Lev, from leve^ which had the double sense of the
English word lightly^ viz. quickly and (joined with hen)
easily, whence it came to ^i^iiy perhaps ; as
D'amor non dei dire mas be,
Quar non ai ni petit ni re,
Quar ben leu plus no m'en cove.
* Of love I ought not to speak well more, as I have not
any, either small or great, for perhaps more does not be-
seem me/
It is probable that this adverb, which appears to be
peculiar to the Provencal, was imitated from the German.
[ar. R. p. 284.)
Malgrat. This word is used in aU the Romance lan-
guages, with a personal pronoun often inserted imme-
diately before grat: thus malgrat vosfre, mal mongraty mal
ltd grat Prov., man grc sien, man gre lor French, mal su
grado Span., mal mio gradoy mal grado suo Ital. These
expressions may be rendered, * with my ill pleasure,'
* with his ill pleasure,' etc. If a possessive pronoun is
not used, the phrase takes a different turn, as * malgrat
de Karle' ' with the ill pleasure of Charles.' G-rat (from
gratum) is here used substantively as grato or grado in
Ital., ( Voc, della Orusca in v.), agrado in Span., and gre
in French, in the expressions savoir gre^ a mon gre, etc.
(Gr. B. p. 286. Comp, 359—611.)
Mantenen, sometimes de mantenen, from manu tenens;
mantenente, immantenente Ital.^, maintenant French, a man
teniente in Span., has a different meaning. De manes,
another Prov. adverb, signifying suddenly, appears evi-
i [Burguy, vol. ii. p. 357.]
* Perticari, Dif. di Dante, c. 16, vol. i. p. 349.
222 CHAPTER V.
dently to come from manus, corresponding to ' offhand'
English, * aus der Hand * German ; and not from mane in the
sense of early, as M. Raynouard supposes. [G-r, R. p. 28^)
HoRA. This Latin word was first used in Provencal
adverbially, with the preposition a, as ora, in the sense of
now : afterwards the preposition was omitted, and it he-
came ara^ ar^ era, er, and with a final 5, oras, eras. From
in hanc horam was derived encar or encara, with the final
5, encar as or enqueras, * hitherto : ' from des Vora (i.e. de
ipsa ilia hora) deslor, ' henceforth ; ' from qua hora, qtwra,
* when ; ' derenan has been already mentioned (p. 200.)
Ora occurs as an adverb with the same sense in Ital.,
which also has ancora. Ore, or, ores were formerly used
in French, which now uses encor and deslors. M. Ray-
nouard cites a passage from an ancient French chronicle,
which well illustrates this application of hora : * Barcinone
est une cite qui siet en la marche d'Espaigne : une heure
estoit des Sarrazins, et une heure estoit des Crestiens.*
(Comjp. K p. 293—6. Qomp. 330 2.)
Pron or Pro. This word occurs in Prov. with the
sense of Satis :
Del papa sai che dara largamen
Pron del pardon e pane de son argen.
* Of the pope I know that he will give liberally plenty of
indulgences and little of his money.'
The old French had prou in the same sense. M. Eay-
nouard offers no suggestion on the derivation of these
words, {ar. K p. 263 ^)
' [Burguy, vol. ii. p. 304.] ' [Burguy, ib. p. 311.]
» [Diez, Rom. Gr. vol. iii. p. 148. Rom. Wdrterbuch, p. 273. Bur-
guy, ib. p. 320.J
ADVERBS. 223
Tost. This enigmatic word occurs m all tlie Eomance
languages : tosto Ital., tost old Span, and Prov., toste old
Portug., tost now tot French. No probable explanation
of its origin has hitherto been given. (See Muratori in
V. ar. R. p. 316. Cornp. 333 1.)
Trop. In Prov. this word meant very, and too much :
thus *Sap trop ben violar' *he knew very well how to
play on the viol.' * Per qu'om no-s deu per gaug trop
esjuazir, M per ira trop esser anguoyssos.' * Wherefore
one ought not for joy to exult too much, Nor for sadness
to be too much cast down.' Troppo in Ital., has both
these senses (Ciaonio, c. 243) trop French, only the last.
As troppus is used in the Latin of the middle ages with
the sense of a herd or flock, Muratori (in v.) thinks that
it is derived from some German word, whence the French
troupe and troupeau, (also truppa Ital.) Troppo, a sub-
stantive, is preserved in Ital. (Gr. R. p. 317 ^.)
Yeti, i.e. * See thou,' or in the plural vecvos (softened
into veus) * see ye,' used adverbially like the French void
and voilhy which are compoimded with the particles ci
here, and Ih there. The Ital. alone has preserved ecco,
from the Latin eccum. (Gr. Rom. p. 320^.)
' [Diez, Gr. Rom. vol. ii.p. 442, derives the word from tot cite; Bur-
guy, vol. ii. p. 329, from tostus.'}
* It might be thought that the French adverb tres is formed from
trop, Uke pres from prop : but the Prov. form tras, shows that it had
not this origin, and that one of the two derivations above suggested is
correct : see p. 208. [Concerning trop, see Burguy, voL ii. p. 330.]
* So sih-tir was used in old German, Grimm, vol. iii. p. 247.
224 CHAPTER V.
§ 3. CONJUNCTIONS.
I shall next proceed to the conjunctions and the
affirmative and negative particles, which may be con-
veniently treated apart, as they are marked with some
peculiar features in the Eomance languages.
AuT. In Prov. and old French this word became o or
ou ; in modern French the latter form alone is used ; in
the Span, it is 6. The Ital. alone has retained the con-
sonant changed into d, and has made the word od ; before
a consonant, however, the d is dropped, as in English the
n of an is only used before a vowel, {Ghr. Bom. p. 336.
Comp. p. 346.)
Et. Preserved unchanged in Prov., but. the t was
generally dropped before consonants : in Ital. et or ed,
subject to the same rule. The French now only has
et, but the t is not pronounced : e is sometimes written in
old French : the Spanish formerly used both et and e, now
it has only y, {Grr, Rom. p. 328. Comp. p. 345.)
All the modern derivatives of aut and et have retained
their ancient sense unchanged.
Gatre or GUAiRE in Prov., guari in Ital., gtiere or
gyh-es French. These adverbs are evidently derived from
the German gar or wahr, (very Eng.)^ : the force of which
(much) has been retained in each language, though in
French gy^re is generally supposed to have a contrary
meaning. The confusion has arisen from this particle
being almost constantly used in negative propositions :
thus in Prov. ' Que sciensa no pretz gaire S'al ops no la
vey valer,' * As I do not value knowledge much, If I do
' See Muratori in guari.
o h. ^ ^
^l,
CONJUNCTIONS. % X^ > 225
not see it avail in time of need.' * JViw istette gwiri die /*
trapasso/ ' lie was not long before he died/ Boccaccio ^
(CLQonio, c. 121.) * Et w'eut pas gueres demeure a Sparte, %y
qu'il fut incontinent soupconne,' etc., Amyot Pint. Vih^
d^Agesilas. * La plupart des ceuvres d'Aristote et de
Theophraste qui w'estoient pas gueres encore cogneus,
etc' Id. Vie de Sylla. Being constantly used in this
manner, it appeared to acquire a negative force, indepen-
dently of the proper negation ; and thus while guari
in ItaL is explained to mean muchy gtwre in French is
explained to mean little. Nevertheless guere is never used
by itself with a negative force, like pas, point, personne^
and other words which originally being affirmatives in a
negative sentence, at first like guere were used constantly
with a negative particle, from which they seemed to catch
a negativer force by contact ; and then were employed by
themselves as negatives, (Gr. Bam. p. 274, 333. Journ.
des Sav. 1824, p. 180i.)
Gens. The Prov. used gens or ges as an expletive
particle of affirmation : thus, * EUa-s fen sorda : gens a
lui non atend,' * She feigns herself deaf : she does not
attend to him at all.' * No-m mogui ges,' ' I did not move
at aU.' M. Eaynouard derives this particle from the
Latin gens ; in which case it would probably be gent or
gen (from gentem;) the meanings of the Latin and Prov.
words moreover do not at all correspond : the suggestion
of SchlegeP, who derives it from the Teutonic gaiiz (like
gaire from gar) is far more probable^, {G-r. Rom. p. 333.
Galvani, Poesie dei Trovat. p. 39, n. 1. Orell, p. 303.)
» See OreU, p. 303. [Burguy, vol. ii. p. 394.]
' Observations, p. 115.
^ Grinmi, vol. iii. p. 749, says that M. Kaynouard's explanation is
Q
226 CHAPTER V.
Mica. Sometimes used unchanged, sometimes modified
into miga, mingay and mia in Prov.^ mica and minga in
Ital., mie in French. In Prov. it is always used in
negative sentences, to give force to the negation, as * Pero
no desesper mia,' * wherefore do not despair at all.' In
Ital. this is generally the case, as * Fosse nascosto un dio ?
I^Ton mica un dio Selvaggio, o della plebe degli dei.'
Tasso, Aminta, * Signer mio, non sogno mica.' Bocc.
Giom. 7, n. 92.
In the following passage, however, of a poem written
in the language of the Tuscan peasants, it does not add
force to a negative :
Gli h rigoglioso, come un berlingaccio,
Talch^ non par, che morir voglia mica^
In French it has a similar force : * Mais com me un harenc
ne faut mie Que tousjours le bee aye en Teau,' Basselin*.
In Italian it is sometimes used familiarly by itself,
with a negative sense, Hke other particles, which will be
presently noticed^
probably incorrect, as a notion of a thing, not a person, is required.
He then adds, *ges must signify something small : in Italian ghezzo is
a mushroom, ghiozzo is a little bit.' Schlegel's etymology is, however,
confirmed by gaire.
» Gr. Rom. p. 3;M.
* See Annot. 56, to Cinonio, c. 58. Marrini on the Lamento di Gecco
da Varlungo, p. 185.
* Marrini, ibid, p. 103.
* Cited by M. Eaynouard, Joum. des Sav. 1823, p. 116. See
Orell, p. 307. Mie is still used in some familiar phrases ; see Diet,
de I'Acad. in v. which defines it to be a ' particule negative, qui sig-
nifie, Fas, point' Properly speaking, neither mie, pas, nor point, are
negative particles.
* [Concerning this class of negative particles, formed from aflfirm-
CONJUNCTIONS. 227
N'ec. iVe and ni in Prov. and Frencli, ne in Ital.,
ni in Span. In Prov. ne or ni sometimes retained its
Latin sense of a negative disjunction, as * Davans son vis
nulz om no-s pot celar ; Ne eps li onme qui sun ultra la
mar/ * Before his face man can conceal himself, nor even
the men who are beyond the sea.' ' Non avent macula
ni ruga,' ' not having stain nor wrinkle.' Now where a
negative precedes a disjunctive negative particle, the
repetition of the negation is unnecessary to the sense,
though it may add force to the expression : thus it is the
same thing to say ' he has neither wife nor children,' or
* he has not wife and children.' Hence as nee is composed
of et noUy in such cases as that just described it was in-
different whether it was understood to have an affirmative
or a negative sense, and thus it vacillated between the
two, in Prov. generally having the former, and being
S}Tionymous with et : thus St. John, viii. 14 is translated
* Quar ieu sai don venc ni on vauc' This use never be-
came common in any other Romance language except the
Provencal : instances of it, however, occur both in old
French and Ital., as * Des que Diex fit Adan ne Eve.*
* Se gli occhi suoi ti fur dolci ne cari,' Petrarch^. This
.use of ne stiU prevails in the Piedmontese and Lombard
dialects, {G-r, Rom. p. 329—30. Ccmip. p. 347.)
NoN, Preserved without change of meaning in aU
the Romance languages. The Prov. used both non and
no in the same manner as the Latin 7ion. The Ital. has
both forms : but it uses the former in connection with
ative substantives, see Diez, Rom. Gr. vol. ii. p. 447, vol. iii. p. 413.
Ampere, p. 273—6. Burguy, vol. ii. p. 352.]
» See Cinonio, c. 178, s. 2, 4, 7. Perticari, Dif. di DanU, c. 18,
YoL ii, p. 373,
Q2
228 CHAPTER V.
other words, as ' non e 1^ ;* * non lungo tempo dopo ;' the
latter as an answer, as ' Sta dentro ? No^' The Span,
now only uses no : it formerly had the full Latin form.
The French has non : hut the other form no has been
attenuated into ne, like lo into le, (above, p. 56^.)
A very peculiar use of the particles si non 'except'
occurs in all the Eomance languages : not only are they
used together, as in Latin, but they are often separated
by several words interposed : thus
Tant es mortals lo danz, che no i a sospeisson
Que jamais si revenha, s'en aital guisa non
Qu'om li traga lo cor.
' The loss is so great that there is no suspicion that
ever it can be repaired, except, in such guise, that they
take his heart, etc'
So in Ital. * Nullo ^ buono s'ello h buon no,' and in
Span. * De al no li membraba si de esto solo non.' In
old French it is of frequent occurrence : thus * Maintes
gens dient que en songes N'a se fables non et mensonges*"*.'
> See this difference explained in the Philol. Museum^ vol. ii.
p. 322.
' See Grimm, vol. iii. p. 746.
3 These two verses are taken from the beginning of the Roman de
la Rose, which were modernized as follows by Marot, in an edition of
that poem published by him in the sixteenth century :
Maintes gens vont disant que songes
Ne sont que fables et mensonges.
By which means (says M. Kaynouard, Gr. Comp. p. 364,) he changed
fables and mensonges from the singular to the plural number. This
appears to be an oversight : fable, from fabula, had not the final s in
the singular number, but took it in the plural, which was modified
from fabulat.
CONJUNCTIONS. 229
' II ne parle se de toi non/ {G-r. Bom. p. 332. Comp.
p. 348—50.)
Passus. The Prov. used pas as an expletive particle,
but always with a negation, as * non pas dos joms ni tres/
' not two days nor three. ^ The French, as is well known,
has the same use of this particle. In both languages it
appears to have obtained this sense from being originally
used with verbs of motion, as * ne bougez un pas,' or
* ne bougez pas,' * do not stir a step ;' and this being
equivalent to ' do not stir at all* by a process of ab-
straction of perpetual occurrence in the use of words, it
was transferred to other verbs in the more general sense :
and thus it was said, * je ne I'aime pas,' * je ne veux pas,'
* I do not love him at all,' ' I do not wish it at aU,' * non
pas,' *not at all.' Being constantly used in negative
propositions, pas thus seemed to have itself a negative
sense, and by degrees came to be used independently as
a negative particle : thus * pas un,' ' pas mal,' ' pas
souvent,' ' not one,' ' not ill,' * not often,' for * non pas
un,' * non pas mal,' * non pas souvent,' ' not even one,'
* not at all ill,' * not at all often,' {G-r. Rom. p. 335.
