z^ *-*-* -.-, ' n. /? STRUCTURAL, PHYSIOLOGICAL, SYSTEMATICAL, AND MEDICAL ; X, BEING A FOURTH EDITION OF THE OUTLINE OF THE FIRST PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY. BY JOHN LINDLEY, PH.D. F.R.S. VICE-SECRETARY OP THE HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY OP LONDON; PROFESSOR OP BOTANY IN UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, LONDON, THE ROYAL INSTITUTION OP GREAT BRITAIN, AND TO THE SOCIETY OP APOTHECARIES. LONDON: 'PRINTED FOR TAYLOR AND WALTON, BOOKSELLERS AND PUBLISHERS TO UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, UPPER GOWER STREET. 1841. < LONDON : PRINTED BY SAMUEL BENTLEY, Bangor House, Shoe Lane. PREFACE. THE work now laid before the public is a fourth edition of the Author's " Outline of the First Principles of Botany," much extended and, it is hoped, improved. That work was written for the use of students, and entirely for the purpose of enabling them to fix correctly in their minds the more important points which the teacher brings before them in an academical course. When facts are mixed up with extended discussions, and rapidly adverted to, either in a lecture-room or in a written dissertation, the beginner is apt to lose sight of the exact nature of an argument, and is unable to distinguish with certainty the points upon which it is most material for him to fix his attention. That there existed a want of such a work has been sufficiently proved by the many editions the original Outline has passed through, in various European lan- guages : indeed, while the present new edition is in the press, advice has been received of the translation of the work into Hungarian. The propositions which it contained were such as it is of the most indispensable importance for a student to understand ; and were all, apparently, deducible from the evidence which had at that time been collected by Botanists. The wish of the Author was to sketch a slight but accurate outline, the details of which were to be filled up by the reader himself, who, for this purpose, was referred to the Author's more extended Introductions to Botany. The original " Outline " contained nothing more than the fundamental propositions upon which the principles of Organic and Physiological Botany depend ; but, when two editions had been exhausted, the Author was induced, by the favour with which the book had been received, and by its recognized utility, notwithstanding its many defects, to combine with it a 2091 \ 27 IV PKEFACE. sketch of Systematical Botany, treated in the same manner. He undertook the far more difficult task of reducing to their simplest expression the characters that distinguish the various groups in which plants are classified by modern systemati- cal writers ; the object being to diminish, by a very careful and extensive analysis, the difficulties which present them- selves to the student of this branch of the subject. The attempt was made in the form of a series of tables, called the " Alliances of Plants ;" and it has been satisfactory to the Author to find that this too has been advantageous to students, notwithstanding its extreme conciseness. The work thus altered appeared in 1835, under the title of " Key to Structural, Physiological, and Systematical Botany." In the edition now offered to students many important improvements have been introduced, without deviating from the original plan of the work. The skill of the wood-engraver has enabled the Author to fill his pages with illustrations, ex- planatory not only of the technical terms employed in Botany, but also of the Natural Orders of plants. An analysis of the latter, upon the plan of Lamarck, an account of De Candolle's celebrated system of arrangement, into which a large number of wood-cuts are introduced, and some new views relating to natural classification, are added to the matter to be found in previous editions : besides which, the whole of the Structural and Physiological part has been corrected with great care, and made to include all the most important views of modern physiologists, so as to present the reader with a view of the state of Botanical knowledge in these departments in the spring of 1841. It is hoped that these improvements will render the work what it was originally intended for, a complete Botanical Note-book, wherein all the principal topics which the teachers of Botany introduce into their lectures are arranged methodi- cally. The student will naturally look to his instructor or to more extensive works for explanations of those points which in his Note-book are merely adverted to. University College, London, April 1841. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY; STRUCTURAL, PHYSIOLOGICAL, SYSTEMATICAL, AND MEDICAL. I. STRUCTURAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. 1. PLANTS are not separable from animals by any absolute character; the simplest individuals of either kingdom not being distinguishable by our senses. 2. Animals are for the most part incapable of multiplying by mechanical or spontaneous division of their trunk, and are supported by nutritious matter, carried into their system from an internal bag or stomach. 3. Plants are for the most part congeries of individuals, multiplying by spontaneous or artificial division of their trunk or axis, and are supported by nutritious matter conveyed into their system by the absorption of their lower extremities or roots, or by their surface. 4. Generally speaking, the latter are fixed to some sub- stance from which they grow, are destitute of locomotion, and are enabled to digest their food by the action of light upon their epidermis. 5. Plants consist of a hygrometrical membranous trans- parent tissue, chemically composed of oxygen, hydrogen, and carbon, to which nitrogen is always superadded. They are also found to contain many mineral substances, which they are supposed to separate from their proper food during the process of digestion, and to deposit in their tissue. B 2 STRUCTURAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. 6. Their component parts are held together by an organic mucus, out of which the tissue itself is generated. 7. Tissue is found in the form of the cellular, the woody, the vascular, the pitted, and the laticiferous, each of which has certain modifications, constituting the Elementary organs. I. ELEMENTARY ORGANS. 8. Of these, CELLULAR TISSUE (Tela cellulosa, Lat. ; Tissu cellulaire, Fr. ; Pulp and Parenchyma, of old writers ; Zellen- gewebe, Germ.) is the only form universally found in plants ; the other forms are often either partially or entirely wanting. 9. Cellular tissue is composed of vesicles, the sides of which are not originally perforated by visible pores (22). 10. Each vesicle is a distinct individual, cohering with the vesicle with which it is in contact ; and originating from a primitive point or cytollast 1 , which either remains visible on its sides or is absorbed. 11. Therefore the apparently simple membrane which di- vides two contiguous cells is in fact double. 12. If the adhesion of the contiguous cells be imperfect, spaces will exist between them. Such spaces are called inter- cellular passages. 13. The sides of cellular tissue are often thickened by the deposit, on their inner surface, of matter of lignification or sclerogen z , which is stratified, and often pierced with passages leading to the circumference. 14. The cells contain fluid; grains of colouring matter (cJiromule., chromogen, or chlorophyll) ; starch in granules (pe- renchyma) ; and crystals, which, when acicular, are named raphides. 15. The vesicles of cellular tissue, when separate, are round or oblong ; when slightly and equally pressed together, they acquire a dodecahedral appearance 4 , with an hexagonal section ; stretched lengthwise they become prismatical, cylin- drical, fusiform, &c. 16. When cellular tissue is composed of vesicles fitting together by their plane faces, it is called in general terms parenchyma ; and prosencJiyma if the vesicles are fusiform. Both these are sometimes branched, and their divisions inos- culate. ELEMENTARY ORGANS. Spheroidal cellular tissue is merenchyma 4 , or spharendtyma ; conical, conenchy- ma 5 ; oval, ovenchynui 6 ; fusiform, atractenchyma ; cylindrical, cylindrenchyma 8 ; sinuous, colpenckyma 9 ; branched, cladenchyma w ; prismatical, prismenchyma, which, when compressed, becomes muriform 7 ; stellate, actinenchyma 1 *; entan- gled, branched and tubular, d(edalencliyma n . =-.<#4 17. Parenchyma constitutes all the pulpy parts; the me- dulla or pith (98), the medullary rays (132), a portion of the bark (120), and all that intervenes between the veins of leaves and other appendages of the axis. Consequently it occurs in every part of a plant, and especially in those which are succu- lent. It, however, sometimes acquires, by the deposit of scle- rogen (13), excessive hardness, as in the stone of fruits 3 , and the bony skin of some seeds. destines are large cells of Parenchyma, in which raphides (60 a) are often de- posited. 18. Prosenchyma is confined to the bark and wood, in which it only occasionally occurs. 19. Besides these a spiral line is often found in the inside of a cell, when fibro-cellular tissue 13 , or inenchyma, is produced ; and it sometimes happens that the membrane connecting such fibres is absorbed, leaving the fibres only to constitute the cell. 20. The function of the cellular tissue is to transmit fluids in all directions ; the membrane of which it is composed is therefore permeable, although not in general furnished with B 2 4 STRUCTURAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. visible pores (9). When it is thickened by the deposition of sclerogen, passages are left in the latter communicating with the sides of the tissue, and giving it the appearance of being dotted or pitted. 21. Cellular tissue is self-productive, one cell generating others upon its surface. In Chara, Marchantia, &c. young cells are said to be formed at the points of and in the spaces between older cells ; in Confervse and in anthers new cells are formed by the internal divisions of an older cell; while, according to Schleiden, the most general mode of production is from cytoblasts (10), generated in the mucus of vegetation (6). 22. PITTED TISSUE (Boihrenchyma) is a modification of the cellular, either consisting of ordinary cylindrical cells placed end to end, opening into each other, and forming continuous tubes ; or originally tubular 15 . Its sides are marked by pits, resembling dots, produced in consequence of the sclerogen (13) being unequally deposited over the inside of the cells. It is common in wood, of which it forms what is vulgarly called the porosity. Its office is to convey fluids with rapidity in the direction of the woody tissue that surrounds it. Formerly it was considered a form of vascular tissue, and called dotted ducts, or msiform tissue. Pitted Tissue is articulated, when composed of short cylinders placed end to end, or continuous when it was originally tubular. 23. WOODY TISSUE (Pleurenchyma) consists of elongated tubes tapering to each end, and, like the vesicles of cellular tissue, imperforate to the eye. It may be considered a form of the cellular tissue itself, to which it is frequently referred ; but it is practically distinguished by its cylindrical form, great length, extreme fineness, and toughness; the latter of which properties is produced by the thickness of its sides. 24. It is found in the wood, among the parenchyma of the liber (124), and in the veins of the leaves, or other appendages of the axis. 25. Its functions are to give strength to the vegetable fabric, and to serve as a medium for the passage of fluid from the lower to the upper extremities. Common Pleurenchyma has its sides destitute of markings ; the glandular 14 is a variety in which the sides of the tubes are furnished with circular disks ; the latter occur chiefly in coniferous plants and such as have aromatic secretions. ELEMENTARY ORGANS. 5 26. VASCULAR TISSUE (Trachmchyma) consists of very thin- sided cylinders tapering to each end, and having a spiral fibre generated in their inside. 27. Of this kind of tissue spiral vessels 1516 are the type. Their fibre is of a highly elastic nature, and is capable of un- rolling when stretched. 28. Spiral vessels are found in the medullary sheath, and in all parts that emanate from it, especially the veins of the leaves, and everything that is a modification of them. 29. They are usually absent from the wood and bark. They, however, occur in these and other unusual parts in a few extremely rare cases ; as in the wood, and bark, and pith of Nepenthes. 30. The spiral vessels appear intended for the conveyance of air, which has been found to contain 7 or 8 per cent, more oxygen than the atmosphere. 31. Ducts are transparent tubes, the sides of which are marked with rings, bars, or transverse streaks. 32. They are slight modifications of the spiral vessel, differ- ing principally in being incapable of unrolling ; and, in some cases, in the turns of the spiral fibre being distant or broken, or even, in appearance, branched. 33. In those cases where the turns of the spire actually touch each other, the ducts, which are then called closed, can only be distinguished from spiral vessels by their inability to unrol ; while at rest they appear to be absolutely the same. 6 STRUCTURAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. Ducts are closed 50 when the spires touch each other ; annular, when they seern to consist of separate rings 17 ; reticulated, when the spires cross each other 19 ; scalariform, when the lines upon their sides are horizontal and equidistant ; septate, when the interior is divided by pierced disks, as in Echinocactus. 34. Ducts occur among the woody tissue of herbaceous plants ; are abundant in the wood of the higher tribes of cel- lular plants, such as Ferns and Lycopodiacese ; and their ends are often in immediate connection with the loose cellular tissue occupying the extremities of the roots. 35. Their functions have not been accurately determined. It is probable that they act as. spiral vessels when young ; but it is certain that they become filled with fluid as soon as their spires are separated. 36. LATICIFEROUS TissuE 18 (Cinenchyma) consists of uninter- rupted anastomozing tubes, whose final divisions are so deli- cate, that the eye only discovers them when aided by the most powerful microscopes. It forms the proper vessels of old writers. 37. It principally occurs in the liber of Exogens (124), whence the ramifications proceed to the surface of all the organs, and penetrate the hairs, where they form a most delicate network. 38. Laticiferous tissue conveys latex, a peculiar fluid, usually turbid, and coloured red, white, or yellow ; often however colourless. 39. The use of this tissue is to carry the latex to all the newly formed organs, which are supposed to be nourished by it. The large trunks of Cinenchyma are vasa expansa, or opopkora ; the small are rasa cm: tract a. 40. There are no other elementary forms of tissue. Air- vessels, Reservoirs of oil, Lenticular glands, are all either dis- tended intercellular passages, or cavities built up with cellular tissue, or large cells filled with peculiar secretions. 41. When such cavities are essential to the existence of a species, they are formed by a regular -arrangement of cellular tissue in a definite and unvarying figure ; Ex. Water-plants. When they are not essential to the existence of a species, they are mere irregular distensions or lacerations of the tissue : Ex. Pith of the Walnut-tree. 42 All these forms of tissue are enclosed within a skin lied the epidermis, which is one or more external layers of ELEMENTARY ORGANS. 7 parenchyma, the vesicles of which are compressed, and in a firm state of cohesion. 43. The spaces seen upon the epidermis, when examined by a microscope, represent these vesicles. 44. It is, therefore, not a peculiar membrane, but a form of cellular tissue. 45. It is spread over all the parts of plants which are ex- posed to air, except the stigma (397). 46. It is not found upon parts habitually living under water. 47. It is itself protected by an extremely thin pellicle, which is apparently inorganic and homogeneous, and which covers every part, except the openings through the stomates (49). This membrane is the cuticle. 48. The epidermis is furnished with stomates. 49. STOMATES are oval spaces lying between the sides of the cells, opening into intercellular cavities in the subjacent tissue, and appearing to be bordered by a limb when they are viewed from above 22 23 25 . 50. This appearance. of a limb is owing to the juxtaposition of two or more elastic vesicles, closing up or opening the aperture which they form, according to circumstances, as is manifest when the stomate is divided perpendicularly to the plane of the epidermis 21 24 26 . 51. Stomates are found abundantly upon leaves, particularly ^ on the lower surface of those organs; occasionally upon all 8 STRUCTURAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. parts that are modifications of leaves, especially such as are of a leafy texture ; and on the stem. 52. Stomates have not been found upon the roots, nor on colourless parasitical plants, nor the submersed parts of plants, nor on Fungi, Algse, and Lichens ; they are, moreover, rare, or altogether absent, in succulent parts and in seeds. 53. It frequently happens, that they are so incompletely formed, as to be either altogether incapable of action, or to act in a very imperfect manner ; as in succulent plants. 54. The function of stomates is to regulate evaporation and respiration. It has been thought, that the former func- tion, in particular, is that for which they are destined ; and, that the cause of certain parts becoming succulent, is the absence of stomates in sufficient numbers to carry off the watery part of the sap. But some succulent plants have more stomates than ordinary plants, so that this opinion requires reconsideration. 55. HAIRS are minute expansions of transparent cellular tissue proceeding from the surface of plants. They are of two kinds, lymphatic and secreting. 56. Lymphatic hairs are formed by vesicles of cellular tis- sue placed end to end, and not varying much in dimensions. 57. Glandular hairs are formed by vesicles of cellular tis- sue placed end to end, and sensibly distended at the apex or base into receptacles of fluid. COMPOUND ORGANS. 58. Lymphatic hairs are for the absorption of moisture, for the protection of the surface on which they are placed, and for the control of evaporation through the stomates (49). They always proceed from the veins, while the stomates oc- cupy the interjacent parenchyma. 59. Glandular hairs are receptacles of the fluid peculiar to certain species of plants, such as the fragrant volatile oil of the sweet brier, and the acrid colourless fluid of the nettle, and may be regarded as organs of excretion. Hairs are simple 35 ; setaceous 28 ; capitate 37 ; strangulated 29 ; moniliform x ; ar- ticulated 31 3a ; septate 27 ; compound 38 ; knotted 33 ; clavate 34 ; scabrous 39 ; ci- liated 50 ; glochidiate 40 41 ; branched 42 ; stellate 45 40 ; scutate 43 ; araneose 36 ; rumentaceous 48 49 . 60. Hairs are usually planted, more or less perpendicularly, upon the surface on which they grow. In some cases, how- ever, they are attached by their middle (peltate), as in Mal- pighiaceous and Brassicaceous plants 51 . 60 a. RAPHIDES are crystals of any kind, usually acicular, found in the interior of cells of parenchyma. 61. PRICKLES are conical hairs of large size, sharp-pointed, and having thin tissue very hard. II. COMPOUND ORGANS. 62. From peculiar combinations of the elementary organs are formed the compound organs. 63. The compound organs are the axis (64) and its ap- pendages (189). 64. The Axis may be compared to the vertebral column of animals. 65. It is formed from an embryo or leaf-bud, by the de- velopement of a root in one direction, and of a stem in the opposite direction. 10 STRUCTURAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. 66. An embryo is a young plant, produced by the agency of sexes, and developed within a seed. 67. A leaf-bud is a young plant, produced without the agency of sexes, enclosed within rudimentary leaves called scales, and developed on a stem. 68. An embryo propagates the species. 69. Leaf-buds propagate the individual. 70. When the vital action of an embryo or bud is excited, the tissue developes in three directions, upwards, downwards, and horizontally. 71. That part which developes downwards is called the descending axis or root ; that upwards, the ascending axis or stem ; that horizontally, the medullary system ; and the part from which these two axes start is called the crown or collar. 72. This elongation in three directions takes place simul- taneously ; hence it follows that all plants must necessarily have an ascending and descending axis, or a stem and root, and a medullary system. 73. The only apparent exceptions to this are the lower tribes of plants, in which the developement seems to be either spherical, filamentous, or horizontal. III. ROOT. 74. The root is formed by the descending and dividing fibres of the stem. 75. Anatomically it differs from the stem in the absence of normal buds, and of stomates (49), and in Exogens of pith. 76. Although the root has no distinct pith in Exogens, yet it possesses a distinct medullary system. 77. The functions of the root are to fix plants in the earth, and to absorb nutriment from it. As it has to force its way through substances which offer resistance to its passage, it lengthens exclusively by successive additions to the points of its divisions. 78. This absorption takes place almost exclusively by the extremities called spongelets, or spongioles, which consist of a lax coating of cellular tissue lying upon a concentric layer of woody tissue, in the midst of which is often placed a bundle of ducts (31). Spongioles are not, however, a distinct organ, but are merely the young extremities of roots. ROOT. 11 Roots are nodose 52 ; placentiform 53 ; conical 54 ; moniliform 55 ; testiculate, or tubercular 56 ; coralline 58 ; tuberous 59 ; and fasciculate, when in clusters as in the Asphodel. 79. Occasionally the epidermis separates from the end of the roots in the form of a cup or cap 57 , as in Pandanus and Lycopodium. 80. The power of affording nutriment to the stem and other parts, is not possessed by the root exclusively in consequence of its absorption from the soil. The root is often a reservoir of nutritious matter ready formed, and consisting of starch, as in the Dahlia ; mucilage, as in the Orchis ; alkaline matter, as in Rhubarb ; upon which the young stem feeds, even al- though the root itself is cut off from communication with any source of supply. Moniliform, tuberous, testiculate, placenti- form, conical roots, in short, all which are unusually thick- ened, are intended by nature as reservoirs of food. They must not be confounded with tubers (152), rootstocks (152), or corms (153), all which are forms of stem. IV. STEM. 81. The stem is produced by the successive developement of leaf-buds (164), which lengthen in opposite directions. 82. If an annular incision be made below a branch of an Exogenous plant (95), the upper lip of the wound heals rapidly, the lower lip not : the part above the incision in- creases sensibly in diameter, the part below does not. 12 STRUCTURAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. 83. If a ligature be made round the bark, below a branch, the part above the ligature swells, that below it does not swell. 84. Therefore the matter which causes the increase of Exogenous plants in diameter descends. 85. If a growing branch is cut through below a leaf-bud, that branch never increases in diameter between the section and the first bud below it. 86. The diameter of all Exogenous stems increases in each species in proportion to the number of leaf-buds developed. 87. The greater number of leaf-buds above a given part, the greater the diameter of that part ; and vice versa. 88. In the spring the newly forming wood is to be traced in the form of organic fibres descending from the leaf-buds ; that which is most newly formed lying on the outside, and proceeding from the most newly developed buds. 89. Therefore the descending matter, by successive addi- tions of which Exogenous plants increase in diameter, pro- ceeds from the leaf-buds. 90. Their elongation upwards gives rise to new axes, with their appendages ; their elongation downwards increases the diameter of that part of the axis which pre-existed, and pro- duces roots. 91. Roots, therefore, in all cases, should consist of exten- sions of woody tissue ; and this is conformable to observation. 92. Hence, while the stem is formed by the successive evolution of leaf-buds, the root, which is the effect of that evolution, has no leaf-buds. 93. The leaf-buds thus successively developed are firmly held together by the medullary system of the stem, which proceeds from the bark inwards, connecting the circumference with the centre. 94. The stem varies in structure in four principal ways. 95. It is either formed by successive additions to the out- side of the wood, when it is called Exogenous^ ; or by suc- cessive additions to its centre, when it is called Endogenous^ ; or by the union of the bases of leaves, and by addition to the point of the axis, or by simple elongation or dilatation where no leaves or buds exist ; this is called Acrogenous. 96. In what are" called Dictyogens^, the stem has the STEM. structure of Endogens, the root that of the stem of Exogens nearly ; Ex. Smilax. 97. The stem of EXOGENS may be distinguished into the Pith, the Medullary Sheath, the Wood, the Bark, and the Medullary Rays. 98. The PITH consists of cellular tissue, occupying the cen- tre of the stem. 99. It occasionally contains scattered spiral vessels, which appear to originate in the medullary sheath (104), or scat- tered bundles of vascular and woody tissue, as in Ferula. 100. It is produced by the elongation of the axis upwards. 101. It serves to nourish the young buds until they have acquired the power of procuring nourishment for themselves. For this purpose it is filled with starch, which, in the process of vegetation, becomes converted into mucilage ; and the latter passes out of the pith into the nascent organs. 102. It is always solid when first organized ; but in some cases it separates into regular cavities, as in the Walnut, when it is called disciform ; or it tears into irregular spaces, as in Umbelliferous plants. 103. Its office of nourishing the young parts being ac- complished, it is of no further importance, and dies. 104. The MEDULLARY SHEATH consists of spiral vessels 63 ". 105. It immediately surrounds the pith, projections of which pass through it into the medullary rays (132) 63 *. 106. It is in direct communication with the leaf-buds and the veins of the leaves. 14 STRUCTURAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. 107. It carries upwards the oxygen liberated by the de- composition of carbonic acid and water, and conducts it into the leaves. 108. The WOOD lies upon the medullary sheath, and con- sists of concentric layers. 109. It is formed by the successive deposit of organized matter descending from the buds, and by the interposition of the medullary system, here called medullary rays, con- necting the pith and the bark 63 b b . 110. The first concentric layer lies immediately upon the medullary sheath and pith, and consists of woody and vasi- form tissue 63 *. 111. Each succeeding concentric layer consists ; multangular 80 ; triquetrous 78 ; quadriquetrous 79 ; obscurely triquetrous 85 ; trilateral 86 ; quadrilateral 87 ; quinquelateral 88 . V. LEAF-BUDS. 163. Buds are of two kinds, Leaf-buds and Flower-buds. 164. LEAF-BUDS (Bourgeon, Fr.) consist of rudimentary leaves surrounding a growing vital point, the tissue of which is capable of elongation, upwards in the form of stem, and downwards in the form of root. 165. FLOWER-BUDS (Bouton, Fr.) consist of rudi- mentary leaves surrounding a fixed vital point, and assuming, when fully developed, the form of floral envelopes or sexual apparatus. 166. Notwithstanding this difference, a leaf-bud sometimes indicates a tendency to become a flower- bud ; and flower-buds frequently assume the cha- racters of leaf-buds ; Ex. Monstrous Pears. 167. In appearance a leaf-bud seems 89 to be a collection of scales arranged symmetrically one above the other. These scales are the rudiment- ary leaves. The centre upon which they are placed is cellular substance coated with a thin stratum of spiral vessels, and these two parts answer to the pith (98) and the medullary sheath (104) in Exogens. 168. By the growth of a leaf-bud a branch is formed ; and the scales gradually change into true leaves as vegetation ad- vances 92 . 169. Sometimes they separate spontaneously from the stem LEAF-BUDS. 21 (are deciduous), and are then called bulbills or bulblets 9 *. Ex. Lilium bulbiferum. 170. Often they are of large size, and are formed under- ground ; they are then called bulbs or scaly bulbs 9 91 . 171. Although the corm (153) is regarded as a kind of underground stem, it may also be considered as a sort of leaf- bud, the centre of which is very large and the scales very thin. 172. In bulbs, young buds or bulbs then called cloves (nuclei), are often formed in the axils of the scales, as in Garlic ; and then gradually destroy the old bulb by feeding upon it. In like manner corms produce other corms at the axils of their scales, and are destroyed by their offspring. 173. Thus in some Gladioli 93 94 , an old corm produces the new one always at its point ; the latter is then seated on the remains of its parent, and, being in like manner devoured by its own offspring, becomes the base of the third generation 94 : this process enables such plants by degrees to raise themselves .out of the earth in which they were born. 174. In like manner the Crocus 75 produces two or more corms near the apex, and gradually dies as they develope ; and the Colchicum bears its mother in the form of a shrivelled spungy lump on one side of its base 96 ", while on the opposite side a new bud 966 is prepared by which the now vigorous parent will hereafter perish. 22 STRUCTURAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. 175. Both corms and bulbs are reservoirs of nutriment in either a starchy or mucilaginous condition, or both. 176. Leaf-buds are of two kinds, the regular and the adven- titious. 177. Regular or normal Leaf-buds are only found in the axils of leaves. 178. They exist in a developed or undeveloped state in the axils of all leaves, and of all modifications of leaves. 179. Therefore they may be expected to appear at the axils of scales of the bud, of stipules (223), of bracts (274), of sepals (335), of petals (336), of stamens (348), and of carpels (406) ; in all of which situations they are generally undeveloped, for these different organs are all modifications of leaves. 180. They are frequently not called into action, even in the axils of leaves. 181. As regular buds are only found in the axils of leaves, . or of their modifications, and as branches are always the de- velopement of buds, it follows, that, whatever may be the arrangement of the leaves, the same will be the disposition of the branches ; and vice versa. 182. This corresponding symmetry is, however, continually destroyed by the unequal developement of the buds. 183. Leaf-buds which are formed among the tissue of plants LEAF-BUDS. 23 subsequently to the developement of the stem and leaves, and without reference to the latter, are called latent, adventitious, or abnormal. 184. Adventitious Leaf-buds may be produced from any part of the horizontal medullary system, or wherever cellular tissue is present. It has been distinctly proved, that, while roots are prolongations of the vertical or woody system, leaf- buds universally originate in the horizontal or cellular system. 185. They are formed'in the root, among the wood, and at the margin or on the surface of leaves. 186. They are constructed anatomically exactly as regular buds, having pith in their centre, surrounded by a medullary sheath of spiral vessels, and coated over by woody tissue and cellular integument. 187. Hence, as adventitious buds, containing spiral vessels, can be produced from parts such as the root or the wood, in which no spiral vessels previously existed, it follows that this form of tissue is either generated spontaneously, or is produced by some other tissue, in a manner unknown to us. It is most probable, that spiral vessels are spontaneous modifications of vesicles of cellular tissue. 188. Embryo buds are woody nodules found in the bark of trees, and apparently rudimentary branches formed without leaves, within a space in which they are forcibly pressed upon by the surrounding tissue. VI. LEAVES. 189. A leaf is an expansion of the bark immediately below the origin of a regular leaf-bud, and is an appendage of the axis (64). 190. Whenever a regular leaf-bud is formed, a leaf, either perfect or rudimentary, is developed also ; and vice versa. 191. Leaves are developed alternately 97 , one above and op- posite the other, around their common axis ; but sometimes, in consequence of the internodes being unequally developed, leaves become opposite 98 or verticillate 103 . They are never produced side by side, except by irregular developement. 192. In Exogenous plants, the primordial or seed-leaves (cotyledons) are opposite ; hence, in .such plants the supposed 24 STRUCTURAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. non-developement of the axis takes place during the original formation of the embryo. 193. There is a constant tendency in opposite or verticillate leaves to become alternate. 194. This law applies equally to the arrangement of all parts that are modifications of leaves. 195. In leaves the developement takes place at their point of junction with the stem ; and consequently the tissue at the point of a leaf is the oldest. 196. A leaf consists of a petiole or stalk, a lamina or blade, and a pair of stipules. 197. The PETIOLE is the channel through which the vessels of the leaf are connected with those of the stem ; it is formed of one or more bundles of spiral vessels and woody tissue, enclosed in a cellular integument. 198. The spiral vessels of the leaf of Exogenous plants de- rive their origin from the medullary sheath ; those of En- dogenous plants from the bundles of fibro-vascular tissue. 199. The cellular integument of the petiole is a continuation of that of the bark. 200. When the petiole is leafy and the lamina is abortive, it is called a phyttodium". 201 . When the petiole becomes dilated and hollowed out at its upper end, the lamina being articulated with and closing LEAVES. 25 up its orifice, as in Sarracenia 100 and Nepenthes 104 , it is called a pitcher or ascidium ; if it is unclosed, and is a mere sac, as in Utricularia, it is called ampulla 101 . 202. Sometimes the petiole has no lamina, or is lengthened beyond the lamina, and retains its usual cylindrical or taper figure, but becomes long, and twists spirally ; such a petiole is called a fewrfriJ (Vrille, Fr.). The petiole is usually either taper, or channelled ; and it has often a struma" 1 , (coussinet, Fr.) at either its base or apex, especially in those leaves which are sensitive. In other cases it is inflated 106 , sheathing 103 , ainplexicaul 107 , winged 108 , auriculate, leafless, jointed 108 , spinescent ' 10 , &c. 203. The petiole is sometimes articulated transversely as in the Orange. 204. The LAMIXA of a leaf is an expansion of the- paren- chyma of the petiole, and is traversed by veins which are rami- fications or extensions of the bundles of vascular tissue of the petiole, or, when there is no petiole, of the stem. 205. Sometimes one, sometimes both the surfaces of a leaf are furnished with stomates. 206. The veins either branch in various directions among the parenchyma, anastomosing and forming a kind of net- work, or they run parallel to each other, being connected by single transverse uubranched veins. 207. The former is characteristic of Exogenous, the latter of Endogenous plants. 26 STRUCTURAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. 208. The principal vein of a leaf is a continuation of the petiole, and runs in a direct line from the base to the apex of the lamina; this vein is called the midrib. It usually pro- duces other veins from its base or sides, or from both : such veins are called ribs, if very strong, and proceeding from the base to the apex; under other circumstances, they are fre- quently named nervures. 209. There are two strata of veins, the one belonging to the upper, and the other to the under surface. 210. The upper stratum conveys the juices from the stem into the lamina, for the purpose of being aerated and elabo- rated ; the under returns them into the bark. 211. The veins are interposed among cellular substance, called diackyma, diploe^ or mesophyllum ; which is often strati- fied differently below the two surfaces of the leaf; the upper stratum being more compact than the lower, and having its cells perpendicular to the plane of the leaf : in such cases, the cells of the lower stratum are commonly more or less parallel with the under surface. 212. The lamina is variously divided and formed; it is usually thin and membranous, with a distinct upper and under surface ; but sometimes becomes succulent, when the surfaces are often not distinguishable. 213. The upper surface is presented to the sky, the lower to the earth ; this position is rarely departed from in nature, and cannot be altered artificially, except by violence. 214. A leaf is simple when its lamina is undivided, or when, if it is separated into several divisions, those divisions do not reach the midrib ; Ex. Lime-tree, Oak. 215. The form of the simple leaf is extremely variable, and the terms employed to denote the variations are numerous in proportion. 216. Some leaves have the margin so continuous, that the outline is scarcely interrupted, except by small toothings. Of such leaves the following are among the more common forms : Orbicular 120 ; ovate 121 ; lanceolate 122 ; oval 118 ; oblong 117 ; roundish oblong 113 ; peltate 124 ; cordate" 9 ; cordate ovate 114 ; cordate acuminate 119 ; renifonn 123 ; oblique" ; auriculate 139 . 121 12:2 21 7. In other leaves the margin is produced here and there into manifest angles ; in which cases the following terms are commonly in use : Sagittate or arrow-headed 126 ; cuneate or wedge-shaped 127 ; hastate 130 ; angu- lar 131 ; triangular 128 . 218. In other cases the margin is repeatedly interrupted in a definite manner along its whole course ; and then such terms as the following are employed : 28 STRUCTURAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. Palmate 138 ; seven-lobed 134 ; pinnatifid 133 ; sinuated 132 ; panduriform 1 219. A leaf is compound when the divisions pass down to the midrib so as to subdivide the leaf into smaller and distinct leaves, or leaflets (foliola). 220. When leaves are compound, their mode of division is expressed by such terms as the following : Ternate 144 ; biternate 146 or triternate ; digitate 140 ; pedate 142 ; pinnate 145 ; in- terruptedly pinnate 147 ; lyrate 143 ; bipinnate 150 ; decompound or tripinnate 141 ; bijugate 148 ; conjugate-pinnate 149 . 221. In speaking of the margin, we say that it is LEAVES. 29 Entire 126 ; serrate 114 ; biserrate 137 ; dentate 139 ; duplicato-dentate 137 ; tri-den- tate 125 ; crisp or curled 129 ; crenate 120 . 222. The point of the leaves gives rise to other terms, such as the following : Acute 118 ; obtuse 139 ; retuse 113 ; emarginate 113 ; acuminate 119 ; mucronate 132 ; truncate 129 . 223. STIPULES are attached to each side of the base of the petiole. They have, if leafy, veins, the anatomical structure of which is the same as that of the veins of the leaves. 224. Sometimes only one stipule is formed, the other being constantly abortive, as in Azara. 225. Stipules are sometimes transformed into leaves : they sometimes have buds in their axils ; and may be, therefore, considered rudimentary leaves. 226. Whatever arises from the base of a petiole, or of a leaf, if sessile, occupying the same place, and attached to each side, is considered a stipule. The appearance of this organ is so extremely variable, some being large and leaflike, others being mere rudiments of scales, that botanists are obliged to define it by its position, and not by its organization. 227. The stipules must not be confounded with cellular marginal appendages of the petiole, as in Apocynacese. 228. Stipules, the margins of which cohere in such a way that they form a membranous tube sheathing the stem, are called ochreee ; Ex. Rhubarb. 229. All leaves are originally continuous with the stem^ as they grow, an interruption of their tissue at their junction with the stem takes place, by which a more or less complete articulation is formed sooner or later. 230. The articulation between a leaf and stem being com- pleted, the tissue of the former becomes gradually incrusted by the foreign matter deposited by the sap in the process of secretion and digestion, and at last is incapable of further action, when -it dies. When the stem continues to increase in diameter, as a dead leaf will not increase with it, the latter is eventually thrown off; this is the fall of the leaf. But in some Endogens the articulation is so slight, and the stem increases so little in diameter, that the leaf is never thrown off, but simply withers and decays. 30 STRUCTURAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. 231. All leaves ultimately fall off; evergreen leaves later than others. 232. The mode in which leaves are arranged within their bud is called vernation, or gemmation. 233. Leaves have, under particular circumstances, the power of producing leaf-buds from their margin (185) ; Ex. Bryophyllum, Malaxis paludosa, and proliferous Ferns. VII. FOOD AND SECRETIONS. 234. Plants are nourished by the absorption of food from the air and earth, in consequence of which they grow, and produce their peculiar secretions. 235. The growth of plants is very rapid ; that of the leaves is such that they often acquire six or seven times their original weight per hour. 236. The food of plants always consists of carbonic acid, nitrogen, and water, and also of various mineral matters, chiefly alkaline, the nature of which varies according to species. 237. Boots have the power of absorbing most substances in a fluid or gaseous form, even although their extremities are unbroken. It appears probable that when plants are incapable of imbibing certain sub- stances, such as strontian, there is no isomorphism between their ordinary mineral constituents and those they reject. Thus, lime and magnesia, which plants will indifferently absorb, are isomorphous ; but between them and strontian, which they will not absorb, no isomorphism exists. Daubeny. 238. Carbon is obtained by plants in the form of carbonic acid, derived from the atmosphere, or generated in soil by the decay of vegetable matter. 239. Hydrogen is obtained principally by the decomposition of water, and is assimilated along with carbonic acid, while the oxygen of the water is liberated. 240. Nitrogen can only be obtained by plants in the form of ammonia. The nitrogen of the atmosphere cannot be the source of supply, because it cannot be made to enter into com- bination with any element except oxygen, even by the em- ployment of the most powerful chemical means. 241. Ammonia exists in every part of plants, in the roots, in the stem, and in all blossoms and fruits in an unripe condition. FOOD AND SECRETIONS. SI It is supplied by rain-water, which carries it down from the air, in which it is suspended, in consequence of the putrefac- tion of animal and vegetable matters. This ammonia affords all vegetables, without exception, the nitrogen which enters into the composition of their constituent substances. 