lljfiTED 5t\TE cSYbK'EY, ^^4^ ^m NEW SOUTH WALES: HER COMMERCE AND RESOURCES, BY United Slates Consul at Sydney. ArUIOR OF "MY DANISH DAYS," "STUDIES IN LITERATCRE,"' " MEMOIU OF C. S. TODD, "NEW ZEALAND, HER COMMERCE AND RESOURCES," ETC. SYDNEY : CHARLES POTTER, GOVERNMENT PRINTER. l-2a»-8S PRE FAC E. The following pages consist of a series of papers prepared for the Department of State since my, appointment as Consul at Sydney, and printed among the United States Consular Reports. The papers are now republished, under direction of the Honorable J. F. Burns, Colonial Treasurer, to whom I am indebted for facilities for making such alterations and additions as were necessary to bring the information up to the latest date. I desire to tender m}' thanks to the Premier, Sir Henry Parkes, G.C.M.G., and to ■Members of his and of pre- -^ ■ ceding Administrations, for the uniform courtesy I have .AT received when a]:)plying for information during my resi- ' J denco in the Colonv. ^ To the Under Secretaries of Departments, and to ^ Merchants and others, who have aided me in my re- v^' searches I am placed under obligation ; while without V| the readv and valuable assistance accorded me at all times by the Government Statist, the Collector of Cus- ^ toms, and the Curator of the Technological Museum, it would have been difficult for me to comply with require- 'N(^ ments of my Government. v^ The rapid and satisfactory manner in which the papers ^ have been published at the Government Printing Office, Sydney, deserves the highest commendation. G. W. GRIFFIN. United States Consulate, Sydney, March, 1888. 430416 i3>rnDE2c: I.\i.mk;ration Irrigation Forests Coat KliROSEXF. DIA^toxI)S GOTD... Silver Copper Tix ... Agricl'ltur ^^'ooL Sugar Tor.Acco Friit V,'IXE... Beer... Dairy Far a Leather Hardavare CrsTO.Ms 'I'a Fish ... Pearl Shel PAGE 3 Zl 5^ 73 8+ 100 1 10 12 + 170 190 200 208 2 JO 22S 242 261 270 284 2^ote. — Tlirouglioiit these papers, British money is computed at the values as laid down by the United States Treasury Eegulations. Table for the Eeduction of Sterling Money of Great Britain to United States Gold Coin, under Act approved 3rd March, 1S73, fixing the A'alue of the Pound SterliiiE^ at 84" 8665. 1 2 3 4 3 6 7 8 9 1 -. 4 -8065 53-5315 56-398 03-2045 68-131 72-9975 77-864 82-7305 87-597 92-4035 2 9-733 102 1965 1 7 063 111-9-295 116-796 121-6625 1-26-529 131-3955 136-26-2 1411285 3 14-5995 150-8315 155-728 100-5945 105-461 170-3275 175194 180-0605 1S4-927 189-7935 4 19-466 199-5265 204-333 209-2595 214-126 218-99-25 223-859 228-7255 233-592 238-4585 5 24-3325 24S-1915 253 058 257-9-245 262-791 267-6575 272-524 277 3905 282-257 287 1235 6 29199 296-8565 301-723 30G-5895 311-456 316-3225 3-21-189 326-0555 330-922 335-7885 7 34-0655 345-5215 350-388 355 2545 360-121 364-9875 369-854 374-7205 379587 354-4535 8 38-932 394-1865 399053 403-9195 408-786 413-65-25 418-519 423-3855 4-28-252 433-11S5 9 4-3-7085 442-S^.15 447-71S 452-5845 457-451 462 3175 467184 472-0505 476-917 481 7835 Note. — To liuJ the value of anj- uiimber of pouuds represented by one figure, find the figure in the left-hand margin of the table, and its value will appear in the column adjoining opposite that figure. To find the value when expressed by two figures, look for the ff«s in the left-hand column, and for the xintt-i in the top margin, and the value will be shown in the place where the two columns meet : thus, the value of £57 is .?277'3905. To find the value of £576, look for 57 as be- fore, and move the decimal point one place to the right, and it shows •?2, 773 "905 ; then add £6 as already shown, S29"190, and it gives the sum of •S2,803"i04. One shilling equals 2-}i§g cents. One penny equals 2^^*^ cents. - ,0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 ' 12 13 ' 14 ' 15 16 17 18 ' 19 •24 •48 •73 •97 1-21 146 170 1-94 219 243 2-67 2^92 316 a-40 3-65 3-89 413 4-38 4C2 1 •02 •26 •50 •75 •99 123 148 172 1^96 221 2^45 2-69 2^94 3^18 3-42 3-67 3-91 415 4^40 4-C4 3 •04 •28 •52 '77 101 125 150 174 1^98 2-23 2-47 2-n 2-96 3-20 :;-44 3-69 3-93 4^17 ' 4^42 1 4^65 3 •06 •30 •54 •79 j 1^03 127 1^5^2 1-76 2-00 2-25 2-49 2-73 2-98 3-22 3-46 3-71 3-95 4 19 4^44 \ 4-CS 4 •OS •32 •56 ■81 ' 105 1-29 1-54 178 2^02 2-2^ 2^51 275 S^OO 324 348 3-73 3^97 4-21 4-46 4-70 5 •10 •34 •58 •83 1-07 1^31 156 ISO 2-04 2-29 253 2-77 3-02 3^26 3^50 3-75 3^99 423 4^43 472 •12 •36 •eo •85 109 133 1^58 1-82 2-06 2-31 255 2^79 3^04 3-28 3-52 3-77 4-01 425 4-50 ; 474 7 •u •38 ■62 •87 111 135 1-60 1^84 2-08 233 257 2-81 3-06 3-30 3-54 3-79 4-03 427 ' 452 : 476 8 •16 •40 64 •89 1^13 1-37 1-62 1-86 210 235 259 283 3-08 332 3-56 3-81 4-05 4-29 4-54 478 9 -18 •42 -m •91 1-15 1-39 1^64 1-S8 212 237 261 2-85 310 334 358 3-83 4-07 4^31 4^56 i 4-tH) 1 10 ■20 •44 •es •93 117 1^41 1-66 1-90 214 239 2^63 2^87 312 336 3-60 3-85 4-09 433 458 482 1 11 •22 •46 1 70 •95 119 143 1^68 1-92 216 241 265 2-89 314 3-38 3-62 i 387 4-U 4-35 4-60 j 4^84 Note. — This table shows the value of evei^j- combination of shillings and pence less than£l ; the upper margin representing the shillings, and the left-hand margin the pence. Thus, to find the value of 17s. Gd., follow column 17 downwards until it meets the left-hand column opposite 6, and it shows -^-25. B3' this method any number of pounds, shillings, and pence can be reduced to United States gold quickly and accurately. NEW SOUTH WALES: HER COMMERCE AND RESOURCES. IMMIGHATION. The history of imniigi-ation to Australia is a vei-y interesting one. The growth of the various settlements on the great island continent has been so rapid and of such recent date that it is impossible not to think of it without feelings of astonishment, while that of some of the younger colonies, for instance Victoria or New Zealand, has, perhaps, been even more rapid than that of New South Wales. The sources of pi^ogress can be better illustrated in the elder Colony than in any others of the group. It would be difficult to imagine a more gloomy prospect than the one which opened before the little band of colonists which landed in the harbour of Sydney under the command of Captain Arthur Phillip. The place chosen for settlement was never intended for the establishment of a colony in the common acceptance of the term colony. The immigrants numbered in the aggregate 1,030, of whom 192 were women, and 18 children. The death-rate amongst them was at first appalling, and it was feared very few would be left to tell the story of their sufferings. It is worthy of mention here that the first foreign vessel to arrive in New South Wales after the establishment of the Colony was the American brigantine " Philadelphia," commanded by Captain Patrickson. This vessel came into the harbour on the 1st November, 1792, with a full cargo of provisions, which were speedily absorbed by the half-famished colonists. In 1793, the first immigrant ship arrived with free settlers. These immigrants Avere furnished with agricultural implements, provisions for two years, and gi-ants of land to be selected by themselves. In 1830, New South Wales, which included the colonies of Victoria and Queensland, had a population of 46,302. In 1831, the Government assisted immigration policy was inaugurated, and from that time to the present has been a popular measure with sections of the community. In 1851, a separate Government was given to the Colony of Victoria, and in 1859, a like privilege was extended to Queensland. While the colonists from time to time encouraged the assisted immigration, the transportation of convicts here by Great Britain always met with the most determined opposition. In June, 18-49, the opposition to this course grew so intense that when the ship " Hashemy," arrived at Port Jackson, with convicts on board, an attem^Dt was made to ^^revent them from lauding. Shortly after this occurrence the order for the trans- portation of convicts was rescinded by the British Government. The 2 Ni:\V SOUTH UALRS : HER COMMERCE AND RESOURCES. evil crtocts liowever, of the convict classes iipon the population, it is belioveil h'ave long since disappeared under the reforming institutions of the various colonial Governments. The rapid progress of the (.'olonics is s^id to be largely due to the superior class of immigrants, selected by the authorities in London. In 1873, the people of New South Wales began to weary of the assisted iin'migration policy, and only 140 arrived during that year. Voluntary immigration, however, showed no signs of falhng off, for, during tlie same period, 23,742 immigrants arrived here at their own cost. °The largest number of assisted immigrants who arrived during anv one year was in 1S83, when the number was 8,3G9. The number who paid their own expenses during the same period was 58,837. In 18^."), the number of assisted immigrants declined to 5,-554, and to 1,362 in 1887. The largest number of immigrants of all classes, arriving in one year, was in 1885, when they reached 78,138 ; of these 54,843''were males, and 23,295 females. The total number of immi- grants who arrived in 1887, was 6.7,605, Xo account is kept of the arrivals and departures by land, and, as large numbers are constantly arriving and departing in that way, the returns are necessarily incomplete. The following table shows the number of emigi'ants who departed from New South Wales seaward, for each year, from 1876 to 1887, inclusive : — Adults. Children. Chinese. Total . Total General Year. Males. Females Total. Males. Females Total. Males. Females Total. 1876 14,089 4,945 19,034 1,162 787 1,949 940 16,191 5,732 21,923 1877 12,908 5,150 , 18,058 980 646 1,626 490 14,378 5,796 20,174 1878 13,691 5,393 19,084 1,409 860 2,269 1,560 16,660 6,243 22,913 1879 12,6.'i3 5,415 18,268 1,215 655 1,870 557 14,625 6,070 20,695 1880 16,270 7,054 23,324 1,612 747 2,359 876 18,728 7,801 26,559 1881 15,101 6,704 21,805 1,424 607 2,091 929 17,454 7,371 24,825 1882 17,0S3 7,080 24,763 1,547 778 2,325 884 20,114 7,858 27,972 1883 21,03!) 8,845 29,884 1,845 1,265 3,110 1,402 24,286 10,110 34,396 18t!4 2.-.,fH)3 10,390 35,483 2,173 1,560 3,733 1,038 28,304 11,950 40,254 ISefi 23,385 10,136 33,521 1,865 1,343 3,208 1,726 26,976 11,479 38,455 1886 27,441 9,805 37,246 1,G70 1,097 2,767 1,S83 30,994 10,902 41,896 1887 27,460 10,636 38,096 1,930 1,290 3,220 2,773 32,163 11.926 44,089 The largest number of departures occurred in 1887, when they were 44,089, of whom 2,773 were Chinese. The arrival of Chinese during the same period was 4,436. The immigration authorities do not note the exact ages of persons arriving and dejjarting, but classify all those over 12 years of age as adults, and all under that age as children. The number of persons introduced into New South Wales at the public expense since 1831, when the assisted immigration policy Avas inaugurated, to the close of 1887, was 212,487. The table following shows the number of immigrants who arrived in New Soutli AVales at the public expense and the number paying their own expense, for each year from 1870 to 1887 inclusive. IMMIGRATION. 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Year. Persons. Male. Female. Births. Deaths. Arrivals. Departures 1874 574,943 312,843 262,100 22,178 8,652 29,750 19,279 1875 594,297 323,080 271,217 22,528 10,771 30,967 20,350 1876 614,181 33.3,515 280,066 23,298 11,193 32,942 21,923 1877 643,707 350,329 293,378 23,851 9,869 38,628 20,174 1878 071,888 365,625 306,263 25,328 10,763 39,879 22,913 1879 709,459 386.926 .322,533 26,933 10,200 44,.501 20,695 1880 741,893 405,277 336,616 28,162 11,231 45,870 26,559 1881 778,690 426,944 351,746 28,993 11,536 47,723 24,825 1882 810,833 44.3,314 367,519 29,702 12,816 47,289 27,972 1883 857,744 470,009 387,735 31,281 12,249 67,206 34,396 1884 903,948 495,571 408,377 33,946 14,220 72,486 40,254 1885 957,914 527,533 430,381 35,043 15,282 78,138 38,455 1886 1,001,966 551,343 450,623 36,284 14,587 70,388 41,896 1887 1,042,919 574,012 468,907 37,236 1.3,448 67,605 44,089 It will be seen from the foregoing that the number of males in excess of females shows a heavy increase for each year, and that, at the close of 1887, the number of males exceeded that of the opposite sex by 105,105 or more than 10 per cent. 6 XEW SOUTH WALES : HER COMMEECE AXD RESOURCES. Tho following tal»le shows the trades and callings of the male adult assisted immigrants for each year, from 1877 to 1887 inclusive : — 1S77. 1878. 1879. 1880. 1881. 1882. 1883. 1884. 1885. 1886. 18S7. Tastoral, furniiiifr and •rciieral labourers 1,295 1,218 1,320 892 696 592 1,598 1,324 1,047 627 42 337 114 33 29 19 35 48 99 394 270 255 84 85 297 899 579 282 146 11 329 161 72 36 32 59 149 68 138 58 4 Clothin;; trades . . 116 58 37 23 26 50 100 93 44 20 3 Provision trades . . 66 38 15 9 9 33 106 64 23 23 1 Manufacturing trades . . 72 45 38 7 7 26 116 77 43 Miscellaneous trades . . 283 187 136 70 55 117 354 481 182 109 CO Male iiuinigrants over 12 2,892 2,091 1,906 1,150 929 1,209 3,370 2,785 1,871 1,044 131 years From the care taken by the immigration authorities in selecting immigrants, it may be inferred that the general moral character is good. The following table shows the religious persuasions of the assisted immigrants who arrived in New South Wales during the year ended December 31st, 1886. Classification of Religion. Kationalitj-. ,. c •3 rt o"3 .2 So n m C I- 2 1 H C s: M ajs H => 6^ Sr% "2 Pi «l i-s 2 E^ M. F. M. F. M. F. M. F. M. F. U. F. M. F. M. F. English . . C74 884 31 29 134 224 78' 113 7 23 17 13 3 5 944 1,291 2,235 Scotch 13 24 215 285 7 1 4 17 161 .. 246 336 582 Irish 60 100 35 53 4 C 1 5 299 6O2' .. 405 • 775 1,180 Other 1 Countries 6 759 22 1,039 5 4 .. 2 6 ( ^1 ' 12 3 3 SO 54 84 286 371 138 237 82^ 128 330 648j 24 25 6 8 1,625 2,456 4,081 The subjoined table shows in detail their educational attainments. Classification of Education. Nationality. Under 12 years. Over 12 years. Totals. Cannot read. Read only. Read and write. Cannot read. Read Read and only. write. England and Wales . . . Scotland Ireland 599 142 58 21 3 ""2 201 54 30 5 26 1 31 10 15 2 7 1,391 383 1,052 48 2,235 582 Other Countries 1,180 84 820 5 290 68 24 2,874 4,081 IMMIGRATION. 7 There is no reason to doubt that the greater portion of immigrants make good citizens. It is certain that after a time they become attached to the country and are self-rehant and self-supporting. Their oppor- tunities for advancement are not as great as in the United States, but there can be no question about their condition being much better than that of similar classes in Euro])ean countries. It should also be remembered that New South Wales, and indeed all the Australasian Colonies, have institutions in many respects like those of the United States. For instance, universal sufirage prevails, and the system of public education is practically the same ; moreover there are no class distinctions in the colonies, no union of Church and State, and no laws of primogeniture and entail. They have also the right to regulate their institutions in their own way, very few Acts of the colonial legislatures have ever been disallowed by, or even require the sanction of, the Imperial Govern- ment. In these circumstances it is only natural to exjoect a large increase of population in the near future. Sydney, the capital of New South Wales, has made such rapid strides in wealth and population during late years that her claim to be called the metropolitan city of Australasia will no longer be questioned. Her population, including the surburbs, cannot be less than 350,000. In ten years, from 1876 to 1886, it increased from 170,514 to 332,709. During that period the city ratable property was more than quadrupjled. The capital value of ratable property in the city is £42,529,525 ($206,969,933), and the total annual assessed value is £1,936,253 (^$9,422,775). The annual revenue of the City of Sydney for 1887 was £215,288 ($1,047,699). The city has about 176 miles of streets and about 6 miles of wharves. The Circular Quay has a length of 3,100 feet, and there are about 25 miles of deep-water frontage suitable for wharves. The public build- ings, parks, and gardens will compare favorably with those of the most celebrated cities of Europe. The University is the first in the southern hemisphere. The streets and thoroughfares are always crowded, and it is said that the principal business streets, such as George, Pitt, York, King, Sussex, and others, have as heavy a traific per yard as any other streets in the world. The avei-age number of vehicles passing George- street near the Town Hall every day of 12 houi-s is 10,960, and the estimated weight in tons daily passing over the road 20,470. There are about 21,000 houses, and no less than 65 miles of sewerage works in the city. The water supply for Sydney cost over £2,000,000 (89,733,000), and is practically inexhaustible. The water has been brought through aqueducts, tunnels, and immense iron pipes from the Nepean River. The average daily consumption is 30 gallons per head, or about 8,000,000 gallons, and the reticulations for the supply of the suburbs are being fast extended. The system of paving the streets of Sydncsy with wood blocks, of which there are 216,483 square yards or about 44i; acres laid down, is becominsj sjeneral. There are about 105 miles of streets and roads in the city to keep in repair and cleanse, and this work requires quite an army of labourers. 8 NKW SOUTH WALES : HKU COAIMERCE AND RESOURCES. Til.' Municipality of Sydnoy raised a loan of £200,000 (8973,300) on tlu> Eniilish market to erect Town Hall buildings, and during 1888 the Town Hall will he completed. It will he the largest in the world find will contain a magnificent organ. The building will be a fitting memorial to commemorate the centennial of the foundation of British colonies in Australasia, in which Sydney is the empire city. The harbour, which has often been described as the finest in the world, is more beautifid than that of Rio Janeiro, or of Lisbon, or the (Julf of Spezia. The liay of Naples cannot compare to it either in capacity for shipping or in color and variety of scenery. The Sydney harbour stretches 1') miles in one dii'ection, and 9 miles in another, in an interminable labyrinth of lakes. It contains 12 square miles of deep water, and is so intersected and islanded that none of its innumer- able bays and inlets is ever more than 2 miles in width from onejutting point of land to another. The entrance to th3 harbour is about a mile in width, the rocks rising on each side to a considerable height and forminf a natural gateway. The distance from the ocean to Sydney is about -i miles, and along the route the slopes of the hills and clifis are ornamented with innumerable villa residences, the grounds of many bring laid out in a unique style of landscape gardening. The laws conferring upon emigrants to New South Wales grants of land have long since been repealed. At one time, large tracts of land were conferred upon certain ofticers and soldiers of the British army, who settled in the Colony. Every noncommissioned oflicer was en- titled to 130 acres if single, and if married 1.50 acres. Privates if single 80 acres, and if married 100 acres, and for each child at the time of granting allotments, 10 acres. These grants w-ere free of taxes, quit rents, and other payments for five years. All such privileges have been i-epealed, nor is there any exemption from taxation in New South "Wales. The land laws of the Colony are voluminous and complicated, but perhaps throw no more obstacles in the way of purchasers than those of other British Colonies. The Crown Lands Act of 1884 now in force here, divides the Colony into three great divisions — the Eastern, the Central, and the Western. The intending farmer can secure tracts of country suitable for agri- culture from 40 to G40 acres along the coast, and for some distance within the Eastern Division, by paying a depositof 2s. (49 cents) per acre at the date of application, and the balance of 18 shillings (.$4-38) per acre, in yearly instalments of Is. (24 cents.) per acre, with four per cent, interest until the whole debt is paid off". In addition to this, adjoining land if available, not to exceed in the aggregate 1,280 acres, may he tiiken up a-s a conditional lease, at a minimum yearly rent of 2d. (4 cents) per acre ; and at the end of five years the selector may purchase from the Crown the leased part of his holding, and become a land- owner to the extent of 1,280 acres as a maximum, or he may at the end of five years renew his lease without the right of purchase. The conditions imposed on the .selector are those of residence and fencing. The residence must be bona fide, and extend over the first five years. The fencing is to be of a special kind, and to be erected on the boundaries of the holding, within a period of tw o years. In the IMMIGRATION. y Central Division a person may purchase land conditionally, from 640 acres to 2,560 acres upon the same conditions. In the Great Western Division, which is so well adapted to shee]) farming and cattle raising, and which includes the famous Riverina district, the Crown lands are open to purchase, except in the neighbourhood of towns, and in areas especially proclaimed for the purpose of alienation, but large tracts are open to lease in blocks of from 5,760 acres to 10,240 acres, called homestead leases at a minimum rental of Id. (2 cents) per acre. To renew a liomestead lease an application must be lodged with the land agent of the district in which the land is situated. Care must be taken to see that the laud has not already been taken up. The conditions prescribed are fencing round the boundaries within two years, and residence for at least six months of each year during the first five years of the lease. Should the intending purchaser fail to comply with the conditions, he will be liable to certain penalties. For instance, all classes of Crown lease will be liable to forfeiture for any Ijreach of covenant or for non-payment of rent ; but rentals may be paid within three months of due date with the addition of a fine of 5 per cent., or within six months with a fine of 10 per cent. The only tax levied upon any class of immigrants is the poll tax of £10 (i|48"66) per head on the Chinese. The wisdom of this class dis- crimination has been seriously questioned by colonial statesmen, but there can be little doubt that public opinion favours the measure, and that the prejudice against the Celestials is becoming stronger from year to year. Their want of a proper knowledge of the requirements of higher civilization and their ignorance of sanitary regulations have intensified the opposition to this class of immigrants. It is said that they are all of one sex and hold themselves apart from the com- munity, and quit it altogether for their own country after they have secured a competency, and further, that they are never really free, but are bound to some unknown or mysterious authority, and consequently are a constant danger to the State. The number of Chinese in New South Wales at the close of 1886 was estimated at 13,500, against 10,205 for the year 1881. The number in Victoria in 1881 was 12,128, it is now estimated at 15,160. The total number in the whole of Australasia at the last census (1881) was given at 4.3,730, of whom only 362 were women. The number of Chine.se in Queensland was 11,253 ; South Australia, 4,151 ; Western Australia, 145 ; Tasmania, 844 ; New Zealand, 5,004. The total number in the whole of Australasia for 1886 is estimated at 56,113. The Chine.se began to immigrate to Australia in 1853. At the census of 1854, there were 2,000 in Victoria, and 3,116 in New South Wales. Steps were taken in Victoria as early as 1855 to limit their immigration. An Act was passed by the legislature of that colony, imposing a tax of £10 (.$48-66) per head upon them, and forbidding vessels to carry more than one Chinaman for every ten tons burden. Although the strongest measures Avere taken to enforce the Act, the law was evaded by large numbers pouring in from the neighbouring colonies. In 1857 there were over 42,000 Chinamen in Victoria alone. In the following year, 1858, there was a great influx of Chinamen into 10 NKW SOUTH \VAL1« : IIKR COMMERCE A\D RESOURCES. New South Wales from Victoria, and Mr. Hayter, the Government Statist of Victoria, states that as many as 11,000 left that colony in cue year for New South Wales, so that in 1861 the census showed that there were only 24,732 in Victoria. In 18G."), Victoria repealed her restrictions against the Chinese, ])ut the law was revived again in 1881, and about the same time similar statutes were adopted in all the other colonies. The New South Wales law now in force, was passed on the 2nd August, 1881. It provides amongst other things, in addition to the tax of £10 (|48-66) per head, that no vessel shall bring more than one Chinaman for every hundred tons burden, under a penalty of £100 (.$486-65). There is also a penalty of £50 (>?243 -32) for neglecting to pay the poll tax. A certificate is f^iven to each Chinaman upon the payment of the tax, and there are no'exemptions to the operations of the law, e::cept those who are bond fide residents or British subjects. The immigration policy of the Government has met with more or less opposition from the various trade and labour organisations in the Colony. One of the most prominent of the labour agitators went to London, for the ]>urpose of warning intending immigrants from coming to Australia. In speeches and letters he denounced the policy of the Government, and said that there were over 40,000 unemployed in Australia, and 6,000 in the vicinity of Sydney. The accusations were promptly refuted by the Agents-General in London, who .stated that the colonies wei'e in a fairly prosperous condition, and that those really in search of employment have no trouble in finding it. They also cited the fact that many thousand pounds are sent annually to Europe by the colonists to bring out their friends. There is no doubt that the depression existing in Australasia is only of a temporary character. Indeed, there is every prospect that in a few months there will be a very general renewal of trade throughout the colonies. The copious rains over a vast area of country, which heretofore suftered from drought, the decided advance in the price of wool and other signs of progress, make the outlook for the future much brighter than the depression in the labour market would seem to indicate. Attention has already been directed to the heavy disproportion of males to females in the Colony. This surplus of single men is not confined to New South Wales but extends to every colony in the Australasian group. In Victoria the percentage of females was, at the last census, 90-05; in Queensland it was 70-28; South Australia, 88 00; Western Australia, 74-33; Tasmania, 88-07; New Zealand, 82-16. A large proportion of the single men of Australasia are of nomadic inclinations. They travel from colony to colony without a desire of securing perma- nent homes. These men invariably gravitate at certain periods to the large cities, and seriously disturl) the labour market, which may also at that time l»e affected from otlier causes. In 1884, after a heavy increase of immigration, some disturbance arose in Sydney, which speedily attracted the attention of the Government. Relief works were estab- lished, principally around the capital, and a labour l)ureau was opened for the pui-pose of determining the amount of distress alleged to exist IMMIGRATIOX. 11 and for ascertaining., if possible, the causes of the same, and for assisting those seeking work to find employment. Carefully prepared reports were made by the officer in charge of the bureau, who states that the number of single men who sought svork was 365 against 228 married men, and that many of the former were unskilled labourers and had been in the Colony only a few months. On the relief works, the men received wages at the rate of 5s. ($1'22) per day, and were supplied with free fuel for cooking and tents to live in, together with free railway passes to and from their work from Saturday to Monday. Outside the bureau, labourers were being paid by employers from 6s. ($1 -46) to 8s. ($1'95) per day. After a period of four months it was found very difficult to obtain workmen at 7s. 6d. ($1'82) per day. The following is an extract from the report of the officer in charge of the bureau : — " Most of the present applicants on the Labour Exchange object to proceed into the country districts ; the. class of men who will take the current rate of wages in a country township, in which the cost of subsist ance is less than in the Metropolis, and in which town their industrial progress would grow with the gTowth of the place, is not well represented at the j)resent time." The wages paid in the principal trades here v/ ill compare very favour- ably with the rates in the United States. A table has been printed with the approval of the New South Wales Oovernment, in which the average rate of wages paid in some of the leading trades is as follows. Current Wages. Nominal rates of Wages of various Trades, Arc, during 1887 : — Tho rates arc those accepted bj' the various Trade and Labour orgaiusations. Stonemasons 11/- (•S2'68), per day of 8 hours. Bricklayers 11/- ,, ,, Plasterers 11/- ,, ,, Quarrymen 7/- to 10/- (.?l-70 to .$2-43) Carpenters and joiners 9/- (.S2'19) ,, Painters 9/- ($2-19) Labourers (Builders) 8/- (§r95) ,, Plumbers, gasfitters, and galvanized-iron workers 10/- to 11/- (.$2-43 to .$2 -68) Slaters 10/- to 12/- (.fi2-43 to .?2-92) Iron-moulders 8/- to 9/6 ($1-95 to .$2-31) „ Boiler-makers and iron shipbuilders 10/- (.$2"43) ,, Engineers : 9/- to 12/- (.?2-19 to .S2-92) Labourers working with engineers, boiler-makers, &c. 5/-to7/- (91-22to.$l-70) „ Shipwrights 11/- to 12/- (.$2-68 to ,^2-92) „ Coachmakers, builders, wheelwrights, smiths, painters, and trimmers .6/- to 10/- ($1"46 to $2'43) ,, Wheelwrights and blacksmiths 36/- to 60/- (88-76 to $14-60) per week of 9 hours per day. 12 NEW SOUTH WALKS : IIKR COMMERCE AND RESOURCES. Farriers 35/- to 55/- (SS'Sl to |13-38) per week, of 8 hours per day. rattcni-makers 8/- to 10/- (.51-95 to $2-43) per day of 8 hoixrs. Brass-founders and finishers 8/- to 10/- ($1-95 to $2-43) Tinsmiths and sheet iron-workers...?/- to 9/- {$I'70 to $2-19) ,, Ironworkers (Eskbank) 8d. to 1/- (16c. to 24c.) per hour. Saddle, collar, and harness-makers 30/- to 50/- (*7-30 to $12-16) per week of 54 hours. Sailmakers 30/- to 50/- (.?7-30 to .S12-10) per weck'of 54 hours. Tailors 50/- to 60/- (.i?12-16 to .iJU-GO) per week, piecework. Pressei-3 50/- to 60/- (.$12-10 to .S14-60) Silk-hatters 50/- to 70/- (.$12-10 to .^17 -03) Upholsterers 10/- to 1*2/- (.$2-43 to .$2-92) per day. Compositors 25/- to 50/- {$Q-OS to.|12-16) per week of 48 hours; or piece-work, ] 1 per thousand day, and 1/2 per thousand night work. Coopers 40/- to 50 - (•'?9-73 to .$12-16) per week, 1/- to 1/3 per hour. Coal-miners 8d. to 1/3 (16c. to 30c.) per hour. Coal-lumpers and trimmers 1/3 per hour day, 1/6 per hour night work (.30c. to 36c.) Wharf labourers 1/- (24c. ) per hour. Bootmakers, &c. (factory hands) 25/- to 55/- (.$6-08 to .$13-38) per week. Cooks and pastry-cooks 30/- to 60/- ($7-30 to .$14-60) ,, Drapers 30/- to 70/- (.$7-30 to .$17-03) „ Furniture-makers (cabinet-makers, French-polishers) 25/- to 50/- ($0 08 to .$12-16) per week. Tobacco operatives 2.5/- to 50/- (.$6-8 to $12-16) per week. Gas-stokers Sd. to 1 - (16c. to 24c.) per hour, 8-hour shifts. Brick and pipe makei's lO^d to 1/- (2-2c. to 24c. ) per hour. Sawyers and mill-workers 8d. to 1/3 (16c. to 30c.) ,, Butchers 8d. to 1/- (16c. to 24c.) IRRIGATION. 13 IRRIGATION. The recent publication of a sei'ies of elaborate reports by the Colonial Governments on the conservation of water, together with the arrival of American engineers and capitalists engaged in irrigation projects, has awakened very general interest in the subject. The art of irrigation, however, so far as the Colonies are concerned, is only in its theoi-etical stage. It is true private individuals have made a beginning, but as yet few important results have been attained. None of the Australian Colonies have laws to regulate water conservancy, and nowhere in the world is the water supply of more importance. Australia possesses inexhaustible mineral treasures, vast tracts of the richest agricultural and pastoral lands, all lying unproductive, awaiting some well-considered scheme to ensure a certain and plentiful water supply. The means adopted at present consist principally in raising the ^vater out of the rivers on to the lands. American pumping appliances are usually employed, and are admitted to be superior to all others. It should be remembered by those contemplating the inauguration of extensive irrigation works in Australia that the conditions of the country are altogether different from those in the United States. Unlike America, there are no large rivers and lofty mountains in Australia. Although the mountains in the latter country extend over a large area, their average elevation is only about .3,000 feet. The highest peak in Australia, Mount Kosciusko, 7,308 feet, is about 700 feet below perpetual snow. The mountain system of Australia is described as a simple one. It can, perhaps, be very well understood by a brief reference to the various ranges in the Colony of New South Wales. The system is usually distinguished by four main ranges, viz. (1) the interior ranges, (2) the great dividing chain, (3) the coast ranges, (4) the isolated peaks and groups. The interior ranges approach the western boundary of the Colony and form the western watershed of the Darling River. The greatest elevation of the interior ranges is 2,000 feet. The great dividing chain contains the highest peaks in Australia and runs throughout the whole of the island continent. It is subdivided into seven main branches and separates the eastern and western water- sheds. The coast ranges are on the east side of the great dividing chain and form the edge of the high tableland. The highest peak of the coast ranges is Mount Coolungera, 3,712 feet. The isolated peaks and groups contain a considerable number of mountains, but all of them are below 3,000 feet in height. With the exception of a few small streams, all the rivers of New South Wales have their origin in the main dividing chain of mountains. The principal rivers of the eastern watershed are the Hawkesbury, the 14 NEW SOUTH WALES : HER COMMERCE AND RESOURCES. Hunter, and Clarence. The Hawkesbury is 330 miles in length, the Hunter 300 miles, and the Clarence 240 miles. All the rivers of the eastern watershed flow into the Pacific Ocean, and are estimated to drain an area of about 50,000 square miles. The principal rivers of the western watershed are the Darling and its affluents, the Lachlan and its affluents, the ]\Iurrumbidgce and its affluents. These rivers all even- tually unite with tlie Murray. The Darling River is 1,160 miles in length. It drains, with its affluents, an area of 198,000 square miles. It is, however, a narrow stream and is navigable for only small steamers. The Murray River is 1,120 miles in length. It flows westerly and north-westerly through the whole of New South Wales and Victoria, and falls into Lake Alexandria, which discharges into the Southern Ocean below Adelaide, South Australia. The average width of the Murray from jMonara to Albury is about 240 feet, and the area drained by it and its affluents is 270,000 square miles. There are no large fresh-water lakes in Australia, and indeed, with the exception of a few estuaries of the sea, they are all shallow and untrustworthy for water supply. In most cases they are mere depres- sions connected with the rivers, and receive their water only in times of flood. It is maintained in the report of the Royal Commission of New South Wales for the conservation of water that there are thi-ee lakes in the course of the river Darling, each of which has an area of 60 square miles, and that their capacity is shown by the fact that when rapid falls occur in the Darling the overflow from them keeps the river navigable for nearly a fortnight longer than it would be otherwise. This, the report says, is an important feature, as the outlets from the Darling ai'e in their natural state, and that with few exceptions no attempt has been made either to increase or regulate the supply of water. In the lakes east of the Darling, in the county of Livingstone, an almost permanent supply of water is kept up through the construction of a dam across Tallawalka Creek. The cost of this, about £4,000 (819,466), was incurred by the lessees of the land. It is said that this dam threw the water into a series of lakes extending north and south a distance of 80 miles. The report of the Royal Commission states that the levels of the country between the Murray and Murrumbidgee show that it is well adapted for the construction of canals. The country between the Lach- lan and INIurrumbidgee is more irregular, but the vast area lying between the Lachlan and the Darling, which appears as a blank on the maps of the Colony, possesses some well-defined features. For instance, the watei-s of the Darling and Lachlan are ordinarily separated for about 200 miles, but in time of flood they spread out to within a distance of 25 or 30 miles of each othei'. Mr. James Harold, of Sydney, who has had much experience in farming by irrigation in the United States, says that there is a great clamour throughout the Colony for a national scheme of irrigation by those Avho have no knowledge whatever of the cost of such an enter- prise, or from what source the water is expected to be obtained. The IRRIGATION. 15 truth is, Australia lias no lofty snow-capped mountains from wliicli to draw supplies, and therefore the rivers and streams veiy naturally become dry at a time when water is most needed for irrigation purposes. Indeed, during dry seasons the rivers amount to but little more than a chain of waterholes. The landowners on both sides of the Gwydir River, an affluent of the Darling, are clamouring for the right to dam the river without even a thought of the injury it may do to others. They do not seem to know that the lucky individual at the source of the river would get all the water and that the less foi-tunate. one lower' down the stream would not get any. It has been proposed by gi'aziers to place weirs or obstructions in the rivers for the purpose of turning their flood-waters into the numerous blind creeks and depressions Avhich are found in various places upon the plains. This scheme is objectionable, for the reason that the country through which these rivers run is for the most part so level that the fall is only about 1 foot to the mile, and consequently the current is sluggish at best, whereas if obstructions were placed in the rivcra, the current would be more sluggish still, and the loss from evaporation, soakage, and capillary attraction would be enormous. At present, on accoimt of the recent heavy rainfall, the blind creeks and depressions aloi;g the plains are filled with water, but such water cannot very well be impounded. There are numerous depressions on the Avestern plains, many from 8 to 10 feet deep. These are partly formed by their banks being raised above the level of the surrounding plains, and if they could be kept full of water, much of it, doubtless, could be drawn off by gravitation for irrigation purposes. These lakes or depressions, so long as they con- tain water, may be of great advantage to the farmer, but in time of drought they are dried up, and therefore cannot be depended upon. The evaporation from these lakes will amount to about 10 inches per month, and the thought of obtaining a permanent supply of water from them is altogether out of the question. In the report of the Royal Commission it is stated that various opinions exist among farmers and graziers as to the extent of the evaporation of these lakes ; and some contend that it is as much as a foot for three or four months, while others say that it will not amount to more than 2 feet per year. The Government Engineer, Avho is charged with the construction of tanks — works undertaken principally for the watering of travelling- stock — says that, from a tank containing 18 feet of water, evaporation would not exceed 4 or 5 feet per year. In the Gwydir district, 2,000 sheep were watered fox more than a year from a tank 10 feet deep, and there was water remaining in it then, although none* had run into it the whole time. One witness before the Commission stated, that the average depth in a swamp into which water flowed from the Bulla River was fully 4 feet, and that the water lasted fifteen months before it disappeared from evaporation and soakage. The conditions upon which observations are made differ materially. For instance, the hot winds which are, comparatively, of rare occur- rence in the coast district, and which range in temperature at Sydney from 80° to 106" Fahrenheit, are frequent on the western plains. There 16 XKW SOUTH WALES : HKll COMMERCE AXD RESOURCES. the toniiicratnro sometimes records 130", and for days stands at 110° to 11 G'. It would be a mistake, however, to suppose that this condition of w-ind continues for lona; periods, for the -wind records show that, as compared with the coast districts, the country beyond the main dividing range has a comparatively tranquil atmosphere. The subjoined table was furnished to the Commission by Mr. Kussell, the Government Asti'onomer. Result of observations with the tank evaporation: — Month. Bourke. Hay. Hillston. Al.ircli Inches. 1-579 4-770 3-037 2-858 1-637 3-793 3-975 7.559 Inches, 2-762 2-736 Inches. April May June July August 2-074 September , 3-280 October A series of experiments has recently been made by Mr. Russell for the ])urpose of testing the evajDoration of some of the lai-ger lakes. In 188.5 he placed a self-registering evaporation gauge in Lake Geoi'ge. This lake is about 19 miles in length and 6 in width. It is situated on the eastern side of the great dividing chain, at an elevation of 2,200 feet above the level of the sea. Its waters, however, have no outlet, and consequently are strongly impregnated with salts. Lake George has never been known to overflow, and in dry weather it has failed entirely. The following table shows the results of Mr. Russell's experiments. The water-gausre at Lake George. Date. E\aporation. Readinij of gauge. Loss or gain. 1885. 1 March 1 April IMay 1 .Tuue 1-b.ly 1 August 1 .September .... 1 Octol)er .... 31 October Total Inches. 2-8 . 6-8 7-7 8-8 6-7 5-0 5-4 7-9 10-7 Rainfall. Total loss by e\'aporation. Amount. Months. Inches. — 4-0' —0-9 — ri + 2-7 + 1-7 —0-4 —2-5 —2-8 -7-9 Inches. '6-44 1-54 1-92 3-42 1-82 1-06 1-15 1-74 13-09 Inches. 4-44 2-44 5-03 1 -32 0-12 1-46 3 05 4-54 20-99 March April May June July August September October «i,^'w7^"J^ ^^^ ™" !^ '^'^'^'^'^ "'^''"'^ f*^" "" *'"e lake, and not that which flowed into it. Durinsr the last fourteen years the lake has lost, by evaporation, 12 feet. IRRIGATION 17 The Royal Commission in reporting upon wells were unable to express an opinion as to the theory of an underground flow of Avater in Australia to the ocean. They mention that water has been found at Tarkania, in South Australia, 150 miles from the western boundary of New South Wales, in latitude 29°, at a depth of 1,220 feet, or 1,040 feet below sea level. The water rose 20 feet above tlie surface. Water was struck at Hergott Springs, in the same colony, at 339 feet. The flow at Tarkania was only about 40 gallons per day, but the well at Hergott Springs yields 5,000 gallons per day. The diameter of the bore at Tarkania is 3 inches, and that at Hergott Springs is 6 inches. At 75 miles from Bourke, on the road to Wanaaring, New South Wales, the deepest bore yet sunk by means of the water augur, has been lately completed, artesian water having been struck at a depth of 942 feet, and the bore having been continued to a depth of 960 feet, a supply of water equal to 33,000 gallons per twenty-four hours, rises to a height of 30 feet above the surface. A supply of fresh water was also obtained on one sheep station in the Bourke district at a depth of 480 feet, and at another station in the same district at 550 feet. Mr. W. H. J. Slee, Superintendent of Diamond Drills in New South Wales, reports : "The water supply has been tapped in one of the most arid parts of New South Wales, in the cretaceous formation, and is of immense value to the Colony at large. In my reports in 1885 and 1886, I stated that if artesian water was tapped along this road (Bourke to Wanaaring) boring operations could be successfully extended in the cretaceous basin to Milpakinka and Mount Brown Districts. In some parts the bores may have to be put down from 700 to 1,000 feet, in other parts 400 to 600 feet might be probable depths. The greatest drawback in these remote parts of New Sou.th Wales is the great scarcity of water, and if this was once overcome by artesian wells, stock and sheep would increase, and wool would be directed towards the Bourke railway station and thence to Sydney, and goods would be forwarded from the latter place." The people in many districts have given up the practice of sinking for water from the fact that when found it is of a brackish nature, and they depend principally upon tanks for the conservation of water. Of course they have to Avait for the wet season before their tanks can be filled. The tanks used are often too wide and shallow. In open tanks, from which the sheep take water freely, the loss is considerable through weak animals getting bogged. Tanks are less expensive than wells, but when the right kind of water cannot be found by ordinary sinking, the artesian well should be the farmers' main dependence. In some districts it has been noticed that in almost every case where water has been struck, salt water is invariably found at higher levels and not unfrequently near the surface. In these circumstances, the presence of salt water should not discourage those horn undertaking deeper excavations. The Colonial Geologist accounts for the prevalence of salt water in the alluvial districts from the fact of its fresh- water origin. The debris washed from the ranges has been deposited quickly, and the decompo- sition from the mineral constituents arising from the moisture ha^ 18 NEW SOUTH wales: her commerce axd resources. oonvcrtctl the fresh water into salt. Sulphate of alumina, lime, and mag- nesia have been formed, and salts chemically produced. In the marine formations the soluble parts of the mineral have been washed out by tlie long-continued action of the sea-water. When the water flows underground it is fresh, but whenever it is stationary, as it may be in clay beds a few yards from the current, it will become salt. The saline nature of the soil has given rise to well-marked peculiarities in the herbage, such as the salt-bush. Some good Avork in artesian boring has been done by private enter- pri.se, but the great part of the work is left to tlie Government. The Australians need more than anything else a few good sets of the Pennsylvania oil-boring ajiparatus or appliances from 4 to 6 horse-]iower put into tlie hands of men experienced in that kind of work. In that portion of New South Wales known as the Riverina district, and Avhich is drained by the Murray, abundance of water can be found at a depth of 80 feet, but there is small prospect of striking artesian water in that district, as the country is of lacustrine formation, with a good clear soakage all along the course of the river. Artesian water, however, is found some distance back from the Murray on the plains where dykes of mineral-bearing rock occur. The most remarkable arte- sian belt in Australia occurs in the Liverpool Plains, in the north-eastern part of New South Wales, but very little has been done to develop it. In the early history of the country water was very scarce in that dis- trict. All the rivers and creeks in the summer were turned into sand tracks. V/ells were sunk there, and the water has continued to flow from them ever since. The greater part of the district is what may be called good boring country, and trouble need not be apprehended from the swelling of the surfaces of the bores, as there is little soapstone. In Queensland, great success seems to have attended operations in boring for water. At Barcaldine, 400 miles west of Ptockhampton, on the Central Railway, in a distinct where thousands of sheep and cattle succumbed in the last drought, the Govei'nment of Queensland entered into a contract with Mr. J. Longhead, from America, of the Federal Boring Association, to bore for water. Government supplied the tubing, and fuel and water for the engine. Operations began on 18th of November. The bore was 12 inches in diameter. On 16th December, 1887, the drill suddenly dropped 7 feet, and water ascended the bore and rose 17 feet above the surface. The total depth was G91 feet 9 inclics. The hydraulic engineer who inspected the well estimated the supply at 400 gallons per minute, or .576,000 gallons of water per day. It is said to be the biggest artesian well in the Avorld. Other bores are to be put down in several places. So much is said about the drought of Australia that very few persons are aware that the average rainfall in all the colonies will compare favourably with that of other countries. In New South Wales, a terri- tory of 310,000 sfjuare miles, the average rainfall is 24 inches. At Sydney it is about 50 inches, at Eden it is 70 inches, but in the flat country it is only about 10 inches. The average rainfall in Queensland is aljout the same as that of New South Wales. The former colony, however, is move subject to tropical rains than the latter. The rainfall, IRRIGATIOX. 19 therefore, in Queensland rises in some districts, as for instance John- stone River, to 123 inches; in other places the average is as low as 8 inches. At Adelaide, South Australia, where there are no high coast i^anges to arrest the drift of the clouds, the rainfall is as low as 20 inches. At Port Augusta it falls to 8 inches. At Perth, Western Australia, the average is 31 inches, but at Carnarvon, in the same colony, it does not average more than 6 inches. At Eucla it is 10 inches. The rainfall in Victoria varies from G3 inches at Cape Schanck to 12 inches at Wyche- proof. At Melbourne it is about 25 inches. The trouble, however, in Australia is that whenever there is a dimin- ished rainfall the effects are much more disastrous than iji other places on account of the great heat and the absence of more general cultivation. A diminished rainfall of 50 per cent, has at times desolated whole tracts of country. The report of the New South Wales Royal Commission, however, states that while one part of the country suffers from a dimin- ished rainfall other parts have an average supply and others again may be favoured with an abundant fall. In the basin of the Darling, exclud- ing the hilly portion, the rainfall is 12-81 inches. In the plains between the Lachlan and the Murrumbidgee it is lG-33 inches, and in the corresponding district between the Murrumbidgee and the Murray it is 14'56. These rainfalls would be suthcient for ordinary crops of cereals if they came at proper periods, but the report of the commissiozr admits that they do not. It says that as a rule in these districts Avhen rain is most needed it comes in such small quantities as to be of little or no benefit to vegetation. One of the most difficult questions with which Australians have to deal in connection with the subject of irrigation is the best means for the storage of water. There is no doubt that much of the rainfall is of a temporary benefit only, on account of its tropical character, coming, as it does, in vast quantities at a time when it is not needed. The Government Astronomer states that i-ain fell to the depth of 10^- inches at Newcastle in less than two hours and a half, and that at the South Head, near Sydney, it fell at the rate of 1 inch per hour for more than twenty hours. The establishment of large reservoirs at the heads of the principal rivers and creeks, and the placing of movable weirs across others in times of flood is recommended by the Commission, as well as sluice- gates to prevent the return of the water to the main stream. What- ever is done for irrigation should be done by high artificial systems of water conservation among the mountains, and by artesian and other wells. Occasionally, in times of flood, water might be preserved, but it could not be depended upon. We should bear in mind that very fair crops can be grown over a large area in New South Wales without the aid of irrigation, and Mr. Harold points out the fact that during the drought of 1885-6, one of the most severe ever known, the avei'age yield of wheat in those parts was 10:V bushels per acre. It is useless to think of irrigation for pastoral purposes in Australia, except upon a limited scale, as the cost would be too great. " It might answer," he 20 NEW SOUTH WALES : IIKR COMMERCE AND RESOURCES. says, " wliere land can l)e had for almost nothing, but where population increases the land will becouae more valuable and it will be required to grow food for the people instead of grass for sheep." The New South Wales Water Conservancy Commission is very decided in the opinion that the riparian rights existing under the conunon law of England are not at all applicable to the conditions of Australia, and that an attempt to enforce them would be a serious liindrance to the i)rogress of the country, in so far as that progress depends on the conservation of water. In the Colony of Victoria, no such rights can accrue, from the fact that the frontages to all rivers are reserved from sale. The conditions in New South Wales and other colonies are altogether ditferent. E.x:tensive alienations have taken place, which involve the legal rights of ownership to tlie middle of the beds of the rivers. A memorandum as to what riparian rights really mean under the common law was prepared by Mr. A. Olivei*. He quotes largely from Mr. Justice Storey's opinion in the case of Tyler v. Wilkinson (4 Mason, U.S. reports, 397), in which it is laid down : — That prima facie (i.e. the law presumes) every proprietor upon each bank of a river is entitled to the land covered with water in front of the bank to the middle, tlie bed of the stream, or, as it is commonly expressed, ad medium fiUum ai/ua. In virtue of his ownership lie has a right to the use of the water flowing over it in its natural current without diminution or obstruction. Mr. .Justice Storey says that the consequence of this principle is that no proprietor has the right to use the water to the prejudice of another, and tliat it is wholly immaterial whether the party be a proprietor above or below in the course of the river, the right being common to all proprietors ; therefore, no one has the right to diminish the quantity whicli will, according to the natural current, flow to the proprietor below or to tiirow it back upon the proprietor above. The Commission state that riparian rights, as understood by^ the common law, are better adapted to England, where the people are more concerned to drain oflf the water as quickly as possible, than to New South Wales, where the all-important question is how best to retain it. The Commission does not find fault with the law which enables a riparian proprietor to restrain the action of those who construct works which have the effect of depriving him of participation in the advantage of a flowing stream or who make such a diversion of the water as would inundate his land. The Commission states : " The position with which we have to deal is not so much with flowing water as with dry channels through which water flows only at long and irregular intervals. It is required that these water-courses .should be made to hold water — to be in effect con- verted into inundation canals ; but this would not be possible under the present state of the law, by which any litigious person could, if so minded, interpose a bar to the erection of weirs or other works." Tlie Commission further states that there should be no difficulty in superseding the presumption of the English common law by a clear enactment of state ownership, for the common law only gives a riparian owner power to use so much of the water of a river as he requires for his own consumption and that of his own stock, while the object and effect of state ownership would be to increase the supply of water, which now often wholly fails, and to make it ]xrmanent. IRPJGATIOIS'. 21 Several of the Australian Governments have entered into agreements for the transfer of extensive tracts of land to A^arious irrigation companies. The South Australian Government has recently perfected arrange- ments with the Messrs. ChafFey Brothers, who have considerable expex'- ience with in-igation in California, by which the firm may acquire 250,000 acres of land in that colony. The firm is to have 30,000 acres at once upon the condition that they will, during the first five years, spend the sum of £35,000 ($170,328), during the second five years £140,000 ($681,310), during the third five years £75,000 ($364,988), and during the fourth five years £50,000 ($243,325), or a total of £300,000 ($1,459,500). On spending £1 ($4-86) per acre on the land, inclusive of the first' 30,000 acres, they may acquire the fee-simple up to 50,000 acres. This will leave 200,000 acres. When the Messrs. Chaftey Brothers have expended £1 ($4-86) per acre on this area they may purchase it for another £1 ($4-86) per acre, so that altogether it will cost them £600,000 ($2,919,900) to gain the fee-simple of the whole block of 250,000 acres. It is further agreed that all the machinery and pipes shall be manufac- tured in the Colony, unless the Government determine otherwise. The Government of Victoria has also concluded an agreement with the same firm by which the Messrs. Chaflfey Brothers are to have 50,000 acres in what is known as the mallee country, on the Lower Murray frontage, 11 miles east from the junction of the Darling, with the right of purchasing 200,000 acres hereafter. The fee-simple of the laud was valued by the Surveyor-General at 2s. 6d. (60 cents) to 5s. ($1-21) per acre, but the highest rental ever offered for it was Id. (2 cents) for every 14 acres. The Messrs. Chaffey Brothers undertake in this agreement to expend the sum of £300,000 ($1,459,950) within twenty years upon 47,000 acres in constructing irrigation works and for building an agricultural college. The land when cleared for settlement is to be cut up in small blocks of not more than 80 acres, if planted and prepared for fruit-growing, and not more than 160 acres if for other products, each to be farmed sepai'ately, and no person to be allowed to purchase more than one block. As soon as 100 families are settled there the college is to be opened, in which the principles of agriculture, horticulture, and chemistry, are to be taught. If the additional 200,000 acres are taken up, the sum of £420,000 ($2,043,930) is to be expended in improvements. This agreement was opposed in Parliament ; however, it was finally arranged that the Messrs. ChafFey Brothers should enter upon the occu- pation of their land. I I 22 N'EW SOUTH WALES : HER COMMERCE AND RESOURCES. POEESTS AKD POEEST CULTURE. The Government of New South Wales lias for many years been im- pressed with the necessity of taking steps for the preservation of the useful timber trees of the Colony. The soft, straight-grained woods, such as the pines, except in places as yet inaccessible, are well-nigh exhausted. The white beech and cedar trees are also becoming scarce. The latter trees are now seldom found except in places more or less difficult of access, and it is expensive to convey them to market. More- over, they are never met with in quantity. In fact, forests of one particular kind of tree, like the pine, spruce, or cedar of the United States, are unknown in this Colony. Such trees, when found,\are usually distributed amongst a variety of other kinds. The forest area of Xew South Wales would probably not exceed 30,000 square miles out of a total area of 310,938 square miles. The forests proper are mostly confined to the water-shed lying east of the Great Dividing Range or cordillera, which sejDarates the eastern and western water-sheds. This range has seven main branches, the highest peak of which is 7,300 feet. The country east of the Great Dividing Range is estimated to contain 50,000 square miles, one-fourth of which probably consists of forests. Pine trees, known as the Moi-eton Bay pine, Araucaria Cunnhig- hamii, Port Macquarie pine, Frenela Macleaijana, cypress pine, Frenela Endlicheri, mountain pine, Frenela Farlatorei, and colonial deal, Podo- carpus elata, together with some others, are found in various]'parts of this Colony ; but this timber is often difficult to reach, the country con- taining it being very rough, with high ranges and deep gullies. The principal woods of the Colony, " Eucalypti," belong to the natural order Myriacece. They are very hard and difficult to work, and are generally known by the name of hardwoods. Some species of Eucalyptus make good sleepers for railways and piles for bi-idges and wharves, but it does not at all compete with American timber for ordinary building purposes, where soft and easily worked woods are required. Some of the woods, known as ironbark, E. siderojMoia, and red gum, E. rostrata, are deemed indestructible in moist ground. The red gum is thought to be quite equal in strength and durability to the celebrated "jarrah" of Western Australia, which is also a .species of Eucalyptus, E. marginata. The " jarrah," like all the hardwoods of Australia, is liable to decay in the centre. The sound trees yield useful and durable timber, and there is talk of exporting it to the United States for cabinet work. The wood is of reddish colour, close in texture, and of slightly wavy grain. It is admirably adapted for docks and wharves. It is impervious to the attacks of the Teredo navalis and white ant. The timber of the red gum is characterized by considerable density and hardness. Like the "jarrali,"' it is of close texture and wavy grain, and is said not to slu'ink longitudinally. There are fifty-four species of Eucalyptus in New South "Wales, and many have lofty stems, thin branches, dull-coloured foliage, and scanty under- FORESTS AND FOREST CULTURE. 23 growth. Some of the commonest amongst them are the box, E. polyan- thema ; stringybai'k, E. ohliqua, E. cajpitellata, E, macrorrhyucha ; blue gum, E. goniocalyx, E. botryoides ; red gum, E. rostrata ; spotted gum, E. maculata, E. hceniastoma ; grey gum, E. saligna, E. tet'eticornis, E. viminalis ; messmate, E. amygdalina, E. pipe7'ifa ; peppermint, E. ^:)ipe?'i^« ; tallow-wood, E. microcorys ; ironbark, E. sideropldoia, E, leucoxylon ; and mahogany, E. resinifera, and E. rohusta. It must be borne in mind that vernacular names for native trees are vexy loosely applied in Austi'alia, the title " red gum," for instance, being applied to several species of eucalypts, while most species of eucalypt possess several names apiece. Perhaps the best known species of eucalyptus outside of Australia is the blue gum of Victoria and Tasmania, E. globulus ; but it is excessively rare in New South Wales. Eucalyptus amygdalina (called "mountain ash," "peppermint," "messmate," tire.) is likewise far more common in Victoria and Tasmania than in this Colony. In New South Wales it is confined to the southern portion. The blue gum tree grows to a greater height than any other in the world, and sometimes rises to 200 feet before sending out a branch. It reaches a greater height in Vic- toria and Tasmania than in New South AVales. The highest ever felled in the latter Colony was 360 feet, while in Victoria one was felled (at Healesville, 37 miles from Melbourne) measuring 480 feet (14 feet higher than the Strasburg Cathedral). The circumference was 100 feet. In Tasmania these trees not unfrequently attain a height of over 400 feet. These giants of the Australian forest do not impress the traveller so much as the big trees of California, on account of the greater bulk of the latter. The Rev. J. E. Tenison- Woods, F.G.S., F.L.S., accounts for the great height of these trees as follows : First, the extreme richness and moisture of the vegetable soil ; second, perfect absence of disturbance from the wind; and third, the comparative obscurity, or modilied light, which causes the young plant to throw out but few branches or leaves until the light of day is reached, which is often at a height of 100 feet or more above the root. The young leaves fall away and leave the tree still more bare as it grows up. Mr. Woods says of these trees: — "Longhands of bark hang down from their sides and across their branches, and when set in motion by the wind, keep up a constant rattle and creaking, filling the gloomy forests with the strangest echoes and sounds. The great height of the trees would never be imagined from the aspect they present. As they always grow on very steep slopes, and never crown the summit of the ridges, their height is lost against the adjacent ranges. It is only when standing against their stems, where the roots rise gracefully up ai-ound from the buttress-like base, twisting and turning round the bole-like massive moorings, that one gets an idea of their enormous size." The timber of this tree is strong, heavy, and durable. Its transverse strength is equal to that of English oak. It is used to a limited extent for ship-building purposes, for waggons and carriages, for palings, and for many other purposes. There are about one hundred different species of acacia in New South Wales. Though the timber they yield is, as a rule, of little value, some 24 NEW SOUTH WALES : IIEU COMMERCE AND RESOURCES. species furnish valuable timber. The bark is exported to various countries, where it is highly prized for tanning purposes. These trees are known by the generic name of "wattle." Their gum is utilized to a limited extent for commercial purposes, and the beautiful flowers of one or two species are used in the manufacture of perfume. In many places after the forest has been burned the " wattle " makes its appearance within a year or two. With the exception of the Government reserves, which comprise 5,460,125 acres, all forests in New South Wales on Ci'own lands are common property, except for grazing purposes. The Government reserves are however, of a temporary character, and arc reduced from time to time partly because upon careful examination they are found to con- tain little or no timber, and partly because the Government yields to pressure to put the land up for sale. The Go\ernment also controls large areas of unreserved timl)ered lands, but when once sold has nothing to do with the timber upon them. In most cases when land is sold the purchaser destroys the timber. A special license is required to cut timber from Crown lands. The charge for a license is at the rate of 5s. ($1-21) for ordinary timber, and 10.S. (§2-43) for cedar. Any person armed with a proper license can cut as much timber as he can remove from the land. No license is required by any one for the purpose of cutting firewood for his own use, if not intended for sale. Eights to cut and remove timber from blocks within State forests are also sold by auction, or by tender, at an upset price of £10 ($48-66) per block of 640 acres per annum, for a term of one year only, unless circumstances should justify the Government in special cases extending the term to three years, and then, in addition to block rental, a royalty is imposed. Land can be obtained for grazing purposes from the Government by paying an annual rental of not less than j£2 ($9"73) per section of 640 acres. According to the 1884 land law of New South Wales, now in force, th(i Government can let by tender or at auction, such lands as are not under lease, not to exceed 1,920 acres subject to rental, for the whole year, if tenancy be created at any time of the year prior to the 30th of June, and for the half year's rental, if afterwards. Lands thus rented, even after renewal, do not bar the area from sale, conditional or otherwise. Scrub lands may be leased in areas of 10,240 acres maximum, and 640 acres minimum, for a term of fifteen years, subject to clearing con- ditions from time to time defined by regulations, at a minimum rental of 2s. 6d. (61 cents) per section for the first five years, and 5s. ($1-21) for the second five years, and £1 ($4.86) for the third five years. Rental during either of the three periods of five years may be remitted upon the recommendation of the Local Land Board. No residence on scrub leases is required by the Land Act. In the common forest no protection is afforded against the ravages of stock, and some of the edible trees, such as the myall, boree, and *lie oak, Casuarina, will be exterminated, it is said, in a few years, as the stock cat the young seedlings. FORESTS AND FOREST CULTURE. 25 The myall is a species of acacia, A. homalophylla. It is foixnd on tlie Salt Bush Plains and on the Murray River, and from the Lachlan to the Bai-rier Range. The timber is hard, dark, and fragrant. It is suitable for cabinet -work, and was formerly used by the aboriginal inhabitants for making spears. The boree or " Weeping Myall," known to science as A. pendula, is a very beautiful tree, attaining to a height of 40 feet, with diameter of 18 inches, thovigh usually of half the dimensions. The foliage is pale or ash-coloured. It is found on the Illawarra and Liverpool Plains, and is said to be the only useful timber tree of the Lachlan morasses. The wood is hard, close-grained, and violet-scented, and in this respect unique. It is highly prized for pipes, fancy boxes, etc., and wood artificially scented is often substituted for it. The colonial pine, Araucaria Cunninghamii, is by far the most suitable and most readily available of the Australian soft woods. It is close- grained, free from knots, and easily worked, and is very generally used for flooring and spars, joiners' and cabinet work. It is shipped to Sydney from the northern districts by sea. The logs measure from 100 to 120 feet in length. Their diameter is from 2 to 3 feet. The greater part of the colonial pine is obtained from lands bordering the rivers in the northern districts. It is abundant on the Crown lands, some distance from navigaljle water, but has to be drawn by bullock teams over rough country. Boards of this timber sell in Sydney from 12s. (12-92) to 16s. ($3-89) per 100 superficial feet. Logs from 7s. ($1-70) to 9s. ($2'19) per 100 superficial feet, girth measurement. White beech, Gmelina Leichhardtii. — This timber is one of the most valuable in Australia. It is of a beautiful silvery colour, close- grained, and not liable to shrink or warp. It is used for decks of ships, floorings of verandahs, carving, and wood engi'aving. It is found on both the northern and southern coast disti'icts, and is conveyed to Sydney in small vessels. Height of tree, 100 to 120 feet; diaineter, from 3 to 4 feet. The price of this timber in Sydney is from 14s. ($3-40) to 18s. {$4-38) per 100 superficial feet. Red cedar, Cedrelci Toona. — This timber, which at one time was extensively used in Australia, is becoming scarce through neglect and waste. The trees which were cut down years ago were allowed to rot on the ground. The timber is of a dark red colour, light in weight, and veiy durable ; some of it has a lovely figai-e. It is used for furniture, turning, cabinet-making, and all kinds of fittings in house and ship building, and is still one of the best known timbers in Australia. It is said to be plentiful in Queensland and New Guinea, but is seldom found in Kew South Wales except in ravines and mountainous country. It is, however, being planted by the Government. The Sydney prices of red cedar vary from 18s. ($4-38) to 35s. ($8-52) per 100 superficial feet, according to quality. Logs bring from 16s. ($3"89) to 25s, ($6-08) per 100 superficial feet, girth measurement. Native plum, Achras Australis. — Is another valuable timber, similar to white pine, and used for tlie same purposes. It is found in moderate . . I 1.2,r,l, 2, 3 JI. 1 (! A C A Torest oak Ti;riicntine ]A Flooded gum A Stringybark ' A Wliite ironbark ! D Grey box ' D Pine ! D Forest mahogany* D Rosewood D AVhite beech D Grey ironbark Red ironbark B Soottcd trwni B Bla^kbutt . . AYoolybutt B Swamp mal ogany .. .. Mountain ash blackwood B Blackbuttt | F Mahogany t F Tallow-wood § ! F Grey gum ;| i F nooded gum •[[ ' F 2C-11-S6 . do do May, 1SS6 19-.<-S7 5-5-S7 2 1S-1-S7 19-1-S7 lS-i-S7 15-4-&7 2-5-S7 10-10-SG 8-12-SG ... C-SC . . . do ... do lS-4-87 . . . 15-1-87 .... 20-4-S7 .... July or Aug., 1880. do do do 23-11-SG ... do do 8-2-S7 ... 3-5-S7 . . . 5-5-S7 . . . 3-5-87 . . . All from sau! tree.) do do 4-5-S7 . . . 5-S7 . . . 5-5-S7 do do ^^■-E-S7 .... Il-l-b7 .... 12-1-S7 .... 22-1-87 .... 24-1 -S7 .... do 22-4-S7 .... 26-4-87 .... 30-4-87 .... 11-5-87 14-5 87 20-1 -87. 13-5-87. About 150 feet 130 „ 150 „ 34 „ fork. 71 fcot 12 ,, 120 „ 154 „ 110 „ 100 „ 00 „ 140 „ 143 „ 70 „ SO „ 00 .. 100 110 110 50 100 80 150 120 130 150 110 About. S3 inches. .. 27 ..|30 to; 30 15 18 . 30 .1 43 . 30 .1 24 .120 I .\ 26 i .i 33 i .1 15 .1.3 .; 30 34 28 30 30 30 ■Abcutl SO I 150 feet .... 70 I 130 , 80 I 150 „ .... .: Not \ SO to 90 ft. .. i ascer-i jtained .; 45 I C0tr>S0f!:. .. , 1 32 j 50 to 70 ft. : J i2S j 100 to 130 ft. I ' 50 ! 130 to ICO ft. i f.O I 90 to 110 ft... ■ feet. I , lUS i 120fflet 123 I 00 198 I 140 110 ! 1!0 .j 100 i 100 „ .! 12G 50 to 100 ft... . 130, 30" in : dia- ] : nipter; .: 110, j 50 to 100ft... ;28'' in! dia- meter .1 80, '2G" in I dia- meter . ! 02, .30" in I dia- ! meter .1 86, 1 34" in 1 dia- 1 meter 80 80 70 120 110 115 90 95 70 to 120ft... GO to 110 ft... SO to 150 ft. ._ 50 to 70 ft. ., 80 to 150ft... 50 to 100ft... 120 to 130 ft. 100 to 120 ft. 100 to 120 ft. 140 to 150 ft. 110 to 120 ft. * Those marked with O, additional, felled some years ago. t From an old tree decayed at heart 12 inches from the .same tree. § An old tree, 9 inches pijio. Fil'teen specimens from the same tree. |! Fairly matured there being no suitable timber left to make the third, x 4, required. The timber li.aving lain in the mill yard KOTE.— The natural growth and blending of the annual rirgs into each other renders it impossible to arrive forests and forest culture. Under Secretary for the Department of Mines. 33 r Avcraffe diameter of trees in locality. S3 indiCS . . so „ .. SO (o 42 in. Locality whence obtained. Foniiatlon and kind of soil. Botanical name. BuIlahJclah do do Jloira State Forest, county of Cadell 11 to 13 „ 15 to liO ,, 18 to 30 „ S6 to 43 „ 13 to 30 „ £4 inches . 20 ,. ■ ICowarra Reserve, I i i>ansh of Queen's ;-j Lake, A. O. Lauritoii, county of Mac(|uario. Altered sedimentary formation ; fair! depth of soil ; slopes and gadlics. | Same formation ; more open lo«'-: laiul soil ; generally clayey. ' Same formation ; tops and sides ofi stonp\' ridycs. i Alluvial ; subject to annual inunda-j tion ; clay, loam. Undulating ; sub-soil of yellow clay South Grafton forest ridi;e>. I 20 , SO , so , 2i to ; . ' 'West'- Camp, Xym- i boida. ! . i North A rm, Clarence! i Uiver. j . i West Camp, Nym- ; i boida Kiver. j . I Aiiiuiny Creek : lloserve, 200. j . ; Parish of P.enandra.i j coimty of St. Vin- cent. Undulating' ; sub-soil clayey i Level ; moist and swampy scrub . . . . ! Eid^'cs ; red soil ; Ironstone ; poor yoil, el.ay sub-soil.. ^ do do ..I Trap ; scrub soil Forest ridjres ; rod soil ! Trap ; scrub soil : Sandstone ; alluvial I Slate stony ridges ; poor I 24 to 33 „ . . 2Uo48 „ .. 24 to 48 „ .. 24 to 48 „ .. 24 to 30 „ .. 24 to 43 „ . 18 to 30 „ .. 48 inches 30 „ .... 30 to 36 in. . . 30 to 30 „ . . 30 inclies.. .. do do do do do do Eucalyptus niicrooorys. F.v.M. Or J. Myrtacoio. Eueai.vptus maculata. Ilk. Ord. Myr- tae:o. Eucalyptus microcorys. F.v.M. Ord. JIyrtace;c. Eucalyptus rostrata. Scl.l. Ord. Myr- taccx'. Casuarina torulosa. Ait. Oj'J. Casuarine;v. Synoarpia laurifolia. Jen. Ord. Myr- taceie. Eucalyptus saligna. Sm. Ord. Myr- taee:».;. Eucalyptus piperita var. Sm. Ord. Myrtaoea;. Eucaiyjituscrebra. F.v.ii. Ord. Myr- taceaj. Eucalyptus polyantbema. Scliau. Ord. Myrtaeca;. Arauc.aria Cunningbamii. Ait. Ord. Couiferte. Eucalyptus rciiiiifcra. f^iii. Ord. Myrtaeeai. Dysoxjdum Fraserianum. Ponth. Ord. Meliaccaj. Not true white boecU (Gmelina Lcichliardtii); jjerius and species not identified. Euealyi)tus crobra. F.v.il. Ord. Jlyr. taceas. Eucalyptus Icucoxylon. F.v.M. Ord. Jrlyrtaee;o. Slate formation ; poor soil Eucalyptus rnaculata. Ilk. Ord. Myrtacea;. Quartz and slate ; poor soil Jloruya, county of St. Vincent. Parish of Mong-a, county of St. Vin- cent. Basaltic, stony, ])orous soii. Paris'n of Tanban, county of Dudley, do do do do Alluvial ; fairly good soil Alluvial ; and swanipj- sour soil . . . Granite ; stony soil do Clayey soil ; decomposed granite formation. do do do do -Mluvial soil ; flooded land Ciajey soil ; deconiiioscd granite formation. Eucalyptus pilularis. Sm. Ord. Myr- tacea). Eucalyptus sp. ? (It is not thought that this is true woolybutt.) Eucalyptus robusta. Sm. Ord. Myr- taeeai. Eucalyptus virgata. Sieb. Ord. Myr- tace*. Acacia melanoxylon, R. Br. Ord. Leguminosa;. Eucalyptus pilularis. Sm. Ord. Myr- taceae. Eucalyptus resinifera. Sm. Ord. Myrtacea). Eucalyptus microcorj-s. F.v.M. Ord. Myrtacea). Eucalyptus tereticornis? Sm. Eucalyptus saligna. Sm. Ord. Myr- tace.e. pipe. Fifteen specimens, as per size, from the same tree. t An old tree, 6 inches pipe. Fifteen specimens tree, sound, no pipe. Fifteen specimens from same tree. One of these specimens, ."5 x 3, is under the size given, exposed since January will account for the numerous sun cracks. 'i Fully matured tree, 4 inches pipo, at a correct estimate of the number on a rough surface, altliough this may Is done on a polished sur,''acis. C I 34 NEW SOUTH AVALES : HER COMMERCE AND RESOURCES, In order that tlie results of tlie testing should be as valuable as possible for the purposes of comparison, the author decided that the following numbers and sizes of specimens should be used for each kind of timber tested : — Tension — 2 pieces, 3' 0" long X •'>1" X 2-r Compression — 2 G' 0" X 3" X 3" 2 4' 0" X 3" X 3" 2 2' 0" X 3" X 3" 2 1' 0" X 3" X 3" Cross breaking — 3 4' 6" X 6" X 4" Shearing — 2 3' 0" X 21" X 21" for cutting up into blocks 6" long, for testing along and at right angles to the grain. A letter was written by Mr. "Warren to the Hon. F. Abigail, Secretary for Mines, requesting that the officers of the Mines Department be instructed to arrange for the collection and naming of specimens of New South AVales timbers, in accordance with the foregoing list of particulars. The request was complied with, and the schedule of particulars given in the preceding table was supplied by Mr. H. "Wood, the Under-Secretary for Mines. The specimens of timber collected by the Department of Mines, were sent to the Government works, Redfern, where they were prepared for testing. The specimens intended for testing in tension were turned in a lathe. The specimens for testing in compression were planed square on the four sides and ends. The specimens for testing as beams were planed square on the four sides only. The blocks for shearing along and at right angles to the gi-ain were prepared in the University, and fitted into special apparatus devised for testing them. An autographic stress-strain apparatus was devised and used for recording the results of the tests in compression and cross-breaking, but "was not used in tension. Descri]jtio7i of the Autogrcvphic Stress-strain Apparatus used in testing timber. The apparatus used in drawing stress-strain diagrams consists of a frame, which is rectangular in plan, and which is attached to the cross-head of the testing machine. There are two steel axis fixed to the end plates of frame by means of locknuts. One axis carries a brass drum 1 2 inches long X 5 inches in diameter ; the other axis carries a pulley fixed upon or cast with a brass pipe. A spiral grove is cut upon the pipe, -\ of an inch pitch ; and there is also a spiral ga-ove cut upon the drum, which IS 2 inches pitch. The two spirals are connected by means of a piece of strong catgut, so that for ten revolutions of the spiral, the drum makes one revolution. The pulley is made to revolve by means of a steel pianoforte-Avire attached to the rider from which the poise weight is . FORESTS AND FOREST CULTURE. 35 suspended, and is led round a guide pulley, and makes a complete revolution round a pulley, passing upwards over guide pulleys fixed to ceiling, and terminating in a weight of 141b. There is a strong clock spring inside the drum, so fixed that the revolution of the drum pro- duced by winding the poise weight along the steel-yard is made to coil up the spring, and by Avinding the poise weights in the reverse direction the spring uncoils and brings back the drum to its original position. Thus the drum is made to revolve through an angle which is propor- tional to the distance to which the poise weight has been wound, and therefore proportional to the load on the specimen. The deflection or compression, as the case may be, is transmitted and recorded upon the revolving drum in the following manner : — A steel rod, square for a portion of its length, slides freely in bearings provided in the end plates of frames, and also at the extremity of an overhanging bracket ; the rod carries a slotted link in which slides a small roller which is pressed against the sides of the link by the movement of a lever. There is also a weighted pencil which can be adjusted and fixed to any portion of the square rod between the end plates of frame. The lever is provided with knife edges which are pressed by the forked end of the screwed rod as the specimen yields. The rod slides or is fixed in a bearing which is attached to the test specimen. In the compression tests the screwed rod is attached by means of a union screw to a steel rod which is connected at its other end with the fixed compression block of the testing machine. The lengths of the rods are arranged according to the length of the specimen tested. Both, in cross-breaking or compression the yielding of the specimen is trans- mitted to the knife edges of the lever as a simple harmonic motion which is reproduced multiplied ten times on the sliding rod carrying the pencil in the manner already referred to. A piece of sectional paper is wrapped round the drum and clipped, upon which the diagi'am or diagrams are drawn in the following manner : — The pencil is adjusted to the datum point on the paper by means of the adjusting screw and the adjustable connection of the steel wire with poise weight. The force pump is then worked until the load upon the specimens is sutticient to raise the steel-yard and the poise weight suspended from it, which causes the specimen to yield and the pencil to draw a line parallel with the axis of the drum. The pumjiing is continued and the poise weight wound along the steel-yard keej^ing it floating in a horizontal position, and balancing the load upon the specimen. A diagram is thus drawn, the ordinate of which shows the deflection or compression, and the abscissa the load producing it. The diagram starts with a deflection produced by 2,5001b. in the transverse tests, and at 10,0001b. in the compression tests. The diagram is completed after the paper is taken off" the drum, so that it reads from zero both for load and deflection. The effect of the tension on the wire on the poise weiglit of steel-yard is eliminated by m-eans of guide pulleys, which are so arranged that the moment of the tension on the wire about the fulcrum of the steel-yard is always zero. 36 NEW SOUTH WALKS : IIEI! COMMERCE AND RESOURCES. The autographic stress-strain apparatus above described was designed by Mr. J. A. M'Donald, A.M.I.C.E., and M.I.M.E., and Professor Warren, and it was made in his laboratory. Transverse strength and elasticity. The transverse strength and ehisticity were determined in the follow- ing manner : — The beam was fixed in the machine and connected with the auto- graphic stress-strain apparatus. The supports were 48 inches apart, and the load was applied in the centre. The apparatus was first carefully adjusted so that the slightest yielding of the specimen was accurately marked by the pencil on the sectional paper covering the drum, and the beam was first fixed by means of the hand-wheel and screw, which generally produced a slight defection which was recorded by the pencil moving in a straight line. The hand- pump was then worked until the load on the specimen was sufficient to raise the steel-yard with 2501b. resting on the figure 10, which showed that the load on the specimen was 2, .5001b., the pencil still moving in a sti-aight line parallel to the axis of the drum records the multiplied deflection due to the load. The load is then increased by pumping and balanced by the poise weight in tlie manner before referred to, and the diagram thus drawn shows the behaviour of the specimen from 2,5001b. to the breaking load. The remainder of the diagram is completed in the manner before described. The yielding of the specimen, however, causes a slight rotation of the drum independently of the winding of the poise weight, which at the breaking load would have caiised considerable error only this point is r<:ad oS" the steel-yard and recorded independently of the diagram. The deflection of the specimen within the point where the deflection ceases to be proportional to the load producing it is accurately determined by writing on the diagram the loads called out by the assistant minding the poise weight ; but in all these experiments the velocity rates of the apparatus was so adjusted that the loads and corresponding- deflections within the limit of elasticity were recorded on the diagi*am for average specimens, and the difference between this average and the maximum or minimum deflection did not produce an error exceeding 2011). over or under the true load. The modulus of elasticity was always calculated from the load and corresponding deflection within one-third of the breaking weight, so that an error of 201b. in recording the load would not produce any appreciable error in th? modulus. There is no difficulty in eliminating this error, but it was not considered necessary under the circumstances. The modulus of rupture is calculated from the formula — 3 W^ /= 25 fZ- Where W == Breaking loads in lb. I = Span in inches. h -. Breadth in inches, and d = Depth in inches. FORESTS AND FOREST CULTURE. 37 Tlie modulus of elasticity is calculated from the formula — 4y6 d' Where W = Breaking load. I = Span in inches. V = Deflection in inches. b = Breadth in inches. d = Depth in inches. I, b, d are measured accurately before the experiment. W and V are each taken from the diagram. Compressive strength and elasticity. The experiments on the compressive strength and elasticity were made on specimens of the following dimensions : — X 3* X 3 " The diagram-drawing apparatus was connected and the length of the rod was varied with the length of the specimen tested. The diagram of load and cori-esponding compression was drawn in a similar manner to to that described for the specimens tested transversely ; the errors, however, which were referred to are much smaller, and may be entirely neglected. The breaking load is read off the steel-yard, which is divided by the sectional area of the sj)ecimen, in order to And the load per square inch. The modulus of elasticity is calculated from the formula — WL E = Wt ere W — Load producing compression /. L = Length of specimen. K = Sectional area. If the curve of compression (as drawn by the autographic stress-strain apparatus) is a straight line, the modulus is calculated from W and I measured off the diagram anywhere in this straight line ; if the curve is irregular, the modulus is calculated for W and I at about quarter the breaking load. L is measured before the experiment at the same time as h and d, from which k is calculated thus, K = 6 d. 430416 38 NEW SOUTH WALES : HER COMMERCE AXD RESOURCES. Tensile strength and elasticity. The tensile strengths and elasticities were determined hj fixing the turned specimens in the machine. The autographic apparatus was not used for these tests, hut the extensions were marked with steel trammels 10 inches long, amd read off with a steel rule divided into hundredths with the aid of a glass. The diameters of the specimens were carefully measured with vernier callipers. The breaking load divided by the area in square inches gives the ten- sile strength per square inch. The modulus of tensile elasticity was calculated from tlie formula — WL E = "W and I were taken within \ of the breaking weight. The results obtained for tensile elasticity are given as rough approxi- mation, as the method adopted for measuring the elongations can hardly be considered accurate enough for determining the modulus. Shearing strength. The shearing strength of the various timbers along the grain was determined by cutting specimens of about 6 inches x 4 inches x 2 inches, and fitting them into the apparatus. With regard to the shearing resis- tance of timber in a plane at right angles to the lengths of the fibres, the author experimented with a number of specimens, and found that in every case the fracture took place with the grain. It can be proved that wherever there is a tendency to shear in a certain plane, there is an equal tendency to shear in a plane at right angles to it. Hence, in the specimens of timber, although the apparatus was arranged to develop shearing stress in a plane at right angles to the direction of the fibx'es, there was at the same time developed an equal shearing stress in the plane of the fibres, and since the resistance of the fibres to shear with the grain is less than across the grain, it follows that it is impossible for the timber to shear in any other way than along the grain. Weight of timber jJer cubic foot. The weights of the various timbers per cubic foot wei'e ascertained by weighing each set of three specimens of the timber before testing them for transverse strength, and dividing this weight by the nundoers of cubic feet contained in the three pieces. In this way the column in table has l^een obtained. The specific gravities of five kinds of timber were determined by Mr. A. Helms, M.A., Ph.D. (Berlin), demonstrator in chemistry at the University of Sydney, in the following manner : — The specimens were prepared as 1- mch cubes, and were kept five days in open air at a temperature of from 15 to 19 degrees C ; they were then dried three hours in a water bath at a temperature of 96 degrees C, varnished and dried one hour in a water bath and kept again three days in the open air at from 15 FORESTS AND FOREST CULTURE. 