Orell, p. 313.)
Persona. Both Ital. and French use this substantive
for alcuno and aucun in both affirmative and negative
phrases, as * Guatiam per I'orto, se persona ci ^, e s'egli non
c'e persona, che abbiamo noi a fare, etc' Boccaccio,
Nov. xxi. 14. So in French, * Si jamais personne est
assez hardi pour I'entreprendre, il reussira,' * Personne
ne sera assez hardi,' i. e. ^ any person will not be bold
enough,' in other words ^ No person will be bold enough.*
From being used frequently in negative propositions,
personne has sometimes a negative sense : thus * Y a-t-il
230 CHAPTER V.
quelqu'un ici ? Personne,' i. e. * Personne n^est ici,' ' a
person is not here.'
PuNCTUM. This was adopted as an expletive affirma-
tory particle, as signifying a very small quantity, like
mica or mie a grain of salt, goutte a drop, hrin a small
leafi, and in English * not a jot,* 'not a bit,' 'not a .
morsel,' etc. In Ital. it is sometimes used in affirmative, I
sometimes in negative propositions, as ' Qual di questa
greggia S'arresta punto giace poi cent' anni.' Dante,
Inf. XV. 37. ' Who ever stops an instant.^ * A cui il
pelegrin disse : Madonna, Tebaldo non e punto morto.'
Bocc. Gr. 3 nov. 7. Hence it sometimes denies without a
negative particle, as * Y'e egli piaciuto quelle stile ?
Punto,' i. e. ' not at all^.' In French from being used in
' These words are used familiarly in the very same manner as pas,
point, mica, punto, and other expletives, as in the phrases, ' ne voir
goutte,' 'n'entendre goutte,' 'il n'y en a brin.' See Diet, de I'Acad.
in V. The Bolognese has likewise an expletive of this kind, as is ex-
plained in the following extract from a dictionary of that dialect :
' Brisa. Voce rimarcata da' forestieri, per cui in vece di nomar
Bologna la citta del sipa, la direi piuttosto la cittd del hrisa. Equivale
al point o pan de' fran/esi, e s'usa da noi in tutti i casi, in cui da essi
si adopera. Corrisponde al punto de' Toscani. Detto assolutamente
vale la negativa, e sempre in rispondendo ad altri, p. e. Sei stato n£l
tal luogo? Brisa. No (Point du tout.) Nel discorso poi serve di
riempitivo come il point de' Francesi. An'i n'd brisa. Non ve n' pa
punto (il n'y en a point.) — An'i n'6 brisa brisa. Non ve n' ha punto
punto (il n'y en a point du tout.) — An'i son brisa sta. Non ci sono
gtato (je n'y ai pas ete,) An' ho brisa seid. Non ho sete (je n'ai
point de soif.) — Brisa si volge molte volte in Toscano col mica nello
stesso modo che noi diciam mega. Al n'e brisa v^ira, al n'e mega
veira, Non e mica vero. — Brisa sembra aver origine da hrisla, che vale ,
briciola ; siccome briciola significa qu^si niente.* Ferrari, Vocaho-
lario Bolognese, p. 45, (Bologna, 1820.)
' See Tommaseo, Nuovo Diz. dei Sinonimi deUa Ling. Ital. in mica.
And Cinonio, c. 205,
CONJUNCTIONS.
231
order to give force to negative propositions, as * il n'est
point mort/ * il ne s'arrete point,' ' he is not by any means
dead,' * he does not stop at all,* it contracted, Hke other
words already mentioned, a negative sense, and was used
by itself as a negation, as * point du tout,* * not at all.'
* Lisez vous ces vers ? Point.' * Are you reading those
verses.' By no means.'
Res. This substantive was retained unchanged in the
Prov., making res in the nominative, and ren or re in the
accusative case. Thus * Qu'ieu non soi alegres per al, M
al res no-m fai viure,' ' For I am not joyftd for another,
and another thing does not make me live,' i. e. * no other
thing makes me live.' {G-r. Rom. p. 152.) ' leu am la
plus debonaire Del mon mais que nulla re,' 'I love the
fairest woman in the world more than an}i;hing. (lb.
p. 76.) *Nuls homs ses amor ren non vau,' 'No man
without love is (not) worth anything.' * Ja ren non dirai,'
* Never wiU I say anything.' (lb. p. 333.) ' Res mas mer-
ces no i es a dire,' * Anything except mercy is not wanting,'
i. e. * nothing except mercy is wanting.' (lb. p. 337.)
The Ital. used the accusative case of res, doubtless
first changed into ren and rien^, in the same manner;
but subjected it to farther alterations, by adding a para-
gogic syllable, as in come^ comente, che, cJiente, already
observed 2, by which means it became riente ; and by
changing r into w, (as in the Span. hombrCy nomhre, lumbre,
• Perticari, Dif. di Dante, c. 15, p. 334, n. 4, says that the Italians
used rien, referring to the Cento Novelle Antiche, No. 61. In c. 21,
however, p. 413, n. 6, he shows that rien in that place is a jProven^al,
not an Italian word, which occurs in a Provencal song introduced by
the novelist, and he blames Lombardi for introducing it into the
Vocab. delta Crusca on the authority of that passage.
2 Above, p. 201,
232 CHAPTER V.
from hominem^ nomen, hmen'^,) which, made it nienfe^,
Niente sometimes retains its ancient afB.rmative sense, as
* Rispose che egli non ne voleva far niente/ Bocc. Giorn.
X. noY. 2. ' Et in questa maniera fece due notti, senza
che la donna di niente s'accorgesse.' Bocc. Giorn. 2,
nov. 9. Sometimes it has a negative sense, acquired in
the manner already explained with respect to other
words, as ' Ma fin a qui niente mi rileva Pianto sospiro
o lagrimar ch'io faccio/ Petrarch, P. 1, canz. 1. * El
fuggir val niente Dinanzi a I'ali, che'l segnor nostro usa/
Petrarch, (Cinonio, c. 181.) The rule at present estah-
lished in Ital. with respect to the use of niente is, that
where it precedes the verh, it has a negative, where it
follows, it has an affirmative, sense : as * niente ho,' * I
have nothing,' ' non ho niente,' ' I have not anything.'
In answer to a question, moreover, niente has a negative
sense : as ' cosa fate ? Niente.' * What are you doing ?
Nothing.'
The old Span, likewise used the accusative ren from
res : thus Milagros de N. Senora, v. 195.
Vidien que de ladrones non era degollado,
Ca nol toUieron nada nil avien ren robado.
Also V. 293.
Cata non aias miedo, por ren non te demudes,
Piensa como me fables h como me pescudes'.
• See above, p. 71, note *.
* Bien and niente from rem are like miei from mei, Dieu from Deiis,
etc. Muratori in v. rejects the absurd derivation of niente from ne
ens ; em was a scholastic, not a popular term. The French nSant
appears to come from negam : ' a negative quantity.' See Orell, p. 309.
' Sanchez, vol. ii. p. 311—324.
coisrjuNCTioNS. 233
The use of Hen in French is precisely analogous to
that of niente in Italian^. Sometimes it retains its
original affirmative sense, as 'Y a-t-il rien de si beau
que cela/ * II ne sait rien de rien,' i. e. ' he knows,
nothing of anything' But from being used after ne, it
has itself acquired a negative force, and sometimes means
nothing instead of anything, as * Dieu a cree le monde de
rien.' * On ne fait rien de rien,' i. e. * Ex nihilo nil fit/
* Qu' avez vous trouve ? Rien/
Sic. This word, changed into si^, became the affirmative
particle of the Ital. and Span. : in French it is still often
employed in famihar style ^, and it also occurs in the old
Prov. : thus in the Nohla Leygon :
La ley velha deflfent solament perjurar,
E plus de si de no non sia en ton parlar.
The last line being a translation of St. Matthew, ' and
let thy conversation be yea, yea, nay, nay.* {Q-r. Rom.
p. 312. Crnnp, p. 346.)
It is known that the difference of the affirmative par-
ticle was used to distinguish the three Romance languages,
of Italy, northern and southern France : the former being
called the language of si, the latter of oil and oc. The
agreement of aU these languages in the use of si may
therefore seem a proof of their derivation from a lan-
guage posterior to the Latin, in which this particle had a
* Schlegel's Kritische Schriften, vol. i. p. 358. On rien, used in old
French as a feminine substantive for chose, see Orell, p. 70.
a Grimm, Deutsche Rechtsalterthumer, p. 606, cites a formula from
the Lombard laws : ' Spondes ita? Sic facio,' comparing the French
si fats and the Italian si.
3 [See Burguy, vol. ii. p. 391.]
234 CHAPTER V.
different sense. It is, however, easy to conceive that the
use of the Latin sic for yes should have heen introduced
by the Germans, with whom so had a familiar sense ; or
that sic should have been used without reference to the
German practice, as the Latin formerly employed ita^ a
nearly s3monymous particle. But although the languages
of oil and oc sometimes used si in the same sense as the
Italian, yet they had other particles which they com-
monly used in that sense. The characteristic of the
ItaKan, as opposed to the languages of France, was not
that it used si, but that it used si alone ; the characteristic
of the languages of France, as opposed to that of Italy,
was not that they did not use si, but that they commonly
used oil and oc, particles of which no trace is to be found
in any Italian dialect.
The Bolognese dialect has been characterized by its
use of sipa :
E non pur io qui piango Bolognese :
Anzi n'^ questo luogo tanto pieno,
Che tante lingue non son ora apprese
A dicer sipa tra Savena e'l Keno.
Dante, Inf. xviii. 58.
Sipa or sepa, however, now no longer in use, is a peculiar
form of sia, and is not connected with si'^ : though it
appears evidently to have been used as equivalent to si,
since Dante elsewhere takes this affirmative particle as
the distinguishing mark of a language.
With regard to the affirmative particles oil and oc,
it cannot be doubted that they are both derived from the
form 0, which was used in old French. Oil is doubtless
* See Menage, Orig. Ital. in sipa. Ferrari, Vocab. Bologn, in sepa.
CONJUNCTIONS. 235
formed by the addition of the pronoun il, like nenil from
non or nen. Oc is considered by Grimm as equivalent
to jd ich: an etymology of which the probability is
much increased, if, as Grimm suggests, and as appears
likely, the Romance is borrowed from the German jd^.
Should this explanation be received, the adoption of a
German affirmative particle in France, while in Italy and
Spain a Latin word was used for this purpose, must be
considered as a proof of the greater amount of German
influence in the former than in the latter countries.
The modern French out appears to be formed from oil
by dropping the final I, as nenni from nennil, the before
i being pronounced like ou, as Louis, anciently Loys^.
The final I has in French commonly passed into u, as
seel, sceau, morcel, morceau^ : but if oil had suffered a
change of this kind, it would have become oiu, and not
oui.
Among the particles which have been just enumerated
it will be observed that several having originally had an
affirmative sense, and having been introduced into nega-
tive propositions for the sake of strengthening the nega-
tion, in process of time themselves contracted a negative
force. Negation may, as Grimm states, be strengthened
in two ways : either by a repetition of the proper negative
* Grimm, vol. iii. p. 768. See Philol. Museum, vol. ii. p. 324. Some
instances of the change of the broad a into o are mentioned there,
p. 326. [Burguy, vol. ii. p. SOD, 407—9, approves of the derivation of
oil from o and il. He rejects the derivation of oc from the Latin hocj
and thinks that the origin of the word is quite uncertain.]
^ This is satisfactorily proved by Blester on oc and oyl, Philol.
Museum, vol. ii. p. 342, cf. ib. 324.
' See above, p. 138.
236 CHAPTER V.
particles, or by the addition of a positive word. "With
regard to the latter of these he remarks : * A positive
expression may sometimes expel and replace the simple
negation : the proper negative force of the lost negative
particle then falls upon it, and it denies by means of it,
as the moon shines with borrowed light. Such words,
however, though not properly negative, must yet originally
have some natural fitness for expressing negation. Words
of this kind commonly convey a notion of smallness, and
as it were of nullity. At first they appear to have sug-
gested a sensible image, which afterwards was lost, and a
mere grammatical abstraction remained^.' The intro-
duction of words signifying small, insignificant, worthless
and mean objects, prevailed to a great extent in the old
German, and numerous examples of this usage are cited
by Grimm from poets of the thirteenth century. Among
these are blat, a leaf, bast bark, her a berry, stro a straw,
hone a bone, nuz a nut, ei an egg, hrot a loaf of bread,
drof a drop, Mr a hair, fuoz a foot, iwint a twinkle, wiht
a thing, etc.^ For the most part these words were used
after a negation : as * daz hulfe niht ein blat ;' ' wan ez
half niht ein bast ;' * ich waere niht einer bone wert.'
Sometimes, however, the same word occurs both with and
without the negative particle, as ' dat halp aUent nicht
ein stof, (i.e. stoup, an atom,) with the negative particle ;
but ' ez was in aUez ein stoup,' without it. It appears
probable, as Schlegel^ had remarked before Grimm, that
» Grimm, vol. iii. p. 726—8.
' Grimm, vol. iii. p. 728 — 40. [Similar expressions are cited from
the classical Latin writers by Diez, Rom. Gr. vol. iii. p. 413.]
' Observ. sur la Litt. Prov. p. 34^ Schlegel's remark is, however,
limited to the French language.
CONJUNCTIONS. 237
the system of expletive particles in negative plirases was
formed in the Romance languages on the model of the
German idiom ; as in the Latin there are no traces of
any idiom to which the usage in question can he referred^.
The Italian has some, hut not many, particles of this
kind, viz. mica^ niente, persona^ punto, derived from Latin
words, and giiari from a German word. The Provencal
has pas J ren, mica, from the Latin, gaire and gens from
the German. The Spanish does not appear to have any
particles belonging to this class. The French, on the
other hand, formerly luxuriated in the use of this idiom :
among the instances cited by Grimm, are gant^ ail, feuille^
oef, pome, poire, houton, etc.'^ Mie, goutte, and 5rm, still
retain a certain currency in the same manner : but pas,
point, gvere, personne, and rien, are in constant use, and
show in the clearest manner the transition from the af-
firmative to the negative sense.
