ui/-mni-r ■ • • B ^ SOD 73A The Influence Of Christianity On The Vocabulary Of Old English Poetry BY ALBI RT, KEISER A. B. Wartburg College, 1911 A. M. University of Montana, 1915 Thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in English in the Graduate School of the University of Illinois 1918 Reprinted from the University of Illinois Studies in Language and Literature, Vol. V, Nos. 1 and 2 \ The Influence Of Christianity On The Vocabulary Of Old English Poetry BY ALBERT KEISER A. B. Wartburg College, 1911 A. M. University of Montana, 1915 Thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in English in the Graduate School of the University of Illinois 1918 •» 9 Reprinted from the University of Illinois Studies in Language and Literature, Vol. V, Nos. 1 and 2 Copyright, 1919, By The University of Illinois i • . • i * i < < 4 • • . • -• • " • • " " ' t » • * CONTENTS PAGE Preface 5 Introduction 7 I Division of the Human Race 16 I. The Non-Christians. II. The Christians. II The Departed Members of the Church 22 I. The Virgin Mary. II. Patriarchs. III. Prophets. IV. Apostles. V. Martyrs. VI. Saints.' III Ecclesiastical Offices 31 IV Church Buildlngs 38 V Festivals and Holy Seasons 42 VI The Spiritual Side of the Church 46 I. Worship. II. The Sacraments. III. The Scriptures. VII The Deity 59 I. Wyrd. II. The Term God. III. The Trinity. IV. The Godhead and God the Father. V. Qualities. VI. Gifts. VII. Christ. VIII. The Holy Ghost. VIII The World, Angels, and Devils 89 LX Sen 98 I. General Terms. II. Peccata Operis. III. Peccata Oris. IV. Pec- cata Cordis. X Faith, Conversion, Penance 110 XI Christian Virtues, Qualities, and Good Works 115 XII The Future Life 122 I. Judgment Day and Purgatory. II. Heaven. III. Hell Poetical Words 132 Loan Words and Hybrids 138 Titles and Abbreviations 140 I. Titles and Abbreviations Referring to the Bibliothek der angelsach- sischen Poesie, Volumes I-III, by Grein-Wuelker. II. Other Abbreviations. Bibliography 142 Index 144 l< ■ PREFACE In undertaking to present the influence of Christianity on the vocabu- lary of Old English poetry, we have attempted for Old English what Rau- mer and Kahle have done for Old High German and Old Norse. A similar investigation, but including the prose, was begun by MacGillivray, who published the '1st Half of Part P in 1902. No continuation has ever appeared, and in a letter of December 2, 1916, the author states that certain circumstances had led to "the complete shipwreck of my hopes for the completion of my book." His consent to take up the work was obtained. After a careful survey of the field it did not seem advisable to continue the investigation according to the plan of MacGillivray, whose four chap- ters, corresponding to our first three, take up 171 pages. It was limited to the poetry as the more promising and profitable field. Neither could it be our intention to go to such lengths as our predecessor had done, for the generally favorable reviews of his work point out the diffuseness from which it suffers. We note E. Bjorkman's remark Litbl. XXV, p. 235: "Nicht gerade nachahmenswert finde ich die ermiidende Weitschweifigkeit, womit allbekannte Dinger bis ins kleinste Detail auseinandergesetzt werden. Wenn man alles in der Wissenschaft so weit ausfiihrte, ware es doch zu schlimm!", as also in A. Pogatscher's appreciative review, E. St. XXXII, p. 390: "Die arbeit leidet unter einer geradezu ermiidenden breite und weitschweifigkeit . ' ' From our complete collections we have given in many instances, espe- cially in the case of rare words, all occurrences noted. Otherwise the examples were carefully selected with a view of illustrating characteristic features. Occasionally unimportant terms could be omitted without loss. For the sake of completeness, the more important kennings have also been included; however, in view of their large number and the special studies devoted to them, sometimes only selections have been given. But our lists, excepting the names of the Deity, are more extensive than those of other scholars. Where the Old English poems have a Latin source, in many cases the Latin equivalents, especially from the Psalms and Doomsday, were added. The quotations from the Hymnus De Die Jiidicii refer to Loehe's edition, while for Juliana and Elene Strunk and Kent have been used. Grein-Wuelker's Bibliothek der angelsachsischen Poesie forms the basis of our textual study, though in many cases editions of single poems have also been consulted. Unless otherwise indicated, all quotations of 6 PREFACE [6 Old English poetry are from the Bibliothek, the arabic numbers referring to lines, except in the case of the Psalms, where the verse is given. However, references to Ps. L. (Cottoniana) are to lines. As to the most satisfactory arrangement of the material, there may be a difference of opinion. We have been guided by similar efforts in the related languages, and though the plan is not without defects, no radical depar- ture seemed advisable, as the loss would have been greater than the gain. For the sake of comparison the plan also recommended itself, which since Raumer has been adopted by Kahle in his two investigations, by MacGillivray, and for the Romance loan words of Chaucer by Remus. In the prosecution of the work, especially for checking up, Grein's Sprachschatz, in spite of its numerous omissions and mistakes, has been of great value. Bosworth-T oiler and Clark Hall, the latter also for poetic terms, have been very helpful. In regard to etymologies the New English Dictionary has been chiefly drawn upon for a conservative statement of facts, as it could not be our purpose to advance questionable theories for the solution of difficulties. As the great world war affected communications with Germany, and our own entrance prevented intercourse altogether, no literature pertaining to our subject that may have appeared in that country since 1915 could be consulted. In closing, the author takes this opportunity to express his appreciation of the help he has received from others. Profs. H. S. V. Jones, H. L. Creek, and J. Zeitlin have offered some helpful suggestions, Prof. Zeitlin also reading the galley proof. From its inception to its completion the work was under the supervision of Prof. D. K. Dodge, who was also kind enough to look over the proof sheets. Albert Keiser. Beloit, Wis., July 22, 1919. INTRODUCTION Great spiritual movements as the embodiment of new ideas and con- ceptions are bound to influence the language or languages which serve as the medium of their expression. Thus Christianity in its attempt to reveal ultimate truth in the speech of man has fashioned to a considerable extent the instrument for conveying its meaning. Either old material is utilized and takes on a new meaning, or a new word is created or adopted with the new idea. The religion of Christ first finds adequate expression in the highly developed and flexible Greek, a language capable in a remarkable degree of conveying all the finer shades of meaning and therefore admirably suited to serve as the means of propagating a spiritual religion. A fitting vehicle for the Jewish-Christian doctrines is provided in the New Testament Koiv-q, while later the Alexandrian School with the help of philosophy creates a distinctly Christian terminology. Simultaneously Christian ideas seek expression in the less flexible Latin, which, especially in the hands of Tertullian, is molded and enriched by ecclesiastical terms. In both cases a highly developed language with a wealth of expressions and a literature of centuries becomes the garb in which the new conceptions appear. In a certain sense the same story repeats itself as nation after nation embraces the new faith, though the mental and spiritual plane of con- verted tribes not seldom necessitates the taking over of many new terms, where the language does not even possess words of an analogous character. Missionaries to the American Indians and to some Polynesian tribes can testify as to the poverty of suitable native terms for the new spiritual ideas. To a great extent the medium of expression has to be created. Among the Germanic tribes the Goths fall first under the sway of the Gospel, and the remnants of Ulfilas' translation of the Bible bear testimony as to how the great bishop sought to express the new ideas. The native material is utilized to a very large extent, surprisingly few foreign words being adopted. 1 Old terms take on a new significance, and new forms are created where the language is deficient. However, when we consider the influence of Christianity on the vocabu- lary of the Germanic languages, we are confronted with a difficulty. Greek and Latin can boast of literatures antedating the Christian era by centuries, and we know in each case the exact meaning and connotation 1 Compare Weinhold, Die Gotische Sprache im Dienste des Christenlums. 8 INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY ON OLD ENGLISH POETRY [8 which a word had in heathen times. Hence the transformation in meaning, or the acquisition of a new connotation, can generally be observed. Less fortunate is the situation in regard to the Germanic dialects, where, with the partial exception of Old Norse, the negligible remains from heathen times preclude such observation and detailed proof in all but rare instances. In Old English and the related languages the poetical remnants of the early Christian period do not fairly represent the actual literature, since the works preserved 'have escaped total destruction only by a series of lucky chances. ' If we had only the more important pieces of the doubtless flourishing Christian literature, the influence of Christianity would appear to be much greater than it is possible to trace under the existing conditions. The large number of comparatively rare poetical terms in Old English, however, cannot be adduced as strong corroborative evidence, since many of them may be due to the invention of an individual. 2 In their continental home the tribes which later settled in Britain were not entirely ignorant of Christianity. The contact of the Goths with Christian culture and their christianization seem to have passed on a few conceptions and terms to other Germanic tribes,, where they gain a firm hold. We may point to Old English cirice, engel, deofol, and possibly also to biscop, as representatives of this class. In the case of cirice the term becomes so firmly rooted that the Latin ecclesia is unable to supplant it. Contact with other tribes more influenced by Christianity, communication with Gaul, as also the raids on the "Saxon shore" of Britain, in which the wealth and ornaments of churches and monasteries formed part of the spoil, would further add to the Anglo-Saxons' knowledge of Christianity. The few acquired terms are carried along to the new island home. From all appearances the old heathen religion still had a strong hold on the new-comers. They clung firmly to the traditions of their Teutonic paganism, and the Christian Britons made no impression on the religious conceptions of their conquerors. In the words of Bright, 3 "it might even seem that their very successes had hardened them in antipathy to the religion of the Cross." Not even an attempt to evangelize the detested barbarians seems to have been made by the Britons. 4 Later, when St. Augustine's visit furnished an opportunity to co-operate in the christian- ization, they also stood aloof. Too little is known about the condition of the Britons at the time of the Saxon conquest to warrant any safe conclusion as to whether Vulgar Latin was spoken to any great extent in the conquered island. Extreme positions have been maintained by different scholars. After a review of the literature on the subject, we may accept as a con- 1 See the list of poetical words on p. 132 ff. * Chapters on Early English Church History, p. 38. *Bede, Hisloria Ecclesiastica, Book I, ch. 22: Addebant . . . ut numquam genii Saxo- num . . . verbum fidei praedicando committer ent. 9] INTRODUCTION 9 servative statement Remus' summary: 5 "Wahrend in anderen romi- schen Provinzen, z.B. Gallien, fur die Gesammtbevolkerung die lingua rustica Lebensbedingung war und daher allgemein gebrauchlich wurde, er- hielt sie sich auf der pazifizierten Insel nur in den grosseren oder kleineren Kulturzentren und vielleicht auch langs der das Land durchquerenden Heer- strassen sowie im ganzen Siiden und Westen des Mittellandes. " Whatever the facts in the case may be, nobody has been able to show any appreciable influence of Celtic on the Old English Christian vocabulary during the period that preceded the coming of the Roman missionaries. 6 The Chris- tian Britons refused to give the blessings of the Gospel to barbarous idolaters at whose hands they had cruelly suffered, while the heathen victors scorned to stoop to the god or gods who had been unable to protect their devotees against the strong hand of Wodan and his votaries. The result is that practically no addition is made to the Christian vocabulary of the Anglo-Saxons, though one cannot help believing that the inevitable contact with some external features of Christianity served to keep alive certain ideas and terms. 7 It seems that about the time of the arrival of the Roman missionaries the polytheistic religion had begun to lose its hold upon the thinking men of at least some of the tribes. The circumstances surrounding the con- version of Northumbria suggest that the old religion no longer satisfied their needs, a fact plainly apparent from the speeches of Coifi and one of the chief councilors. The rapidity with which Christianity was adopted would point in the same direction. 8 Contact with. Christian ideas had begun to undermine the old paganism and to hasten the process of degeneration. Before turning our attention to the Latin influence, we may briefly survey the coming of Aidan and his missionaries to Northumbria, with its opening up of a wide field for speculation as to the influence upon the language. After an examination of the facts it will hardly cause surprise when the Celtic influence is found to be negligible. 9 With a proper appre- ciation of the noble and fruitful work accomplished by the Celtic mis- sionaries, we cannot help agreeing with Bright: 10 "His (Aidan's) relation to English Christianity on a whole has indeed been somewhat seriously overrated, whether on account of his rare merits or from the controversial instinct of underrating our religious obligations to Italy." The inefficient 5 Die kirchlichen und speziell-wissenschafllichen Romanischen Lehnworle Chancers, p. 6. Literature on pp. 4-6. 6 On the Celtic influence in general see Kluge, Paul's Grundriss, I, p. 928 f . 7 Compare Pogatscher, pp. 11-12. He also points to communications with Gaul. 8 Hunt, The English Church, p. 13. 9 Kluge, Paul's Grundriss, I, p. 930, remarks: "Dass teilweise irische Missionare das Evangelium verkundeten, lasst sich an Lehnmaterialien nicht zur Gewissheit erheben." 10 Early English Church History, p. 160. 10 INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY ON OLD ENGLISH POETRY [10 organization coupled with the craving for meditation in secluded cloisters, from which the monks emerged at intervals to perform the sacred rites of religion before the masses, was not favorable to a pronounced influence upon a foreign tongue. The steady recruiting from Iona made the mastery of the vernacular at best uncertain, necessitating the constant employment of interpreters. We would not deny the probability of some influence on Old English, but whatever it was, it has left scarcely any trace. Dry, m., magician, exemplified by syddan him geblendan biter e tosomne / dry as park dwolcrceft dryne unheorne, And. 34, and scegde (Simon regarding Christ's chosen thegns") hy dryas waron, Jul. 301, may be due to Old Irish drui, but this cannot be claimed for other words. 11 In some respects the case is analogous to that of the English missionaries in German}'-, of which Raumer says, p. 279: "Ohne Zweifel hat die Angelsachsische Mutter- sprache des Bonifacius und seiner Genossen auch auf ihre Hochdeutsche Predigt Einfluss geiibt. Dieser Einfluss ist jedoch meist so versteckt, dass er sich mit Bestimmtheit weder behaupten noch laugnen lasst, " and on the same page: "In ihren Predigten sind sie sicherlich oft genug ins Angelsachsische verfallen. Allein die Hochdeutsche Sprache hat diese Angelsachsischen Elemente in ihre Wortmasse ent weder gar nicht auf- genommen oder, wo sie es in einzelnen Fallen tat, sich dieselben vollig assimiliert." In our case we must remember that the two dialects are not closely related at all. At all events, after thirty short years the Celtic influence was struck its deathblow by the Roman triumph at the synod of Whitby, 664, and though it lingered for some time after Colman's depar- ture, it may safely be dismissed from further consideration. The official attitude of the Roman Church toward heathen worship was tolerant in a remarkable degree. Gregory deliberately adopted it on principle, 12 which some may be inclined to judge more charitably than does J. Earle, who also remarks about the purpose behind the writing of Gregory's dialogues: 13 "It (the book) reflects the policy of converting the barbarians by condescending to their tastes, and belongs to the same system as that increase of pomp and ceremony which was due to the same motive. " It was a deliberate attempt to make Christianity attractive to 11 Kluge, Paul's Grundriss, I, p. 929, says: "An keltischen Lehnworten zeigt das Angel- sachsische einige religiose wie dr$, ' Zauberer ' = altir. drui, sdcerd = air. sacerd . . . auch das t von ae. Crist deutet im Zusammenhange mit der eben vorgefuhrten kirchlichen Terminologie auf air. Crist," and further: "In einigen Fallen mag — bei etymologischer Klarheit— Zweifel bestehen iiber die eigentliche Quelle von englischen Worten . . . ae. celmesse, obi. almessan diirfte sich naher an altir. almsan anschliessen als an die kontinentaldeutschen Entlehnungen aus rom. almosna =lat. eleemosyne; vielleicht auch ae. munuc naher an altir. monach als an ahd. munih. " But the form of these words may just as well be explained otherwise. Com- pare Pogatscher, 16, 17, 37, 38. n Compare chapter IV, 75. 13 Anglo-Saxon Literature, London, 1884, p. 17. 