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 The Influence Of Christianity On The 
 Vocabulary Of Old English Poetry 
 
 BY 
 
 ALBI RT, KEISER 
 
 A. B. Wartburg College, 1911 
 A. M. University of Montana, 1915 
 
 Thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for 
 
 the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in English in the 
 
 Graduate School of the University of Illinois 
 
 1918 
 
 Reprinted from the 
 University of Illinois Studies in Language and Literature, Vol. V, Nos. 1 and 2 
 
\ 
 
The Influence Of Christianity On The 
 Vocabulary Of Old English Poetry 
 
 BY 
 
 ALBERT KEISER 
 
 A. B. Wartburg College, 1911 
 A. M. University of Montana, 1915 
 
 Thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for 
 
 the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in English in the 
 
 Graduate School of the University of Illinois 
 
 1918 
 
 
 •» 9 
 
 Reprinted from the 
 University of Illinois Studies in Language and Literature, Vol. V, Nos. 1 and 2 
 

 Copyright, 1919, 
 By The University of Illinois 
 
 
 
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CONTENTS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Preface 5 
 
 Introduction 7 
 
 I Division of the Human Race 16 
 
 I. The Non-Christians. II. The Christians. 
 
 II The Departed Members of the Church 22 
 
 I. The Virgin Mary. II. Patriarchs. III. Prophets. IV. Apostles. 
 V. Martyrs. VI. Saints.' 
 
 III Ecclesiastical Offices 31 
 
 IV Church Buildlngs 38 
 
 V Festivals and Holy Seasons 42 
 
 VI The Spiritual Side of the Church 46 
 
 I. Worship. II. The Sacraments. III. The Scriptures. 
 
 VII The Deity 59 
 
 I. Wyrd. II. The Term God. III. The Trinity. IV. The Godhead 
 and God the Father. V. Qualities. VI. Gifts. VII. Christ. VIII. 
 The Holy Ghost. 
 
 VIII The World, Angels, and Devils 89 
 
 LX Sen 98 
 
 I. General Terms. II. Peccata Operis. III. Peccata Oris. IV. Pec- 
 cata Cordis. 
 
 X Faith, Conversion, Penance 110 
 
 XI Christian Virtues, Qualities, and Good Works 115 
 
 XII The Future Life 122 
 
 I. Judgment Day and Purgatory. II. Heaven. III. Hell 
 
 Poetical Words 132 
 
 Loan Words and Hybrids 138 
 
 Titles and Abbreviations 140 
 
 I. Titles and Abbreviations Referring to the Bibliothek der angelsach- 
 sischen Poesie, Volumes I-III, by Grein-Wuelker. 
 
 II. Other Abbreviations. 
 
 Bibliography 142 
 
 Index 144 
 
 l< 
 
 ■ 
 
PREFACE 
 
 In undertaking to present the influence of Christianity on the vocabu- 
 lary of Old English poetry, we have attempted for Old English what Rau- 
 mer and Kahle have done for Old High German and Old Norse. A similar 
 investigation, but including the prose, was begun by MacGillivray, who 
 published the '1st Half of Part P in 1902. No continuation has ever 
 appeared, and in a letter of December 2, 1916, the author states that 
 certain circumstances had led to "the complete shipwreck of my hopes for 
 the completion of my book." His consent to take up the work was 
 obtained. 
 
 After a careful survey of the field it did not seem advisable to continue 
 the investigation according to the plan of MacGillivray, whose four chap- 
 ters, corresponding to our first three, take up 171 pages. It was limited 
 to the poetry as the more promising and profitable field. Neither could it 
 be our intention to go to such lengths as our predecessor had done, for the 
 generally favorable reviews of his work point out the diffuseness from which 
 it suffers. We note E. Bjorkman's remark Litbl. XXV, p. 235: "Nicht 
 gerade nachahmenswert finde ich die ermiidende Weitschweifigkeit, womit 
 allbekannte Dinger bis ins kleinste Detail auseinandergesetzt werden. 
 Wenn man alles in der Wissenschaft so weit ausfiihrte, ware es doch zu 
 schlimm!", as also in A. Pogatscher's appreciative review, E. St. XXXII, 
 p. 390: "Die arbeit leidet unter einer geradezu ermiidenden breite und 
 weitschweifigkeit . ' ' 
 