39 degrees to 1 9 degrees C. The specific gravity was taken in eacli case at a temperature of 17 degrees C. The results are given in the following table : — Name of Timber. Weiglit in air. Weight in water. Difference. Speciiic gravity. Grvej ironbark 20-OGlO 20-0510 151715 16-0265 15-7605 3-0714 2-6620 1-6790 0-1410 0-5200 16-9896 17-3890 16-8505 16-1675 16-2805 1-1807 Eed ironbark 1-1531 Spotted gum 9003 Blackbiitt 0-9912 Wooljbutt 09680 The weights per cubic foot have been deduced from the results given in the above, and compared with the results obtained by direct weighing and measuring;- in the following table : — Name of Timber. Weight per cubic foot deduced from experiments made by Dr. Helms, in lb. Weight per cubic foot, obtained by direct measuring and weighing, in lb. Grray ironbark 73-79375 72-06870 56-2687 61-9500 60-5000 73-854 Eed ironbark 76-522 Spotted euni . 62-195 Blackbutt 65-539 Woolybutt 63-895 Both Dr. Helms and Professor Warren consider that the results ob- tained by direct weighing and measuring are at least as satisfactory as those obtained from the specific gravities, as the want of delicacy in the former method is compensated for by the fact that a better average of the timber is obtained from the large scantlings than from the 1-inch cubical specimens ; and it was, therefore, not considered necessary to find the specific gravity of the remaining specimens. The results are recorded in the summary of tests." 40 NEW SOUTH WALES : HER COMMERCE AXD RESOURCES. us jail HI ui ssoj^s auiJitiaJa llil •111 ajtjnbs :i3d •q[ UI aJn^iluj jo sninpoM o 5d h ^ X — I--:! -M ci-L-; — roc: ci o 01 t= o eg -2 2: S 00 o 1-- — ^ o C". 1^ " o S2 »n oc o i^ Q\^ tc r^ o_ ^__ CO •<* c^ ro M ^ ^ ^ C; CI O CC r: CO O OC t^ 01 O t^ CO -# 05 01 fo -t -^ o coo ^ o~. ~oi-*;ccor^CiOicocoocct^— -'' '^!.'^.*.-'^''^„'-^„'^ c^f t-^ ic co' of o" co' i-^ of -h" o" co' OO co' o o" -^ 01 C3 lo" 11,727 13,931 14,415 in 3.it;ul)s jad 'qi ui SSOJJS SuiJfGO.ia m CO CO o t^ o t^ o ;r; uo—io— '~co — oc;-^— 'Cnr--— cxi--xoioi--o — 1.0— 1 — 01 — CV C", 01 l^ X CV t— o — c^o oijq^ ^- O oT oc w" tri i--^ cc irf o ;o CO -^ t--^ :c" oc t-^ X CO -— 0) CO o C5 C20coL'rict^oit^co~— >ir50C5— ifxco -ti Ol O i-O — -^ -+ — ' Ol t^ r^ O — 1^ C CO 01 en 01 oi o 1- X 00 Tf< CO o ■* o c; ^__ CO c; oi X x_ lO CO rt" cT X lo"— 'co lO— 'o'—f -""crr-^'of X cf r^ C-. o t^ CO CO X LI lo -t< c; o ■* o 01 o o ..o l^ t^ Lt l^ O". 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The Department of Lands has the power to create or revoke timber reserves. Permission to ring-bark timber on Crown lands is granted by the local boards, and under such conditions as may appear advisable. Reports in regard to these matters are made by the rangers. In an oflicial report it is stated that the cost of a large proportion of the work which it is found convenient should be performed by the Forest Department cannot properly be considered as a'<;harge against the timber revenue, and that the falling off in the revenue in 1885 and 1886 is partly attributed to the lessened demand for New South Wales timber in the Colony of Victoria, and partly to the drought, and to the suspension of public works, the timber for which being usually drawn from the Government I'eserves. The foi'est revenue consists principally in the receipts from the reserves subject to royalty and licenses for cutting and ring-barking timber. The following table shows the revenue and expenditure of the Forest Department for eacli year from 1877 : — Revenue. Expenc Year. Forest Conservancy. Forest Conservancy and Quarry Licenses. iture. £ $ £ $ £ $ 1877 4,325 21,043 4,579 22,284 1878 5,935 28,883 5,593 27,218 1879 7,310 35,574 7,946 38,670 5,920 28,809 1880 8,328 40,528 8,990 43,750 6,636 32,294 1881 10,156 49,424 10,813 52,621 7,093 34,518 1882 12,327 59,989 13,047 63,493 12,592 61,279 1883 16,001 77,869 16,686 81,202 15,389 74,890 1884 17,565 85,480 18,250 88,814 17,481 85,071 1885 13,144 63,965 13,863 67,464 18,146 88,303 1886 13,935 67,810 14,607 71,085 17,933 87,271 The Forest Department has also charge of the Government operations in the way of forest planting. The forest rangers have extensive districts assigned to them, and their duties, on that account, are difiicult to perform. 42 NEW SOUTH WALES : HER COMMERCE AND RESOURCES. An actin" ranger has been appointed at Lord Howe's Island, an island belonging to New South Wales, situated about 900 miles from Sydney. There are also several rangers and assistants in the far west. Most of tlic forest officers are men of large and varied experience, and evince a thorough knowledge of the work they have in hand, whilst some of them possess no little scientific knowledge, although previous to appointment it is not necessary for them to undergo a course of training like that required of those in charge of the large forest estates in Europe and India. Tlie work of replanting forest trees has not been carried on to any great extent in New South Wales. Indeed, in the year 1886, out of an expenditure of o £17,93.3 (.^87,271) by the Forest Dejiartment, only j£64.3 r7s. (.^3,222) was incurred on account of planting. The experience of the Department in tree planting has mainly been confined to strips of country along the railway lines. The trees chosen for the purpose are usually the wattle (acacia), with a sprinkling of pine and cedar, but such as have been planted are scattered at irregular dis- tances along the routes. The expenses incurred in planting them in this extended fashion, together with their liability to injury, compelled the Department to discontinue the planting, except in particularly favourable localities. In addition to the operations of the Forest Department, the dix'ector of the Botanical Gardens, of Sydney, has a tree nursery under his charge at Campbelltown, 34 miles from Sydney. This nursery is used principally for the growth of trees and shrubs to adorn the govern- ment reserves, parks, gardens, and grounds, attached to the public buildings. Great care is taken in this nursery to propagate the most useful and ornamental indigenous trees of the Colony, such as the myall, boree, black wattle, green wattle, the waratah, together with various palms, cedars, and figs. Amongst the indigenous trees to which attention is paid, is the Christ- mas tree, so called on accovint of its being so generally used for de- corating purposes during the Christmas season. Properly speaking, it is more of a bush than a tree, but it sometimes attains the height of 40 feet and a diameter of 15 inches. In the month of November it is covered with, a mass of beautiful white flowers, but towards Christmas the calyces, which are very persistent, change to a bright red colour, or to red mixed with white, which gives the plant quite a diflerent appear- ance. Much attention is also given to the cultivation of various kinds of fig- trees, for shade, in the neighbourhood of Sydney and in other parts of the Colony. The two principal species used for this purpose are the long-leaved or Moreton Bay fig Ficus macropliylla, and the small- leaved or Illawarra fjg Ficus tnicrojyhylla. They frequent the eastern slope. One of the finest species was named by Baron Miiller Ficus columnaris, and it is said to attain greater perfection in Lord Howe's Island than elsewhere. It originates in the fork of some tree, which it desti'oys by sending forth strong limljs, from which rope-like shoots descend until they reach the ground, where they take root and enlarge into stems and become the centres from which other stems stretch forth. ( FORESTS AND FOREST CULTURE. 43 The roots of tliis tree increase so rapidly and at the same time send out such gigantic branches that it is no uncommon thing to see the original tree at a height of 70 or 80 feet peeping through the fig, as if itself were the parasite on the real intruder. Within the angles or walls of the tree there is said to be room enough for a good-sized party to dine comfortably. The rich undei'growth of palms and ferns which find shelter beneath its fantastical branches add greatly to the weird and varied attractions of these trees. The Forest Department assists the public in regard to tree planting, and when practicable, without interfering with private enterprise, seeds and plants are furnished free of charge, together with much useful infor- mation and instructions as to mode of culture. As there is no depart- ment of agriculture in the Colony the Forest Branch has to deal with noxious weeds and many other matters which concern more pi'operly an agricultural bureau. There are no schools of forestry in New South Wales, nor is there provision for the systematic study of the science of foi'estry. The estab- lishment of model farms in the Colony where the science of forestry can be taught among other branches of practical and scientific farming is much required. The forests of ISTew South AVales and of other portions of Australia are destroyed in various ways, but principally by ring-barking. This process consists in simply cutting a ring about 6 inches wide round the tree with an axe or tomahawk. The time chosen for this process is in the autumn, when the sap has matured. The destruction of forests in this way has become so great as to seriously attract the attention of the Government. It appears to have begun about thirty years ago in the watershed of the Hunter River, but it did not become general until the inauguration of the system of free selection, by which certain tracts of land were opened up to bond fide settlers (or to persons who had erected homesteads) at low prices. The free selectors usually chose heavily timbered districts, and the wholesale destruction of forests began. Ring- barking was thought to be the best means for clearing land, not only for small farms but for grazing purposes. According to a paper on this subject, prepared by Mr. W. E. Abbott, for the Royal Geographical Society of New South Wales, the objections urged against this method were that the creeks and rivers would dry up owing to the increased evaporation, and that the rainfall would be reduced by the removal of the large condensing surface offered by the winds when heavily laden with moisture. Mr. Abbott gave some practical illustrations resulting from his experience. In 1869 and 1870 he ring-barked the greater part of Uie watershed of two creeks, and the whole of the watershed of a third, being about two miles, and draining a well defined valley shut in by high ridges of basalt. He noticed, as soon as the timber was dead, that one of the creeks assumed the character of a permanent stream, and that the others were very greatly improved. In 1878 all three became permanent streams, and have continued such ever since. Previous to the ring-barking they were dried up during a portion of the year. Mr. Abbott does not think that the destruction of forests will reduce rainfall, 44 NEW SOUTH AVALES : HER COMMERCE AXD RESOURCES. but he argues that when there is a large and regular rainfall there is sure to be a lieavy forest growth, and that the forest is the result of the rainfall, and not the rainfall of the forest. Mr. Abbott attributed the increased flow of water on his land, first, to the fact that the roots of the trees decaying acted as a sort of subsoil drainage, leading the water down into the subsoil and afterwards allowing it to drain off slowly into the watercourses ; second, that a large proportion of the rainfall ■wliich Avas formerly taken up by the roots of the growing trees and evap- orated from the leaves was enabled to find its way to the creeks and rivers. Mr. Abbott says : " The fact that the Eucalyptus, so com- mon throughout Australia, is perhaps the most vigorous growing tree known, and that it is used successfully in other parts of the world to dry up SAvampy land, Avould seem to support this explanation." Australian forests are also destroyed by bush fires and natural causes. If the drought lasts long enough, there can be no doubt about its des- tructive agency, but there are often more effective agents for the destruction of forests than the drought, for during the driest seasons ever known in the Colonies many trees Avere not affected at all. The injury done to the forests by bush fires is also very much exaggerated. These fires are of course more common during dry seasons than at other times. In the great conflagrations that took place in 1863 and 1865 it seemed that vast tracts of forest country had been fatally injured. The leaves assumed a sickly colour, but the trees, except in a few instances, after tAvo or three years showed marked signs of recovery from the scorching they had received, and large numbers of shoots sprang up from their trunks. The greatest bush fires ever knoAvn in Austi-alia occurred on Thurs- day, the 6th of February, 18.51, called Black Thursday. On that day the thermometer rose in Victoria to 118 degrees in the shade. The northern winds Avere charged Avith fearful heat. Vasts forests were in flames. There had been no rain for a considerable period, and fires seemed to break out everywhere. Stations, farm-houses, sheep, cattle, and even human beings Avere consumed. The wind was so hot that it seemed to bear death upon its Avings. A gentleman who reached Mel- bourne at that time stated that a chain of fire I'an on both sides of him even to the margin of the road for a distance of over .50 miles. Like the floods of 18-19 the disaster Avas looked upon as a visitation of Providence. About thirty years ago vast tracts of forest country Avere apparently destroyed by fire in New South Wales. The fire seemed to extend in a series of columns from Sydney to Parramatta, a distance of 1 5 miles. After a period of seven years scarcely a trace of the conflagration Avas left. In Avhat are knoAvn as bush forests, Avhei-e the trees are characterized by luxuriance and denseness of groAvth, fires seldom occur. The bush forests are usually found on the east side of the great dividing range or mountain slopes, Avhere the soil consists of decomposed rocks, or on rich alluvial lands along the courses of rivers. The atmosphere in these forests even during the heat of summer is charged Avith moisture. FORESTS AND FOREST CULTURE. 45 Among the trees common to these forests may be mentioned the cedar, rosewood, pine, tulip-wood, silky oak, white maple, yellow-wood, native laurel, colonial deal, brush cherry, the myrtle, hickoiy, native tamarind, and othes. Bush fires occur more frequently among what are called open forests. These forests are composed principally of trees belonging to the eucalypti. The forests of Australia are occasionally injured by vast multitudes of caterpillars. These insects grow in New South Wales to an extra- ordinary size, and move in perfect masses, making parallel roads as they eat their way round the trees, destroying both the bark and sap wood. The chief natural cause, however, of the destruction of forests in Australia is said to be the ravages of the opossum. According to a paper read before the Royal Geographical Society of New South "Wales in August, 1885, by Mr. Peter Macpherson, the opossums appear in sufficient numbers to lay waste considerable tracts of timbered country. Mr. Macpherson had been a close oljserver of the forests for many years. He gave much study and time to the habits of the opossum. He noticed that numbers of these animals flock to the gum trees growing near the waterholes, especially in time of drought. In order to test fully their destiuctive powers, he captured a few opossums and put them on the trees in his garden. He noticed that a single opossum would eat more than two hundred leaves in one night. The animals showed great liking for the young sappy leaves of the gum ti'ee, and when very hungry were not averse to cherry leaves, light wood and honeysuckle. They would not touch the tough, leathery leaves of the old gum trees when the young ones were ii» reach. It was urged against the theory of the destructive powers of the opossum that on account of their heavy weight they could not climb up the slender branches of trees to eat the leaves, but Mr. Macpherson noticed that the large opossums would eat the bark and leaves within their reach, and that the young ones would go out on the branches, and using their fore feet as hands, would bend the branches down towards them and nibble off" the leaves. The trees thus destroyed by tJie opossum assumed a spectral naked appearance, whilst those destroyed by caterpillars and other insects were nothing like so bare, the leaves in the latter case being eaten off" in a very irregular and uneven manner. The insects would bite the leaf at the edoes and again in the middle, and sometimes in both ways. Mr. Russell, the govei*nment astronomer, in commenting on Mr. Mac- pherson's paper, said it should be remembered that lai-ge patches of forests die off", while all around them there was the usual healthy vegetation. Professor Liversedge, of the Sydney University, is of opinion that the decay of the gum trees in many cases is due to the exhaustion of the soil, although the same soil might support a flourish- ing growth of other forest trees, and that to obtain the best growth of trees it is necessary to have a rotation, as in farming. 46 NEW SOUTH WALES : HER COMMERCE A\D RESOURCES. Tlie question of reclamation of sand dunes or waste places by tree planting has not been a pressing one in New South Wales, on account of the sparsely settled condition of the country. With the exception of the work on government reserves, and along the railways, very little has been done in the way of reclaiming waste places, unless, indeed, the reclamation of the sand drifts at Newcastle. The plan adopted at Newcastle consists in the erection of brush or close paling- fences running parallel with each other, about 1 or 2 chains apart, from the base to the top of the sand drift, to shelter the trees, and prevent the shifting of the sand by the wind. The following indigenous trees are for planting in sand dunes or waste places : Acacia a nnal a (sometimes called the "''Kangaroo thorn''), a small bushy tree with angular branches ; leaves reduced to phyllodia ; found in the Blue Mountains and in the New England districts. The timber is light and tough, but too small to be of use. The bushes make very good hedges. Frenela verrucosa. — This tree is valuable not only for its properties for binding coast and desert sands, but for its strong, durable, and easily-wrought timber. Casuarina. — Most of the species of this genus Avill grow in exceedingly sandy soil — for instance, the oak, swamp oak, forest oak, dwarf oak, river oak. The latter is sometimes called forest oak ; scientific name, Casuarina iorulosa. It freijuents open forests from Illawarra to Richmond River, and westward to Bathurst and New England. The timber is very beautiful, remarkably heavy'and strong ; used for cabinet work and sliingles. The following list of plants recommended for reclaiming sand in taken from Mr. J. H. Maiden's new work entitled, "The plants of Australia." dunes, useful Agrostis. Carex. Cynodon. Ehrarta. Elymus.' Festuca. Imperata. Lepidoperma. Mesembrj'anthemum . Panicum. Poa. Rhagodia. Spinifex. Stipa. The government plantations of Catalpa have been successful in various parts of the Colony, especially at Cootamundra and East Maitland. The following is a list of trees planted at these latter places since 1882 : 221 Catalpa apeciosa. At East Maitland, I 221 Ju'jlaus nhjra (black walnut). At Cootamundra. 013 CatuJpa speciosa. 121 Juglam nujra (black walnut). 61 Syncarpia luurifolia (turpentine). 94 Eucalyptus (various species). 29 Grevillea rohusta (siky oak). 225 Sterculia'diversifoUa (kurrajong). 3 Melaleuca leucodendron (tea tree). 2.5 Tristania con^erta (brush box). 83 Plnus imifpius (Cabfornian pine). 5 Eugenia Ventenatii (water gum). 18 Quercus ilex (evergreen oak). 51 Fraximis Americana (American ash tree). 37 Quercus virois (evergreen oak). 35 Laurus camphora (camphor tree). 24 Araucaria Cunninghamii (pine tree). 8 Oka Europrea (olive tree). FORESTS AND FOREST CULTURE. 47 Blue glim (Eucalyptus globulus). Red gum (Eucalyptus rostrata). Flooded gum ( Eucalyp)tus saligna) Swamp oak (Casuarina suherosa). Scrub she-oak (Casuarina Cunningham- iana). Moreton Bay Chesuut ( Castanospermum Australe). Brush box ( T^ristanla conferta). Swamp mahogany ( EucalyjJtus robustaj. Blue gum (Eucalyptus botryoides). Blackwood (Acacia melanoxylon). Turpentine tree ( Syncarjna laurifolia). Alder ( Alnus glutinosa). Bamboo ( Bambusa arundinacea). The Inspector of Forests recommends the following trees and shrubs for planting on swampy land or land subject to inundations. Weeping willow (Salix babyloulcaj. Golden osier (Salix aurea). Huntington willow fSalix Russelliana ). Pampas grass (Gyiurium argruteum). Supple-jack (Flagellavia iudka). New Zealand flax ( Phormlum tenax). Cabbage-tree palm (CoryphaAustrcdvi). Bangalo palm ( Seaforthia dcgans). Red cedar (Cedrela Australls). Plane tree (Platanus orient alis). Plane tree (Platanus occidentcdis). Tea tree (Melaleuca Iciicodendron). Tea tree (Melaleuca styphelioidc'^J. Tea tree (Ccdlisiemcn salignus). Messmate (Euccdyptus amygdcdina). The difficulties in obtaining colonial pine and other easily-wrought home-grown timbers, together with the high cost of same, have induced the people to look abroad for no inconsiderable portion of the timber supply. Indeed, for several years past the Colony has been obliged to import nearly one-half of the quantity of timber consumed. The quantity of timber returned by the forest rangers during the year 1886 was 62,786,456 superficial feet against 62,669,310 supei-ficial feet for the year 1885. Of the quantity produced in 1886 about two-thirds are classed as hardwoods and cedar. The total quantity of timber imported into the Colony of New South "Wales, exclusive of piles, sleepers, and shingles, for the year ending 31st December, 1887, was 49,814,599 superficial feet, against 64,604,793 superficial feet for 1886. Quantity and value of dressed and undressed timber imported into the Colony of New South Wales for each year from 1878 to 1887, inclusive : — \ Dressed timber Undressed timber. Year. Quantity. Value. Quantity. Value. feet. £ % feet. £ $ 1878 4,891,272 65,478 318,649 12,747,926 106,144 516,550 1879 5,981,923 61,295 298,292 20,933,969 146,049 710,747 1880 5,.565,O06 61,620 299,874 14,529,055 106,.301 517,314 1881 6,847,336 71,0il 345,721 17,140,040 131,200 638,485 1882 14,739,853 183,862 894,764 30,392,919 231,197 1,125,120 1883 16,456,700 17 6,. 379 858,348 31,674,757 21.3,724 1,040,088 1884 16,444,111 159,478 776,100 33,164,714 221,302 1,076,966 1885 19,464,845 176,413 858,514 46,180,779 281,939 1,372,056 1886 23,561,175 201,553 980,858 41,043,618 232,907 1,133,442 1887 14,581,126 122,937 598,273 35,233,473 238,909 1,162,651 48 XKW SOUTH WALES : HER COMMERCE AXD RESOURCES. Quantity and value of timber imported into New South Wales for the years 1886 and 1887, and countries whence im])orted : — Dressed. 1886. 1887. Countries; Quantit}-. Value. Quantity. Value. Great Britain Victoria South Australia ... New Zealand British Columbia... United States Norway sup. feet. 6,404,526 869.540 346,493 5,376,615 113,577 4,479,598 5,762,179 5,288 £ 62,9.52 10,694 6,186 39,789 800 37,470 41,535 575 $ 306,356 52,042 .30,104 193,633 3,893 182,348 202,130 2,798 6,326 49 1,178 sup. feet. 4,214,512 418,366 823,753 3,023,488 400,337 2,327,858 3,366,445 85 £ 38,310 4,931 12,013 19,691 2,425 19,288 26,238 8 % 186,4.36 23,997 58,461 95,826 11,801 93,865 117,687 France 39 171,072 1 1-300 Queensland 204 32,083 10 242 6,282 33 161 Total 23,561,175 201,553 980,858 14,581,126 122,937 598,273 Undressed. Great Britain ... Victoria South Australia Queensland Tasmania New Zealand ... Western Australia Hong-Kong British Columbia .. United States Norway Sweden Germany Belgium New Caledonia . . . New Guinea.. Borneo India South Sea Islands. . 1,519,040 772,366 662,426 122,297 64,689 8,465,653 30,000 5,338 1,808,416 25,761,156 1,039,042 51.3,004 53,696 1,300 127,545 4,000 93,700 Total 41,043,618 11,645 7,399 10,914 850 443 44,077 5 71 8,000 1.37,279 6,204 4,200 640 50 670 56,670 36,007 53,113 4,1.37 2,156 214,,501 24 346 38,932 668,068 30,192 20,439 2,214 24 3,115 243 3,261 232,907 1,133,442 780,081 804,244 3,615,189 486,986 157,255 10,560,676 12,825 2,682,502 15,137,529 905,315 31,217 ' 960 25,894 'sVibo 8,500 35,233,473 6,109 6,578 58,327 1,396 854 64,001 29,729 32,012 283,848 6,794 4,156 311,461 """842 56,894 405,555 28,562 1,231 24 1,046 414 238,909 1,162,651 It will be seen from this table that the United States furnishes nearly one-half of the total timber imports, and that New Zealand comes next. The great bulk of the timber imported into New South Wales from New Zealand consists of kauri pine, a product peculiar to the North Island of that Colony, and not found anywhere else in the world. It is straight grained, soft, and easily wrought. The principal objection to its use is that it is apt to shrink, endways, but this obstacle is avoided by the ex(;rcise of care in seasoning. It is, however, a grand timber, and is so generally used in Australasia that New Zealand has developed the largest timber industry in the southern hemisphere. Some of the FORESTS AND FOREST CULTURE. 49 :saw-mills employ as many as 500 hands, and the Auckland Timber Company, in their town and country mills, in New Zealand, give employment to about 1,300 hands. The total annual output of timber for the whole of that Colony is estimated at about 200,000,000 super- ficial feet. This Company has recently established a branch saw-mill, at Black- wattle Bay, Glebe, in Sydney Harbour, at a cost of about .£30,000 (1145,995), where they cai-ry on an extensive trade in kauri and other timbers ; they also import large quantities of Californian redwood, which is in considerable demand for special purposes. The popularity of American timber in New South Wales is very forcibly illustrated by the extraoi'dinary increase in the quantity and value of the imports. In 1881 the imports of dressed and undressed timber from the United States amounted to only 2,000,197 superficial feet, valued at £22,152 ($107,316). In 1887 they were 17,485,387 superficial feet, valued at £102,624 (.$499,420). The subjoined table shows the quantity and value of the imports of dressed and undressed lumber into the Colony of New South Wales from the United States for each year from 1881 to 1887, inclusive. Dressed. Undressed. Year. Quantity. Value. Quantity. Value. Sup. feet. £ $ Sup. feet. £ •S 1881 870,682 12,988 62,719 1,129,517 9,164 44,-597 1882 2,886,261 38,720 188,431 6,249,246 56,867 276,743 1883 2.859,410 34,843 169,563 8,156,933 60,243 29.3,173 1884 3,121,896 33,717 164,084 10,653,850 76,248 371,061 1885 3,436,799 35,665 172,667 19,728,436 116,228 565,624 1886 4,479,598 27,470 182,348 25,761,156 137,279 668,008 1887 2,327,858 19,288 93,865 15,157,529 83,336 405,555 The saw-mills of California, Oregon, and Washington Territory rank amongst the foremost in the world, and are equipped with the best and latest improvements in milling and other machinery. The sawn tim- ber of the Pacific slope is often 150 feet in length, and for general building pui'poses there is perhaps no other that will compare with it. New markets ai-e being opened i\p every day, and active preparations are being made for its shipment in larger quantities than ever, not only to Australasia, but Japan and other countries. At a meeting of the saw-mill proprietors, held in Sydney, the chair- man stated that the controversy going on as to the comparative merits of Oregon pine and Australian haixlwoods had brought a very import- ant subject before the people, and that he thought the weight of the argument was in favour of the hardwoods. He said he had received a number of telegrams from saw-mill proprietors in various parts of the Colony expressing sympathy with the movement to secure an increase of duties, and a leading architect had informed him that the Australian hard woods, if properly seasoned, could be used with better advantage 50 NEW SOUTH WALES : HER COMMERCE AND RESOURCES. in the construction of certain buildings than any other kinds of timbei*. It was pointed out at the meeting that the expense of getting colonial timber to the Sydney market was twice as much as it cost to bring lumber all the way from America, and it was said that one of the reasons for this is tliat the Americans ship their lumber in large vessels, whilst the Australians use small vessels, often steam-boats, which are run at a very heavy cost. The annual export of timber pi'oduced in the colony, although small, has materially inci'eased since 1881. In that year it was only 4,125,896, but in 1887 it was 15,720,792 superficial feet. The following table shows the quantity of dressed and undressed timber, the produce of the Colony, exported from New South Wales for each year, from 1881 to 1887, inclusive. Vear. Quantity. Year. Quantity, 1881 1882 1883 18S4 Superlicial feet, 4,12.5,896 5,8.34,762 8,829,754 14,559, .304 1885 1886 1887 Superficial feet, 9,981,727 13,389,777 15,720,792 There are no bounties of any kind upon the exportation of timber from the Colony, and the import trade is severely handicapped with heavy Customs duties. The duties have always been large, but in April, 1886, they were increased. These duties have been continued under the Customs Act of 1887, and have awakened no little opposition, being regarded as presenting an anomaly among a people professing to be wedded to the principles of free trade. The New South Wales timber duties were intended to lessen the imports of the easily wrought foreign lumber, and promote the use of Australian hard wood, but the contrary has been the result, for the home-grown woods are no more popular than before, while the imports of American and other timber have largely increased. The Colonial Treasurer has, however, intimated the intention of the Government to make very extensive modifications of these duties during the session of 1S88. The vai'ious establishments of nurserymen and seedsmen in Sydney will compare favourably with those of the chief cities of Europe and America. Large sums of money have been expended upon improving their grounds and in adding to the number and variety of trees and plants from all parts of the world. The following are some of the leading nurserymen and seedsmen of Sydney and suburbs : — Shepherd & Co., Surry Hills. Anderson & Co., Pitt-street, Sydney. Graham & Co., Marrickville. Fergu.son & Co., Double Bay, Sydney. Somerset Nursery, Parramatta. Seai'i ct Son, Petersham, Sydney. I FORESTS AND FOREST CULTURE. 61 The only forest laws in New South Wales are included in the Crown Lands Act of 1884. Bnt as the Act is a very complicated and volumin- ous one, and as the sections referring to forests are scattered amongst other matter in various parts, they are brought together consecutively. It will be seen from the Act that sections 87 and 88 provide for granting leases of scrub lands at nominal rents, under conditions, enforcing the clearing and destruction of the scrub. Sections 93 to 95 relate to permits for ring-barking timber. Section 98 defines the rights of holders of grazing lea,ses or licenses in regard to cutting timber. Sections 112 and 116, deal with the State forests, timber reserves, licenses, and permits. Section 133 imposes penalties for violation of the regulations. It will be seen by this section that all persons, unless legally authorized, when found in possession of lands, whether of Crown lands, reservations, or dedications, will be liable to a fine of £5 ($24-33) for the first ofl:ence, £10 (|48'S6) for the second, and £20 ($97 -33) for the third or subsequent offence, and that holders of Crown lands under lease or license shall not obstruct any government siuweyor or authorized officer from entering at any time on any part or portion of their holdings. The timber regulations comprise a carefully compiled code of rules for regulating the State forests, timber-cutting, and ring-barking. There are in New South Vfales two classes of government reserves for the preservation of timber — one comprising the State forests, and the other the timber reserves. The second class is again divided into three sections. But although these reserves are systematically arranged, the Minister of Lands, should it be deemed expedient, has the same power at any time to alter the classification, as he also has to close a vvdiole or part of a reserve, if he considers it prudent and beneficial to any part of the country. With respect to licenses, they are available only for one particular reserve or a subdivision of any reserve, and these certificates may be cancelled at the discretion of the Minister of Lands, or transferred on indorsement of the ranger in charge to aiiother reserve of the same class. Licenses are not transferable, except in special cases upon approval of the Minister. Restrictions are also laid upon licenses as to the minimum girth of trees at a height of 5 feet from the ground. The prescribed girth for hard woods is as follows : — Description of Timber. Black-butt and yellow wood timber Red-gum, gray -gum, M-oolly-butt brush, or white box, and turpentine timber Blue-gum, spotted gum, messmate bloodwood, mountain-ash, maho- gany (forest), and iron-bark (red, gray, and broad-leaved) Peppermint, or red-wood, and swamp mahogany Stringy bark Blackwood, and yellow and Avhite box 7 6 6 6 5 6 5 4 ! NEW SOUTH WALES : HER COMMERCE AND RESOURCES. For soft woods, the minimum girtli prescribed is : — Description of Timber. Ileil cedar Hot)p or Moreton Bay pine White beech Lily bark and rosewood Black, red, or white i)ine, and swamp oak. Forest oak Girth. Ft. in 9 r- 6 7 6 3 2 3 With the exception of the wattle and ring-barked trees no stripping of bark from standing trees is allowed, and the tops are ordered to be cut off trees within seven days after felling. The kurrajong, quandong, and .such other ti'ees as may be specified from t'me to time, are exempted altogether from operations, excepting in time of drought, when the leaves of the kurrajong may be used as food for stock. Among other provisions applying to permits and licenses are the legulations : (1) Demanding particulars of quantity, description, and brands of the timber claimed, to be sent to the forest ranger of the district within twenty-one days after January 1, April 1, July 1, and October 1 ; (2) Prohibiting the felling of trees within a chain and a half of any navigable river, unless a particular tree is marked for such a }»urpose by some one in authority ; and (3) respecting the amount of timber any person is allowed to hold, the stated quantity being 50,000 superficial feet. A separate certificate must be obtained for every por- tion in excess, although the Minister has power in cases of large con- tractors, to increase the maximum number of feet. Lastly, lands or timber reserves or State forests that are not leased may be granted as sites for saw-mills to the extent of 10 acres to holders of timber licenses, or permits and areas of 160 acres for the agistment of stock used for drawing timber by licenses. Extracts from the Crown Lands Act of New South Wales, 1884, referring to forests and timber regulations. Section 87. Scrub lands may be leased in areas not exceeding 10,240 acres, nor less than 640 acres, and for a term not exceeding fifteen years, to any jiersou, subject to such conditions as to clearing and destruction of scrub as may be defined by regulations, at an annual rental of not less than 2s. 6d. (61 cents) per section of 640 acres for the first five years, .5s. ($1 -22) for the next five years, and £1 (§4 -86) for the last five years : Provided, that it shall shall be lawful for the Minister, on the recommendation of the Local Land Board, to foi-ego the rent for any period not exceeding five years. Every lessee of any portion of scrub lands shall, within the time and according to the manner prescribed, pay the rent as determined by the Minister, after appraisement by the Local Land Board, into the Treasury, and shall, at the time and in the manner prescribed, satisfy the Local Land Board that he has commenced and is continuing to fulfil the conditions of his lease as to the clearing and destruction of scrub on the leased land ; and if any lessee shall fail to pay his rent or to satisfy the said Board as aforesaid, the Minister, on the recommendation of the said Board, may declare his lease to be forfeited. Section 88. It shall be lawful for any pastoral or homestead lessee whose leased land contains scrub or other noxious undergrowth to apply in the prescribed manner to the Minister for the conversion of the portion of land under lease containing such scrub or undergrowth into a lease of scrub lands under the last preceding section for any term not exceeding fifteen years ; and if the Local Land Board shall recommend such conversion, the Governor may resume from the lease I FORESTS AND FOREST CULTURE. 53 such portion of land as the said Board shall consider desirable, and may grant a lease thereof to the applicant under the said section : Provided, that the lessee shall be entitled to a proportionate abatement or refund of any rent paid by him under his pastoral or homestead lease for the unexpired portion of any year for which he has paid rent in advance : Provided further, that any applicant for a scrub lease under this or tlie next preceding section shall pay for tlie survey thereof : Provided, however, that no pastoi-al or homestead lessee shall be granted a lease of such scrub land other than within the land held under lease by himself. Leases may he granted for special jmrposfs. • Section 90. The Governor may lease, by auction or otherwise, for a term not exceeding fifteen years, and in areas not exceeding in any case 320 acres, Crown lands for any of the purposes hereinafter specified, that is to say, for dams * * sawmills * « « * qj. fQj. g^j^y purpose declared by the Governor by pro- clamation in the Gazette to be a purpose within this section, and may determine the upset rent thereof, if let at auction, or the annual rent, if let otherwise, not being in either case less than £10 (■^48"S6) per annum ; and may annex to any such lease such conditions, reservations, and provisions as he may deem lit : Provided, that leases may be granted at a less rental to contractois of jniblic works for jourposes connected with the construction of such works during the term of contract. If it should appear to the satisfaction of the Governor that the land comprised in any such lease is not used and occupied hona fide for the purpose for which the same has been made, or that default has been made in any condition, he may declare such lease forfeited, together with any improvements ei-ected on the land and any rent paid in respect thereof. Section 92. Subject to such conditions as may be prescribed, the Governor may make leases of Crown lands not exceeding 3 chains in width but without limit of length, for irrigation works or for forming and maintaining ti'amways and cross- ings, and other necessary approaches and works in connection therewith. And notice of every application for a lease under this section, and of the purpose for which it is proposed to be made, shall be published in the Gazette for at least four consecutive weeks before the issue of such lease. Ti'ing-harhhuj hy Lessees. Section 93. Eveiy lessee of Crown lands desiring to ring-bark trees upon his leaseliold land shall obtain a permission to do so from the local land board, and in his application, in the prescribed form addressed to the land agent, shall describe the boundaries and area of the land upon which he proposes to ring-bark ; and in re- gard to any land not comprised within a timber or forest reserve, the board may, in their discretion, refuse or grant permi-ssiou for the same after such inquiry and uiDon such conditions as to them may seem necessary. And any lessee who shall, without such pennission, ring-bark trees on a leasehold, or shall cause or know- ingly permit or suffer tlie same to be done, sliall, on conviction before any two justices of the peace at the court of petty sessions nearest to such leasehold, be liable for the first offence to a penalty of not less than Is. nor more than 10s. for each tree so ring-barked, and for a second or subsequent offence be liable to a like penalty, and to the forfeiture of his lease. Section 94. Whosoever shall ring-bark trees, or strip bark from trees on Crown lands, without holding such permission, or in violation of any condition thereof, or without a written authority under the hand of the lessee of such Crown lands, shall, on conviction as aforesaid, be liable to a penalty for each tree ring-barked or stripiied of not less than Is. nor more than 10s. Section 9.5. Every information for an offence under any of the two preceding sections shall be laid by some officer of police or person specially authorized by the Minister. And if, at the hearing of such information, any question shall arise whether any person holds a valid permission to ring-bark, the burden of proof thereof shall be on the person who claims to hold such permission. General 2'»'ovlsions affecting leases, lessees, and licenses. Section 96. Every lease shall be liable to forfeiture if any rent be not paid within the prescribed period or upon breach of any condition annexed to such lease but forfeiture for non-payment of rent may be prevented by payment thereof with an additional sum equal to 5 per cent, of the amount of rent due within three months of the due date thereof, or of 10 per cent, of such amount within six months of such date ; but no forfeiture shall operate to extinguish any debt to the Crown in respect of such rent. 54 NEW SOUTH WALES : IIEK COMMEKCE AND RESOURCES. Section 97. Any sums pcaid as rent for runs, under the provisions of the Acts hereby reiicaled, upon unexpired portions of existingleases, shall be credited towards pay- ment of rent or license fee under tlie provisions of this act, and such sums shall be available for the purposes of refunds under the provisions hereinbefore contained. Section 98. The following provisions shall govern all leases and licenses granted under this Act and the holders of such leases or licenses, namely : (i) Xo lease or license other than special leases shall confer any right to re- move material from the leased land, or to sublet such land for other than grazing purposes, or to prevent the entry and removal of material by authorized persons, (ti) Lessees and licensees may take from land under lease or license to them not comprised within a timber or forest reserve such timber and other material for building and other purposes upon the land under lease or license as may be recjuired by them as tenants or licensees respectively, (ill) No lessee or licensee shall prevent other persccis duly authorized in that behalf either from cutting or removing timber or material for building or other purposes, or from searching for any mineral within the land under lease or license : Provided, that nothing in this subsection shall apply to a conditional lease as regards the taking oi removal of timber or other material for building purposes. Section 100. If any holder of a pastoral or homestead lease whose rent, in accordance with the provisions hereinbefore contained, has been fixed at the pre- scribed minimum rate, shall consider that by reason of the inferior grazing capa- bilities of the laud embraced in the lease such rent is an excessive rental for such land, such lessee may, in the prescribed manner, apply to the local land board for a reduction of such minimum rate. And if, upon due inquiry, such Board shall be of opinion that the said rate is excessive it may recommend the Minister to reduce the same ; or, if not of such opinion, may recommend that the said rate be re- tained. On receipt of any such recommendation, together with any further report from the said Board ■\\ liich the Minister may require, he shall determine the matter of the application and fix the fair annual rental of the land for all purposes of this Act, and shall, upon notification in the Gazette, be the rental payable under this Act in respect of such land. But no such reduction shall operate for a longer period than the unexpired portion of the five-year term then current, as herein- before provided : Provided also, that no such lessee shall be entitled to make any such application for reduction of such minimum rate lanless he shall have duly paid the rent fixed for the current year, pursuant to the provisions hereinbefore contained ; but such lessee shall be entitled to a refund of the amount paid by him in excess of any i-educed amount so notified as aforesaid : Provided lastlj', that notwithstanding any such reduction so made, the Minister may, on the expiration of the said five-year term for which such reduction shall have been made, direct that the i-ental shall for the residue of the term of the lease, or for the next period of five years of such lease, be restored to the prescribed minimum rate, or be sub- ject to appraisement by the local land board, and in either case such direction shall be notified to the lessee in the prescribed manner. A return of ail rents, if any, reduced under this section shall be laid before Parliament within fourteen daj's after the commencement of each session. The several provisions of this section shall equally apply to all occupation licenses and their holders and to the license fees paid or made payable in respect thereof. Slate forests — finiher reserves — licenses — permits. Section 112. It shall be lawful for the Governor by notification in the Gazette to proclaim any areas of Crown lands therein described to be State forests and in like manner to reserve from sale any such areas as timber reserves for the purpose in each case of preserving under regiilations in that behalf to be made by the Go- vernor the growth and succession of timljer trees, and of preventing as far as practicable the destruction and exhaustion of such State forests. Section 113. State forests may be subdivided into such blocks as the Minister may think fit. For the piirpose of carrj'ing out such subdivision all existing forests and timber reserves may be reserved from sale, lease, or otherwise, as the Minister may think proper until so subdivided. Section 114. Any State forest or any portion thereof may by notification in the Grt7,Ht( be dedicated or reserved for a specific period by the Govei-nor for the con- tervation of timber, and upon publication of such notiiFication such foi'est or por- sion thereof shall not during the term of reservation be open to timber or other licenses or permits under the provisions of this Act. FORESTS AND FOREST CULTURE. 55 Section 115. It shall be lawful for the Governor to frame regulations for the issue of licenses or rights to cut and remove timber on State forests, and also for tlie issue of pei'mits to cut and remove timber from timber reserves, and also for the issue of wood-cutters' licenses, and of licenses and permits to dig for and remove from State forests, timber reserves, or Crown lauds, whether under lease or not, any gravel, stone, clay, shells, or other materials subject to the following provisions :— (i) The rights or licenses to cut timber on a State forest shall be for one or more specified blocks in such forest, and may be sold by auction at such place as may be determined by t)ie Minister, or by tender, as the Minister may think fit. (ii) Such rights or licenses in State forest shall be for a term not exceeding one year, unless in special cases the Minister may think fit to extend such term, but no such extended term shall exceed three years. (ill) The upset rent shall not be less than £10 (.$48 '66) per annum for each block of 6'40 acres, and a proportionate amount for each 160 acres in excess of that area. And every holder of a right to cut timber shall, in addition to his rent, pay such royalty, according to the class of timber cut, at such times and places, and subject to such conditions, as may be fixed by the regulations. (iv) Permits to cut and remove timber on tindjer reserves may be issued for a year, or any less term not being less than one month, at an annual fee of not less than £6 (-§29 "20), and a proportianate fee for shorter terms, Sueh permits may also be issued for any specified number of trees at a rate to be fixed by regulations for each tree. General j^ermits may also be issued for the supply of saw-mills, for any term not exceeding one year, at an annual i-ate of £6 (.f2920), and subject to a royalty according to the scale fixed by the regulations. (v) Licenses may he issued to cut piles or props to be used for mining pur- poses, for the erection of jetties, wharves, and for other purposes, on such terms and conditions as may be fixed by the regulations, (vi) All fees or suras of money, except royalty, payable in respect of any rights to cut timber, or in respect of licenses or permits, shall be payable in advance. And sueh regulation may prescribe the forms and conditions to be contained in any such right, license, or permit, and may fix the rents or fees to be payable by the holder of any license or permit wheresoever the same shall not have been fixed by this Act, and may provide for the forfeiture of any rights, licenses, or permits for the enforcement of rents, royalties, or fees for the removal of felled timber, for the licensing of sites for saw-mills and the agistment of stock, for the limitation of girth of trees to be felled, for the issue of wattle-bark permits for the marking of logs of felled trees, for the seizure and sale of timber cut without authority or upon whicli the royalty has not been paid, and for defining the power and privileges conferred by rights, licenses, and permits. And such regulations may also provide for the imposition of penalties and fines for the infringement or violation of any such regxiL-ulion made under the authority of this act ; but no such penalty shall exceed the sum of £20 {>}91 'SS) exclusive of the value of the material taken or destroyed. Section 116. The breach of any condition or obligation, or tlie failure to perform any act or matter specified in any such right, license, or permit issued under the authority of this Act, shall have the eflfect of forfeiting such right, license, or permit wpon a declaration of forfeiture by the Minister. Section 1.3.3. Any person, unless lawfully claiming imder any subsisting lease or license, or otherwise under any Act hereby repealed, or under this act, or under any Act in force for tlie regulation of mining, who shall be found occupying any Crown land or land granted, reserved, or dedicated for public purposes, either by residing or by erecting any hut or building thereon, or by clearing, digging up, or enclosing or cultivating any part thereof, or by cutting timber, other than firewood, not for sale thereon, or liy obtaining stone therefrom, or otherwise, or who shall strip or cause to be stripped the bark of any tree thereon, shall be liable, on con- viction to a penalty not exceeding £5 (•S24-33) for the first offence, and not ex- ceeding £10 (■'*4S'CG) for the second offence, and not exceeding £20 (•'jOT'SS) for the third or any sulisequent offence : Provided, tliat it shall not be lawful for the holder of any leasehold under this Act to obstruct any Government surveyor or other authorised person from enteiing upon such leasehold whenever such surveyor or authorised person may require to do so. 56 NEW SOUTH WALKS : }IER COMMERCE AND RESOUKCES. COAL. The coal-mines of New South Wales are by far the most important in the southern hemisphere. The coal is of such excellent quality, and the seams are so extensive and easily worked, that there is every promise for their future. The total area covered by the seams is estimated at 23,950 square miles. They extend from the twenty-ninth to the thirty- sixth pai-allel of south latitude and penetrate to the water's edge along- many miles of sea coast. The seams have been traced 700 miles north of the deposits near Newcastle, and they have been found to be covered and underlaid with the same fossil flora and fauna characteristic of the Newcastle District. These deposits are among the most extensive and valuable in the world. In fact, some of the highest authorities on minerals, both in England and Australia, are very decided in the opinion that the New South Wales coal, in many respects, is superior to English coal, inasmuch as it is better adapted to steam purposes and richer in gas-giving products. The lower beds of the coal series of New South AVales are said by geologists to be older than any worked in Europe, and the upper beds represent the most recent of the European true carboniferous formations. It has been noticed that all the New South Wales seams, from the Silurian upw^ards, are uniform in their deposits, and this fact has led to the conclusion that this portion of the globe was comparatively free from violent eruptions and disturbances from the Silm-ian to the Permian jjeriod, and that the alternate submergences and elevations of the land were slow and gradual. Few workable coal seams have been, as yet, discovered in Victoria ; but coal exists in immense quantities in various other portions of Austra- lasia, especially in Queensland and in New Zealand, where there are very valuable mines, which last named yielded in 1886 534,353 tons. Indeed, now New Zealand coal only is used by the Government there for their steam vessels, railways, and fuel. Tasmania also has her coal-fields, which only require development. The output of the Queensland mines in 1886 was 228,656 tons, but the combined products of the whole of the Australasian group are insignificant when compared with those of New South Wales. The Government have divided the coal-fields of New South Wales into three districts — the northern, southern, and western. The northern district produces not only the best coal but the largest quantity. The famous Hunter River and Newcastle mines are situated in that district. The shipping facilities at Newcastle are extraordinary, the tonnage of the port being, at times, as large as that of Sydney. Newcastle, which contains a population of about 30,000, is situated 75 miles north of Sydney, on the banks of the Hunter River, at its mouth, which indeed forms the harbour of the port. The public build- ings possess many and varied attractions. The custom-house, post-oflice^ market building, hospital and churches are constructed in approved styles COAL. 57 of architecture, and show tlie taste and wealth of the inhabitants. Large sums have been expended during the hist few years in improving the harbour. The depth of water at the wharves is 22 feet. The machinery used for loading vessels witli coal is of very high order. It consists of seven steam cranes and four shoots, belonging to the Government, and five cranes belonging to the Australian Agricul- tural Company, and two belonging to the Newcastle Company. These cranes have a loading capacity of from 12,000 to 14,000 tons per day. The cranes at Bullock Island Dock have a capacity of 6,000 tons daily. Those erected on the wharf formed by the dyke comprise two of 25 tons each and six of 1.5 tons each. As much as 250 tons of coal have been put on board ship at Newcastle per hour. A branch line, with a viaduct over Thorsby's Creek, connects the Avharves at Bullock Island with the Great Northern Railway, which now extends to the Queensland frontier. Naval defence works have been constructed for the purpose of pro- tecting the port in time of war. The fort at Flagstaff" Hill, com- manding the harbour, has at present three 9-inch guns and four rifled 80-pounders, besides a torpedo and submarine mines armament. The quantity of coal produced in the northern districts is about 2,200,000 tons per annum — more than two-thirds of the total coal pro- duct of the Colony. The mines in the northern district are practically inexhaustible, and it is estimated that at the present rate of consump- tion they would last for the next seven hundred years. The publication of the last report of the Royal Commission on the Newcastle collieries reveals many interesting facts in connection with the northern district mines. The report is a very voluminous one. The commission was composed of gentlemen of large experience in coal-mining, especially in this Colony. They examined many witnesses, and their testimony comprises one of the most valuable and interesting features in the report. The commission gave great attention, not only to the present condition of the mines, but to their prospective workings under the waters of the harbour or the Paciflc Ocean. Very careful inveetigations were made as to the character of the strata, shafts, and underground workings in collieries some miles distant from the harbour but adjoining the Pacific Ocean. The area embraced measures from north to south 7^ miles, and from east to west 4 miles. The report, after mentioning that the district is overlaid with rocks belonging to the Lower Coal Measures, states that the Newcastle seam, the lowest work- able coal of this series of carboniferous rocks, as well as the higher and superimposed coal seams, once covered the whole area under review, and which at a subsequent period was denuded in certain portions by the action of the atmosphere, rain, frost, or running water, at a time when the relative height of the land to that of the ocean was different from what it now is. The alteration in the relative position of the land and water may have been caused by the changes in the earth's ecliptic, pro- bably arising from the effects of climate near the poles, or, it may be, but less likely, from the volcanic forces with which the vast insular continent of Australia was assailed during post-Tertiary, or, geologically considered, in comparatively recent times. 58 NEW SOUTH AVALES : HER COMMERCE AND RESOURCES. Coal in the northern district i.s pure hituminovis coal, with strong coking jiroperties, and contains less ash than that from the southern and western districts, although it is said that many engineers in the British navy and in the merchant-marine service prefer the semi-bituminous coal to the northern, because the disadvantage of the greater proportion of ash in the former is counterbalanced by the fact that it burns more evenly and uniformly than the other ; moreover, it does not so readily form into clinkers ; but when it is required to get up steam rapidly the northern coal is preferred. Mr. "W. A, Dixon, F.C.S., of Sydney, made a series of analyses of the various coals of the world for the International Exhibition at Sydney, and perhaps a better idea of the character of the New South Wales coals can be formed from his investigations than from any other source. In the work he had in hand he followed the calculation given by Percy, which divides the different kinds of coal into anthracite, bituminous, and hydrous coals ; also the conditions laid down by the commission appointed by the Admiralty to investigate the British coals for the purpose of the navy, one of which was that coal should not progressively decay, for in so doing it becomes liable to spontaneous combustion. Another condition was that it should possess considerable cohesion of its particles, so as not to break into small fragments by constant attrition in the vessel. Another point was that it should have consideral)le density. By comparison, the coal from Newcastle, New South Wales, is much denser than the English Newcastle and very nearly equal to the best Welsh coal. The following table, prepared by Mr. Dixon, shows the comparative specific gravity and percentage of sulphur, ash, and volatile hydro- carbons, in New South Wales and British coals. Avei'age Analyses. Coals. Kewcastle, New South Wales Western, New South Wales .. Southern, New South Wales... Newcastle, England Derbyshire, England Lancashire, England Welsh Number of Samples. Specific Gravity. Sulphur. Ash. 14 1,311 0-91 4-97 9 1,347 103 10-31 7 1,374 0-G5 10-2.5 17 1,246 1-24 3-82 8 1,284 1-06 2-54 28 1,279 1-37 4-64 31 1,318 1-34 4-15 Volatile Hydrocar- bors. 37-55 30-42 20-84 36-44 39 12 40-61 21-15 According to this table, a ton of New South Wales coal would occupy nearly 6 percent less space than an equal quantity of British coal. JNew South Wales coal contains less sulphur than the British, and consequently is not so liable to spontaneous combustion or to afiect the purity of the atmosphere. COAL. 59 Proximate A nalysis. Sample of Coal from Australian Agricultural Company's Mine, at Newcastle, iST.S.W. Specific gravity ... ... ... ... ... 1.286 Water Volatile hydrocarbonrs Fixed carbons ... Ash Sulphur 1. 63 3.5. 45 57. 84 4. 44 0. 62 Coke : 63-28 per cent. Ash : reddish. Analijsis of Ash. Alumina ... ... ... 22-84] Ferric oxide Lime ... Sulphuric oxide Phosphoric oxide Alumina Ferric oxide Silica ... Undetermined and loss 100. 00 Soluble in acid, 43-25 Insoluble in acid, 56-75. 100-00 Proximate Analysis. Minmi Colliery, Newcastle. Bituminous, bright, with a few^ narrow dull streaks. Specific gravity ... Moisture Volatile hydrocarbons ... Fixed carbon Ash - ... Sulphur... 1-28 2-59 33-87 56-49 5-61 1-44 100-00 Coke : 62-10 per cent. ; coke bright, dense, with fused ap- pearance, little swollen. Ash : reddish, somewhat fusible. Proximate Analysis. Newcastle Coal Company, Glebe, Newcastle. Specific gravity... Water ... Volatile hydrocarbons Fixed carbon Ash Sulphur ... Coke : 63-92 per cent. Ash : 1 , vjricuc, XAOYuaoi ... 1-283 2-14 ... 33-36 ... 59-16 ... 4-76 -58 100-00 buff-coloured. 60 NEW SOUTH WALES : HER COMMERCE AND RESOURCES. A nali/sis of Ash. Alumina 27-21] ' Ferric oxide ... ... 11-11 Lime 1-46 Soluble in acid, 43^30. Magnesia 1-.56 Sulphuric oxide •72 Phosphoric oxide 1-24 Alumina 6-51 ' Ferric oxide ... 3 02 Insoluble in acid, Lime ... •61 r 56^34. Magnesia •63 Silica ... 45-57 Undetermined an d loss •36 100-00 Proximate Analysis. New Lambton Mine. Specific gravity.. 1-291 Water ... 2-61 Volatile hydrocai bons ... 30-62 Fixed carbon 59-56 Ash 6-72 Sulphur... ^49 100-00 Coke : 66-28 per cent. Ash : reddish-coloured. Coal from the southern district is of a much duller lustre than the northern, and the structure is not so laminated. It does not coke in an ordinary fire, but will do so if treated in an oven. It has been pre- dicted that the mines of this district will become, in the near future, as important as those of the north. The southern coal is well adapted both for steam and household purposes. Several of the seams extend over a distance of 50 miles. There are five seams at Mount Kembla. The lowest is above the level of the plain, and the others lie super- imposed at convenient distances above each other and cropping to the surface. These seams vary in thickness from 4 feet to 17 feet 6 inches. The mine at Mount Keira is worked at an elevation of 500 feet above the level of the sea. The seam descends gradually until it reaches almost to the level of the ocean at Coal Cliff. The mine at the latter place is a very valuable one ; coal can be put almost immediately from the mouth of the tunnel there into the Ijunkers of the vessels. The method of working these mines is simple and inexpensive. No steam machinery is required. The coal is run down from the mountain by means of revolving drums and wire ropes. "Wollongong, the sea-port of this district, is the third in rank in the Colony. It is situated 66 miles south from Sydney. The harbour has been greatly improved by the construction of a breakwater, and excavations out of solid rock to a depth of 18 feet, and by other improvements. The area of the basins, which now form one, is about 3 acres, and plans COAL. Gl are prepared for vastly increasing the basin accommodation. The district in which the mines are situated is noted for its fine wheat and dairy farms. The average price of land in the district is about .£20 (197 "33) per acre. The farmers in this district have always complained of a scarcity of labour. The subjoined table shows the component parts, and specific gravity, of samples of coal from the Southern District : Composition per cent., exclusive of water only. 1j o o 5J i| erf S3. 6 Locality. o 1 c 1 >, X o 1 S < Hi 1-363 J-379 1-364 l--t71 91-24 80-67 78-82 69-92 .76-35 3-60 Or,f) .... 0-70 1-33 0-56 trace 0-87 1-00 1-30 0-55 4-56 10-88 9-81 10-58 13-31 3-28 1-50 115 1-70 1-03 1-733 92-37 74-35 04-24 74-78 8,590 8,276 7,983 6,653 Undet. 13-21 12-92 11-82 12-21 Jlount Kembla . . Jlouiit Keira . . Berrima Bulli(R. Smith) 5-30 5-17 4-55 4-75 1-58 3-87 13-09 5-04 Mean 1-394 79-401 4-675 4-833 0-52 74 9-829 76-436 7,875 12-54 The coals from the western district are much drier than tho.se of the southern district, and contain considerable volatile matter. Mr. Dixon does not think that they will ever be exported in large quantities. He says, however, that they will answer for local pui-poses quite as well as many coals worked in Great Britain and France. Table showing the average composition of western district coals from nine analyses made by Mr. Dixon. Constituents. A\eraue. Highest. Lowest. Specific gravity Water Volatile matter Fixed carbon . Ash Sulphur 1-347 2-290 30-420 55 -940 10-310 1-310 1-400 2-900 35-020 64-340 12-910 1-750 1-336 1-950 25-840 49-970 9-260 0-570 It has been noticed that the ash in western coals was white and dense. In the northern samples it was often buii' and red tinted. 62 NEW SOUTH WALES : HER COMMERCE AND RESOURCES. From a series of analyses made by Professor Liversodge, of the Sydney University, it appears that the amount of ash of the coals from the northern district was 2-70 to 8-82 per cent., or, upon an average of 5-41 per cent.; from the southern district 4-41 to 13-52 per cent., averao'e 10-02; and from the western district 6-88 to 12-91 per cent., average 9-87 per cent. ash. The subjoined tables give Mr. Dixon's analyses of samples of coal in the western district : — Pro.ciinat-i Analysis. Sample of the whole thickness of a 4-foot seam at Katoomba. A mixture of a bituminous splint coal, with bright and dull coloured pieces. Specific gravity ... ... ... ... ... 1.343 Moisture Volatile hydrocarbons Fixed carbon ... Ash Sulphur 2.71 25.31 60.90 10.84 24 100.00 The coke is dense, scarcely swollen, but fairly lustrous ; the ash is white. This is a fairly good coal, the low percentage of ash being particularly noteworthy. Anal u sis of Ash. Alumina ... 35.2G1 Ferric oxide •98 1 Lime traces Soluble in acid, Magnesia... •30 37 10. Phosphoric oxide •56 J Alumina ... 3.23 ) Silica 50.58 \ Insoluble in acid Undetermined and loss ... -09 j G2. 90. Proximate Analysis. Lithgow Valley Colliery. Specific gravity 1.340 Water 2.24 Volatile hydrocarbons 28.48 Fixed carbon ... 58.80 Ash 9.68 Sulphur •80 Ask : Grayish- white. 100.00 COAL. 63 A nail/sis of Ash. Alumina 20-241 Ferric oxide ... ... ... 1 •42 Lime ... ... ... ... "74 {Soluble in acid, Magnesia -57 j 23-72. Sulphuric oxide ... ... ... - 11 | Phosphoric oxide ... ... ... -64 J Alumina ... ... ... ... 16-02 (^ Insoluble in acid, Silica 60-21 j 76-23. Undetermined and loss ... ... -05 Other samples of coal from this district have been examined with fully as favourable results. At Wallerawano; (western district), 105 miles north-west from Sydney, good coal, hard and compact, has been found. One sample from a seam 17A^ feet thick yielded upon analysis 55-74 per cent, of fixed carbon, 33-24 volatile hydrocarbon, water 1-51, and ash 9-50 per cent. ; specific gravity, 1-333 ; coke, 62-25. Above the lowest seam was one of 6 feet 6 inches, and several others varying from 3 to 4 feet in thickness. There are extensive strata of limestone in the same district. They occur at the junction of the Coal Measures with the Upper Silurian or Devonian beds. Magnetite and brown hematite, as well as clay band ores, are interstratitied with the Coal Measures. The magnetite runs approximately north-cast and north-west, and the magnetic effect is said to be so powerful as to render the compass useless in the neighbourhood. One vein is 13 feet wide, the ore compact, and accompanied by silicious gangue. It yields about 41 per cent, of iron and is free from phosphorus and sulphur. The brown hematite vein has neai'ly the same direction as the above, and along the line of its ovitcrop great blocks of ore are scattered for nearly a mile. At a depth of 40 feet the vein is 18 to 20 feet thick, and the ore is composed of mammilated fibrous nodules. There are four seams of clay -band which lie nearly horizontally, and crop out on both the east and the west sides of the dividing range. The lowest is rather impure, but the others are good, containing from 49 to 56 per cent, of metal and very little sulphur or phosphorus. The seams average from 10 to 20 feet in thickness. The total output of all the coal-mines in New South Wales during the year 1886 was 2,830,175 tons, valued at £1,30.3,164 (.$6,341, 848). The shale product, or boghead mineral, was 43,563 tons, valued at £99,976 (.$486,533). The total output of the coal-mines of New South Wales, since the commencement of coal-mining to 1857, was 1,468,961 tons, valued at £869,391 (.$4,230,891); and from 1858 to 1886, 35,553,449 tons, valued at £17,483,277 ($85,082,368). The total output of the coal-mines in Queensland since the commence- ment of coal-mining to December, 1886, has been 1,478,238 tons, and in New Zealand 4,052,614 tons. The following tables, prepared by the Mines Department of New South Wales, show the quantity and value of coal and shale raised in each of the mines there during the year 1886, the number of men employed, also the quantity and value of coal exported to intercolonial and foreign ports to 1886 inclusive. 64 new south wales : iiek commerce axd resources. Coal and Shale. Table showing the quantity and value of Coal and Shale won during the year 1886, and the number of Men employed in the Collieries. Company. Locality. Jlen Employed. Above iriider ground, ground. Quantity. Value. NoKTHERN District. Coal. Australian Agricultural Co. . Wallsend Newcastle Coal Co Lanibton Co-operative Pride of Ferndale , , . Tighe'sHill Xew Lambton ' New Duckenlield , Greta . . Greta Co Duckenfield Brown's AY aratali South Waratali ^. East Waratali Goose New Park Ellesmere Quarry Tunnel Sunderland Newcastle , Maitland .. Newcastle , Brook sto wu Clay Cross Dunkirk Hill End Rix's Creek Wickham and Bullock Island. Morriset Pv-osedale Burwood *Lynnngton Wallsend Thornley Colliery Singleton Four-mile Creek Newcastle ... Singleton Newcastle Lake Mac- quarie. Newcastle +Young Wallsend Great Northern Hillside Maryville Stockton Homeville and Font Hill Pvathluha Four-mile Creek Newcastle . . . Maitland 172 180 93 65 70 4 6 83 43 7 47 58 2 25 36 1 17 4 4 1 19 1 2 47 18 10 2 11 40 3 2 1,089 803 940 400 445 442 17 17 206 221 33 221 280 8 20 132 4 14 26 4 3 15 17 30 8 2 179 1 3 225 35 7 3 9 6 78 182 4 4 975 1,120 493 510 512 21 23 289 264 40 268 338 10 45 168 5 31 29 19 19 34 12 3 198 2 5,044 272 53 9 19 8 89 222 7 6 6,133 tons. 387,084 483,884 183,573 113,972 240,274 1,500 11,596 71,370 79,727 18,555 113,474 114, .324 7,142 1,701 37,371 4,224 6,153 8,920 1,800 3,000 14,830 3,082 12,203 3,271 836 55,553 656 1,420 72,566 6,613 205 3,494 24,500 84,459 2,000 2,777 £ 184,750 240,000 83.181 56,316 116,105 450 38,034 33,455 39,864 9,278 54,928 55,309 2,860 790 18,752 1,689 3,240 4,695 810 650 7,038 711 5,990 960 501 26,229 295 680 39,912 1,928 72 1,222 12,000 40,121 550 1,090 2,178,1161 1,084,555 ;.%,277,9S7 * Sinking. f Sinking for seam.. COAL. 65 Locality. Men Employed. Quantity. C'oinpan3'. Above ground. Under ground. 1 Total. i Value. Southern District. Coal tons. £ *BalliA Wollonsfono; ,.. 95 276 371 99,923 22,457 Osborne Wallsend 55 40 59 170 100 134 225 140 193 77,386 56,623 71,913 28,897 Coal Cliff 33,040 lUawarra Coal Co 28,355 Mount Kembla Joadja Creek... 40 30 20 L50 15 90 190 45 110 51,794 9,318 31,076 North Illawarra Australian Kerosene Oil and 4,705 Mineral Co, Berrima Berrima WoUongong ... 3 9 6 6 9 15 2,262 1,611 897 Broker's Nose 566 351 947 1,298 370,830 149,993 $729,941 Wksterx District. Vale of Clwydd Lithgow Vallev 6 60 66 51,558 12,649 Litligovv Valley >» 5 66 71 52,654 12,619 Eskbank )» 8 68 76 67,774 16,341 Eskbank Old Tunnel " 1 12 11 13 11 7,500 9,019 1,875 Hermitage 2,064 Zig Zag 10 65 75 60,000 15,000 Coberwull Hartley Capertee 21 1 55 1 76 450 25,000 120 Katoomba 6,250 Carlo's Gap 1 2 3 250 64 +Great Western 6 3 15 6 18 7,024 N. S. W. Shale and Oil Co. ... 1,631 61 355 416 281,229 68,615 $333,915 Shale. Australian Kerosene Oil and .Joadja Creek... (See Coal) 25,700 64,2,50 Mineral Co. N. S. W. Shale and Oil Co. .. Hartley ] 30 70 100 17,863 35,72(i 30 70 100 43,563 99,976 1486,533 * On strike since 13th September. t Boring-. 6G NEW SOUTH WALES : HER COMMERCE AND RESOURCES. Quantity and Value of Coal raised from the opening of the Coal Seams to 1857, inclusive : — Year. Quantity. Average per ton. Value. Pi'ior to Tods. £ s. d. £ 1829 50,000 10 25,000 1829 780 10 1-23 394 1830 4,000 9 000 1,800 1831 5,000 8 000 2,000 1832 7,143 7 000 2,502 1833 6,812 7 6-73 2,575 1834 8,490 8 10-00 3,750 1835 12,392 8 10-19 5,483 1836 12,646 9 1-06 5,747 1837 16,083 9 8-81 5,828 18.38 17,220 9 9-05 8,399 1839 21,283 9 9-73 10,441 1840 30,256 10 10-86 16,498 1841 34,841 12 0-00 20,905 1842 39,900 12 0-00 23,940 1843 25,862 12 6-54 16,2-22 1S44 23,118 10 8-34 12,363 1845 22,324 7 10-27 8,769 1846 38,965 7 0-46 13,714 1847 40,732 6 9-01 13,750 1848 45,447 6 3-38 14,275 1849 48,516 6 0-45 14,647 1850 71,216 6 6-77 23,375 1851 67,610 7 6-51 25,546 1852 07,404 10 11-3.'] 36,885 1853 96,809 16 1-51 78,059 1854 116,642 1 5-63 119,380 1855 137,076 12 11-96 89,082 1856 189,960 12 4-06 117,906 1S.57 210,434 14 0-97 148,158 1,468,961 11 10-72 869,391 §2-89 $4,230,891 COAL. 67 xr, tM -u o O -i-J PM p -t^ S ;=i tc o 01 L crt o -u E^ 4^ f^ to O '-/:' II n <;^ H c cS G* ;-• >■ C id « _■ So c O Eh -< ft iS o ftc f. ■^ Pd c (3 3 O" o Pi >• ci o o C3 -: (U j_ o <; ft ■g >, o ft >^ c w p •Jt; 3A CO tr c: r *COO'*'Oi-4MC;m05:o:OOGOt^'*C5000COCir-CXiAGJ_tN^rH^CO O O 00_ 1-^ CO CO i-H t^CO -^COOiOlOOWCMOSClOC^f-H r e:5" oo" ir:r ':©" c^ '^^ '^ c-r ^^ tc" :o' :d o" irT o' c^ co" oo" o" o" u^ '^f CO J(mccc-ic-1'm:qco'*cop:ic«:ico!:ci--oooooocic:;o';dcic-icococo ■^■«4*yD(MCO:DOCO'*CiCO^ -(M'*i^0::0"*0GC^:Dici^OrHi: O^OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO . 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I^ !>. 1-- b- t- 00 00 OO CO 00 X CO GO'TDCOOOGOaJaOOOGOCOOOOOOOCOXOOCOOOOOOOOOOOGOOOOOCOOOOOGO 68 NEW SOUTH WALES : HER COMMERCE AXD RESOURCES. Tlic following shows, in detail, tlie quantity and value of coal exported toeach place from New South Wales foryears 1886 and 1887 respectively: — Country. Quantit}'. Value. 1SS6. Victoria Soutli Australia Tasuiania New Zealand (^)ueensland youth Sea Islands . . . New Caledonia Fiji Hong Kong China Chili Honolulu "Western Australia ... Java Manilla Peru Mauritius Singapore Ceylon Burmah Guam Mexico Bankok Burrard's Inlet . . Panama New Guinea (British) Maccassar ... Padang Petropaulovski Cape Towni United States India „ Victoria South Australia . Tasmania New Zealand Queensland South Sea Islands. New Caledonia Fiji 1887. Western Australia United States India Hong Kong Ceylon Peru Java Mauritius China Phillipine Islands Chili Singapore Kaisar Wilhelm"s Laud Mexico Sandwich Islands Cape of Good Hope Panama tons. 640,655 140,623 47,501 165,217 22,053 815 9,537 21,929 100,586 23,743 41,794 23,705 11,726 33,294 36,617 5,866 6,334 5,934 5,868 8,155 1,795 9,287 1,885 200 3,555 600 390 3,863 1,750 318 305,829 54,. 386 1,735,865 723,676 127,370 43,375 150, .399 18,613 1,701 15,153 21,081 13,837 299,802 54,214 86,092 1,741 9,368 51,974 9,916 23,187 38,821 5.3,133 32,040 909 2,310 10,720 433 577 1,790,442 £ 336,979 73,063 26,033 90,187 12,151 499 5,201 12,254 56,148 14,395 23,787 12,816 6,411 18,606 19,509 3,.335 3,602 3,234 3,540 4,645 991 5,184 1,0.30 120 2,025 330 275 2,212 998 174 176,991 30,277 947,002 '37972O6" 02,715 23,631 81,478 10,625 1,0.53 7,928 12,067 7,429 164,983 30,248 47,448 1,300 5,578 28,739 5,627 14,301 21,355 28,750 17,807 650 1,169 5,897 238 317_ 960,539 1,639,908 355,561 126,690 438,895 59,133 2,428 2,5,311 .59,634 273,244 70,0.53 115,759 62,369 31,199 90,546 94,941 16,230 17,529 15,738 17,227 22,605 4,823 25,228 5,012 584 9,855 1,606 1,3.38 10,765 4,857 847 861,327 1 47,. 34 3 4,608,585 "X845,406 305,203 115,000 396,513 51,707 5,124 38,582 58,724 36,153 802,890 147,202 230,906 6,. 326 27,145 139,858 27,384 69.596 103,924 139,912 86,658 3,163 5,689 28,698 1,158 1,543 4,674,463 COAL. 69 Tlie exports of coal to San Francisco and other ports on the Pacific coast of the United States have steadily increased during the last few years. The low rate of freight, and the drawback of 3s. Id. (75 cents) per ton allowed upon coal imported into the United States for the use of foreign and domestic steamships, are the principal causes of the increase. Table, showing the quantity and value of coal exported to the United States from New South Wales, from 1881 to 1887 inclusive, and the names of ports to which exported. Port. Quantity. Value. San Francisco 1881. tons. 138,772 11,230 £ 63,537 4,635 $ 309,203 Portland 22,556 Total 150,002 68,172 331,759 1882. San Francisco .... 172,958 6,113 96,496 3,712 469,598 Portland 18,064 Total 179,071 100,208 487,662 1883. San Francisco . . . 191,184 1,190 16,291 115,821 650 9,122 563,642 Astoria 3,163 Portland 44,392 1884. Total 208,665 125,593 611,197 AVilmington, Cal. 32,506 1,481 167,888 5,627 21,2.38 814 98,938 3,411 103, .355 3,961 San Francisco 481,482 Portland, United States 16,600 Total 207,502 124,401 605,398 1885. Wilmington, Cal. 31,695 171,042 13,720 20,224 99,503 8,653 98,420 484,231 Portland 42,110 Total 216,457 128,380 624,761 1886. San Francisco . . 218,819 53,488 22,111 11,411 125,870 30,753 12,714 7,654 612,.J47 Wilmington, Cal. 149,659 61,873 Astoria 37,248 Total 305,829 176,991 861,. 327 1887. San Francisco . . . Wilmington, Cal Portland Astoria 299,802 164,983 802,890 70 N'KW SOUTH WALES : HEK COMMERCE AXD KESOURCES. The coal-mine at Greta, near Maitland, in the northern district, ig worked at a greater depth than any other in the Colony and that owned by the Agricultural Company, Newcastle, comes next. The former is 450 feet, and the latter 303 feet in depth. Coal has been found, with the assistance of the diamond drill, at a depth of several thousand feet. The greatest depth penetrated with the diamond drill has been on the Sydney Coal mining Company's ])roperty, 16 miles from Sydney, were the drill has been sunk 2,308 feet. The samples thus brought to the surface are from the deepest coal deposit which has ever been reached in the southern hemisphere. The total aaumber of miners at the various collieries in New South Wales during the year 1886 was 7,947 ; of these 1,531 were employed above and 6,416 below ground. An interesting feature in connection with coal-mining in New South Wales is its comparative freedom from accidents, such as fire-damp explosions, which render the loss of life so appalling in Great Britain. The total number of accidents in New South Wales during 1886 were seventy-five, and of these twenty-nine were fatal. The greater portion of these accidents were occasioned by the fall of coal. However, on the 23rd March, 1887, a very serious accident occurred in the workings of the No. 1 or 7-foot coal-seam, at the Bulli Colliery, which resulted in the death of eighty-one miners. The Bulli CJolliery and adjoining village is situated on a portion of the picturesque mountain range of lUawarra that surrounds a small bay about 8 miles north of the sea-port town of Wollongong, and about 35 miles south of Sydney. It is li mile from the Bulli jetty on the sea-coast, from whence the coal is shipped into the Company's steamers and conveyed to market. The mine was opened in 1863, and up to the time of the explosion, 1,794,685 tons of coal were raised from the No. 1 or 7-feet coal-seam. The coal is won by two adits driven into the coal-seam, facing the Pacific Ocean, on the Illawarra Range, at a height of about 400 feet above sea-level. By means of these adits, which communicate with each other, the miners may at all times pass in and out of the mine. The workings cover an area of 588 acres, and the coal has been wrought by the pillar and stall system. The main tunnels have penetrated 1-J miles from the adit mouth. About July, 1884, the mine or roadway that was being carried through a fault (a dyke of diabase) in the line of the tunnel touched the coal. Much gas, probably "fire-damp," issued from the face, forcing the miners to retire. The issue of gas from coal contiguous to or from a fault is not uncommon in mining, and special emphasis is laid on this fact on account of the almost perfect immunity the colonial collieries have, until now, enjoyed from the presence of marsh gas or light carburetted hydrogen gas. As gas was jwesent, Davy Safety-lamps were used, and were kept carefully locked. So far as the Royal Commission appointed to inquire into the cause of the explosion could discover, the Regula- tions under the Mines Acts relating to safety-lamps were adhered to until the mine was closed in September, 1886, owing to a strike among the miners. When work was resumed in February, 1887, these COAL, 71 Regulations were neglected by the workmen, nor were tliey prevented from taking into the workings matches and tobacco-pipes. The arrange- ments for firing shots in the mine were also unusual and unsatisfactory. The Commission were " convinced that the carelessness, want of skill, and the loose and perfunctoiy manner in which the principal operations in this mine were performed by the majority of the men, and counten- anced by at least the overman and deputies, were intimately connected with, and led up to, the occurrence of the final catastrophe, whereby, by the direct negligence of probably one man, eighty other men lost their lives." Long immunity from accident rendered the miners foolhardy. This mine is a peculiarly dry one, the coal is frial^le, and at the end of a busy day the air becomes loaded with impalpable dust — a source of no small danger on the application of an open light. The presence of a dust-laden atmosphere increases the intensity and effects of an explosion. The Royal Commission " are of opinion that the explosion at Bulli Colliery is one of the most notable instances of this on record"; and they conclude : — " That the exciting cause of the explosion was the flame from an overcharged shot that had been fired in the coal ; and that the explosion was intensified, and the foi'ce increased and ti'ansmitted to a distance by the presence in the atmosj^here of the mine of coal-dust in a minute state of division ;" and further, they record the statement, " that the whole of the deaths were due, not to the direct effects of the flame of the explosion, but from the effects of after-damp, or the force or impact of the blast." After-damp consists of varying proportions of carbonic acid gas (stytho-choke damp), free nitrogen, and watery vapour in the form of steam, and probably a quantity of carbonic oxide gas (white damp). It will be interesting to append the following analysis of the coal, as worked at Bulli Colliery, w^hich will convey some idea of its value as a heat-producing agent : — - Analysis of Bulli Coal, by Dr. Pery, London Carbon ... Hydrogen Oxygen and nitrogen ... Sulphur... Ash Water 75-57 4-70 4-90 0-54 13-17 1-03 For Gas. Coke Volatile gaseous matter.. Water ... It has a somewhat singed appearance, is didl and non-lustrous, and, being friable, produces dust by attrition or handling. 100-00 74-78 24-19 1-03 100-00 72 NEW SOUTH WALES : IIER COMMERCE AND RESOURCES. Analysis of Coal-dust collected by Members of the Eoyal Commission. Xo. Description. 2 3 c ^ u ^ O x-2 Ash. .a *c-> Coke, V > >- sa- "3 m /o 1. From wheel bend of Fine brown and black coal-dust, and 2-15 19-02 48-92 29-39 0-52 1-52 78-31 main tunnel, about small pieces (J inch diameter) of bright — chains from en- bituminous coal, together with small trance. pieces of wood and clay-shale, as though the whole had been scraped up from the ground. 2. From top of a fallen ^■cry fine brown and black bituminous 2-40 16-30 50-43 30-24 63 • • 80-67 prop, — chains from coal-dust and a little sand. entrance. 3. From main road, 40 Same as No. 2, with a few stringy 2-55 16-45 51-27 29-50 0-53 80-77 yds. from No. 1 splinters of wood. heading. 4. From No. 1 heading Fine dust and pieces of bituminous coal 1-40 19-00 55-37 23-70 0-53 7907 from shelf on coal up to J inch diameter. near No. 4 bord. 5. From No. 2 bord. Dust of bright bituminous coal and 1-46 19-14 51-94 26-91 0-55 78-85 No. 2 heading pieces of the same up to J inch in diameter, with a little quartz sand. 6. From half-way down Coarse and fine dust of bright bitumin- 1-43 20-25 51-90 25-81 0-64 1-480 77-71 No. 2 heading. ous coal and small pieces of clay-shale. 7. From recess in coal Fine and coarse dust of bright bitu- 1-98 16-87 57-32 23-25 0-58 80-57 near face of tunnel, minous coal, and a few pieces of the Hill End. same up to h inch diameter. Rem.^rks.— All these samples were received in fine powder, and contained much dirt. In one or two of the samples pieces of wood were visible. This will account for the high percentage of ash obtained. The colour of the ashes was from white to gray. Where the specific gravity of the sample is not given there was not a sufficient quantity of the sample left after analysis for that purpose. The samples were rather small for analysis. The wages paid to miners are from 8d. (16 cents) to Is. 3d. (30 cents) per hour. The Avages and the number of hours the men are required to work have been the causes of frequent disturbances, which in some instances have led to serious rioting and loss of life. These disputes are usually settled by arbitration. They assume a very grave character when the coal companies insist on the employment of non-union men, or blacklegs, as they are called by the miners. As many as 500 to 700 men are out on strike at once, and it is astonishing the length of time they are enabled to hold out. One of the most noted of these occurred when 300 of the men struck at the Lambton mine, in the northern district. The men demanded additional pay as the difficulty of the work increased, and the labour council of their district approved of their course. Tlie miners held out for a period of six months, and during that time they refused to do work of any kind, and were supported by contributions from the various trade and labour organiza- tion.s. The difficulty was finally settled by arbitration, concessions being made on both .sides. The strike at Mount Kembla and Mount Keira, in the southern district, which began in December, 1886, was of a serious character. The men, after committing several acts of violence, refused every con- cession offered by their employers, and the dispute, which promised to become still more serious, was not settled until a large number of miners had been engaged from Europe by cable. It was then agreed that the men should resume work on the terms formerly proposed by their emjjloyers, and that the European miners should, upon their arrival, be provided with work upon other coal-fields. KEROSENE. 73 KEROSENE. The quantity of kerosene imported into New South Wales during the year 1885 was larger than that of any other year in the history of the Colony, and consisted of 1,289,227 gallons. The imports for 1886 were 1,105,771 gallons, and the value £51,031 ($251,263). The imports of kerosene into the Colony of Victoria are larger than those of New South Wales, as the former Colony does not produce any oil. The import of kerosene into Victoria for 1886 was 1,711,243 gallons, valued at £82,729 ($402,601). A duty of 6d. (12 cents) per gallon is charged on the imports of kerosene into both Colonies. The following table shows the quantity and value of kerosene im- ported into the Colony of New South Wales for each year from 1875 to 1887:— Year. Quantity. Value. Year. Quantity. Value. Gallons. £ $ Gallons. £ $ 1875 181,927 13,780 67,060 1882 629,992 39,516 192,305 1876 355,860 29,616 144,126 1883 592,207 33,725 164,123 1877 464,944 45,716 222,427 1884 676,704 38,280 186,290 1878 673,528 47,963 2.33,412 1885 1,289,227 69,377 337,623 1879 482,669 35,001 170,332 1886 1,105,771 51,631 251,263 1880 485,228 32,094 156,185 1887 932,760 54,484 265,146 1881 493,527 30,737 149,582 All these imports were of American manufacture, and reached Sydney either direct or by way of other colonial ports. The Sydney importers of American kerosene complain bitterly against the law in New South Wales for regulating the sale of kerosene. They say that it places them at a great disadvantage in competing for the trade witli the local manufacturers. The regulations of the different Insurance Offices in the Colony also require a conformity to the law. The law forbids the imported article from being stored anywhere except in a licensed kerosene warehouse, and provides that no one shall be allowed to keep more than 200 gallons of kerosene on his premises. The Act was passed in 1871 (Statutes of New South Wales, 35 Victoria No. 1). The fourth section of the Act is as follows : — ■ storage of kerosene. 