11] INTRODUCTION 11 the new converts, a policy fraught with danger. According to Hunt, 14 "it seems probable that the heathenish and superstitious practices against which the Church had to struggle so long in this as in other Teutonic lands, would have died out more rapidly if the missionaries had from the first insisted that their converts should forsake everything connected with their former paganism," and p. 93: "Many nominal Christians must have looked upon the religion of Christ rather as an addition to the old beliefs of their race than as wholly incompatible with them." But scant remains of the heathen beliefs and the heathen terms have come down to us. Bede, for instance, shows a certain reluctance to discuss the subject of Anglo-Saxon heathenism, though he was probably in a position to reveal much more than he actually does. In the poetry only a few of the heathen terms, which would be utilized by the new religion, have come to our notice. A few of these may be taken up here. In the case of eastor the heathen connotation must have been gradually lost, supplanted by an exclusively Christian one. Ealh, a word denoting a holy place, a temple, keeps the heathen meaning in the compound eolh- stedas, while the simple term is twice applied to Solomon's temple. Hearg, mf., ON. hqrgr, OHG. harug, is found a number of times, swylce se halga herigeas (shrines) preade, And. 1687, onhnigon to pam herige h so in Ps. LXXVIII, \, pa pin f ale hus ealh haligne yfele gewemdan {templum sanctum tuum), as also in the fulsome praise of it Ex. 391-5, getimbrede tempel gode, / alh haligne, .../.../ heahst and haligost, haledum gefrcegost, / mast and mcerost. The same term is employed once in a com- pound denoting places of heathen worship, diofolgild, / ealde eolhstedas anforlcetan, And. 1642. 83. In the Psalms there are further renderings of the Jewish sanctuary or indications of certain parts or furniture, though they are few. The tabernacle at Shiloh is referred to in hepaswa gelomewidsoc snytruhilse,was his agen hus (tabernaculum) , LXXVII, 60. Hdlignes renders sanctuarium LXXXII, 9; atria is translated by wictunas, XCV, 8, the oblique atriis by on wictunum XCIX, 3, though generally atriis is expressed by on cafertu- num, as in on pinum cafertunum, CXXI, 2, on cafertunum Cristes huses, CXXXIII, 2, CXXXIV, 2. A rather general term is on halgum {in sancto), as LXII, 2, LXVII, 23, etc. Other designations are also encountered, but they are of such a nature that we need not list them. 84. In addition to the ark of the covenant, the altar of the Jewish tem- ple is mentioned several times. The term is wlgbed, nm., originally holy table or sacrifice table. Wigbedu Ps. LXXXIII, 4, renders altaria, while we have od wigbedes wraste hornas {ad cornu altaris) CXVII, 25, and hio 41] CHURCH BUILDINGS 41 Zozt halige cealf / on wigbed pin milium asettafi {tunc imponent super altar e tuum vitulos), Ps. L. 138. In Genesis the same term is used for Abraham's altars, as may be seen from pa se rinc gode / wibed worhte, 1791, Abraham pa odere side / wibed worhte, 1806, characterized in on pam gledstyde 1810; wibed occurs also 1882, while we have weobedd worhte and his waldende / on pam glcedstede gild onscegde, 2841-2. As a designation of heathen altar the word does not seem to occur, though the use of wig(wih), n., either alone or in compounds, denoting idols, heathen worship or sacrifice, is common enough. 9 85. Three times in the poetry the term mynster, n., is found. It is likely that in one place it has kept the meaning originally attached to it, namely the dwelling place of the monks (mynster from *munistrjo, Vulgar L. *monisterium, L. monasterium) . 10 We have (he — sceawode) under haligra hyrda geivealdum / in mynsterum monna gebceru Gu. 387, and as here and 461, rume regulas and repe mod / geongra monna in godes templum, the same objects are described, it would seem that monasteries are referred to. 86. But in the two other examples a church building must be assumed. So Men. 106, Nu on Brytene rest / on Cantwarum cynestole neah / mynstre mcerum, where St. Augustine's resting place is pointed out. To be sure, Grein glosses it with monasterium, but the glorious mynster can be nothing else than the splendid church in which the archbishop was buried. 11 From an early time this connotation of the term is available, the NED. quoting the first example c.960, Laws of K. Edgar I, 1: Man agife celce teofiunge to pam ealdan mynstre (Lat. ad matrem ecclesiam) pe seo hyrnes tohyrfi. The interpretation church building is also demanded in the passage Eardiad oet dem eadigen in fiem minstre / unarimeda reliquia, / monia wundrum gewurdad, Durham 17, which the Latin prose account describing the burial place of the saints resting in the cathedral at Durham renders very probable, if not certain. 12 The term mynster, though at first only used of a church having its origin in a monastic establishment, came to be applied later to any church of considerable size or importance. 87. In Chr. IV parts of a church at a monastery are mentioned. The imprisoned king is buried ait pam westende, pam styple Jul gehende / on pam su'dportice, 24-5, for we have been informed poet man hine Icedde / to Eligbyrig swa gebundenne, 17-18, and hine swa blindne brohte to dam mune- con, 20. I 9 See chapter VIII, 326. 10 NED. 11 Bede, Historia Ecdesiaslica, Book II, ch. 3. Compare also the discussion of the mean- ing of mynster in Kahle, I, p. 349 f. See also B-T. 12 Wuelker, Grundriss, p. 346. 42 INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY ON OLD ENGLISH POETRY [42 CHAPTER V FESTIVALS AND HOLY SEASONS 88. In general, it may be assumed that the expression halige dagas served as a designation for the holy seasons and festivals of the Church, illustrated by such a passage as ac sceal wintrum frod / on circule crozjte findan / halige dagas, Men. 66-8, just as in OHG. wihe taga or heilege taga and in ON. helgar tiper is employed. Aside from the Menology, which gives a catalog of haligra Hid that are to be observed according to the edict of the Saxon king, references to holy days and seasons in OE. poetry are extremely rare. 1 89. Of the days of the week we have Sunday mentioned as sunnan- dceg (dies solis), the OHG. sunnun tag, which seems to be entirely identified with the Hebrew Sabbath, as is gathered from Dox. 24-6, (and on pone seofodan pu gerestest). pa wees geforfiad pin fcegere weorc / and du sunnan- dceg sylf halgodest / and gemcersodest hine manegum to helpe. In reality, the first day of the week came to be celebrated as the principal day for public worship in memory of the resurrection of Christ. The setting apart of a day for public worship would be introduced into England by the mission- aries, and the Doxology shows that the custom was well established, pone heahan dceg healdafi and freodiap / ealle, pa ~Se cunnon cristene peawas, I haligne heortlufan and dess hehstan gebod, 27-29. 90. In discussing the festivals mentioned, we shall follow the Menology in beginning with Christmas. The word Crlstes mcesse does not come into use until a late period, the first occurrence recorded by the NED. being for the year 1101 in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, a situation paralleled in OHG., where the term does not occur at all, though Raumer 2 asserts, with- out furnishing the least proof, that it undoubtedly was in use. In OE. the date was fixed on the 25th of December, Men. 226-7, and the birth of Christ is mentioned Men. 2 as on midne winter. z From Bede's statement we gather that the day was celebrated among the Christian Angles, but long before it had been a festival among the heathen, who on that day began their year: " (Antiqui autem Anglorum populi) Incipiebant autem annum ab octavo Calendarum Januariarum die, ubi nunc natale Domini celebramus. Et ipsam noctem nunc nobis sacrosanctam, tunc gentili vocabulo Modranicht, 1 For OHG. compare Raumer, p. 306 ft"., for ON. Kahle, I, 353 ff. 2 Einwirkung des Christentums, etc., p. 307. 3 Not to be considered a general term, but having the more specific meaning of Christmas. See Bibl. II, p. 282, note. 43] FESTIVALS AND HOLY SEASONS 43 id est, matrum noctem, appellabant, ob causam, ut suspicamur, ceremoniarum quas in ea pcrvigiles agebant. ,H 91. During the first centuries of the Christian era Epiphany served as the celebration of the physical birth of Christ as well as of the spiritual, and of several other occurrences in the life of the Lord. It was observed on the 6th of January, and came to be looked upon in England as the fulwihttiid / eces drihtnes, . . . / pane 'twelfta dag' tireadige / heeled headurofe hatad on Brytene, Men. 11-14, namely the twelfth day after the birth of Christ, that date having become fixed on the 25th of December. 92. On the second of February the most ancient of all the festivals in honor of the Virgin Mary was celebrated. Reference to it is made in we Marian massan healdad, / cyninges modor, Men. 20. OE. mcesse, f., is from Vulgar L. messa, Eccl. L. missa. It is generally thought that L. missa is a verbal substantive formed like repidsa etc. In the early cen- turies it was used in the general meaning of religious service, though in an eminent sense it always denoted the Eucharist, the celebration of the mass. 5 In the East the second of February was primarily a festival of the Lord, while in the West the Virgin stood in the foreground, though even here the antiphons and the responsories remind one of the original idea, which is also present in the passage forpan heo (Mary) Crist on pam dcege, beam wealdendes brohte to temple, Men. 21-22. Originally the festival had been celebrated on the 14th of February, forty days after the nativity of Christ, but with the shifting of that date to the 25th of December, Mary- mas was moved accordingly to the 2nd of February. 6 93. The great festival of the church year was Easter, the memorial of the resurrection of Christ. While mention of his resurrection is not infrequent, as for instance on pam oftust cymd / seo mcere Hid mannnm to frofre, / drihtnes cerist, Men. 56-8, the term eastor, frequent in prose, occurs in the poetry only in compounds, and then only a few times. The occur- rences are, pees pe Eastermonad to us cymed, Men. 72, wendan (Jews) pat he on pam beorge bidan sceolde / ana in pare easterniht, Har. 15, and he of dea"de aras / onwald of eordan in pa eastortld, Gu. 1075. As in the case of Christmas, the heathen Angles celebrated a festival at this time in honor of Eostre, the goddess of dawn or of the rising sun, our scanty information being derived again from Bede. In ch. 15 (De mensibus Anglorum) of the De Temporum Ratione 7 he tells us: " Rhed-monath a dea illorum Rheda, cui in Mo sacrificabant, nominatur ; Eostur-monath, qui nunc paschalis mensis inter pretatur, quondam a dea illorum quae Eostre 4 De Temporum Ratione, ch. 15, Migne, Patrologiae Latinae, XC, p. 356. 5 NED. 6 Encyclopaedia Britannica and Catholic Encyclopedia. 7 Migne, Patrologiae Latinae, XC, p. 357. 44 INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY ON OLD ENGLISH POETRY [44 vocabatur, et cui in Mo festa celebrabant, nomen habuit, a cujus nomine mine paschale tempus cognominant, consueto antiquae observationis vocabulo gaudia novae solemnitatis vocantes." 94. Though there are few references to Easter in the extant poetry, the importance of the festival and also the paschal controversy, which stirred the Christians of England until the question was finally decided in favor of the Roman party, (Whitby, 664), would have a tendency to put it into the foreground. 95. In the Menology a festival is mentioned in martira gemynd, . . . 69, pat embe nihgontyne niht, /pas pe Eastormonad to us cymed, / pat man reliquias raran onginne'd, / halige gehyrste : pcet is healic dag, / bentiid bremu, 71-5. This seems to have been an important day, though in our poem a different date than the one fixed later is mentioned. "According to the Sarum Breviary, the Festum Reliquiarum was celebrated on the Sunday after the feast of the Translation of St. Thomas of Canterbury (July 7), and it was to be kept as a greater double 'wherever relics are preserved or where the bodies of dead persons are buried. ' " 8 96. Relics are only twice referred to in OE. poetry, the learned term reliquias, m., being used, though the subject must have occupied a prom- inent place in the mind of both ecclesiastics and the people. Already at the establishment of the OE. Church they are mentioned. 9 The cult increased in the following centuries, and "at the beginning of the 9th century . . . the exportation of the bodies of martyrs from Rome had assumed the dimensions of a regular commerce," as "many unprincipled persons found a means of enriching themselves by a sort of trade in these objects of devotion, the majority of which no doubt were fraudulent." 10 Aside from the mentioning of relics in the Menology, quoted in the pre- ceding paragraph, we have also Eardiad at dem eadigen in dem minstre / unarimeda reliquia, / monia wundrum gewur'dad, Durham 18. Durham thus possessed a good collection of the prized remains, which would add to its sanctity and attractiveness, for "there was a keen rivalry between religious centers and an eager credulity fostered by the desire to be known as the possessors of some unusually startling relic!" 11 To gain possession of a prized relic, with its subsequent fame and profit, was the eager desire of church authorities and monasteries, and in their dealings they were not always above trickery and plain stealing. The presence of Bede's remains at Durham is a good case in point. 12 8 Catholic Encyclopedia, under relics. 9 Bede, Historia Ecclesiastica, Book I, ch. 29. 10 Catholic Encyclopedia. 11 Ibid. n Preface to Bede's Ecclesiastical History, by Giles, p. XXII. 45] FESTIVALS AND HOLY SEASONS [45 97. Forty days after Easter, the ascension of Christ would be cele- brated. But though that fact is mentioned in several places, as Men. 64-5, little is made of the festival in the poetry. Pentecost as the Christian festival is only once referred to in the poetry, under the year 973 in Chr. Ill, A, 8, par was blis mycel /on pam eadgan dage eallum geworden, /pone nifia beam nemnad and cegead / Pentecostenes dag. The term is a late adoption, the NED. citing its first occurrence in the Homilies of ^Elfric (a. 1000). 98. In the Menology a number of saints' days are mentioned. So for instance in panne wuldres pegn / ymb preotyne, peodnes dyrling, / Johannes in geardagan weard acenned, / tyn nihtum eac: we pa Hid healdafi / on midne sumor mycles on apelum, 115-19. Immediately after, the haligra lid . . . Petrus and Paulus is discussed. On the first of August would come hlaf- massan dag (Lammas), 140, in the early English Church celebrated as a harvest festival, at which loaves of bread, made from the first ripe wheat, were consecrated. In the Roman Calendar it is the festival of St. Peter's Chains, originally a dedication feast of a church of the apostle at Rome, perhaps held on that day or selected to replace the heathen festivities that occurred on the first day of August. 13 In the Menology the harvest season is emphasized in connection with the day. 99. Among other days heahengles Hid in harfeste, / Michaheles, (29th of September), is mentioned 177-8, at that time a holy day of obligation. A very important festival occurred on the first of November, And py ylcan dage ealra we healdad / Sancta symbel, para pe si?) odde ar / worhtan in worulde willan drihtnes, 200. Originally each saint had his celebration in certain limited sections of the country, but in order that nobody should be overlooked, and to supply any deficiency in the celebration of saints' feasts during the year, a solemn festival in honor of all the saints, known and unknown, was instituted. 14 This of course would not abolish haligra tiid, but only serve to correct any possible oversight. 13 Catholic Encyclopedia, under Peter's Chains, The Feast of. 14 Catholic Encyclopedia. , 46 INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY ON OLD ENGLISH POETRY [46 CHAPTER VI THE SPIRITUAL SIDE OF THE CHURCH I. Worship 100. The most general term for serving God 1 is peowan, to serve, used for instance in pa pant cyninge (namely God) peowad, Gu. 62, as also dryhtne peowde, 712. In a religious sense the compound peowdont occurs El. 201, in godes peowdont, referring to the zeal of the newly converted emperor Constantine. Once we have another compound, peowet, mn., L. Prayer III, 98, though not denoting service of God, for the passage reads deofles peowet. More often peowian is employed. We note, gode peowian, Gen. 264, and peodne peowian, 268. In a somewhat general sense of serving God the all-ruling power we find the verb in pat hi piowien swilcum piodfruman, Met. XXIX, 94, and hiora ordfruman / ne piowoden, peodne mazrum, 99, as also and blisse gode bealde peowie (servite Domino), Ps. XCIX, 1. 101. In the services of the Anglo-Saxon Church, in common with the early Mediaeval Church, the mass had begun to occupy the most promi- nent place. In prose the idea is often expressed by ptcesse, the etymology of which has been considered in the preceding chapter. 2 However, this word occurs only twice in the poetry, Marian mcessan, Men. 20, and hlafmcessan dceg, 140, where it has the derived meaning of festival, and not that of the Eucharist, to which it was originally applied. As we have seen before, 3 the term moessere is used in the poetry only in a secondary meaning. And the sacrifice of the mass is only once clearly referred to. 102. More and more the celebration of the Lord's Supper came to be looked upon as a repetition, though bloodless, of the original sacrifice of Christ on the cross. An OE. word used for heathen and Jewish sacrifice alike is lac, probably connected with *laiko, to play, to dance, as applied to actions which would accompany the offering of sacrifices and hence might be transferred to the sacrifice itself. 4 In this sense of offering, sacrifice, as applied to heathen gods, the term is used for instance in pozt pu lac hrape / onsecge sigorttfre, Jul. 254-5. In Genesis there are a number of examples, as 975-6, referring to the sacrifice brought by Cain and Abel, 1497 ff., by Noah, and 1792, applied to Abraham's offering, etc. In the 1 For terms of worship in OHG. compare Raumer, p. 309 ff., for ON. Kahle, I, p. 358 ff. 2 Under Marymas, 92. 