242. A certain portion of the ammonia which falls with rain evaporates again with the water ; but another portion is taken up by the roots of plants, and, entering into new com- binations, produces albumen, gluten, and a number of other compounds, containing nitrogen. 243. But it is not so much the quantity of ammonia that is important to plants, as the form in which it is presented to them. When in a volatile state, it is in great measure lost before it can be imbibed. When fixed, in the state of salts, its volatility is overcome, and not the smallest portion of the ammonia is lost to the plants, for it is all dissolved by water and imbibed by the roots. 244. But carbonic acid, water, and ammonia, are not the only elements necessary for the support of vegetables. Cer- tain inorganic constituents are also essential. 245. Phosphate of magnesia in combination with ammonia is an invariable constituent of the seeds of all kinds of grasses. The acids found in the different families of plants are of vari- ous kinds. It cannot be supposed that their presence and peculiarity are the result of accident. If these acids are con- stantly present and necessary to life, it is equally certain that some alkaline base is also indispensable, in order to enter into combination with the acids, which are always found in the state of salts. 246. If a plant does not produce more of its peculiar acids than it requires for its own existence, a plant must contain an invariable quantity of alkaline bases, wherewith the vegetable acids may form salts. 247. The proportion of alkaline bases in a plant is indi- cated by the quantity of ashes they yield. The quantity of ashes obtained from the same quantity of vegetable matter varies constantly in different species. Therefore the propor- tion of alkaline bases varies in different species, and conse- quently different species demand a different amount of alkaline food in the soil. 32 STRUCTURAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. 248. The perfect developement of a plant is therefore de- pendent on the presence of alkalies or alkaline matter ; for when these substances are totally wanting, growth will be arrested ; and when they are deficient, it must be impeded in proportion. 249. But other substances besides alkalies are required to sustain the life of plants. Phosphoric acid has been found in the ashes of all plants hitherto examined ; and common salt, sulphate of potash, nitre, salts of iron and copper, chloride of potassium, and other matters, may be regarded as necessary constituents of several plants. 250. Therefore it is indispensable that every plant should find in the soil it is cultivated in those inorganic constituents which nature has rendered necessary to it, just as it is neces- sary for animals that they should find in their food the phos- phates of lime and magnesia, which harden their bones. 251. As soon as food is absorbed, it begins to ascend into the stem, or to diffuse itself through the system, and receives the name of sap. 252. In the course of the sap upwards, the water and car- bonic acid are partially decomposed and their elements are deposited along with nitrogen in the interior of the tissue, forming a layer over the interior of every cell and vessel, which thus become in part solidified. 253. As soon as the sap reaches the leaves or the surface of the bark, green matter, or occasionally some other colour, is formed, provided the part is exposed to light. 254. This appears to arise chiefly from the decomposition of carbonic acid, ammonia, and water, when the carbon, nitro- gen, and hydrogen are fixed by the plant, and the oxygen restored to the atmosphere. Such action is called the assimi- lating power of plants. Plants are, therefore, the great purifiers of the atmosphere, consuming the pro- ducts of animal respiration and of all organic putrefaction, and converting them again into matter suited to the wants of man. 255. In the absence of light, plants re-absorb oxygen from the atmosphere, and re-combine it with the matter they con- tain, to be again liberated at the return of light. 256. They also, at all times, especially at night, part with carbonic acid in small quantities. FOOD AND SECRETIONS. 33 It has, however, been proved experimentally that they purify the air much more by their assimilating (254) action, than they vitiate it by their respiration. 257. No plants can long exist in which this alternate action is prevented, unless, perhaps, Fungi and brown parasites. 258. The amount of assimilation is determined by the de- gree of light to which a plant is exposed. It is light alone that causes, in conjunction with vital forces, the decomposition of the matters contained in living plants. 259. Hence, if a plant is compelled to grow in darkness, no assimilation takes place of the food that the roots receive ; oxygen accumulates ; its natural proportion to other elements is disarranged ; and a destruction of the tissue takes place. 260. In order to avoid this, plants will always lengthen themselves in the direction in which the smallest ray of light approaches them, as is the case of seed which shoot from dark- ness into light. If this is impossible, they become blanched or etiolated, and then die. 261. From the continued assimilation of the elementary constituents of plants, new products result, and serve for the formation of woody fibre, and all solid matters of a similar composition. The leaves produce sugar, starch, and acids, which were preyiously formed by roots, when necessary for the developement of the stem, buds, leaves, and branches. Some phyto-chemists believe that during the chemical transformations that result in plants from the separation and re-combination of their elements, two com- pounds are necessarily formed, one of which remains as a component part, while the other is separated by the roots, in the form of excrementitious mat- ter. But the experiments upon which this supposition is founded are not con- sidered conclusive ; and great doubt is entertained whether plants have really the power of rejecting excrementitious matter by their roots. It appears more probable that the necessary separation of effete matter takes place by the hairs and glands that clothe the surface of plants, or by a fluid secretion from their whole surface. 262. Sap (251) is put in motion by the newly developing leaf-buds, which, by constantly consuming the sap that is near them, attract it upwards from the roots as it is required. Therefore, the movement of the sap is the effect, and not the cause, of the growth of plants. It depends upon vital irritabi- lity, and is independent of mechanical causes. 263. This irritability is indicated not only by the motion of the sap, but by several other phenomena of vegetation ; such as, The elasticity with which the stamens sometimes spring up when touched, and the sudden collapse of many leaves when stimulated ; the apparently spon- D 34 STRUCTURAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. taneous oscillation of the labellum of some Orchidaceous plants ; the expansion of flowers and leaves under the stimulus of light, and the collapse of them when light is withdrawn (this phenomenon in leaves is called the sleep of plants) ; and by the effects of mineral and vegetable poisons being the same upon plants as upon animals. Mineral poisons kill by inflammation and cor- rosion ; vegetable poisons by the destruction of irritability. 264. After the sap has been distributed through the veins of the leaves, it becomes exposed to the influence of air and light, and undergoes peculiar chemical changes. In this state it is called the proper juice. 265. When the proper juice has been once formed, it flows back, and descends towards the roots, passing off horizontally into the centre of the stem. 266. Hence the great importance of leaves to plants, and the necessity of exposing them to the full influence of light and air, for the purpose of securing a due execution of their natu- ral functions. Hence also the impropriety of mutilating plants by the destruction of their leaves. 267- In Exogenous plants (95), the upward course of the fluids is through the young wood ; their downward passage through the bark, towards, or into the root ; and their horizon- tal diffusion takes place by the medullary rays. 268. Hence the peculiar principles of such plants are, in trees and shrubs, to be sought either in the bark or the heart- wood (118), not in the alburnum (119). But in plants whose stems are annually destroyed while the roots are peren- nial, the latter are the chief reservoir of secretions ; and in annuals, whose root and stem both perish, the secretions are dispersed equally through the stem and root. 269. As they are the result of the growth of a plant, they will be found more abundantly in annual plants at the end than at the commencement of their growth. 270. In Endogenous plants (95) it is probable that the up- ward course of the fluids is through the bundles of vascular and woody tissue, and that the downward and horizontal pas- sage takes place through the cellular tissue. 271. The precise direction of the sap in Acrogens (95) is unknown. VIII. FLOWER-BUD. 272. The FLOWER-BUD consists of a fixed point, surround- ed by imbricated, rudimentary, or metamorphosed leaves, FLOWER-BUD. 35 the external or inferior of which are usually alternate, and the internal or superior always verticillate, or opposite ; the latter are called floral envelopes and sexes. 273. As every flower-bud proceeds from the axil of a leaf, either fully developed or rudimentary, it therefore occupies exactly the same position with respect to the leaf as a leaf- bud. 274. The leaf from the axil of which a flower-bud arises, is called bract or flower-leaf ; and all rudimentary leaves, of what size or colour soever, which appear on the peduncle (284) between the floral leaf and the calyx (325), are called Iracteola or bractlets. 275. But, in common language, botanists constantly con- found these two kinds, which are, nevertheless, essentially distinct. 276. Although the buds in the axils of bracts are often not developed, yet they have the same power of developement as those in the axils of leaves ; they are generally flower-buds, very rarely leaf-buds. 277. When a single bract is rolled together, highly deve- loped, and coloured, and is placed at the base of that form of inflorescence called a spadix (304), it is named spathe ; Ex. Arum. 278. When several bracts are verticillate or densely imbri- cated around the base of the forms of inflorescence, called the umbel or capitulum (306), they receive the name of involucre ; Ex. Carrot, Daisy. 279. When the bracts of an involucre form a single whorl, and cohere by their margins, it is impossible to distinguish them from the calyx by any other mark than by their position, and by their usually surrounding more flowers than one. 280. The minute or colourless bracts at the base of the florets of a capitulum (306) are called pale*. 281. Small imbricated bracts are often called scales. 282. Bracts, when placed immediately below the sexes, as in apetalous flowers, are only distinguished from the calyx by being alternate with each other, and not verticil- late ; hence the glumes and paleee of grasses are bracts and not calyx. 283. The axis of the flower-bud in its natural state does D2 36 STRUCTURAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. not lengthen beyond those upper series of metamorphosed leaves which constitute the sexes. 284. The lengthened part of the axis, from the point of its connection with the stem, as far as the floral envelopes, is called the peduncle. 285. When several peduncles spring from the axis at short distances from each other, the axis receives the name of racMs, and the peduncles themselves are called pedicels. 286. There is never more than one flower to each peduncle, strictly speaking ; therefore, when we speak of a two-flowered peduncle, we only mean that two flowers, each having its peculiar pedicel, terminate the axis, which is then considered a peduncle common to each pedicel. 287. Every flower, with its peduncle and bractlets, being the developement of a flower-bud, and flower-buds being altogether analogous to leaf-buds, it follows, as a corollary, that every flower, with its peduncle and bractlets, is a meta- morphosed branch. 288. And further, the flowers being abortive branches, whatever are the laws of the arrangement of branches with respect to each other, the same will be the laws of the arrange- ment of flowers with respect to each other. 289. Flower-buds, however, being much less subject to abortion than leaf-buds, flowers are more symmetrically dis- posed than branches, and appear to possess their own peculiar order of developement. 290. As flower-buds can only develope from the axil of a bract, it follows, that while a pedicel without bracts can never accidentally produce other flowers, any one-flowered pedicel, on which bracts are present, can, and frequently does, bear several flowers. 291. In consequence of a flower and its peduncle being a branch in a particular state, the rudimentary or metamor- phosed leaves which constitute bracts, floral envelopes, and sexes, are subject to exactly the same laws of arrangement as regularly formed leaves. 292. The manner in which the floral organs, especially the calyx and corolla, are arranged before expansion takes place, is called the Aestivation or pra-flomtion. FLOWER-BUD. 37 The following are the principal kinds of aestivation: valvate 151 ; valvate and involute 156 ; imbricate 157 ; alternate 159 16 ; convolute 152 ; induplicate 155 ; plicative 153 ; quincuncial 157 l58 ; supervolutive l54 ; vexillary lei . 293. The modes in which the flower-buds are arranged are called forms of inflorescence ; and the order in which they un- fold is called the order of expansion. IX. INFLORESCENCE. 294. Inflorescence is the ramification of that part of the plant intended for reproduction by seed. 295. The greater developement of some forms of inflores- cence than of others, is owing to the greater power one plant possesses than another of developing buds, latent in the axils of the bracts. 29 6. In consequence of flower-buds obeying the laws whieh regulate leaf-buds, all forms of inflorescence must, of necessity, be axillary to a leaf of some kind. 297. Those forms which are called opposite the leaves, extra- axillary^ petiolar or epiphyllous, and even the terminal itself, are mere modifications of the axillary. 298. The kinds of inflorescence which botanists more parti- cularly distinguish are the following : 299. When no elongation of the general axis of a plant takes place beyond the developement of a flower-bud, the flower be- comes what is called terminal and solitary ; Ex. Pseony. 38 STRUCTURAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. 300. When a single flower-bud unfolds in the axil of a leaf, and the general axis continues to lengthen, and the leaf under- goes no sensible diminution of size, the flower which is deve- loped is said to be solitary and axillary. 301. If all the buds of a newly formed elongated branch develope as flower-buds, and at the same time produce pe- duncles, a raceme is formed 163 . 302. If buds, under the same circumstances, develope with- out forming peduncles, a spike is produced 1 . 303. Hence the only difference between a spike and raceme is, that in the former the flowers are sessile, and in the latter stalked. 304. A spadix differs from a spike in nothing more than in the flowers being packed close together upon a succulent axis, which is enveloped in aspathe (277). 305. An amentum is a spike the bracts of which are all of equal size, and closely imbricated, and which is articulated with the stem. 306. When a bud produces flower-buds, with little elonga- tion of its own axis, either a capitulum 170 172 , or an umbel 16 ', is produced. 307. The capitulum bears the same relation to the umbel as the spike to the raceme ; that is to say, these two forms differ in the flower-buds of the capitulum being sessile, and of the umbel having pedicels. INFLORESCENCE. 39 308. The dilated depressed axis of the capitulum is called the receptacle. 309. A raceme, or panicle, the lowest flowers of which have long pedicels, and the uppermost short ones, is a corymb l65 ier . 310. A panicle is a raceme, the flower-buds of which have, in elongating, developed other flower-buds 173 . 311. A panicle, the middle branches of which are longer than those of the base or apex, is called a thyrsus. 312. A panicle, the elongation of all the ramifications of which is arrested, so that it assumes the appearance of an umbel, is called a cyme m . 313. In all modes of inflorescence which proceed from the buds of a single branch, the axis of which is either elongated or not, the flowers expand first at the base of the inflorescence, and last at the summit. This kind of expansion is called centripetal. 314. When the uppermost or central flowers open first, and those at the base or the circumference last, the expansion is called centrifugal. 315. The centripetal order of expansion always indicates that the inflorescence proceeds from the developement of the buds of a single branch. 316. When inflorescence is the result of the developement of several branches, each particular branch follows the centri- 40 STRUCTURAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. petal law of expansion, but the whole mass of inflorescence the centrifugal. 317. This arises from the partial centripetal developement commencing among the upper extremities of the inflorescence, instead of among the lower. 318. Consequently, this difference of expansion will indicate whether a particular form of inflorescence proceeds from the developement of the buds of a single branch, when it is called simple, or not, when it is called compound. 319. Whenever the order of expansion is centripetal, the inflorescence is to be understood as simple ; when it is centri- fugal, it is compound, although in appearance simple. This difference is often of great importance. 320. When the order of expansion is irregular, it indicates that the mode of developement of the flowers is irregular also, either on account of abortion or other causes. 321. Sometimes all the flowers of the inflorescence are abortive, and the ramifications, or the axis itself, assume a twisted or spiral direction ; when this happens, a tendril is formed; Ex. the Vine. X. FLORAL ENVELOPES. 322. The Floral Envelopes are the parts which immediately surround the sexual organs. 323. They are formed of one or more whorls of bracts, and are therefore modified leaves (274). 324. In anatomical structure they do not essentially differ from the leaves, farther than is necessarily consequent upon the peculiar modifications of size or developement to which they are subject. 325. When the floral envelopes consist of but one whorl of leaves, they are called calyx. 326. When two or more whorls are developed, the outer is called calyx, the inner corolla. FLORAL ENVELOPES. 41 327. There is no other essential difference between the calyx and corolla. Therefore, when a plant has but one floral envelope, that one is calyx, whatever may be its colour or degree of developement. 328. It is necessary, however, to be aware, that sometimes the calyx is reduced to a mere rim, either in consequence of lateral compression, as in the pappus (aigrette, Fr.) of many Composite, or from other unknown causes, as in some Acanthacese. 329. If the floral envelopes are of such a nature that it is not obvious whether they consist of both calyx and corolla, or of calyx only, they receive the name of periantMum or perigonium. 330. Plants have frequently no floral envelopes ; in that case flowers are said to be naked or achlamydeous. 331. When the floral envelopes are deciduous, they fall from the peduncle, as leaves from a branch, by means of an arti- culation ; if they are persistent, it is because no articulation exists. 332. When the margins of floral envelopes are united, the part where the union has taken place is called the tube, and that where they are separate is named the limb. It fre- quently happens that in the calyx an articulation forms be- tween the limb and the tube. 333. Botanists generally consider that the tube of the calyx is invariably formed by the union of the margins of the sepals. It is, however, probable that it is in some cases a mere dila- tation and expansion of the pedicel itself, as in Eschscholtzia. 334. When the calyx and corolla are readily distinguish- able from each other, they exhibit the following peculia- rities : 335. The calyx consists of two or more divisions, usually green, called sepals, which are either distinct, when a calyx is said to be polysepalous ; or which unite by their margins in a greater or less degree, when it is called monosepalous, gamose- palous, or monophyttous. 42 STRUCTURAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. The calyx may be superior 178 , or inferior 177 ; galeate 176 ; calyptrate 181 ; double 182 ; calcarate 186 ; coroniform 187 ; vesicate 188 ; dilated 179 ; spiny 183 ; oblique 175 18S ; rin- gent 184 . 336. The corolla consists of two or more divisions, called petals, usually of some bright colour, different from that of the sepals, than which they are frequently more developed. When the petals are distinct, a corolla is said to he polypetalous ; when they are united hy their margins, it is called gamo- petah>iis or monopetalous. D The corolla may be labiate 189 ; calceolate 193 ; ringent 196 ; papilionaceous 134 ; cam- panulate 195 ; funnel-shaped 190 ; crisp 197 . FLORAL ENVELOPES. 43 337. If the union of the petals or sepals takes place in one or two parcels, the corolla or calyx are said to be one or two- lipped. These lips are always anterior and posterior with respect to the axis of inflorescence, and never right and left. 338. If the sepals or petals are of unequal size, or unite in unequal degrees, the calyx or corolla is said to be irregular 1 ". 339. If the sepals and petals are unequal in number, or no multiple of each other, or if the stamens are neither equal to them in number, nor any power of them, a flower is said to be unsymmetrical. 340. When the petals are so arranged, that of five the uppermost is dilated, the two lateral ones contracted and parallel with each other, and the two lower also contracted, parallel with each other, and coherent by their anterior mar- gins, a flower is said to be papilionaceous 19 *. 341. When a petal tapers conspicuously towards the base, it is said to be unguiculate 1 ^ ; its lower part is called the unguis, its upper the limb. The former is analogous to the petiole, the latter to the lamina of a leaf. 342. The petals always alternate with the sepals, a neces- sary consequence of their following the laws of developement of leaves. 343. If at any time the petals arise from before the -sepals, such a circumstance is due to the abortion of one whorl of petals between the sepals and those petals which are actually developed. 344. As petals always alternate with sepals, the number of each row of either will always be exactly the same. All deviations from this law are either apparent only, in conse- quence of partial cohesions, or, if real, are due to partial abortions. 345. Whatever intervenes between the bracts and the stamens belongs to the floral envelopes, and is either calyx or corolla ; of which nature are many of the organs vulgarly called nectaries. Of this nature are the horn-like bodies found beneath the upper galeate sepal of Aconitum 192 , the cup of Narcissus 300 , a part of the coronal appendages or coro- net of Stapelia '" . 44 STRUCTURAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. 346. But it is to be observed, that as there are no exact limits between the corolla and the stamens (348), such bodies as have been just described are often of an indifferent nature, and may be referred with equal justice to petals passing into stamens, and to stamens passing into petals. This is particularly the case with the fringes of Parnassia 198 , some parts of the coronet of Stapelia 203 , the long rays of the Passion-flower. 347. If, however, anomalous bodies at this part of the vegetable system can be shown to belong to any whorl or series of which a part is certainly petals or stamens, such ano- malous bodies are to be regarded as belonging to the organ in whose series they are placed. Thus in Aconitum 192 , the horn-like pro- cesses belong to the series of the corolla, and are therefore petals ; in the Ma- hogany 202 , and in the Canna 205 , they evidently appertain to the Andro3ceum (348), and are therefore stamens. This settles the true nature of what has been called the nectary 206 , in Orchidaceous plants, now termed the lip, or labellum, which, forming a part of the second series of floral envelopes, is therefore uni- versally recognised as a petal, notwith- standing its singular form. MALE ORGANS. 45 XI. MALE ORGANS. 348. The whorl of organs immediately within the petals, is composed of bodies called stamens, which are considered the male apparatus of plants, and constitute the Andrceceum. 349. They consist of a bundle of spiral vessels surrounded by cellular tissue, called t\i& filament, terminated by a peculiar arrangement of the cellular tissue, in a case, finally opening and discharging its contents, called the anther. 350. There are many instances in which no limits can be traced between the petals and stamens ; Ex. Nymphsea. 351. In such cases it is found that the limb (341) of the petal contracts, and becomes an anther, while the unguis assumes the state of a filament. 352. Now as there are no limits between the petals and sepals (327), nor between the sepals and bracts (323), nor between the bracts and leaves (274), it follows that the sta- mens are also a modification of leaves. 353. And as the limb of a petal is analogous to the lamina, and the unguis (341) to the petiole of a leaf, it also follows that the anther is a modification of the lamina, and the fila- ment of the petiole. 354. The stamens follow the same laws of successive de- velopement as leaves ; and, consequently, if their arrangement be normal, they will be either equal in number to the petals, and alternate with them, or, if more numerous, some regular multiple of the petals. 355. If they are twice the number of petals, two whorls are considered to be developed ; and so on. 356. If they are equal in number to the petals, and oppo- site them, it is to be understood that the innermost only of two whorls is developed, the outermost being abortive. 357. All deviations from these laws are owing to the abor- tion of some part of the stamens ; Ex. Lamium, Hippuris. 358. When the stamens do not contract any union with the sides of the calyx, they are hypogynous" ; Ex. Ranun- culus. 359. When they contract adhesion with the sides of the calyx, they become perigynous ; Ex. Rose 177 . 46 STRUCTURAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. 360. If they are united both with the surface of the calyx and of the ovary, they are epigynous ; Ex. Umbelliferse. 361. When two are long and two are short 217 , they are called didynamous ; and if out of six two opposite ones are shorter than the other four, they are tetradynamous. 362. The filaments (349) are either distinct or united by their margins. If they are united in one tube, they are called monadelphous 216 ; Ex. Malva : if in two parcels, diadelphous" 19 ; Ex. Pea : if in several, polyadelphous" 13 ; Ex. Hypericum. 363. When they are united in a solid body, along with the style, they form what is called a column, and are said to be gynandrous" 06 . Filaments are sometimes apparently forked 209 , in consequence of the separation of the connective (366), into two arms ; strumose, when a tubercle forms upon their face 220 ; stupose, if covered with long hairs 212 ; and toothed 214 , if their margin is lengthened on either side beyond the attachment of the anther 214 . 364. The filament is not essential to a stamen, and is often absent. 365. The anther~ io is the limb of the stamen, forming within its substance, and finally emitting a matter called pollen. 366. The two sides of the anther are called its lobes ; and the solid substance which connects them, and which is in fact a continuation of the filament, as the midrib of a leaf is of the petiole, is named the connective. 367. The connective is usually simple and uninterrupted ; but it is sometimes lengthened into two arms 209 , or is articu- MALE ORGANS. 47 lated with the filament, across which it is placed, and on which it swings. In the latter case it either bears an anther- lobe on both arms 210 , or only on one 213 ; Ex, Salvia. 368. The cavities of the anther containing the pollen are the cells, and the place by which the pollen is emitted is the point or line of dehiscence ; the membranous sides of the anther are named the valves. 369. Dehiscence usually takes place along a line, which may be considered to indicate the margin of the limb out of which the anther is formed ; Ex. Rose. 370. Sometimes a portion only of this line opens, and then the anther is said to dehisce by pores ; Ex. Azalea. 371. If the line of dehiscence occupies both margins of the connective, and not the centre of the lobes, the anther opens by one valve instead of two, which is then hinged by its upper edge ; Ex. Berberry. 372. The cells of the anther are usually two in number : sometimes they are four 239 ; Ex. Tetratheca : rarely one ; Ex. Epacris : and still more rarely several ; Ex. Viscum 223 . 373. The number of cells appears to be determined by no certain rule. 374. Sometimes the cells are folded down upon themselves and become sinuous 237 ; in other cases they are prolonged into bristles 227 24 , or tubes 224 , or even into a spur 211 ; Ex. Mela- stomacese. 375. Although in most cases the line of dehiscence is parallel with the anther-lobes, it is occasionally transverse 238 . In Laurus the transverse and hinged (371) dehiscence being combined 226 , the face of the anther breaks up into four hinged lobes. 376. It may be conjectured that the transverse dehiscence of an anther is analogous to the transverse articulation of petioles (203). 377. The anthers frequently grow together by their mar- gin ; Ex. Composite. Such anthers are called syngenesious. 378. The Pollen is formed by a peculiar modification of the cellules of the parenchyma of the anther. 379. It consists of hojlow cases, of extreme smallness, con- taining a fluid in which float grains of starch and drops of oil. 380. It is furnished with apertures 229 , through which its 48 STRUCTURAL AXD PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. 222 223 224 225 226 227 lining is protruded in the form of a delicate tube, where the pollen comes in contact with the stigma. 381. The shape of pollen grains is very variable ; the spherical 231 , the triangular 228 , the polygonal" 22 , the oblong 230 , are common forms. 382. Its surface is either smooth or studded with little points 231 . 383. The pollen grains are usually distinct from each other, but in some cases they cohere in definite numbers ; Ex. Acacia 232 : or in irregular masses ; Ex. Orchidacese 23 * : or are enclosed within a bag, which seems to be the lining of the anther (Endothecium) ; Ex. Asclepiadacese 233 23fi . 384. In cases where the pollen grains cohere in masses, or are enclosed within bags, they are connected with a cartilagi- nous or elastic process, called the caudicle" 3 *, which adheres to a gland 234 belonging to the stigma. 385. The function of the pollen is to vivify the ovules (396). XII. DISK. 386. Whatever intervenes between the stamens and the pistil receives the general name of disk. 387. It usually consists of an annular elevation, encom- passing the base of the ovary, when it is sometimes called the cup , Ex. Pseony. 388. Or it appears in the form of a glandular lining of the MALE ORGANS. 49 tube of the calyx ; Ex. Rose : or of tooth-like, hypogynous (358) processes ; Ex. Gesnera, Cruciferse. 389. When a fleshy substance occupies the centre of a flower, and bears a single row of carpels, it is called the gynobase ; Ex. Lamium, Ochna, Geranium, &c. If this sub- stance bears a greater number of carpels than can be arranged in one row, it is called the torus or receptacle; Ex. Straw- berry, Nelumbium. 390. It is certain that the disk is a non-developement of an inner row or rows of stamens, as is proved by the Moutan Paeony. 391. The receptacle or torus is the growing point (164) of the flower-bud in a state of enlargement. 392. The disk is one of the parts which Linnsean botanists call nectary. XIII. FEMALE ORGANS. 393. The organ which occupies the centre of a flower, within the stamens and disk, if the latter be present, is called the pistil. 394. It is the female apparatus of flowering plants, or the gynoeceum 241 . 395. It is distinguished into three parts ; viz. the ovary, the style, and the stigma. 241 396. The OVARY is a hollow case, enclosing ovules (445). It contains one or more cavities, called cells. 397. The STIGMA is the upper extremity of the pistil. 398. The STYLE is the part that connects the ovary and stigma. 399. The style is frequently absent, and is no more essential to a pistil than a petiole to a leaf, or a filament to an anther. 400. Sometimes the style is thin, flat, and membranous, and assumes the form of a petal, as in Iris. 401. The style is either articulated with the ovary, or con- tinuous with it. It usually proceeds directly from the apex of the ovary ; but in some cases arises from the side, or even the base of that organ ; Ex. Alchemilla, Chrysobalanacese. E 50 STRUCTURAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. 402. Nothing is, properly speaking, stigma, except the secreting surface of the style. Nevertheless, the name is often inaccurately applied to mere divisions of the style, as in Labiatse ; or to the hairy surface of undivided styles, as in Lathyrus. 403. Sometimes the stigmas grow to the face of the anthers, which form themselves into a solid mass; Ex. Asclepias 204 . In this case the styles remain separate. 404. The pistil is either the modification of a single leaf, or of one or more whorls of modified leaves, 405. Such modified leaves are called carpels. 406. A CARPEL is formed by a folded leaf, the upper sur- face of which is turned inwards, the lower outwards; and within which are developed one or a greater number of buds, which are the ovules. 407. When the carpels are stalked, they are said to be seated upon a thecaphore, or gynophore ; Ex. Cleome, Passi- flora. Their stalk is analogous to the petiole of a leaf. 408. When the carpels are all distinct, or are separable with facility, they are apocarpous ; when they all grow into a solid body, which cannot be separated into its constituent parts, they are syncarpom. 409. The ovary is the lamina of the leaf. 410. The style is an elongation of the midrib (208). 411. The stigma is the denuded, secreting, humid apex of the midrib. 412. Where the margins of a folded leaf, out of which the carpel is formed, meet and unite, a developement of cellular tissue sometimes takes place, forming what is called the mar- ginal placenta. 413. Every such placenta is therefore composed of two parts, one of which belongs to one margin of the carpel, and one to the other. 414. But although the placenta of many plants appears to derive its origin from the margin of the carpels, it is certain that in many other instances the placenta is a mere deve- lopement of the centre of the flower-bud, and in reality the end of the medullary system. Such a placenta is called central. It is not impossible that even marginal placentae may be so in appearance only, and be m reality central. FEMALE ORGANS. 51 415. This law will explain the structure of some anomalous pistils, in which the carpels are united into a confused mass ; Ex. the Pomegranate 271 . 416. As the carpels are modified leaves, they necessarily obey the laws of arrangement of leaves, and are therefore de- veloped round a common axis. 417. And as they are leaves folded inwards, their margins are necessarily turned towards the axis. A placenta, there- fore, formed by the union of those margins, will be invariably next the axis. 418. So that if a whorl of several carpels with a marginal placentation unite and constitute a pistil, the placentae of that pistil will be all in the axis. 419. The normal position of the carpels is alternate with the innermost row of stamens, to which they are also equal in number ; but this symmetry of arrangement is constantly destroyed by the abortion or non-developement of part of the carpels. 420. The carpels often occupy several whorls, in which case they are usually distinct from each other ; Ex. Eanunculus, Fragaria, Rubus 272 . 421. Sometimes, notwithstanding their occupying more than one whorl, they all unite in a single pistil ; Ex. Nico- tiana multivalvis, Monstrous Citrons. In these cases the pla- centse of the innermost whorl of carpels occupy the axis, while those of the exterior carpels are united with the backs of the inner ones, as must necessarily happen in consequence of the invariable direction of the placentae towards the axis. 422. When the carpels are arranged round a convex re- ceptacle (389), the exterior ones will be lowest ; Ex. Ru- bus 272 . 423. But if they occupy the surface of a tube, or are placed upon a concave receptacle, the exterior ones will be upper- most ; Ex. Rosa 177 . 424. Whenever two carpels are developed, they are in- variably opposite each other, and never side by side. This happens in consequence of the law of alternate opposition of leaves (191). 425. When carpels unite, those parts of their sides which are contiguous gTow together, and form partitions between the cavities of the carpels. E 2 52 STRUCTURAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. 426. These partitions are called dissepiments. 427. Each dissepiment is therefore formed of two layers. But these often grow together so intimately as to form but one layer. 428. Such being the origin of the -dissepiments, it follows that, 429. All dissepiments are vertical, and never horizontal. 430. They are uniformly equal in number to the carpels out of which the pistil is formed. 431. A single carpel can have no dissepiment whatever. 432. It will also be apparent, that as the stigma must bear the same relation to the dissepiments as the point of the leaf to the sides of the lamina, the stigma will always be alternate with (between) the dissepiments. 433. When the dissepiments of a many-celled pistil are contracted so as not to separate the cavity into a number of distinct cells, but merely project into a cavity, the placentae, which occupy the edges of these dissepiments, become what is called parietal ; Ex. Poppy ? r . Occasionally the placentae are diffused over the whole face of the dissepiments, as in Bu- tomus. 434. A one-celled ovary may also be formed out of several carpels, in consequence of the obliteration of dissepiments ; Ex. Nut. FEMALE ORGANS. 53 Some of the foregoing diagrams explain these laws : a is a leaf ; b, a leaf rolled up preparatory to its conversion into a carpel ; c and k, a carpel ; d and I, three carpels approximated, but not united ; e and m, the same united at the ovaries, but disunited at the styles ; f and , these completely united into one ovary, one style, and one stigma. 435. All dissepiments whose position is at variance with the foregoing laws are spurious. 436. Spurious dissepiments derive their origin from various causes, and may have either a vertical or horizontal position. 437. When they are horizontal they are called phmgmata, and are formed by the distension of the lining of the ovary ; Ex. Cathartocarpus, Fistula. 438. If vertical, they either are projections from the back of the carpel, as in Amelanchier and Thespesia* ; or they are caused by modifications of the placentae, as in Martynia, Didy- mocarpus, and Cruciferae ; or they are produced by the turn- ing inwards of the margins of the carpels*. The singular fruit of Diplophractum 244 , consisting of five cavities in the axis, sur- rounded by five two-celled cavities at the circumference, must be composed of carpels constructed as just described, and arranged in several series (420). This is explained by the following cut, where 244 is a section of the fruit of Diplophractum ; 242 shows an ideal arrangement of fifteen carpels in three rows, five being external and perfect, with the margins of the carpels turned inwards (406) ; five being altogether imperfect, and the five in the centre being less imperfect. 243 shows the transverse section of this ideal figure. In the ripe fruit we must suppose the intermediate carpels to be obliterated, and the spurious dissepiments of the external carpels to be pressed up against their back, so as to bisect the cavity of each carpel. 54 STRUCTURAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. 439. Sometimes the central placenta extends beyond the base of the carpels, rising up between them, and either form- ing an adhesion with the styles, as in Geranium, or a central distinct axis, as in Euphorbia. 440. This elongation of the placenta is more apparent in the fruit than in the pistil. It is analogous to the cellular apex of the spadix (304) of Arum. 441. The styles of different carpels frequently grow to- gether into a solid cylinder'; Ex. Lilium. There are various degrees of union between the styles. 442. The style is incorrectly said to be divided in different ways, in consequence of this adhesion. 443. If the ovary adheres to the sides of the calyx it is called inferior, and the calyx is said to be superior ; Ex. Apple. 444. If it contracts no adhesion with the sides of the calyx it is called superior, and the calyx inferior. XIV. OVULE. 445. The OVULE is a body borne by the placenta (412), and destined to become a seed (531). 446. It is to the carpel (406) what the marginal buds are to leaves (185), and to the central placenta what buds are to branches. 447. It does not, however, appear to bear any other analogy to a bud than what is indicated by its position. 448. The ovule is usually enclosed within an ovary (396) ; but in Coniferse and Cycadaceae it is destitute of any covering, and is exposed, naked, to the influence of the pollen. 449. It is either sessile, or attached by a little stalk called the funiculus, or podosperm. The point of union of the funi- culus and ovule is the base of the latter, and the opposite ex- tremity is its apex. 450. It consists of two sacs, one enclosed within the other, and of a nucleus within the sacs. 451. These sacs are called the primine and secundine. 452. The primine, secundine, and nucleus, are all connected with each other by a perfect continuity of tissue, at some point of their surface. 453. When the parts of the ovule undergo no alteration of OVULE. 55 position during their growth, thfe two sacs and the nucleus are all connected at the base (449) of the ovule, which is orthotro- pous or atropous. 454. And then the base of the nucleus and that of the ovule are in immediate connection with each other. 455. But the relative position of the sacs and the base of the ovule are often entirely altered during the growth of the latter, so that it frequently happens that the point of union of the sacs and the nucleus is at the apex (449) of the ovule. 456. And then the base of the nucleus is at the apex of the ovule. 457. In such cases, a vascular connection is maintained be- tween the base of the ovule and the base of the nucleus, by means of a bundle of vessels called a raphe. 458. The normal position of this raphe is on the side of the ovule, next the placenta. 