4. After 1st January, 1872, no person shall have or keep iu any house, store- house, warehouse, shop, cellar, yard, wharf, or any other building or place occupied by the same person or persons, within the boundaries of any town or municipality, more than 200 gallons of kerosene at any one time, unless such house, store -house, warehouse, shop, cellar, yard, wharf, or any other building be situate more than 50 yards from a dwelling-house, or from any building or place belonging to any other person in which goods are stored. And any person acting in contravention of this section shall forfeit all the kerosene so kept in excess of the said (quantity, together with the cases or tins containing the same, and be liable to a penalty not exceeding 2s. for every gallon of kerosene so kept in excess : Provided, that nothing in this clause shall prevent the storage of kerosene in any quantity on the pi'emises where it is manufactured. 74 NEW SOUTH WALES : HER COMMERCE AND RESOURCES. The local companies are enabled to deliver either small or large quantities of kerosene from their works without incurring the heavy- charges for storage ; they have also a saving of a certain proportion of railway freight on up country supplies. The American oil is therefore handicapped to the above extent as regards country purchasers. It takes 1 ,v American gallons to make 1 imperial gallon, the latter being the measure by which kerosene is sold ; there is also the leakage in transit to be considered. The following table shows the imports of kerosene from the United States of America into the Australasian Colonies during the year 1887. (Each case contains 8 Imperial gallons.) 1887. Cases. New South Wales 113,184 Victoria 212,828 Queensland , 61,785 South Australia 110,515 New Zealand 115,350 Tasmania and Western Australia 19,322 Total 632,984 The standard tests of New South Wales, and indeed of all the Aus- tralasian Colonies, are flash tests instead of fire tests. The commercial meaning of the word test is the lire test, which is usually from 1 2° to 15' higher than the flashing point. For instance, oil at 130° fire test is equal to about 115^ flash test. The directions for applying the flashing test of kerosene oil adopted by the New South Wales Government ai*e as follows : — The instrument to be employed must be similar in construction to that adopted by the Metropolitan Board of Works for London for similar purposes, and registered W. C. Miles, 36 Great Pearl Street, London, and commonly called the "Metropolitan Petroleum Oil Tester," and the test shall be con- ducted in a closed room free fi'om current of air. Sixteen ounces by measure of water shall be placed in the water-bath, of a temperature not less than 70^ of Fahrenheit's thermometer. The oil vessel containing 2 ounces hy measure of the oil to be tested shall then be placed in the water-bath, and the temperatui-e raised by the means provided in the apparatus. A small jet of flame shall be brought to the pre- scribed distance from the surface of the oil as indicated by a wire across the mouth of the oil vessel as frequently as may be deemed necessary by the operator, but not less frequently than once for every 5' of heat as shown by the thermometer until a tempeai-ture of 90" is reached, and then once for every 2^ until a temperature of 100' is reached, and then the test shall be applied for every degree until the flashing point is reached, that is to say, the temperature at which a flame or flicker of flame first passes from the testing jet to the oil. The time occupied in p-rforming the test shall in no case exceed Ji/teen minutes reckoning from the time the oil vessel containing the oil is placed in the water-bath. The bulb of the thermometer shall be immersed lialf-an-inch in the oil, and the temperature or flashing point to be adopted shall not be less than 110° of lahrenheit's thermometer. KEROSENE. 75 There is a i^opular brand of Australian oil that bears the test of 200°. It has the same yellowish colour as the low-test oils. The American high-test oils, on the contrary, are always made '•' water- white." The colonial manufacturers state that the yellow kerosene burns much brighter and better than that made water -white. The following are, taking an average of years, the current prices for wholesale parcels of American kerosene :— Brand. Test. Price. Aurora Devoe's Degrees. 130 130 130 150 150 150 160 Pence. 9 9 9 12 12 12 14 Cents. 18 18 Diamond 18 Devoe's Nonpariel 24 Evening Star 24 Snowflake 24 Light of the Age 28 There are many other brands, but these are the leading ones. New South Wales has for many years carried on a profitable industry in the manufacture of petroleum and paraffine out of the shale product, which exists in considerable quantities in parts of the Colony. Those interested in the industry state that the decline in price is of a tem- porary character, and that the industry will rally again, inasmuch as the difficulty of obtaining the mineral at the mines is not so great as formerly, while at the same time the cost of manufacturing it into oil has been materially lessened. The following table shows the quantity and value of kerosene shale produced during the years 1865 to 1886. Year. Quantity. Averaare price per ton. Total value. Year. Quantitj'. Average price per ton. Total value. Tons. £ s. d. £ Tons. £ s. d. £ 1865 570 4 2 5-47 2,350 1878 24,371 2 6 11-40 57,211 1866 2,770 2 18 10-48 8,150 1879 32,519 2 1 1 -96 66,930 1867 4,079 3 14 9-21 15,249 1880 19,201 2 6 7-03 44,725 1868 16,952 2 17 7-11 48,810 1881 27,894 1 9 2-59 40,748 1869 7,500 2 10 0-00 18,750 1882 48,065 1 15 0-00 84,114 1870 8,580 3 4 3-18 27,570 1S83 49,250 I 16 10-77 90,862 1871 14,700 2 6 3-91 34,050 1884 31,618 2 5 7-86 72,176 1872 11,040 2 11 11-91 28,700 1885 27,462 2 8 11-62 67,239 1873 17,850 2 16 6-55 50.475 1886 43,563 2 5 10-79 99,976 1874 12,100 2 5 1-48 27,300 1875 6,197 2 10 2-22 15,500 441,242 2 5 1 -42 995,413 1876 15,998 3 0-00 47,994 •SI 0-98 .«4,844,177 1877 18,963 2 9 0-81 46,524 The heaviest export of shale from New South Wales occvirred during 1882, when it reached 35,978 tons, valued at £79,715 ($387,933.) 76 NEW SOUTH WALES : HER COMMERCE AND RESOURCES. Tlie following taMe shows the quantity and value of the export of kerosene shale from the Colony of New South Wales for each year since 1875 :— Year. Quantity. Value. Year. Quantity. Value. Tons. £ $ Tons. £ $ 1875 3.527 10,383 50,529 1882 35,978 79,715 887,933 1876 8,154 21,314 103,725 1883 22,657 47,345 230,404 1877 4,667 14,163 68,924 1884 12,804 29,970 145,846 1878 12,202 34,063 165,768 1885 14,456 40,606 197,609 1879 11,436 29,275 142,467 1886 21,086 60,621 295,012 1680 10,880 24,189 117,788 1887 21,418 62,320 303,280 1881 17,846 38,231 186,002 It has been predicted for many years that the oil-bearing districts of the United States would soon become exhausted, and that the bulk of the world's supply must be looked for in Russia and Australia. Although we cannot reasonably hope for such unlooked for development as was shown by some of the wells of Pennsylvania and New York in 1882, nevertheless nothing as yet has occurred to indicate that the United States will not continue for many years to furnish the great bulk of the world's supply of kerosene. The kerosene shale in New South Wales covers a vast area. It is found at Lake Macquarie and Greta, in Cumberland County ; at Mount Megalong and Mount York, in Cook County ; at Joadja Creek, Cambe- warra ranges, Broughton Creek, and Toonali Paver, Burragorang, in Camden County, and at Blackheath, the Vale of Hartley, and other places in the Blue Mountains. The mineral was knowaa to exist in New South Wales as early as 1827. In that year D. P. Cunningham, of the British navy, describes a species of coal found at Bathurst resembling Scotch cannel coal, " being nearly as light, and breaking with a similar fracture." The Eev. W. B. Clarke, in an able report directed the attention of the New South Wales Government to this mineral in the year 1849. Mr. Clarke stated in his report that he had examined the mineral in 1841 and was then greatly impressed with its peculiar properties. Count Strzelecki, in a work entitled "Physical Description of New South Wales," published in 1845, gives a brief desci^iption of the mineral. The Count at first thought it belonged to the Newcastle basin, but that theory M'as invalidated from the fact that the seams over- lapped masses of pure bitumen, a characteristic not found with New- castle coals. Mr. Clarke stated its specific gravity was 1 -204, and that it was found in masses from 6 to 12 inches in thickness. In a subse- quent edition the London editor without Mr. Clarke's knowledge, omitted to use the matter referring to the existence of this coal. Mr. Clarke afterwards .said, that while this undeserved act concealed from the English reader a valuable discoveiy it did not prevent the colonists from bringing their product under the notice of manufacturers. Professor Liversidge, one of the highest authorities on minerals in Australasia, does not think that the name " kerosene shale" is a proper one for the New South Wales mineral, for the reason that the substance KEROSENE. 77" does not possess the properties of a shale ; that is, it has not the charac- teristic lamellar or fatty structure, but the reverse, being very compact and breaking with large, suiooth, conchoidal surfaces with equal readiness in every direction, and without any tendency to follow the planes of stratification. Professor Liversidge states that when the mineral is in large blocks there are occasional evidences of stratification, but even then they are mainly rendered visible by the presence of layers or films of earthy matter. The mineral does not differ very widely from cannel coal and torbanite. Like cannel coal it usually occurs with ordinary coal in the form of lenticular deposits, and when of good quality it burns readily Avithout melting, and emits a luminous smoky flame. When heated in a tube it neither decrepitates nor fuses. In colour it varies from a brownish-black with greenish shade to full black. When struck it emits a dull wooden sound. The surface of the joints is often coated with a film of white clay, and for this reason it is sometimes called " white clay." The mineral at Hartley Yale and Murrurundi is only slightly soluble in alcohol. The Vale of Hartley mine is situated in one of the most picturesque and romantic parts of the Colony, about 83 miles north-west of Sydney, in the center of the Blue Mountains, at an altitude of 3,118 feet above the level of the sea. The "zig-zag" railway up the mountains has aided greatly in the establishment of a number of important industries in the District. Iron works at Eskbank are carried on successfully, and the coal deposits are inexhaustible. The kerosene shale found there is said to be the richest in the world. Considerable quantities of it are used in the large cities of the Colonies for the purpose of enriching gas. It is also exported for the same purpose to Holland, Java, and the States on the Pacific slope of the United States. Only the better quality of the mineral is exported, the scraps and inferior portions being retained for the extraction of oil. The seams are from 6 inches to 30 inches in thick- ness. It is much more difficult to mine than coal. It does not run down readily into blocks, but has to be separated piece by piece and splintered off into sharp thin pieces. It is easily lighted with a match, and burns with a steady flame like a candle, and emits a strong odour of kerosene. The company working the mine has a capital of £100,000 ($486,650), in £1 ($-t'86) shares. Besides their operations at the mine they have extensive oil works at the sulnirb of Waterloo, where they manufacture paraffine and gasolene. The Joadja Creek mine is situated 95 miles south of Sydney by Railway and 15 miles from Mittagong. The property, consisting of 1,944 acres, belongs to the Australian Kerosene Oil and Mineral Company. The plant was erected at considerable cost, and is one of the best in the Colony, the machinery being of the most improved patterns. The sta- tionaiy engine for the purpose of winding the mineral out of the valley is an object of especial interest, and much can be said in favour of the company's method of separating the shale through their improved coal- cutters, run by compressed air. Mr. W. H. Lyne, in a valuable work entitled the " Commerce and Resources of New South Wales," has given a charming account of the Joadja Creek mine. He describes it as being situated " in the midst of a circle of mountains in a lovely valley, the extent of which in any direction would not exceed the range of a 78 NEW SOUTH AVALES : IIER COMMERCE AST) RESOURCES. rifle shot." The approaches to it arc ahnost inaccessible. The liuts of the viUage can be seen in the distance like toys, and a little further off is seen the manufacturing works, and above and beyond them on the mountain side the mine from which the shale is taken. At night, standing on the ridge immediately above the village, and between the l)lace and JNIittagong, the valley seems a tremendous abyss of darkness with nothing to relieve the intensity of the gloom but the faint glimmer of a few window or fire lights. The shale seams are believed to be the same as those worked in the Hartley District, although much thinner. The Joadja mine shows first a freestone roof and next about 8 inches of soft coal, then the top shale, which is from 9 to 1 1 inches in thickness, capable of yielding 100 gallons of crude oil to the ton ; below this is the bottom shale, ranging in thickness from 12 to 16 inches, and then is found a seam of hard inferior coal about 16 inches thick. Professor Liversidge states that the shale contains impressions of glossopteris and of the vertebraria. These fossil plants are best seen in the out- crops of the poorer portions of the shale, and especially where they have been exposed to the weather. The glossopteris fronds are generally found between the laminfe ; the vertebraria runs across them. The company working the mine has given much satisfaction to the share- holders. They claim that their product is the best hitherto supplied in the Colony, and that is fully 25 per cent, richer than the best samples of the Scotch Boghead mineral. They furnish shale to the gas-Avorks in Sydney and elsewhere. The method of using it is to break it into small bits, and mix from 3 to 6 per cent, of it with the ordinary charge of coal according to the quality of the gas required. The Manager of the mine states that it is not desirable to retort the shale by the usual process, from the fact that its extreme richness causes the heat to fall oft' and a large proportion of the volatile matter to recondense in the hydraulic main. When mixed with ordinary coking coal 3 per cent, will yield gas of 18 candles, and 6 per cent, with the same coal, 22 candles. The use of the shale prevents the deposits of naphthaline — the chief obstacle in the way of making gas. Professor Liversidge examined two specimens of shale from the Joadja mine, which upon analysis yielded the following results : — Constituents. Hydroscopic moisture Volatile hydrocarbon Fixed carbon Ash gray Sulpliur 10000 Per cent. Per cent. •i4 •04 83-87 8213 8-03 7-16 7-17 10-34 •58 •33 100-00 KEROSENE. 79 Another specimen examined by Mr. Charles Watt, when Government Analyist, gave the following analysis : — Constituents. Volatile matter 85-2 Fixed Carbon 8-2 Ash , 6-6 100-00 It may here be observed that coal seams to tlie north of Sydney are less bituminous and more anthracite in their character than those which have been worked near the coast south of Sydney. Mi\ W. A. Dixon, F.C.S., obtained a number of specimens of this mineral and found it much lighter than the Boghead shale of Scotland, the specific gravity being 1-098 against 1'20. The yield of hydrocarbon he said was much greater than that obtained from picked specimens of Boghead, whilst the ash was only half as great. One sample yielded the following : — Constituents. Per cent. Moisture •41 Volatile hydrocarbon 77-07 Fixed carbon 1213 Ash 10-27 Sulphur •12 10000 Coke 22-30 Mr. Dixon found the coke to be bright and lustrous in colour, and the ash white. He said that on account of the very large proportion of volatile hj'drocarbon in the mineral the yield of gas or coal from it ought to be very great. That its low specific gravity, together with the small quantity of sulphur it contained, warranted the conclusion that the product would be easy of purification and of high illuminating power. The shale has been used for several years with much satisfaction at the North Shore Gas Works, Sydney. At the Sydney Gas Works some thousands of tons per annum are used with great success. The Manager stated that its percentage of ash was unusually low. In London the mineral attracted much attention, and the question arose as to whether it was a Boghead coal or a mineral shale, and whether or not it should be subject to the city dues on coal. It was, however, determined to be coal on the authority of Charles Heisch, F.C.S., and Professor Ramsey, director of the geological surveys of Great Britain. A similar discussion took place a number of years ago in the celebrated case of E. W. Binney against the Clydesdale Chemical Works for the infringement of patents for the manufacture of paraffine from bituminous coal. The case was tried at Edinburgh, but the result 80 NEW SOUTH WALES : HER COMMERCE AXD RESOURCES. sliowed a wide difference of opinion in regard to the character of tlie mineral. Professor Graliam and Dr. Penny pronounced it coaL Hugh Miller called it an inflammable shale. Professor Chapman was positive that it was a bituminous shale, and Professor Anderson was equally- positive that it was very far from being anything of the kind. Professor Brande said it was a new, peculiar mineral, and Dr. Wilson called it clay impregnated with bitumen. Three microscopists testified that it exhibited no trace of organic structure, and four others stated that there was the strongest possible evidence of vegetable structure. Mr. Dixon said that nothing clearly was settled by the trial, and that while the mineral examined partook of the nature of coal, it differed from it in so many essential particulars that it should be classed as a different substance, and that it must be borne in mind that when we distill coal the product is tar, and when we distill the so ctJled kerosene shale tho product is oil. Dr. Heisch, in his report upon the New South Wales Joadja mineral, showed that its gas-producing power was extraordinary. The following is the analysis of the specimen : — Result of analysis by Charles Heisch, F.C.S., late professor of chemistry in the Medical College of Middlesex Hospital ; public analyst of the districts of Lewisham and Hampstead, London. Specific gravity . ... 1 ] 31 "1 3 Ash 10-1 Moisture lost at 212° 3 56 Moisture lost at 2.50" 3-72 Coke 25-65 Gas-tar and volatile matter 67'07 Total carbons 64 '72 Total hydrogens 4"65 The ash contains : — Silica 7'4 Alumina with traces of iron 2*27 Lime, &c 0'43 Worked as in practice, it yields : — - Cias , cubic feet per ton... 16,200 Coke cwt. per ton ... 4 '40 Tar gallons =257 pounds... 19 The gas is too rich to test in our photometer ; it is certainly over 50 candles. When the mineral is put into the retort the gas comes ofF so quickly as to make it almost impossible to work on the large scale without mixing it with some other mineral. The tar is very fluid. It yields hardly any benzole, much light oil fit for rubber solvent, little or no anthracene, but a larger quantity of pitch than might have been expected from the fluidity. The coke is very light and friable. It yields but little water or ammonia during carbonizing. Mixed in small quantity with ordinary coal it is valuable, as it increases the illuminating poMer of the gas very much. It is one of the substances on the bordei'land of coal, but taking all its pi'operties, chemical and mechanical, into consideration I believe it to be coal. It is certainly as much coal as many of the Bogheads, and both equitably and commercially I think must be considered coal. Mr. Robert Mai'tin, engineer of the London Gas-Light Company, found the mineral to give 15,428 cubic feet per ton, of 44-7 candles and that a mixture of 5 per cent, of it with 95 per cent, of Penrith coal gave 11,480 cubic feet per ton, of 18-35 candles. KEROSEXE. 81 A report furnished by Alfred Kitt, engineer to the Gas-Light and Coke Company, Pimlico, London, states that a quantity consisting of 200 tons received from four different ships gave the following practical results : — Gas made per ton of shale , cubic feet 14,0i57 Ilhiminating power ill standard sperm caudles 43"13 Hydrocarbon absorbed by bromine percent... 21 '0 Oil and tar per ton of shale gallons... 40 Ammoniacal liquor of 3i ounce strength gallons... 24 Coke or refuse cwt. to the ton ... 4 The illuminating power ranged from 39 "10 to 46 'o sperm candles. Note. — As standard candles burn 120 grains of sperm per hour, whilst 1 pound weijjhs 7,000 grains. 17,267 X 46-04 x 120 5 X 7^000 =2,733 pounds sperm. That is to say, tlie mineral converted into illuminating gus grives out on consumption more light than its own weight of sperm. Ordinary bituminous coal yields about 11,000 cubic feet of gas of about 16 candle power, so 11,000 X^16 xl20 5 ^^000 — ^92 pounds sperm. So that the shale is 4 '6 times as valuable as coal for gas making. It may be mentioned that the works of the Australian Kerosene Oil and Mineral Company at Joadja alone have an area of about 7 acres, while its operations there support a liopulation of over 1,000 souls. The discovery of kerosene shale at Capertee, near the Mudgee line of railway, a few years ago, attracted much attention throughout the Colony. A valuable report was made upon this mine by Mining Sur- veyer Seaver, in August, 1883, accompanied by a map showing the mode of occurrences of the shale and coal seams as determined by aneroid measurement. Although a company was organised for working the mine and operations conducted with every appearance of success, work was suspended from some unexplained cause. Mr. Seaver states that the formation of the country in which the mine is located is hilly, and that the coal measures are capped by from 300 to 500 feet of Hawkesbury sandstone and conglomerates, which are occasionally surmounted by basalts rising above the intervening valleys from 1,200 to 1,600 feet. The formations in the valleys consist of slate and limestone beds. The Hawkesbury sandstones and conglomerates form bold escarpments to the summits of hills, consisting of cliffs and precipices. In some places the tops of the hills are worn by meteoric forces. In other places the table tops rise into low hills composed of broken bluestone. Immediately below the base of the Hawkesbury sandstone, which is about 2,900 feet above sea level, the coal measures commence. These measures for about 40 feet consist of clay bands, sandstones, iron bands, and light-gray slates, and at 2,900 feet a coal seam of about 5 feet 6 inches thick, with narrow clay bands running through it, then about 7 feet of clay bands much stained with iron oxide, and then another clay band and 40 feet of sandstone and another coal seam about 3 feet thick. At about 150 feet below the last seam is found the seam of cannel coal varying from about 3 feet to 6 inches in thickness. Two tunnels have been constructed, one of which is 100 feet in length and the other 300 feet. The mine is situated within 3 miles of the railway. F 82 NEW SOUTH WALES : ITER COMMERCE AXD RESOURCES. The foUowins,' analyses of shale fountl in the neighborhood of Capertee were made by Mr. C. Watt, while government analyst : — Locality. Mudgee line of rail«-ay Neighbourhood of Capertee Do Do Glenowlan, near Capertee . . Capertee Do Volatile Hy?FO^<^«P'c'hvdrocar- moisture. vons, &c. Fixed carbon. TotaL Specific gravitj'. per cent ■2-2Q 1-04 0.75 on 034 0-75 1-30 per cent. 2S-40 72o6 6S-2o 5716 4S-56 67 09 er cent. per cent. per cent. 18-60 50 80 100 18-40 8-00 100 20-48 10-52 100 17-00 35-40 100 S-70 4240 100 806 23-50 100 33-62 31-82 100 per cent. Ill 1-37 1-18 1-42 Professor Liversidge gives the following valuable tables, in which the kerosene shale of New South "Wales is compared with that of some of the mo.st celebrated mines in Europe and America : — Tables comparing Xesr South Wales kerosene shale with that of some of the most celebrated mines in Europe and America : — Locality. Mois- ture. Volatile hydro- carbons. Fixed carbon. ^\£h. Sulphur. Specific urayity. Joadja Creek Joadja Creek Hartley Vale Joadja Creek Hartley Vale Joadja Creek Do Cannel coal, Mold Flints Mumirundi Torbanite, Torbane Hill ... Cannel coal, Scotland Torbonite, Torbane HQl . . . Xe\v Caledonia (Hartley's) . Greta mine Albertite, New Briuiswick . Greta mine Cannel coal, Wi^Tin 0-71 0-44 0-41 1-16 9-720 0-55 0-48 1-475 1-464 87-42 5-17 6-17 0-53 83-861 8-035 7-075 0-5S9 1054 82-50 6-50 11-0 82-123 7-160 10-340 0-337 1-229 82-24 4-97 12-79 1-052 77-07 12-13 10-27 0-12 1-098 73-364 15-765 9-175 0-536 1-103 7208 21-91 6-01 71-882 6-467 19136 0-549 71-17 7-65 -21-18 1-170 69-77 10-45 19-78 69-695 9-045 20-540 1-316 64-62 8-71 -26 12 1-238 61-18 •25-13 13-21 57-490 42-086 0-4-24 1-100 53-798 27-946 15-870 0-911 1130 45-900 1 45-519 7-117 1-259 W. A. Dixon. Liyersidge. B. Silliman. Liyersidge. Do W. A. Dixon. Liversidge. Percy. Liversidge. Uow. Percy. Liyersidge. Do Do Do Do Do KEROSENE, S3 The following table, was prepared hy Professor Chandler, Columbia College, New York, to compare the Hartley Mineral with Grahamite and Albertite, both of which are used for enriching gas : — Locality. Volatile matter. Fixed carbon. Ash. Gas per ton of 2,240 poundH, in cubic feet. Candle power of gas. Coke per ton of 2,-240 pounds. Gas purified by 1 bushel of lime in cubic feet. Grahamite, West Virjfinia Albertite, Xova 53 -50 57-70 82-50 41-50 41-00 C-50 2-00 0-40 11-00 15,000 14,784 13,716 28-70 49-55 131-00 lb. 1,056 806 424 Bush. 44 16 Hartlej' mineral, New South Wales 5,086 The Australian Kerosene Oil and Mineral Company, and the New South Wales Shale and Oil Company manufacture lubricants, candles, and a very fair article of axle oil, which i;^; extensively used by the Public Works Department of the Colony. Until recently all the axle oil used was imported from Europe. Mr. Downe, Superintendent of Locomo- tives, while on a visit to the United States, ob.served the use of a superior axle oil on the railway carriages, and obtained samples of it for the purpo.se of introducing it here. Its use gave much satisfaction, and large (juantities of it were imported from time to time from America. Samples of this oil were at Mr. Downe's suggestion submitted to JMr. Fell, in Sydney, for the purpose of having a similar oil manufactured out of the native shales. Mr. Fell, after a series of experiments with the colonial shale, succeeded in producing an oil very nearly as good as the imported article and at about the same cost. The oil has been so much improved that it is now used on the tram car.s, motors, and railway stock. 84 XE^v SOUTH wales : her commerce axd resources. DIAMONDS. Although diamonds have been known to exist in various parts of Australia for the last thirty or forty years no effort has been made to conduct any svstematic mining operations for them except in the Colony of New South Wales. For a considerable period no importance was attached to the discovery, on account of the small size of the stones. There was also a prevailing opinion that they were not diamonds but a species of coloui-less topaz. The Kev, W. B. Clarke, in an interesting and valuable paper on the resources of the Colonies, makes mention of the discovery of diamonds on the Macquarie River in New South Wales in the year 1860. No mention, however, is made as to their size or value or of the conditions under which they were found. In 1867 attention was directed to the discovery of diamonds on the Cudgegong River, about 20 miles from Mudgee and 170 miles from Sydney. About that time the discovery of diamonds was reported at Beechvvorth, Victoria, and in various localities amongst the gold-bearing reefs of South Australia. Professor Liversidge, of the Sydney University, has devoted much study to the subject of diamonds, and especially to their occurrence in Australia. He visited the mines at Bingera in 1873, and has since taken the deepest interest in the progx'ess of mining there. A very valuable paper, entitled " The Occurrence of the Diamond near Mudgee," by Mr. Norman Taylor, of the Victorian Geological Survey, and Professor Alexander M. Thomson, states that diamonds were first seen in the Mudgee district, 190 miles from Sydney by rail- road, at a place called Two-mile Flat. Little attention, however, was paid to the discovery until the spring of 1869, when the search was taken up briskly by the Gwydir Mining Company, and by several inde- pendent parties. The localities producing the diamonds are situated along the Cudgegong River, beginning at the junction of the river with Waldra Creek and extending to Hassall's Hill, a distance of 7 miles. The gems are said to be more numerous in outliers of an ancient river bed. These outliers occur at various distances from the ])resent chainiel, and at elevations of about 40 feet above it. Mr. Taylor and Professor Thomson state that these outliers of drift are capped by hard, compact, and in many instances columnar basalt, and that they have all the characteristics of the widespread deposits in Victoria, which the geo- logical survey thei'e assigned to the older pliocene. The paper states that the patches of diamond-bearing drift (older pliocene), with their protective coverings of basalt, though once forming parts of a continuous deposit, have been isolated by extensive denudations. The point of eruption from which the basaltic flow emanated appeal's to lie to the eastward, but it has not hitherto been detected ; its remnants can be followed up for at lea.st 17 miles along the river, in some spots still .showing a thickness of 70 feet, which proves the igneous outburst to have been of considerable magnitude, and sufliciently to alter materially the physical aspects of the river valley. The following is a list of the DIAMONDS. 85 gem stones and heavy minevals found in the drift : — 1st, black vesicular pleonaste ; 2nd, topaz ; 3rd, quartz ; 4th, corundum ; 5th, zircon ; 6th, tourmaline ; 7th, black titaniferous iron sand ; Sth, black magnetic iron sand ; 9th, titanic acid, probably brookite, in flat red transparent or reddish white translucent plates; 10th, wood tin; 11th, garnet ; 12th, iron hagly fragments slightly rusted metal ; 13th, gold, line scsdy and occasionally fragments enclosed by quartz ; 1-lth, tlie diamond itself is found distributed irregularly through the older pliocene river drift. At Hassall's Hill thirty-three loads from oiie claim yielded 306 dia- monds. Another claim yielded at the rate of eight diamonds to the load. Out of 5,000 or 6,000 diamonds found, very few were of any considerable size, the largest being a colourless octahedron, weighing 5 3-5 carats. It was found in the river, between Two-mile Flat and the Rocky Ridge at a spot where the older pliocene drift had been discharged in gold- washing. A large majority of the stones were pellucid and colourless ; many were stravz-coloured, and a few dark, green and black. The method adopted in washing for the diamonds, when water ould be ob- tained, consisted in screening the drift so as to separate the larger stones. The coarser portions of the clay were then raked aside, so that the gold and finer matter could be carried away by a stream of water flowing- through an iron grating on the water blankets below. One of Hunt's machines was used to separate the heavier from the lighter material that passed over the blankets. After the reduction of the material by this process the diamonds could be readily distinguished. Water is now said to be more abundant than formerly in the Mudgee district, and a new company has been formed for the purpose of conducting operations. The new company, it is said, will be supplied with the latest improve- ments in machinery and diamond mining appliances. The Bingera diamond-mines are located on the Gwydir River, 8 miles from the town of Bingera and 354 miles north-west of Sydney. The route there is by railway to Glen Innes 324 miles and the remainder of the journey is performed by coach. According to Professor Liversidge, the Bingera diamond deposits are situated in a kind of a basin or closed valley amidst the hills. The basin is 4 miles long and 3 wide and opens towards the north. Running into the valley are various spurs of basalt covering portions of the drift. The drift is 30 or 40 miles in length and is thought to be the old bed of the river Horton. The rocks upon which the diamond drift rest consists of Argillaceous shales. In one part of the gi'ound the shales are joined by siliceous conglomerates, and there the diamonds are the most abun- dant. The pebbles and boulders consist of various coloured jasper white quartz, black flinty slate. The following list of gem stones associated with diamonds at Bingera is supplied by Professor Liversidge. Tour- maline, or jet stone occurs as rolled prisms usually from | to | of an inch long. They retain the triangular section, but occasionally no trace of crystalline form is left, and they appear merely as more or less rounded black pebbles often witha jetted surface totally unlike the usual appearance of tourmaline ; the blow-pipe decides their character at once. These black jet stones are invariably found with the diamond, and are regarded by the miners as one of the best indications of its presence. Zircon, occurs in small crystals of red and brown colours also nearly colourless, but more 86 NEW SOUTH WALES : HER COMMERCE AND RESOURCES. commonly ns rolled pieces of a brown shade. A cleavage plane is usually to be seen. fSaiiphire, generally in small angular pieces and usually of a pale colour. In many the blue tint does not overspread the whole of the fragment. The ruby is present, but very rare. One fragment showed the faces of an acute hexagonal pyramid and basal pinacoid. The lower half of the crystal had been fractured. The fragments of sapphire are far less in size than those found at Mudgee and in other places, and far less rolled. The major part often appears to have undergone no rounding at all, thus showing a broad distinction between it and the gem sand at Mudgee. Topaz, as rounded fragments and sometimes with rough crystalline out- line. They are generally of a dull yellowish colour. Garnet, in small rough looking illformed crystals of a dull red shade. Spinelle, not very common, generally in small red or pinkish fragments. Quartz, small prisms capped with the pyramid, more or less rolled, transparent, of a pale red smoke colour. Amongst the jaspar pebbles are some of pale mottled tints of yellow, pink, drab, brown, and bluish grey. These are ter- med morlops by the miners and are regarded by them with much favour as they say that they never find one of them in the dish without dia- monds accompanying it. The average specific gi-avity of the morlops is 3 "25, nearly the same as that of the diamond, hence the reason of their being found together. They are oval in form, smooth, and rarely exceed a ^ of an inch in length. The miners are unable to tell how the name originated and there is no mention of it in any work in mineralogy. Brookite, small flat fragments, very rare titaniferous iron, rather com- mon. Magnetic iron ore, in small grains showing an octahedral form under the microscope, coated with hydrated sesquioxide of iron easily re- moved by the magnet. Wood-tin, rare in small rolled particles. Gold, fine grains and scales present, but in small quantity, and the greater portion attached to the magnetite, hence the magnet was used for the purpose of removing it. Osmiridium, in small brittle plates rare. Dia- monds, small size, clear, colourless and transparent, while others have a pale straw or yellow tint. One or two small size of very dark colour have been seen, also a greenish one. Nineteen specimens were examined and their specific gravity found to be 3-42, that of the Mudgee being 3 -44. In some the crystalline form is distinctly shown, but a number of others have rounded faces. The following table shows the yield of the Bingera diamond drift to the ton : — 6 tons of drift 41 diamouds. ^ „ 143 6 ,, 88 6 ,, 125 6 „ 163 Refuse from Machines 41 ,, 601 diamonds. In 1873, diamonds were discovered at Bald Hill in the Touron district. The stones obtained there were sent by the Minister for Lands to Professor Liversidge for examination. The Professor, in reporting upon the same, said that the largest stone was in the form of a six-faced octahedron rather flattened owing to four of the groups of faces being more highly developed than the other four. Thefaces and edges were DIAMONDS. 87 rounded somewhat, but Professor Liversidge did not tliink that the roundness was caused by attrition from the fact that the diamonds not unfrequently crystalise with curved faces and rounded edges. The stone was clear and colourless and perfectly free from all visible internal flaws. It possessed a speciiic gravity of 3 '58, and weighed a little over three carats. The diamond next in size jiossessed the same crystallographic form but was less compressed. Its Aveight was Ih carats. The third specimen weighed about half a grain and was of high lustre but impei'- fect in colour. Accompanying the diamonds were two small boxes of gem sand. None of the gems contained in the sand, except the diamonds, were of any commercial value. Mr. Wilkinson, the Government Geologist, states that he is fully con- vinced that diamond mining will form an important industry in the Colony. The mines, he says, would have been developed earlier, but for the want of water. He commends very highly the prompt action of Messrs. Falk and Co. in sinking for water at Bingera. Mr. Harris Wood, Under Secretary for Mines, fully agrees Avith the views expressed by Mr. Wilkinson in regard to the prospects of the industry. Mr. Wood states that the Australian Diamond-mining Company obtained at Doctor's Creek, Bingera, 1,193 diamonds, Aveighing 254 carats, Avhen the Tvater gave out. They raised 5,000 tons of drift, but Avere unable to Avash out more than 400 tons. The drift Avas found by Messrs. Powell and party. The Craddock party had a small Avash of about a half a ton, which yielded seventeen diamonds. Messrs. Demsey and Co. also ob- tained a number of diamonds, but had to abandon the drift on account of the scarcity of Avater. Mr. Wood reports the discovery of diamonds at Tingha, near Big River, Auburn Vale, and at Berrima and Inverell. At the latter place sixty loads of Avashdirt from the Ncav Banca Mine, yielded 1,951 diamonds, Aveigliing 288 carats, and 110 loads from the Pine Ridge Company's ground yielded 1,450 diamonds, Aveighing 280 carats. Diamonds have also been found in the Mittagong, Wellington, and the Uralla districts. Those fou^nd at Auburn Yale and Berrima Avere said by London experts to be of the very best quality, su]3erior in every Avay to those of Cape Colony, South Africa. Mr. Wood is of opinion that the mines at Tingha Avill eventually proA'e the richest in Australia. The Australian Diamond-mining Company about eighteen months ago purchased a lease of 40 acres, for Avhich they paid £4,000 ($19,466). They have also incurred considerable expense in erecting machinery. As yet no stones of large size haA'e been found by the comjDany, but even at the celebrated Kimberly Mines in South Africa one large stone in 10,000 is the general run, and one half a carat per ton of drift is consid- ered a good result for a diamond-mine. Mr. Wood received a telegram from the manager of the Australian Diamond-mining Company at Bingera stating that they had cleaned up eighty-seven loads of drift yielding 1,139 diamonds, Aveighing 209 carats. This is the best yield the company has had. Some of the stones were larger than any Avhich have hitherto been found, and six men only Avere employed for a period of ten days in breaking up, carting, and cleaning the drift. The Department of Mines has tested thoroughly by actual trial the utility of the Noav South Wales diamonds for drill purposes. Mr. Slee, SS NKW SOI Til walks: HKK lOMMKKCK AND KKSOURCES. the Chiof Inspector of Klines, liiade ;i valuable report upon the subject, and at Heatheote, near Coalolitt", a Biuirera iliauionil stood the test of boring 1,207 feet thi-ough thick layers of hard sandstone and i.H)nglonie- i-ates, the latter being especially injurious, and yet without the slightest fracture. Professor Liversidge forwardeil to the Indian and Colonial Exhibition in London, a very valuable collection of diamonds, an^ong which aiv the following : — 1 diamond, tetrahedron, Ljichlan River, N.S.W., at -ll-') grammes, 9 small diamonds, Bingera, N.8."\V., at vkv") grammes, 1 diamond, dark, inoctohedron, Bingera, N.S.AV., at 290 gnxnnnes» 1 black diamond. Mudgoe, N.S.W., at '~oo grammes, also a few Cape Colony diamonds for the purpose of comparing tlie matrix. A parcel of Bingeni diamonds placed on the Londotx market in Sep- tember, 1880, averaged .£1 Ills. (6~"~8) per carat, whilst the highest avei-age of the Cape diamonds during the same months Avas only 18s. (8-4"3S) per canit. Another parcel of New South Wale.s diamonds, weighing 12G carats, brought in London £\ 10s. ($7"29) per carat. These were obtained from 127 tons of drift, averaging nearly 1 carat per ton. A few months previous to this shipment another parcel wa.s sent to London, weighing 80 carats, obtained from 40 tons of drift, equal to 2 carats per ton. The manager of the Australian Diamond Alining Company estimates the cost of washing for diamonds at 2s. Gd. (61 cents) per ton of drift. He states that they can wash easily with one machine 200 tons of drift per day, aiid even if the avemge should be no higher than J, carat per ton, the net jn-otits would bo considei-able. He is very decided in the opinion that the quality of the Bingera stones is far superior to those of the Cape. It will perhaps be of interest to mention here that the geographical position of Bingera is almost identical with that of the celebrated Kimberley Mines of South Africa, both being situateil on the 30th parallel of south latitude. Another striking coincidence is that the coast lines of Bingei'a and Kimberley bear from north-west to north- east at precisely the same angles. There is also a dividing chain of mountains in both places at about the sj\me distance from the coast-line, and, moreover, the diamonds are located within mountains in each case at an equal distance from the coast-line. The production of the South African diamond mines during the month of July, 1885, was in round numbers 170,000 carats, valued at 18s. r>d. (•-<4-48) per carat. In Octo- ber, 1882, the production was 211,740 carats, which realised ,£1 los. 7d. (?58-10) per carat. From this it will be seen that the tendency of the price of South African diamonds is downward. The production, it is said, has also been atlected by serious falls of reef. The Kimberley ^Mines during the last tifteen years have produced n\ore diamonds than all the other mines in the world were able to produce for two centuries previous to 1 870. The steady decline in the price of diamonds has led to the conclusion that the South African Klines liave been allowed to in-oduce too rapidly, and it is more than probable that this ovei--production has forced the amalgamation of the principal diamond companies both at the Cape and in Brazil. DIAMONDS. 89 The diainond, altliough the hardest and most beautiful and brilliant gem kaiown, is composed of the simplest substance, being nothing more nor less tliun crystallised carbon. It occurs principally in gold-bearing rocks or in sands derived from them. It doubtless originated, like coal or mineral oil, from the gradual decomposition of vegetable or animal matter. The diamond when placed under the blow-pipe burns without leaving any residue;. It is so hard that it will scratch all other jewels, and remain unscratched Ity them. Indeed, a diamond is the only suVjstance that will cut a diamond. Another interesting fact aljout it is, that unlike any other crystal, it exerts little or no action on polarised light. It occurred to scientists that if some means could be devised wliereby the element of carbon (which will not dissolve in liquid or vaporise in flame) could be rendifred soluble or gaseous it could Ije recovered in crystallised forms. In 1853 M. Despretz showed in a series of experi- ments that carbon free from every trace of mineral substance, prepared from crystallized sugar-candy, could be made to deposit microscopic crystals in black octahedrons, in colourless, translucent octahedrons, in colourless and translucent ]ilates, possessing all the hardness of natural diamonds, and which would burn without leaving any residue. The crystals, however, being in powder, it was impossible to separate and measure them. Similar experiments were made from time to time, the most important of which are detailed in the " Transactions of the Royal Society of London." In March, 1879, a paper was read befoi-e that body, prepared by J. B. Hannay, F.II.S.E., and James Hogarth, a Scotch chemist, " On the solubility of solids in gases." It described a series of experiments in which various solids and gaseous solvents (such non volatile solids as iodide of potassium, chloride of cobalt, and l)romide of potassium) were dissolved in alcohol and again crystallised. It was maintained that the experiments furnished abundant proof of the con- tinuity of the liquid and gaseous states and of tlie solubility of solids in gases. The paper, amongst much other interesting matter, directed attention to the fact that many natural crystals contain small cavities filled with a liquid. This liquid requires very great pressure to retain it, being, in fact, a gas under ordinary circumstances. So great is the pressure exerted by this li(|uified gas that such crystals frequently burst in this way. Mr. Hannay, in a second paper, described at length his researches for a suitable solvent. He first tried hydrocarbon, then the dissociation of Jiydrocarbon liy means of a metal was; attempted, and at last success- fully, by suljmitting hydrocarbon in the presence of a nitrogenous sub- stance to pressure and heat. On opening the tiibe in which the experi- ments were made, a number of crystals of diamonds were found. Professor Maskelyne, of the British Museum, subsequently announced that the experiments were of tlie most satisfactory character, that ihe stones produced stood every test, that they scratched deep grooves on the polished surface of sapphire, and were nearly inert in polarised light like natural diamonds. He fixed the angle of their cleavage faces at 79 degrees and 29 minutes, that of the real gem being 79 degrees and 30 minutes. He said, however, that the task of exact measurement was one of great difficulty on account of the minuteness of the stones. 90 XEW SOUTH WALES : HER COMMERCE AND RESOURCES. The Under Secretary for Mines states : — " Some time ago I called attention to the difficulty experienced by miners in finding a ready market for their diamonds, and suggested that advantage might be taken of the exhibit of our diamonds at the Colonial and Indian Exhi- bition to obtain through the Agent-General some information concerning the prospect of a market in London for the products of our mines. The Agent-General was good enough to obtain and forward the following valuable reports" : — Report ox New South Wales Diamonds. To Sir Saul Samuel, K.C.M.G., C.B., Agent-General for New South Wales. f^ij-^ London, 16 November, 1886. In response to your request that Ave should examine and report to you on the collection of diamonds in the New South Wales Court of the Colonial and Indian Exhibition, we have the honor to inform you that we have carefully examined the 285 crystals comprising it, and have fully gone into the literature bearing on the occurrence of the diamond in New South Wales, so far as known to us. The mode of occurrence, physical characters, accompanying gems, and the general history of the diamond in New South Wales have been so ably treated by Messrs. Norman Taylor and the late Professor A. M. Thomson {Trajis. B. Soc. N. S. Wales for 1870, p. 94), Mr. Norman Taylor [Geological Magazine, 1879, vol. vi., pp. 399 and 444), and Professor A. Liversidge [Trans. E. Soc. N. S. Wales for 1873 [1874], pp. 91 and 102 ; Quart. Journal Geol. Soc, 1875, xxxi., p, 489), and the equally full description of the deposits yielding the gem, given by the same authors, and Mr. E. F. Pittman [Annual Be port, Bept. of Mines, N. S. Wales for 1881, p. 141), that it is quite superfluous for us to do more than briefly refer to these parts of the subject. With regard to the crystallographic form, we have recognised all those described by Messrs. Taylor and Thomson and Professor Liversidge. When compared with those of South Africa, we find that the New South "Wales forms are more varied, i.e., the ci-ystals partake more of the dodecahedral with its numerous modifica- tions, than of the octohedral habit, which is so marked a feature in those from the Cape. In this I'espect the New South Wales stones bear a remarkable resemblance to those from Brazil, and also differ from the Indian gems. Another peculiarity of the Cape diamond is the large proportion of cleaved stones, or " cleavage," which appear to be entirely absent in the parcel submitted to lis from the Crown Jewel Mine. Speaking of those from Bingera generally. Professor Liversidge says, " no fractured specimens have been detected ;" whilst among those from Cudgegong Mr. Taylor remarks, "it is very rare to meet with fractured stones." Again, amongst the Cape diamonds a fairly large number of "macles," or twinned-crys- tals, are met with, and these, as we have elsewhere pointed out, are found to pre- sent difficulties in cutting through the planes of contact. Now, in the present collection, these macles appear to be exceptional, but INIr. Taylor has described twinned-crystals from the Cudgegong, although not obtained in any quantity. Flattened octahedra, known in the trade as "flats," appear to be rare, although we have noticed a few. They are converted into " rose diamonds," a form of cutting formerly much practised in oriental countries, but only used in the case of imperfect stones. It naturally follows that the comparative absence of stones with these crystallographic character's M'ill tend to reduce the cost of prejiaration, loss of material, and necessity for the production of a less saleable gem. The black specks so frequently met with not only in the Cape, but also in Brazilian diamonds, appear in those from Inverell to be more or less confined to the surface planes, not extending to any depth within the crystals, and would doubt- less be eliminated in the cutting without detracting to any great extent from the value of the stones as gems. On the other hand, speaking of the Cudgegong diamonds, Messrs. Taylor and Thomson say that "black specks within the crystals are not uncommon," and Professor Liversidge remarks on those from Bingera, "it is rather common to find them with .... internal black specks." Tiie above observers have fully described the various colours charac- teristic of the New South Wales diamond, but in the present parcel we have only DIAMONDS. 91 noted the colourless, shades of yellow, and a peculiar light yellowish brown, or light cinnamon colour. A small number are so slightly tinged as to practically come within the term " byewaters," whilst a very considerable proportion are of that straw-yellow tint known as "off-colours," but it is satisfactory to note that, as we have elsewhere stated, these off-colour stones far eclipse, when seen by artificial light, those regarded as of pure water. On analysing the colour of 275 stones from Inverell, we find the following proportions : — Colourless 100 Straw-yellow (" oft'-colours"') 126 Slightly tinted yellow ( ' ' byewaters") 39 Cinnamon-yellow 6 Dirty gray hue (" rejections") 4 275 Messrs. Taylor and Thomson, Mr. Taylor separately, and Professor Liversidge make particular mention of shades of green as sometimes occurring. Llr. Taylor speaks of ' ' light or dark bottle green" stones, and Professor Liversidge mentions "light green" gems. We have no information what proportion su^ch coloui's occupy in comparison with the others just enumerated, but we would point out that the commercial value of stones so tinted is enormoiisly augmented, if of any size, and we cannot impress too strongly on those engaged in diamond mining the importance of this point . We are lilvcwise unfurnished with information as to the quantity of " Boart" yet obtained in the Colony, but considering the numerous uses to which this variety of the diamond has been put of late j'ears, more particularly as applied to the diamond drill, and considering the important part this machine is now playing in water borings throughout the Australian Continent — we would strongly recommend this variety to the attention of the mining community. Several crystals of a dirty gray hue, and known in diamond circles as "rejections," are present in the collection, and these with a few irregular malformed crystals may be taken as types of stones which could be successfully used for this purpose. " One or two oiiaque black" diamonds are mentioned by Mr. Taylor, and Professor Liversidge cites an example of Boart, which was exhibited in the New South Wales Court, and is said to have been found at Mudgee. In another place (Liversidge, Tha Minerals of New South Wakff, 2nd Edition, p. 122), this is stated to have come from Bathurst. It is described as black in colour, and with graphitic lustre, of the size of a large pea, and with a few small crystallographic processes projecting from the surface, 7 "352 grains in weight, and Sp. (xr. 35(3, at 70^ F. This description sti'ongly recalls to mind the true Brazilian Boart, which is in such request for diamond drills, and as distinguished from tliat of the Cape Diamond Fields. The latter consists simply of badly crystallised and dark coloured stones, similar to those previoirsly referred to as of a dirty gray hue from the Crown Jewel Mine. The importance of these facts will be at once preceived when it is remembered that the true or Brazilian Boart consists of more or less spherical aggi'cgations of acicular crystals, radiating from a centre, and possessing an external as])ect with which Professor Liversidge 's description seems to correspond. We have examined the stone in question, and beyond exhibiting a smoother surface it appears to us to fulfil these conditions. We need not say more on this point than by reminding those interested that the true Boart is now worth 7s. 6d. (•'?1"82) per carat, and the Cape or false Boart, 3s. 6d. (85 cents). The lustre of the crystalline faces, which is not to be differentiated from that of Brazilian stones, is chiefly adamantine, but at times somewhat dull, but this in no way detracts from their beauty when cut, tlie exterior crystal irregularities having little or no connection with the structure below the surface. The dullness appears to be partly due, as pointed out by Mr. Taylor and Professor Liversidge, to certain crystallographic irregularities, and certainly is not owing, as suggested by some, to abrasion or attrition. The rounding of the faces, visible on many of these crystals, is entirely due to tlie well-known peculiarities of diamond crytallisation, and that it is not due to attrition is evident by the sharply defined character of the edges bounding these rounded faces. 92 \EW SOUTH WALKS : HER COMMERCE AND RESOURCES. The equally noticeable pitting of the surfaces of the crystal planes is characteristic of the diamond in all liithei-to knoM'n localities, and cannot therefore be used as a means of c'om])arison with those of one field as against those of another. The pitting is very iri-egular both in position and shape, more so in fact than is generally seen in examples from other fields. The colourless stones are not only pitted to a greater extent than the yellow, but the crystal planes are more unequally developed, imparting to the crystals a much more distorted appearance. The brilliancy of the white and yellow stones when the gems are good is about equal, and before cutting tliis feature is more pronounced the nearer they approach the octahedron in form, a fact liolding good both for the yellow and white stones, and one quite in accord with theory. Some of the colourless are very beautiful stones, and the quality quite justifies the manner in whicii parcels have been brought into the London market, a fact to be referred to hereafter. Amongst the stones cut for you by Messrs. Ford & Wright is one of a very peculiar, and, so far as we know, original structure, to which our attention was drawn by their Manager, Air. L. Atkinson. The prepared facet exhibits triangular markings whicli appear to correspond with some of the surface pittings. These markings, so far as we were able to judge, seemed to extend through the whole of the crystal, and unless removable by polishing, stones of a similar structure to this, judging from a trade point of view, would be of little value, but we are of opinion that this is an isolated instance of a peculiar crystallographic growth. Hardness is a physical feature upon which nnich stress is laid by lapidaries and diamond-cutters, and it is stated by Messrs. Ford & Wright that the New South Wales diamonds are much harder than those from the Cape, judging by the time necessary for the preparation of the facets. But, as a matter of fact, in other precious stones the relative hardness depends, to a great extent upon the dii'cction in which a stone is cut with regard to its crystalline form, and until many more careful observations are recorded, we hesitate to pronounce any opinicn as to the value of this. If proved, we would call attention to the necessary increase in the cost of cutting the diamonds from your Colony, but, as a set-ofl' to this, the jjrob- able increase in brilliancy. One tiling is cjuite apparent, when cut, some of these stones produce most exquisite gems. Messrs. Taylor and Thomson, and Professor Liversidge also, have determined the specific gravity to vary between the limits of ;V42 (Bingera) and 3-44 (Mudgee), but with an average of 3-42. We find the mean of a series of experi- ments with the Crown .Jewel diamonds to be 3-46. The following table of specific gravities gives a comparison with that of those from Brazil, India, and Borneo, the data of the latter being taken from Mr. Harry Emanuel's Avork, and that of M. M. Jacob and Chatrain : — Country. White Stones. Yellow Stones. India 3-524 3-442 3-520 3-492 3*556 Brazil 3-520 Cape Borneo N. S. Wales 3-42 The analogy in density between the white Brazilian stones and those from New South Wales, irrespective of colour, is at once apparent. The average weight of Mudgee stones was estimated at 0-23, or nearly 1 carat grain each, by Messrs. Taylor and Thomson, and this has received corroboration from Mr. C. S. Wilkinson in the case of diamonds from the Borah Creek Tindrifts (MuK.'i and Mln. Staihtks, N. S. Walts, for 1874, p. 79). On the other hand, DIAMONDS. 93 those from Bingera are said b}' Professor Liversitlge to he "for the most part small in size." We have made two series of determinations of the weights of the Crown Jewel Mine diamonds, with the follpwing results : — 20 1st size stones {a) = ... 16i + yV carats Mean £ + h „ {b}=... 12i + A + tjV h + A 20 medium stones (a) = ... lOi + 3V I + «V „ (^')-- 8i + tV + eV ? + A + sV + oV 20 small stones (a) = ... ^ + h A + tV „ (S) = ... 2i + A + 3V + oV i + cV Mr. Hai'rie Wood, in the Annual Report of the Department of Mines for 1885 (p. 40), gives the total weight of this parcel as 104g carats. He states that " 280 ranged from g to 1 carat each in weight, and live from 1 to \h carat." As a fair average of the diamonds found in the Cudgegong field, Messrs. Taylor and Thomson give the following statistics : — 106 diamonds weighed 74^ carats, the largest If carats. 81 110 16 700 19 26i 6"" 15U 1; Large diamonds appear to be quite the exception in Kew South Wales ; at any rate, definite data are wanting on this branch of the subject. The largest stones of which we have been able to find reliable record are; the following: — • Messrs. Taylor and Thomson give the largest found at of carats, a perfectly colourless octahedron, discovered in the Cudgegong River, between the "Two- mile-Flat" and the "Rocky Ridge" ; anotlier of 'A^ carats at the former locality. Two very excellent stones were lately exhibited in the Xew South Wales Court by Mr. R. H. D. White, weighing, respectively, in the cut form 3 and 3i carats. Professor Liversidge states that at Bald Hill, Hill End, one stone slightly over 3 carats, and another \h carat, were obtained. On the other hand, Mr. C. S. Wilkinson records the discovery, in the stream-tin washings of the Borah Tin and Diamond Mining Company, Borah Creek, of a diamond weighing 5 "5 carats, and another 7 '5 carats at the Bengonover Mine, in the same creek. From the Crown Jewel Mine the largest stones we noticed were the following : — 1 lai'ge colourless stone = \^ + ~ ii 4- _1_ J- 1 " " + ^ 1 H ' 3 a ,, yellow stone = £ + i == J + tV As compared with the stones of other localities, the size is somewhat small, although it is stated that Brazilian diamonds frequently take from 15 to 20 to weigh a carat. This smallness of size is compensated, however, by the fact, as we are informed by an excellent trade authority, that medium sized diamonds are now more in request than large ones, for mounting in conjunction with other gems such as rubies and sapphires. In form, size, and physical character, the New South Wales diamonds appear to agree better witli those of the country just mentioned than of any other ; but, of course, they cannot vie in size or quantity with Cape stones. In brilliancy and fire when cut, they are, however, stone for stone, quite able to hold their own with those from the latter Colony. In fact, it appears, from information gathered through most reliable sources, that a large proportion of ISTew South Wales gems have found their way to the London market as Brazilian stones. Otherwise we would ask what has become of the 12,000 which are officially returned as found up to the end of 1SS5, especially when it is distinctly stated Ijy Mr. E. F. Pittman, Chief Mining Surveyor for New South Wales, that in 1872-73, the Sydney jewellers declined to buy Bingera stones. We are quite aware that some small parcels have reached certain eminent firms in London, in a genuinely open manner, as New South Wales diamonds ; but we believe that the other course has been more frequenth' adopted. If this be the case, what more satisfactory certificate could he adduced in favour of the diamonds yielded by the tertiary di'ifts of New South Wales. Whilst preparing the present Report, we have been asked on several occasions two very pertinent questions — questions which appear to us to have a very 9-t NEW SOUTH WALES : HER COMMERCE AND RESOURCES. important bccaring on the future development and permanency of tlie diamond industry in New South Wales. The first of these was, what is the area of the diamantiferous ground, and the approximate thickness of the drift in the several fields ? The second and equally important question related to the yield of stones. Unfortunately, beyond the general statement that 12,000 diamonds have been found, we are unaccpiainted with any official return dealing with such details, and even until Avithin the last two years this subject does not appear as one of the items in your excellent " Reports of the Department of Mines "; and the same remarks may be applied to the question of area. ]\Iany statements have appeared in the public press on the first of these points, but they are so utterly unreliable as to be quite useless for statistical purposes. With the view of pointing out how difficult it is for an estimate to be formed, even within several degrees of accui'acy, the following brief and imperfect descrip- tion of the diamantiferous deposits may not be out of place, abstracted from the several excellent authorities we have before referred to. The diamond in New South Wales occurs in outliers of drift and cement representing old river accumulations of more than one geological age, lying at various distances from tlie present river channels, and once forming portions of widespread and continuous deposits, resting on the bed rock of the country. The older drifts have been protected from total destruction 1>y cappings of basaltic rock, but the isolated condition of these clearly shows the enormous amount of denudation which has gone on, and tlie quantity of diamantiferous drift removed. The latter is usually loose and coarse, but in places passes into a compact con- glomerate. There are six of these drifts at Mudgee, occupying different levels, resulting from the successive denudations of one another, and we believe all diamond-bearing. At Bingera, on the other hand, the drift is described as a "small-grained siliceous brecciated conglomerate, strongly agglutinated together by a ferruginous cement." The younger drifts have in every case been derived from the destruction by fluviatile agencies of the older. Mr. Taylor describes the older drift as a " coarse and heavy deposit — some boulders in it weighing several hundredweights — for the most part loose, but portions of it united into a compact conglomei'ate. It varies greatly in thickness, from a few inches to 30 feet . . The newer drift derived from the above is composed of the same contents as the older drift, with tlie addition of boulders of greenstone and basalt . The newer drifts (upper and lower) comprising the present river bed, and older and deeper channels, contain pebbles, boulders, and shingle of the neighbouring sandstones, slates, &c." Throughout these drifts the diamonds are described as occurring in rich patches. The drift at Bingera is said by Professor Liversidge to vary from 3 to GO feet. It will be readily understood from this that without a detailed official survey of all the likely diamond-bearing drifts, it would be impossible to give even an approximate idea of the areas capable of yielding the precious stones ; but that such deposits are numerous throughout New South Wales, is itself evident to any one who has perused the able geological reports of Mr. C. S. Wilkinson and his assistants. It can naturally be roughly ascertained from the geological maps pre- pared by these gentlemen, but we believe it would greatly stimulate diamond- mining if a detailed report could be prepared furnishing the information in question. As an indication to parties interested, we can only refer to what has been done, and for this purpose we quote certain of the ascertained areas of the Cudgegong (Mudgee) Diamond Field, as given by Messrs. Taylor and Thomson, thus — Name of Claim. Area in Acres. Tliicliness of Drift. Two-mile Flat 70 40 100 40 20 340 Jordan's Hill IS feet Miller's Claim 12 ., Junction of Reedy Creek with Cudgegong River... Rocky Ridae (older drift) Horseshoe Bend do Hassal's Hill do ' 12 to 30 feet. 610 DIAMONDS. 95 Touching the second point — the number of diamonds found — the following reliable data are extant : — Claim. Diamonds. No. per Load. Carats. Authority. Date. Australian Diamond Min- ing Company (Mudgee) 1,765 From 1 to 2 loads, to 4 or 5 in 1 load. Taylor 1867 Messrs. Scott & Allen (Mudgee. ) 700 8 to 12 or 15 loads. )5 ' Messrs. Cooney & Party (Mudgee. ) 1,000 1 to 15 to 1 load, average 5. M )> Falk&Co. (Bingera) 400 From 100 loads... Wood 1883 Gwydir Diamond Company (Bingera. ) 690 „ 341 ,, ... Liversidge. 1873 Australian Diamond Min- ing Company (Bingera) 1,193 „ 418 „ ... 254 )) 1884 Craddock & Party (Bingera) 17 1 Wood ,, Australian Diamond Min- ing Company (Bingera) 1,134 „ 87 „ ,.. 209 " 1885 CrownJewel Mine (Tingha) 285 104g j> " These, of course, represent but a small proportion of those found, and the numbers are only quoted as indicating the relative richness of average claims. Had all the statements been accepted to which we have had access, doubtless the total of 12,000, given in the New South Wales official catalogue, Colonial and Indian Exhibition (p. 149), could be much exceeded. The distribution of the diamond throughout New South Wales is widespread. It has been recorded as occurring at the undermentioned places : — Authority. Date. Turon River Reedy Ci'eek, near Bathurst Burrendong Pyramal Creek Calabash Suttor's Bar, Macquarie River Cudgegong River (Mudgee) Bingera Bald Hill, Hill End Borah and Bengonover Tin Mines Trunkey Creek, Tuena Brook's Creek, Gundaroo, near Goulburn Lachlan Ri^-er Monkey Hill, and Sally's Flat Big River, Auburn Valley, Tingha Berrima District Crown Jewel Mine, Inverell Stutchbury Hargraves Clarke )> ?? S J Taylor and Thomson Liversidge Wilkinson Taylor Liversidge J) ,? " Wood 3? CLE 1851 1859 1860 5) 1867 1873 1875 99 1879 1882 >> 1884 )> 1886 96 NEW SOUTH wales: HER COMMERCE AXD RESOURCES. The iliainond has likewise been found at a few localities in Victoria, chiefly in Gippslaiul, and it is said by the late Dr. J. J. Bleasdale to have also been dis- covered at the Echunga diggings in South Australia (Colonial JMontlihj, 18GS, vol. II, -p. 43(i). At the latter place it is reported to occur in " Itacolumite," but from the description given the matrix is evidently an ordinary auriferous drift. We have seen it stated that certain claims at Bingera .show "good wash of the proper kind, and of the same sort as yields well in South Africa." Now a state- ment of this kind, if true, would naturally do more peihaps for diamond mining in Xew .South Wales than any other fact wliich could be adduced in its favour. On the other hand, if erroneous, a corresponding amount of harm will be done by inducing investors to speculate in the hope of oljtaining similar gratifying results. We have neither seen or read of any diamantiferous soil from New South Wales having even the faintest resemblance to the peculiar rock forming the matrix of the diamond at Kimberley and neiglibouring mines, nor occurring in a like mannei-. We presume the Kimljerley deposit is referred to in such a paragraph as we have quoted, and not the Vaal diggings, which are now comparatively worked out. We cannot too strongly condemn such statements, as liaving no foundation in fact. We have already briefly described the diamond matrices in New South Wales, which are dr!ft--<, widely distributed horizontally. In South Africa, on the other hand, the origin of the diamantiferous rock has given rise to much speculation, and is still a subject for discussion, although it probably results in a great measure from a peculiar form of hydrothermal action. Instead of a wide-spread distribution it occupies restricted areas, having no semblance to drift deposits at all, but is an agglomerate filling strange pipe-like depressions, or elliptical cavities extending vertically to iinknown depths, the exact nature of which have yet to be explained. This is the celebrated "blue" of the South African miners, and it is a " distinct agglomerate, consisting of fragments of all shapes and sizes of many rocks which vary much in mineral composition, enclosed in a base of serpentinized material, which appears to have largely resulted from the alteration of enstatite and olivine. The enclosed rocks, or some of their mineral constituents, have par- taken, to a considerable extent, of the same chemical alteration. The texture varies very much, and depends upon the size and abundance of the enclosed fragments ; sometimes it resembles a breccia, sometimes a conglomerate, and sometimes partakes of the character of both. In some parts the blocks are very much rounded, and present the aspect of water-worn pel)bles ; this is especially the case in many of the doleritic rocks, though we have seen blocks of mica-schist in it which it was difficult to believe were not true pebbles. In others the frag- ments are more angular, but all that we have seen appear to have had their sharp edges more or less removed by some mode of attrition." No such rock has ever been described to our knowledge from New South Wales, diamantiferous or other- ■vvise, and to say therefore that the conditions are similar in the two countries is both misleading and erroneous. With tlie view of showing the relations of the New South Wales diamond matrix, we here append a list of some of the moi'e frequent rocks and minei-als constituting those of Brazil, India, Borneo, and the Cape, from which the resemblance it bears to the two former will be at once apparent. Brazil. — Gold, lydian stone, quartz, red ironstone (siliceous), cassiterite, topaz, spinel, garnet, lazulite, chrysoberyl, carbonado, tourmaline, andalusite, beryl, rutile, anatase, br'ookite, tantalite, hrematite, kyanite. India. — Quartz, jaspers, hornblende, corundum. Borneo. — Mostly red clay, which contains pebbles of serpentine, diorite, and quartz, interbedded with mai-1, containing fossils, magnetite, platinum, black quartz. • I^ew South Wali'-^. — Quartz, quai'tzites, cassiterite, jasper, lydian stone, tojmz, sapphire, ruby, varieties of zircon, spinel (varieties of), gold, tourmaline, flinty slate, shale, sandstone, illmenite, magnetic iron sand, brookite, rutile (Bald Hill), garnet, osmiridium (newer drift of Mudgee). Cope.-— Garnets, green, ruby-red, and brown ; smaragdite, bronzite, enstatite, olivine, illmenite, zircon, vaalite, hornblende, zeolites, calcite, opal, staurolite, iron pyrites, pegmatite, talc schist, mica schist, augite rock, amphibolite, eclogite, serpentine, gneiss, peridotite, granite, dolerites, basalt, melaphyre (with agates) and others, amounting to over eighty in number. I 1>IAM0XDS. 97 With regard to the source of the diamond in New South Wales we do not see any other course than to unliesitatingly accept the explanations offered by Mr. Norman Taylor, so far as the facts bearing on this brancli of the subject have been yet gathered. He believes that they were chemically formed in the older tertiary drifts, and in support of this view adduces the following cogent reasons :— 1. The older rocks of the various diamantiferous districts have not been proved to be diamond bearing. 2. The older tertiary drifts or cements are derived from the denudation of these, and contain diamonds. 3. The younger drifts are only diamantiferous when resulting from the destruction of the latter, and similarly the recent alluvium again from them. 4. The natural conclusion is that the diamonds have been formed in the drifts, and not derived from any pre-existing rocks. Mr. Taylor was further of opinion that the "fluctuating yield, small average size of the gems, the expense in extractfng the drift from beneath the basalt, cartage to water, and washing effectually, are the drawbacks which have hitherto stood in the way of the successful investment of capital in this direction." We imagine that some of these difficulties will in the future be overcome by stricter attention to the details of at least two of these points. For instance, we have it on record that in certain claims, when chiefly worked for gold only, the lower portions of the drift, or that near the "gutter" was removed, leaving what was perhaps tlie richest 'EW SOUTH WALES : HER COMMERCE AXD RESOURCES. 8. Detailed statistics of the area and thickness of drifts likely to prove diamantiferous, and the number hitherto found so, should be prepared oflicially. 9. All auriferous drifts should be prospected for diamonds. 10. The matrix of the diamond in Xew South Wales bears no resemblance to that at the Cape. We are, &c., THOS. DAVIES, F.G.S. E. ETHEPJDGE, Jok. A Report to the New South Wales Government itpon its Diamonds. The four Australian diamonds selected by myself in the New South Wales Court at the Colonial and Indian Exhibition by the request of Sir Saul Samuel, K.C.M.G., C.B., to make a report upon after being cut and polished, during which process I had thoroughly and closely investigated them, with this result, that : — No. 1 parcel contams one diamond, which had the ordinary dodecahedron crystallisation, the crust or coat of the stone was perfectly naturally polished, with very few indentations, and no indication whatever of triangular indentations or markincfs as so frequently found in the African diamond ; it ^vas cut into the shape most suitable to show to the greatest advantage, and on the polisher com- mencing to put the iirst facet on it called the table, it was found on careful examination that there was a triangular formation which is generally found on the outer coat or crust, but very rarely indeed right inside the stone, and it is so remarkable that on the heads of the Mineral Department of the British Museum hearing of it, and after examining it, expressed a strong desire to possess the stone, as being of such a wonderful and interesting formation ; therefore I thought it advisable to stop the polishing process of it and submit the stone for inspection with the desire of the Mineral Department of the British Museum, South Kensington. No. 2 parcel contains the diamonds which were most carefully selected by myself out of the 2S6 Australian diamonds exliibited in the New South Wales Court at the Colonial and Indian Exhibition, that thej' might be as near a match as it is possible to get in every respect such as size, shape, colour, and appearance. One has been cut and polished and proves a brilliant of the finest water; the other diamond is left in its natural rough shape just as it was found, so as to show at once the practical difference between the two diamonds. No. 3 parcel contains one diamond, which, in its rough state, weighed H carats, the crystallisation, a hexakis octahedron of a dull white colour after l)eiug cut and polished ; it now weighs the -h, ^, yV o^ '•■ carat, and is about as fine a brilhant as it is possible to get, be it from Golconda, Borneo, Brazil, or Jaggersfontein. The market price of the Australian diamonds in the rough state is liable, like all other diamonds, to great fluctuations, and on the whole are generally lower than the African diamond, for this important reason that they are a great deal harder to cut and polish ; as, if it were possible to pick out an Australian and an African diamond exactly the same size, weight, shape, and appearance, and given to one man to polish, the African stone would be finishetl in six days, whilst the Australian stone would take eight days, with this vastly important difference that the Australian diamond would be of greater brilliancy and refracting power than the African stone ; and might I suggest that these cut stones might be handed over to some skilled gentleman who would carefully test in every way the refracting powers and polarization of light in comparison with an African diamond. There is always a great market open for Australian brilliants, as although they are at present small in size in comparison to the African diamond, witli regard to colour in proportion to their production, Australia finds the most white diamonds, and there is always a great demand for fine white stones, and always will be, as being small they are the most suitable to set round all other coloured gems and different kinds of ornaments and decorations connected with jewelry, more especially for the future, as China and Japan are commencing to introduce diamond jewelry into their countries. DIAMONDS. ( 99 The market price at the present time for parcels of diamonds, containing such stones as the one cut and polished in Ko. 2 and also No. 3 parcels, varies from £8 (.$38) to £9 (§43.8) per carat. Tliere is another very great market open for all inferior diamonds, especially rounded stones, commonly called ball boart, as it is used now so universally in large C[uantities for rock drilling, mill dressing, and for tiirning all hard metals and stones, and the supply at the present time is not sufficient for the demand, as the inferior diainonds from Africa rarely answer the purpose, being of a softer nature than the Brazilian diamond, which on careful examination, I have come to this most important conclusion, is the same in eveiy respect with the Australian diamond. Australia has a very important market open for its diamonds that are too small to cut and polish, as natural stones are largely used for glass cutting and china drilling, &c. In examining the different collections shown in the New South Wales Court at the Exhibition, I found one piece of carbon which is the hardest mineral known, and is greatly needed, for which there is an immense market. I believe that on the diamond mines in Australia being thoroughly and properly worked with the immensely improved machine that we have now, tliere will be found paying quantities of this stone, and I am also firmly convinced that the deeper the mines are sunk, not only a larger quantity, but liner, and most important of all, the diamonds will be found larger in size. After thoroughly and exhaustively going into the matter, I am so satisfied that there is a large and wealthy industry to be developed in Australia that, although I am in a good jjosition, still if the Government would offer on certain conditions I would willingly go out to the Colony and enter thoroughly into the whole matter, as, having been connected practically with the cutting and polishing of diamonds for fifteen years, and being the expert and sole manager in directing the whole of the diamond washing at the Exhibition, I know exactly what ground the diamonds are to be foiind, and coidd at once see to proper machinery being erected, and I am perfectly satisfied that the result would be a great development of a new industry and a source of wealth to the Colony. LE^YIS ATKINSON, 33, Brook-street, Grosvenor Square, London, W. 100 \EW SOUTH AVALES : HER COMMERCE AND RESOURCES. GOLD. The total yield of the Australasian Gold Mines for the year 1886 is stimated at 1,365,981 ounces against 1,443,660 ounces for the year 1885. With one or two exceptions the yield has steadily declined in every one of the Colonies for the last ten or twelve years. The output of Victoria for 1886 was smaller than that of any pre- vious year since the discovery of gold in that Colony. The yield was 70,412 ounces less than that of 1885, and nearly 300,000 less than in 1876. The yield in New Zealand was 10,272 ounces less than in 1885, and 90,288 ounces less than in 1876. The yield in New South Wales declined from 100,647 ounces in 1885 to 98,446 ounces in 1886. South Australia, however, increased her yield from 18,327 ounces in 1885 to 21,115 ounces in 1886. There has also l)een an increase in Queensland, from 308,348 ounces in 1885 to 341,551 ounces in 1886. The total yield of gold in Australasia, since the opening of the mines in 1851 to the present time, is estimated at 80,808,981 ounces, valued at £316,500,000, ($1,540,247,250). This is an enormous yield, but it is not so large as that of the United States, since the discovery of gold in California, by j£29,200,000 ($142,101,800.) The United States produce one-third of all the gold in the world, and more than one-half of the silver. Dui-ing the years 1882 to 1886, the value of the world's annual pro- duct of gold has been about £20,000,000 ($97,330,000), the United States taking the first rank, Australasia the second, and Russia the third. The subjoined table shows the quantity of gold produced in each of the Australasian Colonies for each year since 1876 : — Year. New South Wales. New Zealand. Queensland. South Australia. Tasmania. Victoria. oz. OZ. OZ. OZ. OZ. OZ. 1876 155,156 318,367 374,776 9,858 11,107 963,760 1877 122,629 371,685 353,266 11,811 5,777 809,6.53 1878 117,978 310,486 283,592 10,746 25,249 775,272 1879 107,640 284,100 281,552 14,251 60, 155 758,947 1880 116,751 303,315 228,120 13,246 52,595 829,121 1881 145,532 250,683 259,782 16,976 56,693 858,850 1882 129,233 230,893 230,090 15,668 49,122 898,536 1883 122,257 222,899 193,994 15,938 46,577 810,047 1884 105,933 246,392 261,824 21,455 42,340 778,618 1885 100,667 222,732 308,. 348 18,327 41,241 735,218 1886 98,446 227,079 341,551 21,115 31,015 665,196 It will be seen, from this table, that Victoria surpasses all the other Colonies in the production of the precious metal. Although gold was known to exist in various parts of Australia as early as 1823, it was not acknowledged to have been found in workable quantities until 1851, about three years after the discovery of gold in California. GOLD. 101 As far back as 1781, it was reported that gold had been found in Australia, and although little faith at that time was placed in the reports, it is now believed that the discovery was then made, but that the authorities refused to encourage a further search for the metal, fearing it might interfere with the proper government of the then but little known territory. In 1839, Count Strzelecki found auriferous pyrites in the "Wellington District, New South Wales, but was unable to prevail on the Governor to issue a proclamation declaring the discovery. In 1841, the Rev. W. B. Clarke found gold in situ in the granite formations of the Vale of Ciwydd and in the Macquarie valley. Sir R. Murchison in 1844, stated in the journal of the Royal Geographical Society, that there were gold- bearing veins in Eastern Australia smiliar to those of the Ural Moun- tains. 1848, Mr. F. W. Smith, of Sydney, found gold and offered to reveal the locality to the Government upon the payment of .£250 {$1,217). The Governor, although not accepting the offer, stated that if Mr. Smith would rely on the liberality of Government his reward should be in proportion to the value of his discovery. In February 1851, Mr. E. H. Hargreaves, who had recently returned from California, as he stated, expressly for the purpose of searching for gold, succeeded in finding that metal at Summer Hill Creek, and other places in New South Wales. Mr. Hargreaves at once revealed the localities to the Government, and was rewarded for his services. In the same year gold was found in payable quantities at Clunes, Ballai'at, Mount Alexandei-, and other places in Victoria. The Select Committee of the Legislative Council of that Colony, appointed for considering the claims for rewards for gold discoveries, reported that the Honorable William Campbell found gold in March, 1850, but concealed the fact until 5th July, 1851, the date upon which gold was found in the same Colony by Mr. James Esmond, a Californian miner. About the same time the famous gold-fields at Ballarat were dis- covered, and one of the effects of the discovery of the precious metal upon the population, was that Victoria increased, within a period of fourteen months, the number of her inhabitants from 55,000 to 260,000. The first large nugget found in Australia was called the " Brevner Nugget," and weighed 364 ounces, but this was shortly afterwards •eclipsed by the discovery of the famous " One Hundred Weight Nugget," at Ballarat. This nugget was in three pieces, each of which weighed sixty pounds. The total yield in the three pieces was 106 pounds troy of gold or 1,272 ounces. In 1858, a large nugget was found near Biirradong, New South Wales, weighing 1,182 ounces 7 dwt., valued at £4,389 ($21*^359). To the Colony oi Victoria, however, belongs the ■credit of having produced the largest nugget ever found. It was called the "Welcome Nugget," and weighed 2,217 ounces 16 dwt., valued at £10,500 (151,098), and was found at Ballarat in 1858. Other nuggets sxG : — The " Viscount Canterbury Nugget," at John's Paddock, Berlin, Victoria, 31st May, 1870; weight 1,106 ounces. The "Precious Nugget," at Catto's Paddock, Berlin, Victoria, 17th i\pril, 1871 ; weight 1,018 ounces. The "Schlem Nugget," at Dunolly, Victoria, 11th July, 1872; weight 538 ounces. 