 From our complete collections we have given in many instances, espe- 
 cially in the case of rare words, all occurrences noted. Otherwise the 
 examples were carefully selected with a view of illustrating characteristic 
 features. Occasionally unimportant terms could be omitted without loss. 
 For the sake of completeness, the more important kennings have also been 
 included; however, in view of their large number and the special studies 
 devoted to them, sometimes only selections have been given. But our 
 lists, excepting the names of the Deity, are more extensive than those of 
 other scholars. Where the Old English poems have a Latin source, in many 
 cases the Latin equivalents, especially from the Psalms and Doomsday, 
 were added. The quotations from the Hymnus De Die Jiidicii refer to 
 Loehe's edition, while for Juliana and Elene Strunk and Kent have been 
 used. Grein-Wuelker's Bibliothek der angelsachsischen Poesie forms the 
 basis of our textual study, though in many cases editions of single poems 
 have also been consulted. Unless otherwise indicated, all quotations of 
 
6 PREFACE [6 
 
 Old English poetry are from the Bibliothek, the arabic numbers referring to 
 lines, except in the case of the Psalms, where the verse is given. However, 
 references to Ps. L. (Cottoniana) are to lines. 
 
 As to the most satisfactory arrangement of the material, there may be a 
 difference of opinion. We have been guided by similar efforts in the related 
 languages, and though the plan is not without defects, no radical depar- 
 ture seemed advisable, as the loss would have been greater than the gain. 
 For the sake of comparison the plan also recommended itself, which 
 since Raumer has been adopted by Kahle in his two investigations, by 
 MacGillivray, and for the Romance loan words of Chaucer by Remus. 
 
 In the prosecution of the work, especially for checking up, Grein's 
 Sprachschatz, in spite of its numerous omissions and mistakes, has been of 
 great value. Bosworth-T oiler and Clark Hall, the latter also for poetic 
 terms, have been very helpful. In regard to etymologies the New English 
 Dictionary has been chiefly drawn upon for a conservative statement of 
 facts, as it could not be our purpose to advance questionable theories for 
 the solution of difficulties. 
 
 As the great world war affected communications with Germany, and 
 our own entrance prevented intercourse altogether, no literature pertaining 
 to our subject that may have appeared in that country since 1915 could be 
 consulted. 
 
 In closing, the author takes this opportunity to express his appreciation 
 of the help he has received from others. Profs. H. S. V. Jones, H. L. Creek, 
 and J. Zeitlin have offered some helpful suggestions, Prof. Zeitlin also 
 reading the galley proof. From its inception to its completion the work 
 was under the supervision of Prof. D. K. Dodge, who was also kind enough 
 to look over the proof sheets. 
 
 Albert Keiser. 
 
 Beloit, Wis., July 22, 1919. 
 
INTRODUCTION 
 
 Great spiritual movements as the embodiment of new ideas and con- 
 ceptions are bound to influence the language or languages which serve as 
 the medium of their expression. Thus Christianity in its attempt to reveal 
 ultimate truth in the speech of man has fashioned to a considerable extent 
 the instrument for conveying its meaning. Either old material is utilized 
 and takes on a new meaning, or a new word is created or adopted with 
 the new idea. 
 
 The religion of Christ first finds adequate expression in the highly 
 developed and flexible Greek, a language capable in a remarkable degree 
 of conveying all the finer shades of meaning and therefore admirably suited 
 to serve as the means of propagating a spiritual religion. A fitting vehicle 
 for the Jewish-Christian doctrines is provided in the New Testament 
 Koiv-q, while later the Alexandrian School with the help of philosophy 
 creates a distinctly Christian terminology. Simultaneously Christian 
 ideas seek expression in the less flexible Latin, which, especially in the 
 hands of Tertullian, is molded and enriched by ecclesiastical terms. In 
 both cases a highly developed language with a wealth of expressions and 
 a literature of centuries becomes the garb in which the new conceptions 
 appear. 
 
 In a certain sense the same story repeats itself as nation after nation 
 embraces the new faith, though the mental and spiritual plane of con- 
 verted tribes not seldom necessitates the taking over of many new terms, 
 where the language does not even possess words of an analogous character. 
 Missionaries to the American Indians and to some Polynesian tribes 
 can testify as to the poverty of suitable native terms for the new spiritual 
 ideas. To a great extent the medium of expression has to be created. 
 