459. The expansion of the raphe, where it communicates with the base of the nucleus, gives rise to the part of the seed called the chalaza (548). 460. When the ovule is curved downwards so as to ap- proach the placenta, it is campylotropous ; when curved down- wards and grown to the lower half, anatropous ; when at- tached by its middle so that the foramen is at one end and the base at the other, it is amphitropous. 461. The mouths of the primine and secundine usually con- tract into a small aperture called the foramen of the ovule, or the exostome. 462. The apex of the nucleus is always applied to this foramen. 463. In consequence of the relation the base of the nucleus bears to the base of the ovule, the foramen will be at the apex of the ovule when the two bases correspond, and at the base of the ovule when the two bases are diametrically opposite. 464. The foramen indicates the future position of the radi- cle of the embryo (555) ; the radicle being always next the foramen. This is a fact of great importance in practical Botany. 465. Within the nucleus is a cavity or bag, called the sac 56 STRUCTURAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. of tke amnios, containing a fluid named the liquor amnios, among which the emhryo is developed. XV. IMPREGNATION. 466. Impregnation is effected by contact between the pollen (378) and the stigma (397). 467. The pollen ci emits a tube" of extreme delicacy, which pierces the stigma 6 and style 51 , and, passing downwards into the ovary /A , enters the foramen (461) of the ovule" l . 468. Having reached the foramen, it comes into contact with the nucleus (450). 469. This accomplished, the act of impregnation is over; a new body gradually appears in the sac of the amnios (465), and eventually becomes an embryo. 470. Great numbers of modifications of this phenomenon have been observed, but they^ all resolve themselves into these facts. 471. In plants, the ovules of which have no pericarpial covering, such as Cycadaceae and Coniferse, (gymnosperms,) the pollen falls in the foramen, and there acts as" if it had struck the stigma. 472. If only one pollen tube enters an ovule, there is but one embryo in the seed. But if several pollen tubes pass into the same ovule, there may be several embryos in the same seed ; Ex. Onion, Miseltoe. FRUIT. 57 XVI. FRUIT. 473. The FRUIT, in the strictest sense of the word, is the pistil arrived at maturity. But the term is also applied to the pistil and floral envelopes taken together, whenever they are all united in one uniform mass. 474. Hence, whatever is the structure of the pistil, the same should be the structure of the fruit. 475. But in the course of the advance of the pistil towards maturity, many alterations take place, in consequence of abortion, non-developement, obliteration, and union of parts. 476. Whenever the fruit contains anything at variance with the laws that govern the structure of the pistil, the latter should be examined for the purpose of elucidation. 477. Sometimes a pistil with several cells produces a fruit with but one ; Ex. the Hazel-nut and Cocoa-nut. This arises from the obliteration of part of the cells. 478. Or a pistil, consisting of one or two cells, changes to a fruit having several: the cause of this is a division and doubling of the placentary divisions ; Ex. Martynia : or the expansion of portions of the interior ; Ex. Cathartocarpus, Fistula. 479. As the fruit is the maturation of the pistil, it ought to indicate upon its surface some traces of a style ; and this is true in all cases, except Cycadacese and Coniferse, which have no ovary. 480. Hence the grains of corn, and many other bodies that resemble seeds, having traces of the remains of a style, cannot be seeds, but are minute fruits. 481. That part which was the ovary in the pistil, becomes the pericarp in the fruit. 482. The PERICARP consists of three parts ; the outer coat- ing called the epicarp, the inner lining called the endocarp, or putamen, and the intermediate substance named the sarcocarp. 483. Sometimes these three parts are all readily distin- guished ; Ex. the Peach : frequently they form one uniform substance ; Ex. a Nut. 484. The base of the fruit is the part where it is joined to the peduncle. The apex is where the remains of the style are found. 58 STRUCTURAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. 485. The axis of the fruit is often called the columella ; the space where two carpels unite is named the commissure. 486. All fruits which are mere modifications of a single carpellary leaf (406) have always a suture corresponding with the junction of the margins, or with the placenta?, and often another corresponding with the midrib of the carpellary leaf : the former is called the ventral, the latter the dorsal suture. 487. If the pericarp neither splits nor opens when ripe, it is said to be indehiscent , if it does split or open, it is said to dehisce, or to be dehiscent ; and the pieces into which it splits are called the valves. 488. The dehiscence of the pericarp takes place in differ- ent ways. 489. If it takes place longitudinally, or vertically, so that the line of dehiscence corresponds with the junction of the carpels, the dissepiments are divided, the cells remain closed at the back, and the dehiscence is called septicidal ; Ex. Rho- dodendron 264 . 490. Formerly, botanists said that in this kind of dehis- cence the valves were alternate with the dissepiment ; or, that the valves had their margins turned inwards. 491. If it takes place vertically, so that the line of dehis- cence corresponds- with the dorsal suture (486), the dissepi- ments remain united, the cells are opened at their back, and the dehiscence is called loculicidal ; Ex. Lilac, Lily. 492. Formerly, it was said that in this kind of dehiscence the dissepiments were opposite the valves. 493. When a separation in the pericarp takes place across the cells horizontally, the dehiscence is transverse ; Ex. Ana- gallis. 494. If the dehiscence is effected by partial openings of the pericarp, it is said to take place by pores ; Ex. Poppy. 495. Sometimes the cells remain closed, separating from the axis formed by the extension of the peduncle (284) ; Ex. Umbelliferae, Euphorbia 255 . 496. Or the cells open and separate from the axis, which is formed by a cohesion of the placentse which separate from the dissepiments ; Ex. Rhododendron 264 . 497. Sometimes the dissepiments cohere at the axis, and separate from the valves (487) or back of the carpels; Ex. Convolvulus. FRUIT. 59 498. All fruits are either simple or multiple. 499. Simple fruits proceed from a single flower ; Ex. Poeony, Apple, Nut, Strawberry. 500. Multiple fruits are formed out of several flowers D F ; Ex. Fir, Pine-apple, Fig. They are masses of inflorescence in a state of adhesion, and are also called anthocarpous. 501. Simple fruits are either the maturation of a single carpel (406), or of a pistil formed by the union of several carpels (408). 502. Of fruits formed of a single carpel, the most import- ant are the Follicle (503), Legume (504), Drupe (507), Achenium (508), Caryopsis (511), and Utricle (512). 503. The Follicle is a carpel dehiscing by the ventral suture, and having no dorsal suture 260 . 504. The Legume is a carpel having both a ventral and dorsal suture, and dehiscing by both, either, or neither 263 E 258 . 505. The two sutures of a legume sometimes form what is called a replum ; Ex. Carmichselia. 506. When articulations take place across the legume, and it falls into several pieces, it is said to be lomentaceous" 51 262 . 507. The Drupe differs from the follicle in being indehis- cent, and in its pericarp having a distinct separation of epicarp (482), sarcocarp, and endocarp' 59 . 508. The Achenium is an indehiscent, bony, one-seeded 60 STRUCTURAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. pericarp, which does not contract any degree of adhesion with the integument of the seed 251 249 . 509. It is a drupe, the pericarp of which does not sepa- rate into three layers. The Achenium is pappose when it bears the remains of a calyx at its apex ; Ex. Compositae : and is truncate 245 , or rostrate* 46 , while the pappus is setaceous 245 , double 245 , plumose 246 , or paleaceous 251 . If the style remains and becomes feathery, forming a kind of tail, the achenium is caudate 249 . 510. Occasionally the achenium is elevated on a large fleshy receptacle, as in Anacardium 250 . 511. The Caryopsis is an indehiscent, membranous, one- seeded pericarp, which adheres firmly to the integument of the seed ; Ex. Corn. 512. The Utricle is a caryopsis, the pericarp of which has no adhesion with the integuments of the seed ; Ex. Eleusine, Ohenopodium. 513. Of fruit formed of several carpels, the principal are the Capsule (514), Pyxis (520), Samara (517), Cremocarp (518), Nuculanium (519), Siliqua (515), Nut or Gland (517), Berry (522), Orange (523), Pome (524), Pepo (525), and Balausta (526). 514. The Capsule is a many-celled, dry, dehiscent peri- carp 253 256 264 269 It i* stellate 256 , toothed at the apex 265 , or spiral"* ; if its cells remain close alter separation 268 , they are named cocci. FRUIT. 61 515. The Siliqua consists of two carpels fastened together, the placentae of which are parietal, and separate from the valves, remaining in the form of a replum (505), and con- nected by a membranous expansion 266 . 516. When the siliqua is very short, or broader than it is long, it is called a Silicula. 517. The Nut or Gland is a dry, bony, indehiscent, one- celled fruit, proceeding from a pistil of three cells, and en- closed in an involucre called a Cupule ; Ex. the Hazel, Acorn. It is a sort of compound achenium. In some Palms, Ex. Sagus, it is covered by scales turned downwards 273 . It is often bordered by expansions or wings which surround it longitudinally, as in the Elm 247 ; or transversely, as in Paliurus 261 ; or proceed from the apex or back only, as in Sycamore 252 , in which case it receives the name of Samara. 518. The Cremocarp is a pair of Achenia, then called mericarps, placed face to face, and separating from a central axis ; Ex. Umbelliferar 55 . Their planes of union constitute the commissure. 519. The Nuculanium is a capsule, which, being fleshy, does not dehisce ; Ex. Grape, Arbutus 570 . 520. The Pyxis is a capsule whose dehiscence takes place transversely 253 254 ; Ex. Hyoscyamus, Anagallis. 521. The Efario is a collection of distinct, indehiscent carpels, fleshy or dry, within a calyx ; Ex. Rubus 272 . 522. The Berry is a succulent fruit, the seeds of which lose their adhesion when ripe, and lie loose in pulp ; Ex. a Goose- berry. 62 STRUCTURAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. 523. The Orange is a berry having a pericarp separable into an epicarp, an endocarp, and a sarcocarp, and the cells filled with pulpy bags, which are cellular extensions of the sides of the cavity. 524. The Pome is a union of two or more inferior carpels, the pericarp being fleshy, and formed of the floral envelope and ovary firmly united 274 . 525. The Pepo is composed of about three carpels, forming a three-celled, fleshy, indehiscent fruit, with parietal placentae ; Ex. Cucumber. 526. The Balausta is a many-celled fruit, with the seeds FRUIT. 63 arranged in an irregular manner on the backs of the cells, and is formed by more whorls of carpels than one, enclosed within a tough rind ; Ex. Pomegranate 271 . 527. The most remarkable modifications of multiple or anthocarpous fruits are, the Cone (528), Pine-apple (529), and Fig (530). 528. The Cone A B is an indurated amentum (305) ; Ex. Pinus. When it is much reduced in size, and its scales firmly cohere, it is called a Galbulus ; Ex. Thuja. 529. The Pine-apple is a spike of inferior flowers, which all grow together into a fleshy mass. 530. The Fig is the fleshy, hollow, dilated apex of a peduncle, within which a number of flowers are arranged, each of which contains an achenium ; Ex. Ficus, Dorstenia 275 . Of the terms above explained only a few are in common use, and it seenis to be found by systematic botanists more convenient to describe a given fruit by exact words than to use any particular term. The names most employed are the Achenium, Nut, Caryopsis, Drupe, Capsule, Siliqua, Legume, and Cone. XVII. SEED. 531. The SEED is the ovule (406) arrived at maturity. 532. It consists of integuments (540), albumen (551), and embryo (555) ; and is the result of the reciprocal action of the sexual apparatus. 533. In general, seeds are, like ovules, enclosed within a covering arising from a carpellary leaf (406) ; but all Gym- nosperms are an exception to this. Moreover, some ovules rupture the ovary soon after they begin to advance towards the state of seed, and thus become naked seeds ; Ex. Leontice. Others are imperfectly protected by the ovary, the carpels not being perfectly closed up ; Ex. Reseda. 534. The seed proceeds from the placenta (412), to which it is attached by the funiculus 280 , which is sometimes very long, but is more frequently not distinguishable from the placenta. 535. Sometimes the funiculus, or the placenta, expands about the seed into a fleshy body ; Ex. the Mace of a nut- meg, Euonymus. This expansion is named aril* 76 281 283 . 536. It is never developed until after the vivification of the ovule, and must not be confounded with tumours or dilata- tions of the integument of the seed. STRUCTURAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. 537. Sometimes there are tumours of the testa near the hilum or at the opposite end ; such are called StropMolte or Caruncula . 538. The precise nature of these is unknown ; sometimes they are dilatations of the chalaza ; Ex. Crocus : or they are caused by a fungous state of the lips of the foramen ; Ex. Eicinus : or they arise from unknown causes. 539. The scar, which indicates the union of the seed with the placenta, is called the hilum or umbilicus 3 . 540. The integuments are called collectively testa, and consist of membranes resulting from the sacs of the ovule (451). 541. Sometimes the testa is covered by hair-like expan- sions of its whole surface ; as in the Cotton : or these hairs occupy one or both ends, when they constitute what is called the coma' 287 . This must not be confounded with pappus (328), which is calyx. 542. The integuments are often expanded into wings, which are either single 284 or several 277 , and appear intended to render seeds buoyant. Very often they are corky or spongy 282 , and not unfrequently consist of spiral cells (19). 543. In the seed these membranes are called by various names, of whiph the most frequently used are spermoderm or testa for the primine ; mesosperm, for the secundine ; and endo- pleura for the coat of the nucleus (450). SEED. 65 544. The mouth of the foramen (461) is often distinctly visible, and is named the micropyle ; Ex. Pea. 545. The raphe 279 285 occupies one side of the seed in all cases in which it pre-existed in the primine ; but it frequently becomes much ramified. 546. The raphe is in no way connected with impregnation ; its functions being apparently confined to maintaining a vascular connection between the placenta and the base of the nucleus, for the purpose of nourishing the latter. 547. Spiral vessels are found in the raphe and its ramifica- tions. 548. Where vessels of the raphe expand into the mesosperm (543), the chalaza (459) appears as a discoloured thickening of the integuments 285 . 549. The micropyle always indicates the point in the cir- cumference of a seed towards which the radicle (561) points. 550. And the chalaza is as constant an indication, when it is present, of the situation of the cotyledons (559) ; it being always at that part of the circumference organically opposed to the radicle. 551. Between the integuments and the embryo of some plants lies a substance called the albumen or perisperm"" 1 * 293 299, 552. It consists of a peculiar matter deposited during the growth of the ovule among the celullar tissue of the nucleus (450). 553. When the cellular tissue of the nucleus combines with the deposited matter so completely as to form together but one substance, the albumen is called solid ; Ex. Wheat, Euphorbia. When a portion of the tissue remains uncon- verted, the albumen is ruminated ; Ex. Anona, Nutmeg. 554. Albumen is usually wholesome, and may be fre- quently eaten with impunity in the most dangerous tribes ; Ex. Omphalococca, a genus of Euphorbiacese. 555. The organised body that lies within the seed, and for the purpose of protecting and nourishing which the seed was created, is the Embryo"* 8 . 556. The embryo was originally included within the sac of the amnios (465). 557. The latter is usually absorbed or obliterated during 66 STRUCTURAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. the advance of the embryo to maturity ; but it sometimes remains surrounding the ripe embryo, in the form of Vitellus ; Ex. Saururus, Piper 297 .- 558. The embryo consists of the cotyledons (559), the radicle (561), the plumule (560), and the collar (562). 559. The cotyledons represent undeveloped leaves 295 ". 560. The plumule, or gemmule, is the nascent ascending axis (64) 2956 . 561. The radicle is the rudiment of the descending axis (7l) 295c . 562. The collar is the line of separation between the radicle and the cotyledons. 563. The space that intervenes between the collar and the base of the cotyledons is called the cauliculus. (Tigelle, Fr.) 564. In some seeds the embryo is furnished with a suspensor from the point of the radicle 300 . 565. The embryo is usually solitary in the seed, but occa- sionally there are two or several (472). 566. When several embryos are produced within a single seed, it sometimes happens that two of these embryos grow together, in' which case a production analogous to animal dicephalous monsters is formed. In form, position, and direction, the embryo varies in different species. In general it is straight ; in some it is spiral 291 ; in others heliacal 294 ; in others vermicular 290 ; in others arcuate 301 . It usually occupies the axis of the albumen or seed 278 293 : but it is also excentrical 292 ; and unilateral 299 . In direction, it is either erect with respect to the seed, or inverted or transverse. SEED. 67 567. The number of cotyledons varies from one to several. The most common number is either one or two. In the latter case, they are always directly opposite each other. The cotyledons are semiterete 895 " ; foliaceous 278 ; flat, convolute 288 ; parallel with each other, or divergent 300 . When there is but one cotyledon, it often assumes peculiar forms: it is, for instance, fungous 289 ; spheroidal 298 ; lenti- cular 299 a. 568. The direction of the embryo, with respect to the seed, will depend upon the relation that the integuments, the raphe, chalaza, hilum, and micropyle, bear to each other. 569. If the nucleus be inverted, the embryo will be erect, or orthotropous ; Ex. Apple. 570. If the nucleus be erect, the embryo will be inverted, or antitropous ; Ex. Nettle. 571. If the micropyle is at neither end of the seed, the em- bryo will be neither erect nor inverted, but will be in a more or less oblique direction with respect to the seed ; Ex. Prim- rose ; and is said to be heterotropous. 572. Plants that have but one cotyledon, or, if two, with the cotyledons alternate with each other, are called MONO- COTYLEDONOUS 293 ^ 2 ". 573. Plants that have two opposite each other, or a greater number placed in a whorl, are called DICOTYLEDONOUS 288 29 C92 297 300 301 574. Endogenous plants are monocotyledonous. 575. Exogenous plants are dicotyledonous. 576. Plants that have no cotyledons are said to be ACOTYLE- DONOUS 294 . 577. But this term is usually applied only to cellular plants which, having no sexual apparatus, can have no seeds (587). 578. Acrogenous plants are acotyledonous. 579. Those seeds of flowering plants, which appear to have no cotyledons, owe their appearance to the cotyledons being consolidated ; Ex. Lecythis, Olynthia : or abortive ; Ex. Cus- cuta. 580. The plumule is very often latent, until it is called into action by the germination of the seed. Sometimes it is un- distinguishable from the cotyledons; sometimes it is highly developed, and lies in a furrow of the cotyledon ; Ex. Maize F2 68 STRUCTURAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. 2 ". In the monocotyledonous embryo it frequently happens that the plumule is rolled up in the cotyledon, the margins of which grow together, so that the whole embryo forms one uniform mass 293 ; but as soon as germination commences the margins separate. 581. The radicle elongates downwards, either directly from the base of the embryo, or after previously rupturing the in- tegument of the base. Plants with the first character are called ExoRHiz^s 295 ; with the second, ENDORHiz^; 298 2 ". 582. The endorhizal embryo is very common in monocoty- ledons ; the exorhizal, in dicotyledons. 583. When the' seed is called into action, germination takes place. The juices of the plant, which before were insipid, immediately afterwards abound with sugar ; Ex. Barley ; and growth commences. 584. This growth is in the first instance caused by the absorption and decomposition of water, whose oxygen com- bines with the superfluous carbon of the seed, and is expelled in the form of carbonic acid gas. 585. As this phenomenon does not take place in full-grown plants, except in the dark (258), so neither can it occur in seeds, except under the same condition. Hence an embryo, exposed to constant light, would not germinate at all ; and hence the care taken by nature to provide a covering to all embryos in the form of the integuments of the seed or of a pericarp. 586. As soon as the necessary proportion of carbon is re- moved from a seed by the expulsion of carbonic acid, the young plant begins to absorb food, and to grow by the pro- cesses of assimilation and respiration already described (254). ACROGENS, OR FLOWERLESS PLANTS. 587. Many plants not being increased by seeds, the result of the mutual action of sexual apparatus (531), are flowerless, and destitute of organs of fructification. 588. Such are propagated by what are called organs of re- production, which have no other analogy with the organs of fructification than that both perpetuate the species. ACROGENS, OR FLOWERLESS PLANTS. 69 589. The reproductive organs of flowerless plants vary ac- cording to the tribes of that division of the vegetable kingdom ; and have so little relation to each other, that each principal tribe may be said to have its own peculiar method of propaga- tion. 590. They all agree in their reproductive parts or spores, which are analogous to seeds, not germinating from any fixed point, but producing root or stem indifferently from any point of their surface. This germination is therefore vague. 591. The principal tribes are Ferns (592), Mosses (598), Lichens (605), Algacea (607), and Fungacea (610). 592. FERNS are increased by, little bodies, called spores, enclosed within cases named tliectz or sporangia 302 303 , which often grow in clusters or sori 3M , from the veins of the under sides of the leaves, or from beneath the epidermis. The latter, when it encloses the thectius cut across. 13. Silicula of Menonvillea linearis. 14. Seed of Lepidium Africanum. 15. Silicula of jEthio- nema cristatum. 16. Seed of Heliophila crithmifolia. 17. Seed of Mathiola oxy- ceras. 18. Siliqua of Mathiola oxyceras. 19. Silicula of Didesmus -(Egyptius. 20. Silicula of Senebiera serrata. 13. Papaver ace fE. Herbaceous plants or shrubs with a milky juice. Leaves alternate, without stipules. Sepals 2. Petals either 3 or 4, or some multiple of that number. Stamens hypogynous, generally numerous. Fruit 1-celled, with parietal placentae. Seeds numerous. USES. A narcotic milk pervades the species ; that of Papaver somniferum becomes opium when inspissated. The roots of Meconopsis Nepalensis are a deadly poison. San- guinaria Canadensis is emetic and purgative in large doses, stimulant and diaphoretic in smaller. TYPICAL GENERA. Papaver, Glaucium. 14. Capparidacece. Herbaceous plants, shrubs, or trees, without true stipules. Leaves alternate. Sepals 4. Petals 4, cruciate. Stamens definite or indefinite. Disk hemispherical, EXOGENJE THALAMIFLORJE. 99 or elongated. Ovary stalked. Fruit 1-celled, most fre- quently with two polyspermous placentae ; embryo incurved. USES. A pungent principle exists in some, as the flower- buds of Capparis spinosa, which are the Capers of shops, and several Cleomes used as substitutes for mustard. This acridity is sometimes so much concentrated as to render the species dangerous. The root of Cratseva gynandra is said to blister like Cantharides, and that of Cleome dodecandra is used as a vermifuge. TYPICAL GENERA. Cleome, Capparis. Physostemon lanceolatum. 1. A flower of the natural size. 2. The calyx, sta- mens, and ovary. 3. The ripe fruit, with one valve separating. 4. A seed. 5. The same cut vertically, to show the incurved embryo. 15. Resedacea. Herbaceous plants with alternate leaves, small colourless flowers, and gland-like stipules. Calyx many-parted. Petals lacerated, unequal. Disk large, 1-sided. Stamens definite, inserted into the disk. Ovary sessile, H 2 100 DE CANDOLLE'S SYSTEM. 3-lobed, 1 -celled, many-seeded, with 3 parietal placentae. Fruit opening at the apex. Embryo incurved. USES. Mignionette, so well known for its fragrance, is Reseda odorata. R. luteola yields a yellow dye. TYPICAL GENERA. Reseda, Ochradenus. 16. Flacourtiacea. Shrubs or trees. Leaves alternate, without stipules. Sepals from 4-7. Petals equal to them in number. Stamens occasionally changed into nectariferous scales. Ovary roundish ; stigmas several, more or less dis- tinct. Fruit 1-celled, capsular or fleshy, the centre filled with a thin pulp. Seeds few, attached to the lining of the fruit in a branched manner. Embryo in albumen. USES. The fruit of some eatable and pleasant in India. TYPICAL GENERA. Flacourtia, Roumea. 17. Bixacete. Trees or shrubs. Leaves alternate, with deciduous stipules and pellucid dots. Sepals 4-7, imbricated. Petals of a like number. Stamens indefinite, distinct. Ovary sessile ; placentae 4-7, parietal ; styles 1-2-4. Fruit 1-celled, fleshy or capsular, many-seeded. Seeds enveloped in pulp. Albumen hardly present. USES. The seeds of Bixa Orellana are covered with a pulp, which, when dry, is the Arnotta of shops, used for colouring cheese. Otherwise the properties uncertain. TYPICAL GENERA. Bixa, Prockia, Azara. 18. Cistacea. Shrubs or herbaceous plants. Leaves usually entire, stipulate or exstipulate. Sepals 3 or 5, per- sistent, unequal, in a broken whorl, the three inner twisted. Petals 5, often crumpled, twisted in a direction contrary to that of the sepals. Stamens indefinite. Ovary 1- or many- celled ; ovules with their foramen at their apex ; style single ; stigma simple. Fruit either 1-celled with parietal placentae, or imperfectly 5- or 10-celled. Seeds indefinite. Embryo inverted, either spiral or curved, in the midst of mealy al- bumen. Radicle remote from the hilum. USES. Unimportant. The balsamic Gum Ladanum is a spontaneous secretion from Cistus Creticus and others. Many are beautiful garden plants, with large delicate flowers. TYPICAL GENERA. Cistus, Helianthemum. EXOGEN.E THALAMIFLOR.E. 101 Cistus Berthelotianus. 1. A calyx and pistil, the petals and stamens having fallen off. 2. A cross section of the ovary. 3. A vertical section of ovary and calyx. 4. A seed cut through ; the pointed end being the true apex. 19. Droseraceae. Herbaceous plants, often covered with glands. Leaves with stipulary fringes and a circinate verna- tion. Peduncles circinate. Sepals imbricate. Petals 5, hy- pogynous. Stamens distinct, either equal in number to the petals, or 2, 3, or 4 times as many. Styles 3-5. Capsule of 3-5 valves. Embryo in fleshy or cartilaginous albumen. USES. The herbage of some Droseras is acrid. The bulbs of others abound in a rich purple dye, and are filled with starch, which renders them eatable. It is probable that many species would prove of value to dyers. TYPICAL GENERA. Drosera, Dionsea. 20. Tamaricacea. Shrubs or herbs, with rod-like branches. Leaves alternate, resembling scales. Calyx 4- or 5-parted, persistent. Petals withering. Stamens definite, distinct, or monadelphous. Stigmas 3. Capsule 3-valved, 1-celled, many- seeded. Seeds ascending, comose ; embryo straight. USES. Ornamental bushes or trees. A sweet substance resembling Manna oozes out of the stem of Tamarix Gallica, in hot, dry countries. The bark is bitter, astringent, and tonic. A very astringent gall, employed in medicine and dyeing, in India, i.s yielded by some oriental species. TYPICAL GENERA. Tamarix, Myricaria. 102 DE CANDOLLE'S SYSTEM. 21. Violaceee. Herbaceous plants, or shrubs, or trees. Leaves stipulate, with an involute vernation. Sepals 5, per- sistent, imbricate, Petals 5, regular or irregular, one some- times spurred. Stamens definite in number ; filaments di- lated ; connective elongated beyond the anthers. Ovary 1-celled, with 3 parietal placentae ; style with a hooded stigma. Capsule of 3 valves, bearing the placentae in their axis. Embryo large, straight, in fleshy albumen. USES. Roots emetic. Those of the common Sweet Violet and other species have been employed medicinally. loni- dium Poaya yields one sort of Brazilian Ipecacuanha. Viola canina and some others have the power of removing some cutaneous affections, and have been employed as cos- metics. TYPICAL GENERA. Viola, Alsodeia. Corynostyhs Hybanthus. 1. A set of stamens, each having the connective lemrth- I beyond the anther in the form of a scale. 2. A spurred petal. 3. A trans- Tary ' WiDg ^ thlee Parietal Placen ^ 4 ' A rie frrit- 5 ' An 22.Polygalacea. Shrubs or herbaceous plants. Leaves alternate, destitute of stipules. Pedicels with three bracts. lowers unsymmetrical. Sepals 5, very irregular, often glu- laceous. Petals consolidated, hypogynous, usually 3, of which 1 is anterior and larger than the rest. Stamens usually tube; anthers innate, 1-celled, and opening at their apex. EXOGEKLffi THALAMIFLOR^l. 103 Ovary with 2 or 3 cells ; ovules solitary, pendulous. Seeds pendulous, with a caruncula next the hilum ; albumen abun- dant. USES. Leaves bitter, root milky. Polygala Senega, the Rattlesnake root, is stimulant, diaphoretic, emetic, and em- menagogue ; it has been employed successfully in croup. Many other species have similar properties. Polygala Poaya is one of the Brazilian emetics. The bark of Monnina polystachya, a Peruvian plant, is detersive, and used as a substitute for soap. TYPICAL GENERA. Polygala, Mural tia, Mundia. Polygala erioptera. 1. An entire flower seen from the side. 2. The same cut open to exhibit the stamens. 3. The pistil. 4. A section of a ripe seed ; in the middle is the embryo ; at the apex, which represents the real base, is seen a carun- cula. 23. FranJceniacea. Herbaceous plants or under-shrubs. Stems much branched. Leaves small, opposite, exstipulate, with a membranous sheathing base. Sepals 4-5, in a furrowed tube. Petals hypogynous, unguiculate, with appendages at the base of the limb. Stamens definite. Style 2- or 3-fid. Capsule 1 -celled, enclosed in the calyx, 2- 3- or 4~valved, many- seeded. Seeds attached to the margins of the valves, very minute ; embryo in the midst of albumen. USES. Unknown. TYPICAL GENUS. Frankenia. 104 DE CANDOLLES SYSTEM. 24. Elatinaceee. Lijttle weedy annuals. Leaves oppo- site, with stipules. Flowers minute. Sepals 3-5. Petals hypogynous. Stamens definite. Ovary 3-5-celled; styles 3-5; stigmas capitate. Fruit capsular. Seeds numerous, embryo straight, with but little albumen. USES. Unknown. TYPICAL GENERA. Elatine, Bergia. 25. CaryopTiyllaceae. Herbaceous plants with opposite undivided exstipulate leaves, and tumid nodes. Sepals 4-5. Petals often slit. Stamens definite. Ovary usually many- seeded, with a free central placenta. Stigmas sessile, 2-5. Capsule 2-5-valved. Seeds usually with the embryo curved round mealy albumen. USES. Unimportant. Some species bear gay flowers; more are weeds; a few are fragrant, as the Pink. Silene Virginica is said to have an anthelmintic root. There are two sections of this order : 1. Alsinea. Sepals disjoined. TYPICAL GENERA. Stellaria, Cerastium. 2. Silenete. Sepals united into a tube. TYPICAL GENERA. Lychnis, Silene, Dianthus. 1 iun \ a ; f *?**' 2 - A flower of Stellaria mcdi <% vrtv o PW J L \ US Placenta loaded with seeds - 5 ' A * rtically, to show the embryo curved round mealy albumen' *<*- 3. through EXOGEN.K THALAMIFLOR.E. 105 26. Malvacea. Herbaceous plants, trees, or shrubs. Leaves alternate, stipulate, very often covered with stellate hairs. Flowers generally showy. Calyx with a valvate aestivation. Petals twisted. Stamens indefinite, monadelph- ous ; anthers 1-celled, reniform. Ovary formed by the union of several carpels ; styles the same number as the carpels. Fruit either capsular or baccate ; albumen in small but vari- able quantity; embryo curved, with twisted and doubled cotyledons. USES. Mucilaginous ; as Marsh Mallow and common Mal- low. The unripe fruit of Hibiscus esculentus is used as an ingredient in soups. The liber of several affords a tenacious fibre ; the hemp-like substance called Sun in India is obtained from Hibiscus cannabinus. Many are beautiful objects. The hairy seeds of Gossypium furnish cotton. TYPICAL GENERA. Malva, Lavatera, Hibiscus. Abutilon macropodum. 1. An unexpanded flower. 2. The stamens and styles. 3. A ripe fruit, consisting of many carpels, whose upper extremities are free and ra- diant. 4. A section of a seed. 27. Tiliaceae. Trees or shrubs, very seldom herbaceous plants. Leaves stipulate, alternate. Flowers often small. Calyx valvate. Petals 4 or 5, usually with a little pit at their base. Stamens distinct; anthers 2-celled. Ovary single, composed of from 4 to 10 carpels; style one; stigmas as many as the carpels. Seeds several ; embryo erect in the axis of fleshy albumen, with flat foliaceous cotyledons. 106 DE CANDOLLE'S SYSTEM. U SES . Mucilaginous plants with tough fibres. The leaves of Corchorus olitorius are eaten as spinach. Corchorus cap- sularis furnishes a kind of coarse hemp in India. From the inner hark of Tilia Europsea Russia mats are made; its flowers, separated from the hracts, are said to be antispasmodic. TYPICAL GENERA. Tilia, Triumfetta, Grewia. 28. Dipteracea. Trees. Leaves alternate, with involute vernation; stipules deciduous. Calyx 5-lobed, unequal, be- coming enlarged, imbricated. Petals contorted. Stamens indefinite, distinct ; anthers subulate, opening longitudinally towards the apex. Ovary without a disk, few-celled ; ovules in pairs, pendulous; style single. Fruit surrounded by a calyx, having tough, leafy, enlarged, permanent divisions. Seed single, without albumen. Cotyledons crumpled. USES. Tropical trees often yielding valuable timber ; that called Sal, or Saul, belongs to Shorea robusta. The juice is balsamic; Dryobalanops Camphora yields Sumatra Camphor.' Vateria Indica furnishes Copal. ' Dammer pitch is obtained from species of Shorea. TYPICAL GENERA. Shorea, Dipterocarpus, Vateria. 29. Aumntiacea. Trees or shrubs, almost always smooth and filled with transparent receptacles of oil. Leaves alter- nate, often compound, always articulated with the petiole. Flowers usually white or green, and fragrant. Calyx urceo- late or campanulate, short. Petals 3-5, inserted upon the outside of an hypogynous disk. Stamens inserted upon an hypogynous disk; filaments sometimes combined in one or several parcels. Ovary many-celled ; style 1 ; stigma thick- ish. Fruit many-celled, filled with pulp. Seeds usually pen- dulous ; raphe and chalaza distinctly marked. USES. The Orange, Lemon, Lime, and Citron are species of Citrus, and are well known for the aromatic rind and pulpy flesh of their fruit. The wood is generally hard and durable. The unripe fruit of ^gle marmelos, an Indian tree, is pre- scribed in diarrhrea and dysentery. The leaves of the order generally are regarded as stomachic and tonic. TYPICAL GENERA. Citrus, Triphasia, Limonia. SQTernstromiacea. Trees or shrubs. Leaves alternate, EXOGENJE THALAMIFLOR^l. 107 without stipules, now and then with pellucid dots. Flowers often large and showy. Sepals 5 or 7, coriaceous, in a broken whorl, deciduous. Petals not equal in number to the sepals. Stamens numerous ; monadelphous or polyadelphous. Ovary with several cells ; styles filiform. Capsule 2-7-celled ; usually with a central column. Seeds large, attached to the axis, very few ; albumen none ; cotyledons occasionally plaited. USES. The Tea of Commerce consists of the leaves of Thea viridis and Bohea. Camellia oleifera yields excellent oil. The species of Camellia, common in gardens, are objects of beauty. Leaves of Kielmeyera speciosa are mucilaginous. TYPICAL GENERA. Camellia, Gordonia, Thea. Kielmeyera rosea. 1. The pistil. 2. A transverse section of it. 3. A ripe fruit. 4. An embryo. 31. Hypericacea. Herbaceous plants, shrubs or trees. Leaves opposite, entire, sometimes dotted. Flowers gene- rally yellow. Sepals 4-5, persistent, imbricated, unequal, with glandular dots. Petals 4-5, hypogynous, twisted, oblique, often having black dots. Stamens indefinite, often polya- delphous. Styles several. Fruit a capsule or berry, of many valves and many cells. Seeds minute, indefinite ; embryo straight, with no albumen. USES. The juice is resinous, purgative, febrifugal or as- tringent in different species, according as an essential oil or a 108 DE CANDOLLE'S SYSTEM. yellow juice most abound. The latter, when concrete, resem- bles gamboge, of which it has the properties. Hypencum Androsjemum and perforatum are old-fashioned vulneranes. In Brazil a species of Hypericum is employed for a gargle in cases of sore throat. TYPICAL GENERA. Hypericum, Vismia. Hypericum floribundum. 1. An entire flower. 2. A bundle of stamens. 3. A pistil with 3 carpels. 4. A seed laid horizontally and cut through, to show the em- bryo and netted testa. 5. A piece of a leaf with transparent dots. 32. Clusiacea or Guttifera. Trees or shrubs. Leaves without stipules, opposite, coriaceous. Flowers sometimes polygamous. Sepals 2 to 6, persistent. Petals hypogynous, 4 to 10. Stamens numerous, hypogynous. Disk fleshy, occa- sionally 5-lobed. Ovary 1- or many-celled ; ovules solitary, erect, or ascending, or numerous and attached to central pla- centae ; style very short ; stigma peltate or radiate. Seeds frequently nestling in pulp, often with an aril ; albumen none. USES. Gamboge is the juice of Hebradendron cambogioides. The delicious Malacca fruit called Mangosteen is the produce of Garcinia mangostana. The resinous oil Tacamahaca flows from the root of Calophyllum Calaba. The general properties of the species are acrid and purgative. They are often objects of great beauty on account of their large flowers and hand- some thick leaves. TYPICAL GENERA. Clusia, Garcinia. EXOGEN^E THALAMIFLORJE. 109 Hebradendron cambogioides. 1 . A female flower, with the sterile stamens sur- rounding the pistil. 2. A male flower. 3. An anther, which opens by throwing off a cap, in consequence of transverse dehiscence. 4. A transverse section of the ovary. 33. Aceracea. Trees. Leaves opposite, without stipules. Flowers small, green, often polygamous. Flowers unsym- metrical. Calyx imbricated. Petals inserted round an hy- pogynous disk. Stamens inserted upon an hypogynous disk, generally 8. Ovary 2-lobed; style 1. Fruit of 2 parts, which are samaroid ; each 1 -celled ; with one or two seeds ; albumen none. USES. The saccharine sap of Acer saccharinum yields a kind of sugar in North America. The timber of most species is light, clean, and useful, where strength is not required. TYPICAL GENUS. Acer. 34. ^Escnlaceee. Trees or shrubs. Leaves opposite, with- out stipules, quinate or septenate. Racemes terminal. Flow- ers large, showy. Flowers unsymmetrical. Calyx cam- panulate, 5-lobed. Petals 4 or 5, unequal, hypogynous. Stamens 7-8, unequal. Ovary 3-celled ; ovules 2 in each cell. Fruit 1- 2- or 3-valved. Seeds large, with a broad hilum ; albumen none ; embryo curved, germinating under ground. USES. Handsome trees or bushes. Seeds filled with starch, which renders them nutritious ; but it is said that they are also dangerous. TYPICAL GENUS. ^Esculus. 110 DE CANDOLLE'S SYSTEM. 35. MalpigUacea. Small trees or shrubs, sometimes climbing. Leaves opposite, with stipules. Sepals generally with 5 pairs of large oblong conspicuous glands on the out- side. Petals 5, unguiculate. Stamens seldom fewer. Ovary 1, of S carpels, more or less combined ; ovules suspended. Fruit dry or berried. Seeds without albumen. USES. Of no moment. The fruit of some Malpighias is eaten in the West Indies under the name of Barbadoes cherries. The bark appears to be astringent. TYPICAL GENERA. Fruit succulent, Malpighia. Fruit dry and samaroid, Banisteria. Diplopteris paralias. 1. A flower-bud, showing the double glands of the calyx. 2. An expanded flower. 3. The carpels. 4. Ripe fruit of Ryssopteris timorensis. 36. Sapindacete. Trees, or shrubs which often climb and have tendrils. Leaves generally compound. Flowers un- symmetrical, polygamous. Calyx imbricated. Petals hypo- gynous, sometimes naked, sometimes with a doubled append- age in the inside, imbricated. Disk fleshy. Stamens 8-10, rarely 5-6-7. Ovary 3-celled, the cells containing 1, 2, 3, very seldom more, ovules. Fruit sometimes capsular, some- times samaroid, sometimes fleshy and indehiscent. Seeds usually with an aril. Albumen 0. USES. Leaves and branches of some species of Magonia and Paullinia poisonous. The fruit of some Euphorias or Nepheliums, Pierardias and Hedycarya, eatable and agree- able ; the former is the Longan and Litchi, which occasionally EXOGEN^E THALAMIFLOR.E. Ill arrive in this country from China. The fruit of Sapindus saponaria and others employed instead of soap. TYPICAL GENERA. Sapindus, Paullinia, Serjania. Sapindus Senegalensis. 1. An expanded flower. 2. A petal. 3. The ovaries after fertilization. 4. A vertical section of a ripe drupe, showing the embryo. 37. Cedrelaceee. Trees with timber which is usually com- pact, scented, and beautifully veined. Leaves alternate, with- out stipules. Calyx 4-5-cleft. Petals 4-5. Stamens 8-10, either united or distinct. Style and stigma simple. Seeds flat-winged. USES. Mahogany is the timber of Swietenia Mahagoni ; the bark of that tree, of Cedrela Toona, and Soymida febrifuga, is valuable as a tonic, in careful hands ; it can only be exhibited in small doses. East India Satin-wood is produced by Chlor- oxylon Swietenia. TYPICAL GENERA. Cedrela, Swietenia. 112 DE CANDOLLE'S SYSTEM. 38. Humiriacea. Trees or shrubs. Leaves alternate, without stipules. Calyx 5-parted. Stamens numerous, monadelphous ; anthers with a fleshy connective extended beyond the lobes. Ovary 5-celled; ovules 1-2, suspended; styles simple. Fruit drupaceous. Embryo in fleshy albumen. USES. The liquid yellow fragrant Balsam of Umiri flows from the wounded trunk of Humirium floribundum. In pro- perties it resembles Copaiva. TYPICAL GENUS. Humirium. 39. Meliacete. Trees or shrubs. Leaves alternate, with- out stipules. Sepals 3, 4, or 5. Petals hypogynous, usually valvate. Stamens twice as many as the petals; filaments cohering in a long tube ; anthers sessile within the orifice of the tube. Ovary with 3, 10, 12 cells; ovules suspended, 1-2 in each cell. Fruit often 1-celled. Seeds without albu- men, not winged. USES. The bark of Guarea Aubletia, Trichilia cathartica, and others, purgative and emetic. Eoot of Melia Azedarach anthelmintic. Some of the tropical genera have a wholesome pleasant fruit. Febrifugal qualities have been recognized in the Neemtree, Melia Azedarachta, and some others. TYPICAL GENERA. Melia, Quivisia. Ekebergia Senegalensis. 1. A flower. 2. The calyx and staminal tube. 3. A averse section of the ovary. 4. A ripe fruit. 