The Romance and Teutonic words of this kind often
correspond lq their meaning, as pas and fiioz, drof and
* However, it is possible that in the case of this idiom, as of others
which have been incorrectly derived from the influence of the German,
(above, p. 25,) the change may have developed itself in the spon-
taneous working of the language : for analogous changes have taken
place in several Greek words, as I am informed by a friend who is well
acquainted with modem Greek. Thus KadoXov and irori have, as
answers to a question, a negative sense, (precisely analogous to ;foint
du tout &ad jamais:) for example, adg apkati IkHvo', kuBoXov. 'Does
that please you ? Not at aU.' YraQriKaTt icoTf dg Tag 'AOrjvag ; ttots.
* Have you ever been at Athens ? Never.' So in other words : fiag
^sptTe riiroTe vkov ; %va riiroTa. ' Do you bring us any news ? None,'
(i.e. un rien, a mere nothing.) Tivcig is used for * no one:' also
Kavkvag, [le Kavkva rpoirov, ' in no wise : ' TravTtXuig, ' by no means : *
oXorcXa, ' in no way,' (sometimes used affirmatively :) aKOfii] means
both ' again,' and ' not yet.'
' Grimm, vol. iii. p. 750.
238 CHAPTER V.
goutte, oef and e^, hiat and feuille, tliougli tHs cannot be
considered as a proof that the one is derived from the
other. It will be observed that nihil has not been re-
tained in any of the Romance languages, three of which
have agreed in substituting for it a derivative of res, pre-
ceded by a negative particle, in the same manner that
the German nichts or nicht was formed from nivaihts or
niowiht, nothing^.
The other mode of strengthening a negation, viz. a
repetition of the negative particles, likewise occurs in the
Teutonic languages^ : whence it was probably derived
to those formed from the Latin, as will appear from the
following examples.
Nullo, niuno, and nessuno in Ital., neguns and nuls in
Prov., are equivalent to nullus and nemo in Latin, and
thus they are often used : nevertheless a negative particle
is often added to the proposition, the sense remaining
the same, contrary to the rule that two negatives make
an affirmative. Thus in Ital., ' non dice nulla,' * non v'e
niuno,' ' non e neuna cosa si bella che eUa non rincresca
altrui,' Bocc. * Che Annibale non fusse maestro di guerra,
nessuno mai non lo dira,* Machiavelli, Disc. iii. 10. In
Proven9al, ' Negus vezers mon bel pensar no-m val,* * No
sight is (not) worth to me my thoughts.' * Nuls hom non
pot ben chantar sens amar,' * No man can (not) sing well
without loving 3.' All of which are affirmative, not nega-
tive propositions. Now in Latin the use was in this
respect completely reversed : non-nullus meant some, non-
nemo meant somebody; and whereas 'non c'e nessuno' is
» Gidmm, vol. iii. p. 748.
» Grimm, vol. iii. p. 727.
» Cinonio, c. 180, 188. Kayn. Gr, Bom. p. 149.
f
CONJUNCTIONS. 239
in Italian a negative, * non nulli adfuerunt * is in Latin
an affirmative proposition. Tlie confusion has indeed
gone a step further, and as affirmative particles, such as
mica, niente, rien, pas, point, etc. by being continually
used in negative sentences acquired a negative sense ; so
the negative pronouns by being used after a negation
which absorbed their own meaning, retained only an af-
firmative force. Thus Machiavel says in the preface to
his History : * Se niuna cosa diletta o insegna nella istoria,
e quella che particolarmente si descrive,' that is, if any-
On the other hand, affiLrmative terms sometimes con-
tract a negative meaning, and make a proposition nega-
tive which in its form is affirmative. Of this we have
seen many examples in the words, niente, rien, personne,
etc. : but these are not the only instances of such a
change. Thus mai in Ital., which properly signifies ever,
from being used in negative sentences, came to signify
never : thus * Ti priego che mai ad alcuna persona dichi
d'avermi veduta,' Bocc. G. 2. n. 7, i.e. ' non mai,' never^.
So in French, * Avez vous jamais ete la ? Jamais.'
* Have you ever been there ? Never, ^ Veruno in Italian
is another word of this kind, which, though properly
synonymous with aliquis, sometimes has a negative sense :
thus * I peccati veniali in verun modo si perdonano sanza
i mortali,' i.e. *in no way*.' Whether alcuno in Italian
ever had a negative meaning seems doubtful^ : in French,
* See other instances in Cinonio, c. 164, s. 2.
* Cinonio, c. 250. Veruno appears to be derived from vel unus, in
the same manner that medesmo came from met ipsissimus, and dimentre
from dum interea. Thus, for example, such a sentence as ' ut non vel
unus sciret,' might be rendered in Italian by • che non veruno sapesse,'
« See Cinonio, c. 13, s. 6.
24^ CHAPTER V.
however, aucun frequently denies ; as, Ce livre merite-t-il
aucune confiance ? Aucune,' i. e. None^.
The use of expletive particles in negative propositions,
their subsequent assumption of a negative sense, the re-
petition of negative particles, and the confusion of af-
firmation and negation which prevail in the Romance
languages, have all been introduced since the Latin, in
which none of these idioms are to be observed. Never-
theless the comparison just made proves that there is
only an analogy, and not an identity in the words which
have undergone these changes, and that the conformity
is to be accounted for, not by deriving one idiom from the
other, but by referring them all partly to the disposition
(which appears to be general to all men) to strengthen
negation by additional words, and to confound affirmative
and negative meanings : partly to the existence of the
idioms in question among the nations who mixed their
languages with the Latin.
It is moreover to be remarked that in the Spanish
language (as far as I am aware) expletive particles of
affirmation are not used in negative propositions, that
consequently these particles have never acquired a nega-
tive sense, and in general that there are fewer examples
* The present rule with respect to aucun is that its negative sense
is limited to the singular number, with certain narrow exceptions.
Eacihe, in the Phedre, has the following couplet :
Qu' aucuns monstres par moi domt^s jusqu' aujourd'hui
Ne m'ont acquis le droit de faiUir comme lui.
(Act i. sc. i.)
Where the commentator says : ' aucun signifiant nul, pas un, ne pent
s'employer au pluriel, si ce n'est avant les mots qui n'ont pas de singu-
lier, ou qui dans certain sens doivent n6cessairement 6tre au plurieL'
CONJUNCTIONS. 24I
of tlie confiisioii of negation so common in its sister
tongues. Thus the Spanish does not use a negative be-
tween the comparative and the verb, like the Proven9a],
Italian, and French ; and the words nada and nadie,
though their derivation is not very obvious, appear at
any rate to be allied to the negative particle no, and not
like niente, rien, and personne, to have a negative force,
having originally been affirmative terms.
In reviewing the various prepositions, adverbs, and par-
ticles, compared in this chapter, it appears that although
the several languages sometimes agree in remarkable de-
viations from the Latin, as in making pres and presso
from prope, sens and senza from sine, and in introducing
new words not found in the Latin, as the adverbs malgrat
and malgrado, tost and tosto, trop and troppo: yet the
Italian, the Spanish, and the French, and especially the
two former, exhibit peculiarities which could not have
been borrowed from the Proven9al, and could not have
been derived from any other source than the Latin itself.
Thus the Ital. has preserved apicd, circa, infra, and eccum,
which the Prov. has lost : so likewise the Ital. and Prov.
in modifying the Latin forms followed the different
analogies respectively observed by them in other parts of
speech : thus from suhtus, versus, minus, pejus, secundum,
jusum, susum, medium, the Ital. made sotto, verso, meno,
peggio, secondo, giuso, suso, mezzo, like petto and mostro
from pectus and monstrum: whereas the Prov. made sotz
from suUus, ves from versus, mens from minus, pietz from
pejus, like amatz from amatus : and segont from secundum,
miei or mieg from medium, jos and sos from jusum and
susum, like amic from amicum. It will be observed.
242 CHAPTER V.
moreover, that the Ital. retained in many words the
final Latin vowel unchanged, which the Prov. either
modified or cut off : thus intra and sopra Ital., intre and
sohre Prov. ; sovente, onde Ital., sovent, ont Prov. ; fuori^
hieri, assai Ital., fors^ hier, assatz Prov. Sometimes also
a Latin consonant which had disappeared in the Prov.
was preserved in the Ital. : as from hodie and ibi, hoggi
and ivi Ital., oi and i Prov. The Prov. likewise has
several peculiar words, such as the derivatives of aliquoties
and aUorsum, and the use of gens as an expletive in the |
sense of ' something : ' the adverhs pron, moreover, and
pas employed as an affirmative (or negative) particle, are
common only to the French with the Prov., and are
wanting in Ital. and Span. If, however, the Proven9al
had heen the mother tongue of the Italian and Spanish,
it is inconceivable that they should have preserved traces
of the Latin, which the other had not : and it is very im-
probable that there should be any words peculiar to the
original language, and not retained in any of the various
dialects which, according to the supposition, sprung from \
it. It would be easy to carry this analysis further, and
to point out other peculiarities in the latter languages,
which could not have been derived from the Proven9al :
but enough has been said to illustrate the differences now
in question, and to indicate the numerous difficulties to
which M. Eaynouard's theory is liable. I wiU only in
conclusion remark, that with respect to the indecKnable
parts of speech last examined, the Spanish departs widely
from its sister languages, and bears strong marks of an
independent origin.
CONCLUDING REMARKS. 243
§ 4. CONCLUDING REMARKS ON M. RAYNOUARD's
HYPOTHESIS.
M. Eaynouard concludes his proofs of tlie derivation
of the Italian, Spanish, and French, from the Provencal,
by collecting several pecuHar idioms not traceable to the
Latin, in which these languages agree, as the use of
mere instead of essere, of lasciare stare, far la fica, aver
nome^y etc. This kind of proof has been much insisted
on by Perticari, who has collected a long series of cor-
responding idioms and expressions in Italian and the
language of the Troubadours^, which is interesting as
' Gr. Comp. p. 351 — 61. The expression nomen habere is, however,
Latdn, as M. Eaynouard himself shows :
Est via sublimis, ccelo manifesta sereno,
Lactea nomen Jiahet, candore notabilis ipso.
Ovid. Met. 1, 168-9.
'^ Dif. di Dante, c. 13-19. The reader must, however, be on his
guard against an artifice practised by Perticari, in order to render the
resemblances which he points out more stinking, by assimilating the
inflexions and terminations, as well as the syntax. In almost all the
passages which he quotes, he obliterates the more salient peculiarities
of the Provengal, and brings the forms nearer to the Italian, without
informing his readers that the words are not faithfully transcribed, and
then he calls on them to observe how close the Provengal is to the
Italian. Thus in his very first example, c. 13, taken from the poem
on Boethius, he says: 'questi sono versi citati dal dottissimo
Benuardo :
D'avant son vis null' om non se pot celar,
N^ ess H omen chi sun ultra la mar.'
Which by adding the final vowels becomes, as he says, Italian :
D' avanti '1 suo vise null' omo non si pote celare,
Nd essi li omini che son oltra 1 mare.
Vol. i. p. 318.
R 2
244 CHAPTER V.
throwing light on both those languages, and as showing
the close ajB&nity which subsisted between them, but
which cannot be considered as proving the derivation of
one from the other, more than a table of parallel idioms
in German, Dutch, and EngUsh, would prove the mutual
dependence of those three sister languages. The close
analogy between many of the idioms, no less than between
the words and forms of the Eomance languages, for the
most part arises not from their propagation from one
language into another, but from the similarity of effects
produced by similar causes. Not only were the circum-
stances attending the mixture of the conqueriag and
conquered populations similar all over western Europe,
(as has been before explained,) but all the kingdoms
Now in M. Eaynouard's Gr. Rom. p. 330, these verses are cited
thus:
Davan son vis nulz om no s pot eelar,
Ne eps li omne qui sun ultra la mar.
There is no wonder that these verses should pass so easily into Italian,
when they had been prepared for their reduction by taking away all
that characterizes the language in which they were written : and even
after Perticari had restored the Provencal contractions to their fuller
form by writing d'avant for davan, and non se for no-s, after he had in-
troduced the Italian variations ess for eps, omen for omne, chi for gwi, '
and after he had suppressed the final s retained from the Latin, the
distinctive mark of the Proven9al nominatives, by writing null' (mean-
ing nuUo) for nulz, he was unable to get rid of son instead of siio and
la mar instead of il mare, with the gender changed, as in Spanish and
French. (See above, p. 113-14.) Numerous other instances of changes
of this kind in passages cited by Perticari (which I fear could not
have been unintentional) are collected by Galvani, in his collection of
Troubadour poetry, p. 504-20. M. Eaynouard, whose good faith
and accuracy in citation cannot be exceeded, probably did not perceive
that Perticari had garbled the passages which he quoted, when he re- ,
ferred to that writer as an authority, without cautioning the reader
against his misrepresentations.
CONCLUDING REMARKS. 245
created by the invaders had nearly the same form of
government, the same system of laws, the same reKgion,
the same manners ; they existed in the same age ; and a
frequent communication both in peace and war, was
reciprocally kept up between them, especially among the
class of writers, whether chroniclers, theologians, or
poets. In this state of things similar phrases would not
unnaturally be suggested by similar wants, and by similar
ideas : and some expressions likewise would doubtless pass
from one language to the other (as we see at the present
day,) though their number would probably be incon-
siderable as compared with those of native growth, and
would chiefly be confined to poets and other writers in an
exotic style*. Any resemblance, therefore, whether of
words, forms, or idioms, in the Romance languages, is
quite compatible with the supposition that they were
derived immediately from the Latin : whereas any marked
dissimilarity between the Provencal and any other modem
language is incompatible with the supposition that the
latter is derived from the former. Thus it may be re-^
markable that the futures of aU the modem verbs should
be formed by adding the future tense of Jmheo to the
infinitive mood of the verb : nevertheless it is conceiv-
able that this mode of formation should have been adopted
independently by different languages : but it is incon-
ceivable that the Ital. hebhi or hebhero, the Span, hube
and huhieron should have been formed from agui or aic,
agueron or aguererij the first person singular and the third
^ See above, page 146, on the introduction of Italian words into
French. Some likewise appear to have been borrowed from the Span-
ish, as salade, limonade, esplanade, estrade, etc. Salade if formed ac-
cording to the French analogy would be saUe,
246 CHAPTER V.
person plural of the perfect of aver, whereas they might
all three be independent corruptions of the Latin habui
and hahuerunt. A comparison of the Romance languages
with the Latin will probably convince any person who
examines the relations with an unbiased mind, that the
ItaKan is in every respect nearer to the Latin than any
of its cognate tongues ; that it has retained the most
Latin words, and subjected them to the fewest and least
considerable alterations of form^ Next to the Italian,
* Passages which are at once Italian and Latin serve to show the
close affinity of the two languages. The following couplet is well
known :
In mare irato, in subita procella
Invoco te, nostra benign a stella.