 Among the Germanic tribes the Goths fall first under the sway of the 
 Gospel, and the remnants of Ulfilas' translation of the Bible bear testimony 
 as to how the great bishop sought to express the new ideas. The native 
 material is utilized to a very large extent, surprisingly few foreign words 
 being adopted. 1 Old terms take on a new significance, and new forms are 
 created where the language is deficient. 
 
 However, when we consider the influence of Christianity on the vocabu- 
 lary of the Germanic languages, we are confronted with a difficulty. 
 Greek and Latin can boast of literatures antedating the Christian era by 
 centuries, and we know in each case the exact meaning and connotation 
 
 1 Compare Weinhold, Die Gotische Sprache im Dienste des Christenlums. 
 
8 INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY ON OLD ENGLISH POETRY [8 
 
 which a word had in heathen times. Hence the transformation in meaning, 
 or the acquisition of a new connotation, can generally be observed. Less 
 fortunate is the situation in regard to the Germanic dialects, where, with 
 the partial exception of Old Norse, the negligible remains from heathen 
 times preclude such observation and detailed proof in all but rare instances. 
 In Old English and the related languages the poetical remnants of the 
 early Christian period do not fairly represent the actual literature, since 
 the works preserved 'have escaped total destruction only by a series of 
 lucky chances. ' If we had only the more important pieces of the doubtless 
 flourishing Christian literature, the influence of Christianity would appear 
 to be much greater than it is possible to trace under the existing conditions. 
 The large number of comparatively rare poetical terms in Old English, 
 however, cannot be adduced as strong corroborative evidence, since many 
 of them may be due to the invention of an individual. 2 
 
 In their continental home the tribes which later settled in Britain were 
 not entirely ignorant of Christianity. The contact of the Goths with 
 Christian culture and their christianization seem to have passed on a few 
 conceptions and terms to other Germanic tribes,, where they gain a firm 
 hold. We may point to Old English cirice, engel, deofol, and possibly also 
 to biscop, as representatives of this class. In the case of cirice the term 
 becomes so firmly rooted that the Latin ecclesia is unable to supplant it. 
 Contact with other tribes more influenced by Christianity, communication 
 with Gaul, as also the raids on the "Saxon shore" of Britain, in which the 
 wealth and ornaments of churches and monasteries formed part of the 
 spoil, would further add to the Anglo-Saxons' knowledge of Christianity. 
 The few acquired terms are carried along to the new island home. 
 
 From all appearances the old heathen religion still had a strong hold 
 on the new-comers. They clung firmly to the traditions of their Teutonic 
 paganism, and the Christian Britons made no impression on the religious 
 conceptions of their conquerors. In the words of Bright, 3 "it might even 
 seem that their very successes had hardened them in antipathy to the 
 religion of the Cross." Not even an attempt to evangelize the detested 
 barbarians seems to have been made by the Britons. 4 Later, when St. 
 Augustine's visit furnished an opportunity to co-operate in the christian- 
 ization, they also stood aloof. Too little is known about the condition of the 
 Britons at the time of the Saxon conquest to warrant any safe conclusion 
 as to whether Vulgar Latin was spoken to any great extent in the conquered 
 island. Extreme positions have been maintained by different scholars. 
 After a review of the literature on the subject, we may accept as a con- 
 
 1 See the list of poetical words on p. 132 ff. 
 * Chapters on Early English Church History, p. 38. 
 
 *Bede, Hisloria Ecclesiastica, Book I, ch. 22: Addebant . . . ut numquam genii Saxo- 
 num . . . verbum fidei praedicando committer ent. 
 
9] INTRODUCTION 9 
 
 servative statement Remus' summary: 5 "Wahrend in anderen romi- 
 schen Provinzen, z.B. Gallien, fur die Gesammtbevolkerung die lingua 
 rustica Lebensbedingung war und daher allgemein gebrauchlich wurde, er- 
 hielt sie sich auf der pazifizierten Insel nur in den grosseren oder kleineren 
 Kulturzentren und vielleicht auch langs der das Land durchquerenden Heer- 
 strassen sowie im ganzen Siiden und Westen des Mittellandes. " Whatever 
 the facts in the case may be, nobody has been able to show any appreciable 
 influence of Celtic on the Old English Christian vocabulary during the 
 period that preceded the coming of the Roman missionaries. 6 The Chris- 
 tian Britons refused to give the blessings of the Gospel to barbarous 
 idolaters at whose hands they had cruelly suffered, while the heathen 
 victors scorned to stoop to the god or gods who had been unable to protect 
 their devotees against the strong hand of Wodan and his votaries. The 
 result is that practically no addition is made to the Christian vocabulary 
 of the Anglo-Saxons, though one cannot help believing that the inevitable 
 contact with some external features of Christianity served to keep alive 
 certain ideas and terms. 7 
 
