STUDIES IN TRADE UNIONISM IN THE 
 CUSTOM TAILORING TRADE 
 
 BY 
 
 CHARLES JACOB STOWELL 
 B. S. Illinois Wesleyan University, 1911 
 
 THESIS 
 
 Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for 
 
 the Degree of 
 
 MASTER OF ARTS 
 
 IN ECONOMICS 
 
 IN 
 
 THE GRADUATE SCHOOL 
 OP THE 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS 
 1912 
 
 ( Copyright, KM^., by Charles J. Stowell) 
 
 Published by the Journeymen Tailors Union of America 
 r, Il'irois, l91&',> ,' > ] 
 
PANTAGRAPH PRINTING & STATIONERY COMPANY 
 BLOOMINGTON. ILLINOIS 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 The paper here submitted is intended to form the basis 
 for a more extended study of trade unionism in the custom 
 tailoring trade. The attempt has been made, however, to 
 give the present chapters some value apart from the more 
 thorough investigation which has been planned for the 
 future. The writer was employed in the general office of 
 the Journeymen Tailors' Union of America from 1902 to 
 1911 and has had opportunity to study the organization and 
 policies of the union; it was primarily for this reason that 
 the present subject was chosen for a thesis. 
 
 The officers and members of the Tailors' Union have 
 been of great assistance in the preparation of this study, 
 special thanks being due to Mr. E. J. Brais, secretary of the 
 union, and to Mr. John B. L,ennon, former secretary. The 
 writer also wishes to express his appreciation of criticism 
 and advice given by members of the Economics Seminary, 
 University of Illinois. 
 
 CHARTS JACOB STOWEU,. 
 University of Illinois, 
 June i, 1912. 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 7 
 
 CHAPTER I. HISTORY OF THE TAILORING TRADE n 
 
 1. Ancient and Mediaeval Times. Rise of the Trade in England. 
 
 2. History of the Trade in America. 
 
 CHAPTER II. PRESENT CONDITIONS IN THE TAILORING TRADE IN AMERICA 
 23 
 
 1. Character of Establishments and Methods of Production. 
 
 2. Seasons. 
 
 3. Territorial Aspects. 
 
 4. Prices and Customers. 
 
 5. Concluding note. 
 
 CHAPTER III. HISTORY OF TAILORS' UNIONS IN ENGLAND AND AMERICA, 
 1721-1877 38 
 
 1. Early English Unions. 
 
 2. Early Unions in America. 
 
 3. 1860-1887. Period of National Organization. 
 
 4. Appendices : 
 
 Appendix A. Outline of Tailors' Unions in England, 1721-1834. 
 Appendix B. Constitution and By-laws of the Journeymen 
 
 Tailors' National Union of the United States. 
 
 1885. 
 
 Appendix C. Biographical Sketch, John B. Lennon. 
 Appendix D. Biographical Sketch, Eugene J. Brais. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. STATISTICS OF THE JOURNEYMEN TAILORS' UNION OF 
 
 AMERICA 97 
 
 i. Development of the Journeymen Tailors' Union of America, 
 1883-1911. 
 Table i. Condition of the National Union, 1883-1911 100 
 
 (a) Source and accuracy. 
 
 (b) Special notes. 
 
 Table 2. Income and Expense 102 
 
 (a) Source and accuracy. 
 (b) Special notes (including supplementary tables). 
 
6 TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 Table 3. Legislative Sessions of the Journeymen Tailors' Union 
 
 of America 109 
 
 Special notes. 
 
 II. Strikes and Lockouts in 
 
 Definitions. 
 
 General Strike Policy of the Tailors' National Union. 
 
 Causes of Strikes. Specific Union Policies. 
 
 Strike Benefit. 
 
 Table 4. Strike Benefit Regulations, 1884-1910 117 
 
 Table 5. Expenditure for Organizing Purposes, Strike 
 Benefits, Dearth Benefits, and Sick Benefits. .118 
 
 History of Strikes, 1881-1911. 
 
 Table 6. Strikes and Lockouts in the Tailoring Trade, 
 1881-1911 119 
 
 (a) Source and accuracy. 
 
 (b) Definitions and notation. 
 
 (c) Special notes. 
 
 III. Wages and Conditions of Union Tailors, January I, 1912 128 
 
 Plan of investigation. 
 
 List of local unions and questionnaire. 
 
 Probable accuracy of returns. 
 
 Guide to the tables. 
 
 Classification by geographical sections. 
 
 Summary of returns, by sections. 
 
 Summary of large cities making returns. 
 
 Table 7. General Statistics. Statistics of Organization 139 
 
 (a) Notation. 
 
 (b) Special notes. 
 
 (c) Analysis and conclusions, (including supplementary 
 tables). 
 
 Table 8. Nature of Shops. Systems of Production and Wage 
 Payment 151 
 
 (a) Notation. 
 
 (b) Special notes. 
 
 (c) Analysis and conclusions. 
 
 Table 9. Wages and Prices Insert, opposite p. 158 
 
 (a) Methods of wage payment. 
 
 (b) Special notes. 
 
 (c) Analysis and conclusions (including supplementary 
 tables). 
 
 Concluding note, wages and conditions of union 
 tailors. 
 
BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
 
 I. GENERAL WORKS ON LABOR, ENGLISH. 
 
 BRENTANO, Lujo. On the History and Development of Gilds and the 
 Origin of Trade Unions. London, 1870. 
 
 UNWIN, GEORGE. Gilds and Companies of London. London, 1908. 
 
 UNWIN, GEORGE. Industrial Organization in the i6th and I7th Centuries. 
 Oxford, 1904. 
 
 WEBB, SIDNEY AND BEATRICE. History of Trade Unionism. New ed., 
 Longmans, New York, 1911. 
 
 WEBB, SIDNEY AND BEATRICE. Industrial Democracy. 2 V. Longmans, 
 New York, 1897. 
 
 II. GENERAL WORKS ON LABOR, AMERICAN. 
 ABBOTT, EDITH. Women in Industry. New York, 1910. 
 ADAMS, T. S., AND SUMNER, HELEN. Labor Problems. New York, 1905. 
 
 BARNETT, GEORGE E. The Printers; A Study in American Trade Union- 
 ism. Pub. by American Economic Association, Third series, 
 V. 10, No. 3, October, 1909. 
 
 BARNETT, GEORGE E. (Editor) Trial Bibliography of American Trade 
 Union Publications. Baltimore, Johns Hopkins Press, 1904. 
 
 CARLTON, FRANK T. History and Problems of Organized Labor. Heath 
 & Co., Boston, 1911*. 
 
 CLARK, L. D. Law of the Employment of Labor. New York, Mac- 
 millan, 1911. 
 
 COMMONS, JOHN R., AND ANDREWS, JOHN B. (Editors) Documentary 
 History of American Industrial Society. 10 V. A. H. Clark 
 Co., Cleveland, 1910. 
 
 HOLLANDER, J. H., AND BARNETT, G. E. (Editors) Studies in American 
 Trade Unionism, New York, Holt & Co., 1906. 
 
 KENNEDY, J. B. Beneficiary Features of American Trade Unions. Bal- 
 timore, Johns Hopkins Press, 1008. 
 
 SPEDDEN, ERNEST R. The Trade Union Label. Baltimore, Johns Hop- 
 kins Press, 1910. 
 
 III. BOOKS OF TRAVEL AND HISTORY. 
 
 BRUCE, P. A. Economic History of Virginia in the Seventeenth Cen- 
 tury. 2 V. New York, Macmillan, 1896. 
 
8 BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
 
 MCMASTER, JOHN B. History of the People of the United States. 7 V. 
 New York, Appleton, 1892. 
 
 THWAITES, REUBEN G. (Editor) Early Western Travels, 1748-1846. 32 
 V. Geveland, Ohio. 1906. 
 
 IV. AMERICAN OFFICIAL PUBLICATIONS, FEDERAL AND 
 
 STATE. 
 
 Census of the United States. Decennial since 1790. Washington, D. C. 
 
 Colorado, ist Biennial Report of the Bureau of Labor Statistics, Den- 
 ver, 1888. 
 
 Industrial Commission, Report of the United States. 19 V. Washing- 
 ton, D. C., 1900-1902. 
 
 Massachusetts, nth Annual Report of the Bureau of Statistics of 
 Labor. Boston, 1880. 
 
 United States Bureau of Labor. Third Annual Report, on Strikes and 
 Lockouts, 1881-1886. Washington, D. C, 1887. 
 
 Woman and Child Wage-Earners in the United States, Report on Con- 
 dition of. Published as Senate Document No. 645, 6ist Congress, 
 2d Session. To be in 19 V. 
 Especially : 
 
 V. 9. Sumner, Helen L. History of Women in Industry 
 
 in the United States. Washington, D. C., 1910. 
 V. 10. Andrews, John B., and Bliss, W. D. P. History of 
 Women in Trade Unions. Washington, D. C., 1911. 
 
 V. PUBLICATIONS OF LABOR ORGANIZATIONS. 
 
 AMERICAN FEDERATION OF LABOR. Proceedings of the Conventions, 1881- 
 1911. (All recent numbers published in Washington.) 
 
 AMERICAN FEDERATIONIST. Monthly. 1894 . Washington, D. C. 
 
 JOURNAL OF UNITED LABOR. 1880-1889. Official Organ of the Knights of 
 Labor. Marblehead, Pittsburgh and Philadelphia. 
 
 TAILORS' NATIONAL TRADE'S UNION, JOURNEYMEN. Constitution and By- 
 laws, English and German editions, Philadelphia, 1865. 
 
 TAILORS' INTERNATIONAL TRADE'S UNION OF THE UNITED STATES AND 
 CANADA, JOURNEYMEN. Proceedings of the Eighth Annual 
 Convention, Norfolk, Va., 1873. Pub. New York, 1873. 
 
 TAILORS' NATIONAL TRADE'S UNION, JOURNEYMEN. Proceedings of the 
 Ninth Annual Convention, Syracuse, N. Y., 1874. Pub. New 
 York, 1874. 
 
 TAILORS' NATIONAL TRADE'S UNION, JOURNEYMEN. Proceedings of the 
 Tenth Annual Convention, St. Louis, Mo., 1875. German edi- 
 tion. Pub. New York, 1875. 
 
 TAILORS' NATIONAL TRADE'S UNION, JOURNEYMEN. Proceedings of the 
 Eleventh Annual Convention, Philadelphia, Pa., 1876. Ger- 
 man edition. Pub. St. Louis, 1876. 
 
BIBLIOGRAPHY. 9 
 
 TAILORS' NATIONAL TRADE'S UNION, JOURNEYMEN. Twelfth Annual Re- 
 port of Officers, 1877. Pub. Philadelphia, Pa., 1877. 
 
 TAILORS' NATIONAL UNION OF THE UNITED STATES, JOURNEYMEN. Con- 
 stitution and By-laws, also Proceedings, of the 2d Annual 
 Convention, Chicago, Aug. 11-14, 1884. Pub. New York, 1884. 
 
 TAILORS' NATIONAL UNION OF THE UNITED STATES, JOURNEYMEN. Con- 
 stitution and by-laws, also proceedings of 3rd Annual Con- 
 vention, Baltimore, August 10-15, 1885. Pub. New York, 1885. 
 
 TAILORS' NATIONAL UNION OF THE UNITED STATES, JOURNEYMEN. Con- 
 stitution and by-laws, 1887. Pub. New York, 1888. 
 
 TAILORS' UNION OF AMERICA. JOURNEYMEN. Constitutions of 1889, 1894, 
 1896, 1898, 1900, 1902, 1904, 1906, 1908, 1910. Pub. New York 
 and Bloomington, 111. 
 
 TAILOR, THE. Official Organ of the Journeymen Tailors' Union of 
 America. Monthly. New York, 1887-1895. Bloomington, 111., 
 1895 
 
 VI. SPECIAL WORKS ON THE CLOTHING TRADE. 
 
 GALTON, FRANK W. The Tailoring Trade. Published in a series en- 
 titled, "Select documents illustrating the history of trade 
 unionism." Edited under the direction of the London School 
 of Economics and Political Science. London, 1896. 
 
 POPE, JESSE E. Clothing Industry in New York. In Missouri Univer- 
 sity Studies in Social Science, V. I, 1905. 
 
 WILLETT, MABEL H. Employment of Women in the Clothing Trade. 
 New York, 1902. 
 
 VII. MISCELLANEOUS PERIODICALS. 
 
 AMERICAN TAILOR AND CUTTER, THE. Published by the John J. Mitchell 
 Co., New York. Monthly. 1878 
 
 COMMERCIAL HANDBOOK OF CANADA. Toronto, 1912. 
 
 SARTORIAL ART JOURNAL. Published by the John J. Mitchell Co., New 
 York. Monthly. 1873 
 
 YALE REVIEW, THE. New Haven, 1892 
 
 Note. In the footnotes to the following pages, "Doc. Hist." stands 
 for Commons and Andrews' "Documentary History of American Indus- 
 trial Society"; and "Sen. Doc." for "Senate Document." 
 
CHAPTER I. 
 HISTORY OF THE TAILORING TRADE. 
 
 i. Ancient and Mediaeval Times. Rise of the Trade in 
 England. 
 
 It has often been said in jest, that tailoring is the oldest 
 of the mechanical occupations, inasmuch as 
 
 "Adam himself 'twas he begun the trade, 
 And for himself and Eve both aprons made." 1 
 
 However this may be, it is certain that the trade is an 
 ancient one. It is especially true of this industry, that in 
 the olden times it was confined to the household. During 
 the period covered by ancient history, it is probable that 
 there were few persons especially trained in the making of 
 garments for others, except the women and slaves of private 
 households, or those attached to official or royal establish- 
 ments. The rise of tailoring as a handicraft belongs dis- 
 tinctively to the Middle Ages, but, since we are concerned 
 mainly with its modern forms, it will be sufficient to start 
 our investigation with the rise of a strictly journeymen class 
 of tailors in England. 
 
 There is some evidence to show that the rise of such a 
 class occurred about the middle of the i/th Century. 2 Pre- 
 
 !"A new poem on the Ancient and loyal Society of Journeymen Tay- 
 lors, etc." 1725. By Henry Nelson, Bricklayer, one of the Brethren. 
 Galton, The Tailoring Trade, p. 27. 
 
 2By this it is not meant that there were not wage-working tailors 
 earlier than this, for there were, both in the gilds and outside of them, 
 and some of these workers were called, "journeymen." They did not, 
 however, form a permanent class, inasmuch as in most cases they had 
 an opportunity to rise to the standing of a master ; moreover, the 
 method of production was not capitalistic. 
 
 11 
 
12 STUDIES IN TRADE UNIONISM 
 
 viously, it seems that wealthy customers bought their cloth 
 direct from wholesale clothiers, and then either took it to a 
 master working-tailor 3 to be made up, or had it made up 
 by a tailor in their own household. The poor made their 
 own garments or bought second-hand ones. In the first half 
 of the 1 7th Century, however, there arose in London, and 
 probably in other large towns, a class of shop-keeping master 
 tailors, who were "capitalists" in a genuine sense. 4 Formerly, 
 all persons recognized by law as being entitled to engage in 
 the selling of garments, or making them up to order, were 
 in a chartered Company. In London, for example, this Com- 
 pany was called "The Company of Merchant-Taylors of the 
 City of London, and the Master Working Taylors, Freemen 
 of this City, and members also of the said Company/' 5 As 
 implied by the title, this Company included both "Master- 
 Taylors" and "Merchant-Taylors." As nearly as we can in- 
 terpret the language of the period, the "Master-Taylors" 
 were recruited from the comparatively small number of 
 journeymen who acquired the specially skilled part of the 
 business, namely, the cutting-out 6 ; whereas, the "Merchant- 
 
 3 By "master working-tailor" is meant the head of a household es- 
 tablishment, in which master and apprentices were associated upon 
 equal social terms. 
 
 4 Galton, p. xvi. 
 
 5 Galton, p. xviii, Footnote I. The London Companies were the 
 successors of the Craft Gilds. The latter had included the master- 
 workmen of their respective trades. By a process of union, selling 
 merchants came to be included in the Companies. Both merchants and 
 master-workmen were interested in maintaining the old system of 
 monopoly charters and apprenticeship. Opposed to the members of the 
 Companies were merchants who did not wish to be bound by the 
 charter, and journeymen who desired to work without a legal appren- 
 ticeship. (See Webb, History of Trade Unionism, p. 13, and note.) 
 The Tailors' Companies seem to have retained their connection with 
 the trade longer than usual. Thus Webb states, "By the i8th century 
 the London Journeymen had lost whatever participation they may pos- 
 sibly once have possessed in the Companies, which had for the most 
 part already ceased to have any connection with the trades of which 
 they bore the names." History of Trade Unionism, p. 13. 
 
 6Webb, History of Trade Unionism, p. 25. 
 
IN THE CUSTOM TAILORING TRADE 13 
 
 Taylors" added to this accomplishment the business of buy- 
 ing the cloth needed for garments. We may therefore dis- 
 tinguish the cloth merchant, who made no work, but simply 
 sold goods; the merchant-tailor, who both sold goods and 
 made work; and the master-tailor, who sold no goods, but 
 made up work from goods furnished by the customer. All 
 these classes, but especially the merchant and master tailors, 
 regarded with indignation the rise of the new shop-keeping 
 class. The master-tailors of the Company kept only one or 
 two journeymen, who lived on the master's premises. The 
 shop-keepers, on the other hand, frequently rented a shop in 
 a fashionable neighborhood, giving long credit to their 
 wealthy clients, and employing in their own workshops num- 
 bers of journeymen during the busy season. 7 These journey- 
 men are described by Campbell in the London Tradesman 
 (London, 1747), as follows: 8 
 
 "The next class (to the foreman) is the mere working 
 tailor; not one in ten of them knows how to cut out a pair 
 of breeches; they are employed only to sew the seams, to 
 cast the buttonholes, and prepare the work for the finisher. 
 Their wages, by Act of Parliament, is 20 pence in one sea- 
 son of the year, and half-a-crown the other; however a good 
 hand has half-a-crown or three shillings. They are as numer- 
 ous as locusts, are out of business about three or four months 
 in the year, and are generally as poor as rats. The house of 
 call is an ale-house, where they generally use, the landlord 
 knows where to find them, and masters go there to enquire 
 when they want hands. Custom has established it into a kind 
 of law, that the house of call gives them credit for victuals 
 and drink, while they are unemployed ; this obliges the jour- 
 neymen, on the other hand, to spend all the money they earn 
 at this house alone. The landlord, when once he has got 
 
 7 Webb, History of Trade Unionism, p. 26. 
 ^Quoted by Galton, p. 3, footnote. 
 
14 STUDIES IN TRADE UNIONISM 
 
 them in his debt, is sure to keep them so, and by that means 
 binds the poor wretch to his house, who slaves only to en- 
 rich the publican." 
 
 As indicated by the above extract, wages were fixed by 
 law and paid by the day. Hours were also fixed by law, and 
 in 1721 the legal working day was from six in the morning 
 until nine at night, allowing half-an-hour for breakfast and 
 an hour for dinner. 9 
 
 To tell in detail the history of trade conditions in Eng- 
 land after the rise of the journeymen class would take us 
 too far afield. We must, however, note one matter of im- 
 portance; namely, the early existence of piece rates, and the 
 opposition of the workers to this method of payment. As 
 shown above, the early journeymen received a flat time-rate, 
 fixed by law, the law, however, taking some account of the 
 difference of seasons. The first mention of piece-work to be 
 found in our references is made in connection with a strike 
 in Birmingham, in I777. 10 At this time the merchants ad- 
 vertised for one hundred journeymen tailors for piece-work, 
 claiming that the men could earn sixteen shillings and up- 
 ward a week. This in a counter advertisement was denied 
 by the men, who said that the masters were in reality at- 
 tempting to get cheap labour, and that at the piece-prices 
 offered it would take an extraordinary hand to earn as much 
 as twelve shillings. The strike arising out of this affair 
 was prolonged for some time, and there is no record of the 
 final result. The essential point, however, is that the op- 
 position of the men to the piece-system was on this occasion 
 practically unanimous. 
 
 By 1800 certain "friendly societies" had sprung up in the 
 various trades, including that of the tailors. These organi- 
 
 9Webb, in preface to Galton, The Tailoring Trade, p. v. See also 
 in the same work, pp. 7-8, the reprint of "An Abstract of the Master 
 Taylors' Bill, etc." 
 
 10 Galton, pp. 71-74. 
 
IN THE CUSTOM TAILORING TRADE 15 
 
 zations were often known as "clubs," and so far as published 
 rules are concerned, they seem at this time to have been 
 purely beneficiary. About twenty years later, however, 
 (1818), we have documentary accounts of their trade rules, 
 showing that they were maintaining combined activities simi- 
 lar to those of present unions. Of chief interest here is the 
 fact that certain sects had sprung up among the London 
 Tailors' Clubs, one division being known as "Flints" and 
 another as "Dungs," and that the "Dungs" accepted both 
 piece and day work, whereas the "Flints" would work only 
 by the day. Galton conjectures that the "Dungs" may have 
 been inferior workmen, who had at times perhaps taken the 
 places of better men during strikes. 11 However this may 
 be, the acceptance of piece-work by any organized tailors 
 shows a change from the Birmingham attitude in 1777. That 
 piece-work was gradually coming in is also shown by certain 
 documents published in 1811. The first, an address by a 
 Committee of Master Tailors to the trade at large, complains 
 among other things that the masters are not at liberty to 
 change their men "from day work to piece-work" without 
 the leave of their servants. 12 The second, an argument on 
 behalf of the journeymen against a bill brought into the 
 House of Commons by the Master Tailors, recites that the 
 trade has "a printed list of prices for work done by the 
 piece, consisting of about 150 different items," and protests 
 against the clause in the bill permitting Judges to decide 
 whether or not the piece-prices constitute a "fair propor- 
 tion" of day rates. 13 Finally, we find a stray advertisement 
 
 uGalton, p. Ixxiv. See also p. 151. The term "dung" was used 
 in America as late as 1885, meaning a "scab." Thus in the following 
 extract : "After ten days strike in Cheyenne against a 'dung* it was 
 lost." (Secretary's report, Proceedings of the 1885 Convention of the 
 Tailors' National Union of the United States, p. 7). 
 
 i2Galton, p. 103. 
 , p. 117. 
 
16 STUDIES IN TRADE UNIONISM 
 
 regarding a strike in Edinburgh, 1823, in which the men 
 take satirical notice of the "fair and liberal list of prices" 
 offered to them by the masters. 14 All these quotations show 
 that piece-work, while by no means universal, was becoming 
 known in the trade during the period 1775-1825. There is 
 no doubt that the masters favored it in order to adjust more 
 readily their labor costs to the extreme variations in the sea- 
 sons, as well as to pay in accord with skill and to encourage 
 "speeding." 
 
 It has been intended in the foregoing sketch to outline 
 briefly the rise of the journeymen tailoring trade in England, 
 as well as to point out the origin of some of its peculiar 
 features, such as seasonal difficulties and the beginning of 
 piece-scales. We now turn to the study of the American 
 trade. 
 
 2. History of the Trade in America. 
 
 Early History. Records show that the tailor, like the 
 blacksmith and the shoemaker, is one of the pioneers among 
 tradesmen, and is usually found in the vanguard of settle- 
 ment. Thus we find that there was a tailor with the first 
 Jamestown expedition in 1607, and six more came over dur- 
 ing the following year. 15 These tailors belonged to the class 
 of indentured servants; they did not, however, remain per- 
 manently in this class, being enabled after a few years to 
 work out or purchase their freedom. In the latter part of 
 the 1 7th Century the system of indentures still prevailed, 
 but the terms were short. 16 Between 1660 and 1700, several 
 
 14 Galton, p. 165. 
 
 of Capt. John Smith, pp. 390, 412. Citation is given by 
 Bruce in his Economic History of Virginia, V. 2, p. 471, note. 
 
 i6"The covenants into which Luke Mathews, a tailor of Hereford, 
 entered with Thomas Landon of Virginia were probably fairly repre- 
 sentative ; Mathews bound himself to serve London for a period of 
 two years, his term to begin when he reached the Colony ; the remunera- 
 
IN THE CUSTOM TAILORING TRADE 17 
 
 tailors became the owners of large tracts of land, one as 
 large as a thousand acres. 17 This explains in a large measure 
 the scarcity of working tradesmen in the colonies; as fast 
 as they were able they became freemen and citizens, and it 
 was necessary continuously to import others to take their 
 places. Thus in a South Carolina document of 1731 it is 
 stated: "Artificers are so scarce at present, that all sorts of 
 work is very dear; Taylors, Shoemakers, Smiths, would be 
 particularly acceptable." 18 By 1785 tailors seem to have 
 been more plentiful; we find a merchant of Charleston, South 
 Carolina, who advertises himself as a "Taylor from London," 
 informing the public that he has recently added "several ex- 
 cellent workmen" to his shop, and will be prepared to fill 
 orders more promptly than before, as well as to furnish the 
 English styles. 19 
 
 Referring to methods of payment, the piece or at least 
 the job system seems to have been begun much earlier in this 
 country than in England. About the close of the I7th Century, 
 the wages of a tailor in Virginia were 90 pounds of tobacco 
 for making a suit, and from 40 to 60 pounds for making a 
 coat. 20 A hundred years later, in Baltimore, wages were 
 
 tion was to be six pence a day when working for members of Landon's 
 family, but when for other persons, he was to be entitled to one-half 
 of the proceeds of his labor, whatever it might be." Bruce, Economic 
 History of Virginia, V. 2, pp. 471-2. 
 
 , Economic History of Virginia, V. 2, p. 474. 
 
 . Hist, V. 2, p. 174. Reprinted from "A Description of the 
 Province of South Carolina," Charleston, 1731. 
 
 i*>Doc. Hist, V. 2, p. 353. Reprint of advertisement from the 
 "Gazette of the State of South Carolina," Charleston, Mch. 7, 1785. 
 
 It should be understood that the demand for custom trade in the 
 Colonies was decidedly limited, the greater part of the garments worn 
 being made at home. "The expensive suit of the custom tailor was 
 worn only on holidays and special occasions, ancj one such suit often 
 did service for a lifetime." (Pope, The Clothing Industry in New 
 York, pp. 2-3). This fashionable trade, coupled with some work on 
 servants' liveries, constituted the only demand for the tailors' art. 
 
 20 Bruce, Economic History of Virginia, V. 2, p. 472. 
 
18 STUDIES IN TRADE UNIONISM 
 
 still reckoned by the job, and the journeymen in that city, 
 by dint of strikes, had succeeded by 1805 in raising their 
 pay to eight shillings and ninepence per job, and had also 
 reduced the amount of a "job" by means of a system of ex- 
 tras. 21 
 
 During the first half of the igth Century there seems to 
 have been little uniformity in methods of payment, although 
 it is probable that the piece system predominated. It is 
 stated that in Zanesville, Ohio, in 1819, the wages of tailors, 
 "finding themselves and working fourteen or fifteen hours 
 a clay," were from $7.00 to $9.00 a week, 22 but it may be that 
 the observer made this estimate after talking with journey- 
 men about their piece-scales. Methods of payment are spoken 
 of in connection with strikes in Buffalo, i824, 23 and in Phila- 
 delphia, 1827. 2i In each case there is clear evidence that 
 "bills of prices" or piece-scales were being employed, and in 
 Philadelphia, at least, it is clear that the men were working 
 in shops on the employer's premises. 
 
 It is believed by men familiar with the present trade that 
 a real "itinerant" system prevailed in this country at least 
 as late as 1825. Such a system was widely known in Eng- 
 land and on the continent in the early days, especially in the 
 rural districts. The tailor would take his: necessary tools and 
 travel about the country, stopping at houses where his ser- 
 vices were required, and remaining as a guest of the family 
 until his work was completed. In such cases the cloth was 
 ordinarily home-spun. We have endeavored to find definite 
 
 2iMcMaster, History of the People of the United States, V. 3, p. 
 5. 
 
 22Hulme's Journal, 1818-1819. Reprinted in Thwaites, Early West- 
 ern Travels, V. 10, p. 75. 
 
 23 Doc. Hist., V. 4, pp. 93-95- 
 24Doc. Hist., V. 4, pp. 99-264. 
 
IN THE CUSTOM TAILORING TRADE 19 
 
 references to this system in America, but thus far without 
 success. 25 
 
 With reference to the distribution of the early tailors, we 
 can only repeat what was said at the outset of this discus- 
 sion, namely, that they followed the progress of settlement, 
 and were always among the first on the ground. In Pitts- 
 burgh in 1807 there were thirteen tailor shops, 26 and in Lex- 
 ington, Kentucky, about the same time, there were ten shops, 
 employing forty-seven journeymen and apprentices. 27 Cin- 
 cinnati in 1819 had twenty-three shops, with eighty-three 
 workmen. 28 About 1820 tailors were coming over from 
 England, 29 and were making their way to the frontier settle- 
 ments, especially Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois. 30 
 By 1834 they were found in Fort Union, a fur-trading post 
 on the upper Missouri, 31 and in 1846 we are told there were 
 four tailor shops in Oregon City, in the Oregon Territory, 32 
 There is no doubt that the tailors were settling in many other 
 localities ; enough have been cited to show that they were 
 closely identified with the western movement. 
 
 25We are informed by a tailor who learned the trade in Sweden 
 that the itinerant system prevailed in that country as late as 1880. 
 As manufactured cloth became cheaper the itinerant system was gradu- 
 ally replaced by the shop system. 
 
 26Thwaites, Early Western Travels, V. 4, p. 247. From Cuming's 
 Tour to the West. 1807-1809. 
 
 27 Ibid, V. 4, p. 186. 
 
 28Ibid., V. 9, p. 240. From Flint's Letters from America, 1818- 
 1820. 
 
 29Ibid., V. 12, p. 155. From Welby's English Settlements, 1819- 
 1820. 
 
 id., V. 4, P- 247; V. 10, pp. 58, 75, 135, 271; V. 12, p. 195; V. 
 27, p. 54- From various writers on early western travels. 
 
 silbid., V. 22, p. 378, note. From Maximilian's Travels, 1832-1834. 
 32Ibid., V. 30, p. 296. From Palmer's Journal, 1845-1846. 
 
20 STUDIES IN TRADE UNIONISM 
 
 Rise of the Ready-Made Industry. 
 
 The fact of foremost importance in the history of the 
 garment industry after 1800 is the rise of the manufacture 
 of cheap clothing for the market. This movement agrees in 
 point of time with the development of a middle class, who 
 demanded better clothing than a workingman's suit, but were 
 still unable to pay for the expensive custom suit. The poorer 
 classes for a considerable period had depended largely on 
 second-hand clothing, especially in England; but even these 
 found a use for the coarser grades of new clothing. 33 The 
 garment- working industry may therefore be regarded pri- 
 marily as a result of the economic demand for cheaper ap- 
 parel. 
 
 We are accustomed to associate the ready-made industry 
 with the introduction of machinery, and it is true that the 
 greatest development has taken place since the invention of 
 the sewing-machine in i846. 34 The industry, however, was 
 known long before this date. There is evidence that as early 
 as 1 68 1 master tailors of London were making up garments 
 in advance of the demand. 35 The first ready-made clothing 
 in America, according to Miss Sumner, consisted of shirts 
 for the Indians and men's breeches, which were made in 1725 
 by a woman in Northfield, Massachusetts, 36 A little later 
 establishments grew up to make clothing for sailors and for 
 southern negroes. It was, however, some years before any 
 considerable demand arose for ready-made clothing. When 
 this demand did come, the custom trade was the first to at- 
 tempt to supply it. Master tailors began to employ their 
 
 33 Pope, The Clothing Industry in New York, pp. 7-9. 
 
 34Ibid., p. 12. 
 
 35Galton, The Tailoring Trade, p. xvii. 
 
 36 Sen. Doc. 645, V. 9: History of Women in Industry in the United 
 States, p. 120. (This work will be referred to hereafter simply as 
 "Sen. Doc. 645, V. 9"). 
 
IN THE CUSTOM TAILORING TRADE 21 
 
 journeymen during the slack season making up left-over 
 cloth, and eventually on raw material purchased expressly 
 for this purpose. 37 By 1835, the manufacture of ready-made 
 clothing was well established. However, "it was practically 
 confined to men's and boys' clothing of the cheaper grades 
 and to shirts, and the quantities manufactured were necessar- 
 ily small, the work being all done by hand." 38 
 
 The introduction of the sewing-machine brought about 
 a revolution in the ready-made industry. The quantity pro- 
 duced increased enormously, and the quality gradually be- 
 came such as to present a real competition to the custom work. 
 In the endeavor to meet this, merchant tailors insisted upon 
 cheaper production, and as a result the journeymen began 
 taking work to their homes, where they could be assisted 
 by their wives and daughters on the machine processes. 
 Gradually other women took up the trade, becoming either 
 tailors' helpers, or workers on their own account. Thus, the 
 making of trousers and vests came to be largely carried on 
 by women. 39 
 
 The Civil War demand had a great influence on the cloth- 
 ing industry, especially in the ready-made branch. For a 
 discussion of this period, as well as of the later development 
 of the ready-made industry, the reader is referred to studies 
 which deal in the main with that industry alone. 40 We have 
 pursued the inquiry only far enough to notice the origin of 
 the leading features of custom work. By 1865 this trade 
 
 37 Pope, The Clothing Industry in New York, pp. 11-12. 
 ssSumner, Sen. Doc. 645, V. 9, pp. 121-122. 
 39p pe, The Clothing Industry in New York, p. 13. 
 
 40 The following works are of value, for this purpose, some of which 
 have already been cited : Pope, The Clothing Industry in New York ; Sum- 
 ner, History of Women in Industry in the United States, Sen. Doc. 
 645, V. 9; Andrews and Bliss, History of Women in Trade Unions, 
 Sen. Doc. 645, V. 10, pp. 160-172; Willett, Mabel H., The Employment 
 of Women in the Clothing Trade. 
 
22 STUDIES IN TRADE UNIONISM 
 
 seems to have assumed much of its present form, and later 
 changes have operated not so much to alter conditions in the 
 industry as to limit the extent to which it is still carried on. 
 The following chapter will consider the present status of 
 the trade and the effect of the constant cheapening of pro- 
 duction. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 PRESENT CONDITIONS IN THE TAILORING TRADE IN 
 
 AMERICA. 41 
 
 i. Character of Establishments and Methods of Production. 
 