3 Chapter III, 59. 4 See Grimm, D.M., I, p. 32, also B.-T. under lac and the NED. under lake. The sense of offering, sacrifice, is found only in OE. 47] THE SPIRITUAL SIDE OF THE CHURCH 47 Psalms it occurs a number of times, thus, (Eton deadra lac (sacrificia mortuo- rum), CV, 22, applied to the heathen worship of the Children of Israel, and pcet ic pe laces lof lustum secge (tibi sacrificabo hostiam landis), CXV, 7. There we have also the poetic afenldc {sacrificium vespertinum), CXL, 3, and berneldc . . . /deadra neata (holocaustis) , L. 123. Keeping in mind that the mass was conceived of as a sacrifice, we are not surprised to find that it is said of the saint in Gu. 1084, lac onscegde / . . . / gcestgerynum in godes temple. Otherwise the idea of the mass thus expressed would not seem to occur in the poetry. 103. Onsecgan, to vow or sacrifice, we have in the example just quoted. It is used both in a heathen and non-heathen sense; for the former, we note pcet pu lac hrape / onsecge sigortifre, Jul. 255, for the latter pu scealt Isaac me I onsecgan, sunu "dinne sylf to tibre, Gen. 2852. Tifer, n., in the sense of sacrifice, is used a few times, so in the preceding passage, as halig tiber Ex. 415, etc. Compounds such as sigetiber also occur. 104. Next to the mass, preaching would form an important part of the services, and in the missionary period might even seem to overshadow the former. For obvious reasons we do not confine ourselves to terms that indicate a particular and definite function in a well ordered service. The most general term used would be to teach, as exemplified Jul. 638, where it is said of the saint Ongon heo pa Iceran. Similarly we find leode lozrde on lifes weg, And. 170, pegnas Icerde, 462, and Lccrde pa pa leode on geleafan weg, 1680, etc. A general term is also bodian, to bring or announce a mes- sage, used in Christ's missionary command to his disciples, bodiafi and bremad beorhtne geleafan, Cr. 483, as also Bodia'd cefter bnrgum beorhtne geleafan, And. 335. However, more often the word occurs in the general meaning of to announce, tell, and seldom in the strict sense of evangelizare. Other phrases are used extensively, sometimes indicating the result of the effort. Thus we have, pe fill gehweorfest to heofonleohte / purh minne naman, And. 974-5, stepton hie sodczvidum, Dan. 446, pam pe his spel berafi, 479, hie dryhtnes ce deman sceoldon, / reccan fore rincan, Ap. 10-11, as also par ic dryhtnes appears as the third person of the Godhead, which phrase Christian Latin translates 47 Bode, Kenningar, p. 74, remarks: "Unter uns sind einige Kenningar ublich, die das Leiden Christi hervorheben: der Gekreuzigte, das Lamm Gottes, es ist characteristisch, dass diese bei unseren Altvorderen keine Aufnahme gefunden haben." His assertion is not borne out by the facts. We might also point to such close parallels as pone ahangnan god, Crist, cyning. 87] THE DEITY 87 by spiritus sanctus. The OE. term is gdst, gast, m., OFris. gdst, OS. gist, OHG. geist, from the common Westgerm. type *gaisloz. i8 It is sometimes used alone, but more generally modified. Gdst, like the Greek and Latin terms, has a general meaning, it being used for instance interchangeably with sdwel, man's soul or spirit, as Jul. 413-15, El. 888-9, etc., etc. It is also applied to the evil spirits, fram uncleenum oft generede / deofla gastum, El. 301-2, to the angels, e.g., (God sent) gast pone halgan; / engel . . ., Dan. 237-8, etc. 295. When used as a designation for the third member of the Godhead hdlig is generally added, as Dox. 13, Ex. 96, Jul. 241, Creed 41, Dan. 403, etc. But often the term has a weakened meaning, and may simply stand for the power, the help of God, or the divine spirit. Furthermore it is applied to the first person of the Godhead, as also to the second, of which latter case we cite, bringan wolde / haligne gast to heojonrice, Sat. 561-2, and gast haligne, Vs. ~L. 96, which very probably refers to Christ, since in this poem he seems to have assumed the place of the first person for whom we should naturally look. A reference to Christ is also found in keofonhalig gast, And. 728. Aside from the clear cases of the juxtaposition of the three persons, the context must decide as to who is meant by hdlig gdst. Haliges gastes, And. 1000 and 1621, evidently refers to man. 296. The Spirit proceeds from the Father and the Son, beem inc is gemeene / heahgeest hleofozst, Cr. 357-8, showing the view held by the Western Church. 49 Regarding the work of creation it is said, pa wees wuldortorht / heofonweardes gast ofer holm boren, Gen. 119-20, which may refer to the third person of the Trinity. The Holy Spirit is not seldom mentioned in the poems dealing with Old Testament history, so Ex. 96, leading the Children of Israel through the desert, Ph. 549, where Job speaks through gcestes bleed, even as it is said of the disciples of Christ, heefdon gastes bled, Sat. 527. We have, nu we geonge pry god bletsia'd, / felameahtigne feeder in heofonum, / pone sofian sunu and pone sigefcestan gcest, Az. 155-7, while in Daniel he is mentioned several times. In most of these cases the Old Testament J"]}*! * s interpreted according to New Testament and Christian ideas. 297. Christ is born through Mary and pur h peene halgan gast, Invoca- tion 13, and it is stated, Nces deer gefremmed firen at giftum, / ac peer halig 48 For a discussion of the third person of the Trinity in OHG. see Raumer, p. 370 ff., in ON. Kahle, I, p. 386, II, 147-9. 49 The qui ex Patre Ftlioque procedit of the Nicene Creed. The procession of the Holy Spirit from the Son has never been admitted into the Creed by the Eastern Church. The Filioque was probably first introduced by the Spanish Church as an additional protest against the Arian denial of the full Godhead of the Son, probably at the Council of Toledo 589. Compare Cook, The Christ of Cynewtdf, p. 108. 88 INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY ON OLD ENGLISH POETRY [88 gast hand gy ft sealde ] pare famnan, Creed 17-19. The Holy Spirit is especially active in regard to the faithful, guarding and shielding them against enemies, and assisting them in the work of sanctification. Thus it is said after the conversion of Judas, him was halig gast / befolen faste, El. 935-6, and concerning Elene herself, pa wic beheold / halig heofonlic gast, hrefier weardode, / adelne innod, 1143-5. Sins may compel him to leave, pat him halig gast / losige purh leahtras on pas lanan tid, Cr. 1558-9. We also have the petition, Bewyrc us on heortan haligne gast / faste on innan, L. Prayer III, 79-80. In each case the indwelling of the Spirit is emphasized. He is the helper in trouble, hyre (Juliana) was halig gast / singal gesifi, Jul. 241-2, pat pec halig gast gescilde, Gu. 427-8. When Daniel is called upon to explain the dream of the Babylonian king, him was gast geseald, / halig of heofonum, se his hyge trymede, 533-4. Very often the Holy Spirit is the helper, shown by such phrases as purh gastes gife, El. 199, 1057, 1156, similarly Jul. 316, Cr. 710, etc., and similar terms, though they may sometimes refer merely to the manifestation of the divine power and not to a personal agent. At the Last Judgment the Holy Spirit with the other members of the Trinity judges men, Jul. 726 ff., etc. Finally at the request of the Father Donne halig gast helle belucefi, Cr. 1624, and the persons of the Godhead dwell forever in Heaven, And. 1684-6. 298. In the New Testament the Holy Spirit is called a number of times irapaKhrjTos, the comforter, which is taken over by the Vulgate as paracletus. In OE. poetry a translation, frofre gast, is used, as Jud. 83, And. 1684, frofregast, Charm VIII, 10, similarly Jul. 724; siVdan frofre gast / wic gewunode in pas weres breostum / hylde to bote, El. 1036-8. However, the term may also be applied to the Father, e.g., fader, frofre gast, El. 1105, as also to the Son, in mec (Mary) frofre gast / geardode, Cr. 207-8, also And. 906. Guthlac's guardian angel is called frofre gast Gu. 107. 299. In general, it may be said that the qualities of the Father and the Son, in as far as they are not peculiarly specific characteristics, may also be applied to the Spirit, but are very sparingly used, as the third person of the Trinity occupies a far less prominent place in OE. poetry than either the Father or the Son. Here and there an adjective, as in pone blidan gast, Cr. 774, pone sigefastan gast, Az. 157, is found, but, compara- tively speaking, the available material is meager. 89] THE WORLD, ANGELS, AND DEVILS 89 CHAPTER VIII THE WORLD, ANGELS, AND DEVILS I. The World 300. The facts of Germanic mythology regarding the subject may be found in Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie, I, p. 463 ff., Ill, 160 ff., and Golther, Handbuch der Germanischen Mythologie, p. 509 ff. The Scandinavians especially had developed detailed and fairly well-ordered views about the universe. The distinction between heaven and earth in a physical and to a limited extent also in the religious sense is easily made, appears in dif- ferent religions, and needs no discussion here. ■■&•■ 301. However, the contrast between Heaven and earth in the religious sense became more definite with the teachings of Christianity, and the lines between the temporal, sinful, and the heavenly were more sharply drawn. In Greek two words came to be used, koghos and aluv, which the Vulgate renders by tnundus and saeculum, the world as opposed to Heaven, and the vita or aetas. OHG. also uses two words, mittilgart rendering mundus, and weralt both mundus and saeculum. In ON. heimr came to be employed for both mundus and saeculum, while verqld was used only in the sense of saeculum} 302. In OE. two terms are also employed, middangeard and woruld. Middangeard, m., Goth, midjungards, OHG. mittangart, indicates the middle earth, the place situated between heaven and hell, and is prac- tically always used in the physical sense. At times it also stands for man- kind, as for instance in pu pisne middangeard milde geblissa / purh dinne hercyme, hcdende Crist, Cr. 249, and middangeardes weard, Dan. 597. 303. More important for our purposes is woruld, f., from the Teut. type *wer-aldi, the term also occurring in other Germanic dialects. So literally woruld means hominum aetas, the age of man. Used in a physical sense it stands for mundus, as, nemdest eall swa peah / mid ane noman ealle to gcedr e / woruld under wolcnum, Met. XX, 57, and penden standefi / woruld under wolcnum, Gen. 916. As an interesting occurrence of the term we also note, sette and sende on VII worulde / ear mum and eadigum eallum to bote, Charm IV. 40, which Cockayne 2 explains as "the seven spheres in which the seven planets revolve, the earth being the center of observation." A number of times woruld is contrasted with Heaven, 1 For OHG. compare Raumer, p. 373 ff., for ON. Kahle, I, 386 ff. 2 Leedtdoms, Wortcunning, and Starcraft of Early England, (3 vols.) Ill, p. 37. Rolls Series, London, 1864-6. 90 INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY ON OLD ENGLISH POETRY [90 standing in a religious and Biblical sense. Thus, gewiton of worulde drea- man, sohton him wuldres cyning, Rood B, 133. pam pe his giefe willad / picgan to ponce and him pas woruld / uttor latan ponne past ece lif, Gu. 96, sippan he pas woruld jorhogde, 713, (who would possess true happiness) sceal swideflion / disse worulde wlite, Met. VII, 31,pysse worulde (deriende) gefean (noxia gaudia saecli). Doom 232. 304. Not infrequently woruld is used in the sense of saeculum. Thus denoting worldly life we have, gif hine gegripan mot / se eca dead after dissum worulde, Met. X, 70. In the meaning of in saeculum, in saecula, etc., may be noted, a to worulde ford , Cr. 101, similarly Met. XI, 17; swa pu eart gewurfiod a on worldaford! L. Prayer III, 123. We note further, Si him lof symle, / purh woruld worulda wuldor on heofnum, Cr. 778, wealded (the Trinity) in woruld worulda wuldor gestealda, And. 1686, on worulda woruld wunad and rixad (in secula seculorum), Dox. 41, on worulda woruld (in saecula saeculorum) , Ps. LXXXIII, 5, etc. 305. A large number of compounds occur, most of which, however, have no religious significance, and in other cases it is not readily apparent. We note only woruldblis, as in pat he his lichoman / wynna forwyrnde and woruldblissa, Gu. 135, and woruldsaW, Met. II, 10, etc. II. Angels 306. The Jewish-Christian doctrine of angels was foreign to the Ger- manic heathen mind, though there is reason to believe that the conception and the name were adopted at an early period by practically all the tribes. In the Old Testament an angel was called TJ&OD or n1i"P TjfcOD, messenger of Jehovah, his function determining the designation. The LXX translates the Hebrew word by a7YeXos, messenger, which is also employed by the New Testament. The term is taken over by Christian Latin as angelus, which is thus divorced from its general meaning of nuntius, and used in a restricted sense. At an early time the word was adopted by various Teutonic tribes either from Latin angelus or more likely from Gothic aggilus. 3 In OE. it appears as e.ngel, angel, angel, m., OS. having engil, OFris. angel, en gel, OHG. angil, engil. ON. engill. 307. In the poetry the term is of frequent occurrence, a translation such as ar or boda being seldom used. 4 As in our discussion of the classes, attributes and kennings, as well as of the work of the angels, the word will occur a number of times, no examples need be cited here. 3 See Raumer, p. 378, Kluge, Etymologisches Worterbuch, article Tenfel; Gotische Lehn- worle, p. 135, Pogatscher, pp. 203-5, also NED. 4 For a discussion of angels in OHG. see Raumer, pp. 378-9, in ON. Kahle, I, pp. 390-1, II, 149-51. 91] THE WORLD, ANGELS, AND DEVILS 91 308. We are informed that there was a time when angels had not yet been created, Nees cenig pa giet engel geworden / ne pas -miclan magen- prymmes nan, Cr. 351-2. The creation and the classes are referred to in Hafde se ealwalda engelcynna / . . . / tyne getrymede, Gen. 246-8, though in the poetry not all of these classes appear. The race of angels is men- tioned a number of times, as, eat engla cynn, Jul. 644, anlicnes engelcynna, And. 717, etc., engla hades, Prayer III, 34, engla gebyrdo, Gen. 583. A fondness to have angels appear in troops and hosts may also be noted. 309. As possibly distinct classes the Seraphim and Cherubim appear, though the usual order is inverted And. 719-20, Cheruphim and Seraphim / pa on swegeldreamum syndon nemned, referred to as pees bremestan of the angels 718. More specific details about the Cherubim are furnished El. 739-46, para on hade sint / in sindreame syx genemned, / pa ymbsealde synt mid syxum eac / fidrum, gefratwad, fcegere scinap;/ para sint. IIII.,pe on flihte a I pa pegnunge prymme beweotigap / fore ansyne eces demon,/ singallice singap . . . pam is Ceruphin noma, 749. In the Psalms the name is simply taken over, Dw de sylfa nu sittest ofer cherubin (qui sedes super cherubin), LXXIX, 2, and silted ofer cherubin (qui sedet super cherubim), XCVIII, 1. Aside from And. 719, the Seraphim are mentioned thrice, as, Syndon tu on pam, / sigorcynn on swegle, pe man Seraphin / be naman hated. He sceal neorxnawang and lifes treo legene sweorde / halig healdan, 5 El. 753-7, and wuldre gewlitegod Serafhin, Charm VII, 30. In Cr. 386-8 the Seraphim are performing the services assigned to the Cherubim in Elene, for we are told, sodfaste Seraphinnes cynn/ uppe mid englum a bremende/ unapreotendum Jyrymmum singad. 310. The archangels, especially Gabriel, are mentioned a few times. He is called godes arendraca, Cr. 12, a term also applied to the apostles, godes spelboda, Gabriel, Cr. 366, and his heahbodan, 295. His qualities are mentioned, Eala Gabrihell hu pu eart gleaw and scearp, / milde and gemyn- dig and monpware, / wis on pinum gewitte and on pinum worde snottor, Har. 76-8. Heofones heagengel, Cr. 202, and heahengel, Men. 50, are also applied to Gabriel. The same designation is used for Michael, heahengles tiid on harfeste, / Michahelis, Men. 177. Halig is se halga heahengla god, the Cherubim sing El. 750, the song of the Seraphim being Halig eart pu halig heahengla brego, Cr. 403. We note further, heahengla cyning, Cr. 528, and heahengla mcegen, 1019, heahenglas, Sat. 601. Though the term heah- engel is the designation for the archangels, it need not be assumed, however, that it is not used in a wider sense, though And. 883-5 may not be con- clusive, twelfe getealde, tireadige haled;/ . . . / halige heahenglas. It 8 The Vulgate has et collocavit ante paradisum voluptatis Cherubim. In our passage a Seraph performs the duty. The plural form in the Vulgate might easily be mistaken by an Anglo-Saxon poet. Genesis especially is rich in amusing blunders. Compare Bibl. II, p. 169. 92 INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY ON OLD ENGLISH POETRY [92 might even be used, in accordance with the spirit of OE. poetry, as a general indication of their place of abode. Upengel seems to have this meaning, as in upengla fruma edel secan, And. 226, and upengla weard, 210. Very similar are ufancundes engles, Gu. 1097, engel ufancundne, 1216, also aras ufancunde, Cr. 503. Probably not very different is heofonengel, which we have in heofonengla preat, Cr. 492, 928, heofonengla cyning, 1010, L. Prayer III, 13, while we read heofonengla god Jul. 642 and heofonengla here Cr. 1278. 311. Among the qualities of angels a few ascribed to Gabriel have already been mentioned. However, the wisdom of the angelic host is not unlimited, as it is remarked, ne pat cenig ne wat engla hades / pa heahnisse heofena kyninges, Prayer III, 34-5. Their brightness is often referred to, as, engel celbeorht . . . / wlitescyne wer on his wuldorhaman, Dan. 337-8, (zlbeorhte englas, Cr. 506, 548, with the word order changed 881, celbeorhtra scolu, Cr. 929, weorud wlitescyne, 493, beorhte gewerede, 552, hwit and heofonbeorht heagengla mozgen, 1019, ozlbeorhte . . . / heofonengla here, 1277-8, wlitescyne on weres hade, / hwit and hiwbeorht, El. 72-3, cefielestan engelcynne, / pe geond lyft farad leohte bewundene / mycle mcegenprymme, 732-4, mid pa leohtan gedryht, 736, cwom engel godes / frcetwum blican, Jul. 563-4, etc. 312. Other characteristics occur, of which we mention the most impor- tant, though they are often applied indirectly. Halig engel, Gen. 946, halige heahenglas, And. 885, sio halge gecynd, Cr. 1018, etc., eadiges engles, Sal. 450, eadig engla gedryht, Cr. 1014, mihtig engel, Ex. 205, sigorfcest ipegn), Gu. 1218, pegnas prymfceste, Gen. 15, englas arfceste, 2525, pat sofifceste Seraphinnes cynn, Cr. 386, wlitig wuldres boda, El. 11 , fcele (used with freoduweard and similar terms), El. 88, Gen. 2301, 2497, Gu. 144, marne mcegupegn, And. 366, dcedhwcete, Cr. 385, stififerfie, And. 722. 