Matthews, Diary of an Invalid, c. 10, adds these verses :
Vivo in acerba pena, in mesto orrore,
Quando te non imploro, in te non spero
Purissima Maria, et in sincero
Te non adoro et in divino ardore.
The following address to Venice is a still longer composition :
Te saluto, alma Dea, Dea generosa,
gloria nostra, o Veneta regina !
In proceUoso turbine funesto
Tu regnasti secura ; uulle membra
Intrepida prostrasti in pugna acerba.
Per te miser non fui, per te non gemo ;
Vivo in pace per te. Kegna, o beata,
Eegna in prospera sorte, in alta pompa,
In augusto splendore, in aurea sede.
Tu Serena, tu placida, tu pia,
Tu benigna ; tu salva, ama, conserva.
(Cited in the Journ. of Education, vol. vi. p. 260.)
Although these passages were doubtless composed in order to show
the coincidence of the two languages, I question whether it would be
possible to do as much in any other modem language derived from the
Latin.
The Latin language probably remained longer in current use in
Italy, especially in the central and southern parts, than in any other
CONCLUDING REMARKS. 247
thougli after a long interval, comes tlie Spanish, wHch
has not so mucli changed the Latin form, as it has lost
numerous Latin words preserved in Italian. After the
Spanish is the language of oc, which has cHpped the
Latin standard much more closely than the two former
languages, especially the Italian, and has not only rejected
many vowel terminations which the others have preserved,
hut has introduced various contractions in the hody of
words which the others have not admitted. Last of all
comes the language of oil^, which had at a very early
period undergone the considerahle modifications which
may he seen in the modern French, and which caused it
to he opposed as a distinct Romance dialect to the lan-
guage of oc. jS'evertheless in tracing the French language
to its present form, it appears eiddently to have passed
part of western Europe. Of this we have a proof in the two Latin
songs composed in 871 and 924 a.d. referred to by M. Raynouard,
{Gram. Comp. p. L.) which must have been understood by a large
number of persons. (See above, pp. 58, 59.) Dante likewise introduces
Cacciaguida in the Paradise as addressing his descendant in Latin
(xv. 28-30,) and afterwards he says that Cacciaguida spoke to him
•con voce piu dolce e soave. Ma non con questa mo clem a favella,*
xvi. 32, which Daniello explains to mean 'that Cacciaguida spoke
not in Italian but in Latin, as was the custom of persons of some
education in his time.' It was this practice which made it so difficult
to eradicate the use of Latin from the modem literature of Italy, and
which even to a great degree banished the Italian from books after the
age of Dante, Petrarch, and Boccaccio : it would, however, be absurd
to suppose that in Cacciaguida's time the lingua volgare was not as
much the language of the volgo of Florence as it is at the present day.
The practice of preaching in Latin to mixed audiences prevailed in
Italy so late as the sixteenth centuiy: M'Crie's History of the Re-
formation in Italy, p. 51. Compare Wachsmuth in the Athenaum,
voL i. p. 287 note.
* ' Parmi les langues modemes, la langue fran^aise est celle qui a
^prouvee le plus de variations.' Raynouard in Journal des Sav. 1818,
p. 282.
248 CHAPTER V.
througli a stage little different from tlie language of oc,
as preserved in the poems of the Troubadours : thus these
two languages agreed in marking, in nouns and participles
not ending in a, the nom. sing, and the ace. plural by the
presence of s, the ace. sing, and nom. plural by the ab-
sence of s' ; and in forming the plural of feminine nouns
* M. Raynouard, at the end of his Gram. Conip. p. 389-94, con-
siders what would have heen the effect on the literature of France, if
the French court had heen established in a town south of the Loire,
and the langue d'oc had beconae the language of government; and he
appears to regret that the fates of the two languages of oc and oil had
not been reversed, and the former had become the subordinate instead
of the superior dialect. If one is to judge from the modem Provencal
what would have been the present form of the French language under
the circumstances supposed, it is difficult to assent to M. Raynouard's
opinion. The language would doubtless have taken a more perfect
form than it now bears in the southern patois, if it had been cultivated
by the chief writers of France: but it would unquestionably have
lost many of the advantages which M. Raynouard ascribes to it, and
which induce him to give it the preference over the language of oil.
Thus he says that it would have had the power of distinguishing the
subject and regimen in both numbers, by the absence or presence of a
final s; and he instances a verse of Thomas Corneille :
Le crime fait la honte et non pas I'echafaud,
which by means of this distinction would have lost its ambiguity, being
written,
Le crimes fait la honte et non pas I'echafauds.
I will say nothing of M. Raynouard's inconsistency in extolling the
superiority of the modern Romance languages over the Latin as being
free 'from the slavery of declensions,' (above, p. ^7.) and yet pre-
ferring the ancient Provencal to the modem French on the very ground
of its possessing declensions : but I would remark that M. Raynouard
appears to forget that the distinction of cases which he points out ex-
isted equally in ancient French, in which it has been lost, as it has
likewise been lost in all the dialects of the language of oc. This ad-
vantage, therefore, which he finds in the langue d'oc would doubtless
have disappeared if that language had become predominant in France,
and it also existed in the langue d'oil. The final a, moreover, in the
CONCLUDING REMARKS. 249
in a from the Latin accusative : in both which points the
Ital. and Span, differ, as well from these two languages
as from each other. Hence when M. Raynouard selects
passages from Ital., Span., and French writers, which
are at once Ital. and Prov., Span, and Prov., French and
Pro v., he is forced in the former to confine himself to
sentences, such as *la vista angelica serena per suhita
partenza,' in Petrarch, where are only singular feminiue
nouns in a; for passages containing masculine nouns
either singular or plural, (unless the terminations are cut
off,) and feminine nouns in the plural, would have im-
mediately betrayed the characteristic differences of the
two languages. In Spanish he is less confined, for he
can there cite not only the singular but also the plural of
nouns in a, (as ' mas son que arenas in riba de la mar'
from Berceo,) since the Spanish, Hke the Proven9al and
unlike the Italian, forms its feminine plural from the
Latin accusative. In old French, on the other hand, he
has a wider field ; for there is a strong resemblance be-
tween the languages of northern and southern France,
and it is easier to find passages where even in their later
form they agree, than to establish any characteristic dis-
tinction between them in their earlier form^.
However singular the close concordance of the lan-
guages of oc and oil may appear, as weU of the Eomance
languages in general, without the hypothesis of their
mutual dependence, or their common derivation from a
language already corrupted from the Latin; yet the
verse of Comeille would be a distinction only to the eye, and not to
the ear, like the s of the French plural : anciently the last letter of
Thiebauz, chascuns, etc. was doubtless pronounced as well as written,
like the modem ^k.
» Gr. Comp, p. 37 6—84.
250 CHAPTER V.
English and Scotch offer an analogy of languages be-
tween which there is the closest resemblance, but which
were nevertheless formed independently of each other.
Both in England and the Lowlands of Scotland the
Norman invaders found an Anglo-Saxon population,
and in both countries a new language was formed by ^
mixing the language of the conquered with that of the
conquerors. The further we go back the closer we find
the relation between the Scotch and English, both in
structure and in words, though each language has pecu-
liarities of its own, which having been more strongly
marked in the course of years, at last have created so
considerable a difference between the two dialects, that a
large part of a Scotch composition is unintelligible to a
person acquainted only with modern English.
In reviewing the whole series of proofs collected by
M. Rajmouard, of the derivation of the Italian, Spanish,
and French, from the ancient language of Provence as
preserved in the poetry of the Troubadours, it appears to
me that he has failed to establish his theory, and that he
has shown nothing more than the close affinity which
exists between these languages, as being derived from
the Latin, their only common origin. Although, how-
ever, we may withhold our assent to the inference which
he would draw from his premises, it is impossible to be
blind to the light which he has thrown on the relations
of the languages of which he treats, or to deny the ser-
vice which he has rendered to the elucidation of the
history of the modem dialects of the Latin : nor in the
preceding essay do I aspire to any higher merit than of
having reconstructed the materials furnished by M. Ray-
nouard himself, into a more consistent theory than that
which he formed from them.
APPENDIX
Note (A.)
Perticari, in his acconnt of tlie formation of the Italian
language, and of the relation which its several dialects
bear to one another, perpetually confounds grammatical
forms and style. The question is not, whether in early
times, writers in other parts of Italy besides Tuscany
wrote in an elevated and noble style, avoiding low and
plebeian terms, or whether they composed good poetry :
but whether the forms of the Italian language, such as
it is now, its terminations, contractions, and inflexions,
existed in any other dialect except the Tuscan. There
can be no doubt that in all the north of Italy the same
character of language, which prevails now, has prevailed
universally from a very early period, even if it has not
existed since the Latin settled into its new form^. The
dialects of Milan, Piedmont, Bologna, and other towns
of northern Italy, are not confined to the lower and
middle classes : they are to this day used by the upper
classes in their familiar intercourse when no stranger
from southern Italy is present. That these were not in
the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries the languages of
Milan, Piedmont, etc. is by no means proved by alleging
a few verses written in the Tuscan Italian by the natives
1 See above, p. 94—98, 104.
252 APPENDIX.
of those countries. It is remarkable to what an extent
the power of composition in a foreign language may be
acquired. We have abundant proofs of this fact in our
public schools, where youths of sixteen or seventeen fre-
quently compose even Latin poetry with a facility, ele-
gance, and correctness, probably far beyond many native
Romans who had not cultivated the art of versification.
Many foreigners have written in modern languages with
complete success, as Manzoni and Schlegel in French,
Baretti in English, etc. A century and a half ago,
when Latin was the language of Science, most mathe-
matical and physical philosophers probably wrote in
j Latin with as much facility as in their own languages,
; although their thoughts were not turned to philological
■studies. To Newton it would doubtless have been a
Vmatter of perfect indifference, as far as the facility of
composition was concerned, whether he wrote the Prin-
cipia in Latin or in EngHsh. These instances are suffi-
cient to show that there is not so much difficulty as
would at first sight appear, in thinking in one language
and composing in another. But when the transfusion of
thought takes place, not from languages of a different
family, as from German into Latin or French, but from
one to another dialect of the same language, as from
Milanese or Piedmontese to Tuscan, the process is far
easier and simpler. The most that can be conceded to
Perticari is that the Italian language, as written by its
classical authors, has borrowed its forms in great mea-
sure from the Roman, Neapolitan, and Sicilian, as well as
/ / from the Tuscan dialect ; that it is in fact a refinement of
the dialects of central and southern Italy and of Sicily.
But even this concession is liable to great objections, as
APPENDIX. 253
any person may see who will compare the forms of the
Sicilian and Roman dialects with the language of Tasso,
for example, or Ariosto, who were not Tuscans. To
argue, as Perticari does, that the written Italian was not
borrowed from the Tuscan, because the Tuscan has many
peculiar terms which are not intelligible out of Tuscany,
betrays a complete misapprehension of the true question
at issue: the Tuscan no doubt has peculiar words and
phrases, but has it any peculiar forms, and have other
dialects any forms which occur in the common Italian
and do not occur in the Tuscan ?
Note (B.)
Meidinger, in the Introduction to his Dictionary of the
Teuto-G-othic Languages, (Frankfort, 1833,) has the fol-
lowing remarks on the Romance languages.
* The Italian language has for its base the romana
riistica or vulgaris (plebeia) of the ancient Romans,
which at a later period, after the dominion of the
Franks, received the name of liiigua franca. It is the
mother of all the Romance languages. Among the
Romans it formed the popular language properly so
called, and the written Latin, as it is at present used,
was confined to the upper classes, (lingua nohilis or
urbana or classica.y Introd. p. xlxix. In a note he
adds : * Originally the romana rustica was a mixture
of the Pelasgo-Gothic, the Gallo-Celtic, and the Romano-
Latin, as may be inferred from the different races which
inhabited Italy.' Speaking of the French, he says, that
*the Gaelic ox Celtic, mixed with the Romana rtistica,
254 APPENDIX.
formed tlie Romance language.' He afterwards adds :
*In the thirteenth century there were two principal
dialects of the Romance language. These were the
Romance language properly so called, or Proven9al-
Romance, or langue, d'oc, spoken in the countries to the
south of the Loire and in Catalonia, and 2, the langue
dj'oily p. 1. Of the language of Spain, he says, that
* the modem Spanish, like the French, has for its hasis
the Romana rustica, which has also undergone numerous
changes, and is mixed with Arahic and Gothic words.'
p. lii.
In this passage there is scarcely a single proposition to
which I am able to assent. In the first place, there
appears to be no evidence whatever for the opinion that
the Romana rustica or vulgaris was a language distinct
in its forms or roots from the Latin, and spoken by the
lower classes or the peasants of Italy : still less is there
any proof that this language was the base of the Italian.
The statement that the lingua Romana rustica after the
dominion of the Franks, received the name of lingua
franca is equally unfounded : for the lingua franca was
' the corrupt and truncated language spoken by the vari-
ous inhabitants of the Romance nations who met in the
Levant and in the ports of Greece and northern Africa,
and was called lingua franca^ as being spoken by the
Franks, the general name given by the Mussulmans to
Europeans. So far from being identical with the lan-
guage which formed the base of the Italian, it is itself a
mutilated and imperfect form of the Italian, mixed with
the Spanish, Proven9al, and perhaps other languages.