 Before considering present conditions in the tailoring 
 trade, it is necessary to define "custom tailoring." The term 
 "tailoring," as colloquially used, is sometimes held to include 
 all work upon men's, women's, and children's suits. "Cus- 
 tom tailoring," however, applies only to the making of cloth- 
 ing to the order and measure of each individual customer; 
 and as the term is used in this paper it applies to men's 
 clothing only. This is in accord with the most common usage, 
 which applies the term "garment working" to the ready-made 
 industry, and "ladies' tailoring" or "dress-making" to cus- 
 tom work for women. 
 
 There are few industries which present the same variety 
 and complexity in types of production as does the garment 
 industry. This fact is as true of the custom branch as of 
 any other division of the trade. Here may be found every 
 gradation, from the lone "entrepreneur," representing in his 
 own person the entire establishment, to the large and well- 
 equipped store on Fifth Avenue. In describing these grada- 
 tions it seems best to begin with the smaller establishments. 
 
 41 A considerable portion of the material in this chapter is based 
 upon correspondence and interviews with practical tailors, and upon 
 the writer's own experience. Citations of authorities will not, there- 
 fore, be found as numerous as elsewhere in the thesis. Statements 
 with reference to technicalities in the trade, where not supported by 
 citations, have been revised with the aid of the officers of the Jour- 
 neymen Tailors' Union of America. 
 
 23 
 
24 STUDIES IN TRADE UNIONISM 
 
 It is not uncommon in the small towns, and on the less 
 prosperous streets of our larger cities, to find a tailor who, 
 in the slang of the trade, is "running a tack." This means 
 that he has a small shop, either at home or in a store building, 
 and takes orders for suits, which he cuts and finishes en- 
 tirely by his own labor. This, of course, stands for the min- 
 imum so far as size of establishment is concerned. 
 
 The "tack" could be enlarged by enlisting the tailor's 
 family, or by the employment of one or more "helpers" to 
 do the plain work and machine sewing. The next step toward 
 increasing the scope of the business would be the employment 
 of one or more additional journeymen. This would raise 
 the tailor to the rank of a "boss," and on his stationery and 
 in the newspaper he would advertise himself as a "merchant 
 tailor." The journeymen might or might not employ helpers. 
 The boss would continue to take orders and to do his own 
 cutting. These "small shops," or "medium shops," employ- 
 ing from one to a dozen or fifteen workmen, are the typical 
 establishments of many of the smaller cities; they are also 
 numerous in the less fashionable districts of the metropolis. 
 If business warranted the boss could hire a cutter, and de- 
 vote his own attention to the management. In the shops of 
 this type the journeymen include coatmakers, vestmakers, 
 and trousers-makers, each having learned some particular 
 branch of the trade, and having frequently a man or woman 
 helper. Apprentices in the true sense are found occasionally, 
 being boys or girls aiming to become skilled journeymen ; but 
 there are many helpers, mistaken for apprentices by out- 
 siders, who do not expect to learn the more difficult parts 
 of the trade, and who regard their employment as being in 
 many ways similar to factory work. In addition, there is a 
 "bushelman" or repair man employed, who is paid by the 
 
IN THE CUSTOM TAILORING TRADE 25 
 
 week, and has about the same wage and qualifications as a 
 skilled journeyman. 42 
 
 Referring more concretely to the shops, it may be said 
 that they are often on the same floor with the employer's 
 store, in which case, if situated at the back of the store, they 
 are called "back-shops." In other cases, they are found on 
 an upper floor of the store building, or quite often in a differ- 
 ent building. The essentials of a good shop are light and 
 cleanliness. In these respects, of course, all degrees can be 
 found, but most of the shops furnished by the bosses for 
 union men are reasonably decent. They are usually found 
 over-looking streets and alley-ways, from which the necessary 
 light can be had, although a few shops in the downtown dis- 
 tricts of large cities are artificially lighted. In the daylight 
 shops the benches are arranged near the windows, and here 
 the tailor squats in his traditional position, plying his needle. 
 His other equipment and tools are thimble, chalk and tape, 
 shears, "goose" or smoothing iron, pressing board, and sew- 
 
 42As a sample of the distribution of workmen among the various 
 branches of the trade the following statement is given, showing the 
 present composition of the Tailors' Union in Kansas City, Missouri, 
 including 223 persons working at the trade. The figures are from 
 the local secretary of the union : 
 
 Per cent of 
 
 Trade Number. total working force. 
 
 Coatmakers 138 62.0 
 
 Vestmakers 27 12.1 
 
 Pantsmakers 23 10.3 
 
 Helpers 19 8.5 
 
 Bushelmen 16 7.1 
 
 Total 223 loo.o 
 
 Estimates given by three officers of the National Tailors' Union, as 
 to the probable distribution of all union tailors in the United States 
 and Canada among the various branches of the trade, have been aver- 
 aged, with the following result : 
 
 Trade. Per cent of total. 
 Coatmakers 56.0 
 
 Vestmakers 16.2 
 
 Pantsmakers 19.5 
 
 Bushelmen, helpers, 
 
 and weekly men 8.3 
 
26 STUDIES IN TRADE UNIONISM 
 
 ing machine. The boss or cutter has a broad cutting-table, 
 which is often in the main store-room. It will be seen that 
 the furnishing of a shop is simple, and does not require a 
 large outlay of capital. Usually the merchant tailor has 
 risen from the ranks of the journeymen, and the most suc- 
 cessful merchants, with the exception perhaps of a few part- 
 ners who uphold the social end of the business in the larger 
 cities, are recruited in this way. 
 
 The fine stores, catering to fashionable trade in the larger 
 cities, frequently employ salesmen and cutters, in addition 
 to the members of the firm. The journeymen employed by 
 these stores are of the same type as those that have been 
 described, but, as a rule, they work in private shops away 
 from the store building, these shops being furnished at the 
 tailors' own expense. The following list includes the finest 
 stores in several large cities. These stores sell suits ranging 
 in price from $50 to $125, and employ the best workers ob- 
 tainable, paying usually a little more than the average current 
 wages. 
 
 Firm. Locality. 
 
 Dunn Boston 
 
 Bell, James W. New York 
 
 Rock, Matthew New York 
 
 Muehler & Company Philadelphia 
 Bullock & Jones San Francisco 
 
 Stevenson, Harry Chicago 
 
 Berger, Harry Chicago 
 
 De Lang & Company Chicago 43 
 
 43A member of the tailors' union in Chicago has furnished the 
 writer with statistics regarding the three firms in that city, and this 
 information is herewith submitted. 
 
 Salesmen. Journeymen. 
 
 Firm. (Including Cutters and (Including Helpers. 
 
 firm) Trimmers. Bushelmen) 
 
 Stevenson, H. 4 5 85 8-10 
 
 Berger, H. 4 5 72 7-> 
 
 De Lang & Co. 2 2 34 2 
 
 It should be noted that the helpers are paid by the journeymen, 
 and not directly by the merchant tailor. 
 
 The Bell store in New York employs about 200 persons, distributed 
 as to occupation in about the same proportion as in the Chicago shops. 
 
IN THE CUSTOM TAILORING TRADE 27 
 
 We have hitherto spoken of the typical custom tailoring 
 shop, furnished by the employer, in which most of the jour- 
 neymen are specialists and piece-workers. It must, how- 
 ever, be understood, that while probably more than half of 
 the custom work of America is made in this type of shop, 
 there are wide deviations from the type, some of these ex- 
 ceptions being in the nature of survivals from former con- 
 ditions, others representing tendencies of a transitional char- 
 acter. We shall first speak of the survivals. 
 
 Home Work. 
 
 The origin of home work, following the introduction of 
 the sewing machine, has already been discussed. It is un- 
 fortunately true that such work still prevails in the custom 
 trade, as well as in the ready-made clothing industry. Two 
 types of home industry may be distinguished; work ob- 
 tained directly from one or more merchants, and work ob- 
 tained from contractors or piece-masters. 
 
 It is sometimes true that a journeyman working at home 
 will take all of his work from a single employer. Most home 
 workers, however, take work from any employer who may 
 happen to need help, thus working at different times, or even 
 at the same time, for several stores. In the vest and trousers 
 trade especially, contractors or "piece-masters" are often 
 found, who make no work themselves, but contract with em- 
 ployers to get the work done, and then give it out to journey- 
 men to be made, frequently in the tailors' homes. A "piece- 
 master" may employ as many as five or six men to do the 
 skilled work and perhaps fifty girls as finishers, 44 or from 
 
 44 Where so large a number of workers are employed by the con- 
 tractor, he usually operates a shop, the work being mainly either for 
 the cheap custom trade or for special 'order trade. The contract system 
 is found in nearly every branch of the clothing trade. Even some of 
 the better class of work, usually made in regular custom shops, is 
 handled by contractors. It is difficult to trace all the variations of 
 the trade, only a few of which have been noted here. 
 
28 STUDIES IN TRADE UNIONISM 
 
 that number down to eight or ten workers all told. This is 
 a genuine "sweating" system, and is so called in the trade. 
 Home workers seldom employ outside helpers, but are often 
 assisted by members of their own families. 
 
 Private Shops. 
 
 Between the employer's shop and the home shop lies the 
 "private shop." It should be noted here that an employer's 
 shop is called a "free shop" when furnished to the journey- 
 men free of rent or charges. In a few employers' shops 
 "seat-rent" is charged to the journeymen. The practice, 
 however, of paying for seat-room is more usual in "private 
 shops." A journeyman will rent a shop and then sublet seat- 
 room to his fellow-workers at a rate varying from 75 cents 
 to $1.50 a week for skilled workers and 50 cents to $1.00 
 for helpers. This system is adopted by journeymen who 
 want to work for several stores, but who do not want to 
 work at home, or who have no home. There are perhaps 
 2000 tailors in New York City in private shops, and these 
 shops are found in many other large cities. Occasionally, 
 these shops are run on a cooperative plan, but more often 
 sublet as described. 
 
 The diverse conditions that may prevail in a single town 
 are well illustrated by a report of an organizer of the Tail- 
 ors' Union, who was traveling in Indiana in 1896. This 
 report shows that in the town of Kokomo, having a popula- 
 tion at that time of about 9000, the organizer found "four 
 men working single-handed; 45 two week hands with one 
 helper; one man working at home with his wife and one 
 helper; one boss making coats with a helper who also makes 
 vests; one pantmaker with one and sometimes two helpers." 46 
 
 We may now pass to what have been termed "transi- 
 
 45Without helpers. 
 
 4 6J. W. DeFord, in Tailor, March, 1896, p. 4. 
 
IN THE CUSTOM TAILORING TRADE 29 
 
 tional" phases. These are found in establishments employing 
 methods similar to those in the ready-made industry, and in 
 establishments handling both custom and ready-made cloth- 
 ing. Ready-made clothing is made up mainly by machine 
 workers, either at home or in factories. By this means cloth- 
 ing has been so much cheapened that old-line custom tailor- 
 ing is in constant danger of extinction. This fact has 
 obliged merchant tailors and designers to seek ways and 
 means of meeting this competition, and the favorite plan has 
 been to adopt systems of making clothing to measure, which 
 at the same time will employ a finer subdivision of labor and 
 a wider use of machinery. Such systems are variously known 
 as "factory," "sectional," or "team" systems, and serve as 
 good illustrations of the tendency toward cheapening and 
 specialization which is today found in most industries. 
 
 Under the head of "factory shops," the larger establish- 
 ments will be first discussed. These establishments make 
 work for customers in their own city, and also for a consid- 
 erable surrounding territory. 47 Local agents and traveling 
 salesmen carry samples, and take the measures of individual 
 customers. The specifications are then sent to the head es- 
 tablishment and turned over to the cutter, who makes the 
 pattern. An employee called the "chopper"' then takes the 
 pattern and cuts the goods. The trimmings are put in by 
 the "trimmer," and then the job is sent to the factory de- 
 partment. Here a "marker" chalks the pockets, button-holes, 
 and some of the rougher seams. The work then goes through 
 a number of hands, ending finally with the presser. 48 
 
 47 The writer has a letter from the Commissioner of Labor of 
 Oklahoma, stating that garments from the factory shops of Chicago 
 and St. Louis are sold in his state. In fact, this trade extends to 
 the Pacific coast. 
 
 4 8One of the largest "factory shops" now in operation is that of 
 Kahn & Co., Indianapolis. This shop employs several hundred people, 
 and handles work for customers throughout the middle west. Similar 
 shops are found in New York, Philadelphia, Boston, St. Louis, Chi- 
 
30 STUDIES IN TRADE UNIONISM 
 
 A "sectional" or "team" shop is held by its advocates 
 to be essentially different from a factory shop. The follow- 
 ing quotation is from a well-known Chicago designer and 
 teacher of cutting: 49 "Section work is by no means factory 
 work and is as different as day is from night. Section work 
 means that five or six persons work together in one group, 
 each devoting his energy and ability to the development of 
 a different part of the garment. For example, a section of 
 six would be constituted as follows : 
 
 No. i. Apprentice, Junior. Duties: rough padding, 
 sewing and all-round assistance. 
 
 No. 2. Apprentice, Senior. Duties: pockets, linings, 
 individual pressing. 
 
 No. 3. Tailor, Junior. Duties: basting under canvas, 
 linings, basting on stay tapes, etc; individual pressing and 
 pressing for No. i. 
 
 No. 4. Tailor, Senior. Duties : Edges, buttonholes, 
 pressing off, etc. 
 
 No. 5 Directing foreman, sleeve hanger, collar and 
 shoulder adjuster, etc. 
 
 No. 6. Girl for plain sewing." 
 
 The same writer believes that sectional work is the hope 
 of the trade, and that it will be gradually adopted for high- 
 
 cago, Cleveland, San Francisco, and Seattle. The same system pre- 
 vails in several smaller cities, though not on so large a scale. The 
 firm of Gray & Graham in Dallas, Texas, formerly a typical old-line 
 shop, employing about forty journeymen, changed their system to the 
 factory plan a few years ago. Previous to the change they were pay- 
 ing a good piece-scale ; coats $8.00 and upward, pants $2.75 and upward, 
 vests $2.50 and upward. A time scale is now employed with wages 
 ranging from $3.00 to $15.00 a week. About fifty persons are employed 
 in the operating department. Only about four of these are strictly 
 skilled workers, the balance being operatives who have learned special- 
 ized parts of the work, and who could not be classed as old-line jour- 
 neymen. It should be noted that the change to the "factory" system 
 usually involves a change from piece-rates to time-rates for all workers 
 employed. 
 
 49 F. T. Croonborg, in Tailor, Dec., 1911, p. 5. Reprint of address 
 to Philadelphia and Boston Merchant Tailors. 
 
IN THE CUSTOM TAILORING TRADE 31 
 
 class merchant tailoring; in fact, he states, many merchants 
 are already using this plan. In this opinion many of the 
 rising generation of merchants concur; it is significant, how- 
 ever, that the older men still cling to the individual system. 
 At a Merchant Tailors' Convention in Washington, D. C., 
 February, 1911, Mr. Edwin N. Doll, a well known New 
 York tailor and former officer of Merchants' Associations, 
 spoke strongly in favor of the old system of skilled individ- 
 ual work and hand-sewing. In this matter, he was not in 
 agreement with the more "progressive" spirits in the Con- 
 vention, and it seems probable that the sectional system in 
 some form is destined to find increasing favor. 50 
 
 The team described by Mr. Croonborg would be suitable 
 for a shop of considerable size. He suggests that there 
 might be as many as fifteen or eighteen sections working 
 on one floor. A modified team system, however, may be 
 found in many smaller shops. For example, it is quite usual 
 to find in New England towns a shop with one journeyman 
 on the bench, who marks and plans the work, and employs 
 in addition two or three sewing girls, a machine operator and 
 a pressman. Between this kind of a shop and the largest 
 team shops there are, of course, many gradations. Occasion 
 will be found, in the section on wage-payment, Chapter 4, 
 to speak of "weekly shops," employing some "old-line" jour- 
 neymen, but paying them by the week, and of "mixed shops," 
 containing both weekly workers and piece-workers. 
 
 We now turn to the form of production which is the 
 most distinctly transitional of all, namely, the "special or- 
 der." Here, as in the case of the systems already described, 
 the local agent or the traveling salesman takes the measure 
 of the customer and his choice of samples. However, in- 
 stead of sending it to a shop especially adapted for custom 
 work, he sends it to a regular garment factory, usually in a 
 
 so Sartorial Art Journal, April, 1911, p. 450. 
 
32 STUDIES IN TRADE UNIONISM 
 
 large city, where it is made up by operatives of the same 
 type as those who manufacture the ready-made. The agencies 
 vary in type, some being conducted by local special-order 
 stores, and some by ready-made stores that maintain a special- 
 order department. This type of trade is sold in all communi- 
 ties; an especially good field is found in the small towns 
 and the rural districts, where agents sell suits to measure 
 practically as cheap as the ready-made. The term "special- 
 order" is rather loosely employed, but in its most proper use 
 refers to this "garment-working to measure" which we have 
 just described. 
 
 Before leaving the subject of the character of establish- 
 ments, mention should be made of the pressing, cleaning, and 
 repairing shops, which often employ a journeyman tailor, 
 and also of the repair and alteration department of ready- 
 made clothing stores, where the employee is called a bushel- 
 man, and requires considerable skill, being distinctively a 
 tailor and not a garment-worker. 
 
 2. SEASONS. 
 
 It is evident from the nature of the tailoring trade that 
 it is profoundly affected by the seasons. Few industries de- 
 pend so strongly upon climatic conditions as does that of 
 clothing. To give the exact boundaries of the seasons for 
 the whole continent is of course impossible; they vary from 
 place to place and from year to year. In the writer's own 
 locality, the North Central States, the distinctly busy seasons 
 are the spring and fall. The following table shows in gen- 
 eral the trade calendar for this region : 
 
 January Poor 
 
 February Very poor 
 
 March "Picking up" 
 
 April Good 
 
IN THE CUSTOM TAILORING TRADE 33 
 
 May Good 
 
 June Fair 
 
 July Poor 
 
 August Very poor 
 
 September Fair 
 
 October Good 
 
 November Good 
 
 December Fair 
 
 The variations are very wide, and as a result practically 
 all the evils of "seasonal" trades are rampant in this one; 
 long hours and crowded work in some periods, and in other 
 periods virtually none. The number of hours that a tailor 
 will put in during the rush reason is limited only by his en- 
 durance. Twenty- four hours on a stretch is not unknown, 
 and twelve to eighteen hours is very common. 
 
 3. TERRITORIAL ASPECTS. 
 
 With reference to territorial aspects of the industry, 
 climate of course has its influence, determining the seasons 
 and the kind of clothing in demand. In addition, there are 
 other matters of importance in connection with the terri- 
 torial features of the trade. For purposes of discussion a 
 broad classification is adopted, as follows: (i) East; (2) 
 South; (3) North Central and Middle West; (4) Moun- 
 tain and Pacific; (5) Canada. 
 
 i. East. 
 
 With regard to the East, meaning principally the New 
 England and Middle Atlantic States, it may be said that the 
 widest contrasts exist. Here are found some of the finest 
 tailoring stores in America; here, again, are to be seen the 
 worst consequences of unrestricted immigration and of sweat- 
 ing. The system prevalent in the smaller New England 
 
34 STUDIES IN TRADE UNIONISM 
 
 towns has already been described; the larger cities are not 
 different, except that the "piece-masters" handle more work 
 and employ more help, and not so much skilled labor in 
 proportion. There is a general tendency in the large cities, 
 like New York, Boston, Philadelphia, Washington and Balti- 
 more, for the skilled tailors to enter the contracting business, 
 or at least to employ a number of helpers, and even the finer 
 garments are made largely in rented shops or in the tailors' 
 homes. The journeymen of these cities include numbers of 
 Italians and Jews, who are often content apparently to raise 
 their earnings by indefinitely long hours, rather than by in- 
 sisting on better rates. In former years the Irish, German 
 and Swedish tailors predominated, but in later times they 
 have been rapidly replaced. 
 
 2. South. 
 
 In the South, as would be expected, the heavier garments, 
 such as winter suits and overcoats, are not made to the 
 same extent as elsewhere. In the warmer states much of the 
 trade is for tourists, and varies with the winter-resort sea- 
 sons. Many tailors, who are without home ties, and are 
 sometimes known as "birds of passage," follow the trade, 
 entering the Southern cities during the good season, and 
 traveling elsewhere during other seasons. 51 There are many 
 English speaking tailors in the South, including some ne- 
 groes. Good stores are found in Atlanta, New Orleans, 
 Charleston, and other leading cities. Free shops are prac- 
 tically universal. Some Mexican tailors are found in Texas 
 and other states near the border. 52 With the exception of 
 
 Secretary of the Tailors' Union in Hot Springs, Ark., re- 
 ports as follows: "Few men work here one year, as this is different 
 from other towns, being a health resort. They only stay a few months." 
 
 52 It is stated by a member of the San Antonio Union that helpers 
 in that locality are mostly Mexicans, who spend their winters in the 
 cities, working at comparatively low wages, and then work in the coun- 
 try at farm work during the summer. 
 
IN THE CUSTOM TAILORING TRADE 35 
 
 the above points there is little of special interest connected 
 with the trade in the South. 
 
 3. North Central and Middle West. 
 
 Conditions of immigration in the large cities of this 
 section are somewhat similar to the East, though not so 
 aggravated. Numbers of Italian and Jewish tailors are 
 found ; but also many Germans and Scandinavians, especially 
 in Chicago and Minneapolis. Buffalo and Cleveland contain 
 many Poles and Bohemians. 53 A characteristic of the whole 
 region is the wide range of territory covered by the factory 
 and special order business. The central plants are located 
 chiefly in Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago, Indianapolis, and 
 St. Louis, and in some of the smaller towns in the central 
 and west central states the old style tailoring business has 
 been virtually wiped out. Nearly all cities of considerable 
 size have still some fine merchant tailoring stores, but all 
 have been affected by the new systems, and by the continuous 
 improvement of ready-made clothing. 
 
 4. Mountain and Pacific. 
 
 In these districts, numbers of Italians are found, es- 
 pecially in San Francisco. The changes brought by factory 
 work continue, but now under the influence largely of Port- 
 land, Seattle, San Francisco and Los Angeles. These cities, 
 like those in the other sections, show all gradations as re- 
 gards the quality of the trade. The movement for modern 
 or "sectional" methods seem unusually strong in Seattle, and 
 is not opposed by the journeymen to the same extent as in 
 
 53 It is the opinion of Secretary Brais of the National Tailors' 
 Union that when the whole country is considered, the leading nationali- 
 ties among" union tailors stand in the following order as to number : 
 (i) Scandinavians, (2) Germans, (3) Hungarians and Austrians, (4) 
 British and Americans (including Canadians, Scotch, Irish, Welsh), (5) 
 Finns and Russians, (6) Italians. The Hebrews are not listed as a 
 separate nationality, as they come from several countries. 
 
36 STUDIES IN TRADE UNIONISM 
 
 the East. The question of Japanese and Chinese labor, so 
 prominent in some trades, seems scarcely to affect the tail- 
 ors. Trade conditions in general share the remarkable pros- 
 perity of western communities; this is especially true in 
 Oregon, Washington and California. 
 
 5. Canada. 54 
 
 In the Canadian cities tailors are more numerous in pro- 
 portion to the population than in the States. This in the 
 main is for two reasons: (i) The changes in systems of 
 production have not proceeded so far in Canada, and there is 
 more of the old-line custom work being done. (2) The cus- 
 tom trade is better than in the States for the reason that 
 there is no tariff on imported cloth, and suits can be sold 
 cheaper. 55 The Canada tailors are not so migratory as those 
 in the States. In many cases they settle for life in a given 
 community, and often become prosperous citizens. The lead- 
 ing nationalities are English, Irish, Scotch and French Cana- 
 dian. A high class of trade is made in Canada; the Ameri- 
 can styles hold sway, and Canadian merchants belong to the 
 same Associations as Americans. At a Merchants' Conven- 
 tion and style show held in Toronto several years ago, the 
 prize for a single garment was awarded to a Prince Albert 
 coat made in Hamilton, Ontario. Methods of production are 
 similar to those in the States, except that in the States pants 
 and vests are made almost exclusively by men with women 
 helpers, whereas in Canada ninety per cent of this kind of 
 work is made by women. There are also a number of skilled 
 coatmakers in Canada who are women, and earn the same 
 piece-rates as the men. 
 
 54A considerable part of the information given here has been fur- 
 nished by Mr. Hugh Robinson, Canadian organizer for the Journeymen 
 Tailors' Union of America. 
 
 55It is the belief of an officer of the National Tailors' Union that 
 a suit which sells for $40 in the States could be sold for $25 in Can- 
 ada, on account of the difference in the tariff. 
 
IN THE CUSTOM TAILORING TRADE 37 
 
 Concluding Note, Territorial Aspects. With reference to 
 working conditions and union organizations in the various 
 sections, the reader is referred to the tables in Chapter 4, 
 which contain reports from seventy-three cities containing 
 tailors' unions. Matter of interest also will be found in the 
 notes to these tables. 
 
 (4) PRICES AND CUSTOMERS. 
 
 No discussion of a trade would be complete without some 
 mention of customers and prices. Custom tailoring of the 
 better grade is distinctively a luxury, and the rich or well- 
 to-do classes constitute upon the whole its principal patrons. 
 The greater part of the trade is made for business men and 
 professional men in cities. There is little expensive tailor- 
 ing done for the agricultural classes; the farmers usually 
 patronize the special order or the ready-made. The same 
 is true of the laboring classes as a whole, although a custom 
 suit is occasionally bought by the better paid tradesmen in 
 the cities. 
 
 In speaking of the fine stores of the country brief men- 
 tion was made of the prices paid for suits by customers of 
 these stores. For high, low and average prices in union 
 stores all over the country, the reader is referred to the 
 tables in Chapter 4. 
 
 (5) CONCLUDING NOTE. 
 
 It has not been attempted in the foregoing outline to 
 describe the tailoring trade in detail. Such a task would re- 
 quire a volume by itself. The aim has been primarily to 
 make clear the broad general features of the trade, and es- 
 pecially those that are essential to an understanding of or- 
 ganized movements among the tailors, to the study of which 
 the writer's further efforts are to be directed. 
 
CHAPTER 3. 
 
 HISTORY OF TAILORS' UNIONS IN ENGLAND AND AMERICA. 
 
 1721-1887. 
 
 i. EARLY ENGLISH UNIONS. 
 
 In Chapter i a brief account was given of the rise of a 
 class of journeymen tailors in England. We must now in- 
 quire into the history of early combinations in the trade. 
 
 It is generally admitted by economists that the trade 
 unions are not the lineal descendants of the gilds, but are 
 rather to be regarded as simply one of the consequences of 
 the varying conditions that followed the breakdown of the 
 mediaeval system. Continuous associations or unions in the 
 modern sense did not appear until the divorce of the worker 
 from the ownership of the means of production. This state- 
 ment is strengthened by the fact that the first combinations 
 of a permanent character are contemporary with the rise of 
 a capitalist class. The rise of such a class in the tailoring 
 trade, as has been noted, occurred between 1650 and 1725. 
 To this period we turn, therefore, for the first trade unions 
 of tailors. 
 
 It is agreed by Webb and Galton, the writers who have 
 made the most careful study of the trade in England, that 
 the first organization of tailors that can justly be termed a 
 trade union was the combination entered into by the tailors 
 of London and Westminster in the year ijrai. 86 Our at- 
 tention is called to this combination by a complaint of the 
 masters to Parliament, which is found in the Journal of the 
 
 56 Webb, History of Trade Unionism, p. 38; p. 39 (note). Galton, 
 The Tailoring Trade, p. xiv. 
 
 38 
 
IN THE CUSTOM TAILORING TRADE 39 
 
 House of Commons for that year. It is believed by Mr. 
 Galton that if combinations of tailors had existed earlier 
 than this, mention would be found in the House Journals, 
 for it was seldom during this period that the masters in any 
 industry failed to report their grievances to Parliament. No 
 such mention, however, is found. Moreover, there is no 
 reference to combinations in the "hand-books" which were 
 supplied by master tailors to journeymen, containing trade 
 maxims and instructions. In view of these facts we may 
 accept 1721 as the date of the first "Journeymen Tailors' 
 Union," at least so far as our present information extends. 
 
 In connection with this combination, it is interesting to 
 read a part of the merchant tailors' petition, which we quote 
 herewith : 
 
 "The Journeymen Taylors in and about the cities of 
 London and Westminster, to the number of seven thousand 
 and upwards, have lately entered into a combination to raise 
 their wages, and leave off working an hour sooner than they 
 used to do; and for the better carrying on of their design, 
 have subscribed their respective names in books prepared for 
 that purpose, at the several houses of call or resort, (being 
 publick-houses in and about London and Westminster), where 
 they use; and collect several considerable sums of money 
 to defend any prosecutions against them. 
 
 "At this time, there are but few of them come to work 
 at all, and most of those that do, insist upon, and have, 
 twelve shillings and nine-pence per week (instead of ten 
 shillings and nine-pence per week, the usual wages), and 
 leave off work at eight of the clock at night (instead of nine, 
 their usual hour, time out of mind), and very great numbers 
 of them go loitering about the town, and seduce and corrupt 
 all they can meet; to the great hindrance and prejudice of 
 trade 
 
 "This combination of the Journeymen Taylors is and may 
 
40 STUDIES IN TRADE UNIONISM 
 
 be attended with many very ill consequences; inasmuch as 
 the publick is deprived of the benefit of the labour of a con- 
 siderable number of the subjects of this kingdom, and the 
 families of several of these journeymen thereby impover- 
 ished, and likely to become a charge and burthen to the pub- 
 lick; and the very persons themselves who are under this 
 unlawful combination, choosing rather to live in idleness, 
 than to work at their usual rates and hours, will not only 
 become useless and burthensome, but also very dangerous 
 to the publick; and are of very ill example to journeymen 
 in all other trades; as is sufficiently seen in the Journeymen 
 Curriers, Smiths, Farriers, Sail-makers, Coach-makers, and 
 artificers of divers other arts and mysteries, who have actually 
 entered into confederacies of the like nature; and the Jour- 
 neymen Carpenters, Bricklayers, and Joyners have taken 
 some steps for that purpose, and only wait to see the event 
 of others." 57 
 
 In reply to this petition, the Journeymen presented argu- 
 ments by counsel against the bill desired by the merchants. 
 The net result of the whole affair was the passage by Parlia- 
 ment, June 7, 1721, of an Act (7th George I), entitled, "An 
 Act for regulating the Journeymen Taylors within the 
 Weekly Bills of Mortality." 58 The main provisions of this 
 Act were: (i) Combinations to raise wages were forbidden, 
 on pain of imprisonment. (2) Wages and hours were es- 
 tablished and penalties set for violation of the schedule by 
 either masters or journeymen. Provision was made for the 
 Justices of the Peace at their quarter-sessions to revise the 
 schedules if necessary. By the Act as passed hours were 
 
 57 From "The Case of the Master Taylors, etc." Quoted by Galton, 
 PP. 1-3- 
 
 58 "Weekly Bills of Mortality" refers to parishes or districts out- 
 lined for administrative purposes during the plague of 1665. The term 
 here simply defines the jurisdiction of a part of London and West- 
 minster. The full text of the Act, together with the main arguments 
 and petitions on each side, may be found in Galton, pp. 1-22. 
 
IN THE CUSTOM TAILORING TRADE 41 
 
 to be from 6 a. m. to 8 p. m., with one-half hour off for 
 breakfast and one hour for dinner. Wages from the 25th 
 of March to the 24th of June were to be 2 shillings a day; 
 for other seasons is. 8d. Journeymen were forbidden to 
 refuse work at these rates, unless for some "reasonable or 
 sufficient" cause. By this law the tailors secured a slight 
 improvement in their condition, but were prevented from 
 continuing their combination openly. It is probable, however, 
 that it was still maintained in secret. 
 
 In the same year, 1721, a legal prosecution is recorded 
 under the caption, "The King v. the Journeymen Tailors of 
 Cambridge," in which "One Wise, and several other jour- 
 neymen-taylors, of or in the town of Cambridge, were in- 
 dicted for a conspiracy among themselves to raise their 
 wages, and were found guilty." 59 The proceedings in this 
 case are somewhat obscure, and it is a question as to just 
 what law was applied. 60 It is of interest, however, as show- 
 ing that the movement to organize was not confined to the 
 metropolis. 
 
 It is not our purpose to follow in detail the entire history 
 of the labor movement among the English tailors. It is de- 
 sired, however, to bridge the gap between the associations 
 of 1721 and the beginning of the movement in America, 
 which took place in the early part of the igth Century. For 
 the details of this period the reader is referred to Mr. Galton's 
 excellent monograph on The Tailoring Trade. 61 There was 
 no very considerable interval during which there were not 
 disturbances among the tailors, and many of these disturb- 
 ances were widespread, involving in one case as many as 
 15,000 journeymen. 62 As long as the system of legal regu- 
 
 59Galton, p. 23. 
 
 GOWebb, History of Trade Unionism, p. 61, note. 
 
 61 An outline of the history of English unions, based upon Mr. 
 Galton's work, is given in the appendix to this chapter. 
 
 fi 2Galton, p. xxx. 
 
42 STUDIES IN TRADE UNIONISM 
 
 lation prevailed, the tailors were able to secure some ad- 
 vances in wages from the Court of Quarter-Sessions. Tow- 
 ard the end of the i8th Century, however, the conflict of 
 interests and demands among the master tailors themselves 
 tended to confuse Parliament, and to prevent definite action 
 upon proposed laws regulating the trade. Meanwhile both 
 masters and journeymen were evading the laws, and the 
 workmen were coming to depend more upon strikes to secure 
 their demands. This effort was handicapped by the general 
 Combination Acts of 1799-1800, and even after the repeal 
 of these Acts in 1824 and 1825, the tailors' "clubs" found 
 it very difficult to cope with the masters. Attempts by the 
 journeymen to conduct extensive strikes in London and Man- 
 chester in 1834 were complete failures, due in part to the 
 employment of women. After this date conditions changed 
 rapidly. The old workmen's clubs were breaking up in all 
 trades, and the period was characterized by premature ef- 
 forts at national organization and general strikes, led largely 
 by Robert Owen." There is found here a convenient point 
 at which to turn to the American movement, with which our 
 further inquiry is to be mainly occupied. 
 
 2. EARLY UNIONS IN AMERICA. 
 
 It is obviously impossible, without access to old news- 
 papers, journals, and union records of the period, to give 
 an exhaustive account of tailors' organizations and strikes in 
 America. The writer has been obliged to rely largely upon 
 scattered and miscellaneous sources, and it is not claimed 
 that the study here submitted is complete. It may, however, 
 serve in some measure to illustrate the history and conditions 
 of the tailors during the past century. 
 