313. The only adjective formed with engel is engelcund, angelic, found once, him giefe sealde / engelcunde, Gu. 72. 314. Not infrequently the term gdst, generally modified, is applied to the angels, undoubtedly influenced by Ps. CHI, 5, where the Vulgate reading qui facis angelos tuos spiritus et ministros tuos ignem urentem is rendered by Re his englas ded ozb*ele gastas and hisfrome degnasfyr bymende. Thus we have, gast pone halgan, Dan. 237, hwcet seo hand write haliges gastes, 733, gcest haligne, Gu. 1215, halige gastas, Rood B, 11, Gen. 2399; wuldorgast godes, Gen. 2912, godes cerendgast, 2296. 315. Of other kennings for angels the most important may find a place here. 6 Godes arendraca as applied to Gabriel in Creed 12 has already been 6 Bode, Kenningar, gives a few. See also Rankin, DC, pp. 60-61. 93] THE WORLD, ANGELS, AND DEVILS 93 mentioned. Used of the angels visiting Lot we have nergendes / afiele arendracan, Gen. 2433-4. Ar, messenger, occurs a number of times, so El. 76, 87, aras, Cr. 759, Gen. 2424, halige aras, 2456, wuldres aras, Cr. 493, El. 737, aras ufancunde, Cr. 503. Boda, messenger, is also used. Thus, bodan, Cr. 449, wlitig wuldres boda, El. 77. Of compounds we have for instance godes spelboda Gabriel, Cr. 336,frome war on j godes spelbodan, Gen. 2494, wuldres wilboda, Gu. 1220. A peaceful mission is indicated by fale fridowebba, El. 88, fcele freoduweard, Gu. 144, fale freodoscealc, Gen. 2301, the plural bemg found 2497. Among terms showing peculiar rela- tionships to God we note, pegnas prymfaste, Gen. 15, wuldres pegn, Gen. 2266, similarly 2568, And. 726; metodes Vegn, Gen. 2907, similarly Gu. 1217; hehpegn, Dan. 443, mccrne magupegn, And. 366; ymb pat hehsetl hwite standad / engla fed an, Sat. 221, halge herefedan, Cr. 1013. 316. From the previous discussion it will be gathered that the impor- tant function of the heavenly spirits is the worship of the Deity and the carrying out of his commandments. The protection of the faithful against enemies, especially evil spirits, is often mentioned. Instead of the rather frequent examples we«cite Charm VIII, 19-25, where, after the invocation of the saints, the poet continues, eac dusend pira engla / clipige ic me to are wi15 eallum feondum. / Hi meferion and fripion and mine fore nerion, / eal me gehealdon, me gewealdon / worces stirende, si me wuldres hyht / hand ofer heafod, haligra rof, / sigerofra sceote, sofifastra engla. The idea of the guardian angel is especially noteworthy in Guthlac. We are told that the heavenly spirits protect the saints, fore him englas standad / gearwe mid gasta wcepnum . . . / healdad haligra feorh, 59-61. It is said, 81-4, that God sent a particular angel in order to dampen the lusts of the saint-to-be. The good and the evil angel engage in warfare for his soul, hinetwegen ymb/ weardas wacedon, pa gewinn drugon, / engel dryhtnes and se atela gast, 85-7. The good angel wins, and henceforth Guthlac is protected, Hine weard biheold / halig of heofonum, se pat hluttre mod / in pas gastes god georne trymede, 76-8, and sip pam frofre gast / in Gufilaces geoce gewunade, 107-8. Several times the guardian angel is mentioned, of whom the saint says, pat me engel to ealle geladed / spowende sped spreca and dada, 224-5, and nu mec sawelcund / hyrde bihealdefi, 288-9. This protection extends until the time of death, when was Gudlaces gast geladed / engla fadmum in upr odor I fore onsyne eces demon, 753-5, and was Gudlaces gast geladed / eadig on upweg, englas feredun / to pam longan gefean, 1279-81, which is in line with the general belief as expressed in englas feredon / sodfaste sawle innan swegles leoht, Chr. V, 27-8. In Salomon and Saturn the good angel loses in the contest, and Gewited "Sonne wepende on weg far an / engel to his earde and Sat eall sagaS: / " Ne meahte ic of flare heortan heardne adringan / stylenne stan, sticaS him to middes ****." 94 INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY ON OLD ENGLISH POETRY [94 III. Devils 317. As the foe of God and the heavenly kingdom the devil with his adherents plays a very prominent part in OE. poetry. In the Old Testa- ment the chief of the evil spirits is called )£D]£?, adversary. The LXX as a rule renders this by 5td/3oXos, slanderer, aterm also employed by the New Testament, though 6 aaravas is sometimes used. The Greek 8lclI3o\os as a translation of Hebrew ]^j^ was regularly retained by the Old Latin version of the Scriptures as diabolus, but Jerome in his version, the Vul- gate, substituted Satan. In his New Testament diabolus also occurs. Gothic adopts the Greek 5ia/3oXos as diabaiilus or diabulus, and it is not improbable that other Germanic tribes received the word from this source. 7 The OE. form is deofol, deoful, mn., OFris. diovel, OS. diubul with variants, OHG. tiuval, etc., ON. djofull. 318. As has been indicated, deoful is extremely common in OE. poetry, examples of which will occur in the subsequent discussion. For the chief of the fallen angels the Latin Satan, Satanus, and Lucifer are found a few times. Regarding the fallen angels God decided among other things, se hehsta hatan sceolde / Satan siddan, Gen. 344-5. The term is also met with Gen. 347, And. 1689, Sat. 712, etc. Satanus occurs for instance Sat. 371, 447, 692, etc. Lucifer (leohtberende) is found once, Sat. 367. We are told that before the fall the chief devil was engla weard, Gen. 22, pe cer wees engla scynost, / hwittost on heofnon, 338-9, gelic wees hepam leohtum steorrum, 256, and he himself says, Ic wees iu in heofnum halig cengel . . . Sat. 81. But he has become se ofermoda cyning, Gen. 338, who rebelled against God for oferhygde, 22, and with his adherents was cast down into hell, peer he to deofle weard, 305, while heo (namely the rebellious angels) ealle forsceop / drihten to deoflum, 308-9. In different poems, such as Genesis, Elene, Christ and Satan, etc., the circumstances of the fall are recounted with more or less detail. 319. The devil with the evil spirits becomes the enemy of God and man. The term feond, the hating and hostile one, sometimes modified, but often alone, is frequently used synonymously with deojol. We note, feond, Sal. 69, 91, 100, Gu. 107, etc., feond moncynnes, Jul. 317, 523, 630, sawla jeond, 348, ece feond, Gen. 1261, flah feond gemah, Whale 39, se ealda feond, Panther 58, El. 207, ealdfeondes cefest, Ph. 401, ealdfeondes / scyldigra scolu, Gu. 174-5, ealdfind (pi.), Har. 89, ealdfeondas, Gu. 189, ealdfeonda nan, Ph. 449, ealdfeonda nid, Gu. 112, etc., etc. We note also feondeetes, Ps. CV, 24, referring to the eating of sacrificial offerings, and feondgyld 7 Kluge, Etymologisches Worterbuck, article Teufel; Lehnworte, pp. 134-5. The NED., after having mentioned that the Gothic word is directly from Greek, continues, " the forms in the other Teutonic langs. were partly at least from Latin, and prob. adopted more or less independently of each other." 95] THE WORLD, ANGELS, AND DEVILS 95 gebrcec, in the same verse. The terms apply to the subordinates, charac- terized Sat. 104-5, feond seondon rede,/ dimme and deorce, as well as to the chief, who is feonda aldor, Sat. 76. He is also godes andsaca, Sat. 191, etc., a phrase also used for the other devils, so for instance in godes and- sacan, Sat. 719, Gu. 204, earme andsacan, 181, etc., etc. 320. The activities of the devils in seducing man are described in a number of places, a subject to be discussed in the next chapter. The chief with the evil spirits is the cause of sin, the following terms for instance being applied to Satan, yfles ordfruma, Sat. 374, j acnes frumbearn, Gu. 1044, And. 1294, morpres brytta, And. 1170, mordres manfrea, And. 1313, simi- larly Jul. 546; ealre synne fruma, El. 771, synna fruman, Jul. 362, leahtra fruman, El. 838. To these we add others, which are only partly ascribed to the chief, in some cases there being doubt as to whether Satan or a subordinate spirit is meant. Fyrnsynna fruman, Jul. 347, mordres man- frea, El. 941, And. 1313, synna bryttan, El. 957, synna hyrdas, Gu. 522, synna weardas, Judg. 16. It should be noted that for instance Abimelech is called synna brytta Gen. 2641. Though it is said of Wyrd, Sal. 443, eallra fyrena fruma, fcehdo modor, and 445, frumscylda gehwces feeder and modor, we must identify Wyrd in these passages with the fallen angel, a case not isolated in OE. poetry. 321. The relation between devils and hell is naturally very close. The chief is hellwarena cyning, Jul. 322, 437, etc., his gingran, Sat. 191, being helle scealcas, 133. The seducer of Eve is called handpegen helle, Sat. 485. Among other terms encountered we note, helledeofol, El. 900, helle dioful, And. 1298, helle deofol, Jul. 629, etc., helle hazjiling, Jul. 246, And. 1342, a term comparatively frequent; pystra slihtend, Jul. 419, peostra pegnas, Gu. 668, hellepegna, 1042, hellsceada, Gen. 694, etc., helle- hinca, And. 1171. 322. The devils were looked upon as spirits, capable, however, of assuming the form of angel, man, or animal, as exemplified in such poems as Salomon and Saturn, Juliana, Guthlac, etc. In giving a few examples of designations, we have selected such as illustrate to some extent at least qualities ascribed to the evil spirits. Hean hellegcest, Jul. 457, 615, se atola gast, And. 1296, se atela gcest, Gu. 87, se werega gast, Sat. 126, se werga gcest, Gu. 422, pa werigan gastas, Sat. 731, earme gastas, Gu. 490, etc., atole gastas, I swarte and synfulle, Sat. 51-2, se swearta gcest, Cr. 269, Mac bealowes gast, Sat. 721, unclcene gcest, Jul. 418, geomre gastas, Gen. 69, done ladan gcest, Sal. 86. 323. Of the many other kennings for devils encountered in the poetry, we note the more important. 8 Wrad wcerloga, And. 1297, wcerlogan, Gu. 8 Compare Bode, Kenningar, p. 76 ff., Rankin, IX, p. 56 ff. 96 INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY ON OLD ENGLISH POETRY [96 269, 595, etc., etc., awyrgde wcerlogan on Wynnes bleo, 883, wcerleas werod, Gen. 67, wifierbrecan, 64, wuldres wifierbreca, Jul. 269, wrohtes wyrhtan, 346, wrohtbora, Cr. 763, wrohlsmidas, Gu. 877, teonsmidas, 176, wrcecca wcerleas, Jul. 351, se wrcecmcecga, 260, wrcecmoecgas, Gu. 234, wrade wrcec- mcecgas, 530, etc., sawla gewinnan, Jul. 555, Ha unpeawas ealle, Exhortation 41, has a decidedly- carnal flavor. Fdcen, n., with its various compounds, is used frequently, as also unriht in the sense of imquitas and injustitia, furthermore uncyst, vice, and similar terms, which we pass over. 339. In entering now upon a discussion of specific sins, the material at hand makes it advisable to follow St. Augustine's division of Peccata Operis, Oris, and Cordis. This plan has been followed by Kahle, I, and what he says there 6 in regard to the difficulties in carrying it out strictly applies with equal force to OE. poetry, and the solution adopted by him has been found advantageous also in our case. II. Peccata Operis 340. Under this heading carnal sins, or sins of the flesh, may con- veniently be treated first, certain others following. The Latin caro as the seat of sinful lusts and desires is rendered in OE. by flcesc, n., as Doom 175(87); fyrngende flcesc, 214, translates caro luxurians, 107. Its use may be further illustrated, purh flcesc and fyrenlustas "/ strange gestryned, Soul 44. Often lust, m., either alone or modified, expresses carnal sin. In the example just quoted from Soul we have fyrenlustas, 44, in the same sense, me fyrenlustas / pine geprungon, 34, possibly also in pu poet selegescol, pcet ic me swces on pe / gehalgode hus to Wynne, / purh firenlustas fule synne / unsyfre besmite, Cr. 1483, and synlustas, Exhortation 53. But frequently the meaning is more general, though sometimes there may be doubt as to the exact rendering, as, lices lustas, Jul. 409. leaslice Ikes Wynne, / earges flceschoman idelne lust, Cr. 1298, compared with lices leahtor, Gu. 1045. In this general sense the term is used, purh synlust, Cr. 269, purh firena lust, 369, idle lustas / synwunde, 756, probably also in synna lustas, Gu. 84, ic him geswete synna lustas, Jul. 369, hi firenlusta frece ne wceron, Met. VIII. 15. 341. Gcelsa generally translates Latin luxus, luxuria. Thus we note, his gemyndum modes gcdsan, Moods 11, manigfealde modes gcelsan, Jul. 366, pees gatlsan (luxuriae, 89), Doom 179, also line 237, where celc gcelsa / . . . scyldig renders scelerata libido, 119. A word closely related is gdlnes, wantonness, lus f , occurring once, her glad leofast on galnysse (servire libidine gaudes, 88), Doom 178. Two adjectives formed with gal- may also be noted here, gdlferhd, Jud. 62, and gdlmod, 256, both referring to the lust- ful Holofernes. 342. Wrdinnes, wantonness, renders focus, 118, Doom 235, while we find weaxed / pcere wrcennesse woddrag micel Met. XXV, 41. 6 P. 398. 102 INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY ON OLD ENGLISH POETRY [102 343. Hefignes is encountered a few times in Meters, pas lichoman leah- tras and hefignes, XXII, 25, 29, mid hefinesse his lichoman, 63. 344. The unclean lusts and desires lead to various sins, some of which have physical causes. Gluttony must be mentioned here, pa oferfylle we find Exhortation 75, the subject having been discussed before, Warna pe georne wid pare wambefylle, 40, with its dire effects, forpan heo pa unpeo- was ealle gesomna'd, / pe pare saide swidost deriafi, /pat is druncennes and dyrne geligere, 41-3, to which is added ungemet wilnung ates and slapes, 44. Curiously enough, the author mentions not only that one may drive them away mid fastenum / and forhafdnessum, 45-6, but also mid cyricsocnum cealdum wederum, 47. Druncennes we find Exhortation 43, druncen, f.. occurs in Druncen beorgpe, Instructions 34, pu scealt druncen fleon, Exhorta- tion 74. 345. Dyrne geligere, n., was pointed out Exhortation 43 as one of the results of gluttony. Illicit intercourse, fornication, or adultery, are men- tioned several times in the poetry, the particular term used in each case being very expressive. From forlicgan we have lease and forlegene, Cr. 1611, the verb also being employed, gif se lichoma forlegen weorfied / unriht- hamede, Met. XVIII, 9. Besides unrihthamed, n., occurring in the passage just quoted, the word in the sense of adultery or fornication is found Met. IX, 6, referring to Nero. A related term, wohh anted, n., we have in se yfla unrihta . . . / wrafia willa wohhamedes, Met. XVIII, 2. The sin of sodomy is referred to, pat mid pam halefium haman wolden / unscomlice, Gen. 2458-9. Wiflufu in the sense of adultery is used Jul. 296, fia se halga wer J pare wiflufan wordum styrde, Herod's illicit relation being further characterized as unrihtre a, 297. In Instructions the son is warned against idese lufan, 36, forfion sceal awiscmod oft sipian, / se pe gewitefi in wifes lufan, I fremdre meowlan: par bid a firena wen, / laZlicre scome, 37-40. 346. Among the Peccata peris worship of heathen gods and devils may be pointed out here. Hadengield, deofolgield, etc., have already been discussed. Witchcraft and magic also belong here. Gealdor, n., incantatio, we have in (Circe) cude galdra fela. Met. XXVI, 53, and the compound in Sygegealdor ic begale, Charm VIII, 6. Galdorcraft is ascribed to the Jews, Judea galdorcraftum, And. 166. We note wiccraft in wic- crafta wis, Gifts 70, and wiccungdom, Dan. 121, both referring to witch- craft. Drycraft is mentioned several times, for instance in Andreas, the Jews claiming concerning a miracle of Christ, pat hit drycraftum gedon ware, / scingelacum, 765, cude (Circe) galdra fela / drijan drycraftas, Met. XXVI, 54, drycraftum, 98, and mid drycraftum, 102. Scingelac and scinlac, n., magical practices, sorcery, we have Jul. 214, as also Met. XXVI, 74, And. 766. 103] SIN 103 347. Other sins properly coming under this heading, such as murder, theft, etc., are also encountered, but since they offer nothing character- istically Christian, no treatment of them seems to be called for. III. Peccata Oris 348. Here belongs bismer, mnf., in a general sense insult, and when applied to God, blasphemy. Thus, hi gefremedan oder bysmer {irritaverunt), Ps. CV, 25, him hcrfdan on bysmer {irritaverunt), CVI, 10, brigdefi on bysmer , Judg. 71. As occurrences of the verb we note, me bysmer edon . . . / weras wanscclige (Jews Christ), And. 962, naman pinne nu bysmriad (irritat), Ps. LXXIII, 10, gebysmerian, as, hi heanne god gebysmredan (exacerbaverunt Deum excelsum), LXXVII, 56. In the sense of to blaspheme hyrwan occurs, ac hi hyrwdon me (Jews Christ), El. 355. Hyspan, to mock, is found Cr. 1121, hysptun (Christ) hearmcwidum, the noun being hosp, m., blasphemy, when applied to the Deity, as, (Ic gepolade) hosp and heardcwide, Cr. 1444. In a somewhat general sense hospword is found And. 1315. In a more specific meaning we note, pcet pu hospcwide, / cefst ne eofolsozc cefre ne fremme, / grimne geagncwide wifi godes bearne, El. 523, though hospcwide as also the other terms used derive the specific meaning of blasphemy from the context. Onhyscan, to mock, is rare, occurring in the Psalms. Of other terms may be noted teoncwide, on pare grimmesian godscyld wrecan, / tome teoncwide, Jul. 205, applied to heathen gods, the word also being encountered And. 771. Teona, in the sense of slander, we have in seo tunge to teonan geclypede, Doom 137. Edwit, n., scorn, abuse, is used a number of times. The damned have to endure deofles spellunge, / hu hie him on edwit oft asettad / swarte suslbonan, Sat. 638-40, sprcEcon him (Christ) edwit, Cr. 1122, Cwepad him ptet edwit (exprobravertmt), Ps. LXXXVHI, 44. Edwltsprctce (opprobrii) we have in verse 43, as also CI, 6 (exprobrabant), while Gu. 418 the devils are called edwltsprecan. 