(See above, p. 22, note ^.) Having assumed the exist-
ence of this inferior dialect of the Latin, the rustic or
APPENDIX. 2<<
I
^ vulgar, as opposed to the classical language, or tliat of
the city; he proceeds to account for its origin by the
races which inhabited Italy, viz. the Pelasgo-Gothic,
the Gallo-Celtic, and the Romano-Latin. What the
Pelasgo-Gothic race may be, or how it differs from the
Romano-Latin ; or how the language of the Romans, so
far as it agrees with the Hellenic, differed Jfrom that of
the Pelasgian part of the * Pelasgo-Gothic' tribe ; I con-
fess myself wholly unable to comprehend. Nor is it
very obvious why the Gallo-Celtic race should have pro-
duced so powerful an influence on the lingua rustica of
Italy, and have produced no influence on its lingua
urhana: or how, if the lingua Romana rustica was ftdl
of Celtic words, the languages supposed to be derived
from it (as the Ital. and Span.) should be nearly desti-
tute of them. It may be here observed, that if, in
ancient Italy, the inhabitants of Rome and of the other
large towns had spoken a language different from' that
of the inhabitants of the country, the latter would not
have been called the * Lingua Romana rustica :' as at that
time the appellation of Romans was not extended to the
inhabitants of the entire peninsula. It was only at a
much later period when the name of Romani was given
to all the provincials, to all the subjects of the Roman
empire, that the name of rustic Roman language could
by possibility have arisen. (See above, p. 29.)
With regard to the origin of the Romance languages
of France, Mr. Meidinger says that they were formed by
the mixture of the Romana rustica and the Celtic : which
is much the same as if any one were to say that the
English was formed by the mixture of the Anglo-Saxon
and the Celtic : for in both cases the true origin of each.
256 APPENDIX.
language would be omitted, and a false origin would be
asserted. The Latin language of France was trans-
formed into the Romance by the operation of the Teu-
tonic, as the Anglo-Saxon language of Britain was
transformed into English by the operation of the Norman
French : nor had the Celtic, the native language both of
Gaul and Britain, exercised any influence on either lan-
guage before the invasion of Gaul and Britain by the
Teutons and the JSTormans. There is not (as far as I am
aware) any instance of a Celtic having been amalgamated
with either a Teutonic, a Latin, or a Romance language:
a remarkable circumstance, when the diffusion of the
Celts over the whole of western Europe is considered.
As to Mr. Meidinger's account of the Spanish, it is
not easy to understand why he should have mentioned
the influence of the Gothic invaders on the Romana rus-
tica of Spain, while he makes no mention of any in-
fluence exercised by the Teutonic invaders of France
on the Romana rustica of that country. Moreover the
influence of the Arabic on the Romance of Spain was
by no means equal to that of the Gothic, and ought not
to be placed on the same level with it.
I have selected the above passage in Mr. Meidinger's
introduction to his Teuto- Gothic Dictionary, as it occurs
in a book of reference, compiled with great industry, and
considerable ability, which may be supposed to express
the opinions on the origin of the Romance languages
generally current even among persons who have a more
than superficial acquaintance with the subject : and I
have examined it in order to justify myself for contri-
buting my mite to the destruction of accredited and re-
ceived errors, although they might seem to have been
APPENDIX.
257
already overthrown by former writers, such as ScUegel
and Diez, and in part by M. Raynouard himself.
[This theory is still maintained by Burguy, Gramm.
de la Langue d'Oil, vol. i. p. 7 — 10. He lays it down
that * les langues romanes sont un developpement or-
ganique du viel idiome latin vulgaire.' 1862. Diez
likewise attributes this origin to the Romance languages,
Eom. G-r. vol. i. p. 6.]
" Note (C.)
' Ansonian in Priscus Excerpt. Legat. p. 59, B, seems
to mean volgare as opposed to the Latin,' says Niebuhr,
Hist, of Romey vol. i. note 46. The passage of Priscus
IS as lollows : AuLTpt^ovTi 8c /j-ol koI TrcpiTrarovs vrotov/xcVa) Trpo
Tov Trepi/SoXov twv olicrjudTOiv, Trpo(T€\Owv Tt5, ov fSaplSapov €k
T^S ^Kv6LKrjs (arjOriv ctvat otoX'^s, * ^XkqviK^ do-Tra^erat /xe ^wvg
* X^^P^ ' Trpo(T€L7ribv, ooTC fi€ OavfLOL^eiv, OTt ye 8rj iXXrjvL^eL '^KvOrjs
avqp. ^iryKAvScs yap 6vt€<s irpos ry cr(f>€T€pa ^ap^apoi yXwaoTy
t,T]Kov(nv ri rrpf Ovwaxv rj ttjv TotOwv, rj kol tt)v AvcrovtW, o<rois
avrwv irpo<s ^Voifiaiovs €7rt/xi^ta* koI ov pa^Loy; tl<s o-^tov cAAryvt^et
rfj (fxovy, 7rXr]v uiv aTnjyayov al^fiCL^^iiyrwv oltto ttjs ©paKtas icat
'lAXvpiSos Trapaktov. p. 190, ed. Bonn. It does not appear
to me that this passage -affords any reason for supposing
that there was in the time of Priscus, any language
spoken by the Romans different from the classical Latin.
Priscus had accompanied Maximus on an embassy to
Attila, (448 a.d.) and being in the interior of Scythia
he was surprised by hearing a person address him in
Greek: *for, says he, besides their own language the
Scythians in general speak either that of the Huns, or
of the Goths, or sometimes that of the Ausonians, in
258 APPENDIX.
cases where they have had intercourse with the Romans;
but it rarely happens that any of them speak Greek,
except those who hav<e been brought captive from the
Thracian and Illyrian coast.' It appears to me quite
evident that Priscus here used Ausonians for Romans, in
order to avoid the repetition of the word Pw/xato?, and
that the two terms are precisely synonymous : his mean-
ing being that the Scythians, from their intercourse with
the Romans, occasionally learnt to use the Latin lan-
guage. Even if there had been a difference of dialects
in the spoken language of Italy, it is very unlikely that
Priscus, who was a Greek by education and habits, should
have noticed such a distinction.
Note (D.)
On the non-Latin part of the Romance La^iguages.
It has been stated in the text that the object of the
above essay is to elucidate the form and structure of the
Romance languages, without reference to the origin of j
the. words themselves, and therefore no mention was!
made of those foreign terms which were introduced into
these languages at, or soon after, the Teutonic conquest
of Western Europe. This is properly a question of
etymological research : nor could it be satisfactorily de-
termined without making a dictionary of all the Ro-
mance languages with their several dialects, in which
the corresponding words should be arranged together,
and their etymology explained.
It has, however, occurred to me that a few facts illus-
APPENDIX. 259
trative of the foreign or non-Latin part of the Romance
languages might be conveniently given in this place ;
and with that view I shall first subjoin some of the <ihief
derivatives of German words in the Italian, Spanish,
and French languages, merely as instances of the manner
in which foreign terms were adopted in those tongues,
and not as making any claims to completeness. Most of
them are selected from Menage's Origini Italianey and
the Glossary attached to Muratori's thirty-third Disser-
tation on the Italian Antiquities of the Middle Ages :
from the list of French and Italian words derived from
the ancient northern languages in Hickes' Thesaurus
Ling, Vet. Septent. vol. i. p. 91 — 100, and from the
index of French words at the end of Wachter's Gilos-
sarium G-ermanicum. Other remarks on the same sub-
ject will also be found in the treatise of G. J. Yossius,
De Vitiis Sermonis et Crlossematis Latino-harharis, printed
in his works, vol. ii. Amsterdam, 1695, folio. [The
following list has been compared with the vocabularies
of Diez and Burguy. The number of words might be
much augmented. 1862.]
Words in ItaKan, Spanish, and French derived from
the Teutonic :
Agraffe Fr. from 'kra'ppen, to hook, to grapple,
Alabarda It. halabarda Sp. halleharde Fr. from helm-
harte.
Albergo It. alhergue Sp. auberge Fr. from herherge.
Alesna Sp. alesne or alene Fr. lesina It. from alansa,
(Grimm, D. Crr. vol. ii. p. 346.) Lesina in ItaKan is
for alesina, l\ke pecchia for apecchia, above p. 137. [See
Burguy in alesne.']
s 2
260 APPENDIX.
Aldea Sp. is probably Gotbic, according to Grimm,
Deutsche HechtsaUerthiimer, p. 309. [Diez approves of
an Arabic origin.]
AUo It. and Sp. halte Fr. from halten.
Ambasciatore It. embaxador Sp. amhassadeur Fr. from
amhacht, ministerium or minister.
Amuser Fr. from musse. [Compare Diez in muso.']
Anca It. and Sp. handle Fr. from al^^e.
Andare It. a?i(?ar Sp. awc?ar and anar Prov. (Ray-
nouard, Gir, Comp. p. 300,) awer and oiler Fr. from awefm
or wanden^ tbe same as tbe Englisb to wend, of whicb tbe
preterite is stiU in use. (Wacbter in anden and wallen,
p. 1814.) Tbe initial w bas been preserved in tbe Ita-
lian galleria and tbe Fr. galerie, [Compare Diez in
andare^
Araldo It. heraldo Sp, heraud Fr. from heroM.
Aringa It. arenga Sp. hareng Fr. from hdring,
Aringo It. arenga Sp. harangue Fr. from ringen. [Diez
derives it from nw^, a ciVc/e.]
Arnese It. arneses Sp. harnois Fr. from harnisch: see
Grimm quoted above, p. 141.
^spo It. from hasp-el.
Astio It. ^as^io Sp. ^aiV Fr. from /ia55, hassen. See
Muratori in as^^o ; OreU, Altfranzosische Crrammatik,
p. 154.
Attaccare It. attacher Fr. from jfe^a/i Gotb. [See Diez
in ^acco.]
Avviso, avvisare It. a^;^50 Sp. avis, aviser Fr. from
weisen, [Diez, in viso, derives tbese words from visum,']
Azza It. haz Sp. hdche Fr. from hacke,
Bacino It. and Sp. lac, bachot, bassin (i.e. bacin) Fr.
from becken. See Adelung in v.
APPENDIX. 261
BaUo It. hand Fr. from hald. See Menage, Diet. Fr.
in baud. [Diez in haldo, Raynouard, Lex. Rom. vol. i.
p. 32.]
Bcdla It. hala Sp. halle Fr. are probably from the
German hall, though nearly the same word is in Latin,
{hullay see Philological Museum, vol. i. p. 411.) [See
Diez in halla.^
Ballare It. haylar Sp., to dance, are probably fr'om
ballen, in the sense of turning, like waken.
Baluardo It. haluarte Sp. boulevard Fr. from hollwerJc,
[See Diez in boulevard.']
Bambino It. The Greek had fid^tov; but bambo
(whence bamb-ino, above p. 132,) was probably derived
from a Teutonic form bah, (bube High German, Z/a^'e
English,) and the m was inserted before b, as in amb
Prov. from aJ, and other words mentioned above, p.
198. [Diez in bambo, derives the word from the Greek
j8a/x^aXo9, a stammerer, whence bambalio in Cicero.]
Banco It. and Sp. banc Fr. from bank.
Banda It. and Sp. bande Fr. from band. Also henda
and bendare It. from 5^?^c?e and binden.
Bandire It. bannir Fr. from bannen.
Bando It. and Sp. &«?^ Fr. from bann.
Bara It. &^ere Fr. from bdren.
Barone It. Jaro/i Sp. and Fr. from baro or varo. . [See
Diez in barone, Burguy in baron.'\
Barca It. barco Sp. barque Fr. from Z»ar^e.
J5a550 It. baxo Sp. Jas Fr. whence bastardo It. and Sp.
bdtard Fr. (above, p. 142,) from bas, below. See Wach-
ter, p. 126. [Diez in basso, Burguy in bas.]
Batello It. {batto in Giov. Villani) bateau Fr. from bat,
or 5(?^. Above, p. 139.
262 APPENDIX.
Beau-frere, heaupere, etc. Fr. The first word is pro-
bably a mistranslation. See Wacbter in Schonhruder.
Berger Fr. from hergen. See Muratori in jparco.
Biada It. hied Fr. from hlatt. [Diez in hiado, Burguy
in bled.~\
Bianco It. bianco Sp. hianc Fr. from blank.
Bicchiere It. picker Fr. from becher : compare Plko<5,
Biglietto It. billete Sp. billet Fr. from bille. See above,
p. 143.
Biondo It. blondo Sp. 5/owc? Fr. from blonde.
Birra It. 5iere Fr. from bier. [Diez in birra.~\
Bloquer Fr. from M«w Gotb. belocan A. Sax. ^o 5Ai<^.
Wacbter in luchen.
Bordello It. burdel Sp. bordel Fr. from Jor J. See above,
p. 138. [Diez in borda, Burguy in borde.']
Bor go It bur go Sp. bourg Fr. from burg.
Bosco It. io52'^ie Sp. bois Fr. from Z»t<5cA. [Diez in bosco."]
Botte It. from botte, butt [Diez in v.]
Bouc Fr. from &oc^. [Burguy in boch.^
Bout Fr. from but: abutan, or Wa/i, Ang. Sax.
Brando It. Jr«?^^ Fr. from brand.
Bravo It. and Sp. brave Fr. from Jrav. [See Diez in
hravo.'l
Breccia It brecha Sp. breche Fr. from brechen.
Brida It. Jr^We Fr. from brid, wbence brit-til old H.
German, blid-le Englisb. Tbe Ital. changed d into I
(see above, p. 76, note ^) and made briglia.
Bruno It. and Sp. brun Fr. from braun. [Burguy in
hrun^
Busto It. and Sp. buste Fr. from hrusty according to
Hickes. [Tbe derivation from hrmt is rejected by Diez
in busto.']
APPENDIX. 263
Butiro, hutero It. heurre Fr. from butter. The Sp. has
not this word.
Buttare It. hotar Sp. bouter, pousser Fr. from bossen, to
push. Wachter in bossen. [See Diez in bottare.']
Oanif Fr. from kneif, knife Eng. [Burguy in cnivet.']
Canto It. and Sp. from kant. Perhaps coin Fr. may
have the same origin. [Diez in canto. ^
Cacciare It. cazar Sp. chasser Fr. from hetzen, to hunt,
(i'.e. chetzen, according to the Frankish pronunciation.)
Wachter. [See Diez in cacciare.']