5. A vertical section of the latter. EXOGEN-E THALAMIFLOR^:. 113 40. Vitacece. Scrambling, climbing shrubs, with tumid separable joints. Leaves with stipules. Flowers small, green. Calyx small, nearly entire. Petals in aestivation val- vate, and often inflected at the point ; stamens opposite them, inserted upon the disk. Ovary 2-celled ; ovules erect, definite. Berry pulpy ; albumen hard. Embryo small. USES. The common Vine, Vitis vinifera, is well known ; besides which there are other species, in which reside similar qualities, although very inferior. The leaves of some kinds of Cissus, being acrid, are used in bringing indolent tumours to suppuration. TYPICAL GENERA. Vitis, Cissus, Ampelopsis. 41. Geraniacea. Strong-scented herbs or shrubs with sti- pulate leaves. Stems tumid, and separable at the joints. Sepals 5, ribbed. Petals 5, unguiculate. Stamens definite, often monadelphous. Fruit of 5 elastic cocci, rolling back from a long-beaked gynobase, to which the hardened styles adhere. Seeds solitary, pendulous, without albumen. Coty- ledons convolute and plaited. USES. The root of Geranium maculatum is a powerful astringent. Otherwise the order is of no importance, except Geranium sylvaticum. 1. The stamens and style. 2. The unripe fruit surrounded by a calyx. 3. The rostrate gynobase, from which the cocci are rolling back with elasticity ; one has dropped off. 4. A transverse section of a seed. 114 DE CANDOLLE'S SYSTEM. for the beautiful flowers of numerous species, especially be- longing to the genus Pelargonium. TYPICAL GENERA. Geranium, Erodium, Pelargonium. 42. Balsaminaceae. Succulent herbaceous plants. Leaves without stipules. Flowers usually unsymmetrical. Sepals 5, irregular; the odd sepal spurred. Petals 4, irregular. ~ Sta- mens 5. Carpels consolidated into a 5-celled ovary. Fruit capsular, with 5 elastic valves. Seeds solitary, or numerous, suspended ; albumen none. USES. Unimportant. They have generally gay flowers. TYPICAL GENERA. Balsamina, Impatiens. 43. Linacea. Herbaceous plants or small shrubs. Leaves without stipules, usually alternate. Petals fugitive. Flowers symmetrical. Sepals 3-4-5, imbricated, persistent. Petals hypogynous, unguiculate, twisted. Stamens united in a ring. Ovary with about as many cells as sepals. Styles equal in number to the cells ; stigmas capitate. Capsule many-celled. Seeds in each cell single, inverted ; albumen present. USES. The mucilaginous seeds of Linum usitatissimum are linseed. The leaves of L. catharticum are purgative. The tough fibre of the first is the Flax of manufacturers. TYPICAL GENERA. Linum, Radiola. 44. Oxalidacea:, Herbaceous plants, under-shrubs, or trees. Leaves alternate, compound, often sensitive. Sepals 5, equal. Petals equal, unguiculate. Stamens 10, more or less mon- adelphous. Styles 5 ; stigmas capitate. Fruit capsular, mem- branous, with 5 cells. Seeds few, within a fleshy integument, which expels the seeds with elasticity. Embryo long, taper. Albumen between cartilaginous and fleshy. USES. They are generally acid in a high degree. The Blimbing and Carambola, acid fruits of the Indian Archipe- lago, are the produce of the genus Averrho.a. The roots of Oxalis Deppei form an agreeable esculent. TYPICAL GENERA. Oxalis, Averrhoa. 45- Pittosporaceee. Leaves simple, alternate, without sti- pules. Shrubs, trees, or half herbaceous plants, sometimes twining. Sepals deciduous, imbricated. Petals hypogynous, EXOGENJE THALAMIFLORJE. 115 imbricated. Stamens 5. Ovary single, many-seeded. Fruit capsular or berried, with many-seeded cells which are some- times incomplete. Albumen fleshy. USES. Unimportant. The species are resinous. TYPICAL GENERA. Pittosporum, Sollya, Billardiera. 46. Rutacea. Trees or shrubs (or herbs). Leaves ex- stipulate, dotted. Flowers often very gay. Flowers herm- aphrodite, sometimes irregular. Sepals 4-5. Petals some- times combined. Stamens definite, on the outside of a cup- like disk. Ovary few-celled ; ovules 2-4 ; style single, occa- sionally divided near the base, always separable into its component parts as the fruit approaches maturity. Fruit capsular, separating into carpels when ripe. Embryo with or without albumen ; radicle superior. Eriostemon myoporoides. 1. A complete flower. 2. The ovary, seated in a cup- shaped disk, surrounded by a calyx. 3. The ripe fruit, separated spontaneously into its component carpels. 4. A vertical section of a seed, showing the embryo lying in the midst of albumen. i2 116 DE CANDOLLE'S SYSTEM. U SES . The powerfully scented oil possesses active proper- ties. Ruta graveolens, common Rue, is anthelmintic, sudo- rific, and emmenagogue. Various species of Barosma, called at the Cape of Good Hope Bucku, are powerful antispasmo- dics. The bark of Cusparia febrifuga, called Angostura bark, is a valuable febrifuge ; and that of many other American trees of the order seems to possess the same quality. TYPICAL GENERA. Ruta, Boronia, Dictamnus, Correa is remarkable for having a monopetalous corolla. 47. Xanihoxylacea. Trees or shrubs. Leaves without stipules, with pellucid dots. Flowers unisexual. Calyx in 3, 4, or 5 divisions. Petals usually longer than the calyx, convo- lute. Stamens equal to the petals in number, or twice as many. Ovary of the same number of carpels as there are petals, or a smaller number ; ovules 2 ; styles more or less combined. Fruit berried or membranous, sometimes consist- ing of several drupes or 2-valved capsules. Seeds solitary or twin, pendulous, usually smooth and shining; embryo lying within fleshy albumen ; radicle superior. USES. Aromatic, pungent, and stimulant. Xanthoxylum Clava Herculis is a powerful sudorific and aperient. The bark of Brucea, of Xanthoxylum caribeeum, and others, is febrifugal. The capsules of some Fagaras are used as pepper. TYPICAL GENERA. Xanthoxylum, Ptelea. 48. Zygophyllacea. Herbaceous plants, shrubs, or trees ; branches often articulated at the joints. Leaves opposite, with stipules, not dotted. Flowers hermaphrodite. Calyx con- volute. Petals unguiculate. Stamens dilated at the base, sometimes placed on the back of a small scale. Ovary with a disk, and 4 or 5 cells ; ovules pendulous or erect ; style simple. Fruit capsular, rarely fleshy, with angles or wings. Seeds few ; radicle superior ; albumen whitish. USES. Zygophyllum Fabago is- an anthelmintic. Guaia- cum yields the wood called Lignum Vit, known in turnery for its hardness, and in medicine for its sudorific qualities. TYPICAL GENERA. Zygophyllum, Guaiacum. 49. Simamlacea. Trees or shrubs. Leaves without EXOGEN.E THALAMIFLORJE. 117 stipules, alternate, without dots. Flowers hermaphrodite, or unisexual. Calyx in 4 or 5 divisions. Petals longer ; aesti- vation twisted. Stamens arising from the back of an hypo- gynous scale. Ovary 4- or 5-lobed, upon a stalk, each cell with 1 suspended ovule ; style simple. Fruit indehiscent ; embryo without albumen. USES. The wood intensely bitter. The root of Simaruba amara, used as a tonic, is bitter, purgative, and emetic. The wood of Picraena excelsa furnishes the Quassia chips of the shops. TYPICAL GENEKA. Quassia, Simaruba. 50. Coriariacea. Shrubs with square branches. Leaves opposite, simple, entire, ribbed. Flowers herbaceous, herm- aphrodite, monoecious or direcious. Calyx 5-parted. Pe- tals 5, fleshy, with an elevated keel. Stamens 10. Ovary 5-celled, 5-angled ; style none ; stigmas 5, subulate. Ovules solitary. Carpels 5, drupaceous, indehiscent, 1-seeded, some- times surrounded by the enlarged petals. Albumen none. USES. The fruit of Coriaria myrtifolia is poisonous ; the leaves are used for dyeing black, and for adulterating Alexan- drian Senna. TYPICAL GENUS. Coriaria. SUBCLASS II. CALYCIFLOR*:. 51. Celastraceee. Shrubs or trees. Leaves simple. Flow- ers in axillary cymes, minute. Sepals 4 or 5, imbricated, in- serted into the margin of an expanded torus. Petals imbri- cate. Stamens alternate with the petals, inserted into the disk. Disk large, expanded, flat, closely surrounding the ovary. Ovary with 3 or 4 cells ; ovules ascending ; fruit cap- sular or drupaceous ; seeds often with an aril ; albumen fleshy. USES. Sub-acrid, but apparently unimportant plants in a medicinal point of view. A yellow die is obtained from the bark of Euonymus tingens in India. TYPICAL GENERA. Celastrus, Euonymus. 52. Staphyleaceae. Shrubs. Leaves opposite, pinnate, with both common and partial stipules. Sepals 5, coloured, imbricated. Petals 5, imbricated. Stamens alternate with the petals, perigynous. Disk large, urceolate. Ovary 2- or 118 DE CANDOLLES SYSTEM. 3-celled, superior; ovules erect; styles 2 or 3, cohering. Fruit membranous or fleshy. Seeds with a bony testa and no aril ; hilum large ; albumen none. USES. Staphylea pinnata and trifolia are cultivated as orna- mental shrubs under the name of Bladder-nuts, because their nut-like seeds are enclosed in a bladdery seed-vessel. TYPICAL GENUS. Staphylea. 53. Rhamwacea. Trees or shrubs. Leaves alternate, with minute stipules. Flowers axillary or terminal, minute. Calyx 4-5-cleft, valvate. Petals distinct, inserted into the orifice of the calyx. Stamens definite, opposite the petals, to which they are equal in number. Ovary superior, or half-superior, 2- 3- or 4-celled ; ovules solitary, erect ; fruit a capsule, or more frequently a berry ; albumen fleshy, in very small quantity ; embryo with large flat cotyledons, and a short inferior radicle. USES. The berries of Rhamnus Frangula, catharticus, and others, are active purgatives. When ripe, those of some species, especially R. catharticus and infectorius, yield a yellow dye. The fruit of Zizyphus communis is the Jujube of the shops, and that of the Z. Lotus gave their name to the Lotophagous nation of antiquity ; all the fruit of that genus seems harm- less ; Z. Chinensis, indeed, is cultivated in China as the apple is with us. The bark of Ceanothus americanus and some others is astringent, and has been employed in diarrhoea. TYPICAL GENERA. Rhamnus, Paliurus, Ceanothus. A ., 8een from above ' 4. A seed dmded vertically. A frait - 3. The same cut EXOGEN/E CALYCIFLORJE. 119 54. Anacardiaceee. Trees or shrubs, with a resinous caus- tic juice, becoming black in drying. Leaves alternate, with- out pellucid dots. Flowers small, green, unisexual. Calyx small. Petals perigynous, imbricated. Stamens usually defi- nite. Disk fleshy, hypogynous. Carpel simple ; styles 1 or 3, occasionally 4 ; ovule solitary, attached by a cord to the bottom of the cell. Fruit indehiscent. Seed without albumen. USES. A hard, black, acrid varnish is obtained from Seme- carpus Anacardium and Melanorhoea usitatissima. The Cashew nut, whose eatable kernel is surrounded by a rind full of resinous acrid oil, is produced by Anacardium occidentale. Rhus toxicodendron and radicans are dangerous acrid poisons. Rhus Coriaria, Cotinus, and some others, are astringents. Rhus Typhinum, and some others, are cultivated as plants of ornament. Pistacia Atlantica and Lentiscus yield mastich ; and P. Terebinthus, Scio turpentine. TYPICAL GENERA. Rhus, Pistacia. Pistacia Atlantica. 1. Female flowers. 2. An ovary. 3. The same cut open to show the ovule. 4. A ripe fruit opened to show the seed. 55. Fdbaceee (or Leguminosa). Herbaceous plants, shrubs, or trees. Leaves alternate ; petiole tumid at the base. Stipules 2. Flowers usually showy. Calyx inferior, the segments often unequal, and variously combined. Petals either papilionaceous or regularly spreading. Stamens de- finite or indefinite, perigynous, or hypogynous. Ovary sim- ple, superior. Fruit a legume. Seeds destitute of albumen. 120 BE CANDOLLE'S SYSTEM. A very large natural order, of which there are 3 principal divisions: /O 1. Spiraea Arancus, flower cut open. 2. A section of an ovary. 3. Part of flower tragamlndica 4. A vertical section of the half-ripe receptacle, covered with carpels. 5. A single carpel. 6. A section of a ripe carpel, with the seed inside Division 3. Spiraea. Carpels few, 2-valved. USES. Roots of Gillenia emetic, of Spirsea ulmaria tonic. TYPICAL GENUS. Spiraea. EXOGEN^l CALYCIFLOR.E. 123 Division 4. Amygdaleee. Carpel single, a drupe. USES. The fruit of the Peach, Nectarine, Almond, Plum, Cherry, and Apricot, are produced by various species. Many are of great beauty on account of their gay flowers. Hydro- cyanic acid is yielded by the leaves of all, especially of the Prunus Laurocerasus, or common Laurel. The bark of Pru- nus Coccomilia and some others is febrifugal. TYPICAL GENERA. Prunus, Amygdalus. Division 5. Pome. LorantJiacea. Parasitical half-shrubby plants. Leaves opposite, without stipules. Flowers either very long and tubular, or small and green. Calyx with 2 bracts at the base. Corolla with 3, 4 or 8 petals, more or less united at the base, valvate ; stamens opposite to them. Ovary 1-celled ; ovule erect. Fruit succulent. Seed solitary ; em- bryo cylindrical, longer than the fleshy albumen. USES. Bark astringent ; that of Loranthus tetrandrus is em- ployed in Chili for a black dye. Miseltoe is Viscum album. TYPICAL GENERA. Viscum, Loranthus. 136 DE CANDOLLE'S SYSTEM. 85. Caprifoliacea. Shrubs or herbaceous plants, with opposite leaves, destitute of stipules. Flowers usually showy and fragrant. Calyx 4-5-cleft, with bracts at its base. Co- rolla monopetalous or polypetalous, rotate or tubular, regular or irregular. Stamens epipetalous. Ovary with from 1 to 5 cells. Fruit indehiscent, 1 or more celled. Embryo straight in fleshy albumen. USES. Honeysuckles, species of Caprifolium, are beautiful, fragrant, twining shrubs. The Elder has sudorific flowers, and drastic foetid leaves. The roots of Triosteum perfoliatum are emetic and cathartic. The fruit of Symphoria racemosa, the Snowberry, is a favourite food of pheasants ; that of differ- ent species of Viburnum is eatable, but unpleasant. TYPICAL GENERA. Sambucus, Caprifolium, Viburnum. 86. Cinchonaceee. Trees, shrubs, or herbs. Leaves simple, opposite or verticillate, with interpetiolary stipules, Avhich are simple, bifid, or multifid, and form one of the prin- cipal characteristics of the order. Inflorescence extremely varied. Calyx simple. Corolla tubular, regular, valvate, or imbricated. Stamens all on the same line, alternate with the lobes of the corolla. Ovary surmounted by a disk ; ovules numerous or few. Fruit either splitting, or indehiscent and dry, or succulent. Seeds definite or indefinite ; embryo small, surrounded by horny albumen. USES. Foremost among the useful species of this large order stand the species of Cinchona, whose bark is so valuable on account of its tonic febrifugal qualities ; in this respect a large number of other genera correspond, among which are Buena, Remija, Portlandia, and Exostema. Others are power- ful emetics ; as Cephaelis Ipecacuanha, whose roots form the best Ipecacuanha of the shops ; Richardsonia scabra, and several species of Manettia, Chiococca, and Spermacoce. A few have the emetic principle so concentrated as to be dan- gerous poisons, as Randia dumetorum. Coffee is the horny albumen of Coffea Arabica. EXOGEN^E COROLLIFLOR;E. 137 Coffea Arabica. 1. A flower magnified. 2. A section across a ripe fruit. 3. A portion of a seed, stowing the small embryo laid bare in the end of convolute albumen. Richardsonia scabra. 1. An ovary with its calyx. 2. A corolla. 3. .A vertical section of a seed, with an erect embryo in copious albumen. 87. Dipsacete. Herbaceous plants or under-shrubs. Leaves opposite or whorled. Flowers capitate, surrounded by a many-leaved involucre. Calyx superior, membranous ; surrounded by an involucel. Corolla oblique, imbricated. Stamens 4 ; anthers distinct. Ovary 1-celled, with a pendu- lous ovule ; stigma simple. Fruit crowned by the pappus- like calyx, embryo in fleshy albumen. 138 DE CANDOLLE'S SYSTEM. USES. The ripe heads of Dipsacus fullonum, dried, are formed of hard stiff spines, and are employed by fullers, in dressing cloth, under the name of teasels. TYPICAL GENERA. Scabiosa, Dipsacus, Knautia. 88. Valerianacete. Herbs. Leaves opposite, without stipules. Flowers corymbose, panicled, or in heads. Calyx superior, membranous, or resembling pappus. Corolla tubular, regular or irregular, sometimes calcarate. Stamens 1 to 5. Ovary with 1 perfect cell, and 2 other abortive ones ; ovule pendulous ; stigmas 1 to 3. Fruit dry. Embryo destitute of albumen. USES. Common Valerian, and several others, have power- fully aromatic, antispasmodic, febrifugal roots. The genus Va- lerianella consists of annual herbs, whose leaves are used as salad, under the name of Lamb's lettuce. The Spikenard of the ancients was Nardostachys Jatamansi. TYPICAL GENERA. Valerianella, Centranthus, Valeriana. Valeriana Celtica. 1 An entire flower magnified. 2. The ovary and young calyx. 3. The fruit, with the pappose full-grown calyx. 4. A vertical section of a npe fruit and seed. 89. Asteracea or Composite. Shrubs, or herbs, ex- tremely variable in appearance. Flowers in heads, surround- ed by an involucrum, and seated on a receptacle, from which palese often spring. Calyx obsolete ; a pappus (328). Co- EXOGEN/E COROLLIFLOR2E. 139 rolla regular or irregular. Anthers united into a tube. Ovary inferior, one-celled, with an erect ovule. Embryo with- out albumen. Division 1. Cichoracea. Florets all ligulate. Milky. TYPICAL GENERA. Hieracium, Taraxacum. Division 2. Corymbifera. Florets in part or wholly tubu- lar. Corolla funnel-shaped. Involucrum hemispherical, leafy or scaly, soft, seldom spiny. TYPICAL GENERA. Chrysanthemum, Tussilago. Division 3. Cynaracea. Florets wholly tubular. Corolla with a ventricose throat. Involucrum hard, conical, and gene- rally spiny. TYPICAL GENERA. Carduus, Cynara, Onopordum. Division 4. Labiatiflvra. Florets bilabiate. TYPICAL GENERA. Mutisia, Triptilion. USES. Among the Cichoraceous division a narcotic prin- ciple is commonly found, which in the garden Lettuce is so diffused as to be bland, and in Lactuca virosa is so concen- trated as to render the extract similar to opium in effect. Succory, Endive, Salsafy, Scorzonera, well-known esculents, belong here. Of the Corymbiferous division, Chamomile is characteristic, with its bitter tonic qualities. Many others, such as Coltsfoot, Elecampane, Feverfew, correspond in pro- perties with Chamomile. Wormwood, Southernwood, species of Artemisia, are aromatic and extremely bitter ; Tarragon, a pungent herb, used for pickling, is Artemisia Dracunculus. Pellitory of Spain, which is acrid, and excites the salivary organs powerfully, is Anacyclus Pyrethrum ; and similar effects are produced by Spilanthus oleracea, Bidens tripartita, and others. The Sunflower, Guizotia oleifera, Madia sativa, and others, yield a bland oil when their seeds are pressed. Jerusalem artichokes, a well-known article of food, are the tubers of Helianthus tuberosus. The Cynaraceous division con- sists principally of bitter plants. Centaurea calcitrapa, Sily- bum (or Carduus) Marianum, Cnicus Benedictus, and the common Burdock, are all stomachics of some importance. The flowers of Carthamus tinctorius are dried for the use of the dyers, and resemble Saffron. The fleshy receptacles of Cynara Scolymus are the artichoke bottoms of our kitchens. DE CANDOLLE'S SYSTEM. Argyranthemum Jacoteifolium. 1. A tubular floret of the disk. 2. A ligulate florel^Tthe ray. 3. Style and stigmas. 4. An anther. 5. An involucrum and Intl receptade, from which the lorets have fallen. 6. R lp e ach^mum cut through vertically, with toothed coronetted pappus. The old divisions of this large order are adhered to be- cause they appear more likely to be permanent than the more recent suborders, &c. proposed by De Candolle and others, in which peculiarities in the stigma are chiefly employed. The student who desires to become acquainted with the de- tails of this enormous order, numbering more than 7000 species, will consult De Candclle' ( s Prodromus, Vols. V. VI. EXOGEN^ COROLLIFLORJE. 141 and VII. The preceding wood -cut will assist him in under- standing the distinctions of that author. 1. Tubular floret of Webbia aristata, with double pappus (Vernoniacea, D.C.) 2. Tubular floret and stigma of Anisochaeta mikanioides, with pappus of 4 setae (Eupa- toriacetB, D.C.) 3. Tubular floret of Berthelotia lanceolata, with silky pappus (Aste- roidea, D.C.) 4. Stigma of Blumea senecioides (Asteroidete, D.C.) 5. Ligulate floret and stigma of Lipochaeta umbellata ; pappus of two unequal winged paleae (Senecio- nulece, D.C.) 6. Stigma of Dunantia achyranthes (Senecionidcce, D.C.) 7. Tubular floret with ventricose throat and the stigma of Aplotaxis Nepalensis (Ci/narete, D.C.) 8. Ligulate bilabiate floret of Oreoseris lanuginosa (Mutisiacetz, D.C.) 9. Ligulate floret of Brachyramphus obtusus (Cictioracete, D.C.) 90. Galiac&e, or Stellate. Herbaceous plants, with whorled leaves, destitute of stipules. Stems usually angular. Calyx 4-5- or 6-lobed. Corolla valvate, rotate or tubular, regular. Stamens equal in number to the lobes of the corolla, and alternate with them. Ovary 2-celled ; ovules solitary, erect. Fruit a didymous, indehiscent pericarp. Embryo minute, straight, in horny albumen. USES. The roots of Bubia tinctorum yield madder, a quality in which others participate, though in a less degree. The yellow flowers of Galium verum are used to curdle milk. The fragrant Woodruff has the reputation of being diuretic ; Asperula cynanchica is said to be astringent. Except the species used for dyeing, none are of any real importance. TYPICAL GENERA. Asperula, Galium, Rubia. 91. Goodeniacea. Herbaceous plants, rarely shrubs, with- out milk. Leaves scattered, without stipules. Flowers showy. Calyx superior, equal or unequal. Corolla more or less irregular, split at the back ; the segments folded inwards in aestivation. Stamens 5, distinct. Ovary with indefinite ovules; stigma surrounded by a membranous cup. Fruit a capsule ; albumen fleshy. USES. Unknown. TYPICAL GENERA. Goodenia, Euthales. 92. Scawlacea. Herbaceous plants with the flowers axillary or terminal, and never in heads. Calyx superior, sometimes obsolete. Corolla irregular, split at the back, the edges of the divisions folded inwards in aestivation. Sta- mens 5, distinct ; anthers distinct or united. Ovary few- celled, with solitary erect ovules ; stigma surrounded by a cup. Fruit drupaceous or nucamentaceous. USES. Unknown. TYPICAL GENERA. Sceevola, Dampiera. 142 DE CANDOLLE'S SYSTEM. 93. Stylidiacea. Glandular herbs. Calyx superior, 2-6-parted, permanent. Corolla irregular, imbricated. Sta- mens 2, connate into an elastic slender column, with which the style is consolidated. Ovary 2-celled. Capsule 2-valved, many-seeded. Seeds albuminous. USES. Unknown. Eemarkable for the irritable elastic column of stamens. TYPICAL GENERA. Stylidium, Leuwenhoekia. 94. Lobeliacea. Herbaceous milky plants or shrubs. Leaves alternate, without stipules. Flowers usually showy. Calyx superior, 5-lobed, or entire. Corolla irregular, 5-lobed, or 5-cleft. Stamens 5; anthers cohering. Stigma fringed. Fruit capsular, 1 or more celled, many-seeded ; embryo in the axis of albumen. USES. The species abound in a milky juice of extreme acridity. Lobelia inflata is an emetic, but dangerous from its violence. Hippobroma (or Isotoma) longiflora is fatally hypercathartic. Many are plants of great beauty. TYPICAL GENERA. Lobelia, Clintonia, Siphocampylus. 95. Gesneraceee. Herbaceous plants or under-shrubs. Leaves opposite, rugose, fleshy, without stipules. Flowers generally showy. Calyx half superior, valvate. Corolla tu- bular, with an imbricate sestivation. Anthers cohering, with a thick connective. Ovary 1 -celled, surrounded by glands, with 2-lobed polyspermous placentae ; stigma capitate. Em- bryo in the axis of albumen. USES. The succulent fruit is eatable. Some species yield a dyeing substance. The species are, however, of no real importance ; but they are generally gay flowers. TYPICAL GENERA. Gloxinia, Gesnera, Columnea. 96. Campanulacea. Herbaceous plants or under-shrubs, yielding a white milk. Leaves alternate, without stipules. Flowers usually showy. Calyx superior, permanent. Co- rolla usually 5-lobed, withering, regular, valvate. Stamens alternate with the lobes of the corolla. Anthers distinct. Style covered by collecting retractile hairs ; stigma naked. Fruit dehiscing by apertures, or valves. Seeds numerous ; embryo in the axis of albumen. EXOGENJE COROLLIFLORJE. 143 USES. Slightly acrid, but not dangerous. Rampion, a root used like Radishes, is Campanula Rapunculus. TYPICAL GENERA. Campanula, Phyteuma, Roella. Wahlenbergia procumbens. 1. An entire flower. 2. Stamens. 3. A stigma. 4. Transverse section of the ovary. 5. A vertical section of a seed, showing the embryo. 97. Vaccinacea. Are the same as Ericacese, only the ovary is inferior. USES. The bark is slightly astringent, and fruit succulent. Cranberries are the fruit of species of Oxycoccus, Bilberries and Whortleberries of species of Vaccinium. TYPICAL GENERA. Vaccinium, Thibaudia. 98. Ericaceae. Shrubs or under-shrubs. Leaves ever- green, rigid, without stipules. Calyx 4- or 5-cleft, inferior. Corolla hypogynous, 4- or 5-cleft, imbricated. Stamens de- finite, hypogynous; anthers 2-celled, dehiscing by a pore. Ovary many-celled, many-seeded ; style 1. Fruit capsular. Seeds indefinite, minute ; embryo in the axis of albumen. USES. Loiseleuria procumbens, Rhododendron ferrugi- neum, and others, are astringents. Arctostaphylus Uva Ursi is diuretic. Rhododendron Chrysanthum is a powerful nar- cotic, and this seems to be a general character of the order, some of which, as Rhododendron maximum, Kalmia latifolia, and Azalea Pontica, are dangerous poisons. Most of the species are plants of great beauty. TYPICAL GENERA. Rhododendron, Kalmia, Erica. 144 DE CANDOLLE'S SYSTEM. Rhododendron albiflorum. 1. A corolla and pistil, with all the stamens removed save one. 2. An anther. 3. A ripe capsule burst. 4. A vertical section of a seed. 99 m Ebenacea. Trees or shrubs without milk. Leaves alternate, coriaceous. Calyx inferior, in 3 or 6 divisions. Corolla hypogynous, usually pubescent, imbricated. Stamens definite ; twice as many as the segments of the corolla, four times as many, or the same number. Ovary several-celled, the cells having 1 or 2 pendulous ovules; style divided. Fruit fleshy, few-seeded. Albumen cartilaginous ; embryo in the axis ; radicle turned towards the hilum. Subdivision. Styraceae. Ovary inferior. Stamens perigy- nous. Style simple. USES. The fruit of Diospyros Lotus, Kaki, and others, is extremely astringent when* green, but becomes bletted and sweet after a time, when it is eaten. Diospyros Virginiana and others have a febrifugal bark. Ebony is the wood of Dios- pyros Ebenus and several other species of that genus. The fragrant gum resins, Storax and Benzoin, are produced by species of Styrax. TYPICAL GENERA. Diospyros, Maba, Styrax. 100. Aquifoliacea. Trees or shrubs. Leaves coriaceous. Flowers small. Sepals inferior, 4 to 6, imbricated. Corolla hypogynous. Stamens alternate with its segments. Disk none. Ovary with from 2 to 6 cells; ovules solitary, pen- EXOGEN^E COROLLIFLORJE. 145 dulous. Fruit indehiscent, with from 2 to 6 stones. Seed suspended ; albumen large ; embryo small, 2-lobed. USES. Ilex Aquifolium, the common Holly, has leaves emetic, and berries purgative ; its leaves are powerfully febri- fugal. The fruit and bark of Prinos verticillatus and others have similar qualities. Paraguay tea is Ilex Paraguensis. Some are diuretic. TYPICAL GENERA. Ilex, Prinos, Cassine. 101. Sapotaceee. Trees or shrubs with milky juice. Leaves alternate, without stipules, coriaceous. Calyx in- ferior, regular, permanent. Corolla hypogynous; its segments usually equal in number to those of the calyx, seldom twice or thrice as many. Stamens arising from the corolla, definite. Anthers usually turned outward; sterile stamens usually present. Ovary with several cells, and one erect ovule in each cell. Style 1 . Fruit baccate. Seeds nut-like. Testa bony, shining. Embryo large, usually in fleshy albumen. USES. The species are generally astringent and febrifugal. Achras Sapota and others are the Sapodilla plums, whose fruit is much esteemed in the West Indies. The Star-apple (another West Indian fruit) is Chrysophyllum Cainito. A vegetable butter is yielded by some species of Bassia. TYPICAL GENERA. Achras, Chrysophyllum, Mimusops. 102. Myrsinacea. Trees or shrubs. Leaves alternate, serrated, coriaceous; stipules wanting. Calyx 4- or 5-cleft. Corolla hypogynous. Stamens opposite the segments of the corolla; sometimes 5 sterile, petaloid, additional filaments. Ovary 1, with a free central placenta ; style 1. Fruit fleshy, mostly 1-seeded. Seeds peltate, albumen horny ; embryo lying across the hilum. USES. Embelia robusta is said to have purgative berries. TYPICAL GENERA. Ardisia, Myrsine. 103. OleaceaE. Trees or shrubs. Branches usually dicho- tomous. Leaves opposite. Calyx monophyllous, permanent. Corolla hypogynous, 4-cleft, valvate. Stamens 2. Ovary without any disk, 2-celled ; ovules pendulous ; stigma bifid or undivided. Fruit often 1-seeded. Seeds with dense albumen. USES. Olive oil is obtained from the fruit of Olea eu- 146 DE CANDOLLE'S SYSTEM. ropsea. Manna exudes from the trunk of Ornus europsea and others. The bark of the Olive is a powerful febrifuge. Phyllireas are handsome evergreen shrubs. TYPICAL GENERA. Olea, Phyllirea, Syringa. 104. Jasminacea. Shrubs. Leaves opposite or alternate, mostly compound. Calyx divided or toothed, permanent. Corolla regular, with from 5 to 8 divisions, imbricated and twisted. Stamens 2. Ovary destitute of a disk, 2-celled ; ovules erect ; stigma 2-lobed. Seeds with no albumen. USES. The flowers of most species are fragrant. The leaves and bark are bitter, but of little moment. TYPICAL GENERA. Jasminum, Nyctanthes. 105. Apocynacea. Trees or shrubs, usually milky. Leaves opposite, quite entire, often having glands upon the petioles, with no stipules. Calyx inferior, permanent. Corolla regu- lar, 5-lobed, contorted. Stamens 5. Filaments distinct. Pollen granular. Ovaries 2, or 1 which is 2-celled, poly- spermous. Stigma 1. Seeds with fleshy albumen. USES. Often dangerous poisons, but in some cases simply purgatives. The root of Nerium, the kernel of Tanghinia venenata, the seeds of various kinds of Strychnos, called Nux vomica, belong to the first class ; the leaves of Cerbera Manghas, Allamanda cathartica, to the second. Vahea, Urceola elastica, and others, abound in Caoutchouc. TYPICAL GENERA. Vinca, Echites, Nerium. 106. Asclepiadacea. Shrubs or herbaceous plants, milky, and often twining. Leaves entire, opposite, having cilise be- tween their petioles. Calyx inferior, permanent. Corolla 5- lobed, regular, imbricated, very seldom valvular. Stamens 5 ; filaments connate ; anthers 2-celled ; pollen cohering in masses, and sticking by 5 glands to as many processes of the stigma. Ovaries 2. Styles 2. Stigma common to both styles, 5- cornered. Follicles 2. Seeds comose ; albumen thin. USES. The roots of many are emetic, sudorific, acrid, and purgative. Indian Sarsaparilla is the root of Hemidesmus indicus. Asclepias tuberosa and Curassavica are employed as cathartics in the United States and West Indies. The leaves of Cynanchum Argel are used in Egypt to adulterate Senna ; they are acrid. The extract of Calotropis gigantea, EXOGEN^l COROLLIFLORJE. 147 the Mudar plant, is powerfully alterative and purgative. Many species have a tough fibre, which renders them fit for cordage ; others yield abundance of Caoutchouc. TYPICAL GENERA. Periploca, Stapelia, Physianthus. Schubertia multiflora. 1. The anthers united to the stigma. 2. The ovary and stigma, from the latter of which the pollen masses have been removed. 3. A pair of pendulous pollen masses, with their gland. 4. The ripe follicles. 107. Bignoniacea. Trees or shrubs, often twining or climbing. Leaves opposite, usually compound, without sti- pules. Flowers large and showy. Calyx inferior, sometimes spathaceous. Corolla irregular. Stamens 5, of which 1 al- ways and sometimes 3 are sterile. Ovary in a disk, 2-celled, polyspermous ; style 1 ; stigma of 2 plates. Fruit berried or capsular ; if the latter, 2-valved, 2-celled, long and com- pressed. Seeds often winged ; albumen 0. USES. Usually beautiful plants. Some have hard timber, and a red fecula is obtained from the leaves of Bignonia Che- rere and others. The genera with berried fruit form a pecu- liar division, and include Crescentia Cujete, the Calabash-tree, and Parmentiera edulis, both of which have eatable fruit. TYPICAL GENERA. Bignonia, Tecoma. 108. Cyrtandraceee. Herbs. Leaves opposite, often radi- cal. Flowers showy. Calyx inferior, campanulate, equal. Corolla irregular, imbricated. Stamens didynamous. Disk i 2 148 DE CANDOLLE'S SYSTEM. annular. Ovary 1 -celled, with 2 double placentae ; stigma 2-lobed. Fruit capsular and siliquose, or succulent, many- seeded. Seeds minute, often with tails ; albumen absent. USES. Unknown. TYPICAL GENERA. ^Eschynanthus, Streptocarpus. 109. Gentianaceee. Herbaceous plants. Leaves opposite, entire, without stipules, usually 3-5-ribbed. Flowers showy. Calyx inferior, permanent. Corolla regular, with an imbri- cated, twisted, or plaited aestivation. Stamens inserted upon the corolla, some of them occasionally abortive. Ovary 1- celled ; stigmas 1 or 2. Capsule or berry many-seeded ; the margins of the valves turned inwards. Embryo in the axis of soft albumen. USES. All the species are more or less bitter ; many in- tensely so. The Gentian root of the shops is obtained from Gentiana lutea chiefly ; the leaves and stems of Agathotes Chirayta furnish the Gentian of India. Menyanthes trifoliata is the Buck-bean, employed advantageously as a tonic. TYPICAL GENERA. Erythrsea, Gentiana, Chironia. Gentiana amarella. 1. Section of the ovary of Chironia baccifera. 2. Section of the ripe fruit. 3. A seed. 4. A vertical section of it. . Polemoniacea. Herbaceous plants. Leaves oppo- site. Calyx inferior, 5-parted. Corolla regular, 5-lobed. EXOGEN.E COROLLIFLOR^!. Stamens 5, unequal, on the tube of the corolla. Ovary 3- celled ; stigma 3-lobed. Capsule 3-celled ; 3-valved, the valves separating from the axis. Embryo in horny albumen. USES. Unknown . TYPICAL GENERA. Polemonium, Phlox, Gilia. Ill . GonvolvulacetK, Herbaceous plants, or shrubs, usually twining and milky. Leaves alternate. Calyx permanent, in- ferior, in 5 divisions, remarkably imbricated, often unequal. Corolla hypogynous, plaited. Stamens 5, inserted towards the base of the corolla. Ovary with 2 to 4 cells, few seeded ; ovules erect ; style 1. Disk annular. Capsule with the valves fitting at their edges to the angles of a loose dissepi- ment. Seeds with mucilaginous albumen ; embryo curved ; cotyledons shrivelled. USES. The roots of Convolvulus Scammonia yield Scam- mony ; of Exogonium Purga, true Jalap ; of Ipomoea Bata- toides, a kind of false Jalap, called Purga Macho ; and a great many more possess similar properties. The Batatas, or Sweet Potatoe, has the purgative quality so much diffused as to be a valuable article of food ; the great roots of others have also been found eatable. TYPICAL GENERA. Ipomoea, Convolvulus, Calystegia. Ipomoea Batatoides. 1. The pistil and annular disk. 2. A transverse section of the ovary. 3. A capsule of Convolvulus tricolor. 4. A vertical section of the seed of that species. 150 DE CANDOLLE'S SYSTEM. 112. Cmcutacea. Leafless parasites. Calyx permanent, inferior, 4-5-parted, imbricated. Corolla permanent, imbri- cated. Scales alternating with segments of corolla. Stamens opposite the last. Ovary 2-celled ; ovules in pairs, erect ; styles 2. Capsule. Embryo spiral, in fleshy albumen. USES. Unknown. TYPICAL GENUS. Cuscuta. 113. Cordiacete. Trees. Leaves scabrous, without sti- pules. Calyx inferior, 5-toothed. Corolla regular. Stamens alternate with the segments of the corolla. Ovary 4-celled, with 1 pendulous ovule in each cell ; stigma 4-cleft. Fruit drupaceous, 4-celled. Seed pendulous by a funiculus ; cotyle- dons plaited ; albumen 0. USES. Unimportant. Sebesten plums, an emollient muci- laginous fruit, are produced by Cordia Myxa, and Sebestena. TYPICAL GENUS. Cordia. 114. Boraginaceee. Herbaceous plants, or shrubs. Stems round. Leaves alternate, covered with asperities. Flowers in gyrate racemes (scorpioid). Calyx inferior, permanent. Co- rolla hypogynous, regular. Stamens 5, inserted upon the corolla. Ovary 4-parted, 4-seeded ; style simple ; stigma simple or bifid. Nuts 4, distinct. Seed without albumen. USES. The dye called Alkanet is obtained from the roots of Anchusa tinctoria and several other species. The foliage is insipid and harmless. TYPICAL GENERA. Myosotis, Anchusa, Lithospermum. COROLLIFLORJE. 151 Myosotis. 1. Throat cut open. 2. A pistil. 3. Ripe fruit with two of the nuts remaining, and the scars of two that have dropped off. 4. A perpendicular section of a nut. 115. Solanacete. Herbaceous plants or shrubs. Leaves alternate, sometimes collateral. Inflorescence often out of the axil ; pedicels without bracts. Calyx permanent, inferior. Corolla regular, or somewhat unequal, plaited. Stamens in- serted upon the corolla. Ovary 2-celled ; stigma simple. Pericarp with 2 or 4 cells. Seeds numerous ; embryo usually curved in fleshy albumen. USES. Many are narcotic, as Tobacco, Henbane, Stramo- nium, Bitter-sweet, and Deadly Nightshade, or Belladonna. The fruit of others is almost free from deleterious qualities, and eatable ; as the Aubergine, Solanum esculentum, Tomatoes, or Solanum Lycopersicon, Physalis edulis, and many others. In some species starch is collected in great quantity, and renders them fit for food, as in the tubers of the Potatoe, So- lanum tuberosum. TYPICAL GENERA. Solanum, Datura, Physalis. Petunia violacea. 1. A cross section of the ovary. 2. Ripe fruit of Solanum Dulcamara. 3. A section of one of its seeds. 116. Hydrophyllacea. Herbaceous plants. Leaves usually lobed. Inflorescence often gyrate. Calyx inferior, 5-cleft, with reflexed appendages. Corolla regular. Stamens 5, epipetalous. Ovary simple, 1-celled ; placentae 2. Fruit 2-valved. Seeds reticulated ; embryo cartilaginous. DE CANDOLLE'S SYSTEM. USES. Unknown. TYPICAL GENERA. Nemophila, Phacelia. 117. Orobanchaceee. Parasitical brown leafless herbs. Calyx permanent. Corolla irregular. Stamens didynamous. Ovary 1 -celled, in a fleshy disk, with 2 or more parietal pla- centse ; stigma 2-lobed. Fruit capsular, many-seeded, en- closed within the withered permanent corolla ; seeds very minute ; embryo extremely small, in the apex of albumen. USES. Scarcely known ; they are astringent plants. TYPICAL GENERA. Orobanche, Lathraa. 118. Scrophulariacea. Herbs or shrubs with opposite or alternate exstipulate leaves. Calyx tubular, permanent. Co- rolla irregular. Stamens didynamous, or 2. Ovary 2-celled; ovules numerous ; stigma 2-lobed. Fruit 2-celled ; seeds in- definite or definite, albuminous. USES. Foxglove, whose action upon the pulse is so lower- ing, is Digitalis purpurea. Gratiola officinalis, some Calceo- larias, and others, are purgative and emetic. Euphrasia officinalis is bitter and sub-aromatic. Vandellia diffusa is a powerful antibilious emetic and febrifuge. TYPICAL GENERA. Scrophularia, Antirrhinum, Pentstemon. Digitalis purpurea. I. A corolla split open. 2. A pistil. 3. A transverse sec- tion ot it. 4. A ripe capsule. 5. A vertical section of a seed. COROLLIFLORJE, 153 119. Lamiacete or Labiate. Herbaceous plants or under- shrubs. Stem 4-cornered. Leaves opposite, often replete with aromatic oil. Flowers in axillary cymes; sometimes solitary. Calyx tubular, permanent. Corolla bilabiate. Sta- mens didynamous, the 2 upper sometimes wanting. Ovary 4-lobed ; style 1 ; stigma bifid. Fruit 1 to 4 small nuts. Seeds with little or no albumen. USES. The species are always harmless, and in many cases useful for their tonic aromatic qualities. Lavender is Lavan- dula vera ; Horehound, used for coughs, is Marrubium vul- gare. Savory, Mint, Marjoram, Thyme, Sage, are all pot- herbs used in cookery. Teucrium Marum is a powerful and singular stimulant of cats. The cordial Peppermint is pre- pared from Mentha piperita. A kind of stearoptene resem- bling Camphor, is found in many species. TYPICAL GENERA. Lanaium, Salvia, Scutellaria. Marrubium vulgare. 1. An entire flower seen in profile. 2. A corolla slit open. 3. The pistil. 4. A nut. 5. A vertical section of the latter, showing the embryo. 120. Verbenaceee. Trees or shrubs, sometimes herbaceous plants. Leaves opposite, without stipules. Flowers in op- posite corymbs, or spiked alternately ; sometimes in dense heads. Calyx tubular. Corolla irregular. Stamens didy- namous, occasionally 2. Ovary 2- or 4-celled ; ovules erect 154 DE CANDOLLE'S SYSTEM. or pendulous ; style 1 ; stigma bifid. Fruit composed of 2 or 4 nucules in a state of adhesion ; albumen none. USES. A few are slightly aromatic and bitter. TYPICAL GENERA. Verbena, Aloysia, Callicarpa. 121. AcantJiaceee. Herbaceous plants or shrubs. Leaves opposite, without stipules. Inflorescence in spikes, racemes, fascicles, or even solitary. Flowers usually opposite, placed within bracts. Calyx very much imbricated, permanent, in- ferior. Corolla irregular, 2-lipped. Stamens mostly 2, some- times didynamous. Ovary in a disk, 2-celled, 2- or many- seeded ; stigma 2-lobed. Capsule 2-celled, bursting elasti- cally. Seeds hanging by hard, usually hooked processes of the placentae ; albumen none. USES. Acanthus spinosus is accounted emollient. The leaves and roots of Adhatoda Vasica are supposed to be antispasmodic. Justicia paniculata is bitter and stomachic. TYPICAL GENERA. Ruellia, Justicia, Eranthemum. 122. Lentibulacea. Herbaceous plants. Leaves undi- vided, or resembling roots, and bearing vesicles. Flowers single, or in spikes. Calyx permanent, inferior. Corolla irregular, bilabiate, with a spur. Stamens 2 ; anthers sim- ple. Ovary 1-celled, with a free central placenta; stigma bilabiate. Capsule 1-celled. Seeds without albumen. USES. Of no importance. TYPICAL GENERA. Pinguicula, Utricularia. 123. Plumbaginacea. Herbaceous plants or shrubs. Leaves alternate, undivided, somewhat sheathing. Calyx inferior, tubular, plaited. Corolla regular. Stamens definite. Ovary superior, 1-seeded ; ovule pendulous from an umbilical cord ; styles 5. Fruit a utricle. Seed inverted. USES. Statice Limonium, and others, have extremely astringent roots. The bark of Plumbago is acrid and vesi- cant. TYPICAL GENERA. Armeria, Plumbago. l24.Globulariace2.Euphor1)iacea:. Trees, shrubs, or herbaceous plants, often abounding in acrid milk. Leaves opposite or alternate, usually with stipules. Flowers sometimes enclosed within EXOGENJE MONOCHLAMYDEJE. 163 an involucre, monoecious or dioecious. Calyx lobed, some- times wanting. Corolla consisting of petals, or scales, or absent. Stamens definite or indefinite. Ovary superior, 2- or 3-celled ; ovules solitary or twin; suspended ; styles equal in number to the cells; stigma compound or single. Fruit generally consisting of 3 dehiscent cells, separating with elasticity from their common axis; embryo in fleshy albumen. USES. Castor-oil is obtained from the seeds of Ricinus communis ; Tiglium-oil from that of Croton Tiglium ; and a similar purgative quality seems to be general in the seeds of the order. Cascarilla is the bark of Croton Eleutheria ; and the same aromatic principle occurs in many species. Many are deadly poisons, as Manchineel, Hysenanche, Sapium aucuparium, Sec. The drastic drug Euphorbium flows from the stem of some succulent Euphorbias in North Africa. Boxwood, so useful to wood engravers, is the timber of Buxus sempervirens. Cassava, or Mandioc, or Tapioca, a nutritious substance consisting of starch, is obtained from the stem of Jatropha Manihot, a poisonous plant ; but it is purified by washing and torrefaction. TYPICAL GENERA. Buxus, Andrachne, Cluytia. 1. The involucre of a Euphorbia, containing monandrous male florets, surrounding a long-stalked female. 2. 