349. A somewhat different sin is expressed by terms such as idele sprccc, L. Prayer III, 108, and mdnldel word (vanitatem) , Ps. CXLIII, 9, 13, but they hardly need any discussion. Gielp, mn., in the sense of boasting, though also in that of pride, arrogance, is rather frequent. Of the fallen angels it is said, Hccfdon gielp micel, Gen. 25, ivgcs him gylp farod, 69. We note also, ongan da gyddigan purh gylp micel, Dan. 599, idel gylp, Sat. 254, Gu. 634. A number of compounds, such as gilpsprazc, are also found. The verb gielpan is very frequent, gealp gramlice gode on andan, Dan. 714, firenum gtdpon, Gu. 236, gylpafi gramhydige (gloriati sunt), Ps. LXXIII, 4, manwyrhtan mordre gylpad (peccalores gloriabuntur), XCIII, 3, etc., etc. 350. The most common term for lie is lyge, m., exemplified by mengan ongunnon / lige wit) sode, El. 307, lige ne wyrfie'S, 575, pu (devil) us gelcer- 104 INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY ON OLD ENGLISH POETRY [104 dcest durh lyge dinne, Sat. 53. Of compounds may be noted lygesynnig, used once, El. 898, as an epithet of the devil, lygeword, occurring a few- times, as Dan. 720, Ps. LVII, 3 (falsa), etc. The verb is leogan, to lie, wyrs ded sedeliehd / odd e dees s odes ansceced, Sal. 181, Himjynd godes ftzene leogad (mentiti sunt ei), Ps. LXXX, 14. Aleogan and geleogan, though rare, also occur. Another term for lie is lygen, f., met with a number of times in Genesis, thus, mid ligenum, 496, 531, 588, etc. Lygenword in the dat. pi. is found Gen. 699, the term occurring only once. A liar is called lyge- wyrhta Sermon Ps. 28, 11, the dat. pi. being used. Leas, n., is very rare, pcet leas, El. 580, and lease leng gefylgad, 576. The adjective is more fre- quent, occurring for instance Cr. 1120, and Sermon Ps. 28, 24. It may be pointed out that lease sceaweras, Beow. 253, is used in the sense of spies., Leasung is rarely met with; we have it in forlccte pa leasunga, El. 689. 351. The OE. word for oath is ad. While the idea of perjury is expressed by ne me swor jela / ada on unriht, Beow. 2738, we read on worulde her / monnum ne denad mane adas, 7 Met. IV, 48. The perjurer is called an adloga Cr. 1605. Mdnswara is applied to him Cr. 193, the plural being found 1612. 352. Tcbl, f., slander, calumny, is found a few times, e.g., ic for tcele ne mceg J cenigne moncynnes mode gelufian / eorl on eple, Prayer IV, 105. Talnis in the sense of blasphemy has already been quoted under that heading. The verb tozlan, to slander or backbite, is comparatively rare, being encountered in Eorl oderne mid cefpancum / and mid tconwordum taled behindan, Sermon Ps. 28, 4. the father warning his son Ne beo pu no to todende ne to tweosprace, Instructions 90. In the sense of to blaspheme is found {he) his godu tcelde, Jul. 598. We note also, pe oft wrade me trage tceldan (qui detrahunt milii apud Dominum) , Ps. CVIII, 20. 353. Wyrgdu, f ., curse, is used a number of times. Thus we find, pe eow ofwergde (lysanpohte), El. 295, Euan scyld ealforpynded, / wargda aivorpen, Cr. 98, He wolde wergdu wyrcean georne (dilexit maledictionem), Ps. CVIII, 17, etc. The verb is wyrgan, its use being illustrated by (ongan hine) wordum wyrgean (Noah Ham), Gen. 1594, pa ge wergdon pane, j pe eow of wergde (lysan pohte), El. 294, gif me min feond fcecne wyrged (si inimicus maledixisset mihi), Ps. LIV, 11. Not seldom dwyrgan is utilized, often applied in the sense of accursed one to the devil or the lost, as, se awyrgda, Sat. 316, etc., awyrgda, 676, etc. For further remarks see chapter XII, 431. IV. Peccata Cordis 354. Among the deadly sins as conceived by the Mediaeval Church superbia stood first, which in OE. poetry is often rendered by oferhygd, n., examples of which are numerous. Pride was at the bottom of the rebellion 7 OS. menetk, OHG. meineid, ON. meineiZr. 105] SIN 105 of the angels against God. We are told peet wees geara iu in godes rice, / pcette mid en glum oferhygd astag, Moods 57-8, so that hi to swice pohten / and prymcyning peodenstoles / ricne beryfan, 61-2. Of the chief it is said, oer don engla wear d j or oferhygde j dcel on gedwilde, Gen. 22, while eefst and oferhygd and pees engles mod, 29, proved the downfall of the angels, pa blacan feond / for oferhygdum ealle forwurdon, Sat. 196-7. Of other occurrences of the term we note, oferhygd Dan. 490, oferhyd, 495, 615, fore oferhygdum, Jul. 424, on oferhygdo, Moods 23, oferhygda ful, 43, simi- larly 53; from the Psalms, on oferhygde {in superbia), LVIII, 12, pe oferhygd up ahebbe (qui facit superbiam), C, 7, etc., etc. Oferhygdig, n., occurs Ps. LXXVII, 58 (aemulalionem) . The adjective oferhygdig is found a number of times, especially in the Psalms. We note, englas oferhydige, Prayer IV, 55, oferhidig cyn engla, Gen. 66, oferhydige (superbos), Ps. CXVIII, 21, 22, oferhydigum (superbis), XCIII, 2, etc. 355. In order to express superbia other terms are also employed, as, ofermede, n., his engyl ongan ofermede micel / ahebban wid his hearran 7 Gen. 293, on ofermedum, Moods 75, ofermedla,for his ofermedlan, Dan. 657, onmedla, a number of times, as, onmedla wees, Cr. 815, for dam anmedlan, Sat. 74, for anmeedlan, 429, for anmedlan, Dan. 748. We have further, ofermetto, f., his ofermetto ealra swidost (chief angel), Gen. 351, purh ojer- metto, 332, purh ofermetto ealra swidost (fallen angels), 337, ofermod, n., se engel ofermodes, Gen. 272, for his ofermode, Maldon 89. The adjective ofermod is found a number of times, ofermod wesan, Gen. 262, se ofermoda cyning (chief angel or devil), 338, Eala ofermodan! Met. X, 18, etc. Ofer- modig in the pi. occurs Ps. CXVIII, 51 (superbi), found only once, as also the verb ofermodgian, Met. XVII, 16. Related terms are heahmod, adj., (Se pe June sylfne) ahefed heahmodne, Moods 54, swidmbd, Dan. 529, etc., also heahheort, adj., Dan. 540. 356. Among other terms for superbia we note wlenco, f., wlenco onwod, Gen. 2579, hie wlenco onwod at winpege, Dan. 17, wlenco gesceod, 678, for wlence, Gen. 1673, etc. Gal, n., is encountered Gen. 327, and galscipe 341, in each case the term probably referring t© pride. Bcelc, L. superbia, arrogantia, we find in bcelc forlriged (Assyrians), Jud. 267, and bcelc forbigde (rebellious angels), Gen. 54. 357. Nip, m., L. invidia, is used in referring to the devil Ph. 400, as also in purh ncedran nip, 413. We have wid nipa gehwam 469, while it is said of Cain, hygeweelm asteah / beorne on breostum, blatende nid, Gen. 980-81, brandhata nid, And. 768, referring to the devil, etc. Similarly, also including hatred, cefest is employed. We have, cefst and oferhygd and pees engles mod (devil), Gen. 29, ne meahton hy (devils) cefeste anforlcetan, Gu. 158, fore cejstum, 684, ealdfeondes cefest, Ph. 401, cefstum purh inwit 106 INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY ON OLD ENGLISH POETRY [106 (Christ was crucified), El. 207, is gromra to fela / afestum eaden, Prayer IV, 46, hie (Jews) for cefstum inwit syredon, And. 610, hie for ozfstum unscyldigne (Jeore berceddon . . ., Jews Stephen), El. 496, etc., etc. 358. Hete, m., is often employed in the sense of hatred, also having the wider meaning of hostility. We quote, se wees lafi gode, / on hete heofon- cyninges, Gen. 648, (Ic fleah) hlcefdigan hete, 2273, (godes agen beam) purh hete hengon on heanne beam, El. 424. From hete a number of compounds are formed, thus, hetepanc, ne gerim witan / heardra heteponca, Jul. 315, mid his hetepancum, Beow. 475, hetepancol, Jud. 105, hetlen, full of hate, Cr. 364. Feogan, to hate, is encountered a number of times, especially in the Psalms. We note, pa pe dryhtnes a / feodon purh firencrceft, Jul. 14, ieodon purh feondscipe, El. 356, pe hine feodan {qui oderunt eum), Ps. LXVII, 1, de fceste cer feodan, drihten (oderunt te), LXXXII, 2, etc. 359. Forhycgan, despise, detest, is exemplified by flu for ho godes heofon- cyninges word, And. 1381, sippan he pas woruld forhogde (not a sin here), Gu. 713, hine for ho god est (despexisti), Ps. LXXXVIII, 32. Oferhycgan is rare, Utan oferhycgan helm (God), Sat. 252, had oferhogedon halgan lifes, Dan. 300. Onscunian, detest, is found once, onscunedon pone sciran scippend eallra, El. 370. 360. Yrre, n., occurs frequently, especially in the Psalms. Irre, Met. XXV, 51, Yrre ne Icet pe cejre gewealdan / heah in hrepre, Instructions 83, yrre for ozfstum (Cain), Gen. 982, Hyre pa purh yrre ageaf andsware, Jul. 117, godes yrre / habban, Gen. 695, pa to yrre beofi ealle gecigde (eos qui in ira provocant), Ps. LXVII, 7, Swa hi his yrre oft aweahtan (in iram con- citaverunt), LXXVII, 58, etc. The adjective is frequently found, hccWd war on yrre, Jud. 225, weard yrre anmod cyning, Dan. 224, on yrre mod eft gebrohtan, Ps. LXXVII, 40, etc. Among other terms may be noted yrsung, thrice used in Meters, while the adjective yrringa and the verb yrsian are also rare. 361. sEbylg, n., is found once, gecefnan cebylg godes, Gu. 1211, abylgd, {., in the sense of anger, He qpyligde on hi bitter and yrre sarlic sende (misit in eos iram indignationis suae), Ps. LXXVII, 49, cebylgnes, L. indignatio, he him ozbylgnesse oft gefremede, Moods 71, and cebylignes eac yrres pines (indignatio irae tuae), Ps. LXVIII, 25. Belgan, to become indignant, angry, is frequently employed, abelgan and gebelgan being also found. 8 Abylgan, to anger, offend, we have in Hi hine on gepeahte oft abylgdan (exacer- baverunt), Ps. CV, 32,po3t he ne abadige beam waldendes, Sat. 195. Among other terms we note hatheortnes , anger, fury, used once, mid dam swidan welme J hatheortnesse, Met. XXV, 47, torn, OHG. zorn, penden him hyra torn toglide, Gn. Ex. 182, his torn wrecan, Gen. 2508, etc., Wceron teonsmi'das 8 For examples see Sprachschatz. 107] SIN 107 tomes fulle, Gu. 176, etc. Of compounds appear such as gartom, fighting rage, gartom geotad gifmni deofle, Sal. 145, tornmod, once, Gu. 621, and tomwracu, once, Gu. 272. It may be pointed out here that the same terms are occasionally also applied to the Deity, and merely for the purpose of illustration we have at times added an example thus used. 362. Gitsung, desire, covetousness, avarice. Deos gitsung, Met. VIII, 43, sio gitsung, 46, grundleas gitsung gilpes and ozhta, VII, 15, gitsunge gelpes, X, 13, notes py he giemde purh gitsunga / lanes lifwelan, Gu. 121-2. From the Psalms we note, nalazs me gitsung fomiman mote (in avaritiam), CXVIII, 36, ongunnan gitsunge began (concupierunt concupiscentiam) , CV, 12, for gitsunga (libidine percitus, Grein), Ps. L. 24. Of compounds occur woruldgitsung, Met. VII, 12. W oruldgltsere is found Met. XIV, 1, and feohgitsere VIII, 55. Closely related are (to) feohgifre, Wand. 68, godes gradig, Sal. 344, and similar terms. Fcesthafolnes is found once, Doom 236, rendering dira cupido, 119. Mdnsceat, m., usury, occurs once, He of mansceatte and of mane eac sniome hiora sawle softe alysde (ex usuris et iniquitate), Ps. LXXI, 14. 363. Tweogan, to doubt, is sometimes found in the religious sense. Thus, [No heo tirmeotudes] tweode gifena / in dys ginnan grunde, Jud. 1, huru cetpccm ende ne tweode / pees leanes,pe heo lange gyrnde, 346, ne getweode treow in breostum, Gu. 515, tweogende mod, And. 771, in contrast to which may be noted hyht untweondne on pone ahangnan Crist, El. 797. « 364. A noun ungeleafa does not occur in the poetry, though we have the adjective once, ungeleafe menu (non credentes), Ps. LXVII, 19. The idea is variously paraphrased, but we need not discuss all the expres- sions here. Not seldom unbelief or godlessness is represented as error or deception. Gedwild is used for instance, hean prowian / pinra dceda gedwild, Gen. 922/ engla weard for oferhygde / dcel on gedwilde, 23. Misge- dwild is also found, pait we sodfeestra /purh misgedwield mod oncyrren, Jul. 326. Gedwola is used several times, as for instance, in gedwolan hweorfan, Dan. 22, gedwolan hyran, Cr. 344, gedwolan dreogan, Gu. 230, practically in the sense of idolatry, deofulgild todraf and gedwolan fylde, And. 1688, purh deopne gedwolan deofles larum, 611. It is said of Cyriacus, (witisoc) deofulgildum and gedwolan fylde, El. 1040, and in reference to the Jews, purh deofles spild in gedwola lange / acyr red f ram Criste, 1118-19. Arius' heresy is labeled Arrianes / gedwola, Met. I, 40-41. The verb gedwelian in the religious sense we have exemplified in dcedum gedwolene (people of Sodom and Gomorrah), Gen. 1936, similarly Jul. 13. 365. Untreow, f., we find in a secular sense Met. II, 13, in the religious meaning Gen. 773. Untreowe, perfidious, is also encountered, Wcerleas mon and wonhydig, / oztrenmod and ungetreow, Gn. Ex. 163. Ungetreowd 108 INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY ON OLD ENGLISH POETRY [108 we have in tyhfi me untreowda, Gen. 581. The cowardly companions of Beowulf are called treowlogan, 2847. Cowardice, perfidy, and disloyalty would of course be regarded as cardinal sins by the Germanic mind. 366. TJnsodjcestnes occurs only once in poetry, Ps. LIV, 9, (injustitia). The adjective is also rare, we unsodfceste ealle war on (injuste), Ps. CV, 6, unsodfcestne wer (virum injustum), CXXXIX, 11. Unriht in the sense of injustice is also found. 367. As in ON., 9 the expression for conscientia in OE. poetry is not always the same, the idea being foreign to the heathen mind. Besides it is seldom mentioned. Once we have breostgehygd, nf., ac ealle purhyrnd . . . I breostgehygda, Doom 172. Wisdom seems to be regarded as the keeper of the soul Cr. 1550-53, (we magon) on an cwepan, / pcet se sawle weard/lifes wisdom forlor en hcebbe, / se pe nune giemed. . . . In this case as in the following the reference is not as clear as we might wish it to be, ponne se weard sivefed, / sawele hyrde: bid se sleep to f (est/ bisgum gebunden, Beow. 1741- 3. 368. God tempts or probes man in order to find out his position. The word used is costian, for instance, pa pees rinces se rica ongan / cyning costigan (God Abraham), Gen. 2846. The devil also tempts man, but with the object of seducing him, costian also being employed. Regarding the tempting of Christ we hear, pcet he (devil) costode cyning alwihta, Sat. 671. Of St. Guthlac it is said, He gecostad weard, t24. The noun is costung, a word comparatively rare, Ne Icet usic costunga cnyssan to swide, L. Prayer I, 9, (Ne Iced pu us) in costunge (temptationem) , II, 28, and na us pu ne Icet lade beswican I on costunga (temtationem) , III, 105. We have the term also in sindan costinga / . . . monge arisene, Gu. 9, and Wees seo cereste earmra gcesta I costung ofercumen, 409. Frasung, temptation, is found in frasunga fela, Gu. 160. 369. The devil himself describes his infernal strategy at some length in Juliana, under the figure of assailing a castle, etc. To express his pro- cedure in winning man as described by him in language not figurative, we quote the summary of Abbetmeyer 10 on Jul. 362 ff.: "Wherever he (namely the devil) finds the mind steadfast, he arouses wanton pride by inspiring fallacious, delusive thoughts ('suggestio'); he makes sinful lusts appear attractive, until the mind obeys his teaching ('delectatio'); he sets it so on fire with sins that, all ablaze, it will no longer tarry in the house of prayer for love of vice, but do the devil's will ('consensus'). • Kahle, I, p. 406-7. 10 Old English Poetical Motives Derived from the Doctrine of Sin, p. 38. 109] SIN 109 370. The work of the devil is often expressed by beswican, to deceive, defraud, seduce, a term also used in a more general sense, as, od pcet hie langung beswac, / eordan dreamas eces rcedes, Dan. 29, We purh gifre mod / beswican us sylfe, Har. 96. In regard to the devil the term is used fre- quently, so oppozt hy beswiead synna weardas, Judg. 16, na us pu ne Icet lade beswican / on costunga, L. Prayer III, 104,ponne hy sofifcestra sawle willa'8 / synnum beswican and sear ocrazf turn, Gu. 540, (devil) wolde dearnunga driht- nes geon gran, / mid mandcedum menn beswican, / forlcedan and fori cer an, Gen. 451, etc., etc. As exemplified in the last passage, forlcedan and forlaran are also employed. We note further, (woldun hy geteon) in orwennysse (despair), Gu. 547, forteon in ponan us cer purh synlust se swearta gcBst I forteah and fortylde, Cr. 270, fortyhtan, found once, swa se ealda feond I forlcerde ligesearwum, leode forty hte, El. 208. Dimscua, darkness, is employed, under dimscuan deofles larum, And. 141. Gespan, n., seduc- tion, we find once, deofles gespon, Gen. 720, the verb spanan occurring in mid listum speon / idese on pcet unriht, Gen. 588, similarly 687; bespanan we have once, ic H erode / in hyge bispeon (to behead John the Baptist), Jul. 294. Scyccan, in the sense of to seduce, we have in Me ncedre beswac and me neodlice / to forsceape scyhte, Gen. 898. Scucca is the seducer, devil, demon, as, scuccum and scinnum, Beow. 939, sceuccum (daemoniis), Ps. CV, 27, scyccgyld occurring in sceuccgyldum (sculptilibus) , 26. With scuccum and scinnum, Beow. 939, compare Swa bid scinna peaw, / deofla wise, Whale 31. 110 INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY ON OLD ENGLISH POETRY [110 CHAPTER X FAITH, CONVERSION, PENANCE 371. The teachings of Christianity demand of man that he forsake sin and lead a new life in Christ. By the grace of God faith accomplishes this regeneration or rebirth, and remains the basis from which Christian vir- tues and good works proceed as natural and inevitable evidences of sancti- fication. I. Faith 372. The New Testament irians, which the Vulgate renders by fides, is expressed in OE. by geleafa, OHG. galauba. 1 As in the case of OHG., geleafa may be used in both the subjective and the objective sense, though the former is much more common. In the objective meaning it occurs only a few times, as in the missionary command, bodiad and bremad beorhtne geleafan, Cr. 483, and similarly, Bodiad after burgum beorhtne geleafan, And. 335. 373. As a rule, subjective faith is expressed by geleafa, often a modifying adjective also being employed. Thus we have, An is geleafa, an lifgende, Maxims 8, his geleafa weard / fcest on ferhde, El. 1035, heo ahte trumne geleafan / a to dam celmihtigan, Jud. 6, mid fceste geleafan, Charm I, 34, Ic hcebbe me fcestne geleafan / up to pam cdmihtegan gode, Gen. 543, (ne hcefdon) on hiora fyrhpe fcestne geleafan (necfideles habiti sunt), Ps. LXXVII, 36, mid rihte geleafan, Jud. 97, sodne geleafan, 89, 345, beorhtne geleafan, Gu. 770, leohtne geleafan, El. 491, (mid) leohte geleafan, Jul. 653, leohte geleafan, El. 1136, Gu. 624, 1084, Ph. 479, leohtran geleafan in lijfruman, Dan. 643, leohtes geleafan, Jul. 378. 