102 Ni:\v SOUTH wales: iiek commerce and resources. The <^ioater part of the gold obtained in tlie Australasian Colonios is from quartz or reef ininini;. In Victoria the portion obtained from tliat source is nearly two-thirds more than fi'om alluvial mining. The "Victorian Statistician, Mr. Hayter, states that in pro- portion to the number of miners engaged in quartz and alluvial mining, the yield of gold from the former is frequently more than twice as large' as that from the latter. It should be remembered, how- ever, than only one-fifth of the steam mining machinery of the Colony is employed for alluvial workings, the remaining four-fifths being used for working in quartz reefs. Quartz-mining in New South Wales is not as profitable as in other parts of Australia, indeed, with the exception of a few localities, the veins in New South Wales have not been worked to any great depth. The mining heretofore carried on has been principally confined to the working of creek and river beds and shallow alluvial diggings. The jioor success which has often attended the working of quartz veins in New South Wales is attributed to inexperience and the absence of the right kind of ore separator, and other mining appliances. The deepest gold mine in New South Wales is at Adelong, and is not more that 900 feet deep. The reef is about 18 inches wide, but the yield is only 2 or 3 ounces to the ton. In Victoria there is a mine 2,409 feet deep, and fifteen or twenty others are worked at depths of over 1,700 feet. The most productive gold mine has been the Long Tunnel Mine, Walhalla, Victoria. Since it w-as found, in 1867, the total quantity of stone crushed has been 302,670 tons, and the product 473,275 ounces of gold. The mine is the only one in Australasia that has paid over £1,000,000 (.$4,866,000) in dividends. In one (piartz mine in New Zealand the yield of gold to the ton has been as much as 600 ounces. It is believed that now the gold yield is largest in Queensland. With regard to the gold-mines in New Zealand the value of such a reef as the one already quoted, according to Sir J. Hector, Director of the Geological Survey of that Colony, may be best understood by those not acquainted with the subject, when it is stated that one half ounce to the ton is in most cases a profitaljle return. Gold-mining in New Zealand is still in its infancy, and only awaits the judicious expenditure of capital to extend to vast proportions. The same observations apply, with perfect truth, to gold-mining in New South Wales, where gold is reported to be present over so large an area of country, and it is only when rich alluvial " finds " are reported that attention is attracted to reefs containing tlie precious metal. In the Colony of Victoria, at Stawell, the yield of gold from 2,306 tons of quartz, from a depth of 1,200 feet, averaged about 8 dwt. per ton; 8,273 tons at Ballarat, at depths varying from .590 to 1,205 feet averaged from 5 dwt. to 8 dwt. 19 grains per ton,; 87,347 tons at Sand- hurst, at depths between 500 and 1,306 feet, from 7 dwt. 1 grain to 2 ounces 6 dwt. and 14 grains per ton ; 20,521 tons at Castlemaine, at depths varying from 300 to 745 feet, yielded from 6 dwt. 11 grains to 6 ounces 18 dwt 1 grain per ton; 31,987 tons at Maryborough, at depths from 300 to 820 feet, gave a yield from 5 dwt. to 3 ounces per ton ; 22,727 tons, at Stringer's Creek in Gippsland, at depths varying from 300 to 723 feet, yielded from 17 dwt. 23 grains to 1 ounce 17 dwt. 1 grain per ton, and 5.224 tons, at Beechworth, at depths varying from 300 to 600 feet, yielded from 4 dwt. 17 grains to 17 dwt. 3 grains of gold per ton. GOLD. 103 Gold is believed to exist in vast quantities in "Western Australia, the largest colony of the group, but as yet very little has been done to develop gold mining there. 'Che " rush " to the Kimberley diggings in 1885 was imprecedented since the influx to the Palmer gold-flelds in Queensland, but unfortunately the mines did not turn out as well as expected, and much suffering was entailed upOn the ill-advised persons who flocked there. Mr. H. T. Hindman, one of the Govern- ment geologists who has travelled in the Kimberley country, has 23repared a sketch map showing the geological features of about 10,000 square miles of the country. He states that the wide-spread area of the carboniferous rocks is of the highest interest to geologists, and that he was fortunate enough to discover a formation hitherto unknown in Western Australia, namely, the Devonian. These rocks, resting on the metamorphic beds of the Silurian, cover a very large space. Another very interesting discovery was an immense mass of basaltic rock, which was traced for more than 100 miles, forming an extensive plateau 2,000 feet above the level of the sea, and covering an area of 3,000 square miles. The auriferous country he passed through comprises an area of 2,000 square miles, and is watei-ed by the Margaret, Mary, Elvira, Panton, and Ord rivers. The formation is principally Lower Silurian slate and schist of various kinds, intersected by an enormous number of quartz reefs. The river valleys and flats are in many places covered with extensive quantities of quartz gravel and drift. The quartz being derived from the denudations of the reefs. He says, further, that he has never failed to And amongst the gravels good colors of gold, and of an encouraging character. Very often good colours of gold were obtained in every pan washed. Nuggets averaging from 3 to 190 ounces had been found. More than 2,000 ounces of gold were obtained from the Barrett workings in the course of three months. The gold mines of South Austi'alia are undeveloped. Drought and the want of capital appear to be the principal obstacles in the way. Important discoveries of the metal were made in 1886 at Kangaroo Island in that colony. The stone averaged 16 dwt. of gold to the ton. Both quartz and alluvial gold-mining are carried on at Blackwood Gully Myponga, Manna Hill, &c. The Gold-fields of Tasmania require development. According to a report by the Under Secretary for Mines in that Colony the indications are favourable. Tlie gold of Tasmania is said not to be of such uniform quality as in other parts of Australasia. The product of the Beacons- field field is worth £3 15s. ($18-25) per ounce, at Golconda and Denison £3 10s. (.$16 '03) per ounce, while that from Sepoy Fingal is worth £4: ($19'47) per ounce. A nugget weighing 48 ounces was unearthed on the West Coast in 1886. The largest ever produced in the Colony was found in 1883. It weighed 243 ounces 1 dwt. The conditions under which gold is found in Australasia are precisely the same as in other countries ; the Australasian metal, however, is believed to be of a higher standard than that produced elsewhere, and in some places — for instance, at Mount Morgan mine, Queensland — it may be said to be nearly pure. It has been stated by Lock, Percy, Liversidge, and other authorities on metals, that gold is not found in nature unalloyed with silver, but Dr. Leibius, of the Sydney IMint, 104 xKw SOUTH wales: her commerce axd resources. states tliat considerably over G0,000 ounces of gold from the Mount JNIor-jan mine has been found to be free from silver, with the exception of a'^minute trace. He says, further, that it assayed 99^ per cent, of ijold ; the remaining i!, was copper with a trace of iron. The ^Nlount Morgan "gold is the richest native gold hitherto found. Some of the gold from Victoria comes next to this, and assays 96 per cent. Mr. F. B. Miller, the inventor of the chlorine process for refining gold, is very decided in opinion tliat the nearer we go northward in Australasia the less pure the gold becomes. He cites in support of this tlieory the statement that tlie average fineness of Victorian gold is 90 per cent., that of New South Wales 93 per cent., and Queensland 87 per cent. The Mount Morgan gold forms a striking exception to this rule. Tlie Mount Morgan is the most valuable mining property in Aus- tralasia. It is situated near the summit of Mount Morgan, about 1,125 feet above the sea, on the Dee Creek 26 miles S.S.W. from Eockhampton, and 420 miles N.W. of Brisbane. The place where the gold is found is in the centre of what has been a hot spring or geyzer. The stone is simply quarried out of the mountain, and is treated by the chlorinating process. It returns from 3 to 12 ounces of gold to the ton, and it is estimated that there is more than half a million tons of ore at the mine accessible for treating. The mine was discovered in 1882 by three brothers, the Messrs. Morgan, from whom it takes its name. There were 47,801 miners employed on the various gold-fields of Australasia at the close of 1885. Victoria gave employment to 26,194 ; New Zealand, 11,178; Queensland, 7,160; New South Wales, 5,911; South Australia, 1,190; Tasmania, 868; West Australia, 300 miners. Their wages average from 7s. to 10s. (.$1-70 to |2-43) per day. The miners usually live in tents or bark huts, erected on land belonging to Government or to their employers. They provide their own food. The manufactui-e of mining machinery and mining appliances is carried to great perfection in Victoria, but the bulk of the requirements of the other Australasian Colonies is met by imports from Melbourne and Great Britain ; a large proportion is, moreovei-, imported from the United States. Within the last two or three years quite an impetus has been given to the trade in American mining machinery through the .success attending the operations of various kinds of American steam engines, furnaces, smelters, ore separators, pumps, pumping gear, and rock drills. Messrs. Park and Lacey, of Sydney, have imported from San Francisco during the last six months of 1887, over £20,000 (897,330) worth of mining machinery, against £3,000 ($14,599) worth imported during a like period in 1886. The estimated value of all kinds of machinery and mining appliances used on the gold-fields of Austra- lasia is £3,947,482 (.$1.5,234,491). About one-half of tliis amount is invested in Victoria alone. The number of steam engines used in gold- mining in Victoria is estimated at 1,085, of 26,627 horse-power. Among tlie various processes employed in Australasia for extracting gold from pyrites is the Newbery-Vautin system. This process is said GOLD. 105 to have given mucli satisfaction at Mount Morgan, in Queensland, and at Sandhurst, Ballarat, and Maldon, in Victoria. The following is a description of the method of working this process : — The usual mode of roasting the pyrites is adopted to free them from arsenic, sulphur, and other foreign substances, and then the calcined pyrites are mixed with water, and brought to the consistence of a thin paste, and placed in a revolving iron cylinder lined with lead, where they are mixed with 1 per cent, of chloride of lime and 1 per cent, of sulphuric acid, and rotated at a moderate speed after air has been pumped into the cylinder to a pressure of 001b. to the square inch. The metallic gold, attacked by the chlorine gas, is converted into a chloride, which is readily soluble in watei', and, after the air is blown off, the contents of the cylinder are tipped into a filter, which is an iron cylinder having a percolating false bottom, out of which the air is exhausted by a vacuum pump, and water being freely poured upon the superincumbent pyrites the result is that this is sucked through with marvellous rapidity, carrying the gold in solution. This process has hitherto occupied some twenty-four hours, but now three washings, taking half an hour altogether, are sufficient to treat the contents of the cylinder above, now rotating with a fresh charge. The false chamber is filled with a series of slanting cross pieces, which enable the exhausted solids to be tipped out after being discharged into the bottom receptacle from the upper part of the cylinder. The auriferous stream is raised by a pump constructed of com- posite metal, having no affinity to gold, into a vat, where the sediment is allowed to gravitate, and it is then run into another, tested for gold with suljjhate of iron, and run through a Ijed of charcoal, which attracts all the gold in a metallic form, and allows the water to escajje. The charcoal, when thoroughly impregnated, is brown in colour, and on being gently scraped with a knife shows that it is saturated with gold, and which assumes its usual colour. The charcoal is then burnt, and the pure gold remains. The history of the establishment of a branch of the Royal Mint at Sydney is interesting. The colonists had for some yeai's been much inconvenienced from the want of a proper circulating medium. At one time coin of all kinds was so scai-ce in Australasia that the Governor of New South Wales, the only colony of the group then existing, issued a proclamation fixing the values of the various kinds of coin at consider- ably higher rates than were allowed for them by the Imperial Treasury. A guinea was declared to be worth £1 2s. ($5 •34) ; and a half-crown 2s. 8;kl. (66 cents) ; a shilling (24 cents) was proclaimed to be worth Is. Id. (26 cents). Copper coin was also made a legal tender to the amount of £5 (.f24-33), and the recipient of that sum was obliged to carry home Muth him 37i lb. weight of metal. At a later period the Governor adopted the plan of permitting the issue of promissory notes by private individuals, payable on demand in copper coin. No one was allowed to dispose of these notes at a less sum than the value on the face of them. The appi-eciation of coin at that time can very well bo illustrated by the statement that a Spanish dollar, worth 5s. ($1-22), was made to take the value of 6s. 3d. ($1-52), by puncliing out of the centre a circular piece which was called a "dump," and valued at Is. 3d. (30 cents), while the remaining part of the coin, dignified by the name of a "holey dollar," circulated for 5s. ($1-22). After the discovery of gold in Australia there was a still greater demand than ever for a proper metallic currency, and in their desire to remedy the inconvenience the coinage of gold was ordered by some of the Colonial Governments, without waiting for authority to do so from the British Government. No objection was, however, made to this infringement on the prerogative of the Crown, for at that time probably no better expedient could have been adopted. The first coins made lOG NEW SOUTH WALES : HER COMMERCE AND RESOURCES. were sovereigns, and were issued at Adelaide, South Australia. They were alloyed" with silver instead of copper, and weighed 135 grains, instead of 123-294 grains, British standard. The Australian coin bore on the obverse side the figure of a Eoyal Crown, with the words "Government Assay Office," and on the reverse side -'Weight, 5 dwt. 1.5 grs. ; A-alue, 1 pound; 22 carats."' In 1853 the Imperial Govern- ment finally consented to the establishment of a branch of the Royal Mint at Sydney. It was first agreed that the coin of the Branch Mint should not be a legal tender out of the Australian Colonies, but after- wards the privilege of circulation was extended to the colonies of Mauritius, Ceylon, and Hong Kong, and in 1866 the circulation was legalized throughout the British Dominions. The Sydney coinage was at first attended with considerable pecuniary loss, as there was not gold enough in Nev^ South Wales to utilize the machinery ei-ected at the Mint. The difficulty was in time removed by a regulation permitting the coinage of the produce of other colonies at reduced rates, and Victorian gold was attracted to Sydney. Subse- quently, in 1872, a Branch Mint was established at Melbourne. Gold is the only metal coined at the Australian Mints, the silver and bronze coinage used in the Colonies being obtained from London. Abaut three-fifths of the Australian coinage finds its way to the Bank of England. The following tables, taken from the Royal Mint returns, show the weight and value of gold received for coinage at the Sydney and Melbourne Mints, from the opening of the Mints to 31st December 1887 :— At the Sydney Mint, fr om 14th May, 1S55. f At the Melbourne Jlint, from 12th June, 1S72. Gold received for Coinage. Gold receii ed for Coinage. Vear ,. Weight. Vahie. Weight. Value. oz. £ S. d. oz. £ s. d. 1855) to V 1872 190,738-14 764,917 6 9 10,787,761 -07 41,571,393 15 o 1873 221,870-44 887,126 15 6 1876^ 1874 .3.35,317-62 1,349,101 17 3 1877 4.38,. 385 -50 1,608,248 2 8 1875 489,731-59 1,947,712 14 3 1878 .365,17.3-89 1,308,898 1 5 1876 543,198-59 2,149,480 17 6 1879 .394,606-76 1,4.34,871 3 2 1877 378,310-33 1,491,819 4 9 1880 406,291-87 1,487,678 12 10 1878 569,9.32-17 2,267,430 10 1881 46.3,584-70 1,70-2,102 7 2 1879 6.56,555-84 2,637,738 8 9 1882 401,.m9-69 1,477,134 7 9 1880 758,720-84 .3,061,820 7 5 188.3 .374,141-20 1,3.53,665 9 6 1881 692,213-29 2,792,985 6 2 1884 475,053-41 1,713,843 19 9 1882 818,905-42 3,310,970 8 6 1885 4-2-2,160"20 1,510,061 10 3 1883 785,715-82 .3,158,419 19 9 1886 475,166-21 ],712,-244 8 o 1884 945,429-23 3,802.228 IS 2 1887 597,706-82 2,173,305 19 8 1885 836,168-89 3,350,736 15 10 1886 1887 Total 756,248-88 769,897-05 3,028,.374 3 8 3,074,222 14 9 15,603,591-32 59,05.3,447 17 9 Total 9,748,954-14 39,075,086 9 $287,383,605 .SI 90, 158,906 GOLD. 107 Return sliowing countries where the gokl was produced which was received. At the Melbounie Mint. At the Sydney Mint. Country. During the year 1887. Since the opening of the Mint. During the year 1887. Since the open- ng of the Jlint. Victoria 1 OZ. 595,087 799 98,717 184 31,746 31,861 1,659 9,844 OZ. 7,672,357 8,095 1,426,381 4,507 183,901 387,238 2,259 1,731 1 62,484 OZ. 49 105,269 53,101 426,110 5,626 5,633 1,694 225 OZ. 1,438,144 New South Wales New Zealand 7,099,404 2,113,503 Queensland 4,717,601 South Australia 47,549 Tasmania 11,789 West Australia Natal India 14,153 Unknown Other countries' coin ... 161,448 Totals 769,897 9,748,954 597,707 15,603,591 Estimate of the amount of coin in New South Wales at the close of 1886. Where held. Gold. Silver. Bronze. Total. In private Iiands £ 3,027,220 4,230,792 £ 309,857 206,488 £ 24,827 2,462 £ 3,361,904 4,439,742 Total 7,258,012 516,345 27,289 7,801,646 The process adopted at the Australian Mints for refining gold and silver, is the invention of Mr. F. B. Miller, formerly one of the assayers at the Sydney Mint, and now Superintendent of the Bullion Ofiice, Melbourne. It consists simply in pas.sing chlorine gas through the metal. The process was commenced in Sydney in 1869, and in Melbourne in 1872. The total amount of gold operated upon at both Mints since the introduction of the process has been about 16,200,000 ounces. 108 NEW SOITII WALES : IIEU COMMERCE AXD RESOURCES. It was belicvod for many years, that previous to Mr. Miller's dis- coverv, the use of chlorine gas for retiniug gold was altogether unknown, but tiie fact is, it was successfully employed l)y Dnroche and others, in Paris, many years previously. Mr. Lewis Thompson, in a communica- tion to the Society of Arts, London, in 1838, said of this process: — " The i)lan for assaying and purifying gold is no less simple in execution than certain in effect, and is founded upon a circumstance long known to cheniists, namely, that not only has gold at red heat no affinity for chlorine, but that it actually parts with it at that temperature, although previously combined." Professor Aiken, about the same period, pub- lished the results of a series of successful experiments in purifying gold by means of chlorine gas. These experiments were, however, conducted upon a small scale and should not affect in the least the credit to which Mr. Miller is justly entitled, for there is no evidence to show that he had ever heard of these experiments. Dr. John Percy and other scientists, wlio have investigated the history or origin of the invention, are of opinion that Mr. Miller was the ffrst to show that the process was fully practicable, more especially with the object of saving the silver combined with gold. Tlie process appears to have given general satisfaction at the Sydney and Melbourne Mints. Indeed, the Bank of New Zealand has the process at work in their Bank at Auckland, having purchased the right to use the process in New Zealand, from Mr. Miller. The process has been satisfactory principally because tlie Australasian gold is so largely impregnated with silver. The latter metal often running as high as 40 per cent. It is admitted, however, that when auriferous silver occurs, as well as argentifei'ous gold, that the process of dissolving out the silver with acids is much more economical than the chlorine process. The furnace used in the Miller process differs very little from that commonly used in melting gold. The flue is brought near the top, so that the crucible holding the molten gold can be placed high up in the furnace without being cooled by the draught. The crucibles are made of clay, and are capable of holding about 700 ounces of gold. They are provided with loosely-fftting covers, made of the same material, each having two small holes bored through them. The crucibles are first filled with boiling borax, for the pui-pose of glazing their interior surfaces, and rendering them impervious to melted chloride of silver. The pipes through which the chlorine gas passes are also made of clay. The jars for generating the chlorine gas are of the best glazed stoneware, and hold from 10 to 1-5 gallons each. The chlorine gas is conducted from the generator into a leaden pipe fitted with branches for the .several furnaces respectively, all intermediate connections being formed by means of vulcanized rubber tubing. The crucibles are slowly heated, to a dull red color, and the gold, in the form of what is known as the "slipper-shaped ingot," is introduced, the narrow ends of the ingots being placed downwards. As soon as the gold is melted, a small pro- portion of molten borax is poured upon it. The end of the clay pipe is then introduced to the bottom of the crucible, and the gas bubbles up through the molten gold, without causing any projection of globules. Hydrochloric acid is, fi'om time to time, introduced into the generator, to keep up a rapid su])ply of chlorine. GOLD. 109 When the gas first passes tlirough the molten gold, fumes escape from the holes in the covers of the crucibles. These fumes consist of the volatile chlorides of the baser metals, and not of the chloride of silver. So long as any of the silver remains in the gold, the whole, or nearly the whole, of the chlorine continues to be absorbed. When the operation is nearly over, fumes of a darker color than those produced at first make their appearance, and the end of the operation is indicated by the color of the flame or vapor, which, at first, is of a bright yellow and then a dull reddish brown color. The quantity of chlorine gas employed in the process depends upon the quality of tlie gold operated upon. The time required to deliver sufficient chlorine to refine about 600 ounces of gold, assaying 900 parts in 1000, is usuall}' about two hours. As soon as the operation is over, the gold is cast into bars. The chloride of silver is re-melted — in the clay crucibles, coated with borax — together with eight to ten per cent, of laminated metallic silver. When the contents are thoroughly heated, the crucibles are withdrawn from the furnace, and, after standing a few minutes to settle, the still liquid of chloride of silver is poured into moulds and cast into slabs. Any gold that may have remained in the chloride of silver, alloys with the metallic silver and I'emains, in the form of a cake, at the bottom of the crucible. 110 NEW SOUTH walks: HER COMMERCE AND RESOURCES. SILVER. The recent introduction of American and other appliances for smelting and refining silver ores in this Colony has given a new impetus to the mining interests of Australasia. Silver has been known to exist for many years in various parts of New South Wales, but until the discovery of the mines at Boorook, in the New England district, it was not found in w^orkable quantities. ]\Ir. Wilkinson, the Government geologist, has repeatedly expressed the opinion that the silver deposits would eventually prove to be great sources of wealth to the Colony. These deposits are not only rich in character but extend over a vast area. The cause of their having been neglected hitherto is attributed prin- cipally to want of knowledge as to the proper methods for treating the various kinds of ores. Some of the chief silver-bearing lodes of the Colony are situated in the Barrier ranges of the Albert district, and are believed to extend to a considerable distance toward the interior of South Australia. Silverton, the chief mining town of the silver country, is about 590 miles from Sydney and 2-57 miles from Adelaide, with which city it is connected by railroad and tram-line. Mr. Wilkinson describes Silverton as occupying a convenient position upon the main road from Adelaide to Wilcannia, and near the western margin of broken, hilly country, called the Barrier range. The country is almost entirely sur- rounded by open salt-bush plains, and extends 150 miles in a north north- east direction, and varying in width up to 110 miles. Nearly the whole of this country consists of metalliferous formations, but it is chiefly on the south-western jDortion that the silver lodes have been discovered. The deepest shaft in the Albei't district is about 327 feet. The lodes vary, but are in some places over 10 feet wide. About 8 miles distant other shafts have been sunk, with very favourable results. At Brade & Nickel's mine, in the same neighbourhood, considerable quantities of ferruginous carbonate of lead containing horn silver have been found. An assay of one piece of this mixed ore gave 3,240 ounces of silver per ton. Further north is the Christmas mine of Hawser & Collins, from which Sjieciraens have been obtained assaying horn silver at the rate of 11,073 ounces to the ton. Yaluable lodes have also been opened at Stephens' Creek, 23 miles from Silverton. At a place called Thacka- ringa, thirty silver-bearing lodes have been discovered within a radius of 4 mile.s. The Government geologist examined eighty-one lodes in the Silverton country, and the examination led him to the following conclusions : — 1. That the geologicalformations which contain the argentiferous lodes of the Barrier Kange Silver-tield are mica-schists, clay-slates, and sandstones, traversed by numerous quartz-reefs and intrusive masses and dikes of coarsely crystalline granite (pegmatite) and diorite. Nearly all the lodes occur in the mica-schists, and tliey have been found over a tract of country 70 miles long and .30 miles wide, which has been only partly jn-ospected, so that many more lodes will probably be discovered. But the metalliferous fonnations are known to occupy a much larger area, and extend to Kooringlmry on the north, and on the east as far as the Ei(^ht- nnle Tank, on the road to Silverton, about 38 miles from Wilcannia. ° SILVER. Ill 2. That the lodes, with the exception of those of the Broken Hill and Pinnacles, which are chiefly composed of ferruginous quartzite, all consist either of brown ii'on ore (gossan) containing argentiferous caibonate of lead and galena in bunches, and sometimes chloride and chloro-bromide of silver, and carbonate of copper, or rarely of argentiferous carbonate of lead and gelena alone ; quartz is sometimes, though not always, present, It is evident that the oxides, carbonates, and chlorides have resulted from the decomposition of the sul2:)liides, and perhajis arsenides of iron, lead, silver, and copper, wliich will be met with in their original condition below the water level. Sulphide of lead (galena), and in two instances iron pyrites, are even found above the water level. I did not notice any distinct sulphide of silver, iodide of silver, or antimonial ores in the lodes. Mr. J. Cosmo Newbery, C.M.G., rej)orts having found " chloride, bromide, and iodide of silver, with brown iron ore, carbonate and sulj^hide of lead, oxide and sulphide of antimony, and traces of bismith" in the ore from the Christmas mine. It is stated that 12 cwt. of this ore treated at the Victoria Pyrites Smelting Company's works yielded 2,575 ounces •of silver. In one mine the water level has been reached at a depth of 133 feet, in another at 72 feet. 3. That the lodes, without exception, are very inconstant in thickness, both in longitudinal and vertical extent, and many of them thin out entirely within a few yards. A surface plan of the numerous lodes would resemble the shrinkage cracks upon the surface of a dried piece of cross-grained wood ; in fact, as before mentioned, the lode-fissures were shrinkage cracks formed by the contraction of the rock mass after the intrusion of the igneous rocks. At present fuel has to be brought a very considerable distance, at a cost of about .£5 ($24-33) per ton. The Government geologist recom- mends the establishment of a railway from Silverton to Menindie, a distance of 90 miles, where fuel and water are plentiful. The construc- tion of this railway, besides lessening the cost of the reduction of the ore, would open up a valuable and interesting part of the country. At present much of the ore is sent to Adelaide for treatment. So much attention has of late been drawn to the unprecedented rich- ness of the Broken Hill Silver ^Mines in the Silverton country that authen- tic information from official sources will doubtless prove acceptable. Mr. Harrie Wood, Under Secretary for Mines, Sydney, says : — " ISTot- withstanding the failure to treat successfully the ores obtained in some of our silver-mines, and the depression consequent thereon in certain quarters, it is very cheering to find that the result of our operations in 1886 shows an increase of more than a quarter of a million in excess of the preceding year. In view of the fact that the treatment of silver ores is new to us, it is no wonder that attempts to treat some of the more difficult ores have not been successful, and it would not be surprising if some of tlie mines now regarded with disfavour should, as our experience and apj)liances increase, prove exceedingly valuable." " In the Silverton Division satisfactory progress was made during the year, though most of the mines are in their infancy. The magniticent results obtained by the Broken Hill Company have induced a consider- able amount of prospecting. During the year this Company raised and treated 14,750 tons of ore, from which 30^^ tons of silver, valued at ^£•328,519 ($1,112,088), were obtained. To the end of 1886 this Company had paid £64,000 ($311,456) in dividends. Work has been resumed at the Pinnacle's mine, and it is thought that with the aid of concentrating machinery, which is being erected, the Company will be able to treat the refractory ores effectively, and then, with the improved water supply, this mine will be second only to the Broken Hill. This Company had 450 tons of ore left from 1885, and raised dux'ing the year 800 tons ; of 112 NEW SOUTH wales: HER COMMERCE AND RESOURCES. this 88 tons ^vere sold for £1,100 ($5,353), and 511 tons were smelted vieldin" 18,937 oz. of silver, valued at £3,800 ($18,493), leaving 651 tons of°ore At the Day Dream the men were engaged prospecting the mine at a greater depth, and they liave met with fair success. The TJmberumbcrka Company may now be regarded as established as a farst- class mine This Company raised during the year 1,389 tons of ore, which was sold for £31,026 ($150,988), and added 1,246 tons of second- class ore, to their stock. Several of the small chloride veins which are to be found all over the field, especially in the vicinity of Purnamoota, have been steadily worked during the year. There are seven smelters on the field. The Warden at Silverton, Mr. Brown, reports :— The declared value of the mineral exports from this field for the year 1886, is as follows : — Value. £ $ Refined silver 410,256 oz. 81,910 398,615 Sker ore 1,711 tons 2 cwt. 3 qr. 1 fi It.. 67. 233 327, 1 89 Argentiferouslead 2,556 „ 11 „ 1 „ 12 „ 188,486 917,267 viaMeniudie 474 ,, 4„ 0„ 5,, 32, /2o lo9,256 Tinore 2„ 1„ 0„ 0„ 69^ 336 Total value of export £370,423 .51,802,663 In addition to this, there is a large quantity of ore still remaining at the different mines, which has been raised during the past year, but not yet sold or treated, and would add considerably to the total amount of ore won. I estimate the value of plant and machinery now at work on the field at £45,000 (.'?218,993). As the Broken Hill Proprietary Company's mine is the most exten- sive and valuable silver mine in Australia, a short resame of its history may not be out of place : — "In September, 1883, Charles Rasp, then a boundary -rider on Mount Gipps station, marked out an area of 40 acres, believing the outcrop of manganese to be tin. On reaching the station at night, he informed Mr. McCulloch, the general manager of the station, also his mates, of what he had done, when it was determined to form a .syndicate of seven persons, all station hands, each putting £70 ($341) into the venture. The first thing done was to apply for a mineral lease of the kind taken up by Rasp, together with six other 40-acre blocks on the same line. These seven blocks now constitute the Broken Hiil proper, and were originally applied for by G. McCulloch, G. Urquhart, C. Rasp, J. Poole, P. Charley, D. .James, and G. M. Lind. Work was commenced, and assays made for tin, but with no beneficial result. It was then decided to sink a shaft, and prospect for silver, which, by this time, had been proved to exist in the district. The country being hard, and the sinking not showing encouraging prospects, coupled with the fact that the small amount of capital that had been subscribed was exhausted, caused some of the original shareholders to sell to others, Lind being the first to retire, his interest being taken by McCulloch and Rasp, Urquhart being the next to give in. It was now determined to increase the syndicate to fourteen, for the purpose of raising funds for further ])rospecting. This arrange- ment was carried out, and the work continued until the latter part of 1884, when chlorides were first found in Ras^i's shaft, at a depth of 100 SILVER. 113 feet. Shortly after rich chloride ore was found in the cap of the lode, at a different part of the mine. The cap of this lode is discernible through the seven blocks owned by the Company, being about 1| mile in length, and rising, in places fully 50 feet above the surface, while in the workings bslow it has been proved, in places, to be considerably over 100 feet wide. In 1885 it was determined to offer a portion of this enormous property to the public, and on the 10th August, 1885, the present Broken Hill Proprietary Company was floated. The prospectus issued was to form a Com[)any of 16,000 shares, of £20 ($97"33) per share, the fourteen shareholders receiving 1,000 shai-es each, paid up to £19 ($92-40), the remaining 2,000 were off'ered to the public at £9 ($43-80) per share paid on allotment, and then to be considered paid up to £19 ($92-46), after which all sliares alike were liable to a call of 20s. ($4-86) on formation of this Company. £3,000 ($14,599) was to be paid (ia addition to the shares) to the original proprietors, for expenses previously ' incurred. Tiius, on the formation of the present Company, only £15,00G ($72,998) was available for all purposes. Extensive operations were now commenced, machinery erected, and the first two smelters put in blast in May, 1880, and the result may be considered highly satisfactory, £04,000 ($311,450) lias been paid in dividends, and another of £1 (4-80) per share is payable on the 19tli January, 1887. Machinery and supplies of coke, firewood, explosives, etc., now on the mine, exceed in value several thousands of pounds ; substantial stone buildings have been erected, for manager's residence, offices, and other purposes. All this has been paid for by the value of ore won from the mine whilst sinking shafts and driving levels, which, in ordinary cases, would be considered dead work. The supply of ore is, apparently unlimited. The market value of the mine on 1st Januarv, 1888, was £8,000,000 ($38,932,000), the latest quotations being £365 ($1,776) per share. In 1884, a one-fourteenth in this property was worth about £100 ($480), some shares being sold for less than that amount. Of the seven original l)roprietors four retain an interest in the Company, viz., Mr. G, McCulloch, P. Charley, C. Rasp, and D. James, the former gentleman retaining the whole of his fourteenth interest. By the printed report subniitted to the shareholders on 18th January, 1888, the result of a twenty -four weeks' run, ending 30tli November, was as follows : — Ore treated, 28,799 net tons, for 1,267,699 oz. silver and 6,511 tons of lead, the average of silver being 44-11 oz. per ton of ore. The profits from the mine for the six months, from 1st June to 30th November, were £120,201 ($584,958). The average cost of smelt- ing the ore was £2 12s. 4d. ($12-73) per ton. The total employes on and in the mine are 898. The manager (Mr. W. H. Patton) receives. a salary of £4,000 ($19,466) per annum. He was formerly manager of a group of the celebrated Nevada Cornstock mines. Mr. W. H. J. Slee, Inspector of Mines, reports : — In October, 188fi, I started from Sydney for the purpose of making a thorough' inspection of the silver and other mines in the Sifverton district. The first mines inspected by me were those of Broken Hill. The Broken Hill Proprietary S. M. Co.'s mine is at present the best divi- dend-paying and the most extensive silver mine in New South Wales, and on the future development and skilful management, both in the working of the mine and tlic reduction and treatment of the ore, will gi'eatly depend the, prosperity of this rich and extensive mineral district. in Ni:\v SOUTH wales: iii:h commkhce axd resources. The hill on which this mine is situated rises about 150 feet above the level of the plahis which stretch on each side, the lode forming the crest of the lii"hcst peak of a rugged ridge, and can be traced with an occasional break for about 2 miles, after which it runs into several lodes or branches. Course of lode north-east and south-west, and consists of iron coated with manganese, carbonates of lead, gossan, felspar, quartz, quartzite, and ferruginous drifts. Chlorides of silver in payable quantities are being raised from several parts of the mine ; it is also well distrilnited in the southern part of the mine through the kaolin formation. In the northern part of the mine, out of a shaft known as Rasps, carbonate of lead is being raised from an extensive deposit, and is associated with very high percentage of carbonates, oxides, and grey suljAides of copper ore, which occur in the shape of boulders, and which may be esti- mated to contain from 40 to 50 per cent, of copper, in addition to silver. The lode, as far as opened out, forms a striking similarity to those top levels of the Great Cobar Copper INIine, with the exception tliat the Broken Hill is argenti- ferous, whereas the (ireat Cobar deposit is cupriferous. No correct estimate can at present be formed as to the real value of this undoubtedly rich mine. Tlie first furnace started to work on the Cth May, 18S0, and was run for sixteen weeks, after which two furnaces have been running. Up to the date of iny inspection, the first week in November, 8,612 tons of ore had been raised and treated, yielding 1,734 tons 15 cwt. of lead, and 740,480 ozs. (225 tons) of silver, to the value, in round numljers, of £148,000 (.$720,242). Several furnaces have since been completed and set to work, resulting in a large increase in the j'ield of silver. There are five shafts and two tunnels on the mine, and the lode has been opened in different parts from noi-th to south, a total length of 2,092 ft., viz.. Rasp's to M'CuUoch's, 440 ft. ; M'Culloch's to Broadribb's, 1,148 ft. ; Broad- ribb's to Jamieson's, 308 ft. ; and Jamieson's to Knox's shaft, 196 ft. The whole of these shafts are, however, not as yet connected with each other. Nearly the whole of these shafts are doMai on the water-level. Rasp's shaft is 288 ft. ; M'Culloch's shaft, 327 ft. ; Broadribb's, 132 ft. ; Jamieson's, 212 ft. ; and Knox's, 196 ft. in depth. The contour of the country makes the apparent difference in depth of water-level. Machinery. — The Company has steam boilers equal to 100 Ii.-p., and eight steam engines equal to 72 h. -p. ; also four steam pumps equal to 24 h. -p. They have also ex- cavated a large tank, from which they obtain their water-supply. They have also erected substantial buildings, covering abont 12,000 ft. ; and their reducing j^lant is now equal to about 1,200 tons per week. About 500 men, inclusive of some boj'S, are directly employed on or about the mine and furnaces. This is exclusive of fuel getters, carriers, &c. The mine was inspected by me on the 8th anil 9th November, and I found ladder-way, and everything in connection with the mine in as safe a state as could be reasonably expected, considering that the rough timber in use for the securing of the mine cannot be obtained nearer than Menindie on the Darling, a distance of 90 miles. The works and madiinery have been greatly increased .since the above authentic report was wi'itten. Disputes and litigations concerning the titles to land in the Silverton country have done much to retard progress, but these disputes are in a fair way of being settled. Mr. J. H. Maiden, of the Technological Museum at Sydney, stated in 188-5 that the Silverton district will iurn out a second Nevada. He thinks the district especially rich in horn silver. He writes, I have been fortunate enough to secure for the Museum a piece of almost pure horn silver weighing about 3 lb. It is one of the richest specimens ever found. The Government geologist did not see anything so rich on his recent tour. The ores, liow^eAer, of the Silverton country vary greatly in character. Samples sent from there recently, assayed at the mint from .39 oz. to 18-912 oz. of silver per ton, and specimens of galena yielded 16 per ■SILVER. 115 cent, of lead, 17'739 oz, of silvei' per ton; 4") per cent, of lead and 15 oz. of silver per ton ; 82^- per cent of lead, 198 oz. of silver per ton ; 14|^ per cent, of lead, and 9 '175 oz. of silver per ton. Mr. Warden Gower, of Wilcannia, supplies the following list of assays from some of the claims at Silverton and Thackaringa : — Lead. Silver. Silvev. Robert Burns Hercules Company . . . Pluck Up Company . . Gipsy Girl Hen and Chickens .. Gipsy Girl Lubra Kitto. Chanticleer. St. Thomas Norwood Lads Consolation . . . BLack Prince . . . Jo' the Marine Brigham Crispe Brigham Crispe CoUins and Hawson. Sinclair Nicol and Anderson. Dawes Meech Purcell Thomas McMahon Stewart White Per cent. "32" Oz. to ton. "79 Per cent. 55i "gH "46 "48" 75 "94 "loi 41 "45" 74S, 15 158 "49" 82L "25" 1,'919 '221 58 55^ 4^859 849 ■53.1 Oz. to ton. 23 2,993 Gl 191 164 38 198 1,402 "jsi Holder. Silver. Silver. Silver. Silver Eobert Burns Herciiles Company. Pluck Up Company Gii)sy Girl Hen and Chickens.. Gipsy Girl Lubra : Kitto Chanticleer St. Thomas ... Norwood Lads Consolation . . . Black Prince . . . Jo' the Marine Brigham Crispe Brigham ... Crispe Collins and Hawson Sinclair Nicol and Anderson Dawes ileech Purcell Thomas McMahon ..,*..... Stewart White Per cent. 40 Oz. to ton 136 72f 66 2,858 SO 14^ "28I "l63 62 9,175 69 1,739 43i JS Oz. to ton 628 4,083 3,442 1,670 15,859 10,890 18,148 39 8,030 469 4,887 9,869 15,921 18,921 6,112 10,151 6,868 142 10,724 Oz. toto)i 470 310 Barrier Ranges. — Embolite, from 31 feet level, Broken Hill, lode, 17 feet thick. Aiudi/ses : — Chloride of silver 81'67 Bromide of silver 10'19 Oxide of iron, silica, &c 8*14 100 00 116 NEW SOUTH wales: her commerce and resources. Barrier Eanges. — Chloride of silver, in micasious schist, 7,872 oz, 13 dwt. silver per ton. Barrier Ranges. — Ferruginous lode stuff, with galena, from Rockwell Paddock, lode 12 feet wide, 159 oz. 10 d-wt. silver per ton. Silver in workable quantities was discovered in 1878, at Boorook, near Tentertield, in the New England district. This district is one of the most important in the Colony, and consists of a vast area of high table- lands. It is remarkable both for its agricultural and mineral products. The country surrounding Boorook is very mountainous, and its geo- logical formation consists of sandstone, granite, and slate, the last of which contains marine fossils. The argentiferous reefs are near the junction of the slate and granite. One of the reefs was first worked in 1871 for gold. Specimens of the ore being sent to Sydney the gold was found to be associated with a large percentage of silver. The stone becoming poorer, the lode was deserted about the time of the opening of the tin-fields in 1872. In 1879 stone was found at a depth of 1-30 feet, which assayed 830 ounces of silver to the ton. One claim with limited power produced in one week 889 ounces of silver. The Boorook metal is in part an antimonial one, mixed with the chloride, sulphide, and perhaps arsenide of silver. Associated with this mixed ore are found native gold, iron oxide, iron pyrites, chlorite, quartz, and other minerals. Mr. Lament Young, one of the Government geological surveyors, states that the lodes are situated in belts of feldspar porphyry, between beds of altered and fossiliferous shales. Some of the fossils indicate the Upper Devonian formation. The ore itself is generally found in quartz, and the surface of the veins is usually covered with small crystals and much stained with oxide of iron, while the quartz is often very friable. The treatment adopted at first was similar to that for auriferous quartz, the discoverers having at hand a small battery for reducing the stone, and a Berden amalgamating machine. This process had to be abandoned, as considerable quantities of silver wez'e carried away in the tailings. The Golden Age ]\Iine is one of the most promising in New England district. According to the mining inspector the work is carried on in stopes connected by shafts. The geological formation to a depth of 200 feet is of black slate lightly impregnated with iron pyrites, and mineral crystals of galena, silver, and blende. At the 200-foot level a lead of hard greenstone, about 30 feet in thickness, with layers of pipe- clay, was met with, beneath Avhich the slate again occurs to the depth of 280 feet, when a syenite stratum makes its appearance. The ore as far as it has been proved is richer in the slate than in the greenstone or syenite formation. There are two distinct lodes in this mine — The Golden Age proper, whi^h has an underlay to the west of 57 degi-ee.s, and a strike of 29 degrees east, and the Addison Contra lode, which is peri)endicular except at the junction with the Golden Age lode, where there is a slight underlay. The strike of the Addison Contra lode is due north. It is at the point of junction where the largest and richest deposits of silver ores have been discovered. The Addison Contra lode averages only 6 ounces of silver per ton, but the Golden Age varies from 40 to 600 ounces per ton. The silver occurs in a variety of forms. At SILVER. 117 a depth of 75 feet from the surface it was found as chloride and bromide. From this point to the 140-foot level it was ai'gentiferous iron pyrites, and blended with sundry spots of silver glance, but below this level it occurs principally in a state of flexible sulphide, of which some magnificent specimens have been obtained. The silver is extracted by the chlorination and amalgamation process. The ore is sorted by hand at the mine and carted to the works in parcels of 20 to 30 tons, con- taining from 70 ounces to 140 ounces of silver per ton. It is then dried, crushed, and mixed, and passed through the roasting chlorinating fur- nace. Wlien cold enough the chlorinated ore is passed through a circular sieve of 2,-500 holes to the square inch so as to separate the grit, which is again crushed and passed through fine gratings, recalcined, and taken to the amalgamators. The poorer ores are crushed by means of a Marsden fine crusher and concentrated in the ordinary hand giggers. The Sunny Corner is one of the most important mines, formerly the premier silver mine, in the Colony. It is situated on the Mitchell Gold Field, about 127 miles from Sydney and 25 miles east of Bathurst (the third city in New South Wales) and only 15 miles north of Rydal on the Great Western Railway. The land occupied by the mine was originally applied for as a " mineral lease," for the purpose of mining for coppei", but it was subsequently worked as a gold mine with variable success, and a considerable quantity of silver was allowed to remain unextracted in the tailings. The geological formation of the country is paleozoic (Siluro-Devonian) and consists of more or less altered slates and sandstones forming steep mountain ranges and deep valleys. Only a few of the numerous lodes which occur in these ranges have been more than superficially prospected. The lode in Sunny Corner Mine proper is ii-regular in width and occupies a series of fissures or cavities along a "line of fault," which occurs in the axis of an anticlinal curve. Another lode to the north is worked by the Nevada company, and has been found to contain a good proportion of galena and copper pyrites. Several shafts have been sunk north of Sunny Conier on a mineral lode 2 or 3 feet in thickness, and apparently a continuation of the lode in Sunny Corner. A tunnel is driven to intersect the lode sunk on the hill. This tunnel is 170 feet in length. A lode of black-jack was struck at the end of the tunnel, intermixed with malleable or native copper. The Inspector of Mines states that in removing the black lode in the face of the tunnel, water made its appearance, and a beautiful sight met the eye, for, as the water forced through the black slate, narrow, horizontal quartz veins became visible, containing a large percentage of native copper. This copper had no doubt been in a solution coming from some copper deposits higher up the hill, and was gathered by the action of silicate and tlie natural backing up of the water against the black lode. About 120 feet up the hill there is a large quartz reef, said to contain 6 penny- weights of gold per ton by crushing, and still higher up is the mineral lode, to intersect which the tunnel is driven. Out of one of the shafts in this lode, and 30 feet deep from the surface, the inspector tried a a prospecting dish full of stuff" and it was found to contain 2 grains of gold. The lode is 9 feet thick. 118 NEW SOUTH wales: HER COMMERCE AND RESOURCES. Tlip followin^x extract from the Annual Report of the Government Geologist tend to prove the permanency of the silver bearing lodes which occur at Sunny Corner : — - The primary or oldest formation of the district consists of sedimentary rocks, altered sandstone, and shales. These have been upheaved and intruded by igneous rocks composed of quartzitic elvan and quartz porphyry, which have burst through the sedimentary strata in various directions, but principally north and south, as masses 20 chains wide or as narrow dykes only 4 feet thick, conse- quently the line of junction between the formations is most uneven and irregular. After the eruption of the igneous rocks, fractures or displacements in the rocks took place on at least two different occasions, resulting in the opening of irregular fissures from a few inches to 40 ft. wide, in which were deposited the gold and silver- bearing sulphides of iron, copper, lead, zinc, and arsenic and quartz, constituting the lode-stuff now worked. Evidence of these displacements in the rocks may be seen in the Sunny Corner mine. A dyke of the elvanite has been split in two and the fissures filled with clay, showing that the fracture took place after tli3 intrusive rock had solidified. Then again, the sedimentary formation has in places been displaced from its con- tact with the igneous rock, appearing to have moved bodily over the igneous rock, causing, where the original line of junction was uneven, the projecting surface of the one formation to abut on portion of the other, the intervening concave surfaces forming the irregular cavities now filled with lode-stuff, and, of coui'se, where the line of junction was even or straight, the upper formation has moved upon the other without jiroducing any cavity, consequently where this occurs the so-called lodes pinch out, though a well defined fissui'e joint continues, containing a thin seam of clay fluccan. In the Great Western Mine the two different sites of fissures are very clearly seen. We here see that along the Ime of fracture the surface of the rock has been grooved by the friction of one rock upon the other, and the fissure filled with fragments of the crushed rock. In this fissure-deposit argentiferous sulphides of lead, copper, iron, and zinc, have been found in patches. The fissure then opened again and became filled with clay, which in one place is 20 feet thick. Then shrinkage ci'acks formed in the clay-lode and were filled with carbonate of lead, probably derived from the decomposition of the galena in the breccia lode. On account of the irregular manner in which the intrusive rock has been intruded, it is of course impossible to indicate where the middle line of juncture between the formations is uneven, and therefore, the whereabouts of any cavities filled with lode-stuff can only be ascertained Ijy actual prospecting along the lines of fracture. But we have a general guide in that the sliding movement of the upper formation has taken place towards the north-west ; for the ore deposits already discovered occur chiefly upon the noi-th-western slopes of the intrusive formation. This is an important feature, for it affords vis assurance that in a north-westerly direction, below the deposits already opened, other similar irregular lodes are likely to be found. From the nature of the formation of the lodes, it will be apparent that there is no proljability of tlie occurrence of one main lode in this district, but only of such of those Avhich are at present known, and which are so variable in extent and thickness, notwithstanding that they are true fossil lodes. The Sunny Corner Mine, is the oldest and most pi'oductive of the silver mines. The^lode, consisting of poi'ous siliceous gossan, was worked for gold as far back as 1875, and though at tliat time the ore was known to contain a good percentage of silver, it was not until the Pacific smelters were introduced upon the field, by Messrs. Lamont and Kahlo, in ISS."), through the enterprise of Messrs. Newton and Co., that mining for silver commenced. Since then this mine has i^roduced 1,169,4.54-104 oz. of gold and silver bullion, of which 502,987 oz. were obtained from 27,231 tons of ore smelted during the year ending .Slst October, 1886. The lode vanes considerably in thickness, and has been opened at five different levels, by tunnels driven in a southerly direction from the northern slope of the hill. At the top, or Xo. 5 level, which is about 190 feet above the lowest or No. 1 tunnel, a large excavation open to the surface has been made in the lode, which here attains a thickness of 40 feet of gossan, covered in places with gold-bearing porous quartz, and passing downwards through No. 4 level into undecomposed SILVER. 119 sulphides, or "base ore," 19 feet thick. From some of the gossan rich specimens of native silver, in beautiful arborescent forms, have been obtained ; specimens of it have been presented to the Mining and Geological Museum, Sydney. In No. 3 level, 147 feet above No. ], richer ore has been struck, yielding, it is said, 70 oz. of silver per ton, and averaging 2 ft. thick ; it consists of galena, with iron and copper pyrites. But this ore will be found to vary much in its yield ; for one sample gave on assay 12 •74 per cent, lead, O'So per cent, copper, and 4 oz. IS dwt. of silver per ton. No. 2 level, 75 feet above No. 1, has been driven along the line of lode, which in one place is from 7 ft. to 15 ft. thick, then narrowing opens again at the end of the tunnel to 2 ft., consisting of finely crystalline galena and pyrites. An assay of a sample of this ore gave: — Copper, l'Q5 per cent.; lead, 14 '60 per cent. ; silver, 37 oz. lOi dwt. per ton ; gold, 4 dwt. per ton. The hanging wall dips W. 10° S. at 58°. This ore should be followed down. In No. 1 tunnel no defined lode has been found, but a block of good sulphide ore, 7 feet thick, was struck, the hanging wall dipping W. 10° S. at 58^, which is almost the same angle of dip as that in No. 2 level. It is probably due to the greater regularity in the walls of tlie fissure that it has here not formed large cavities, such as those formed in the higher levels, where the containing walls of the fissure are very uneven. Larger ore deposits occur in the higher levels than in the lower, which, as above" mentioned, appears to be due to the fissure walls being more regular or even in the latter than in the former. As it is unlikely that the regularity lias continued for any considerable distance there is every probability that in following the fissure walls other large and valuable ore deposits will be discovered from time to time. The most favourable places for searching for them are on the north-Avestern and western face of the elvanite rock; that is where the line of junction between the igneous and sedimentary rocks curves round from a southerly course to the west. At the Sunny Corner Mine, which is under the able direction of Mr. Thos. Eyre, mining manager, smelting operations are very successfully carried on by means of " water-jacket" furnaces ; but the large Probert furnace at first erected has been discarded in favour of the smaller furnaces which are much more con- veniently worked. Mr. Woodgate, the smelting manager, has, by judicious fluxing, succeeded in reducing the loss of silver in the slag to an average of 1 oz. 17 dwt. per ton for four months run, as against an average loss of 2 oz. 19 dwt. for the previous five months run. He is also successfully smelting in the " water- jacket" furnace the base ores into "matte," and from experiments he is at present conducting further improvement in the reduction of the base ores is anticipated. It is said that ore yielding 16 oz. of silver per ton can be profitably worked by the present process. During the half-year ending October 31st, 11,647 tons of ore were smelted at these works, giving an average yield of 23'56 oz. of gold and silver bullion per ton ; the bullion is worth on account of the gold contained in it about 5s. per oz. The Sunny Corner Company has recently erected an amalgama- tion plant for treating the old tailings from the l)attery, which are said to contain an average of 35 oz. of silver, and about 2 dwt. of gold per ton. It will thus be seen that the jDrimary formation of this district consists of siluro-devonian sandstones and shales, which have been upheaved and penetrated by elvanite and quartz porphyry ; that, subsequently, movements of the rocks took place, resulting in the production of the fissures in which the metalliferous ores were deposited, chiefly about the line of junction of the sedimentary and igneous rocks ; that these movements having affected the rocks to a considerable extent, the fissures will continue to great depths, though, owing to their irregular form, the ore deposits in them will vary much in thickness ; that as these lodes are explored in deptli, similar large patchy deposits to those already discovered, are likely to be found ; that the gossan or oxidized portions of tlie lodes occurring within about 100 feet from the surface, must soon be exhausted ; that the less easily worked unoxidized or sulphide ores will be the permanent class of oi'es to mine ; and that, as these are usually less rich in silver than the gossan ores, weight of ore considered, special appliances for concentrating the sulphides miist be employed, especially as the ores are not rich in silver and will necessitate the most economic methods of treatment, not only for the extraction of the silver, but also of the lead and copper which are sometimes present to a large extent in the ore. 120 NEW SOUTH wales: iieb commerce and resources. In conclusion, I consiiler that silver-mining on this field will be a permanent and important industry ; but its development, which must necessarily be gradual, jnust to a large extent depend upon^lst, the concentration of the sulphide ores, for they are generally of low giade ; '2nd, more economical methods of smelting the sulphides, which will be the permanent class of ore to operate upon ; judicious exploration of the lodes, for as the ore deposits are very irregular in thickness, liaving originated, as I have already described, in fissure cavities of varying extent, it will be necessary that the prospecting of the lode should be kept well in advance. The gossans or oxidized portions of the lodes, occurring within 100 feet from the surface, must soon be exhausted, but the depth to which the undecom- posed sulphide ores may be found is practically unlimited. Old methods of smelting silver ore have been abandoned and tlie American process is adopted at many mines. Probert (American) and other furnaces have been erected. The Probert furnace has been suc- cessfully employed at Sunny Corner and elsewhere, and met with so much success that Mr. E. F. Pittman, the chief mining surveyor of the Colony, wrote a very elaborate description ot it. This process, so well known to those engaged in mining pursuits in the United States, con- sists in fusing the ore by means of a suitable flvix and with the addition of lead when that metal is not found in sufficient quantities in the ore. One of the essential requirements of the process being the presence of a certain proportion of lead, by which the silver and gold are carried down, and from which they are subsequently removed by cupellation, it becomes necessary to add lead if the ores do not contain a sufficient quantity of that metal. The flux used is limestone, which, with the silica and iron in the tailings and ore, make a fusible silicate of lime and iron, and the fusion is assisted by some of the old slag. If the ore does not contain iron, a sufficiency of that metal is added in the form of scrap iron. The fuel used is prepared Newcastle coke which costs about c£4 (19'46) per ton. The furnace, said to be capable of smelting about .50 tons of ore per day, stands upon a sunk base of brick work, inclosed in a casing of cast iron, which is constructed of sixteen flanged seetions, .5 feet in height, bolted together and having a cast-iron plate at the bottom. The crucible, which is situated just above the surface of the ground, is built in tlie centre of the brick work, and is made of the best Stourbridge fire-brick. It is cup shaped, and has a diameter of 7 feet and a depth of 21 inches in the centre. The walls of that portion of the furnace within which the smelting takes place are constructed of vertical water jackets, with loose-hinged covers. These water jackets are made in ten disconnected sections, 4 feet 6 inches high, 2 feet 6 inches wide, and about 6 inches through. They are made of the best •wrought iron, and are strapped together at the top and bottom. The water is conveyed to the bottom of each of them by a rubber j)ipe and escapes by spouts from the top into a trough wliich surrounds the fur- nace ; from here it flows into a well, when, after cooling, it is again available, being pumped up into a reservoir. A continual circulation of water thus takes place, and the consumption is small, as there is very litth; loss by evaporation. Tlie inner surface of the wall of the furnace (water- jacket) being cooled by the circulation of water, speedily becomes covered Avith a coating of slag, which effectually protects it from corrosion, and in this manner the wear and tear of the furnace wall is reduced to a minimum. The water-jackets are pierced by nine tuyeres. The nozzles of five of these are flush with the inner face of the water- SILVER. 121 jackets, while the remaining four (which are water tuyeres) extend further inwards, their nozzles being about 20 inches from the centre of the fui'nace. Above the water-jackets the furnace is lined with fire brick for a height of 18 inches. For the first 6 inches the bricks are uncovered, but above that they are protected by a wrought-iron covering. The uncovered space is necessary for the purpose of removing any of the water-jacket sections for repairs, &c. Above the fire-bi-icks the furnace is formed like an inverted cone, lined with ordinary brick and having a dome-shaped roof. In the sides of the cone, at a height of 1 1 feet 9 inches above the crucible, are three feeding holes, where the chai'ges of fuel, ore, and fluxes are thrown in. From the centre of the dome-shaped roof springs a vertical cylinder of wrought-iron, closed at the top but having a small trap-door. Just above the dome a horizontal wrought-iron flue leads from the vertical cylinder to a brick condensing chamber, at the base of a high stack. Attached at intervals to the lower side of this horizontal flue are a number of small Y-shaped chambers, closed at the bottom by slides. These are for the purpose of catching the bulk of the condensed fumes, and as the latter contain both silver and lead they are returned to the furnace. The blast is supplied by a " Baker blower," size 5 feet by 4 feet, which is driven at the rate of about 100 revolutions per minute, and which forces the air into a windpipe, about 1 foot square in section, surrounding the furnace above the water-jackets. The air is thence conducted by canvas pipes to the tuyeres. The ore when it comes from the mine is first broken to the size of walnuts in a Dodge crusher (of a similar type to the ordinary alligator-jaw crushers). It is then ground fine in a Dodge pulverizer, which consists of a revolving, horizontal cylinder, covered with screens, and protected on the inside by iron laths. The pulverizing is eftected inside the cylinder by from twenty to fifty cannon balls, the number being varied accoixling to the hardness of the ore. If the ore does not contain sufficient lead it is now subjected to treatment in the " lead bath," which necessitates its being thorougldy dried. For this purpose it is removed to a long drying furnace, which is so constructed that the flame returns over itself, thus providing three drying floors where the moisture is thoroughly expelled. It is then introduced into the "lead bath," which consists of a ca.st-iron cauldron filled with molten lead, to the bottom of which the powdered ore is forced by means of a plunger working in a cylinder. The ore as it rises to the surface is coated or mixed with litharge and shots of metallic lead. It is skimmed ofi"the surface and is then ready to be mixed with the fluxes. Should the ore contain sufficient galena in the first instance, the treatment in the pulverizer, drying furnace, and lead bath would be omitted, and it would, after being roasted, be taken direct to the mixing floor. The ore is now weighed and mixed with the requisite proportion of limestone, broken to the size of walnuts, slag dust from the condensing flues, and, if neces- sary, scrap iron. The furnace, being in blast, is fed continuously as the contents subside, with successive charges of coke and mixed ore and flux. The coke is used in the proportion of 1 ton to every 5 tons of ore. The lead bullion, containing the silver and gold, as it collects in the crucible, escapes by means of a siphon to a heated basin outside the furnace, whence it is 122 NEW SOUTH WALES : IIEU CO:\IMERCE AXD RESOURCES. laiUeil into ingot moulds, each holding about 80 pounds of metal. The slair is tapped" at intervals from tap-holes situated immediately over the sui-face of the metal in tlie crucible. A cei'tain proportion of the slag, as before stated, is used for flux ; the remainder is carried away in basin-shaped molds attached to wheels. The ingots of lead bullion are now assayed to ascertain tlie propor- tion of silver and gold contained in them. They are then introduced into cupelling furnaces. The cupels are made by tamping bone ashes with a rod, and each cupel occupies one man twelve hours in making. The frames are somewhat oval-shaped, but wider at the end nearest the front of the furnace. Each frame weighs about 125 lb., being made of cast iron, and holds about 350 lb. of bone ash. Through an aperture in the back of each cupel furnace a jet of steam plays over the surface of the molten lead or bullion. It is claimed that the steam aids in the nioi-e rapid oxidation of the lead, besides t'>nding to blow the litharge forward into the channel which is cut across part of the wider ends of the cupel and which communicates with a small hole by which the litharge escapes to the floor beneath the surface. The metal now left in the cupels consists of silver and gold, with traces of copper. It is next treated in the reflners — small open firebrick- lined furnaces, circular in section and sufficiently large to allow coke room, round moderately large plumbago crucibles. The metal is smelted in these with a flux consisting of borax and nitre. The oxides of the baser metals rise to the surface, forming a scum, which is removed, and the purified bullion is run into ingots, which upon assay yield 996 to 999 parts of silver and gold in 1,000. The American furnace erected by Messrs. Hudson Brothers at their works at Clyde is called the " Giffbrd," after the 2'»atentee, and differs from the Probert in having no brick-work lining above the crucible, the whole of the furnace walls being constructed of water-jackets. This modification would appear to be an improvement, in so far as it tends to lessen the necessity for repairs to the inside of the furnace. In other respects the principle of the two furnaces is the same. Until American smelting machinery was introduced the bulk of the silver pi-oduct of this Colony was obtained during the process of refining gold by passing chlorine gas through it. The following table shows the quantity and value of the silver exports : — Silver. Silver and Lead Ore. Year. Quantity. Value. Quantity. Value. Total Value. Ore. Metal. Up to 1881 1882 1883 1884 1885 1886 1887 Oz. 726,779 36,618 77,065 93,660 794,174 1,015,433 177,307 £ 178,405 9,024 16,488 19,780 159,187 197,544 32,458 S 868,208 43,915 80,239 90,259 774,684 961,348 157,';57 Tons cwt. qrs. 191 13 11 19 136 4 9,167 11 1 2,095 16 4,802 2 12,530 3 2 Tons. 190 £ 5,025 360 2,075 241,940 107,626 294,485 541,952 s 24,454 1,752 10,098 1,177,401 523,762 1,4.33,111 2,637,409 £ 183,430 9,3S4 18,563 261,720 266,813 492,02.) 574,410 8 892,663 45,667 90,337 1,273,600 1,298,445 2,394,459 2,795,366 2,923,036 612,886 2,982,610 28,935 S 3 190 1,193,463 5,807,987 1,806,349 8,790,597 SILVER. 123 The approximate number of persons engaged in mining for silver during the year 1885 was 929, and in 1886, 1,297. The rise in the silver mining stock consequent on extensive discoveries of new and rich deposits of silver bearing ore in the Broken Hill, Silverton Districts, will give an impetus to silver mining during 1888. Already consider- able excitement prevails and silver mining claims are being " taken up" in various parts of the Colony wliere silver bearing rock is known to exist. Companies are being floated in all directions. Lately the prospectus of a company called the "White Rock Proprietary Silver Mining Company," Avith a proposed capital of £1,000,000 ($4,866,500), has been issued in Sydney, to acquire and work silver bearing land at Drake, near Tenterfield, a mining town of the New England district. The Geological Branch of the Mines Department has lately issued a most valuable and exhaustive memoir, with maps, of the geology of the Vegetable Creek (now Emmaville) tin and silver mining district, and this, being information upon which reliance can be placed, has, in a great measure, tended to attract the attention of investors to the untold mineral wealth of that portion of this Colony. 124 NEW SOUTH vales: her commerce and resources. COPPER. The copper-mines of Australia are amongst the most famous in the ■world. The ores are so rich that they produce a metal in many respects quite equal to the best lake copper of the United States, and cheerful testimony to that fact is given by some of the foremost metallurgists in Euro|>o and America. The Chief of the Division of Mining Statistics and Technology, at Washington, D. C, says that the Australian mines, in a certain sense, are competitors with the Aiiierican ones. He is also of the opinion that lowering of the price of copper would not affect seriously the supplies from Australia. At one time South Australia took the lead of all the other Colonies in the production of copper, but now New South "Wales is the first in the list. During the year 1886, New South Wales pi'oduced 3,969 tons of metal and .58 tons of ore, valued at £167,66-5 (.f 81 5,942), while South Australia produced 3,6.36 tons of metal and 14,782 tons of ore, valued at £230,868 (.$1,123,519). The great bulk of the South Australian ore is sent abroad for smelting, while that of New South Wales is refined at the mines. Copper exists in various parts of Tasmania, but as yet very little lias been done toward developing the industry. Land, however, has been leased by several companies for the purpose of mining for this metal, but the low price of copper checked the operations. In Queens- land, where copper also exists in large quantities, the development of the mines await the price of copper to advance to something like its normal value. Queensland produced 900 tons of copper in 1886. A number of valuable copper lodes have also been opened in New Zealand, those in the district of Nelson proving especially rich, but as yet little progress has been made with them. The value of the exports of copper from New South Wales, since the opening of the mines to Decemberj 1887, reached £5,163,352 (.$25,258,848.) It would be difficult to form anything like a just estimate of the cupriferous formations of Australia from the fact that such a small extent of the country has been fully explored. The known cupriferous area of New South Wales alone amounts to nearly 5,000,000 acres. In South Australia the lodes are distributed wherever the metamorphic aiid paleozoic rocks occur. As many as forty mines have been opened in the latter Colony ; but few of them continued to be worked on account of the low price of copper. The principal mines are the Hamley, Moonta, Wallaroo, Blueman, Victory, and Burra Burra. A shaft has been sunk at Moonta to a depth of 1,320 feet, and another at Wallaroo to 1,020 feet. In New South Wales the most valuable lodes occur in silurian slates. These ores con- sist principally in carbonates, metallic copper in films, red oxide, and grey and yellow sulphides. The Great Cobar Copper-mine, in the county of Cobar, is one of the most important in New South Wales. It is situated 497 miles west of Sydney, in the centre of the vast plains which lie between the Macquarie and Bogan Rivers. The ore is so rich and abundant that the industry COPPER. 125 has Ijeen a profitable one until a recent period, notwithstanding the gi'eat distance of the mine from the settled portion of the Colony, and the still more imi)ortant fact of the country for miles around being almost wholly destitute of water. The produce of the mine has to be hauled by waggons a distance of 80 miles to Nyngan, the nearest railway station. The industry caused a settlement to spring up at Cobar, and it is estimated that within a radius of 3 miles the population is between 2,000 and 3,000. There are in the town two banks, several hotels, two churches, a newspaper, and a public school, with an average daily attendance of 130 pupils. The Great Cobar Mine gives employment to about 500 persons. The plant is the best in Australasia. The company, hoAvever, experience great difficulty in getting the copper to market. tSometimes they have as much as 500 tons of metal waiting for teams to carry it to the rail- way station. Dui'ing the year 188G the number of miners employed in the Cobar district was 804. The amount of refined copper produced was 2,044 tons. The value of the plant at the Great Cobar Mine alone is £85,000 ($413,653). This plant embraces 3 forty horse-power engines, 2 stone-breakers, 1 cracker, 1 jigger, 3 eight hoi-se-power engines, 1 Chilian-mill, 2 pug-mills, 2 air- compressors, 8 rock-drills, a tramway 11 miles in length, 6 locomotives (4 imported and 2 made in the Colony), and 84 trucks. During the year 1886 the Great Cobar Company raised 25,887 tons of ore. The greatest depth obtained by sinking the main shaft in the Great Cobar Mine is 664 feet, from which diamond drills have been driven 60 feet farther. The lode at this depth, according to the report of Mr. W. H. H. Slee, Inspector of Mines, exhibits a thickness of 40 feet of fair, yellow, sulphide ore. Stoping is carried on in various parts of this mine. "Stoping" is a mining terra for the drives that are made to reach the wall on each side of the lode. The drives are the tunnel- ings fi'om the shafts. The minei'S work upwards from the levels, the object being to exhaust the w^hole of the lode, and as fast as a stope is worked out it is filled in and another drive made. With the exception of the 54-fathom level the ores obtained are carbonates, oxides, and grey ores, which avei'age about 16 per cent, of copper. A new dis- covery of ore has been made between the 29 and 26 fathom level, which yielded 14 per cent, of fine copper. Ml". Slee states that independently of this new find, it will take years to work out the difl:erent copper ores in sight and known to exist in the mine. The average thickness of the lode on the 29-fathom level is 110 feet. The capital of the Great Cobar Copper-mining Company is £80,000 (!$389,320) in £1 ($4-86) shares. The quantity of ore at this mine on the 1st of January, 1886, was 10,697 tons. The Nymagee Copper-mine is next in importance to the Great Cobar. This mine is situated near the town of Nymagee, in the Cobar district, about 440 miles west of Sydney, and 70 miles south-east of C!obar. The town has a population of about 1,500 persons, composed principally of miners, 300 of whom are employed at the Nymagee Mine. This mine raised during the year 1886, 14,782 tons of ore, yielding 1,478 126 NKw SOUTH wales: her commerce and resources. tons of copper. The Avidth of the lode is from 4 to 12 feet. Stoping is carried on in difterent })arts of the mine. Mr. Slee reports that some of the shoots of ore stoped upon contain largo masses of rich copper. Some of this ore is raised and broken at the small cost of 4 shillings (97 cents) per ton. Large quantities of carbonates are obtained near the surface, wliich are mixed with yellow sulphides in smelting. A pros- pecting shaft has been sunk on the brow of a hill, on which there is a large outcrop of hematitic ii'on. The shaft is 147 feet in depth. A drive of 293 feet has been driven south of the shaft, and at the end of this drive a winze of about 40 feet in depth has been sunk. During the year 1886 several new furnaces were erected. The total number of furnaces now in operation at the mines is fifteen. Tlie yellow sulphide ore is crushed, and forced through a wire screen, ten holes to a square inch, after which it is taken on the tramlines to the calciners. By the calcining process the ore is reduced in weight fully 2-5 per cent, and increased in percentage 3 to 4 per cent., which enables the smelters to mix nearly two-thirds of sulphides in a charge of 21 cwt. of ore. The capital of the Nymagee Copper-mining Company is the same as that of the Great Cobar, viz., £80,000 (.1389,320.) The New Mount Hope Copper-mine is the third in rank, and it is also in the Cobar district, 90 miles south of the Great Cobar Mine. The main lode in the New Mount Hope Mine is ferruginous sandstone. The shaft is 340 feet deep. The width of the lode is from 10 to -50 feet. The lode consists of shoots and bunches of rich oxides, carbonates, and grey ores. These deposits occur in altered sandstone and belts of sand- stone formations. It is said that there is no other mine in New South "Wales which produces such interesting geological specimens of copper ores. Pieces varying from a few pounds to a ton in weight can be procured containing all the different carbonates, oxides, and sulphide ores. The Great Central Coppei'-mine is situated 4 miles south of New Mount Hope, on a high hill, in porphyry formations. The ores are of high quality. There are seven shafts, vai-yiiig in depth from 82 feet to 206. The deepest level is 1.50 feet, and the widest part of the lode is 13 feet. It has been proposed to open up other levels on ditferent parts of the lodes. There are a number of other mines in the Colony that promises very favourable results. The Cheshire Copper-mine at Cudgegong shows a shoot of ore 46 feet wide, yielding 8 to 10 per cent, of copper. This ore appears in shoots, not in a continuous lode. At Blayney, a new copper lode, 2 feet in width, has been found within 1 mile of the town containing rich grey ore. The Boone West Copper-mine has a lode 6 feet in width. About half a mile west is the Big Ben lode. The lode at Nowendoc, which was abandoned a few years ago, has been started again. Satisfactory assays have Ijeen made from the lodes at Scruby Bush, Sounding Rock near Trunkey, Glanraire near Bathurst, and Burracfa. COPPER. 127 Mr. Harrie Wood, Under Secretaiy for Mines, has supplied tlie following assays of copper ores : — Locality. Description of Mineral. Copper. Gold. Silver. Per cent. Per ton. Per ton. Bombala Iron pyrites and carbonate of lead and copi^er, from SO miles south-west of Bombala. 26- 4 oz. dwt. oz. dwt. 2 9 Do Ferruginous grey and yellow sulphide and green carbonate of copper, from 18 miles from Bombala. •28-45 2 9 Barrier Ranges . . Grcj- sulphide and traces of green carbonate of copper 57-35 2 9 Do 48 S5 3 5 Bermagui River . . Copper pyrites and quartz and traces of green car- bonate of copper. •28-25 10 CJ Cobar Blue and green carbonates of copper, from 3 miles from Cobar. 32-95 Do Green carbonate of copper (fibrous malachite), from 70 miles west of Cobar. 55- 2 Fairfield Crushed sample of copper and iron pyrites, coated with a thin film of black oxide of copper. 36-75 1 19 6 4 Do Ferruginous grey sulphide of copper, from Kelly's claim. 53-84 4 3 5 Ferruginous carbonates and sulphides of copper, old Gulgong reefs. 27-55 4 18 Gundagai Red oxide of cojiper and a little quartz and green carbonates of copper. 72-05 Moloiig Earthy lodestuff, 60-feet level •21-75 20- 5 Do Yellowish earthy felspathic lodestuff, with carbonates of copper. 1 1-^' Do Do do do Lodestuff from Tonkin's mine 25- 3 45- 6 39- 9 3 3 2 14' Mitchell 99 1 New England Green carbonate and grej- sulphide of copper, from Lottery Creek. 14 14 Razorback Ferruginous copper gossan, from miles from Razor- back. 37-85 1 m Shoalhaven River Quartz and grey sulphide of copper 33-85 Eich specimens were found at Wellington, 240 miles north-west of Sydney, The town of Wellington is situated at the junction of Mac- quarie and Bell Rivers, 1,000 feet above the sea, at the foot of a moun- tain range. Wellington, together with the township of Montifiore, on the opposite side of the Macquarie River, contains about 2,500 inhabitants. The district in which this mine is located is a rich agri- cultural one, and at the same time is noted for the large number of auriferous reefs it contains. The reefs, however, have not been worked, and little more than prospecting has been done with the cupriferous lodes. There are a great many varieties of copper ores distri1)uted throughout the Colony, but the sulphides, carbonates, and oxides are those princi- pally relied upon for the production of rehned copper. 128 NEW SOUTH WALES : HER COMMERCE AND RESOURCES. Professor Liversicl,<,'e, in his valuable work on the minerals of New South Wales, states that the variety of cojiper jiyrites known as i)eacock ore, from the splendour that it acquires, is found in nearly all the metalliferous districts — at Cobar (county Robinson), Bingei'a, Elsniore (county Murchison), Clarence (county Clarence), Wiseman's Creek and Oberon (county Westmoreland), Wellington district ; with zinc blende, steatite, quartz, and asbestos ; Ophir, Carcoar, Cow Flat, and Mitchell's Creek (county Bathurst), Wallabadah (county Buckland), Cargo and Molong (county Ashburnhani), Peelwood (county Roxburg), at Tuena; with gold, Kiandra (county Wallace), Gordon Brooke (county Richmond), Snowball mine (county Clarendon), Dundee (county Gough), CJoodrich (county Gordon), Cootalantra mine and Belmore mine (county Auckland), Nymagee (county Mouramba), Solferino (county Argyle), and at Malline Creek, between Goullturn and Braidwood. Professor Liversidge mentions that crystallized native copper is by no means rare in New South Wales, but that large and well-developed crystals, as elsewhere, are uncommon. It is found in plates, in threads, wires, and arljorescent forms, and contains traces of silver, lead, bismuth, and other metals. In nearly all cases it is associated with cuprite mala- chite, and other oxidized copper ores. Red copper ore is found in various places in the Colony, and is abundant at Cobar, both in massive and crystallized forms. It is also met with in Richmond, Vernon, Phillip, Argyle, and other counties. Black oxide of copper is also frequently met with in the form of black powder. Massive or sporadic green carbonate of copper (malachite) occurs in various forms, massive and crystals, the various layers often possessing different shades of colour, forming a beautiful stone for ornamental and inlaying purposes. Professor Liversidge states that the crystals found at Cobar are parti- cularly beautiful, the silky lustre being veiy remarkable. The capillary crystals are sometimes several inches long, and compacted together into fibrous bundles. Malachite is found in most of the upper workings of the copper-mines. Blue carbonate of copper is also found in various parts of the Colony, the best specimens coming from Cobar. Atacamite also occurs in the Cobar mines. A specimen of a dark translucent green colour, with vitreous lustre and apple-green streak, gave the following analysis :— Water lost at 105° -o.SC) Combiued 1.3"955 Copper oxide 64-709 Copper chloride 13-218 Silica and insoluble matter 7'599 100017 Blue vitriol, or copper sulphate, is often met with in a form of efflorescence or incrustation. Copper glance is found both in the massive and crystallized state. Silicious redruthite, a peculiar copper ore, occurs at Carcoar. It is of a dark, almost black, colour. It resembles redruthite, but is of a duller lustre, and is very much harder. Purple oi-e and gray copper ore are not uncommon there. COPPER, 129 Table showing the quantity and value of Copper, the produce of the Colony, exported from the Colony of New South Wales, from 1858 to 1887. Ingots. Ore and Regulus. Total. Year. Quantity. Value. Quantity. Value. Quantity. Value. Tons. £ Tons. £ Tons. £ 1858 58 1,400 58 1,400 578 1859 30 """57'8 43 30 43 1860 1 ,535 1,535 3,390 1861 144 3,390 144 1862 213 5,742 213 5,742 1863 23 1,680 114 420 137 2,100 1864 54 247 5,230 15,820 54 269 5,230 1865 22 .545 16,365 1866 255 18,905 23 1,885 278 20,790 1867 393 30,189 5 393 ,30,194 1868 644 23,297 172 4,000 816 27,297 1869 1,980 74,605 104 2,070 2,084 76,675 1870 994 65,671 6 60 1,000 65,731 1871 1,350 87,579 94 1,297 1,444 88,876 1872 1,035 92,736 417 13,152 1,452 105,88S 1873 2,795 237,412 51 1,690 2,846 239,102 1874 3,638 311,519 522 13,621 4,160 .325,140 1875 3,520 297,334 157 4, .356 3,677 .301,690 1876 3, 106 243,142 169 6,836 .3,275 249,978 1877 4,153 307,181 360 17,045 4,513 324,226 1878 4,983 337,409 236 7,749 5,219 .34.5,158 1879 4,107 256,437 36 915 4,143 257,352 1880 5,262 359,260 1.32 4,799 5,. 394 364,059 1881 5,361 350,087 1.32 4,975 5,494 3.55,062 1882 4,865 321,887 93 2,840 4,958 324,727 1883 8,873 574,497 84 2,704 8,957 577,201 1884 7,286 415,601 19 578 7,. 305 416,179 1885 5,745 264,905 1 15 5,746 264,920 1886 3,969 166,429 58 1,236 4,026 167,665 1887 4,464 195,752 299 3,350 4,763 199,102 79,133 5,055,142 3,760 108,210 82,892 5, 163, .3.52 •1.25,258,848 The vast increase in the output of the copper-mines of the United States during the last few years has completely revolutionized the price of copper. The refined copper of the United States has more than a restricted home market, and is finding its way into various parts of the world. The American refining works are unsurpassed. Those of Pope^ Cole, &, Co. of Baltimore, the Oxford Sulphur and Copper Company of New York, the Jersey Extraction Works at Elizabeth, N. J., the Phcenixville Works, Pennsylvania, and the Chicago Copper Company of Chicago, 111., have now a world-wide reputation. The fluctuation in the price of copper somewhat checked the industry in Australia, at present, prices are higher than they have been since 1880, and there seems to be a general impression that this state of affairs will continue. In January, 1888, the price of South Australian coj)per had risen to £74 (.