 Colonial Period, 1607-1776. In Chapter i a few refer- 
 ences were made to the tailoring trade in the Colonies. The 
 
IN THE CUSTOM TAILORING TRADE 43 
 
 union movement does not, however, really begin in any trade 
 until practically the close of the Colonial Period. 
 
 1776-1820. The earliest American trade union, accord- 
 ing to Professor Commons, was the Federal Society of 
 Journeymen Cordwainers, organized in Philadelphia in 1794. 
 If this be accepted, the tailors were not far behind, for they 
 were striking in Baltimore in 1795, and are said to have had 
 a society in that city for some time previous. There was 
 another strike in the same city in i8o5. 63 By the year 1806 
 at least three additional unions had been organized Phila- 
 delphia, New York and Boston. 64 There was a strike in 
 New York in 1819 to prevent the employment of women. 65 
 It seems probable, however, that the societies were not as 
 yet upon a firm basis, and that their militant activities be- 
 long to a later period. 
 
 1820-1840. A good characterization of this period, in- 
 cluding an allusion to the tailoring trade, is found in the 
 following extract: 66 
 "The first period in American trade unionism begins prac- 
 
 63"Associations of journeymen of one trade were almost invaria- 
 bly for the purpose of regulating wages. When, therefore, about 1805, 
 the pay of the unskilled laborer began to rise, and that of the skilled 
 laborer did not, a serious of strikes was inaugurated. The journeymen 
 tailors of Baltimore had one as early as 1795, and forced wages up to 
 seven shillings and sixpence per job, and another in October, 1805, when 
 the pay per job was fixed at eight shillings and ninepence, and a 
 system of 'extras' introduced, by which what had once been four jobs 
 was at last made to count as eight." McMaster, History of the Peo- 
 ple of the United States, V. 3, p. 511. 
 
 64The Philadelphia Union is stated to have been the first by the 
 Colorado Commissioner of Labor, who probably obtained his informa- 
 tion from officers of the Tailors' Union in Denver. The Philadelphia 
 union was composed mainly of English tailors, who until its organiza- 
 tion had retained their membership in English unions. (Colo., Biennial 
 Report of the Bureau of Labor Statistics, 1899-1900, p. 336). The 
 New York union is vouched for by Professor Carlton, (History and 
 Problems of Organized Labor, p. 17), and the Boston union by its 
 present officers and members, who celebrated the Centennial in 1906. 
 (Tailor, November, 1906, p. 17). 
 
 65Sumner, Sen. Doc. 645, V. 9, P- 120. 
 
 66 Andrews and Bliss, Sen. Doc. 645, V. 10, p. 21. 
 
44 STUDIES IN TRADE UNIONISM 
 
 tically with the year 1825 and extends to 1840. It was a 
 period of experiment, of temporary successes, of humanitar- 
 ian awakenings, of new agitations. The year 1825 marked 
 the beginning of the first extensive strikes for the ten-hour 
 day. In 1827, in Philadelphia, the first city federation of 
 labor, the Mechanics' Union of Trade Associations, was or- 
 ganized. In January of the following year the first wage- 
 earners paper, the Mechanics' Free Press, was established in 
 Philadelphia. At the same time in the same city the first 
 labor party was formed. In New York, in 1834, the first 
 national trade union was organized, and for three years it 
 brought together in annual convention the scattered repre- 
 sentatives of organized labor, until the panic of 1837 brought 
 the movement to an abrupt close. But in the meantime trade 
 unionism had induced many reforms. Among the questions 
 discussed were popular education, public lands, prison labor, 
 immigration, and child labor. Another problem, the posi- 
 tion and influence of women in industry, was already pressing 
 for solution. The labor of women had become an important 
 feature in industrial life, and with the beginning of the 
 general trade-union movement organizations of female wage- 
 workers were formed. 
 
 "Indications of protective organization among the tail- 
 oresses of New 'York are found as early as April, 1825. 
 Newspapers of other cities, commenting upon this effort of 
 the young women tailoresses, predicted that their meeting 
 would result in a 'turn-out for higher wages.' But the novelty 
 of the situation at that time was plainly reflected in the 
 editorial exclamation: 'What next?" 1 
 
 The first tailors' strike in America of which we have any- 
 thing like a detailed account is that which occurred in Buffalo 
 in 1824. On this occasion the Journeymen were tried for 
 
IN THE CUSTOM TAILORING TRADE 45 
 
 conspiracy, and after two trials were found guilty and each 
 find $2.oo. 67 
 
 Of still greater importance was the strike and conspiracy 
 trial in Philadelphia in 1827. The proceedings of the trial 
 are preserved practically complete, 68 and are of great inter- 
 est, as nearly all the circumstances of the original contro- 
 versy, as well as the nature and rules of tailors' societies in 
 Philadelphia at this time, were thoroughly reviewed in the 
 trial. The original dispute arose over the price which should 
 be paid for making a "lady's riding habit, of thin pongee." 
 Such a garment was not mentioned in the bill of prices signed 
 by the employers, who offered about six dollars for the work, 
 claiming that a similar piece of work had been previously 
 paid for at that rate by a merchant in the city. The Jour- 
 neymen claimed that the garment now in question had called 
 for certain "extras" not on the riding habit taken as a stand- 
 ard by the employers, and that the price should be increased 
 
 ^Information regarding this strike is found in the Buffalo Em- 
 porium, Dec. 25, 1824. The following note is based upon a quotation 
 in the Documentary History of American Industrial Society, V. 4, pp. 
 93-95- 
 
 "On Monday last all the journeymen tailors of the village had 
 what they call a turn out for higher wages. They presented to their 
 employers bills of prices." The demands were refused. Several of 
 the journeymen were brought up the next day before a court of special 
 sessions and tried for conspiracy. The custom was proved to exist 
 throughout the United States to stigmatize persons who worked during 
 strikes. The "Flints," or loyal tailors, took care to spread informa- 
 tion of such persons. 
 
 In the argument, the prosecution contended that it was the act 
 of combination that constituted the crime, and not the refusal to labor. 
 The English Courts and several labor cases in New York City was 
 cited. In reply counsel for the defendants claimed that conspiracy in 
 such cases was not known at common law, and that it was covered by 
 special statute in England, no such statute having ever been adopted 
 in America. "To make the conduct of these defendants criminal," the 
 speaker added, "would be contrary to the genius of our institutions and 
 an abridgement of our rights." 
 
 The first jury disagreed, but the second brought in a verdict of 
 guilty, and the sentence was as noted above. 
 
 68The Trial of Twenty-four Journeymen Tailors, charged with a 
 conspiracy. Phila., 1827. Reprinted in Doc. Hist. V. 4, pp. 99-264. 
 
46 STUDIES IN TRADE UNIONISM 
 
 to about seven dollars. The employing firm, Ropp & Wine- 
 brener, paid the seven dollars, but at the same time notified 
 the five journeymen involved that their services would no 
 longer be required. These journeymen complained to fellow- 
 members of their tailors' society, (there were three societies, 
 all told, in the city,) and a special meeting was called "to 
 take into consideration late occurrences at the shop of Robb 
 & Winebrener." At this meeting it was decided to call out 
 all members of the society working in the shop unless the 
 discharged men were reinstated, and, in accord with this 
 decision, several tailors left their work. Street quarrels 
 arose, involving both bosses and men, and warrants were 
 sworn out on both sides. 
 
 In the indictment the men were charged with eight counts, 
 involving mainly conspiracy to force the re-employment of 
 those discharged, to extort higher wages, and to "injure and 
 oppress" workmen who were hired in place of the strikers. 
 In the course of the testimony it was brought out that the 
 Tailors' Society to which the defendants belonged was work- 
 ing under a "formal constitution, unincorporated." 69 Work- 
 ing on strike work was said by one witness to be "contrary 
 to all rules among the journeymen tailors." In another place 
 the definite rule of the society is quoted, as follows : "Article 
 14. Any man going to work at the time of a turn-out, and 
 at a time when young men are standing out for their rights 
 in this city, or any of the principal towns of the U. S., if 
 it shall come to the knowledge of this Society, the parties 
 so offending shall pay a fine of five dollars; and after pay- 
 ing the same, if any member shall upbraid him for his former 
 conduct, he shall pay the sum of one dollar." 
 
 With reference to the enforcement of a union shop rule, 
 testimony was given by several witnesses. William Robb, a 
 
 69 It was charged by the prosecution that copies of the rules had 
 been destroyed, so that they could not be brought in evidence. 
 
IN THE CUSTOM TAILORING TRADE 47 
 
 workman called by the prosecution, testified: "I have heard 
 the rules of the Society explained by some of the defendants 
 to new journeymen. I have heard them say they must join 
 the second Monday night after entering, and if not, they 
 would be fined 25 cents. If they persisted in not joining, 
 they could not work in the shop." And from another wit- 
 ness : "The rule was that when a man had worked in a shop 
 ten or twelve days, he was forced to join, or each one in the 
 shop would be liable to a fine." The counsel for the prose- 
 cution, in the concluding speeches, insisted that the evidence 
 had shown conclusively the existence of such rules, and com- 
 pared them with certain written rules in the constitution of 
 the New York Cordwainers. The testimony for the defense, 
 on the other hand, was somewhat different from that given 
 above. One witness testified that there was no rule of the 
 Society relating to journeymen's work. They were shop 
 rules, but no rule of the Society. Another witness, although 
 called by the prosecution, made the same statement, and 
 added : "In the shop in which I work there are journeymen 
 who do not belong to the Society. If a poor journeymen will 
 not join the society, I would do nothing. If one who could 
 pay were to enter the shop we would recommend his join- 
 ing, with the concurrence of our employer, and if he refused, 
 we would do nothing." 
 
 It seems quite probable that the conflicting statements on 
 this subject are due to the fact that there were three societies 
 in the city, which may have had different rules. Enough 
 has been shown, however, to indicate that the question of the 
 union shop is by no means a new one in the tailoring trade. 
 The jury in this case brought in a verdict of guilty, but only 
 upon one count, namely: "Conspiring to re-employ T. Rad- 
 ford, T. Hough, James Wilson, Thomas Skeegs, and William 
 Scott, who had been dismissed for demanding greater than 
 the usual wages paid by Robb and Winebrener and others." 
 
48 STUDIES IN TRADE UNIONISM 
 
 On the other seven counts the journeymen were acquitted. 
 Motions in arrest of judgment and for a new trial were made 
 by the defense. By agreement of counsel the argument on 
 the motions was postponed until the December term, 1827. 
 An inspection of the record, however, shows that the mo- 
 tions were never argued. 
 
 The Philadelphia trial has been discussed in some detail, 
 as indicating that a tailors' strike in 1827 was not so far dif- 
 ferent from similar disturbances today. The proceedings are 
 also of interest in that they show the extent to which trade 
 union rules had developed at this date. 
 
 Several other strikes are mentioned during this period. 
 In 1833 the New York tailors were out, but it was remarked 
 by the New York Journal of Commerce that it should be an 
 easy matter to defeat them, since "women may well do half 
 which the men have been accustomed to do." 70 We are 
 reminded here of the tactics of the London masters in 1834. 
 In 1835 the question of woman labor was up in three other 
 cities, St. Louis, Cincinnati, and Louisville, where the jour- 
 neymen refused to work for those who employed women. 
 Additional demands were for increased wages, fewer ap- 
 prentices, and the privilege of using the back shops on Sun- 
 day for beer and cards. 71 
 
 Of equal interest with the Philadelphia affair was the 
 New York tailors' strike and conspiracy trial in i836. 72 It 
 will be recalled that a Tailors' Society had been formed in 
 New York as early as 1806. In October, 1835, the members 
 of the Society struck for higher wages. At this time they 
 were successful and returned to work at increased rates. In 
 the following January, however, they were out again to en- 
 
 ToSumner, Sen. Doc. 645, V. 9, p. 120. 
 
 , Sen. Doc. 645, V. Q, o. 120: Yale Review, V. I, p. 98, 
 article by Evans Woollen on "Labor Troubles Between 1834 and 1837." 
 
 72 The Case of Twenty Journeymen Tailors of New York, People 
 v. Faulkner. Doc. Hist., V. 4, pp. 315-333- 
 
IN THE CUSTOM TAILORING TRADE 49 
 
 force a "turn-list." "No one was to take a job out of his 
 turn, and no one was to have a second job until all had been 
 supplied." Serious trouble grew out of this affair, and the 
 journeymen were indicted for a conspiracy to injure trade 
 and commerce, and for insult and violence to non-unionists. 
 As a result Henry Faulkner, President of the Society, was 
 fined $150, and Howard Vail, another conspicuous leader, 
 $100. The other defendants were fined $50 each. This trial 
 had important political consequences, which were closely con- 
 nected with the general workingmen's movement at the close 
 of the period 1820-1840. 73 
 
 1840-1860. A good summary of this period is found in 
 the following extract: 
 
 "The period 1840 to 1860 in the American labor move- 
 ment is clearly differentiated from the earlier period, as well 
 as from the periods which follow it, by the preponderance 
 of a somewhat vague but highly humanitarian spirit. It 
 was preeminently the age of lofty enthusiasms. Ideal con- 
 ceptions of social order found expression through the Amer- 
 icanization by Brisbane of the French philosophy of Fourier. 
 Mechanical 'phalanxes' took on the form of pleasing pictures 
 of community life through the glowing descriptions of lead- 
 ing writers and speakers of that day. George Ripley, George 
 William Curtis, Charles A. Dana, and Margaret Fuller joined 
 in the delights and in singing the praises of the most famous 
 
 73 "The trades-union movement reached its climax in 1836. The 
 National Convention of that year shows the beginnings of disintegra- 
 tion in the hopelessness of strikes and the attention given to panaceas 
 and legislation. The turning point came in New York, where the em- 
 ployers formed a counter-organization of all lines of business and made 
 a test on the tailors. Twenty were convicted of conspiracy. The trial 
 was attended by crowds. A mass-meeting of protest was held in the 
 Park. It called a State Convention, and the working men went over 
 to the Equal Rights, or Loco-foco Party, to aid in its attack on banks 
 and chartered monopolies. Tammany lost control of the city, and only 
 Ely Moore, the president of the Trades' Union, whom Tammany had 
 nominated for Congress, saved the remnant. The Trades' Union dwin- 
 dled and ended where the movement of 1829 began, in politics." (Doc. 
 Hist, V. 5, Int., pp. 36-37). 
 
50 STUDIES IN TRADE UNIONISM 
 
 of these experiments the fairy-like frolic of Brook Farm. 
 Horace Greeley furnished the most influential vehicle for 
 the popular expression of this reform by fostering it through 
 the columns of the New York Tribune and by much writing 
 and speaking in the name of socialism. It was in 1840, too, 
 that Emerson wrote to Carlyle : 'We are all a little wild here 
 with numberless projects of social reform. Not a reading 
 man but has a draft of a new community in his waistcoat 
 pocket.' And Hawthorne tells us in his romantic account 
 of the community in which he, too, was personally interested : 
 'It was a period when science was bringing forward, anew, 
 a hoard of facts and imperfect theories that had partially 
 won credence in earlier times, but which modern science had 
 swept away as rubbish. These things were now tossed up 
 again out of the surging ocean of human thought and ex- 
 perience'." 74 
 
 During this period organizations of tailors did not com- 
 pletely disappear, for in some localities they seem to have 
 acted together with considerable vigor. It is recorded that 
 in September, 1843, nearly all of the journeymen tailors em- 
 ployed in Boston joined in a strike for higher wages. They 
 were out only a day or two, the required advance being in 
 some cases granted, in others refused. 75 In other cities the 
 tailors were active during the same year. It is stated by 
 John Finch, an English Owenite, who traveled in America 
 in 1843, that the tailors of Cincinnati and Pittsburgh had been 
 involved in brief but successful strikes. He also gives some 
 interesting notes as to their condition. 76 In 1844 the Phila- 
 
 74Andrews and Bliss, Sen. Doc. 645, V. 10, p. 53. 
 TSMass. Bureau of Labor, nth Ann. Report, 1880, p. 5. 
 
 76"The tailors were out when I was in Pittsburgh, and were parad- 
 ing the streets with a band of music ; they were out only one day 
 when the masters yielded, as they had done shortly before in Cin- 
 cinnati. I conversed with some journeymen tailors on the subject. 
 They say that the vests and trousers are mostly made by women, and 
 the coats by men; that the keepers of retail and ready-made clothes 
 
IN THE CUSTOM TAILORING TRADE 51 
 
 delphia tailors won an increase in wages after a few days 
 strike. 77 There is some evidence to show that in this year 
 an attempt was made to form a national organization of 
 tailors. The Workingmen's Advocate of July 27, 1844, (New 
 York), has the following statement: "The Tailors of this 
 city, who are now on a strike for higher wages, walked in 
 procession on Monday through the principal streets, accom- 
 panied by two bands of music. It is computed that there 
 were about two thousand in the procession. Many of the 
 Tailors are now looking for a radical remedy for their 
 grievances, as well as to the temporary one of strikes. Their 
 General Convention takes place on the 2$th inst., and we 
 trust the measure of the National Reform Association will 
 not escape their notice." 78 No record, however, is found 
 showing what came of this movement. 
 
 During the year 1847 strikes were frequent on account 
 of the high price of provisions. In June of this year the 
 tailors of Philadelphia were again out, demanding an ad- 
 vance in prices. The strike lasted until October, when the 
 men were successful. 79 In 1849 there was another strike in 
 Boston. At this time it was stated that wages had been 
 reduced 57 per cent during the previous five years, the situa- 
 tion being due largely to the employment of women on many 
 
 shops purchase part of their goods from other towns, and get the 
 rest made by persons out of employment, much below the regular rates 
 of wages, and sell at very low prices; consequently regular, good work- 
 men are confined to bespoken articles for first-rate master tailors ; 
 hence their employment is very precarious. They are often out of work, 
 and are glad to get employment occasionally, at reduced rates, from 
 ready-made clothes shops, which reduces wages eventually in spite of 
 all they can do to prevent it." (From John Finch, "Notes of Travel 
 in the U. S." Quoted in Doc. Hist., V. 7, pp. 65-66). 
 
 The same writer states in another place that tailors in 1843 gen- 
 erally get good wages, but are not usually well employed. Their wages 
 are about 6s. a day. (Doc. Hist., V. 7, p. 48). 
 
 77U. S. Bureau of Labor, 3rd Ann. Rept, p. 1038. 
 
 7Doc. Hist., V. 8, p. 221. 
 
 79U. S. Bureau of Labor, 3rd Ann. Rept., p. 1039. 
 
52 STUDIES IN TRADE UNIONISM 
 
 parts of the work hitherto performed by men. 80 In the 
 same year the Boston Tailors' Union, discouraged by the 
 difficulty of making gains through strikes, entered upon a 
 scheme for a cooperative merchant tailoring establishment. 
 An association for this purpose was formed with seventy 
 members and a capital of $700. The enterprise is said to 
 have been a success for several months, but the ultimate out- 
 come is not noted. 81 
 
 In 1851 the movement for cooperation had largely de- 
 clined, and in 1853, forced by a rise in prices and the cost 
 of living, the workingmen began to adopt policies more simi- 
 lar to the present ones. 82 "The decade of the fifties wit- 
 nessed the organization of several national trade unions and 
 of an indefinite number of local unions. For example, the 
 cigar makers of Cincinnati are reported to have organized 
 a local in 1843; another was formed in Baltimore in 1851. 
 In succeeding years, additional locals were formed in New 
 York and other cities. In 1850 a national union of printers 
 was organized. None had existed since the ephemeral nat- 
 ional organization of the thirties disappeared amid the chaos 
 of the panic of 1837. The National Trade Association of 
 Hat Finishers was organized in 1854. The iron molders and 
 the machinists and blacksmiths formed national unions in 
 1859, an d the ship carpenters and the coal miners in 1861. 
 The period of the fifties had been marked by little labor legis- 
 lation except of the humanitarian type." 83 
 
 Of the tailors during this decade we find but little men- 
 tion. In 1850 the German tailors of New York City formed 
 
 soSumner, Sen. Doc. 645, V. 9, p. 121. 
 
 . Hist., V. 8, pp. 279-285. Quoted from "The Spirit of the 
 Age," Sept. 29, 1849, p. 187. 
 
 82Commons, Doc. Hist., V. 7, Int., p. 43. 
 
 83Carlton, History and Problems of Organized Labor, p. 57. 
 
IN THE CUSTOM TAILORING TRADE 53 
 
 an organization, 84 and in 1853 we find an association known 
 as the Tailors' Protective Society, which is probably the same 
 as that organized in 1850, participating with other trades in 
 forming a general Trades' Union for New York City. 85 
 There is little doubt that during this period tailors' societies 
 continued to be formed in various localities, although the 
 rise of the ready made industry and the employment of 
 women would tend to handicap their progress. 
 
 3. 1860-1887. PERIOD o? NATION AI, ORGANIZATION. 
 General Tendencies. 
 
 We have already seen that there was some tendency 
 toward national organization in the labor movement during 
 the three decades following 1830. This tendency, however, 
 did not become most prominent until 1860. The rapid rise 
 of prices during the Civil War had a strong influence upon 
 trade union activity, while the enormous demands of the 
 government brought about what was virtually a second in- 
 dustrial revolution. Especially prominent was the rise of the 
 iron, petroleum, and textile industries. The effect upon la- 
 bor was soon manifested. "By 1866 from thirty to forty 
 national and international trade unions and amalgamated socie- 
 ties were in evidence, some of them numbering tens of 
 thousands of men." 86 City central bodies were also numer- 
 ous; it is stated by Carlton that there were at least thirty 
 before the close of the year i865- 87 To this period belongs 
 also the National Labor Union of 1866, which may be re- 
 garded in many ways as the forerunner of the present Ameri- 
 can Federation of Labor. 
 
 S4Doc. Hist., V. 8, pp. 308-309. Article in N. Y. Daily Tribune, 
 Aug. 21, 1850. 
 
 85Doc. Hist, V. 8, p. 342. Article in N. Y. Daily Tribune, Sept. 
 28, 1853- 
 
 86 Adams and Sumner, Labor Problems, p. 219. 
 
 STHistory and Problems of Organized Labor, p. 58. 
 
54 STUDIES IN TRADE UNIONISM 
 
 Only a few brief references to the tailors are found dur- 
 ing the Civil War period. In New York an important Society 
 was organized in 1862, known as the Journeymen Tailors' 
 Protective and Benevolent Union. 88 Mention of this society 
 is found at several later dates, and it seems to have had a 
 practically continuous existence from that time down to the 
 present date. 89 The New York tailors in 1860 were prin- 
 cipally Germans and Irish, and both nationalities participated 
 in forming the new union, 90 whch appears eventually to have 
 absorbed the earlier German union of 1850. The tailors 
 were also organizing in the middle and far west. In 1863 
 they were striking in California against extra fancy work 
 on coats, 91 and in 1864 a Tailors' Society in St. Louis was 
 protesting against the employment of women. 92 With this 
 widespread extension of activity, it is not surprising to find 
 the tailors yielding shortly to the spirit for national organiza- 
 tion. 
 
 First National Union of Tailors, 
 
 The various isolated unions in the tailoring trade, real- 
 
 the report of the New York Union to the 1885 Convention 
 of the Journeymen Tailors' National Union of the United States, ap- 
 pears the following quotation: "The Journeymen Tailors' Protective 
 and Benevolent Union of New York will celebrate the 25th anniver- 
 sary of the founding of this union in 1887." (Constitution and By- 
 Laws, also Proceedings, of the 3rd Annual Convention, p. 9). This 
 is our authority for setting the date of this union at 1862. 
 
 89 The secretary of the present union in New York states that their 
 union was organized in 1866. 
 
 90TAILOR, Oct., 1906, p. 14; editorial on "Frederick Werner." 
 
 9iU. S. Bureau of Labor, 3rd Annual Kept., p. 1047. 
 
 92Sumner, Sen. Doc. 645, V. 9, p. 121. 
 
 93 The material dealing with the history of the tailors from 1865 
 to 1885 has been derived mainly from a sketch embodied by Mr. Fred- 
 erick Werner in his report as Treasurer to the 1893 Convention of 
 the J[. T. U. of A. (Tailor, Aug., 1893, p. 3). Mr. Werner was a 
 prominent German tailor of New York City, was instrumental in form- 
 ing the New York union of 1862, and was one of the leaders through- 
 out the history of the subsequent national movement. A few supple- 
 mentary facts have been added by Mr. John B. Lennon, who was an 
 officer and delegate at every tailors' convention after 1883. Other ref- 
 erences are as cited. 
 
IN THE CUSTOM TAILORING TRADE 55 
 
 izing the weakness that lies in separation, entered upon a 
 movement for national federation, and in August, 1865, a 
 Convention was held in Philadelphia, at which the following 
 cities were represented: New York, New York; Philadel- 
 phia, Pennsylvania ; Washington, D. C. ; Worcester, Massa- 
 chusetts; Troy, New York; Cincinnati, Ohio; and Louisville, 
 Kentucky. The organization formed at this Convention was 
 entitled "The Journeymen Tailors' National Trades Union." 
 It is implied in the account which we follow that subsequent 
 yearly conventions were held regularly. "Strong efforts 
 were made to organize local unions, not only in cities, but 
 in small towns, but not with the success expected. However, 
 the large cities followed our banner." 94 There is some evi- 
 dence that in 1871 a reorganization was necessary, as the 
 Report of the Industrial Commission states that a national 
 union of tailors was formed at that date, evidently over- 
 looking the earlier organization. 95 The first union must 
 have lasted at least until 1867, as in that year they were rep- 
 resented at the Chicago Congress of the National Labor 
 Union. 90 There were also tailors' delegates at the 1868 
 and 1869 Congresses, but these were from the local unions 
 in New York and Brooklyn, and did not represent the Nat- 
 ional. 97 
 
 In February, 1875, there was a tailors' strike in Boston, 
 for the object of improving the scale of prices, but the strike 
 failed to accomplish anything for the workmen, others be- 
 ing engaged in their places. 98 
 
 94Report of Frederick Werner, 1893. 
 
 95 Report of the Industrial Commission, V. 17, p. 64. 
 
 96 Seven successive annual conventions or Congresses of the Nat- 
 ional Labor Union were held, beginning in 1866 and ending in 1872. 
 For reference to tailors' delegates at the Chicago Congress, see Doc. 
 HJist., V. 9, p. 170. 
 
 97i868 Congress, Doc. Hist., V. 9, p. 196. 1869 Congress, ibid., p. 
 229. 
 
 9SMass. Bureau of Labor, nth Ann. Kept, 1880, p. 39. 
 
56 STUDIES IN TRADE UNIONISM 
 
 Whatever may have been the vicissitudes of the Tailors' 
 National Union, it was certainly in existence in 1875, for 
 we have the definite record of its Convention in St. Louis 
 in August of this year." Of thirty-nine local unions affili- 
 ated with the National, twenty-three were represented, with 
 thirty delegates. The Treasurer's books showed a balance of 
 $2,924.23, but to the great chagrin of the delegates the Treas- 
 urer himself failed to appear; in fact, in the language of 
 Mr. Werner, "Treasurer and money were never seen again." 
 It was necessary to borrow money from the New York and 
 St. Louis Locals, largely on the guarantee of Mr. Werner 
 himself, in order that the delegates might return to their 
 homes. 
 
 The embezzlement of the funds was a severe blow to the 
 Union ; at the same time they managed to weather the storm 
 for another year, and at the Convention of 1876 the new 
 Treasurer reported all debts paid and a balance on hand of 
 $169.64. Of thirty-seven local unions, thirteen were repre- 
 sented, with fifteen delegates. Officers were elected, and Chi- 
 cago fixed upon for the next Convention. This meeting, 
 however, never took place, as the National Union broke up 
 during the following year, due no doubt to the previous finan- 
 cial trouble. 
 
 A period now ensued of about seven years, including a 
 part of 1883, during which there was no national union in 
 the tailoring trade. The locals, however, continued their 
 activity. In 1879 there was a strike in one shop in Boston, 
 which resulted after about three months in the defeat of the 
 men. 100 Beginning with 1881 we have an account of strikes 
 by the United States Commissioner of Labor, which, al- 
 though it cannot be regarded as exhaustive, throws consid- 
 
 99Report of Frederick Werner, 1893. Since writing the above evi- 
 dence has reached the writer that regular conventions were also held 
 in 1873 and 1874. 
 
 100 Mass. Bureau of Labor, nth Ann. Kept., 1880, p. 52. 
 
IN THE CUSTOM TAILORING TRADE 57 
 
 erable light upon what was going on in the tailoring trade. 101 
 The following table shows strikes reported in this trade from 
 1881 to 1883: 
 
 STRIKES IN THE TAILORING TRADE, 1881-1883. 
 
 Date Locality Number Cause Result 
 
 involved. 
 
 Mch. 21, 1 88 1 Cincinnati 25 For increase. Comprom'ed 
 
 Mch. 27, 1 88 1 Pittsburgh 121 For increase. Won. 
 
 Apr. 1 6, 1 88 1 New York no For increase. Won. 
 
 Oct. 19, 1 88 1 Dubuque 66 For increase. Compro'ed. 
 
 Aug. 12, 1882 Wash., D. C. 3 For union scale. Won. 
 Mch. 12, 1883 Denver 15 Against reduction Lost. 
 
 Mch. 17, 1883 Des Moines 92 For increase. Won. 
 
 Mch. 20, 1883 Freeport, 111. 41 For increase Won. 
 
 Apr. i, 1883, Philadelphia 10 For increase Lost. 
 
 Apr. 24, 1883 Boston 12 Against reduction Lost. 
 
 It is reported by the Commissioner of Labor that all the 
 above strikes were called by labor 'organizations. 'The table 
 is therefore of especial value as indicating the presence of 
 local unions, in certain cities not hitherto noted. 
 
 Before taking up the history of the present National 
 Union, it is considered of interest to introduce the following 
 table, showing all local unions existing prior to the National 
 Convention of 1883, so far as it has been possible to trace 
 them. A city is not listed unless there is definite evidence 
 of a tailors' society. The mere fact of a strike is not taken 
 as prima facie evidence of organization. 102 The dates given 
 are the earliest dates furnished by our references at which 
 
 10 iU. S. Bureau of Labor, 3rd Ann. Rept., 1887, on "Strikes and 
 Lockouts, 1881-1886." 
 
 i02it is certain that the list is incomplete. Additional informa- 
 tion would be appreciated by the writer and publishers, in case such 
 information is in the possession of any of the readers. 
 
58 
 
 STUDIES IN TRADE UNIONISM 
 
 unions existed in the cities in question. It is probable that 
 in several instances the unions existed earlier than the dates 
 named. Not all unions in the list were in existence im- 
 mediately prior to 1883, some having been organized and 
 disbanded again before that date. 
 
 LIST OF LOCAL UNIONS EXISTING P^IOR TO THE NATIONAL 
 CONVENTION OF AUGUST, 1883. 
 
 Locality 
 Baltimore, Md. 
 Philadelphia, Pa 
 
 New York, N. Y. 
 Boston, Mass. 
 Buffalo, N. Y. 
 Troy, N. Y. 
 Cincinnati, Ohio 
 Pittsburgh, Pa. 
 Dubuque, Iowa 
 Chicago, 111. 
 St. Louis, Mo. 
 Washington, D. C. 
 
 Worcester, Mass. 
 Louisville, Ky. 
 Brooklyn, N. Y. 
 Denver, Colo. 
 Bloomington, 111. 
 Atlanta, Ga. 
 Bridgeport, Conn. 
 Hartford, Conn. 
 New Haven, Conn. 
 
 Date Authority. 
 
 1795 McMaster, V. 3, p. 511. 
 1806 Colo. Bur. of Labor, ist Bien- 
 nial Report, p. 336. 
 1806 Carlton, p. 17. 
 1806 Tailor, Nov., 1906, p. 17. 
 1824 Doc. Hist., V. 4, pp. 93-95- 
 1829 Officers present union. 
 1843 Doc. Hist., V. 8, p. 220. 
 1843 Doc. Hist, V. 7, pp. 65-66. 
 
 1859 Officers present union. 
 
 1860 Officers present union. 
 
 1864 Sen. Doc. 645, V. 9, p. 121. 
 
 1865 Report of Frederick Werner, 
 
 In Tailor, Aug., 1893, p. 3. 
 
 1865 Tailor, Aug., 1893, p. 3. 
 
 1865 Tailor, Aug., 1893, p. 3. 
 
 1869 Doc. Hist., V. 9, p. 229. 
 
 1870 Charter members. 
 
 1873 MS, Charter 
 
 1873 Officers present union. 
 
 1873 Proceedings 1873 Convention. 
 
 Ct " " 
 
 1873 
 
IN THE CUSTOM TAILORING TRADE 
 
 59 
 
 Locality. Date. 
 
 Binghamton, N. Y. 1873 
 
 Elmira, N. Y. 1873 
 
 Syracuse, N. Y. 1873 
 
 Saratoga, N. Y. 1873 
 
 Nashville, Tenn. 1873 
 
 Memphis, Tenn. 1873 
 
 Norfolk, Va. 1873 
 
 Richmond, Va. 1873 
 
 Meadville, Pa. 1873 
 
 Harrisburg, Pa. 1873 
 
 Springfield, 111. 1873 
 
 Savannah, Ga. J 873 
 
 Monmouth, 111. 1873 
 
 Terre Haute, Ind. 1873 
 
 Leavenworth, Kan. 1873 
 
 Williamsport, Pa. 1874 
 
 San Francisco, Cal. 1875 
 
 Kansas City, Mo. 1875 
 
 Burlington, la. 1875 
 
 Council Bluffs, la. 1875 
 
 Minneapolis, Minn. 1875 
 
 Omaha, Neb. 1875 
 
 St. Paul, Minn. 1875 
 
 Utica, N. Y. 1875 
 
 Indianapolis, Ind. 1876 
 
 Rochester, N. Y. 1876 
 
 St. Catherine's Ont. 1878 
 
 Champaign-Urb'a, 111. 1881 
 
 Portage, Wis. 1882 
 
 Winnipeg, Man. 1882 
 
 Freeport, 111. March 1883 
 
 Des Moines, la. March 1883 
 
 Authority. 
 Proceedings 1873 Convention. 
 
 Proceedings 1874 Convention. 
 Proceedings 1873 Convention. 
 
 Proceedings 1874 Convention. 
 Proceedings 1874 Convention. 
 Officers present union. 
 
 Proceedings 1875 Convention. 
 
 Proceedings 1876 
 
 J5 
 
 Officers present union. 
 