3. 4. Male florets of different species, with the articulation that separates the filament from the pedicel. 5. A carpel separate. 6. A vertical section of an ovary. 7. A vertical section of a ripe seed, showing the central column and an embryo in the midst of albumen. M 2 164 DE CANDOLLE'S SYSTEM. Andrachne telephioides. 1. A male flower. 2. A female flower. 3. A pistil with the scales at its base. 4. A transverse section of an ovary. 5. A ripe seed. 6. A vertical section of it. 143. Chlomntkacete. Herbaceous plants. Stems jointed. Leaves opposite with intervening stipules. Flowers herm- aphrodite or unisexual. Stamens lateral; anthers 1-celled, with a fleshy connective. Ovary 1-celled. Ovule pendu- lous. Fruit drupaceous. Embryo minute at the apex of fleshy albumen. USES. Chloranthus officinalis and others are powerful aro- matics, especially the roots, which have been used with suc- cess in dangerous typhus. TYPICAL GENUS. Chloranthus. 144. Piperacea. Shrubs or herbaceous plants. Leaves without stipules. Flowers usually sessile in spikes, herm- aphrodite. Stamens definite or indefinite. Ovary superior, 1-celled, containing a single erect ovule ; stigma sessile, sim- ple. Fruit somewhat fleshy, indehiscent. Seed erect, with the embryo lying in a fleshy sac or vitellus placed at that end of the seed which is opposite the hilum, on the outside of the albumen. USES. The pungent aromatic peppers of the shops are obtained from different species; Piper nigrum yields black and white pepper; P. longum the long pepper. Cubebs is the pepper of P. caninum and others. P. Betel and me- thysticum are both intoxicating. TYPICAL GENERA. Piper, Peperomia. EXOGEN^E MONOCHLAMYDE.E. 165 Serronia Jaborandi. 1. A cluster of flowers magnified. 2. A ripe fruit, vertical section of the same, showing the seed and the position of the embryo. 3. A 145. Saururaceae. Herbaceous marsh or water plants. Leaves alternate, with stipules. Flowers hermaphrodite. Sta- mens 6, clavate, persistent. Ovaries 4, distinct, with solitary ascending ovules ; or a 3- 4-celled pistil. Nuts 4, inde- hiscent ; or a 3- 4-celled capsule. Embryo minute in a fleshy sac or vitellus, on the outside of hard mealy albumen. USES. Unknown. TYPICAL GENERA. Saururus, Aponogeton. 146. Salicaceee. Trees or shrubs. Leaves alternate, sim- ple, with stipules. Flowers unisexual, amentaceous. Ovary superior, 1-celled ; ovules numerous, erect. Fruit coriaceous, 1-celled, 2-valved, many-seeded. Seeds comose ; albumen 0. USES. Various species of Salix are the Willows from whose flexible shoots wicker-work is made. S. alba is a very large fast-growing tree, and its bark abounds in tannin ; S. Russelliana and purpurea yield a good febrifugal bark. The same property resides in Populus tremula, and other species of that genus ; the young buds of Populus candicans and balsamifera exude a fragrant resin used in medicine ; finally, the timber of Poplars is light, clean, and very useful for purposes in which hardness and strength are not required. TYPICAL GENERA. Populus, Salix. 166 DE CANDOLLE'S SYSTEM. Populus. 1. Nigra. 2. Tremula. 3. A male flower. 4. A female flower. 5. A ripe capsule. 6. A seed. 147. Platanacea. Trees or shrubs. Leaves alternate, with scarious sheathing stipules. Flowers amentaceous, in round unisexual catkins. Stamens single. Ovaries termi- nated by a thick style, having the stigmatic surface on one side ; ovules solitary, or two, suspended. Nuts clavate. Seeds solitary ; embryo in the axis of fleshy albumen. USES. The large species yield a beautiful but brittle and perishable timber. TYPICAL GENUS. Platanus. 148. Urticacea. Trees, shrubs or herbs, sometimes lac- tescent. Leaves alternate, usually covered with asperities or stinging hairs; with stipules. Flowers small, monoecious or dioecious. Calyx membranous. Stamens definite, often turned back with elasticity. Ovary superior, simple; ovule EXOGEN^E MONOCHLAMYDEJE. 167 solitary, erect or suspended ; stigma simple. Fruit, a nut. Embryo with or without albumen ; radicle always superior. Division 1. Urticea. Flowers loose. Juice watery. TYPICAL GENERA. Urtica, Parietaria. I. Branch of Procris splendens. 2. Cluster of male and female flowers. 3. A male flower about to expand. 4. The same expanded. 5. A nut of hemp. 6. A vertical section of it. 7. A vertical section of the ovary of Dorstenia. 8. An acci- dental double pistil of the same. Division 2. Artocarpea. Flowers consolidated. Juice milky. TYPICAL GENERA. Morus, Artocarpus. USES. The leaves of Hemp are narcotic ; and the Upas, (Antiaris toxicaria,) certain kinds of Fig, and many Nettles, are dangerous narcotico-acrid poisons. The deleterious prin- ciple is, however, so little developed in some that they be- come harmless, and are used for food, as the fruit of the common Fig, the Mulberry, the Bread-fruit, (Artocarpus,) and several others. Even the milky juice, which is generally very acrid, is bland in some cases, especially that of the Cow-tree of Equinoctial America, on which the natives feed ; it always abounds in Caoutchouc, which is obtained in large quantities from many kinds of Fig. The Banyan-tree of India is Ficus indica. The toughness of fibre found in Hemp is also common in other species, especially some nettles and 168 DE CANDOLLE'S SYSTEM. Broussonetia papyrifera. Hops, so valuable for their bitter- ness, consist of the bracts and ripe fruit of Humulus Lupulus. Morus alba. 1. A male flower. 2. Clusters of females. 3. A female flower separate. 4. The same with a part of the calyx cut away. 5. A vertical section of a ripe achEenium. 6. A cluster of fruit consisting of baccate calyxes. 149. Betulacea. Trees or shrubs. Leaves alternate, with stipules. Flowers unisexual, amentaceous, monoecious ; males sometimes having a calyx. Stamens definite, usually distinct. Ovary superior, 2-celled ; ovules pendulous. Fruit mem- branous, indehiscent, 1-celled. Seeds pendulous; albumen none. USES. Timber trees, furnishing a light kind of wood. TYPICAL GENERA. Betula, Alnus. 150. Myricacea. Leafy shrubs, with resinous glands and dots, leaves alternate. Flowers unisexual, amentaceous, achlamydeous. Stamens 6 or 8. Ovary 1-celled, surrounded by several hypogynous scales ; ovule solitary, erect ; stigmas 2. Fruit drupaceous, or dry and dehiscent. Seed solitary, erect ; radicle superior. USES. Aromatic shrubs. Sweet Gale, Myrica Gale, is used in Sweden as a substitute for hops. The berries of the M. cerifera, the Candleberry Myrtle, secrete a natural wax from their surface ; its roots are astringent. Comptonia as- plenifolia is used in North American medicine in diarrho?a. TYPICAL GENERA. Myrica, Comptonia. MONOCHLAMYDE^l. 169 151. Corylacea or Cupuliferee. Trees or shrubs. Leaves with stipules, alternate. Flowers unisexual, amentaceous. Stamens 5 to 20. Ovary crowned by the rudiments of a calyx, within a coriaceous involucre, with several cells and several ovules ; ovules pendulous. Fruit a 1 -celled nut, en- closed in the involucre. Seed solitary. USES. The Beech, valuable for its timber, and its nuts called mast, is Fagus sylvatica. Hazel-nuts are the fruit of Corylus Avellana. Sweet Chesnuts are borne by Castanea vesca. Oaks, the most valuable of European trees, are va rious species of Quercus. TYPICAL GENERA. Fagus, Quercus. Fagus sylvatica. 1. Male catkins. 2. Female do. 3. The latter, with the scales of the involucre stripped off to show the ovaries at the apex. 4. A male flower. 5. A half-grown female, with the involucre, now consisting of consolidated sculps, forced back. fi. A ripe involucre opening .and exposing the nuts. 7. A transverse section of a ripe nut. 8. The same of a young ovary. 170 DE CANDOLLE'S SYSTEM. 152. Juglandacea. Trees. Leaves alternate, pinnated, without pellucid dots or stipules. Flowers unisexual, amen- taceous. Calyx in the males membranous ; in the females superior. Petals in the males ; in the females occasionally present. Stamens indefinite. Ovary inferior, incompletely 2- 4-celled ; ovule solitary, erect. Fruit drupaceous, 1-celled, with 4 imperfect partitions. Seed 4-lobed ; radicle superior. USES. Trees furnishing excellent timber ; that of Juglans regia and nigra is used for gunstocks ; of Carya alba for pur- poses of elasticity and strength : the former are Walnuts, the latter Hickory. The fruit is purgative ; that of the common Walnut when young, made into a preserve with the husk, is a domestic medicine ; and Juglans cathartica derives its name from its quality. TYPICAL GENUS. Juglans. 1 53. Cycadacea. Trees, with a cylindrical trunk, increasing by a single terminal bud. Leaves pinnated, gyrate. Flowers dioBcious. Males monandrous, in cones. Females either in cones, or in the form of contracted leaves. Ovules solitary, naked. Embryo in the midst of albumen, hanging by a spiral suspensor. USES. A bitter gum of unknown use exudes from the trunk when wounded ; the latter contains a great quantity of starch, which forms a kind of arrow-root extracted from Zamias in the West Indies, and a sort of Sago from the species of Cycas. TYPICAL GENERA. Zamia, Cycas. 154. Taxace/e. Trees with continuous branches. Ligne- ous tissue marked with circular disks. Leaves usually en- tire ; sometimes dilated and lobed, and in those cases having forked veins. Flowers mono3cious or direcious, solitary. Fi- laments monadelphous. Females ; ovules naked, their outer skin becoming hard. Seed hard, either naked or surrounded by a succulent cup. Albumen fleshy. Embryo dicotyledon- ous. USES. The Yew and several others are valuable timber- trees. The leaves of Yew are foetid and deleterious ; they are said to act medicinally like Digitalis without accumulating EXOGEN-ffi MONOCHLAMYDE^;. 171 in the system ; the succulent fruit seems harmless ; but the seeds are said to be dangerous. TYPICAL GENERA. Taxus, Dacrydium. Taxus baccata loaded with male flowers. 1. A male flower. 2. An anther. 3. A female flower. 4. A vertical section of an ovule. 5. Of a ripe fruit. 6. Of a ripe seed, showing the embryo. N.B. 4. and 6. are the same part in youth and age. 5. Is the ripe ovule, with an accessory cup. 155. Pinacete, or Conifers. Trees or shrubs, with a branched trunk abounding in resin. Ligneous tissue marked with circular disks. Leaves entire. Flowers moncecious or dioecious. Males monandrous or monadelphous, collected in a deciduous catkin. Females in cones. Ovary a flat scale. Ovules naked. Fruit a cone. Seed with a hard integument. Embryo in oily albumen, with 2 or many opposite coty- ledons. USES. The timber is of great value ; Deal, Fir, Pine, Cedar, Larch wood are produced by various species. Tur- pentine, resin, pitch, and similar substances are obtained from others ; the resin Sandarach exudes from Thuja articulata. Juniper-berries are the galbuli of Juniperus communis, and are diuretic. Savin, a dangerous emmenagogue, is the Juni- perus Sabina. Larch bark is equal to that of Oak for tan- ning power. TYPICAL GENERA. Thuja, Abies, Cupressus. >t.( 172 DE CANDOLLES SYSTEM. Thuja orientalis. 1. A magnified fragment of a branch bearing a cone of male flowers. 2. A portion of a female branch. 3. 4. Scales with naked ovules. 5. A vertical section of a ripe seed. 3 Abies Larix 1. An anther. 2. A female scale with ovules. 3. A ripe cone 4. A scale of the latter with a naked seed. 5. Vertical section of seed and embrm EXOGE1O3 MONOCHLAMYDE^E. 173 Cupressus sempervirens. 1. A scale of a male cone with pollen. 2. A scale of a female cone with naked ovules. 3. A ripe cone. 4. The same with one of the scales removed. CLASS II. ENDOGEN^E. This class is much smaller than the last, and much more easy to arrange systematically. For general purposes the fol- lowing subdivisions may be used : 1. Rhizanthee. Fungoid parasitical plants. 2. Florida. Leafy plants with the floral envelopes ver- ticillate. 3. Glwmaceee. Leafy plants with the floral envelopes im- bricated. SUBCLASS I. RHIZANTH^;. Order 156. Rafflesiacea. Flowers by abortion dioecious. Perianth superior, 5-parted, imbricated ; the throat surround- ed by calli. Column adhering to the tube of the perianth ; anthers numerous, 2-celled, opening by a vertical aperture. Ovary inferior, 1-celled, with many-seeded parietal placentae ; styles conical. USES. Astringents ; scarcely known. TYPICAL GENERA. Rafflesia, Pilostyles. 174 DE CANDOLLE'S SYSTEM. 157. Cytinaceae. Flowers monoecious, at the top of a stalk covered with scales. Perianth tubular, with a spreading limb. Column fleshy, thickened at the point, covered by anthers. Anthers 8, 2-celled. Ovary inferior, 1-celled, with 8 parietal placentae. Style simple, joined to the tube of the perianth by septiform processes ; stigma capitate, thick. USES. Unknown. TYPICAL GENERA. Cytinus, Aphyteia. 158. Balanoplioraceec. Flowers monoecious, in dense heads. Calyx deeply 3-parted, equal, spreading, sometimes imperfect. Stamens 1-3, epigynous. Ovary inferior, 1-2-celled, 1-2- seeded ; ovule pendulous. Style 1 ; stigma simple, rather convex. Fruit 1-celled, containing spores collected in a bag resembling a seed. USES. Cynomorium coccineum was formerly used as an astringent, under the name of Fungus Melitensis. TYPICAL GENERA. Balanophora, Cynomorium. },K fu "g iforme ; _} A , male P lan t- 2. A female. 3. Male flowers with hairs between them 4. Females. 5. A vertical section of a female, with the two pendulous ovules. 6. A section across a ripe fruit. 7. Seeds. SUBCLASS II. FLORIDA. I59.ffydrocharacex. Floating or water-plants. Sepals 3, herbaceous. Petals 3, coloured. Stamens definite or indefi- Ovaryl- or many-celled; stigmas 3-6; ovules often ENDOGENJE FLORIDA. 175 parietal. Seeds without albumen; embryo undivided, anti- tropous. USES. Unknown . TYPICAL GENERA. Hydrocharis, Stratiotes. 160. Zingiberacea or Scitaminea. Aromatic, tropical, herbaceous plants. Leaves with divergent veins. Calyx superior, tubular. Corolla irregular, with 6 segments in 2 whorls. Stamens 3, of which the 2 lateral are abortive. Filament not petaloid. Anther 2-celled. Stigma dilated, hollow. Fruit usually capsular, occasionally berried. Seeds with or without an aril ; albumen floury ; embryo enclosed within a vitellus. USES. Aromatic stimulants. Ginger is the rhizoma of Zingiber officinale ; Cardamoms are the fruit of Elettaria Cardamomum and others. Grains of Paradise, or Meleguetta pepper, are furnished by Amomums. Turmeric, Galangale, and Zedoary are other products of the order. TYPICAL GENERA. Alpinia, Hedychium. 1. Flowers of Kaempferia pandurata. 2. The inner row of the corolla seen in pro- file. 3. The anther, enclosing the apex of the style between its lobes. 4. The style and stigma, with two abortive stamens at the base. 5. A transverse section of the ovary. 6. Ripe fruit of Ceylon Cardamoms, Elettaria Cardamomum Zeylanicum of Pereira. 7. A seed. 8. The same cut through to show the embryo seated in vitellus. 161. Orchidacea. Herbaceous plants, in tropical countries often growing on trees and rocks. Leaves often articu- 176 DE CANDOLLE'S SYSTEM. latecl with the stem. Sepals 3. Petals 3, of which 2 are uppermost, and 1, the lip, undermost. Stamens 3, united in a column, the 2 lateral abortive, the central perfect, or the central abortive, and the 2 lateral perfect ; pollen powdery, or cohering in masses. Ovary 1-celled, with 3 parietal pla- centae ; style a part of the column of the stamens ; stigma a viscid space in front of the column. Seeds very numerous, minute. USES. The roots of Orchis mascula and others contain a large quantity of hard mucilage, and form a nutritious sub- stance called Salep. The fragrant Vanilla is the succulent fruit of Vanilla planifolia. The corm of Bletia verecunda is bitter; the expressed juice of Epidendrum bifidum is said to be purgative. TYPICAL GENERA. Orchis, Epidendrum, Spiranthes, Onci- dium. A A fl Wer Seen in P rofile ' 2 " The skin A P Uen m en from " A SCpd ENDOGENJE FLORID JE. 377 162. Marantacea. Herbaceous tropical plants destitute of aroma. Leaves with divergent veins. Calyx superior, of 3 sepals. Corolla irregular, with the segments in 2 w~horls. Stamens 3, petaloid, of which one of the laterals and the intermediate are barren or abortive. Filament petaloid; anther 1-celled. Stigma cucullate, and incurved. Seeds without aril ; albumen hard ; embryo naked. USES. Maranta arundinacea and some others form a large quantity of pure starch in their tubers, and this, when ex- tracted, forms arrow-root ; the leaves of both this and the Zingiberaceous order are plaited into baskets by the Indians. TYPICAL GENERA. Maranta, Canna. 163. Musaceee. Leaves with divergent veins, sheathing at the base, and forming a kind of spurious stem ; often very large. Flowers spathaceous. Perianth 6-parted, petaloid, in 2 rows. Stamens 6, some abortive ; anthers 2-celled. Stigma usually 3-lobed. Fruit either a 3-celled capsule, or succulent. Embryo in the axis of mealy albumen. USES. The large fleshy fruits filled with starch in Musa are the Plantains and Bananas of tropical countries, where they furnish the inhabitants with an abundance of most nu- tritious food. TYPICAL GENERA. Musa, Strelitzia. 1 64. Amaryttidacea. Generally bulbous, sometimes fibrous- rooted, occasionally with a lofty stem. Leaves ensiform. Calyx and corolla equally coloured, superior. Stamens 6 ; anthers bursting inwardly. Stigma 3-lobed. Albumen fleshy or corneous. USES. Hsemanthus toxicarius, and many others, have poisonous bulbs. The deleterious principle in a diffused state renders them simply emetic, as in Narcissus, several species of which possess this quality ; or purgative, as Oporanthus luteus. In some Alstromerias with fleshy roots a large quantity of starch exists, which, when freed from impurities, forms a sort of arrow-root. Agave Americana, the American Aloe, as it is miscalled by gardeners, abounds, when flowering, in a sweet sap, which, being fermented, becomes an intoxicating liquid, called Pulque. TYPICAL GENERA. Amaryllis, Oporanthus, Narcissus. 178 DE CANDOLLE'S SYSTEM. Pancratium maritimum. 1. A flower cut open, and showing that there is a bifid tooth, forming a coronet or cup, between each stamen. 2. A transverse section of the ovary. 3. A section of the seed, showing the embryo. 165. Dioscoreacea. Twining shrubs. Leaves alternate, netted, with a distinct petiole. Flowers minute, dioecious. Calyx and corolla superior. Stamens 6. Ovary 3-celled, with 1- or 2-seeded cells ; style deeply trifid. Fruit leafy, compressed, occasionally succulent. Embryo small, near the hilum, in a large cavity of cartilaginous albumen. USES. The roots of many species of Dioscorea abound in starch, and are the Yams used for food in tropical countries instead of Potatoes. Nevertheless there is present a highly deleterious principle, that, when concentrated, renders these plants dangerous. The root of Tamus communis is very acrid ; and even some Yams are too nauseous to be used for food, even after careful cooking. TYPICAL GENERA. Tamus, Dioscorea. ENDOGEN/E FLORIDA. 179 166. Iridacea. Herbaceous plants or under-shrubs. Stem often a rhizoma or cormus. Leaves usually equitant. Calyx and corolla confounded, sometimes irregular. Stamens 3, from the base of the sepals ; anthers bursting externally. Stigmas 3, often petaloid. Albumen corneous, or densely fleshy. USES. Crocus sativus has long orange-coloured stigmas, which, when dried, form saffron. Orris-root is the slightly stimulating aromatic rhizoma of Iris florentina and others ; that of I. pseudacorus is acrid, purgative, and emetic. TYPICAL GENERA. Iris, Crocus, Tigridia. Crocus vernus. 1. A flower split open. 2. The stigmata. 3. A transverse sec- tion of the ovary. 4. A section of the seed to show the embryo. 167. Bromeliacea. Stemless or short-stemmed plants, with rigid channelled leaves often covered with cuticular scurf. Calyx 3-parted, superior, usually herbaceous. Petals coloured. Stamens 6, or more. Stigma 3-lobed, or entire, often twisted. N 2 180 DE CANDOLLE'S SYSTEM. Seeds numerous; embryo taper, or minute, in the base of mealy albumen. USES. The sub-acid fragrant fruit of Ananassa sativa is the well-known Pine-apple. The dry filamentous stems of Til- landsia usneoides are used in tropical countries for stuffing- mattresses. TYPICAL GENERA. Bromelia, Tillandsia. 168. Smilacex. Herbaceous plants or under-shrubs, with a tendency to climb. Stems woody. Flowers hermaphrodite or dioecious. Calyx and corolla inferior, 6-parted. Stamens 6. Ovary 3-celled ; stigmas 3. Fruit a roundish berry. Albu- men between fleshy and cartilaginous. USES. The diuretic demulcent called Sarsaparilla is the root of several species ; others have a large fleshy root possess- ing similar properties, and called Chinee radix : it appears to be nutritious. The leaves of Smilax glycyphylla are bitter- sweet, and are used for tea in New Holland. Smilax glycyphylla. 1. A male flower seen from above. 2. A female flower. 3. A transverse section of an ovary. 4. A seed. 5. A section of a seed, showing the embryo. 169. Liliacetz. Boots fibrous or fasciculate. Stem none ; a bulb; or tuberous, or creeping, or arborescent. Calyx and corolla inferior, coloured, regular. Stamens 6. Anthers open- ENDOGEN^l FLORIDA. 181 ing inwards. Ovary 3-celled; stigma simple, or 3-lobed. Fruit 3-celled. Embryo in the axis of fleshy albumen. USES. Asparagus is the young shoots of Asparagus offici- nalis. Squills, so well known for their expectorant, emetic, and diuretic qualities, are the roots of Squilla maritima. What are called Alliaceous plants are found here in the form of Garlic, Onions, Chives, Leeks, and Rocambole, all species of Alliuin. The purgative drug Aloes is an extract from Aloe socotrina and other species. The Dragon-tree of Teneriffe is an arborescent form of the order, and yields an astringent substance called Gum Dragon. TYPICAL GENERA. Tulipa, Fritillaria, Hyacinthus. Arthropodium paniculatum. 1. A flower magnified. 2. A ripe capsule. 3. A transverse section of it. 4. A vertical section of a seed. 170. MelantliacetK. Roots fibrous, sometimes fascicled. Rhizoma sometimes a fleshy corm. Leaves sheathing at the 182 DE CANDOLLES SYSTEM. base. Perianth inferior, in 6 pieces, or tubular. Stamens 6 ; anthers opening outwards. Ovary 3-celled, many-seeded ; style trifid or 3-parted. Capsule divisible into 3 pieces. Al- bumen dense, fleshy. USES. Poisonous plants. Meadow Saffron (Colchicum au- tumnale) is an acrid narcotic and cathartic. White Helle- bore the root of Veratrum album, Cebadilla produced by Asagrsea officinalis, and the roots of various kinds of Trillium and Helonias, possess similar properties. TYPICAL GENERA. Veratrum, Colchicum. coa^s tZr ,T ' L V^ in flower ' 2 " The "" stri PPd of its outer ctfon of t r mg t . heova x nes v a ft er the floral envelopes are cut away 3. A transverse SonenLl T 6S ; ' A "F *****. 5. A section of a seed. 6. The flower t open to show the stamens and the 3-parted style. l ? l '~ uncacea; ' Herbaceous plants, with fascicled or fibrous Mowers generally brown or green, hermaphrodite r unisexual. Calyx and corolla more or less glumaceous. ENDOGENJE FLORIDA. 183 Stamens 6, sometimes 3. Ovary 1- or 3-celled. Stigmas generally 3. Fruit capsular, with 3 valves. Seeds neither black nor crustaceous ; albumen firm ; embryo within it. USES. Unimportant. Used for making mats and similar objects. TYPICAL GENERA. Juncus, Luzula. 172. Commelynacete. Herbaceous plants. Leaves usually sheathing. Sepals 3, inferior, herbaceous. Petals coloured, sometimes cohering at the base. Stamens hypogynous, some deformed. Ovary 3-celled; stigma 1. Capsule 2- or 3-celled. Seeds often twin ; embryo pulley-shaped, in a cavity remote from the hilum ; albumen fleshy. USES. Unknown. TYPICAL GENERA. Commelyna, Tradescantia. 1 73. Butomacete. Aquatic plants. Leaves very cellular, often milky. Sepals 3, inferior, herbaceous. Petals 3, coloured. Stamens definite or indefinite. Ovaries 3, 6, or more. Fol- licles many-seeded. Seeds minute, attached to the whole of the inner surface of the fruit. USES. Unimportant. TYPICAL GENERA. Limnocharis, Butomus. 174. Palmaceee. Stem simple, rarely forked. Leaves terminal, very large, pinnate, or flabelliform, plaited in ver- nation. Spadix enclosed in a valved spatha. Flowers small, hermaphrodite, or polygamous. Perianth 6-parted, persistent. Stamens inserted into the base of the perianth, definite or indefinite. Ovary 3-celled, or deeply 3-lobed, with an erect ovule. Fruit baccate or drupaceous. Albumen cartilaginous or fleshy ; embryo in a cavity at a distance from the hilum. USES. The Cocoa-nut, whose whole structure appears use- ful, independently of its agreeable fruit, is the produce of Cocos nucifera ; the tough coarse fibre of this plant is manufactured into the elastic cables called Coir-rope. The Date-tree is the Phoenix dactylifera. Sago, a nutritious starchy substance, is secreted in the trunks of several species, especially of Sagus Isevis and Caryota urens. The sugary nature of their sap, and its great abundance, enables the natives of Palm countries to obtain an intoxicating beverage called Palm wine from others. DE CANDOLLE'S SYSTEM. The Palms of Scripture were the leaves of the Date-tree. The foliage of the order generally, being large and hard, is well suited to such purposes as thatching. The Canes, whose flexible stems when split are woven into chair-bottoms, are different species of Calamus. TYPICAL GENERA. Phoenix, Chamaerops. Jft I. Inflorescence of Chamaerops humilis, in its spathe. 2. A portion of the same with the fruit ripening. 3. A male flower. 4. A female flower. 5. A ripe fruit. 6. A section of another variety, showing the seed. 7. A seed with a portion of the surface cut away, to display the embryo. 175. Juncaginacea. Herbaceous bog-plants. Leaves en- siform. Flowers inconspicuous. Sepals and petals both herbaceous, inferior, rarely absent. Stamens 6. Ovaries 3 or 6, cohering firmly ; ovules 1 or 2, erect. Fruit dry ; albumen wanting ; embryo orthotropous, with a lateral cleft. USES. Unknown. TYPICAL GENERA. Triglochin, Scheuchzeria. ENDOGEN^E FLORIDA. 185 176. Alismacete. Floating or swamp plants. Sepals 3, herbaceous, inferior. Petals 3, petaloid. Stamens definite or indefinite. Ovaries several, 1-celled. Ovules ascending. Fruit not opening, 1- or 2-seeded. Embryo doubled upon itself. USES. The leaves are acrid. The rhizoma of the Arrow- head, Sagittaria, is eatable. TYPICAL GENERA. Alisma, Sagittaria. 1. Leaf of Ouvirandra fenestralis. 2. A flower cut open. 3. Section of a ripe carpel of O. Bernieriana. 4, 5. Embryo in different positions : the thicker part is the cotyledon, the smaller the plnmula. 177. Acoracea. Rhizoma jointed. Leaves ensiform. Flow- ers hermaphrodite, surrounded with inferior scales. Spathe leaf-like. Stamens with 2-celled anthers, turned inwards. Ovaries distinct. Fruit finally juiceless. Seeds albuminous. Embryo with a cleft on one side. USES. Acorus Calamus was the sweet rush with which the rooms of the higher orders were strewed before the intro- duction of carpets, &c. It has a fragrant rhizoma, whose aromatic qualities have rendered it useful in medicine : it is, however, chiefly employed as an ingredient in hair-powders. TYPICAL GENUS. Acorus. 178. Naiadaceee or Flumales. Water-plants. Leaves very cellular. Flowers inconspicuous, hermaphrodite or uni- sexual. Perianth of 2 or 4 pieces, rarely wanting. Stamens definite. Ovaries 1 or more, superior ; ovule pendulous. Fruit not opening, 1-celled, 1-seeded. Albumen none ; em- bryo antitropous, with a lateral cleft. 186 DE CANDOLLE'S SYSTEM. USES. Unknown. TYPICAL GENERA. Potamogeton, Zanuichellia. Zannichellia palustris. 1. A flower. 2. A cluster of ripe ovaries. 3. An ovary opened to exhibit the ovule. 4. A vertical section of a seed, showing the folded up embryo. 179. Araceee. ' Herbaceous or shrubby, stemless or arbo- rescent plants. Leaves with parallel or branching veins ; sometimes compound. Spadix generally enclosed in a spathe. Flowers unisexual. Perianth wanting. Stamens definite or indefinite, very short. Ovary 1-celled, very seldom 3-celled ; ovules erect, or pendulous, or parietal. Fruit succulent. Em- bryo in the axis of albumen, with a cleft in one side. USES. Acrid plants which are sometimes dangerous, as the Dumb cane, Dieffenbachia Seguina, which paralyses the muscles of the mouth if bitten. Nevertheless, by cooking, this acridity is so much diminished, that the leaves of Colocasia esculenta and others are used in tropical countries instead of ENDOGENJE FLORIDA. 187 Cabbages. Some, too, secrete large quantities of starch, which, when separated from the acrid matter, becomes fit for food, as in Arum maculatum. TYPICAL GENERA. Arum, Dracontium, Caladium. 1. Spathe of Arum maculatum. 2. Its spadix loaded with flowers. 3. An anther. 4. A transverse section of an ovary. 5. A cluster of ripe fruits. 6. A seed. 7. A section of the same, showing the embryo. 180. Typhaceae. Herbaceous plants, growing in marshes or ditches. Leaves rigid, ensiform. Flowers unisexual, upon a naked spadix. Sepals 3, inferior, sometimes a bundle of hairs. Petals wanting. Stamens 3 or 6 ; anthers wedge- shaped. Ovary single, 1-celled ; ovule pendulous ; stigmas 1 or 2, linear. Fruit not opening. Embryo in the centre of albumen, with a cleft in one side. USES. Unknown. TYPICAL GENERA. Typha, Sparganium. 188 DE CANDOLLES SYSTEM. 181. Pistiacea. Floating plants, with very cellular, lenti- cular, or lobed stems and leaves. Flowers from the margin of the stems, inconspicuous, naked. Stamens definite. Ovary superior, 1 -celled, with erect ovules. Fruit membranous or capsular, 1- or more seeded. Embryo either in the axis of fleshy albumen, and having a lateral cleft, or at the apex of the nucleus. USES. Acrid plants of no importance. TYPICAL GENERA. Lemna, Pistia. SUBCLASS III. GLUMACE.E. 182. Cyperacete. Leaves with their sheaths entire. Stem solid. Flowers consisting of imbricated solitary bracts. Pe- rianth none. Stamens definite, 1,2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 10, 12 ; anthers fixed by their base. Ovary often surrounded by bristles ; ovule erect ; style single, trifid or bifid. Nut crus- taceous or bony. Embryo lenticular, within the base of the albumen. hyp08yi """ bris ""- 2 ' A ENDOGENJE GLUMACE^. 189 USES. Of no other importance than as covering many situations with a coarse herbage containing but little nu- tritive matter. A quantity of starch secreted in the tubers of some species renders them eatable, as Cyperus esculentus and others. The Papyrus of the ancients was made from the stems of the Papyrus antiquorum. A few species are slightly aromatic. TYPICAL GENERA. Scirpus, Schosnus, Carex. 183. Graminacea. Stems cylindrical, usually fistular. Leaves alternate, with a split sheath. Flowers in little locustse, consisting of imbricated bracts, with distinct glumes or palese, or both. Hypogynous scales 2 or 3, sometimes wanting. Stamens hypogynous, 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, or more ; an- thers versatile. Ovary simple ; styles 2, very rarely 1 or 3 ; stigmas feathery. Pericarp membranous. Albumen farina- ceous ; embryo on one side of the albumen, lenticular. USES. The most important of all orders, because the floury albumen of certain species furnishes man with bread, and the nutritious herbage of others is the sustenance of herbi- vorous animals. To the class of Corn belong Wheat, Barley, Rye, Oats, Maize, Rice, and many other species cultivated in warmer countries ; to that of fodder, Crested Dogstail, various kinds of Fescue, Foxtail, Rye Grass, and a number of others cultivated by farmers. Sugar is obtained from the juice of the Saccharum officinarum, whose stem is solid, contrary to the custom of the order. Bamboos, whose hard stems are so valuable in hot countries, are arborescent grasses growing 60 to 100 feet high and more. A fragrant principle is found in Anthoxanthum odoratum and others, especially Andro- pogon Schoenanthus, called Lemon-grass in the gardens, which is used as a stomachic in India ; where also an oil, valued as an external application in rheumatism, is obtained from the Andropogon Calamus aromaticus, believed to have been the ancient drug of that name. The diseased grain of Rye is Ergot, valuable for its powerful action upon the uterus. Finally, a narcotic quality has been remarked in a few species, especially Lolium temulentum. TYPICAL GENERA. Agrostis, Bromus, Aira, Lolium. 190 DE CANDOLLE'S SYSTEM. 1. Locusta of Agrostis alba. 2. Palese and stamens, &c. of the same. 3. Paleae of Leersia oryzoides. 4. Pistil, stamens, and hypogynous scales of the same. 5. Lo- custa of Polypogon monspeliensis. 6. Paleae, &c. of the same. 7. Locusta of Stipa pennata. 8. Rachis, bracteae, and florets of Cynosurus cristatus. 9. Locusta of Cy- nodon Dactylon. 10. Paleae, and abortive floret of the same. 1. Locusta of Corynephorus canescens. 2. Paleae, &c. of the same. 3. Locusta of Phalaris aquatica. 4. Locusta of Alopecurus pratensis. 5. Locusta of Aira caryophyllea. 6. Floret of the same. 7. Locusta of Festuca duriuscula. 8. Locusta of Glyceria fluitans. 9. Floret of the same. 10. Locusta of Eragrostis poseformis. ACROGENS. 191 CLASS III. ACROGENS. Substance of the plant composed of cellular tissue chiefly ; spiral vessels or ducts only present in the highest orders. Stem either increasing by an extension of its point, or by a developement in all directions from one common point ; not increasing in thickness when once formed. Sexual organs absent. Reproduction taking place by spores, or by a mere dissolution of the utricles of tissue. 184. Lycopodiacea. Plants, with creeping stems, the axis abounding in annular ducts. Organs of reproduction axillary sessile thecse, containing either minute powdery mat- ter, or.sporules, marked at the apex with three minute ridges. USES. Some are powerful emetics and cathartics, especially L. Selago and rubrum. TYPICAL GENERA. Lycopodium, Bernhardia. 185. Filicales or Filices. Leafy plants producing a rhi- zoma. Leaves usually coiled up in vernation, with dichoto- mous veins of equal thickness. Thecse or sporangia arising from the veins upon the leaves, pedicellate with an elastic ring, or sessile and destitute of a ring. Division 1. Polypodiacea. Thecse with a vertical, usually incomplete ring ; bursting irregularly and transversely. Division 2. Gleicheniacea. Thecse with a transverse, oc- casionally oblique ring, nearly sessile, and bursting lengthwise internally. Division 3. Osmundacea. Thecse with an operculiform ring, or without any ; reticulated, striated with rays at the apex ; bursting lengthwise, and usually externally. Division 4. DaneEacea. Thecse sessile, without any ring, concrete into multilocular sub-immersed masses, opening at the apex. Division 5. Ophioglossaceee. Thecse single, roundish, coria- ceous, opaque, without ring or cellular reticulation, half 2-valved. Vernation straight. USES. The rhizomata of some are astringent ; that of Ne- phrodium Filix mas has been used as an anthelmintic. In some countries the pith of the stem is used as food by the natives, especially in the islands of the South Seas. TYPICAL GENERA. Polypodium, Pteris, Adiantum. 192 DE CANDOLLE'S SYSTEM. JOS 307 302. Theca of Trichopteris excelsa (GleicJteniaceai). 303. The same of Schizaca pectinata (Osmundacece). 304. Part of the frond of Aspidium Lonchitis (Polypo- diacece). 305. Bernhardia dichotoma (Lycopodiaceai). 306. Part of frond of Daval- lia pyxidata (Polypodiacea). 307. Theca of the same. 308. Part of frond of As- pidium exaltatum. 309. Theca of Bernhardia dichotoma (Lycopodiacea). 310. Lycopodium annotinum. 311. A scale and theca of the same. 1 86. Equisetacea. Leafless branched plants with a striated fistular stem ; the articulations separable, and surrounded by a toothed sheath. Spiral vessels very few. Inflorescence consisting of peltate scales. Reproductive bodies in the inside of the lobes of the scales. Four clavate bodies, wrapped round a naked spore. USES. The hard, flinty skin renders them fit for polishing purposes, for which some are used under the name of Dutch rushes. TYPICAL GENUS. Equisetum. 1 87. Characea. An axis, consisting of parallel tubes. Or- gans of reproduction : succulent globules, containing filaments and fluid, and axillary nucules, formed of short tubes, twisted spirally. USES. Unknown. TYPICAL GENERA. Chara, Nitella. 188. Bryaceee, or Mmci. Cellular plants, having a distinct axis, covered with minute leaves. Reproductive organs of two kinds : viz. axillary, cylindrical stalked sacs, contain- ACROGENS. 193 ing a multitude of particles emitted upon the application of water ; and thecoo or hollow urn-like cases, covered by a calyptra, closed by a lid, within which are rows of processes, called the peristome ; the centre of the theca occupied by a columella. Sporules, when germinating, protruding confervoid filaments, which afterwards ramify, and form an axis. USES. Unknown. TYPICAL GENERA. Hypnum, Bryum. 312. Jungermannia bicuspidata (Jungermanniacece). 313. Peristome of Tortula mralis (Muscaceae). 314. Theca of Ceratodon purpureus (Muse.) 315. Supposed representatives of sexual organs in Meesia longiseta (Muse.) 316. Bryum roseum (Muse.) 318. Peristome of Octoblepharum albidum (Muse.) 319. Apophysis and theca of Splachnum luteum. 189. Andraacea. Branching moss-like plants, with im- bricated leaves. Thecse with a calyptra, splitting longi- tudinally into four valves. Peristome 0. Spores attached to a central columella. USES. Unknown. TYPICAL GENUS. Andrsea. 190. Jungermanniaceee. Creeping moss-like plants, either with imbricated leaves, or with the leaves and axis all fused into one. Thecse without an operculum, 4-parted, or 2-4- valved. Spores mixed with elaters. USES. Unknown. TYPICAL GENUS. Jungermannia. 194 DE CANDOLLE S SYSTEM. 191. Marclantiacea or Hepatica. Plants composed en- tirely of cellular tissue, emitting roots from their under side, and consisting of an axis, bordered by a membranous expan- sion, which sometimes forms a broad lobed thallus. Repro- ductive organs consisting of a peltate stalked receptacle, bear- ing theca3 on its under surface ; or of sessile naked thecse, im- mersed, or superficial. USES. Unknown. TYPICAL GENERA. Marchantia, Riccia. 192. Lichenacea. or Lichenes. Perennial plants spreading in the form of a lobed thallus. Reproductive matter of two kinds : 1, sporules lying in membranous tubes, immersed in shields ; 2, separated cellules of the medullary layer of the thallus. USES. Several are bitter, and some have been used as tonics ; as Variolaria faginea, and Parmelia parietina. Others are nutritious, as Iceland Moss, Cetraria islandica. Roccella tinctoria is Orchal, and Lecanora Perellus, Cudbear, used ex- tensively by dyers. TYPICAL GENERA. Parmelia, Lecidea, Peltidea. 328. Shields of Variolaria amara. 329. A portion of the thallus of the same plant. 330. A piece of the thallus of Sticta pulmonacea with lacunae and soredia. 331. Thallus of the same, bearing shields. 332. Shield of Opegrapha scripta. 333. Thal- lus of the same. 334. Shields young and old of Lecanora Perellus. 335. Shields of Bseomyces rufus. 336. Part of thallus of Peltidea canina. 337. Section of a shield oi hticta pulmonacea. 338. Podetia of Cenomyce coccinea. 339. Section of shield ol Baeomyces rufus. 340. Shields of Endocarpon miniatum. 341. Thallus of the same. Chiefly from Greville's Flora Edinensis. ACROGENS. 195 193. Algacea or Alga. Leafless plants, with no distinct axis ; growing in water, consisting either of simple vesicles, or of articulated filaments, or of lobed fronds. Reproductive matter either wanting or in the joints of the filaments, or in thecse of various forms. Spores in germination elongating in two opposite directions. USES. A nutritious gelatinous matter is obtained from certain Gracilarias, and Chondrus crispus, sometimes called Irish Moss. Gigartina Helminthochorton has been em- ployed as an anthelmintic. They are generally collected under the name of Wrack for burning for Kelp, formerly the source of Carbonate of Soda. The substance sold in the shops under the name of Laver is the Porphyra laciniata, and vulgaris, and the Ulva latissima. TYPICAL GENERA. Fucus, Conferva. Reproductive organs of 320. Lawrencia pinnatifida. 321. Vaucheria geminata, 322. Dictyosiphon foeniculaceus. 323. Bonnemaisonia asparagoides. 324. Aspe- rococcus echinatus. 325. Odonthalia dentata. 326. Lichina confinis. 327. Fucus vesiculosus. All from Greville's Algae Britannic*. 194. Fungacea or Fungi. Plants consisting of cellules, among which filaments are occasionally intermixed, increas- ing in size by addition to their inside ; their outside under- going no change after its first formation, frequently ephemeral. Spores lying either loose among the tissue, or enclosed in sporidia. o2 196 DE CANDOLLES SYSTEM. USES. Agaricus campestris, the common Mushroom, and some other species of the same gemis, Tuher cibarium, the Truffle, and many others, are eatable and nutritious. Others are dangerous poisons. Amadou is made from Boletus igiiiarius. Great numbers are mischievous parasites, infesting both live and dead organized matter, and even attacking living insects. Vast damage is committed by them under the name of Mildew, Ilust, Brand, Smut, and Dry-rot. TYPICAL GENERA. Agaricus, Geastrum, Mucor, Hypoxy- lon. 342. Arcyria flava. 343. Geastrum multifidum. 344. Mucor caninus. 345. Basidia and cystidia of an Agaric. 346. Agaricus cepjcstipcs. 347. Vcrmicularia tnchella. 348. Vertical section of Hypoxylon punctatum. 349. Angioridium sinu- osum. From Greville's Cryptogamic Flora. 197 V. THE ALLIANCES OF PLANTS. THE following pages explain the author's own views of arrange- ment in 1836, and serve as a key to the Natural System of Botany (Edition 2, London 1836). Although his opinion is much modified by subsequent consideration, yet he knows from expe- rience that these short characters are of considerable value to students. CLASSES. The whole vegetable kingdom is divisible into five principal classes, which may be characterised as follows : /^Exogens with their seeds \ in an ovary . I. EXOGEIXLE. 'having spiral/ Exogens with naked vessels J seeds . . II. GYMNOSPERMJE. VEndogens . . III. ENDOGEN^l. without spiral vessels, or with scarcely any ..... IV. RHIZANTH^. Propagated without sexes .... V. ACROGEN^E. They are further known by a separate consideration of the nature of all their principal organs, thus : Propagated by sexes Wood, Veins of Leaves. Floral Envelopes. Sexes. Embryo. I. EXOGENS Exogens Netted Quinary Perfect Dicotyledonous II. GYMNOSPERM^E Exogens Parallel or None Imperfect Dicotyledonous forked III. ENDOGENS Endogens Parallel Ternary Perfect Monocotyledonous IV. RHIZANTHJE None None Variable Imperfect Acotyledonous V. ACROGEN^E Acrogens Forked, None None Acotyledonous or The five classes form a circle, the centre of whose circumference is occupied by Exogens and Endogens, the common point by Acrogens, and the intermediate spaces by Gymno- spermse and Rhizanthae, which are transition classes. This may be expressed thus : Exogens, Endogens, Gymnospennae, Rhizanthae, Acrogens. This proposition is to be demonstrated in the course of the following explanation of the characters and affinities of the various Classes, Subclasses, Groups, Alliances, and Natural Orders, of which the vegetable kingdom consists. 198 ALLIANCES OF PLANTS. CLASS I. EXOGEN^E. The Subclasses are COMPLETE PLANTS ; with both their calyx and corolla perfect ; or at least with the calyx highly developed, if the petals are absent : these divide into 1. POLYPETAL.E, with the petals distinct. 