$360) per ton. 130 XKW SOUTH walks: HER COMMERCE AND RESOURCES. The metal is such a useful one, and enters into such an infinite variety of manufactures that the constantly increasing demand for it must of necessity occasion an advance in its cost. Those who think to the contrary, point to the fact that the introduction of new and im- proved machinery has materially lessened the price of the metal and will lessen the cost of production still more in the near future. In the United States in the year 1875, the cost of the production of Lake Superior copper at many of the leading mines was as high as lid. (22 cents) per pound; now it is less than 3^,d. (7 cents) per pound. It should also Ije remembered that the United States, from l)eing the third in the list, has risen to the position of the greatest copper-pro- ducuig country in the world, producing more than 30 per cent, of the whole co]iper supplies of the world, as compared with only about 15 per cent, in 1879. The liulk of machinery used in Australia for smelting copper is imported from Great Britain, very little coming from the United States. The American machinery is generally acknowledged to be superior to all others, but it is almost an impossibility to overcome the prejudices of the Australasians in favour of purchasing all kinds of mining machinery in Eur6pe. INIany of the furnaces used are the ordinary old-fashioned cupola ones, and with them the process of smelting copper is both tedious and expensive. From time to time the managers of the i)rincipal mines in the Colony Lave expressed the opinion that some other and more economic process will have to be adopted for the treatment of copper ores, and especially of sulphurets. Indeed, the manager of the Nymagee Mine stated that the falling off in the output of the mine was to be attributed to the method of smelting refractory ores. He said that in treating large quantities of sulphides it is necessary to produce a low percentage regulus, which is very difficult to work up into refined copper by the old process. Hundreds of tons of regulus have been made at Nymagee, which would not assay more than 35 per cent., and which could not be avoided in the absence of other ores. Several reducing furnaces are employed, and even with them the regulus accumulated ; and it has been determined that some change was necessary, in order to muke the work profitable. A cold blast of air has been introduced into the reverberatory furnace, on the surface of the liquid metal, the motive power being a duplex engine and Eoot's blower. The furnace is charged in the usual way with 10 or 12 tons of i-egulus, and fired on until the whole mass is liquefied, after which the blast is applied, and by this means one furnace can be made to do the work of three in the ordinaiy way of working. An objection was made to the effect that the blast was diiving small particles of copper into the stack ; but it is said that this difficulty could be overcome by the construction of a large culvert and stack some distance from the furnace. The Great Cobar and Nymagee Mines introduced a jirocess for smelting copper like that at the Parot Silver and Coi)per Mining Works in Montana, U.S.A. This proce.ss has not given as much satisfaction as was expected ; nevertheless, the principle has been shown to be good. COPPER. 131 In the process, the ores ai'O subjected to a simple fusion in a blosv-l)last or cupola furnace, for the purpose of obtaining a regulus or matt and slagging away the earthy matter. The converter is constructed after the model of a Bessemer one, with blast holes only on one side. Clog- wheels and a crank incline the converter in such a way that the molten mass can be blasted at any desired level. Hitherto the attempts at blasting copper have all failed, for the reason that, the blast going through the whole mass, the melted copper got chilled. In the new process the copper produced is collected at the bottom, when by a turn of the crank the blasting takes place on a higher level. Gradually in this manner, till the end of the operation, the blast passes through matter containing combustible elements, the metal is not chilled, and the blast holes do not get choked. The copper produced by this converter, it is said, is almost pure, containing 98 to 99 per cent, of pure metal. The whole operation lasts from fifteen to forty-five minutes, accox'ding to the purity of the matter introduced into the converter, the ore having been previously melted in a cupola furnace without any preliminary calcina- tion. It is stated that by this process only two operations are required where foi-merly eight were used, and that the saving in fuel, labour, and time is remarkable. The cost of freight on copper ore, or ingots, from Sydney to London, is usually nominal. From March to November it is required by sailing vessels and steamers for ballast, and in some cases a small premium is paid for it. During this period the only charge made by steamers is from Is. (24r cents), to 2s. 6d. (61 cents), per ton. It forms an admirable ballast for cargoes of wool. When hides can be procured, co])per is not so much in demand, as a sufficient quantity of hides will enable ships to dispense with ore as ballast. Consequent on disorganisation as the result of the unsettled state of the copper market, the stocks of co])per at the end of January, 1888, were 45,692 tons, as against 61,375 tons in 1887, and 58,589 tons in 1886. 132 NKw soi'Tii wales: her commerce and resources. TIN. The large aiul steady annual increase in the export of tin ore and iniiots to the United States from Sydney, has directed attention to the condition of the tin-fields. Although tin was discovered in New South Wales as earlv as 1849, mines were not opened until 1872, and since then 80,408 tons of ingots, and 10,480 tons of ore have been exported, valued at .£7,402,456 (:^;36,024,0.52). Twenty years ago the total tin product of the w-orld did not amount to more than l.''),000 tons per annum. In 1886 New South Wales alone produced 4,968 tons, and the whole of Australia considerably more than that. With the exception of gold. New South Wales takes the lead of all the other Colonies in the production of minerals, and although the value of her gold product declined from .£.366,388 (.>?1, 783,027) in 1885 to £355,600 (.«!, 730,527) in 1886, there was during the same period a large increase in the value of the other mineral products. The aggregate value of all the mineral products of New South Wales for 1886, including gold, silver, coal, shale, copper, iron, antimony, asbestos, bismuth, and mixed minerals, Avas £2,928,427 (s 14, 25 1,1 90). Tin, although one of the best known and most useful of metals, is produced in workable Cjuantities in very few countries. For a long period the principal sup2:)ly came from the county of Cornwall, in Eng- land, where very great skill is employed in tin mining. A royalty of j£4 (.v!l9-46), was charged on every ton of tin raised in Cornwall, the proceeds of which went to the revenue of the Dukedom of Cornwall, one of the titles held by the Heir Apparent to the British throne. In 1837, when Queen Victoria succeeded, an Act of Parliament was ])assed abolishing the royalty, but granting to the revenues of the Dukedom an annuity equal to the average amount of the royalty. The mines of Bohemia and Saxony rank next in value to those of Cornwall. Then those of the Malayan Peninsula. The mines of Perak for a long time yielded a very large supply, and are still profitably worked, on account of the low cost at which labor can be obtained. The most promising tin mines in the United States are in California, Dakota, Colorado, and Alabama. Very favorable results are expected from the Broad Arrow Mine in Clay County, Alabama. Tin is also found in quantities near Chesterfield and Goshen, Mass., and in Jackson, N.H. Tin mining in the United States has, however, been greatly neglected, from the fact that mining for silver and gold has proved moi'o attractive. In 1872 the total tin product of New South Wales was only 896 tons. In the year following it was 4,571. In 1875 it was 8,180 tons. In 1876 the quantity fell to 6,958 tons, but rose in 1877 to 8,054 tons. It declined again in 1880 to 6,159 tons. The price of tin in London has varied from £120 ($584) to £170 (•8827) per ton, and it has fallen to about £59 ($287) per ton, the ten- dency of the market, however, is towai'ds high quotations. A singular fact connected with the price of tin is that it is not always regulated by tl e supply and demand. TIN. 133 The phenomenally, the marvellously, rapid rise in the price of tin is engrossing at the moment the whole world's attention. £100 ($485) to .£105 ($510) was generally looked upon as good enough money, but when £110 (1535), even up to £120 (|581)to£150 ($730) was talked of, holders were spoken of as mad enthusiasts. But now, when a £170 ($827) mai'ket has been climbed up to, with no one rash enough to determine any present limit of values, who will venture to say that the £200 prophesied may not be reached '? Few persons are aware of the importance of the Australian tin trade — a trade of growing importance as better prices prompt further develojjments. Of course, Australia's staple exports are wool and gold; but in the first six months of 1887 she sent to Great Britain alone — to say nothing of her American exports— 3,214 tons of tin, valued at £326,808 ($1,590,311); her copper export value for the same period being £111,011 ($540,235). The violence of the movements in the market during recent years may be seen from the following figures of the highest and lowest prices of Straits tin in London : — Year. Price per ton. Year. Price per ton. Highest. Lowest. Higliest. Lowest. 1888 1st Feb. 1887 1886 1885 1884 1883 1882 1881 1880 £ j 170 166 106i 97^ 87 98i 114^ llOi 102" £ 102 116 100 74 72i 82h 86| S5h 68h 1879 1878 1877 1876 1875 1874 1873 1872 1871 1870 £ 96 654 76 81 96i 121i 149 159 155 1344 £ 59 524 644 70 76 87 1144 130 124 104^ The Statist, foretelling the future of the tin market, said : — " Of tin there are two main sources of supply, exclusive of English tin — the Straits and Australia. The first, which is growing, did not until 1879 reach 10,000 tons a year, but latterly it has grown to over 16,000 tons a year. The Australian supply was at its best in 1883, when it amounted to 9,500 tons. The two combined have, however, grown considerably in the jiast decade. In 1876 they aggregated 16,400 tons, and in 1886 they were rather more than 25,000 tons. The Cornish supply has during the same period been very regular ; it ranges from 9,000 to 10,000 tons per annum. Operators in tin, therefore, can easily reckon with Cornwall, It is a safe quantity, and fluctuations in price do not disturb it much. They can also tell pi-etty well what becomes of the Cornish tin. About half of it is exported, and the other half consumed at home. Our imports of foreign tin follow, as a rule, the same principle of division. In exceptional years, like 1883 and 1884, the re-exports have been nearly 15,000 tons out of 25,000 toni? or 26,000, but the average is 12,000 tons a year. Tin has of late fluctuated in price more than any other metal. It has been going through an alternative course of plunges and jumps. About the end of 1884 it was sold as low as £73 10s, ($357-70") per ton. By the end of 134 NEW SOUTH WALES : HER COMMERCE AND RESOURCES. 1885 it had rison to £93 5s. (.)le returns for the capital and labour invested. The Ottery is principally worked by wages men, who receives £2 10s. (.i?12-16) per TIN. 137 week of forty-six hours labour. The " Dutchman" also keeps a ten- head battery going, but it is worked wholly on the tribute principle, and at times the tributors make as much as £5 ($24-33) per week each, and seldom less than the current rate of wages. At the Torrington, the ore occurs in very rich quantities and hand- some returns are obtained, great quantities of the stone crushed yielding from 20 per cent, to 30 per cent, of black ore. The Glen Smelting Company is the largest employer of labour in the district and upon the field, whilst Mr. A Cadell has the greatest amount of mining land, which is wholly worked by tribute. At the " Gulf" a great quantity of ore has been obtained and con- tinues to be obtained by the miners in that vicinity. The want of some means of conserving the rainfall has a tendency to retard this portion of the field, as often many months are occupied in stacking the wash-dirt to await a fall of rain and enable the miner to get returns for his labour. Professor Liversidge, F.R.S., gives the following analysis of a speci- men of dark-coloure;1, almost black, stream tin stone from the Jupiter mine, Emmavalle, New South Wales : — Tin oxide (SiiO.,) 89-92 Titanic acid (TiC.,) -69 Ahimina 6 "75 Sihca -80 Iron sesquioxide 2'30 100-46 The specific gravity of the stone was 6-629. The tin that has recently been discovered in Dakota, United States, is said to bear a very close resemblance to the products of the Jupiter mine. In the Temschal Range, California, about five hundred claims for tin mining have been located, but only a few of them have been worked. An analysis of the Temschal ore, made by Dr. F. A. Genth, gives: — 9-82 •22 "!"'!!""!'!!!!!!. !!!!!!!"^". "!!"!!!!!!!!!!! 76-i5 -27 Oxide of iron, manganese, lime, and alumina IS'oO Professor Liversidge has some specimens of ore from Tuscany containing 9240 per cent, of oxide of tin, and a specimen from Carabuco, Bolivia, which yields 93-33. Dr. Genth has recently published the following analysis of two specimens from the San Jacinto mine, California : — Silicic acid .. Tunstic acid Tin oxide .. Copper oxide Con8tituents. First specimen. Second specimen. Tin oxide (SnO.,) Wolfram trioxide (WO 3) Silica (SvO„) Copper oxide (CuO) Other constituents* 76.15 .22 9.82 .27 13.34 100.00 ■ Consisting of iron, manganese, aluminium, magnesium, calcium, bismuth, and otlier oxides. 13S NEW SOUTH wales: her commerce and resources. The subjoineJ assays of tin ore from various districts in Kew South Wales were made by Mr. C. Watt, late Government Analyst : — Metallic Tin, per cent. Tin ore and Pyrites from near Glen Innes 49.4 Tin ore from Bungonia 74.9 Tin ore from new discovery, table-land, New England 26.4 Tin ore from new ground in neighbourhood of Inverell 64.9 Tin ore from Wagga district 24. 1 Tin ore from new discovery, Glen Innes district 34.0 Tin ore from new discovery, Glen Innes district 63. 1 Tin ore from new discovery. Glen Iniies district 58.4 Upwards of fifty tin-bearing lodes have been opened in New England district, New South Wales, and in several places the American diamond drill has been successfully employed. The majority of the veins, how- ever, are small. There are, of course, exceptions to the rule — for instance, in the Carr, Butler, and one or two other mines. The lodes, however, ai'e variable ; sometimes the ore is found in quartz, and at others it is found in feldspar, greisen, aiid chlorite. The uncertainty in the mode of the occurrence of the ore will neces- sitate some special appliances for its treatment. Fifteen lodes have been opened in the Inverell district, but they are chiefly narrow quartz and feldspar vein.s, containing the ore distributed irregularly through them. The ore, however, is found in quantities at the Elsmore, the Ding Dong, and the Pheasant Creek mines. At Stannifer, Bischoff, it is dissem- minated in separate crystals through porphyritic granite. Several improved crushing machines, with concentrators, have re- cently been erected at the last-named mines. The number of miners, inclusive of the Chinese, employed in the various tin-fields of the colony in 1886, w^as 2,814. The number in the New England district alone is about 1,.500, and more than one-half are Chinese. The latter class of miners are very steady and economical in their habits, and through their patience and industry they have been enabled to derive large returns from mines which have been abandoned as worthless by Europeans. There are two methods of working the tin fields— by tribute and by wages. The tribute sy.stem is the most popular. By this method the men contract with the owner of the field to win the ore for .so much per ton. The men not unfrequently net large gains, and the owner has his mine worked cheaply and expeditiously. One of the most important uses to which tin is applied is in the manu- facture of tin-plates, an industry now attracting much attention in America. It is a remarkable fact that the United States up to the year 188G did not possess a single tinplate manufactory. Various com- panies have been formed at different periods for the establishment of such an industry, but every one proved a failure. The absence of an import tax on the plates, and the low price at which they can be obtained in England, are said to be the principal reasons why the industry has not been successful in the United States. Not long since a Tix. 139 New York firm proposed to engage in the manufacture of tin-plates, but expressed a doubt as to the success of the enterprise unless the Govern- ment placed an import duty of 2 cents. (Id.) per lb. on all tin-plates imported into the country. Mr. J. Jarrett, secretaiy of the American Tin-plate Company, said in a recent letter that the duty on tin-plates should be 2h cents, (l^d.) per lb. He pointed out the fact that the jnaximum rate on galvanised iron — that is, on all guages between 2.5 and 30 — is 2i cents. (l|^d.) per lb. He said that the minimum duty on tin should not be less, from the fact that tin-plates run much lighter in gauges than galvanised iron. He said also that the crosses in I. 0. (common No. 1) are higher in price, while the cost of galvanised iron increases as the gauges run lighter, galvanised iron being sold by the gauge and tin-plates by the box. A box of tin containing 225 plates should weigh exactly 112 lbs. Mr. Jarrett cited comparative statistics for the pui'pose of showing the importance of the industry, and what might be expected from it in the future. In 1870 the United States produced 620,000 tons of steel rails. In 1883 the products were 1,360,694 tons, an increase of 119 per cent. At the close of 1870 the United States had 58,984 miles of railroad in operation. At the close of 1883 it had 127,925 miles, an increase of 117 per cent. The amount of tin-plates imported in 1870 was 75,469 tons, while in 1883 the im- ports wei'e 240,000 tons, an increase of 218 per cent. There is no reason why the manufacture of tin-plates should not prosper fully as well as that of steel rails. The latter industry is doing remarkably well, for the number of Bessemer steel works in the United States is constantly increasing. Notwithstanding the lai^ge number of tin-plate factories in Great Britain, that country consumes only a small portion of her tin-plate product when compared with the quantity used in the United States. It is said that over £2,400,000 ($11,679,600) per annum are expended for wages alone in the various factories in the United States using tin plates, whilst the sum paid for similar work in Great Britain would not amount to £1,000,000 ($4,866,500) per annum. Moreover, the work turned out in the United States is very much lighter and more artistic in construction than that made in England. Great Britain has not yet adopted the process of stamping or pressing tin, especially for the manufacture of cans for preserving fruit. The vast consumption of tin plates will necessitate their manufacture in the United States. A great impetus was given to the tin industry in Great Britain through the invention of Mr. Payne's method of rolling iron for the manufacture of tin plates. The process consisted of working the metal over several times and di'awing it into bars and plates. The latter were repeatedly doubled and passed through rollers, and then re-heated and doubled again until the required thickness was obtained. This method was further improved by Mr. Daniel by putting 2i; cwt. of the refined metal in a chai-coal finery, and taking it out in one lump. It was next placed under a hammer and then passed through balling rolls and reduced to bars 2 feet 6 inches long and 6 inches square. It was next cut into pieces 12 inches long, 140 XKw SOUTH walks: uv.n commerce and uesources. r. iiK-hos in width, and 2.^ inches in thickness, which were again lieatecl, and afterwards rolled to a still smaller size and drawn into jtlates. Great improvement has been made recently in prei)aring the jilatos for the ]»urpose of receiving the coating of tin. It is said that the plates made of steel bars are better and cheaper than those made from iron bars, from the fact that a greater number of plates can be made from a ton of steel bars than from a ton of coke-iron bars, and that, in consequence of the greater closeness of grain and even surface of the steel plates, a much smaller quantity of tin is required to make a steel plate look equal to one of iron. The introduction of the Moe- wood rolls has quite i-evolutionized the system of coating, as they render it much more equal, while considerably less tin is wasted than by the old process. By regulating the speed of the rolls the maker can arrange the exact amount of tin to be deposited on each plate. The tin ore shipped from Sydney to the United States is packed in bags, each containing 100 pounds. The ingots are placed loose in the hold of the ship. The price of freight on either the ore or ingots to the United States is in most cases nominal. It is generally shipped as ballast, it being well suited for that purpose on account of its great weight and the small space it occupies. If a chai'ge is made at all, it rarely exceeds more than 12s. 6d. (i|3-04) or 16s. 6d. (|4-02) per ton. Considerable (piantities of tin are shipped to the United States Ijy way of London, and the charge is about £2 (f9"73) per ton, which, of course, is inclusive of the cost of transhipment at London to the American ports. The excessively high prices to w^iicli tin has risen, have so stimulated production, that according to Messi's. Strauss & Co., the visible supply at the end of January, 1888, was estimated at 20,034, as compared with 12,043 tons at the same date in 1887, and 13,589 tons in 188G. AGRICULTURE. 141 AGRICULTURE. The New South Wales agricultural returns for 1887 indicate a more bountiful harvest than that of the previous year. In wheat, the principal crop, there was an increase of 3,135,711 bushels; oats increased by 321,785 bushels, barley by 47,343 busliels, hay by 161,526 tons, potatoes by 7,108 tons. The grapes, for Avine, increased equal to 46,427 gallons over the produce of 1886. There was, however, a decrease in the maize crop from 4,336,163 to 3,825,146 bushels, or 511,017 bushels. There was also a decline in the yield of sugar-cane, the decline being from 239,347 to 167,959 tons, or 71,388 tons for 1887. The tobacco crop for the same period declined from 2,570,0641b to 1,676,640ft, or 893,424ft. The following tables show the yield of some of the principal crops in New Soutli Wales, with the number of acres of land under cultivation, and the yield per acre for each year from 1878 to 1887, inclusive : — • Wheat. Year ended 31 March. Area of crop. Produce. Yield per , acre. Year ended 31 March. Area of crop. Produce. Yield per acre. acres. bushels. bush. acres. bushels. bush. 1878 176,680 2,445,-507 13-84 1883 247,361 4,042,395 16-35 1879 233,252 3,439,326 14-74 i 1884 289,757 4,345,437 15 00 1880 233,368 3,613,266 15-48 1885 275,225 4,271,304 15-52 1881 253,137 3,717,-355 14-69 1886 264,867 2,733,133 10-45 1882 221,887 3,405,966 15-35 il 1887 337,730 5,868,844 17-37 Maize. Year ended 31 March. Area of crop. Produce. Yield per Year | I ended i Area of crop. Produce. 31 March. Yield per 1878 1879 1880 1881 1882 acres. 105,510 130,582 135,034 127,196 117,478 bushels. 3,551,806 4,420,580 4,761,856 4,518,897 4,330,956 bush. 33-66 33-83 35-26 35-53 36-87 1883 1884 1885 1886 1887 acres. 118,180 123,634 115,600 132,709 146,957 bushels. 4,057,6.35 .34 4,538,604 .36 3,389,505 20 4, .3.36, 163 32 3,825,146 26 i bush. 33 142 NEW SOUTH WALKS : IIER COMMERCE AND RESOURCES. Barley. Year Yield Year Yield ended Area of crop. Produce. per ended Area of crop. Produce. per 31 March. acre. 31 March. acre. acres. bushels. bush. acres. bushels. bush. 1S7S 5,055 99,485 17-70 1883 6,473 133,050 20-55 1879 6,152 132,072 21-46 1884 5,081 106,496 20-95 1880 6,1.30 131,541 21 -45 1885 7,036 148,869 21-15 18S1 8,056 163,395 20-28 1886 5,298 85,606 16-15 1882 6,427 135,218 21-03 1887 6,079 132,949 21-87 Oats. Year Yield Year Yield ended Area of crop. Produce. per ended Area of crop. Produce. per 31 March. acre. 31 March. acre. acres. bushels. bush. acres. bushels. bush. 1878 18,581 358,853 19-31 1883 24,818 617,465 24-86 1879 22,129 447,912 20-24 1884 17,810 376,635 21-14 1880 23,883 516,937 21-64 1885 19,472 425,920 21-80 1881 17,923 356,121 1 19-86 1886 14,117 279,107 19-76 1882 16,348 356,566 21-81 1887 23,947 600,892 25-09 Potatoes. Year Yield Year Yield ended Area of crop. Produce. per ended Area of crop. Produce. per 31 March. acre. 31 March. acre. acres. tons. tons. acres. tous. tons. 1878 13,862 34,957 2-52 1883 14,462 43,461 3-00 1879 16,724 53,590 3-20 1884 14,954 36,977 2-47 1880 19,271 62,228 3-23 1885 12,417 31,. 335 2-52 1881 19,095 52,112 2-73 1886 15,166 38,695 2-55 1882 15,944 44,323 2-78 1887 17,322 45,803 2-63 Sugar-cane (productive). Year ended 31 March. Area of crop. Produce tons of cane. Yield per acre. Year ended • 31 March. Area of crop. Produce tons of cane. Yield per acre. acres. tons. tons. 1 acres. tons. tons. 1878 3,.332 99,978 30-01 1883 6,362 169,192 26-59 1879 2,950 104,192 35-28 1884 7,583 204,547 26-90 1880 8,675 126,119 34-31 1885 6,997 105,S-23 15-05 1881 4,465 121,612 29-47 1886 9,583 239, .347 24-97 1882 4,984 128,752 25-83 ' 1887 5,915 167,9.59 28-39 AGRICULTURE. Wine. 143 Year ended 31 March. Area under vines for wine makinjf. Produce. Average | per acre. Year ended 31 March. Area under vines for wine making. Produce. Averaafe per acre. acres. gallons. galls. acres. gallons. galls. 1878 3,027 708,431 234-04 1883 2,629 543,596 206-76 1879 3,024 684,733 226-43 1884 2,660 589,604 221-65 1880 3,091 733,576 237-38 1885 2,405 442,612 184-04 1881 2,907 602,007 •207-09 1886 2,876 555,470 193-13 1882 2,597 513,688 197-80 1887 3,131 601,897 192-23 The Australian Continent measures 1,970 miles from north to south, and 2,100 miles from east to west. Its total area is 2,944,628 square miles, or 1,884,561,920 acres, being twenty-four times as large as Great Britain and Ireland, fifteen times as large as France, and only about one-sixth smaller than the whole of the United States of America. The Colony of New South Wales is situated in the choicest part of the Con- tinent, between the parallels 28 deg. 10 min. and 37 deg. 38 min. north latitude, and between the meridians 153 deg. 37 min. and 141 deg. east longitude, the total area being 310,938 square miles, or 199,000,320 acres. Mr. Russell, the Colonial Astronomer, directed attention to the fact that New South Wales is no exception to the general deduction of science, that southern lands are cooler than those at correspond- ing latitudes in the north. It is only during the hot winds, which are rare in New South Wales, that the temperature runs to extremes. A comparison of the latitudes with those of the United States would place those of the Colony within the limits of Washington and New Orleans. The mean temperature at Washington is 55 deg., and at New Orleans 68 deg., while that of Eden, New South Wales, is 60 deg. If the mean temperature were a complete test of climate, New South Wales would be liotter than the corresponding latitudes in America ; but mean temperature is not enough, and we should compare the summer and winter temperature. For instance, the summer at Washington to 76 deg., and at Eden to only 67 deg., being 9 deg. cooler. At New Orleans the summer is 82 deg., but at Grafton it is 77 deg. Moreover, it is said that 82 deg. does not fairly represent the summer heat at New Orleans ; for during at least three months there the temperature is over 80 de on tlie eoast during hot winds, perature falls to 37 deg., and at New Orleans to 53 deg. At Eden it is 53 deg., and at Grafton 56 deg. It will be seen from these figures that the heat is less in New South Wales in summer and greater in winter than in America. The i-ainfall along the coast of New South Wales ranges from 45 inches at Eden to 70 inches at the River Tweed ; at Sydney it is 50 inches ; among the mountains it is from 30 inches to 40 inches, and over the fiat country from 10 inches to 20 inches. 5., a temperature only reached At Washington the winter tem- 141 NEW SOUTH WALES : IIER COMMERCE AND KESOURCES. Iiuli'peiuli'iit of tlio area of laud held under the pastoral occupation laws, consisting of 142,927,360 acres, or 223,324 square miles, for which the rent received in 188G amounted to £304,344 (!i?l,481,090), there were 30,720,169 acres of land in New South Wales held for cultivation, against 18,210,796 acres in 1877, an increase of 18,515,373 acres in the ten years ; but there was not a corresponding increase in the number of acres actually under cultivation. The increase of the latter during that period was from 513,840 acres to 972,496. These figures show that while large tracts of land were taken up for tlie purpose of cultivation no such purpose Avas carried out, and agriculture has not advanced in spite of the activity shown in taking up the land. The average yield of wheat in New South Wales in 1887 was 17'37 bushels per acre, against 10-45 bushels for 1886. The average for New- South Wales, while not nearly so high as that of New Zealand (20 "09 bushels), and not quite so high as that of Tasmania, is considerably more than that of Victoi'ia or any other portion of Australia. In oats New South Wales averages 25-09 bu.shels per acre, and Victoria 20-23 bushels. New Zealand, however, takes the lead in the average of oats as in all other grain. The average of oats in that Colony for a term often years was 32-51 bushels per acre. The average yield of barley in New South Wales in 1887 w^as 21-87 bushels per acre, in Victoria it was 20-86, and in New Zealand 30-38 bushels. In some of the wheat growing districts in Australia the yield per acre is as large as in any part of the world, and it is said that the most fertile land in Australasia is to be found in New South Wales along the margins of the rivers, particularly the Clarence, Macleay, Manning, Hunter, and Hawkesbury. This fertility is counterbalanced by the fi-equency of floods, often at times when the crops are ready to be harvested. As the means of communication are extended wheat will be more profitaljly grown on the high tablelands of the interior, at from 2,500 to 3,500 feet above the level of the sea. The conditions under which wheat is farmed in New South Wales differ very little from those in the other Australian Colonies. The ■ft-heat growers in these Colonies have many difliculties to encounter. The season for sowing is vincertain. It extends through April and May, and in some districts seed is sown as late as June. At the Rose- worthy Model Farm, South Australia, the Purple Straw wheat which ■was sown on 13th May, 1886, was harvested on 10th December follow- ing. Of course, much depends on the state of the weather. When rain does not fall during tlie month of April there is delay. In relation to this, it is well to bear in mind that, Australia being south of the Equator, the seasons are directly oj»posite to those of Bi-itain and the United States. The autumn in Australia begins in March instead of September ; therefore, sowing time (April) in this part of the globe corresponds with Octol^er in North America. When wheat cannot be sown in April there is always danger of red rust, the great enemy of Avheat in Australia, and especially in New South Wales and Queensland. As a matter of fact, the sowing season is often too dry and the harvest time too wet. Hence the frequency of light and thin crops for want of early rain, and the terrible destruction AGRICULTURE. 145 by rust when rain conies upon the I'ipenmg grain ; but when the spring season is moist and other conditions favorabhi, there is perhaps no better wheat land in any other part of the workl. This opinion appears to be strongly indorsed by the best authorities on wheat in the Colonies, and is emphasised with great force by Mr. Angus Mackay in a series of valuable and interesting papers on Australian agriculture. It is estimated that over one-sixth of the total area of New South "Wales is capable of growing wheat. It must, however, be understood that only a small part is capable of growing wheat profitably, on account of the high cost of labour and the difficulties in the Avay of transit to market. The cost of freight by railway in all the Australasian Colonies is nearly 100 per cent, higher than in the United States ; but even if freights could be oljtained on better terms than at present, it is exceed- ingly doubtful whether it would pay farmers to grow wheat at a less price than 3s. 6d. (85 cents.) per bushel. AVheat farms in New South Wales seldom exceed 80 acres each. The rotation is to allow the land to grow indigenous grass or to take a crop of corn (maize) or of potatoes or other produce from it. The very best American and European machinery is in general use, not only in New South Wales, but throughout Australasia. Wheat is the staple food of the inhabitants of Australasia — even the aboriginals prefer it to any other food. The consumption of wheat per head in Australasia, however, is not as great as in the United States. According to a series of calculations, extending through a period of fourteen years, the consumption of wheat per head is given at 5-30 Winchester bushels. A Winchester bushel is l-32nd part smaller than an Imperial English bushel. The average quantity of wheat consumed per head in New South Wales during that period was 4-36 bushels. Mr. Hayter, the Government Statist in Victoria, gives a valuable table, showing the consumption of wheat per head in Victoria, from 1840 to 1885. An examination of this table shows that in 1840 the population of the Colony was 8,056, and the quantity consumed as food was 66,491 bushels, equal to 8-25 bushels per head. He estimates that during that year 3,880 bushels were used as seed, making the total quantity available for consumption 70,371 bushels. In 1850 the population was 71,191, and the consumption per head 7 "36 bushels. In 1860, popvilation 534,055, consumption per head 6'62 bushels. In 1870, population 713,195, con- sumption per head 7'06 bushels. In 1880, population 850,343, consump- tion per head 4-55 bushels. In 1885, population 975,040, quantity avail- able for consumption 6,687,161 bushels, quantity used for seed 2,040,164 bushels, for food, 4,646,997 bushels, equal to 4-77 bushels per head. The average consumption during the whole period of forty-six years is given at 5*74 bushels per head, but during the five years prior to 1885 (an exceptional year), the average Avas 4-64 bushels. Considering the present population of Victoria, it may be fair to assume that from 4 J- to 4| bushels per head, iri^espective of the quantity required for seed, are amply sufficient to supply the wants of any given year. Mr. Hayter cites the fact that the high price of animal food in Great Britain compels the inhabitants to use such food more sparingly than in Australia ; hence the consumption of breadstuflfs • in proportion to the numbers of the population is somewhat higher than it is here. He gives 146 NEW SOUTH WALES : her commerce and resources. the population of Great Britain for 188G at 30,519,700, and the number of bushels of wheat available for home consumption as 200,887,000 equal to 5 "67 bushels per head. The quantity of seed used per acre in New Soutli Wales is about 1^ bushel. The wheat crop cannot be said to be reliable on account of the uncertain seasons and the frequency of red rust. Professor Custance is of opinion that the best means to be used for getting rid of rust is to obtain a new variety of seed wheat, but first to grow root or fodder crops which can be fed off by sheep and cattle as a preparation for the wheat crop. Rust is the great enemy to wheat in Australia. It is, however, comparatively unknown on the tablelands of New South Wales, and especially in the New England district. If it were not for rust, wheat would be more profitable than cattle raising in Australia. It is generally admitted that the export 9f frozen meat to Europe does not pay at the present prices. Moreover, there is a want of technical knowledge as to the proper means of dealing with the meat after it arrives in Europe. The expensive freezing chambers fixed upon the various steamers plying between England and these Colonies have not been profitable investments ; and it is said that the method of constructing them will have to be very greatly improved before the export of meat can be made to pay, notwithstanding the low price of cattle in the colonial market. Many are of the opinion that the pro})er method of growing wheat in Australia is to combine the industry with that of sheep farming. In cases Avhere the farms are of sufficient size, Professor Custance, of the Roseworthy Agricultural College, South Australia, strongly recom- mends this course, especially if the price of wheat is low. He says, that a farmer holding 1,000 acres of land could very well keep from 500 to 600 ewes, as a permanent flock. Feed, however, as a rule, has to be found for the sheep during some part of the year. The Professor says further, that wheat land requires occasional enriching, and that sheep folded on a root or green crop improve the land in the cheapest possible way. This is an important point worthy of the consideration of farmers, for by such a system as this the land is improved, and made capable of pi'oducing increased ci-ops. By management, a succession of crops — for instance, some thousand headed kale or drumhead cabbage — could be ready by No"\"emV)er, and, with a run in a lucerne paddock occasionally, would last through November and December. Then a few acres of mangels previously sown on a ])ox'tion of a wheat paddock would be ready when the sheep are turned into the stubble. By the time this is finished, the second crop of kale would be sufficiently advanced to commence feeding off the second time. Some kohl-rabi, mangel, or red clover might be reserved for tlie latter end of summer. Mr. Mackay, in commenting ui)on this method of farming, does not recommend it where the object is to produce high-class wool, for as a rule the carcase is of secondary importance to the sheep farmei-. However, the turning of sheep upon grain stubble with sufliciency of root or green crops to keep them goijig until they manure the land is an effectual systeni of ensuring fertility. AGinCULTURE. 147" The most favourable results have been obtained by a system of mixed agriculture in the lliverina district, where it was said wheat would not grow. The farmei-s there who adopted this system were enabled iu 188G, (the year after the driest season ever known in the colonies), to realize, even on poor land, from 10 to 12 bushels of wheat to the acre, and on good land from 25 to 35 bushels. Mr. Harold states : — " After travelling over the great wheat-growing districts in Europe, America, and Australasia, I am proud to be able to give the highest meed of praise for wheat cultivation to a few energetic men in the Cootamundra, Young, and Grenfell districts of New South "Wales. These men knew very little of the theories of agriculture, and their method of far-ming is one acquired by experience only, and it is encouraging to everybody to see how well they have succeeded." He says further, that these men usually possess from 500 to 3,000 acres of land, and that their plan is invariably to crop every alternate year, and to permit sheep to graze on the land in the intervening year. They plough their land in the autumn, as soon as possible after the sheep have gone through the stubble. This kills the weeds and opens the soil to the winter rains and the atmosphere. The land has never been exhausted, and consequently there are few inferior weeds ; and in ordinary seasons an abundance of green and succulent herbage makes its appearance, and sheep and cattle are turned in to eat it down. The first ploughing is shallow, then it gets a deeper ploughing in spring, and then when sowing time comes the seed is put in with a cultivator or perhaps another shallow ploughing. Mr Harold states that the successful farmers in the dry districts of Australia shallow plough in their seed — that is, they sow their seed on the surface of the soil, and shallow plough to a depth of about 3 or 4 inches. Farmers Avho follow this plan are enabled to grow much more wheat than their neighbours. A clay soil is best adapted to wheat, for the reason that it contains a sufficient quantity of alumina and potash. The following table shows the component parts of the average wheat soil of Australia, the analysis having been made upon the basis that an acre of soil six inches in depth weighs 2,000,000 lb. worked out on that proportion with acid test : — lb. Water of constitution Gl,100 Organic matter 81,520 Equal to nitrogen 1,149 Oxide of iron 134,540 Alumina 220,220 Lime 7,380 Magnesia 5,380 Potash 4,460 Soda 2,320 Sulphuric acid 5,420 Carbonic acid nil Phosphoric acid 1,140 Silica soluble in alkali 358, 880 Insoluble silicious residue 988,320 HS NEW SOUTH -wales: her commerce and resources. The soil from whicli tliis analysis was made Ly Dr. Augustus Volcker ■svas a very stiff dark chocolate-brown, almost black. It contained, like most clay soils, mucli alumina and a fair proportion of potash. It ajipears, however, to be very poor in phosphoric acid, and also in lime. If lime or chalk, or chalk marl or calcareous sea or shell sand, could be applied to this land, such application would have a beneficial effect. Doubtless wheat has been grown for yeai's upon the land from which the soil was taken, which would account for its being poor in nitrogen and phosphoric acid. Dr. Volcker recommends deep cultivation for improving its productiveness. The growing crop, on account of the early rains in April, has shown fairly well. In many districts the farmers have taken more care than usual in sowing and selecting the seed. Several varieties of American seed, such as the "Defiance" and "Champion" were used. Both are very well adapted to the Australasian climate on account of their earliness- and rust-resisting properties. The Defiance is a favourite seed, both hero and in south Australia. It is beardless white chaff wheat, with heads often measuring 5 in. in length, very closely set with large grains. About li bushel of seed to the acre is considered a fair quantity for sowing purposes. Some farmers use as much as 3|- bushels per acre. Such cases are, however, exceptional, but the proportion used depends both upon the quality of soil and seed. Other varieties of seed wheat for Australian soil are the Purjile Straw, the New Zealand Purple Straw, White Tuscan, Talavera, and Early Bart. The so called Mexican wheat, which was distributed in 188-5, through the agency of the Department of Agriculture, in Victoria, and from which so much was expected on account of its rej^uted earliness and rust resisting qualities, proved a failure in many districts. The variety turned out to be the common red Indian wheat, which has been known in these Colonies for many years. Its straw is very w^eak and slender, and when growni on rich soil, falls down and cannot be harvested without great difficulty. The most successful farmers seem to place more reliance iipon the Purple Straw variety than any other, although very fair results have been obtained from the White Tuscan and Early Bart. The price of wheat generally depends on the quantity afloat in the Colonies ; but it is not infrequently affected by the conditions of the London market. For instance, when there are indications of a Euro- pean war, wheat is almost certain to have an upward tendency. The quantity of wheat at present afloat in Sydney is unusually small. The price of wdieat suflSciently advanced in 1886 to induce shipments to Sydney from California. The following table shows the average prices of wheat in Sydney for each year since 1880 : — Y Price per bushel of 601b. S. d. $ C. 1880 4 .'^i 1-04 1881 4 U 104 1882 5 3" 1-28 188.3 4 -97 1884 8 S -89 188.5 3 4 -81 1886 4 r, 1-07 1887 September .3 9 -91 AGRICULTURE. 149 New South Wales has fcr many years been unable to grow a sufficient quantity of wheat for liouie consumption, much less for export. "Wheat, of course, appears in the list of exports, but very little is the produce of the country itself, the great bulk being consigned here for tranship- ment to other Colonies, Victoria usually receiving the largest portion. In Victoria it is made into flour and shipped again to this market. The following table shows the quantity and value of wheat imported, and the countries whence imported : — - Country. Quantity. Value. 1885. New Zealand bushels. 270,618 154,105 120,684 8 8 £ 40,876 31,236 23,433 1 1 198,923 South Australia 152,009 Victoria 114,0.37 Queensland Tasmania 5 5 Totals 545,423 95,547 464,979 1886. Victoria 285,721 3,223 1,964 2,054 437,486 356,005 18,626 57,729 853 491 457 86,608 70,835 3,314 280,938 Soutli Australia Queensland 4,150 2,389 Tasmania 2,221 New Zealand 421,468 United States 344,733 India 16,128 Totals 1,105,079 220,287 1,072,027 1887. Victoria South Australia 181,659 65,681 24,766 5,885 114 « 34,050 11,388 3,476 939 25 165, .304 55,420 New Zealand United States 16,916 4,570 India 122 Totals 278,105 49,878 242,732 It will be seen that the imports of wheat were larger during 1886 than those of any previous year. The imports of other breadstufls were also in like proportion. The imports of flour into New South Wales are increasing steadily in both quantity and value. The finest and best flour comes from South Australia. Mr. G. M. Pitt, an authority on the flour trade in Sydney, states that the i)roducts of the mills in Adelaide, South Australia, are by far the best that reach this market, and quite equal to those of any other country. The quality of Australasian flour has very greatly improved since the introduction of the roller system. Some favorite brands of Victorian flour command very nearly as good prices as those of South Australia. 150 \E\V SOUTH WALES : HER COMMERCE AND RESOURCES. The following table sliows the quantity and value of flour imported, and the countries whence imported : — Country. Quantity. Value. 18S5. Victoria South Australia New Zealand Queensland Fiji Tasmania Great Britain South Sea Islands .. Totals 1886. Great Britain Victoria — South Australia Queensland New Zealand United States Totals 1887. Victoria .^, . South Australia ..,. Queensland New Zealand United States Great Britain Tasmania Hong Kong Germany Austria Totals tons. 30,222 21,807 1,246 109 15 10 10 li 68,421 £ 291,999 219,320 11,301 1,296 150 137 97 15 53,4204 524,315 2,551,579 8 70 341 36,564 384,037 1,868,916 15,668 172,299 838,493 77 927 4,511 6,671 66,658 324,372 2,504 25,381 123,516 61,492 649,372 3,160,149 36,824 364,107 1,771,927 30,474 308,805 1,502,800 102 1,248 6,071 863 8,617 41,935 1 9 44 14 115 560 128 1,284 6,249 3 32 156 10 100 486 2 25 122 684,342 1,421,013 1,067,321 54,996 6,, 307 730 667 472 73 3,330,350 The wheat exported from this Colony consists priticipally of purchases made in other Colonies for transhipment at the port of Sydney. The exports for 1887 amounted to 135,920 bushels against 120,30G bushels for 1886, and 47,647 bushels for 1885. The exports of flour from New South Wales materially increased during 1887. In 1882 they amounted to 16,669 tons, in 1887 to 21,205 tons. AGRICULTURE, 151 The following table shows the quantity and value of flour exported, and the countries to which exported in 1885-6 and 7 : — C'ountr}'. Quantity. 1885. Queensland Victoria New Caledonia Fiji South Sea Islands New Zealand Ceylon Great Britain Hongkong South Austral ia Other countries Totals ..., 1886. Victoria South Australia New Zealand Queenslaxid South Sea Islands New Caledonia Fiji Western Australia Kaiser Wilhelm's Land Totals 1887. Victoria Queensland South Australia New Zealand New Caledonia "Western Australia Other countries Totals .. tons. 7,03o 1,052 566 200 139 48 30 20 18 10 21 9,1.39 1,649 180 14 4,987 66 476 156 150 20 7,679 1,074 17,984 78 19 1,383 28 639 21,205 Value. £ 69,314 10,.397 5,062 1,948 1,.S48 471 290 195 178 100 201 89,504 17,043 2,119 162 53,923 733 5,412 1,749 1,696 11 82,848 10,463 180,617 785 200 13,858 288 6,444 212,655 237,317 50,597 24,634 9,480 6,560 2,292 1.411 900 866 487 978 435,522 82,940 10,312 788 262,416 3,567 26,337 8,512 8,254 53 403,180 50,918 878,973 3,820 973 67,440 1,402 31,360 1,034,886 Tlie harvest is over in all the Australian Colonies by the end of March, and in many districts much earlier than that. The yield of wheat in South Australia was much larger in 1887 than in 1886, but no statistics for the former year were collected. The harvest for 1886 . was the worst in the histoiy of that Colony. There was a deficiency of over 300,000 tons of wheat alone, according to estimate. The returns for 1887 in Victoria show a marked increase in all the cereals over those of 1886. The vield of wheat was 12,100.036 bushels, against 9,073,327 for 1886. Western Australia produced 288,516 bushels for 1887, Tasmania 632,573, New Zealand 6,297,638, Queensland 21,221 bushels. There is no doubt that the Australians prefer ploughs of their own manufacture to any other kind, although they are much more heavy and 152 XKW SOUTH wales : her commekce and hesources. clumsv, and more expensive tlum tliose made in the United States. Tlio Iilougiis most generally in use are the ordinary two and three furrow liluughs, made wholly of iron. The Australian farmer has a decided objection to the use of ploughs with wooden handles. Several St. Louis and Louisville firms have succeeded in buildinp; up a trade in their ploughs, especially in this Colony and Queensland ; but their implements have been manufactured solely for the Australian market from plans furnished by their agents who have visited the Colonies and remained sufficiently long to understand the requirements of the Australian farmer. The American harrows are very popular, especially the Disk harrows, for with them the farmers are enabled, in some cases, to dispense with the use of ploughs. In reapers and binders the Americans have heretofore had a decided advantage, but English manufacturerers now make improvements and close imitatations, and competition for the trade in these articles is very keen. In some portions of the Colonies the Australian stripper is preferred to the reaper and binder. The stripper, although usually called an Australian invention, is in reality an adaptation of an American machine which has been in use for many years in California and other Western States of the Union. It not only cuts the grain, but dispenses with the necessity of thrashing it. The stripper is worked like the reaper and binder, only it is fitted in front with a combing ajiparatus which catches the heads of the grain, and, stripping them off, passes them into a box, from which they are discharged and put through a cleaner. The machine is able to cut from .5 to 9 acres of wheat per day, according to the condition of the crop and the weather. In damp weather or in eai^ly morning it does not act well. Some of the machines are fitted with ordinary thrashing drums, which thrash any heads not stripped. These machines are called " damp weather strippers." The stripper was first manufactured in South Australia, where it is more popular than in the other Colonies. Recently, how- ever, facilities ha\e been aftbrded for its manufacture in Melbourne and Sydney. The introduction of the American reaper and binder did not, at first, interfere with the supremacy of the stripper, more especially in South Australia ; but in time the American machine became a very formidable rival, not only in Victoria and ISTew South Wales, but also in South Australia. It must be remembered, however, that in some localities — as, for instance, where straw is regarded as of little value — the stripper is almost sure to be preferred ; besides, harvesting with the stripper is genei'ally admitted to be an economical process, from the fact that there is only one loss of grain, instead of several, as are sure to occur more or less in the difierent processes of binding, stooking, carting, and thrashing. In addition, there are districts in Australia where the crops grown are thin and short, and they cannot Avell be harvested with the reaper and binder. The practice of burning the straw on the field is said to I'ender the land more fertile, an advantage which cannot be utilzed when the reaper is employed. Nevertheless, it cannot be ques- tioned that the reaper is coming more into use, and especially near the cities and towns, or in districts where there is a demand for straw. AGRICULTURE. 153 In the South-eastern district of Victoria and along the Goulburn the reaper is invariably used. According to the 3felbourne Ai'f/us, all the American reaping and binding machines in the market in 1886 were pur- chased, and more would have been used had they been available. It has been recommended that a system of farming be adopted combining both kinds of machines, from the fact that reaping and binding can be commenced some days earlier than stripping, and that stripping can be carried on long after reaping would be possible. By this means all hurry at harvest can be avoided. The wheat harvested by the stripper can also be sent to an earlier market if necessary, while that which has been reaped can the more easily be allowed to wait for shipment. The stripper is, however, capable of very great improvement, and it is a matter of surprise that manufacturers of agricultural machinery in England and the United States have not invented a machine upon the same principle which will be better suited to the general requirements of the Colonial markets. The California combined reaper and cleaner, while admirably adapted to the States on the Pacific Slope of America, is too cumbersome for Australian farms. The machine which seems to be required is a lightly-constructed reaper and cleaner that could be worked with four horses. The present land law of New South Wales is believed by the farming community to be a serious obstacle in the way of agricultural progress. The law is said to have been made more for the benefit of the wealthy "squatter" i.e., sheepowner, than for the agriculturist, and there is a loud clamour for the amendment of the law. It is certainly very difficult to obtain land except for pastoral pur- poses in New South Wales. The land laws of the other Colonies are more liberal in this respect ; but it does not appear that agriculture has advanced in any Colony to the extent that it has in countries less favoured by climate and soil. South Australia is the only one of the group where growing grain for export has been made a speciality, but even there the results have not been as satisfactory as the people anticipated. As far back as 184.3, or long before the wheat-fields of California and of the Great North-west were thought of, wheat was cultivated for export in South Australia ; and it is perhaps not generally known that California for many years obtained the bulk of her supply of seed wheat from that Colony. Now, however, the Australian Colonies, with an area very nearly as large as the whole of the United States, are unable to produce as much wheat as the State of California. The total yield of wheat in all the Australian Colonies is seldom more than 3.5,000,1)00 bushels per annum, Avhile California, besides sujiplying her own requirements, has not unfrequently considerably more than that quantity available for export. One of the chief obstacles to wheat cultivation in many parts of Australia, is the heavy cost connected with clearing the land and preparing it for crops. Moreover, the freight charges on the Australian i-ailway s are more than double those in America. Another obstacle to agricultural progress in Australia is the vast areas of country taken up for sheep farming. l.")4 Ni:w SOUTH walks: iikr commerce and rksources. In Kivorina district tliere are plains so extensive that a man on horse- Lack feels as if in a ship at sea. As far as the eye can reach there is the vast level, unbroken by a single obstacle, save perhaps where a few trees outline the meandering of some sluggish watercourse. The formation of the country is lacustrine, of unknown depth, and the plains gradually slope to the west at the rate of about 1 foot per mile. An unlimited supply of water exists in this district at an average depth of about 80 feet. At present this magnificent domain is almost entirely under sheep pasture, aftbrding the "squatter" a return of about 6s. ($1-46) per acre, or one sheep to the acre. Considerable areas in this district have been purchased, but a much larger proportion is owned by the Government, and is leased for pastoral purposes at rents varying up to 2d. (4 cents.) per acre per annum. Rabbits devastate many parts of this district, in numbers estimated at hundreds of millions. The "squatter" receives a subsidy from Government for the scalps of the rabl'ts, and it is some times questioned which pays the best — killing rabbits or raising sheep. Wheat of excellent quality, averaging from 20 to 30 bushels to the acre, could be grown on some of the land in these districts if the land could be obtained. The uncertainty of the rainfall in Australia is perhaps the greatest diiiiculty with Avhich the Australian farmer has to contend. The drought, which is more or less severe in the northern and westei'n divisions on account of the great heat, is often prolonged for several years. The rain, when it comes, is almost sure to come at a period when it is not needed. The late very general droughts in Australia have been so destructive that much interest has been aroused in the question of irrigation as a means of increasing or ensuring crops. A number of gentlemen of acknowledged ability, including the Hon. Alfred Deakin, Minister for Agriculture in Victoria, have recently visited the States on the Pacific tSlope, for the purpose of reporting on the system of irrigation employed there, and the advantages to be derived from its adoption in Australia. The main difficulty however in the Colonies is, that all the rivers and streams are below the level of the lands suitable for irrigation. Pump- ing or other means of water-lifting has therefore to be resorted to, and this, as a matter of course, increases the cost of irrigatioai. Very little, however, has as yet been done in any of the Colonies in the way of irrigation, but the little that has been done has given satisfaction, and the systeni adopted is certainly extending. Some of the large land owning companies in the interior of New South Wales are either irrigating by means of centrifugal pumps, or are arranging for the erection of such like machiner3^ The ancient English riparian rights, which prohil>it the turning of watercourses into dams or in any way interfering with the natural flow of water, form an important obstactle to irrigation in Australia. It is likely, however, that the Colonies interested will adopt a law which will be intercolonial, making all watercourses, creeks, and rivers, the property of the respective Governments, so that water can be stored in suitable places for irrigation. It is estimated that fully 5,000,000 acres of land could be supplied with irrigation water. The cost would however be enormous, but the results would more than justify the expenditure. WOOL. 155 WOOL. An interesting fact in connection witli the Australasian Colonies is that every one of them is especially adapted to the production of wool. Indeed, the wool industry has reached such vast proportions in so short a jjeriod that we may well be amazed at the promise of its future. The mining industry for a time overshadowed all other pursuits, hut the people have found out that tliei-e is more gold in wool than in all the varied mineral products. And what is the most astonishing thing connected with the subject is that the industry has been of such short duration. It is true that sheep were introduced into the Colonies soon after settlement, but it does not appear that they existed in any great number until the year 1860. At the beginning of the present century there were only 6,000 sheep in Australasia ; now the number is 86,352,020. In 1816 there were only 97,402 ; in 1821 the number was 182,468; in 1841 the number had increased to 6,721,786; in 1860 it was 21,898,626 ; in 1870 it Avas 41,593,612 ; and in 1881, 65,171,401. In 1882 the quantity of wool exported from Australasia was 344,046,910 lb. ; in 1886 the exports amounted to 406,729,436 lb., and they reached 429,782,000 lb. in 1887. Among the many reasons assigned for the vast increase in the wool product is the suitability of the soil and climate for rearing sheep. Indeed, it is said that the climatic condition of the Colonies is precisely the same as that of the most celebrated wool-producing countries in the Old World. In the Pi-ize Essay on wool, in the Australian Year Book, edited by Mr. E. Greville, Sydney, it is stated that the merino is the only branch of the numerous divisions of the great ovine tribe whose history can be traced for many centuries. The merino sheep were introduced into Europe and Asia Minor by the ancient Greeks, and through them transmitted to Italy shortly after the foundation of Eome, where they were brought to a high state of perfection. According to Pliny, " the best wool of all others was that of Apulia, and the next that grown further south about Tarentum." Pliny further states that the v/hitest wool was grown on the Po and in Lombardy. The Romans introduced the merino into Spain, where it fared quite as well as in its native homes. Strabo (50 B. C.) mentions that the rich fabrics of the wealthy Romans were manufactured from the pi'oduce of the flocks which roamed over the plains of Truditania, in Spain. All accounts seem to agree that the merino remained exclusively in Spain and preserved its distinctive features through a period of seventeen and a half centuries. Since then these useful animals have been distributed all over the globe, and they seem to adapt themselves to various kinds of climate without losing the purity and vigor of their blood. The history of Australasian wool is traced in Mr. Greville's Austra- lian Year Book, from the discovery of the Australian continent down to the present time, and states that when Capt. Arthur Phillip established the first Australian settlement, on the 26th January, 1788, at Port Jackson, whei-e the city of Sydney now stands, there luG NEW SOUTH WALES : IIEil COMMERCE AND RESOURCES. wa.s not a single specimen of the ovine tribe amongst the imported stock. Bi'fore the close of the year (1788) about thirty sheep were bought from Bengal, and these were of the true East India breed, having long legs, fat rumps, large heads, pendent ears, Roman noses, arched backs, and narrow shoulders. Their fleeces were thin and poor, of a coarse, hairy type, and of little commercial value. The climate and pastures, however, of the country were so fine that the colonists were quite surprised at the improvement in both the wool and carcasses. A few years later small additions were made to the flock by the importations of several Leicesters and Southdowns and some high-class sheep from the Gape of Good Hope. Captain McArthur, of the 102nd Foot, has the credit of forming the first pure flock of merinos in the Colonics. In 1797 he was fortunate enough to secure some superb Spanish merinos which had been bred by Colonel Gordon from sheep that had been sent originally from Holland. In 1801 Cap- tain McArthur visited England and exhibited samples of Austi^alian wool grown by him to the London brokers, who pronounced it of ex- cellent quality, and this, together with an unbounded faith in the unlimited production of wool in Avistralia, led him to petition Lord Hobart, then Secretary of State for the Colonies, for assistance, with the I'esult that a grant of 10,000 acres of land was conferred upon him. Mr. McArthur, when returning to Australia, took with him some high-class sheep purchased from the estate of King George III at Hampton Court. An extract from the auctioneer's catalogue of the first public sale of Hampton Court merinos, August, 1804, showing the price of the sheep, the weight of the fleece, and the name of the pur- chaser, at this sale, is appended : — Lot. Weight of fleece at last shearing-. Price. Purchaser. 1 lb. oz. 3 4 £ 9. d. 6 15 11 15 15 16 IG 23 2 22 1 23 7 11 11 32-85 53-53 76-64 81-75 112-42 107-30 137-96 56 21 McArthur. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. G (not weighed) ... 11 3 12 3 4 4 12 4 8 7 12 13 15 23 30 41 (not weighed) ... After the great drought of 1813 the discovery of the well-grassed planis in the interior led to the breeding of sheep 'on a more extensive scale. The next stimulus to sheep farming was the discovery that Tasmania, with its salubrious climate and suitable pastures, was equally, if not more, adapted than New South Wales for breeding high-class merinos, the bracing atmosphere of the more southern colony having the eft"ect of clothing the sheep with a fleece of greater density, without prejudicing its quality or style. WOOL. 157 In studying the condition of the climate of Australasia it must he home in mind that the Colonies are situated south of the equator and that the seasons are reversed, and that the heat increases toward the north, while the further south we go the colder it becomes. The Australasian farmers availed themselves of every opportunity to improve the condition of their sheep. In 1859 a number of the celebrated Rambouillet or French merino sheep were introduced into Australia. The first lot came to the order of Messrs. Desgraves &, Co., of Melbourne, who used them on tlieir large property at Coliban I'ark, Victoria. The next lot was imported through the agency of Messrs. R. Goldsbrough ct Co. In 1861 a consignment of 50 rams of this breed averaged, at a sale of Messrs. Pv,. Goldsl)rough & Co., .£83 (|403) per head. In 18G3 the flocks were still further improved by the importa- tion of some superb American merinos from Mr. George Campbell's farm in the State of Vermont. These were descended from old Spanish stock, introduced into America in 1802 by Colonel Humphi^ies, then United States Minister to the court of Madrid. The Australian farmers found the merino sheep to do well in their new homes, and that their fleece increased in size and weight, due partly to the lai'ge percentage of yolk or grease. In addition to a natur- ally hardy constitution, these sheep are vigorous and productive and extremely well woolled all ovei', the head, belly, and points being especi- ally well covered. Dr. Randall, a high authority on American sheep, says, " The Vermont merinos have a short, thick body, good fore and hind quarters, and short, thick heads. All have dewlaps and neckfolds. The fleece, which is long and even all over the body, opens freely and is of good lustre and style." There is, however, a prevalent o})inion amongst the Australasian farmers that the large proportion of yolk in the American merinos has a tendency to make the wool coarse, and they argue that in increasing the weight of the fleece by the American method of breeding, the wool loses its fineness and lustre. Some au- thorities state that the American fleece loses 80 per cent, in the scour- ing. This may be true in some instances, but there is no denying the fiict that the weight of the fleece remaii^s very heavy after the scouring. There are instances of merino rams giving each 8 or 9 lb. of scoured wool, and in all cases the proportion of wool to the weight of the sheep is unusually large. Vermont rams weigh about 120 lb. of live weight and yield 30 lb. of wool in the grease ; the amount of greasy wool to the live weight ranges fr-om 20 to 24 per cent. Objection is made to the wrinkles on the American sheep, which give trouble in shearing. It is maintained that in breeding for wrinkles the even- ness of the wool is destroyed. The Vermont Breeders' Association, in one of their reports, make no objection to the wrinkles and folds, and in regard to the yolk, state that Tjreeders cannot dispense v/ith any of the average amount of yolk or grease without running a risk of serious loss from the deterioration in the amount of wool, as well as the strength, lustre, fineness, and evenness of fibre. The Vermont sheep in Australia do not need housing nor grain feed- ing, and there is abundant evidence to show that the amount of yolk they possess is necessary to insure a heavy growth of wool. It is 158 NKW SOrTII WAir.S: Iir.ll COMMKIMK and UKSOlitCKH. iPituiii that till- sainplcM of Vcniiont nuMiiio <,'rown in Victoria and Hent to .Mtlliourni- lii.st yi'iir k1iow»'(1 ikj giciitcr lu-ifcutiiyo of shriiikagf! than liny titlirr AuHtiiilusian wools. It is now a coiiiiiKin |iiactic-c fur t lit- slict-i) fannf^iH of Victoria and Ni'W South Wales to purchase stud hliccii in Now Zciilanthcr with the ct|ual distril)ution of warmth and moisture, have led to tlu' production of distinct types of Bheop, the wool of which is rc- markalth^ for its fineness, density, lustre and great length of ntaple. During the last few years auction sales of wool in Sydney, Melbourne, Adelaide, and Urisliane, havr^ been of sutticient importance to induce a large nuiubcr of buyers to come here from various parts of Europe and the United States. * Ifcretofure nearly all Australa.sian wool was shipped to London for sale. This, however, is no lunger the case, for about one-lifth of the product of this season (18S7-8) Avill be sold direct in this market to the English, continental, and American manu- facturers. Under these circumstances the day is not far distant when tho whole wool crop of Australasia, like the cotton crop of America, will pass the hammer before .shipment. It is worthy of note that tho large wool-broking companies of Australasia have recently erected in Sydney, ^Iclljuunu', and Adelaide, some of the most spacious and nnignitlcent warehouses in tho world. The advantages of local sales are very great, both to the buyer and seller. By selling locally tho growers realize the full value of their wool at once, and are saved tho risk ami anxiety attendant on a distant and uncertain market, while the manufacturers, on the other hand, can oljtain a full .selection from the choicest clips. The American buyers can ship their wool to their factories in the Eastern States, by the San Francisco Mail Steamship Company, at low rates of freight, within thirty days, and the Fuiropean manufacturers can deliver their wool at their own mills, through the large steamship lines going through the Suez Canal, in aliout six weeks from the date of purchase. They are thus enabled to place their new goods on the market two months earlier than if they waited for the London sales to supply their re(juirements. Notwithstanding the va.st pastoral area of New South Wales, only about one-.seventh of the wool product is suitable to the American market. Tho kinds of wools desired by American manufacturers are those of line fibre, elastic, sound, full stapled, and free from l)urrs and grass .seed. They should also Ije of light condition, with only a suuill juo- portion of yolk. No heavy or fatty wools coulil lnj profitably exjjorted to the I'nited States, on account of the high duties there. The area of New South Wales, where wool suitable to the American market is ])roduced, is situated on the western slope of the main moun- tain range, stretching from the border of the Colony of Victoria to that of tjueonsland. The area embraces the districts of Albury, Wagga Wagga, Murrumburrah, Yass, Young, Inverell, and a part of Now I'^ngland. The wool from Albury and part of that of Wagga Wagga, on account of being near Victoria", finds its outlet at Melbourne. The condition of the wool depentls in a great measure on the character of the season. In a favourable season fully 50,000 bales of wool suitable for the Aujerican market coidd be produced on the plains of tlie western slope. In a season of drought, which, however, is uncommon in the wool,. ITiO '.ti\ (,o havo oxU'iidod ov<'r a porirxl of (Incit or four yoar.s, liavc aliiioal, wholly diHapjii'iirod oxcopl/ in vory f<'W pla<;<',s. 'I'lio wooIm of |{iv(trina OibLricI/ aro Haid l,o liavo ro(!ovorow('r of l-lio clip lian novcr hocn HurpanHod, 'I'ho Vi(;l,orian wools Hold in liondon during Uio monUi,i t 1,1 TJ.ITL' for the correspoiidiiif/ period of tlio previous year. 160 NEW SOUTH WALES : HER COMMERCE AND RESOURCES. The subjoined table shows the number of bales shipped from all the Colonies up to the 1st June, 1SS7, compared witli the same dates for 1886 and 1885 :— Colony. 1S87. 1886. Increase. Decrease. 1885. Bales. 328,441 327,931 63,081 147,554 16,373 18,621 259,573 Bales. 340,090 309,366 70,801 129,905 14,343 16,281 Bales. Bales. 11,649 Bales, 287,615 Victoria 18,565 17,649 2,030 " ."^40 328,290 Queensland 7,720 70,260 Sou til Au stralia ^Yest Australia 151,297 13,222 17,268 New Zealand 231,386 28,187 218,163 Total 1,161,574 1,112,172 1,086,115 The average weight of a bale of Australasian wool may be taken as 400 pounds. It will be seen from the preceding table that New South Wales heads the list in the export with 328,441 bales, and that Victoria comes close to it with 327,931 bales. The exports, hoAvever, from Yictoria showau increase of 18,565 bales over those of 1886, while the Xew South Wales expoi'ts show a decrease during the same period of 11,649 bales. The cause of the decline in the Xew Soiith Wales shipments was not occasioned by any falling off in the quantity produced, but was due to the rainfall, in that the rivers on the borders had become navigable, thereV)y enabling growers to send their wool direct to Melbourne, who in seasons of drought send by railway to Sydney. New Zealand increased her exports from 231,386 bales in 1886 to 259,573 bales in 1887. While the exports of New Zealand are not as heavy as those of Victoria, nevertheless she is the second wool-producing Colony in Australasia, New South Wales, of course, taking the first rank. The total annual value of the wool product of Australasia for 1886-7 is £20,533,309 (899,925,348). Of this amount New South Wales furnishes £8,895,556 (843,265,891); New Zealand, £3,879,620 (818,879.170); Victoria, £3,342,509 (816,266,320); Queensland, £1,889,504 (89,295,296); South Australia, £1,823,431 (.$8,873,727); Tasmania, £453,467 (§2,206,797); and West Australia, £249,255 (81,212,999). The consignments from tlie Mudgee District of New South Wales are stated on the authority of the New Zealand Loan and Mercantile Agency Company in Sydney to have been splendidly bred. One well- known brand brought 12|d. (24^- cents) in the grease, .the highest price of the season. The New England and the Upper Hunter clips were this year conspiciious for elasticity, fineness, and clearness of staple. WOOL. 161 The demand for steamer freiglits to London has been throughout the season unprecedented, and such as to give rise to some apprehension concerning the future utilization of sailing vessels for the wool trade. Sailing vessels labour under great disadvanj:ages owing to the times of the sales in London being so tixed that no sooner have steamers com- pleted their loading for one series than shippers tind it is then too late to think of catching the next series by sailing vessels, and they consequently have recourse to steamers. The direct export of wool to the L^nited States has been very small. The absence of the usual number of buyers on American account w^as noticed at all the Colonial sales, especially in Sydney and Adelaide. The few who were present showed little disposition to bid against the French and German buyers for the kinds of wool desired for the American market. Indeed the only effect of the presence of Americans Jit all was to excite the competition between the Continental buyers, which was throughout keen and sharp, and formed the mainstay of the market. The only direct shipments to America consisted of 14,969 bales from Melbourne and 169 bales from Sydney. The following table shows the quantity of Australasian wool exported direct to the United States during the last four years, the only points of shipment being at Melbourne and Sydney : — 1883-4 Melbourne, 14, 863 bales. Sydney,, 7,712 bales. 1SS4 o „ (i,{)21 „ 1885 6 ,, 20,l(il ,, ,, 4,29(i „ 1886-7 ,, 14,969 ,, ,, 169 ,, It was noticed both at the London and Colonial sales that, notwith- standing the advance in the price of wool, the advance was confined principally to cross-breds, medium, and the lower sorts. Mediums, particularly at the Sydney sales, were relatively the strongest. The light-conditioned wools at the January and February sales, brought even lower prices than in 1886. Up to the 14th February, 1887, only about 1,000 bales were purchased at the London sales for the American market. The reason given for this was that considerable quanities of Australasian wool purchased last season were still held over in New Yoi'k and Boston. A change for the better occurred in March and April. The advance was particularly marked in extra merinos. Cablegrams from America are to the effect that the American demand w^as increasing, and that prices were rather higher than at late sales. There has been a decided improvement in the direct trade between Australasia and the Continent of Europe. The recent establishment of two splendid lines of steamers, under heavy subsidies from the French and German Governments, it is thought will do much towards stimulat- ing the wool trade. The French line, the Messageries Maritimes, notwithstanding the steady demand for steamer freights, seldom charged more than ;4d. (| cents) and ^d. (Icent) perffi. The highest rates reached for freight by steamers during the season were — l^d. (2\ cents) per 11). This, however, was exceptionable. The German line, the Norddeutscher Lloyd, carried freight at fully as low rates as those of the French line. The dii-ect shipments to Marseilles during the season of 1886-7 were ■ — 4,731 bales, against 3,323 bales for 1885 6. Those to the German ports showed a much greater increase, the figures being 40,968 bales for L 1G2 Xi: W SOUTH WALES : IIEi; COMMERCK AND RESOURCES. 188G-7, agaiixst 1 5,888 for 188.5-C. These ligures, however, only represent tlie direct shipments, as considerable quantities of Australasian wools reach the continental centres by way of Liverpool and London. The subjoined table shows the quantity of wool shipped from Australia direct to each of the European ports for the last three years ■ 1884-5. 1885-C. lSSC-7. Bales. 39,520 Bales. 1.5,888 Bales. .36,247 2,268 nil. nil. 6,149 2,. 539 nil. .3,323 2,107 ,, Bremen jVIarseilles 2,452 4,731 4.5,67.") 21.7.50 1 47,805 The extraordinary decline in the price of wool, up to the March and April sales of 1886, was attributed to the general depression of trade, in the leading articles of consumption all over the world. Such a depression had not been known for a period of fifteen years. As compared with the opening of the previous season, the decline in the price of wool was startling. Combing wool brought fully 3|d. (7 cents), and washed 4d. (8 cents) per Bj. less than in 1885. Between the close of the second and the opening of the third series of London sales the reaction set in, and large private transactions took place in London, at prices showing an advance of Id. (2 cents) per Bb. on March rates. The June sales opened wdth an advance of 2id. (5 cents) on greasy merino, and -id. (8 cents) per ffj. on seconds, and the sales closed very tirm, gi-easy merino being 30 per cent., and cro.s.sbreds 15 per cent., and seconds 25 per cent., higher than in April. All through the next interval puixhases by private contract ^\•ere being made, and the September sales opened with an excitement with- out parallel in the history of the London wool ^ales, greasy avooI being li^d. (3 cents) to 2d. (4 cents), and second 2id. (5 cents) to 4d. (8 cents), higher than the closing rates of the previous series. Prices, however, were somev/hat irregular, and towards the close a slight relapse took place ; but there is no doubt that at the highest point of this series the Australasian staple was 50 to GO per cent, dearer than at the lowest point in April, some five months before. In fact several large clips of faulty New South ^Yales wool sold at double the money similar clips brought in the second series, when wool was at its lowest. Cross-bred wools, of the finer quality', have fluctuated throughout the season, in sympathy with the various changes in the A'alue of merinos. Coarser qualities and Lincoln wool, on the other hand, have sold steadily at figures .showing little variation on those current during sales of the pre- ceding .season. WOOL. 163 The following table, shows the fluctuation in the prices of Lincoln, half-bred, and tine cross bred wools at the; Sydney and Melbourne sales for each season, from 1882-3 to 18SG-7 inclusive : — • 1882-3. Lincohi 6d. (12 cents) to Sd. (16 cents) per H). Half-bred Sd. (16 ,, ) to lOid. (21 „ ) ,. Fine cross-bred lid. (22 ,, ) to IS^d. (38 „ ) ,, 1883-4. Lincoln 6d. (12 „ ) to Sd. (16 ,, ) ,, Half-bred 8d. (16 ,, ) to lOd. (20 ,, ) „ Fine cross-bred lOM. (22 ,, ) to 13d. (26 ,, ) ,, 1884-5. Lincoln 5d. (10 „ ) to 7Ad. (1.5 ,, ) ,, Half-bred 8d. (16 ,, ) to lOkl. (21 ,, ) ,, Fine cross-bred lid. (22 ,, ) to 13id. (27 ,, ) ,, 1885 -6. Lincoln 6d. (12 ,, ) to 8d. (16 „ ) ,, Half-bred 8d. (16 ,, ) to lOd. (20 ,, ) Fine cross-bred lOkb (21 ,, ) to 12.1 (24 ,, ) ,', 1886-7. Lincoln 7d. (14 ,, ) to 8.UL (17 ,, ) ,, Half-bred Skb (17 ,, ) to lOid. (21 ,, ) „ Fine cross-bred lO^d. (21 ,, ) to r2d. (24 ,, ) The wool season for 1887-8 opened in the Colonies about the middle of October ; u]) to the 3rd February, 1888, the following are the quantities of wool offered and sold : — • Since opening of season, 196,707 bales catalogued and 139, 195 bales sold. Same period for 1886-7, 158,608 ,, 115,357 „ The total exports from Sydney and Newcastle have been — 1887-8. 18SG-7. 1885-6. 298,690 bales. 24.3,904 bales. 271,573 bales. Sales opened at values about 20 per cent, lower than the opening- rates in 1886-7, and as a consequence there was a great difficulty in getting growers to accept the ruling rates, although there is little prospect of improved prices. The clip this season (1887-88) is bulky and well grown ; grass seeds and burrs (both Bathurst and trefoil) were present in most of the eai'ly wool grown on the dry western plains in greater quantity than usual. This is a consequence of the very favorable season. The price of wools so afiected is seriously depreciated, and some of the worst are quite neglected. On the other hand light conditioned wools free from faults sell readily. The wool from the western slopes and also from the table lands, was sound and well grown and comparatively free from faults, but rather yolky. The very best price of the season has been obtained for a wool of that description from near Berrima. It was deeply skirted and realized lO^d. (21 cents) per ft., being bought for America. The news of a weakness at the sales which lately opened at Antwerp, still further unsettled the market, and sales have been in consequence made more difficult to efiect. Wool sales have been held at Newcastle, the second port of New South Wales, but as veiy few buyers attended it is unlikely that any further effort will be made to sell at that port. IG-i NKW SOUTH W.VLES : IIER COMMERCE AND RESOURCES. The season continues all that could be desired from a pastoralist's point of view. Rain has fallen at seasonaljle intervals, and both grass and water are everywhere abundant. The past year's lambing lias been one of the best ever known in 'New South Wales, and the increase is 7,518,555. Tlie retui-ns collected by Govennnent, in January, 1888, show the sheep in the Colony as numbering 40,687,859. The lambing for this year (1888) is also pretty well assured. It is estimated that the wool clip of 1887-8 for Australasia will show an increase of about 50,000 bales over the previous season, while that of 1888-9 will be 100,000 l^ales in excess of the 1887-8 clip. Mr. A. Bruce, the Chief Inspector of Stock for New South Wales, returns the number of sheep in the colony at the close of March, 1887, at 39,169,304, against 37,820,906 for 1886, and 21,521,662 for 1877. During the year 672,903 were sent to Queensland. The subjoined table, })repared by Mr. Bruce, shows the number of each kind of sheep in New South Wales 'at the close of March, 1887. (1) Mei-ino. Coml)ins;. Pure and stud — Superfine ( trdinary Rams. 41,2.33 108,735 64,463 159,485 . 78,292 84,141 Ewes. 613,915 2,289,751 844,117 4,847,472 688,034 3,310,312 Wethers. 144,018 1,430.715 369,755 3,-304,493 354,194 2,429,052 Lambs. 145,452 1,312,012 443,322 2,378,227 350,204 2,118,453 Total!.-. 944,618 5,141,213 Pure and stud — Mediimi Ordinary 6,085,831 1,721,657 10,689,677 Pure and stud — Strong Ordinary 12,411, .334 1,476,724 7,941,9.58 9,418,682 Total, Combing 27,91.5,847 I'ure and stud- Superfine Ordinary Pure and stud Medium Ordinary Pure and stud- Strong Ordinary Clotliing. 9,658 145,.301 82,187 79,444 316, .590 42,104 497,183 3.53,674 219,.528 1,112,489 1,429,079 25.716 258,102 157,775 118,423 560,010 124,703 2,198,484 1, 436,-5.58 1,137,980 4,897,725 5,457,741 62,805 280,-370 1.35,160 140,778 619,113 40,7.35 1,009,S9S 1,025,332 ,509,729 2,645,694 3,264,807 Total, Clotliing 10,151,027 Total nurnlxr of Merino Sheep ... ... 38,007,474 ■WOOL. (2) LoDg-wooUed Sheep. 1G5 £*ure and stud- Kams. Ewes. Wetliers. Lainljs. Totals. Lincoln 2,838 31,514 23,401 21,685 79,438 Ordinary 3,184 Total, 07,633 40,664 Lincoln 31,045 142,526 iPure and stud 221,964 Leicester 1,987 27,341 21,695 12,938 63,961 Ordinary 1,903 Total, 20,951 17,092 Leicester 15,683 55,629 Pure and stud 119,590 Dcwns 413 3,307 957 2,000 6,677 Ordinary 1,260 7,285 7,712 Total Downs 3,710 19,967 Pure and stud — 26,644 Roniney Marsli 10 100 154 19 283 Ordinary 428 Total, 4,466 3,715 Roniney Marsh 1,293 9,902 10,185 Crosses of the above breeds (long-wool- led) with Merino principally Total number, long-M oolled Sheep .. 378,383 (3) Crosses, 3,180 301,116 249,865 169,286 723,447 Total, crosses ... ... ... ... 723,447 Grand total 39,169,304 Tlie bulk of the stud sheep introduced into New South Wales are from Tasmania. Out of a total import of 1,656, Tasmania furnished 1,536, South Australia 54, Queensland 32, and California 35. These sheep were quai'antined for eighteen days, and received one dipping in a solution of tobacco and sulphur. The laws of all the Australian Colonies forbid the importation of sheep except under stringent quarantine regulations. On account of these restrictions the importation of high class sheep from America has seldom proved profitable to the shippers. Of the total number of stud sheep brought to New South Wales in 1886, 953 were unshorn and 639 were shorn in Sydney befoi-e dipping. After reaching the various sheep stations they were all examined again by the inspectoi-s, who were instructed to report on their appearance and the effects of the dipping. Of the unshorn sheep, 1 ewe and 2 lambs were dead and 35 sheep were injured. Of the shoi-n sheep, 1 ram died, and several were injured by the dipping. The inspector thinks that no loss or injury would occur if the sheep were kept in quarantine after dipping a sufficient time to permit them to become thoroughly dry "before removal. A conference of representatives from the Australian Colonies was recently held in Sydney for the purpose of endeavouring to assimilate the regulations in force in the Australian Colonies relating to stock. Much interest in the subject was taken by the delegates to the conference from Tasmania, where the mild and genial climate, together with the unparalleled richness of the natural grasses, have enabled that IGG XKw SOUTH walks: iikr commerce and resources. favoured colony to reach a degree of perfection in tlie production of high class sheep. The summers are never excessively hot and the winters are not cold enough, even on the higli tabic lands, to put a stop to the operations of the pastoralist. West Australia, with a territory larger than that of any of the other Colonies, carries verv few sheep. The number for LS8G is estimated at 1,753,000. Thei-e are very few districts in Australasia where sheep will not thrive ; in fact, throughout the whole of this group of Colonies, the climate is so mild that neither sheep nor cattle require the same amount of housing they wonld receive in America or Europe. It is only natural iinder the circumstances that sheep farming should receive so much attention. Mr. Bowman, in his report on Australasian \v'ools, sa^'s that the wool- growers cannot keep up their reputation for high class wools without a careful system of selection in breeding, and the introduction of fi"esh blood from other countries. He says that certain classes of sheep are more adapted to certain regions of the earth's surface than others, and that in many cases the environments of sheep tend in the course of gen- erations under careful management to produce a special character which liecomes permanent and may be retained as a pure special breed. He therefore contends that certain characteristics of wool, such as lustre in the long wool breeds, can only be retained permanently by the reintro- duction of fresh blood from time to time, and especially in those countries appi'oaching the equator. This lustre, for which he considers a certain degree of temperature and moisture is necessary for its ]>ennanency, is retained longer in New Zealand and on the Southern Coast of Australia than anywhere else. He accounts for the deterioration of Australasian sheep in South Africa from the fact that the herbage of that country is not fitted to the requisite conditions for the better class of sheep. The high scale of wages demanded by sheep-shearers in Australasia, together with the repeated strikes amongst them, and the difficulty of supplying their places with skilled workmen, have led to various attempts in Sydney and Melbourne to invent an instrument for shearing sheep by machinery. Such an invention was believed to lie impossible. Two difficulties at once presented themselves ; the first was the employment of some means to control the animal while being shorn, and the second was to construct the instrument for shearing it. Tiiese difficulities have been wholly oveicome by Mr. F. Y. Wolseley, of this Colony, who, some years ago, conceived an idea of constructing such a machine, which has culminated in the invention he has patented. During the past shearing season it has been successfully tried in various places. Trials were given at some of principal wool-brokers' establish- ments in Sydney and Melbourne, and there were present at the trials representatives of all parties interested. They united in the opinion that the machine did the work which its inventor claimed for it in the most satisfactory manner. The apparatus is a very simple one, being WOOL. 167 made on the same principle as tlie cutter of a mower or reaper, and the knives are worked by means of rods within the handle, which in their turn are moved by a core within a long flexible tube, kept in a rotary shaft, and which is driven by some stationary motive power. The comb is in the form of the segment of a circle, about 3 inches in diameter, provided with eleven conical-shaped teeth. Each machine is worked by a man — not necessarily an experienced shearer — and as he moves the comb along the skin of the animal, tlie fleece is cut much closer than it can be cut by any shearer, and without the possibility of the most inex- pei'ienced person injuring the skin of the sheep. One of the principal advantages of the machine is that it does not require a skilled person to use it; any ordinary hand on a sheej) station can be taught to use it in a couple of days. The Chief Inspector of Stock is of opinion that this machine will soon come into general use. Pie thinks it admirably adapted for the small farms. There has been recently more or less discussion in the various agricultural journals of the Colony as to the economy of its use. While all agree that it is a labour-saving machine, it is said that the work can be done quicker by the ordinaiy process of shearing. The advocates of the machine claim that it effects a saving of fully 10 per cent. The first cost of the machine and the cost of the motive power are more than counterbalanced by the efficiency of the work done by it. For instance, it takes off the whole of the wool at one cut and leaves the sheepskin absolutely intact, whereas by the old method the sheep are often cut by the sheai's, which is always the case should a person attempt to shear a sheep who is not accustomed to use the shears. It is sufficient to observe that the machine can be run with either a steam or gas engine, or by ordinary horse motive power, and that the aj)paratus does not easily break down ; all the pai'ts are interchangeable, and in the event of one getting out of order it can be replaced without trouble by a duplicate piece. More- over, the cutter, is inexpensive, and will shear several sheep without sharpening. The machines are being fitted up in sheep-shearing sheds in various parts. Those exhibited at the stores of the New Zealand Loan and Mercantile Company, Sydney, did not perform the work as rapidly as a first-class shearer would do, but there can be no question as to the superiority of the work done. The number of sheep shorn at the first trial was at the rate of 60 a day of 10 hours, whereas 80 is a fair day's work for a good shearer with a pair of shears, but on the other hand every sheep shorn by the machine yields from 4 to 10 ounces additional wool at the first shearing with the machine, and the skins of the sheep are not injured by being cut. The machine cuts the full natural length of the wool, nor are there any " ribs " left on the skins or any tufts of uncut wool. Another shearing machine has been patented by Mr. Suckling, of the Hunter District. The motive power is compi-essed air, but the cutting arrangements are similar to those in the Wolseley machine. 