 U. S. Bur. of Labor, 3rd Ann. 
 Report, p. 1 20. 
 Ibid., p. 188. 
 
60 STUDIES IN TRADE UNIONISM 
 
 Second National Union of Tailors, 1883. 
 
 In June, 1883, the Philadelphia union issued a call for a 
 convention, to meet in that city on the second Monday in 
 August, 1883. Five local unions responded, Philadelphia, 
 New York, Troy, Baltimore, and Pittsburgh. Officers were 
 elected and constitution and by-laws adopted. 103 The new 
 organization was entitled "The Journeymen Tailors' National 
 Union of the United States." 104 John Mustadt of New York 
 was chosen President; Charles Sharpe of Philadelphia, Sec- 
 retary; and Barny O'Donnell, of Philadelphia, Treasurer. 
 
 Convention of 1884. 
 
 During the year following the 1883 convention, strikes 
 are reported by the United States Commissioner of Labor in 
 New York, Philadelphia, St. Louis and San Francisco, and in 
 all of these cities the journeymen obtained some advan- 
 tages. 105 During the year sixteen locals were granted char- 
 ters. 106 When the second convention met in Chicago, August 
 n, 1884, eleven of these unions were represented, with fif- 
 teen delegates. "The Executive Board was authorized to is- 
 sue an appeal to all tailors of the United States to organize, 
 also to all the Locals which belonged to the former union to 
 join the ranks again." 107 The officers elected for the ensu- 
 es Copy of this constitution has not as yet been secured. 
 
 io4This union has existed continuously from 1883 until the pres- 
 ent date. In 1889 the name was changed to read, "Journeymen Tailors* 
 Union of America," and since that date there has been no change in 
 the title. 
 
 10 5U. S. Bureau of Labor, 3rd Ann. Kept See table for full list 
 of strikes, 1884-1886. 
 
 106 By consulting the Proceedings of the 1884 Convention, we have 
 been enabled to ascertain the names of these unions, as follows; New- 
 York, New York; Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; New Haven, Connecti- 
 cut; Baltimore, Maryland; Worcester, Massachusetts; Chicago, Illi- 
 nois ; Peoria, Illinois ; Champaign, Illinois ; Springfield, Illinois ; St. 
 Louis, Missouri; Kansas City, Missouri; Denver, Colorado; Cheyenne, 
 Wyoming; Pittsburg, Pa.; Harrisburg, Pa.; Washington, D. C. 
 
 of Frederick Werner, 1893. 
 
IN THE CUSTOM TAILORING TRADE 
 
 61 
 
 ing year were: President, John B. Lennon; Secretary, 
 Joseph Wilkenson; Treasurer, Frederick Werner. 
 
 STRIKES IN THE TAILORING TRADE, 1884-1886. 
 
 Number 
 Date Locality Involved Cause Result 
 
 Mch. 1 8 New York, N. Y. 
 Apr. 5 Philadelphia, Pa. 
 Apr. 15 St. Louis, Mo. 
 May 6 New York, N. Y. 
 May 29 San Francisco, Cal. 
 
 Feb. 15 Louisville, Ky. 
 
 Mch. 27 Atlanta, Ga. 
 
 Apr. i New York, N. Y. 
 
 Apr. i Des Moines, Iowa. 
 
 Apr. 2 Philadelphia, Pa. 
 July 6 Washington, D. C. 
 
 Aug. 1 8 Leavenworth, Kas. 
 Oct. 8 Champaign- 
 Urbana, 111. 
 Oct. 8 Butte, Mont. 
 Dec. 31 Baltimore, Md. 
 
 1886. 
 
 Mch. 1 6 Danville, Va. 
 
 Mch. 20 Boston, Mass. 
 Apr. i Chicago, 111. 
 Apr. 6 Springfield, 111. 
 
 Apr. 14 Duluth, Minn. 
 
 Apr. 19 Milwaukee, Wis. 
 
 39 For increase. Won. 
 
 1 8 Against reduction. Won. 
 17 For increase. Won. 
 76 Against reduction. Compr. 
 13 Against additional Won. 
 
 helpers. 
 
 10 Against reduction.. Lost. 
 
 9 Against convict labor. Won 
 
 33 Against reduction. Won. 
 
 91 Readjustment of Won. 
 
 scale. 
 
 24 Sympathetic strike. Lost. 
 
 13 Against 3 non- Lost. 
 
 unionists. 
 
 69 For increase. Won. 
 
 20 Against "extras." Won. 
 
 8 For increase. Lost. 
 
 22 For increase. Lost. 
 
 30 Pay for overtime. Compr. 
 
 600 For increase. Lost. 
 
 55 For increase. Won. 
 
 47 Against "extras." Lost. 
 
 19 For increase. Lost. 
 315 For increase. Compr. 
 
62 STUDIES IN TRADE UNIONISM 
 
 Number 
 Date Locality Involved Cause Result 
 
 May 19 Pittsburgh, Pa. 403 For increase. Lost. 
 
 Sept. 20 Chicago, 111. 25 For increase. Won. 
 
 Sept. 25 Ithaca, N. Y. 18 For increase. Compr. 
 
 Nov. 20 Grand Rapids, 7 For increase. Lost. 
 
 Mich. 
 NOTES. 
 
 1. Information in this table is taken from the 3rd Annual Report 
 of the United States Bureau of Labor. Only one change has been made 
 in the data as there reported. The Commissioner of Labor reported 
 the Boston, 1886, strike as won, but we find from the Tailors' Journal 
 that this was a mistake, and that the strike was in reality lost. Tailor, 
 November, 1906, pp. 17-18. We have made the change accordingly. 
 
 2. This table is continuous with that given in the text of Chapter 
 3, showing strikes from 1881 to 1883. The list was divided so as to show 
 strikes before and after the National Union of 1883 was organized. 
 
 3. The Commissioner reports that all these strikes were called by 
 labor organizations except Duluth and Ithaca, both 1886. 
 
 4. The date given in each case is the date of the beginning of the 
 strike. 
 
 5. Strikes which succeeded partially 4 are marked "Compr." for 
 "Compromised." 
 
 Convention of 1885. 
 
 108 
 
 This convention met in Baltimore, August 10, 1885. 
 Twenty-three unions were reported as being in good stand- 
 ing, with an aggregate membership of 2481. Five of these 
 locals were represented at the convention, as follows: Bal- 
 timore, Philadelphia, New York, New Haven, and Denver. 
 New York sent three delegates, and the others one each, mak- 
 ing a total of seven. 
 
 The President reported that the year just passed had been 
 a severe strain upon the National, in view of the serious de- 
 pression in the trade. He stated, however, that there had 
 been a gain in strength. It was suggested that in view of 
 
 account of this convention is taken from the "Constitution 
 and By-Laws, also Proceedings, of the 3rd Annual Convention of the 
 Journeymen Tailors' National Union of the United States." (N. Y., 
 1885). This constituion and by-laws is found in the appendix to this 
 chapter. Table of local unions, 1885, is given herewith. 
 
IN THE CUSTOM TAILORING TRADE 63 
 
 the small number of delegates, great care would be required 
 in order to legislate in a manner satisfactory to the locals not 
 represented. The Secretary complained likewise of indus- 
 trial conditions, stating that organization had been difficult, 
 and that it had been found necessary to resist threatened re- 
 ductions in wages. Strikes for this purpose had taken place 
 in Baltimore, New York and Philadelphia, and while they 
 had not been completely successful, a general reduction had 
 been prevented in these cities. The Secretary took occasion 
 to commend the "uniform, prompt and generous manner" in 
 which the local unions had responded to appeals for help 
 from the "strike cities." This is significant as indicating that 
 the National Union had already developed a considerable 
 spirit of solidarity. With reference to organizing work, the 
 Secretary reported that seven local unions had joined since 
 the previous convention, and six more with whom he had 
 been in correspondence indicated their intention of joining. 
 Circular matter for local unions had been sent out through a 
 periodical known as "Swinton's Magazine," which had been 
 adopted as the official organ of the National Union. 
 
 LIST OF LOCAL UNIONS AFFILIATED WITH THE NATIONAL. 
 
 AUGUST, 1885. 
 
 Locality. Membership. 
 
 New York, N. Y. 1260 
 
 Chicago, 111. 300 
 
 Philadelphia, Pa. (United) 116 
 
 Baltimore, Md. 102 
 
 St. Louis, Mo. 80 
 
 Denver, Colo. 72 
 
 Philadelphia, Pa. (English) 64 
 
 Philadelphia, Pa. (German) 58 
 
 Peoria, 111. 54 
 
64 STUDIES IN TRADE UNIONISM 
 
 Locality 
 
 Brooklyn, N. Y. 
 Kansas City, Mo. 
 New Haven, Conn. 
 Worcester, Mass. 
 Bloomington, 111. 
 Springfield, 111. 
 Meadville, Pa. 
 Milwaukee, Wis. 
 Sedalia, Mo. 
 Janesville, Wis. 
 Leavenworth, Kas. 
 Rock Island-Davenport. 
 Cheyenne, Wyo. 
 Champaign-Urbana, 111. 
 
 Total 2481 
 
 NOTE: The above list is taken from the Proceedings of the 1885 
 Convention, and represents the unions which were reported to that 
 Convention as being in good standing. 
 
 In the matter of strikes, the officers, as well as several 
 unions who reported by letter instead of by delegates, agreed 
 that strong efforts must be made to settle controversies with- 
 out strike, and to avoid strikes during the dull seasons, es- 
 pecially January, February, July and August. This recom- 
 mendation was eventually embodied in a new by-law. 109 
 Unions in Urbana, Illinois, and Kansas City, Missouri, had 
 been refused support in demanding an advance, the unions 
 being advised that the efforts of the National must for the 
 time being be confined to resisting reductions. Two other 
 unions, Chicago and Denver, had been obliged to accept slight 
 reductions, this policy appearing better than a strike, in view 
 of the business depression. Actual strikes in cities afiilated 
 
 i09By-laws of 1885, Art. 13. See appendix. 
 
IN THE CUSTOM TAILORING TRADE 65 
 
 with the National had taken place in Baltimore, New York, 
 Philadelphia, and Kansas City, and there had been a lockout 
 of twenty men in Denver. In addition, strikes were reported 
 from the following cities containing local unions not yet af- 
 filiated: San Francisco, Boston, Atlanta, Nashville, Des- 
 Moines, Louisville, and Washington, D. C. 110 As a rule the 
 national secretary had written these unions, inviting them to 
 join, but they had not as yet taken action. Similar cor- 
 respondence had been held with Providence, Rhode Island, 
 Warren, Pennsylvania, New Orleans, Louisiana, Council 
 Bluffs, Iowa, Ottawa, Kansas, and Los Angeles, California. 
 In each of these cities unions existed, which it was hoped to 
 bring into the National ; in fact, two of them New Orleans 
 and Warren became members between the adjournment of 
 the convention and the publication of the Proceedings. 
 
 During the preceding term the strike benefit had been 
 $6.00 a week; this the 1885 convention reduced to $4.00, 
 fearing a depletion of the funds. It was reported that dur- 
 ing the year since the 1884 convention strike benefit had been 
 paid to the sum of $2,924.45, and claims allowed while the 
 convention was in session brought the sum total up to 
 $3,286.45. The seriousness of this expense will be realized 
 when it is noted that the entire income of the union for the 
 term was only $3,604.14. In fact, at the close of the conven- 
 tion, after allowing for the expenses of the delegates, there 
 was a balance of only $37.45 in the Treasurer's hands. 111 
 
 A matter of some interest in connection with this conven- 
 
 110 See table for strikes in 1885, as reported by U. S. Commissioner 
 of Labor. 
 
 in The balance sheet at the close of the Convention, August 15, 
 1885, was as follows: 
 
 Income, Aug. 15, 1884 to Aug. 15, 1885 $3,604.14 
 
 Expense, Aug. 15, 1884 to Aug. 15, 1885 3,566.69 
 
 Balance in hands of Treasurer, Aug. 15, 1885 $ 37-45 
 
 From report of the Treasurer, 1885 Proceedings. 
 
66 STUDIES IN TRADE UNIONISM 
 
 tion is the fact that there was in existence at the same time 
 a dual organization known as the "Tailors' Progressive Un- 
 ion of America." This organization sent a letter to the Sec- 
 retary of the Tailors' National Union, seeking support for 
 an eight-hour movement, and criticizing the methods of the 
 New York union of the Tailors' National. The Convention 
 directed the Secretary to reply that the Convention could not 
 interfere between local unions in any city, but that the branch 
 of the "Progressives" in New York would be permitted to 
 affiliate with the National if they liked. This Progressive 
 Union seems to have been a socialistic organization, which at 
 no time had a large membership, and it is probable that it 
 was gradually absorbed by the larger society, although we 
 find it referred to as late as iSSg. 112 
 
 The Convention of 1885 concluded its work with a series 
 of interesting resolutions, 113 including a decision to make the 
 
 H2In the report of the Tailors' delegate to the A. F. of L. Con 
 vention of 1887, Tailor, Jan., 1888, p. 5, appears the following: 
 
 "I appeared before the Committee on Credentials to inquire into 
 the nature of the Progressive Tailors' Union The Pro- 
 gressive Tailors' Union, so far as I have been able to learn about it, 
 is a poor struggling union with very good objects, but wholly impracti- 
 cable methods. They have but a few local unions, and have not a 
 scale of prices established in any of them. They are composed mostly 
 of tailors working at ready made clothing. It is my opinion that such 
 of them as work on custom made garments ought to join our national 
 union, and that we in return should give them every encouragement 
 and support to organize the manufacturing tailors." It should be noted 
 that the United Garment Workers' Union was not organized until 
 1891, and previous to that date it was a serious problem with the custom 
 tailors as to what should be done with the ready-made workers, or 
 "shop tailors," as they were then called. (See Sen. Doc. 645, V. 10, 
 p. 160; also Tailor, Sept., 1889, P- i> Report of the General Secretary 
 to the Columbus Convention). It appears that the "Progressive Union" 
 was represented at the Convention of the A. F. of L. in 1889, as well 
 as in 1887. At the 1887 convention, as suggested by the above ex- 
 tract, the credentials of its delegates were disputed, but the delegates 
 were finally seated. (Proceedings of A. F. of L. Convention, 1887, 
 p. 8). In 1888 the Progressive Union was listed as one of the National 
 Unions of the American Federation, although it had no delegate at 
 this convention. (Proceedings, 1888, pp. 34-36). This union was granted 
 permission to use its label on ready-made clothing, but not on custom- 
 made. (Proceedings, 1887, p. 28). In 1889 the Progressive Union 
 claimed to have eleven branches. (Proceedings, 1889, p. 8). 
 
IN THE CUSTOM TAILORING TRADE 67 
 
 convention biennial instead of annual, and elected the follow- 
 ing officers for the ensuing term : 
 
 President, Charles H. Sharpe, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. 
 
 First Vice-President, Frederick Jensen, New York, New 
 York. 
 
 Second Vice-President, Henry Becker, Baltimore, Mary- 
 land. 
 
 Third Vice-President, John B. Lennon, Denver, Colorado. 
 
 Fourth Vice-President, James W. Smith, Springfield, 
 Illinois. 114 
 
 Secretary, Joseph Wilkenson, New York, New York. 
 
 Treasurer, Frederick Werner, New York, New York. 
 
 Auditors, John Casey, William Brodil. 
 
 The Tailors and- the Knights of Labor. 
 
 In accord with the resolutions of 1885, there was no an- 
 nual convention of the Tailors' National Union in 1886, the 
 next meeting being set for 1887. Before, however, taking 
 up the 1887 convention, it is our desire to discuss briefly the 
 relation of the tailors to the Knights of Labor. It will be 
 recalled that this organization started with an organization of 
 garment cutters in Philadelphia in 1869. By 1886 it had 
 reached its height, and shortly after began to decline, as a 
 result largely of the rise of craft unionism and of the Ameri- 
 can Federation of Labor. 
 
 It is not possible to ascertain from the Proceedings of the 
 Knights whether or not any of the delegates to their con- 
 ventions were of the tailoring trade, inasmuch as all delegates 
 are designated according to "local assemblies," most of which 
 were mixed. In some issues, however, of the Journal of 
 
 11 3 See Appendix to this chapter. 
 
 ii^This member was of considerable prominence in the labor move- 
 ment. In 1884 he represented the National Tailors' Union at the Con- 
 vention of the American Federation of Labor, and in 1886, while serv- 
 ing in a similar capacity, was elected President of the Convention. 
 (Proceedings of the Conventions of the A. F. of L.. 1884 and 1886). 
 
68 STUDIES IN TRADE UNIONISM 
 
 United Labor, the official organ of the Knights, are found 
 monthly summaries of newly organized assemblies, and here 
 we have found mention of several assemblies of tailors, 
 though not as many as of other crafts. 115 
 
 It seems probable that where tailors were members of the 
 Knights of Labor they were usually connected as individuals 
 with mixed assemblies, and that the local tailors' societies 
 were affiliating with their own national union, at least after 
 
 1883. In one or two cases, however, considerable contro- 
 versy arose over the matter; thus we find that in 1885 the 
 Cincinnati union of tailors had disbanded and gone over to 
 the Knights, 116 and in 1887 an officer of the National gave 
 as a reason for his resignation the fact that there was a dis- 
 cord in his local union over this subject. 117 
 
 Strikes in the Tailoring Trade, August, 1885, to August, 1887. 
 
 During this term there were a number of tailors' strikes. 118 
 Apparently the most serious were those in Boston and Pitts- 
 
 n 5 In running through a broken file of the Journal of United La- 
 bor, containing thirty-eight of the eighty-four numbers between March, 
 
 1884, and May, 1887, we find mention of the following tailors' assem- 
 blies being organized: 
 
 Date,. Assembly Locality. 
 
 Number. 
 
 May, 1885 3859 Albany, New York 
 
 June, 1885 3974 Cleveland, Ohio 
 
 June, 1885 3980 Springfield, Ohio 
 
 Jan., 1886 4868 Lynn, Massachusetts 
 
 Feb., 1886 5274 Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 
 
 Feb., 1886 5346 Newark, New Jersey 
 
 Feb., 1886 5672 Newark, New Jersey 
 
 Mch., 1886 5892 Boston, Massachusetts 
 
 The monthly summaries are discontinued early in 1887. There is 
 no positive assurance that all of the above assemblies were composed 
 of custom tailors; in the Journal they are listed as "tailors" or "tail- 
 ors' employees;" some garment workers may have been included. 
 
 H6 Proceedings of the National Tailors' Union. i88q. p. 7. 
 i ^Proceedings of the 1887 Convention, Tailor, Oct., 1887. 
 
 11 8 See table already given for full list of strikes from 1884 to 1886, 
 as reported by the U. S. Commissioner of Labor. 
 
IN THE CUSTOM TAILORING TRADE 69 
 
 burgh in 1886, involving respectively 600 and 403 members. 
 1886 seems to have been a bad year for strikes; of ten re- 
 ported by the United States Commissioner, five were lost, in- 
 cluding the two above mentioned, and only two were entirely 
 successful. A continuation of the depression complained of 
 in 1885 was probably responsible for some of these difficul- 
 ties. 119 With the exception of these strikes we have little rec- 
 ord of the tailors until their next convention. 
 
 Convention of 
 
 This convention was in many ways more important than 
 any that had previously taken place. The Proceedings will 
 therefore be examined in some detail. 120 
 
 The convention opened in New York City, August 8, 
 1887. It was reported that there were twenty-seven unions 
 in good standing, with an aggregate membership of 25 12. 121 
 Of these unions thirteen were represented, with fifteen 
 delegates. The unions represented were : New York, Brook- 
 lyn, Troy and Poughkeepsie, New York; Worcester and 
 Springfield, Massachusetts; Providence, Rhode Island; New 
 Haven and Danbury, Connecticut; Baltimore, Maryland; 
 Columbus, Ohio ; St. Louis, Missouri, and Denver, Colorado. 
 
 H9An interesting account of the Boston strike is found in tfre 
 Tailor, Nov., 1906, pp. 16-17. The article is by Thomas Sweeney, a 
 well-known organizer of the Tailors' Union : 
 
 "The most eventful thing in connection with the life of the union 
 in Boston is a strike in 1886. When that strike took place the Boston 
 union was well organized; they had between six and seven hundred 
 members and had a good treasury. Believing themselves masters of 
 the situation, they decided to present a uniform bill to all firms in the 
 city. The Executive Board and a Committee having the bill in charge 
 reported against presenting such a bill, but the union 'voted down the 
 report and went ahead with the bill. Up to that time there was no 
 union of employers. They soon organized one and resisted the demand 
 of the union. In addition to the uniformity looked for by the union, 
 they raised the price ten per cent." The writer states further that after 
 dragging along for several months the strike was finally lost, and the 
 men returned to work, leaving the union considerably weakened. 
 
 120 See Tailor, Oct., 1887. 
 
 12 iA full list of these unions, with the membership of each, is given 
 on p. 70. 
 
70 STUDIES IN TRADE UNIONISM 
 
 LIST OF LOCAL UNIONS ANIMATED WITH THE NATIONAL, 
 
 AUGUST, 1887. 
 
 Locality. Membership. 
 
 New York, N. Y. 1240 
 
 Boston, Mass. 145 
 
 Baltimore, Md. 123 
 
 Troy, N. Y. 113 
 
 Columbus, Ohio. 90 
 
 Providence, R. I. 80 
 
 St. Louis, Mo. 80 
 
 Denver, Colo. 80 
 
 Grand Rapids, Mich. 55 
 
 Peoria, 111. 55 
 
 Wichita, Kas. 50 
 
 DesMoines, Iowa. 41 
 
 Brooklyn, N. Y. 40 
 
 Worcester, Mass. 37 
 
 Springfield, Mass. 33 
 
 Bloomington, 111. 33 
 
 Danbury, Conn. 32 
 
 Butte City, Mont. 30 
 
 Leadville, Colo. 25 
 
 Emporia, Kas. 23 
 
 Poughkeepsie, N. Y. 23 
 
 South Bend, Ind. 21 
 
 Springfield, 111. 20 
 
 Warren, Pa. 15 
 
 Champaign-Urbana, 111. 12 
 
 Sedalia, Mo. 9 
 
 Leavenworth, Kas. 7 
 
 Total, 27 unions 2512 
 
 NOTE: The above list is taken from the report of the Finance 
 Committee of the 1887 Convention, Tailor, Oct., 1887, p. 3- This re- 
 port indicated all local unions paying dues during the term 1885-1887, 
 
IN THE CUSTOM TAILORING TRADE 71 
 
 and in making the above list it was necessary to eliminate those locals 
 that had lapsed before 1887. The membership given above is probably 
 the largest membership reported during the term, and may be a little 
 too large for 1887; it is, however, the only list obtainable. It should 
 be stated that when the new secretary took charge in 1887, several of 
 these unions had fallen behind with their dues, and were not technically 
 in benefit. 
 
 Frederick Jensen was made chairman of the convention. 
 In his opening speech he called attention to the fact that 
 strikes were failures and expensive, and intimated that, the 
 money of the organization would better be used for organiz- 
 ing purposes. He also rec'ommended that an official Journal 
 be established. 
 
 Mr. Samuel Gompers, of the American Federation of 
 Labor, was present as a visitor, and spoke on "Trade Union- 
 ism." Following Mr. Gompers, Mr. Charles H. Sharpe, re- 
 tiring President of the Tailors' Union, tendered his resigna- 
 tion, stating as a reason that there was discord in his local 
 union of Philadelphia over the question of affiliating with the 
 Knights of Labor. 
 
 The Secretary, Joseph Wilkenson, reported that wages 
 had been slightly increased since the last convention, but that 
 systematic organization was necessary. He favored the ap- 
 pointment of a secretary on full time, and recommended that 
 the Executive Board be empowered to appoint an organizer 
 from time to time as needed. Like Mr. Jensen, he believed 
 that an official Journal should be started as soon as possible. 
 With reference to strikes, he spoke in part as follows: 
 
 "The proper regulation of strikes is a question that has 
 always perplexed and bothered all labor organizations. Judg- 
 ing by' the past, I can see no way by which they can be en- 
 tirely avoided. The great thing is to know when and how to 
 strike or to leave it alone. In my opinion a strike should 
 never be ordered, no matter what the cause may be, when de- 
 feat is sure, as, for instance, when a considerable portion of 
 
72 STUDIES IN TRADE UNIONISM 
 
 the men working are not in the union." This utterance is 
 significant as expressing in a few words the policy which has 
 been followed throughout the subsequent history of the union. 
 
 A report was heard from the delegate of the Tailors' Un- 
 ion to the convention of the "American Federation of Organ- 
 ized Trade and Labor Unions of the United States and 
 Canada," which had just reorganized under the name of the 
 "American Federation of Labor." The delegate bore an in- 
 vitation to the Tailors to join the reorganized body, and 
 this invitation was later accepted by the convention. 
 
 The Treasurer's report indicated a favorable showing, as 
 follows : 
 
 Total receipts, Aug. 15, 1885, to Aug. 10, 1887. $5*698.99 
 Total expense, Aug. 15, 1885 to Aug. 10 1887 2,075.90 
 
 Balance in general fund, Aug. 10, 1887 $3,623.09 
 
 This represented a gain in the fund of $3,585.64 since the 
 previous convention. 
 
 The Committee on Constitution brought in a set of re- 
 vised laws, which were adopted without amendment by the 
 convention. Some of the changes made in the old Constitu- 
 tion were of minor consequence; there were, however, other 
 changes of the highest importance. ( i ) A secretary was ap- 
 pointed on full time at a salary of $1,000 a year for the en- 
 suing term. (2) The secretary was appointed chief organ- 
 izer, to direct extension work under the authority of the 
 Executive Board. (3) An official Journal was established, 
 called THE TAILOR, to be published monthly and mailed free 
 to every member. 122 (4) The principle of the referendum 
 
IN THE CUSTOM TAILORING TRADE 73 
 
 was extended so that any local union could secure an ex- 
 pression of opinion prior to the convention from the whole 
 membership upon a proposed amendment, such opinion to be 
 binding on the convention. According to the previous con- 
 stitution propositions must be seconded by seven unions be- 
 fore they could be submitted. 123 (5) Provision was made 
 for one-half the mileage of convention delegates to be paid 
 by the National Union. This expense had formerly been met 
 entirely by the local unions. 
 
 The resolutions of 1885 were practically re-affirmed, and 
 in addition the following important resolutions adopted : 124 
 
 8. RESOLVED : That we recommend to the members 
 of the local unions composing this body, when purchasing 
 goods of any description, goods made by union men, particu- 
 larly such as bear the labels of national or international trade 
 organizations. 
 
 9. RESOLVED : We believe it to be for the interest of 
 our trade, and do therefore recommend, all local unions to 
 establish employment bureaus as soon as possible. 
 
 10. RESOLVED: That all local unions are hereby most 
 earnestly urged to observe in connection with other labor or- 
 ganizations the first Monday of September in each year as a 
 National Labor Holiday. 
 
 11. RESOLVED: That all local organizations of tailors 
 should affiliate with their own National Union in preference 
 to any other body. 
 
 i22As originally passed by the Convention, each member was to 
 pay five cents a month for the paper, but within a couple of months 
 after the adjournment of the Convention the General Executive Board, 
 finding funds sufficient, took the responsibility of furnishing the Jour- 
 nal free of charge, and this has been the practice ever since. 
 
 i23R eS olutions of 1885, No. 10. See Appendix for full text of these 
 resolutions. 
 
 i24Constitution of 1887, pp. 20-21. 
 
74 STUDIES IN TRADE UNIONISM 
 
 12. RESOLVED: That what is known as the sweating 
 system is very injurious to our trade, and we therefore call 
 upon all local unions to give the matter careful consideration, 
 and try and devise means to stop it. 
 
 13. RESOLVED: That we do hereby submit to the local 
 unions for careful consideration during the next two years 
 the following propositions, believing that their adoption will 
 result in much good : 
 
 First. To establish throughout all unions a uniform sys- 
 tem of benefits. 
 
 Second. To equalize the funds, dues and initiation fees 
 of all local unions. 
 
 Third. To pay in full the expenses of delegates to the 
 conventions. 
 
 14. RESOLVED: That all local unions are hereby urged 
 to thoroughly discuss the above propositions and instruct 
 their delegates to the next convention in regard to them. 
 
 It is not too much to say that the convention of 1887 
 marks the beginning of the Journeymen Tailors' Union of 
 America as a permanent business institution. This is es- 
 pecially true in view of the fact that the chief officers elected 
 by this convention held their positions for many years fol- 
 lowing. Mr. Frederick Werner, who was re-elected Treas- 
 urer, held his office until July, 1906, only eighteen months be- 
 fore his death ; and Mr. John B. Lennon, who was now elected 
 Secretary for the first time, served continuously for twenty- 
 three years. 125 
 
 Concluding Note. 
 
 It has been decided not to carry this chronological sketch 
 beyond the year 1887, in view of the fact that the files of the 
 
 i25Mr. Lennon served from August, 1887, to July I, 1910, when 
 he was succeeded by Mr. Eugene J. Brais. A brief biographical sketch 
 of both of these officers will be found in the Appendix. 
 
IN THE CUSTOM TAILORING TRADE 75 
 
 official Journal begin with that date, 120 thus affording an op- 
 portunity for more detailed studies. 127 It may, however, be 
 remarked here that no essential change of principle has taken 
 place in the organization since its foundation. The member- 
 ship has risen, fallen, risen and fallen again, under the influ- 
 ence of industrial conditions and the internal evolution of the 
 trade. Important crises have been passed; serious battles 
 won and lost; policies have been initiated, improved, and 
 made a part of the movement, but the fundamental purpose, 
 as stated today, is not different from that when the union 
 was founded, namely : "To rescue our trade from the con- 
 dition to which it has fallen and by all honest and just 
 
 means to elevate the moral, social, and intellectual condition 
 of our members." 128 
 
 126 The opening number of The Tailor is dated October, 1887. 
 
 i27The first of these studies, a statistical investigation, will be 
 found in the following chapter. 
 
 i2SConstitution, 1910, p. 5. 
 
APPENDICES 
 
 CHAPTER THREE 
 
APPENDIX A. 
 OUTLINE OF TAILORS' UNIONS IN ENGLAND, 1721-1834. 
 
 Note. The material for the following outline is taken 
 from Galton, The Tailoring Trade. 
 
 1721. Tailors' combinations and strikes in London. Act 
 passed to regulate tailors. 
 
 1725-29. A poem appears annually in Dublin, inscribed 
 to the "Ancient and Loyal Society of Journeymen Tailors" 
 of that city. 
 
 1730. Anti-combination act passed by Irish Parliament; 
 trade clubs subside. 
 
 1744-45. Widespread disturbances in London, involving 
 15,000 journeymen tailors. The Privy Council directs the 
 Justices of the Peace to enforce the Act of 1721. Licenses of 
 five taverns revoked for harboring tailors' combinations. 
 
 1748. Strike in Edinburgh. 21 tailors are indicted and 
 their combination broken up. 
 
 1751, July. Tailors of London secure raise of about 6 d. 
 per day from the Court of Quarter-Sessions. 
 
 1751. September. Journeymen again become restless and 
 demand advance. A reduction of one hour a day from work- 
 ing time is secured from the City Sessions of London. 
 
 1752. Master-tailors send petition to the House of Com- 
 mons setting forth grievances. Journeymen present counter- 
 petition. After some argument the whole matter is dropped. 
 
 1753. Quarter-Sessions of London grant a 1 2-hour day. 
 1763. Another slight increase in wages is granted. 
 1763-67. Period of constant dissensions in the trade. 
 1767. A humorous play is produced at the Theater 
 
 79 
 
80 STUDIES IN TRADE UNIONISM 
 
 Royal in the Haymarket, entitled, "The Tailors; a Tragedy 
 for Warm Weather." 
 
 1768. Laws regulating tailors are again revised by Par- 
 liament, largely in the interest of the masters. Journeymen 
 enter a protest. Laws are evaded by both masters and jour- 
 neymen, so far as the maximum wage is concerned. 
 
 1768. Strike in Aberdeen, Scotland. 
 
 1729-72. Ireland. Little complaint or legislation in Ire- 
 land during this period with regard to combinations. 
 
 1772. Ireland. Dublin's Trades' Clubs reviving. A special 
 bill is passed by the Irish Parliament to regulate Journeymen 
 Tailors. Wages and hours are established, and combinations 
 forbidden. 
 
 1772. London tailors secure raise of from 6d. to is. a 
 day from the City Sessions. 
 
 1777. Birmingham tailors strike against piece-work 
 system. 
 
 1778. A part of the master-tailors of London complain 
 of the flat-rate system for all journeymen. Bills are brought 
 into Parliament to change this feature. Another section of 
 the masters oppose the bills. The House is bewildered and 
 makes no change. 
 
 1783. Seven tailors of Liverpool are prosecuted for 
 combination. 
 
 1797. Tailors of Aberdeen again on strike. Twelve are 
 convicted of illegal combination and sentenced to fines and 
 imprisonment. 
 
 1799-1800. General Combination Acts passed, affecting 
 all trades. 129 
 
 1800. Master Tailors again present petition of com- 
 
 i29\Vebb, p. 63. Beginning with this date the tailors' history is 
 taken largely from the documents collected by Francis Place, who be- 
 gan life as a journeymen leather-breeches maker, becoming later a 
 master tailor. This man was a leader in the movement for the repeal 
 of the Combination Acts. (Webb, History of Trade Unionism, p. 85). 
 
IN THE CUSTOM TAILORING TRADE 81 
 
 plaints. Journeymen are striking for a raise from 253. to 
 3 os. a week. Court of Quarter-Sessions grants 273. 13 
 
 1805. Revival of the farce, "The Tailors; a Tragedy for 
 Warm Weather," causes a riot in London. 131 
 
 1807. Strike in London for 303. a week. Victory for 
 the men. 
 
 181011. Strong association of employing tailors formed 
 in London. Plans are made to fight the union. A new bill 
 is presented by the masters to Parliament. The employers 
 are divided and the bill is dropped. 
 
 1811, Further complaints and demands of employers to 
 Parliament are ineffective, due largely to influence of Fran- 
 cis Place. 
 
 1812. Printed rules of a London Tailors' Club of this 
 date are preserved. 132 
 
 isoDouble wages, or 54 s., were to be paid in case of a "general 
 mourning." 
 