Cappa It. capa Sp. chape Fr. with their numerous de-
rivatives, from kappe. [See Diez in cappa.]
Carro It. and Sp. char Fr. from karr. See Wachter
in V. Above, p. 62, note ^.
Chiasso It. from gasse.
Choisir Fr. from chiusan or hiusan, old H. German,
(now kiesen.) See Schlegel, Observ. p. 110. [Diez in
choisir. ~\
Cloche Fr. from glocke. [Burguy in v.]
Coc Fr. from coc. See Wachter in kiichlein. [Burguy
in coc]
Baga It. and Sp. from degen. [Diez in v.]
Banzare It. danzar Sp. danser Fr. from tanzen.
Bardo It. and Sp. c?«rc? Fr. from (Zar^/.
Bogue Fr. from ^ocZ:e Germ, dog Eng.
Bouve Fr. from daube, whence adouver or adouber and
radouber, (Wachter,) addobbare It. [See Diez in 6/o^a,
who derives the word from 8ox>i, Burguy in dove.]
Brudo It. drut Pr. 6?rz* Fr. from draut or 6?rw^; see v.
Hagen, Glossary to the Nibel. Lied in trut, Wachter in
draut. [Diez in drudo, Burguy in drut.]
Elmo It. helmo Sp. heaume Fr. from ^e?m.
264 APPENDIX.
Msa It. from halten,
Fallare It. foliar Sp. faillir Fr. from felilen. Fello,
fellmie It. follon Sp. felon Fr. also come from the same
root.
Falda It. and Sp. from falte, fold Eng. [Faldistorio
It. and Sp. fauteuil Fr. from faltstuhl.']
Feltro It fieltro Si^.feutre Fr. from filz, felt.
Fiasco It. frasco Sp. flasqiie, fhcon Fr. from /asZ;.
[See Diez in^asco.]
jPmo It. and Sp. /?i Fr. from fein.
Fodero It. forro Sp. fourrier Fr. from fiihren.
Folia It. /o^«/e Fr. from /w7/e.
JPo?/e It./o/ Fr. from faul, fool Eng. [Diez in/o/Ze.]
Foresta It. foresta Sp. /ore^ (forest^ Fr. from /ors^.
[See Diez in foresta, Burguy in /ores^.]
Franco It. and Sp. /r«7^c Fr. from frank.
Fresco It. and Sp. frais Fr. from frisch. Above,
p. 131.
Freccia It. flecha Sp. ^ec^e Fr. from fitsch or ^^Vz.
[See Diez in freccia.^
Frisson and affreux Fr. from, freis-lich.
Cramuza Sp. camozza It. chamois Fr. from gemse.
G-arzone It. gargon Fr. See above, p. 133, note '^.
[Diez in garzone, Burguy in <7ar5.]
G-aspiller i. e. ge-spillen, to spill. See Wachter in ver-
spillen. Spillan Ang. Sax.
6rer&e Fr. from garhe.
Grhirlanda It. guirnalda Sp. guirlande Fr. probably from
gairdan Goth, (gurten H. Germ. <7?'rc? Eng.) On the
change of t^ into a liquid, see above, p. 76, note ^. So
'08vo-o-€V5 and Ulysses. [Diez in ghirlanda.'\
G-iallo It. jaulne Fr. from ^e/i.
APPENDIX. 265
Criardino It. jardin Sp. and Fr. from garten. See
above, p. 132.
Girfalco It. girifalte Sp. gerfaut Fr. from geier. [The
word/a/co is Latin. The first syllable of girfalco is de-
rived by Diez in v. from gyrare.'\
Glaive Fr. from glef, hasta. Wachter. [See Diez
and Burguy in v.]
Gramo It. gram old Fr. from gram.
Gridare It. gritar Sp. crier Fr. from gridan Goth.
G-rifo It. griffe Fr. from greifen. [Diez in griffe.']
Grosso It. grueso Sp. ^ros Fr. from ^ro55.
Guadagnare It. ^fl7i«r Sp. gagner Fr. from winnen.
[Diez in guadagnare, Burguy in gaagnier.']
Guajo It. from «<;eA.
Guancia It. from ivange.
Guunto It. gimnte Sp. ^aw^ Fr. from ivante. [Diez in
Guardare It. giiurdar Sp. garder Fr. from wahren.
Giiar entire It. garantir Fr. from weren. See Grimm,
Deutsche Mechtsalterthumer, p. 603. Guarire It. and
guerir Fr. appear to have the same origin.
Guarnire, guarnigione It. guarnacer, giiarnicion Sp.
garnir, garnisan Fr. from tvarnen, munire : * postea sensus
ab apparatu militari ad quemcumque apparatum translatus
est.' Wachter. [See Diez in giiarnire.~\
Giiatare It. ^z«e^, <7?fe^er Fr. from wachen, wacht.
Gicerra It. and Sp. guerre Fr. fr'om werra. Grimm,
i).i2. p. 603. Schlegel, Ohserv. sur la Langue Prov.,
p. 97. [Diez in guerra^ Burguy in ^werre.]
Guiderdone It. guerdon Fr. from widerthun.
Guisa It. and Sp. ^/wise Fr. from z^eise.
From the foregoing examples it ^oU be perceived that
266 APPENDIX.
the Romance form of the Teutonic w is gu, and some-
times g in French.
Harpe Fr. arpa It. and Sp. from harpfe, harp. [See
Diez in arpa, Burguy in harpeJ]
Havre Fr. from haferij formed (as Hickes remarks)
like Londres from London, See above, p. 81, note ^
Indarno It. Grimm, D. Gramm. vol. iii. p. 107, note,
and p. 163, explains this word from the Sclavonic darom,
darmo, darno, gratis from dar.
Landa It. landes Fr. from land,
Lanzichenecco It. lansquenet Fr. from lanzlmecM.
Lasciare It. dexar Sp. (above, p. 76, note ^,) laisser Fr.
from lassen.
Leccare It. lecher Fr. from lecken, [Diez in /eccar^.]
Lindo It. and Sp. from ge-Unde, lindern, [Diez in
Zzwt?6> derives the word from limpidus.'\
Lotto It. lot Fr. from loos : Jdauts Goth.
Marca It. and Sp. marche Fr. from marke.
Masto It. mastil Sp. -ma^ Fr. from w«5if.
Matar Sp. ammazzare It. massacrer Fr. from metzen,
whence mdgon Fr. Wachter. [Diez in v. derives mazza
It. from the Latin matea, of which a lengthened form
mateola is used by Cato.
il[fa^^o It. from wa^^, ma6? Eng.
Meurtre Fr. from maurthr Goth. See Schlegel, OJ-
5erv. p. 99. [Diez in meurtre.~\
Mignon, mignard Fr. either from minne love, or min
small. [Diez in mignon.']
Milza It. me/sa Sp. from miltz. [Diez in milza.']
Mischiare It. mezclar Sp. mesler (nielerj Fr. from
mischen. [Diez in mischiare derives the word from
APPENDIX. 267
Mouton Fr. "Wacliter derives tliis word from mutzeriy
truncare: but montone It. creates a difficulty, wMcli
signifies a ram. See Muratori in v. [Diez in montone
and Burguy in molton trace the word to the Latin
mutilus. Compare Ducange in multo. Blanc, Voc,
Dant. in montone derives it from montare,~\
Mutiner Fr. ammunitarsi It. from motjan Goth, to meet.
See Muratori in ammutinarsi. [Diez in meute and
Burguy in movoir derive meute from movere, and suppose
mutin to be formed from meute.']
Nordy Slid, est, ouest Fr. from the German. The
German names for the points of the compass appear to
have been introduced into the Spanish from the French,
which has also been the case more recently with the
Italian.
Palco It. and Sp. from hoick. [Diez in halco,~\
JPancia It. panza Sp. j)anse Fr. from hansen, paunch
Eng. [Diez in pancia derives these words from the Latin
pantex.~\
Panziera It. horn, panzer.
Partigiana It. partesana Sp. pertuisane Fr. has probably
a Teutonic origin. See Muratori in partigiana^ [Com-
pare Diez in partigiana.]
Perla It. and Sp. perle Fr. from perle, [a word of ob-
scure origin, see Diez in perla.]
Pezzo, pezza, It. pieza Sp. piece Fr. from/e^z (i. e. pfetz.)
See Wachter in v.
Piazza It. plaza Sp. place Fr. from platz. [Diez in
piazza derives the word from the Ijoim platea.]
Piccare It. picar Sp. piquer Fr. from picken.
Piffero It. pifaro Sp. fifre Fr. from pfeiffer.
Poltrone It. poltron Sp. and Fr. poUrire It. from
268 APPENDIX.
polster. See Muratori in poltrone and Wacliter in polster,
[Diez in poltro.']
JPrigio7ie It. jprision Sp. prison Fr. from prisund Goth.
[Diez in prigione derives the word from prehensio or
prensio.~\
Randa It. from rand.
Raspare It. raspar^ Sp. raper Fr. from r aspen.
Ratio It. ra^OTi, Sp. ra^, raifo?^ Fr. from ratte. [Diez in ratio
remarks that this animal was unknown to the Romans.]
Recare It. from reichen.
Ricco It. rico Sp. riche Fr. from reich,
Riga It. m2/<x Sp. homreihe.
Rima It. and Sp. from reim,
Rocca It. rueca Sp. ro^j^e Fr. co/^/s, from roche.
Ronz-ino It. roc^7^ Sp. rouss-in Fr. from ro55. See
above, p. 132.
Rostir Fr. arrostire It. (Muratori in v.) from rost.
[Diez in rostir eJ]
Ruhare It. ruhar, Sp. ro2>er, deroher, Fr. from rauhen.
[Compare Diez in ro&a.]
Sciahla, It. sa^re Fr. from saJeZ. [Compare Diez in
sciahla.']
Sala It. and Sp. salle Fr. from sal.
Scalco It. from schalch ; whence mariscalco and
siniscalco.
ScJiermOy schermire It. esgrimir Sp. escrimer Fr. from
schirm, schirmen.
Scherzo It. from scherz.
Schiatta It. from schlacht (now ge-schlecht.)
Schiera It. eschiere old Fr. from schaar, [Burguy in
c5cAe/e.]
Schietto It. from schlecht.
APPENDIX. 269
Scliifo It. esquife Sp. esquif Fr. from schiff. See above,
p. 107.
Schinca It. from schenh-el, shin Eng.
ScMvare It. esquivar Sp. esquiver Fr. from scheuen.
Schiuma It. ecume Fr. from schaum.
Schizzo It. esquisse Fr. a drawing hastily thrown down,
from schiessen. See Tooke, i>iV. 0/ Purley, vol. ii.
p. 144. [Diez in schizzo derives the word from the
Latin schedium.~\
Scotto It. esco^e Sp. eco^ Fr. from schooss.
Senno It. from sinn, Bi-sogno It. and som and be-soin
Fr. are derived from the ancient Teutonic word which is
written sonnis and sunnis in the Salic law. See Muratori
in hisogno,
Smacco It. from schmach.
Smaltire It. from schmelzen, [The derivation from
maltha seems preferable. See Diez in smalto.']
Snello It. from schnell.
Spanna It. from spann, [Diez in spannaJ]
Sparviere It. epervier Fr. from sperher.
Sperone It. espuela Sp. eperon Fr. from sporn.
Spiare It. espiar Sp. epi'er Fr. from spoken.
Spruzzareli.hom spriitzen. [See Diez in sprazzare, p.438.]
Stampare It. estamjmr Sp. etampe Fr. from stampfen.
Steccaire It. estacar Sp. from sfechen.
Stela It. from 5^{e/.
Stivale It. from stiefel.
Stocco It. estoque Sp. from s^ocA;. [Diez in s^cco.]
Stormo It. from s^wrm.
iS'^ra/e It. from s^ra^/.
/S'^i^cco It. estuque Sp. from s^mc^*, * because it is made of
pieces of marble.' Menage in v. [Diez in s^^^co.]
270 APPENDIX.
Stufa It. estufa Sp. etuve Fr. from stube,
Tasca It. from tasche. [Diez in v.]
Toccare It. tocar Sp. toucher Fr. from ^eZ;a?i Goth, to
take. [Diez in toccare.']
Tomare It. tomber Fr. from diimen, daumeln Germ.
tumh-le Engl. [See Diez in tomholare.']
Tonel Sp. tonneau Fr. from ^owwe. [Diez in ^owa.]
2^or ^61 It. turha Sp. ^oz^r^e Fr. from torf^ turf Eng.
Tregua It. and Sp. ^rez;e Fr. (to which may be added
intrigue Fr.) from treuga, equivalent to treue.
Trincare It. trinquer Fr. from trinhen.
Tuer Fr. from todten. Wachter. [Diez and Burguy
derive this word from the Latin tutari.~\
Tuff are It. etouffer Fr. from taufen. [Diez in tufa
derives the word from the Greek rvt^oq^
TJosa It. heuse and houseaux Fr. from Tiosen. Menage
in V. [Compare Diez in uosa.]
JJrtare It. heurter Fr. from horten, to hurt.
JJshergo It. hauberc, haubergeon Fr. from halsberge.
Zanna It. from zahn. [Diez in zanna, p. 448, gives
the preference to the Latin sanna.]
Zuppa It. sopa Sp. souppe Fr. from 5M^^e, 5qp. [See
Diez in sopa.~\
With regard to the classes of words introduced from
the Teutonic into the Romance languages, "Wachsmuth
remarks that they are for the most part the names of
outward objects, as food and implements, or they relate
to customs and institutions, especially the use of arms
and the feudal system. {Athenceum, vol. i. p. 298.)
Many words relating to warlike subjects will have been
observed in the list of words just given : the introduction
APPENDIX.
271
of wHch, as well as of political terms, is quite con-
sistent with, the existence of a dominant military class of
foreigners^.
In many cases, however, it is not ohvious why a
Teutonic word should have heen naturalized : as in the
following instances, where the original Latin term has
heen retained by some of the Romance languages, and a
new German term been substituted by others.
Latin.
Ital.
Span.