11,000 sheep have been shorn by this method. The machine did good work at the Sydney Centennial Agricultural Show, in competition with Wolseley's. It is probable both Avill be brought into use. IGS XEW SOUTH walks: IIKIl COMMEKCE AXD KESOURCES. Tho Anioricau trade with Australasia is insignificant when compared with that enjoyed by Great Britain. This unfortunate state of aftairs is l.elieved to be principally due to the high protective tariff of the United States, wOiich virtually excludes wool, the chief product of Australasia, from the American markets. The people of Australasia have always evinced a strong desire to trade with the United States, and there is abundant evidence to show- that the average Australian has a decided preference for articles of American type and manufacture over those of other countries, but he will not purchase goods and wares from a country which imposes such hea\y penalties upon his own raw products. The Bill introduced into the United States Congress in 1886, pro- viding for the removal of the wool duties, attracted no little attention here, and it was sincerely hoped that it would become law. It is said that the sole cause of the rejection of the measure was the proposition to admit woollens as well as the raw material, free of duty, and that of course secured the opposition of the manufacturers, who were principally interested in the admission of the raw product. It has been frequently pointed out that the wool-farmers of America received better prices for their wool for a term of years when the duties were the lowest, for tlie reason that wherever there is a demand in the United States for foreign avooIs, there is also a demand for the homo grown wool. People argue that the United States is the only country in the world which levies a duty upon raw products, and that if the Americans wish to perfect their manufactures, they should do so by removing the restrictions from tlie raw material. It is further said, that the woollen industry of the States, both on the Atlantic and Pacific coasts, is allowed to languish for want of cheap wools, and these the manufacturers could easily obtain if it were not for the Customs' tariff; also, that the reason why the French and Germans make such superb woollens, is because they have access to Australasian wools. The mill-owners of California have repeatedly stated that the reason why they cannot make the woollen industry pay on the Pacific slope is because they cannot obtain Australasian long stapled wools to mi.K with their own of shorter growth. In California the wools are of two growths. One growth is from April to September, and the other from September to April. In Australasia there is but one growth. Of coui-se manufacturers have an advantage who use the long stapled wools, for cloth made with them has a smoother and brighter finish, without rough points protruding, as in goods made with short stapled wools. If such wools could be; mixed with Australasian wools, it is contended, that Californian manufacturers would soon be enabled to produce cloth of l^etter quality than the French and German, and at a lower price. Colonel W. Harney, who is largely interested in the woollen industry of San Francisco, says, that if it w^ere not for the tariff the Californian woollens would be preferred to all others. He has himself used several lots of New South Wales wools to advantage in the manufacture of blankets and other articl(;s. Some of these articles found their way to Sydney market and attracted much attention. Indeed, they were very WOOL. 169 generally admitted to be superior to any of the kind ever imported, the price alone preventing extensive orders. Colonel Harney, in his evidence before the Central and South American Wool Commission, which met at San Francisco about two years ago, said, " In California we are prepared to suit every taste, if we can get the trade, oi* the taste of any nation or people. That is we can manufacture any- thing in the shape of woollen goods made by any foreign establishment, and do it successfully." Colonel Harney's views Avere strongly corro- borated by Mr. Donald M'Lennan, and other gentlemen who gave evidence before the Commission. Mr. M'Lennan said, "If we could use the -wools of Australasia in conjunction with American wools, not only would the value of Californian wools be enhanced, but we could manufacture just so much and so many more yards of goods than we can now, that the extra consiimption of Australasian wools would enhance the value of domestic wools, that is, give a larger mai'ket to domestic wools by combining them with foreign wools." Mr. Mitchell, of the Chamber of Connnerce, Sydney, highly commended the views of Colonel Harney and Mr. M'Lennan, and it is no wonder that such opinions should attract attention in Sydney, a city offering so many advantages for direct trade with the Pacitic Coast of the United States. The fact that the Australasian wool trade with France and Germany is increasing, while that with the United States is decreasing, should be a note of warning to Americans. If Congress will not remove the Customs duties on wool, it certainly ought to modify the duties on the kinds of wool which cannot be produced in the United States, such as the soft, line long staple wools of Victoria, New South Wales, and New Zealand. These w^ools are remarkable, not only for their softness and smoothness, but also for their elasticity and brilliancy. 170 NEW SOUTH wales: HER COMMERCE AND RESOURCES. SUGAU. The ])rotluction of .sxigav is one of special interest at this time on account of the system of bounties adopted by the various Governments in Europe. International conferences are being held for the purpose of settling the vexed questions which arc said to effect seriously the sugar trade of the world. In the face of many difficulties sugar production has become firmly estal)lished in Australia. At present the trade is depressed, but it is jiot any worse in thai- respect than the same interest in other countries. There is overproduction of the article, and though that state of affidrs does not extend directly to Australia, the low prices of sugar in Eui'ope and America have affbcted the industry here. Never before has the 211'ice of sugar been so low, nor is there much ])rospect of an immediate change. It has also been said that the continuance of the present bounties for five years would break up three-fourths of the Australian sugar plantations. Air. E. Pulsford, the Secretary to the Free Trade Asso- ciation, Sydney, however, contends that more injury has resulted to the cane sugar industry from the improvements in iDeet culture than from the payment of bounties. He cites the fact that the beet now yields 12 per cent, of saccharine matter instead of 4 per cent, as formerly. Thus, when formerly 100 tons of beet-root yielded only 4 tons of sugar the same quantity now- yields 12 tons. Other authorities give the yield at much higher figures. Unfortunately for the sugar interest here each one of the Australian Colonies has its own special tariff. This diversity of tariffs not only awakens jealousy between the Colonies, but occasions a conflict of interests. For instance, sugar from Queensland, the largest sugar pro- ducing Colony in the group, cannot be admitted into JSTew South Wales except upon the same terms as that imported from the Straits Settlements, China, Mauritius, and other countries, and the result is Queensland often finds a more profitable market for her product elsewhere. The efficient shipping facilities between Queensland and London, Glasgow, and other British ports, together with the low cost of freights, are further induce- ments for shi))ping to the European ports. Planters obtain such low rates of freight that the cost of exporting sugar to London from Queens- land is seldom more than £1 10s. ($7-29) per ton, and moreover it is said that they can obtain even in China and Japan from £2 (|9-73) to £3 (814'j9) more for their sugar than in Australia. Thei'e is also an effort being made here to find a mai'ket for Australian sugar in the Pacific slope of the United States. The trade between the Colonies and San Francisco is steadily increasing. As the production of sugar increases here the desire to export to America will increase. It is a curious subject of observation and inquiry that two countries like Australia and the United States, which have so many interests in common, should continue to confront each other with hostile tariffs, but SUOAR. 171 as long as the Colonies themselves are unaljle to establish anything like a free interchange of products with one another it is hardly reasonable to expect them to perfect reciprocal relations with foreign countries. The customs regulations of New South Wales approach nearer to free trade than those of any of the other Colonies, but, notwithstanding so- called free trade principles, they impose a very heavy tax upon American products. People here complain that Austi-alasian sugar and wool and other raw products are virtually excluded from the United States markets, but at the same time they show no disposition to remove the heavy colonial tax on American tobacco, kerosene, and other articles ; indeed they are constantly agitating for an increase of duties. The import duty on sugar into New South Wales is 6s. 8d. ($1-62) per cwt. for refined and 5s. ($1-21) for raw sugar. The impression seems to be gaining ground that the American duties on sugar and other raw products of Australasia wall shortly be repealed, and the fact that the United States has not been able with the help of her high protective tariff to produce more than 12 per cent, of the sugar she consumes is frequently cited by the Sydney press. Attention has also been directed to the fact that sugar industry in the States is not as large as it was thirty or forty years ago. In 1853 the total sugar product of the United States amounted to 449,324 hogsheads, but in 1884 it was only 170,431 hogsheads, being 279,893 hogsheads less than in 1853. One of the most astonishing facts in connection with the matter is, that the present American tariff on sugar is fully six times more than the tariff of 1853, therefore it is argued that the industiy was far more prosperous under a low tariff, than under the present high one. It is conceded that there is a marked difference between the conditions of labour at the two peiiods, but the labour question, although an important one, does not form the chief factor in the production of sugar, and it is thought that the cost of labour is higher in Australia than in Louisiana and other sugar-pro- ducing States of the American Union. Although New South Wales was the first of the Australian Colonies to engage in the cultivation of cane for the production of sugar, Queens- land appears to have ma-de tlie first decided advances towards the establishment of the industry. Sugar-cane Avas first grown at Port Macquarie, in New South Wales. Governor Darling, writing from Port Macquarie in 1828, said, " Both sugar and tobacco are now culti- vated successfully in this delightful country." At a later period sugar- cane was tried in the botanical gardens at Brisbane, Queensland, with very favourable results. No attempt, however, was made to crush the cane until about twenty years ago, when the late Mr. T. Scott, of Brisbane, made a series of successful experiments in crushing sugar with such mechanical appliances as were at his command. These experiments furnislied abundant evidence that the industry could be carried on in the Colonies ])rofitably. The price of sugar at that time was more than double what it is at present, and the sugar brought to Austi-alia was a very indifferent sort of raw muscov'ado, which would to- day be regarded as fit only for refining purposes. 172 NEW SOUTH WALES: HER COMMERCE AND RESOURCES. Between the years 1865 and 1872 a number of plantations were established in the north of Queensland and in the Macleay and Clarence districts of New South Wales. The most extensive [)lantations, how- ever, were established in the Mary and JNIackay districts, Queensland. In the latter di.strict great skill and powerful machinery were brought to bear upon the industry, especially at the Yengarie factory, where the business was conducted upon a system similar to that of the beet-root factories in Germany and other European countries. The sugar made at Yengarie factory was of a fine white grain and rich in saccharine matter. A few years afterward the Colonial Sugar Refining Company erected powerful crushing-mills upon the banks of the Macleay, Clarence, and Richmond Rivers, and from that time to the present this company has been in advance of all others in Australia in regard to everything in relation to the production of sugar. From the outset tlie company have experienced much difficulty in obtaining suitable labour for the cane fields. In New South Wales the cane has always been cultivated by white men, and generally upon their own land. At first, and indeed up to the close of last season, the farmers sustained considerable losses in attempting to make sugar with defective machinery, but that plan is now abandoned, and the farmers sell their cane to the large companies. In Queensland the planters have had to depend mainly upon coloured labour, and they have had to undergo much abuse on account of the manner in which such labour was obtained. A great hue and cry was I'aised in England against what was called the "Queensland labour traffic," and the j)lanters were charged with encouraging horrible outrages and crimes. It is certain that the natives of the South Sea Islands were in many instances forced on b^ard the labour vessels, and that wdiile this recruiting was going on many horrible massacres occurred. There is, however, not a particle of truth in the statement that the natives were badly treated after they once reached Queensland. The most searching investigations by the Government failed to con- vict a single planter of inhuman treatment of his employees. The Go- vernment neverthless resolved to put a stop to the introduction of coloured labour, and this awakened much opposition on the part of the planters. The latter complained that the industry was being destroyed, and that the Government did not understand the difficulties they had to encounter. These comjdaints w'cre followed by a persistent agitation for the separation of northern portions of Queensland. The Premiei-, Sir S. W. Griffith, vi.sited the sugar districts with the view of allaying the hos- tility. He made conciliatory speeche.s, in which he spoke of the evils that would follow separation, and dwelt upon the advantages to be derived from the introduction of white labour. He admitted that the planters had many grievances, but thought that a satisfactory settlement could be reached through the exercise of patience and forbearance on both sides. In the meantime, the agitation continued, and there is reason to believe that a separate Colonial Government may be established in Northern Queensland. In 1875 the Queensland Government com- niissioned Mr. Angus Mackay, now instructor in agriculture at the Technical College, Sydney, to visit the West India Islands, the United SUGAR. 173 States, and other sugar pi'oducing countries, for the purpose of investi- gating and reporting u])on the systems of hibour, of cane cultivation, sugar manufacture, sugar machinery, and genei-ally concerning the sugar industry in those countries. Mr. Mackay's reports, which had an extensive circulation, furnished conclusive evidence that a great change Avas going on in the sugar industry, and tliat to make the business profitable it is absolutely necessary to separate cane growing from sugar making. During the year 1876 Mr. Mackay visited the factories in the French West India Islands, and his reports are exhaustive and instructive. During the same year he visited Jamaica, San Domingo, (Juba, and other sugar growing countries. After studying the industry in those places he went to thr; United States, and visited the various j)lantations on the banks of the Lower Mississippi. His reports upon these plantations are elaborate, and form, in many respec+s, the most valuable contributions ever published upon the sugar industry of the United States. These reports are exceedingly comjJimcntaiy to the enterprise, skill, and industry of the American sugar-planters. Mr. Mackay found much to commend in theii- system of draining and farming the lands that are below the level of the waters of the Mississippi River. From Belair plantation, owned by Mr. John Diamond, of New Orleans, Mr. Mackay shipped to Queensland sugar- cane of the Creole variety, now extensively cultivated in both Queens- land and New South Wales. Mr. Mackay was aware that out of forty or fifty varieties of cane grown in the Colonies very few of them yielded much sugar. The farmers usually selected the best looking canes, but many of these, sucli as the Bourbon and the Cherrylton, although splendid in appearance, would not stand the sugar test. Mr. Mackay observed that the Creole variety was of rapid growth and, although of small size, yiidded a large percentage of juice. The Creole cane is of a dark purple colour, heavy in weight, with the eyes coming very close together. Mr. John McDonald, superintendent of the St. Helena plantation, Moreton Bay, Queensland, obtained samples of it through Mr. Mackay, and found it to do extremely well. In the State of Louisiana, where the sugar cane has only between six and seven months of hot, growing weather, the Creole variety comes to maturity before the approach of cold weatlier. It is usually cut in November, on the first appearance of frost. Its yield is about 20 tons to the acre. Mr. Mackay stated in his reports that the production of sugar in Australia, in order to become a large and profitable industry, should be conducted on the plan adopted in America. He said that the American planters, in selling their cane to the sugar companies possessed of sufficient capital to employ the necessary machinery and skill, realised about 60 per cent, more than the Queensland farmers were enabled to do v,ddi their feeljle little crushing-machines. The first official returns of the sugar product in Queensland were published in 1868, and the}^ showed that during that year six mills were in operation, wdiich produced 168 tons of sugar and 13,100 gallons of molasses. The industiy has inci'eased ever since. 171 NEW SOUTH WALES : HER COMMERCE AND RESOURCES. The subjoined table shows the number of mills and number of acres of cane crushed, and the i)roducts of sugar, molasses, and rum in Queensland for each year, from 1868 to 1887 inclusive : Vcars euilGtl Sugar Mills. Rum Distilleries. 31 March. | 1 No. of Sugar Mills Sugar Cane Crushed. Sugar Manufactured. Molasses Manufactured. No. of Distilleries. Rum Distilled. Acres. Tons. Gallons. Proof Galls. ISUS 6 168 13,100 2 12,045 18G9 10 1 ... 619 68,622 6 35,599 1S70 28 i 1,238 1,490 137,598 8 74,483 1S71 39 2,188 2,854 177,656 10 124,665 1872 55 3,078 3,762 2x9,694 11 112,979 1873 65 ' 5,018 6,266 357,619 9 161,473 1874 66 1 5,380 7,978 442,253 10 164,413 1875 71 6,978 12,108 651,259 11 217,701 1876 G6 7,668 6,322 438,950 14 343,244 1877 70 7,2i5 8,214 416,415 12 183,243 1878 59 8,043 12,243 490,260 10 196,001 1879 68 10,702 13,525 570,301 12 216,395 1880 70 11,409 18,714 641,486 9 238,710 1881 83 12,306 15,564 602,960 9 201,111 1882 103 15,550 19,051 753,658 7 157,325 1883 120 16,874 15,702 663,825 6 149,428 1884 152 25,792 36,148 1,071,413 6 144,073 1885 166 29,951 32,010 804,613 7 133,768 1886 166 40,756 59,225 1,784,266 9 159,122 1887 IGO 36,104 56,859 1,510,308 10 97,376 It will be seen from the returns for the year ended 31st March, 1887, that tlie average yield per acre of cane crushed is 1-69 tons. There are ten distilleries in Queensland manufacturing per annum 97,000 gallons of rum from molasse.s. These distilleries are owned by the large sugar companies. The smaller mills do not utilise the molasses, but allow it to run to waste. Tlie Inspector of Distilleries in Sydney is of opinion that this material could be utilized by the introduction of improved distilling machinery from Europe and America. The distilleries make less rum than they did ten years ago, when their production was 183,000 gallons. The distillation of rum from molasses in New South "VVale.s, like that in Queensland, has made little progress. In 1877 the number of gallons distilled was 150,737 from 26,531 cwt, and in 1886 it was 202,420 gallons from 41,098 cwt. of molasses. Some of this rum is exported to Kew Caledonia as white spirit. SUGAR. 175 The following table shows the number of acres of cane and the pro- duction of sugar cane, and the number of mills and quantities of sugar molasses, and rum manufactured in New 8outh Wales in each year from 31st March, 1877 inclusive : — Year ended Area in Sugar Cane. Production in Number of Quantity of Suffar 31st March. Productive. Unproductive. tons of cane. Sugar Mills. Manufactured. acres. acres. cwt. 1877 3,524 3,231 99,430 50 93,960 1878 3,. 331 3,735 99,978 50 150,744 1879 2,949 4,489 104,192 59 163,203 1880 3,675 4,102 126,119 65 153.833 1881 4,465 6,506 121,616 65 146,003 1882 4,983 7,184 128,752 76 159,048 1883 6, .362 7,176 169,192 86 270,000 1884 7,583 7,401 204,547 93 280,000 1885 6,997 10,520 105,323 98 230,000 1886 9,583 6,835 239,347 102 369,280 1887 5,915 9,202 167,959 64 275,000 Quantitv Number Number Material used- Molasses. Year ended. of of Quantity of of Rum 31st March Molasses Sugar Sugar Melted. Dis- distilled. Manufactured. [Refineries. tilleries. gallons. cwt. cwt. proof galls. 1877 273,480 1878 345,543 2 259,650 2 26,531 150,737 1879 5,32,825 2 324,480 2 20,576 124,156 1880 440,506 o 388,480 2 32,592 128,285 1881 269,092 2 414,400 2 20,882 110,063 1882 354,402 3 514,400 1 14,399 74,377 1883 560,000 2 470,000 20 25,035 118,066 1884 580,000 2 468,000 10 31,596 152,766 1885 450,000 3 370,000 8 34,523 160,403 1886 635,000 4 384,000 7 39,380 193,343 1887 507,000 2 510,000 6 41,098 202,420 The following table shows the quantity and value of sugar im])orted to the Colony of New South Wales for each year, from 1877 to 1887 into inclusive : — Year. Raw Sugar. Refined Sugar. Quantity. \'a' uc. Quantity. Value. Tons. £ $ Tons. £ ,^ 1877 22,841 570,818 2,777,886 317 12,277 59,746 1878 27,458 697,234 3,393,089 215 7,457 36,289 1879 35,108 834,916 4,063,119 233 8,422 40,986 1880 19,765 539,953 2,627,681 157 5,435 26,449 1881 27,164 655,722 3,190,505 295 11,948 58,145 1882 32,491 838,256 4,079,373 142 5,285 25,719 1883 27,527 743,374 3,666,290 98 3,715 18,079 1884 33,579 843,385 4,152,998 458 14,523 70,676 1885 27,362 500,084 2,433,659 366 10,077 49,040 1886 29,981 478,992 2,331,015 218 5,646 27,564 1887 25,994 475,958 2,316,250 298 6,897 33,564 176 NEW SOUTH WALES : HER COMMERCE AND RESOURCES. The subjoined tal)le shows the quantity ;\ncl value of raw and refined sugar exi)orted from the Colony of New South AVales for each year, from 1877 to 1887 inclusive: — Raw Sugar. Refined Sujtar. \eai-. Quantity. A'alue. (Juantitj-. Value. Tons. £ 1 Tons. £ $ 1S77 403 14,040 68,. 325 4,070 140,469 683,592 187S 502 15,608 75,956 4,228 170,323 828,877 1879 1,522 4?, 309 205,897 5,281 170,638 830,410 1880 1,779 57,625 280,432 5,265 171,413 834,181 1881 688 20,521 99,861 3,655 116,944 569,108 1882 830 24,685 120,130 2,438 77,258 375,976 1883 778 21,902 107,586 2,014 61,429 298,944 1884 1,284 32,543 158,371 J, 229 37,725 183,589 1885 1,846 36,667 178,440 111 3,366 15,894 1886 5.818 108,877 530,850 23 745 3,626 1887 5,803 110,024 535,432 18 501 2,438 One of the most extensive sugar works in Australia is that of Messrs. Cran & Co., at Bundaberg, Queensland. It has a frontage of 200 feet and a depth of 225 feet, with a "smoke stack" 135 feet high. One of the engines is of 250 lior^e jiower, and about 90,000 gallons of cane juice are daily extracted. From the factory pipes are laid under- ground, connecting with crushing mills on plantations in every direction for a distance of 10 miles. The cane-juice is specially pi-epared by treatment with lime for transit through the pipes. This method is found to be very successful, as it saves the cost of carting the material from the mills to the refinery. The planters usually get 10s. (!|2-43) per ton for cane of a density of 8 degrees. Capitalists, stimulated liy the success of the various sugar-refineries in Victoria, New South Wales, and Queensland, undertook the estab- lishment of a similar enterprise in Auckland, New Zealand, to be, in fact, a branch of the Colonial Sugar Eefining Company of Sydney and Melbourne. A bonus had been offered by the Government in aid of the work, and eflTorts were made to secure it by Auckland, Christchurch, Runedin, and other cities. The prize, however, was won by Auckland. A company was formed thei'e in 1882, and secured 189 acres of land near Northcote, immediately opposite Auckland. The refinery was begun in January, 1883, and on the 30th of August, 1884, it was opened to the public for inspection. Viewed from the harbour the buildings ap]iear to lie massed together in one large square block, which is the case, the workshop and general store being the only ones detached, and between them the space is small. This is unusual in sugar re- fineries in Australasia, as these buildings are generally remote from the refinery. The ])urpose of the Company in 23lacing the buildings so close together was to save labour in handlino- the raw material. Tlic refinerv proper is 90 feet long and 60 wide, and has two sides of brick and two of iron. This building, like ail the others, is covered with a galvanized iron roof. It contains the blov.-up jians, bag-filters, bag-washing tanks^ SUGAR. 1 I i "Vacuum pans, heaters, vacuum engines, centrifugals, and a steam railway. The char department is entirely of heavy brick-woi-k, and is DO feet high and 60 feet square. It contains twenty large cast-iron cylinders, 30 feet in circumference, with a depth of 18 feet. Each cylinder, when filled with water or other liquid, weighs 50 tons. The char-kiln house is of brick and ii'on ; it is 60 feet in length and 42 feet in breadth. It has eight kilns, said to be the largest in the southern hemisphere. The char filters weigh 300 tons. The works produce 400 tons of refined sugar per week. Each vacuum pan contains 300 feet of solid drawn copper coils, and produces at every skipping 7 tons of dry sugar. In this building are the engines. The steam, after actuating the engines, is used for all the cleansing and boiling work of the refinery. Outside of the refinery there are five 30- horse-power steam boilers, a number of patent fuel economizers, a chimney stack 126 feet high, with an internal diameter of 7 feet, and several retorts for making animal charcoal, and gas to light the works. There is also a workshop with lathes, planing-machine, drilling-machines dri^■en by a Tangye engine and boiler. The machinery was made by Merilees, Watson, & Co., of Glasgow, Blake, Barclay & Co., and M'Lean, Angus, k Co., of Greenock. The boilers were furnished by Joseph Clayton, of Preston, England, and the engines and tools by Tangye Bros. The timber used in the buildings cost about £40,000 ($194,660). The works are well supplied with fresh water, a necessary considei'ation for a refinery, as a ton of sugar requires in its various processes fully 1,000 gallons of water. The creek furnishing the supply runs upon both sides of the estate. The lower dam which feeds the boilers is about 2 acres in extent. There are two wharves, each 211 feet in length, with an outward jetty of 330 feet. The wharves stand on solid rock and have a depth of water of 21 feet at low spring tides. The shipping wharf is provided w^ith a long jibbed hydraulic crane and hydraulic jigger capable of discharging cargo at the rate of 200 tons per day. At the end of the jetty and close to the sugar stores is a large size "sveigh-bridge over which all sugar, both inward and outward, is run. The bond which contains the raw sugar as it is landed from the ships is an unusually large one, and is capable of holding 10,000 tons. The bond is 38 feet in height, and on every side pockets of sugar are stacked up to a height of 32 feet. Between the refinery and the bond is an elevated floor to which is connected a hydraulic cage which lifts 2 tons of sugar at every lift on to the floor. This floor, which resembles a draw-bridge, is called a " cutting-in platform," from the fact that the pockets of sugar are cut open on this platform. About 100 tons i)er day are lifted from the bond to the elevated floor. As soon as the pockets are cut open the contents are shot through a trap-door into the melting pans, when the first operation of the refining process takes place. The pans are circular, and hold 6 tons of sugar, and are filled every half-hour. After the sugar is melted the filtering process begins, which is done by means of flaxen bags. The bag filters are provided with run-oS* valves and gutters, steam coils inside, and steam connec- tionsoutside. From the bag filtersthe purified liquor is conducted by cast- iron receivers into the cellar, from which it is pumped into other receivers 178 Ni:\v SOUTH wales: her commerce axd resources. at the top of the char cylinders. Then it passes tlirough various processes until itisready forcrystallization. Thcboilingrangesfrom 90 degrees to 170 degrees Fahrenheit. The pans must be perfectly air and steam tight. The boiling must be performed in vacuum, as the slightest excess of heat may prevent the proper crystallization. Leading from the upper dome of each pan there is a large pipe communicating with a condenser into which cold water is continually rushing. The cold fluid intercepts the vapour from the boiling liquid into the pan and condenses it. The art of the sugar boiler is shown by the uniformity of the crystals which he can produce. After leaving the boiling-room the sugar passes into the "fine-sugar stoi'e," which is made of brick and contains four cast- iron columns. The floor is of Kauri pine, and is divided into bins to separate the different qualities of sugar, each bin holding from .30 to 40 tons. The sugar falls from these bins through a chute into packing bags on the floor underneath, and thence on to the delivery floor at the bottom, where it is stacked and ready for shipment. The New Zealand Sugar Company manufacture much of the raw products of the various sugar mills in the Fiji Islands. In addition to the products of their own mill at the Ba, they obtain those of the enormous mill of the Colonial Sugar Refining Company, bnilt at the junction of the Suva and Rewa Pavers, Fiji. The Colonial Sugar Refining Company has lai'ge plantations and mills in Queensland, besides their refineries in Sydney and IMelbourne. There are several large sugar mills in Fiji in addition to those men- tioned. One, on the Rewa River, belongs to the Rewa Sugar Refining Company and another on the Nanva, the property of Stanlake, Lee, & Co. The Pioneer Mill, on the Island of Mango, just completed by Mr. Leicester Smith, is another large establishment, and there is still another large mill belonging to Billyard Brothers, at Taviiina. These mills are located either on or near the sugar plantations. This appears to be absolutely necessary, for, if the crushing power were not close at hand, fermentation would set in soon after the cane was cut and destroy it. The soil of Fiji is so well adapted to the growth of the cane that many other mills, it is said, will shortly be established. Land, which now sells at £5 ($24; an acre, would bring from £15 ($73) to £20 ($97) an acre if crushing power in the vicinity were available. Mr. Thomson Leys is of the opinion that Fiji will develop in the near future one of the largest sugar industries in the southern hemisphere. This industry is one that requires a large outlay of capital. Some idea of the extent of the operations of the various companies in Fiji may be formed from the following statistics in reference to the Colonial Sugar Company, the first ever established there. This company during the season of 1886, employed 2,980 men, of whom 120 were Europeans, 2,650 coolies, 160 Polynesians, 50 Fijians. During the crushing season, from May to December, two steam-tugs, four steam-launches, and forty iron punts, capable of carrying from 50 to 100 tons each, were con- tinually employed, and forty additional punts have been constructed for this season's work. The mill has also been increased from a capacity of 50 tons to 100 tons per day. ■ The Governor of Fiji expressed the opinion that the depression in the sugar market of the world was a sign of overproduction. His fears are SUGAR. 1 79 groundless. The United States consumes fully one-fourth of all the sugar product of the world, and the demand for it increases in propor- tion to the reduction in price. The Queensland Government has recently voted the sum of £-50,000 (.$24.3,325), for the purpose of establishing central sugar-mills, with the condition that European labour shall be employed. Three places, all north of Rockhampton, have been selected by the instructor as the most eligible— £18,000 for one, £20,000 for a second, and £12,000 for a third; but Mr. Hodgkinson, to whose judgment the business has been assigned by the Government, is in doubt Avhether, with low prices in sugar and untrustworthy labour, apt to siiike at a critical time, success will follow the undertaking. He thinks one man and family might work 20 acres of cane, but this is doubtful in a moist and hot climate. Sugar, like distilled spirits, is an artificial product. It was unknown in Europe in the present form in the fifteenth century, and about fifty years ago it was regarded as an article of luxury ; now it is so abundant that even the poorest families are supplied with it. The vast increase in its consumption is principally owing to the simple and economic means of production. The annual consumption in the United States has been stated to be 2,500,000,000 lb. This does not include molasses, made from corn starch and sorghum, nor the quantity of molasses and syrups that were imported. The total sugar product of the world is set down at over 7,000,000 tons, of wiiich more than 2,000,000 are composed of maple and sorghum. Sugar is now the leading export of Fiji, exceeding that of copra dried meat of the cocoa-nut, the former chief export of the country. The organisation of companies for the manufacture of sugar should lead to the general introduction of American sugar making and refining machinery. Indeed so much attention has been directed to the superiority of American sugar-making machinery over that of the French or English, that it is slowly making its way into Queensland and other portions of Australasia. Messrs. Newell & Co., Melbourne, Victoria, succeeded in introducing into Queensland and New South Wales a considerable quantity of sugar-making machinery from the Colwell Iron Works, New York. Those who have examined carefully the American plant express a decided preference for it, but the habit of purchasing nearly all kinds of machinery in the United Kingdom seems to be difficult to overcome. The manufacturers of sugar macliinery in the United States would find it to their interest, not only to establish agencies in Anstralasia, but to employ intelligent and practical men for the purpose of advertising their machinery in the leading journals of the Colonies, and to distribute drawings and catalogues, illustrating the special advantages of their manufacturing plant. For instance, it is not generally known that the American double and triple effects, clarifiers, beam vacuum pumpi'iig engines, centrifugal machines, cane-mills, char- kilns, and char-filters are the best and cheapest in the world, and that S. S. Hep worth & Co., at Yonkers, N. Y.^ have perfected a centrifugal machine for draining sugar and other substances, which is very much superior to anything of the kind ever made in Europe. These machines 180 NEW SOUTH WALES: HER COMMERCE AND RESOURCES. aro lar«,'ely used iti Peru, Mexico, Sandwich Islands and Jamaica, Trinidad a"nd Barbadoes, Cuba and Porto Rico. It lias l)een ])ointed out in America that the " triple eflect evaporating apparatus," made at the Colwell Iron Works, New York, uses h^ss fuel and ])roduces a better quality of sugar by boiling in vacuum at low lieat than any similar apparatus of foreign manufacture. It is said that, with this apparatus, the actual cjuantity of steam for boiling any water for condensing is fully one-third less than required for the same work by an ordinary vacuum pan, and that beet-root sugar factories are compelled to use it from the nature of the juice. The sugar planters and manufacturers of the West India Islands are dee])ly sensible of the superiority of the American sugar machinei-y, and do not hesitate to avail themselves of it, and there is no just reason why the American manufacturers should not extend their trade to Australasia. As yet none of the Australian refineries have found it profitable to manufacture cubes or block sugar; however, as this article is not only popular here, but is preferred to other kinds for table use, there .should be little difficulty in inducing sugar companies to manufac- ture it. The cost of making these cubes is about the same as that of ordinary granulated or crystal sugar. Indeed, it is said that one- twentieth of a cent, a pound will more than cover the expense of converting sugar into cubes. A refinery that does not make hard sugar could thus, by the employment of one of the American machines, and at a cost not to exceed £400 (81,946) or £600 ($2,928), add largely to their profits during the year. Some of these machines turn out easily four or five thousand pounds of sugar per hour. Only five men are required to run one of them, including the labour of putting the sugar in and taking it out from the stoves or drying rooms. For many years small quantities of sugar have been shipped to this Colony both from the Atlantic and the Pacific coasts of the United States. This sugar is generally manufactured either in Saint Louis or San Francisco. It is of a very superioi- quality and designed for extra table use. The price is so low that it usually takes precedence over all other high grades of sugar, and besides, it is made of cane, and is readily distinguished from continental sugar, by the absence of the flavour of the Ijeet. The American cubed sugar has also distanced all competitors, although unfortunately at present there is only a limited demand for this class of sugar except for table use, a lower grade being preferred, and especially in the country towns. The cubes made at the American Sugar Refinery, at San Francisco, are very white and glistening and contain far more saccharine matter than the English tablets of D. Marti neau & Son, once so popular in this market. The latter also is of a much darker colour than the American cubes. The San Francisco sugar refineries also ship here small quantities of crushed sugar. Local dealers state that a fair profit is always made on American sugars, and that low freights and a more frequent steam service would ])ush the trade to large proportions. The buyers also prefer the light American barrels and half barrels to the heavy cases in which the English sugar is shipped. The tare of the former is 11 lb. to 104 lb. and the latter 281b. tare to the 100 lb. of sujrar. SUGAR. 181 The English manufacturers comphiin that the Ijounty system existing in Germany and Austria lias closed up many of the refineries in the United Kingdom and glutted the mai'ket with an inferior quality of sugar. They also complain bitterly of the manner in which American granulated sugar is pushed in British markets. The lai'ge and steady annual increase in the consumption of sugar in the Australasian Colonies has directed very general attention to the var- ious methods for its production. >So much interest was taken in the subject that the Government of New Zealand passed an Act for the encouragement of the manufacture of sugar from beet-root and sorghum. Mr. W. A. Graham, of Hamilton, New Zealand, wrote an interesting ])amphlet on the inducements offered for the manufacture of beet-root sugar, and Mr. Pond, the Government Analyst at Auckland, published the results of a series of experiments he had made with beet-roots, in which the average yield of sugar was 12-29 per cent., the highest being lo and the lowest 9'82 per cent. Mr. Pond's paper is so full of interesting and valuable material in the interests of beet-root cultivators, and contains the result of so many chemical experiments of a direct, practical character, that it is re- produced, although the opinion is expressed in various quarters that the production of sugar from cane will, in the end, prove more profitable than from the beet-root : On the Sugar Values of Beet-root Grown in the Waikato, New Zealand. (By I. A. Pond, Government Analyst.) A PAPER was read before the New Zealand Institute, entitled " On the Growth of Sugar-beet in New Zealand," by Dr. S. M. Curl. In this paper the writer ably reviewed the subject and placed much valuable data before us, but when speaking of tlie values of sugar in the different varieties of beet-root examined by him, he claimsd to have found as high as 17 "5 per cent. This excessive amount, and the fact that parliamentary papers had been published giving analysis of New Zealand grown beets, showing much less favourable results, and the absence of any details of examination, led me to take up this subject with the view of practical oparations should the experiments justify it. I had interested myself in the matter of sugar beet, owing to some superior seed having been brought from Hambuigli by Mr. G. S. Graham, and finding it had been distributed amongst some of the Waikato settlers for planting, I undertook the examination of the roots when they should be sufficiently grown. Mr. W. A. Graham, of Tamahere, who had taken a great interest in the matter, liad papers printed ac- cording to a plan drawn out by himself, and forwarded to those settlers who had inidertaken to grow the roots. These papers were designed to obtain data for the future guidance of a company, sliould one be formed through any satisfactory result of those experiments, and were divided into columns requesting information, as follows : — Particulars of Waikato Beet-roots. From whom forwarded, and name of estate. Character of soil, and whether drained. Whether manured or otherwise ; if manured, state character of manure. AVhether from imported seeds, or from Mhere obtained. (iive approximate of weight to the acre, if possible. Analytical results. Percentage of beet sugar and notes. The first instalment I received was from Mr. L. O'Neill, Hamilton. There were three roots, grown from seed imported by Mr. Lavers, and resulted as follows : — No. 1, weight, 2 pounds 2 ounces ; percentage of cane sugar, 1095. No. 2, weight, 1 pound 2 ounces; percentage of cane sugar, 10'17. No. 3, weight, 12 ounces ; percentage of cane sugar, 13 '55. 182 NEW SOUTH wales; her commerce a\d resources. A month later Mr. O'Neill forwarded a parcel of four roots from the same crop. Taking the largest of them, weighing 2 pounds 2 ounces, I found the percentage of sugar to be 14-25; the three others I aggregated with a like percentage of 14-25. Finally I received a parcel of five roots from the same grower, which had been removed from the ground and stored. Two of these I have examined, with the following results :— No. 8, weight, 2 pounds 7 ounces ; percentage of sugar, 11-40. No. 9, weight, 2 pounds; pei'centage of sugar, 14"25. The further examination of these roots I will speak of again, in relation to the specific gravity of the juice. I also received three roots from ^Ir. Ralph, Huntley, marked sugar beet. They were of a full red-coloured skin, but I have received no knowledge of the name of the seed or -where procured. Result of analysis : — No. 1, weight, 5 pounds 5 ounces ; percentage of sugar, 4 -.31. No. 2, weight, 12 ounces; percentage of sugar, 7"50. No. 3, weight, 9 ounces ; percentage of sugar, 11 "87. This root No. 1 was a well-shaped one, of large proportions, very watery, but with a very low percentage of sugar. This is the lowest result I have obtained, and far below any other. At the same time its excessive size would lead to the conclusion that its value in sugar was low. One more parcel I received of unknown seed, from Raglan, thi'ough Mr. Will, comprising five small roots, badly formed, the largest of which, weighing 1 poimd 12 ounces, yielded a percentage of sugar, 8-14. I now proceed to note the results of the seed obtained by Mr. Graham fi'om Hamburgh, and which had been distributed as already noted. There wei'e three kinds in all. No. 1. — (renuine white small Wanzlebenel imperial. No. 2. — Deppes pure white improved Silesian imperial. No. 3. — Extra saccharine red-top imperial. In the following notes I will simply call these varieties by their respective Nos. 1, 2, and 3. I received three roots, one of each variety, from Mr. R. Watson, Pukerimu. No. 1, weight, 13 ounces ; percentage of sugar, 13 '57. No. 2, weight, 1 pound 1 ounce; and No. 3 weight, 12 ounces, I treated in the aggregate, with the result of 15 per cent, of sugar, this being the highest value obtained. I received a parcel of five roots from INlr. E. B. AValker, Cambridge, the weights of which were between 1 pound 1 ounce and 1 pound 15 ounces, and were of the three varieties, but without anything to distinguish them. These I treated in the aggregate, with the result of 13-57 per cent, of sugar. Taking the best pro- portioned root of the parcel, weight, 1 pound 10 ounces, I found it to contain 15 per cent, of sugar. I received samples of the three kinds of root already named from Mr. T. Good- fellow, Alexandria, which gave the following results : — No. 1. Weight, Impound ; percentage of sugar, 12-66. No. 2. Weight, H pound ; percentage of sugar, 11-40. No. 3. Weight, 2^ pounds ; percentage of sugar, 9-82. These roots arrived with the crowns removed. I had, therefore, no opportunity of observing whether there had been any late growth of leaves, but from tlie fresh- ness of the roots and the results above quoted, I should think they had been left in the ground, and not dug up at maturity and stored. I have now given the results of the examination of roots grown in the different parts of the Waikato, and will not unnecessarily multiply the details, but take as a last experiment the result of analysis of roots grown upon Mr. Graham's estate at Tamahere. It was my desire to examine these roots while they grew, and, if possible, to note the time at which they become matured, and on that account, the crop having been sown late, I received samples of the three varieties on the 8th February, resulting as follows :— No. 1. Weight, 1 pound 1 ounce ; percentage of sugar, 8-90. No. 2. Weight, 1 pound 6 ounces; percentage of sugar, 7-50. No. 3. Weight, 9 ounces; percentage of sugar, 8-38. These roots were immature, and consequently the results were low. On the 26th March I received another parcel of the three kinds from the same estate, yielding as follows :— No. 1. Weight, 1 pound 2 ounces ; percentage of sugar, 10-55. No. 2. Weight, 2 pounds ; percentage of sugar, 11-87. No. 3. Weight, 1 pound 7 ounces ; percentage of sugar, 11 '17. SUGAR. 1 83 On the 7th May I visited the ground and cliose samples of the tliree varieties which were still in the ground, rather overgrown with weeds and certainly having been left too long in the earth, the leaves still growing vigorously, the result no doubt of the late rains which had then been falling. Still they were fine roots, averaging from 1 to 3 pounds. They had been planted too far apart, and much space had been lost and room given for weeds to accumulate in. Being rather pressed for time I was unable to make a separate examination of these roots, and therefore I treated them in the aggregate with a result of 12 '79 percent, of sugar. Finally on the 29th August, I received samples of each variety fresh from the ground where they had still been allowed to remain, though fully four mouths had elapsed since they had reached maturity. These roots had been growing vigorously, a large crop of young leaves shooting up at the expense of the sugar stored uj) in the root. The result of the analyses, though low, has surprised me at the amount even yet left in the roots. No. 1. Weight, 2 pounds 9 ounces ; percentage of sugar, 7 '•42. No. 2. Weight, 2 pounds 4 ounces; percentage of sugaj-, 6 '47. No. 3. Weight, 3 pounds 5 ounces ; percentage of sugar, 8*(!5. Three of this parcel of I'oots were forwarded by j\Ir. Graham to Dr. Hector, Wellington, for analysis, with the result appended : — JResuKs of analysis. — Three roots of sugar beet for sugar. Received 13th Sep- tembei", reported on 23rd Sei^tember, 1881 : No. 1. Weight, 1 pound 2 ounces; sugar per cent., S'42. No. 2. Weight, 1 pound 10 ounces ; sugar per cent., S'Ol. No. 3. Weight, 2 pounds 10 ounces ; sugar per cent., 6'94. These are fairly good yields. In reference to the methods of analysis and the sampling of the roots, I may re- mark that in every case, to insure a true average, I have punctured the root from crown to apex, taking core for the purposes of analysis, as it is a well-known fact that the sugar is not found in equal proportions throughout, the root being- richer in sugar in the lower than in the upper portion. Having thus obtained a fair average of the root, I have accurately weighed and then pulped the assay portion in a motar with distilled water, and inverted the sugar in the ordinary man- ner with dilute sulphuric acid, making my quantity up to a known amount, from which I have charged the burette in the ordinary way. Fearful of the conversion of the woody fibre into glucose, and a consequent false increase of the results, I have frequently checked this process by filtering oft' the diffused juice from the pulp, well washing the latter, and then inverting the sugar contained, but in all these cases the pulp still retains a small amount of saccharine matter, but the dift'erence between these two methods is so small as not to cause much disparity, and here I will give one experiment to show the diS'erence. A root of the red-top imperial weighing 2^ pounds was taken, and two cores from the puncture tube fairly chosen, to the weight of 2 gTams each, pulped, and the one inverted with the pulp, the second filtered, the pulp washed and tlie filtrate in- verted ; the percentages of sugar being 9 '82 in the first portion and 9 '50 in the second. The difference I attribute to the sugar still left in the pulp. The methods by which I Iiave determined the percentages of sugar have been with Fehling's copper solution and Knapp's mercuric cyanide solution, both volumetric analyses, the former being in my opinion the most accurate. To ensure precision, I have frequently inverted pure anhydrous cane sugar, and estimated my standard solu- tions with it, ami therefore feel justified in saying that the analyses given by me in this paper are reliable. In addition to the chemical analysis we have the specific gi-avity, this being a very reliable guide to the value of sugar present, and this I have obtained after expression of the juice on several occasions by means of the balance. Before con- cluding this portion of my paper on the chemical manipulations, it will be interesting in a few cases to note the relative proportions between the chemical values and the specfic gravities. The root already mentioned as having been received from Mr. Walker, Cambridge, and which I estimated to contain 15 per cent, of sugar, was grated until it had lost weight equal to 200 grams, the juice from which being expressed equalled 128 c. c, added water to the pulp and macerated, pressed to near dryness and made up the amount with water to 200 c. c. Found the specfic gravity of the pure juice before adding water to be 1 -08087, and the percentage of cane sugar in the 200 c. c. to be 14-.35, the difterence being the amount of sugar still retained by the pulp. Again a root from Mr. O'Neill was grated, 1 pound of which yielded 14| ounces weight of juice, and \% ounce pulp. The specific gravity equalled r0528, and the per- centage of sugar in the juice was 11 "4. 184 NKw SOUTH wales: her commerce and resources. One more experiment I will give, that of a root weighing 2 pounds, of which 14 ounces was grated, yielding 12 ounces juice and 2 ounces pulp ; the specific gravity of the juice being 1 -OOaS, and the percentage of sugar present 14-25. There is one point in connection with this subject which deserves more than a passing notice, and that is in reference to the presence of chlorides, and especially that of chloride of sodium — common salt — this being so detrimental as to result in a loss of o per cent, of sugar for every 1 per cent, of the salt. AVhen making my examination for sugar I have .also tested for the presence of chlorine, but only to find a trace in any of the Waikato beet-i'oots with one exception which, having been left in the gi-ound at least four months too long, are heavily charged with chlorides. One interesting feature is in the absence, beyond a trace, of chlorides in the roots received from Raglan, already mentioned, and this though grown in the vicinity of the sea. I may state that I have not estimated the amount of chlorides, but simply as a qualitative test. The distribution of the seed in the W'aikato alone was in consequence of its distance from tiie sea and the very favouralde situation and comparative absence of chloride of sodium from the pumice soil, but its cultivation in other portions of the Auckland district fairly deserves a trial. The great objection to the presence of salt, either from the proximity to sea air, fertilization of the ground with it, or from an abnormal amount being naturally present, is owing to the impossibility of freeing the sugar from this substance, and in consequence the estimation of chlorides is only second in importance to that of the sugar present. So inimical is this salt that M. Baruchson says : "In some instances the undue proportion of this salt in sugar has nearly rendered the sugar unsaleable ; and so generally is this recognized abroad, especially in Germany, that the manufacturers in contracting with the growers of the root stipulate that it shall not be grown on certain soils, and often even name the manure which shall be used." It is owing to this substance, and the want of sufficient care in eliminating the molasses that beet sugar at one time was strongly objected to on account of the taste, and even here I have heard complaints of the same character. On this subject (irant, in his " Beet root Sugar,'' remarks : " There was formerly a prejudice in tlie minds of many people against beet sugar ; but it is pei-fectly well ascertained that, if properly i-efined, it cannot be distinguished from the best sugar of sugar cane, either Ijy taste, appearance, or chemical analysis ; the two are identical." Again, on page 24, he remarks : " The cost of producing from the beet a pure white sugai-, entirely free from unpleasant smell or taste, is but a trifle more than is required to produce a lower grade. In Germany refined loaf sugar is produced directly from tlie beet. In France the brown is first produced, and then refined. Within the last two j'ears, however, sugar has been produced of such purity and whiteness, that it has been sold directly for consumption without refining ; and there is no question that the peculiar odour of the beet may be entirely got rid of in the manufactory." I will quote one more authority to this subject, and that one of the highest we could have. I allude to Crookes, who says in his work "Manufacture of Beet-root Sugar": "Crystallized beet-root sugar is perfectly identical in composition with cane sugar, and is indistinguishable from it by the sight, tlie taste, or by chemical tests." Proceeding from the foregoing facts to summarize my results, I find that the value of sugar obtained from the whole of the roots examined by me last season under .S^^ft. in weight is a percentage of 11-66, but this average includes the immature ones from Tamahere, made when they weie but half-gi-own, and also these roots now before us, which, having remained in the earth so many months after coming to maturity, have deteriorated considerably. If then we exclude these, the average result of the rest shows a percentage of 12-45 ; but as some of the roots examined were practically too small for manufacturing j>urposes, I propose to exclude all under lit), weight, and thus reduce the average to roots between 1 and 31t). weight, this being a useful size for manufacturing purposes, large enough to pass safely through the washing machine without being lost or clogging the bars, and yet not too large to materially reduce the percentage of sugar. By this exclusion the average is 12-29, my highest being 15 and lowest 9-82. • In arriving at these results, I do so after a series of experiments extending over the past seven months, in which time I have made upwards of eighty analyses and examined more than sixty beet-roots grown in difierent parts of the Waikato, many of them raised under very unfavourable conditions ; some I found overrun SUGAR, 185 with weeds, of others cattle had destroyed the leaves, while the majority were planted too far apart, and in almost all cases not sufficiently earthed-up, in consequence of which a portion of the sugar contained in the root, exposed to sun and air, becomes conv^erted into other substances. Yet, notwitlistanding all these disadvantages, the average of all the analyses made by me, with the exception of one root weighing over 51b., was 11'66, while the exclusion of those which would under no circumstances be permitted to enter a sugar factory brought up the total to 12"45, an average return so favourable that it would result in a very large profit were it achieved in the countries were beet sugar factories are established. That these results are not exceptional is, I think, shown by the wide area over which I have obtained my supplies for examination ; and that it will be fully equalled on the large scale is sliown by the unskilled manner in which some of these roots were planted and tended, and also by the request, which in nuany instances was adhered to, that no manui-e should be used. So far from this, I feel convinced that with due attention, proper cultivation, and suitable manuring, a higher percentage will be obtained than from those which the past season's growth has furnished us with ; and should a factory be establishecl for the conversion of beet- sugar, I believe the true economy of procedure would be in the purchase of roots at a fixed rate per ton, with an additional scliedule price for every degree of sugar above a minimum, a practice which works beneficially amongst some of the German factories ; especially would this be the case in the Colonies, where the higher price of labour would naturally lead us to seek for the maximum of sugar from a minimum of root. It is not within the scope of this paper to dilate upon the value to this district should such an industry find a home amongst us, but the benefits would be so great and varied, while the returns whicli I have now brought before you give so large a promise of success, that I hope the early future may find such an establishment situated where it would be most profitably worked — in the centre of the Waikato district — where soil, temperature, and the absence of sea air proclaim its fitness for the growth of the beet. The increase of the production of beet-root sugar in various parts of the world has led many to Ijelieve that it may supersede sugar made from cane. Some idea of the growth and extent of the industry can be formed from the estimated production of beet-root in Europe. The estimates of beet and cane sugar together give the following comparisons : — 1886-7. 18S5-6. 1884-5. 1883-4. Beet sugar , tons. 2,580,000 2,368,000 tons. 2,127,041 2,197,000 tons. 2,545,889 2,210,000 tons. 2,360,314 Cane sugar 2,150,000 4,948,000 4,324,041 4,755,889 4,510,314 In 1878 the total production of all the countries in the world was 1,101,141 tons, which, as will be .seen from the preceding table, is less than one-half of the amount of 1886-7. In 1881 the output was 1,860,974 tons; in 1880 it was 1,403,929 tons; and in 1879 it was 1,574,153 tons. It will be seen from Mr. Pond's paper that he quotes from Grant's works on " Beet-root Sugar, ' to pi'ove that the peculiar odour of the beet maybe got rid of in the pro- cess of manufacture', and that there is no difference between sugar made from the beet-root and that made from the cane. Crooke's work is also cited to establish the fact that the two sugars are essentially the same. It should, nevertheless, be borne in mind that sugar cane is much 186 NEW SOUTH WALES : HER COMMERCE AND RESOURCES. richer in saccliarine matter than the beet-root. Within the hist few years tlie methods of manufacturing sugar from the beet have been gi-eatly improved, l)ut impi'ovements of equal or greater value have been applied to the manufacture of sugar from the cane. Much stress is laid on tlie fact that the improved systems of modern agriculture have very greatly raised the yield of beet-root crops, but it is none the less true that the same systems of agriculture have inci'eased in quite as high a degree the yield of the crops of sugar cane. Mr. Steel, tlie analyst of the New Zealand Sugar Company, explains that, while crystallizable sugar is identical in all its properties, whether derived from the sugar-cane or beet-root, or from any other source, there are other circumstances which must be considered besides the mere identity of this substance when derived from different sources. For instance, associated with the crystallizable sugar, which is the sweeten- ing element, there are naturally present in all sugar-producing ])lants otlier bodies which vary gi-eatly in nature and amount in diffei'ent plants, and which are more or less difficult to separate from the sugar according to their nature. In the juice of the sugar cane the organic and inorganic impurities are exceedingly small in quantity and not of a nature to impart an objectionable flavour to the sugar ; they are moreover comparatively easy of i-emoval. In the beet-root the opposite is the case. Here we have to deal with organic and saline impurities, in very much greater propor- tion than is the case with the cane, and these impurities, all accounts agree, have a most tenaceous and objectionable flavour and smell. The amount- of crop from an acre of land is much greater in the case of cane than of beet. In Germany the yield of cleaned beets per acre may be fairly stated at from 10 to 12 tons. In Queensland and New South Wales the yield of cleaned cane, ready for crushing, is about 25 tons per acre, at a low estimate for one-year-old cane, and for two-year-old it may be safely taken at from 40 to .50 tons. Here the cane has a de- cided advantage, even when we do not consider that it requires much less attention during its growth than the beet-root. Again, the amount of sugar contained in the cane is greater than that present in the beet. From 11 to 13 per cent, is a fair allowance as to amount of sugar in the best beet-root. In Australia the canes contain from 11 to 18 per. cent, (generally about 14 or 16), according to age and variety. Then, again, the beet crop has to be rejilanted after each harvest, while the sugar cane is " ratooned " twice at least ; that is, a second and third crop are obtained in succeeding seasons from the same old roots without re- planting. The pulp resulting from the extraction of sugar from the beet can be utilized as fodder for cattle. The begasse, the residue from the crushing of the cane, is in all modern and well-regulated sugar mills utilized as fuel, being burnt along with coal or wood in specially constructed furnaces. Of late considerable attention has been directed to the subject of utilizing the begasse in paper-making. The chief impediment to its practical use is in the hard fibre from the joints of the canes, which is more difficult to pulp than that of the spaces between the joints. In refining the raw sugars produced from beet-root and from cane, the latter has important advantages over the former. SUGAR. 187 While there is no difficulty in the way of refininp; and disposing of the higher grades of raw beet-root sugar, when it comes to working up the lower products the matter assumes quite a difterent aspect. The impurities in beet sugar consist of saline and organic bodies, having a disagreeable taste and smell, and it is veiy generally admitted that these cannot be completely separated from the lower grades in the process of refining, and consequently the refined product contains more or less of them ; besides, in working the lower grades of beet sugar, the accumulation of impurities renders it necessary to turn out the residual syrups, and this is done in the form of golden syrup. It is also admitted that the products of the cane can be worked to an infinitely further extent in the refining than those of the beet, without the necessity of turning out syrup. The golden syrup produced from the residues of the refining of beet sugar has an objectionable smell, and it is customary to mask this by the use of sulphuric acid, which gives a sharp, biting taste to the syrup. When cane sugar residues are worked up into golden syrup, the product is sightly and palatable, and of an entirely difierent flavour to that made from the beet sugar. While it is difficult to distinguish between the higher grades of the refined products of the beet and cane, the lower grades are very palpably marked. The impurities in the two sugars, which differ so much in their properties, but which it is impracticable to remove, are, in the case of the beet-root, of a particularly persistent nature. Many contend that the sweetening power derived from the beet, and par- ticularly in the lower grades, is inferior to that derived from the cane. It is not disputed that the sweetness is not there, for it is there, in exact proportion to the amount of cane, or crystallizable sugar present, but it is maintained that the sweetness is masked by the flavour of the impurities inherent to the beet sugar, and hence the inferior sweetening power. The impurities, even in the very lowest qualities of cane sugar, are of quite a diff'erent nature and do not tend to mask the intrinsic sweetening power of the sugar. If we taste a little of the lower grades of raw beet sugar, we find that it has little or none of the characteristic flavour or sweetness of sugar, but possesses a very disagreeable sickly, saline, oily taste. On the other hand, the lowest black " takas" or " concrete" sugars from the cane have always the strong, sweet taste. In a modified degree this is precisely the diff"erence between the refined products of the two sugars. The advocates of the cane-sugar industry state that the wasteful methods of extraction which have always been applied to the sugar-cane have given the beet-root, with the fostering care bestowed upon it as an industry, a temporary advantage over its naturally more favoured rival, and they confidently believe that it is only a matter of time when the cane will reassume its old jjosition as the principal source of sugar. There is, however, one point in favour of beet-root, and that is the possibility of cultivating it in climates too cold for the sugar-cane. Mr. Steel has prepared the following valuable tables showing the analyses of various kinds of representative raw sugars, including beet- root sugars, Australian cane sugars, Fiji sugars, and sugars from Java, Formosa, andTakao, and the analyses of refined sugars, syruj^s, molasses. These tables were prepared by Mr. Steel while employed in various refineries in Europe, and have never hitherto been published. 188 NEW SOUTH WALES : HER COMMERCE AND RESOURCES. Analyses of Raw And Refined Sugars, Ac. Beet-root Sugar. Crj'stallizable sugar Other organic matters Ash (saline matters) Water ! 96-00 1-31 1-19 1-50 100-00 95-00 1-10 1 15 2-75 94-00 1-33 1-17 3 50 94-00 1-71 1-39 2-90 93-60 1-41 1 64 3-35 91-20 2-27 2-23 4-30 90-50 2-50 2 45 4-55 100-00 100-00 100-00 100-00 100-00 100-00 Net titre 1 90-05 89-25 88-15 87-05 85-40 80-05 78-25 9200 2-21 2-99 2-80 100-00 91-00 2-66 3 04 3-30 88-40 2-84 3-11 5-65 88-50 3-24 4-01 4-25 86-00 3-39 4 06 6-55 86-00 3-43 4-32 6-25 86-60 3-20 4-57 Water 5-45 100-00 100-00 100-00 100-00 100 00 100-00 77-05 75-80 72-85 68-45 65-70 64-40 62-85 Beet-root Sugars containincr Fruit Sugar. Crystallizable sugar . . Fruit sugar Other organic matters Ash (saline matters) . . Water 89-20 88-20 87- 1-82 2-15 1- 2-20 2 45 3- 2-43 2-60 2- 4-35 4-60 4 -J Cane Sugars. Australian Sugars. Crjstallizable sugar . . Fruit sugar Other organic matters Ash (saline matters) . . Sand Water 96-20 •96 1-16 Net titre 95-50 1 90 •66 ' 1-19 98-70 117 2-22 1-18 ' 1-73 1-69 2-U 90-60 3-81 1^48 1^29 ' 2-82 89-50 4-12 1-74 1-53 ' 3-11 82-20 5-88 4-53 2-75 ' 4-64 62-57 Fiji Sugars. Java Sugars. Crystallizable sugar Fruit sugar 95-90 1-12 101 -34 •04 159 92-40 2-63 1-43 •67 •03 2-84 89-70 3-29 1-90 114 -05 3-92 87-30 3-69 2-80 1-2S •05 4 88 97 20 •85 •85 •21 •06 •83 _ 95-10 1-75 1-16 ■33 •07 1-59 94-50 1 2-45 •97 ■33 •07 1-68 92-30 3-03 1-15 -40 •13 2-39 Other organic matters . .- Ash (saline matters) Sand Water 100-00 100-00 100-00 100-00 100 00 95-30 100-00 100-00 100 00 Net titre 93-08 86-42 80-71 77-21 91-70 90-40 86-67 China Sugars. Crystallizable sugar . Fruit sugar Other organic matters Ash (saline matters) . . Sand Water Net titre Formosa Sugars. 80-00 7-13 2-84 2-18 -30 7-55 100-00 80-00 I 7-38 3-97 2-66 •14 I 5-85 i 76-70 8-56 5-93 2-68 -20 5-93 100-00 j 100-00 59-32 , 54-74 Takao Sugars. 82-10 6-29 4-47 2-30 -24 4 60 100-00 80-60 7-02 4-04 1-42 -09 6-83 100-00 78-50 5-69 5-11 2-59 -18 7 93 100-00 76-30 8-26 3-47 2-79 -20 8-98 10000 SUGAR. Refined Susfars. 189 Loaf sugar. First white. First counters. Yellow. Crystallizable sugar .... 99-50 -10 -14 -02 •24 99-30 -16 -20 -02 -32 98-20 97-70 •47 •o? •12 -35 -04 -05 1-17 ' 1-33 96^20 1-05 •49 •12 2^14 94^10 2-57 •83 ■31 2^19 93-30 3-10 •53 •38 2-69 87-70 6-34 1-38 1^00 3^58 85-60 8-10 1-45 1-28 3-57 85-40 7-85 Other organic matters . . Ash (saline matters) .... ■\V'ater 1-67 1-17 3^91 100-00 lOO-OO 100-00 100-00 1 ' 100^00 100^00 100-00 100^00 100^00 100^00 Syrup and Molasses. Crystallizable sugar . . Fruit sugar Other organic matters Ash (saline matters).. Water Golden syruj). Raw beet molasses. Raw cane molasses. 39^50 28^57 9-61 5-27 17-05 100-00 27-82 35^71 13-55 5-47 17-45 -54 23-22 10-94 16-50 51-14 7-54 14-88 9-79 16-65 46-02 12-93 10^34 11 •se 19-35 100-00 100-00 100-00 100-00 It may be explained that crystallizable sugar is the body to which the sugar owes its sweetness. It is known by various other names, such as sucrose, cane sugar. Fruit sugar is glucose or uncrystallizable sugar. The net titre is the theoretical amount of pure loaf sugar which would be obtained were the sugar refined up entirely into loaf sugar and syrup. It is merely, however, an empirical figure, and its use is solely for com- parative purposes, for which it is of great value. It is based on the assumption that each 1 part of ash prevents 5 parts of crystallizable sugar from crystallizing, holding it in solution as syrup ; and' that each 1 ])art of fruit sugar has the crystallization of its own weight of cane .sugar. Therefore, to find the net titre or theoretical available per- centage of sugar in any sample, we multiply the ash by 5, add on the fruit sugar, and deduct the total fiom the crystallizable or cane sugar ; the result is the net titre. On the examination of the table of analyses it will be seen that cane sugar is superior to the product of the beet in net titre. Thus, a cane sugar containing 90-60 per cent, of crystallizable sugar, has a net titre of 80-29 per cent, while a beet-root sugar has a not titre of 80-0,9 per cent. This holds good throughout the whole series. These analyses of beet-root sugar, Mr. Steel states, are fair representatives of the sugar of this class imported for the Greenock refineries. The analyses of cane sugars will give an idea of the composition of the sugar from the main sugar-producing districts, imported into Australia. The refined sugars are average products of a refinery working cane sugar. The golden syrup was made in a refinery in Greenock working a mixture of beet and cane sugars. The composition of the molasses from the boot and cane factories varies exceedingly according to the system of working. Beet- root sugar seldom contains any fruit sugar. 190 -NEW SOUTH wales: her commerce and resources. TOBACCO. Although tobacco lias been grown for many years in various parts of Australasia, tlio industry has not reached the proportions which people seem to have a reasonable riglit to expect. The quality of the leaf, thus far, produced is not good, and it has a strong rank taste and smell. At first these peculiarities were attributed to a want of knowledge as to the proper methods of growing the plant and curing the leaf, but it now appears that there are other dithculties to overcome. Mr. Augustus Morris, the New South Wales Executive Commissioner to the Inter- national Exhibition at Philadelphia, was instructed by his government, dui'ing his visit to the United States, to devote as much time as possible to the investigation of the various methods of cultivating tobacco and curing the leaf in that country. The results of Mr. Morris's investiga- tions were embodied in an exhaustive report on the subject, the publica- tion of -which attracted much attention in tobacco growing countries. Mr. Morris states in his report that he paid particular attention to the growth of the ])lant in California, from the fact that the conditions in which it was grown there were similar to those in New South Wales and other portions of Australia. He argued that the difficulties Avhich had been overcome in California could be overcome in the same way in Australia. He said that the most experienced planters found, after growing their crops, that they were unable to do anything Avith the leaf. The sources of failure lay, not in the properties of the leaf itself, but in the arid and dessicating atmosphere of a Californian autumn. The same trouble exists in many parts of New South Wales, Avhere it is difficult to remove from the leaf all its moisture so gradually as to allow of sufficient time elapsing to provide for the decomposition of the green colouring matter, cidoro'pliyl, that is, to ensure the partial conversion of the starch into gum and sugar, the changes, in short, which in a moister climate take place naturally in the plant after it is cut and before it is dried, the changes which constitute curing, as distinguished from drying. Mr. Morris said : — " The wide range over which the plant is grown in the United States oiight to assure the most sceptical that there is nothing in its own nature to exclude it from the soils and climate of Australia. From Wisconsin with its intensely cold winters to Florida with its broiling sujiimers, and from the rich lands of Missouri to the poor ones" of Connecticut, it is a staple subject of husbandry."' The total tobacco product of the whole of the Australasian Colonies is about 5,000,000 lb. per annum, and very nearly one-half of that is grown in New South Wales, Victoria taking the second place on the list. In 1886 New South Whales had 1,603 acres under crop with a product of 2,-570,064 lb. During the same period Victoria had 1,866 acres and a product of 1,5.38,208 lb. The agricultural returns for 1887 show a falling off in the production of tobacco in both colonies. In 1887 New South Wales had 1,203 acres and a product of 1,527,904 lb. Victoria 2,031 acres and a product of 1,344,876 lb. TOBACCO. 191 The subjoined table .sliows the number of acres in tobacco in New South Wales and Victoria, and the quantity produced each year from 1880 to 1887 inclusive :— New South Wales. Victoria. Years ended 31 March. Area. Produce. Years ended 31 March. Area. Produce. 1880 1881 1882 1883 -1884 1885 1886 1887 Acres. 592 1,791 1,625 1,815 1,786 1,046 1,603 1,203 lb. 696,752 2,190,528 2,0.50,832 1,964,480 2,240,672 1,110,368 2,570,064 1,527,904 1880 1881 1882 1883 ■1884 1885 1886 1887 Acres. 531 1,990 1,461 1,313 1,325 1,402 1,866 2,031 lb. 145,164 1,941,296 1,442,112 635,370 1,021,888 884,016 1,538,208 1,344,876 The bulk of JS^ew South Wales tobacco is grown between Tumiit and Albury. Considerable quantities are also produced in the Western district, within a radius of about 50 miles of Bathurst. The plant was formerly extensively cultivated in the Valley of the Hunter in the North, but of late years little attention has been given to it there. The best tobacco produced in the Colony is at Tumut, along the banks of the river of that name, where the soil is composed of rich alluvial deposits, and the growth not affected by change of seasons. Tumut produced last year 739,500 lb. of the leaf. Several tobacco factories are located in the district. It is said, however, by agriculturists, that the plant will grow all over the Colony, especially on the river flats subject to inundations. The soil in the tobacco districts is seldom manured, and if there is no overflow, growing it soon becomes unpro- ductive. The best tobacco in Victoria is grown in the King River country, a mountainous district. The land there is composed of rich loam, formed from the disintegration of slate and granite rocks. Mr. James Henly, a citizen of the United States, was the first to commence the cultivation of tobacco in that district, having obtained his seed from Kentucky and Virginia. Mr. Henly for a considerable period grew and manufactured his own tobacco ; but the Colonial legislature having passed an Act requiring every manufacturer of tobacco to take out a license, at a cost of £150 to £'250 ($730 to $1,217) per annum, according to the quantity manufactured, he was forced to abandon the manufacture and devote his time to the cultivation of the leaf. He found that hi.s land yielded upon an average from 1,000 lb. to 1,500 lb. of tobacco per acre. He noticed that the young plants were subject to blue mould, and that the leaf was not unfrequently injured by frost before matured. Its growth was also impaired by hail and rain storms. Mr. Henly says that, the crop may be regarded as precarious, not only in the King River district, but in other portions of Australia. He does not think that an average crop can be gathered in any portion of the great Island continent, more than once in every three or four years. 192 NEW SOUTH wales: her commerce and resources. The season of 1S87 being a good one, the tobacco crop amounted to al>out 2^iO tons in the King River district. The labour employed in tobacco culture in Australia is now almost exclusively Chinese, the Europeans Hghting shy of the industry on account of the uncertainty of the crops, or not being sufficiently skilleean fruits that have been introduced here grow extremely well, and there is reason to believe that the cultivation of fruit will become one of the most important industries of Australia. With the exception of the grape, the orange is the most profitable fruit cultivated in New South Wales, and it is said on high authority that the orange groves of the Parramatta district, near Sydney, are equal to any in the world, and that the trees are unsurpassed. They appear to have been planted there soon after the foundation of the Colony. Some of the trees are known to be over sixty years of age, and they are still in their full vigour, and look as if tliey would last a century longer. They are certainly not less than 40 or 50 feet in height, and measure nearly 6 feet in circumference. Some idea of their productiveness can be formed from a recent statement that over 10,000 oranges were gathered from a single tree in one season. The principal variety of oranges grown in Australia is known as " The Parramatta," or " Poor Man's Orange." It is the connnon Rio orange, and came here from Brazil in the early days of the Colony. The variety known as the Navel does extremely well in various parts of the Colony, and sells for more than double the price of the Parramatta, but it is not extensively cultivated. It thrives best on the loamy soils, with water in easy reach of the tap-roots, so that they can spread out afar their network of lateral rootlets through a warm friable surface mould. The tree was brought here from Batavia, and was subsequently introduced into California as the Australian Navel, where it was rechristened Washington Navel. Nearly all the varieties of the Mandarin, or Chinese orange, thrive in New South Wales, and especially in the valley of the Hawkes- bury Eiver. Land suitable for orange groves can be obtained between Gosford and Newcastle at from £10 ($49) to £15 ($73) per acre, and between Parramatta and Windsor at from £20 ($97) to £30 ($146) per acre. Gordon is said to be the best orange district in the Colony. Land there costs between £40 ($195) and £50 ($243) per acre. The estimated cost for fencing, clearing, ploughing, and planting is £25 ($122) per acre. The trees begin to bear the fourth or fifth year. Mr. W. H. Keown, of Roseville, Gordon, states that he realised from his orange trees in the season of 1887 fully £50 per acre, and that he has great faith in the cultivation becoming profitable. The ground was trenched to a depth of about 2 feet. Grapes for wine appear to do better in the interior than along the coast. The peach does extremely well in Australia, especially in" New South Wales and Victoria. The "Royal George" is one of the most valuable varieties. It has, however, a different name in almost every district. In New England it is called the "Murphy Seedling," and on the Manara Plains, FRUIT. 205 " Smith's Seedling." The apple, pear, quince, apricot, persimmon, plum, cherry, and many other fruits do quite as well here as the peach and grape. Passion-fruit, a fruit almost unknown in California, is found here in abundance. The cherries of the mountain districts are regarded as amongst the largest and finest in the world. Peanuts do not appear to do well. The almond, walnut, and hickory nut are often met with ; the two latter are not so common as the former. Melons of all kinds grow to great size, and are quite equal in flavour to those grown on the Pacific slope of the United States. Fruit of all kinds, however, is dear in Sydney, and the condition in which it is brought to market reflects very little credit upon those engaged in the trade. Oranges and lemons are the only fruits cultivated for export in New South Wales. During the present year quite an impetus has been given to the orange trade by the exertions of several wealthy fruit-growers. Sir Henry Holland, Secretary of State for the Colonies, has addressed a circular letter to the Premier of this Colony, requesting certain infor- mation in regard to the development of the orange industry in Australia. The information collected by the Premier in response to the circular will be of value when published. The total quantity of fruit, the produce of the Colony, exported from New South Wales during the year 1886 amounted to 332,939 cases, valued at £112,169 (|545,870), against 450,837 cases, valued at £147,588 ($718,237), for the year 1887. The following table shows the quantity and value of fruit, the produce of the Colony, principally oranges, exported from New South Wales for each year from 1877 to 1887 inclu.sive : — Year. Quantity. Value. Year. Quant it J-. Value. packages. £ $ packages. £ $ 1877 194,061 64,486 313,821 1883 1 377,925 117,224 570,471 1878 174,253 71,189 346,441 1884 245,859 98,339 478,567 1879 223,920 86,667 421,765 1885 290,250 114,501 557,219 18S0 237,041 90,381 439,849 1886 332,939 112,169 545,870 1881 309,247 106,185 516,749 1887 450,837 147,588 718,2.37 1882 214,773 88,198 429,216 Nearly all this fruit was shijiped to the neighbouring Colonies, the bulk of it going to Victoria and Queensland. The former Colony in 1887 received 248,016 cases, valued at £73,763 ($358,968), and the latter 115,084 cases, valued at £44,039 ($214,316). 206 NEW SOUTH WALES : IIER COMMERCE AND RESOURCES. The sul))oined table shows the quantity and value of fruit exports from New South Wales for 1886 and 1887, with the names of the countries whence exported : — 1886. Country. Quantity. Great Britain Victoria South Australia ... Tasmania New Zealand Queensland South Sea Islands . . . New Caledonia Fiji "Western Australia .. United States India pkgs. 1,472 184,636 241 10,862 44,044 90,848 10 507 188 131 Value. £ 478 55,681 105 4,693 14,304 36,514 7 265 96 26 2,326 270,971 511 22,839 69,610 177,695 34 1,290 467 127 1887. Quantity. Value. pkgs. 6,529 £ 2,865 248,016 73,763 5,284 1,338 17,011 6,078 57,936 19,114 115,084 44,039 3 2 480 253 75 23 17 45 374 96 8 13,943 358,968 6,511 29,579 93,018 214,316 10 1,231 112 83 467 The successful shipment of a few small lots of fruit to the Colonial Exhibition in London paved the way for the establishment of an exten- sive trade in this article between Sydney and Great Britain. Mr. Alexander Wood, Agent-General for Canada to New South Wales, has recently pointed out the fixct that Australian oranges occasionally find their way to the Canadian mai'ket by way of London, and he is very decided in the opinion that fruit can be profitably exported from Sydney to Central Canada and the north-western portions of the United States. The shipmentof oranges direct to London, a distance of aboutl4,000 miles, is believed to have passed through an experimental stage. Already the Orient Steamship Company have expended large sums in fitting up chambers in their vessels for the shipment of fruit. The " Lu.sitania, " on the 4th of November, 1887, carried with her 1,000 cases of oranges. Mr. Cairns, of Parramatta, is preparing to make, on the part of the orange growez's, further shipments upon a more extensive scale. In the meantime the Orient Company have reduced the price of freights on fruit to about £4 (§19) per ton of 40 cubic feet. Already the public press in Great Britain draw attention to the arrival of consignments of New South Wales fruit as an incident of no ordinary nature. The success of these experimental essays is sufficient FRUIT. 