 It seems that about the time of the arrival of the Roman missionaries 
 the polytheistic religion had begun to lose its hold upon the thinking men 
 of at least some of the tribes. The circumstances surrounding the con- 
 version of Northumbria suggest that the old religion no longer satisfied 
 their needs, a fact plainly apparent from the speeches of Coifi and one of 
 the chief councilors. The rapidity with which Christianity was adopted 
 would point in the same direction. 8 Contact with. Christian ideas had 
 begun to undermine the old paganism and to hasten the process of 
 degeneration. 
 
 Before turning our attention to the Latin influence, we may briefly 
 survey the coming of Aidan and his missionaries to Northumbria, with its 
 opening up of a wide field for speculation as to the influence upon the 
 language. After an examination of the facts it will hardly cause surprise 
 when the Celtic influence is found to be negligible. 9 With a proper appre- 
 ciation of the noble and fruitful work accomplished by the Celtic mis- 
 sionaries, we cannot help agreeing with Bright: 10 "His (Aidan's) relation 
 to English Christianity on a whole has indeed been somewhat seriously 
 overrated, whether on account of his rare merits or from the controversial 
 instinct of underrating our religious obligations to Italy." The inefficient 
 
 5 Die kirchlichen und speziell-wissenschafllichen Romanischen Lehnworle Chancers, p. 6. 
 Literature on pp. 4-6. 
 
 6 On the Celtic influence in general see Kluge, Paul's Grundriss, I, p. 928 f . 
 
 7 Compare Pogatscher, pp. 11-12. He also points to communications with Gaul. 
 
 8 Hunt, The English Church, p. 13. 
 
 9 Kluge, Paul's Grundriss, I, p. 930, remarks: "Dass teilweise irische Missionare das 
 Evangelium verkundeten, lasst sich an Lehnmaterialien nicht zur Gewissheit erheben." 
 
 10 Early English Church History, p. 160. 
 
10 INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY ON OLD ENGLISH POETRY [10 
 
 organization coupled with the craving for meditation in secluded cloisters, 
 from which the monks emerged at intervals to perform the sacred rites of 
 religion before the masses, was not favorable to a pronounced influence 
 upon a foreign tongue. The steady recruiting from Iona made the mastery 
 of the vernacular at best uncertain, necessitating the constant employment 
 of interpreters. We would not deny the probability of some influence on 
 Old English, but whatever it was, it has left scarcely any trace. Dry, m., 
 magician, exemplified by syddan him geblendan biter e tosomne / dry as 
 park dwolcrceft dryne unheorne, And. 34, and scegde (Simon regarding 
 Christ's chosen thegns") hy dryas waron, Jul. 301, may be due to Old Irish 
 drui, but this cannot be claimed for other words. 11 In some respects the 
 case is analogous to that of the English missionaries in German}'-, of which 
 Raumer says, p. 279: "Ohne Zweifel hat die Angelsachsische Mutter- 
 sprache des Bonifacius und seiner Genossen auch auf ihre Hochdeutsche 
 Predigt Einfluss geiibt. Dieser Einfluss ist jedoch meist so versteckt, dass 
 er sich mit Bestimmtheit weder behaupten noch laugnen lasst, " and on 
 the same page: "In ihren Predigten sind sie sicherlich oft genug ins 
 Angelsachsische verfallen. Allein die Hochdeutsche Sprache hat diese 
 Angelsachsischen Elemente in ihre Wortmasse ent weder gar nicht auf- 
 genommen oder, wo sie es in einzelnen Fallen tat, sich dieselben vollig 
 assimiliert." In our case we must remember that the two dialects are not 
 closely related at all. At all events, after thirty short years the Celtic 
 influence was struck its deathblow by the Roman triumph at the synod of 
 Whitby, 664, and though it lingered for some time after Colman's depar- 
 ture, it may safely be dismissed from further consideration. 
 