 131 An interesting account of this affair has been found in the Tailor, 
 May, 1907, p. 17, entitled, "The Tailors in Riot," being reprinted from 
 an article in The American Tailor and Cutter : 
 
 "In 1769 Foote had produced a burlesque, the author of which has 
 never been discovered, entitled "The Tailors; a Tragedy for Warm 
 Weather." Dowton announced the revival of this piece for his benefit. 
 As the title implies, it is a satire upon the sartorial craft, and upon the 
 bills being issued an indignation meeting was convened by the knights 
 of the needle, who vowed to oppose the performance by might and main. 
 
 "Menacing letters were sent to Dowton telling him that 17,000 tailors 
 would attend to his piece, and one, who signed himself 'Death,' added 
 that 10,000 men could be found if necessary. The threats were laughed 
 at by the actors, but when night came it was discovered that the craft 
 were in earnest, and with few exceptions they had contrived to secure 
 every seat in the house, while a mob without still squeezed for admission. 
 The moment Dowton appeared upon the stage there was a hideous uproar 
 and someone threw a pair of shears at him. 
 
 "Not a word would the rioters listen to, nor would they accept any 
 compromise in the way of changing the piece. Within howled and hissed 
 without intermission hundreds of exasperated tailors ; outside howled and 
 bellowed thousands of raging tailors, who attempted to storm the house. 
 So formidable did the riot wax that a magistrate had to be sent for and 
 special constables called out, but these were helpless against the over- 
 whelming odds, so a troop of life guards was ultimately summoned, who 
 after making sixteen prisoners, put the rest to flight." 
 
 i32Galton, pp. 132-145. 
 
82 STUDIES IN TRADE UNIONISM 
 
 1818-19. "The Gorgon," a small London periodical, con- 
 tains numerous articles by Francis Place, describing Tailors' 
 Unions of this period. 133 
 
 1819. Copies are preserved of half-yearly reports and 
 balance-sheets of a Tailors' Club of this date. 134 
 
 1823. Strike in Edinburgh. 
 
 1824. Attempt to federate the tailors' clubs of London 
 for benefit purposes. 
 
 1824-25. Repeal of the general Combination Acts. 
 
 1825. Strike in Birmingham. 
 1828. Strike in Sheffield. 
 
 1831-32. Tailors take active part with other workers in 
 political reforms. 
 
 1834. A big tailors' strike in London, involving more 
 than six hundred shops. Masters organize firmly and replace 
 men in part by women. Journeymen are completely routed. 
 
 1834. A similar strike fails in Manchester. General 
 conditions are rapidly changing. The old tailors' clubs are 
 breaking up. The date is characterized by premature efforts 
 at national organization and general strikes in many trades, 
 led largely by Robert Owen. 135 
 
 iss ibid., pp. 146-60. 
 i34Galton, pp. 161-163. 
 
 i35Th e above outline has been purposely interrupted at the date of 
 1834, as indicating a crisis in the trade, and the beginning of new types 
 of organization. 
 
APPENDIX B. 
 
 CONSTITUTION AND BY-LAWS OF THE JOURNEYMEN TAILORS' 
 NATIONAL UNION OF THE UNITED STATES, 1885. 
 
 (As adopted by the Third Annual Convention, Baltimore, 
 Md., August 10-15, 1885). 
 
 PREAMBLE. 
 
 WHEREAS, We, the Journeymen Tailors' Delegates, from 
 the various cities and towns of the United States of America, 
 in Convention assembled, have seen the necessity of a thor- 
 ough organization of our trade, and that a common cause and 
 the universal sympathy with all who work at our trade, de- 
 mand of us to urge the immediate unity and consolidation of 
 all the various organizations throughout the United States, 
 in order that we may form a common bond of brotherhood, 
 having for our object the elevation oi our social and moral 
 standing, not only amongst other branches of industry, but 
 in the community at large, and the advancing of the material 
 interests of our trade, believing as we do, that it will serve 
 our employers, while it elevates our condition; (therefore have 
 we adopted the following Constitution and By-Laws) : 136 
 
 i36The preamble as printed was apparently incomplete; it has been 
 found necessary to change one or two words and to add the clause in 
 parenthesis in order to establish the connection. 
 
 83 
 
84 STUDIES IN TRADE UNIONISM 
 
 CONSTITUTION. 
 
 ARTICLE i. NAME OF THE ORGANIZATION. This or- 
 ganization shall be known as the "Journeymen Tailors' Na- 
 tional Union of the United States." 
 
 ARTICLE 2. OBJECT. The object of this union shall 
 be to consolidate the interests of the trade throughout the 
 United States, and organize unions where none exist, and in 
 every legitimate way to resist the encroachments of capital. 
 
 ARTICLE 3. OFFICERS. The officers of the National 
 Union shall consist of a President, four Vice-Presidents, Sec- 
 retary, and Treasurer, who combined shall constitute the Ex- 
 ecutive Board, the Secretary, Treasurer, and one Vice-Presi- 
 dent to be elected from one Local Union. 
 
 ARTICLE 4. AUDITORS. Two Auditors shall be elected 
 from the same Local Union from which the Secretary and 
 Treasurer have been elected. 
 
 ARTICLE 5. DUTIES OF OFFICERS. 
 
 Section i. The Executive Board. The duties of the Ex- 
 ecutive Board shall be executive in character ; they shall have 
 the power to arbitrate on all questions relating to the trade, 
 and as affecting the employer and employee, and have full 
 power to act, when such differences occur as cannot be settled 
 by arbitration. The Executive Board shall also be required 
 to furnish semi-annually a complete report of the financial 
 condition of the National Union, copies of which shall be 
 furnished to each local union. They shall conduct all busi- 
 ness by mail or telegraph except in very urgent cases when 
 they can convene by obtaining the consent of two-thirds of 
 all local unions belonging to the National Union. 
 
 Section 2. Duties of President. The President shall pre- 
 side at all meetings of the National Union, preserve order, 
 and enforce the laws thereof; he shall give the casting vote 
 
IN THE CUSTOM TAILORING TRADE 85 
 
 in case of a tie, and perform all such other duties as may be 
 prescribed by this Constitution. 
 
 Section 3. Duties of Vice- Presidents. The Vice-Presi- 
 dents shall perform all the duties of President in his absence. 
 
 Section 4. Duties of Secretary. The duties of the Sec- 
 retary shall be to receive all dues of the National Union, for 
 which he shall forward a receipt within one week for the 
 same, which receipt shall be countersigned by the Treasurer, 
 and he shall pay the same over to the Treasurer weekly; he 
 shall conduct all correspondence between the National and 
 Local Unions; he shall also be the custodian of the seal of 
 the Union and shall perform such other duties as may be 
 required of him in conformity with this Constitution and 
 By-Laws. 
 
 Section 5. Duties of Treasurer. The Treasurer shall be 
 the custodian of all funds of the National Union, and shall 
 countersign all receipts forwarded by the Secretary of the 
 National Union to Local Unions for dues. He shall pay out 
 all moneys vouched for by a majority of the Executive Board, 
 and shall give a good and sufficient bond to the Executive 
 Board, the amount of said bond to be determined by the 
 Convention ; the sufficiency of the bond to be approved by the 
 Local Union of which the Treasurer is a member. He shall 
 also together with the Secretary deposit all funds received by 
 him within one week in a reliable bank, and shall not draw 
 out the same or any part thereof, without the signature of the 
 Secretary of the National Union and the Trustees of the 
 Union to which he belongs; an order for the payment of 
 money signed by a majority of the Executive Board, shall be 
 sufficient authority for the Trustees of the Local Union. He 
 ma^ retain in his possession the sum of one hundred dollars, 
 and no more, for current expenses of the National Union. 
 
 Section 6. Duties of Auditors. It shall be the duty of 
 the Auditors to examine the books of the Secretary and 
 
86 STUDIES IN TRADE UNIONISM 
 
 Treasurer semi-annually, and report thereon to the Executive 
 Board, who shall print and distribute such report to the local 
 unions. 
 
 Section 7. The term of office for all officers of the Na- 
 tional Union shall expire when their successors are duly 
 elected and qualified. 
 
 Section 8. The outgoing officers shall hand over all 
 books, papers, moneys, and all other property belonging to 
 the National Union to their successors. 
 
 ARTICLE 6. TRAVELING AND WITHDRAWAL CARDS. 
 
 Section i. Members, who go traveling, will receive a 
 traveling card from their Local Union; such card must be 
 signed by the Secretary and presented to the Secretary of the 
 Union where the holder obtains works or locates within eight 
 days of time of such location. If there is no Union at the 
 place, the card ' must be sent to the nearest Union in the 
 vicinity. 
 
 Section 2. Any member who leaves the trade or goes out 
 of the country, after paying all dues, fines, etc., is entitled to 
 a Withdrawal Card from the Union to which he was attached. 
 Such card entitles the holder to re-admission in any Local 
 Union without admission fee, provided that such member has 
 not acted against the interests of the Union. 
 
 Section 3. This National Union cannot be dissolved as 
 long as five Local Unions declare in favor of its continuance. 
 
 BY-LAWS. 
 
 ARTICLE i. The Convention of the National Union shall 
 be held biennially and commence the first Monday in August. 
 The Convention before adjourning shall appoint the place for 
 holding the next Convention. 
 
IN THE CUSTOM TAILORING TRADE 87 
 
 ARTICLE 2. The President shall appoint a Committee on 
 Credentials, consisting of three delegates. 
 
 ARTICLE 3. The roll of Local Unions and presentation of 
 credentials shall be first in order after opening the Conven- 
 tion. 
 
 ARTICLE 4. All Local Unions shall be entitled to one 
 delegate to the Convention, and all Unions of 200 members 
 and under 300, shall be entitled to two delegates, and all 
 Unions of over 300 members shall be entitled to three dele- 
 gates and no more. 
 
 ARTICLE 5- The Secretary is empowered to group small 
 Local Unions before the Convention meets, to send delegates 
 based on the ratio provided in the foregoing section. 
 
 ARTICLE 6. Any Local Union may become a 'member of 
 the National Union on application to the Secretary and pay- 
 ment of an initation fee of five dollars. 
 
 ARTICLE 7. Seven members may organize a Local Union 
 where none exists ; they will be granted a charter by the 
 Secretary upon application and the initiation fee. 
 
 ARTICLE 8. Each Local Union may make its own Con- 
 stitution and By-Laws, which must, however, be in accord 
 with this Constitution and By-Laws. 
 
 ARTICLE 9. Every Local Union shall pay to the National 
 Secretary the monthly dues of ten cents per capita, said dues 
 to be forwarded every three months with a statement of 
 their condition; blanks for said statement to be furnished 
 free of charge by the National Secretary; dues to be for- 
 warded on the first day of October, January, April and July 
 of each year. But Local Unions of over 200 members are 
 recommended to pay their dues monthly. 
 
 ARTICLE 10. Local Unions six months in arrears shall 
 not be entitled to protection from the National Union until 
 all arrears are paid up and they are clear on the books at 
 least one month. 
 
88 STUDIES IN TRADE UNIONISM 
 
 ARTICLE ii. Any member out of work on account of a 
 strike or lockout recognized by the Executive Board shall be 
 paid four dollars per week during its continuance. 
 
 ARTICLE 12. Whenever any Local Union intends to in- 
 itiate a strike, but cannot do so without the aid of the Nat- 
 ional Union, it must notify the Secretary of the National 
 Union immediately; such notice to contain a full account 
 of the reasons and circumstances, as well as the number of 
 men expected to go on strike. 
 
 ARTICLE 13. No strike in any Local Union shall be sup- 
 ported by the National Union unless the Local Union has 
 complied with the requirements of this Constitution, and is 
 duly authorized by the Executive Board. But the National 
 Union shall not support any strike declared in the months of 
 January, February, July and August. 
 
 ARTICLE 14. The Executive Board may recognize and 
 support any strike caused by a reduction and a lockout forced 
 on the Local Union by the employers without previous notice 
 of, the Local Union, but no financial benefit shall be paid by 
 the National Union by the Local Union for the first week 
 of any strike. 
 
 ARTICLE 15. In case of any strike or lockout, the Exe- 
 cutive Board shall have power to appoint a Committee to 
 effect a settlement of the differences existing between the 
 employer and the employees, and if the Committee so ap- 
 pointed effects a settlement, by arbitration or otherwise, and 
 the Local Union refuses to comply with the terms of said 
 settlement, then the Local Union shall support the strike or 
 lockout from their own local funds. 
 
 ARTICLE 16. The Executive Board shall have power in 
 case of a strike or lockout, when the funds of the National 
 Union are exhausted, to declare a special levy, but not to an 
 amount of more than 50 cents in any one quarter. 
 
 ARTICLE 17. In extreme cases of a long-continued strike 
 
IN THE CUSTOM TAILORING TRADE 89 
 
 or lockout, the Executive Board shall submit to the Local 
 Unions for their vote propositions for a further levy, which 
 shall receive the approval of a majority of the members of 
 the Local Unions, before being declared by the Executive 
 Board adopted. 
 
 ARTICLE 1 8. All levies authorized by the General Exe- 
 cutive Board shall be forwarded to the National Secretary 
 within thirty days after the time the same were declared. 
 
 ARTICLE 19. No Local Union shall be subject to a levy 
 for the first six months of their membership in the National 
 Union. 
 
 ARTICLE 20. If any member of a Local Union, having 
 violated the conditions imposed upon him by the Constitu- 
 tion of this Union, either leaves or is expelled from the 
 same, it shall be the duty of the Local Secretary to notify the 
 Secretary of the National Union of such action, who shall 
 at once notify all Local Unions. Such member shall not be 
 eligible to membership in any other union, until all indebted- 
 ness against him by his Local Union shall have been paid. 
 
 ARTICLE 21. The Secretary must be notified of every 
 change of address of Local Secretaries. 
 
 ARTICLE 22. The Convention shall fix the salaries of 
 officers and shall have full power to amend Constitution if 
 necessary. 
 
 ARTICLE 23. Propositions of amendments to this Con- 
 stitution shall be forwarded to the Secretary of the National 
 Union at least three months before the meeting of the next 
 Convention, and the Secretary shall be required to notify im- 
 mediately all Local Unions of such propositions. 
 
 ARTICLE 24. The expenses of delegates to the National 
 Convention shall be paid by the Local Unions they represent. 
 
 ARTICLE 25. Expenses of the President, Secretary, and 
 Treasurer of the National Union to the Annual Convention 
 shall be paid from the funds of the National Union, but 
 
90 STUDIES IN TRADE UNIONISM 
 
 they shall not be eligible as delegates from their Local Unions. 
 
 ARTICLE 26. No Local Union shall be entitled to any 
 benefit until such union has been at least six months a mem- 
 ber of the National Union, and is clear on the books of the 
 National Union. 
 
 ARTICLE 27. All propositions submitted to the Local 
 Unions for their approval or disapproval, shall in order to 
 become legal and binding have a two-thirds majority; the 
 exact number voting "Aye" and the exact number voting 
 "Nay" shall be taken by the local secretary and forwarded 
 to the General Secretary, who shall compute the result and 
 notify the Executive Board and Local Unions of the same. 
 
 ARTICLE 28. In case of disability of any officer of the 
 Executive Board, either through sickness, death or retire- 
 ment, the vacancy shall be filled by the Local Union of which 
 such officer was a member. 
 
 ARTICLE 29. It shall be the duty of the Secretary and 
 Treasurer to secure and carry out a uniform system of keep- 
 ing the accounts of the National Union. 
 
 RESOLUTIONS. 
 
 1. Resolved: We declare ourselves in firm terms to be 
 in true accord with all labor unions in the United States, and 
 pledge them our support to bring about remedial measures in 
 the interest of Labor in general. 
 
 2. Resolved: We believe that a permanent improvement 
 of the condition of the wage-working class cannot be effected 
 by any means whatever, unless accompanied by a reduction 
 in the hours of labor. 
 
 3. Resolved: The Prison Contract Labor System as car- 
 ried on in the prisons and penitentiaries of several states of 
 
IN THE CUSTOM TAILORING TRADE 91 
 
 the Union is economically impolitic and an insult to the feel- 
 ings and an injury to the interests of the working people in 
 general. We therefore urge the necessity upon all labor or- 
 ganizations to demand its abolition. 
 
 4. Resolved: We recommend the principles of co-opera- 
 tion to our trade and the working classes in general when 
 practicable. 
 
 5. Resolved: That in the opinion of this Convention the 
 best interest of the trade will be served by the establishment 
 of a trade organ. We therefore earnestly recommend to the 
 Local Unions the necessity of the same, and request the Ex- 
 ecutive Board to find a paper which shall be the recognized 
 organ of this Union until we start one of our own. 
 
 6. Resolved: That we unequivocally condemn the sys- 
 tem in the trade of having the work done in our homes, and 
 while we recognize the system to be deep rooted, we would 
 recommend the gradual substitution of the system of work- 
 shops provided by the employers of trades. 
 
 7. Resolved: We recognize the inexpediency at the pres- 
 ent time of attaching a sick and burial fund to the National 
 Union, but we fully recognize the benefits to be derived there- 
 from, and call on all Unions to give it their most serious 
 consideration and adopt it as soon as possible. 
 
 8. Resolved: We as a body thoroughly approve of the 
 object of the organized Trade and Labor Unions of the 
 United States and Canada, and pledge ourselves to give it 
 our earnest support. 
 
 9. Resolved: That we recommend all Local Unions to 
 attach themselves to any representative Central Labor Union 
 or Trades Assembly existing in their vicinity. 
 
 10. WHEREAS, the delegates to this Convention have 
 after careful consideration postponed the Annual Convention 
 so that no Convention will be held for two years, therefore 
 be it 
 
92 STUDIES IN TRADE UNIONISM 
 
 Resolved, That in case any serious matter arises during 
 the interim between the Conventions, or should the Constitu- 
 tion or By-Laws be found insufficient or unwise, the Execu- 
 tive Board shall on the united request of seven or more Local 
 Unions, submit to a vote to the general body any proposition 
 that seven or more Local Unions shall demand to have sub- 
 mitted, and in case the propositions shall be carried the Exe- 
 cutive Board shall be governed thereby. 137 
 
 i3?At date of writing, the above constitution was the oldest in the 
 writer's collection. Constitutions have since been discovered of 1865 and 
 1884, but too late to be incorporated in this thesis. 
 
JOHN B. LENNON, 
 
APPENDIX C. 
 BIOGRAPHICAL, SKETCH, JOHN B. LENNON. 
 
 John Brown Lennon, the son of John A. and Elizabeth 
 F. Lennon, was born in Lafayette County, Wisconsin, Octo- 
 ber 12, 1850. When he was two years of age the family 
 removed to Hannibal, Missouri, and here the greater part 
 of his boyhood was spent. He had few advantages as to 
 education, being obliged at the age of eleven to take hold 
 with his mother and help work the small farm on which they 
 lived, the father having entered the Union Army in 1861. 
 John Lennon, Sr., was a tailor by trade. At the close of the 
 war he reopened his shop in Hannibal, and his son started 
 in to learn the trade. After a four years' apprenticeship the 
 son set out for the west, and in 1869 opened a merchant 
 tailoring store in Denver, Colorado. The following year his 
 parents and sisters also came to Denver and his father took 
 charge of the shop. After this John B. Lennon worked as 
 a journeyman for various merchant tailors of Denver, con- 
 tinuing this employment until about July, 1886. 
 
 Mr. Lennon had been active in forming a tailors' union 
 in Denver. This union became affiliated with the new Na- 
 tional organization before the close of the convention year, 
 1883. At this time Lennon was Secretary of the Denver 
 union. In 1884, while acting as president of the same union, 
 he was appointed as a delegate to the Chicago convention of 
 the National Union. At this convention he was elected 
 President of the National, and at the 1885 convention was 
 elected one of the vice-presidents. At the New York con- 
 vention in 1887 he was elected General Secretary and editor 
 
 93 
 
94 STUDIES IN TRADE UNIONISM 
 
 of the official Journal, and took up his residence in New 
 York, as the headquarters of the National Union. In 1896 
 the general office was removed to Bloomington, Illinois, and 
 the Secretary moved with his family to this locality, where 
 he has continued to make his home until the present date. 
 The office of Secretary he held until July, 1910, when he was 
 superseded by Mr. Eugene J. Brais, of Cleveland, Ohio. 
 
 Mr. Lennon has been present at practically every Con- 
 vention of the Journeymen Tailors' Union of America, usu- 
 ally in his official capacity as an officer. In 1887 he was one 
 of the delegates of the Tailors' Union to the Convention of 
 the American Federation of Labor, and has been a delegate 
 at every one of their annual meetings since that date. At 
 the Detroit Convention in 1888 he was elected Treasurer of 
 the Federation, and has been annually reelected. By virtue 
 of this appointment he is a member of the Executive Coun- 
 cil, and has been closely associated with Mr. Gompers, Mr- 
 Mitchell, and others prominent in the labor movement. 
 
 In recent years Mr. Lennon has become well known as a 
 public speaker, especially upon the subject of Church and 
 Labor and upon the Anti-Saloon movement. He has ad- 
 dressed a number of large meetings in different parts of the 
 country upon these subjects, and is regarded as one of the 
 leaders in the fight against the liquor traffic. He is a mem- 
 ber of the Committee on Social Service of the Federal Coun- 
 cil of the Churches of Christ, and has taken an active part 
 in the recent movement toward a closer affiliation between 
 the church and the masses. 
 
APPENDIX D. 
 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH, EUGENE J. BRAIS. 
 
 Eugene J. Brais was born in St. John's, Quebec, June 
 1 8, 1880, both of his parents being of French Canadian 
 descent. When he was five years of age the family moved to 
 Montreal. Here he attended parochial school until the age 
 of ten, when his people moved to the United States, taking 
 up residence in Cleveland, Ohio. The boy attended the pub- 
 lic schools in Cleveland for three years, after which he turned 
 to the trades, working for about two years at printing, and 
 for about three years at making and selling shoes. In 1899 
 he took up the tailoring trade, and prepared himself for a 
 coatmaker. 
 
 The Brais family were all active unionists, his father be- 
 ing a carpenter, and a member successively of the Knights 
 of Labor and the United Brotherhood of Carpenters, while 
 several brothers and sisters have been union members. Eu- 
 gene J. Brais soon became prominent in the Cleveland move- 
 ment, and in 1907 was elected Business Agent of the local 
 Tailors' Union in that city. In 1909 he was a delegate to 
 the Buffalo Convention of the Journeymen Tailors' Union 
 of America, and a member of the Committee on Laws and 
 Audit. At the opening of the Convention he was elected 
 Chairman, and was regarded as the spokesman of the Social- 
 ist or "progressive" element. Following this Convention he 
 became a candidate for General Secretary, and when the vote 
 was taken, December 13, 1909, he was elected, to take office 
 July i, 1910. On this date he took up his residence in Bloom- 
 
 95 
 
96 STUDIES IN TRADE UNIONISM 
 
 ington, Illinois, the location of the general headquarters, and 
 continues to make his home in that city. 
 
 In 1900 Mr. Brais became a member of the Socialist 
 Party, and has since been an active leader in this movement. 
 He is held to represent that element in the National Tailors' 
 Union which believes in maintaining the organization for trade 
 purposes, but desires in addition a more vigorous Socialist 
 propaganda than the more conservative unionists. Mr. Brais 
 has been a delegate to several Conventions of the American 
 Federation of Labor, and is regarded as a rising leader in 
 those branches of social reform in which he is interested. 
 
CHAPTER 4- 
 
 STATISTICS OF THE JOURNEYMEN TAILORS' UNION OF 
 AMERICA. 
 
CHAPTER 4. 
 
 STATISTICS OF THE JOURNEYMEN TAILORS' UNION OF 
 AMERICA. 
 
 I. Development of the Journeymen Tailor/ Union of 
 
 America, 1883-1911. 
 
 Table i. Condition of the National Union, 1883-1911. 
 
 (a) Source and accuracy. The figures in this table are 
 taken from the reports of the general officers to the succes- 
 sive legislative sessions of the National Union. 138 The bal- 
 ances in the general fund as indicated for the several dates 
 are taken from the audited accounts and are correct. The 
 number of local unions is also correct. The number of mem- 
 bers on each date is given as reported by the Secretary. It 
 may vary in the larger figures as much as 500 from an ac- 
 curate statement, in view of the fact that the membership 
 was not exactly the same from month to month, changing on 
 account of members initiated and members suspended for 
 non-payment of dues. 
 
 (b) Special Notes. 
 
 i. Variations in number of locals. The rapid increase 
 in the number of locals from 1887 to 1893 is explained by 
 the adoption of a vigorous organizing policy, under the direc- 
 tion of a paid secretary. By this means practically all of the 
 scattered tailors' unions not previously affiliated were brought 
 into the National, and in addition a number of new locals 
 were organized. 
 
 issQwing to the lack of published proceedings of the Convention of 
 1883, the writer has been obliged to estimate the membership of the five 
 charter locals, New York, Philadelphia, Troy, Baltimore and Pittsburgh, 
 from the membership of the same unions in 1884. 
 
 99 
 
100 
 
 STUDIES IN TRADE UNIONISM 
 
 From 1893 to 1899 a decline is noted, due primarily to 
 the after-effects of the panic. 139 Following this industrial 
 depression, there is a steady increase in membership until 
 1907, when another decline begins. This is undoubtedly due 
 in the main to the rapid development of the special-order 
 and agency trade, which, as suggested in a former chapter, 
 has nearly destroyed old-line tailoring in some of the smaller 
 towns. 
 
 At the present date the administration is spending large 
 sums of money for organizing purposes, and a special effort 
 is being made to organize tailors working on the new systems. 
 This policy may succeed in arresting the decline in member- 
 ship. 
 
 TABLE i. 
 
 CONDITION OF THE NATIONAL UNION, 1883-1911. 
 Number Total Average General Fund 
 
 Date 
 
 of Member- Member- 
 
 
 Locals 
 
 ship 
 
 ship 
 
 Balance 
 
 
 
 
 per 
 
 on hand 
 
 
 
 
 Local 
 
 
 Aug., 1883 
 
 5 
 
 1, 800 
 
 360.0 
 
 
 July i, 1884 
 
 16 
 
 2,402 
 
 150.0 
 
 
 Aug. 15, 1885 
 
 23 
 
 2,481 
 
 107.9 
 
 
 Aug. 15 1887 
 
 27 
 
 2,512 
 
 93-0 
 
 $ 3,256 09 
 
 Aug. 
 
 1889 
 
 97 
 
 5,000 
 
 51-5 
 
 4,098 09 
 
 Aug. 
 
 1891 
 
 169 
 
 9,014 
 
 53-3 
 
 8,103 69 
 
 July 
 
 1893 
 
 200 
 
 10,204 
 
 5i.o 
 
 8,in 41 
 
 April 
 
 1896 
 
 
 
 
 
 July 
 
 1897 
 
 181 
 
 5,683 
 
 31-4 
 
 2,389 oi 
 
 July 
 
 1899 
 
 151 
 
 6,217 
 
 41.2 
 
 14,134 12 
 
 July 
 
 1901 
 
 202 
 
 9,727 
 
 48.1 
 
 25,006 55 
 
 July 
 
 1903 
 
 308 
 
 14,496 
 
 47.0 
 
 46,417 05 
 
 Jan. 
 
 IQOS 
 
 331 
 
 16,000 
 
 48.3 
 
 32,503 49 
 
 July 
 
 1907 
 
 327 
 
 16,000 
 
 49-1 
 
 87,860 03 
 
 July 
 
 1909 
 
 325 
 
 13,000 
 
 40.0 
 
 56,423 66 
 
 July . i 
 
 1911 
 
 310 
 
 12,300 
 
 39-7 
 
 96,555 17 
 
 Deficit 
 
 688 86 
 
 Balance 
 
 per 
 Capita 
 
 $i 55 
 82 
 oo 
 79 
 
 42 
 
 2 27 
 
 2 57 
 
 3 20 
 
 2 03 
 
 5 49 
 
 4 34 
 785 
 
 2. Variations in Total Membership. 
 The reasons given for the variations in the number of 
 local unions from 1883 to ^97 a Pply with equal force to the 
 
 some time after the panic organizing work was seriously 
 handicapped. In the two years, 1894 and 1895, only $1,158.02 was spent 
 for organizing purposes, as compared with $2,401.15 in the single year 
 1896. 
 
IN THE CUSTOM TAILORING TRADE 101 
 
 variations in total membership during the same period. The 
 unusually heavy loss of membership following the panic was 
 due in a large measure to the loss of the New York union, 
 which left the National after a disastrous strike to resist a 
 reduction in wages. 14 In 1899 it is seen that there was a 
 slight recovery of membership, although the number of local 
 unions had continued to decrease. This is accounted for by 
 the fact that the weak unions continued to straggle away, 
 while the stronger ones were beginning to recuperate. Fol- 
 lowing 1899 there is a continuous gain until 1907. During 
 this period the New York union rejoined. (September i, 
 1903.) After 1907 there is a decline, for the same reasons 
 that have produced decline in the number of locals. 
 
 3. Variations in Average Membership per Local. For 
 the first four dates, 1883, 1884, 1885 and 1887, the averages 
 do not accurately describe the greater number of the local 
 unions, for the reason that on each of those dates the New 
 York union alone contained in the neighborhood of half the 
 entire membership. After 1887, this discrepancy is not so 
 noticeable, owing to the larger number of locals. The al- 
 most complete loss of the New York union between 1893 and 
 1897, coupled with the general demoralization of other unions, 
 produced a sharp decline in the average membership. After 
 1897 the average recovers again, and follows closely the 
 changes in total membership. 
 
 4. Variations in General Fund. 141 The term "General 
 Fund," as used in the publications of the National Tailors' 
 Union, refers to the balance on hand at any given date, clear 
 
 140 A small number of members remained affiliated with the National 
 Union and retained the charter, but the majority withdrew and later 
 formed a new association, which remained independent until 1903. 
 
 14 *The figures in this table begin with the earliest accounts that can 
 be found in the official journal. The Tailor, and conclude with July I, 1911, 
 the end of the latest fiscal year. The same is true of all financial state- 
 ments given in this chapter. 
 
102 STUDIES IN TRADE UNIONISM 
 
 of all indebtedness. During the greater part of the period 
 from 1883 to 1911, the general fund was maintained as a 
 single fund from which all kinds of expenses of the National 
 Union, including the benefits of members, were to be paid. 
 About 1891 an attempt was made to maintain four separate 
 funds, an organizing fund, a funeral fund, a strike fund, 
 and a general fund, but this was found impracticable, and 
 was abandoned soon after the panic of 1893. A deficit is 
 recorded in 1896; at this date the union had borrowed money 
 in excess of its assets. 
 
 The notable fall in the funds following the panic is shown 
 clearly by the table. The other main fluctuations occur be- 
 tween 1903 and 1905, and between 1907 and 1909. The 
 falling off in funds in each case was due to expensive strikes. 
 The large balances shown on all dates after 1899 are due to 
 increases in membership and in the monthly dues. 142 
 
 TABLE 2. 
 
 INCOME AND EXPENSE, JOURNEYMEN TAILORS' UNION OF AMERICA. 
 
 1885-1911. 
 
 Income. , Expense. 
 Oct. i i88s-Aug. 14, 1887 $ 5,698.99 $ 2,442.90 
 
 Aug. 15 
 
 Aug. i 
 
 Aug. i 
 
 July i 
 
 July i 
 
 July i 
 
 July i 
 
 July i 
 
 July i 
 
 Jan. i 
 
 July i 
 
 July i 
 
 i887-July 31, 1889 10,370.22 9,528.22 
 
 1889- July 31, 1891 47,734.16 43,728.56 
 
 i89i-June 30, 1893 76,566.11 76,558.49 
 
 i893-June 30, 1895 64,312.45 71,056.94 
 
 i895-June 30, 1897 45,313-84 44,291-75 
 
 1897- June 30, 1899 45,266.22 33,576.97 
 
 i899-June 30, 1901 73,229.00 62,300.71 
 
 I90i-June 30, 1903 113,998.72 92,588.22 
 
 1903-Dec. 31, 1904 (i l / 2 yr.) 128,791.69 142,705.25 
 
 1905-June 30, 1907 (2^ yr.) 202,810.21 147,453.67 
 
 1907-June 30, 1909 184,304.70 215,741.07 
 
 1909-Jnne 30, 1911 197,255.92 157,124.41 
 
 $1,195,652.23 $1,099,097.06 
 
 Total Income, Oct. i, 1885 to June 30, 1911 $1,195,652.23 
 
 Total Expense, Oct. i, 1885 to June 30, 1911 1,099,097.06 
 
 Leaves balance in general fund, June 30, 1911 $ 96,555.17 
 
 142 For details of changes in monthly dues and other sources of in- 
 come, see notes to Table 2. 
 
IN THE CUSTOM TAILORING TRADE 103 
 
 Table 2. Income and Expense, 1885-1911. 
 
 (a) Source and Accuracy. The figures for the table of 
 income and expense have been taken from the reports of the 
 General Secretary to the legislative sessions of the National 
 Union. These figures have been carefully audited and are 
 correct. 
 
 (b) Special Notes. 
 
 1. The regular fiscal period of the Tailors' National 
 Union is two years. It will be noticed in the table that there 
 is a slight deviation from this in the case of the first, second 
 and fourth periods; also that the four years from July i, 
 1903, to June 30, 1907, is divided into periods of 1^2 and 
 -2^/2 years, instead of into periods of two years each. These 
 deviations are due to the shifting of the date specified by 
 the constitution for the general audit, and should be taken 
 into account by the reader in comparing the amounts of in- 
 come and expense for the successive periods. 
 
 2. Sources of income. At the present date the principal 
 sources of income are initiation fees and monthly dues, in- 
 terest on the general fund, and income from the sale of sup- 
 plies to local unions. Levies were formally an important 
 item, but have now been replaced largely by increased monthly 
 dues. The following statement shows the classification of 
 income for the fiscal year ending June 30, 191 1, 143 
 
 INCOME OF THE TAILORS' NATIONAL UNION, 
 JULY i, 1910 JUNE 30, 1911. 
 
 Initiation fees and monthly dues $ 97,438.55 
 
 Interest on general fund 2,132.41 
 
 Sale of supplies 1,109.40 
 
 Miscellaneous 250.02 
 
 Total $100,930.38 
 
 143 This statement is taken from The Tailor, July, 1911, p. 18. 
 
101 
 
 STUDIES IN TRADE UNIONISM 
 
 To understand the variations in income during the period 
 covered by Table 2, it is necessary to know the history of 
 the regulations of the National Union on the subject of dues, 
 levies and fees. For this purpose the following statements 
 have been compiled, showing the laws as found in the suc- 
 cessive constitutions of the Union. 
 