374. The verb is gelefan, gelifan, gelyfan, generally expressing the L. credere, though also rendering fidere and sperare. As gelefan is of such frequent occurrence, only a few characteristic examples need be given here, Ne wile Sarran sod gelyfan / wordum minum, Gen. 2388, Ic on sunu pinne sodne gelyfe, Creed 9, pe gelyfad on lyfiendne god, Prayer III, 29, Lisse ic gelyfe leahtra gehwylces, Creed 54, noldan his wundrum wel gelyfan (non crediderunt in mirabilibus ejus), Ps. LXXVII, 31, Nu is to gelyfenne to dan leofan gode, Chr. IV, 13. 375. Only a few compounds are met with in the poetry. Ungeleaf has already been cited in 364. The ace. or inst. of sodgeleafa is found Gen. 1 For this chapter compare Raumer, p. 388 ff., Kahle, I, 407 ff., II, 152-3. [Ill FAITH, CONVERSION, PENANCE 111 2325. Geleajful occurs a few times, El. 959 and as geleafull 1047 referring to Cyriacus, Ofer geleajfulle eorfibugende (adfideles terrae), Ps. C, 6, wordum (ac) geleafullum (fidei sermone, 31), Doom 61. Geleafsum occurs once, pin gewitnes is weorcum geleafsum (testimonia tua credibilia facta sunt), Ps. XCII, 6. 376. Sometimes other terms than geleafa are used to express sub- stantially the same idea. Treow, f., is not infrequently employed. We note, huru treow in pe (Virgin Mary) / weor'dlicu wunade, Cr. 82, ge mid treowe to me / on hyge hweorfafi, Partridge 5, Rio in gceste bar / halge treowe, Jul. 29, sofie treowe and sibbe mid eow / healdad est heortan, 655, (Noah) Hcefde him on hredre halige treowa, Ex. 366, (no) treow getweode, Gu. 311, him ne getweode treow in breostum, 515, pat his treowa sceal / and his modge'donc ma up ponne nider / habban to heofonum, Met. XXXI, 18, as also Til hip se pe his treowe gehealded, Wand. 112. Hygetreow we have in (God promises Isaac) him sode to / modes ware mine gelataai, / halige higeireowa, Gen. 2367. 377. Treowan and getreowan are sometimes used in the same sense as gelefan. Thus, aghwylcum, pe him on treowad (omnes qui confidunt in eis), Ps. CXIII, 17, pu in ecne god / prymsittendne pinne getreowdes, Jul. 435, etc., pape on drihten heora dcedum getreowafi (qui confidunt in Domino), Ps. CXXIV, 1. Especially noteworthy is the use in Creed, where getreowan and gelefan are used interchangeably. We have, Eac ic gelyfe, pat syn leofe gode, 49, and ic gemanscipe marne getreowe (pinra haligra), 52, Lisse ic gelyfe leahtra gehwylces, 54, and ic pone arest ealra getreowe, 55. 378. The Christian idea of hope is of course closely related to that of faith. Sometimes the terms are almost synonymous in OE. poetry. Among other examples we note Gesette minne hyht on pec, Prayer IV, 36, Uton us to pare hyde hyht stapelian, Cr. 865, hyht untweondne on pone ahangnan Crist, El. 797, berad in breostum beorhtne geleafan, / haligne hyht, Gu. 771; hopa'd to pam ecum, Met. VII, 44, se miccla hopa to pinum halende, Exhortation 10. II. Conversion 379. Conversion is expressed in different ways in OE. poetry, the turning away from sin and the turning to God being especially emphasized. In order to indicate conversion, the New Testament uses the terms kiri- (TTpecpeLv, a fie snyttro mid eow / mcegn and modcrceft mceste hcebban, El. 408, the connotation seems to represent the transitional stage. Another word closely approaching in meaning to virtue is dugup, {., power, efficiency. In dugufium bedeled, Sat. 122, it may occur in the sense of power, but has the meaning virtue in Swa is dryhten god dreama rozdend / eallum eafimedum oprum gesceaftum, / duguda gehwylcre, Panther 57, which Thorpe 3 renders " to everything of virtue, " and Grein 4 " den edelen anderen Geschopfen," with which compare dugude beswicad, seduce the virtuous, Whale 33. Cyst, mf., really choice, is sometimes used in the sense of virtue. Thus, his giefe bryttafi / sumum on cystum, sumum on crceftum, Gifts 106, kystum god (Edward), Chr. V, 23, he sippan sceal / godra gumcysta geasne hweorfan, Jul. 381, pcet we gumcystum georne hyran, And. 1606, while of Cain it is said, se cystleasa cwalmes wyrhta, Gen. 1004. The plural oipeaw, m., though generally modified, is at times used in the sense of virtues. We cite, cristenum peawum, El. 1210, pa pe meotude wel / gehyrdun under heofonum halgum fieowum, / dcedum domlicum, Ph. 444, hyran holdlice minum hodende / peawum and gepyncdum, Gu. 577, peowiafi in peawum, 473, sigefaston / modum gleawe in monpeawum, Az. 190. 388. The chief Christian virtue is love. The New Testament distin- guishes religious from profane love by using ayairr), ayawav in connection with the former and a beorhtan lac / to heofonhame, Cr. 292-3. We note also, ham in heofonum, Gu. 69, heofonlicne ham, Rood B, 148, deoran ham, Gu. 40, in pam ecan ham, Cr. 305, inpam cepelan ham, 350, pone mceran ham, And. 227, pone clcenan ham / eadmedum upp, 978. 419. The dwelling with God and the angels is called I if, the L. vita, Rood B, 126, etc., while the rendering of L. vita aeterna recurs time and again in ece lif, Creed 57, Ap. 38, 73, Gu. 33, 97, etc., eces lifes, Cr. 1052, u Compare Bode, Kenningar, p. 74, Rankin, IX, p. 51 ff. 127] THE FUTURE LIFE 127 eadig on pam ecan life, 1428. It is further described, bettre lif, Gu. 751, winsumre lif, Ap. 20, pat leohte lif, Ph. 661. Heaven was thought of as radiant with light, heofones leoht, Sermon Ps. 28, 44, dryhtnes leoht, Gu. 555, wuldres leoht, Ap. 61, leoht unhwilen, 20, pcct leohte leoht, Cr. 592. 420. The blessings of Heaven were considered the reward for battles well fought, wigges lean, El. 824, hafad nu ece lif / mid wuldorcining wiges to leane, Ap. 73-4. Even a reward for the Virgin Mary is not forgotten, hafde nergend pa / fagere fostorlean famnan for golden / ece to ealdre, Men. 151-3. Undue emphasis is laid upon works, and the theme never seems to weary the poets. Of the many examples encountered we note a few. Mr eamode eces lifes, Cr. 1052, earniad on eordan ecan lifes, / hames in heahpu, Gu. 767-8, ponne du geearnast, pat pe bid ece lif, / selust sigeleana seald in heofonum, El. 526-7, him womdcede witan ne pencad / for earnunge ecan lifes, L. Prayer II, 25-6, hcefd nu lif wid pan / mid wuldot fader weorca to leane, Men. 146-7; sigorlean in swegles wuldre, Jud. 345, sigorlean, Gu. 1344, etc., to sigorleanum, Cr. 1590, ponon wuldres leoht / sawle gesohte sigores to leane, Ap. 61-2, weorca wuldorlean , Gu. 1347, wuldorlean weorca, Cr. 1080, Ceapa pe mid ahtum eces leohtes, Exhortation 34, feorhrad freme- don, And. 1654, etc. 421. The fact that the blessed live in a state of bliss and happiness is often emphasized by the poets. A general term for salvation is gesald, f., happiness, blessedness, used a considerable number of times in Meters, where we have the contrast between true and false happiness. We note, sio sode gesald, XII, 19, soda gesalda, 23, ecan good / soda gesalda, XIX, 31-2, and soda gesalda, pat is self a god, 36. In contrast to it we quote, leasa gesalda, XII, 27, woruldsalda, II, 10, VII, 52, 54. Halor, n., salva- tion, is thrice used in Juliana, ahwyrfen from halor, 327, similarly 360; hyge from halor, 440. The saved are gesalig, blessed, a term also applied to Christ, for instance in par he gesalig sippan eardad / ealne widan feorh wunad butan ende, Cr. 438, to the saved, pat gesalige weorud, 1249, gesal- gum, 1652, 1660, gesalige sawle, Sat. 296, gesalig / mines epelrices eadig neotan, Cr. 1461, while Ea la, se bid gesalig and ofersalig / and on worulda woruld wihta gesaligost, Doom 246-7, renders Felix o nimiuml semperque in saecula felix, 124. Gesaliglic is also encountered, meaht and gefea / swide gesaliglic sawlum to gielde, Cr. 1079. The noun gesalignes is found only once in poetry, ac par bip engla dream, / sib and gesalignes and sawla rast, Cr. 1677. Eadig, L. beatus, felix, is common. We note only, eadig, Cr. 1497, eadige sawla, Sat. 653, ponne he sodfastra sawla laded, / eadige gastas on uprodor, Ex. 544, etc., etc. Welig, rich, is not so common; we note, welig in heofonum, Cr. 1496. 422. The Anglo-Saxon poets never tire of pointing out the joys and blessings of Heaven, transferring their ideas of worldly happiness to the 128 INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY ON OLD ENGLISH POETRY [128 heavenly abode. To designate the joy, dream, m., is often employed. This word had the 'primary meaning of noisy joviality,' 14 which according to Ferrell, 15 Grimm refers to "the jubilum aulae, that ecstatic state of halfdrunkenness in which the comrades sat together in peaceful circle, told stories and drank." We note as the more characteristic occurrences, ecne dream, Soul 154, dream unhwilen, El. 1231, halige dreamas, Sat. 680, hluttre dreamas / eadge mid englum, Cr. 1246, in pam uplican engla dreame, 102, engla dreames, 1343, in wuldres dream, Gu. 1278, etc., swegles dreamas, And. 809, swase swegldreamas , Cr. 1349, geestlice goddream, Gu. 602, heofon- dreamas, Soul 105, on sindreamum, Ph. 385, folc geleedan / in dreama dream, Cr. 580, agan . . . / dreama dream mid dryhtne gode / a to worulde, a buton ende, Sat. 314. 423. Symbel, n., banquet, reminding one of the festal board in the meadhall, with its gayety and conviviality, is also used a few t : mes to express the heavenly joys. Thus, him is symbel and dream / ece unhwylen eadgum to fr of re, Wonders 96, par is blis mycel, / dream on heofonum, / peer is dry htnes folc / geseted to symle, peer is singal blis, Rood B, 139-41. 424. Of other characterizations a considerable number occur, as for instance gefea, which is very frequent. We note, ecan gefean, Gu. 1052, etc., upne ecne gefean, Sat. 199, wynsum gefea, Cr. 1253, pam fcegrestan / heofonrices gefean, Gu. 808-9, etc. Blis is also extremely common, e.g., peer is hyht and blis, Cr. 750, sib and bliss, Gu. 1055. However, these and similar terms, as also compounds of hecfon, of which some have been mentioned, need no further discussion. III. Hell 425. The Germanic tribes were not without views about a place for the departed spirits, in the North even the idea of punishment having developed. 16 And when Christianity made its advent with its doctrine of hell, the Germanic tribes did not find it difficult to assimilate the new ideas, while the old name was kept. In OE. the term is hej,{l), f., OFris. helle, Mile, OS. hellja, hella, OHG. hella, ON. hel, Goth. Jialja, all from the Teut. stem *halja, literally the coverer up or hider. The ON. ideas of hel in the extant writings are clearer than those of the other peoples. 17 There we meet also Hel, daughter of Loki and a giantess, as the goddess of the infernal regions. '&•* 14 Kent, Teutonic Antiquities, p. 17. 15 Teutonic Antiquities, pp. 16-17. Grimm's words, Andreas und Elene, Cassel, 1840, p. XXXVII, however, are: "Nichts ging ihm iiber den seledredm, jubilum aulae, A. 1656, wo im friedlichen kreise gewohnt, erzahlt und gezecht wurde. " 16 Grimm, DM., I, p. 259 ff., Golther, Handbuch, p. 471 ff. 17 For a discussion of hell in ON. see Kahle, I, pp. 424-5, II, 155-6, in OHG. Raumer, pp. 414-16. 129] THE FUTURE LIFE 129 426. In OE. poetry hel is common, and only a few characteristic examples need be given here, hu heh and deop hell inneweard seo, / grim grcefhus, Sat. 707, ponne hel nimed / wcerleasra weorud, Cr. 1613, on pa hatan hell, Gen. 331, similarly 362, etc. As hel translates Latin infernus, the Vulgate rendering of Greek a5r)s and the Hebrew 7^5^, its meaning is of course wider than a place of punishment. We note, astigon heo on helle heonan lifgende {descendant in infemum viventes), Ps. LIV, 14, pu mine sawle swylce alysdest of helwarena hinderpeostrum {eruisti animam meam ex inferno inferiori), LXXXV, 12, is minfeorh swylce to helldore hylded geneahhe {vita mea inferno appropinquavit) , LXXXVII, 3. 427. Hell certainly receives its share of attention at the hands of OE. poets, who seem to be especially anxious to describe this dreary place adequately. While it is outside of our task to paint a picture of hell, and we shall mention only a few main points in the following discussion, it may be convenient to give the Anglo-Saxon poets' conception of hell by citing Becker: 18 "Hell is a dark pit under the earth, incalculably immense in area, shrouded in eternal darkness. The principal torment is that of fire, but the flame is black, and burns without light. Side by side with extreme heat is the torment of cold; storms of wind, hail, and frost sweep down from the four corners of hell. Frightful monsters, dragons, serpents, bloody eagles, people the awful depths, and dragons guard the entrance. The sinful souls are bound down with fetters, suffering the utmost agonies of mind in addition to those of the body. Consumed with bitter remorse and des- pair, they must remain thus eternally, without hope of ever being released from their sufferings or of gaining the bliss of the righteous, which they are forced to look upon. " 428. Though the definite location of hell is not given, it is below, under the earth. We read, {Etne) pat mon helle fyr hated wide, Met. VIII, 54, helle seced / . . . grundleasne wylm / under mistglome, Whale 45-7, done deopan wcelm, / nidcer undcer nessas in done neowlan grund / grcedige and gifre, Sat. 30-32, similarly Gu. 535, etc. As Heaven is a kingdom, so also hell, in which Satan rules, helwarena cyning, Jul. 544, etc. Sal. 106 speaks of it as dees engestan edelrices, with which may be compared in pam engan ham, El. 920, etc. However, it seems to Mac bealowes gast, pcet he on botme stod, J . . . pat panon wcere / to helle duru hund pusenda / mila gemear- codes, Sat. 721-4. But, as Becker 19 has pointed out, "the terms of spacious- ness are to be interpreted literally, whereas those of narrowness permit of no other than a figurative interpretation," so that he would take enge in 18 Mediaeval Visions, pp. 63-4. Compare also p. 58 ff., Deering, 48 £L, Klaeber, Anglia, XXXV, 265 ff.; for kennings, Bode, 75 f., Jansen, 29 f., Rankin, LX, 54 ff. For a discussion of the sources of the characteristics of hell see Deering, p. 57 ff., Becker, 11 ff., 54 ff., Abbet- meyer, 16. 19 Mediaeval Visions, p. 58. 130 INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY ON OLD ENGLISH POETRY [130 the sense of oppressive. Hell is also called magburg, Har. 91, of feonda byrig, Cr. 569, helwara / burg, Rid. 56, 6-7, deafisele, Gu. 1048, while sim'lar terms are frequent. The doors of hell are often mentioned, as, he helle duru I forbrcBC andforbegde, Sat. 467, behliden helle duru, El. 1229, at heldore, Gu. 531, etc. It is stated, Mce at helle duru dracan eardigad, Sat. 98, while influenced by the preceding figure Whale 76 and 78 reads, pa grimman goman / . . . / helle hlinduru. With this may be compared ah in helle cafl J sid asette, And. 1703, and dreogap deadcwale in dracan fadme, El. 765. Walls and other parts are mentioned, e.g., helle weallas, Har. 34, helle floras, Sat. 70, hellegrund, Soul 105, in helle grund, Cr. 562, El. 1304, etc. 429. Hell is the place of punishment for the devils and the damned, in ecefyr, / dar ge sceolon dreogan dead andpystro, Gu. 606-7. As Cr. 1535-6 the condemned are committed to forwyrde on witehus, / deadsele deofles, so this state, itself is called se eca dead after dissum worulde, Met. X, 70. Wlte, n., or hellewite, is often used to denote punishment, just as we find helliwizzi in OHG., helUiviti in OS., and helviti in ON., a rendering of the Latin supplicium inferni. We note, helle witum, Soul 32, in wita forwyrd, Sermon Ps. 28, 10, synna to wite, Cr. 1623, heardes hellewites, Gen. 303, alysdest / fram hceftnyde hellewites, L. Prayer II, 36. We find further, pat witescraf, Sat. 691, pat witehus, 628, and pa wyrrestan witebrogan, El. 931, etc. 430. References to the agencies of punishment are often found, especially to the fire, grim hellefyr, gearo to wite, Cr. 1270, under helle cinn in pat hate fyr, / under liges locan, 1620-21, pat ge warnysse / brynewylm habben, nales bletsunga, Gu. 643-4, in fyrbade / walmum biwrecene wraplic andlean, Cr. 831-2, weallendne lig and wyrma slite / bittrum ceaflum, 1251-2, etc., etc. The poets seem anxious not to omit a detailed description of the sufferings the doomed have to undergo, or, in the words of Deering: 20 "Having thus drawn such frightful pictures of the horrors of hell, the poets might have left their readers to imagine the sufferings of the damned, but the opportunity of impressing these dreadful scenes was too good to be lost, and they cannot resist the temptation to add a few more strokes to their already horrible pictures and tell us again and again of the physical and mental tortures of this eternal punishment. " 431. The condemned are often called the cursed, as, Astigati nu f awyrgde, in pat witehus, Sat. 628, Farad nu awyrgde willum biscyrede / engla dreames on ece fir, Cr. 1520-1, etc. Warnis (weargnes), is once used in the sense of damnation, pat ge (devils) warnysse / brynewylm habben, nales bletsunga, Gu. 643. Among other kennings for the doomed we note, unsalge, Cr. 1288, the devil being called unsalig, Jul. 450, the Jews, haled 20 Page 54 f . 131] THE FUTURE LIFE 131 unscelige, And. 561, and heeled hynfuse, 612; we find helfuse men, Cr. 1124, while the Mermedonians are called haled hellfuse, And. 50. For the devil and the doomed we have also such terms as grundfusne gcest gode orfeorme, Moods 49, firenfulra fcege gcestas, Gu. 532, peetfeegefole, Cr. 1518, synfulra weorud, 1229, firensynnig J ok, 1379, unsyfre folc, 1232, etc., etc. 432. A considerable number of compounds of hel are found in the poetry. Some of them have appeared in our discussion, while a number are included in the poetical list. Others also occur, but offering nothing characteristic, they need not be discussed. 