 The official attitude of the Roman Church toward heathen worship was 
 tolerant in a remarkable degree. Gregory deliberately adopted it on 
 principle, 12 which some may be inclined to judge more charitably than 
 does J. Earle, who also remarks about the purpose behind the writing of 
 Gregory's dialogues: 13 "It (the book) reflects the policy of converting the 
 barbarians by condescending to their tastes, and belongs to the same 
 system as that increase of pomp and ceremony which was due to the same 
 motive. " It was a deliberate attempt to make Christianity attractive to 
 
 11 Kluge, Paul's Grundriss, I, p. 929, says: "An keltischen Lehnworten zeigt das Angel- 
 sachsische einige religiose wie dr$, ' Zauberer ' = altir. drui, sdcerd = air. sacerd . . . auch das 
 t von ae. Crist deutet im Zusammenhange mit der eben vorgefuhrten kirchlichen Terminologie 
 auf air. Crist," and further: "In einigen Fallen mag — bei etymologischer Klarheit— Zweifel 
 bestehen iiber die eigentliche Quelle von englischen Worten . . . ae. celmesse, obi. almessan 
 diirfte sich naher an altir. almsan anschliessen als an die kontinentaldeutschen Entlehnungen 
 aus rom. almosna =lat. eleemosyne; vielleicht auch ae. munuc naher an altir. monach als an 
 ahd. munih. " But the form of these words may just as well be explained otherwise. Com- 
 pare Pogatscher, 16, 17, 37, 38. 
 
 n Compare chapter IV, 75. 
 
 13 Anglo-Saxon Literature, London, 1884, p. 17. 
 
11] INTRODUCTION 11 
 
 the new converts, a policy fraught with danger. According to Hunt, 14 
 "it seems probable that the heathenish and superstitious practices against 
 which the Church had to struggle so long in this as in other Teutonic 
 lands, would have died out more rapidly if the missionaries had from the 
 first insisted that their converts should forsake everything connected with 
 their former paganism," and p. 93: "Many nominal Christians must have 
 looked upon the religion of Christ rather as an addition to the old beliefs 
 of their race than as wholly incompatible with them." 
 
 But scant remains of the heathen beliefs and the heathen terms have 
 come down to us. Bede, for instance, shows a certain reluctance to discuss 
 the subject of Anglo-Saxon heathenism, though he was probably in a 
 position to reveal much more than he actually does. In the poetry only 
 a few of the heathen terms, which would be utilized by the new religion, 
 have come to our notice. A few of these may be taken up here. In the 
 case of eastor the heathen connotation must have been gradually lost, 
 supplanted by an exclusively Christian one. Ealh, a word denoting a 
 holy place, a temple, keeps the heathen meaning in the compound eolh- 
 stedas, while the simple term is twice applied to Solomon's temple. Hearg, 
 mf., ON. hqrgr, OHG. harug, is found a number of times, swylce se halga 
 herigeas (shrines) preade, And. 1687, onhnigon to pam herige h<zdne peode, 
 Dan. 181, hergas breotap, / fyllad andfeogad, Cr. 485-6, cwtzd,p<zt his hergas 
 (idols) hyrran war on j and mihtigran mannum to fride, / ponne Isrdela ece 
 drihten, Dan. 715-17, hcedene herigweardas (priests), And. 1124. Lac is 
 used to designate Old Testament and Christian sacrifices, in the latter 
 case referring to the mass, though originally the term would seem to have 
 had an exclusively heathen significance. So also wlh with its compounds. 
 Husl never refers to heathen sacrifices, but it is probable that this old 
 Teutonic stem was not without a definite heathen connotation at an 
 earlier time. In the case of wyrd we observe that the mythological force 
 has been lost almost completely. The word takes a twofold development 
 under Christian influence, being used in the sense of God and predestina- 
 tion and in that of the fallen angel or devil. Other terms, such as keofon 
 and hel, receive a fuller and deeper significance. 
 
 When Latin Christianity with its splendid organization and its empha- 
 sis upon external representation became dominant, the influence exerted 
 upon the language was tremendous. As far as our subject, the Old English 
 poetry, is concerned, it will be mirrored in the large number of words 
 directly borrowed, translated, or closely imitated. A careful count of all 
 religious terms reveals that the Latin loan words comprise almost five per 
 cent.' 5 Here of course the several hundred Biblical proper names, which 
 have entered Old English through Latin, are not included. The importance 
 
 14 The English Church, p. 33. 
 
 15 See list of Loan Words and Hybrids on p. 138 f. 
 
12 INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY ON OLD ENGLISH POETRY [12 
 
 of the Latin loan words, however, is greater than the numbers indicate. 
 Partly at least the adopted words are terms for the more striking external 
 features of Christianity, though those for spiritual conceptions are not 
 lacking. Naturally in some cases certain manifestations of Christianity 
 were so foreign to the heathen mind that no appropriate native terms 
 could be utilized. 
 