French.
seramen
rame
cobre (Jcupfery
airain
attonitus
attonito
atonito
estonne {to stun)
cerevisium
birra {hier)
cerveza
bifere
pastor
pastore
pastor
berger'
saburra
savorra
lastre (from
last)
lest
sedes
sede
sede
siege (from sitz*)
socer
suocero
suegro
beaupfere*
spuma
spuma and
espuma
escume
schmma(from
schauni)
snber
suvero
corcho (from
kork)
liege
* The following Latin terms occurring in the Greek of the New
'Testament, furnish a curious parallel of the introduction of foreign
names for military and political subjects by a dominant nation :
Ko\u)via, Acts xvi. 12 ; o-7rt*covXdrwp, Mark vi. 27. ; KsvTovpicjv,
Mark xv. 39 ; Trpairwpwv, Matt, xx^ii. 27 ; Kovtrrujdia, Matt, xxvii.
65 ; fiiXiov, Matt. v. 41 ; dr]vdpiov, Luke vii. -Al ; drraapiov. Matt.
X. 29; Ko6pdvTT)Q, Matt. v. 26; KrjvaoQ, Matt. xvii. 25. [On the
introduction of military terms from the German into the Romance
languages, see Diez, Rom. Gramm. vol. i. p. 66.]
' Cuprum (for as Cyprium ) was a Latin word, Spartian, Carac. 9.
See Ducange in v.
3 See above, p. 262. The French has pasteur, but only in a meta-
phorical sense.
* That siege is not derived from sedes is proved by the gender.
* See above, p. 262.
272 APPENDIX.
It will be perceived that some of the words above
enumerated as derived from the Teutonic are among the
commonest and most familiar in the Romance languages,
as albergOj andare, bambino , basso, biancho, biccJiiere, birr a,
higlietto, borgo, bosco, bravo, etc. Ital. ; albergue, baxo,
bianco, billete, burgo, bosque, bravo, etc. Span. ; auberge,
airain, balle, bas, berger, blanc, biere, billet, hourg, bois,
brave, Fr. In this respect there is a remarkable difference
between the foreign words introduced by conquest into
the English and into the Romance languages. In Eng-
lish the more familiar, idiomatic, and simple the style,
the more exclusively Saxon it is, and the fewer are the
foreign or French terms : whereas in the Romance lan-
guages the converse is generally the case. In ItaHan,
for example, the more elevated the style, the more purely
Latin is its character : in Tasso many successive stanzas
often occur in which every word is of Latin origin ; but
if we take a composition in the familiar spoken language,
as a comedy or a satire, it will be found scarcely possible
to find a long passage entirely free from Teutonic de-
rivatives. Dante is a much more idiomatic writer than
Tasso, and uses a much less stilted style : but his lan-
guage abounds far more in words not of Latin origin.
Some words have passed into the Romance languages,
either mediately or immediately, from the Greek : as
spada It. espada Sp. espee Fr. from (nraO-q ; parola It.
palabra Sp. parole Fr. from irapajiohfj, (Schlegel, Observ.,
p. 109.) To these ^achsmuth adds frissonner Fr. from
<l)pL(Tcrio, lisse Fr. from XtWos, golfo It. from koXttos, gaio It.
from yaioj, (Athendum, vol. i. p. 299.) With regard to
frisson, the Teutonic derivation mentioned above, p. 264,
is more probable than a Greek one ; koAttos may have
I
APPENDIX. 273
been easily introduced by tbe intercourse witb the Greek
mariners of tbe Mediterranean: as to tbe otber two
words it seems unlikely, notwithstanding the agreement
of sound and meaning, that the etymology suggested
should be true.
[Diez derives liscio It. and Sp. and lisse Fr. from tbe
German leise (in Uscio) ; he derives gajo It. gai Fr. from
the German Jdhe (in gaJo). In his Romance G-rammar,
vol. i. p. 57 — 60, he gives a list of Greek words which
have passed into Romance languages : compare p. 92.
Many of these however made the transition through tbe
medium of tbe Latin. Thus zio It. tio Sp. came ulti-
mately from ^€105 ; but the word thius signified uncle in
Low Latin: see Ducange in v. Agonia It. and Sp.
agonie Fr. were derived from dywvta, and agognare It.
from dywviav; accidia It. was derived from aicqhCa; horsa
It. holsa Sp. bourse Fr. from pvpa-a; ermo It. from tp-qixo's;
emicrania It. migrano Sp. migraine Fr. from rjfjLLKpavta ;
salma It. and Sp. somme Fr. from a-dyfia; but agonia,
accidia, hyrsa, eremus, hemicrania, and sagma were also
used as Latin words : see Ducange G-loss. in agojiia, acedia,
bursa, eremus, hemigranea, sagma. In baleno It. from
pikcixvov; colla It. cola Sp. colle Fr. from KoAXa; fanale
It. from <^a»/os (Diez in falb); mustaccio It. from i-wara^;
paggio It. page Fr. from irai^Cov, pitocco It. from tttw^os,
and stuolo It. from oroXos, the passage from one language
to the other may have been direct. Several words con-
nected with navigation and trade passed directly from the
Greek into Romance languages, a circumstance naturally
growing out of the maritime communication between the
shores of the Mediterranean : see Diez, Etym, Wort, in
barca. Fanale and golfo are words of this class : noc-
T
274 APPENDIX.
chiere It. and nocher old Fr. (Burguy in neif) is derived
from vavKk-qpo^, Latinized by Plautus as nauclerus. Calare
It. as * calare le vele/ calar Sp. caler Fr. derived from
XaA.av, is a nautical plirase. Calare is used by Yitruvius.
Also cola It. and Span, cale Fr. a landing place. Some
names of weights, as salma from o-ay/xa, mine or em*Ve
Fr. hemina Low Lat. from i7fttVa (Burguy in miney Du-
cange (t?055. Lat. in hemina, G-loss. Gr, in 17/iAtVa) belong
to the same class. Carato, a carat, is derived by Blanc,
Vocabolario Dantesco in v. from KepdrLov, the fruit of the
carob-tree. In like manner, the Greek word tiva was of
Babylonian or Phoenician origin, Boec^, Metrologie, p. 34.
The word racaille Fr. which has been traced to paKos,
and tapino It. which has been derived from raTretvos, have
probably other origins, (see Diez in raca, p. 711, in tapivy
p. 731, also Burguy in tapir.) Bramare It. hramer Fr.
which Diez in his grammar derives from ppifxea/, and
entamer It., which he there derives from cvre/Avctv, are in
his Etymological Dictionary correctly explained by other
etymologies.
Numerous words passed from Latin, the language of
the conquerors, into Greek, the language of the con-
quered, in later times. See the Crlossaries of Low Greek
by Ducange and Meursius, and the curious treatise of
Wannowski, Antiquitates Romance a Grcecis Fontibus ex-
plicatce, Regim. Pruss. 1846.
An etymological vocabulary of French words, whose
origins are explained in the two glossaries of Ducange,
is appended to his Glossarium Medioe et Infimce Qrcecitatis,
vol. ii. p. 251—316.
A list of French words derived from the Greek is
given by Yoltaire, Dictionnaire PhilosopJiique^ art. GrecJ]
APPENDIX.
275
On tlie introduction of Arabic words into the languages
of the Spanish peninsula, my entire ignorance of Arabic
prevents me from offering any remarks of my own : I
am, however, enabled, through the kindness of Dr. Rosen,
to annex the following notes, communicated to me by
that able oriental scholar.
Arabic Words in Spanish and Portuguese.
The Arabic words in the Spanish and Portuguese
languages have already engaged the attention of several
scholars, chiefly natives of the peninsula. The works of
some of them I have had an opportunity of consulting
in the library of the British Museum ; and the extracts
which I have made from them, and which are now before
me, form the basis of the following remarks. ^^
In the Origines dela Lengua Espanola, compuestos por
varios autores, etc. edited by Don Gregorio Mayans i
Siscar, (Madrid, 1737, 2 vols. 12mo.) some observations
are made on the Arabic words in the Spanish language,
(vol. i. p. 235 — 264,) but apparently with too little know-
ledge of Arabic to be of much utility.
Of more value are the etymological remarks occasion-
ally given in the Diccionario Espanol Latino Arahigo, by
Francisco Canes, (Madrid, 1787, 8 vols, folio.) This
work is intended for a purely practical purpose as a
Spanish and modern Arabic dictionary ; and the author
seems to be familiar only with the Arabic now spoken in
Mauritania, etc. ; otherwise he might have given a far
greater number of Arabic synonymes, and would pro-
bably have assigned more satisfactory derivations for
many Spanish words from the ancient and literary Arabic.
T 2
276 APPENDIX.
In the Tesoro dela Lengim Oastellana Uspanoh, by
D. Sebastian de Cobarruuias, (Madrid, 1611, fol.) ety-
mologies from the Arabic are frequently reported on the
authority of others, but the author seems in many in-
stances to admit them with reluctance, as he endeavours
to account differently for the origin of the words thus
explained.
In Portuguese there exists a separate treatise on the
subject of our enquiry, Joao de Sousa, Vestigios de la
Lingua Ardbica em Portugal, (Lisbon, 1789, 4to.) In
his preface the author makes an assertion which I subjoin
in his own words, as it is much at variance with what
you seem to anticipate as to the quantum of Arabic in
European languages^ : *c tamhem jicdmos conservando tantas
palavras Arahicas, que dellas hem se pdde compor hum arra-
zoado lexicon, como jd notou Jose Scaligero Escript. 228 ad
Isaac Fontan. * Tot puree Arahicce voces in Hispan,
reperiuntur ut ex illis justum lexicon confici possit^ —
Sousa makes mention of several writers that preceded
him in his enquiry : Duarte Nunes de Leao, who in 1606
published a work, Origem da Lingua Portugueza, (re-
printed in 1781,) containing a list of two hundred and
seven Arabic words in the Portuguese language ; Manoel
de Faria e Sousa, author of the LIuropa Portugueza ; and
Dom Raphael Bluteau, who in 1712 edited a Diccionario
da Lingua Portugueza,
I hardly know whether the remark just extracted from
Sousa's preface is justified by the body of his work,
• The author had ventured to express to Dr. Rosen an opinion that
the number of Arabic words in Spanish and Portuguese is not con-
siderable.
APPENDIX. ', Q 27^^,
wMch consists of an alphabetic list of Portuguese ^qtM
explained from the Arabic, and filling one hundred ani/^
sixty pages of small quarto. Many of his etymologies A
are stated at great and unnecessary length. Some of the %,
words explained do not, I apprehend, owe their existence
in the Portuguese language to the Arabian dominion, but
to the subsequent intercourse of the Portuguese with the
East. With regard to other expressions, it would seem
that they have become obsolete, and can no longer be
considered as forming part of the living and popular
language of the Portuguese nation, as Sousa finds it
necessary to adduce passages from Portuguese authors in
which they occur.
Besides Sousa's work I know only of one other treatise
exclusively devoted to the subject of our present enquiry :
it is written in English, and bears the title Remains of
Arabic in the Spanish and Portuguese Languages, by
S. "Weston, (London, 1810, 8vo.) It contains two copious
lists of Spanish and Portuguese words derived from the
Arabic and other oriental languages, but it should be
used with great caution, as the Arabic words are not
always correctly reported, and many of the etymologies
given are evidently farfetched and fanciful: the word
Alhambra, for instance, the name of the celebrated castle
of Granada, is by Mr. Weston derived from hem hera,
which words he says signify * sans souci/ whereas, accord-
ing to the etymology commonly received, it is the regular
feminine form of the Arabic adjective ahmar, ^ red,' with
the article prefixed, al-hamrd, i.e. ^the red {castle)^ in
allusion to the colour of the materials of which it was
built. Again, the Spanish word Alqueria, also written
Akarria, * a farm,* is' by Mr. Weston traced back to the
278 APPENDIX.
Persian kJiargdh, * a pavilion or tent, a moveable Tur-
coman hut : ' but it seems much simpler to consider it as
identical with tbe Arabic haryah or haryat, ' a village/
with the article al prefixed to it.
Sousa premises a few general remarks on the change
which certain letters have undergone in the passing over
of Arabic words into the Portuguese. One of them, of
which the glossary affords the most ample confirmation,
is on the transition of the Arabic ^into ^in Portuguese.
The following are examples collected from the glossary.
Alfeloa (melasse en caramel) from halwah, sweetness,
any thing sweet.
Azafeme from the Arabic zahmah : * Aperto de gente
em lugar pequeno o estreito ; tambem se toma por pressa,
fervor, cuidado, diligencia, etc. Deriva-se do verbo za-
hama, apertar, coarctar, restringir.'
Almofalla, an encampment, from the Arabic mahallah,
a halting place or encampment of a caravan.
Me/ens, from the Arabic raheriy a pledge.
Amojinar, from the Arabic verb mahana, to afflict,
to vex.
There are also a few instances in which the Arabic kk
(or ch as pronounced by the Germans and the Scotch) is
thus changed into / in Portuguese : e. g.
Alfange, from the Arabic Jchanjar, a poniard.
Alface, from the Arabic khass, pot-herbs.
The same transition from JI and Kh into F may also
be observed in Spanish : e. g.
Alfageme (according to Cobarruuias, a barber) from
liajim^ a surgeon, a barber.
APPENDIX. 279
Alfomlra, the measles, from Jiomrah, redness, erysipelas.
Al/orja, from khurj, a portmanteau.
Alfayata, from khayydt, a tailor.
It is remarkable that Latin words have in Spanish
undergone the opposite change, substituting H for F, as
in Mjo, films : hacer, facere, etc. I am not aware of any
instance of a similar transition of an Arabic F into a
Spanish or Portuguese E^.
I subjoin a few more words from Sousa's list, but
slightly changing the spelling of the Arabic words, so as
to suit it to the English pronunciation of the consonants :
the vowels being always taken in their German or
Italian value.
Agougue, (in Spanish azoque,) Arabic suk, (with the
article, as-suk,) a market, a market-place.
Adail, Arabic dalil, (with the article, ad-daUI,) a guide.
Adarme, Arab, dirhem, {ad-dirhem,) a particular coin.
Adibo, Arab, dlb or zib, (ad-dib, az-zib,) a wolf.
Albafor, Arab. bakMr, (al-backkur,) incense.
Almofariz, Arab, mihrds, (al-mihrds,) a grinding- stone.
Azeite, Arab, zait, (az-zait,) an olive.