132 INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY ON OLD ENGLISH POETRY [132 POETICAL WORDS Here are listed those exclusively religious terms which occur in poetical texts only. Kennings have been admitted only when special circumstances and a distinctly religious connotation warranted it. If a word occurs only once, the exact reference has been given. If the use is limited to a single poem where it is found more than once, the title only is added. Adfyr, sacrificial fire, Ex. 398. adloma, one crippled by fire, devil, Gu. 884. sebebod, command, Ps. aeboda, preacher, Gu. 909. secrseft, knowledge of law, religion. sefenlac, evening sacrifice, Ps. CXL, 3. aefremmende, pious, religious. Jul. 648. aefyllende, pious, Cr. 704. aelasrende, teacher of the law, reli- gion, El. 506. selcrasftig, omnipotent, Met. XX, 38. eercwide, prophesy ? Moods 4. jerendgast, angel, Gen. 2296. zeriht, code of law or faith, El. sewita, counsellor, El. 455. agilpan, to exult in, Soul 166. aglseccrseft, evil art, And. 1362. anboren, only begotten. anbuend, hermit, Gu. 59. anseld, hermitage, Gu. 1214. argifa, giver of benefits, Gifts 11. aologa, perjurer, Cr. 1605. Bentld, prayer time, Men. 75. bereotan, to bewail, Har. 6. bernelac, burnt offering, Ps. L. 123. bismerleas, blameless, Cr. 1326. blsedgifa, giver of prosperity, And. braegdwls, crafty, Gu. 58. brynegield, burnt offering. Gen. Ceargest, sad spirit, devil, Gu. 364. circnytt, church service, Gifts 91. culpa or culpe, fault, sin, Cr. 177. cusc, modest, virtuous, Gen. 618. DaegweorSung, feast day, El. 1233. deaSbeam, deathbringing tree, Gen. 638. dea<5firen, deadly sin, Cr. 1207. deaSsele, hell. deofolcund, diabolical, Jud. 61. deofoldsed, fiendish deed, Dan. 18. deofolwltga, wizard, magician, Dan. 128. drencflod, deluge, drut, beloved one, Doom 291. dryhtendom, majesty, glory, And. 999. Eadfruma, author of happiness, Cr. 532. eadgifa, giver of prosperity, And. 1292. eadgifu, gift of blessedness, Jul. ealh, temple, eallbeorht, resplendent, eallhalig, all-holy, Ps. CXXXI, 8. eallmiht, omnipotence, Ps. CXXXV, 12. ealwalda, all-ruling, almighty, God, Christ. earfo'Scynn, depraved race, Ps. LXXVII, 10. 133] POETICAL WORDS 133 (ge)edbyrdan, to regenerate, Soul 101, Exeter text, edwitspreca, scoffer, Gu. 418. efeneadig, equally blessed, Hymn 21. efeneardigende, dwelling together, Cr. 237. efenece, co-eternal, Cr. eftlean, recompense, Cr. 1100. egorhere, flood, deluge, Gen. endelean, final retribution, engelcund, angelic, Gu. 72. engelcynn, race or order of angels. eSelboda, land's apostle, native preacher, Gu. 976. Facendsed, sin, crime, Ps. CXVIII, 53. facengeswipere, deceit, Ps. LXXXII, 3. facensearu, treachery, facenstafas, treachery, deceit, Beow. 1018. facentacen, sign of crime, Cr. 1566. felameahtig, most mighty, felasynnig, very guilty, Beow. 1379. feohglfre, avaricious, Wand. 68. feondset, eating things sacrificed to idols, Ps. CV, 24. feorhrsed, salvation, And. 1654. ferh<51ufu, heartfelt love, And. 83. fifmsegen, magic power, Sal. 136. firenbealu, transgression, Cr. 1276. firencrseft, wickedness, Jul. 14. firendjed, wicked deed, crime, firenfremmende, committing sin, Cr. 1118. firengeorn, prone to sin, sinful, Cr. 1606. firensynnig, sinful, Cr. 1379. firenweorc, evil deed, sin, Cr. firenwyrcende, sinning, sinful, Ps. firenwyrhta, evil doer, Ps. forescyttels, bolt, bar, Cr. 312. fortyhtan, to seduce, El. 208. fortyllan, to seduce, Cr. 270. friSoscealc, angel, Gen. frowe, woman, Doom 291. frumgesceap, creation of the world, Cr. 840. frumscyld, original sin, Sal. 445. fulwihttid, time of baptism, Men. 11. fulwihtSeaw, rite of baptism, Met. I, 33. fyrclom, band forged in the fire, in hell, Sat. 39. fyrngidd, ancient prophesy, El. 542. fyrnsceafta, devil, And. 1346. fyrnsynn, sin of old times, Jul. 347. Galdorword, magic word, Rim. 24. galmod, wanton, licentious, Jud. 256. gartorn, fighting rage, Sal. 145. gastbona, devil, Beow. 177. gastcund, spiritual, Gu. 743. gastcwalu, pains of hell, Gu. 651. gastcyning, God, Gen. 2883. gastgenl<51a, devil, Jul. 245. gastgewinn, pains of hell, Gu. 561. gasthalig, holy in spirit, gastlufu, spiritual love, Az. gastsunu, spiritual son. geocund, preserver, Savior, geongerdom, discipleship, Gen. geongerscip, allegiance, Gen. 249. gifnes, grace, favor, L. Prayer III. gledstede, altar, Gen. goddream, joy in Heaven, Gu. godegyld, idol, Ps. CV, 17. godgim, heavenly jewel, El. 1113. gods£d, piety, Dan. 90. godscyld, sin against gods, impiety, Jul. 204. godscyldig, impious, Gu. 834. 134 INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY ON OLD ENGLISH POETRY [134 grandorleas, guileless, Jul. 271. grornhof, sad home, hell, Jul. 324. grundfus, hastening to hell, Moods 49. Haelubearn, Savior, Christ, Cr. hgeSencyning, heathen king, Dan. 54. " hseSencynn, heathen race, Gen. 2546. hseSenstyrc, heathen calf, Ps. CV, 17. hseSenweoh, heathen sacrifice, Jul. 53. halor, salvation, Jul. halswurtmng, thanksgiving for safety, Ex. 581. handgift, wedding present, Creed 18. heahblis, exultation, Ps. CXVIII, 111. heahboda, archangel, Cr. 295. ? heahcasere, Christ, L. Prayer III, 60. heahfrea, high Lord, Cr. heahgsest, Holy Ghost, Cr. 358. heahgesceap, divine destiny, Beow. 3084. heahgod, most high, God, Ps. LVI, 2. heahheort, proud, Dan. 540. heahmiht, high authority, great might, Ps. CL, 2. ? heahnama, most exalted name, L. Prayer III, 18. heargtraef, idol temple, Beow. 175. heargweard, temple warden, priest, And. 1124. hellbend, bond of hell, Beow. 3072. Some terms quoted with hell possibly not compounds, hellcraeft, hellish power, And. 1102. hellcwalu, pains of hell, Cr. 1190. helldor, gate of hell, hellebealu, hell bale, Cr. 1427. helleceafl, jaws of hell, And. 1703. hellecinn, hellish race, Cr. 1620. helleclamm, hellbond, Gen. 373. helledeofol, devil, helledor, gate of hell, Har. 87. helleduru, gate of hell, El. 1229. helleflor, floor of hell, Sat. 70. hellegast, spirit of hell, hellegrund, abyss of hell, hellegryne, horror of hell, Sat. 433. hellehaeft, prisoner of hell, Sat. 631. hellehagfta, prisoner of hell, Beow. 788. hellehseftling, prisoner of hell, helleheaf, wailings of hell, Gen. 38. hellehinca, hell-limper, devil, And. 1171. hellehtis, hell-house, Gu. 649. hellenrS, torments of hell, Gen. 771. hellescealc, devil, Sat. 133. helleSegn, devil, Gu. 1042. hellfiren, hellish crime, Partridge 6. hellfus, bound for hell, hellgebwing, confinement in hell, Gen. 696. helltrsef, devil's temple, And. 1691. helltrega, hell-torture, Gen. 73. helruna, hellish monster, Beow. 163. heofonbeorht, heavenly bright, heofonbyme, heavenly trumpet, Cr. 949. heofondema, heavenly ruler Sat. 658. heofondream, joy of Heaven, heofonduguft, heavenly host, Cr. 1655. heofonengel, angel of Heaven, heofonhalig, holy and heavenly, And. 728. he6fonham, heavenly home. 135] POETICAL WORDS 135 heofonhlaf, bread of Heaven, Ps. CIV, 35. heofonleoht, heavenly light, And. 974. heofonmaegen, heavenly force, heofonsetl, throne of Heaven, Doom 277. heofonstol, throne of Heaven, Gen. 8. heofon<5reat, heavenly company, Sat. 222. heofonweard, God, Gen. heofonwuldor, heavenly glory, L. Prayer II, 12. heortlufu, heart-love, Dox. 29. heterun, charm which produces hate, Rid. 34, 7. hildedeofol, demon, Ps. XCV, 5. hinder'Seostru, nether darkness, Ps. LX20CV, 12. hospcwide, insulting speech, El. 523. huslbearn, communicant, Gu. 531. hiislwer, communicant, Gu. 768. hygeclsene, pure in heart, Ps. CIV, 3. hygefrofor, consolation, hygetreow, fidelity, Gen. 2367. hygeSryS, pride, insolence, Gen. 2238. hyhtgifa, giver of hope, El. 851. hyhtleas, unbelieving, Gen. 2387. hyhtwilla, hoped for joy, Sat. 159. hyhtwyn, joy of hope, Jud. 121. Ingebed, earnest prayer, Ps. LXXXVII, 2. : nwitstaef, wickedness, evil, Ps. Leahtorcwide, blasphemy, Jul. 199. leohtfruma, source of light, liffrea, Lord of life, God. liffruma, source of life, God. lifweard, guardian of life, Christ, El. 1035. llgcwalu, fiery torment, hell, El. 296. lofmsegen, praise, Ps. CV, 2. lofsum, praiseworthy, Gen. 468. lustgryn, snare of pleasure, Soul 23. lygenword, lie, Gen. 699. lygesynnig, lying, false, El. 898. lygewyrhta, liar, Sermon Ps. 28, 11. Maegenwundor, striking wonder, Cr. 927. manfsehSu, wickedness, Gen. 1378. manfolm, evil doer, Ps. CXLIII, 8. manforwyrht, evil deed, sin, Cr. 1095. manfrea, lord of evil, devil, manfremmende, sinning, mangeniola, evil persecutor, And. 916. mangewyrhta, sinner, Ps. LXXVII, 38, manhus, home of wickedness, hell, Ex. 535. mansceat, usury, Ps. LXXI, 14. manscild, crime, fault, sin, Hymn 23. manscyldig, criminal, guilty, Gen. manwamm, guilty of stain, Cr. 1280. manword, wicked word, Ps. LVIII, 12. manwyrhta, evil doer, sinner, Ps. mereciest, sea-chest, ark, Gen. 1317. metod, fate, Creator', God, Christ, micelmod, magnanimous, Ps. CXLIV, 3. misgedwild, error, perversion, Jul. 326. modgehyldig, patient, And. 981. mor<5orhof, place of torment, El. 1302. morSorhus, house of torment, Cr. 1625. 136 INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY ON OLD ENGLISH POETRY [136 morSorlean, retribution for sin, Cr. 1612. morSorscyldig, guilty, And. 1599. Neodlof, zealous praise, Ps. CXLVIII, 12. neodweorSung, zealous honoring, Ps. CXLII, 11. nloloca, place of torment, Har. 64. niSsynn, grievous sin, Sat. 180. sigebeam, cross. sigebearn, Christ. sigedema, victorious judge, God. sigetlber, sacrifice for victory, Ex. 402. sigortlfer, offering for victory, Jul. 255. snytrohus, house of wisdom, taber- nacle, Ps. LXXVII, 60. soScyning, God. soSfaeder, God, Cr. 103. Ofersjelig, excessively happy, Doom suslbona, devil, Sat. 640. 246. ofersgelS, excessive pleasure, Met. V, 27. oferwealdend, over-lord, God, El. 1235. onblotan, to sacrifice, Gen. 2933. (Ge)palmtwlgan, deck with palm branches, Sal. suslhof, place of torment, Creed 32. sweglcyning, king of Heaven, sweglwuldor, heavenly glory, Gu. 1160. sweglwundor, heavenly wonder, Gu. 1292. sygegealdor, victory-bringing charm, Charm VIII, 6. synfah, sin-stained, Cr. 1083. synrust, canker of sin, Cr. 1321. Regolfaest, adhering to monastic synscea*8a, sin-stained wretch, sin- rules, Men. 44. ful outrager. reSehygdig, right-minded, Alms 2. synscyldig, wicked, Doom 168. reSeman, usurer, Ps. CVIII, 11. rodorcyning, king of Heaven, rodorstol, heavenly throne, Gen. 749. Sawelcund, spiritual, Gu. 288. sclngelac, magical practices, And. 766. scuccgyld, idol, Ps. CV, 26. scyldfrecu, wicked craving, Gen. 898. scyldwreccende, avenging sin, Cr. 1161. scyldwyrcende, evil doing. sealmfaet, in 'on sealmfatum' ren- dering L. 'in vasis psalmi,' Ps. LXX, 20. selfsceaft, not begotten^ Gen. 523. synwracu, punishment for sin. synwyrcende, sinning. TeonsmiS, evil-doer, devil, Gu. 176. tlrfruma, price of glory, Cr. 206. treowlufu, true love, Cr. 538. treowrSden, state of fidelity, Gen. 2305. Drymcyme, glorious coming, Gu. 1230. <5rymcyning, king of glory, God. <5rymsittende, dwelling in Heaven. 'SryScyning, king of glory, God, And. 436. Unbealu, innocence, Ps. C, 2. unbeted, unatoned, Cr. 1312. 137] POETICAL WORDS 137 ungebletsod, 'non habentes signa- culum Christi,' Jul. 492. ungeleaf, unbelieving, Ps. LXVII, 19. unholda, devil, Cr. 762. unhwllen, eternal, unrihtdom, iniquity, Dan. 183. unrihtfeoung, unrighteous hate, Met. XXVII, 1. untweod, undoubting, And. 1242. upeard, Heaven, Gu. 1051. upengel, heavenly angel. WaegSreat, deluge, Gen. 1352. waelregn, deluge, Gen. 1350. wserloga, traitor, liar, devil. wamcwide, shameful speech, curse, wuldormaga, heir of Heaven, Gu. wliteandet, confession of splendor, Ps. CIII, 2. wohfremmend, evil doer, Met. IX, 36. worulddrihten, Lord of the world, God, Met. XXIX, 1. woruldgltsere, coveter of worldly things, Met. XIV, 1. wrohtscipe, crime, Gen. 1672. wrohtsmiS, evil doer, wuldorcyning, God. wuldordream, heavenly rapture, wuldorfseder, Father of Glory, wuldorgast, angel, Gen. 2912. wuldorhama, garb of glory, wuldorlean, glorious reward. blasphemy, wamdsed, deed of shame, crime, wamful, impure, shameful, sinful, bad. wamsceaSa, sin-stained foe, devil, wamscyldig, sinful, criminal, Gen. 949. wamwyrcende, worker of sin, Cr. 1093. 1076. wuldormago, heir of Heaven, Gu. 1267. wuldormicel, gloriously great, L. Prayer III, 94. wuldorweorud, heavenly host, Cr. 285. wuldorword, glorious word, L. Prayer III, 46. weargtrsef, home of the damned, wynpsalterium, psalm of joy, Ps. hell, El. 926. weolme, choice, Cr. 445. wlgsmi(5, maker of idols, Ps. CXIII, 12. wlgweorSung, idol worship, idolatry. wilboda, angel, Gu. 1220. witehrsegl, penitential garb, sack- cloth, Ps. LXVIII, 11. wltescraef, hell, Sat. 691. wiSerbroga, devil, Cr. 564. LVI, 10. wynrdd, blessed cross, Sal. 235. wyrdstaef, decree of fate, Gu. 1325. wyrmgeard, abode of serpents, Sal. 468. wyrmsele, hell, Jud. 119. Yfelsaec (eofulsaec), blasphemy, El. 524. yrreweorc, work of c.nger, Sat. 399. A few remarks on the terms thus listed by us will not be without interest. Of the 343 words 261 occur only once, 23 are confined to one poem, being found more than once, while 59 occur in more than one poem. Regarding the distribution as to poems, we note that 44 are found exclu- sively in Christ, 16 in Elene, and 14 in Juliana, in all 74 for Cynewulf; in addition, a number of terms are peculiar to the three poems. As to the 138 INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY ON OLD ENGLISH POETRY [138 other chief poems, the exclusive occurrence of terms is as follows, 40 in Psalms, including Psalm L (Cottoniana), 34 in Genesis, 27 in Guthlac, 19 in Andreas, 10 in Christ and Satan, 8 in Beowulf, 7 in Meters, 6 in Salo- mon and Saturn, 5 in Daniel, 5 in Doomsday, 4 in Judith, and 4 in Exodus, while none is found in Phenix. LOAN WORDS Abbot, L. abbatem aelmesse, L. eleemosyna Amen, L. Amen apostol, L. apostolus bisceop, L. episcopus or Gr. kwiaKOTrn cantic, L. canticum (Cherubin), L. cirice, Gr. nvpiaKa Cr:st, crlst, L. crlsten, L. cristnian, L. culpa, L. culpa deofol, L. diabolus or Gr. 5id/3oXos dlacon, L. diaconus drut, OF. drut dry, Celtic ?! earc, earce, L. area (Ebreas), L. engel, L. angelus or Gr. ayye\o<; (Gabriel), L. (Israel), L. (Judeas), L. (Lucifer), L. maesse, L. missa maessere, L. HYBRIDS aslmesgeorn aelmessylen apostolhad bisceophad circnyt ciricsocn deofolcund deofoldagd deofolgild deofol vvltga hildedeofol drycraeft engelcund engelcyn heahengel heofonengel upenge heahcasere, L. Caesarem hlafmaesse 139] LOAN WORDS AND HYBRIDS 139 manna, L. manna martyr(e), L. martyr (Michael), L. munuc, L. monachus mynster, L. monasterium papa, L. papa Pater Noster, L. Pater Noster pentecosten, L. pentecoste preost, L. presbyter psalterium, L. psalterium regol, L. regula reliquias, L. reliquiae sacerd, L. sacerdos salletan, L. psallere sanctus, sanct, L. sanctus (Satanus, Satan), L. scrlfan, for-, ge-, L. scribere scrift, L. scriptum sealm, L. psalmus seono<5, L. synodus (Seraphim), L. tempel, L. templum ymen, L. hymnus martyrdom martyrhad palmtreow, L. pa'mus (ge)palmtwlgan, L. wynpsalterium regolfsest sacerdhad ealdorsacerd sealmfaet suSportic, L. porticus 140 INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY ON OLD ENGLISH POETRY [140 TITLES AND ABBREVIATIONS I. Titles and Abbreviations Referring to the Bibliotheh der angelsachsischen Poesie, Volumes I-III, by Grein-Wuelker Alms. Bibl. Ill, p. 181. And. Andreas. II, pp. 1-86. Ap. Fates of the Apostles. II, 87-91. Az. Azarias. II, 491, 493, 495 ; 497, 516-520. Beow. Beowulf. I, 149-277. Cffidmon's Hymn. II, 316-317. Charm I-VIII. Bibl. I, 312-330. Chr. I-V. Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. I, 374-388. I. On the Victory of ^Ethelstan at Brunanburh. II. Edmund. III. Eadgar. IV. Capture and Death of Alfred. V. Eadweard's Death. Cr. Christ. Ill, 1-54. Creed (Hy. X in Grein's Sprachschatz). n, 245-249. Dan. Daniel. II, 476-515. Deor. Deor's Lament. I, 278-280. Doom. Be Domes Daege. II, 250-272. Dox. Doxology (Gloria in Bibl., Hy. IX in Grein's Sprachschatz). II, 239-244. Durham. I 391-392. El. Elene. II, 126-201. Ex. Exodus. II, 445^75. Exhortation (Ermahnung zum christlichen Leben in Bibl.). II, 273-276. Fates. Fates of Men. Ill, 148-151. Gen. Genesis. II, 318-444. Gifts. Gifts of Men. Ill, 140-143. Gn. Cot. Gnomic Verses, Cotton MS. I, 338-341. Gn. Ex. Gnomic Verses, Exeter Book. I, 341-352. Gu. Guthlac. Ill, 55-94. Har. Harrowing of Hell. Ill, 175-180. Hymn (Hymnus in Bibl., Hy. VIII in Grein's Sprachschatz). II, 224-226. Instructions. A Father's Instructions to His Son. I, 353-357. Invocation (Aufforderung zum Gebet in Bibl.). II, 277-279. Jud. Judith. 11,294-314. Judg. The Last Judgment. Ill, 171-174. Jul. Juliana. Ill, 117-139. L. Prayer. Lord's Prayer I-III (Hy. V-VH in Grein's Sprachschatz). II, 227-238. Maldon. Battle of Maldon. I, 358-373. Maxims (Bruchstuck eines Lehrgedichts in Bibl., Hy. XI in Grein's Sprachschatz). n. 280-281. Men. Menology. II, 282-293. Message. Husband's Message. 1, 309-311. 141] TITLES AND ABBREVIATIONS 141 Met. Meters of Boethius. Ill, 247-303. Moods. Moods of Men. Ill, 144-147. Panther. Ill, 164-166. Partridge. Ill, 170. Ph. Phenix. 111,95-116. Prayer I-P7 (Hy. I-IV in Grein's Sprachschatz). II, 211-223. Ps. Psalms. 111,329-476. Ps. L. Ps. L (Cottoniana). Ill, 477-482. Rid. Riddles. Ill, 183-238. Rim. Riming Poem. Ill, 160-163. Rood. Dream of the Rood. II, 114-125. Ruin. Ruined Burg. 1,298-301. Run. Runic Poem. I, 331-337. Sal. Salomon and Saturn. Ill, 304-328. Sat. Christ and Satan. II, 521-562. Seaf. Seafarer. 1, 290-295. Sermon Ps. 28 (Predigtbruchstuck iiber Ps. 28 in Bibl.). II, 108-110. Soul. Soul and Body, VerceUi text, unless otherwise noted. II, 92-107. Wald. Waldere. I, 11-13. Wand. Wanderer. 1, 284-289. Whale. Ill, 167-169. Wid. Widsith. I, 1-6. Wonders. Wonders of Creation. Ill, 152-155. II. Other Abbreviations A few abbreviations from the NED. are also used. Others will be interpreted without difficulty. Bibl. Bibliothek der angelsachsichen Poesie, Grein-Wuelker. B.-T. Bosworth-Toller, Anglo-Saxon Dictionary. Dichtungen. Dichtungen der Angelsachsen, Grein. Goth. Gothic. Gr. Greek. Grimm, D. M. Deutsche Mythologie, 4. Auflage. Kahle, I. Die altnordische Sprache im Dienste des Christentums. I. Teil: Die Prosa. Kahle, II. Das Christentum in der altwestnordischen Dichtung. L. Latin. MacG. MacGillivray, The Influence of Christianity on the Vocabulary of Old English. NED. New English Dictionary. OE. Old English. OFris. Old Frisian. OHG. Old High German. ON. Old Norse. OS. Old Saxon. OTeut. Original Teutonic. Rankin, VIII and LX. A Study of Kennings in Anglo Saxon Poetry in The Journal of English and Germanic Philology, Volumes VIH and LX. Raumer. Die Einwirkung des Christentums auf die Althochdeutsche Sprache. Sprachschatz. Sprachschatz der angelsachsischen Dichter, Grein, 2. Auflage. W.-W. Wright-Wuelker, Anglo-Saxon and Old English Vocabularies. 