 However, in the great majority of cases native material has been used* 
 though not seldom the Latin term is either translated or closely imitated. 
 Halig gdst, hellewlte, dnboren, dncenned, efenece, efenwesende, dnnes, prynes, 
 bee, gewritu, tffenldc, and others belong here. In such terms the triumph of 
 Christianity over the old beliefs is clearly mirrored. The original meaning 
 of ethical designations could be modified and the expressions serve in a 
 new capacity. Here belong a number of words referring to virtue, such 
 as milde, which at first probably meant liberal in a secular sense, while 
 later it assumed also a distinctly religious connotation. In this case, as 
 also in that of lufu, a new religious meaning is added to the old secular one, 
 which is kept. The native terms for sin and sinful states are extremely 
 numerous, which would of course, as Abbetmeyer has pointed out, 16 indicate 
 a deep sense of man's moral perversity; we note that these expressions are 
 almost without exception native, and this seems to give support to the 
 assumption that the ethical ideas of the heathen Anglo-Saxon tribes were 
 not on such a low plane as some would have us believe. Though the 
 'Teutonic mind had of course no conception of innate moral weakness, ' l7 
 a point of departure for the expression of the loftier conceptions of Chris- 
 tianity must have existed. This must be firmly maintained against the 
 opinions of those who hold the heathen Anglo-Saxons destitute of every 
 'virtue' except courage. 18 
 
 The new religion was taken into the life of the people, and in many 
 respects adapted to their mode of thinking. As Ferrell 19 well remarks: 
 " God, angels and devils become Teutonic heroes with all the virtues and 
 vices of the same, and Heaven and hell show well-marked traces of the 
 Anglo-Saxon way of thinking before the introduction of Christianity. 
 As the poets draw the Christian religion as well as all that belongs to it 
 within the horizon that bounds their own life, it becomes to them and their 
 hearers a real religion — a Germanic religion — to which they can devote 
 themselves body and soul, inasmuch as they can feel that it is thoroughly 
 their own." In spite of the fact that Teutonic influence is not seldom 
 invoked where other factors must be taken into account, this molding of 
 the Christian ideas plays a large part. To cite a few instances. As cruci- 
 
 18 Poetical Motives, p. 36. 
 
 17 Ibid., p. 5. 
 
 18 Compare chapter on Sin, 329 ff. 
 
 19 Teutonic Antiquities, p. 8. 
 
13] INTRODUCTION 13 
 
 fixion is unknown to the Anglo-Saxons, galga not seldom serves as a designa- 
 tion for the cross. Christ is the people's king, viewed as the guardian of 
 his adherents and the dispenser of bountiful gifts, an idea very dear to the 
 minds of the men. The wholly new thought of a strong and powerful 
 Redeemer made a very strong appeal to the Germanic imagination. In 
 some of the poems, notably Christ, his eminence is all-overshadowing, 
 while the Godhead and God the Father play a minor role. In poems dealing 
 with Old Testament history and even in the Psalms Christ is introduced 
 almost as a matter of course. After an examination of all the poetry one 
 cannot get rid of the feeling that terms applied to the Godhead may often 
 more specifically refer to Christ. Not seldom he appears where one would 
 not expect his presence. We note two passages in the paraphrasing of the 
 Lord's Prayer, which may indicate the difficulty of distinguishing between 
 the persons of the Trinity if clear statements as in this case do not occur. 
 In elaborating Qui es in cells, the poet tells L. Prayer III, 12, that the 
 angels clypiad to Criste, while L. Prayer II, 1-5 runs, Pater noster, qui es in 
 celis. I Fader mamicynnes , frofres ic pe bidde, / halig drihten, pu fie on 
 heofonum eart; / Sanctificetur nomen tiium, / pact sy gehalgod, hygecrceftum 
 foest, J pin nama nu da, neriende Crist, / in urwm ferhfilocan jceste gestadelod. 
 At times the Son is even identified v/ith the Father and the Holy Ghost 
 or is called Son and Father at the same time. These and other daring 
 statements must not be interpreted as heresy, as they are nothing more 
 than expressions of the emphasis or overemphasis placed upon Christ. 
 And to call, for instance, Melchisedec a bishop and the three youths in the 
 fiery furnace masspriests, is simply due to unhistorical thinking and to 
 local color. So the appearance of the apostles, martyrs, etc., as retainers 
 of the heavenly king, is nothing more than an uncritical application of the 
 Anglo-Saxon political system to other nations and conditions. The idea 
 of the Christian as servant, plow, was less sympathetic, though it occurs. 
 As to the former idea, the spiritual warfare described in the Bible, the 
 Latin designation of the faithful as miles Christi, and similar terms, would 
 furnish the poet a welcome suggestion for further elaboration and 
 invention. 
 