207 to warrant the conclusion that with careful selection and packing Australian oranges and lemons will admit of regular transmission to Great Britain, in prime condition, at a period when the ordinary supply of the orange-producing countries of the Northern Hemisphei-e is usually suspended. The question of packing constitutes the chief difficulty which prevents Australia becoming the principle supplier of the fruit markets of Europe. The fruit referred to was packed in sawdust and jjaj^er dipped in a patent antiseptic preparation, the invention of Dr. John Storer of Sydney, which preserves the fruit and has the advantage of not necessitating any special stowage, but enables the fruit to be carried as ordinary cargo, notwithstanding a voyage of over fifty days. The disparity of climate, and the facility of quick transit offered by the vessels of the great steam-shipping companies visiting the ports of Sydney and Newcastle, will enable good kinds of oranges to be laid down at a profit in the markets of North America and England, and will remove the orange-growers' chief complaint, that the demand for their produce in Australian Colonies is largely exceeded by the supply. It must, however, be noted that the average price of oranges in the Australian markets is excessive for the kinds which would obtain a sale in foreign mai'kets. There are certainly immense numbers of oranges gi'own, but the general quality is defective. Orange-growers will now, doubtless, see the necessity of cultivating only the best varieties. The following table shows the area of orangeries and the production of oranges for each year from 1879 to 1887 : — Year ending 31 March. Area of Orangeries. Production. Average production per acre. Acres. Dozen. Dozen. 1879 4,287 3,398,445 793 1880 5,10G 2,763,811 541 1881 5,939 3,810,356 642 1882 6,301 5,164,134 820 1883 6,717 4,978,829 741 1884 7,269 8,102,658 1,115 1885 6,912 4,097,666 593 1886 7,734 8,749,256 1,131 1887 7,920 6,376,868 805 20S NEW SOUTH wales: her commerce and resources. WINE. The quantity of wine imported into the Colony of New South Wales durin" the year 1887 was 195,894 gallons, valued at <£1 00,578 (!?489t463) against 185,022 gallons, valued at £109,680 ($533,855), for the year 1886. Of the wine imported in 1887, 175,244 gallons consisted of still wine and 20,650 gallons of sparkling wine. The following table shows the quantity and value of still and spark- ling wine imported into the Colony of New South Wales for each year from 1880 to 1887, inclusive:— still Wine. Sparkling AVine. Year. Quantit}'. Value. Quantity. Value. Gallons. £ $ Gallons. £ $ ISSO 167,961 56,881 276,811 10,442 17,792 86,585 1881 199,636 73,859 359,435 19,092 28,972 140,992 1882 235,499 85,141 414,338 10,803 18,080 87,986 1883 237,478 97,058 474,333 30,179 49,215 239,505 1884 181,015 77,963 379,407 27,226 47,286 230,117 1885 214,158 86,002 418,529 28,344 50,910 247,754 1886 159,956 64,036 311,631 25,066 45,644 222,224 1S87 175,244 64,531 313,067 20,650 36,047 175,423 The fact that little or no California wine is used in New South Wales has been a subject of observation and inquiry. In the year 1882 only 6 gallons of American wine were entered at the Customs. In 1883 the amount was 63 gallons, but in 1884 not a single gallon was imported. The imports for 1883 consisted of a few choice varieties of Californian champagne. The w^ine was sampled by experts, who spoke highly of its flavour, but at the same time said that it was not of sufficient alcoholic strength to become popular in this market. The wine failing to meet with a ready sale, no further effort appears to have been made to introduce it again. It is hardly reasonable to suppose that the people here would continue the importation of the bad and adulterated wines of Europe if they were once made familiar with the very choice quality of the American product. It is said, however, that American manufacturers are perfectly indiffex-ent about cultivating a foreign trade for their wines so long as they are enabled to find a brisk and profitable market at home. WINE. 209 The following table shows the exports of wines (still), the produce of New South Wales, in each year, from 1877 to 1887 inclusive : — Year. Quantity. Value. Gallons. £ S 1877 10,591 4,502 21,909 1878 9,969 4,910 23,895 1879 17,519 6,965 33,895 1880 27,584 7,359 35,813 1881 22,377 7,233 35,199 1882 22,425 7,166 34,874 18S3 43,288 14,430 70,224 1884 29,157 10,816 52,636 1885 28,499 8, 156 39,691 1886 24,217 7,581 36,893 1887 17,718 6,654 32,382 Table showing the quantity and value of Wine, the proditce of New South Wales, and the countries to which exported, during the years 1886 and 1887. Quantity. Value. 1886. Great Britain Gallons. 17,270 897 107 2,737 1,352 1,854 £ 4,197 269 53 1,649 731 682 s 20,425 Victoria 1,.309 Tasmania New Zealand 258 8,025 Queensland 3,557 Other countries 3,319 Total 24,217 7,581 36,893 1887. Great Britain 7,447 1,892 240 2,912 2,205 2,992 2,457 553 104 1,726 1,076 738 11,957 Victoria 2,691 506 New Zealand 8,400 Queensland 5,237 Other countries 3,591 Total 17,718 6,654 32,382 New South Wales heretofore took the lead of all the other Colonies, not only in the production of wine but in the average quantity to the acre ; but as far as production is concerned, Victoria, in the year 1886, became the first in the list, when she produced 1,003,827 gallons of wine and 3,875 gallons of brandy against 601,897 gallons of wine and 763 gallons of brandy for New South Wales ; but the total product of the whole of Australasia is behind that of 1876, and probably does not amount to one-fifth of the average product of the State of California alone. A new impetus, however, has been given to the wine industry here on account of the prevailing opinion that the duties now charged in England on Colonial wines will shortly be abolished or reduced to a minimuin. 210 NEW SOUTH AVALES : HER COMMERCE AND RESOURCES. Tlie Agents-General of the Colonies at London, who have for some time been strongly pressing the reduction of the Aviaie duties upon the British Govei-nnient, are said to have at last succeeded in obtaining a promise that active steps shall be taken to secure the desired con- cession. Sir S. Griffith, tlie Premier of Queensland, telegraphed to the Vic- torian Government that the Agent-General of liis Government was in- structed to co-operate with his colleagues in making representations with this object to the Imperial Government. The diliiculty heretofoi-e has been to secure united action on the part of the Agents-General ; but now this having been accomplished, the only difficulty in the way seems to be the opposition of the British distillers and the London agents of the Continental wine-growers, who labor under the impression that the hio'h alcoholic strenjcth of Australian wines would lead to their substitu- tion for spirits, and also for stronger kinds of European wines, such as port and sherry. The duties on the latter form an important item of imjierial revenue, and all Chancellors of the Exchequer very naturally oppose any attempt to reduce them. Mr. Gladstone in 1860 reduced to a trifling figure the high duties on light wines, which for a century and a half shut out from England the produce of the French vineyards. Many thought that his object was to provide a cure for intemperance by placing mild wines within the reach of the people. To France it opened up a market for one of her most important products, and there Avas an immediate extension of vine planting in that country. It is often said that almost any kind of wine is good enough for the English market, but there is little truth in the statement. It stands to reason and common sense that there would be much better demand for Australian wine, not only in England but evervAvhere else, if more pains Avere taken in its manufacture. It is possible, that much of the Avine sold in England as Australian may have been manufactured somewhere else. Complaint, hoAvever, has become so general against the so-called Colonial Avine that a syndicate has been formed in London exclusively for the introduction of Australian Avines, and Mr. Burgoyne, Avell-knoAvn in connection with the London wine trade, has leased the old DoAvgate bonded vaults for the purpose of storing Australian Avine. These vaults are capable of holding over 10,000 hogsheads. The offices and cellars of the firm are in Old Bond-street. The block of buildings are, as reconstructed, amongst the finest in London. That the British Government is faA'ourable to Ioav duties on Avines is shown by their admission of Avines of 26° of alcoholic strength and under at Ls. (24 cents) per gallon. The duty on Avine of 40° of spirit is 2s. 6d. (60 cents) per gallon. A tendency toAvards the reduction of duties was also shoAvn by the favourable consideration giA^en to the proposition submitted to the Anglo-Spanish conA^ention to Eidmit all Spanish Avines up to .30° of alcoholic strength at Is. (24 cents) per gallon. It is thought here that the reduction of the duties on Colonial wines Avould lead to extensive vine planting throughout Australasia. Mr. Henry Bonnard, the Executive Secretary of the ISTeAv South Wales Commission at the Bordeaux International Exhibition, hoAvcA'er, is opposed to the reduction of the duties. He says: " If the Colonies should succeed in bringing about a reduction of the duties on all Colonial Avines imported WINE, 211 into Great Britain, the result will in the end be very different from what they expect, for it will encourage them more than ever to produce wines of high alcoholic strength, a practice which has already done so much to injure the Colonial wine industry. There is, of course, in England a taste amongst the lower classes for strong drinks, such as brandy, whisky, and gin, but the climate there seems to create a preference for beer ; tlierefore the consumption of wine will always be limited amongst the great mass of the English people. The higher classes prefer wine, but they want mild, soft wines, like those of France. Port and sherry are getting out of favor, owing principally to the spurious alcohol they contain." Whether the duties are moderated or not, strong efforts will be made both here a.nd in England to encourage the Australian wine industry. It is certain that the soil and climate of no inconsiderable portion of this great island continent are especially adapted to viticulture. The grape has been grown successfully in Queensland within three degrees of the tropics and as far south as the 3Sth parallel of south latitude in Victoi-ia, There is an immense stretch of country in Australia from 1,200 to 2,000 feet above the sea where the climate resembles that of France and Italy. The vineyards of New South Wales, and especially those in the valley of the II unter River, appear to be in a much better condition than those of any other part of Australia. It is claimed, however, that Victoria possesses the largest vineyards, and that the grape for wine purposes is cultivated to a higher degree of perfection there than in any of the other Colonies. Tlie vine-growers, however, of New South Wales are disposed to question the accuracy of the latter statement. The St. Hubert vineyard is said to be the largest and finest in Victoria. It is situated in the valley of the Upper Yarra, and contains about 300 acres of vines. It is so highly cultivated that not a weed can be seen between the vjnes. One of the most interesting features connected with this vineyard is the many different varieties of grapes cultivated in it. M. de Charney, the well-known vignerori, visited the vineyard, and he was disposed to regard it as a magnificent experiment for the purpose of showing the best kinds of vines to be cultivated. He found the Sauvignon of Bordeaux, the Pineau of Burgundy, and the Chasselas of Fontainebleau, all growing with as much luxuriance as in Europe. The ground was divided into large Ijlocks for eadi kind of grape vine. M. de Charney was surprised to learn that the wine made fi'om these grapes preserved all the peculiar properties and flavour of the original stock, which, he said, Avas contrary to the law of assimilation and must sooner or later disappear, inasmuch as every species of vegetation, as well as every species of living beings, is modified by outward influences of soil, climate, habits, and food, and the transformation is more rapid as the organization of the individual is less perfect. He said : " It is evident that this vineyard, producing several wines, each of perfectly distinct character, will eventually produce only two types, the red and the white, which will bear uniform products and will no longer be similar to European wine, but Avill be Australian St. Hubert wines, but none the less delicious." 212 NEW SOUTH WALES : IIER COMMERCE AND RESOURCES. One of tlie largest vineyards in New South Wales belongs to Mr. J. T. Fallon, a gentleman who has had much experience in vine growing. His vineyard consists of IGO acres in the district of Albury. in the valley of the Murray, one of the finest rivers in Australia. The Murray Valley Vineyard produced, in one year, 63,315 gallons of wine. The quality of the wine is said to be very superior, and when it has aged a little more, it will be equal to the celebrated Kaniples of Muscat, Burgundy, Tokay, and Cabernet that were sent to the International Exhibition at Bordeaux in 1882. The average alcoholic strength of the wines Mr. Fallon exhibited at Bordeaux was 2G-84 per cent. Some of his brown Muscat averaged 33 percent. The average strength of French wines exhibited was 17 per cent., the highest being 24 per cent. The cost of cultivating Mr. Fallon's vine- yard was estimated at £2.5 (§121) per acre. His wine carried off the silver medal. The selling price of his red wine is about 30s. (§7) per dozen bottles. Mr. Bonnard given the following analysis of New South Wales wine : — Table showing analyses of New South Wales wine. Names of Exhibitors Analysed Wines. J3 SO 1 .s o o o < S Q S •s £ H J "o a. o 2 a 3 3 |3 < g a i C3 g ■a o -*- o § 73 ^ 5" 6 ll E-i J. T. Fallon . . Do Cabernet, 1869.. Red, 183? 121-60 0-992 5-18 -61 -74 -04 -48 -88 -63 •18 •10 -60 -68 -43 •45 -78 (•2-52) (.0-28/ (4-32-> \0-4S) ( 2-84 > "( 0-31 / f 3-82 1 1 0-42 i <-2^88) (.0-32)" f 3-08 ) "( 0-33 r ( 2-80 ) "( 0-31 ; j 2-25 ) ( 0-25 )" ( 2-06 ) •( 0-20 ; ( 3-06 ) '( 0-34 (" 3-86 3-10 0-62 0-84 12-0 29-0 Hon. W. Macleay. Dr. C. Mackay W. Wyndham.. J. Kelman Wyndeycr Wilkinson . . . . G. Francis . . . . A. Munro J. Wyndham . . Do Malbec, 1873 .. La Bruscat, 1875 Hermitage, 1876 do Madeira, 1876 . . Hermitag-e, 1876 Isabella, 1881 . . 5" Hermitage, ) ( sweet, 1877 i ( Pineaw noir, > 1 1879 J Red, 1882 117-60 115-23 143- 106-50 123- 115- 1-24- 149-50 103-31 0-990 0-991 0-991 0-993 0-991 0-93,^ 1-004 1-067 0-99C 0-82 1-14 6-96 0-38 2-40 1-98 29-45 138-80 1-23 5-42 4-25 5-18 .3^12 3-75 3-20 5-20 4- 4-40 3-40 3-37 3-48 3-26 3-26 3-47 3-62 3-90 4-46 -60 -64 -52 •55 -48 •44 -54 -61 -96 0-92 o-.^o 0-76 0-86 (*) (*) 0-45 0-90 0-48 7-20 10-37 14-48 12-25 8-72 8-00 6-04 10-85 10-89 23-80 -23-90 30-50 24-25 22-20 20-30 48-60 160- 26^25 A Murray . . do * White wine. WINE. 213 Result of an analysis hj late Mr. Chas. Watt, GoTcrnmcnt Analyst, on twelve samples of Colonial wine submitted for examination by the Chief Inspector of Distilleries : — Ko. Description. 5 6 fcc.2 CO il ^-3 •^ o g 3 ^ c3 II il o o II ^ o to io '3 % O X Kemarks. 1 Port Wine . . 1-0115 -9760 16-42 35-46 -48 326-0 9-70 ^ 2 do. 1-0084 -9780 14-75 31-99 -50 350 g.,^' 1 Inferior articles ; appear to f' have been made up. 3 Sherry 1-0183 •9780 14-77 25-50 -52 364-0 7-08; 4 do. -9912 •9797 13-39 28-95 -67 469-0 3-10 Fairly good Colonial sherrj'. ' Port Wine 1-0044 -9829 10-91 23-70 1-99 1,393-0 4-34 This article contained much acetic acid, and was more a vinegar than a wine. 6 do. 1-0102 •9784 14-42 31-22 •53 371-0 7-98 Inferior article : appears to have been made up. 7 Madeira -9979 -9806 12-69 27-48 •43 336-0 5-62 \ 8 Vin ordinaire . . •9974 -9818 11-77 25-50 •75 525-0 4-48 These are all good sound 9 Claret 1-0052 -9828 11-00 23-87 •61 4-27 -0 4^60 wines. 10 Port Wine 1-0031 -9753 17 00 36-61 •62 433-0 7-50 ) 11 Muscat 1-0102 -9798 14-00 30-26 •65 455-0 4-30 \ Very gool. 12 do. -9945 -9770 15-58 33-78 •52 364-0 4-10 No foreign colouring matter or anything noxious was detected in any of these samples. At the International Exhibition at Sydney, the light wines o£ Australia were preferred to all others. M. Jides Joubert, who reported for the judges, stated that the wines, spirits, and liquors sub- mitted were, with few exceptions, creditable alike to the countries whence they came and to the ^Droducers. The Commission adjudicated upon some thousands of samples, which were classed as follows : — • 1, Australian (light and full bodied); 2, French; 3, German; 4, Austrian and Hungarian ; 5, Italian ; 6, Spanish and Portuguese ; 7, Sparkling Wines (all nations); 8, Brandies ; 9, Whiskies; 10, Gin; 11, Rum ; 12, Liquors. Judges were appointed for each group, the instructions from the Commission being to classify the wines and to append to them numbers ranging from 1 to 4 for each separate section. The wines, spirits, and liquors were brought into the Judges' room in wine glasses bearing a distinguishing number only. A list was prepared of wines to be judged on each day, containing, besides the distinguishing numbers above mentioned, the nationality, age, name of grape, strength, where obtainable, quantity for sale, and price. The Judges began their duties on the 22nd of January, and completed tliem on the 24tli of March, after holding fifty-one meetings. The French Wines, with four excep- tions, were said to be in bad condition ; the red wines from the same country were superior to the white, but the majority were harsh, heavy, and deficient in bouquet. 214 NEW SOUTH WALES : HER COMMERCE AND RESOURCES. The competing Colonial wines were from New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia, Queensland, Western Australia, and New Zealand. The wines were perfectl}^ distinct in character. The climate and soil of Victoria and New South Wales, more particularly as regards the Upper Yarra in the former and the valley of the Hunter in the latter, were found to produce wines assimilating to those of Burgundy and Bor- deaux, whereas those from the Murray and South Australia will become fair substitutes for Spanish, Portuguese, Madeira, and Cape wines. The exhibits from Queensland were few, and inferior to those of the other Colonies. Queensland rum, however, was declared to be of excellent quality. New Zealand excelled in wines, syrups, and liquors extracted from fruit other than the grape. The Commission, in con- cluding its report, recommended that some of the cheap wines of Aus- tralia be sent to France for blending purposes. The wine industry of the Colony, notwithstanding the quality of the vintage, and the great interest taken in it, both here and in England, has not made a corresponding advance. The quantity produced during 1887 was only 601,897 gallons, against 602,000 gallons for 1881. The following table shows the quantity of wine made in New South Wales for each year from 1881 to 1887 inclusive : — Year. 1 Quantity. Year. Quantity. Gallons. Gallons. 1881 602,000 1885 442,612 1882 513,600 1886 555,470 1883 543,600 1887 601,897 1884 589,604 The vintage of 1888 will probably be smaller than that of 1887, although the grapes for table use are said to be of better quality and more abundant than usual. The cultivation of the grapes of Australia, especially for the manu- facture of wine, is an industry capable of expansion, but, strange to say, no successful attempt has ever been made here to manufacture raisins. The judges at Bordeaux expressed the opinion that the kind of grapes cultivated in Australia for wine-making purposes do not ripen fast enough, and the vintage being thus delayed, acquires a greater alcoholic strength than necessary. The grapes, moreover, do not gather, either from their skins or stalks, tannin enough to assist in making good wine. M. Bonnard does not think that Colonial wines improve after four or five years. He says, however, that the samples taken by him to Bordeaux and back were improved by the sea voyage. He thinks that they have more solid matter than California wines, but less acidity and colour, and that those at present engaged in wine making in the Colony con- tinue to grow the wrong kind of vines, and refuse to profit by the experience of others. He deprecates their attempts at making cham- pagne and white wine, for which he s ays they have neither the requisite WINE. 215 knowledge nor skill. He admits that their white wine is popular, but says there is no great demand for any kind of white wine on the Continent, and that the colonists would find it much more advantageous to tui'n their attention to the manufacture of brandy, from the fact that it is almost impossible to obtain genuine spirits of wine in any part of Europe. The disease known as the Phylloxera vastatrix has made its appear- ance in various parts of Australia, and M. Bonnard is apprehensive that unless some more effective means are adopted than at present the whole of the vineyards of this Colony \n]\ eventually be destroyed. At the request of the New South Wales Government in 1884, he visited about 300 vineyards, and found that the insect existed in one district only. Since that time, he says, the disease has been distributed by roots and cuttings in other directions. The Phylloxera appeared in Victoria in 1875, and was for a con- siderable period confined to the Geelong district, and extended from the Leigh Road to Germantown, a distance of 16 miles. An Act of Parlia- ment was passed in 1878 for the purpose of getting rid of the pest, but failing in its object, subsequent Acts were passed by which the Minister of Agriculture was authorized to order, whenever it should be deemed necessary, the destruction of all vines found growing in infected districts 216 NEAV SOUTH WALES : HER COMMERCE AXD RESOURCES. BEER. The quant itv of Leer ami ale imported into New South Wales daring the year 1886 was 2,330,476 gallons, valued at £419,454 ($2,041,273), against 2,334,228 gallons, valued at .£382,843 (-i?!, 863, 105), for the year 1887. Of the bottled beer Great Britain furnished 1,189,199 gallons; Victoria, 38,039 gallons; South Australia, 36,254 gallons; Queensland, 2,570 gallons ; New Zealand, 547 gallons ; Unitecl States, 243,809 gallons; Belgium, 6,115 gallons ; and Germany, 81,399 gallons. The subjoined table shows the quantity and value of beer and ale in bottle im]iorted into New South Wales from all countries for each year from 1879 to 1887 inclusive : — Year. Quantity. Value. Year. Quantity. Value. 1879 1880 1881 1882 gallons. 762,031 678, 172 562,958 926,075 £ 166,174 113,481 123,054 195,440 808,686 .552,255 598,842 951,112 i ' 1883 1 1884 1885 1886 1887 gallons. 1,072,783 1,139,925 1,444,911 1, .598,760 1,442,697 £ 2,32,875 262,697 319,690 346,006 29 1, .305 $ 1,13,3,286 1,278,415 1,555,772 1,683,838 1,417,636 The following table shows the quantity and value of bottled beer and ale im])orted into New South Wales from Great Britain for each year from 1879 to 1887 inclusive :— Year. Quantity. Value. Year. Quantity. Value. 1879 1880 1881 1882 gallons. 667,983 597,675 470,093 809,550 £ 144,284 94,939 101,136 169,064 $ 702,158 462,021 492,179 822,750 1883 1884 1885 1886 1887 gallons. 951,892 899.S09 1,193,725 1,189,199 1,108,433 £ 203,833 20,5,197 26.1,913 2.5.5,203 227,106 $ 991,954 998,591 1,293,966 1,241,846 1,105,211 The demand for malt liquors here continues brisk and steady, and especially for favourite brands. The beer imported in casks or barrels and sold here on draught is not so much liked as that imported in bottles. The following table shows the quantity and value of the ale and beer imported into New South Wales in casks from all countries from 1879 to 1887 inclusive : — Year. Quantity. Value. Year. Quantity. Value. 1879 1880 1881 1882 gallons. 631,225 585,655 510,384 397,275 £ 79,491 68,433 62,447 44,508 $ .386,843 332,024 .303,698 216,598 1883 1884 1885 1886 1887 gallons. 5 18,. 3.30 574,926 6.54,646 731,716 891,. 531 £ .57,731 6(»,2(i8 69,992 7.3,448 91,538 281,143 293,289 ,340,016 .357,435 445,740 BEER. 217 The method employed in bottling beer is different from that in the United States. The process is not only more expensive, but the bottles are much heavier, and are without the attractive labels of the American manufacturers. Although the terms " beer " and " ale " are used here as synonymous, there is of course a difference, especially in regard to the method of brewing. The two substances, however, are essentially the same until the yeast is added. English, or Bi'itish, ale is the pro- duct of what is called upjoer fermentation. It is said that in the process of manufacturing English beer the wort, or malt, is started at a tempera- ture of more than 50° Fahrenheit. The fermentation, or conversion of the saccharine matter, being pushed forward rapidly, the yeast and clearings rise to the surface, and a considerable quantity of soluble gluten is left in the litjuor, which upon exposure to the air has a tendency to cause the alcohol to ferment into vinegar and sour the beer. Lager, or Bavarian beer, on the other hand, is manufactured by a slower process. Mr, G. Pomeroy Keese, a high authority on the subject, states that in the manufacture of this kind of beer the wort is started with free exposure to the air, at a temperature under 50° Fahrenheit, by a kind of yeast which produces oxidation by a slow combustion. Less alcohol is pro- duced. The product of oxidation is carried with this under-yeast to the bottom, as a sediment, and there is little gluten left to start the conver- sion of alcohol into vinegar. This is the lager beer, or store beer, of Bavaria, as distinguished from the schenk-hier, for immediate sale in Avinter, and its brewing was confined by law to the cool weather between October and April. The same authority states that American brewers use the word "beer" as synonymous with the above, but refri- gerating methods enable them to disregard the outside temperature. It is enough to mention that in the slower process of fermentation much more nourishment is left in the beer, and the fermentation which follows developes a certain amount of carbonic acid gas. This gas is retained and the beer is kept clear. Ale, on the contrary, unless allowed to ferment in bottles, contains little or no carbonic acid gas, and, if brought below a temperature of about 65", becomes flat and cloudy, and must be brewed strong to enal>Ie it to stand transportation and storage. English ale contains fully 9 per cent, of alcohol, whereas American lager beer seldom contains more than 4 or 4| per cent, of alcohol. Of imported ales Bass's pale ale is the most generally used in the Austra- lasian Colonies. Next to that comes Tennant's, then Allsops', ]\rcEwan's, and others. Those who purchase Bass's ale do not inquire for it as such, but ask for the bottled. For instance, Foster's ale is Bass's ale bottled by Foster. There are other popular bottlers. Another method of distin- guishing ale is by the brand ; for instance, the Bull Dog, or the Bugle brand. Very little stout is imported here in casks, the great bulk coming in bottles. It is not kept on draught in any of the hotels. The following are the names of the principal brands of bottled stout sold here : — Hall's Boarshead brand, Edmunds' Pighead brand, Booster's Bugle brand, Fi.sli brand, Danke's, and McEwan's Globe. The value of the imports of American lager beer into New South Wales has increased so rapidly during the last few years that the industry bids fair to swell to large i)roportions. The peo[ile are beginning to find out that American beers are much better adapted to the Australian climate than those of English make. 218 NEW SOUTH WALES : HER COMMERCE AND RESOURCES. It has been noticed that American beer is not only more nourishing than English ale, but is of a finer flavour. It does not contain, as pre- viously mentioned, so large a proportion of alcohol, as the English and other imported beer.s, and is also comparatively free from stupefying and deleterious effects ; moreover, it has been found to stand export quite as well as the English article. Although a larger quantity of beer is manufactured in Great Britain than in the United States, the growth of the industry in the latter country has been greater than in the former. It has recently been pointed out by Mr. L. Sackville-West, the British Minister at Washington, that the consumption of beer in the United States has increased during the last forty years at the rate of 642 per cent, per head, while spirits had decreased during the same period at the x'ate of 40 per cent, per head. The extraordinary growth of the American industry is in great measure to be attributed to the quality of the beer, and to the low prices at which the manufacturers are enabled to supply it. The American breweries are admitted to be complete and as well equipped in every way as any others in the world. The refri- gerating machines and other cooling appliances have never been excelled by anything of the kind in Europe. Besides, several of the Ameiican breweries are conducted on a larger scale than any of the European establishments. Attention was directed to the quality of American beer during the Sydney International Exhibition in 1879. That made by George Bechtel, of New York, received the first degree of merit. It was praised for its rich amber colour, full flavour, and fine hop aroma. The commission also highly commended the beer of Wise ik Co., of Chicago, 111. The fact that Amei'ican beer was used in preference to any other by the passengers on the Pacific Mail steamers running between San Francisco and Australia did much towards making it popular here. It soon became very generally advertised throughout the Colonies, and now the leading hotels are pushing the various brands of Anheuser-Busch & Co., Clausen & Co., Philip Best & Co., and others. Butcher, Fehon, & Co., are the Sydney agents for the original Budweiser beer of the Anheuser-Busch Brewing Association, and for the Saint Louis Standard lager beer ; Barron, Moxham, & Co. sell " W. J. Lemp's Saint Louis beer " ; Walker Lemon and Co., Clausen's New York beer ; and S. Marks, the Chicago Star lager beer. The recent publication of a series of valuable papers in the Xeiv York Australasian, on the manufacture and export of American beer, has done much to give an impetus to the trade, for the papers referred to have been extensively copied in the colonial new-spajDers. The following table shows the quantity and value of bottled beer imported into New South Wales from the United States for each year since 1880 :— Year. Quantity. 1 Value. 1 Year. Quantity. Value. 1880 1881 1882 1883 Gallons. 1,777 2,634 4,434 4,125 £ 308 627 1,023 955 8 1,499 1884 3,051 1885 4,978 1886 4,648 1887 Gallons. 43,055 70,727 243.809 109,837 £ 10,689 15,537 56,131 22,793 52,018 75,611 273,162 110,854 I BEER. 219 There are many favourite brands of American l)eer which coiikl be advantageously introduced into the colonial market. For instance, a brisk demand has been created in Melbourne for the brand called Liebotshaner, which ought to sell readily in Sydney. It is said to be made after the Bohemian jorocess. Its colour is very pale, being brewed of the choicest quality of malt. It has a hne fruity flavor, and a wine- like taste. Then there is another brand of beer called " pale lager." It is of light amljer colour, with a small percentage of alcohol, especially adapted for hot seasons and for the use of ladies. Then there is the Faust beer. This Ijrand was brewed originally for the establishment of A. E. Faust, of St. Louis, Ijut is now supplied to the general trade in America. It resembles the " Standard " beer, and is not drawn for bottling purposes until after a storage of four months. Now that American lager beer has found a lodgment in the Colonies there is no reason why some of the stronger ales could not be introduced, especially as the Colonists are partial to what are called " heavy-headed beers ; " but it must be remembered that the quantity of alcohol required to give additional strength to these beers materially lessens their health-giving properties. One of the stronger American beers which would find a ready market is the "Erlander" brand. This beer is of a dark rich color, and bears a close resemblance to English porter and stout, but is greatly superior to the latter, both in flavor and nourishing qualities. The prejudice existing against American liquors in the British Colonies is gradually being overcome. Some years ago when American whiskies wei^e first introduced into British Columbia they met with such detei'mined opposition that the importers despaired of making any headway whatever, but in time the prejudice was over- come by excellence of quality, and the result is that the people of that colony prefer American whiskey to other kinds. The prejudice against American beer will be overcome in the same way. During the year 1884 the German imports consisted of 86,829 gallons, valued at £19,393 ($94,376), while in 1886 only 81,399 gallons, valued at £15,161 ($73,781), were imported; and in 1887 only 73,417 gallons, valued at £12,357 ($60,135). The low price at which German beer is sold is one of the reasons of its popularity, and at present the American importers are not able to compete in price with the German article. The charges on all business transactions with Europe, such as freight, commission, insurance, exchange, in spite of the greater distance and risk, are much less than with the United States. The fact that American importers have been enabled to find a market for their merchandise in these Colonies under such circumstances is itself an evidence of the superiority of American products. It may be men- tioned that during 1887 Messrs. Butcher, Fehon, & Co., imported— including imports in bond — over 1,100,000 bottles of Anheuser-Busch, St. Louis lager beer. There are 77 breweries in the Colony of New South Wales, em- ploying 987 hands, and the quantity of beer made in 1887 was 9,720,000 gallons. All the breweries, with perhaps one or two exceptions, have proved to be gi'eat sources of wealth to their owners. The colonial beer is nothing like as good as the imported article. The 10 XEAV SOUTH AVALES : HER COMMERCE AND RESOURCES. ■\vator is not always suitable for beei'-making purposes, as it is not rich enough in carbonates. Professor Liversidge gives the following analysis of the water used in the principal brewing establishments in New South Wales :— AnaJi/sis of wafers — Sydney and South Creel: Constituents. Sydney. South Creek. Chloride of sodium (common salt) Grains per gallon. 2-863 0-112 0-118 0-059 0-128 Gi-ains per gallon. 27-72 Chloride of potassium Chloride of magnesium 3-45 Chloride of magnesia Sulphate of magnesia Sulphate of lime 2-48 0-233 rio .Silica 0-222 0-082 1-10 Peroxide of iron with trace of phosphate of lime .. Carbonate of lime 2-00 Total inorganic matter 3-817 35-80 The subjoined tables of British waters are given for comparison. Analysis of London tvaters. Constituents. Thames water. Kent water. Carbonate of lime Sulphate of lime Calcium nitrate Magnesium carbonate Sodium chloride Sodium sulphate Potassium chloride Potassium sulphate Silica Iron oxide, alumina, and phosphates Organic matter Grains per gallon Grains. 7-02 11 03 •07 3-42 3-50 AnaJyslfi of nKiter used by Bass ct- Co. Calcium carbonate 9 03 Calcium sulpliate 54-40 Calcium chloride 1 3 28 Magnesium sulphate ^3 78-44 The water used at Burton is from wells, and not from the Trent, as commonly supposed. BEER. 221 AnaJi/sisoJ water used hy AlUop cC- Sons In the manii/arture of their beer. Grains per gallon. Sodium chloride 10^12 Potassium sulphate 7'65 Calcium sulpliate 18"96 Magnesium sulphate 9"95 Calcium carbonate 15'51 Magnesium carbonate 1 '70 Iron carbonate "60 Silica -79 Total 65-28 The water used by Tetley & Son, Leeds, has the following con- stituents : — Grains per gallon. Calcium carbonate magnesium 19"78 Iron carl)onate '93 Calcium sulphate 4'97 Sodium sulphate 13"09 Magnesium sulphate 9 "73 Sodium chloride 7 "1 1 Magnesium chloride 4 "74 Loss 1"72 Total 62-07 The beer manufactured in Victoria and Tasmania is believed to be of better quality than that of New South Wales, but the industry in neither Colony is as remunerative as in New Soutli Wales. The estimate for Victoria for the year ended Mai'ch, 1886, was given at 14,753,152 gallons, against 14,400,749 gallons for 1885. Table prepared by Mr. Barney, the Chief Inspector of Distilleiies at Sydney, estimating the quantity of beer or ale manufactured in the Colony of New South Wales for each year, from 1881 to 1887 in- clusive : — Year. Quantity. Year. Quantity. 1881 1882 1883 1884 Gallons. 9,642,800 *1 0,800, 000 =^12,175,300 * 13, 068, 920 1885 1886 1887 Gallons. *14,716,000 *13,178,912 9,720,000 * Estimates probably too hiyh. The Customs duty charged on all kinds of beer imported into New South Wales in bottles is 9d. (18 cents) per gallon, and 6d. {12 cents) per gallon in wood or jar. The total quantity of hops imported into New South Wales during the year 1887 was 961,129 lb., valued at £42,173 (.>?205,235). Of the imports for 1887 Great Britain furnished 300,364 lb. ; United States, 49,004 lb. ; Tasmania, 170,699 lb. ; Victoria, 284,495 lb. ; South Aus- tralia, 26,710 1b.; Queensland, 21,279 1b.; New Zealand, 56,139 1b.; Germany, 49,4491b.; and Belgium, 2,990 lb. 222 >fEW SOUTH AVALES : HER COMMERCE AND RESOURCES. Hops grow very well in New Zealand and Tasmania, and they can be exported to Gi'eat Britain at a cost not exceeding Is. Gd. (3G cents) per 100 lb. (which is considerably less than the cost of freight on hops from Kent to London). The price of hops is liuctuating. It has been known to advance to as high as 4s. lid. (-Sl'^O) per 11)., and then decline suddenly to 6d. (12 cents) per lb. A reason for tliis is that hops are only used for one purpose, and as they deteriorate rapidly by age, a good season in Germany or England would cause the price to decline at once, not only in Europe, but in the United States and elsewhere. The bulk of the malt imported into the Colony comes from Great Britain, and the remainder from New Zealand and the other Australasian Colonies. During the year 1887 the total imports of malt into New South Wales amounted to -314,218 bushels, valued at £105,422 ($.513,037). Of the imports for 1887, Great Britain furnished 266,059 bushels; New Zealand, 23,455 bushels; Victoria, 11,992 bushels; South Australia, 12,300 bushels; Tasmania, 200 bushels; Germany, 212 bushels. The barley imports have come hitherto from the neighbouring Colonies. The total imports of l)arley for the year 1887 amounted to 68,424 bushels, valued at £10,215 ($49,71 1). Of this amount Victoria furnished 16,387 bushels; South Australia, 3,226 bushels; Tasmania, 2,576 bushels; New Zealand, 10,339 bushels. In this year the United States sent 35,896 bushels. The large profits made both by the Avholesale and retail dealers in American beer, together with the high cost of freight and the absence of a direct medium of exchange between Australia and the United States, are the princi})al obstacles in the Avay of increasing the trade to very large proportions. The American beers bring the highest price on account of their superb quality. Messrs. Butcher, Fehon, & Co., the Sydney agents, sell the St. Louis "Budweiser" wholesale at 10s. 6d. ($2"55) per 1 dozen quart bottles, and pints at 7s. ($1'70) per dozen, duty paid. The agents of Flensburg beer charge 9s. 6d. ($2-31) per dozen quarts. Some German brands sell as low as 8s. ($1'94) per dozen quarts, and 5s. 3d. ($1'27) per dozen pints. The various brands of St. Louis, New York, Milwaukee, and Chicago beer fluctuate between 10s. 6d. ($2-55) and 12s. ($2-92) per dozen quarts, duty paid. The following are the Sydney prices of some of the principal brands of British beer: — Foster's ale, 10s. 6d. ($2-55) per dozen; stout, 9s. 6d. ($2-31); Reid's ale, 10s. 6d. ($2-55) per dozen ; stout, 9s. 6d. ($2-31) ; Tennant's ale, 8s. 3d. ($2) per dozen ; McEwan's, 8s. 3d ($2) per dozen ; stout, 7s. 6d. ($1-82) ; Danks' ale, 10s. 2d. (.$2-49) ; stout, 9s. 3d. ($2-25); Porter's ale, 10s. 6d. ($2-55) per dozen ; stout, 10s. ($2-43) ; Hall's ale,., 9s. 6d. ($2-31) per dozen ; stout, 9s. 6d. ($2-31) per dozen. These beers, if bought in bond, would be Is. 6d. (36 cents) per dozen less. In 1886, a Royal Commission was appointed in Sydney to make full inquiry into the intoxicating drink question, and they caused the British BEER. 223 and Colonial beers, as well as the American and German Lager beers, to be analysed by the Government Analyst, with results of a startling character. The Commission reported that they were scarcely prepared to find fusel oil in liquors which had not undergone the process of distillation, but only of fermentation. They attributed the presence of fusel oil, in a measure, to the high temperature at which the beer was brewed. They reported as follows : — But whether high temperature be the true cause or not, we regard the fact that fusel oil is present in Colonial beers to be as serious in oiie aspect as it is suggestive in another ; and although the percentage of fusel oil found in the beer is not perhaps more than a fifth or sixth of the percentage in cheap whisky or brandy, yet the result on the beer drinker, who probably consumes more than six times the weight of beer than the whisky or brandy drinker does of spirits, is about the same. The Commission recommended that steps should be taken by the Government to prevent such spirits, whether imported or manufactured in the Colony, from passing into consumption. They deemed it Avould also be advisable to adopt a similar course in regard to beer, for the reason that that most })ornicious suljstance (amylic and its kindred alcohols), though present in very small quantities, is as widespread a bane as the fusel oil of the cheap whisky, and the sham brandy. The Commission said that the manufacture of wholesome beer could be carried on as successfully in New South Wales as in any other country in the world. Dr. W. M. Hamlet, F.C.S., the Government Analyst, obtained four- teen samples of beer from the undermentioned breweries : — ■ Pyrmont Brewing Co., Pyrmont. Castleinaine Brewing Co. Vincent M 'Donald, Edinboro' Brewery, Leichhardt. M. Marks' Brewery, Newtown. Burrows & Gleeson, Waverley Brewery. Tooth & Co., Kent Brewery. J. T. & J. Toohey, Standard Brewery. J. & J. S. Marshall, Baddington. Bladen & Burrows, Surrey Brewerj', Waterloo. J. & S. Cornwall, Australian Brewery, Waterloo. W. J. Dirwin & Co., Red Heart Brewery, Ultimo. Stephenson & Co., Eagle Brewery, Marrickville. Instead of taking the usual quantity, only half-pint samples, he obtained 2 gallons of each land, making in all 28 gallons, so that the deleterious substances, if any, might be shown in sufficient quantities to be easily detected. Dr. Hamlet stated that, as the ordinary analysis of beer includes the estimation of the amount of alcohol, extract acetic acid, ash, salts, dextrin, and maltose, together with the number of grains of salt per gallon, he determined to put the ordinary analysis aside, and direct his investigation towards the discovery of the deleterious ingredients men- tioned in tlie New Houth Wales Licensing Act, 1883, and any otlier ingredients injurious to health. 224 NEW SOUTH WALES : HER COMMERCE AND RESOURCES. Dr. Ilaivilct stated that in six samples analysed by him, no othex' bitter ])rinci2ile existed in the beer than Avhat was derived from the hop plant lyllumnJns capubis). Each of the fourteen samples of beer was examined for the ingredients enumerated in the Licensing Act of 1883, with entirely negative results. He said : ^ The nature and character of tlie alcohol in the beers have received my close attention. With tliis object in view the alcoholic distillate has been suljinitted to the process known as fractional distillation, tliat is to say, the volatile alcohols liave been more or less separated from each other in the order of their boiling points. In this way iso-butylic and amylic alcoliols were detected. These compounds are present in the complex licpiid called fousel or fusel oil, and give a cliaracter to the beer different from that of malt liquors properly fermented at a low tempera- ture [not above 70 degrees Fahrenheit.] The following are the i-esults of Dr. Hamlet's analyses : — Samples collected in June, July, and August, 1887. Average composition of Sydney beer. (The so-called colonial ale.) Specific gravity (water = 1000) at G0° F., from 1008-5 to 1010, Per cent. Total solids, or extract, a variety of substances giving both body and flavour to the beer 6 •882 Ethylic alcohol 6 •505 Other alcohols and acids •07'2 Water (by difference) 86"541 A more detailed analysis, showing the total composition : — r 100-00 ) Per cent. y G-882 Dextrin "j Albumenoids Maltose Colouring matter Bitter principle Common salt Magnesia Total solids, \ Carbonates i.e. extract. \ Phosphates and sulphates of lime. Silica Potash Latic acid ( i ly cerine ... Catechu (Cutch) Carbolic acid L Salicylic acid j Ethylic alcohol 6 -505 Higher alcohols, including fusel oil -002 Acetic acid -OJO Carbonic acid -028 Water (by difference) 86-513 100 000 Salt in hfcr. — The (piantity of connnon salt found in the beer throws some light upon the mode of manufacturing this article. Knowing the actual amount of common salt in the water supplied to the City of Sydney, and the maximum possible quantity of salt found in genuine malt and hops, as well as the amount of malt and hops required to produce one galloii of beer of the same original gravity as the average of Sydney beers, it is easy to calculate how much salt ought to be BEER. 225 found in the beer. For instance, the water supplied to Sydney, as shown by the analysis of samples, taken from the engine pond, Botany, Crown-street servoir, and the Lachlaa Swamp, averages 4 grains of salt to the gallon. Therefore we have :— Grains per gallon. Salt derived from the water 4"00 Total possible quantity of salt derived from enough malt to make a gallon of strong beer 2 '65 Total possible quantity of salt from the hops required to flavour one gallon of beer 3'35 Salt derived from dust, dirt, or inserted by inadvertence, say ... '50 lOi Dr. Hamlet, at a subsequent period, operated upon a number of samples of imported American and German Lager beer, also upon samples of English ales. The results are set forth in the following reports : — Report of the. Government Analyst on Lager heers, both German and American. In consequence of its having been reported to the Commission on Intoxicating Drinks that the alcoholic strength of Lager beers, both German and American, had of late greatly increased, the following sixteen samples were procured, and an analysis made as follows : — The alcoholic strength, or the percentage of absolute alcohol by weight, varied from 3 '88 per cent, in the Flensburg Stock to 5 '62 per cent, in the Vereins beer. Percentage of Alcohol. No. of samples. Name of beer. Absolute Alcohol by weight. Proof Spirit. 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 Milwaukee, U.S. A St. Louis, Anthony & Kuhu, U.S.A. St. Louis, Anheuser-Busch, U.S.A... San Jose, California, U. S. A H. Clausen & Sons, U.S. A Vereins Brauerei Pilsener Drehers, Vienna Ernest Barre Dittman & Sauerliinder Bremen Frydenlund H. H. Grave & Co Flensburg Stock German Castle Pilsen (Malm k Ohlerich) 5-00 4-94 4-37 4-31 5 -.37 5-62 5-19 4-87 5-06 4 GO 5-25 5-25 5-37 3-88 512 4-81 ■94 ■81 ■58 •43 ■76 •30 11-35 10-67 11 ■OS 10 ^26 11 49 11-49 11-76 8-51 11-21 1054 226 XKW sorrii walks: iikk oommi-iu-k \m> kksoiuoks. E.v(ract.—'Vhc amount of oxtiaot dorivoil froiw >\»;vlt. i>v in;\U sulist itutos, n«ul hops, varied from (\w por oont. to S'14 per oout. j,f 1>'1S and 0'J(> per eej\t. Aciillli/. — The amo\int of aeid ealenlateil as aeeiie aei*! was in all of the sa\nples less than that found in English beers, anu>unting oi» the averag\' to (tOl per eent. Carbonic .•lc/(/. — All tho beers were fully eharged with earbonii' neid gas, a speei.al feature in export Lager beer, and one that gives the beer the pleasant pun- gent llavour peeuliar to bottleil beers. A(((7/c .Ic/(/. — The beers were free fron\ hutie aeid at tlu> mt>ment of uneorUing. but when left to stand with the eork removed, thi' beer boe;in\e llat w itl> develop- ment of laetie aeid and aeetie aeid. Miittlir InipunlitK, Ailditioiii^, iinti Ailitltt'rn(ioni>. — All the samples were remarh- ably free froni sneh. Jilicroscflpir txst every ease, to show that th<< beiMs had been brewed with low yeast in tlie usual n\:uiuer i)f Lager beer fermentation, in many ease-4 fraguu'uts of hoi> (lowers were found, imlieatiug the origin ot the luller pruieiph' employed in their maiuifaeture. In eaeh of the beers a seeondary fermentation had taken plaee while in bottle, and tlnis iiad produeed a fairly large amount of earbonie aeid gas, w hieh ailds very nnn'h to the eharaeter of the be<'r. One result of tliis is the inereased pereoidage of aleoliol. All the Jiager beers that luvve emne \nidi>r my notii-e in Australia lune a some- what higher pereeidage of aleohol than the Lager betu' eommonly eonsnmed in (Jeriuany. (h'nei'al CoiicliiaioDii. l''rom tlie ehemie.d analysis and mieroHeoi>ieal exauunation of the residues of the beers, 1 am of opinion tliat all the sixteen samples sidmiitted are giuniine wliole- Borne e from noxiiMis additions and adulterations. All the beers, however, do not app<>ar to have bi>en brrwid wholly from t\ialt and hops. Tlu> I'il.si'uer and l''i'ydenlund beers are m.ide lioiii iithcr in.vterials, probably riee. 'I'he bitter juiiicipli' varies very niiuli. hi thr Nii'ima heir. Probers, it is at its ni.iviniiiiii, ranging in others to a nu're traei' or IliiMnir. Ill (he extracts were found albuminous Hubstanees, glucose, ,'iiid glycerine, luit, as these are iioi iiialiy pres-nt. in all good beers, the fact calls for no furthiM' remark. W ILblAM M. llAMLI-'/r. F.C.S., ( io\ crninenl .Analyst. Sythu'v, ir.th Mareii, iSS7. I'( jiiiii of llir (I'oririiiih'iil Aiiss to the Sydntiy bre\ver.-i a siiiiiliir investigation tuiglit to be made on the imported beers. 'i'his being a jjerfeetly reasonable demaiui, not only on beliall of the brewers tlii^mselves, but in the interest of the public generally, I liasi' accordingly been furnished with samples of the following beerM, which were takiMi through I he agency of the I'ol-iee and Customs Olllcers from eonsignmeiitH ol'liecrs recently arrivi'd, tlie namoa or brands of the various beers being as follows : No. I. Mass" draught ]niU^ ale, e\ " Port .lackson,' Dalgelly .»l ( ',.. (Limited) Sydney agents. No. ~. Truman, llaiibtiry i*i: ( 'o's. Liigliali ale, .MIL i^' ( 'o. Sydney ageiilw. No. .'{. IvobeiL ^'ounger iV[, ( 'o's. a!(\ I'ailniiy'H llond, Sydney. No. -I, M'Lwen's Lnglisli ale, Towns' Homl, Sydney, reylon, Howling it Orme, agents. No. 5. Aitkins' Lnglish ale taken fiom rmiid, Sydney. liKKIt. 227 Till' rcdlowin;.^ l,ii,l>I<) mIiovvh ilu! compoHiUoii of Uii!m<; l'iit,i;ili AI^'raiiiH of Halt per f.;allon viiu^'yA from 7 in tlu! oy or man is employed to drive the cows into a stockyard, where they go into bails. The milking shed is often a roughly put together structure, composed of a few uprights and split slabs, open in front, and roofed with shingles, bark, or iron, the floor being paved with stones or blocks of timber. The bails are formed by uprights, set firmly in the ground, something after the manner in which stalls are fixed in stables. Strong lateral doubled braces are mortised into these uprights, one set close to the ground and the other set about .5 feet above the ground. These beams are securely fastened opposite one another, about 3 inches apart. Swing- ing bars are placed in the grooves of the bars at sufficient distance from one of the uprights to hold the neck of the cow. The lower end of the bar is fastened loosely by a bolt to the beams. This forms a pivot by which tiie top of the bar may be drawn forward or backward as required. The cow to be milked goes into the stall and is taught to insert her head under the top beam and alongside one of the uprights. The swinging lever is closed and fastened and the cow is thus kept in her place. A small rope, called a "leg-rope," with a noose on one end of it, is then passed round her hind leg nearest to where the milker sits, and tightened round a post, so as to stretch the cow's leg out slightly behind her, and so prevent her from kicking or upsetting the milk bucket while she is being milked. The milking is then proceeded with in the usual way. As yet no machine seems to have been invented which will successfully perform the operation of milking without inflicting injury upon the cow. The machinery and many of the appliances for dairy purposes come from Sweden, America, and England. The cream separators come from Sweden, and the churns most generally in use, butter-workers, and milk- coolers from America. A butter-box has been invented and ])atented by Mr. J. A. Pond, of Auckland, New Zealand, and is extensively used by dairy factories ; it will doubtless come into more general use. The boxes are in the form of a cube and are made to any size, usually to contain 50 lb. of butter. They are made of New Zealand Kauri 23 i NEW SOUTH -WALES : IIER COMMERCE AND RESOURCES. timber, grooves are cut in the top, l^ottom, and two of tlie side pieces. To put the box together, the sides are fixed in the grooves in the bottom piece by screws and are kept in place l)y two iron clamps until the box is full, when the cover-piece is put on and screwed down. The box can be used repeatedly, and when empty can Ije taken to pieces and packed in small compass. The parts with which the butter comes in contact are coated over, by a clieinical process, with an enamel which prevents the flavour of the butter from being injured by the wood and yet is in itself innocuous to the butter. English butter dealers highly com- mend this box, but owing to the rough usage to which packages are ex- posed in Australia, butter tubs are in more general use among the dairy farmers. During the last three or four years increased attention has been given to the dairy industry in New South Wales, as well as in Victoria and New Zealand, and the i-esults so far are iiighly encouraging. The introduction of the co-operative system is giving general satisfaction. It is much more pi-ofitable than the old individual-farmer methods, and among its many advantages it enables cream sepai^ators and labour- saving appliances — costly to the individual — to be brought into use. Although the Danish cream separator was the first introduced into Australasia, yet the Laval is in more general use. This useful labour- saving appliance was first introduced into this Colony by the Commis- sioner to the Amsterdam Exhibition of 1883, Mr. D. L. Dymock, President of the Kiama Agricultural Association, who saw it in use in the United States and in Holland. The Laval Separator Comjjany of Stockholm, Sweden, through their enterprising and practical Sydney agents, Messrs. Waugh and Josephson, Civil Engineers, have rapidly overcome the initial difficulties in introducing Swedish separators, and they have designed and carried out the arrangements for the majority of the factories and private dairies. Over 120 factories and private dairies in New South Wales use this machine. All sizes of the Laval separators are at work, and the hand separators are coming rapidly into favour. The motive power is generally a two-horse power engine and three-horse power boiler, but many eniploy single horse power and occasionally bullocks. The work of separating, except in the hottest months of summer, takes place between 7 and 8 o'clock in the mornings. The evening milk is stored at night, in the morning the new milk is added to it, this raises the tonperaturo sufficiently; Vjut during hot weather separation is done morning and afternoon. Some farmers separate for their neiglibours on terras, and the motive power is utilized for various farm works, such as cutting wood and chaff or pumping water. Co-operative factories are arranged on a dual basis, suppliers and non- .suppliers, to both guarantee is given of 10 per cent, per annum on the amount of shai'es as a first charge on output ; then after working cxijenses are paid, the surplus remaining is divided pro rata according to the quantity of milk .supplied by each shareholder, and the payments are made monthly. Landowners and others can, by taking non-suppliers' shares, largely assist their neighbours who are perha[)S not jjossessed of sufficient capital, and at the same time secure a good return for their investments. In one or two instances the factories arc owned by large DAIRY FARMING. 235 incti'opolitau milk and butter distributing companies. In all other cases the factories are purely co-operative. The latter pay ;wo rata. Generally one-third of the price the best hand-made butter brings per lb. at auction, is paid for milk per gallon of 10 lb. weight; thus if butter is Is. (24 cents) a lb., then .sui)pliers get 4d. (8 cents) a gallon for the milk. Frame buildings are usually erected for the factory, with verandahs all round. The iloors arc of wood and concrete. One of the largest factories is at present operating on 33,000 lb. (3,300 gallons) of milk jier day. The skim milk is used for feeding pigs, in some instances sold at |d. (i cent) a gallon to bacon curers who rent the styes and yards from the company. As a rule no test is applied to the milk, unless suspicion of watering is entertained. The richness of milk varies very much. In spring, when grass is fresh and watery, 27 lb. are required to produce a lb. of butter; but in the best season of the year as low as 18,^ lb. has been recorded, and in one private dairy for one month 18 lb. 23 lb. is about a fair average estimate in the best dairies. The sei)arator butter realizes quite 3d. (G cents) per lb. more in the Sydney market than hand-made butter. Much of the butter supply comes to market in tubs, and is sold out of the tubs, or pressed into 1 lb. pieces by the butter dealer. Those engaged in the industry have still much to learn. It is said that nowhere in Australasia is butter placed on the market in a manner equal to that in which it is turned out of the dairy factories of the United States, Sweden, Denmark, or I]ngland. With regai'd to cheese, although large quantities are maile, the quality would be said, by an American, to be inferior. On some jirojierties, as for instance at Bodalla, the magnificent pi'operty of INlessrs. T. and L. j\Iort, only cheese is made at present ; but, although " liodalla cheese" is excellent and much sought after, it is considercil by many not to be equal in quality to American cheese, or to that made in many of the New Zealand cheese factories. Probably no city of its age suflered so long as Sydney for want of what may be described as a genuine, certain, and ready emporium for dairy and farm }n-oduce ; and the loss was twofold. First, the producer found, in a big city with an increasing population, a most uncertain and iinremunerati\e marki't. Then, the consumer could never make sure of reliable source of supply, fresh and good. The direct result was the retarding if not the crippling of inland development, the farmer r(>ceiving so little encouragement. Lengthy discussions took place in the public press, and while all sorts of im- practicable schemes wen^ proposed, a number of practical men in the business, especially among the largest centres of dairy farming in New South Wales, formed a company in June, 1881, under the style of ." The South Coast and West Camden Co-operative Company," with a capital of .£10,000 (.$t8,GGr>), increased in November 1887 to .£T)0,000 (.^243,325), South Coast, l)eing the name by which the coast to the south of Sydney is locally known. Operations were connnenced in rented premises by receiving consigii- mcnts of every description of farm and dairy produce. The directors. 23G NEW SOUTH WALES : HER COMMERCE AXD RESOURCES. all practical farmers, were men of considerable standing in various parts of the districts, and nine-tenths of the shai^eholders were producers. Hence the fact that the Company's business has been one of remarkable success. Each year has seen dividends of from 10 to 15 per cent, paid to shareholders. In 1885 the directors decided to erect premises suitable for conducting the steadily increa.sing business. They secured a detached block of land having a frontage of 588 feet, and a ground space of 12,200 superficial feet in Sussex-street, Sydney, adjacent to the wharves and terminus of the railway lines, and at a cost of nearly £35,000 (.$170,327) erected premises five stories high, with a storage capacity of 2,310,000 cubic feet, replete with every facility for the proper exposition of all kinds of produce. The cold storage chambers, six in number, ax-e well built and rooniy, with a storage capacity of 34,000 cubic feet. The machinery used is Haslem's latest improved dry air method. Two machines are in use, capable of distributing 70,000 feet of cold air per hour. The advantage of these cold chambers for the storage of butter, cheese, beef, mutton, poultry, fish, and game, besides keeping milk fresh, is fully recognised by the public. The butter room is on the same floor as the sale room, and should occasion require, butter arriving in a soft state could, after the lapse of a few hours, be placed before buyers in a firm saleable condition. The chamber affords space for the storage of surplus butter during plentiful seasons, and ensures its export as a prime article. Thus, independently of yearly dividends, the benefits received by producers are enormous. Between September, 1887, when the export commenced, and the end of February, 1888, 374,0801b. of butter were despatched to the English market. This could not have been satisfactorily effected Avithout the aid of cold storage. The butter forwarded to this company is drawn chiefly from districts where the farmers have adopted tlie co-operative factory system. The factories in these districts have advanced the dairying interests wonder- fully, weeding out, as they do, all the worst class of buttei'-makers and producing a prime article of uniform quality. After six years of success, unpai-alleled in the Colonies, the company's output in 1887 was £180,000 (.$875,970), and would have been pro- bably much larger had the countiy entirely recovered from the severe di'ought.s, as the output of the company in 1883-84 reached £203,953 (8992,537). The Fresh Food and Ice Company, and the Country Milk Supply Company, are other highly useful enterprises, and ably minister to the hungiy and thirsty wants of the people of Sydney and her suburbs. The Kiama Agricultural Association pays great attention to the pro- motion of the dairy interests. Among other means it has, for years past, awarded a number of prizes for cows producing the largest quantity of milk. The Association admits to its herd -book any cow that can pro- duce 350 lb. of milk, or 12 lb. of butter per week. A series of prizes wei'e offered by the Association for cows giving the most milk. It tvas determined that the tests should take place in the same locality, the object being to place competing animals on an equal footing. DAIRY FARMIXG. 237 Tlie following extract from the Kiama Agricultural Association's Dairy Herd-book gives the result of tests which were conducted on Mr. N. Craig's farm, Jarra Park, near Kiama : — Name of Owner. Date of Test. Weight of Milk for week. Wei'-'ht of Butter made. Nature of Pasture. Weather. H. Colley, jun. H. Colley, jun. Cole Bros Cole Bros J. M'Caffrey ... H. Dudgeon ... Spinks Bros ... H. Colley, jun. W. Gray J. T. & E. Cole 12-19 Nov. 15-22 Nov. 17-24 Dec. 2-9 Dec. , 24-31 Jan. 1-8 Feb. . 1-7 June . •••I lb. 419 392 343 293 2S9 301 312 266 300 256 lb. oz. 18 15 13 4 12 14 4 12 14 10 12 4 12 8 12 12 Rye, grass, and clover. Grass pasture only. Broadcast corn. Grass (dry), supplemented with broad- cast corn. Grass pasture only. Strontc wester!}' winds for some days, remainder of time hot and dry. Same as above. Wind J' and hot. "Windy and hot. Excessively hot and windy for three days out of seven.' Hot but moist. Same as above. Windy, hot, and dry. Close and dry. Cold. Prizes are given for cows and heifers giving the largest quantity of milk in twenty-four hours, varying from £2 (8973) to £10 (.f48-66). In both classes competing animals have to be milked three times within twenty-four hours, in the presence of two members of the Committee, the second and third milking only being weighed. The Royal Agricultural Society of New South Wales held a show in Sydney during the Centennial celebrations, in January, 1888, when a new departure was made in tlie exhibition of a working dairy on the Show grounds. The advantages of this exhibition were appreciated by crowds of inquiring farmers. The total quantity of butter imported into New South Wales during the year 1887 was 1,034,544 lb., valued at £39,481 (.$192,134), against 3 129,392 lb., valued at £159,536 (8776,832) for 1886. XEW SOU Til WALES : IIER COMMERCE AXP RESOURCES. The following ti^ble shows the quantity find value of butter iuvporteii into New South Wales in eaeh vear, fi-om 1877 to lv"^S7 inclusive: — Year endtxl Slst. lXx\ Quantitv Value Vear eiKleii i Slst. Dec. vjuantity. ^";vluc. 1877 1S7S 1879 ISSO ISSl 1SS2 lb. 713,776 451,920 105,056 228,144 660,128 1,654.016 £ 39,809 21,379 3,919 7,063 30,741 90,422 193.730 10:>,554 19,072 34,372 119,601 440,039 1883 1S84 1S85 1SS6 1887 lb. • 1,813.5(H 2.791.936 3.624.992 3.129.392 1,034.544 £ 88,860 147.148 188.195 159,536 39.481 432.437 716.096 915,851 776,832 192,134 The following table shows the quantity and \-alue of butter imported into New South Wales during the years lSSl> and 1SS7, and the countries from whence invimrted : — ■Country. Quantity. A'alue. 1886. Great Britain Victoria South Australia Queensland Tasmania Ne^v Zealand ^ Vestoru Australia Fiji United States France Germany Italy India Total. Gi-eat Britain ... Victoria Queensland South Australia Xew Zealand ... Tasmania France Gcnn;uiy Italy India New CiJedonia 1887. Total 1,034,544 lb. 9.408 723,184 54.880 14.784 106,4lX) 2,169,776 560 1.008 2,800 7,504 896 35,952 2,240 110 £ 4C\o 28,620 535,539 58 404 676 2.677 292 12,813 389 3,129,392 158 595 022 ,022 937 175 ,503 60 ,200 .450 ,225 ,460 490 159,536 r6,382 203 7.986 2*19 7,171 M,206 3 73 379 2,119 30 12 39,481 988 38,8tU 1,455 34,898 103, 199 15 355 1.844 io,:n2 146 58 192,134 The export of butter, the produce of the Colon v. durin* the vear 1887, was 72:2,322 lb., valued at £20,7o8 (6101, OU)), against -S8,047 lb., valued at £2,862 (813,927), for 1880. The export has been contined ahnost exclusively to the neighbouring Colonies ; however, several shipments of New South Wales butter have been made dui-ing the last few months to London, the mail steamship companies having litted storage rooms on their vessels with suitable refrigerating aj^pliances. The shipments are said to have realized very fair returns in a depressed market. DAIRY FARMING. 239 The subjoined table shows the quantity and value of butter, the pro- duce of the Colony, exported during the years 1886 and 1887, and the countries to which exported : — Countrv. Quantity . 1886. Victoiia South Australia Queensland South Sea Islands New Caledonia Fiji ; Western Australia New Guinea lb. 9,006 8,928 34, -234 1,-210 •2,754 1.33 1,438 324 £ 401 417 1,684 75 157 10 98 20 Total. 1887. Great Britain Victoria South Australia Queensland • AVestern Australia South Sea Islands New Caledonia Fiji Sandwich Islands Kaiser Wilhelni's Land 58,047 Total. 483,657 427 823 210,586 882 2.420 6,209 52 17,166 100 2,862 12,411 18 32 7,509 31 75 233 3 440 6 1,951 2,029 8,195 365 764 49 477 97 13,927 r22,32i 20,758 60,398 88 156 36,542 151 365 1,134 15 2,141 29 101,019 The following table .shows the quantity and value of butter exported from New South "Wales, distinguishing the produce of the Colony, during each year from 1877 to 1887 inclusive : — "Vear ended 31st Dec. Quantity. Vabie. 1877 1878 1879 1880 1881 1882 1883 1884 1885 1886 1887 Produce of the Colony Other produce Produce of the Colony Other produce Produce of the Colony Other produce Produce of the Colony Other produce Produce of the Colony Other produce Produce of the Colony Other produce Produce of the Colony Other produce Produce of the Colony Other produce ... Produce of the Colony Other produce Produce of the Colony Other produce Produce of the Colony Other produce lb. 599,088 118,272 624.736 42,112 ,098,496 222 592 '"T,sso 740,880 21,. 504 317,744 120,064 639,184 139,440 441,504 179,760 169,232 352,240 58,047 228,982 722.322 318,901 £ 28,302 4,900 33,780 1,884 39,431 '35,708 141 24,672 1.002 18.041 7,862 26,842 7,636 18.772 9,778 8,928 18,825 2,862 11,991 20,758 11,079 •5 137,732 23,846 164,390 9,168 191,891 173,773 686 120,037 4,867 87,797 38,260 130,627 37,161 91,354 47,585 43,448 91,612 13,928 58,354 101,019 53,916 2tO XEW SOl'TII AVALES : HER COMMERCE AND RESOURCES. Tho total quantity of elioesc imported into Now South Wales during the year 1887 was 318,099 lb., valued at £10,801 (!?52,.5G3), against 1,229,334 lb., valued at £43,508 ($211,732) for 1886. The following table shows the quantity and value of cheese imported into New South AVales in each year from 1877 to 1887 inclusive: — Year Year ended Quantity. Value. ended Quantity. Value. 31st Dec. 1 31st Dec. lb. £ $ lb. £ $ 1877 711,240 29,519 143,654 1883 161,753 8,042 39,136 1878 541,919 20,112 97,875 1884 725,177 22,688 103,404 1879 246,139 8,240 40,100 1885 769,148 29,163 141,922 1880 1 15,678 4,462 21,714 1886 1,229,334 43,508 211,732 1881 171,544 5,687 27.676 1887 318,099 10,801 52,563 1882 331,944 12,428 60,481 The subjoined table shows the quantity and value of cheese imported into New South Wales during the years 1886 and 1887, with the countries from whence imported : — Country. Quantity. A'al ue. 1886. lb. 99,055 198,073 37,857 1,823 32 859,824 106 11,007 170 10,270 7,105 4,012 £ 3,797 6,304 1,755 66 1 30,350 2 395 6 480 235 117 18,478 .30.678 8,541 321 Tasmania 5 147,698 Western Australia 10 1,922 New Caledonia 29 2, .3.36 Belgium 1,144 569 Total 1,229,334 43,508 211,731 1887. 74,751 39, .345 2,097 52,4.55 124,650 85 16,913 4,372 2,932 415 134 2,557 1,285 46 1,971 ,3,6.38 1 990 176 113 17 7 12,444 6,253 224 9,592 New Zealand 17,704 Tasmania 5 4,818 857 Belgiiun 550 Italy 83 New Caledonia . . 34 Total 318,099 10,801 52,563 The quantity of cheese, the produce of the Colony, exported during 1887, was 163,648 lb., valued at £3,494 ($17,006), against 11,370 lb. valued at £417 (.$2,029) for 1886. , DAIRY FARMING. 241 The following; table shows the quantity and value of cheese, the pro- duce of the Colony, exported during the years 1886 and 1887, with the countries to which exported : — Countrj'. Quantity. Value, 1886. Victoria South Australia New Zealand Queensland New Caledonia Western Australia Total 1887. Great Britain Victoria South Australia Queensland Western Australia South Sea Islands New Caledouia Fiji ..; Sandwich Islands Cejdon ludia , Total. lb. 1,414 130 150 3,807 5,915 624 11,370 18,418 9,410 2,507 13,839 112 249 14,396 206 1,407 776 2,328 ie3,648 £ 49 loo 184 19 417 322 175 70 2,506 3 8 310 3 18 19 60 3,494 238 24 24 754 896 93 2,029 1,567 852 341 12,195 15 40 1,509 15 88 92 292 17,000 The following table shows the quantity and value of cheese exported from New South Wales, distinguishing the produce of the Colony, during each year from 1877 to 1887 inclusive : — Year ended 31st Dec. Quantity. Value. 1877 1878 1879 1880 1881 1882 1883 1884 1885 1SS6 1887 Produce of the Colony- Other produce Produce of the Colony Other produce Produce of the Colony Other produce Produce of the Colony Other produce Produce of the Colony Other produce Produce of the Colony Other produce Produce of the Colony Other produce Produce of the Colony Other produce Produce of the Colony Other produce Produce of the Colony Other pi'oduce Produce of the Colony Other produce lb. ,39,568 38,113 52,546 29,245 122,098 18,440 155,578 18,251 123, .372 22,461 103,8SO 59,498 234,359 25,383 123,828 123,509 4.-), 144 78,441 11,370 74,445 163,648 84,178 £ 1,428 1,929 1,744 1,289 3,648 686 4,308 774 3,669 912 3,944 2,272 10,871 1,049 4,067 4,032 1,500 2,486 417 3,042 3,494 2,546 6,949 9,387 8,487 6,273 17,753 3,338 20,965 3,766 17,855 4,438 19,193 11,057 52,904 5,105 19,792 19,622 7,300 12,098 2,029 14,804 17,006 12,390 242 Ni:w soiTii wales : her commerce and resources. LEATHER. At the bef^iuuing of the year 1887, the number of tanneries in opera- tion in the Colony of New South Wales was ninety-seven, employing 627 hands. The number has probably increased since then, as the leather industry appears to be in a nourishing condition. The countiy is so well adapted to the raising of sheep and cattle that it would Ije a matter of suprise rather than otherwise if very general attention were not given to the leather trade. Although tanneries w^ere established here soon after the first settle- ment of tiie Colony, it has only been within the last few years that any great progress has been made in the art of tanning. The industry, however, has reached such a state that very favourable results may be expected from it in the near future. The bulk of the leather jiroduce of the Colony is admitted by judges to be of very fair quality. There is, however, much complaint against the careless manner in \\hich the skins are removed from the animals. They are often so cut and slashed about that it is almost impossible to make use of them. These cuts do not show in the green state, and it is only after they have been dressed that their defects become known. A large amount of local capital is employed in the leather trade. Sydney offers many advantages for the development of this trade. Besides being the great shipping port and depot, it is connected by railways with all the important districts in the Colony in which the tanning industry is carried on. Amongst the towns where tanneries are located are Bathurst, Orange, Mudgee, Glen Innes, Wao-ca VVagga, Albury, Grafton, Penrith, Windsor, Braidwood, Ulla- dulla, Armidale, Tamworth, Bega, and Parramatta ; but the principal works are situated in and around Sydney, and include those of Messrs. Alderson k. Sons, Begg k, Sons, Davenport k Sons, Farleigh tt Nettheim, James Forsyth k Sons, and Walsh, Elliott, k Piennie, whose brands of leather are well known in the London market. The tanneries in the neighbourhood of Sydney are mainly supplied from the public abattoirs at Glebe Island in Sydney Harbour, but every town of importance in the Colony has a tannery Avhich serves as a depot for the surrounding country. The hides are carefully looked after by the farmers, who regard so small a numberas twenty hides ayearworth sending to a tannery. On account of the great distance between stations, one tannery is often the deposit for hides from a large extent of country. The system of fire-branding cattle is almost universally practised in the Colonies, and is of course injurious to the hides. The small value of cattle and the difhculty of shepherding them in thinly populated parts of this Continent are the principal reasons why this method of desig- nating ownership is not discontinued. The average price paid for hides at the Sydney tanneries is from 3d. (6 cents) to 4d. (8 cents) per pound. The tanneries, however, do not consume by any means all the hides produced in the Colony, for large numbers of them are exported to England. They are usually loaded in the wool ships, under tlie wool. The skins of sheep are also largely exported, but numbers are used at the local tanneries. A carefully cut LEATIIEr!. 243 sheep-skin, without any wool on it, will sell readily for 6d. (12 cents) in Sydney. The Y>rice of the skins containing wool depeiids, of course, on the quantity and quality of the wool. Australian sheep-skins, properly prepared, are said to make the best imitation of morocco leather known to the trade. Buyers of these skins take the precaution to instruct the butchers to see that the animals are properly flayed and that no particles of fat are left on them, for other- wise decay is certain to set in and the leather will become spotted and discoloured. The great bulk of the material used for tanning leather in xVustralia consists of wattle, or mimosa, bark, the produce of various species of the Acacia. This bark yields a higher percentage of tannin than any other vegetable material, with the single exception of the celeln-ated taneka bark of New Zealand, a product peculiar to that Colony. An interesting feature connected with the )iiimosa bark is that its percentage of tannin increases for about two years, then decreases if kept in a dry place. The bark is usually gathered in the spring, which begins here in the month of September. The bark is so highly prized for tan- ning that considerable quantities are exported to England, the exports for 1886 being 2,705 tons. The demand for it has been so great that at one time it was thought the trees would disappear altogether. The Govern- ment, however, has taken very active measures to promote their growth, and has caused numbers of them to be planted in various parts of the Colony and especially on the railway reserves. Strong efibrts are also being made to encourage planting these trees by private enterprise. Many varieties of the wattle are very beautiful, with graceful, wavy, feathery foliage, and a few of them have highly perfumed white or yellow coloured flowers. Mr. J. H. Maiden, Curator of the Technological Museum of S^'dney, who has given much study to the economic botany of Australia, states that wattle barks are usually found in commerce in four forms : First, in narrow strips about 3 feet long, pulled off the tree ; second, in small pieces, 1 inch in length and about the same in breadth ; third, ground bark, having the appearance of I'etted fibre ; fourth, powdered bark, forming a very fine powder. The wattle bark forms a hard and heavy tannage when used strong, but soft leathers may be tanned with it in weak liquors. Extracts are now made of this bark, and some English tanners prefer it sent to them in that form. In the proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales for 1887 will be found four papers by Mr. Maiden, entitled " Some New South Wales Tan Substances," and analyses are given of seventy-eight of them. Mr. Maiden intends to continue his investigations, as there are hundreds of more or less astringent substances in this Colony alone, which it is desirable to examine. Subjoined will be found a list of the barks analysed, with the results. Those marked with asterisk are articles of regular consumption by tanners, while several of the others are used locally, Ijut to what extent it is impossible to say. The three substances put under the heading " JNIiscellaneous " are interestinij. Hhus rhodanthema is a tine handsome tree, with valued. 244 NEW SOUTH WALES : HER COMMERCE AND RESOURCES. timber. The genus yields the sumach of commerce, and also the North Americam sumachs, of wliich a full account is given in a report of the Department of Agriculture, Washington. li. rlwdantkerna has never been u.^ed as a tan, so far as is known, but it would prove useful for that purpose, and it is quite possible the Department of Agi'iculture might deem it worthy of experimental cultivation in the United States. The aboriginals of the interior use the bruised leaves of EremopJdla longifolia and other species, for tanning the skins of the male wallaby for water-bottles. The bush is not used by the colonists. Pohigonum plebejicm is a plant which will intei'est the peo2:>le of the United States, from the fact that another species P. arnpltibhaii, which, like many others of the genus can be mown and stacked like hay, is used in the production of a superior leather in Chicago. Mr. Maiden has drawn compaiisons between the various species of Polygommi in the papers above referred to. His papei's also contain some researches on a number of eucalyptus kinos, and also on the tanning power of various leaves, viz., wattle, acacia, and gum eucalyptus. The kinos are used almost exclusively in medicine on account of their powerfully astringent properties ; the leaves are for the most part too weak in tanning power for use in the manu- factui'e of leather, but there are some exceptions which may be brought into notice as astringent substances become more scarce. Barks found in New South Wales. Botanical Name. Vernacular Name. Percentafje of extract on substance dried at 100°C. Percentage of tannic acid on substance dried at 100' C. Acacia seiitif, F. v. M * J, peiminervis, Lieb ,, mdanoxylon, R. Br ,, ancura, F. v. M * ,, decurrens, WiWd ,, collettoklex, A. Cunn ,, rigen-% A. Cunn ,, vc'stita, Ker ,, pendida var., A. Cunn * ,, lincrrata, D. C * „ lompfoUa, Willd ,, glai/cc^cinhs, Willd ^ ,, (Ualbata, Link ,, homalopltylla, A. Cunn ,, 0-simMi, F. v. M Eucalyptus stellulatn, Lieber ,, sideropJdoia, Benth ,, Gunnii var., Hook ,, tnmimdlx, Labill ,, sheartiana, F. v. M ,, corymlo-sa, Smith ,, Wrtc«7rtta, Hook EncrypJaa Moorei, F. v. M Fusanus acuminatus, R. Br Hickory Blackwood ... .... Mulga Black Wattle " Wait-a-while" ... Nealie , Yarran Black W'attle Colden Whittle ... Myall Silver Wattle Narrow-leaved Yarran Miljee Black Sally Ironbark Flooded CtUui Red (ium INIanna Gum Apple-tree Blood wood Spotted (ium Plum-tree Quandoug 18-02 22 -88 45-5 20-()3 10 20-72 42-16 10-56 19-05 50-82 17-91 58-03 30 -.35 14-29 29-86 21-51 20-7 27-64 26-56 19-4 20-84 18-65 15-39 12-16 20 -865 21-4 39-46 6-32 16-24 16-96 ir]2 4-78 8-62 .32-08 4-4 6-26 27-96 715 .30-4 18-93 8-10 21-22 ^9-06 9-72 12-86 10-4 9-45 II -.35 7-5 5-25 5-85 9-74 7-74 18-84 LEATHER. 245 Botanical Name. Vernacular Name. Percentage of extract on substance dried at 100°C. Percentage of tannic acid on .substance dried at 100°C. Etaexcnrpiis grand /■•t, F. v. M Hhiis rliodanthema, F. v. M Blue Fig 21-566 44-79 19-11 22-02 14-95 14-2 27-38 17-2 29-99 10-28 Deep yellow-wood . . . Emu-bush 23-15 Eremophila lonrjifoUa, F. v. M Greviltea striata, il. Br. . . 5-107 Beef wood Needle-bush 17-84 Haken Clucoptcrn, E. Br 10-99 Banhsia intequifolia, Linn, f Coast Honeysuckle . . . Honeysuckle 10-825 23-25 Camarina (jlauca, Lieb Belar Native Cherry 1 1 -58 Exocarpus cupressiformis, Labill ... 15-75 Miscellaneous. Elms rJiodanfJiema, F. v. M. (leaves Deep yellow-wood — aN.S. W. sumach.) j Eremophila longi/otia, F. v. M. Emu-bush ,. (leaves used by the aboriginalsi for tanning wallaby skins for water-bottles. ) Polygonum plebejum, R. Br 32-2 42-92 28-11 16-91 9-7 11-19 The following are some of the principal wattle bark.s u.secl in tanning : — - The black wattle, A. decnrrens indigenous in New South Wales, Victoria, and South Australia. It is a small or middle-sized tree, attainiiig a height of about 40 feet with a diameter of 18 inches. It has slightly angulated branchlets. The leaves are reduced to phyllodia, usually 3 or 4 inches long, with two or three longitudinal nerves. It flowers at first on peduncles in an axillary raceme, which, after flowering, often grows into a leafy branch with the peduncles at the base, each bearing a globular head of about twenty flow^ers. The bark yields about 30 per cent, of tannin. A ton of this species is sufiicient to tan twenty-five or thirty hides. It is best adapted to sole leather. Leather tanned with it is believed to be fully as durable as that tanned with oak. It improves in tanning powers from 10 to 15 per cent, if stowed carefully for a season. The cultivation of this wattle is extremely easy, it being done either by sowing broadcast or in rows. The cost of a package containing 40,000 seeds is about 5s. ($1-20). The seeds retain their vitality for several years, and should be soaked in hot water before sowing. A full-grown tree yields about 120 lb. of bark. The Acacia decnrrens, variety dealbata, known as the silver wattle, is another valuable variety. It is, howevei", thinner in size than the black wattle and not so rich in tannin. The silver wattle is easily distinguished by its pale or ashy foliage. The golden or green wattle, Acacia jrycnantlia, Benth. This variety is indigenous in Victoria and South Australia, and is often cultivated here. The bark is thought by some Australians to be the best tan bark in the world. A sample in the Technological Museum yielded 33-5 per cent, of tannin according to an analysis by Mr. Thomas, of Adelaide. The gi-owth of this tree is much slower than that of tlio black wattle, nor does it yield so large a proportion of bark, but it is sometimes richer in tannic acid than the black wattle. 2-16 NEW SOUTH WALES : HER COMMERCE AND RESOURCES. Acacia inple.ca, Bentli., is another valuable variety, indigenous in Queensland and Victoria. Acacia jienninervis, Black-wood, is another valuable variety of wattle used for tanning. The tree reaches a height of 40 feet. It is found on the Blue JNIountains and in various other parts of the Colony, and also in the southern jmrt of Queensland. The native willow, Acacia salicina, is also a favourite bark for tanning. It was formerly extensively employed by the aboriginal or native inhabitants for tanning skins for water-bottles. The tree is found in every part of the interior of Australia. Large quantities of wattle bark are always forthcoming, and heavy shipments are imported from Tasmania and South Australia. The bark is sent in bags and bundles, and may be classified as follows : — Per ton. Ground, in bags, value in Sydney £7 to £ 10 (.§34 to .$49) Chopped, in bags, value in Sydney £5 to 9 (-^24 to .?44) Bundled, in bundles, value in Sydney £2 to 4 (.$10 to .$19) Tallow and bees-wax are used to a considerable extent in dressing leather. Both of these articles are produced in the Colony in large quantities. The oils used here for dressing consist of whale-oil, black- fish, cod, and other fish oils, whale-oil heading the list, the Colonies drawing their supply from New Zealand and the South Pacific Islands, and occasionally from the United States. In regard to the total quantity of leather manufactured in the Colony of New South Wales, considerable difficulty exists in arriving at anything like an approximate estimate, inasmuch as no returns bearing upon the subject are available. That the quantity reaches large figiares there can 1)6 no possible room to doubt. It is estimated that in Sydney alone something like £100,000 (.ip486,650) worth of colonial-made leather is sold at auction in the course of a year, probably two-thirds of wdiich goes into local consumption, the balance being bought for export, while two or three of the large tanneries have extensive boot factories of their own, in addition to which they supply the local trade with leather, so that the actual output must be a matter of conjecture. The value of the various kinds of unmanufactured leather imported into New South Wales during the year 1887, w^as £62,8.32 (.$305,772). The subjoined table sliows the quantity of unmanufactured leather imported into New South Wales for each year since 1877 : — Year. Quantity. Value. Year. Quantity. Value. packages. £ -^ packages. £ S 1877 2,027 47,874 2.32,979 1883 2,611 72,754 354,057 1878 1,866 45,4.38 221,124 1884 2,298 74,543 361,576 1879 1,519 45,664 222 224 1885 2,654 78,451 .381,782 1880 1,779 4.3,070 209,600 18S6 2,378 67,710 329,511 1881 2,194 66,798 325,072 1887 3,200 62,832 305,772 1882 2,558 78,197 380,546 LEATHER. 