3. MONOPETALJE, with the petals united into a tube. 2. INCOMPLETE PLANTS; in which there is no corolla; their calyx is generally either but little developed or altogether absent. No division of Exogens has been discovered more in accordance with natural affinities, than that which depends upon the different degree of developement of the flower ; it is true, indeed, that its characters are not always constant, and that practical difficulties arise from the circumstance of some genera belonging to polypetalous orders having no petals, while a portion of some monopetalous orders are actually polypetalous, and so on. Nevertheless the arrangement founded upon the distinctions above recorded appears to be natural, if the latter are rightly considered. As understood by me, all those orders in which the floral envelopes are herbaceous, and imperfectly developed, belong to Incompletae, whether there are two rows or not, as Me- nispermaceae : nor ought others, as Euphorbiaceae, to be removed from Polypetalae ; be- cause, although the mass of such orders is polypetalous, certain European genera, with which we are best acquainted, have no petals. With regard to those polypetalous orders, in some genera of which the petals cohere by their edges, so as to resemble a monopeta- lous corolla, the only means of recognising them is by observing that their petals are scarcely joined at the base ; there is this, however, which assists in removing the diffi- culty : in true monopetalous orders the style is scarcely ever divided, except just at the point, and their fruit is therefore, in all cases, syncarpous ; while, in those polypetalous genera, which take on a monopetalous appearance, the fruit is in reality apocarpous, as is the case with Anonaceae, Crassulaceae, Leguminosse, Meliaceae, Rutacese, &c. The two latter, although syncarpous when young, yet become truly apocarpous as their fniit ripens. SUBCLASS I. POLYPETAL.E. These comprehend the following groups : 1. Albuminosa:. Embryo very considerably shorter and smaller than the albumen. 2. EpigynoscB. Ovary inferior, usually having an epigynous disk. 3. ParietostB. Placentae parietal. 4. Calycosa. Calyx incompletely whorled; two of the sepals being exterior. 5. SyncarposcB. None of the characters of the other groups, l-^J*J-t_J_l 1 T OJ." 7 II C gn and with the carpels compactly united. 6. GynobaseoscB. Carpels not exceeding five, diverging at the base, arranged in a single row around an elevated axis, or gynobase. Stamens usually separate from the calyx. 7. Apocarposa. None of the characters of the other groups, but with the carpels distinct ; or separable by their faces ; or solitary. -In the succeeding pages the first column contains a brief character of the der; the second the name of the Order; the third its sensible properties, with some officinal example in italics within brackets, when any is to be found. When J third column is blank, nothing is known of the sensible property. ALLIANCES OF PLANTS. 199 GROUP i. Alliance 1. Ranales. Herbaceous plants, either apocarpous, or with parietal placentae. Floral envelopes in threes 1. Ranunculacese or fives. Sap transparent. Podophylleae Floral envelopes in twos or 2. Papaveraceac fours. Sap usually milky Fumariese Embryo enclosed in a vitel- 3. Nymphseaceas lus. Floaters. Hydropeltideae. Ovaries concealed in a 4. Nelumbiaceae fleshy receptacle. Float- ers. Stamens perigynous . 5. Cephalotaceae. Acrid, poisonous (Black Hellebore, Aconite). Cathartic. Narcotic (JPoppy). Diaphoretic and aperient. Slightly astringent. Wholesome. Alliance 2. Anonales. Apocarpous woody plants. Flowers unisexual, three- 6. Myristicaceae lobed. Stamens colum- nar. Leaves with stipules, with- 7. Magnoliaceae out dots. Leaves with stipules and 8. Winteraceae transparent dots. Flowers hermaphrodite, 9. Anonacese three-parted. Stamens usually distinct. Leaves without stipules. 10. Dilleniaceae Flowers pentapetalous. Acrid, aromatic (Nutmeg}. Bitter, tonic. Aromatic, stimu- lant ( Winter's Bark). Aromatic (Piper (Ethiopicum). Astringent. Alliance 3. Umbettales. Flowers epigynous, arranged in um- bels. Stems usually hollow. Carpels two 11. Umbelliferae or Herb poisonous Apiaceae. Carpels more than two . 12. Araliaceae (Hemlock) ; some- times stimulant and eatable (Pars- ley, Parsnip) ; fruit aromatic (Anise). Slightly stimulant ( Ginseny). 200 ALLIANCES OF PLANTS. Alliance 4. Grossales. Flowers epigynous, arranged in ra- cemes. Stems solid. Placentae parietal 13. Grossulacese Placentae central, many- 14. Escalloniaceae. seeded. Placentae central , few-seeded 1 5 . Br uniaceae. Tonic, or harmless (BlackCurrants). Alliance 5. Berberales. Apocarpous, with the valves of the anthers curved backwards. 16. Berberacese Nandinese. Acid, astringent (Berberry'). Dye yellow. Alliance 6. Pittosporales. Syncarpous, with hypogynous stamens, and the placentae in the centre of the fruit. Fruit two-celled. Seeds 17. Vitaceae . few. Fruit with more than two 18. Pittosporaceae. cells. Seeds numerous. Stamens all perfect. Petals split. Flowers un- 19. Olacaceae. symmetrical. Fruit with more than two 20. Francoaceae. cells. Seeds numerous. Stamens half sterile. Stigma leafy, peltate Acidity and sugar ( Vine), 21. Sarraceniaceae. A group in appearance natural, and agreeing with its technical character in all respects, with the exception of Nelumbium, which has no albumen ; and the genus Berberis, in which the embryo is much larger in proportion to the albumen than in any other instance. Some connecting links are obviously wanting in this group ; and, until it is well considered, it will appear less natural than it really is, especially if we compare such plants as the Vine with the Crowfoot, or either with Sarracenia. Nevertheless, it is to be observed, that it very nearly agrees with De Candolle's Thalamiflorous subclass, and that the mutual affinities of the alliances may be demonstrated. Take Anonales and Ranales for the centre of the ciisumference of a circle composed of the six foregoing alliances : Then Anonales pass into Pittosporales through Cheiranthera ; Pittosporales Grossales Grossales Berberales Berberales Umbellales Umbellales Ranales Ranales Anonales and the relative position of the alliances will be thus: Anonales .... Ranales Pittosporales Umbellales Grossales .... Berberales. Ribes ; Berberis ; Nandinea? ; Thalictrum ; Magnolia ; ALLIANCES OF PLANTS. 201 There is no difficulty in pointing out the various gradations that connect the genera belonging to the orders comprehended in the Albuminous group. The most paradoxical part of the combination is the union of baccate-fruited with dry-fruited plants : but even Vitacese pass into Umbelliferae through Leea ; and the petals of the genus Vitis itself are inflected at the points, in the way of Umbelliferae. GROUP II. EPIGYNOSvE. Alliance 1. Onagrales. .Estivation of corolla not valvate. Placenta} central. Every part of the flower some regular multiple of two. 22. Onagraceae Circaeeae. Halorageae None. Harmless. None. Alliance 2. Myrtales. ^Estivation of corolla not valvate. Placenta} central. Number of parts of the flower uncertain. Carpels single. Petals broad 23. Combretacese Carpels single. Petals very 24. Alangiacese narrow. Stipules between the leaves 25. Rhizophoraceae Stamens bent downwards. 26. Memecylaceae. Leaves one-ribbed. Stamens bent downwards. 27. Melastomaceae Leaves three- or more- ribbed. Leaves dotted, with an in- 28. Myrtaceae trarnarginal vein. Leaves alternate. Flow- 29. Lecythidaceae ers irregular. Leaves not dotted. Sta- 30. Philadelphaceae. mens straight. Astringent (Myro- balan). Hydragogues. Astringent (Man- grove). Slightly astringent. Aromatic stimulant ( Cajeputi, Cloves) ; bark astringent. Fruit eatable (Bra- zil nut). Alliance 3. Cornales. ^Estivation of corolla valvate. Leaves with stipules . SI. Hamamelaceae. Leaves without stipules . 32. Cornaceae . Parasitical plants, bearing 33. Loranthaceae their stamens on their petals. Tonic. Astringent. 202 ALLIANCES OF PLANTS. Alliance 4. GucurUtales. Placentae parietal. Flowers unisexual . . 34. Cucurbitaceae Flowers with a ring of 35. Loasaceae . abortive stamens. Petals extremely nume- 36. Cactaceae . rous. Sepals and petals alike. 37. Homaliaceae. Glands between the sta- mens. Purgative (Colo- cyntK); or eatable (Melon, Gourd). Stinging. Subacid; whole- some. Alliance 5. Ficoidales. Petals extremely narrow and nume- rous. 38. Mesembryaceae . Wholesome. Alliance 6. Begoniales. Flowers unisexual. Placentse cen- tral. 39. Begoniacese Slightly astringent. These plants seem to be all connected by a general natural relationship ; and yet it is extremely difficult to fix the limits of their alliances. They appear to be connected with the Syncarpous group through Melastoma and Lythraceae, and with the Albuminous group by the genus Eupomatia, and even by Caetacese, which evidently touch upon Gros- sulaceae. They also pass into Monopetalae by Melastomacese, which join them with Gen- tianaceae. I entertain no doubt about this being nearly the true position of Begoniaceae. GROUP III. PAKIETOSJE. Alliance 1. Cruciales. Embryo curved. Albumen absent. Stamens tetradynamous Stamens indefinite . 40. Cruciferae or Brassicaceae. 41. Capparidaceae Pungent, stimulant (Mustard). Stimulant, some- times poisonous. Fruit composed of three 42. Resedaceae . None. carpels. Alliance 2. Violales. Stamens few, with no coronet to the flower. Leaves with stipules 43. Violaceae Leaves dotted -\ . . 44. Samydacese. Fruit siliquose . . 45. Moringaceae Lea vescircinate when young 46. Droseraceae Calyx ribbed . . .47. Frankeniaceae. Roots emetic ( White Ipecacuanha). Pungent, aromatic. Subacrid. ALLIANCES OF PLANTS. 203 Alliance 3. Passionales, Flowers with a ring or coronet of sterile stamens. Petioles generally glandular. Leaves with stipules Flowers unisexual . Placentae spread over all the lining of the fruit. Stipules absent. Ovary stalked. Stipules absent. Ovary sessile (Coronet 0). 48. Passifloraceae 49. Papayacese 50. Flacourtiaceae 52. Malesherbiaceae. 53. Turneraceae. Subacid. Vermifugal. Suspicious. Alliance 4. Bixales. Polyandrous. Leaves dotted. 54. Bixaceae . . Purgative and sto- machic (Arnotlo). This is connected with the Epigynous group by Passiflora, and with the Calycose by Turnera, which passes into Cistaceae. Otherwise its external relationships are not well marked. The orders themselves are intimately related. GROUP IV. CALYCOSE. Alliance 1. Guttales. Polyandrous. Albumen absent. Petals equal in number to the sepals. Leaves simple. Seeds few. 55. Guttiferae or Clu- Fruit sometimes siaceae. eatable (Mangos- tan) ; purgative, acrid (Gamboge). Seeds eatable (Sa- pocaya nuts). Leaves compound. Seeds 56. Rhizobolaceae few. Leaves alternate. Flow- 57. Marcgraaviaceae. ersunsymmetrical. Seeds numerous. Styles several. Seeds nu- 58. Hypericaceae merous. Slightly purgative and febrifugal. Alliance 2. Theales. Polyandrous. Albumen absent. Petals unequal to the sepals in number. 59. Ternstrbmiaceae . Subnarcotic and as- tringent ( Tea). Alliance 3. Acerales. Stamens definite. Flowers unsymme- trical. Petals without appendages. 60. Aceraceae Fruit indehiscent, wing- ed, consisting of two car- pels. Saccharine {Sugar maple'). 204 ALLIANCES OF PLANTS. Petals having scales in front. Fruit indehiscent, consisting of three car- pels. A disk. Petals without appendages. Fruit dehiscent. Flowers papilionaceous Flowers spurred 61. Sapindaceac 62. ^Esculaceae 63. Polygalaceas 64. Vochyaceae Leaves and branch- es poisonous, fruit eatable (Litchi). Bark astringent, febrifugal (Horse- chestnut). Bitter, emetic, &c. Astringent (Ratan- hia root}. Alliance 4. Cistales. Flowers regular. Albumen present. 65. Elatinaceae. Stamens equal to the num- ber of sepals. Decandrous, without sti- pules. Decandrous, with stipules Polyandrous, with an in- volucre. Polyandrous. Style simple. Radicle remote from the hilum. Polyandrous. Styles many. Seeds hairy. The characters of this group require careful consideration. Many gynobaseous plants have a calyx imbricated in a similar way, but they are removed by their gynobasic structure. The imbricated character of the calyx depends upon this ; that the whorl of floral leaves is broken, so that about two of the sepals are out of the place of the others, and are, consequently, altogether external. The Calycose passes into the Parietose group by Turnera, and into the Syncarpous by Hugoniaceae. 66. Linaceae 67. Hugoniacese. 68. Chlenaceae. 69. Cistaceae 70. Reaumuriaceae Mucilaginous, tough (Flax). Balsamic (Labda- nurri). Saline. GROUP V. SYNCARPOS^E. Alliance 1. Malvales. .^Estivation of calyx valvate ; carpels four or more. Stamens monadelphous. 71. Sterculiaceae Anthers two-celled. Stamens monadelphous. 72. Malvaceae . Anthers one-celled. Anthers bursting by pores. 73. Elaeocarpaceae. Petals lacerated. Stamens monadelphous. 74. Dipteraceae Calyx irregular and en- larged in the fruit. Stamens distinct, separate 75. Tiliaceaj . from calyx. Stamens distinct, growing 76. Lythraceae on a tubular calyx. Mucilaginous. Mucilaginous (Marsh mallow). Resinous (Cam- phor). Mucilaginous. Astringent, acrid. ALLIANCES OF PLANTS. 205 Alliance 2. Meliales. ^Estivation of calyx imbricated ; car- pels four or more. Stamens combined into a 77. tube. Seeds wingless. Stamens somewhat mona- 78. delphous. Seeds winged. Stamens monadelphous, 79. with a dilated connective. Leaves dotted. Fruit sue- 80. culent. Stamens growing to the 81. calyx. Disk very large. Meliaceae . Tonic and stimu- Cedrelaceae lant (Canetta). . Ditto. Humiriaceae . Balsamic. Aurantiaceae Spondiacese Subacid, fragrant (Orange). Harmless. Alliance 3. Rhamnales. ^Estivation of calyx valvate ; car- pels fewer than four. Stamens opposite the petals 82. Rhamnaceae Stamens alternate with the 83. Chailletiaceae petals. Anthers opening by pores. 84. Tremandracese. Seeds carunculate (537). Somewhat polyandrous. 85. Nitrariaceae Leaves succulent. Secreting balsam . . 86. Burseraceae Dye (French ber- ries) ; purgative (Buckthorn). Poisonous. Saline. Balsamic (Balm of Gilead). Alliance 4. Euphorbiales. ./Estivation of calyx imbricated ; carpels fewer than four. Flowers unisexual. Fruit 87. Euphorbiaceae tricoccous. Flowers hermaphrodite. 88. Stackhousiaceae. Petals united. Seeds indefinite. Petals 89. Fouquieracese. united. Flowers hermaphrodite. 90. Celastraceae Petals distinct. Leaves compound, with 91. Staphyleaceae. common and partial sti- pules. Petals unguiculate. Fruit 92. Malpighiaceae winged. Stimulant, purga- tive, poisonous ( Castor oil, Cas- carilla, c$r.) Fruit sometimes eatable. Fruit sometimes eatable. 206 ALLIANCES OF PLANTS. Alliance 5. Silenales. men ; joints. Sepals two Sepals four or five, united into a tube. Sepals four or five, distinct Dehiscence of fruit loculici- dal. Seeds hairy. Leaves with stipules Embryo rolled round mealy albu- or herbs with leaves having tumid 93. Portulacacceae 94. Silenacea? . 95. Alsinaceae . 9G. Tamaricaceae 97. Illecebracese Insipid, eatable (Purslane). Inert. Inert. Slightly astringent. Ditto. All these orders correspond in so intimate a manner as to leave little doubt of their being correctly associated. Malvales and Meliales are the highest form of the group, Si- lenalcs the lowest ; while Rhamnales on the one hand, and Euphorbiales on the other, form the connection. The Syncarpous group passes into Epigynosse by Lythracese, and into Gynobaseosae by Aurantiaceae. GROUP VI. GYNOBASEOS.E. Alliance 1. Rutales. Style single (or at least the leaves dotted). Gynobase fleshy. Carpels 98. Ochnaceae distinct. Leaves alternate. Stamens 99. Simarubaceae arising from scales. Stipules 0. Fruit capsular. 100. Kutaceae . Stipules present, leaves op- 101. Zygophyllaceae posite. Flowers unisexual . .102. Xanthoxylacese . Tonic, stomachic. . Bitter (Quassia). . Bitter, anthelmintic (Rue); antispasmodic (Bucku) ; febrifugal (Angostura Bark). . Sudorific, alterative (Guaiacum). . Aromatic, pungent. Alliance Z.Geraniales. Styles distinct ; at least near the point. Carpels combined. Fruit beaked, separating 103. Geraniaceae into five cocci. Fruit not beaked. Flow- 104. Balsaminacese ers irregular. Tropaeoleae Fruit not beaked. Flow- ers regular. 105. Oxalidaceae Astringent. Diuretic. Pungent (Nastur- tium). Acid. ALLIANCES OF PLANTS. 207 Alliance 3. Coriales. tinct. Styles several, and carpels quite dis- Ovules pendulous. bryo straight. Ovules ascending. bryo bent double. Em- 106. Coriariaceae Em- 107. Surianaceae. Fruit poisonous. Dyes black. Alliance 4. FlorJceales. Style simple. Fruit divided into deep lobes. 108. Limnanthaceae . Pungent. This is apparently a natural group ; but the student will be likely to confound it with other groups, unless he pays great attention to its distinctions. In addition to the re- ceptacle rising up more or less between the carpels, so as to make them diverge from each other at the base, it is to be remembered that they fonn only one single whorl, and do not exceed five in number. If this is neglected, they may be confused with some Ro- saceae, Malvaceae, &c. The group is very incomplete, and may be expected to be much altered and increased before its orders are finally settled. Rutales connect this with the Syncarpous group through Luvunga, a genus belonging to Aurantiacese. Flb'rkeales distinctly pass into Resales through the genus Florkwi. Geraniales join this to the Parietous group through Violales, and it is probable that Ru- tales also lead to the Calycose group. GROUP VII. APOCARPOS.E. Alliance 1 . Rosales. Albumen wholly absent. Flowers quite regular Legume-bearing, with the radicle next the hilum. Legume-bearing, with the radicle remote from the hilum. Style from the base of the carpels. Petals very numerous 109. Rosaceee . Pomese Amygdaleae Sanguisorbese 110. Leguminosse or Fabacese. Csesalpinieae Mimosese 111. Connaracese. Astringent. Fruit eatable {Ap- ples). Bark tonic; Prus- sic acid (Lau- rel) ; fruit eatable (Peach). Astringent (Bur- net). Leaves and fruit eatable (Pulse). Purgative (Senna). Astringent (Cate- chu) ; gummy (Gum Arabic). 1 1 2. Chrysobalanaceae Fruit eatable. 113. Calycanthaceae Fragrant. 208 ALLIANCES OF PLANTS. Alliance l.Saxales. Carpels two, diverging. Seeds very numerous with albumen. Anthers opening by pores. 1 1 4. Baueraceae. Polyandrous. Leaves opposite. Stipules 115. Cunoniaceae . Astringent. between the petioles. Leaves alternate . . 116. Saxifragaceae . Astringent. Alliance 3. Crassales. Carpels several. Seeds very numer- ous with albumen. Succulent plants . . 117. Crassulaceae . Refrigerant, abster- gent (Houseleek). Alliance 4. Balsamales. Abounding in balsamic juice. Leaves dotted. Carpels so- 1 1 8. Amyridaceae . Fragrant, resinous litary. (Gum Elemi}. Leaves not dotted . . 119. Anacardiacese . Resinous, poisonous ( Cashew}. This group passes into Albuminosae by Rosacese and Ranunculaceae, and also by Caly- canthaceae and Magnoliaceae ; and into Gynobaseosse by Florkea. It is probable that the divisions into alliances require much re-examination ; but there can be no doubt about the close relationship of all the orders comprehended in the group. An unpublished genus of Cunoniaceae connects this group with Cinchonaceae in Epigynous Monopetalae. It is obvious from the notes appended to each of the foregoing groups, that their mutual relations may be expressed as follows : 1. Albuminosae pass into Epigynosae through Eupomatia. 2. Epigynosae Parietosae Passiflora. 3. Parietosae Calycosae Turnera. 4. Calycosae Syncarposae - Hugoniaceae. 5. Syncarposae Gynobaseosae Luvunga. 6. Gynobaseosse Apocarposae Florkea. [thaww. 7. Apocarposae Albuminosae Ranunculaceae and Calycan- Their true relations will therefore be better expressed as follows : Albuminosae .... Apocarposae. Epigynosae Gynobaseosrc Parietosae . . . Calycosae . . . Syncarposae. This subclass is otherwise allied as follows : With Incompletae through Rhamnales to Daphnales. Euphorbiaceag Empetracse. Loranthaceae ProteaceaB. ? Myristicaceae Lauraceae. With Monopetalae through Guttiferae Ebenaceae. Umbelliferae Galiaceae and Caprifoliaceje, Rhamnaceae Myrsinaceae. Rutaceae Ericaceae. Cunoniaceae Cinchonaceae. Melastomaceae Gentianacea? >V ith Endogenae through Ranunculacea; Alismaceae. Nymphaeaceae Hydrocharacece. ALLIANCES OF PLANTS. 209 SUBCLASS II. INCOMPLETE. These comprehend the following groups : 1 . Rectembryosce. Calyx very imperfect. Embryo straight. 2. Acklamydosce. Calyx and corolla altogether absent. 3. TMferoscB. Calyx tubular, often resembling a corolla (and with none of the characters of the other groups). 4. ColumnosfB. Stamens monadelphous, and ovary many-(six-)celled ; or, at all events, the latter character combined with an epigynous flower. 5. Curvembryosce. Embryo curved round albumen ; or having the form of a horseshoe ; or spiral (calyx rarely tubular). GROUP I. RECTEMBRYOSyE. Alliance 1. Amentales. Flowers in catkins. Carpels several. Female flowers surrounded 1 20. Corylaceae or Cu- Bark astringent by a cupule. puliferae. (Oak). Female flowers arranged in 121. Betulacese . Ditto, scaly catkins. Alliance 2. Urticales. Carpel solitary, or several. Stems continuous, without sheaths. Leaves opposite. Calyx su- 122. Garryaceae. perior. Leaves opposite. Calyx in- 123. Hensloviaceae. ferior. Leaves rough. Anthers bursting longitudinally. 124. Urticaceae Morese Artocarpeae Ceratophylleae. Anthers bursting trans- 125. Stilaginaceae. versely. Insipid plants with hypo- 126. Empetracese gynous flowers. Aromatic plants with hypo- 127. Myricaceae gynous flowers. Balsamic plants with epi- 128. Juglandaceae gynous flowers. Narcotic, tough (Hemp). Fruit eatable (Mul- berry). Milky, juice poison- ous ( Upas) ; fruit eatable (Fig). Slightly acrid. Aromatic, tonic. Fruit eatable, laxa- tive (Walnut). N.B. The stigma of Empetrum and its hypogynous scales seem, among other things, show that the true affinity of that plant is with Myrica. It is a sort of transition to to Euphorbiaceae. 210 ALLIANCES OF PLANTS. Alliance 3. Casuarales. Carpels solitary. Stems jointed and furnished with sheaths. 129. Casuaracese. Alliance 4. Ulmales. Carpels two. Leaves rough. 130. Ulmaceae . Bitter, astringent (Elm). Alliance 5. Datiscales. Seeds numerous. Leaves alternate. Flowers epigynous . . 131. Datiscaceae . Bitter. Flowers hypogynous . 132. Lacistemacese. Of the orders in this natural group, Garryacese point to Gnetacese through Chloran- thaceae, and so establish a connection with Gymnospermous Exogens. Their approxima- tion to Curvemhryosas by Urticaceae is pointed out under that group. Their relation to Achlamydosse is demonstrated by Ceratophyllese, Lacistemacese, Podostemaceae, and Callitrichaceae. GROUP II. ACHLAMYDOSJ3. Alliance 1. Piperales. Flowers in spikes. Apocarpous. Leaves opposite, with inter- 133. Chloranthaceae . Aromatic, stimu- petiolar stipules. lant. Leaves alternate. Carpels 134. Saururaceae. several. Leaves alternate. Carpels 135. Piperaceae . Stimulant, pungent, solitary, aromatic (Pep- per). Alliance 2.Salicales. Flowers in catkins. Apocarpous. Polyspermous, with comose 136. Salicaceae . Bark febrifugal * eeds - (Willow). Monospermous . . 137. Platanaceae. Polyspermous, with naked 138. Balsamaceae. seeds. Alliance 3.Monimiales. Flowers in an involucre. Anthers bursting lengthwise .139. Monimiaceae Aromatic. Anthers bursting by re- 140. Atherospermaceaa Ditto, curved valves. Alliance 4,Podostemales. Carpels two, united. Seeds in- definite. 141. Podostemaceae. ALLIANCES OF PLANTS. 211 Alliance 5. Cattitrichales. Carpels several. 142. Callitrichaceae. Probably the two last alliances ought to be combined. But it is evident that the whole group is so incomplete, that no distribution of the orders is likely to be worth m "f o Y? , e P resent - Achlamydosae join Rectembryosse by Garryaceae, Podostemese, and Callitrichaceae ; and Tubiferosfe by Monimiales. ' GROUP III. TUBIFEROS.E. Alliance 1. Santalales. Flowers epigynous. 143. Santalaceae . Sedative (Sandal Wood). Alliance 2. Daphnales. Calyx with an imbricated aestiva- tion. Carpels solitary. Stamens distinct. Leaves 144. Elaeagnaceae scurfy. Stamens distinct. Leaves 145. Thymelacese smooth. Flowers unisexual. Coty- 146. Hernandiaceae ledons lobed. Stamens monadelphous . 147. Aquilariaceae Harmless. Caustic bark. Purgative. Fragrant, resinous. Alliance 3. Proteales. ^Estivation of calyx valvate. Alliance 4. Laureates. ward. 148. Proteaceae . None. Valves of the anthers curved back- Aromatic, stomachic (Cinnamon). Leafy, arborescent, aroma- 149. Lauraceae tic plants, with fleshy cotyledons. Leafy arborescent plants, 150. Illigeraceae. with leafy crumpled co- tyledons. Leafless, herbaceous, insipid 151. Gassy thaceae. plants. Alliance 5. Penaales. Carpels several. 152. Penaeaceae . Sweetish, nauseous, gummy, resinous (Sarcocol). Their tubular calyxes distinguish them at once from all the other groups, except Columnosae ; and the latter are in general clearly characterised by their stamens united into a column. Tubiferosae touch Achlamydosae by Lauraceae, and Columnosae by Aris- tolochiaceae. They are also strongly related to Curvembryosae by Elasagnaceai. p-2 212 ALLIANCES OF PLANTS. GROUP IV. COLUMNOSJ2. Alliance 1. Nepenthales. Flowers hypogy nous. 153. Nepenthaceae. Alliance 2. AristolocMales. Flowers epigynous. 154. Aristolochiaceae . Tonic, stimulating. GROUP V. CURVEMBRYOSJE. Alliance 1. Chenopodales. Albumen present. Radicle next the hilum. Flowers dry, with nume- 155. Amarantaceaj . Wholesome, insipid. rous bracts. Flowers herbaceous. Car- 156. Chenopodiacese . Ditto (Spinach). pels solitary. Flowers coloured. Carpels 157. Phytolaccaceae . Emetic. several. Alliance 2. Polygonales. Albumen present. Eadicle away from the hilum. 158. Polygonaceae . Acid (Sorrel) ; pur- gative and tonic (Rhubarb). Alliance 3. Petivales. Albumen absent. Cotyledons spiral. 159. Petiveriaceae. Alliance 4. Sclerales. Tube of the calyx hardened. Border of the calyx herba- 160. Scleranthaceae. ceous. Border of the calyx peta- 161. Nyctaginaceae . Roots purgative. loid. Alliance 5. Cocculales. Albumen present. Flowers formed upon a ternary plan, dichlamydeous. 162. Menispermaceae Root bitter, tonic (Calumbd) ; seeds narcotic (Coccu- lus). vemn - ; they have not, how- ver, much relation to them, and the resemblance in their calyx is overcome by the struc- ALLIANCES OF PLANTS. 213 ture of the seed. Nyctaginaceae require a much more careful examination than they yet have received. Menispermaceae have, strictly speaking, both calyx and corolla ; but their organs are so small and so much alike, that I place the order here ; it has but b'ttle apparent relation even to Schizandreae among Anonales, beyond the circumstance of the parts of its flower being ternary, while it seems closely allied to Aristolochiaceae. Me- nispermaceae must be considered one of the natural orders among Exogens which tend towards Endogens. The passage of Curvembryosae into Rectembryosae through Cheno- podiaceae on the one hand, and Urticaceae on the other, is obvious. The mutual relations of these groups may be expressed as follows : 1. Rectembryosae pass into Achlamydosae through Garrvaceae 2. Achlamydosae Tubiferosae 3. Tubiferosae Columnosae 4. Columnosae Curvembryosse 5. Curvembryosae Rectembryosae Their true relations will therefore be thus : Rectembryosae, Curvembryosae, Achlamydosae, Columnosae, Tubiferosae. The subclass of Incompletae may be considered allied with other parts of the system in the following manner, viz. &c. Monimiaceae. Aristolochiaceae. Menispermaceae. Chenopodiacese. With Polypetalae through With Monopetalae With Gymnospermae With Endogenae Daphnalea Proteaceae Lauraceae Empetraceae ? Nyctaginaceae Chloranthaceae Menispermaceae Aristolochiaceae to Rhamnales. Loranthaceae. Myristicaceae. Euphorbiaceae. Solanaceae. Gnetaceae. Smilaceae. Araceae. SUBCLASS III. MONOPETAL^:. These comprehend the following groups : 1. Polycarposa. Flowers hypogynous (rarely epigynous). Ovary com- posed of many carpels. 2. Epigynosce. Flowers epigynous. Ovary composed of two or many carpels. 3. Aggregoste. Ovary consisting of but one perfect carpel. 4. Nucamentosa. Ovary composed of two carpels, which are separate, nut-like, and often divided into two parts. 5. Dicarposce. Ovary composed of two carpels. Fruit capsular. GROUP I. POLYCARPOSJS. Alliance 1. Brexiales. Albumen absent. Carpels five. 163. Brexiaceae. Alliance 2. Ericales. Anthers opening by pores. Carpels from four to five, or more. Seeds winged. Herbs . 164. Pyrolaceae . Diuretic, tonic. Brown, leafless, parasites . 165. Monotropaceae. ALLIANCES OF PLANTS. Anthers two-celled. Seeds 1 6 C. Ericaceae . AnThersTwo-celled. Ovary 167. Vacciniaceae . Ditto, ditto. inferior. Anthers one-celled . . 168. Epacridaceae. Alliance S.P-rimulales. Anthers bursting longitudinally. Carpels four five. Herbaceous plants. Sta- 169. Primulacea. . Slightly narcotic mens opposite petals. Woody plants. Stamens 170. Myrsmacese. opposite petals. Milky plants. Calyx and 171. Sapotaceae corolla double. ~o j (Cowslip). Watery plants, with twice 172. Ebenacese as many stamens as pe- tals. Styraceae Watery plants, with the 173. Aquifoliacese same number of stamens as sepals. Fruit sweet, eat- able; bark febri- fugal. Astringent. Fruit eatable. Resinous, astrin- gent, aromatic (Storax, Ben- zoin). Astringent, tonic (Holly). Alliance 4. Nolanales. Fruit divided into deep lobes. Car- pels five, or more. 174. Nolanaceae. Alliance 5. Volvales. Carpels from two to four. Leafless plants. Embryo 175. Cuscutaceac, m. spiral. Twining plants, with a plaited corolla. 176. Convolvulaceae . Roots purgative (Jalap, Scam- many). 177. Polemoniaceae. Erect plants, with an im- bricated corolla and three carpels. Styles numerous. Seeds 178. Hydroleaceee . Bitter, indefinite. Nolanaceae adjust these to Dicarposae, and Primulaceae to Epigynosse. Ebenaceae touch upon Guttiferae, and Myrsinaceae upon Rhamnaceae through the genus Choripetalum. Ericaceae moreover have an evident affinity with Rutaceae, first through Ledum, which may be compared with Phebalium, and secondly through Andromeda, which simulates Corraea. ALLIANCES OF PLANTS. 215 GROUP II. EPIGYNOSJE. Alliance 1. Campanales. Stipules absent. Seeds indefinite. Anthers united . . 179. Lobeliaceae . Acrid, poisonous. Anthers distinct . . 180. Campanulacese . Inert. Polyandrous . . . 181. ? Belvisiacese. Diandrous . . .182. Columelliacess. Alliance 2. Goodeniales. Stigma with an indusium. Flowers gynandrous . 183. Stylidiaceae. Stamens distinct. Seeds 184. Goodeniaceae. indefinite. Stamens distinct. Seeds 185. Scaevolaceae. definite. Alliance 3. Cinchonales, Stipules between the leaves. 186. Cinchonaceae . Bark febrifugal (Je- suits' bark} ; root emetic (Ipecacuanha). Alliance 4. Caprioles, Stipules none. Seeds definite in number. 188. Caprifoliaceae . Bark astringent. Alliance 5. Stellales. Fruit double. Leaves whorled, with no stipules. 189. Stellatae or Ga- Astringent, dying liaceae. (Madder). It is evident that, in this group, Galiacese have a close relationship with Apiaceae ; and that this approximation is participated in by Caprifoliaceae, through the genera Viburnum and Sambucus. Some Primulacese seem to approach Cinchonaceae ; and the Goodenial alliance, by means of Scaevolaceae, passes directly into Brunoniaceae among Aggregosae. GROUP III. AGGREGOS^:. Alliance 1. Asterales. Anthers syngenesious. Albumen present in the 190. Calyceraceae. seeds. Corolla bilabiate . . 191. Mutisiaceae. \ Corollas all ligulate. Milky. 192. Cichoracese Involucre hemispherical. 193. Asteraceae Florets of ray ligulate. Involucre rigid or spiny, co- 194. Cynaraceac nical. Florets of ray tubular and inflated. Narcotic (Lettuce). Bitter, tonic (Clta- momile), diuretic. Bitter (Thistle). 216 ALLIANCES OF PLANTS. Alliance 2.Dipsales. Anthers distinct. Flowers epigynous. Carpel solitary . .195. Dipsacess . None. Carpels triple; two of them 196. Valerianaceae . Bitter, antispasmo- abortive. die, vermifugal ( Valerian). Alliance 3. Brunoniahs. Style single. Stigma with an in- dusium. 197. Brunoniaceae. Alliance 4. Plantales. Style single. Stigma naked. Fruit spuriously double- 198. Plantaginacese . Bitter, astringent celled. (Plantain}. Flowers unsymmetrical . 199. Globulariaceae . Bitter, tonic, pur- gative. N.B. The situation of the dissepiment in Plantaginaceae sufficiently shows that part to be spurious, and that the fruit is in reality quite simple. Alliance 5. Plwmbales. Styles five. Flowers formed upon a quinary plan. 200. Plumbaginaceae. Some tonic, astrin- gent ; others acrid, caustic. GROUP IV. NUCAMENTOS.E. Alliance 1. Phaceliales. Fruit capsular. Inflorescence gy- rate. 201. Hydrophyllaceae. Alliance 2. EcMales. Fruit nucamentaceous. Inflorescence gyrate. Flowers symmetrical. Fruit deeply lobed . . 202. Boraginaceee . Mucilaginous (Bo- rage) ; roots dye- ing (Alkanef). byncarpous, style bifid . 203. Ehretiacese. Syncarpous, style dichoto- 204. Cordiacese . Emollient (Selesten mous - Plum). ALLIANCES OF PLANTS. 217 Alliance 3. Labiates. Fruit nucamentaceous. Inflorescence gyrate. Flowers unsymmetrical. Fruit divided into four 205. Lamiaceae or lobes." Labiatae. Fruit consisting of about 4 206. Verbenacese cells. Radicle inferior. Fruit consisting of about 207. Myoporaceae four cells. Radicle supe- rior. Fruit two-celled. Ovules 208. Selaginaceae. pendulous. Anthers one- celled. Fruit two-celled. Ovules 209. Stilbaceae. erect. Antherstwo-celled. Tonic, stomachic (Thyme, Mint, &c.) Slightly bitter. Tanning. GROUP V. DICARPOS.E. Alliance 1. Bignoniales. Neither albumen nor hooks to the seeds. Seeds winged . . .210. Bignoniaceae. Fruit hard and like a nut . 211. Pedaliaceae Placentae 4. Seeds wingless 212. Cyrtandraceae. Emollient. Alliance 2. ScropJiulales. Seeds numerous, with albumen. Leafy plants with a superior 213. Scrophulariaceae. Suspicious (Digi- ovary. talis). Leafless plants with a mi- 214. Orobanchaceae. nute embryo. Leafless plants with a one- 215. Gesneraceae . Harmless, celled ovary, partly in- ferior. Alliance 3. AcantJiales. Seeds without albumen, with hooks to the seeds. Calyx remarkably imbricated. 216. Acanthaceae. Alliance 4. Lentibales. A free central placenta. 217. Lentibulaceae. 218 ALLIANCES OF PLANTS. Alliance 5.Gentianales. Flowers symmetrical. Carpels standing right and left of the axis of inflo- rescence. ( ) Corolla withering on the 218. Gentianaceae . Bitter (Gentian). fruit ; in aestivation im- bricated. . . Estivation of corolla val- 219. Spigeliacese . Anthelmmtic. vate. . . Estivation contorted. Sta- 220. Apocynacese . Milk and fruit mens distinct. poisonous (Nux vomica) ; bark febrifugal some- times. Anthers grown to the stig- 221. Asclepiadaceae . Acrid. Emetic, ma. Alliance 6. Oleales. Diandrous. Estivation of corolla val- 222. Oleaceae . . Oil eatable (Olive). vate. Estivation of corolla im- 223. Jasminaceae. bricate. Alliance 7. Loganiales. Flowers unsymmetrical, with seve- ral stamens. Leaves furnished with sti- 224. Loganiacese. pules. Flowers somewhat pentan- 225. Potaliacese . Acrid. Emetic. drous. Alliance 8. Solanales. Flowers symmetrical. Carpels standing fore and aft of the axis of inflo- rescence. ^ Embryo curved. Cotyle- 226. Solanaceae . Poisonous. Nar- dons cylindrical. cotic (Belladon- na, Stramonium, Tobacco). Embryo straight. Cotyle- 227. Cestraceae. dons leafy. It appears that the connection between the foregoing groups is of a most decisive nature ; for, 1. Polycarposae pass into Epigynosae through Primulales. 2- Epigynosae Aggregosse Scaevolacese. 3. Aggregosae Nucamentosoc Dipsaceae. 4. Nucamentosce Dicarposae Scrophulariacese. 5. Dicarposae Polycarpos;c Boraginaceae. ALLIANCES OF PLANTS. 219 The relations of the groups may therefore be expressed thus : Polycarposae, Dicarposae, Epigynosae, Nucamentosae, Aggregosae. With regard to the connection of Monopetalous Exogens with other parts of the system, they appear to have only the following strongly-marked affinities : With Polypetalae through With Incompletae Gentianaceae Ebenaceae Galiaceae Caprifoliacese Myrsinaceae Ericaceae Cinchonaceae ? Solanaceae to Melastomaceaj. Clusiaceae. Apiaceae. Rhamnaceae. Rutaceae. Cunoniaceae. Nyctaginaceae. It also results from the previous investigations, that true Exogens are only connected immediately with other classes by the following points : With Endogens through With Gymnospermae Ranunculaceae Nymphaeaceae Menispermaceae Aristolochiaceae Chloranthaceae Alismaceae. Hydrocharaceae. Smilaceae. Araceae. Gnetaceae. CLASS II. GYMNOSPERMAE. Stem with articulations. Fruit in spikes. Stem bearing many buds. Fruit single. Stem terminated by a sin- gle bud. Leaves gyrate before developement. Stem bearing many buds. Fruit in cones. 228. Gnetacese. 229. Taxaceae . 230. Cycadacese 231. Pinaceae or Co- niferse. These plants are connected by close affinity ; but some links They are in alliance with other parts of the system, thus : With Exogens through Gnetaceae to With Endogens Cycadaceae With Acrogens Pinaceae Cycadaceae Leaves deleterious (Yew). Wood contains starch. Terebintaceous ( Turpentine, Pitch, &c.) in the chain are wanting Chloranthaceae. Palmaceae. Lycopodiaceae. Filicales. CLASS III. ENDOGENS. These comprehend the following groups : 1. Epigynosce. Anthers distinct. Flowers complete. Ovaiy inferior. 2. Gynandrosce. Stamens united with the styles. Flowers complete. Ovary inferior. 3. Hypogynosce. Flowers coloured, with its parts in threes. Ovary superior. 4. Retosce. Leaves netted, with a taper footstalk articulated with the stem. Floral envelopes complete. 5. Spadicosce. Flowers herbaceous, or imperfect. Perianth often absent. Embryo with a lateral slit. 6. Glumosce, Bracts scalelike in the room of a perianth. 220 ALLIANCES OF PLANTS. GROUP I. EPIGYNOS^E. Alliance 1 . Amomales. Leaves with the veins diverging from the midrib to the margin. Monandrous. Anther two- 232. Zingiberaceae . Aromatic, stimu- celled. latin (Ginger}. Monandrous. Anther one- 233. Marantaceee . Amylaceous, insi- celled. pid (Arrowroot). Several anthers . .234. Musaceae . Fruit nutritious (Banana). Alliance 2. Narcissales. Hexapetaloideous hexandrous plants. Flowers large. Texture 235. Amaryllidaceee Acrid. Poisonous. smooth. Leaves equitant. Plant 236. Heemodoraceae. woolly. Leaves equitant. Fruit 237. Burmanniaceae. winged. Fruit 1 -celled. Placentae 238. Taccaceae. parietal. Alliance 3. Ixiales. Triandrous. 239. Iridacese . Purgative. Alliance 4. Bromeliales. Tripetaloideous scurfy plants (with albumen). 240. Bromeliacese . Sap sugary (Pine- apple). Alliance 5. Hydrates. Tripetaloideous smooth plants. Sta- mens more than six. (Albumen absent.) 241. Hydrocharacese. Both Hydrocharaceae and Bromeliaceae pass into Spadicosae by Pandanaceae. Iridaceae, particularly the genus Gladiolus, offer a very near approach in structure to Gynandrosae. GROUP II. GYNANDROS.E. Ovary one-celled . . 242. Orchidaceae . Aromatic, viscid, nutritious (Sa- lep, Vanilla). The flowers of a Gladiolus would become those of an Orchis in calyx and corolla and stamens, if the latter were consolidated with the style ; here there is a transition to Epi- gynosse. Apostasiaceae have the nearly regular flowers of Liliacete, and through them connect this group with Hypogynosae. ALLIANCES OF PLANTS. 221 GROUP III. HYPOGYNOS^E. Alliance 1. Palmales. Hexapetaloideous plants, with a Vague embryo. 243. Palmacese . Amylaceous. Sac- charine (Cocoa- nut, Sago). Alliance 2. Liliales. Hexapetaloideous plants, with an em- bryo in the axis of the albumen. Petals rolled inwards after flowering. Hexandrous. Anthers turn- ed outwards. Styles dis- tinct. Flowers irregular, with ap- pendages on the outside. Hexandrous. Anthers turn- ed inwards. Styles con- solidated. 244. Pontederaceae. 245. Melanthacese 246. Gilliesiaceee. 247. Liliaceae . Asphodelese Cathartic ; nar- cotic ; diuretic ( White Helle- bore, Colchicum). Unimportant. Bitter, stimulant (Squill, Onion, &c.) Alliance 3. Commelynales. Tripetaloideous plants, with the carpels three and consolidated. 248. Commelynacese. Alliance 4. Alismales. Tripetaloideous plants, with the car- pels more or less distinct. Placentae spread over the 249. Butomacese . Acrid, dissepiments. Placentas occupying the 250. Alismaceae . Acrid, margin only of the dis- sepiments, or their equi- valent. Alliance 5. Juncales. Flowers somewhat glumaceous. Flowers regular . . 251. Juncaceae . Unimportant. Flowers irregular, with a 252. Philydraceae. two-leaved calyx. Here we have a marked transition to Exogens on the part of Alisma, which is hardly distinguishable from Ranunculaceae, except by its embryo. Liliaceae connect the group with GynandrosEe through Apostasiaccne, Juncaceae with Glumosae through Restiaceae. 222 ALLIANCES OF PLANTS. GROUP IV. RETOS^E. Flowers unisexual. Ovary 253. Dioscoreaceae . Nauseous ; some- inferior times eatable (Yam). Flowers hermaphrodite. 254. Smilaceae . Diuretic; demul- Ovary superior. cent (Sarsapa- rilla). Flowers binary, highly de- 255. Roxburghiaceae. veloped. GROUP V. SPADICOS^E. Alliance 1. Pandales. Flowers on a spadix. Fruit drupa- ceous. Flowers spiral. Spires al- 256. Cyclanthaceee. ternately male and fe- male. Flowers achlamydeous and 257. Pandanacese . Fruit eatable, apocarpous. Alliance 2. Arales. Flowers on a spadix. Fruit either berried or capsular. Flowers unisexual . .258. Araceae . . Acrid. Poisonous. Flowers hermaphrodite . 259. Acoracese . Aromatic. Alliance 3. Typhales. Flowers on a spadix. Sepals three. Anthers clavate. 260. Typhaceae . Of no importance. Alliance 4. Flumales. Flowers in spikes, or solitary. Floaters. Ovules pendu- 261. Naiadacese . Unimportant. lous. Terrestrial. Ovules erect 262. Juncaginaceae. Floaters, with none, or 263. Pistiacese . Acrid (Duck-weed). scarcely any, axis of growth. It is here that we find a transition to Rhizanthae in the case of the genus Lemna, which is destitute of vascular system, and is the lowest known form of Endows. Ty- phaceae connect this group with Glumosae, and Pandales with Epigynosse. ALLIANCES OF PLANTS. 223 Stems solid. Carpels single Carpels GROUP VI. GLUMOS^E. Stems fistular . . . 264. Graminaceae . Fruit floury (Corn). Herbage sweet (Sugar-cane, Grass, &c.) Diaphoretic. Un- important. Flowers naked. several. Flowers with a calyx. Seeds few. Flowers with a corolla. Seeds numerous. United to Spadicosae by- Cyperaceae, and to Hypogynosae by Restiaceae. The relation of Endogens with other parts of the system seems to be, With Gymnospermas through Palmaceae to Cycadacese. With Exogens Alismaceae Hydrocharaceae Retosae Araceae With Rhizanthae through Araceae With Acrogens Pistiaceae ? 265. Cyperaceae 266. Desvauxiacese. 267. Restiacese. 268. Xyridaceae. Ranunculaceae. Nymphaeaceae. Menispermaceas. Aristolochiaceae. Cynomoriaceae. Marsileaceae ? Sepals several, parietal. Sepals four. Placentae pa- rietal. Placentas central . . CLASS IV. RHIZANTH^E. Placentae 269. Rafflesiaceae 270. Cytinaceae 271. Cynomoriaceae Astringent. Astringent. Astringent (F^m- gus melitensis). These singular fungoid plants are neither Exogens nor Endogens, because they have no vascular system, and their sexual apparatus is imperfect ; they are not Acrogens, because they have flowers and sexes. They are connected With Endogens through Araceae. With Acrogens Fungaceae. CLASS V. ACROGEN^E. Alliance 1. Filicales. Stems fistular, vascular. Reproduc- tive organs borne upon the leaves. Ring of the thecae vertical . 272. Polypodiaceae . v Ring of the thecae transverse 273. Gleicheniaceae . Ring wanting. Thecae one- 274. Osmundaceae celled, ribbed. Ring wanting. Thecae as 275. Danaeaceae if many-celled. Ring wanting. Thecae one- 276. Ophioglossaceae celled, veinless. Thecae in cones . . 277. Equisetaceae Astringent. Pecto- ral. Some eatable. Epidermis siliceous. 224 ALLIANCES OF PLANTS. Alliance 2. Lycopodales. Stems solid, vascular. Reproduc- tive organs growing on the stem. 278. Lycopodiacese 279. Marsileaceae Thecae naked . Thecae enclosed in involu- cres of the same form. Thecae enclosed in. involu- 280. Salviniaceae cres of two different forms. Emetic. None. None. Alliance 3. M&scales. Without a vascular system. Ger- minating processes uniting into a heterogeneous body. Sporules in distinct thecse. 281. Bryaceae . . Slightly astringent. Thecae valveless, with an operculum. Thecae opening into valves, with an operculum. Thecae opening into valves, without an operculum. Thecae valveless, without an operculum. 