 LAWS OF THE JOURNEYMEN TAILORS' UNION OF AMERICA, 
 FEES AND MONTHLY DUES.! 
 
 Const. 
 
 
 In force. 
 
 
 1883 
 
 Aug., 
 
 i883-Aug., 
 
 1884 
 
 18842 
 
 Aug., 
 
 1 884- Aug., 
 
 1885 
 
 1885 
 
 Aug., 
 
 i885-Aug., 
 
 1887 
 
 1887 
 
 Aug., 
 
 i887-Aug., 
 
 1889 
 
 1889 
 
 Aug., 
 
 3i889-Jan. 
 
 1892 
 
 18924 
 
 Jan. i 
 
 1892- Jan. 
 
 1894 
 
 1894 
 
 Jan. 
 
 i894-Aug. 
 
 1895 
 
 i895 5 
 1896 
 
 Aug. 
 Apr. 
 
 i8Q5-Apr. 
 i896-Jan. 
 
 1806 
 1898 
 
 1898 
 
 Jan. 
 
 i898-Jan. 
 
 1900 
 
 1900 
 
 Jan. 
 
 1900-Jan. 
 
 1902 
 
 1902 
 
 Jan. 
 
 1 902- Jan. 
 
 1904 
 
 1904 
 
 Jan. 
 
 1904-July 
 
 1905 
 
 1005 
 
 July 
 
 1905-Jan. 
 
 1908 
 
 1908 
 
 Jan. i 
 
 I9o8-Jan. i 
 
 1910 
 
 1910 
 
 Jan. i 
 
 1910 
 
 
 
 Init. 
 
 Reinst. 
 
 Charter 
 
 Mo. 
 
 
 fee\. 
 
 fee. 
 
 fee. 
 
 dues. 
 
 
 
 
 
 $ .05 
 
 
 
 
 
 .10 
 
 
 None 
 
 None 
 
 $ S.oo 
 
 .10 
 
 
 None 
 
 None 
 
 5-00 
 
 .10 
 
 
 $1.00 
 
 $1.00 
 
 8.00 
 
 .25 
 
 
 I.OO 
 
 I.OO 
 
 8.00 
 
 .25 
 
 
 1. 00 
 
 2.00 
 
 10.00 
 
 .30 
 
 
 .00 
 
 2.OO 
 
 IO.OO 
 
 .30 
 
 
 .00 
 
 2.OO 
 
 IO.OO 
 
 .30 
 
 
 .00 
 
 2.00 
 
 10.00 
 
 35 
 
 
 .00 
 
 2.OO 
 
 10.00 
 
 35 
 
 
 .00 
 
 2.0O 
 
 IO.OO 
 
 .40 
 
 
 .00 
 
 5.00 
 
 IO.OO 
 
 .40 
 
 54 
 
 loc. fee 
 
 3-00 
 
 None 
 
 45 
 
 V2 
 
 loc. fee 
 
 3-00 
 
 None 
 
 45 6 
 
 
 I.OO 
 
 3.00 
 
 None 
 
 .65 
 
 (1) The fees and monthly dues as given in this table are the amounts 
 payable to the National Union. In addition each member is re- 
 quired to pay local fees and local dues. Reinstatement fees are 
 required of members who become suspended for non-payment of 
 dues, and who want to reenter the union. Under the present consti- 
 tution (1910) the local initiation fee is $1.00 in all local unions; 
 the local reinstatement fee is $3.00; there is no local charter fee; 
 the local dues are set by the constitution of each local union, but 
 cannot be less than twenty cents a month. 
 
 (2) At date of writing this article the texts of the 1883 and 1884 con- 
 stitutions are not available. The provisions as to dues have been 
 ascertained from the former secretary. 
 
 (3) The 1889 constitution went into effect August 17, 1889, except the 
 clauses on funeral benefit and organizing levies, which went into 
 effect January i, 1890. 
 
 (4)) The first five constitutions, 1883, 1884, 1885, 1887, and 1889, were 
 dated the same as the convention years, because each of these 
 constitutions went into effect before the close of the convention 
 year. All later constitutions went into effect the first of January 
 following the convention or committee meeting, and are dated ac- 
 cordingly, with three exceptions: (i) The 1895 constitution went 
 
IN THE CUSTOM TAILORING TRADE 105 
 
 into effect August i, 1895, following the adoption of certain amend- 
 ments submitted to a general vote by the General Executive Board 
 (2) The 1896 constitution went into effect April I, 1896, following 
 the adoption of further amendments submitted by the Board. (3) 
 The 1905 constitution went into effect July I, 1905, following a 
 convention held in February instead of in August as usual. 
 
 (5) The constitution of 1895 is not published in book form, but can 
 be found in The Tailor, August, 1895, pp. I-.7 
 
 (6) The 1908 constitution provides that dues shall be 45 cents a month 
 until July I, 1908, when they shall be raised to 60 cents a month, 
 on account of the adoption of a sick benefit. 
 
 LAWS OF THE; JOURNEYMEN TAILORS' UNION OF AMERICA. 
 LEVIES AND SPECIAL ASSESSMENTS. 
 
 Const. 1 Provisions for Levies and Assessments. 
 
 1883 (Constitution not available.) 
 
 1884 (Constitution not available.) 
 
 (i) The period during which the successive constitutions were in 
 force has been given in the preceding table and is not repeated here. 
 
 1885 (i) A special levy may be declared, if necessary, 
 
 by authority of the General Executive Board; 
 not to exceed 50 cents per member in any one 
 quarter. 
 
 (2) In case of long-continued strikes, additional 
 levies can be declared by a majority vote of 
 the general membership. 
 
 1887 Same as 1885. 
 
 1889 (i) In case of danger of deficiency in the general 
 fund, Executive Board may levy assessment of 
 10 cents per member against local union treas- 
 uries, but not more than twice in any three 
 consecutive months. 
 
 (2) Special strike levy, not to exceed 50 cents per 
 member, can be declared by a two-thirds vote 
 of the general membership. 
 
 (3) Special convention levy, to assist in payment of 
 mileage of delegates, can be declared by a two- 
 thirds vote of the general membership. 
 
106 STUDIES IN TRADE UNIONISM 
 
 Const. Provisions for Levies and Assessments. (Con.) 
 
 (4) Regular levy for organizing purposes, 50 cents 
 
 per member, to be paid annually. 
 
 1892 (i) 10 cent assessment by Executive Board, same 
 as 1889. 
 
 (2) Special strike levy, same as 1889. 
 
 (3) Special convention levy, same as 1889. 
 
 (4) Regular organizing levy, 5 cents per member 
 per month. 
 
 1894 Provisions (i), (2), and (3) of 1892, re- 
 enacted. (4), organizing levy, repealed. 
 
 1895 Same as 1894. 
 
 1896 Same as 1894. 
 
 1898 (i) 10 cent assessment by Executive Board, as be- 
 fore. 
 
 (2) Special organizing assessments by Executive 
 Board, not to exceed 50 cents a year. 
 
 (3) Two regular annual 25 cent levies, to be paid 
 by each member on May i and November i ; 
 to be discontinued when the general fund 
 reaches $10,000. 
 
 (4) Special strike levy, not to exceed 50 cents per 
 member, by majority vote of general member- 
 ship. (Formerly two-thirds vote.) 
 
 (5) Special convention levy, by majority vote of 
 general membership. (Formerly two-thirds 
 vote.) 
 
 1900 Provisions (i), (4) and (5) of 1898, re- 
 
 enacted. 
 
 (2) Special organizing assessments, repealed. 
 
 (3) Two annual levies as in 1898, but not to be 
 discontinued until fund reaches $30,000. 
 
IN THE CUSTOM TAILORING TRADE 107 
 
 Const. Provisions for Levies and Assessments. (Con.) 
 
 1902 (i) 10 cent assessment by Executive Board, as be- 
 fore. 
 
 (2) Special strike levy, as before. 
 
 (3) Special convention levy, to be declared by Exe- 
 cutive Board in case the membership vote to 
 have a convention. 
 
 1904 (i) One annual 25 cent levy, to be paid by each 
 
 member on October i ; to be discontinued when 
 the general fund reaches $5.00 per member. 
 
 (2) Special strike levy, as before. 
 
 (3) In case of a strike lasting more than six weeks, 
 the Executive Board may at their discretion 
 raise the strike benefit 50 cents a day. To 
 provide funds for this purpose the Board may 
 if necessary declare a levy of 25 cents on each 
 member of the National Union, payable at once 
 from the treasuries of the local unions ; the 
 local unions to reimburse their treasuries by 
 collecting the levy from the members. 
 
 1905 (i) Two 25 cent levies, annual, payable May i and 
 
 October i, to be discontinued when general 
 fund reaches $100,000. 
 
 (2) Special strike levy, not to exceed 50 cents per 
 member, to be declared by Executive Board 
 when necessary, without a general vote. (For- 
 merly majority vote of general membership re- 
 quired.)* 
 1908 Provisions (i) and (2), same as 1905. 
 
 Note. The 10 cent assessment and special convention levy are re- 
 pealed in 1904. and do not appear in any later constitution. Expense 
 of organizing work and mileage of delegates are paid from general 
 fund, without special assessments. 
 
108 STUDIES IN TRADE UNIONISM 
 
 Const. Provisions for Levies and Assessments. (Con.) 
 
 1910 (i) Special emergency or strike levy, not to ex- 
 ceed 50 cents per member per month, to be de- 
 clared by Executive Board without a general 
 vote. 
 (All other levies repealed.) 
 
 3. Classification of Expense. Undoubtedly the greatest 
 single item of expense, when the whole period is considered^ 
 has been the strike benefit. As shown in a following table, 
 the strike benefit from August 15, 1887 to July i, 1911, 
 amounted to $378,508.31, or a little over one-third of the 
 total expense for the same period. 
 
 The following statement shows classification of expense 
 for the fiscal year ending June 30, 191 1. 144 
 
 Organizing expenses $24,165.40 
 
 Sick benefits 21,256.35 
 
 Death benefits 10,870.75 
 
 The Tailor, printing and shipping. . 4,363.08 
 
 Strike benefits 4,330.00 
 
 Office salaries 3,856.00 
 
 Stationery and supplies for local 
 
 unions and for the general office. 2,739.82 
 
 Miscellaneous items 5,364.04 
 
 Total expense $76,945.44 
 
 Note. Under ''Miscellaneous Items" are included small bills, such 
 as rent, postage, telegrams, etc., and also the following larger items : 
 dues to American Federation of Labor, and Canada Labor Congress ; 
 services General Executive Board; services of delegates to American 
 Federation of Labor ; salary General Treasurer ; attorney's fees, and 
 premiums on bonds of general officers. 
 
 344This statement is taken from The Tailor, July, 1911, p. 18. 
 
IN THE CUSTOM TAILORING TRADE 
 
 109 
 
 Nature of 
 
 Date. 
 
 Place 
 
 Session. 
 
 
 
 Convention 
 
 Aug., 1883 
 
 Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Convention 
 
 Aug. n, 1884 
 
 Chicago, 111. 
 
 Convention 
 
 Aug. 10, 1885 
 
 Baltimore, Md. 
 
 Convention 
 
 Aug. 8, 1887 
 
 New York, N.Y. 
 
 Convention 
 
 Aug. 12, 1889 
 
 Columbus, Ohio 
 
 Convention 
 
 Aug. 3, 1891 
 
 St. Louis, Mo. 
 
 Convention 
 
 Aug. 7, 1893 
 
 St. Paul, Minn. 
 
 Committee 
 
 Aug. 2, 18972 
 
 Bloomington, 111. 
 
 Committee 
 
 Aug. 7, 1899 
 
 Bloomington, 111. 
 
 Committee 
 
 Aug. 5, 1901 
 
 Bloomington, 111. 
 
 Committee 
 
 Aug. 3, 1903 
 
 Bloomington, 111. 
 
 Committee 
 
 Jan. 30, 1905 
 
 Bloomington, 111. 
 
 Convention 
 
 Feb. 6, 1905 
 
 Bloomington, 111. 
 
 Committee 
 
 Aug. 5, 1907 
 
 Bloomington, 111. 
 
 Committee 
 
 July 26, 1909 
 
 Buffalo, N. Y. 
 
 Convention 
 
 Aug. 2, 1909 
 
 Buffalo, N. Y. 
 
 TABLE 3. 
 
 LEGISLATIVE SESSIONS OF THE JOURNEYMEN TAILORS' UNION 
 OF AMERICA. 
 
 Reference to 
 Proceedings. 1 
 
 Pub. (N.Y., 1884) 
 Pub. (N.Y., 1885) 
 
 Tailor, Oct., 1887 
 
 Tailor, Sept., 1889 
 
 Tailor, Aug., 1891 
 
 Tailor, Aug., 1893 
 
 Tailor, Aug., 1897 
 
 Tailor, Aug., 1899 
 
 Tailor, Aug., 1901 
 
 Tailor, Aug., 1903 
 
 Tailor, Feb., 1905 
 
 Tailor, Feb., 1905 
 
 Tailor, Aug., 1907 
 
 Tailor, Aug., 1909 
 
 Tailor, Aug., 1909 
 
 1 The writer has not as yet been able to secure complete proceed- 
 ings of the 1883 convention. 
 
 2 The vote of the membership in 1895 was adverse to holding a 
 convention, so that there was a period of four years, 1893-1897, without 
 any regular legislative session. 
 
 Table 5. Legislative Sessions. 
 
 Special Notes. The 1883, 1884 and 1885 constitutions of 
 the Tailors' National Union were adopted by the conventions 
 of those dates, and were not submitted to a vote of the whole 
 membership. The 1887 constitution, as adopted by the con- 
 vention of that year, was submitted as a unit to a general 
 vote, and was approved. The 1889 constitution was not sub- 
 mitted to a general vote, with the exception of certain prop- 
 ositions to levy an assessment for organizing purposes, and 
 to establish a funeral benefit. These propositions were sub- 
 mitted to a vote of the membership, and were carried. The 
 balance of the 1889 constitution went into effect by the action 
 of the convention alone. The constitution of 1891, as 
 adopted by the convention, was submitted as a unit to the 
 membership, and was carried. The convention of 1893 
 
110 STUDIES IN TRADE UNIONISM 
 
 adopted certain amendments to the 1891 constitution, which 
 were then submitted to the membership as separate numbered 
 propositions. The propositions which were carried were then 
 incorporated in the constitution of 1893. All future consti- 
 tutions were amended by this method of submitting to a vote 
 of the general membership the separate constitutional changes 
 as approved by the convention or other legislative session. 
 The body submitting amendments has not always been a con- 
 vention. The General Executive Board, acting under con- 
 stitutional authority, has frequently sent out amendments for 
 a general vote, and on one occasion (1896), virtually took 
 the place of a convention, sending out a number of proposi- 
 tions, some of which were carried and embodied in the con- 
 stitution of 1896. One of these propositions adopted in 1896 
 made an important change in the legislative machinery. Pre- 
 viously it had been the custom to send out a circular every 
 two years, calling for a general vote on the question as to 
 whether a convention should be held. If the vote was ad- 
 verse there was no convention, and no provision was made 
 for any regular legislative session until another two years 
 had passed, when the vote could be taken again. If the vote 
 was favorable the convention met and revised the laws. In 
 those years that the convention met, it was provided that a 
 Committee of five members should be appointed, known as 
 the Committee on Laws and Audit, to meet just before the 
 convention. This Committee was required to audit the books 
 of the general officers, to examine proposed amendments to 
 the constitution, and to make a report to the convention. By 
 the amendment of 1896, the Committee on Laws and Audit 
 was to be appointed in years when, by reason of an adverse 
 vote, the convention did not meet, as well as in those years 
 when it did. When there was no convention the Committee 
 was empowered to consider amendments proposed, and to 
 make recommendations and submit propositions to a general 
 
IN THE CUSTOM TAILORING TRADE HI 
 
 vote, just as the convention would have done if it had been 
 in session. The Committee was also to audit the books, and 
 to make a report to the membership through the official Jour- 
 nal. This system of optional conventions, to be replaced by 
 Committees when desired, prevailed with some modifications 
 until 1909. Later amendments made the membership of the 
 Committee twelve instead of five, and set the optional con- 
 vention period at four years instead of two, the Committee, 
 however, to meet every two years, whether the convention 
 met or not. It is seen from the table that for twelve years, 
 from 1893 to I 95> there was no convention, the legislative 
 work being done in 1896 by the General Executive Board, 
 and after that by Committees. In 1909 the law was made 
 mandatory so as to require the holding of a convention every 
 four years. The services of the Committee before conven- 
 tions are retained, but the Committee meetings between con- 
 ventions are abolished. The next convention will be held in 
 
 II. Strikes and Lockouts. 
 Definitions. 
 
 (a) Strikes. The term "strike" is familiar, and scarcely 
 requires definition. In general a strike implies that the initi- 
 ative in the dispute leading to a cessation of work is taken 
 by the workmen. 
 
 (b) Lockouts. The term "lockout" is used somewhat 
 indiscriminately in the tailoring trade, to indicate any of the 
 following situations : 
 
 ( i ) All union members discharged, and declaration made 
 that no unionists will be employed. 
 
 (2) One or more unionists discharged, on account of 
 special activity in the union. 
 
 (3) Unionists permitted to remain at work, provided 
 they will bargain as individuals ; employers refuse to sign 
 any agreement with union. 
 
112 STUDIES IN TRADE UNIONISM 
 
 The question as to whether a disturbance is a strike or 
 a lockout has come up in connection with the applications of 
 local unions to the General Executive Board for support. 
 In such cases the first situation named has always been rec- 
 ognized as a lockout. The second case might be regarded as 
 a partial lockout, but it is more usual to refer to the members 
 discharged as "victimized." While recognizing that "victim- 
 ized" members have a grievance, the union has not as a rule 
 demanded their reinstatement by the employer, but has simply 
 aided such members from the strike benefit until they could 
 get work elsewhere. As to the third case, it may be regarded 
 as nearly equivalent to the first, as the employers know that 
 as a rule the members will not work under these conditions. 
 However, technically speaking, it is better to regard a dis- 
 turbance growing out of this case as a strike for enforcing 
 the system of collective bargaining, rather than as a lockout. 
 
 Closely connected with the situations named above are 
 those where the employers refuse to employ unionists under 
 any circumstances, or where they demand an agreement from 
 prospective employees that they will not join a union. These 
 are to be regarded as phases of the "black-list." 
 
 If the above distinctions are followed, the greater part of 
 the important controversies that have taken place in the tail- 
 oring trade can be brought under the head of "strikes." 
 
 General Strike Policy of the Tailors' National Union. 
 
 From the very beginning it has been the policy of the 
 National Union to maintain centralized control of strikes. 
 The principal aid to maintaining this kind of control is the 
 fact that the strike benefit fund is governed by the National 
 Union. Before granting support to any local union it has 
 been customary to make the following requirements : 
 
 (i) A genuine effort must be made by the local union 
 to settle the controversy by negotiation with the employers, 
 
IN THE CUSTOM TAILORING TRADE 118 
 
 before calling a strike. If such negotiation fails, a secret 
 vote of the union is to be taken as to whether the members 
 involved shall be called out and supported, a two-thirds vote 
 to decide. 
 
 (2) Before any strike is actually begun, full information 
 must be sent to headquarters, indicating the cause of diffi- 
 culty; the number of members likely to be involved; the 
 likelihood of all such members responding to a strike call, 
 if it is ordered; the condition of trade, and the prospects of 
 success. No members must be called out until permission has 
 been received from the General Executive Board. Failure 
 to observe this provision debars the local union from the re- 
 ceipt of benefit, and any strike undertaken without the sanc- 
 tion of the Executive Board must be carried on at the risk 
 and expense of the local union. 
 
 (3) As a rule the union is requested to delay radical 
 action and to keep the members at work until a representative 
 of the National Union can be sent to the city to endeavor to 
 secure a settlement. Many strikes have been avoided in this 
 way, and the services of the national organizers in helping 
 to settle local controversies are fully as important as their 
 strictly organizing duties. 
 
 The essentials of the policy outlined above may be found 
 in the earliest constitutions of the National Union, 145 and 
 with some modifications have been continued to the present 
 date. 
 
 Causes of Strikes. Specific Union Policies. 
 
 (a) Strikes to resist reduction in wages. It has been 
 the uniform policy of the National Union to resist reductions 
 whenever offered. There has been no deviation from this 
 policy except during times of extreme industrial depression. 
 In resisting reductions the union has met with a very high 
 
 i45See in Appendix B to Chapter 3, the By-laws of 1885, Articles 
 11-15- 
 
114 STUDIES IN TRADE UNIONISM 
 
 degree of success, and it has been found necessary to accept 
 very few reductions, except during panic times. 
 
 (b) Strikes for increase of wages. Considerable dis- 
 cretion has been exercised by the Executive Board in the 
 matter of supporting demands for increased wages. It has 
 been their rule for a number of years to require from local 
 unions desiring to raise their price-bills a copy of the bill 
 already paid, as well as a copy of the bill which it is desired 
 to present to the employers, so that the Board can see directly 
 the amount of the increase demanded. The Board has never 
 placed obstacles in the way of any local union's obtaining as 
 large an increase as possible by peaceable negotiations, but 
 when it has been evident that a strike would be necessary, 
 the Board has usually required that the local union should 
 not demand more than a ten per cent increase ; and the locals 
 have been strongly urged to accept a compromise of less than 
 this amount, rather than to strike. This policy has been fol- 
 lowed quite consistently, with the result that a very large 
 part of the demands made by local unions have been settled 
 on a satisfactory basis without strikes. Where strikes have 
 been necessary, a large per cent have succeeded, and, as a 
 rule, the gains made have been permanent. 
 
 (c) Strikes to enforce a union shop. It is well known 
 that many unionists desire to enforce the rule that all em- 
 ployees of establishments shall be members of the unions, 
 and that unionists shall not work with non-unionists. The 
 tailors have supported this principle as firmly as any other 
 trade, but have not always insisted that it should be em- 
 bodied in their wage contracts. There has been a tendency 
 on the part of the general officers toward conservatism in 
 this matter. It has been felt that while a demand for a union 
 shop contract was legitimate, in case an employer was will- 
 ing to sign it, nevertheless the strike and the boycott should 
 not be used to enforce this demand; this principally on ac- 
 
IN THE CUSTOM TAILORING TRADE 115 
 
 count of the strong feeling in the public mind that if the 
 union reserved the right of its members to quit work at will 
 the employer should be conceded the right to employ at 
 will. 146 It was then the business of the union to get the 
 employees organized, if they could. There have been, there- 
 fore, many contracts signed between tailors and their em- 
 ployers which make no mention of the employment of union 
 members only. In such cases, however, the unions have re- 
 served the right to cease working for an establishment if 
 new employees refuse to join, and this position has ordinarily 
 been sustained by the General Executive Board. It should 
 be understood that the union regulations with respect to these 
 matters have come to be customary in the trade, and in a 
 majority of cases are observed by employees coming into 
 union shops without any strike being necessary. 
 
 (d) Strikes to enforce a system of collective bargaining. 
 Some of the most serious conflicts in the tailoring trade have 
 arisen from the demands of employers that the workers in 
 their employ should bargain as individuals. Sometimes the 
 presentation of a new scale of prices by the men has been 
 made the pretext for a demand of this kind. The unions 
 have invariably refused to abandon the principle of collective 
 bargaining, and in most cases the employers have given up 
 their demands and made a settlement with the union com- 
 mittees, although sometimes long and expensive strikes were 
 necessary before this result was secured. 
 
 (e) Strikes against home work and in favor of free 
 shops. The agitation against home work has been very 
 strong in the tailoring trade, especially on the part of the 
 general officers of the union. During the early years of the 
 official Journal, beginning with 1887, there was scarcely an 
 issue that did not contain vigorous articles or editorials by 
 
 i46Recent large strikes for enforcing a union shop, e.g., Toronto, 
 appear to indicate some change in this policy. 
 
STUDIES IN TRADE UNIONISM 
 
 the general secretary on this subject. The net result of the 
 movement to secure the free shops was a considerable increase 
 in the number of members working in such shops. It was 
 not possible, however, to make the free shop system universal 
 all over the country. The situation is well expressed by the 
 Secretary in his report to the 1905 Convention: 
 
 "While the piece system of work so largely prevails in 
 our trade, it appears as though it will be almost impossible 
 to completely enforce the free shop system, and this more 
 because of the opposition of the journeymen tailors, than 
 from the opposition of the employers. To work at home 
 gives the journeyman tailor an opportunity to work for sev- 
 eral different establishments, and they believe as a rule that 
 this is an advantage to them, and believing that, it is almost 
 an impossibility to persuade or force every one into the free 
 shops." 147 
 
 Strikes arising out of the question of the free shops have 
 taken two forms : ( i ) Strikes to oblige employers to furnish 
 free shops. (2) Strikes to oblige members to work in the 
 free shops after they have been secured. The details of all 
 such strikes can not be given here ; the results were as noted 
 above. 
 
 (f) Strikes against the change of system. In the chap- 
 ter on present conditions in the trade it was noted that there 
 is a continuous tendency on the part of employers to in- 
 augurate systems of cheaper production. Such systems have 
 usually meant that all or part of the skilled journeymen 
 would be thrown out of work, and the journeymen have 
 naturally objected strongly to such changes. Strikes for the 
 purpose of resisting changes in the system of production 
 have been the least successful strikes in the trade. It has 
 become the policy of the National Union not to support such 
 strikes, as long as there is any possibility of securing an agree- 
 
 i47Tailor, Aug., 1905, p. 7. 
 
IN THE CUSTOM TAILORING TRADE 117 
 
 ment between the employers and the journeymen for the 
 government of the new system after it is started. It is not 
 always possible to reemploy all the journeymen, but fre- 
 quently some of them can be reemploy ed, and this is consid- 
 ered better, provided union conditions can be had, than a 
 strike. 
 
 The list of causes enumerated above does not, of course, 
 include all possible causes of strikes in the tailoring trade, 
 but it includes the most important ones. 
 
 TABLE 4. 
 STRIKE BENEFIT REGULATIONS, 1884-1910. 
 
 Sir. ben. Str. bem,. 
 
 per ivk., per wk., 
 
 Const. In forced Str. ben. begins: ist6wks. afterdzvks. 
 
 1883 1883-18842 
 
 1884 1884-1885 $6.00 $6.00 
 
 1885 1885-1887 8th day of strike 4.00 4.00 
 1887 1887-1889 8th day of strike 4.00 4.00 
 1889 1889-1891 8th day of strike 5.00 5.00 
 1892 1892-1893 8th day of strike 6.00 6.00 
 
 1894 1894-1895 8th day of strike 6.00 6.00 
 
 1895 1895-1896 8th day of strike 6.00 6.00 
 
 1896 1896-1897 8th day of strike 6.oo3 6.oo3 
 1898 1898-1899 8th day of strike 6.00* 6.00* 
 1900 1900-1901 5th day of strike 6.oo 5 6.oo 5 
 1902 1902-1903 5th day of strike 6.oo 6 6.00^ 
 
 1904 1904-1905 5th day of strike 6.00 6.0O7 
 
 1905 1905-1907 5th day of strike 8 6.00 9.008 
 1908 1908-1909 ist day of strike 6.00 9.00 
 1910 1910- ist day of strike 11 6.00 9.00 
 
 1 For exact dates see taible of regulations respecting fees and monthly 
 dues, page 114. 
 
 2 The constitution of 1883 is not available. 
 
 3 "Except during the months of January, February, July and August 
 of each year, during which months strike or lockout benefits shall 
 be four dollars per week." (Constitution of 1896, Sec. 48.) 
 
 4 Except four months, same as 1896. 
 
 5 Except in January, February, July and August, when benefit shall 
 be $4.50 per week. (Constitution of 1900, Sec. 54). 
 
 6 Applies the year around ; former exceptions repealed. 
 
 7 After a strike hais been on six weeks, the General Executive Board 
 shall have power at their discretion to raise the strike benefit to 
 $9.00 per week, and to levy for this purpose if necessary a special 
 assessment of 25 cents on each member of the National Union. 
 (Constitution of 1904, Sec. 63.) 
 
118 
 
 STUDIES IN TRADE UNIONISM 
 
 10 
 
 ii 
 
 "In case of any strike or lockout involving 50 per cent or more of 
 the members of the Journeymen Tailors' Union of America, no 
 strike benefit shall be paid for the first four weeks" (Constitution 
 of 1905, Sec. 78.) The same provision is found in the 1908 and 
 1910 constitutions. 
 
 Qualifications in 1904 constitution removed; regular benefit is 
 now $9.00 per week for each member involved, after the strike has 
 been on for six weeks. 
 
 But if strike is settled within four days from the beginning, no 
 benefit shall be paid. If strike lasts more than four days, benefit 
 shall be paid from the first day. 
 Qualifications same as in 1908. 
 
 TABLE 5. 
 
 EXPENDITURE FOR ORGANIZING PURPOSES, STRIKE BENEFITS, DEATH BENEFITS, AND SICK 
 
 BENEFITS. 
 
 
 Period. 
 
 Org. 
 
 Strike. 
 
 Death. 
 
 Sick. 
 
 Aug. 
 
 15, 1887, to Aug. i, 1889 (23.5 mo.) . . 
 
 $ 1,171.40 
 
 $ 3,438.00 
 
 $ 
 
 $ 
 
 Aug. 
 
 i, 1889, to Aug. i, 1891 (2 yrs.).... 
 
 3,793.85 
 
 14,683.01 
 
 ii 250 oo 
 
 
 Aug. 
 
 i, 1891, to July i, 1893 ( 2 3 mo.).... 
 
 7,953.64 
 
 24,369.25 
 
 29,300 oo 
 
 
 Ttilv 
 
 1893, to July i 1895 (2 yrs.) 
 
 1,765.91 
 
 27.485 os 
 
 26 O4^ 40 
 
 
 Tulv 
 
 1895, to July i 1897 (2 yrs.) 
 
 4,108.95 
 
 12,565.95 
 
 138^285 
 
 
 Tulv 
 
 1897, to July i 1899 ( 2yrs.) 
 
 9,186.14 
 
 4,371.00 
 
 9,298.40 
 
 
 Tulv 
 
 1899, to July i 1901 (2 yrs.) 
 
 8,912.18 
 
 28,463 2; 
 
 10 716 19 
 
 
 July 
 
 1901, to July i 1903 (2 yrs.) 
 
 16 008 32 
 
 74 262 ^0 
 
 m 712 40 
 
 
 Tulv 
 
 1903, to Jan. i 1905 (i l /2 yrs.).... 
 
 17,777 71 
 
 84 842 A< 
 
 13 678 oo 
 
 
 Jan. 
 
 1905, to July I 1907 (2.5 yrs.) 
 
 33,998.32 
 
 31,874.50 
 
 31, 133. 50 
 
 
 Tnlv 
 
 1907, to July I 1909 (2 yrs.) 
 
 30 043 88 
 
 QC 8l7 3=; 
 
 22 ICK 63 
 
 30 056 oc 
 
 Tuly 
 
 1909, to July i 1911 (2 yrs ) 
 
 4O ^74 31 
 
 ii 336 oo 
 
 -7T Tog 7C 
 
 43 41^ QC 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Totals, Aug. 15, 1887, to July i, 1911: 
 
 For organizing purposes $177,054.61 
 
 For strike benefits , 373,508.31 
 
 For death benefits 203,921.12 
 
 For sick benefits 73,468.90 
 
 N. B Payment of death benefit began April i, 1890; of sick benefit, Jan. i, 1908 
 
 Strike Benefit Regulations. 
 
 Table 4. Strike Benefit Regulations, 1884-1910. The 
 abstract in this table is taken from the successive constitutions 
 of the National Union. The table shows the amount of 
 
IN THE CUSTOM TAILORING TRADE 
 
 119 
 
 strike benefit per week paid to each member involved in a 
 strike which has been authorized by the General Executive 
 Board. It is seen that the strike benefit since 1905 has been 
 exceptionally liberal, being $1.50 a day or $9.00 a week for 
 each member, after a strike has been on more than six weeks. 
 
 Table 5. Expenditure for Organizing Purposes, Strike 
 Benefits, Death Benefits, and Sick Benefits. 
 
 The figures in this table are taken from the reports of 
 the General Secretary to the Conventions and Committees of 
 the National Union. The primary purpose in submitting 
 them at this point is to enable the reader to compare strike 
 benefit with the other leading objects of expenditure by the 
 Tailors' Union. 
 
 TABLE 6. 
 STRIKES AND LOCKOUTS IN THE TAILORING TRADE, 1881 1911. 
 
 Period 
 
 Number of 
 Strikes 
 
 Won or 
 Compromised 
 
 4-> 
 J-. 
 
 2 
 
 Members 
 Involved | 
 
 Members 
 Benefited | 
 
 Members 
 Not Benefited 
 
 c 
 
 <u 
 
 MH > 
 
 0*0 
 
 ^ 
 
 <-c~-, 
 
 * 
 
 <u <u O 
 
 PnMH 
 
 National 
 Strike 
 Benefit Paid 
 
 Jan i 1881 Dec 31 1886 
 
 -jc 
 
 23 
 
 T 
 
 2476 
 
 1886 
 
 CQO 
 
 175 8 
 
 
 \ug i^ 1887 Tulv 3i. 1880.. 
 
 40 
 
 3C 
 
 e 
 
 
 
 
 
 $3 4?8 OO 
 
 A.ug i 1889 July 31 1891 
 
 2IQ 
 
 18; 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 
 
 14 683 01 
 
 Ati " i 1891 June 30 1893 
 
 I CQ 
 
 I^C 
 
 TS 
 
 
 
 
 
 24 ?6o 2 5 
 
 Tulv i 180^ Tune 30 189^.. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 27,48^.0=; 
 
 July i 1895 June 30 1897 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 12 ^6"; 9=; 
 
 July i 1897 June 30 1899 
 
 4.O 
 
 -27 
 
 7 
 
 126^ 
 
 T^l6 
 
 47 
 
 96 3 
 
 4,371.00 
 
 July i 1899 June 30 1901 
 
 78 
 
 72 
 
 
 18/16 
 
 1423 
 
 423 
 
 77. 
 