247 The imports of leather are very small for a population of over 1,000,000 souls; if we put aside the leather imported from Victoria and other Australian Colonies, the number of packages would be only 1,271. The bulk of the foreign leather imported into the Colonies is from Great Britain and the United States. The value of the leather imported from the United States during 1886 was £26,050 ($126,759). While the im- ports from the United States are increasing, those from Great Britain are declining. In this importation are included sole leather and leather for uppers. The leather imported for the use of carriage-makers consists of black enamelled hides of two weights — one for tops and the other for trimmings. Japanned split leather for dash-boards and various kinds of coloured imitation of morocco leather for trimmings are also imported. Enamelled ducks and drills and rubber drills find a ready market here, the ArQerica,n articles being considered the best. Competition, how- ever, is keen, and the English goods are a shade lower in price. There is no doubt whatever that the American sole and upper leather is by far the best introduced into this market. As yet its superiority is known to only a few dealers. At recent auction sales the American product com,manded much higher prices than any other. It is perhaps not generally known that the best and finest patent leather comes from America, and is made from the hides of cattle raised in the State of Kentucky. The cattle of the bluegrass region of that State produce the largest, thickest, and heaviest hides known to the trade. The greatest possible care is taken in tanning and preparing these skins. The tannage used is a mixture of hemlock and oak bark known to the trade as "union tannage." The "bate" is worked out very carefully by means of a hide-mill, through which passes a stream of water. The hides are then worked over with a " bate" stone. Mr. C. T. Davis, a high authority on leather, in describing the prepa- ration of these skins, says that after the bate-stone is used the hides are placed in a wash-wheel, and worked for about twenty minutes, after which they are in a condition to be propei-ly swelled for the reception of the tanning liquors. The hides are not laid away in the ground bark like those intended for sole and upper leather, but are placed in vats having a circular bottom, and above which there is placed a revolving wheel, which agitates both the tanning liquor and the hides. The hides then have the bufling removed and are passed through the splitting-machine. The split portions are very carefully worked, and when thoroughly tanned are scoured by the most improved machinery. They are next put upon stretchers, and when perfectly dry are coated with enamel made of white lead, litharge, and linseed oil. They are then placed in an oven in which the heat is gradually increased from 80° to 250° Fahrenheit. The next process is to rub them with pumice-stone, and with linseed oil and ivory-black, and then varnish them with a mixture of turpentine, copal, asphaltum, and linseed oil. Many of the boot-makers in Sydney prefer American sole leather to English or any other make. Messrs. Abbey & Co. state that Kron & Co., of Santa Cruz, Cal., shiji to this market considerable quantities of extra heavy sole, from 24 pounds average, and that they prefer it to the best 248 XEw SOUTH wales: her commerce and resources. Englisli nmke. Twenty bales of Kron & Co.'s sole leather (each bale containing twenty sides) lately brought the sum of £534: ($2,600). The tannage of this leather is of chestnut oak and very light in colour. During 1887, 762 packages of leather were imported from the United States, valued at £19,787 ($96,293). Light-coloured leather appears to be preferred, very little light- coloured sole leather being made in New South Wales ; indeed the art of giving it a light shade does not appear to be understood here. In Victoria, however, the tanners succeed in making light-coloux'ed leather by 2)assing the hides through a solution of valonia after they have been tanned with the wattle, Boot-makers believe that the light-coloured leather makes a better finish than that coloured with red or hemlock, and perhaps that is one of the reasons w])y California leather, which is always of a light colour, commands a better price than any other, even in the United States. The American leather is wholly free from that sickening and disagree- able smell common to the colonial product. American leathers for saddlery and harness have distanced all com- petitors in the Sydney market. The demand for these articles by saddle and harness makers is constantly increasing, and there is every reason to believe that the trade, if properly pushed, will increase to large pro])ortions. The best means to extend the trade in American leather is through intelligent travelling agents who thoroughly understand their business. The goods should be in the market before any attempt is made to advertise them. If samples are sent, they should fairly represent the goods. The ISTew Zealand Loan and Mercantile Company, Alderson A: Sons, Harrison & Whiffen, I. E. Bigg, Davenport & Sons, Forsyth & Sons, F. L. Barker, Harrison, Jones, & Devlin, Mort & Co., Hill, Clark, & Co., are amongst the principal leather dealers in Sydney. A factory has been established in INIarrickville, one of the suburbs of Sydney, for the manufacture of compressed leather. The process was invented and patented several years ago by Mr. A. E. Arnold, and large results are expected from it. It consists in the utilization of scraps, cuttings, and every description of waste leathei-, by compressing them into Ijricks, blocks, and various designs, by means of hydraulic ])ressure. The scraps are placed in a chemical solution, and after becoming thoroughly saturated are put into a mould and subjected to a hydraulic machine, capable of pressing with a force of 450 tons into blocks 12 inches square. After undergoing the pressure the blocks can be turned or planed into various artistic shapes, such as statuary, brackets, wains- coting, and panels. All these articles ai'e capable of receiving a most brilliant polish. One of the chief excellencies of the material is its durability. Specimens are shown at the factory which have been soaked in water for twelve hours, and when the surface is scraped oft' are found to be perfectly dry. The strength of a block, about 5 inches square, was tested by a rifle ball fired at a distance of 60 feet, and it was found to have penetrated the material only an inch and a half, and with- out making the slightest splintering. LEATHER. 249 Amongst the uses to which compressed leather is applied may be men- tioned, brakes for wagons and carriages, railway blocks, stair-tz'eads, in place of the much-used and unserviceable oilclotli or slippery coverings usually in vogue for covering stairs. Rooms floored with these blocks, in their polished form, would become not only luxurious in appearance, but perfectly cleanly. The blocks being entirely free from splintering, they might be used very advantageously as padding for war vessels. Admiral Tryon, E-.N., lately in command of H.M. ships on the Australian station, took great interest in this compressed leather. He spoke in eulogistic terms of the blocks being used for naval warfare. He said that compressed leather would be brought into general use for such purposes. There is no duty chai'ged either on manufactured or unmanufactured leather imported into the Colony of New South Wales. The admission of these articles, as well as boots and shoes, free of duty, forms a striking contrast to the course pursued by the other Colonies, and is the subject of much complaint amongst the leather manufacturers of Sydney. In Victoria there is a duty of 5 per cent, ad valorem on calf and kid leather impoi'ted, and 11, per cent, on ])atent, coloui'ed, and fancy leathers, and 13i per cent, on all other leathers, except crust or rough-tanned hog- skin, calf, and goat, and sumach-tanned sheep, which are free. The tax in Victoria on boots and shoes is as follows : — Men's No. 6 and upwards, 33s. ($7'02) per 1 dozen pairs ; slippers, men's, women's, and children's, 9s. ($2-18) to 4s. (97 cents) per 1 dozen pairs. The evidence taken before the Commission for the investigation of tlie operations of the tariff in Victoria was strongly in favour of admitting free of duty all leather known as wax-calf, calf, kid, glove and glove-kid, morocco, goat, and seal, and levant and patent calf. The Commission reported that the quality of colonial calf-skin was greatly inferior to the imported article, on account of the want of necessary skill in preparing and dressing the skins. Fault was also found witlr the reckless manner in which cattle were branded and flayed, and recom- mended that an Act of Parliament should be passed to prevent these abuses. In regard to boots and shoes, the Commission was of oi)inion that the fiscal policy of the Colony gave a great impetus to the import trade, and at the same time aided materially in developing home manufactures. The manufacturers of the ordinary and common class of boots and shoes thought that the last increase of duties in the tariff had been detrimental to their business, inasmuch as it caused a number of competitors to commence manufacturing. The Commission recommended that efforts be made to increase the export trade to the adjacent Colonies, and at the same time admitted that Victoria laboured under some disadvantages in trying to compete with New South Wales free of duty. It further stated that the manufacturers were opposed to any system of drawback in their leather exports, from the fact that such systems were not only trouble- some, but opened the door to fraud, in consequence of the impossibility of Custom-house experts being able to detect uppers made of colonial from those made of imported leather. As to saddlery and harness, the Com- mission thought that the manufacturers and journeymen were quite 250 NEW SOUTH WALES : HER COMMERCE AXD RESOURCES, satisfied wifcli the tariff, with the exception of the duty on patent leather. One of the largest manufacturers, who employed ninety-five hands, said that he would not object to the I'emoval of the duty from saddles and harness if hog-skins, patent leather, saddle-trees, plated spurs, stirrups, bits, seal-skin, blue serges, twine, and tacks, were admitted free. The only di'esser of hog-skins in Victoria stated, that on account of the difiiculty experienced in obtaining tanned hog-skins from England, it was his intention to discontinue dressing them. At the last International Exhibition New South Wales took the lead of the other Australasian Colonies in number, variety, and excellence of the different kinds of dressed hides. It was noticed, however, that the bags and portmanteaus exhibited by New South Wales manufacturers had little to commend them. The strong and heavy boots made, sell at low prices, and are well adapted to the country trade and bush life. Much improvement has also been made during the last few years in the manufacture of women's and children's boots and shoes. It is estimated that the annual output of these articles is four or five times greater than in 1881, a fact said to be due to the introduction of skilled labour and to the application of machinery. There appears to be a wide and profitable field in Australasia for the introduction of American leather-working machinery. The colonists are slow, however, to adOpt improvements, and importers would at first have some difiiculty in overcoming the prejudice against untried machines. The prejudice will in time be overcome, as has been the case with the American agricultural machines and implements. Muller & Co., of London, have succeeded in introducing a number of their machines here for working in leather. These machines consist — first, in a cylinder or barrel set with knives, which are arranged in a right and left spiral from the centre to the end (the knives are made of either brass or steel, and may be sharp, blunt, or wire-edged, according to the character of the operation required) ; second, a roller covered with india- rubber, revolving in a frame under the knife-roller and acting as a beam, this roller being brought up by the operator's foot on a treadle and its closeness being regulated by a set-screw ; third, a clip-frame sliding in front of the machine to and fro from the rollers, this clip holding the hides or skin in its grip while it is pulled back against the action of the knives. The whole working of the machine is as follows :— The skin held in the clip is thrown over the beam or roller, and on being raised into contact with the knife-cylinder, the spiral action right and left stretches it out and operates on its surface in the way desired, either in removing wool or fiesh, in thickening, or in the various operations of setting out. These machines, however, will soon be superseded by American ones. Leather manufacturers are much pleased with the Lockwood automatic leather-scourer and setting machine. This machine will scour all kinds of leather, and will set calf skins, kip, buff, and wax. It can, however, only be used in large tanneries, as its co.st is consider- able, but everywhere it has been used it has given very general satisfac- tion. Mr. Davis states in his recent work on the manufacture of leather that he saw seven of these machines in Messrs. Bryan & King's tannery in Woburn, Mass., and was surprised at the ease with which they were LEATIIKR. 251 worked and the excellence of their finished work. Among some of the improvements in this machine over the one patented by the inventor in 187G is the method of driving the operative parts of the machine by means of shafting and gearing instead of belting, and the substitution of a single lever in lieu of the double hand-levers for controlling the truck on the ways and the so-called cross-head and carriage. Another im- provement is the attachment of a large table on which to place the stock, so that one workman can be preparing a side at one end, while the other will be directing the machine in the automatic setting out of a side pi^eviously arranged on the other end. The working thus keeps two men constantly busy, but the physical labour required is light. The strokes made are either strong or light, as desired, being directly under the control of the operator, who, with his hand on the ' wheel, guides them ; so, in going over the bellies and flanks, working out folds, and thoroughly setting out thick portions of a side, the work is not only done quickly and well, but the leather is made to measure more than enough on all stock sold by the foot to quickly pay for the machine in the gain thus made. The value of vai'ious kinds of unmanufactured leather exported from the Colony of New South Wales during the year 1887, was £100,309 (1488,154) against £112,491 ($547,194) for the year 1886. The exports were heavier in 1882 than in any other year in the history of the Colony, having amounted to as many as 6,689 bales, valued at £154,971 ($709,039). The following table shows the qiiantity and value of the total exports of leather from New South Wales for each year since 1877 : — Year. Quantity. Value. Year. Quantity. Value. packages. £ s ! packages. £ $ 1877 4,590 99,314 483,312 1883 5,. 343 111,460 542,420 1878 4,311 95,086 462,736 1884 6,115 130,771 636,397 1879 3,298 67,643 329,185 1 1885 5,382 116,735 568,091 1880 5,103 108,985 530,366 1 1886 5,282 112,491 547,194 1881 6,285 145,698 708,966 1887 4,644 100,309 488,154 1882 6,689 154,971 753,289 The total exports of raw hides from New South Wales during the year 1887, amounted to 161,055 hides, £143,968 ($700,620). Of these Great Britain received 105,368; Victoria, 49,822; Queensland, 651; San Francisco, 215; South Australia, 2,477; Tasmania, 2,145 ; and New Zealand, 377. Of the hides of New South Wales it is difficult to estimate the quantity produced, but the return of cattle for the year 1887 amoimted to 1,581,078 head, and as, in addition to the ordinary butchers' consumption, there are meat preserving works in operation, the number forthcoming must be very considerable. With regard to the relative value of hides, those from New Zealand and Queensland are most in request, and usually realise top rates, on account of their superior substance and compactness rendering them specially suitable for the manufacture of the more expensive descriptions of sole leather and belting. The greater portion of the hides used in LEATHER. 253 ruminants, and occasionally chew the cud. When attacked by doers they not infrequently tear them open with their hind feet. Sometinies they have been known to clasp them in their forearms and drown them when attacked in the water, and they have been known to fet rid of their human assailants in the same way. The skin from these animals makes very strong, smooth, and elastic leather. It bears some resem- blance to kid, but is stronger and far more durable. During the year 1887 New South Wales imported from Victoria, Queensland, South Australia, and Tasmania 690 packages of kangaroo- skins, valued at £10,484 (s.51,020). The exports of kangaroo-skins" from New South Wales during the same period were 1,083 packages, valued at .£43,214 (8210,301). Of tliese,Victoria received 541 packages, Great Britain 335, and the United States 140 packages. Next to the kangaroo, the skins of the wallaby and paddymelons are most in demand, the wallaby and paddymelon being a smaller species of the kangaroo. Then there are a number of different kinds of opossum skins used. In fact,the skins of nearly all the native animals are being used for leather, such as the kaola (or native Itear), the bandicoot (native pig), the dingo (native dog), and the platypus. The platypus is one of the most extraordinary juammals known, and although its skin has long been a highly prized article of commerce, scienti.sts have for the last fifty years been trying to settle the question whether it is born alive or hatched from an egg. A cablegram was sent to London by Professor Liversidge, of the University of Sydney, to the effect that Mr. W. H. Caldwell, who holds the Balfour travelling Fellowship of Cambridge, had at last settled this question. Mr. Caldwell was especially commissioned by the British Association for this purpose, and the results of his investigation have created no little commotion in scientific circles both in Europe and Australia. Many bushmen have positively declared the platypus to be oviparous, but no platypus egg liad ever been found by any one previous to Mr. Caldwells discovery. Mr. Gerard Kretft used at intervals to offer £50 for an egg. Although numbers of platyjjus have been caught during the pairing season and dissected, no trace of eggs had been found, and scientists accepted the theory that these curious creatures were vivi- parous ; hence the sensation created by the cablegram above referred to. The apparatus and instruments which Mr. Caldwell brought to Australia to aid him in his investigation cost over £1,000 ($4,886). This amount, together with other expenses connected with his visit was borne by the British Association. The body of the platypus resembles that of a mole, or small otter, and is covered with a close, short, grayish-brown fur. After a few stiff hairs are removed, the fur is very soft, and wilj stand very rough wear. It is made into caps, tippets, slippers, and rugs. Its tail is broad and flattened. The jaws are produced to form a beak like a duck's. The margins of the jaws are sheathed with horn, and are supplied with transverse horny plates, two in each jaw, but there are no true teeth. The toes are united by a membrane or a web, so that the animal is enabled to swim with great ease. It inhabits streams and ponds. Its food consists principally, if not wholly, of insects. It makes extensive burrows in the banks of rivers and creeks. Mr. Caldwell spent many 254 NEW SOUTH WALES : HER COMMERCE AND RESOURCES. months in Australia studying the habits of this curious creature. His studies have been rewarded with the discovery tliat it hays eggs, from which the young are hatched. The young are born quite blind and nearly naked. The method by which they obtain milk from the mother is still obscure, as there are no nipples, but simply a flat surface ; nor is there any marsupial pouch. The beak of the young animal is different from what it is in the adult condition. The platypus is extremely timid, and is very difficult to shoot or catch. It swims with its head partly above the water, but disappears under the surface upon hearing the slightest noise or on catching a glimpse of any moving object, even at a great distance. The factory system is largely carried on in New South A¥ales in the manufacture of boots and shoes. Machinery is employed to a greater or less extent in all the factories in the Colonies. Elastic sides, Bal- morals, and ordinary walking shoes are the prevailing styles of imported goods. A decided preference is expressed for narrow and pointed toes. It is said that the American shoes are too wide and broad, and look larger on the feet than other imported goods. The principal difficulty in the v^ay of the introduction of Amei'ican boots and shoes into this market is the strong prejudice in favour of the goods of English make. The people are accustomed to purchasing their goods and wares from Great Britain, with which country they have a direct exchange, and some time will elapse before the pre.sent system can be altered. The following ai-e some of the largest boot and shoe importers in Sydney : Enoch Taylor & Co. ; McMurtrie, Kellerman & Co. ; I. McEvoy ; John Hunter ; Callaghan & Son. The first named fii'm has an extensive establishment in Melbourne, Victoria. McMurtrie, Kellerman & Co. make a speciality of fine work, and it is said all their goods are guaranteed. They are also large dealers in leather. The export of boots and shoes produced in the Colony does not appear to have increased within the last ten years, and the trade is confined to the other Colonies and the South Pacific Islands. The following table shows the number of packages and the value of boots and shoes of colonial produce exported from New South Wales for each year since 1877 : — Year. Number of packages. Value. Year. Number of packages. \a.] le. £ s i £ § 1877 2,083 58,2,-)8 283,315 1883 2,270 52,610 256,027 1878 1,875 46,763 227,574 1 1884 2.761 55,378 269,497 1879 2,106 47,759 232,274 1885 2,054 45,710 222,448 1880 2,205 48,097 234,064 1886 921 23,164 112,728 1881 2,192 45,150 199,723 1887 1,300 35,774 174,094 1882 2,383 48,578 236,405 Although there has been little increase in the quantity and value of the exj^ort of colonial boots and shoes since 1875, the home consumption of these articles is considerably greater than heretofore. The Australians use a greater number of boots and shoes in propor- tion to population than the people of any other country. Indeed, anything like a correct statement of the actual number of boots and shoes purchased by the average Australian during the year would scarcely be credited in the United States. HARDWARE, 255 HARDWARE. Although there was a falling off in the value of the imports of hard- ware into the Colony of New South Wales during 1887, the trade began to rally again in the beginning of the present year, and has steadily inci-eased since, especially with the United States. The direct American imports are, however, veiy small when compared with those from Great Britain ; but it must be borne in mind that no inconsider- able quantity of American hardware is shipped to Sydney by way of London, and appears in the Customs returns as coming from Britain. The total value of the imports of hardware into New South Wales from all countries during the year 1887 was £3G4,686 ($1,774,744) against £617,249 ($3,003,842) for 188G. These imports, however, do not include many articles sold by dealers in hardware, such as cutlery, iron and steel nails, brass and iron castings, steam-fittings, plain and galvanized wire fencing, iron pipes, iron and steel bars, tinware, tin plates, galvanized manufactures, surgical and scientific instruments, fire-arms, grindery, agricultural implements, machinery. If these articles'were added, the total value of the imports would amount to a sum not less than $10,000,000. The articles usually called hardware are edge-tools, axes, hatchets, planes, chisels, hammers, saws, monkey-wrenches, locks, door-knobs, latches, fastenings for shutters, iron buckets, wringers, mangles, stoves, pots, kettles, and other cooking utensils ; meat-choppers, bells, roller- skates, &.C. Table showing the quantity and value of hai'dware imported into New South Wales for each year from 1877 to 1887, inclusive. Year. Quantity. Value. Year. Quantity. Value. packages. £ $ packages. £ $ 1877 64,982 357,634 1,740,426 1883 125,195 793,622 3,862,161 1878 9.3,488 462,198 2,249,287 1884 126,874 716,892 3,488,755 1879 81,728 475,399 2,532,522 1885 145,561 649,132 3,1.59,001 1880 62,011 372,761 1,814,041 1886 177,719 617,249 3,003,842 1881 96,948 542,969 2,642,359 1887 90,944 364,686 1,774,744 1882 134,068 737,840 3,. 590, 698 Quantity and value of hardware imported direct from the United States into New South Wales for each year since 1877. Year. Quantity. Value. Year. Quantity. Value. packages. £ .$ packages. £ $ 1877 10,012 35,942 174,912 1883 20,170 102,001 501,254 1878 10,113 37,480 182,396 1884 29,146 90,597 440,890 1879 13,241 65,204 317,315 1885 21,452 90,670 441,246 1880 10,703 56,838 276,602 1886 22,048 79,427 386,531 1881 15,659 81,860 398,372 1887 15,821 54,941 267,370 1882 18,429 87,224 424,476 256 NEW SOUTH avales : her commerce axd resources. The absence of a direct medium of exchange with the United States is one of the principal obstacles in the way of American trade with these Colonies. Another obstacle is the want of a more frequent steam service Avith the American ports ; but, in spite of these and other disadvantages under which the American importer labours, a large number of American products, such as axes, hatchets, chisels, planes, and all kinds of edge-tools, castings, cutlery, locks, have taken such a hold on the market that they may be said to have distanced all competitors. The British manufacturers are unwilling to acknowledge the supe- riority of American hardware, and while they have failed to keep it out of the market they are persistent in asserting tlieii- ability to produce ai-ticles quite as good as the American ones. Every effort, however, in that direction has thus far proved a failure. Some of their best houses have recently been complaining of a prejudice in favour of the American products, not only in New South Wales but throughout the Colonies. Tliey state that if the Australian hardware dealers will furnish them with American patterns they will undertake to produce articles precisely like them, and at about the same price. The firm of Messrs. John Yates & Co., one of the best known hard- ware manufacturers in Great Britain, in a recent letter to the London Irontnonger, took exception to the emphatic statement of Messrs. Ford Brothers, of South Africa, that the American axes are the only ones worth sending to the Colonies. Messrs. Yates & Co. said : — " It is use- less for us to be continually stating that we can make axes equal to American ones, without having tliese statements put to the test. As your correspondent states, if these axes can be made, and packed, and the price be the same as the American, we should hear very little more of 'prejudice.' This is what we doubt. What we propose is this: — Let Ford Brothers send us an order for a case of wedge axes ; we will send it out on these conditions, that if the axes do not turn out like the American ones, in shape, finish, (fcc, they shall return the axes to us, with the case of one dozen axes of American manufacture, which they say are superioi*. We wdll pay all expenses connected with this transac- tion. Our axes and the American axes shall be examined by an inde- pendent party, and a report shall be made, through your columns, of the result. As we wish to have the axes here so that the diflference can be pointed out and shown to an independent party, let us have some- thing before us which will definitely prove the argument. Our make of tools is very well known, and we don't think there should be any diffi- culty in selling our axes if it was not for the prejudice we complain of." This has been tried over and over again by British manufacturers, and with such indifferent success that it is a matter of surprise that the attempt should be so often repeated. An English axe bears a1)0ut as much resemblance to the American as the base counterfeit to the genuine golden coin. The editor of the Ironmonger has been forced to admit that the American axes have the run, not only in South Africa but in all the British colonies. In a recent number of his paper he devotes consider- able space to the subject of American hardware, and gives the opinion I HARDWARE. 257 of a gentleman whom he describes as "a tlioroughly practical Australian, of English birth and sympathies, now in London, l)ut who has spent the greater part of his life in the antipodes." The article has attracted much attention in Australia : — 1 can fully indorse (said the gentleman to the reporter of tlie Iroiunour/er), all that has been said al)0iit the marked superiority of American axes over those of English make, and I believe that every disinterested person would do tlie same. To talk about prejudice in the matter as being the cause of the preference for America is simply nonsense. When the Americans first came to Australia they liad as stiff a job as ever they could have expected to have, but they stuck to it with a vigorous determination which was much to be admired, and" as they pre- sented the colonists with an axe which was practically a new revelation to them, it is not surprising that they Ijegun to get a footing. The character of tlicir axe was not so widely different from the Englisli axe as might be supposed, but the chief points were a peculiar shape of the handle, which gave the man working with it a nnich greater i)urchase over it, and also in the shape and temper of tlie axe, which also gave a great advantage, notwithstanding that the points of difference were apparently so small anStates was as good a practical carpenter as ever I met with. Can the sanie sort of thing be said about the Englisli manufacturers ? So far from educating themselves up to the necessities of the times, tliey seem most unwilling to advance, and they do not move except when they cannot hel^i them- selves, or at such times when they have nearly lost tlieir markets. My inij)ressioa is that if the Australian trade is to be kept by this country, a very different class of men to those now engaged in the task will have to steer the shij'. What 258 NEW SOUTH WALES : IIER C'OMMRRCE AND RESOURCES. English makers ouglit to tlo is to ti'avel, ami make themselves pei-fectly acriuaintetl ■with colonial necessities, and then, having ilone that, to go back to their works and pay i)ersonal attention to the production of the articles that arc required. I do not think I can advise them to do anjthing better than this. A large number of other American articles could very well have been included in the list, such as door-knobs, keys, horseshoe-nails, and plated ware. It is perhaps not generally known that nearly all the recent improvements in what is called shelf hardware originated in the United States. Amongst the articles that have taken a strong hold on the market are all kinds of locks, with flat, slender keys. The keys made by the Yale Lock Company, of Stamford, Conn., are of rolled steel, nickel-plated. The Yale Company also make the " Standard locks," .so l)opular here. These locks are provided with steel tumblers and the flat nickel-jilated keys referred to. The private boxes at the General Post Oflice, and indeed nearly all the public buildings in Sydney, are fui'nished Avith American locks, many of which are supplied by the Yale Lock Com2:tany. The same company also supply the Australian market with screwless door-knobs and spindles. It is interesting to note that the invention of the screwless dooi'-knob and .sj^indle originated in California, where they were tirst used. The various kinds of locks made by the Eagle Company have a large sale. The locks, however, of Russell & Erwin, of New York, are perhaps in gx-eater demand than any of the others, partly on account of their low price and excellent quality, and from the fact that during the last eight years the agents of this flrin have thoroughly canvassed the Colonies and made themselves familiar with the kind of locks best suited to the market. The American pumps are preferred to other kinds ; those made by Messrs. Douglas &. Co., of Middletown, Conn., being very popular. This firm has also succeeded in introducing their hydraulic rams, garden engines, and street-washers in various parts of Australia. The Ameri- can meat-choppers are fast superseding the English ones. Those of the Enterprise Manufacturing Company, of Philadelphia, seem to have the run at present. Unlike the English machines, the American choppers do not grind the meat, but chop it. These choppers are especially desired for making sausage-meat and mince-meat. The American metallic wash-boards, monkey-wrenches, and Avind-mills are preferred to those of any other manufacture. The " North Star " wash-board, manufactured at Chicago, 111., is also in very general use. This Avash- board is of haixl, durable Avood, and is said to be the only double board made of a single sheet of zinc, both sides alike. The fluting is deep enough to hold a good supply of Avater, and the frame, instead of being fastened with nails, is hekl together Avith an iron bolt running through a tube formed on the lower edge of the zinc, binding the whole together in the fii'mest possible manner. The lever Avi-ench made at Hamilton, Ohio, is said to be the best in use. It is certain that no English Avrench Avill compare with it. The flour sifters, socket framing- chisels, plane irons, Avire cutters, are all from the United States, or else made after American patterns. There is a genei'al demand in Australia for the combined "wire cutter and plier" for putting up iron fences. It Avould be impossible to include within the limits of this paper all the. HARDWARE. 259 articles of American manufacture which have made their way into this market. Some mention, however, should be made of the various kinds of scales, weighing machines, and of iron safes, ice machines, rock drills, paper-cutters, emery wheels, waggon skein, writing machines, wood- working machines. It is gratifying to note that the American locomotives which have recently been introduced into Australia have given very general satis- faction, and it is not unreasonable to expect that they will soon supersede all others. Until very recently the Australians seemed to think that the old-fashioned English locomotive built upon the lever motive princi- ple was the perfection of mechanical ingenuity, and all the improvements made by the Americans during the last forty years in locomotives were wholly ignored. Now the people are beginning to understand that the English engine is too heavy and chnnsy, and that it must give av/ay to the American pattern. It has been noticed that the English locomotive wears out too rapidly, and does great injury to the roadway. A )-ecent report of the Connnissioner of Railways in New Zealand states that the American locomotives in that Colony have more than realized Avhat was expected of them. The report says : — "The American engines have proved themselves to be both good and economical, and for attention to detail in design and general excellence in workmanship they stand out first in our catalogue of locomotives. American engines I thoroughly believe to be more suited to our lines than anything we can get in England.'' The American engines in New South Wales are quite as well appre- ciated as in New Zealand, and Mr. Thomas Higinbotham, Engineer-in- Chief of the railways in Victoria, is a staunch advocate for their use in that Colony. In a recent report he says: — "I did not go to the .States at all prepossessed in favour of Amei'ican engines, but what I saw there satisfied me that for the light railroads of this country they are better adapted than any other kind."' American machinery and appliances for bridge building are also likely to supersede all others. The contract for the construction of the new railway bridge across the Hawkesbury River in New South "Wales was awarded to the Union Bridge Company of New York. The con- struction of this bridge, on account of the great depth of foundation, involves some of the most difhcult questions known to science, and the skill thus far displayed in its construction, and the rapidity with which it is being pushed forwaid, have attracted the attention and admiration of every one interested in the prosperity of the Colony. The English engineers in building bridges still adhei'e to the practice of riveting the pieces, instead of fastening them together with pins as in America. The former takes about as many weeks as the latter does days, and does not give half the satisfaction. Another difference between the two methods of bridge building is that the Americans make bridges in workshops and sjoend little time in putting them up, whereas the English do most of their work on the banks of the stream where the bridge is wanted, but where they have not the steam riveters and other labour and time sa^'ing appliances to be found in the shops. 260 KKW SOUTH WALES : IIEIl COMMERCE AND RESOURCES. The United States labours under many disadvantages in competing Avith Great Britain for the Australasian trade. The chief oT)stacle, how- ever, is the want of anything like reciprocity between the two countries. There is not one of the Colonies that is not anxious to trade with America, and this is especially the case witli New South Wale.s. Slie has taken the lead in commercial matters, and is very likely to keep it. The total results of her ex})ort and import trade during the year l.sye amounted to £36,529,701 (.i?177,772,082) against £30,32.5,890 (.■?! 47,580,973) for Victoria. This vast trade, with the exception of a small portion enjoyed by the United States and a few other countries, is monopolized by Great Britain. AVhat is wanted is a more frequent and faster service than we have at present. A powerful steamer could easily make the voyage between San Francisco and Sydney in sixteen days ; but whether we are to have a faster and more frequent service or not, it is certain that the American trade with Australia is increasing. There are now more sailing vessels loading both at New York and San Francisco for the Australian ports than at any other period in the history of the Colonies. This state of affairs, howevei", is not likely to be permanent, from the fact that these vessels, through the unwise legislation of the Ignited States Govern- ment, are unable to obtain return cargoes. The duty on those classes of Australian wools especially adapted to the American market could very well be reduced or abolished altogether, for they cannot be grown in any of the States in the Union, and then we should have something like a reciprocity between the two countries. The cost of exchange and other expenses connected with the present banking system between the Colonies and the United States is 5 or 6 per cent, higher than with Great Britain. Indeed, the absence of a direct medium of exchange between New York and Australia has compelled many of the leading- American manufacturers to open branch houses in London for the pur- pose of conducting their Australian trade. It often hajipens under the present banking system that the importer is compelled to pay for his goods before they arrive from the United States. It is difficult to iind a banker in New York willing to cash the draft on the Australian merchant, and the result is it is sent out with the bill of lading by the lirst mail, and reaches here long before the goods, which sometimes occupy four months on the route. The London shipper labours under no such difhculty ; the banker there advances the money as soon as the bill of lading is signed, and the draft is sent out with the goods. Only a moderate discount is charged, the cost of freight, insurance, exchange, and all other charges connected with the transaction being considerably less with London than New York. CUSTOMS TARIFF. 2(31 CUSTOMS TARIFE. The Government of New South Wales lias returned to wliat is regarded as a fi-ee-trado policy. The present tariff was passed l)y a majority of 39 to 13, in the House of Representatives, on 23rd June, 1887. The Act provides that it shall be deemed to have come into effect on the 30th day of March, 1887, but that the repeal of the Customs Duties Act of 1886 shall not affect the past operations, and that the duties, both specific and ad valorem, heretofore levied, shall be collected until the 30th day of September, 1887. These duties also apply to goods in bond if taken out before 30th Septembei'. It is very interesting to note, notwithstanding certain duties of a strictly protective character, and which have always been levied, that the policy of the Government has been, practically, one of free trade, since the year 1852. At various intervals, liowever, departures have been made and large numbers of specific duties added, but they have never remained long in force. It is stated that it would not be difficult to show that whenever the Government abandoned the policy of free trade, injury to tlie commercial interests of the Colony invariably resulted, and that wealth is most easily obtained when it is followed in natural channels, since people will take up industries in the order of their value if they are left alone. The fact that valuable industries receive no attention is generally a proof that others still more valual)le employ all the available labour. Wool is the cliief industry of New South Wales, and the rapid strides made in that industry is attributed to the free trade policy, inasmuch as the pastoralist has always been permitted to obtain his supplies of food and manufactured goods without having to pay prohibitive duties to producers and manufacturers. The Colony has, therefore, been enabled to carry on this vast industry upon the most favourable tei-ms, and at the same time to receive the highest price for the I'aw product in the markets of the worM. During the last decade New South Wales has increased the number of her sheep from 21,521,662 to 46,687,859, and this irrespective of a loss of over 6,000,000 in 1884-5, owing to vinpredecented drought; while the number in her sister colony, Victoria, Avhere the policy of protection prevails, declined during the same period. The woollen-mills of New South Wales, though not so numerous or valuable as those of Victoria, have been built up without artificial aid. The Victorian woollen-mills, on the other hand, have been assisted by an ad valorem duty of 1 5 per cent. ; but even that has proved insufficient to make the industry pay. At the last Session of the Victorian Parliament an additional duty of 5 per cent, was added, and the manufacturers clamour foi- a still further increase. Mr. Munro, a member of the Victorian Parliament and a manufacturer, stated in the Assemljly that the mill with which he was connected lost the whole of its capital, £18,000 ($87,597), of which .£3,000 ($14,600) was contributed by himsodf, and that the woollen industry of the Colony was on the verge of ruin. The Ijallarat mill, he said, which vras regarded as the most substantial in Victoria, had not paid a profit for years ; and that an ad valorem duty of only 20 per 262 NEW SOUTH wales: her commerce axd resources. cent, niiglit possibly enaLle the mills to struggle along for a few years ; then they would die an agonizing death. He did not think that a duty of even 50 per cent, ad valorem would make them profitable to the owners, Tn 1876 the woollen-mills in Victoria gave employment to 611 hands, but in 1887 the number had increased to 780. Besides the ad valorem duty of 20 per cent., it is estimated that the natural protection of having the wool on the spot is equal to fully 10 per cent. more. The woollen-mills of New South Wales do not employ more than 200 hands, but it can scarcely be said that these mills are worse ofi" than those in Victoria. Improved machinery is wanted in both colonies, not protection. The high cost of labour is one of the principal obstacles with which the manufacturers have to contend in the colonies. It is a mistake to suppose that Victoria has all the manufactories and New South Wales none. The statistics heretofore puljlished have never done New South Wales justice. There are certainly some industi'ies in Victoria, such as iron interests, flour mills, boot and shoe factoi'ies, and furniture factories, which are in advance of similar establishments in New South Wales. The statistics heretofore have represented the horse- power of the factories in New South Wales at 4,860, and 20,160 for Victoria, but for 1886 the Statistical Register shows the horse-i:)ower to be 25,199 instead of 4,860. The value of the plant in New South Wales is given as £5,801,757 (.^28,234,250) against £3,660,723 (i^l 7,81 4,908) for Victoria. Both the imports and exports have for many years been much larger in New South Wales than in Victoria. Indeed, the average annual excess is nearly £6,000,000 (|29,199,000). The comparison for the shipping trade between the two Colonies is even more favourable to New South Wales, as the average annual tonnage of the latter colony is about 1,000,000 tons in excess of that of Victoria. The most sweeping change in the 1887 tariff of New South Wales was the abolition of the ad valorem duties ; next to that the reduction of the specific duties from a tariff on 175 articles to one on thirty-eight articles. The following is the Schedule of Customs Duties levied on imports since 1st October, 1887 ; and for comparison the Customs Duties charged on the like articles in the United States of America are inserted opposite each article. SCHEDULE. Beer, ale, porter, spruce or other beer, cider, and perry — In wood or jar per gallon In bottle (\o For six reputed quarts or twelve reputed pints... do Biscuits— other than ship jier lb. ^•^tter jIo Rates under Tariff of New South Wales. U. S. of America. s. d. •? c. $ c. 6 •12 •20 9 •18 •35* 9 •18 •35 1 •02 20 per cent. 1 •02 •04 Also duty on bottles additional. Cider and Perry, 20 per cent. CUSTOMS TARIFF. 263 Candles, per lb. or reputed package of that weiglit, and so in proportion for any such reputed weight and steariue Cement Cheese, bacon, and hams. Chicoiy, dandelion, and taraxicuni — Raw or kiln-dried Roasted, ground, or mixed with any other article Chocolate — plain, or mixed with anj' other article, and chocolate creams Cigars Cigarettes (including wrappers) Corn-flour and maizena Cocoa — Raw, without allowance for husks or shells Prepared paste, or mixed with any other article... Coffee — Raw Roasted, ground, or mixed with any other article Confectionery (including cakes, comfits, liquorice, liquorice paste, lozenges of all kinds, cocoanut in sugar, sugar- candy, succades, and sweet- meats ) Essences, flavouring and fruit, containing not more than 25 per cent, of proof spirit Containing more than 25 per cent, of proof spirit Fish — dried, preserved, or salt , , Fruits — dried and candied (exclusive of dates) Glucose- Liquid and syrup Solid Iron — Galvanized, in bars, sheets, or corrugated Iron and steel wire Galvanized manufactures (except anchors) Jams — per pound or reputed package of that weight, and so in proportion for any such reputed weight Milk, condensed or preserved .. Naphtha and gasoline per lb. per barrel per lb. do do do do do do do do do do do per gallon do per lb. do per cwt. do per ton do do per lb. do per gallon Rates under Tariff of New South Wales. U. S. of America. s. d. -S c. 1 -02 2 2 3 (J 2 3 4 5 1 1 G •49 ■04 •06 •12 $ c. 20 per cent. 20 per cent. •04* •02 •02 4 •OS -02 6 1^46 2^50 and 25 per cent. 6 r4G 2-50 and 25 per cent. 1 ^02 20 per cent. Free. 3 •06 4 •OS 3 •06 6 •12 •04 4 •97 14 3-41 1 ^02 2 ^04 •81 1"22 40 9-73 20 4-86 60 1400 •02 •02 •12 Free. •02 •lot 2-00 and 25 per cent. 2^00 and 25 per cent. h cent. 35 per cent. 20 per cent. 20 per cent. 44 •SO 56-00 45 per cent. per cent, per cent, per cent. * Bacon and hams, 2 cents per lb. t Cakes, lozenges, and sweetmeats, .^)0 i)cr cent. Comfits, 35 per cent. Liquorice, 7J- cents, per tti. Cocoanut in sugar, 2 cents, per lb. Sugar candy, 5 cents, per It). 264 NEW SOVTII WALES : HER TOMMEIU'E AXI) KESOURCES. Oils, except black cocoanut and sperm ami palm pci- gallon In bottle — Reputed (jiiarts per dozen Reputed pints do Reputed half-pints and smaller sizes ... do Opium, and any preparation or solution thereof not imported for use as a known medicine per lb. Paints and varnish — Paints and colours ground in oil pei cwt. A^arnish and lithographic varnishes per gallon Powder and shot — Sporting powder per lb. Blasting powder Dynamite and lithofracteur Shot Pi'cserves, jellies, and fruits, boiled in pulp or par- tially' i^reserved other than by sulphurous acid do do per 112 1b. per 11). Rice per ton Sago, tapioca, and semolina per lb. Salt l^er ton Sarsaparilla and bitters — If containing not more than 2.5 per cent, of proof spirit per gallon If containing more than 2,5 per cent, of I'jrcof spirit do Spirits — On all kinds of spirits imported into the Colony the strength of which can be ascer- tained by Sykes' Hydrometer per pr. gal. Xo allowance bej'ond 16 o shall be made for the under proof of any spirits of a less hydrometer strength than 16 ■5 under proof. On all spirits and spirituous compounds imported into tlie Colony the strength of which cannot be ascertained by Sykes' Hydrometer per liq. gal. Case spirits — reputed contents of two, three, or four gallons shall be charged — Two gallons and under as two gallons Over two gallons and not exceeding three, as three gallons. Over three gallons and not exceeding four, as four gallons. Methylated per gallon Perfumed spirits, perfumed water, Florida Water, and Bay Rum per li<|. gal. Rates under Tariff of New South Wales. V. S. of America. s. d. 6 1 6 9 6 .$ c. S c. •12 ! 20 per cent. •.37 25 per cent. •18 25 per cent. •12 25 per cent. •20 4 86 10-00 8 2 "7.3 25 per cent. •49 40 per cent. 3 -06 I -06 to •lO 1 -02 •OG to -10 1 -02 •0(J to -10 5 1-22 3 -.36 1 02 35 per cent. 60 14-60 1 -02 20 4-86 4 -97 14 3-41 14 3-41 14 3-41 33 60 Free 2-09 2-00 2-00 2-00 •OO to -97 ' -50 per lb. 15 3-65 : 2 00* and j 50 per cent. Perfumed and Florida Waters, 50 per cent. Bay Rum, ^I'OO per gallon. CUSTOMS TARIFF. >(}•) Sugar — Refined per cwt. Raw do Molasses and treacle do 'J'ca per lb. Timlier (otlier than latlis, Luilding shingles, dje- woods, palings, undressed sandalwood, staves, and casks in shooks) — Dressed per 100 ft. superficial Rough and undressed do Doors, sashes, and shutters each Tobacco — delivered from ship's side, or from a Cus- tom's bond, for home consumption — manufac- tured, unmanufactured, and snuft' per lb. Unmanufactured, entered to be manufactured in the Colony. At the time of removal from a Customs bond or from an importing shijj to any licensed tobacco manufactory, for manufac- turing purposes only, into tobacco, cigars, or cigarettes do Sheepwash do Wines — Sparkling — for six reputed quarts or twelve reputed pints Other kinds per gallon Other kinds, for six reputed quai'ts or twelve leputed pints Rates under Tariff of New South Wales. U. S. of America. S. (1. S c. $ c. 6 8 1-62 3 08 5 1-22 1-57 3 4 •81 •04 per gall 3 3 1 6 2 3 1 3 10 5 •06 •73 •37 •49 •73 •24 •06 2-43 1-22 1-22 Free •10 20 per cent. 35 per cent. From 15 to 1 00 and Inland Revenue Duty of •08 3-50 •50 1-30 All other articles are fi'ee. It is to be regretted that specific duties are retained upon a nuinher of articles of import from the United States, which is the largest Foreign market of the colony. Timber. — The duty on timber is 3s. (73 cents.) per 100 superficial feet on dressed, and Is. 6d. ('37 cents.) on rough or undressed timber. The timber trade with the United States has been increasing for many years, and while the duties for a time check the imports, tlie colony will continue to draw on America for no inconsiderable portion of its timber supply, as the Australian hardwoods are not so suitable for building purposes. Doors and sashes are charged a duty of 2s. (49 cents.) each, but shingles, palings, and laths ai-e admitted free. The Plon. J. F. Burns, Colonial Treasurer, has stated to Parliament, that he will propose the abolition of these duties during the Session of 1888. Beer. — The duty on beer is 6d. (12 cents) per gallon in wood or jar; if in bottles it is 9d. (18 cents.) per gallon. Six reputed quarts or twelve reputed pint bottles are regarded as containing 1 gallon. The beer duty 266 KKw sorxri wales: iiek commerce axd r.EsorRCEs. is charged on all kinds of beer, ale, porter, spruce, cider, and perry. The imports of bottled beer have increased largely during the last few years, especially from the United States. The quantity of beer brewed in New South "Wales during the year 1886 was 13,178,912 gallons against 9,720,000 gallons for 1887. An excise duty of 3d. (6 cents.) per gallon has been imposed on beer brewed in the Colony. This tax met with much opjiosition on the pai't of the brewers, who urged that it was more than double the tax in Great Britain, and that it would not only fall heavily on the consumer, but tempt brewers to supply an inferioi- article. The tax however became law. It is the first time that it has been levied in this Colony. Bacon and Hams. — The duty on bacon and hams is 2d. (4 cents.) per jDOund, and has been levied here since 1871. It has utterly failed to be of the slightest benefit to the produce of the Colony. In fact at no period in the history of the Colony has the cui'ing of bacon been so much neglected. JMoreover, since the duty has been charged the number of pigs in proportion to population has steadily declined. In 1861, the decade previous to the imposition of the duty, the number of pigs in the Colony was 162,5.56, and the popidation 421,924. The subjoined table shows, in the form of five periods of three years each, the number of pigs to every 100,000 of population : — 1861-70 38,. 527 average supply. 1871-73 41,870 1874-76 33,279 1877-79 32,987 1880-82 29,035 1883-85 22,407 ,, These figures show unmistaka])ly that since the duty was imposed New South Wales fai^mers have been imable to supply the population. Only in two out of sixteen years ha'S'e the actual numbers of [)igs ever equalled the numbers in 1870, and even then they were far below the sup2;)ly of that year on the basis of population. This duty will however, tlie Treasurer has stated, be abolished during the session of 1888. Butler. — The duty on butter is Id. (2 cents.) per pound. No duty was charged on this article until 1886, but prior to that period the exports from New South Wales of butter, the produce of the Colony, frequently exceeded the imports, more particularly in years not subject to droughts. There is no valid reason why the duty should have been imposed, or why it should be retained. TJnbil the late disastrous droughts the number of cattle raised in the Colony was on the increase. In 1887 there were 1,000,000 less cattle in the Colony than in 1881, and consequently the production of butter and cheese in the Colony has declined and the imports have increased. The farmers have been slow to adopt labour-saving appliances and improved systems of conducting their dairies, and as a result consumers go to the best markets and the imports are increased. The Treasurer will jn-opose the removal of this duty also during the session of 1888. CrSTOMS TARIFF. 267 Cheese. — The duty on clieese is 2d. (4 cents.) })er pound. There seems to be no more necessity for this duty tlian for that on butter, and similar remarks apply to both industries. The cheese, when made under the factory system, is excellent. This duty, the Treasurer stated, will cease to be levied during the session of 1S88. Candles. — Id. (2 cents.) per pound is the duty on candles. It is strictly of a protective charactei", and is for the benefit of the manufiictorics here. It falls heavily on people in the country districts. Confectionery pays a duty of 2d. ( i cents) per pound, or £18 Gs. 8d. ($89-21) per ton, while the duty on sugar is only £.5 (|24-.33) per ton. It is not to be expected that confectionery should be admitted free, when sugar is taxed, but there ought to be something like uniformity. The equivalent of the sugar duty would be about £7 ($34-06) per ton. Jams are taxed at the rate of Id. (2 cents) per pound, but the sugar duty in 1 pound of jam is covered by about \(\. {h cent), so that the remaining |d. {\^ cent) is a protective duty. Sugar. — The tax upon refined sugar is 6s. 8d. ($1-62) per 112 pounds, and upon raw sugar, 5s. ($1-22) per 112 pounds. All the Colonies are much exercised by the question of the European l>ounties to sugar, and it has been suggested in various quarters that steps should be taken to place an extra tax on sugar made fi-om beets. It must be recollected that, owing to the gi-eat impro^'ements in sugar machinery, and in chemical knowledge of the subject, the beet is frequently made to yield 20 per cent, of sugar, a degree of sweetness which, ]Mr. E. W. Knox, of Sydney, observes, he had met with only rarely in his own records, which dealt with a very large quantity of cane each year, and further, that there is no reason to doubt that this degree of sweetness may be still further increased. Tinned Fruits. — Preserves and fruits partially preserved pay a duty of Id. (2 cents) per pound. This duty is also of a strictly protective character. Several local factories have recently improved the quality of their products through the introduction of machinery and skilled labour, and it is said that competition between the local and the American article is likely to be very keen, especially in pears, peaches, and pine apples. The kinds most suitable for canning purposes are not at present produced in the Colony, but are brought here from the adjacent Colonies. Spirits. — The duty on .spirits is 14s. ($3-41) per proof gallon. This is an enoi-mous duty, being nearly twice as much as in the United States. The tax applies to all kinds of spirits imported into the Colony, the strength of Avhich can be ascertained by Sykcs' hydrometer. Perfumed Sjnr its, Florida Water, and Bay Rum, pay a duty of 15s. ($3-65) per liquid gallon. It has been pointed out to the authorities that these articles cannot be imported and sold in Sydney at a profit under this tariff. It is expected that some concession will be granted, inasmuch as these spirits cannot be used for drinking purposes, but are used chiefly in the composition of the several flavours. Bay rum is made by steeping the lea\es of the bay tree in spirits. It is 2CS XK^v SOI Til walks: her commkiut. and resouiu'ks. maiiufactiu'ed in bulk at St. Thomas, West India Islands, and is bottled off at Boston, 3Iass. The duty in the United States is 4s. 1 |d. ($1) per gallon. Tobacco, the greater bulk of wliich conies from the United States, is taxed at 3s. (73 cents) per pound. The unmanufactured leaf has also to pay tlie same duty, unless it is entered at the Customs to be manufactured in the Colony ; then the duty is only Is. (24 cents) per pound. However there is an excise duty of Is. 3d. (30 cents) per pound to be paid on the manufactured article. The imports of tobacco are very heavy from Great Britain, but much of the tobacco that readies tliese Colonies from Britain is of American growth, having been sent to London for transhipment. Cigars ami cigarettes are taxed at Gs. {\-\(S cents) per ponnd. The bulk of cigai's used is imported from France and Germany, where the low rate of wages lessens the cost of production. Several promi- nent Sydney cigar dealers ex})i'ess the opinion that the Pennsylvania manufacturers, who make a speciality of cheap, fair, common cigars, could tind a market for their products in New South Wales. These cigars are of much better quality than the German ones, and besides, since the imposition of the excise tax, iniporteis are enabled to obtain higher prices than lieretofore. It would be of little use for American manufacturers to consign these goods to Sydney, for they Avould in all probability be left on the market until the consignor ordered a sale at auction, which would be almost certain to i-esult in a sacrifice. The best plan would be to send out a suitable representative agent to remain with the goods until they were fairly introduced into the market. The tax on tobacco has not affected materially the sale of American cigar- ettes, which have distanced all comj)etitors. The demand for American cigarettes is always greater than the supply, and the reason given for this is that either the manufacturers cannot till the orders promptly or else the importers delay too long in sending for their goods. At all events it is well known that several favourite brands of American cigarettes cannot be found in the markets. The duties imposed on Iron galvanized, iron and steel wire, and galvanized manufactures, and on j^aints and varnish are very high, and only for protection interests. Oasoline and kerosene pay a duty of Gd. (12 cents) per English gallon. Considering the cost of the article this duty is enormous, and can be for no other pui'pose than as a protection to the kerosene manufacturers in two parts of New South Wales where, owing to the expensive machinery erected by the companies for the extraction of the oil from the shale deposits, they are now enabled to produce an oil equal in most respects to the best imported. The trade in American kerosene, how- ever, is steadily increasing. In urging reduction of the duties upon American products, it should not be forgotten that it is to the interest of the Australasian Colonies as well as of America that the trade should be fostered. During 1886, a year of great depression in the Colonies, the United States was the only country in the Avorld that increased her export trade with Australasia. CUSTOMS TARIFF. 269 The repeal of the ad vahrem duties is i-egiirtk'tl as a great hoon, not only to importers but to all classes of the communitv. It ■\vouhl be ditiicult to ov(>r estimate the benefits which will i-esult therefrom ■when wo consider the various interests that have been atl'ected l)y Customs duties. The duties operated against several thousand different articles in the various trades and manufactures. The repeal of the dnty on machinery will be sure to increase the im])orts from America. It is now very generally known in Australasia that American macliinery is much more simple in construction and in many ways better adapted to the requirements of the people in a new country than that made in the old world. Sir Julius Vogel, the late Colonial Treasurer in New Zealand, stated, in a speech at Auckland, that, from patiiotic motives, the Government ordered from Great Britain a number of locomotives the same pattern as those made in the United States, but that when they were nearly ready for shipment to tlie colony, they were found to be so heavy that the engineer in charge of the New Zealand roads stated that some of the bridges would have to be strengthened before the locomotives could be put on the roads, and that they were much lieavier than laid down in the plans and specifications. The English manufacturers re[)lied that they could not make the eiigines of tlie limited weight prescribed. The New Zealand Government thereupon cabled to the United States for the required supply. 270 NEW SOL'TII WALES : IIKR COMMERCE AND HESOUKCES. pisn. The fisheries of New South Wales are becoming more and more important every year, and those interested look forward confidently to the time when they will prove a lasting source of wealth to the Colony. The list of food fishes is a lengthy one, and they exist in practically inexhaustihle quantities ; but, strange to say, no attempt has l)eeu made to utilize tliem as an ai'ticle of export. A few individuals from time to time prepare and send abroad small lots of smoked and dried mullet, schnapper, and bream, but such shipments are looked upon more as experiments than as a serious effort to estal)lish a permanent trade. In fact, there are only two fish-preserving establishments in New South Wales, and these are so small as to give employment to only about eleven hands. The value of the plant is stated in the '' Colonial Statis- tical Register" for 1886 to be Je210 (|1,022). The annual output is not given, but it would pi'obably not exceed £200 (1973). There are a large number of fish which could be pi-epared for export, l)ut they appear at certain pei-iods for a short time only, and no facili- ties are at hand for utilizing them. The mullet, Muyil grandis, is the only variety which seems to ofter any special inducement at present for tinning. They appear during the months of April and May in large shoals along the coast, never going far fi'om land ; they proceed in a southerly direction, entering every inlet and harbour. During those months the mullet is in the best condition, and is full of roe, being on its annual migration in search of spawning grounds. This fish is said to be too fat to be preserved with salt, and is apt to become rancid. The roe, when salted and smoked, is as delicious as anything of the kind can be. The Royal Commission on Fish specially reconnnends this fish for tinning purposes, and says that it has many of the properties of salmon. The form of the tins need not be like that used for preserving California salmon, but like the long slender tins used by the Hollanders. The flavour of the New South Wales mullet is certainly very fine, but it is not ccjual to the same kind of fish caught oft" the coasts of Ncav Zealand. The fish of Australasia diff"er very litths from those of Europe and America. The Rev. J. E. Tenison- Woods, F.L.S., F.G.S., avIio has given much thought and labour to the fish fauna of Australia, points out the fact that the great mass (if the fish belonging to the coasts and rivers of the great island continent have relations similar to those of neighbouring .seas, or to those where the same condition of temperature and coast- line prevails. The differences in species, where they exist, are minor ones. These diflferences are more marked on the southern than on the northern coasts. The more remote the Australian coast is from other lands the more peculiar and distinct ai'e the forms of animal life. Thus, Mr. Woods remarks, " on the north, the north-west, and the north-east coasts the fauna is closely connected with that of the Indian and tropical seas, and is in very many species identical vvith it. The tribes of the colder regions are here wanting, and in places we have the fish of tlie FISH. 271 eqiiatoi-ial zone in all their gorgeous li\eries of red, blue, green, and gold, arrrayed in tliose fanciful patterns which awaken the enthusiasm of every naturalist. We find also that as we go southward on either coast there is a gradual disappearance of the tro]ucal fauna, and a mingling with that of the temperate regions/' New South Wales occupying an intermediate position in Australia, the fish very naturally partake of an intermediate character. Scientists enumei'ate several varieties of Australian fish, such as the Ceratodus and the Cestracio)i, which have disappeared from every other part of the woi'ld. The Cestmcioti— Fort Jackson shark — has teeth like those of the fossil Acrodis, found in the Mesozoic deposits. The i.'eratodus is described as an existing ganoid lish, exclusively represented in the Trias formation, its anatomy showing a connecting link between a lizard and a fish. Mr. Woods, in enumerating some of the exceptional fish of New South Wales, directs particular attention to several varieties of the frog fish or Anten7iarius, belonging to the order Pedicidati, a name v\diich expresses the foot-like office of the fins, more formed for walking on tlie ground than for swimming. These fish ai'e found floating on the sea- weed. They are all highly coloured, but their hues are associated Avith the surrounding medium, so it is often difficult to distinguish them in the water. Attention is also directed to some peculiar gobies or sea- gudgeon, one of which is called the liopping fish. The fins of tliis fish are developed into legs by means of which it leaps along tlie mud flats. The eyes are on the top of the Iiead, and can be tlirust far out of the sockets and moved indejicndently of one another. There are several varieties of sea-horses, Hipjyocampus^ in New Soiith Wales watei's, These fish take their name from the resemblance of the head and the fore part of the body to those of the horse. One of the most striking peculiarities of the sea-horse is that the luale carries the eggs in a sac at the base of the tail, opening near the vent. The Phillopteryx, Mr. Woods thinks, is the most remarkable fish in Australian waters, if not in the woi'ld. He describes it as, "The ghost of a sea-horse, with its winding-sheet all in ribbons around it, and even as a ghost it seems to be in the last stage of emaciation, literally all skin and grief." The long ends of the ribs which poke through the skin and excite compassion are really protective resemblances, and serve to allure prey. It is therefore an impostor in spite of its rags and emaciation, and, like many a stuixly ])eggar, jtuts on the asi)ect of misery more eflectualiy to ply its trade. Amongst some of the curious and indeed Avondei f ul fishes of Austral- asia should be mentioned the Dugong, ILdicore dvyony. This iish resembles the ])orpoise in shape and size, Ijut is unlike it in having no dox'sal fin. The skin is very thick, and is said to make excellent leather. The bones are as heavy as ivory, and ai"e capable of taking a beautiful polish. When struck together they give out a metallifei'ous sound. The eyes are small and deep-set, like those of a fat pig. The tail is like that of tlio whale. The fins, which are its only propelling power, are very small for its size. Its habits are those of granivorous 272 NEW SOUTH WALES : IIEK COMMEltCE AND HESOUUCES. runuuauts ; its stomacli is exactly like that of the ox. The Dugong not uiifroqucutly weighs as much as oOO 11»., aiui measures U ft. in length ami 10 ft. in girth. Such a fish would yield 2.^)0 lb. of meat and 10 gallons of oil. It suckles its young, and has tiippers with joints like human arms. It frequents the reedy mud Hals and shallows along the shores of Queensland, and feeds upon the herbage growing thereon. Seldom to be found south of JNIoreton Bay, although it was formerly to be seen at the mouths of the Tweed and Richmond Rivers. The colour of the Dugong is a light olive brown. Its flesh is rich and nourishing, and meat can be cut from the same animal resembling beef, veal" and mutton. INIessrs. Lionel Ching &■ Co., manufacturing chemists, of Dunheved Island, off (xreat Barrier Reef, Queensland, make an oil from the Dugong, which, it is said, has all the properties of cod-liver oil. It is recommended by leading physicians for con- sumption and general debility. The oil is devoid of any unpleasant taste, and jnay be used as a substitute for lard or butter for cooking purposes. Fifty-nine different families or species of New South Wales fish have been described. The largest of these families, the Fercidct', perch, is represented by fifty specie.s. The next largest family, the Sparidce, has fourteen species. Fifteen have one species. Eight have two species. The diflerent families of fish found in the New South Wales waters, together with the number of species belonging to each, are thus described by the Rev. J. E. Tenison-Woods : — Percida?, 50 ; Squamipinnes, 4 ; Nandid.-e, 2; Mullida^, 3; Sparidie, 14; Cirrhitida^, 6; Scorp.-enidse, 1 1 ; Teuthididre, 2 ; BerycidjB, 3 ; Kurtida:>, . 2 ; Polynemid;e, 2 ; Scia'nida;, 2 ; Xiphiidte, 1 ; Trichiurida:', 1 ; Acronurida-, 1 ; Carangida^, 15- Cyttida?, 1; Corypajnidfe, 2; Scombridfe, 10; Trachinida", 5; Batrachidie, 1 ; Pediculati, 4 ; Cottidfe, 7 ; Cataphracti, 1 ; Gobiida:', 15; Blenniida?, 17; Sphyra^nidae, 3; Atherinida', 4; Mugilida^ 7; Fistularida^, 1 ; Ophiocephalida^, 1 ; Trachypterid;v, 1 ; Pom?ecentridpe, 4; Labridte, 18; Gadopsidie, 1; Gadida^ 4; Pleuronectida?, 9 ; Silurida;, 5 ; Scopelida:>, G ; Salmonidie, 1 ; Galaxid:e, 7 ; Scombresocidfp, 6; C/lupeidt^?, 12; Chirocentrid.^, 1 ; Symbrachidie, 1 ; Munenida^, 11 ; Syngnathida}, 6 ; Sclerodermi, 21 ; Gymnodontes, 12; Carcharida\ 8 ; Laranidfe, 1 ; Scyllidiie, 3 ; Cestraciontida?, 2 ; Spinacidfv, 1 ; Rhinida^, 1 ; Pristiophoridfe, 1 ; Rhiuobatida>, 2 ; Trygonida?, 3 ; Torpedinid:v, 1 ; Raiidse, 1. IVlr. J. Douglas Ogilby, Assistant Zoologist, Australian Museum, Sydney, has described a number of fish not included in the abo^•e list. The edible fish of New South Wales comprise 115 different species. Mr. Ogilby is of opinion that some of the best food fish of the Colony are never seen in the markets, although numerous along the coasts. He places Gerres ovatiis, the silver or whitc^ bream, in the first rank of Australian fish. Arripis salar, the Australian salmon, comes next, but principally on account of tlie gi'eat numbers in which it is to be found; it is of a greeni.sh lead colour, the upper part of the body of a deep black, with numerous black spots on other parts of the body. FISH. 273 Mr. J. Douglas Ogilby, F.L.S., 1ms specially prepared the following list of the edible fish of New South "Wales, arranged systematically : — The local names are those which are used in Australia. 1. Percidpe (20 sp.) 1. Lafes colonorum Perch. 2. JEnoplosns armatus Old Wife. 3. Caprodon schlegeli Long Fin. 4. Serranus dcemeli Black Rock Cod. 5. Fleet ropoma ocellatum Wirrah. G. Lufiamisfulviflamma 7. Littianiis macleayanus Macleay Perch. 8. Glaucosoma sea pillar e Pearl Pei-cli. 9. Macquaria australasica Silver Perch of the Murray. 10. Ctenolates ambiguus Golden Perch. 11. TherapoH cuvieri Trumpeter. 12. Therapon richardsonii Silver Bream. 13. Therapon macleayanus 14. Lobotes surinamensis 15. Histiopterus labiosus Boar Fish. 16. Gerres ovatus Silver Billy. 17. Oligorus macquariensis Murray Cod. 18. Arripis salar Salmon. Adult and S. trout, youug. 19. F riacanthus macracanthus Red Bull's Eye. 20. Dinolestes muelleri Sea Pike. 2. Squamipinnes (2 sp.) 21. Scatophagus imiUifascialtts 22. Scorpis cequijn'nnis Sweep. 3. Mullidffi (2 sp.) 23. Hi/peneichthys porosiis Red Mullet. 24. Hypeneus signatus Spotted Mullet. 4. Sparidje (9 sp.) 25. Girella tricu-ipidata Black Fish. 26. Girella simplex Black Fish. 27. Girella elevata Rock Black Fish. 28. Girella cyanea Blue Fish. 29. Haplodactylus lophodon Butter Fish. 30. Pagrus unicolor Schnapper. 31. Chrysophrys sarba Tarwlune. 32. Chrysophrys australis Black Bream. 33. Pimelepterus meridionalis Drummer 5. CirrhitidjB (5 sp.) 34. Cliironemus marmoratus 35. Chilodaetylns mormong Morwong. 36. Chilodaetylns macropterus Jackass Fish. 37. Chilodactylusfuscus Carp. 38. Latris ramsayi Trumpeter. 6. Scorprenidje (2 sp.) 39. ScorpcBna eruenla Red Rock Cod. 40. Scorpcena cardinalis Red Rock Cod. 7. Teuthididie {1 sp.) 41. Teuthis nebulosa Black Trovalley. S 274 NEW SOUTH avales : her commerce and resources. 8. Berycidte (1 sp.) 42. Bo-yx affinis Nannygai. 9. Scisenidpe (2 sp.) 43. Sci(cna nefjlecta Jewfish. 44. OtoUthus atelodus Teragliu. 10. Acanthurielie (1 sp.) 45. Prloni'.rus microlepidoius 11. Carangidaj (7 sp.) 46. Caranx trachincs Yellovr-tail. 47. Caranx ffeorff tan us White Trevalley. 48. Seriola lalandii King-fisb. 49. Seriola hippo/s Saui^on-fisli. 50. Temnodon saltator Tailor — Blue-fisli of New York. 51. Trachi/notuf! russeUii ]3art. 52. Psettus (tryenteus Batflsh. 12. Cyttidaj (1 sp.) 53. Zeus atistralis John Dory. 1.3. ScombridEe (5 sp.) 5i. Scomher pneumatophora Mackerel. 55. Pelami/s australh Bonito. 53. Ci/bium commersomi Great striped IMaekerel. 57. Cffbium (juttatum Spotted Mackerel. 58. lilacate ni(/ra King-fish, West Indies. 14. Tracliinida? (2 sp.) 59. SilJago maculnta The Whitinjr. 60. Sillaijo ciUata Trumpeter Whiting. 15. Cottidffi (3 sp.) 61. Plafyceplialusfuscus — Flathead. 62. Trigla kumu Red Gurnard. 63. Trigla polijommata Flying Gurnard. 16. Sphyrtenidfe (2 sp.) 64'. Sphi/rama ohtusata Pike. 65. iSphi/rcbua nouce-hollandio} Pike. 17. AtherinidiE (1 sp.) 66. Atherina laciinosa /■. Hardy-head. 18. Mugilidte (4 sp.) 67. JIugil dohuU Sea Mullet, 68. Mugil peronii Flat-tad Mullet. 09. Myxits cdongatus Tally galanc. 70. Agonostoma lacustris Lake Mullet. 19. LabridtE (5 sp.) 71. Cossgpliua tini macula t us Pig-fisli. 72. Cossyphus gotildi Blue Groper. 73. Coris lineolata Rainbow-lish. 71. Odax semifasciaius , Rock Wliiting. 75. Olistherops Irunneus Herring Cale. 19a. Gadopsidse (1 sp.) 7G. Oadopsis marmoratus , FISH. 275 20. GadicUx? (2 sp.) 77. Lotella limhata Ling, Ecardy. 78. Pseiidophycis harhatus 21. Pleuronectidic (4 sp.) 79. Pseudorhomhus 7'ussellii Flounder. 80. Pseudorhombus miiUimaculatus Flounder. 81. Ammotretis adspersus Long-snouted Flounder. 82. Synaptura nigra Sole. 22. Siluridte (3 sp.) 83. Copidoglanis tandanus River Catfish. 8-1'. Cnidoglanis megastoma Sea Catfish. 85. Aritis thalassinv.s 23. Scopelidre (2 sp.) 86. Saurustiunhil Rauning. 87. Aulopus pitrpuiissatus Sergeant Baker. 24. Sconibresocida; (.5 sj^.) 83. Pelo.ie ferox Long Tom. 89. Pelone gavialoides Long Tom. 90. Ilemirhamphus intemiedius Sea Crarfish. 91. Ilemirhamphus regidaris River Garfish. 92. Arrhamphus solerolepis Short-billed Garfish. 2.5. Galaxiida? (1 sp.) 93. Galax ias coxil Mount ain Trout. 26. Clupeida^ (.5 sp.) 9-4, Ch atoir'ssns richardsonii Bony Bream. 95. Clitpea sagax Pilchard. 93. Clupea sundaica Maray. 97. Clupea hypselosoma Maray. 93. Clupea novcc-hollandiee River Herring. 27. Mui'a?nidEe (4 sp.) 93. Aiiguilla reinJiardfii River Eel. 100. AnguiUa australis River Eel. 101. Mnrnnesox ciiiereus Silver Eel. 102. Murcena afra Green Eel. 28. Sclerodermi (3 sp.) 103. Monacanthus hippocrepis Leather Jacket. 104. Monacantlnis chiuensis Leather Jacket. 105. Monacanthus ayraudl Leather Jacket. The following is a list of New South Wales edible fishes arranged in the order of their economic value, also prepared by Mr. J. Douglas Ogilby, F.L.S.:— 1. Represented in market every day. Gerres ovattis Silver Billy. Arripis salar — only from its great numbers Salmon. Girella tricnipidata Black Fish. Pagriis unicolor Schnapper. Chrysophrgs sarha Tar whine. Chrgsophrgs ami rails Black Bream. Scicena neglecla Jcn'-fish. 276 NEW SOUTH wales : her commerce and resources. Caranx /rjc7n]ERCK AND RESOURCES. and stowed under the liatclu's. At the end of tlie voyage it is taken to the station, where it is counted and thoroughly cleaned. ]t is then assorted ami dried, it is packed in cases, each weigliing from L*70 to oOO pounds, and is ready for shipment. It is important that the shell should he kept under cover, as exposure to the rays of the sun changes its colour and lustre. No systematic effort has yet been made to collect pearls at the Torres Sti'aits. Some very fine specimens of pearl, about the size of a hazel nut, and of remarkable beauty and clearness, have found their way to the Sydney market from Torres Straits. Other sjjecimens of a, much larger size have been foimd there, but they were imperfect in shape and colour. There has always been a mystery connected with pearls, and especially as to the manner of their formation, and even at the pi'esent time very few know what pearls really are. Scientists tell us they are hard, white, smooth, shining substances found in a testaceous lish of the oyster kind. Poets refer to them as " the globe of light,'' " the moon of waters," " the hoar frost of heaven."' The ancient Greeks and Romans esteemed pearls more highly than any other jewels, and with very good reason, for, unlike other gems, they require no aid from art to bring out their beauty and lustre. Frequent reference is made to them in the Bible, and they are associated with many superstitions. The Chinese believe that they possess extraordinary medicinal properties, and the Egyptians dissolve and drink them as a love potion. Cleopatra is said to have only followed the custom of her race when she drank the famous pearl draught to the health of Mark Antony. This custom, silly as it is, does not appear to be wholly confined to the Egyptians, for there is strong reason to believe that the story of Sir Thomas Cresham having drunk a dissolved pearl that cost £'ir),000 (,^72,99S) is not without some foundation in fact. The Persians are said to be the best judges of pearls and pay the highest prices for them. The Hindoos are firm in the belief that pearl oystei'S descend from the clouds, and after a long immersion in the ocean rise to the surface and receive in their gaping mouths drops of rain water, which are congealed into pearls. This plea.sing theory is shared by many Oriental races, but, it is almost needless to add, has been long since exploded by science. The substance of which pearl is composed is simply the carbonate of lime interstratified with animal membrane. Some authorities contend that it is the result of a diseased secretion, but that theory admits of some doubt. Linmeus was the first to establish the fact that pearls can be produced by introducing small particles of sand or other foreign sub.stance into the oyster, and he was knighted for the discovery, but it is now known that the Chinese practised the art for many centuries, only they used small shot and particles of shell instead of sand. Some- times they cut or stamp out of iron images of Buddha and insert them into the oyster, and when sufficiently coated proclaim that they have been produced by supernatural means. Pearls formed hj the introduc- tion of foi-eign matter into the oyster are necessarily hollow and crude in shape, and have little more commercial value than the ordinary PKAnL-SIIKLL. 291 artificial pearls made out of glass beads and lined with wax and quick- silver or some kind of pearl-coloured vaniisli. It is more tliaii probable that the introduction of foreign matter into the oyster injures the character of the secretion. The oyster reproduces itself by means of spat, which is sometimes found floating on the water. It moves about mitil it settles on a rock or some solid substance, and develops into an oyster. It attains the size of a shilling in six or seven month.s. The necessities of its existence apjiear to Vie clean-growing coral, free from sand grit, and a considerable influx and outflow of the sea at the rise and fall of tiie tide. Oysters are not in all cases confined to lagoons, but exist in vast cjuantities under the breakers that l)eat u})on the outer reefs, and possibly at greater depths in the sea beyond them. They are said by some instinct of their nature to make their way into calm water. The oysters which are spawned in the lagoons are formed in congeries attached to the parent shells or clustered in numbers, fastened one to another, attached to the rocks. It has been generally believed that the pearl oyster is a fixtui-e, and the ajjpearance of the cord or byssus by which it is fastened to solid substances wouUl show some reason for the opinion. This cord has the a2)pearance of a tassel, and is composed of an infinite number of slender filaments. It often requires very great force to dislodge it, and has all the appearance of being permanent, but, nevertheless, it does move, and from one coral shelf to another \s-hen at no great distance. The best pearls are found when the oyster is about four years old, the age being determined by the weight and appearance of the shell. The shell, like the pearl, is formed by the secretion of the animal and becomes hardened by the deposits of lime. The iridescent hues on the inside of the shell are occasioned by the edges of the thin, wavy con- centric layers overlapping one another and reflecting the light. The minute furrows, containing translucent carbonate of lime, shed a series of more or less brilliant colours, according to the angle at which the light falls upon them. The external surface of the shell is of a dark brown- ish color, but does not penetrate to any great depth and is easily removed. Occasionally some of the finest pearls are found loose in the shell. As many as one hundred pearls have been fouud in one oyster, but they ai-e generally of little or no value. The pearls of a young oyster are of a yellow color, and those of the older ones have a pinki.sh hue; sometimes they are found of all shades, such as white, lirown, steel, and silver color, and even a deep black. The largest pearl ever found was presented to Phillip II, of Spain. It was about the size of a pigeon egg, and cost SO, 000 ducats. The value of pearls in most cases is a fictitious one. The famous pearl neck- lace of the Empress Eugenie, which originally cost £20,000 (•"*!» 7, -ioO). was sold not long since for the sum of £6,000 (."B29,199). Although pearl-shell has been known to exist for many years in the Torres Straits, it was not until recently that any systematic effort was made to collect it. In 1874 only 2 lb. of shell were entered for export at Thursday Island. In 1875 tons and 12cwt. were exported. In 1878 the (quantity increased to 470 tons. In 18S2 the quantity was 840 tons. In 188.'> the tjuantity declined [o f!21 tons ; but rose again in 1884 to 701 tons. 292 XEW SOUTH WALES : HER COMMERCE AND RESOURCES. The following table shows the quantity and value of pearl-shell exported fi'om the Colony of Queensland for each year from 1874 to 1886 inclusive : — Year. Quantity. Tons c«t. lb. £ ^ 1874 2 12 58 1875 5 12 799 3,888 1876 144 6 15,655 76,234 1877 338 8 48,723 2.S7,110 1878 476 10 54,149 263,516 1870 430 (! 57,509 279,868 1880 425 55,475 269,969 1881 397 14 48,963 238,460 1882 840 9 105,8f>9 515,211 1883 621 11 80,714 392,795 1884 701 18 94,021 457,553 1885 659 9 87,110 423,921 1886 585 67,991 330,848 The price of pearl-shell at the Straits is regulated by the European and American markets. At one time it Avas controlled by a London syndicate, but now competition for the trade is so general that no serious attempt is made to monopolize it. The prices, according to the- invoices entered at the customs of Queensland, during the last few years have varied from £125 (.*608) to £150 ($730) per ton. There is no export duty charged on pearl-shell either at Sydney or Queensland. West Australia is the only one of the colonies where such a duty is charged. The price of shell in Europe is at present so low that only a small margin of profit is left after paying the cost of the freight and insurance. The shipments to the United States this year are larger than usual, although the bulk of the supply is sent by way of London instead of direct to America. A small shipment of Thursday Island pearl-shell was sold at public auction in New York in January, 1885, for £200 (|973) per ton. Another lot, described as " small, of good substance and thin medium,"' brought £U4 ($700) per ton. A third lot, described as "medium, bold, fair substance, and good colour," brought £280 ($1,363) per ton. A fourth lot, described as "wormy and blistered," brought £105 (>^511) per ton. The pearl-shell shipped from Australia to the United States and Europe is used principally for the manufacture of knife-handles, shirt- buttons, studs. Considerable quantities of the shell are also used in papier mache and other ornamental work. The pearl buttons and shirt studs now made in the United States are said to be the best and cheapest in the world, a f\ict due in a great measure to the care used in selecting the material and to the improved method of cutting it. The young or chicken shell is the best and conmiands the highest price. When the pearl is five or six years old it becomes blistered and Avormy, the oyster ceasing to live after a period of seven years. The divers in fishing make no effort to select any particular kind of shell, but take everyone that they can get, even the dead shell, which is the least PEARL-SHELL. 293 value of any on account of its blemishes, rottenness, lack of lustre. Pure white silver-edged shell is the most desired ; some varieties of pink and golden edged ai-e also highly prized as ornaments, but of course are not so valuable as the white. The pearl oyster of connnerce is in fact not an oyster at all, but a mussel known to science as the Meleagrina margaritifera. Its shell is nearly circular in shape, and will average 8 or 10 inches in diameter. Its average weight is about 1^ lb., exclu- sive of the fish, although some specimens in the Torres Straits weigh as much as even 15 pounds. It is distinguished from the oyster by squareness and length of hinge. The pearl oyster beds are very extensive in the waters of Australia and Nev/ Guinea. In the latter the beds extend along the coast to the Tawai Tawai Islands, and thence to Sulu and Baselan. The pearls of the Sulu oysters are said to be superior to those of Ceylon or of the Persian Gulf. The value of the shell, however, is considerably lessened by a peculiar yellowish tinge on the back and border, by which it can always be distinguished. The entire pearl-shell product collected at Thursday Island was for- merly shipped to Europe and America by w'ay of Sydney, but now the greater part of it goes direct from Torres Straits to London in the steamers of the British India Company's service. The cost of freight to Europe by the direct route is about the same as from Sydney to London, viz., £3 lO.s. ($17-03) per ton. A consider- able quantity, however, of shell still finds its way to Sydney, and it is improbable that Sydney will altogether cease to be a market for this important article of commerce. The value of the export of pearl-shell from Sydney during 1887 w^as .£13,-547 (|65,92G) against £31,614 (.$153,850) for the year previous. The cost of freight on pearl-shell to San Francisco by the Pacifiic Mail Steamship Company is £3 (#14-60) per ton, and to New York or Boston by sailing ves.sel £1 12s. lOd. ($8) per ton; but it is seldom that American vessels engaged in trading with this port return dii'ect to the United States, on account of their inability to obtain cargo, except coal, and the result is they usually go to China, Japan, or the Phillipine Islands, and thence to New York. Occasionally, during certain wool seasons, return cargo may be obtained, but seldom otherwise. Therefore, the bulk of Australasian products intended for the American market is shipped by way of London, and the total charges on same is from £3 15s. ($18-25) to £4 ($19-47) per ton. The pearl-shell shipped from Thursday Island to Sydney is generally sent, by way of Cooktown, in the vessels of the China Navigation Com- pany, and the Eastern and Australia Steamship Company, at a cost of about £1 10s. ($7-20) per ton, exclusive of insurance. Although navigation by that route is comparatively safe, accidents seldom occurr- ing, nevertlieless, insurance companies refuse to grant insurance on such freight except at high rates. Sydney : Charles Potter, Government rrinter.— 1888. UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, LOS ANGELES THE UNIVERSITY LIBRARY This book is DUE on the last date stamped below -^'■t UtC 4 ijiJii Form L-9 23m-2,'<3(320.-) \ UNIVERSITY of CALIFORNIA AT LOS ANGELES LIBRARY 615 Griffin - G07n Hevf- her commerc© .ancUresxxirces^. HC 615 G87n IliSSlSSlSl'™'^^ LIBRARY FACILITY AA 000 843 207 2