282. Andraeaceae. 283. Jungermanniaceae. 284. Hepaticaceae. Alliance 4. Charales. Without a vascular system. Germi- nating processes uniting into a heterogeneous body. Reproductive organs axillary globules. 285. Characeae . Fo3tid. Alliance 5. Fungales. Without a vascular system. Ger- minating processes either wholly distinct or confluent in a homogeneous body. Born from a matrix which veils them when young. Born without a matrix. Living in air. Cellular, rarely filamentous, with a reproductive nucleus bursting through their surface. Born without a matrix. Living in water. Fila- mentous ; the filaments either solitary or several glued together, having sporidia and viviparous. 286. Fungaceae 287. Lichenaceae 288. Algaceae Stimulant ; nutri- tive. Often poi- sonous (Ergot, Mushroom, Truffle}. Dye ( Orchal) ; nu- tritive (Iceland Moss). Nutritive. ALLIANCES OF PLANTS. 225 This group touches Rhizanthese through Fungaceae. Gymnospermae Lycopodales. Filicales. Characeae. If the affinities that have thus been explained are correctly stated, a mutual connection of the five great classes in the vegetable kingdom may be expressed by a circle, in the middle of whose circumference stand Exogens and Endogens, side by side ; the common point of all the classes is formed by Acrogens ; which are connected on the one hand with Exogens by Gymnosperms, and on the other with Endogens by Rhizanths. The following scheme will place this idea in a more distinct point of view : Aracets to Cynomoriaoea. w C'/Jvrant/taceee to Gnetacete. 226 VI. SKETCH OF A NEW DISTRIBUTION OF THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM. 1. SOME remarks have already been made upon what ap- pear to be the true principles of classification (635) ; and, how- ever imperfect the attempt may be, this seems a proper place to sketch out the way in which it may possibly be executed. 2. In Exogens there are two totally different modes in which the influence of the pollen is communicated to the seed. The larger part of this primary group consists of plants pro- vided with the apparatus called style and stigma, through which the pollen-tubes are introduced into the ovary in the act of fertilization. But others are so constructed that the pollen falls immediately upon the ovules, without the intro- duction of any intermediate apparatus ; a peculiarity analogous to what occurs among reptiles in the Animal Kingdom : and, as was to have been anticipated, the plants in which this sin- gular habit occurs prove, upon being collected together, to form a group having no direct affinity with those among which they had been previously associated. Hence Exogens have been broken up into 1. Exogens proper, or those having an ovary, style, and stigma ; and 2. Gymnogens, which have neither. 3. Among Endogens, in like manner, two modes of pro- pagation have been discovered, essentially different from each other. In the major part of them the result of the fertiliza- tion of their seed is the production of an embryo, having one point upon its surface predestined to become a stem, and an- other to become a root ; besides which their elementary orga- nization includes vascular tissue in abundance. But others, although in a high state of developement, are wholly or nearly destitute of vascular tissue; and when their seed is fertilized, instead of an embryo being formed, the issue is a mass of NEW DISTRIBUTION OF THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM. 227 sporules, or reproductive bodies, analogous to those which Aero- gens have instead of seeds. The old class of Endogens re- quired therefore to be replaced by 3. Endogens proper, whose organs of propagation are seeds, and 4. Sporogens, commonly called Rhizanths, whose reproductive bodies are spores. 4. Among Acrogens also two modes of growth occur, so essentially different from each other that they evidently repre- sent different kinds of vegetation. In some of them there is a distinct axis of growth, or stem and root, symmetrically clothed with leaves ; in others they are irregular cellular ex- pansions, destitute of true leaves ; in the former we find a trace of something equivalent to the sexes of Exogens and Endogens, in the latter all indications of the kind disappear. Thus are formed two groups, which may be called 5. Cormogens, where there is a stem and leaves, and 6. Thallogens, where there is no separation of those parts. 5. To what extent dismemberments of the three classes of Jussieu may be further carried, there is no evidence to show : it is not, however, probable that they are capable of much further increase ; for, with a few exceptions, the affinities of the six primary groups now indicated are too continuous and complete to allow us to suppose that any great physiological or fundamental differences of organization exist among them. Some exceptions, however, do exist. 6. Among Angiospermous Exogens the Natural orders AristolocMacea, Nepenthacea, Lardizabalacea, Menispermacea, Piperaceae, and some others allied to the latter, stand isolated, as it were, in whatever part of the group they are stationed, having no obvious affinity with any other orders; for we can only regard the approximation of Menispermaceae to Anonacea, &c. as the result of altogether artificial considerations. Now these orders appear to agree in one remarkable circumstance. Instead of their wood being formed by zone deposited over zone, season after season, as is the case in the great mass of Exogens, they never have more than one zone of woody mat- ter, to whatever age they may have arrived. Whether their wood itself is formed exactly in the same way as that of other Exogens, namely, by a gradual external addition of stratum upon stratum, is doubtful ; it is probable that they have a mode of growth of their own, analogous to that of Aristolo- 228 NEW DISTRIBUTION OF chia, in which the wood when young is augmented by the suc- cessive introduction of wedge upon wedge of wood between wedges originally placed concentrically around a medullary axis. Such plants as these agree with Exogens in their Di- cotyledonous embryo, and in general appearance, but their mode of growth is an approach to that of some Endogens to be presently noticed, and it therefore appears they ought to be regarded as a fundamental group, which from the homoge- neity of the wood may be called Homogens, for the sake of contrasting their structure with the concentrically zoned growth of other Exogens, to which the collective name of Cyclogens might be applied. In this manner Exogens are composed of three classes, 1. Exogens proper, 2. Gymnogens, and 3. Homo- 7. Among Endogens we find a group of exactly the same nature as the last, and differing from the mass of the order in nearly the same manner. The peculiar habit of Smilax and some other Endogens, which no one would suppose from their general appearance to belong to that class, led me formerly to propose the separation of them into a group which was called the Retose. But as no better character could be found for it than the reticulated leaves, nobody adopted it, and it has been regarded as an unnecessary separation of plants essentially the same ; an opinion to which, in the absence of evidence, there has been nothing to oppose beyond the conviction that the Retose group is in nature well founded, although its true cha- racters may have been undiscovered. It now, however, ap- pears that Smilax and its allies have the wood of their axis arranged upon a plan wholly or in part similar to that of Homo- gens ; and consequently they will constitute, not a subdivision of Endogens as was formerly supposed, but a new class or pri- mary group. If the annual branches of a Smilax are exa- mined, there is nothing in their internal structure at variance with that of a stem of Asparagus ; they are exactly Endoge- nous ; but in the rhizoma of the whole genus (take the Sarsa- parilla of the shops for instance) the wood is disposed in a compact circle, below a cortical integument, and surrounding a true pith ; so that the rhizoma or permanent part of the stem is that of a Homogen. In Dioscorea alata the stem is formed of eight fibrovascular wedges placed in pairs, with their backs THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM. 229 touching the bark, surrounding a central pith and having wide medullary plates between them ; in fact, when the stems of this plant are in a state of decay, the eight fibrovascular wedges may be pulled asunder, like those of a Menisperma- ceous plant. In Testudinaria elephantipes the structure of the stem is of nearly the same kind ; several bundles of fibro- vascular tissue form a circle surrounding a pith, and pierced with broad medullary processes. Lapageria and Philesia have each a zone of wood below their bark, and a central pith in which the common fibrovascular bundles of Endogens are disposed ; a tendency to which is also observable in Smilax. 8. It seems therefore clear that what I have elsewhere called the Retose group is composed of plants whose mode of growth is essentially different from that of Endogens in general ; and that the species composing it stand in the same relation to the mass of Endogens, as Homogens to the mass of Exogens. For these reasons it appears that Endogens contain three dis- tinct types of organization, namely, Spermogens and Sporogens, or Rhizanths, the former of which consists 1 . of true Endogens with striated inarticulated leaves, and 2. of false Endogens with reticulated disarticulating leaves, or Dictyogens. 9. From these considerations we learn that of the three primary divisions of the Vegetable Kingdom, recognized by Jussieu, two require to be broken up into three each, and the other into two ; making eight in all ; the mutual relations of which with each other and the Animal Kingdom may be expressed thus : Exogens. Homogens. Dictyogens. Gymnogens. Endogens. Cormogens. Sporogens. Thallogens. (Animal Acrita Kingdom.) The following analytical arrangement will bring these dis- tinctions more plainly into view. 230 NEW DISTRIBUTION OF STATE I. SEXUAL OR FLOWERING PLANTS. J Cyclogens. Division 1. Exogens. Division 2. Endogens. <^ j Class I. Exogens. 1 Class II. Gymnogens. Class III. Homogens. ( Class IV. Dictyogens. \ Class V. Endogens. Class VI. Sporogens {Rhizanths). STATE II. ESEXUAL OR FLOWERLESS PLANTS. ( Class VII. Cormogens. \ Class VIII. Thallogens. The following is a tabular view of the orders that have to be arranged in the classes thus limited. It is assumed that each class divides into two series ; the one having albumen as a necessary part of the structure, the other either wholly or almost destitute of that substance (see 652). I have also adopted the principles before spoken of as ap- pearing well suited to the construction of subordinate series (see 655) ; and, with reference to this, the following terms are employed in the sense now assigned to them. 1 . Consolidated ; when the floral envelopes are united both with each other and the stamens, and with the ovary. 2. Separated; when the floral envelopes and stamens are united with each other, but the ovary is consolidated and free. 3. Adherent ; when the petals and sepals adhere to each other and the stamens and ovary, but have their parts disunited. 4. Disunited ; when the sepals and petals adhere to each other and the stamens ; but have their parts disunited, and do not adhere to the consolidated ovary. 5. Dissolved; when the sepals and petals are distinct from the stamens, and also from the ovary, whose carpels are dis- united either wholly or by the styles. These five gradations seem to comprehend all the material degrees of union, from complete consolidation, as in Composite, to complete separation, as in Rammculacese. THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM. 231 CLASS I. EXOGENS. SERIES I. CONSOLIDATED. Exalbuminous. 1. Asteraceae. Valerianaceae. Albuminous. 1. Calyceraceae. Dipsaceae. 2. Campanulaceae. Lobeliaceae. Stylidiaceae. Goodeniaceae. Scaevoleae. 3. Cinchonaceae. Galiaceae. Caprifoliaceae. Columelliaceae. SERIES II. SEPARATED. Exalbuminous. Brunoniacese. Convolvulacese. Nolanaceae. Salvadoraceae. Boraginaceae. Lamiaceaa. Verbenaceae. Lentibulaceae. Cyrtandraceae. Bignoniaceae. Pedaliacese. Acanthacese. Myoporacese. Jasminaceae. Albuminous. 1. Globulariacese. Plantaginaceae. Plumbaginaceaj. 2. Hydrophyllaceae. Primnlaceae. Myrsinaceae. Ebenaceae. Sapotaceae. Papayaceae. 232 NEW DISTRIBUTION OF 3. Ehretiaceffi. 3. Cestraceae. Cordiacea;. Solanacese. Scrophulariaceae. Gesneraceae. Stilbaceae. Selaginaceae. Oleacese. 4. Retziaceae. Loganiaceae. Apocynaceae. Aselepiadaceae. Spigeliaceae. Gentianaceaa. Orobanchaceae. 5. Polemoniaceee. Diapensiaceae. Hydroleacese. SERIES III. ADHERENT. Excdbuminous. Albuminous. 1. Combretaceae. 1. Aquifoliaceae. Corylaceas. Cornaceae. Garryaceaa. Araliaceae. Apiaceae. Alangiaceee. Hamamelacea;. Helvingiaceae. 2. Chailletiaceae. 2. Santalaceaa. Penaaaceae. Loranthacese. Lauracese. Hernandiaceae. Proteaceaa. Thymelaceae. Elseagnaceas. THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM. 233 3. Rosaceae. Calycanthaceae. Chrysobalanaceae. Fabacese. Connaraceae. Amyridaceae. Anacardiaceae. 4. Onagraceae. Lythraceae. Melastomaceae. Begoniaceae. Memecylaceae. Lecythidaceae. Myrtaceae. 5. Cactaceae. Passifloraceae. Cucurbitaceae. Datiscaceae. 3. Grossulaceae. Homaliaceae. Malesherbiacese. Turneraceae. Loasacese. 4. Ficoidaceae. Scleranthaceee. Nyctaginaceaa. 5. Rhamnaceae. Celastraceee. Bruniaceae. 6. Philadelphaceae. Hydrangeaceaa. Saxifragaceae. Cunoniaceae. Baueraceae. Escalloniaceae. Vaccinaceae. SERIES IV. DISUNITED. Exalbuminous. Albuminous. \. Resedaceae. Capparidacese. Brassicaceae. Moringaceae. 2. Spondiaceae. Brexiaceae. Aurantiaceae. 1. Ericaceae. Epacridaceae. Empetraceae. 2, Pittosporaceae. Fouquieraceas ? Vitaceae. 234 NEW DISTRIBUTION OF Meliacese. Humiriaceae. Cedrelaceee. Tremandraceae. Burseraceae. 3. Clusiaceae. 3. Tiliaceae. Marcgraaviaceee. Elseocarpaceae. Rhizobolacese. Trigoniaceae. Dipteracese. Chlenacese. Ternstromiaceae. 4. Vochyaceae. 4. Papaveracese. Krameriaceae. Nymphaeaceae . Sapindacese. Sarracenniacese. 5. Flacourtiaceee. Bixacese. Olacaceee. Lacistemacese. Samydacese. Violacese. Cistaceee. SERIES V. DISSOLVED. Exalbuminous. Albuminous. }. Rutacese. 1. Frankeniaceae. Zygophyllaceae. Portulacaceae. Simarubacese. Droseraceae. Staphyleaceae. Caryophyllaceae. Aceraceae. Illecebraceae. Malpighiaceae. Amarantaceae. Petiveriaceae. Chenopodiaceae. Coriariaceae. Phytolaccaceae. 2. Myricaceae. 2. Urticaceae. Platanaceee. Stilaginaceae. . Casuaraceae. Monimiaceae. Betulaceae . Atherospermaceae . Ulmaceae. Myristicaceae. Salicaceae. Tamaricaceae. THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM. 235 3. Malvaceae. Nitrariaceae. Reaumuriacese. Hypericaceae. Elatinaceaa. 4. Balsaminaceee. Geraniaceae. Surianaceae. Nelumbiaceae. 3. Anonaceae. Schizandreaa. Berberaceaa. Magnoliaceaa (Wintereee). Dilleniacese. Ranunculacese. Podophylleae. Hydropeltideaa. Cephalotaceae. Crassulaceee. 4. Ledocarpeae. Vivianiaceaa. Oxalidaceaa. Linaceas. 5. Stackhousiaceaa. Erythroxylaceaa. Hugoniaceae. Sterculiaceae. Euphorbiaceae. Scepaceae. Putrangiveae. CLASS II. GYMNOGENS. Cupressaceae. Pinaceae. Taxaceae. Gnetaceae. Cycadaceae. CLASS III. HOMOGENS. SERIES I. ADHERENT. Exalbuminous. Albuminous. Aristolochiacese. 236 NEW DISTRIBUTION OF SERIES II. DISUNITED. Exalbuminous. Albuminous. Nepenthacese. SERIES III. DISSOLVED. Exalbuminous. Albuminous. 1. Podostemaceae. 1. Callitrichaceee. Ceratophyllacese. Saururacese. Chloranthaceee. Piperaceae. 2. Lardizabalaceae. Menispermacese. CLASS IV. DICTYOGENS. Dioscoreaceae. Smilacese. Roxburgh] aceee. CLASS V. ENDOGENS. SERIES I. CONSOLIDATED. Exalbuminous. Albuminous. 1. Apostasiacese. 1. Musaceae. Orchidaceae. Marantaceae. Hydrocharaceae. Zingiberaceae. 2. Iridacesa. Bromeliaceae. Burmanniaceae. Vellozieaa. Ha!modoracea3. Amaryllidacese. Taccaceae. THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM. 237 SERIES II. DISUNITED. Exalbuminous. Albuminous. 1. Aspidistreae. Liliaceae. Pontederaceae. Xiphidiaceae. Gilliesiaceae. Philydraceae. Juncaceae. 2. Acoraceee. Araceae. 3. Commelynaceae. Xyridaceae. Eriocaulacese. Desvauxiacea3. SERIES III. DISSOLVED. Excdbuminous. Albuminous. Naiadaceae. 1. Melanthaceae. Juncaginaceaa. Flagellariaceaa ? Alismaceae. Palmae. Butomaceaa. 2. Pandanaceae. Cyclanthaceaa. Typhacese. Pistiaceae. 3. Restiaceae. Cyperaceae. Graminacea?. CLASS VI. SPOROGENS. (RHEANTHS.) Rafflesiaceae. Cytinaceae. Balanophoraceae. CLASS VII. CORMOGENS. Filicales. Lycopodiaceae. Isoetaceae. 238 NEW DISTRIBUTION OF THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM. Salviniaceae. Marsileaceae. Equisetaceae. Characese. Bryaceae. Andraeaceae. Jungermanniaceae. Marchantiaceae. CLASS VIII. TIIALLOGENS. Lichen aceae. Algaceae. Fungaceae. 239 III. MEDICAL BOTANY. THE following is a list of the principal medicinal plants which are known in a living state in Europe. The numbers refer to the Author's Flora Medica, (London, 1838, Longman and Co.) an 8vo. of 656 pages, in which full descriptions of the plants will be met with. It will be useful for London students to know that the plants in the Apothecaries 1 Garden, Chelsea, marked with red figures on a black ground, are num- bered to correspond with this list. RANUNCULACE.E. CLEMATIS. 1 . Erecta. Acrid. Used in cachectic diseases. Powdered leaves escharotic. 2. Flammula. Leaves used as vesicatories. 3. Vitalba. Fruit and leaves acrid and vesicant. Leaves employed as rubefacients in rheumatism. ANEMONE. 6. Pulsatilla. Powder of the root causes itching of the eyes, colic, and vomiting. Extract used in ttcnia. 9. Hortensis. Acrid in a high degree. 1 0. Coronaria. Acrid in a high degree. 11. Nemorosa. Acrid in a less degree. 12. Hepatica. Bland. HYDBASTIS. 14. Canadensis. Rhizoma narcotic, bitter, tonic. Gives a yellow dye. KNOWLTONIA. 15. Vesicatoria. Acrid. Leaves used as vesicants. ADONIS. 1 G. Vernalis. Emmenagogue. 240 MEDICAL BOTANY. RANUNCULUS. 1 7. Bulbosus. Very acrid, causing blisters and inflammation. 18. Thora. Root very acrid. The juice used for envenoming weapons. 19. Sceleratus. Acrid. Leaves used by beggars to produce ulcers. 20. Acris. Very acrid. By carrying it in the hand it has produced inflammation. 22. Flammula. Vesicant. Distilled water an excellent emetic. HELLEBORUS. 23. Niger. Narcotic acrid. Drastic. The fibres of the rhizoma are employed as an emmenagogue and hydragogue. Produces Black Hellebore. 25. Viridis. Narcotic acrid. Drastic. 26. Foetidus. Narcotic acrid. Leaves emetic and purgative. Re- commended as a vermifuge against the worm, Ascaris lumbri- coides. COPTIS. 27. Trifolia. Its rhizomata afford a tonic bitter, without astrin- gency. NIGELLA. 28. Sativa. Seeds aromatic, sub-acrid ; formerly employed instead of pepper, and also as carminatives. DELPHINIUM. 29. Consolida. Acrid. Seeds emetic, the leaves and stalks compose cosmetics, which are injurious to the skin. 30. Staphisagria. Seeds extremely poisonous, emetic, drastic, and inflammatory ; useful in scabies and fungous ulcerations ; also for pediculi in the head. ACONITUM. 31. Anthora. The root highly acrid. 32. Lycoctonum Root highly acrid ; used to destroy wild beasts. 33. Paniculatum Leaves bitter, acrid, narcotic, diaphoretic, and diuretic. The roots are more dangerous. 34s Napellus Narcotico-acrid ; a spirituous infusion of the root has proved fatal to human life. Leaves sudorific and diuretic. A.CTJEA. 36. Spicata Fruit poisonous. Roots antispasmodic, expectorant, astringent ; reported to have afforded relief in cases of catarrh. MEDICAL BOTANY. 241 XANTHORHIZA. 37. Apiifolia. Wood and bark a pure tonic, intensely bitter, said to be superior to Calumba. P/EONIA. 38. Officinalis. Seeds emetic and cathartic. Root antispasmOdic. 39. Corallina. Seeds emetic and cathartic. PODOPHYLLE^E. PODOPHYLLUM. 40. Peltatum. Narcotico-acrid. The rhizoma is an active cathartic. PAPAVERACE^E. PAPAVER. 4 1 . Rhoeas. Slightly narcotic. Syrupus Rhoeados is prepared froTii the petals. 42. Somniferum. Narcotic (Opium). ARGEMONE. 43. Mexicana. Seeds narcotic, anodyne, and purgative. The juice is employed in chronic ophthalmia and siphilitic sores. SANGUINARIA. 44. Canadensis. Narcotico-acrid, tonic. Rhizoma emetic, escharotic, used in cases of polypi. CHELIDONIUM. 45. Majus. Juice acrid. Stimulating, aperient, diuretic, and sudo- rific ; also a deobstruent. FUMARIEJS. FUMARIA. 46. Officinalis. Herbage bitter, diaphoretic and aperient. CORYDALIS. 47. Tuberosa. Root bitter and acrid. 48. Fabacea. Root bitter and acrid. NYMPH^EACE^E. NUPHAR. 49. Lutea. Rhizoma sedative and anti-aphrodisiac. NYMPH^EA. 50. Alba. Rhizoma astringent, styptic, and sub-narcotic. 5 1 . Odorata. Stems very astringent, used in poultices. R 242 MEDICAL BOTANY. MYRISTICACE^. MYRISTICA. 53. Officinalis. Seeds aromatic, act as narcotics in over doses. MAGNOLIACE^E. MAGNOLIA. 54. Glauca. Bark bitter and aromatic, resembling cinchona. Use- ful in chronic rheumatism. LlRIODENDRON. 55. Tulipifera. Bark bitter, aromatic, tonic, and diaphoretic. Used as a warm sudorific in chronic rheumatism. WINTERACE^E. ILLICIUM. 56. Floridanum. Bark and leaves aromatic and spicy. APIACE^ OR UMBELLIFERE^. ASTRANTIA. 67. Major. Roots acrid and purgative. ERYNGIUM. 68. Campestre. The root is sweet, aromatic, and tonic ; diuretic ; also a reputed aphrodisiac. 69. Maritirnum. Root sweet, aromatic, and tonic, but of inferior quality. CICUTA. 70. Maculata. The roots are a very dangerous poison. 71. Virosa. Roots a dangerous poison, causing true tetanic con- vulsions. APIUM. 72. Graveolens. Acrid. Rendered bland by culture. PETROSELINUM. 73. Sativum. The leaves are a stimulating diuretic. SlSON. 78. Amomum Fruit pungent and aromatic. CARUM. 79. Carui. Fruit carminative. PlMPINELLA. 81. Saxifraga. Root astringent, used to relieve tooth-ache. MEDICAL BOTANY. 24-3 PlMPINELLA. 82. Dissecta. Root astringent. Used as a masticatory to relieve tooth-ache. 83. Magna. Root astringent. Used as a masticatory to relieve tooth-ache. 84. Anisum. Effects stimulant and carminative. Produces Anise. (ENANTHE. 85. Crocata. A very dangerous poison. It has been considered the most energetic of the narcotico-acrid Apiacese. 86. Phellandrium. A dangerous poison, but rather less energetic. 87. Cynapium. Leaves poisonous ; also of a nauseous smell. FOENICULUM. 88. Vulgare. Fruit carminative. Leaves fragrant and stimulant. Produces Fennel. 89. Dulce Fruit carminative. Leaves fragrant and stimulant. Pro- duces Sweet-Fennel. ATHAMANTA. 91. Cretensis. Fruit aromatic. MEUM. 92. Athamanticum. Roots aromatic and sweet, forming an ingre- dient in Venice treacle. 93. Mutellina. Roots aromatic and sweet, forming an ingredient in Venice treacle. ANGELICA. 94. Nemorosa. Root acrid. Employed in cases of itch. ARCHANGELICA. 95. Officinalis. Root fragrant, bitterish, pungent. Stalks employ- ed in pectoral disorders. Leaves, seeds, and roots aromatic tonics. OPOPANAX. 96. Chironum. The root produces Opopanax, a foetid gum-resin, similar to Asafcetida. FERULA. 97. Asafcetida. A foetid gum-resin is procured by slicing the roots, which are acrid, bitter, and antispasmodic. Produces Asa- fcetida. 93. Persica. Like the last. R2 244 MEDICAL BOTANY. FERULA. 101. Ferulago. Yields a gum-resinous secretion. 102. Tingitana. Yields a gum-resinous secretion. Foetid, stimulant. DOREMA. 103. Ammoniacum. The stem and fruit yielding a fcetid gum-resin, which is Ammoniacum. PEUCEDANUM. 104. Officinale. The juice of the root is antispasmodic and diuretic. 105. Oreoselinum. Leaves and stems are bitter and aromatic. 106. Montanum. The juice of the root bitter, foetid, hardening into an acrid resin. A remedy in epilepsy. IMPERATORIA. 107. Ostruthium Root acrid and bitter, used as a masticatory in tooth-ache. ANETHUM. 109. Graveolens Fruit carminative and stimulant. Produces Dill. HERACLEUM. 110. Sphondylium. Rind and root acrid. CUMINUM, 112. Cyminum. Fruit carminative. Used in veterinary surgery. Produces Cummin. LASERPITIUM. 115. Glabrum. The juice of the root is gum-resinous, acrid, bitter, and caustic. Violent purgative. DAUCUS. 116. Gummifer Roots bitter and balsamic, yielding Bdellium sicu- lum. 117. Gingidium. Roots bitter and balsamic. 1 1 8. Carota. Fruit carminative and diuretic. Root used as a cure for ulcers. ANTHRISCUS. 1 1 9. Sylvestris. Narcotic. 120. Vulgaris. Deleterious. The whole plant highly poisonous. 121. Cfcrefolium. Roots eatable. Produces Chervil. CONIUM. 124. Maculatum. Powerfully narcotico-acrid. Is Hemlock. SMYRNIUM. 125. Olusatrum. Leaves slightly aromatic. Fruit carminative. MEDICAL BOTANY. 245 CORIANDRUM. 126. Sativum Fruit carminative and aromatic. ARALIACE^E. PANAX. 127. Quinquefolium. Roots aromatic, pungent, restorative, and sti- mulant. ABALIA. 128. Nudicaulis. Alterative and tonic. 130. Spinosa. Tincture of the wood used against colic. HEDERA. 131. Helix. Leaves and berries bitter, aperient, emetic, sudorific. Is the Ivy. GROSSULACE^;. RISES. 1 33. Rubrum. The juice of the fruit refrigerant. 134. Nigrum. Fruit, leaves, and wood tonic and stimulant. The juice is used against catarrhs. BERBERACE^E. BERBERIS. 135. Vulgaris. Bark astringent. A drink is prepared from the fruit. 136. Lycium. Extract useful in cases of ophthalmia. VITACE^. VlTIS. 137. Vinifera. Fruit cooling and antiseptic; diuretic and laxative in large quantities. COMBRETACE.E. TERMINALIA. 146. Benzoin. Juice concrete, used as incense. 147. Belerica. The kernels of the fruit intoxicating ; also astringent, tonic, and attenuant. Produces Myrobalans. MYRTACE^E. MELALEUCA. 150. Cajeputi. Essential oil irritating and stimulating. Produces Cajeputi oil. MEDICAL BOTANY. PUNICA. 152. Granatum. Bark of the root a powerful anthelmintic. Flow- ers and bark of the fruit tonic and astringent. Produces Pomegranates. MYRTUS. 153. Communis. Aromatic and astringent. CARYOPHYLLUS. 154. Aromaticus. Stimulant and carminative. Produces Cloves. EUGENIA. 155. Acris. The unripe fruit is oily, irritable, and is used to allay tooth-ache. 156. Pimenta. The unripe fruit is oily, irritable, and is used to allay the tooth-ache. Is the Allspice of the shops. EUCALYPTUS. 158. Resinifera. Bark astringent, yielding a juice resembling Kino.' 159. Robusta. Bark astringent. CORNACE.E. CORNUS. 1 63. Florida. Bark bitter, with an astringent aromatic taste ; tonic and antiseptic, giving a scarlet dye. 1 64. Sericea. Said to be amongst the best of tonics. Useful in in- termittent fevers. 165. Circinata. Astringent. Useful in diarrhoea. 166. Suecica Berries tonic. CUCURBITACE^E. LAGENAHIA. 169. Vulgaris Fruit poisonous. CUCUMIS. 171. Colocynthis. Fruit acrid. Poisonous to human beings. Pro- duces Colocynth. BRYONIA. 177. Alba. Root acrid and purgative. Used as a discutient for removing bruises. Cathartic. 178. Dioica Root acrid and purgative. Used as a discutient for removing bruises. Cathartic. MEDICAL BOTANY. 247 MOMOBDICA. 179. Elaterium. Juice poisonous. It is a violent cathartic and hydragogue. 180. Balsamina Fruit a dangerous poison, acting as a powerful hydragogue. BRASSICACE^E OR CRUCIFER^E. COCHLEABIA. 189. Officinalis. Antiscorbutic, stimulant, and diuretic, eaten fresh; but inert when dried. Produces Scurvy-grass. 1 90. Armoracia. Root stimulant, diaphoretic, and diuretic, and ex- ternally rubefacient. Produces Horseradish. CARDAMINE. 191. Pratensis. Stimulant, diaphoretic, and diuretic. The dried flowers a remedy for epilepsy. SINAPSIS. 192. Nigra. Seeds acrid, stimulating, and bitter. Oil purgative, rubefacient in paralysis. Vesicant. Produces Mustard. 194. Alba. Seeds acrid and pungent. Used as stimulating ca- thartics. Produces Mustard. ERUCA. 1 95. Sativa. Seeds acrid and bitter. RAPHANUS. 196. Sativus. Seeds emetic. Roots diuretic and laxative. Produces Radishes. CAPPARIDACE^:. CAPPARIS. 197. Spinosa. Flower-buds antiscorbutic, stimulant, and aperient. Produces Capers. 198. Pulcherrima. Fruit poisonous. 199. Cynophallophora. Root acrid. An infusion recommended in dropsy. VIOLACE^:. VIOLA. 203. Odorata. Petals used as a laxative. Roots emetic and purga- tive. Flowers anodyne, producing faintness and apoplexy. 204. Canina. Leaves depurative. Roots emetic. 205. Tricolor. Bruised leaves used in the cure of cutaneous dis- orders. 248 MEDICAL BOTANY. IONIDIUM. 206. Ipecacuanha. Roots emetic. Used as a .substitute for true Ipecacuanha. MORINGACE^E. MOBINGA. 216. Aptera. Seeds acrid. Employed in fevers and as rubefacients. PASSIFLORACE^. PASSIFLORA. 218. Quadrangularis. Root emetic. Powerfully narcotic. 220. Fcetida. Emmenagogue, serviceable in hysteria. PAPAYACE^E. CAEICA. 221. Papaya. The milky juice, and powder of the seeds, are power- ful vermifuges. BIXACE.E. BlXA. 224. Orellana. Demulcent. Produces Arnotto. CANELLE^. CANELLA. 231. Alba. All parts of the tree are aromatic, hot, and pungent, when fresh. Distilled bark aromatic, carminative, and stomachic ; used in scurvy. HYPERICACE^E. HYPERICUM. 232. Perforatum Leaves astringent. An infusion used in gargle and lotions. ANDROS^MUM. 233. Officinale. Leaves esteemed as vulnerary. TERNSTROMIACE.E. THEA. 237. Viridis. A stimulant narcotic. 238. Bohea. Stimulant. MEDICAL BOTANY. 249 SAPINDACE^E. CABDIOSPERMUM. 239. Halicacabum. Root aperient. SAPINDUS. 240. Saponaria. Fruit detersive and acrid. Tincture of the berries employed in chlorosis. Produces Soapberries. ^SCULUS. 246. Hippocastanum. Bark a febrifuge in fevers. A decoction used in gangrene ; and its powder an errhine. POLYGALACE^E. POLYGALA. 247. Senega. Root acid and acrid; sudorific and expectorant in small doses, but emetic and cathartic in large. 254. Chamaebuxus. Root acid and acrid; sudorific and expectorant in small doses, but emetic and cathartic in large. LINAGES. LlNUM. 261. Usitatissimum. Seeds used for cataplasms. The infusion is demulcent and emollient. Produces Linseed. 262. Catharticum. Bitter, cathartic, and purgative. CISTACE^:. ClSTUS. 264. Creticus. Resin stimulant and emmenagogue. Recommended in chronic catarrh. Produces Ladanum. 265. Ladaniferus. Resin stimulant and emmenagogue. Used in chronic catarrh. 266. Ledon. Resin stimulant and emmenagogue. Used in chronic catarrh. 267. Laurifolius. Resin stimulant and emmenagogue. Uved in chronic catarrh. STERCULIACE.E. KYDIA. 274. Calycina. Bark sudorific. THEOBROMA. 275. Cacao. Seeds nutritive, restorative. Produces Chocolate. 250 MEDICAL BOTANY. ADANSONIA. 278. Digitata. Mucilaginous. Dried leaves useful in fevers. Fruit sub-acid. MALVACEAE. ABUTILON. 281. Indicum. Used as an emollient. MALVA. 284. Sylvestris. Mucilaginous and emollient. Is the Mallow. ALTHAEA. 285. Officinalis. Mucilaginous and emollient. Is the Marsh Mallow. ABELMOSCHUS. 287. Esculentus. Mucilaginous, emollient, and demulcent. Leaves used to form poultices. 288. Moschatus. Seeds cordial and stomachic. TILIACE^. TILIA. 293. Europeea Flowers antispasmodic. The Lime-tree. LYTHRACE^. HEIMIA. 295. Salicifolia. Sudorific and diuretic. Used in venereal dis- orders. LYTHRUM. 296. Salicaria. Astringent. Recommended in cases of diarrhoea. MELIACE^E. MELIA. 297. Azedarach. Root bitter and nauseous. Used as an anthel- mintic. GUAREA. 301. Aubletii. Bark emetic and purgative. CEDRELACEvE. SwiETENIA. 305. Mahagoni. Bark febrifugal. Produces Mahogany. MEDICAL BOTANY. 251 AURANTIACE^E. CITRUS. 316. Aurantium. Peel of the fruit tonic and aromatic. Produces Seville Oranges. 317. Bigaradia. Peel of the fruit bitter and tonic. 318. Limetta. Fruit fragrant. Produces Limes. 319. Limonum. Juice of the fruit yields citric acid. The peel aromatic and stomachic. Produces Lemons. SPONDIACE^. SPONDIAS. 320. Mangifera. Emollient. RHAMNACE^E. ZlZIPHUS. 322. Jujuba. Fruit pectoral. Bark used for diarrhoea. Produces Jujubes. 323. Vulgaris. Fruit pectoral. Bark used for diarrhoea. BERCHEMIA. 324. Volubilis. Roots used in cachectic disorders ; said to be anti- siphilitic. CEANOTHUS. 325. Americanus. Astringent and antisiphilitic. RHAMNUS. 326. Catharticus. Fruit purgative ; produces colic. An hydra- gogue. The Buckthorn. 327. Frangula. Fruit emetic. 328. Infectorius. Fruit emetic. 329. Saxatilis. Fruit emetic. 331. Oleoides. Fruit emetic. 332. Buxifolius. Fruit emetic. EUPHORBIACE^E. Buxus. 350. Sempervirens. Leaves and wood bitter and nauseous ; sudorific and purgative. Produces Box -wood. CICCA. 351. Disticha. Leaves sudorific. Seeds cathartic. Fruit sub-acid. CROZOPHORA. 359. Tinctoria. Plants with emetic, drastic, and corrosive proper- ties. Seeds cathartic. 252 MEDICAL BOTANY. CROTON. 360. Cascarilla. Bark aromatic and fragrant. 361. Eleuteria. Bark bitter, aromatic, tonic, stimulant. Produces Cascarilla. 363. Tiglium. Seeds drastic. 369. Aromaticum. Bark of the root aromatic and purgative. RICINUS. 374. Communis. Seeds cathartic. Produces Castor-oil. JATROPHA. 375. Curcas. Seeds emetic and drastic. Leaves rubefacient and discutient. 377 a. Multifida The seeds are excellent emetics and purgatives. JANIPHA. 378. Manihot. Expressed juice poisonous. Fecula nutritive. Pro- duces Cassava and Tapioca. MERCURIALIS. 384. Perennis. Very poisonous, producing vomiting and diarrhoea. 385. Annua. Poisonous. HIPPOMANE. 389. Mancinella. Juice caustic and venomous. Acrid. Manchineel. HURA. 390. Crepitans. Milk very venomous, producing blindness. Seeds a drastic purgative. An emetic. EUPHORBIA. 393. Tirucalli. Milk a remedy for siphilis; cathartic and emetic. 395. Antiquorum. Bark of the root purgative. Produces Euphor- bium. 396. Canariensis. Milk purgative. Produces Euphorbium. 397. Heptagona. The milk is a mortal poison. 398. Officinarum. Milk purgative. Produces Euphorbium. 400. Nereifolia. Juice of the leaves purgative, deobstruent, and diuretic. 401. Gerardiana. Bark of the root cathartic and emetic. 402. Lathyris. Seeds drastic. Bark of the root and stems cathartic and emetic. 403. Esula. A dangerous poison. 404. Cyparissias. A virulent poison. 405. Thymifolia. Violent purgative. Vulnerary, anthelmintic. 406. Ipecacuanha. Root powerfully emetic and cathartic. MEDICAL BOTANY. 253 EUPHORBIA. 407. Peplis All the parts purgative. 408. Peplus. All the parts purgative. 409. Falcata. All the parts purgative. 410. Corollata. Emetic, expectorant, and cathartic. The bruised root excites inflammation. 411. Linearis Juice employed for siphilitic ulcers. PEDILANTHUS. 412. Tithymaloides. Antivenereal, emetic. CELASTRACE^E. MAYTENUS. 415. Chilensis. Leaves stimulant. SILENACE^E. SlLENE. 418. Virginica. Root anthelmintic. SAPONARIA. 420. Officinalis. Saponaceous. GYPSOPHILA. 42 1 . Struthium. Saponaceous. TAMARICACE^E. TAMARIX. 422. Gallica. Bark bitter and astringent. Branches yield a kind of Manna. SIMARUBACEJG. QUASSIA. 424. Amara. Wood bitter and tonic. Infused flowers stomachic. PlCRjENA. 427. Excelsa. Wood bitter, tonic, and stomachic. Produces Quassia chips. RUTACEJE. RUTA. 429. Graveolens. Used as an emmenagogue, antispasmodic and anthelmintic. BAROSMA. 436. Crenulata. Leaves an excellent aromatic, stomachic, and effica- cious diuretic. Produces Diosma leaves. 254 MEDICAL BOTANY. BABOSMA. '437. Serratifolia. Leaves an excellent aromatic, stomachic, and effi- cacious diuretic. Produces Diosma leaves. 438. Crenata. Leaves an excellent aromatic, stomachic, and effica- cious diuretic. Produces Diosma leaves. ZYGOPHYLLACE^E. ZYGOPHYLLUM. 439. Fabago. Esteemed as a vermifuge. GUAIACUM. 440. Officinale. Wood yielding a bitter, acrid, stimulant gum-resin, employed as a diaphoretic and alterative. XANTHOXYLACE.E. PTELEA. 442. Trifoliata. Young shoots anthelmintic. Fruit aromatic and bitter. A substitute for hops. XANTHOXYLON. 444. Fraxineum. Bark aromatic and pungent. Used as a remedy in chronic rheumatism. 445. Clava Herculis. Infusion antispasmodic. Tincture febrifugal. Decoction antisiphilitic. BRUCEA. 450. Antidysenterica. Tonic, astringent. GERANIACE.E. GERANIUM. 451. Maculatum Root astringent, containing Tannin. 452. Robertianum. A remedy in nephritic complaints. OXALIDACEvE. OxALIS. 453. Acetosella. Plant refrigerant, antiscorbutic. CORIARIACE.E. CORIARIA. 454. Myrtifolia. Fruit a dangerous poison. ROSACES. POTENTILLA. 455. Reptans. Root very astringent. 456. Tormentilla. Root very astringent. MEDICAL BOTANY. 255 GEUM. 457. Rivale. Stomachic. Useful in diarrhoea. 458. Urbanum. Stomachic. Useful in diarrhoea. 459. Canadense. Root and leaves a mild tonic. Bitter. Useful in diarrhoea. AGRIMONIA. 460. Eupatoria. Astringent, anthelmintic. RUBUS. 461. Villosus. Bark of the root astringent. Useful in cholera, diarrhoea, &c. ROSA. 462. Canina. Laxative. 463. Centifolia. Laxative. 464. Gallica. Petals astringent and tonic. GILLENIA. 465. Trifoliata. Roots emetic. SPIRAEA. 467. Ulmaria. Aromatic, tonic. 468. Filipendula. Aromatic, tonic. AMYGDALE^E. AMYGDALUS. 470. Communis. Oil of the seeds extremely poisonous. Produces bitter almonds. 471. Persica. Oil, flowers, and seeds extremely poisonous. CERASUS. 472. Laurocerasus. Leaves, bark, and seeds poisonous. Produces hydrocyanic acid. 473. Virginiana. Leaves poisonous. Bark febrifugal. 474. Padus. Abounds in the oil of bitter almonds, and is therefore poisonous. 475. Capollim. Bark febrifugal. PRUNUS. 477. Cocumilia. The bark is a remedy for the fevers of Calabria. 478. Spinosa. Fruit acid, astringent, and austere. POMEJE. PYRUS. 479. Aucuparia. Leaves poisonous. 2o6 MEDICAL BOTANY. CYDONIA. 480. Vulgaris. Seeds demulcent. SANGUISORBE^E. ALCHEMILLA. 481. Vulgaris. Decoction slightly tonic. FABACE^E OR LEGUMINOS^E. TRIBE I. PAPILIONACEJE. ANAGYRIS. 482. Fcetida. Seeds poisonous. BAPTISIA. 483. Tinctoria. Roots and herbage antiseptic, sub-astringent, ca- thartic, and emetic. GENISTA. 484. Tinctoria Bitter. Produces a yellow dye. CYTISUS. 485. Laburnum. Seeds poisonous, narcotico-acrid. 486. Alpinus. Seeds poisonous, narcotico-acrid. 487. Scoparius. Decoction of the shoots diuretic and cathartic. Seeds emetic. Produces broom-tops. ANTHYLLIS. 488. Hermannia. Root diuretic. 489. Vulneraria. One of the best styptics. TRIGONELLA. 490. Foenum Graecum. Decoction of the seeds an emollient. Used in veterinary medicine. MELILOTUS. 491. Officinalis. Decoction emollient. Used in lotions and enemas. TRIFOLIUM. 492. Alpinum. Roots sweet and demulcent. INDIGOFERA. 494. Tinctoria. The dye is a dangerous vegetable poison. 495. Anil The dye is a dangerous vegetable poison. Powdered leaf used in hepatitis. 496. Argentea. The dye is a dangerous vegetable poison. CLITORIA. 498. Tematea. Roots emetic. MEDICAL BOTANY. 257 GLYCYRRHIZA. 500. Glabra. Roots sweet, tonic, demulcent. Produces Liquorice. 501. Echinata. Roots less sweet, tonic, demulcent. Produces an inferior sort of Liquorice. AGATI. 507. Grandiflora. Bark bitter and tonic. PISCIDIA. 508. Erythrina. Tincture of the bark narcotic and diaphoretic. Bark astringent and irritating. COLUTEA. 509. Arborescens. Leaves purgative. ASTRAGALUS. 512. Tragacantha. Emollient. Produces a kind of Tragacanth. CORONILLA. 514. Emerus. Leaves cathartic. 515. Varia. Leaves diuretic and cathartic. Juice poisonous. ARTHROLOBIUM. 516. Scorpioides. Leaves vesicant. ALHAGI. 518. Maurorum. From the branches exudes a substance of the nature of Manna. ERVUM. 519. Ervilia. Seeds poisonous. LATHYRUS. 520. Aphaca. Seeds narcotic, producing head-ache if eaten in a ripe state. 521. Cicera. Seeds narcotic. ABRUS. 522. Precatorius Root and leaves employed as a substitute for Liquorice. MUCUNA. 526. Pruriens. Hairs irritating. Produces Cowitch. TRIBE II. CjESALPINIEjE. ANDIRA. 533. Inermis. Bark anthelmintic, mucilaginous, drastic, emetic, pur- gative, and narcotic ; poisonous in large doses. 8 258 MEDICAL BOTANY. CASSIA. 536. Acutifolia. An excellent purgative. Produces Alexandrian Senna. 539. Obovata. An excellent purgative. Produces Black-leaved Senna. 540. Tora. Leaves purgative. 544. Marilandica. Leaves purgative. CATH ARTOCA RPUS. 545. Fistula. Extract of the pulp laxative. Seeds purgative. Roots an excellent febrifuge. POINCIANA. 548. Pulcherrima. Root acrid and poisonous. Leaves a powerful emmenagogue ; also purgative. H^EMATOXYLON. 549. Campeachianum. A powerful astringent. Decoction used in diarrhoea and dysentery. Produces Logwood. BAUHINIA. 55 1 . Toraentosa. Astringent. TAMARINDUS. 552. Indica. The pulp of the fruit is cooling and laxative. Leaves sub-acid ; employed as an anthelmintic. Produces Tamarinds. HYMEN JEA. 553. Courbaril. Fruit purgative. Bark anthelmintic. TRIBE III. MIMOSEjE. ACACIA. 557. Catechu. Astringent. 558. Vera. The bark yields Gum arable. 566 a. Mollissima. Astringent. 566 b. Melanoxylon. Astringent. VACHELLIA. 567. Famesiana. Bark yields a gum like Gum arable. SAXIFRAGACE.E. HEUCHERA. 572. Americana. Root a powerful astringent. CRASSULACE^E. SEMPERVIVUM. 573. Tectorum. Leaves astringent ; refrigerant. MEDICAL BOTAXY. 259 SEDUM. 574. Telephium. Refrigerant and astringent. Leaves useful in diarrhoea. 575. Acre. Leaves acrid. Recommended in cancerous cases and epilepsy. ANACARDIACE^E. MANGIFERA. 584. Indica. Gum-resin slightly bitter and pungent. ANACARDIUM. 586. Occidentale. Gum astringent. Juice acrid. The coats of the nuts abound in a caustic thick oil. Produces Cashew. RHUS. 589. Toxicodendron. Yields a narcotic, acrid, milky juice, extremely poisonous. 590. Glabrum. Yields a narcotic, acrid, milky juice, extremely poisonous. SCHINUS. 595. Molle. Acrid. PlSTACIA. 596. Vera. Fruit emollient. Produces Pistacia nuts. 597. Terebinthus. Yields Cyprus turpentine. 598. Lentiscus. Produces a sweet, fragrant, stimulant resin, called Mastich, used to preserve the teeth. CORYLACE^:. QUERCUS. 599. Pedunculata. Bark astringent ; the powder employed in passive haemorrhage and diarrhoea. 600. Sessiliflora. Bark astringent. From this the oak-galls are ob- tained. 602. Coccifera. Feeds the Kermes insect. 603. Falcata. Bark and leaves astringent. Employed in cases of gangrene. BETULACE^E. BETULA. 604. Alba. Bark tonic. Employed as a febrifuge. ALNUS. 605. Glutinosa. Bark tonic. A decoction employed as a gargle. s 2 260 MEDICAL BOTANY. URTICACE^:. URTICA. 607. Dioica. The whole plant is astringent and diuretic. Is the Nettle. HUMULUS. 609. Lupulus. Ripe catkins narcotic and bitter. Infusion and tincture aromatic, tonic. Produces Hops. Ficus. 611. Indica Bark tonic. Juice applied to the teeth and gums to relieve tooth-ache. Is the Banyan-tree. 612. Elastica. Yields Caoutchouc. 616. Religiosa. Seeds cooling and alterative. 617. Carica. Fruit pectoral, demulcent, and laxative. Produces Figs. CANNABIS. 618. Sativa A very powerful, stimulating narcotic, used as an intoxicating drug. Produces Hemp. MOBUS. 619. Nigra. Fruit cooling and laxative. Bark cathartic and anthel- mintic. Produces Mulberries. 620. Alba. Root said to be an excellent vermifuge. DORSTENIA. 621. Contrayerva. Root stimulant, sudorific, and tonic; used in eruptive and other diseases. 622. Brasiliensis. Root stimulant, sudorific, and tonic. 624. Drakena. Root stimulant, sudorific, and tonic. ULMACE^E. ULMUS. 626. Effusa. The inner bark demulcent and diuretic ; slightly as- tringent and a feeble tonic. 627. Campestris. The inner bark demulcent and diuretic ; slightly astringent and a feeble tonic. MYRICACE^E, MYRICA. 628. Gale. Infusion used as a vermifuge ; leaves as a substitute for Hops in brewing. 629. Cerifera. Bark of the root acrid and astringent. Powder sti- mulating and very acrid. MEDICAL BOTANY. 261 COMPTONIA. 630. Asplenifolia. Tonic and astringent. Used in diarrhoea. JUGLANDACE^;. JUGLANS. 631. Cinerea. Inner bark of the root a mild and efficacious laxative; of the stem, rubefacient. 632. Regia. The young fruit purgative. Produces Walnuts. CHLORANTHACE^:. CHLOBANTHUS. 633. Officinalis. All the parts powerfully aromatic. Root an active stimulant. 633 a. Brachystachys. All the parts powerfully aromatic. Roots active stimulants. PIPERACE^:. PIPER. 634. Nigrum. Pungent and stimulant. Produces Round Pepper. 636. Longum. Pungent and stimulant. Produces Long Pepper. 639. Amalago. Leaves and shoots discutient. Root sudorific, dia- phoretic. Fruit pungent. 