 28,463.2^ 
 
 July i 1901 June 30 1903 
 
 113 
 
 n? 
 
 o 
 
 186^ 
 
 
 
 
 IA 262 ^O 
 
 Tulv I IQO"? All " ?I IQO3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 9,014.00 
 
 Sept. i 1903 Aug. 31, 1904 
 Sept. 1904 Aug. 31, 1905.... 
 Sept. 1905 Aug. 31, 1906 
 Sept. 1906 Aug. 31, 1907 
 Sept 1907 Au " 31 1908 
 
 24 
 
 22 
 
 16 
 
 22 
 21 
 
 18 
 16 
 14 
 19 
 16 
 
 6 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 5 
 
 1142 
 641 
 800 
 1810 
 
 4OO 
 
 MO 
 397 
 735 
 1400 
 
 802 
 244 
 
 65 
 410 
 
 29.8 
 61.9 
 91.9 
 
 77-3 
 
 44,315.00 
 
 11,414.00 
 9,676.50 
 21,275.00 
 78,613.85 
 
 Sept. 1908 Aug. 31, 1909 
 Sept. 1909 Aug. 31, 1910 
 Sept. 1910 Aug. 31, 1911 
 
 18 
 
 17 
 13 
 
 15 
 
 12 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 g 
 
 c 
 
 500 
 706 
 169 
 
 420 
 
 588 
 139 
 
 so 
 
 118 
 30 
 
 84.0 
 83.3 
 82.3 
 
 12,960.50 
 6,580.00 
 9,901.00 
 
120 STUDIES IN TRADE UNIONISM 
 
 History of Strikes, 1881-1911. 
 
 Table 6. Strikes and Lockouts in the Tailoring Trade, 
 1881-1911. 
 
 (a) Source and Accuracy. The figures for the first pe- 
 riod, covering the six years from 1881 to 1886, inclusive, are 
 taken from the Third Annual Report of the United States 
 Commissioner of Labor, published in 1887. They represent 
 a summary of the tables already given in the text of Chapter 
 3, in connection with the history of early American unions. 
 These figures can not be regarded as exhaustive; they appear 
 to include only the most important strikes of the period. 148 
 
 Following 1886 there is a period of eight and one-half 
 months, to the middle of August, 1887, for which we have 
 no record. Beginning with October, 1887, the files of The 
 Tailor are available, and they give a record beginning with 
 the Convention which concluded on August 15. From this 
 point down to June 30, 1903, the figures are taken from the 
 biennial reports of the General Secretary of the Tailors' Na- 
 tional Union. For the two months from July i to August 31, 
 1903, the strike benefit has been compiled from the monthly 
 expense accounts in The Tailor, but the other items are not 
 supplied. Beginning with September i, 1903, the reports 
 found in the Proceedings of the Annual Conventions of the 
 American Federation of Labor have been followed. These 
 reports were furnished by the General Secretary of the Tail- 
 ors' Union to the Secretary of the Federation, and are slightly 
 more complete than those published by the tailors in their own 
 Journal. 
 
 i4SFor the year from August, 1884, to August, 1885, it is possible to 
 check in part the completeness of the report of the U. S. Commissioner 
 of Labor, by comparing his report with the one given in the Proceedings 
 of the 1885 Convention of the Tailors' National Union. These Proceed- 
 ings speak of eleven strikes during the year, while the U. S. Report only 
 names six. Tailors' strikes are especially hard for the U. S. investigators 
 to list, as they are often small affairs, and involve members working at 
 home. 
 
IN THE CUSTOM TAILORING TRADE 121 
 
 There are a few gaps in the table, which will be explained 
 in connection with the special notes on each period. In con- 
 nection with all figures furnished by the Secretary of the 
 Tailors, it should be noted that they are not to be accepted 
 as mathematically exact, but are based upon the best data 
 that the Secretary was able to obtain from the expense ac- 
 counts of the National Union and from the correspondence 
 with local unions regarding the strikes. It is believed that 
 the figures are fairly reliable for purposes of comparison. 
 
 (b) Definitions and Notation. A disturbance originating 
 in several stores in a given city at about the same date is 
 counted as a single strike. The writer has followed the prac- 
 tice of the officers of the Tailors' Union in this matter. 
 Where necessary the reports of the United States Commis- 
 sioner of Labor have been modified to agree with this method 
 of recording strikes. 
 
 Each strike has been counted in the period during which 
 it terminated. This is necessary in order to tabulate the re- 
 sults. Strike records are based largely upon benefit paid, 
 and strikes lasting only a few days, so that no benefit was 
 due under the union laws, are not, as a rule, counted at all. 
 
 Strikes by which the journeymen secured all or a part of 
 their demands, or by which reductions or other aggressions 
 upon the part of the employers were successfully resisted, 
 are listed as "won or compromised." Strikes where the men 
 went back to work without securing any of their demands, 
 or where they were obliged to accept reductions, are listed as 
 "lost." Members involved in won or compromised strikes are 
 held to have been "benefited." Members involved in lost 
 strikes are held to have been "not benefited." The term "ben- 
 efited" in this connection refers to the direct result of the 
 strike in question; no attempt is made to estimate the ab- 
 solute results of strikes, or to balance gains in wages and 
 
122 STUDIES IN TRADE UNIONISM 
 
 conditions against losses of time and expenses of union main- 
 tenance. 
 
 (c) Special Notes. 
 
 January i, i88i-December 31, 1886. Of the 35 strikes 
 listed by the United States Commissioner during this period, 
 25 took place after the organization of the National Union 
 in i883. 149 Neither the report of the Commissioner nor the 
 Tailors' Journal contains a complete account of strike benefit 
 paid for this period, and this item is therefore omitted from 
 the table. 150 Strikes during this period were comparatively 
 successful, 75.8 per cent of the members involved being bene- 
 fited. 
 
 August 15, i88?-July j i, 1889. During this period unions 
 formerly not affiliated were joining the National, and in addi- 
 tion a number of new locals were formed. In most cases, 
 upon becoming members of the national organization, the 
 local unions presented new bills of prices to their employers, 
 and after short strikes many of these bills were signed. The 
 number of members involved is not given by the Secretary, 
 but he states that during the period about one-third of the 
 membership secured advances in wages averaging at least 
 ten per cent. 151 
 
 August i, 1 889- July 31, 1891. Here again the exact num- 
 ber of members involved in strikes is not given, but it is 
 stated that of the 219 strikes reported, 52 were against re- 
 ductions, the other 167 being mainly for increase in wages. 
 Reductions were successfully resisted in all except 18 cases. 
 Of the strikes for causes other than reductions, 151 were 
 
 i49See table, Chapter 3. 
 
 iso From August, 1884, to August, 1885, the strike benefit paid 
 amounted to $3,286.45. (Proceedings of the 1885 Convention.) 
 
 isiTailor, Sept., 1889, p. i. Report of the General Secretary to the 
 1889 Convention. 
 
IN THE CUSTOM TAILORING TRADE 123 
 
 successful, and only 16 were lost. 152 The large number of 
 strikes during this period is explained by the rapid affiliation 
 of new locals, which endeavored as a rule to improve their 
 conditions at once. 
 
 August i, i8pi-June 30, 1893. Of 150 strikes during 
 this period, 135 were successful. The remaining 15, how 
 ever, that were lost, included serious strikes in Denver, Col- 
 orado; Winnipeg, Canada; Erie, Pennsylvania; Steuben- 
 ville, Ohio; and Rloomington, Illinois. The outcome of 
 these strikes called forth the following remark in the Secre- 
 tary's report: 
 
 "In every one of the above cases and many others the 
 Unions assured the General Executive Board that the de- 
 mands made by the union could and surely would be secured 
 by a very short contest, but the outcome proved that they 
 had not the least conception of the resistance they would have 
 to meet. This is the very worst kind of generalship, and no 
 union should make such blunders." 153 During this period, 
 and in fact throughout the history of the Union, the greater 
 part of the strikes were for the purpose of increasing wages 
 or resisting reductions. The number of members involved, 
 benefited, etc., is not stated in the Secretary's report. 
 
 July i, i8$>3-June 30, 1897. This period was largely one 
 of business depression, and trade disturbances seem to have 
 been so numerous that no definite record was kept by the 
 Secretary, except of the strike benefit payments. In his re- 
 port to the 1897 Convention appears the following state- 
 ment : "During the four years strikes and lockouts have been 
 constant, and many of them were the largest that have ever 
 engaged our craft on this continent. While many were lost, 
 others compromised, yet we find that the majority of all such 
 
 i52Tailor, Aug., 1891, p. 2. 
 , Aug., 1893, p. 2. 
 
124 STUDIES IN TRADE UNIONISM 
 
 conflicts were won by our unions." 154 By all odds the most 
 important of the strikes during this period was that in New 
 York City. In June, 1894, while business was still suffering 
 from the recent panic, fourteen of the leading merchants of 
 New York notified their men individually that after June 23, 
 all work must be done at a ten per cent reduction. The 
 bosses, moreover, refused to carry on any negotiations with 
 the union, or to recognize union committees. 155 A bonded 
 agreement was entered into by the employers, with a $1000 
 forfeit and a $50 penalty in case of violation. This agree- 
 ment bound the parties concerned to make a reduction in 
 wages amounting to not less than ten nor more than fifteen 
 per cent, and set forth in justification for this action that the 
 reduction was to be "temporary and provisional only," until 
 the industrial crisis should be passed. 150 The journeymen 
 determined to resist the reduction, and the support of the 
 National Union was secured. In view of the low condition 
 of the general fund ($3,924.87 on July i, 1894), the National 
 Union did not promise full strike benefit, but undertook to 
 raise money by every means in its power, and to give as 
 much assistance as possible. 157 With the aid of loans from 
 local union treasuries, and the additional aid of a special 
 levy, which was ordered by a vote of the general membership 
 in accord with the constitution, the National Union was en- 
 abled to pay to New York during this strike the sum of 
 
 i54Tailor, Aug., 1897, P- 2. For two years from Oct. i, 1895, to Sept. 
 30, 1897, statistics of tailors' strikes are given in the American Federa- 
 tion of Labor report. These indicate that during the period named there 
 were 55 strikes, of which 43 were won or compromised, and 12 were 
 lost. 2,782 members were involved, but the number benefited and not 
 benefited is not stated. These figures are not inserted in Table 6, for the 
 reason that they do not follow the fiscal periods of the Tailors' Union, 
 which have been used as the basis for the early part of that table. 
 
 15 5Tailor, July, 1894, p. 4. 
 15B Tailor, Sept., 1894, pp. 2-3. 
 ir>7 Tailor, Aug., 1894, p. 9. 
 
IN THE CUSTOM TAILORING TRADE 125 
 
 $io,8i7.O5. 15S In spite of this liberal support the strike was 
 lost, and it was called off September 29, i894. 159 As indicated 
 in the special notes to Table i, the result of this strike was 
 the almost complete loss of the New York Union. 
 
 July i, 1897- June 30, 1899. For this period little special 
 comment is required. Business conditions were much better 
 than during the preceding period, and strikes were generally 
 short and successful. The strike expense was small, and the 
 percentage of members benefited (96.3 per cent), was higher 
 than for any other similar period for which this item is re- 
 corded. 
 
 July i y 1 899- June 30, ipoi. The table gives the essential 
 facts for this period. No reductions w r ere accepted by the 
 unions, the six strikes lost being for increase of wages or 
 for the free shops. The strike benefit bill for the period was 
 rather high, ($28,463.25). The greater part of this was 
 expended on a few contests. 160 
 
 July i, ipoi-June 30, -Tpoj. It is difficult to express in 
 statistical form the situation during this term. As reported 
 by the Secretary, there was no strike during this period which 
 was lost completely. 161 At the same time it would not be 
 correct to say that all the members involved were benefited, 
 for the reason that in some cities the union lost control of 
 certain establishments, but obtained a victory in others. It 
 has therefore been decided in posting the table to report all 
 strikes as "won or compromised," but to make no attempt 
 to give an exact division of the number involved into those 
 benefited and those not benefited. It seems certain that the 
 unions came very near to winning all of their strikes during 
 this period. The strike benefit paid was greater than for any 
 
 Nov., 1894, P- 8. 
 i59Tailor, Oct., 1894, P- 8. 
 iGOTailor, Aug., 1901, p. 3. 
 , Aug., 1903, p. 3. 
 
STUDIES IN TRADE UNIONISM 
 
 previous term of equal length. About half of the entire sum 
 was paid to three local unions: Buffalo, New York; Dallas, 
 Texas; and Washington, D. C. 
 
 July i, 1903- Aug. 31, 1903. Only the strike benefit is 
 listed for these two months. The division is inserted to bridge 
 the gap between the report of the Tailors' Secretary to the 
 Committee in 1903, and his report to the American Federa- 
 tion of Labor for the term beginning Sept. i, 1903. 
 
 Sept. i, 1 90 3- Aug. 31, 1904. During this year the strike 
 benefit paid amounted to $44,315.00, or more in a single year 
 than in any two years previous. This great expense was due 
 in the main to strikes in five cities : Kansas City, Denver, 
 Binghamton, N. Y., Milwaukee, and Cleveland. The situa- 
 tion in these cities was somewhat similar to that in New York 
 in 1894, as the merchants were organized and were deter- 
 mined to break the power of the unions. This effort, which 
 was 'backed in a large measure by a national union of mer- 
 chants, known as the Merchant Tailors' Protective Associa- 
 tion, was contemporaneous with the formation of "union- 
 smashing" employers' associations in a number of industries. 
 The strikes in the five cities mentioned above were disastrous 
 to both merchants and men. In some cases the unions suf- 
 fered a technical defeat, being obliged to call the strike o>ff 
 without securing any formal recognition or concession from 
 the bosses. The unions were not, however, destroyed, and 
 after a few months were about as strong as ever, while the 
 bosses never recovered completely the trade they had lost 
 during the trouble. While these large strikes were pending 
 the Executive Board of the Tailors' National Union employed 
 their authority to prevent strikes elsewhere, in order that the 
 defense might be concentrated in the cities were the Employ- 
 ers' Associations were strongest. By this policy it was found 
 possible to finance the strike without incurring any deficit in 
 the general fund, and there is no doubt that the firm resist- 
 
IN THE CUSTOM TAILORING TRADE 127 
 
 ance of the unions discouraged the employing tailors of the 
 country from similar tactics in other localities. 
 
 Sept, i, ip04-Aug. 31, ipo/. (Three periods.) During 
 these three years it is seen that the percentage of success rises 
 very materially, and that the cost of strikes is considerably 
 lower than in 1903-1904. The struggles of the previous year 
 seem to have had a salutary effect, and to have disposed both 
 sides toward a more conciliatory attitude. 
 
 Sept. i, iqoj-Aug. 31, /pop. (Two periods.) During 
 this time the very large sum of $91,574.35 was paid for strike 
 benefit. Of this* more than two-thirds was paid to five cities : 
 Los Angeles, California; Ithaca, New York; Kingston, On- 
 tario, Canada; Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; and Oakland. 
 California. The most serious contest was that in Los An- 
 geles, which was a part of the general movement in that city 
 against trade unionism. The employing tailors "locked out" 
 all of their workmen, 112 in number, and gave notice that 
 union men would not be employed. The local union in Los 
 Angeles made an exceptionally vigorous defense, which was 
 aided by the National Union, by other local unions, and by 
 the American Federation of Labor. As a result the employ- 
 ers' combination was broken, and at the end of the strike the 
 Los Angeles union had more members and more union shops 
 than at the beginning. 
 
 It will be noticed in the table that for the year 1907-1908 
 the last three columns are not posted. This is for the reason 
 that the figures required do not appear in the American Fed- 
 eration of Labor report for 1908, probably for the reason 
 that the Los Angeles strike was still pending on August 31, 
 1908, and the results could not be given. 
 
 Sept. r, ipop-Aug. 31, 1911. (Two periods.) During 
 the last two years covered by the table, it is seen that the 
 expense of strikes was comparatively low, and that a large 
 percentage of the members involved were benefited. This is 
 
128 
 
 STUDIES IN TRADE UNIONISM 
 
 an illustration of the same fact shown five years before, that 
 a successful resistance by the journeymen in severe contests is 
 worth while from the union standpoint, and reduces materially 
 the future trouble that they have to meet. 
 
 ///. Wages and Conditions of Union Tailors, 
 January i, 1912. 
 
 Plan of investigation. In December, 1911, a circular was 
 sent out to the corresponding secretaries of all local unions 
 affiliated with the Journeymen Tailors' Union of America. 162 
 It was requested that returns be made by February i, 1912. 
 A number of unions responded later than this, and the tables 
 were held open until April 15, at which time the form was 
 made up, and all returns later than that date are excluded. 
 Of 308 unions affiliated at date of circular, 73 responded in 
 time to be listed. List of local unions and copy of question- 
 naire are herewith submitted. 
 
 LOCAL UNIONS AFFILIATED WITH THE JOURNEYMEN 
 TAILORS UNION OF AMERICA, DECEMBER 15, 1911. 
 
 Alabama. 
 
 75 Birmingham. 
 145 Montgomery. 
 242 Mobile. 
 260 Dothan. 
 
 Arkansas. 
 
 36 Little Rock. 
 
 73 Fort Smith. 
 140 Hot Springs. 
 416 Helena. 
 
 California. 
 
 2 San Francisco. 
 81 Los Angeles. 
 82 Los Angeles. 
 84 Stockton. 
 
 107 Sacramento. 
 108 San Jose. 
 159 'Palo Alto. 
 266 Oakland. 
 277 .San Diego. 
 339 Bakersfield. 
 366 Fresno. 
 414 Eureka. 
 
 Canada. 
 
 23 Peterboro, Ont. 
 30 London, Ont. 
 
 33 W9 odstock > O nt 
 58 Haileybury, Ont. 
 70 Winnipeg, Man. 
 
 114 Windsor, Ont. 
 
 117 Brantford, Ont. 
 
 132 Toronto, Ont. 
 138 Lethbridge, Alta. 
 141 St. Thomas, Otat. 
 142 Victoria, B. C. 
 143 Ottawa, Ont. 
 149 Hamilton, Ont. 
 156 West Toronto, Ont. 
 175 Revelstoke, B. C. 
 178 Vancouver, B. C. 
 183 Amherst, N. S. 
 191 Fort William, Ont. 
 194 Calgary, Alta. 
 226 Sudbury, Ont. 
 233 Edmonton, Alta. 
 235 St. Catherines, Ont. 
 241 Sarnia, Ont. 
 252 Rossland, B. C. 
 262 Brockville, Ont. 
 
 i62Through the courtesy of Mr. E. J. Brais, National Secretary of 
 the Tailors' Union, it was made possible to have this circular sent out 
 from the National Headquarters, with the endorsement of the general 
 office, and at their expense. 
 
IN THE CUSTOM TAILORING TRADE 
 
 129 
 
 263 Kingston, Ont. 
 264 Berlin, Ont. 
 27$ Regina, Sask. 
 297 Guelph, Ont. 
 317 Montreal, Que. 
 355 Cornwall, Ont. 
 409 Halifax, N. S. 
 410 St. John's, N. F. 
 
 Colorado. 
 
 3 Denver. 
 21 Leadville. 
 102 Pueblo. 
 150 Colorado Springs. 
 280 Victor and Cripple 
 Creek. 
 
 Connecticut. 
 
 7 D anbury. 
 
 22 New Haven. 
 
 28 Bridgeport. 
 
 95 Stamford. 
 139 Hartford. 
 171 New Haven. 
 364 South Norwalk. 
 
 District of Columbia. 
 188 Washington. 
 
 Florida. 
 
 279 Pensacola. 
 319 Jacksonville. 
 
 Georgia. 
 
 51 Atlanta. 
 128 Macon. 
 174 Savannah. 
 206 Columbus. 
 216 Augusta. 
 269 Bainbridge. 
 
 Idaho. 
 
 170 Boise. 
 2 6i_Wallace. 
 
 Illinois. 
 
 5 Chicago. 
 
 8 Champaign. 
 19 Peoria. 
 24 Bloomington. 
 34 Rock Island. 
 
 60 Decatur. 
 
 65 De Kalb. 
 115 Joliet. 
 129 Alton. 
 135 Springfield. 
 152 Danville. 
 161 Rockford. 
 169 Galesburg. 
 180 Quincy. 
 190 Streator. 
 212 Jacksonville. 
 222 Ottawa. 
 223 Elgin. 
 281 Canton. 
 294 Belleville. 
 298 Murphysboro. 
 337 Kankakee. 
 360 Pekin. 
 368 Mattoon. 
 370 Moline. 
 375 Chicago Heights. 
 376 Freeport. 
 426 Pontiac. 
 428 Dwight. 
 
 Indiana. 
 
 16 South Bend. 
 
 31 Terre Haute. 
 
 32 Peru. 
 100 Anderson. 
 118 Ft. Wayne. 
 146 Elwood. 
 154 .Marion. 
 157 Indianapolis. 
 165 Richmond. 
 220 Logansport. 
 234 Muncie. 
 254 Vincennes. 
 296 Elkhart. 
 331 Wabash. 
 362 Kokomo. 
 
 Iowa. 
 
 15 Des Moines. 
 
 42 Waterloo. 
 
 63 Ottumwa. 
 
 72 Dubuque. 
 loo Fort Dodge. 
 147 Oskaloosa. 
 158 Fort Madison. 
 160 Cedar Rapids. 
 177 Keokuk. 
 207 Burlington. 
 
 230 Clinton. 
 231 Council Bluffs. 
 232 Sioux City. 
 300 Davenport. 
 346 Centerville. 
 
 Kansas. 
 
 9 Leavenworth. 
 20 Wichita. 
 120 Topeka. 
 122 Parsons. 
 127 Atchison. 
 286 Salina. 
 287 Arkansas City 
 378 Independence. 
 
 Kentucky. 
 
 49 Louisville. 
 124 Owensboro. 
 
 Louisiana. 
 187 New Orleans. 
 
 Maryland. 
 4 Baltimore. 
 
 Massachusetts. 
 
 12 Boston. 
 
 26 Springfield. 
 103 Lowell. 
 105 Brockton. 
 168 Northampton. 
 245 Holyoke. 
 295 Pittsfield. 
 353 North Adams. 
 403 Andover. 
 
 Michigan. 
 
 29 Grand Rapids. 
 
 83 Saginaw. 
 121 Kalamazoo. 
 202 Battle Creek. 
 210 Ann Arbor. 
 229 Detroit. 
 240 Port Huron. 
 
 Minnesota. 
 
 88 St. Paul. 
 89 Minneapolis. 
 97 Duluth. 
 303 Grand Rapids. 
 
130 
 
 STUDIES IN TRADE UNIONISM 
 
 306 Virginia. 
 315 Hibbing. 
 
 Missouri. 
 
 6 Sedalia. 
 
 ii St. Louis. 
 
 61 St. Joseph. 
 
 64 Kansas City. 
 
 76 Springfield. 
 113 Kansas City. 
 250 Poplar Bluff. 
 283 Hannibal. 
 290 Joplin. 
 382 Moberly. 
 
 Montana. 
 
 25 Butte City. 
 
 43 Great Falls. 
 151 Anaconda. 
 265 Helena. 
 
 Nebraska. 
 92 Omaha. 
 273 Lincoln. 
 
 New Jersey. 
 77 New Brunswick. 
 199 Paterson. 
 
 New York. 
 
 14 Troy. 
 
 18 Poughkeepsie. 
 
 45 Syracuse. 
 
 46 Buffalo. 
 
 52 Binghampton. 
 
 69 Schenectady. 
 
 87 Rome. 
 
 91 Elmira. 
 
 93 Ithaca. 
 172 Niagara Falls. 
 176 Salamanca. 
 198 Albany. 
 259 Rochester. 
 326 Gloversville. 
 390 New York City. 
 396 Cortland. 
 
 North Carolina. 
 
 123 Wilmington. 
 148 Rocky Mount. 
 267 Winston-Salem. 
 422 Charlotte. 
 423 Asheville. 
 
 North Dakota. 
 237 Fargo. 
 
 Ohio. 
 
 27 Columbus. 
 
 41 Akron. 
 
 48 Niles. 
 
 50 Bucyrus. 
 
 53 Youngstown. 
 
 94 Delaware. 
 
 98 Zanesville. 
 no Findlay. 
 144 Canton. 
 155 Cincinnati. 
 162 Cleveland. 
 163 Lima. 
 166 Toledo. 
 181 Steubenville. 
 203 Springfield. 
 205 Massillon. 
 248 Fremont. 
 249 Mansfield. 
 251 Newark. 
 253 Coshocton. 
 272 East Liverpool. 
 284 Cambridge. 
 373 Norwalk. 
 
 Oklahoma. 
 
 227 Muskogee 
 
 271 Tulsa. 
 
 314 Oklahoma City. 
 
 Oregon. 
 74 Portland. 
 
 Pennsylvania. 
 
 10 Warren. 
 
 56 Philadelphia. 
 
 57 Franklin. 
 
 67 Erie, 
 loi Meadyille. 
 119 Oil City. 
 125 Ridgway. 
 130 New Castle. 
 131 Pittsburg. 
 196 Williamsport. 
 25& Wilkesbarre. 
 288 Bradford. 
 308 Dubois. 
 309 Hanover. 
 322 Washington. 
 348 Lancaster. 
 
 381 Allentown. 
 419 Sharon. 
 
 Rhode Island. 
 13 Providence. 
 
 South Carolina. 
 
 17 Charleston. 
 201 Columbia. 
 305 Greenville. 
 
 South Dakota. 
 
 221 Sioux Falls. 
 393 Aberdeen. 
 
 Tennessee. 
 
 38 Knoxville. 
 79 Memphis. 
 85 Nashville. 
 276 Chattanooga. 
 
 Texas. 
 
 78 Dallas. 
 
 96 Waco. 
 
 99 Fort Worth. 
 126 Palestine. 
 153 Paris. 
 214 San Antonio. 
 247 Houston. 
 321 Beaumont. 
 
 Utah. 
 
 59_Salt Lake City, 
 in Ogden. 
 
 Virginia. 
 
 40 Norfolk. 
 
 44 Richmond. 
 
 47 Lynchburg. 
 
 54 Danville. 
 197 Roanoke. 
 292 Charlottesville. 
 
 Washington. 
 
 68 Tacoma. 
 
 71 Seattle. 
 104 Raymond. 
 1 06 Spokane. 
 112 Olympia. 
 2ii Bellingham 
 238 North Yakima. 
 
IN THE CUSTOM TAILORING TRADE 131 
 
 335 Everett. Wisconsin. 213 Kenosha. 
 
 399-Hoquiam. 3 5-Oshkosh. 215 Madison. 
 
 , r - 55 Portage 22 5 Fond du lac. 
 
 West Virginia. M_ L aCrosse. 282-Green Bay. 
 
 133 Huntington. 86 Milwaukee. 328 Manitowoc. 
 
 137 Charleston. 164 Superior. 361 Wausau. 
 
 246 Wheeling. 179 Eau Claire. 384 Watertown. 
 
 285-Fairmont. i 9 2-Ashland. ^-Racine. 
 
 379 Clarksburg. 209 Neenah. 
 
 CIRCULAR OF INFORMATION. 
 (To be returned to Headquarters on or before Feb'y i, 1912). 
 
 1. What was the date of organization of the earliest Tailors' Union 
 
 in your city of which you have any knowledge ? 
 
 2. When was your present union organized ? 
 
 3. Number of members in good standing January i, 1912? 
 
 4. How many members working in free shops ? 
 
 5. How many legitimate merchant tailoring establishments in your 
 
 city? 
 
 6. How many of these establishments are union shops? 
 
 7. What is the average price to customers of suits made by firms 
 
 employing your members ? Highest ? 
 
 Lowest? 
 
 8. How many non-union tailors now employed in your city, who would 
 
 be eligible to join the J.T.U. of A? 
 
 9. Are average wages of union tailors in your city higher than those 
 
 of non-union tailors ? What is the per cent of 
 
 difference? 
 
 10. How many of your members on the "sectional" or team system? 
 
 n. What is the full amount of dues paid by your members, both local 
 
 and national ? 
 
 12. How many apprentices are learning the trade with your members? 
 
 13. What is the rule of your union regarding helpers ? 
 
 14. Does your union limit the hours of labor ? 
 
 15. How many of your members work by the week? 
 
 16. What is the average wage per week of weekly workers, when work- 
 
 ing full time? 
 
 1 i ) Of j ourneymen 
 
 (2) Of helpers 
 
 17. Does your local union use the label? 
 
 18. What dp you estimate to be the per cent of increase in your price 
 
 bills since your local union was organized? 
 
 (If your local was in existence before 1883, give increase since 
 1883.) 
 
 19. Please fill out the following schedule of prices, showing wage con- 
 
 ditions in 1890 and in 1911. Put in the prices paid for finished 
 
132 STUDIES IN TRADE UNIONISM 
 
 garment in each case, including start, try-on, and all extras. If 
 your union was not in existence in 1890, please give in the first 
 column the prices paid in the year your union was organized. 
 
 Price Paid, Price Paid, 
 1890. 1911. 
 
 S. B. Sack Overcoat 
 
 D. B. Sack Overcoat . 
 
 D. B. Frock Overcoat 
 
 D. B. Prince Albert Coat 
 
 D. B. Sack Coat 
 
 S. B. Sack Coat 
 
 Trousers 
 
 Vests 
 
 Weekly Wage, 1890 
 
 Weekly W r age, 191 1 
 
 20. Please answer the following questions, after consulting with mem- 
 bers who have kept wage accounts in 1911 or previous years: 
 
 (1) What are the average yearly earnings of coatmakers in your 
 
 city ? 
 
 (2) Of vestmakers ? 
 
 (3) Of trousers-makers ? 
 
 (4) Of bushelmen ? 
 
 (5) Of weekly workers ? 
 
 (6) Of helpers? 
 
 Returns of Local Union No... ..of.. 
 
 The undersigned officers hereby certify that the above replies are correct. 
 
 President 
 
 L. U. Seal. 
 
 Cor. Secretary. 
 
 Probable accuracy of returns. The following questions 
 were of such a nature that the secretaries could answer them 
 from personal knowledge, or with the aid of the union rec- 
 ords. The returns on these questions may therefore be ac- 
 cepted as accurate: 
 
 2. When was your present union organized? 
 
 3. Number of members in good standing January T, 
 1912? 
 
 4. How many members working in free shops? 
 
 6. How many of these (merchant tailoring) establish- 
 ments are union shops? 
 
IN THE CUSTOM TAILORING TRADE 133 
 
 7. What is the average price to customers of suits made 
 
 by firms employing your members ? Highest ? 
 
 Lowest ? 
 
 10. How many of your members work on the sectional 
 or team system? 
 
 11. What is the full amount of dues paid by your mem- 
 bers, both local and national? 
 
 12. How many apprentices are learning the trade with 
 your members? 
 
 13. What is the rule of your union regarding helpers? 
 
 14. Does your union limit the hours of labor? 
 
 15. How many of your members work by the week? 
 
 1 6. What is the average wage per week of weekly work- 
 ers, when working full time? i. Of bushelmen? 2. Of 
 helpers ? 
 
 17. Does your local union use the label? 
 
 Concerning the remaining questions some special comment 
 is necessary: 
 
 i. What was the date of organization of the earliest 
 tailors' union in your city of which you have any knowledge ? 
 
 Most of the secretaries have answered this question, and 
 there is no doubt that there was a union in the city on the 
 date named. It is probable, however, that in some cases this 
 union was not the earliest, although it may have been the 
 earliest under the present National Union. To avoid con- 
 fusion we have copied the returns just as given, and have 
 not attempted to supply dates from other sources. 
 
 5. How many legitimate merchant tailoring establish- 
 ments in your city? 163 
 
 This will be reported quite accurately from the smaller 
 cities; in the larger cities the figures must be regarded as 
 
 i63For definition of "legitimate merchant tailoring," see special notes 
 to Table 7. 
 
134 STUDIES IN TRADE UNIONISM 
 
 approximate only, in view of the fact that there are a great 
 many small shops, and without an exact census perfect ac- 
 curacy would be impossible. 
 
 8. How many non-union tailors now employed in your 
 city, who would be eligible to join the Journeymen Tailors' 
 Union of America? 
 
 As in question 5, returns will be accurate from small 
 cities, but only approximate from larger ones. 
 
 9. Are average wages of union tailors in your city higher 
 than those of non-union tailors? What is the per cent of 
 difference ? 
 
 It is the general impression of the secretaries that union 
 wages are higher than non-union, but the per cent of differ- 
 ence, if reported at all, must be regarded as approximate, in 
 view of the fact that in many cases no direct comparison has 
 been made. 
 
 1 8. What do you estimate to be the per cent of increase 
 in your price bills since your local union was organized? 
 
 There is so great a probability of inaccuracy in connection 
 with the returns from this question, due mainly to the com- 
 plexity of the piece-scales, that it has been concluded not to 
 use the figures at all except in a few cases. 164 
 
 19. Schedule of wages, 1890 and 1911. 
 
 With regard to the second date, 1911, the returns may 
 be regarded as accurate, being copied in practically all cases 
 from actual scales of prices. The same will be true in most 
 cases of the first date, but in some cases the secretary may 
 have depended upon the memory of old members, in which 
 case the returns would not be so reliable. It is believed, how- 
 ever, that as a rule the unions that could not get accurate 
 figures did not report at all, and that the returns received 
 are reasonably good. 
 
 i 64 See special notes, Table 9. 
 
IN THE CUSTOM TAILORING TRADE 135 
 
 
 20. Average yearly earnings of coatmakers, vestmakers, 
 
 etc. 
 
 It is probable that these have not been based upon actual 
 accounts kept except in a few cases, and that upon the whole 
 they are simply estimates. The accuracy will vary consid- 
 erably as between different unions. It is the belief of tailors 
 whom we have consulted that in general the estimates are too 
 low. There is an unusual difficulty about calculating yearly 
 wages in the tailoring trade, in view of the fact that the 
 hours are exceedingly irregular, ranging from 1 8 to 20 hours 
 a day down to zero in the dull seasons. The figures are 
 submitted as given by the Secretaries, and an opportunity 
 may arise at some future time to check them with greater 
 accuracy. 
 
 Guide to the tables. 
 
 The returns from Questions i, 2, 3, 5, 6, 8, n, and 17 
 are found in Table 7. 
 
 The returns from Questions 4, 10, 12, 13, 14, and 15 are 
 found in Table 8. 
 
 The returns from Questions 3, 7, 9, 16, 18, 19, and 20 
 are found in Table 9. 
 
 Classification by geographical sections. In listing returns 
 the classification employed by the United States Census Bu- 
 reau in its bulletins of population is adopted, as follows: 
 
 Section. States. 
 
 New England Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, 
 
 Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Con- 
 necticut. 
 
 Middle Atlantic New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania. 
 
 East North Central Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wis- 
 consin. 
 
 West North Central Minnesota, Iowa, Missouri, North Da- 
 kota, South Dakota, Nebraska, Kan- 
 sas. 
 