 The great number of kennings for religious conceptions would seem to 
 call for a brief discussion. That metrical necessities and alliteration 
 account for many, is without doubt. In Bode's words, 20 "Kenningar 
 . . . dienen namentlich zum Flicken, zum Weiterkommen. " Rankin well 
 illustrates this in regard to the variations from the Latin pattern, giving 
 terms which actually occur. 21 "For such variation, the chief causes lay in 
 the demands of alliteration and metre in Anglo-Saxon verse. For example, 
 instead of dryhten in the common phrase weoroda dryhten (dominus exer- 
 
 20 Kenningar, p. 14. 
 
 21 Kennings, VIII, p. 396 f. 
 
14 INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY ON OLD ENGLISH POETRY [14 
 
 cituum) an author might need a word beginning with sc and so substitute 
 scyppend, making a new phrase weoroda scyppend, or he might need a word 
 beginning with w and substitute wealdend or wuldorcyning, producing the 
 new phrases weoroda wealdend or weoroda wuldorcyning; or instead of 
 dryhten in the phrase engla dryhten (dominus angelorum) he might need a 
 word beginning with b and substitute brego, or a word beginning with w 
 and substitute weard if he desired one syllable or wealdend if he desired 
 two; or, instead of cyning in the phrase wuldres cyning (rex gloriae) he 
 might need a word beginning with a vowel and substitute agend; or, 
 instead of dryhten in the phrase ece dryhten, he might need a word with w 
 and substitute wealdend." 
 
 This general method is of course just as applicable where the poet had 
 no Latin pattern before him. The kennings employed are not felt by the 
 poet in their original meaning, being applied in a purely conventional 
 fashion. Often they are not only not appropriate, but decidedly out of 
 place. So se eadega wer serves Gen. 1562 as a designation for the intoxicated 
 Noah, 2232 for Abraham who has intercourse with Hagar; regarding the 
 destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah it is said, 1924-6, od poet nergend god / 
 for wera synnum wylme gesealde / Sodoman and Gemorran, sweartan lige, 
 and Sat. 85-6 the words are put into the mouth of Satan, ic wolde tower pan 
 wuldres leoman, / beam helendes. In Elene 846 the author thoughtlessly 
 speaks of sigebeamas. III., the crosses of the two thieves being included, etc. 
 
 As to the origin of the kennings there may be a difference of opinion. 
 Rankin thinks that "for the great majority of terms for religious concep- 
 tions . . . there can be no doubt as to Latin origins." 22 Undoubtedly 
 Latin exerted a powerful influence in shaping the religious vocabulary of 
 Old English poetry, as the terms from the Psalms and from poems pat- 
 terned after the Latin show, though the poets do not follow the original 
 slavishly. But Rankin goes too far in his emphasis upon the Latin influence 
 by ascribing such kennings as cyning, dryhten, helm, weard, hyrde, and a 
 host of others to Latin, and by suspecting a Latin source for almost any 
 kenning that occurs, though he might be unable to find the Latin equiva- 
 lent. Such an assumption denies on insufficient grounds initiative and 
 imagination to the Anglo-Saxon poets. We heartily subscribe to his less 
 daring statements, "that such a classification of kennings as borrowed, 
 native, and common Germanic, is necessarily simply tentative and a matter 
 of probabilities," 23 that "a Latin equivalent does not in every instance 
 necessarily mean a direct Latin source," 24 and that he does not maintain 
 "that in every case where an exact equivalent does occur the Anglo-Saxon 
 kenning is necessarily derived from the Latin and could not possibly have 
 
 22 Ibid. p. 358. 
 
 23 Ibid., p. 366. 
 
 M Ibid., as above. 
 