642. Betel. By chewing the leaf intoxicating effects are produced. Stimulant. SALICACE^E. SALIX. 648. Russelliana. Bark febrifugal. 649. Fragilis. Bark slightly febrifugal. 650. Purpurea. Bark febrifugal. 651. Alba. Bark febrifugal. 652. Pentandra. Bark aromatic and febrifugal. 653. Caprea. Bark febrifugal. POPULUS. 654. Nigra. Leaf-buds bitter, aromatic. 655. Dilatata. Leaf-buds bitter, aromatic. 656. Balsamifera. Buds diuretic and antiscorbutic. 657. Candicans. Buds diuretic and antiscorbutic. 659. Tremuloides. Bark esteemed as a febrifuge. 262 MEDICAL BOTANY. BALSAMACE^E. LlQUIDAMBAE. 661. Orientate. Bark pungent, bitter, expectorant. Produces Storax. 662. Styraciflua. Almost inert. THYMELACE.E. DAPHNE. 666. Mezereum All the parts excessively acrid, acting as an irri- tant poison. 667. Laureola. All the parts excessively acrid, acting as an irritant poison. 668. Gnidium All the parts excessively acrid, acting as an irritant poison. DIRCA. 670. Palustris. Bark acrid, cathartic, vesicant. Fruit narcotic. HERNANDIACE^E. HEENANDIA. 671. Sonora. Bark, seed, and leaves purgative. Juice of leaves a powerful depilatory. LAURACE^E. ClNNAMOMUM. 674. Zeylanicum. Aromatic, stimulant. Produces Cinnamon. CAMPHORA. 685. Omcinarum. Yields Camphor. PERSEA. 686. Gratissima. Leaves balsamic, pectoral, and vulnerary. Seeds astringent. Yields the Avocado Pear. SASSAFRAS. 697. Officinale. Dried leaves mucilaginous. Plant employed as a diuretic and sudorific. Produces Sassafras. BENZOIN. 699. Odoriferum. Bark aromatic, stimulant, and tonic. Infusion of the twigs a vermifuge. Fruit aromatic, oil a stimulant. LAURUS. 701. Nobilis. Leaves and fruit aromatic. Fixed oil a stimulant. MEDICAL BOTANY. 263 ARISTOLOCHIACE^E. ARISTOLOCHIA. 704 a. Cymbifera. The root has a disagreeable smell, and a strong bitter aromatic taste. 706. Trilobata. A sudden and powerful sudorific. 708. Serpentaria. The root has a penetrating smell and bitter taste, acting as a stimulant, tonic, diaphoretic. In some cases an antispasmodic and anodyne. 709. Pallida. A slight aromatic stimulant tonic. Sudorific ; em- ployed as an emmenagogue in amenorrhoea. 712. Sempervirens. A slight aromatic stimulant tonic. Sudorific; employed as an emmenagogue in amenorrhoea. 713. Rotunda. A slight aromatic stimulant tonic. Sudorific; em- ployed as an emmenagogue in amenorrhcea. 714. Clematitis. Roots powerfully stimulating. ASARUM. 716. Europaeum, Roots purgative, emetic, and diuretic. Powdered leaves used to provoke sneezing. 717. Canadense.- Rhizoma aromatic. A warm stimulant diapho- retic. CHENOPODIACE^E. CHENOPODIUM. 719. Olidum. Employed as an antispasmodic and emmenagogue. 721. Botrys. Expectorant, employed in catarrh and humoral asthma. 722. Anthelminticum. The seeds yield an oil which is powerfully anthelmintic. 723. Ambrosioides. Stimulant, corroborant. ATBIPLEX. 724. Angustifolia. Seeds emetic. 725. Hortensis. Seeds emetic. SALSOLA. 726. Kali. Yields Soda. 727. Sativa. Yields Soda. 728. Soda. Yields Soda. 729. Tragus. Yields Soda. PHYTOLACCACE^E. PHYTOLACCA. 730. Decandra. Root emetic. Said to cure psora and tsenia capitis. 264 MEDICAL BOTANY. POLYGONACE^E. COCCOLOBA. 731. Uvifera. Leaves, wood, and bark are astringent; the decoc- tion forms Jamaica Kino. RHEUM. 732. Emodi. Roots tonic, astringent, and purgative. Furnishes Indian Rhubarb. 737. Rhaponticum. Root bitter, astringent, and aromatic ; when chewed, mucilaginous. Rhubarb inferior. 738. Undulatum. Roots purgative and tonic. 739. Caspicum. Roots purgative and tonic. 740. Compactum. Roots purgative and tonic. 741. Palmatum. Roots purgative and tonic. 742. Crassinervium. Roots purgative and tonic. All produce Rhubarb ; Nos. 741 and 735 the best. RUMEX. 743. Crispus. Root astringent ; used in the form of ointment as a cure for the itch. 744. Obtusifolius. Root astringent ; employed as a dentifrice. 745. Acetosa. Plant agreeably acid. Acting as a refrigerant and diuretic. Produces Sorrel. 746. Alpinus. Root purgative. POLYGONUM. 747. Hydropiper. Leaves so acrid as to act as vesicants. A power- ful diuretic. Dyes wool yellow. 748. Bistorta. A powerful astringent. Decoction employed in gleet and leucorrhoea ; also in passive haemorrhages and diarrhoea. 749. Aviculare. Fruit emetic and cathartic. 751. Amphibium. Yields a false Sarsaparilla. PETIVERIACE^]. PETIVERIA. 752. Alliacea. All the parts acrid, sudorific, emmenagogue. The roots used as a remedy for tooth-ache. NYCTAGINACE^E. MlRABILIS. 754. Jalapa Root purgative. 755. Longiflora. Root exceedingly purgative. MEDICAL BOTANY. 265 PYROLACE^E. CHIMAPHILA. 775. Corymbosa. Leaves, stalks, and roots bitter-sweet, pungent. Diuretic. Fresh leaves acrid, acting as vesicants and rube- facients. Stomachic and tonic. ERICACEAE. RHODODENDRON. 776. Maximum. Astringent, narcotic. Acting as a poison. 777. Ponticum. Astringent, narcotic. Reported to be deleterious. 778. Chrysanthum. Leaves narcotic in a high degree ; useful in chronic rheumatism and venereal complaints. AZALEA. 779. Pontica. Qualities of the plant deleterious. LEDUM. 780. Latifolium. The leaves infused in beer produce head-ache and delirium ; although they have been used with advantage in agues, dysentery, and diarrhoea. 781. Palustre. Ditto. KALMIA. 782. Latifolia. Leaves poisonous to animals ; narcotic. Young shoots poisonous to man. A brown powder which adheres to them acts as a sternutatory. GAULTHEBIA. 783. Procumbens. Fruit contains an aromatic, sweet, pungent, vo- latile oil, which is antispasmodic and diuretic. A tincture useful in diarrhoea. ARBUTUS. 784. Unedo. A wine is made from the fruit, reported to be narcotic. ARCTOSTAPHYLOS. 785. Uva ursi. Leaves astringent and bitter. Used in nephritic and calculous cases. Diuretic. LOISELEURIA. 786. Procumbens. Useful as an astringent medicine. 266 MEDICAL BOTANY. VACCINACE^E. VACCINIUM. 787. Uliginosum. Fruit narcotic. The berries yield an intoxicating liquor. PRIMULACE^E. CYCLAMEN. 788. Hedersefolium. Root acrid ; acting as a drastic purgative, em- menagogue. PRIMULA. 789. Veris. Flowers sedative. Produces Cowslips. ANAGALLIS. 790. Arvensis. Acrid. Prescribed in epilepsy and dropsy. SAPOTACE^;. ACHKAS. 795. Sapota. Bark a powerful astringent. Seeds diuretic. EBENACE^E. DlOSPYRUS. 798. Virginiana. Bark a powerful astringent and febrifuge. STYRACE^E. STYRAX. 799. Officinale. A stimulating expectorant. Produces Storax. AQUIFOLIACE^]. ILEX. 801. Aquifolium. Root and bark emollient, expectorant, and diu- retic. Leaves febrifugal. PRINOS. 804-. Verticillatus. Bark a valuable tonic. Berries emetic, tonic, corroborant. CONVOLVULACE^;. IPOM^A. 807. Macrorhiza. Roots consisting of saccharine and farinaceous matter. Laxative. 809. Purga. Roots purgative. Produces jalap. BATATAS. 815. Paniculata. Roots cathartic. MEDICAL BOTANY. 267 PHARBITIS. 816. Nil. Seeds purgative. Said to be a quick cathartic. CONVOLVULUS. 817. Scammonia. Roots cathartic. Produces Scammony. 818. Althseoides. Roots purgative. CALYSTEGIA. 819. Sepium. Roots purgative. 820. Soldanella. Roots purgative. LOBELIACE.E. LOBELIA. 823. Inflata. An acrid narcotic, and powerful emetic. Used in asthma. In small doses expectorant and diaphoretic. 824. Siphilitica. Root acrid and emetic. Used as a remedy for siphilis. HlPPOBROMA. (ISOTOMA.) 825. Longiflorum. Acrid, venomous. TUPA. 826. Feuillsei. Acrid, venomous. The smell of the flowers said to produce vomiting. CINCHONACE.E. HYMENODICTYON. 856. Excelsum. Bark bitter and astringent. EXOSTEMA. 857. Caribaeum. Juice of the capsules produces a burning itching in the nostrils and lips. Bark febrifugal and emetic. 858. Floribundum. Bark febrifugal and emetic ; rather drastic. MANETTIA. 862. Cordifolia. Bark of the root a valuable remedy in dropsy and dysentery, acting as an emetic. RANDIA. 864. Dumetorum. Fruit narcotic, emetic. GARDENIA. 865. Campanulata. Fruit employed as a cathartic and anthelrnintic. COFFEA. 876. Arabica. Stimulating, aromatic. Produces Coffee. 268 MEDICAL BOTANY. CAPRIFOLIACE^E. TRIOSTEUM. 896. Perfoliatum. Bark of the root emetic and cathartic. Leaves diaphoretic. SAMBUCUS. 897. Ebulus. Roots cathartic. 898. Nigra. Juice of the fruit cooling, laxative, and diuretic. Bark purgative ; emetic. Flowers diaphoretic ; employed as ex- pectorants. Produces Elder- berries. GALIACE^E, OR STELLATE. RUBIA. 899. Tinctorum. Root used for dyeing. Said to be tonic, diuretic, and emmenagogue. Produces Madder. ASPERULA. 900. Odorata. Diuretic. ASTERACE^. LlATRIS. 904. Squarrosa Roots have a terebinthinous odour, and are diuretic and antisiphilitic. 905. Scariosa. Diuretic, antisiphilitic. EUPATORIUM. 907- Perfoliatum. All the parts bitter. A valuable tonic stimulant. In warm infusion or decoction emetic, sudorific, and aperient. TUSSILAGO. 913. Farfara. The leaves, smoked like tobacco, have been employed against dyspnoea. It is demulcent, bitter, and a slight tonic. ERIGERON. 914. Philadelphicum Used as a diuretic. STENACTIS. 915. Annua. Employed as a diuretic. SOLIDAGO. 9 1 6. Odora. Leaves yielding a volatile oil, which is aromatic, sti- mulant, diaphoretic, and carminative. INULA. 919. Helenium Tonic, diuretic, diaphoretic. Used in dyspepsia, and other diseases. Produces Elecampane. MEDICAL BOTANY. PULICARIA. 920. Dysenterica Astringent, diuretic. BIDENS. 921. Tripartita. The whole plant acrid. When chewed, it excites salivation. SPILANTHES. 923. Oleracea. The whole plant acts as a powerful stimulant of the salivary organs. ANTHEMIS. 925. Nobilis. Tonic, stimulant, emetic. Produces Chamomile heads. MARUTA. 926. Cotula. Every part is foetid and acrid. Its decoction is an active bitter, producing vomiting and sweating. ANACYCLUS. 927. Pyrethrum. Root hot, acrid, and permanent, depending on an acrid oil in the bark, which renders it a rubefacient and sti- mulant. PTARMICA. 928. Vulgaris. The whole plant is pungent, stimulant. Dried leaves produce sneezing. PYRETHRUM. 930. Parthenium. The whole plant is bitter ; considered tonic, sti- mulating, and anti-hysteric. ARTEMISIA. 932. Maritima. Bitter, tonic, aromatic. 936. Glacialis. Bitter, tonic, aromatic. 941. Dracunculus. Leaves pungent and stimulating. Is Tarra- gon. 943. Abrotanum. A powerful anthelmintic. Is Southern-wood. 944. Moxa. Furnishes a kind of Moxa. 945. Absinthium. A powerful bitter, tonic; extolled as a stomachic. Is Wormwood. TANACETUM. 946. Vulgare. Every part bitter. The qualities are of a tonic and cordial nature. Is Tansy. ARNICA. 948. Montana. A virulent plant, acting as a narcotico-acrid agent. 270 MEDICAL BOTANY. DORONICUM. 919. Pardalianches. Narcotico-acrid. CALENDULA. 950. Officinalis. Employed as a carminative. CYNARACE^E. CENTAUREA. 951. Calcitrapa. Bitter, febrifugal. 952. Centaurium. Bitter, febrifugal. 954. Jacea. Bitter, febrifugal. SlLYBUM. 956. Marianum. Leaves sudorific and aperient. LAPPA. 957. Minor. Root tonic, aperient, sudorific, and diuretic. Fruit bit- ter and acrid ; also used as a diuretic. CNICUS. 958. Benedictus. Febrifugal. CICHORACE^l. LACTUCA. 959. Virosa. Narcotic. 960. Sativa. Sedative. Produces Thridax. TARAXACUM. 961. Dens leonis. The infusion, decoction, and extract of the root are tonic and aperient. Diuretic. CICHORIUM. 962. Intybus. Root tonic and aperient. Used in decoction in chro- nic visceral and cutaneous diseases. VALERIANACEJE. VALERIANA. 964. Officinalis. Roots foetid, stimulant, and narcotic. Employed as an anthelmintic. Produces Valerian-root. PLANTAGINACE^. PLANTAGO. 968. Psy Ilium. Seeds mucilaginous, demulcent. 970. Cynops. Seeds mucilaginous, demulcent. 971. Lanceolata. Leaves and roots bitter, astringent. Used as an expectorant and vulnerary. MEDICAL BOTANY. 27 1 GLOBULARIACE7E. GLOBULARIA. 972. Alypum. A bitter, drastic purgative. 973. Vulgaris. A bitter, drastic purgative, employed as a resolvent and vulnerary. PLUMBAGINACEJE. STATICE. 976. Caroliniana. Root intensely astringent. ABMERIA. 977. Vulgaris. Flowers an active diuretic. PLUMBAGO. 978. Europaea Very acrid; used to remove tooth-ache. An effec- tual emetic. 979. Rosea. Acrid, vesicant. 981. Zeylanica. Acrid, vesicant. BORAGINACE^:. BORAGO. 984. Officinalis. Root mucilaginous. Pectoral, emollient. Is Bo- rage. SYMPHYTUM. 986. Officinale Reputed vulnerary, esculent. CYNOGLOSSUM. 987. Officinale Fffitid, narcotic, antispasmodic. ? ? LAMIACE^ OR LABIATE. LAVANDULA. 995. Vera. Flowers carminative, stimulant, and tonic ; used with the leaves as sternutatories. Produces Lavender. 996. Spica. Yields oil of spike. 997. Stoechas. Considered expectorant and antispasmodic. MENTHA. 999. Viridis. Aromatic and carminative. Produces Spearmint. 272 MEDICAL BOTANY. MENTHA. 1000. Piperita. An aromatic stimulant. Volatile oil antispasmo- dic. Produces Peppermint. 1001. Pulegium. Aromatic, antispasmodic. 1002. Citrata. Furnishes a fragrant oil. 1003. Rotundifolia. Stomachic and emmenagogue. 1004-. Aquatica. Stomachic and emmenagogue. 1005. Arvensis. Stomachic and emmenagogue. LYCOPUS. 1006 a. Europseus. A febrifuge, commended as an astringent. SALVIA. 1008. Officinalis. Qualities aromatic, bitter, and stomachic. 1009. Grandiflora. Qualities aromatic, bitter, and stomachic. ROSMARINUS. 1010. Officinalis. Employed as a cephalic medicine. MONAEDA. 1011. Fistulosa Bitter, aromatic, febrifugal. AMABACUS. 1013. Dictamnus. Aromatic and tonic. ORIGANUM. 1014. Vulgare. Pungent, stimulant, and fragrant. Produces Mar- joram. THYMUS. 1015. Vulgaris. Pungent, stimulant, and fragrant. 1016. Serpyllum. Pungent, stimulant, and fragrant. HYSSOPUS. 1017. Officinalis. Stimulating, stomachic, carminative. MELISSA. 1020. Calamintha. Aromatic, bitter, febrifugal. SCUTELLABIA. 1021. Lateriflora Reputed to be a remedy for hydrophobia. NEPETA. 1022. Cataria It acts as a real aphrodisiac on cats. Used also in amenorrhoea. 1023. Glechoma Expectorant, anti-hysterical. Produces Ground Ivy. MEDICAL BOTANY. 273 LEONURUS. 1024. Cardiaca. Stimulant. Formerly used against canine madness. STACHYS. 1026. Betonica. Stimulating. Root emetic and purgative. MABBUBIUM. 1027. Vulgare. Herb, bitter, aromatic. Recommended as stimu- lating and tonic. Expectorant. Is Horehound. VERBENACE.E. VlTEX. 1030. Trifolia. Leaves powerfully discutient. Fruit acrid. 1031. Agnus castus. Fruit acrid, stimulant. STACHYTABPHA. 1036. Jamaicensis. The expressed juice purgative; employed for clysters, and as an anthelmintic. BIGNONIACE^E. CATALPA. 1037. Syringifolia. Leaves and bark bitter, expectorant. BIGNONIA. 1038. Antisiphilitica. Discutient, anti- venereal. ACANTHACE^;. RHINACANTHUS. 1039. Communis. Milk boiled on the roots is considered aphrodi- siacal ; also alexipharmic. ACANTHUS. 1043. Mollis. Leaves emollient. ADHATODA. 1045. Vasica. Flowers, leaves, and roots anti spasmodic, bitter, and sub-aromatic. ANDOGBAPHIS. 1046. Paniculata. Stomachic, used as a remedy for cholera and dysentery. Said to be alexipharmic. SCROPHULARIACE^E. DIGITALIS. 1047. Purpurea Diuretic, narcotic. Is Foxglove. T 27-i MEDICAL BOTANY. SCROPHULARIA. 1048. Nodosa. Leaves and roots purgative and emetic, with a bitter taste. 1049. Aquatica. Leaves and roots purgative and emetic, but less so than the last. HEBPESTES. 1 050. Monniera. Antirheumatic. CALCEOLARIA. 1053. Pinnata. Leaves purgative and emetic. LINARIA. 1054. Vulgaris. Bitter, purgative, and diuretic. Flowers used as a wash for chronic diseases of the skin. 1055. Cymbalaria. Recommended as an antiscorbutic. Diuretic. EUPHRASIA. 1059. Officinalis. Slightly bitter and aromatic, ophthalmic. GRATIOLA. 1060. Officinalis. Bitter, acting as a purgative and emetic. Useful in cases of hypochondriasis. SCOPARIA. 1061. Dulcis. -Febrifugal ? Expressed juice mucilaginous, and used as a cooling laxative. VERSA SCUM. 1062. Nigrum. Sub-narcotic. SOLANACE^l. HYOSCYAMUS. 1065. Niger. A powerful narcotic. Is Henbane. ATROPA. 1066. Belladonna. A dangerous narcotic. Every part of the plant poisonous. In medicine it is narcotic, diaphoretic, and diuretic. Is Deadly Nightshade. CAPSICUM. 1067. Annuum. Fruit and seeds stimulant, pungent. 1067 a. Frutescens. Fruit and seeds stimulant, more pungent. 1067 b. Baccatum. Fruit and seeds stimulant, very pungent. DATURA. 1068. Tatula A violent narcotic poison. Employed externally as an anodyne and sedative. MEDICAL BOTANY. 275 DATURA. 1069. Stramonium. A violent narcotic poison. Employed exter- nally as an anodyne and sedative. PHYSALIS. 1072. Alkekengi. Diuretic, employed in veterinary practice. NICANDBA. 1073. Physaloides. Diuretic. SOLANUM. 1074. Nigrum. Stimulating, narcotic. 1076. Dulcamara. Berries bitter and poisonous. Plant narcotic and diaphoretic. NICOTIAN A. 1081. Tabacum. A stimulant narcotic, employed as an errhine ; in infusion as an expectorant and sedative ; in vapour as an antispasmodic. Produces Virginian Tobacco. 1082. Rustica. A stimulant narcotic, much more mild in its opera- tion. Produces Syrian Tobacco. 1083. Persica A stimulating narcotic, less mild in its operation. Produces Persian Tobacco. CESTRACE^E. OESTRUM. 1087. Laurifolium. Febrifugal, used externally as an astringent. GENTIANACE^:. GENTIANA. 1088. Catesbsei. Bitter, tonic, febrifugal. 1089. Amarella. Bitter, tonic, febrifugal. 1090. Campestris. Bitter, tonic, febrifugal. 1091. Purpurea. Bitter, tonic, febrifugal. 1095. Lutea. Bitter, tonic, febrifugal. Root anthelmintic. Pro- duces the Gentian-root of the shops. FRAZERA. 1097. Carolinensis. Root bitter, emetic, cathartic. ERYTHR^A. 1099. Centaurium. Bitter, tonic, febrifugal. Used in rustic phar- macy. T 2 276 MEDICAL BOTANY. MENYANTHES. 1105. Trifoliata. All the plant bitter. A valuable tonic, emetic, diaphoretic. VILLARSIA. 1106. Nymphseoides. Stems bitter, tonic, and febrifugal. SPIGELIA. 1 1 07. Marilandica. Root and leaves are active anthelmintics ; also purgative and narcotic. Produces Wormseed. APOCYNACE^E. CERBERA. 1111. Manghas Kernels emetic and poisonous; the milky sap employed as a purgative. 1113. Thevetia. Bark bitter, cathartic, and a powerful febrifuge. ALLAMANDA. 1125. Cathartica. An infusion of the leaves a valuable cathartic. In over-doses emetic and purgative. NERIUM. 1128. Oleander. Acrid, stimulating, poisonous. APOCYNUM. 1130. Androssemifolium. Every part lactescent. Root bitter, tonic, acting as an emetic. 1131. Cannabinum. Emetic ; in decoction diuretic and diaphoretic. PLUMIERA. 1137. Rubra. Milk corrosive. ASCLEPIADACE^:. ASCLEPIAS. 1141. Tuberosa. Root expectorant and diaphoretic; employed in catarrh, pneumony, and pleurisy. Useful as a tonic and stimulant. 1143. Curassavica. Roots purgative and emetic. CALOTROPIS. 1144. Gigantea.The juices of the root and bark are used as altera- tives and purgatives. Produces Mudar. 1145. Procera Juice acrid; also a powerful depilatory. CYNANCHUM. 1148. Vincetoxicum. Emetic and purgative, celebrated as an an- tidote to poisons. MEDICAL BOTANY. 277 OLEACE.E. OLEA. 1157. Europsea. The fruit yields an oil, which is demulcent, emollient, and laxative. Bark bitter and astringent. Pro- duces Olive oil. OBNUS. 1158. Europaea. The branches yield true Manna. A gentle laxative. 1159. Rotundifolia. The branches yield Manna of a better quality. FBAXINUS. 1 160. Excelsior. Leaves cathartic. Bark tonic and febrifugal. SYRINGA. 1161. Vulgaris. Bark tonic, bitter, and febrifugal. CYCADACE^E. CYCAS. 1 1 62. Revoluta. Farinaceous. ZAMIA. 1 169. Furfuracea. Yields a kind of Arrow-root. :, OR CONIFERS. PIN us. 1170. Sylvestris. Terebinthinous, resinous. Produces Turpentine, Pitch. 1171. Pumilio -- Terebinthinous, resinous. Produces Hungarian balsam. 1 1 72. Pinaster. Terebinthinous, resinous. Produces Bordeaux tur- pentine. 1173. Cembra. Terebinthinous, resinous. Produces Carpathian balsam. ABIES. 1174. Picea. Terebinthinous, resinous. Produces Strasburgh tur- pentine. 1175. Balsamea. Terebinthinous, resinous. Produces Canada bal- sam. 1176. Larix. Terebinthinous, resinous. Produces Venice turpentine. CALLITRIS. 1177. Quadrivalvis. Resinous. Produces Sandarach. 278 MEDICAL BOTANY. JUNIPERUS. 1 1 78. Communis. Fruit sudorific, carminative ; the oil a very pow- erful diuretic. Produces Juniper-berries. 1179. Virginiana. The oil is a powerful stimulant, acting as a rubefacient and vesicant. In amenorrhoea it acts as an emmenagogue. Diuretic. Is Savin. 1180. Sabina. Oil a powerful stimulant, acting as a rubefacient and vesicant. In amenorrhoea it acts as an emmenagogue. Diuretic. Is Savin. TAXACE^E. TAXUS. 1181. Baccata. Leaves fetid, very poisonous, acting like Digitalis. Berries harmless. Is the Yew. ZINGIBERACE.E. ZlNGIBEB. 1 1 82. Officinale. A valuable aromatic, carminative, stimulant, sia- lagogue. Produces Ginger. CURCUMA. 1186. Zedoaria. Root aromatic, stomachic, carminative. Produces Zedoary. 1189. Longa. Bitter, aromatic, stimulant, tonic. Used in dyeing. Produces Turmeric. K^EMPFEHIA. 1 1 92. Galanga. The roots have an agreeable smell, and warm bitter aromatic taste. 1193. Rotunda. The roots have an agreeable smell, and warm bitter aromatic taste. MARANTACEjE. MARANTA. 1204. Arundinacea. Amylaceous. Reckoned a powerful alexiphar- mic. Produces Arrow-root. CANNA. 1 205. Edulis. Amylaceous. 1206. Coccinea. Amylaceous. Produces Tous les mois. AMARYLLIDACE.E. CRINUM. 1207. Asiaticum. Bulbs powerfully emetic, poisonous. MEDICAL BOTANY. 279 OPORANTHUS. 1208. Luteus Bulbs purgative. BRUNSVIGIA. 1209. Toxicaria. Juice of the bulbs a dangerous poison. Used to envenom arrows. NARCISSUS. 1210. Poeticus. Bulbs emetic, poisonous. 1211. Pseudo-narcissus. Bulbs and flowers emetic, poisonous. 1212. Tazzetta. Emetic and poisonous. PANCRATIUM. 1213. Maritimum. Emetic. ALSTR(EMERIA. 1214. Salsilla. Diuretic and diaphoretic. IRIDACE^E. IRIS. 1216. Versicolor. Rhizoma nauseous and acrid ; an active cathartic. Useful as a diuretic. 1217. Pseud-acorus. Rhizoma acrid; possessing purgative and emetic properties. 1218. Florentina Rhizoma a sub-acrid, aromatic, bitter substance. Produces Orris-root. CROCUS. 1219. Sativus. Stimulant. Used as carminative, antispasmodic. and emmenagogue. Produces Saffron. ORCHIDACE^E. ORCHIS. 1221. Mascula. Amylaceous, demulcent. Produces Salep. BLETIA. 1225. Verecunda. Bitter, stimulant, stomachic. PALMACE^E. CARYOTA. 1232. Urens. Amylaceous. Produces Sago. CALAMUS. 1233. Draco. Astringent. 280 MEDICAL BOTANY. ELAIS. 1234. Guineensis. Oleaginous, astringent. Produces Palm oil. MELANTHACE^E. VERATRUM. 1236. Viride. Roots an acrid emetic, stimulant, sedative. Produces White Hellebore. 1237. Album. A small dose acts as an emetic; a large causes vomiting and purging. Produces White Hellebore. 1238. Sabadilla. Seeds acrid; used as anthelmintics. A dangerous stimulant. HELONIAS. 1241. Erythrosperma. Plant a narcotic poison. Used for destroying flies. 1 242. Dioica. Root in infusion anthelmintic ; in tincture bitter and tonic. GYKOMIA. 1243. Virginica. Root diuretic, hydragogue. TRILLIUM. 1244. Erectum. Rhizoma violently emetic ; fruit suspicious. COLCHICUM. 1246. Autumnale. Sudorific, emetic, purgative. Used as an an- thelmintic. A narcotico-acrid poison. Is the Meadow Saffron. LILIACE.E. ERYTHRONIUM. 1247. Americanum. Root and leaves emetic. ALETRIS. 1249. Farinosa. Very bitter. Used in infusion as a tonic and sto- machic. Emetic. SQUILL A. 1250. Maritima Bulbs acrid, vesicant, emetic, diuretic, expectorant. Produces Squills. ALLIUM. 1255. Sativum. Bulbs stimulant, expectorant, and diuretic. Used as anthelmintics. Produces Garlic. 1256. Cepa. Stimulant, diuretic, expectorant, and rubefacient. Pro- duces Onions. MEDICAL BOTANY. 281 DRACAENA. 1258. Draco. Tonic, astringent, resinous, employed in diarrhoea. Produces Dragon's blood. 1259. Terminalis. Roots astringent, useful in dysentery. 1260. Ferrea. Roots astringent, useful in dysentery. ALOE. 1261. Vulgaris. Purgative. Produces Barbadoes Aloes. 1262. Socotrina. Purgative, bitter, aromatic. Produces Socotrine and Mocha Aloes. 1263. Purpurascens. Purgative, bitter, aromatic. Produces Soco- trine Aloes. 1264. Spicata. Purgative. Produces Cape Aloes and Horse Aloes. 1265. Arborescens. Purgative. Produces Cape Aloes and Horse Aloes. 1266. Commelyni. Purgative. Produces Cape Aloes and Horse Aloes. 1267. Mitriformis. Purgative. Produces Cape Aloes and Horse Aloes. SMILACE^E. SMILAX. 1269. Aspera. Emetic, diaphoretic, narcotic. Produces Italian Sar- saparilla. 1270. Sarsaparilla. Emetic, diaphoretic, narcotic. 1272. Siphilitica. Emetic, diaphoretic, narcotic. Produces Lisbon Sarsaparilla. ARACE.E. ARUM. 1280. Maculatum. Tubers amylaceous, stimulant, diaphoretic, and expectorant; juice acrid, poisonous. Produces Portland Sago. COLOCASIA. 1282. Esculenta. Acrid, sialagogue, amylaceous. SYMPLOCARPUS. 1285. Foetidus. Tubers acrid, antispasmodic, hydragogue. DlEFFENBACHIA. 1289. Seguina. An exceedingly venomous plant. The juice im- parts an indelible stain to linen. 282 MEDICAL BOTANY. ACORACE^E. ACORUS. 1290. Calamus. Rhizoma aromatic, bitter, stomachic. Adapted to cases of dyspepsia. Produces Calamus aromaticus. GRAMINACE^E. LOLIUM. 1292. Temulentum. A narcotico-acrid poison. Used as a sedative poultice. Produces Darnel. TBITICUM. 1293. Vulgare. Amylaceous. Produces Wheat. HORDEUM. 1294. Vulgare. Nutritive. Produces Barley. SECALE. 1295. Cereale. Origin of Ergot. BROMUS. 1296. Mollis. Narcotic. 1297. Purgans. Emetic. AVENA. 1300. Sativa. Nutritive. Produces Groats. ANDROPOGON. 1302. Schoenanthus. Leaves stomachic, aromatic, bitter. SACCHARUM. 1305. Officinarum. Nutritive. An antidote to arsenic. Produces Sugar. CYPERACE^:. CYPERUS. 1 306. Longus. Stomachic. 1 307. Rotundus. Stomachic. Tubers useful in cholera. CAREX. 1308. Arenaria. Creeping stems diaphoretic, demulcent, and altera- tive. Produces German Sarsaparilla. 1309. Hirta. Creeping stems diaphoretic, demulcent, and alterative. Produces German Sarsaparilla. 1310. Intermedia. Creeping stems diaphoretic, demulcent, and al- terative. Produces German Sarsaparilla. MEDICAL BOTANY. 283 XYRIDACE^E. XYRIS. 1311. Indica. Used against ringworm. FILICALES. ADIANTUM. 1315. Capillus Veneris. Rhizoma astringent and aromatic, pectoral ; the decoction emetic. 1316. Pedatum. Rhizoma astringent and aromatic, pectoral ; the decoction emetic. PTEBIS. 1317. Aquilina. Rhizoma astringent and anthelmintic. Used as a substitute for Hops. NEPHKODIUM. 1318. Filix mas. Rhizoma anthelmintic. OSMUNDA. 1319. Regalis. Rhizoma tonic and styptic, useful in cases of rachitis. INDEX. ACANTHACE.E, 154, 273. Acanthales, 217. Aceraceae, 109. Acerales, 203. Achenium, 5.9, 63. Achlamydeous, 41. Aclilamydosse, 209. Acoraceae, 185, 282. Acotyledonous, 67. Acrogenous, 12. Acrogens, 18, 68, 191. Actinenchyma, 3. Acuminate, 29. Acute, 29. Acute-angled, 20. Adherent, 230. Adventitious leaf-buds, 23. -ffisculaceae, 109, 249. -(Estivation, 36. jEtheogamous plants, 91. Age of Exogenous trees, 1 4. Aggregosae, 213. Aigrette, 41.- Air-vessels, 6. Albumen, 65. Alburnum, 15. Algaceae, 69, 195. Algae, 195. Alismaceae, 185. Alismales, 221. Alliances of plants, 197. Alsineae, 104. Alternate, 37. Amarantaceae, 158. Amaryllidaceae, 177, 278. Amentales, 209. Amentum, 38. Amomales, 220. Amphigamous plants, 91. Amphitropous, 55. Amplexicaul, 25. Ampulla, 25. Amygdalae, 123, 255. Amyridaceae, 124. Anacardiaceae, 119, 259. Analytical method, 78. Anatropous, 55. Andraeaceae, 193. Andrceceum, 45. Angular, 27. Aiuiular, 6. Annulus, 69, 73. Anonaceae, 92. . Anonales, 199. Anther, 45, 46. Antheridia, 71. Anthocarpous, 59. Antitropous, 67. Apex, 54, 57. Apiaceae, 134, 242. Apocarpous, 50. Apocynaceae, 146, 276. Apophysis, 69. Apothecia, 71. Appendages of the axis, 9. Aquifoliaceae, 144, 266. Araceae, 186, 281. Arales, 222. Araliaceae, 133, 245. Araneose, 9. Arcuate, 66. Aril, 63. Aristolochiaceae, 162, 263. Aristolochiales, 212. Arrow-headed, 27. Articulated, 18. pitted tissue, 4. Artocarpeae, 167. Ascending, 18. Asci, 71. Ascidium, 25. Asclepiadacese, 1 46, 276. Assimilating power, 32. Asteraceae, 138, 268. Asterales, 215. Atractenchyma, 3. Atropous, 55. Aurantiaceae, 106, 251. Auriculate, 25, 26. Axis, 9. Balanophoracege, 174. Balausta, 62. Balsamaceae, 262. Balsamales, 208. Balsaminaceae, 114. Bark, 15. Base, 57. Basidia, 72. Begoniaceae, 158. Begoniales, 202. Berberaceae, 94, 245. INDEX. 285 Berberales, 200. Berry, 61. Betulaceae, 168,259. Bignoniaceae, 147, 273. Bignoniales, 217. Bijugute, 28. Bipinnate, 28. Biserrate, 29. Biternate, 28. BixaceJE, 100, 248. Bixales, 203. Boraginaceae, 150, 271. Bothrenchyma, 4. Bourgeon, 20. Bouton, 20. Bract, 35. Bractlets, 35. Bracteolae, 35. Branched cellular tissue, 3. Brassicaceae, 97, 247. Brexiales, 213. Bromeliaceae, 179. Bromeliales, 220. Brunoniales, 216. Bryaceae, 192. Bud, embryo, 9. Buds, 20. Bulbills, 21. Bulblets, 21. Bulbs, 21, 22. Butomaceae, 183. Cactaceae, 131. Caesalpinieae, 120. Calcarate, 42. Calceolate, 42. Callitrichales,211. Calycanthaceae, 124. Calyciflone, 91, 117. Calyptra, 70. Calyptrate, 42. Calyx, 40, 41, 54. Cambium, 17. Campanales, 2 1 5. Campanulaceae, 142. Campanulate, 42. Campylotropous, 55. Canellese, 248. Capillitium, 73. Capitulum, 38. Capparidaceae, 98, 247. Capriales, 215. Caprifoliaceae, 136, 268. Capsule, 60, 63. Carpel, 50. Carunculae, 64. Caryophyllaceae, 104. Caryopsis, 60, 63. Casuarales, 210. Caudate, 60. Caudicle, 48. Cauliculus, 66. Cedrelaceae, 111,250. Celastraceae, 117, 253. Cellular, 2. Cellular plants, 91. Cells, 47. Central, 50. Centrifugal, 39. Centripetal, 39. Cercodiaceae, 127. Cestraceae, 275. Chalaza, 55, 65. Chamaelaucieae, 126. Channelled, 25. Characeae, 192. Charales, 224. Chenopodales, 212. Chenopodiaceae, 156, 263. Chloranthaceae, 164, 261. Chlorophyll, 2. Chromogen, 2. Chromule, 2. Chrysobalanaceae, 124. Cichoraceae, 1 39, 270. Cinchonaceae, 136, 267. Cinchonales, 215. Cinenchyma, 6. Circaeeae, 127. Cistaceae, 100, 249. Cistales, 204. Cladenchyma, 3. destines, 3. Closed, 6. Cloves, 21. Clusiaceae, 108. Cocci, 60. Cocculales, 212. Collar, 66, 73. Colpenchyma, 3. Columella, 58, 69. Column, 46. Columnosae, 209. Coma, 64. Combretaceae, 124, 245. Commelynaceae, 183. Commelynales, 221. Commissure, 58, 61. Compositae, 138. Compound, 40. organs, 9. Compressed, 20. cellular tissue, 3. Cone, 63. Conenchyma, 3. Conical, 11. cellular tissue, 3. Coniferce, 171, 277. Coniocysta, 72. Conjugato-pinnate, 28. Connective, 46. Consolidated, 230. Continuous pitted (tissue), 4. Convolvulaceae, 1 49, 266. 286 INDEX. Convolute, 37, 67. Coralline, 11. Cordate, 26. Cordate-acuminate, 26. Cordate-ovate, 26. Cordiaceae, 150. Coriariaceae, 117, 254. Coriales, 207. Corm, 19, 21. Cormogens, 230. Cornaceae, 133, 246. Cornales, 201. Corolla, 40, 42. Coroniform, 42. Cortina, 73. Corylaceae, 169,259. Corymb, 39. Corymbiferae, 139. Cotyledons, 66. Coussinet, 25. Crassales, 208. Crassulaceae, 131,258. Creeping, 18. Cremocarp, 61. Crenate, 29. Crisp, 29. Cruciales, 202. Cruciferae, 97, 247. Cryptogamous plants, 90. Cucurbitaceee, 129, 246. Cucurbitales, 202. Cuneate, 27. Cup, 48. Cupule, 61. Cupuliferae, 169. Curled, 29. Curvembryosae, 209. Cuticle, 7. Cycadaceae, 170, 277. Cylindrenchyma, 3. Cylindrical tissue, 3. Cyme, 39. Cynaraceae, 139, 270. Cyperaceae, 188,282. Cyrtandraceae, 147. Cystidia, 72. Cytinaceae, 174. Cytoblast, 2, 4. Dasdalenchyma, 3. Danaeaceae, 191. Daphnales, 211. Datiscales, 210. Decompound, 28. Deformed, 18. Dehisce, 58. Dehiscence, 47, 58. Dehiscent, 58. Dentate, 29. Diplecolobeae, 97. Diachyma, 26. Diadelphous, 46. Dicarposae, 213. Dicotyledonous, 67. Dictyogens, 12, 230. Didynamous, 46. Digitate, 28. Dilated, 42. Dilleniacese, 95. Dioscoreaceae, 178. Diploe, 26. Dipsaceoe, 137. Dipsales, 216. Dipteraceae, 106. Disciform, 13. Disk, 48. Dissepiments, 52. Dissolved, 230. Disunited, 230. Divergent, 67. Dorsal suture, 58. Dotted ducts, 4. Double, 42. Droseraceae, 101. Drupe, 59, 63. Ducts, 4, 5. Duplicato-dentate, 29. Ebenaceae, 144, 266. Echiales, 216. Elaeagnacese, 160. Elatinaceae, 104. Elementary organs, 2. Emarginate, 29. Embryo, 10, 65, 66. buds, 23. Empetraceae, 162. Endocarp, 57. Endogenae, 173. Endogenous, 12. Endogens, 17. Endophkeum, 15. Endopleura, 64. Endorhizae, 68. Endothecium, 48. Entangled cellular tissue, 3. Entire, 29. Epicarp, 57. Epidermis, 15. Epigynosae, 213, 219. Epigynous, 46. Epiphkeum, 15. Epiphyllous, 37. Equisetaceae, 192. Erect, 66. Ericaceae, 143, 265. Ericales, 213. Escalloniaceae, 133. Etaerio, 61. Etiolated, 33. Euphorbiaceae, 162, 251. Euphorbiales, 205. Excentrical, 66. Excipulus, 72. INDEX. 287 Exogenae, 91. Exogens, 13. Exogenous, 12. Exorhizae, 68. Exostome, 55. Expansion, order of, 37. Extra-axillary, 37. Fabaceae, 119,256. False-bark, 17. Fasciculate, 11. Female organs, 49. Ferns, 69. Ferula, 13. Funiculus, 54. Fibro-cellular tissue, 3. Ficoidales, 202. Ficoideae, 131. Fig, 63. Filaments, 45, 46. Filicales, 191,223,283. Filices, 191. Flacourtiaceae, 100. Flat, 67. Flocci, 73. Florkeales, 207. Floral envelopes, 35, 40. Floridae, 174. Flower-bearing stems, 1 8. Flower-buds, 20, 34. Flower-leaf, 35. Flowering plants, 90. Flowerless plants, 68, 90. Fluviales, 185,222. Foliaceous, 67. Foliola, 28. Follicle, 59. Food of plants, 30. Foramen, 55. Forked, 46. Frankeniaceae, 103. Fruit, 57. Fuchsieae, 127. Fumarieae, 96, 241. Fungaceae, 69, 72, 195. Fungales, 224. Fungi, 195. Fungous, 67. Funnel-shaped, 42. Fusiform cellular tissue, 3. Galbulus, 63. Galeate, 42. Galiaceae, 141,268. Gamopetalous, 42. Gamosepalous, 41. Gemmation, 30. Gemmule, 66. Gentianaceae, 148, 275. Gentianales, 218. Geraniaceae, 113, 254. Geraniales, 206. Gesneraceae, 142. Gland, 61. Glandular hairs, 8, 9. Gleicheniaceae, 191. Globulariaceae, 154, 271. Globuli, 72. Glochidiate, 9. Glomeruli, 72. Glumaceae, 188. Glumes, 35. Glumosae, 219. Gongyli, 71, 72. Goodeniaceae, 141. Goodeniales, 215. Graminaceae, 189, 282. Granada, 72. Grossales, 200. Grossulaceae, 132, 245. Guttales, 203. Guttiferae, 108. Gymnogens, 230. Gynandrosae, 219. Gynandrous, 46. Gynobase, 49. Gynoeceum, 49. Gynophore, 50. Gyroma, 71. Hairs, 8. Half-terete, 20. Halorageae, 128. Hamamelaceae, 133. Hastate, 27. Heart- wood, 15. Heliacal, 66. Hepaticae, 194. Hernandiaceae, 262. Heterotropous, 67. Hilum, 64. Hippurideae, 127. Homogens, 230. Humiriaceae, 112. Hydrales, 220. Hydrocharaceae, 174. Hydrophyllaceae, 151. Hymenium, 73. Hypericaceae, 107, 248. Hypha, 72. Hypogynosae, 219. Hypogynous, 45. Hypothecium, 71. Illecebraceae, 130. Imbricate, 37. Impregnation, 56. Indehiscent, 58. Indifferent, 44. Induplicate, 37. Indusium, 69. Inenchyma, 3. Inferior, 42, 54. Inflated, 25. 288 INDEX. Inflorescence, 37. Intercellular passages, 2. Internodes, 19. Interruptedly pinnate, 28. Inverted, 66. Involucre, 35. Iridaceae, 179, 279. Irregular, 43. Irritability, 33. Ixiales, 220. Jasminacese, 146. Jointed, 25. Juglandacese, 170, 261. Juncaceae, 182. Juncaginaceae, 184. Juncales, 221. Jungermanniaceae, 193. knotted, 18. Labiales, 217. Labiatae, 271. Labiate, 42. Labiatiflorae, 139. Lacunae, 72. Lamiaceae, 153, 271. Lamina, 24, 25. Lanceolate, 26. Latex, 6, 16. Laticiferous, 6. Lauraceae, 158, 262. Laureales, 211. Leaf, simple, 26. Leaf-buds, 10, 20, 22. adventitious, 23 deciduous, 21. normal, 22. Leafless, 18, 25. Leaflets, 28. Leafy, stem, 18. Leaves, 23. compound, 28. Legume, 59, 63. Leguminosse, 119, 256. Lentibales, 217. Lentibulaceae, 154. Lenticular, 67. glands, 6. Leptospermeae, 126. Liber, 4, 15. Lichenaceae, 194. Lichenes, 194. Lichens, 69. Lignification, matter of, 2. Liliaceae, 180, 280. Liliales, 221. Limb, 41, 43. Linacese, 114, 249. Linnean Sexual System, 76. Lirella, 71. Loasaceae, 129. Lobeliaceae, 142, 267. Lobes, 46. Loculicidal, 58. Loganiales, 218. Lomentaceous, 59. Loranthaceae, 135. Lycopodales, 224. Lycopodiaceae, 191. Lymphatic hairs, 8, 9. Lyrate, 28. Lythracea:, 124, 250. Mace, 63. Magnoliaceae, 95, 242. Male organs, 45. Malpighiaceae, 110. Malvaceae, 105, 250. Malvales, 204. Marantaceae, 177, 278. Marchantiacese, 194. Marginal placenta, 50. Medical Botany, 239. Medulla, 3. Medullary plates, 16. rays, 16. sheath, 13. Melanthaceaa, 181, 280. Melastomaceae, 124. Meliaceae, 112,250. Meliales, 205. Menispermaceae, 93. Merenchyma, 3. Mericarps, 61. Mesembryaceae, 131. Mesophkeum, 15. Mesophyllum, 26. Mesosperm, 64. Micropyle, 65. Midrib, 26. Mimoseae, 121. Monadelphous, 46. Moniliform, 11. Monimiales, 210. Monochlamydeae, 91. Monocotyledonous, 67. Monopetalous, 42. Monophyllous, 41. Monosepalous, 41. Moringaceae, 248. Mosses, 69, 70. Mucronate, 29. Mucus, organic, 2, 4. Multangular, 20. Multiple, 59. Muriform cellular tissue, 1 6. Musaceae, 177. Muscales, 224. Musci, 192. Mycelia, 73. Myricaceae, 168, 260. Myristicaceae, 160, 242. Myrsinaceae, 145. Myrtaceae, 126, 24 >. INDEX. 289 Myrtales, 201. Myrteze, 126. Naiadaceae, 185. Naked, 41. Narcissales, 220. Natural System of De Candolle, 90. Nectary, 43, 49. Nelumbiaceae, 95. Nepenthales, 212. Nervures, 26. Nodes, 19. Nodose, 11. Nolanales, 214. Normal leaf-buds, 22. Notorhizeae, 97. Nucamentosae, 213. Nuclei, 21. Nucleus, 54, 71. Nuculanium, 61. Nut, 61, 63. Nyctaginacese, 157, 264. Nymphaeaceae, 94, 241. Oblique, 26, 42. Oblong, 26. Obscurely triquetrous, 20. Obtuse, 29. angled, 20. Ochreae, 29. Octangular, 20. CEnothereae, 127. Oleacese, 145, 277. Oleales,218. Onagraceae, 126. Onagrales, 201. One-lipped, 43. Operculum, 70. Ophioglossaceae, 191. Oplarium, 71. Opophora, 6. Opposite, 23. the leaves (inflorescence), 37. Orange, 62. Orbicular, 26. Orbiculi, 73. Orbilla, 71. Orchidaceae, 279. Organs, compound, 9. elementary, 2. Orobanchaceae, 152. Orthoploceae, 97. Orthotropous, 55, 67. Osmundaceae, 191. Ostiolum, 73. Oval, 26. cellular tissue, 3. Ovary, 49, 54. Ovate, 26. Ovenchyma, 3. Ovule, 48, 50, 54. Oxalidaceae, 114, 254. Paleae, 35. Paleaceous, 60. Palmaceae, 183, 279. Palmales, 221. Palmate, 28. Pandales, 222. Panduriform, 28. Panicle, 39. Papaveraceae, 98, 241. Papayaceae, 248. Papilionaceae, 120. Papilionaceous, 42, 43. Pappose, 60. Pappus, 41. Parenchyma, 8. Parietal, 52. Passifloraceae, 129, 248. Passionales, 203. Patellula, 71. Pedate, 28. Pedicels, 36. Peduncle, 36. Pelta, 71. Peltate, 9, 26. Penaeales, 211. Pepo, 62. Perianthium, 41. Pericarp, 57. Peridiolum, 72. Perigonium, 41. Perigynous, 45. Perisperm, 65. Peristome, 69. Perithecium, 71, 73. Petals, 42. Petiole, 24. Petiolar, 37. Petivales, 212. Petiveriaceae, 156, 264. Pha?nogamous plants, 90. Phaceliales, 216. Phanerogamous plants, 90. Philadelphaceae, 125. Phragmata, 53. Phycomater, 72. Phyllodium, 24. Physiological Botany, 1. Phytolaccaceae, 156, 263. Pileus, 73. Pinaceaa, 171,277. Pine-apple, 63. Pinnate, 28. Pinnatitid, 28. Piperaceae, 164, 261. Piperales, 210. Pistil, 49. Pistillidium, 71. Pitcher, 25. Pith, 13. Pitted tissue, 4. Pittosporaceae, 114. Pittosporales, 200. U 290 INDEX. Placentiform, 11. Piano-compressed, 20. Plantaginaceae, 155, 270. Plantales, 216. Platanaceae, 166. Pleurenchyma, 4. Pleurorhizese, 97. Plicative, 37. Plumbaginaceae, 154, 271. Plumbales, 216. Plumose, 60. Plumule, 66. Podetia, 71. Podophylleae, 241. Podospenn, 54. Podostemales, 210. Polemoniaceae, 148. Pollen, 46. Polyadelphous, 46. Polycarposae, 213. Polygakceae, 102, 249. Polygonaceae, 159, 264. Polygonales,212. Polypetalous, 42. Polypodiaceae, 191. Polysepalous, 41. Pome, 62. Pomeae, 123, 255. Pores, 47. Portulacaceae, 130. Potentilleae, 122. Praefloration, 36. Prickles, 9, 19. Primine, 54. Primulaceae, 155, 266. Primulales, 214. Prismatical cellular tissue, 3. Prismenchyma, 3. Proper juice, 34. vessels, 6, Prosenchyma, 2, 3. Proteaceae, 160. Proteales, 211. Pulp, 2. Putamen, 57. Pyrolaceae, 265. Pyxis, 61. * Quadrangular, 20. Quadrilateral, 20. Quadriquetrous, 20. Quincuncial, 37. Quinquangular, 20. Quinquelateral, 20. Raceme, 38. Racliis, 36. Radicle, 66. Rafflesiaceae, 173. Ramentaceous, 9. Ranales, 199. Ranunculaceee, 91, 239. Raphe, 55, 65. Raphides, 3, 9. Receptacle, 39, 49. Rectembryosae, 209. Regular leaf-buds, 22. Reniform, 26. Replum, 59. Resedaceae, 99. Reservoirs of oil, 6. Reticulated, 6. Retosae, 219. Retuse, 29. Rhamnaceae, 118, 251. Rhamnales, 205. Rhizanthae, 173. Rhizanths, 230. Rhizoma, 19. Ribs, 26. Ringent, 42. Root, 10. Rootshaped, 18. Rootstock, 19. Rosacese, 122, 254. Resales, 207. Roseae, 122. Rostrate, 60. Roundish oblong, 26. Ruminated, 65. Rutaceae, 115, 253. Rutales, 206. Sac of the amnios, 55. Sagittale, 27. Salicaceae, 165, 261. Salicales, 210. Samara, 61. Sanguisorbeae, 123, 256. Santalaceae, 161. Santalales, 211. Sap, 33. Sapindaceae, 110, 249. Sapotaceae, 145, 266. Sarcocarp, 57. Sarraceniaceae, 96. Saururaceae, 165. Saxales, 208. Saxifragaceae, 132, 258. Scaevolaceae, 141. Scalariform, 6. Scales, 35. Scaly bulbs, 21. root, 19. Scape, 18. Scitamineae, 175. Scleranthaceae, 130. Sclerales, 212. Sclerogen, 2, 3, 4. Scrophulales, 217. Scrophulariaceae, 152, 273. Scutate, 9. Scutellum, 71. Scypha, 71. INDEX. 201 Secretions of plants, 30. Secundine, 54. Seed, 63. Semiterete, 67. Semivascular plants, 9 1 . Sepals, 41. Separated, 230. Septate, 6. Septicidal, 58. Serrate, 29. Seta, 70. Setaceous, 60. Seven-lobed, 28. Sexes, 35. Sheathing, 25. Shields, 71. Silenacese, 253. Silenales, 206. Silenese, 104. Siliqua, 61. Silicula, 61, 63. Simarubaceae, 116, 253. Simple, 40, 59. Sinuated, 28. Sinuous cellular, 3. Ske*tch of a new distribution of the Vegetable Kingdom, 226. Smilaceae, 180, 281. Solanaceae, 151, 274. Solanales, 218. Solitary, 37. and axillary, 38. Soredia, 72. Son, 69. Spadicosae, 219. Spadix, 38. Spathe, 35. Spermoderm, 64. Sphaerenchyma, 3. Spheroidal, 67. cellular tissue, 3. Spike, 38. Spine, 19. Spinescent, 25. Spiny, 42. Spirseeae, 122. Spiral, 60. vessels, 5. Spondiaceae, 251. Spongelets, 10. Spongioles, 10. Sporangia, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73. Sporidia, 72. Spofogens, 230. Spojes, 69. Spurious dissepiments, 53. Stamens, 45. Staminidia, 71. Staphyleaceae, 117. Stellales, 215. Stellatae, 141, 268. Stellate, 9, 60. Stellate cellular tissue, 3. Stem, 11. acrogenous, 12. endogenous, 12. exogenous, 12, 13. Sterculiaceae, 249. Stigma, 49. Stipes, 73. Stipules, 24, 29. Stomates, 7, 8. Stroma, 73. Strophiolae, 64. Structural Botany, 1. Struma, 25, 69. Strumose, 46. Stupose, 46. Style, 49. Stylidiaceae, 142. Styraceas, 144, 266. Succulent, 18. Superior, 42, 54. Supervolutive, 37. Suspensor, 66. Suture, 58. Syncarpous, 50. Syngenesious, 47. System, Natural, 85. natural, of De Candolle, 90. Linnaean Sexual, 76. Systematical Botany, 75. Tamaricaceae, 101, 253. Taper, 25. Taxaceae, 170, 278. Tela cellulosa, 2. Tendril, 25, 40. Terete, 20. Terminal, 37. Ternate, 28. Ternstromiaceae, 106, 248. Testa, 64. Testiculate, 11. Tetradynamous, 46. Thalamiflorse, 91. Thallodes, 72. Thallogens, 230. Thallus, 71, 73. Theales, 203. Theca, 69, 70. Thecaphore, 50. Thymelaceae, 161, 262. Thyrsus, 39. Tiliacese, 105, 250. Tissu cellulaire, 2. Tissue, 2. cellular, 2. laticiferous, 6. muriform cellular, 16. pitted, 4. vascular, 5. woody, 4, 1 3. Toothed, 46. ' 292 INDEX. Toothed at the apex, GO. Toms, 49. Trachenchyma, 5. Transverse, 58, 66. Transversely articulate, 25. Triangular, 20, 27. Trica, 71. Tridentate, 29. Trilateral, 20. Tripinnate, 28. Triquetrous, 20. Tritemate, 28. Truncate, 29, 60. Tube, 41. Tubercular, 11. Tuberculum, 71. Tuberous, 11. Tubers, 19. Tubiferosae, 209. Tubular, cellular tissue, 3. Turneracese, 130. Two-edged, 20. Two-lipped, 43. Typhacese, 187. Typhales, 222. Ulmacese, 260. Ulmales, 210. Umbel, 38. Umbellales, 199. Umbelliferse, 134, 242. Umbilicus, 64. Unilateral, 66. Unguiculate, 43. Unguis, 43. Unsymmetrical, 43. Urn, 70. Urticaceae, 260. Urticales, 209. Urticeae, 167. Utricle, 60. Vaccinacese, 143, 266. Vague, 69. Valerianaceae, 138, 270. Valvate, 37. and involute, 37. Valves, 47, 58. Vasa contracta, 6. expansa, 6. Vascular, 2. tissue, 5. Vasiform, 4. Veins, 25. Velum, 73. Ventral suture, 58. Verbenacese, 153, 273. Vermicular, 66. Vernation, 30. Verticillate, 23. Vesicate, 42. Vesiculae, 72. Vessels, proper, 6. Vexillary, 37. Vitaceee, 113,245. Vitellus, 66. Violacese, 102, 247. Violales, 202. Volva, 73. Volvales, 214. Vrille, 25. Wedge-shaped, 27. Winged, 25. Winteracese, 95, 242. Wood, 14. Woody, 2. tissue, 16. Xanthoxylaceas, 116, 254. Xyridacese, 283. Zellengewebe, 2. Zingiberaceae, 175, 278. Zygophyllaceae, 116, 254, THE END. LONDON : PRINTED BY SAMUEL BENTLEY, Bangor House, Shoe Lane.