136 STUDIES IN TRADE UNIONISM 
 
 South Atlantic Delaware, Maryland, District of Co- 
 
 lumbia, Virginia, West Virginia, 
 North Carolina, South Carolina, 
 Georgia, Florida. 
 
 East South Central Kentucky, Tennessee, Alabama, Miss- 
 issippi. 
 
 West South Central Arkansas, Louisiana, Oklahoma, 
 
 Texas. 
 
 Mountain Montana, Idaho, Wyoming, Colorado, 
 
 New Mexico, Arizona, Utah, Ne- 
 vada. 
 
 Pacific Washington, Oregon, California. 
 
 Returns from Canada have been listed after the Pacific 
 division. 
 
 At date of circular the Journeymen Tailors' Union 01 
 America had local branches in all states except Maine, New 
 Hampshire, Vermont, Delaware, Mississippi, New Mexico, 
 Arizona, and Nevada. 
 
 SUMMARY OF RETURNS, BY SECTIONS. 
 
 Unions Aggregate 
 
 Section Reporting. Membership. 
 
 New England 5 186 
 
 Middle Atlantic 10 I AS 
 
 East North Central 25 1,898 
 
 West North Central 10 573 
 
 South Atlantic 5 153 
 
 East South Central i 21 
 
 West South Central 5 102 
 
 Mountain 2 69 
 
 Pacific 7 866 
 
 Canada 3 155 
 
 73 5,473 
 
IN THE CUSTOM TAILORING TRADE 137 
 
 It is seen from the above table that at least one union 
 reported from every section, and that in all 73 unions re- 
 ported, with an aggregate membership of 5,473. 
 
 LIST OF CITIES OF MORE THAN 100,000 INHABITANTS, FROM 
 WHICH RETURNS HAVE BEEN RECEIVED, ARRANGED IN 
 THE ORDER OF THEIR POPULATION, TOGETHER WITH 
 THE UNION MEMBERSHIP IN EACH CITY. 
 
 Union 
 
 City. Membership 
 
 New York 1,000 
 
 Chicago 1,000 
 
 Boston 6 1 
 
 Cleveland 1 50 
 
 Baltimore 16 
 
 Pittsburgh 100 
 
 Buffalo 165 
 
 San Francisco 300 
 
 Milwaukee 153 
 
 Kansas City 230 
 
 Seattle 265 
 
 Indianapolis 82 
 
 St. Paul no 
 
 Portland 185 
 
 Atlanta 100 
 
 Winnipeg 100 
 
 Lowell 30 
 
 Total membership in 17 cities 4,047 
 
 The above list is inserted for reference purposes, and also 
 as indicating that of the 5,473 members reported from 73 
 cities, 4,047 are in the 17 cities named above, or 72.9 per 
 cent. 
 
TABLE 7. 
 
 GENERAL STATISTICS. 
 
 STATISTICS OF ORGANIZATION. 
 
 JANUARY i, 1912. 
 
140 
 
 STUDIES IN TRADE UNIONISM 
 
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IN THE CUSTOM TAILORING TRADE 
 
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144 STUDIES IN TRADE UNIONISM 
 
 Table 7. General Statistics. Statistics of Organisation. 
 
 (a) Notation. Dotted lines (..,.) indicate that no answer 
 was returned by the Secretary upon the particular point invol- 
 ved. A blank in any square indicates "zero" or "none." 
 
 (b) Special notes. 
 
 1. Local union number. This is the serial number of the 
 local union in the filing system at the general headquarters, 
 and has nothing to do with the locality of the union or its 
 date. 
 
 2. Population ipio. Ths is taken from the latest bulle- 
 tins of the United States Census, with the exception of the 
 three Canadian cities, the population of which is taken from 
 the Commercial Handbook of Canada (Heaton's Annual). 
 In the table the cities are arranged in each state in the order 
 of their population. 
 
 3. "Date of earliest union" and "Date of present union" 
 refer to the date of organization of the local union. 
 
 4. Full monthly dues. This is the sum of the local and 
 national dues paid by each member in the city named. 
 
 5. "Use the label?" According to the law of the National 
 Tailors' Union, the union label is the property of the Union, 
 and may be affixed to garments under the following condi- 
 tions: (i) The garment must be made by a member of the 
 union. (2) All tailors working for the employer for whom 
 the garment is made must be members of the union. (3) 
 The bill of prices paid must be in accord with an agreement 
 with the union. The label is protected under the copyright 
 laws of most of the states, and journeymen or employers who 
 affix it contrary to the above conditions can be prosecuted un- 
 der statute law. 
 
 6. The term, "merchant tailoring establishment" as used 
 in this table, is equivalent to the term "legitimate merchant 
 
IN THE CUSTOM TAILORING TRADE 145 
 
 tailoring establishment," as used in Question 5 of the ques- 
 tionaire, and the returns from that question are given in this 
 part of the table. The term applies to establishments in 
 which custom work of a high grade is made in the home 
 city by skilled journeymen. It excludes houses making work 
 on a factory system and selling at a distance through agenies. 
 
 7. Union shops. The term "union shop" applies to the 
 business establishment, and must not be confused with the 
 term "workshop." An establishment is called a "union shop" 
 if all the journeymen employed are members of the union, 
 and are working under a scale approved by the union. Thus 
 an establishment might be a union shop, and at the same time 
 there might be no workshop furnished by the employer, the 
 work being made in private shops or at home. 
 
 In some cases the secretary has reported all establishments 
 as union shops, and at the same time has reported a few 
 non-union tailors in the city. In such cases it is probable 
 that the non-union tailors are working in ready-made cloth- 
 ing stores or repair shops, or in factory shops, which are 
 not reported as "legitimate merchant tailoring establish- 
 ments." 
 
 8. Not union shops. The term "not union" has been 
 employed instead of "non-union," for the reason that the 
 latter is sometimes held to imply that all employes of the 
 establishment are non-unionists, whereas in some of the es- 
 tablishments which are not "union" there are both unionists 
 and non-unionists working. 
 
 9. Custom tailors. The "total" given in the third column 
 under this head is found by adding to the membership of 
 the union the number of non-union tailors in the city who 
 would be eligible to join, as reported by the secretary. Eli- 
 gibility of tailors to membership in the Journeymen Tailors' 
 Union of America is determined by the following rules in 
 the constitution : (1910.) 
 
146 STUDIES IN TRADE UNIONISM 
 
 "Section 2. The jurisdiction of the Journeymen Tailors' 
 Union of America shall be the United States and Canada, 
 covering all tailors, helpers, apprentices and bushelmen en- 
 gaged in the production of custom made clothing. (Custom 
 made clothing to be interpreted as all clothing made for men 
 or women to the order and measure of each individual cus- 
 tomer). Bushelmen working on alterations in ready-made 
 stores shall be eligible to membership. 
 
 "Section 175. Resolved, that the Journeymen Tailors' 
 Union of America claim jurisdiction over all workers en- 
 gaged in the manufacture of legitimate custom tailoring, no 
 matter what system of work is used." 
 
 10. General note. All statistics in this and the following 
 tables, with the exception of the data respecting early wages, 
 in Table 9, are given as of the first of January, 1912. 
 
 (c) Analysis and conclusions. 
 
 1. Dates of organisation. The significant fact shown 
 under this head is that a large number of the unions have 
 been reorganized since their first appearance. Some unions, 
 in fact, have been reorganized several times. 
 
 2. Membership. The membership does not bear as close 
 relation to the population of the towns and cities in which 
 the unions are located as might be expected. Local condi- 
 tions cause wide discrepancies. For example, in Buffalo, 
 with about 400,000 inhabitants, there are 165 union tailors, 
 whereas in Baltimore, with more than 500,000, there are 
 only 1 6. The relation of membership to the total number 
 of tailors in each city is taken up under the head of "custom 
 tailors." 
 
 ?. Pull monthly dues. As explained in connection with 
 Table 2, the present law of the union requires that national 
 dues shall be 65 cents a month, and local dues shall be not 
 less than 20 cents a month. Of 72 unions reporting, 50 en- 
 
IN THE CUSTOM TAILORING TRADE 147 
 
 force the minimum of 20 cents local dues, or 85 cents in all; 
 10 unions charge 90 cents; 5 charge 95 cents; and 7 charge 
 $i. All of the unions reported from the Pacific section, with 
 one exception, charge more than the minimum dues. 
 
 4. Label. Of 73 unions reporting, 66 use the label. 
 Where a local union does not use the label, either they have 
 no union stores, and have therefore no right to use it, or else 
 there is some objection to its use by employers or men. 
 
 5. Merchant Tailoring Establishments. Of 1,332 es- 
 tablishments reported from 69 cities (New York, Troy, Chi- 
 cago, and San Francisco not reporting), 421, or 31.6 per 
 cent of the total, are "union shops." 
 
 6. Custom Tailors. The following table shows the de- 
 gree of organization by sections and on the whole: 
 
 Section Cities custom torn tailors Per cent 
 
 reporting. tailors. in unions, in unions. 
 
 New England 5 618 186 30.0 
 
 Middle Atlantic 9 17,640 1,383 7.8 
 
 East North Central 22 1,675 807 48.2 
 
 West North Central 9 563 463 82.2 
 
 South Atlantic 5 493 153 31.0 
 
 East South Central i 23 21 91.3 
 
 West South Central 5 177 102 57.7 
 
 Mountain 2 84 69 78.0 
 
 Pacific 6 1,009 601 60.5 
 
 Canada 3 342 155 48.3 
 
 Total 67 22,624 3,940 17.4 
 
 The above figures are misleading unless especial account 
 is taken of the New York situation. If New York is left 
 out, there are 66 cities reporting, with a total of 6,624 cus- 
 tom tailors, of whom 2,940 are in the union, or 44.4 per 
 cent. This is a much fairer average for the whole country 
 than the 17.4 per cent shown when New York is included. 
 
 The most striking fact shown by the table with respect 
 to degree of organization in the different sections is the 
 steady improvement of organization as we pass from the 
 
148 
 
 STUDIES IN TRADE UNIONISM 
 
 eastern sections to the western. This is due in part to the 
 newness of the western country and the greater economic 
 opportunity, but in a far greater measure it is due to the 
 situation with reference to cheap immigrant labor. In the 
 New England and Atlantic states, where such labor is plenti- 
 ful, union organization is very difficult, for three principal 
 reasons: (i) Many of the immigrants have a low standard 
 of living, and are not ambitious to improve their conditions. 
 (2) The diversity of races makes it hard to secure united 
 action. (3) The most intelligent and skilled tailors in these 
 sections are often employers, as well as craftsmen, being in 
 the contracting business, or having a number of helpers un- 
 der them. Their interest in unionism is not, therefore, as 
 great as that of less independent workers. The Middle West 
 and far West show a great improvement over conditions in 
 the New England and Atlantic sections ; there are more Ger- 
 man, Scandinavian and American tailors, who work together 
 and make good unionists. 
 
 DEGREE OF ORGANIZATION. 
 
 Percent 
 Organized. 
 
 ri 
 
 
 
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 i 
 
 c! 
 
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 5 
 
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 50-59 
 60-69 
 
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 7 
 
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 7O-7Q 
 
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 8 
 
 13 
 
 80-80 
 
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 pO-IOO 
 
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 1 
 
 II 
 
 5 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 i 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 24 
 
 [34 
 
 Total cities reporting 67 
 
IN THE CUSTOM TAILORING TRADE 149 
 
 It is now in order to consider further the variations in 
 the degree of organization. (See table, "Degree of Organi- 
 zation.") It is found that there is a distinct mode for cities 
 more than 90 per cent organized, 24 cities falling within this 
 group, out of 67 cities reporting. If we consider cities 
 more than 80 per cent organized, we find that there are 34, 
 or more than half. The number of cities lying within each 
 group determined by the percentages of organization increases 
 steadily as the characteristic percentage of the group in- 
 creases. This leads to the conclusion that the tailors, upon 
 the whole, are fairly well organized in the cities reported. 
 It is noticed that practically all of the cities in the East North 
 Central section and in the sections west of the Mississippi 
 are more than 50 per cent organized. 
 
 Large and small cities. 
 
 To compare degrees of organization in large and small 
 cities the following tables are compiled: 
 
 DEGREE OF ORGANIZATION, TEN LARGE CITIES. 
 
 Union Per cent 
 
 City Total custom tailors. members. union. 
 
 New York 16,000 1,000 6.25 
 
 Boston 461 61 13-2 
 
 Cleveland 450 150 33-3 
 
 Baltimore 216 16 74 
 
 Pittsburgh 1,100 100 9- 
 
 Buffalo 365 165 45-2 
 
 San Francisco 550 300 54-5 
 
 Milwaukee 603 153 2 5-3 
 
 Kansas City 305 230 75-4 
 
 Indianapolis 132 82 62.1 
 
 Portland 335 185 55-2 
 
 Total 20,517 2,442 11.9 
 
150 STUDIES IN TRADE UNIONISM 
 
 DEGREE OF ORGANIZATION, TEN SMALL CITIES. 
 
 Union Per cent 
 
 City Total custom tailors. members. union. 
 
 Danbury, Conn. 14 14 100. 
 
 Dubois, Pa. n 9 81.8 
 
 No. Adams, Mass. 26 16 61.5 
 
 Logansport, Ind. 39 20 51.3 
 
 Belleville, 111. 21 21 100. 
 
 Burlington, Iowa 34 34 100. 
 
 Ft. Smith, Ark. 10 6 60. 
 
 Owensboro, Ky. 23 21 91.3 
 
 Stockton, Calif. 50 49 98. 
 
 St. Catherine's, Ont. 39 35 89.7 
 
 Total 267 225 84.3 
 
 Note. The population of each of the above cities lies between 10,000 
 and 25,000. 
 
 It is seen that in the ten large cities named there are 
 20,517 custom tailors, of whom 2,442 are in the unions, or 
 11.9 per cent; whereas in the ten small cities, containing 
 267 tailors, 225 are in the unions, or 84.3 per cent. This 
 great difference is due to the cheap labor in large cities, al- 
 ready discussed, and to the difficulty which the large city, 
 by reason of its very size, offers to thorough organizing 
 work. 
 
TABLE 8. 
 
 NATURE OF SHOPS. 
 
 SYSTEMS OF PRODUCTION AND WAGE PAYMENT 
 
 JAN. i, 1912 
 
152 
 
 STUDIES IN TRADE UNIONISM 
 
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IN THE CUSTOM TAILORING TRADE 
 
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 STUDIES IN TRADE UNIONISM 
 
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IN THE CUSTOM TAILORING TRADE 
 
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 NOTES 19 h. 2But Help May be Employed by Special Consent of Union. BWeekly Workers 9 Hours. 4Men 9 Hours Women 8 
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156 STUDIES IN TRADE UNIONISM 
 
 Table 8. Nature of shops. Systems of production and 
 wage payment. 
 
 (a) Notation. As in Table 7, dotted lines (....) indicate 
 "no answer," and a blank "zero" or "none." 
 
 Under the last column, "helper rule," the following ab- 
 breviations are used: 
 
 n.h. no helpers employed. 
 
 n.r. no rule. 
 
 o no helpers allowed. 
 
 i, 2, etc. One helper allowed, two helpers allowed, etc. 
 
 (b) Special notes. 
 
 1. The returns on which this table is based show directly 
 the following facts: (i) Total membership of union. (2) 
 Union members in free shops. (3) Union members on team 
 system. (4) Weekly scale workers, (5) Apprentices. (6) 
 Limit hours? (7) Helper rule. 
 
 The following facts are not shown directly by the re- 
 turns: (i) Union members in rented shops or at home. (2) 
 Union members on individual system. (3) Piece workers. 
 The figures given in the table for these last three subjects 
 are derived by subtracting the figures respectively for free 
 shops, team system, and weekly workers, from the total mem- 
 bership. The figures so obtained are subject to a slight cor- 
 rection, in view of the fact that in reporting "total member- 
 ship" the secretaries have included members not working at 
 the trade, e.g., invalid and retired members. The correction 
 is however, not an important one, as there are only a few 
 such members, 
 
 2. Methods of production have been discussed in Chap- 
 ter 2. 
 
 3. Limitation of hours. The question sent out about 
 this subject was intended to refer to piece-workers. Prac- 
 tically all the unions limit the hours of time-workers, e.g., 
 bushelmen. It is believed that as a rule the secretaries have 
 
IN THE CUSTOM TAILORING TRADE 157 
 
 answered the question with reference to piece-workers, as 
 intended. In some cases they have indicated specifically the 
 meaning of the answer, and it is placed in the foot-notes. 
 
 (c) Analysis and conclusions. 
 
 1. Shops. In the 71 cities reporting on this question, 
 (Peoria and Burlington not reporting), there are 5,366 union 
 members, and of these 2,308, or 43 per cent, are working 
 in free shops. In the 17 large cities named in a former table, 
 containing 4,047 members, only 1,253, or 30.9 per cent, are 
 in the free shops. This shows that the free shops are less 
 frequent in the large cities ; in fact, in New York, Pittsburgh, 
 and Baltimore, it is stated that there are no members in free 
 shops. There are, however, some large cities where the rule 
 does not hold good, and where a large part of the members 
 are in free shops ; such cities are Seattle, Portland, San Fran- 
 cisco, St. Paul, Atlanta, and Winnipeg. 
 
 2. Systems of production. It is found by summarizing the 
 tables that of 5,308 union members in 72 cities (Buffalo not 
 reporting), only 268 are working on the team system, the 
 balance, in so far as they are working at the trade, being 
 employed on the individual system. Of the 268, 235 are 
 employed in San Francisco and Seattle alone. It has only 
 been recently that the Tailors' Union has consented to or- 
 ganize workers on the newer systems, and there has not been 
 time for many of such workers to be organized; moreover, 
 the system itself is of recent growth. It seems to have ob- 
 tained a greater foot-hold in the West than elsewhere. 
 
 3. Wage payment. Of 5,084 union members in 69 cities, 
 (Cleveland, Milwaukee, San Antonio, and Stockton not re- 
 porting), 1,114 are reported as working on a weekly scale. 
 Of these 255 are in San Francisco and Seattle. As already 
 explained, (Chapter 2), "team" workers are usually paid by 
 the week, which accounts for the large proportion in these 
 
158 STUDIES IN TRADE UNIONISM 
 
 two cities. Outside of team workers, the majority of weekly 
 workers are bushelmen. 
 
 4. Apprentices. In 72 cities, (Cleveland not reporting), 
 containing 5,323 members, there are 180 apprentices, or 
 about one 'to every thirty members. This exceedingly small 
 proportion confirms the conclusion drawn from studies in 
 other industries, that the apprenticeship system is rapidly de- 
 clining. 
 
 5. Limitation of hours. Of 73 cities reporting, only ten 
 limit the hours of piece-workers. The pressure during the 
 rush seasons is such that this kind of limitation is almost 
 impossible, as long as the members work by the piece, and 
 are responsible in a measure for their own output. 
 
 6. Helper rule. This question has been answered for 67 
 cities, (Joliet, Pekin, Kenosha, Boston, Seattle, and Dubuque 
 not reporting). Six unions report that there are no helpers 
 employed by their members. Twenty-five unions have no 
 rule on the subject. Ten unions have a rule that no helpers 
 shall be employed. Twenty-three unions permit one helper 
 only. This is the traditional rule of the Tailors' Union, and 
 at one time was embodied in their national constitution. At 
 the present tme the local unions are permitted to use their 
 own discretion as to rules on the subject of helpers. Two 
 unions permit as many as two helpers, and one, St. Cather- 
 ine's, Canada, reports a rule of "one helper to each shop." 
 
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IN THE CUSTOM TAILORING TRADE 159 
 
 Table p. Wages and Prices. 
 
 (a) Methods of wage payment. The wages of union 
 tailors are governed by contracts with their employers, which 
 are known as "bills of prices,"or "price bills." These con- 
 tracts include scales for piece-workers, scales for time-work- 
 ers, if any are employed, 165 and any other matters respecting 
 conditions of employment which have been agreed upon by 
 the parties concerned. Some price-bills are signed by a single 
 employer, but as a rule a union bill is signed by several em- 
 ployers. On behalf of the union it is signed by the officers 
 of the local. The price-bills are often elaborate, containing 
 all the usual items of dress, and many "extras." 
 
 Helpers are paid by the journeymen. The usual rule is 
 that the helper shall receive one-third of the full wage for 
 making the suit; i.e., one-half as much as the journeymen 
 receives. In some cities there are helpers of more than the 
 average skill, who work under a journeyman, but still earn 
 from $13.00 to $15.00 a week. Such helpers should not be 
 confused with those who work for $8.00 or $10.00 a week. 
 For example, Joliet, Illinois, reports helpers working at $13. 50 
 a week. 
 
 (b) Special notes. 
 
 1. Abbreviations. Under the heading of "Wages-Piece 
 Rates" the abbreviation S.B. stands for "single-breasted," 
 and D.B. for "double-breasted." 
 
 2. Notation. In this table, where the secretary made 
 no returns for any item, or where the meaning of the returns 
 was not plain, a blank has been used. 
 
 3. All returns are listed as received from the secretaries, 
 
 165 In most shops the bushelman is the only weekly worker, but there 
 are cases where coatmakers, vestmakers, etc., are employed by the week, 
 and some cases where a shop employs both piece and weekly workers, in 
 addition to the bushelman. 
 
160 STUDIES IN TRADE UNIONISM 
 
 and no attempt has been made to go beyond the returns or 
 to revise the estimates given. 
 
 4. Per cent of increase in piece-rates (est.). Where the 
 secretary reported the prices for only one date, but gave an 
 estimate of the per cent of increase between the two dates 
 named, this estimated per cent is inserted, in order to give 
 some idea of what the prices on the other dates were. In 
 all other cases, the probable inaccuracy of the percentages 
 reported is such that they have not been inserted, and the 
 figures are left to speak for themselves, except where there 
 has been no increase, in which case a zero has been inserted. 
 
 5. Piece-rates, first and second dates. It is probable 
 that in some cases the secretary has given under the first date 
 the wages as they were on the first price-bill negotiated by 
 the union, such wages being higher than wages paid prior to 
 organization. The table will not show in such cases the com- 
 plete advance secured by the organization, but only the differ- 
 ence between the earliest and latest union bills. Thus, for 
 example, the secretary in Watertown, Wisconsin, reports in 
 a note to his returns that coatmakers' wages have gone up 
 60 per cent over the old non-union bill, whereas the table 
 shows only 16 to 20 per cent change in the piece-rates for 
 coats, after the first union bill went in. 
 
 6. Time rates. Journeymen's weekly wage. The figure's 
 in this column apply to weekly scale workers only. The 
 figures given are for full-time wages. 
 
 7. Estimated average yearly earnings, 1911. "Employ- 
 ment estimated at 250 days." This estimate of employment 
 does not apply rigorously to each class of trade. It is the 
 best estimate that the writer was able to obtain of actual 
 average yearly employment, counting out all time lost, and 
 estimating a standard full-time day at ten hours. The note 
 was inserted to indicate that the estimates given are of actual 
 
IN THE CUSTOM TAILORING TRADE 161 
 
 earnings, and not of full-time earnings. Rushelmen lose a 
 great deal less time than the other tradesmen. 
 
 In some cases the secretaries have returned estimates of 
 average weekly earnings. In such cases the writer has used 
 these figures as a basis for the estimates given in the table. 
 
 8. Per cent excess of union over non-union wages. 
 Where the secretary does not give a definite answer, the space 
 is left blank. If the secretary reports "no excess," a zero is 
 posted in the proper square. 
 
 (c) Analysis and conclusions. 
 
 AVERAGE PIECE- WAGE, SINGLE-BREASTED SACK COATS, 
 1911, BY SECTIONS. 
 
 Section. Cities. Average 1 ^ Piece-Wage S. B. 
 
 Reporting. Sack Coats, 1911. 
 
 New England 5 $ 7.89 
 
 Middle Atlantic 9 8.33 
 
 East North Central 25 7.84 
 
 West North Central 9 8.42 
 
 South Atlantic 5 9.53 
 
 East South Central 1 8.50 
 
 West South Central 5 8.86 
 
 Mountain 2 10.25 
 
 Pacific 7 9.33 
 
 Canada 3 7.78 
 
 Totals 71 $ 8.39 
 
 Notes. The average piece-wage for single-breasted sack 
 coats in 1911 is found to be, in the 71 cities reporting, $8.39. 
 It is seen that in the New England, Middle Atlantic, and 
 East North Central sections, and in Canada, the piece-wage 
 is below the average. The West North Central, East South 
 Central, and West South Central sections show a little above 
 the average. The South Atlantic, Mountain, and Pacific 
 sections show decidedly above the average. It is the general 
 impression that wages in most industries are higher in the 
 
 averages given here are by cities, and are not weighted ac- 
 cording to the number of individual tailors working under a given scale. 
 
162 STUDIES IN TRADE UNIONISM 
 
 West, and it is not surprising to find this true in the tailoring 
 trade. It might, however, be expected that the South At- 
 lantic cities would show a lower bill. The essential reason 
 why they do not is that in these cities, including for example, 
 Baltimore, Charleston, and Jacksonville, there are compara- 
 tively few tailors in the unions, and these are of the first 
 class as to skill, being employed on fashionable trade, 
 where the employer prefers the best help, in spite of the fact 
 that he could obtain cheaper help. It is very doubtful if this 
 section would compare as favorably as it does with the West 
 if the wages of non-union tailors were included. In fact, 
 Atlanta reports that union wages are 20 per cent higher than 
 non-union, and Jacksonville, 25 per cent higher. 
 
 In interpreting the entire table of wages it must be taken 
 into account that there is a very wide diversity with refer- 
 ence to the quality of the trade made in the various cities, 
 and frequently this consideration has a more direct bearing 
 on the piece-scales than any sectional distinction. A fair in- 
 dex of the quality of trade may be found in the retail prices 
 of suits, which are given in the last column of the table. 
 
 AVERAGE PIECE- WAGE, TROUSERS, 1911, BY SECTIONS. 
 
 Cities Av. piece-wage, 
 
 Section reporting. trousers, 1911. 
 
 New England 5 $2.22 
 
 Middle Atlantic 9 2.33 
 
 East North Central 24 2.47 
 
 West North Central 8 2.86 
 
 South Atlantic 5 3.06 
 
 East South Central i 2.50 
 
 West South Central 5 2.85 
 
 Mountain 2 3.75 
 
 Pacific 7 3.19 
 
 Canada 3 2.38 
 
 Total 69 2.65 
 
 Notes. The average piece-wage for trousers in 69 cities 
 is found to be $2.65. The variations by sections are found 
 
IN THE CUSTOM TAILORING TRADE 163 
 
 to be almost exactly the same as described for coats. This 
 results from the fact that when a bill of prices is changed by 
 negotiation between the union and the employers, all items 
 are changed in proportion. 
 
 AVERAGE PIECE-WAGE, VESTS, 1911, BY SECTIONS. 
 
 Cities Av. piece-wage, 
 
 Section. reporting. vests, 1911. 
 
 New England 5 $2.03 
 
 Middle Atlantic 9 2.07 
 
 East North Central 24 2.04 
 
 West North Central 9 2.40 
 
 South Atlantic 5 2.20 
 
 East South Central i 1.75 
 
 West South Central 5 2.60 
 
 Mountain 2 3.37 
 
 Pacific 7 2.67 
 
 Canada 3 2.05 
 
 Total 70 2.24 
 
 Notes. The average piece-wage for vests in 70 cities is 
 found to be $2.24. Variations by sections are similar to 
 those for coats and trousers, except that Owensboro, the only 
 city reporting in the East South Central section, has an ex- 
 ceptionally low vest bill, ($1.75) ; and the South Atlantic 
 section falls below the average, probably for the reason that 
 a larger part of the work on vests is done by helpers than 
 in the case of the other items. Helpers are numerous in the 
 East, and do not, of course, receive as good wages as the 
 master-workmen. 
 
 PIECE-WAGES FOR S.B. SACK COATS. 
 
 Section. $5.00-6.99 $7.00-8.49 $8.50-9.99 $10.00 and 
 
 over. 
 
 New England I 3 . I 
 
 Middle Atlantic 14 22 
 
 E. N. Central 4 13 5 3 
 
 W. N. Central 14 31 
 
 South Atlantic . 41 
 
 E. S. Central . i 
 
 W. S. Central i 4 
 
 Mountain . I I 
 
 Pacific i 42 
 
 Canada .3 . 
 
 Totals 8 28 24 ii 
 
164 STUDIES IN TRADE UNIONISM 
 
 Notes. The figures in the vertical columns stand for 
 cities. The table for the Middle Atlantic section, for ex- 
 ample, is to be read as follows : "In the Middle Atlantic 
 section, i city reports a piece-wage for sack coats between 
 $5.00 and $6.99; 4 cities report a piece-wage between $7.00 
 and $8.49;" etc. It is found that the medium prices, from 
 $7.00 to $9.99, inclusive, obtain in 52 cities, being about 
 equally distributed between the high and low medium prices. 
 This table also shows the fact indicated by former tables, 
 that the South Atlantic and the western sections show dis- 
 tinctively high wages. 
 
 PIECE-WAGES, SINGLE-BREASTED SACK COATS, TEN LARGE CITIES. 
 
 City. Piece-wage, 
 
 S. B. Sack Coats, 
 
 New York $ 9.00 
 
 Boston n.oo 
 
 Cleveland 10.00 
 
 Baltimore 9.00 
 
 Pittsburgh 10.00 
 
 Buffalo 11.50 
 
 Kansas City 12.40 
 
 Indianapolis 9.00 
 
 Portland 10.75 
 
 Winnipeg 7.50 
 
 Average $10.01 
 
 PIECE-WAGES, SINGLE-BREASTED SACK COATS, TEN SMALL CITIES. 
 
 City. Piece-wage, 
 
 S. B. Sack Coats, 1911. 
 
 D anbury, Conn. $6.00 
 
 Bradford, Pa. 7.75 
 
 North Adams, Mass. 8.45 
 
 Logansport, Ind. 7.00 
 
 Belleville, 111. 6.00 
 
 Burlington, Iowa 8.50 
 
 Fort Smith, Ark. 9.00 
 
 Owensboro, Ky. 8.50 
 
 Stockton, Cal. 9.00 
 
 St. Catherine's, Ont 8.35 
 
 Average $7.85 
 
 It is found that the average piece-wage for sack coats in 
 ten large cities is $10.01, and in ten small cities, $7.85. This 
 
IN THE CUSTOM TAILORING TRADE 165 
 
 great difference is due in the main to two causes: (i) Liv- 
 ing is higher in the large city, and it is necessary to pay tailors 
 more to hold them. (2) More fine tailoring is done in the 
 large city, and the employers can afford to pay a good bill 
 in order to get the best journeymen. 
 
 LIST OF 8 CITIES, 80 PER CENT OR MORE ORGANIZED, GIVING DEGREE OF 
 ORGANIZATION, AND INCREASE IN PIECE-RATES FOR S.B. SACK COATS, 
 IN 21 YEARS, 1890-1911. 
 
 Per cent Piece-rate Piece-rate Per cent 
 
 City 
 
 organised. 
 
 1890 
 
 1911 
 
 increase. 
 
 Holyoke 
 
 87 
 
 $5.00 
 
 $7.00 
 
 40 
 
 Danbury 
 
 100 
 
 6.00 
 
 6.00 
 
 
 
 Bloomington 
 
 90 
 
 7.00 
 
 8.50 
 
 21 
 
 Superior 
 
 92 
 
 7.00 
 
 8.00 
 
 14 
 
 Sioux City 
 
 95 
 
 7-25 
 
 9.00 
 
 24 
 
 Olympia 
 
 IOO 
 
 8.00 
 
 9.25 
 
 15 
 
 Stockton 
 
 98 
 
 9.00 
 
 9.00 
 
 o 
 
 San Jose 
 
 89 
 
 8.00 
 
 9-75 
 
 22 
 
 LIST OF 8 CITIES, 50 PER CENT OR LESS ORGANIZED, GIVING DEGREE OF 
 ORGANIZATION, AND INCREASE IN PIECE-RATES FOR S.B. SACK COATS. 
 IN 21 YEARS, 1890-1911. 
 
 Per cent Piece-rate Piece-rate Per cent 
 
 City organised. 1890 1911 increase. 
 
 Boston 13 $8.00 $11.00 37 
 
 Pittsburgh 9 6.75 10.00 55 
 
 Cleveland 33 5.00 10.00 100 
 
 Baltimore 7 9.00 9.00 o 
 
 Winnipeg 36 6.50 7.50 15 
 
 Buffalo 45 5.00 11.50 130 
 
 Poughkeepsie 47 5.00 6.00 20 
 
 Jacksonville, Fla. 50 6.00 8.65 44 
 
 The two tables above have been compiled in the endeavor 
 to trace a connection between the degree of organization and 
 the per cent of increase in piece-rates for a typical garment, 
 such as a sack coat, The results of this comparison are 
 curious. The cities organized less than 50 per cent show the 
 highest percentages of increase. This can only be explained 
 on the ground that the cities the least organized are at the 
 same time, with a few exceptions, the largest cities, and the 
 
166 STUDIES IN TRADE UNIONISM 
 
 influence of the size of city and the quality of trade is greater 
 than that of the degree of organization. 
 
 ESTIMATED AVERAGE YEARLY EARNINGS, 1911. 
 
 Under the head of yearly earnings little more is attempted 
 than to list the returns as reported by the secretaries. The 
 considerations by which the relation between yearly earnings 
 and piece-rates is to be traced are complicated, and the writer 
 is convinced that there is a considerable degree of error in the 
 estimates given. No time or space is devoted, therefore, to 
 an analysis of these figures, until such time as they can be 
 checked with greater accuracy. 
 
 RETAIL PRICES OF SUITS. 
 
 The average as reported by the secretaries is usually given 
 as less than the arithmetical mean of the highest and lowest. 
 This upon the whole is accurate, and indicates that a greater 
 number of the lower priced suits are sold. 
 
 CONCLUDING NOTE, WAGES AND CONDITIONS OF UNION 
 
 TAILORS. 
 
 The statistics presented in the preceding pages are not 
 complete, but they are fairly representative, both with ref- 
 erence to the size of cities and with reference to geographical 
 sections. No attempt is made here to draw general conclu- 
 sions, as the diversity of conditions in the tailoring industry 
 makes this well-nigh impossible without more complete data. 
 The leading impression that the writer has received from the 
 study of the returns received is that local conditions operate 
 to a far greater extent than generally supposed to determine 
 the conditions of the workers, and that any attempt to apply 
 general economic principles to an investigation of this kind 
 will have to be made in the light of the numerous exceptions 
 and variations that are to be discovered. 
 
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