142 INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY ON OLD ENGLISH POETRY [142 BIBLIOGRAPHY Abbetmeyer, C. Old English Poetical Motives Derived from the Doctrine of Sin. Diss. Minneapolis, 1903. AUioli, J. F. Biblia Sacra Vulgatae Editionis, etc. 3 Vols. Regensburg etc., 1891. Becker, E. J. A Contribution to the Comparative Study of the Mediaeval Visions of Heaven and Hell, with Special Reference to Middle-English Versions. Diss. Baltimore, 1899. Bede. De Temporum Ratione. Migne, Patrologiae Latinae, XC, p. 234 ff. Historia Ecclesiastica. Migne, Patrologiae Latinae, XCV, p. 25 ff. Ecclesiastical History of England. Edited by Giles, Bonn's Antiquarian Library, London, 1894. Blackburn, F. A. The Christian Coloring in the Beowulf. Publ. Mod. L. ASS. of America, XII, pp. 205-225. Bode, W. Die Kenningar in der Ags. Dichtung. Darmstadt & Leipzig, 1886. Bolland, J. Acta Sanctorum. 63 Vols. New Edition. Paris, 1863-1906. Bosworth-Toller. An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary. Oxford, 1898, with Supplements I & II, 1908 & 1916. Bouterweck,. K. W. Ccedmon's des Angelsachsen Biblische Dichtungen. Guetersloh, 1854. Bright, Wm Chapters on Early English Church History. 3rd Edition. Oxford, 1897. Catholic Encyclopedia. 16 Vols. New York, 1907-1914. Cook, A. S. The Christ of Cynewulf. Boston, 1900. Deering, W. The Anglo-Saxon Poets on the Judgment Day. Halle, 1890. Du Cange, Ch. Du. Fr. Glossarium Mediae et Infimae Latinitatis. 10 Vols. W. L. Favre. Niort, 1883-87. Ehrismann, G. Religions geschichtliche Beitrdge zum germanischen Fruhchristentum. Paul und Braune's Beitrage, XXXV, pp. 209-239. Encyclopaedia Britannica. 11. Edition. Cambridge, 1910-11. Falk-Torp. Norwegisch-Ddnisches Etymologisches Worterbuch. 2 Vols. Heidelberg, 1910-11. Ferrell, C. C. Teutonic Antiquities in the Anglo-Saxon Genesis. Diss. Halle, 1893. Golther, W. Handbuch der Germanischen Mythologie. Leipzig, 1895. Grau, G. Quellen und Verwandschaften der dlteren germanischen Darstellungen des jungsten Gerichtes. Diss. Halle, 1908. Grein, C. W. M. Dichtungen der Angelsachsen. I & II. Goettingen, 1857-9. Sprachschatz der angelsdchsischen Dichter. 2. Auflage. Heidelberg, 1912. Grein-Wuelker. Bibliothek der angelsdchsischen Poesie. 3 Vols. Kassel & Leipzig, 1883-98. Grimm, J. Deutsche Mythologie. 4. Auflage. 3 Vols. Guetersloh, 1875. Gummere, F. B. Germanic Origins. New York, 1892. Hall, J. R. Clark. A Concise Anglo-Saxon Dictionary. 2nd Edition. New York, 1916. Hunt, Wm. The English Church, from its Foundation to the Norman Conquest. London, 1899. Jansen, G. Beitrage zur Synonymik und Poetik der allgemein als acht anerkannten Dichtungen Cynewulfs. Diss. Muenster, 1883. Kahle, B. Die altnordische Sprache im Dienste des Christentums. I. Teil: Die Prosa. Acta Germanica, I, 4, pp. 305-425. Berlin, 1890. Das Christentum in der altwestnordischen Dichtung. Arkiv f. Nord. Fil. N. S., XIII, pp. 1-40, 97-160. Kemble, J. M. The Poetry of the Codex Vercellensis. London, 1843. 143] BIBLIOGRAPHY 143 Kent, C. W. Elene. (Latin source printed below the text.) Boston, 1891. Teutonic Antiquities in Andreas and Elene. Diss. Leipzig, 1887. Klaeber, Fr. Die christlichen Elemente im Beowulf. Anglia, XXXV, pp. 111-136, 249-270, 453-482, XXXVI, 169-199. Kluge, F. Etymologisches Worterbuch der Deutschen Sprache. 7. Auflage. Strassburg, 1910. Gotische Lehnworte im AlthocJideutschen. Paul und Braune's Beitrage, XXXV, pp. 124-160. Urgermanisch: Vorgeschichte der altgermanischen Dialekte (Paul's Grundriss) 3. Auflage. Strassburg, 1913. Rrapp, G. Ph. Andreas and the Fates of the Apostles. Boston, 1906. Lingard, J. The History and Antiquities of the Anglo-Saxon Church. 2 Vols. 2nd Edition. London, 1858. Loehe, H. Be Domes Dcege. (Gives also Hymnus De Die Judicii.) Bonner Beitrage zur Anglistik, XXII, pp. 1-106. MacGillivray, H. S. The Influence of Christianity on the Vocabidary of Old English. Halle, 1902. Migne, J. P. Patrologiae Cursa? Computus. Paris, 1857-1903. Murray, J. A. H. A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles, etc. Oxford, 1888-. Paul, H. Grundriss der germanischen Philologie. I. 2. Auflage. Strassburg, 1901. Pogatscher, A. Zur Lautlehre der griechischen, lateinischen und romanischen Lehnworte im Altenglischen. Quellen und Forschungen, LXIV. Strassburg, 1888. Price, M. B. Teutonic Antiquities in the Generally Acknowledged Cynewulfian Poetry. Diss. Leipzig, 1896. Rankin, J. W. A Study of the Kennings in Anglo-Saxon Poetry. Journal of English and Germanic Philology, VIII, pp. 357-422, IX, 49-84. Rau, M. Germanische Altertiimer in der angelsachsischen Exodus. Diss. Leipzig-Reudnitz, 1889. Raumer, R. von. Die Einwirkung des Christentums auf die Althochdeutsche Sprache. Stutt- gart, 1845. Remus, H. Die kirchlichen und speziell-wissenschafllichen Romanischen Lehnworte Chancers. Diss. Halle, 1906. Schemann, K. Die Synonyma im Beowulf sliede, etc. Diss. Muenster, 1882. Skeat, W. Etymological Dictionary of the English Language. 4. Edition. Oxford, 1910. Skemp, A. R. The Transformation of Scriptural Story, Motive and Conception in Anglo-Saxon Poetry. Modern Philology, IV, pp. 423-470. Stevens, W. O. The Cross in the Life and Literature of the Anglo-Saxons. Yale Studies in English, XXIII. New York, 1904. Strunk, Wm. Juliana. (Acta S. Julianae on pp. 33-49, from Bolland, Acta Sanctorum.) Boston, 1904. Thorpe, B. Codex Exoniensis. London, 1842. Tupper, F. The Riddles of the Exeter Book. Boston, 1910. Vilmar, A. F. C. Deutsche Altertiimer im Heliand als Einkleidung der evangelischen Geschichte. 2. Auflage. Marburg, 1862. Weinhold, K. Die Gotische Sprache im Dienste des Christentums. Halle, 1870. Wright- Wuelker. Anglo-Saxon and Old English Vocabularies. 2 Vols. London, 1884. Wuelker, R. Grundriss zur Geschichte der angelsachsischen Litteratur. Leipzig, 1885. 144 INDEX [144 INDEX Unless otherwise indicated, the numbers refer to sections. Compounds not listed separately will be found under the simple word. For poetical terms not given here compare p. 132 ff. Abbot, 73. abelgan, 361. abiddan, 107. abylgan, 361. acyrran, 379. a, 150, 345. jebebod, 151. £boda, 105, 151. aebylg, 361. aebylgnes, 361. aebylgo", 361. jlecraeft, 151. secrseftig, 151. aefsest, 151, 401. sefenlac, 102, p. 12. sefest, 357. aefnan, 402. jefremmende, 151, 402 Eefyllende, 151. aegleaw, 151. ffilarend, 2, 151. Slmesgeorn, 404. selmesse, 404. aslmessylen, 404. aelmihtig, 207. jercwide, 32. serendian, 122. jferendraca, 36, 310. Eeriht, 151. serist, 258. adding, 279. jewita, 151. agend, 195, 280. agifan, 229. agyltan, 336. aherian, 126. ahon, 248. ahreowan, 383. al£tan, 229. aleogan, 350. alwalda, 187. alysan, 228, 260. alysend, 228. alysing, 229. alysnes, 228. ^amen, 115. anboren, p. 12. anbuend, 70. ancenned, p. 12. andettan, 120. andetnes, 121. anlicnes, 182. annes, 178, p. 12- anseld, 70, note 17. apostol, 34, 35. apostolhad, 35. ar, 230, 307, 315. are, 230. arfasst, 401. arfaestnes, 220, 401. arisan, 258. a?5, 351. a'Sloga, 351. awyrgan, 353, 431. Bselc, 356. beacen, 255, compounds of, 255. beam, 254, compounds, 254. beam, 267, 268, compounds, 267. bebod, 161. bee, 149, p. 12. belgan, 361. ben, 111. bena, 113. bernelac, 102. bespanan, 370. beswican, 370. betan, 386. biddan, 106. bigan, 385. 145] INDEX 145 biscop, 2, 54, 55, 56, p. 8. biscophad, 57. bismer, 348. bletsian, 137, 225. bletsung, 225. blis, 424. bocera, 2. bod, 161. boda, 30, 31, 105, 307, 315, compounds, 310, 315. bodian, 104. bodscipe, 161. bot, 381, 386. brego, 190. brerne, 216. breostgehygd, 367. broSor. 39. brytta, 199. bycgan, 261. bysmerian, 348. Cafertun, 83. can tic, 114. casere, 274. ceapian, 261. cempa, 38. Cherubim, 309. cigan, 119. cir(i)ce, 14, 15, 17, 77, 79, p. 8. circnyt, 18. circsocn, 18. clame, 219, 397, 398. cleopian, 117. clero, 48, note 2. clypung, 117. costian, 368. craeftga, 393. crist, 243. Crist, 10, 239, 240, 241, 242, 243. cristen, 10, 11, 12, 13. cristendom, 19. Cristes msesse, 90. cristnian, 13, 139. cyning, 185, 273, p. 14, compounds, 185, 273. cyrran, 379. cyst, 387. D£d, 403. dsedbot, 386. dema, 203, 288, compounds, 288. demend, 203. deofol, 317, 318, 319, 325, 327, p. 8, compounds, 321, 325, 328. deofolcund, 328. deofolgield, 325. deofolwitga, 33, 325. diacon, 63. dimscua, 370. dom, 163, 408. domdseg, 408. domfeest, 220, 401. dream, 422, compounds, 422. druncen, 344. druncennes, 344. drut, 20, 24. dry, p. 10. drycrasft, 346. dryhten, 186, 275, p. 14, compounds, 186, 275. dugub, 387. Eacnung, 246. eadig, 421. eadmede, 390. eadmedu, 390. eadmod, 390. eadmodlice, 390. ealdor, 192. ealdorman, 2. ealdorsacerd, 62. ealh, 82, p. 11. ealhstedas, 82, p. 11. earce, 80. earcnanstan, 293. earendel, 291. eastor, 93, p. 11. eastormonao", 93. eastorniht, 93. eastortid, 93. eaSbede, 112. eaSmede, 390. eaSmedu, 390. eat5metto, 390. eaSmod, 218, 390. Ebreas, Ebresc, 1. ece, 207, 208, 280, compounds, 264. ecnes, 208. edwlt, 348, compounds, 348. efeneardige, 264. efenece, 264, p. 12. efenwesende, 264, p. 12. 146 INDEX [146 ege, 389. egesa, 389. Emmanuhel, 244. engel, 290, 306, 308, 309, 310, 311, 312, 316, 318, p. 12, compounds, 308, 310, 311, 313. engelcund, 313. Eostre, 93. eowde, 395. e)?elboda, 105. Facen, 338. faeder, 181, 269, compounds, 181. faele, 214. fsmne, 20, 21, 24. faestan, 405. faesten, 405. faesthafolnes, 362. feogan, 358. feohglfre, 362. feohgitsere, 362. feond, 319, 327, compounds, 319. feondat, 319. firen, 333, compounds, 333. firnian, 333. flSsc, 340. folgere, 36. forewyrd, 171. forgifan, 229. forgifnes, 229. forhaefdnes, 393. forhycgan, 359. forlabdan, 370. forlsran, 370. forlatan, 229. forlicgan, 345. forscrifan, 384. forteon, 370. fortyhtan, 370. frasung, 368. frea, 188, 276, compounds, 188, 276. fremsum, 213. fremsumnes, 213. freod, 236. freoSo, 236. frit5, 236. friSstol, 222. frSfor, 233. frowe, 20, 24. fruma, 183, 271, compounds, 183, 271. fugel, 293. ful(l)wian, 139, 140. ful(l)wiht, 139, 141, 142. fulwihttld, 91, 142. fulwiht}?eaw, 143. ful(l)won, 143. fyrhtu, 389. fyrngewritu, 148. Gaelsa, 341. gal, 356. galferhS, 341. galga, 249. galmod, 341. galnes, 341. galscipe, 356. gist, 206, 294, 295, 296, 297, 298, 299, 314, 322, 323, 325, 327, p. 12, compounds, 296, 298, 314, 322, 323. gastlic, 49. gealdor, 346, compounds, 346. gealgtreo, 249. gebed, 108. gebedstow, 110. gebelgan, 361. gebetan, 386. gebiddan, 107. gebletsian, 137, 225. gebod, 161. gebodscipe, 161. gebycgan, 261. gebysmerian, 348. gecigan, 119. gecoren, 396, 397. gecypan, 261. gecyrran, 379. gedwelian, 364. gedwild, 364. gedwola, 364. geeadmedan, 390. gefea, 424. geferraedan, 19. gefirnian, 333. gefulwian, 140. gegaderung, 19. gegyrnan, 123. gehffilan, 227. gehalgian, 47. geherian, 126. gehreowan, 383. gelaSung, 19. geleafa, 372, 373. 376. 147] INDEX 147 geleafful, 12, 375. geleafsum, 375. gelefan, 374, 377. geleogan, 350. geligere, 345. gemsersian, 136. gemildsian, 234. gemot, 409. generian, 260. geocend, 198, 286. geongra, 36. gepalmtwigan, 114. gesSlig, 421. gesajliglic, 421. gesaelignes, 421. gesaelS, 421. gesegnian, 226. gescrifan, 384. gesomnung, 19. gespan, 370. gesyngian, 331. getreowan, 377. gebingian, 263. gej>yld, 392. gebyldig, 392. geundwendnes, 208. geweorSian, 130. gewitnes, 153. gewritu, 148, p. 12. gewuldrian, 135. giefa, compounds of, 202, 285. gielp, 349, compounds, 349. gielpan, 349. gifan, 229. gifnes, 229. gitsung, 362, compounds, 362. god, 172, 173, 180, 264, 265, compounds, 180, 337. god, 224. godfyrht, 389. godgim, 256. godssd, 395. godspell, 158, 159. godspellian, 159, 160. goldhord, 255, 295. gyden, 174. gyld, 326. gyldan, 326. gylt,336. Hal, 227. haelan, 227. haelend, 201, 238. haelu, 227. hjeoen, 4, 5, 6, 7, compounds, 8, 325. halgian, 47. halig, 45, 88, 209, 295, 399. halignes, 46, 83, 209. halor, 421. halsian, 118. halsung, 118. hatheortnes, 361. heahengel, 310. heahf seder, 25, 26. heahheort, 355. heahmod, 355. hearg, p. 11. hearra, 191. hefignes, 343. hel(l), 321, 327, 425, 426, 428, p. 12, compounds, 321, 322, 428, 431, 432. hellefyr, 430. hellewite, 429, p. 12. helm, 196, 281, p. 14. heofon, 413, p. 11. heofonengel, 310. heofonham, 418. heofonrice, 416. herenes, 127. herian, 126. hete, 358, compounds, 358. hetlen, 358. higefrofor, 233. hlafmaessan daeg, 98, 101. hlaford, 194, 278. hon, 248. hopa, 378. hopian, 378. hosp, 348, compounds, 348. hreow, 381, 382. hreowan, 383. hreowig, 382. hreowigcearig, 382. hreowigmod, 382. hreowlic, 382. husl, 144, 145, p. 11. hus(e)lbearn, 146. huslfset, 144, 146. hus(e)lwer, 146. hygetreow, 376. hyht, 378. 148 INDEX [148 hyld, 231. hyldo, 231. hyrde, 197, 282, p. 14, compounds, 197. hyrwan, 348. hyspan, 348. Ingebed, 109. Isra(h)el, 1. Judeas, 1. Lac, 101, 102, p. 11. laece, 292. laran, 104. lsestan, 402. ljewed, 49. lamb, 293. lar, 163. lareow, 37, 105, 283. latteow, 284. leahtor, 334, compounds, 334. lean, 420, compounds, 420. leas, 350. leasung, 350. leogan, 350. lif, 419, 420. lifiend, 215. Us, 235. lof, 131, 132. lofian, 131. lofmaegen, 133. lof sang, 134. lofsum, 133. lomber, 293. Lucifer, 318. lufian, 388. lufu, 388, p. 12, compounds, 388. lust, 340, compounds, 340. lyge, 350, compounds, 350. lygen, 350, compounds, 350. lysan, 228, 260. Mseden, 24. maeg, 20, 24. msegen, 387. msegenandettan, 120. msego", 20, 21, 24. msere, 216. maersian, 136. msesse, 92. msessere, 59, 101. mago}?egn, 37, 315. man, 332. manldel, 349. mansceat, 362. manswara, 351. manjwaare, 391. manwom, 335. Maria, 20, 21, 22, 24, 246. Marian maesse, 92, 101. martira gemynd, 95. martyr, 40. martyrdom, 42. martyrhad, 42. meowle, 20, 24. metod, 170, 184, 272. mecSel, 409. Michahel, 99. middangeard, 302. milde, 212, 391, p. 12. mildheort, 212, 391. mildheortnes, 212. milds, 234, 391. mildsian, 234. misgedwild, 364. modge)?yldig, 392. mundbyrd, 232. munuc, 72. mynster, 85, 86. Neoncna wang, 415. nergend, 200, 287. nerian, 260. nlj?, 357. Oferfylle, 344. oferhycgan, 359. oferhygd, 354. oferhygdig, 354. ofermede, 355. ofermedla, 355. ofermetto, 355. ofermod, 355. ofermodgian, 355. ofermodig, 355. ondrfedan, 389. onhyscan, 348. onlysan, 260. onmedla, 355. onscunnian, 359. onsecgan, 103. oretta, 38. 149] INDEX 149 5rettmaecg, 38. orwennys, 370. 6s, 175. Papa, 52, 53. Pater Noster, 114. pentecosten, 97. preost, 58, 59. psalterium, 155. Raedend, 202. rseswa, 202. regol, 71. regolfseste, 71. reliquias, 96. rex, 274. rihtnes, 211. rihtwlsnes, 211. rod, 249, 250, 252. ryhtfremmende, 402 Sacerd, 60, 61. sacerdhad, 62. salletan, 156. sanct(us), 24, 44. sancta symbel, 99. Satan(us), 318. scln(ge)lac, 346. scippend, 182, 270. scrifan, 384. scrift, 381, 384, 385. scucca, 370. scyccan, 370. scyccgyld, 370. scyld, 337, compounds, 337. scyldend, 202. sealm, 154. sealmfast, 155. segnian, 226. segnung, 226. seonoo", 409. Seraphim, 309. sigebroSor, 39. sigetiber, 103. sigortiber, 103. snytruhus, 83. soS, 210. soSfaest, 12, 210, 400. soSfaestnes, 210, 400. soSgeleafa, 375. sapnan, 370. spelboda, 30, 31, 34, 105. stige, 259. stypel, 87. styrend, 202. sunnandaeg, 89. sunu, 266, 268, compounds, 268. suoportic, 87. swiomod, 355. symbel, 423. syn, 330, compounds, 331. syngian, 331. Tacen, 255. tsel, 352. taelan, 352. taelnis, 352. tempel, 23, 78, 79, 80, 81. teona, 348. teoncwide, 348. tifer, 103. tirfaest, 220. tolysan, 228, 260. torn, 361, compounds, 361. treo, 253. treow, 376. treowan, 377. treowloga, 365. tweogan, 363. pane, 125. Jjancian, 124. )?eaw, 387. Jjegn, 37, 315. Jjeod, 9. beoden, 189, 277. ^eow, 49, p. 13. Jjeowan, 100. beowdom, 100. Jjeowet, 100. ting, 409. Jringian, 263. J?olian, 248, 260. brines, 176, 177, 178, p. 12. ^rowere, 40, 41. }?r6wian, 248, 260. brdwung, 42, 43, 248. Unbeted, 386. . uncyst, 338. ungeleaf(a), 364, 375. ungetreowt5, 365. 150 INDEX 150 unriht, 338, 366. unrihthsemed, 345. unsablig, 431. unsoSfaest, 366. unsoSfaestnes, 366. untreow, 365. untreowe, 365. un)?eaw, 338. upengel, 310. upheofon, 416. upstige, 259. utSwita, 2. Wair, 161. warfaest, 220, 401. waernis, 431. walda, compounds of, 187. wealdend, 187, 270, 278, compounds, 187. wealdor, 328. weallstan, 293. weard, 193, 278, p. 14, compounds, 193. welig, 421. weolme, 20. weorc, 403. weorSian, 128, 129. wiccraeft, 346. wiccungdom, 346. wictun, 83. wiflufu, 345. wlh, 84, 326, p. 11. wlhbed, 84. wihgyld, 326. wihweoroung, 326. winrod, 250. wis, 217. wisb5c, 149. wlte, 429. witedom, 32. witega, 27, 28, 29. witgian, 32. witig, 217. wlenco, 356. wliteandet, 121. wohgod, 173. wohhSmed, 345. worn, 335, compounds, 335. woruld, 302, 303, 304, compounds, 305. woruldgltsere, 362. wot5bora, 31. wralnnes, 341. wuldorfaest, 220. wuldrian, 135. wundor, 260. wynpsalterium, 155. wyrd, 165, 166, 167, 168, 169, 170, 171, p. 11. wyrhta, 182, 270. wyrhou, 353. Ymen, 157. yrre, 260. yrringa, 360. yrsian, 360. yrsung, 360. 151] INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY ON OLD ENGLISH POETRY 151 VITA The author of this thesis was born December 7, 1887, at Neufirrel, East-Friesia, Germany, from which country he emigrated to the United States of America in 1902. After attending a grade school at Sterling, Nebraska, for a short time, he entered in January 1907 the Preparatory Department of Wartburg Theological Seminary at Dubuque, Iowa. From 1908-11 he attended Wartburg College, Clinton, Iowa, and was graduated with the degree of A.B. in the latter year. He attended the summer ses- sion of the University of Nebraska in 1911, and in the fall of the same year re-entered Wartburg Theological Seminary, finishing the three years' theoretical course in 1913. After graduation and ordination as a Lutheran minister, the author served as state missionary of Montana for 18 months. He held a scholarship in the English Department of the University of Montana during 1914-15, receiving the degree of A.M. in the latter year. During the school year 1915-16 the author was acting prof essor of Classics at Newberry College, Newberry, South Carolina. From 1916-18 he held a fellowship in the English Department of the University of Illinois. 14 DAY USE RETURN TO DESK FROM WHICH BORROWED LOAN DEPT. This book is due on the last date stamped below, or on the date to which renewed. Renewed books are subject to immediate recall : - IN gTAOXI FED 1 9 1962 , 7 ^ - 23Mav 1 64lM IN STAC ,;••. IAR 91S r^ u LU MARJi^GPM RECD LP SEP1V65A MAY 3 Q 19 6?, ^ercD ld Sl:P3 '65-3 PM 6IIAY j j JW 1? ' 6A-6PM ' LD 21A-50m-8,'61 (C1795s10)476B General Library University of California Berkeley YD n?692 3B& tfZi