The great proportion of words that begin with A in
Sousa's and Weston's lists is striking. The Arabic
article, as usually pronounced, begins with that vowel,
and it would appear that words restricted in their mean-
ing to one special and definite object by the prefixed
article, and thus losing, as it were, according to the
conception of hearers unacquainted with Arabic gram-
mar, their general or appellative nature, and becoming a
280 APPENDIX.
sort of proper name of the things designated by them,
found a way most easily into the vocabulary of a fo-
reign language. — The L of the Arabic article is always
assimilated to the initial consonant of the word to which
it is prefixed, if that consonant is either a sibilant or a
dental letter, or B^ or N. Sousa draws attention to this
euphonic rule, as it explains a number of words in his
glossary.
The remark as to the preponderance of words begin-
ning with A and Al applies equally to the Arabic terms
found in Spanish. I submit a few Spanish words with
their explanations from the Arabic.
Algehra, algehrista, from the Arab, verb jahara, to
restore any thing broken.
Acemita, from the Arab, samid, (as-samid,) white bread.
Agofar, (according to Cobarruuias, ces fusile,) from the
Arabic sofr, (as-sofr,) copper.
Alharda, Arab, barda^ah, (al-barda'ah,) a saddle.
Albeytar, Arab, baitdr, (al-baitdr,) a farrier, a horse-
leech.
Alboque, Arab, buk, {al-buk^) a trumpet, a clarion, a
pipe.
Alcala, Arab. haVah, {al-haVah,) a castle, a fort.
Alcantara^ Arab, kantarah, (al-kantarah,) a bridge.
Albufera and albuhera, probably the Arabic bohairah,
(al-bohairah,) a small lake.
Almaizar, Arab, mizar^ (al-mizar,) a girdle.
Alberca, Arab, birkah, (al-birkah,) a tank, a pond, a
reservoir.
Alcohol, Arab, kohl, (al-kohl,) antimony used as a
oollyrium to paint the eyelids ; hence alcoholado, said of
APPENDIX. 281
animals that have around the eyelids a darker colour
than over the remaining part of their body.
Alhamel^ Arab, (hdmil, al-hdmil,) a carrier.
Alcayde^ Arab, hddi, (al-kadi,) a judge, a magistrate.
Alcrehite, Arab. Jcihrit, (al-Jcibit,) sulphur.
Arraez, Arab, rats (ar-raJis,) a master or lord.
Atalaya, (an observatory, a barbican,) Arab, ittild,
(from the verb taMa,) the ascending to a high place for
the purpose of taking a survey.
Bellota, Arab, ballut, oak, acorn.
Oajila, Arab, kdjilah, a caravan.
Cid, Arab, sayyed, (commonly pronounced sid,) master,
lord.
Fulano, Arab, fuldn, such an one, un tel.
Gruada, Arab, wddi, a river: in many proper names,
e. g. Gruadalquivir, i. e. Wddi-al-haUr^ ^ the Great Eiver.'
Horro^ Arab, hurr, free.
JarrOy Arab, jarrah^ a water-pot.
Naranja, Arab, ndranj, an orange.
Taga, tasi, Arab, ids, a cup.
Tahona, Arab, tahhdnat, a mill turned by either camels
or asses.
Matraca, (a rattle,) Arab, mitrakat, a smith's hammer,
a wooden rod for beating cotton or wool.
Mascara, (a cover to disguise the face,) Arab, mask-
karat, a buffoon, a jester ; sport, pleasantry.
Xeque, Arab, sheikh, an old man, a chief.
Xarate, Arab, shardb, any beverage.
JRambla, Arab, raw?, sand, a tract of sandy country.
F. Rosen.
[For examples of Romance words derived from the
282 APPENDIX.
Arabic or from some other oriental tongue, compa,re
Diez, Etymological Dictionary, in alcohol, alcova, almi-
rante, arsenale, assassino, baracane, haracca, harhacane,
caracca, catrame, carmesino, feluca, fondaco, gesmino, mag-
azzino, mugavero, ricamare, ataballo, tamburo, zecca, (p. 448.)
On Arabic words in Spanish, see Diez, Mom. Giramm.
vol. i. p. 97.
For some Arabic words ' in the Sicilian dialect, see
Abela, Malta Mustrata, vol. i. p. 682, Ed. 1772.
For an etymological vocabulary of French words
derived from oriental languages, see Pihan, Glossaire des
Mots Frangais tires de VArabe, du Persan, et du Turc^
1 vol. 8vo. Paris, 1847.]
Note (E.)
The following extract from the Evidence of Dr. Chal-
mers, before the Committee of the House of Commons
on the State of the Poor in Ireland, also throws light
on the gradual extinction of the Gaelic language in
Scotland.
* Does the use of Gaelic at the present day operate
to impart instruction better among the Highlanders ? —
It has given them an additional taste and demand for
knowledge in general ; so that in virtue of that change
they are more acquainted with English books and Eng-
lish literature than they were.
'Are you not of opinion that the operations of the
Gaelic Society have turned rapidly, though indirectly,
to the extinction of the Gaelic language ? — I am not
aware that they have had that effect.
APPENDIX. 283
' Have not thej operated considerably to give an in-
creased knowledge of the EngKsh language ? — They have,
certainly.
'Do you consider it probable that the English and
Gaelic language will continue to go on pari passu for any
considerable time in the country ? — The retrogression on
the part of the Gaelic language is very slow : the line of
demarcation between the GaeHc and the English being
still, I believe, very much what is was fifty years ago.
We can ascertain that from a circumstance that is
noticeable enough ; in the Gaelic parishes, the minister
is bound to preach in Gaelic once every Sunday. There
has certainly been a slow progress in a northern direction
towards preaching exclusively in English, but the pro-
gress is exceedingly slow. In a large period of time,
however, the tendency is to the subsiding, and at length
to the ultimate disappearance of the Gaelic language.
* Do you not think that the course which has been taken
in the management of Highland property has tended
materially to diminish the number of those that speak
the GaeHc language ? — I should think so.
'Has it ever occurred to you that the extension of
paper currency has had the efiect of extending the
knowledge of the English language? — I am not aware
of it:— Qu. 3361, 3665—9.
INDEX.
Accusative used for the nominative case in the Latin of the
middle ages, 59 ; tendency to substitute it for the nominative,
88, 152 note ',
Adjectives, Provencal, their declension, 79, 80.
Adverbs, Romance, in mente, 209, 210.
from aliorsum, 212
from medium, 216
aliguotieSf ib.
quando, ib.
hodie, heri, ib.
quare, ib.
jam, 213
retro, ib.
ibi, ib.
satis, ib.
inde, 214
semper, 218
■ insimtd, ib.
subinde, ib.
intus, deintuSy 215
tunc, ib.
jusum, susum^ ib.
vhl, 219
unde, ib.
mane, 216
Adverbs, Romance, modem, not derived from Latin adverbs
amon, aval, 219
adeSf adesse, des, 220
entom, environ, ib.
lev, 221
m^lgrat, ib.
mantenen, ib.
Aora, 222
j7ron, ib.
tost, ib. 223
^rop, ib.
veil, ib.
Aimoin, De Gestis Francorum, 175 note '.
Alboacem, charter of, its genuineness examined, 106 note '.
286 INDEX.
Analytic forms of grammar, 25.
Arabic words in Spanish and Portuguese, 126, 156, 275.
Articles, their origin, 54 ; Romance definite article, 56.
At, its changes in French, 135, note \
Auxiliary verbs, in Proven9al, 167 ; in the other Romance
languages, 169. •
B, inserted between m and a consonant, 71 note *.
C, its changes in the Romance languages, 109.
Cases, their confusion in Latin after the German invasion, 57.
Celtic languages, their extinction in Western Europe, 20,
note 1, 45 ; were not mixed with other languages, 256.
Comparison, degrees of, in Proven9al, 147 ; in the other
Romance languages, 148.
Conditional tense in the Romance languages, 176.
Conjunctions, Romance, from Latin :
aut, 224 et, ib. nee, 227.
Dante, his usage of proper names, 103 ; Proven9al passage
of, cited, 114, note ^; his use of sipa, 234.
Dialetto, 16 note K
Diez, 26.
Diminutives, 132.
Drusi, 99.
E^ before s, followed by a consonant, 107.
French, its ancient form 31 ; its nominative and accusative,
80 ; its genders, 114 ; its degrees of comparison, 148 ; its
pronouns, 153 ; its numerals, 163 ; its auxiliary verbs, 169 ; its
regular verbs, 177; its prepositions, 197; its adverbs, 214; its
conjunctions and particles, 224 ; it has departed further from
the Latin than the other Romance languages, 247.
Future tense in the Romance languages, 173.
Genders, how far changed in the Romance languages, 113.
German, its influence on the Latin, 21, 54, 57, 90, 97, 113,
142, 146, 166, 179, 190, 194, 220, 223, 224, 232, 235.
■ words in the Romance languages, 258.
INDEX. 287
Gibbon, 24 note 1, 106 note \ y^
Greek, its relation to the Romance languages, 148. ^
Grimm, (Jacob,) 112 note ', 114 note =*, 133 note ^ 143 note ',
225 note ^
Imperfect tense in French, 177.
Infinitive mood, in the Romance languages, 179.
Italian, theory as to its origin from a plebeian dialect of
the Latin examined, 10—18, 225,257; its dialects, 44, 251;
divided into those with and without vowel terminations, 95;
its genders, 113, 114; its degrees of comparison, 148 ; its pro-
nouns, 152; its numerals, 163 ; its auxiliary verbs, 169; its
regular verbs, 171; its prepositions, 197; its adverbs, 209;
its conjunctions and particles, 224 ; its close adherence to the
Latin, 246.
Landor, (W. S.) on cattivo, 141 note ^
Language of the Troubadours, difficulty in finding an un-
objectionable name for it, 51.
Langue d'oc, it dialects, 42.
d'oil, its dialects, ib.
Lanzi, 11.
Lassen, 10 note ».
Latin, its relation to the Greek, 9; its extension over
Western Europe, 18 ; changes undergone by it in consequence
of the Teutonic invasion, 24 ; its close agreement with the
Italian, 246 ; had not a patois or a dialect spoken by the
lower classes, 11, 257.
Lingua Franca, 22 note S 254.
Romana rustica, 30, 253.
vulgaris, 30, 257.
M, elision of final, in Latin, 66.
Maff'ei, 11.
Meidinger, 107 note *, 253.
Muratori, 11, 59 note \ 60 note ', 214 note \
Negation, means of strengthening, 237.
Negro corruption of the English, 22 note *, 91 note •.
288
INDEX.
Niebuhr, 136 note ', 257.
Notaries, Latin of the, 60 note '.
Nouns, Eomance, their formation from the Latin, 61 ;
whether from the accusative or the ablative, 68 ; formed from
Latin neuter nouns, 73.
Italian and Spanish, formed from the Latin accusa-
'''^ tive, 75; Provencal and French formed from the Latin
nominative, 76.
Numerals, Eomance, 162.
0, in Italian, its origin, 67 note '.
Oz, in French, its origin, 106 note K
P, Latin, changed into b and v in Eomance languages, 109.
Particles, negative and affirmative, in Eomance languages :
gaire, guari^ guere, 224
persona, 229
mica, 226
punctum, 230
norij 227
res, 231
passus, 229
sic, 233
Participles, Provencal, their declension, 79, 80 ; their form-
ation in Provencal, 183; in the other Eomance languages,
185.
Patois, 16 note ^
Perticari, 6, 11, 47, 125 note^ 129 note i, 231 note \ 243
note ^ 251.
Prepositions, Eomance derivatives of Latin :
db, a, 197
ad, 199
ante, ib.
apud, 200
ctrca, ib.
contra, 201
cum, ib.
de, 202
extra, ib.
tn, ib.
infra, ib.
inter or intrOj 203
juxta, 204
per, 204
post, ib.
prope, 205
secundum, 206
sine, ib.
subtus, 208
super, 207
supra, ib.
trans, 208
versus, ib.
ultra, ib.
usque, 209
INDEX. 289
Present tense in French, 177.
Preterite tense in French, 178.
Priscus, 257.
Pronouns, possessive, in ProvenQal, 78 ; French, 82.
personal, in Provencal, 150 ; in the other Komance
languages, 151.
demonstrative, in Prov., 155; in the other Komance
languages, 156.
indefinite, 158.
relative, in Prov., 157 ; in the other Homance
languages, 158.
Proper names, declension of in French, 81.
Provencal, 53 ; its genders, 114; its degrees of comparison,
147 ; its pronouns, 150 ; its numerals, 162; its auxiliary verbs,
166 ; its regular verbs, 169 ; Its prepositions, 197 ; its adverbs,
209; its conjunctions and particles, 224; its relation to the
other Eomance languages, 247.
Eegular verbs, in Provengal, 169; in the other Eomance
languages, 171.
Eomance languages, M. Raynouard's theory as to their
origin, 4 ; generally adopted by subsequent writers, 6 ; proper
meaning of the word, 52.
Eomans, 29.
Sardinia, its dialects, 43 note *.
Schlegel, (A. W. von,) 7, 27, 225.
(Se, used with an active verb in a passive sense, 179.
Southey, 106 note =.
Spanish, its dialects, 43 ; its genders, 113 ; its degrees of
comparison, 148; its pronouns, 152; its numerals, 163; its
auxiliary verbs, 169 ; its regular verbs, 171 ; its prepositions,
197; its adverbs, 209; its particles and conjunctions, 224;
its relation to the Latin, 247.
Synthetic forms of Grammar, 25.
Terminations, Latin, and the corresponding Romance
forms, 121.
v/
^6
INDEX.
in ago, 121
— antia, entia, 122
— arius, aris, 123
— aster, 126
— atium, 127
— ia, itia, 129
-— inus, 1 32
— ista, ib.
in 0, onw, 132
— or, 134
— tos, #ws, 135
— uluSj ellus, illuSj 136
— ura, 140
— ensis, ib.
2VW5, 141
— osus, ib.
Terminations, Komance, not derived from the Latin :
ard, 142
etto, ito, ete, et ; otto, ote, ot, 143
asco, esco, isco, esc, esque, ib.
U, Latin, its modifications in Komance languages, 67,
note ».
U, final, in Italian, 67.
Verbs, their syntax in the Romance languages, 191.
Vowels, final, in Italian, 91, 94, 102, 172.
THE END.
ADDENDA.
Page 69.
Latin.
Italian.
cicer
cece
Page 73.
Latin.
Italian.
phantasma
fantasima
schisma
scisma
Spanish.
cisma
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