15] INTRODUCTION 15 
 
 had an independent origin." 25 However, in his detailed discussion he 
 often becomes dogmatic, seemingly forgetting the principles he himself 
 has laid down. Though it would be folly to underestimate the tremendous 
 Latin influence, Bode 26 not inappropriately speaks about "den geringen 
 unanzweifelbaren Ergebnissen, die die Litteraturgeschichte von derartigen 
 Vergleichungen bisher gehabt hat, wiewohl doch so viele Litteratur- 
 historiker von einem krankhaften Eifer befallen sind, mit Hiilfe der 
 beliebten, aber unsicheren Methode, aus Ahnlichkeiten auf Einwirkungen 
 zu schliessen, iiberall neue Entdeckungen zu machen." 
 
 But whether borrowed or native, whether molded or newly formed, the 
 extremely large number of religious terms in the poetry shows conclusively 
 the great part the new religion played in the life of the Anglo-Saxons. 
 Christianity with its solution of the problems connected with life and the 
 hereafter had once more won over virile Teutonic tribes. And a people 
 that could glory in the learning of Bede and Alcuin, did not lack poets to 
 set forth the anxieties, the aspirations, and the hopes imparted by the new 
 religion. In the remains of that poetry we find mirrored the consciousness 
 of sin and guilt, the firm trust in the powerful Redeemer, the world- 
 weariness and melancholy yearning for a future life with its pleasures and 
 blessings — in short, all the important features and ideas connected with 
 Christianity. How these conceptions found expression in the poetry, and 
 to what extent the terms were employed, the following pages will show. 
 
 26 Ibid., p. 367. 
 
 26 Kenningar, p. 22 f. 
 
 .< 
 
 N 
 
16 INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY ON OLD ENGLISH POETRY [16 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 DIVISION OF THE HUMAN RACE 
 
 I. The Non-Christians 
 
 1. To the non-Christians belong, together with heathen nations, also 
 the Jews. The most common designation of them is Judeas, the plural 
 being in accordance with the OE. use of folknames, while the singular is 
 not found. The term goes back to the stem of Latin Judaeus, which ori- 
 ginally was applied to a Hebrew of the kingdom of Judah, but later 
 assumed a wider meaning. 1 Examples of the OE. term are comparatively 
 frequent, the use being illustrated by such passages as pone Judeas ongietan 
 ne meahtan, Cr. 637, Judea cynn, And. 560, mid Judeum geomor wurde, 
 1408, geond Judeas, El. 278, which latter poem mentions them a number 
 of times. The term Israel, Israhel, m., is also applied to them, for instance 
 Ex. 198, 265, etc. Among other terms and designations encountered may 
 be noted such as weras Ebrea, El. 287, mid Ebreum, Wids. 83, weras Ebresce, 
 El. 559, we Ebreisce ce leornedon, 397, as also on Ebrisc sprccc, 724. 
 
 2. As to Jewish sects, they are not mentioned in the poetry, though 
 we have in the passage peer bisceopas and boceras / and ealdormenn ceht 
 besceton / meedelhagende, And. 607-9, a reference to the scribes in boceras, 
 a word of somewhat wide meaning, as illustrated by Da hcefde Daniel dom 
 micelne, / bleed in Babilonia mid bocerum, Dan. 164, Sume boceras / weorpad 
 wisfceste, Fates 71, while Durham 14 we hear of ~5e breotna bocera Beda. 
 In the passage quoted from Andreas, the priests or highpriests and the 
 elders are referred to in bisceopas and ealdormenn. VSwita, scribe, learned 
 in the Law, we find El. 473, ponne ufiweotan ceht bisceton. JElcerend, El. 506, 
 seems to be a general term. 
 
 3. In Christian Latin the non-Christians were designated by the terms 
 gentes, gentiles, pagani, and ethnici. 2 The last word was taken over by the 
 Vulgate from Greek WvlkoI {e.g. Matt. 6, 7), while gentes renders rd Wv-q. 
 The word pagani does not appear in the Vulgate, being used in a specific 
 Christian sense first in the 4th century, the original meaning of paganus, 
 villager, rustic, having shaded into that of pagan, heathen, as Christianity 
 became the religion of the towns while in the rural districts the ancient 
 deities were still worshipped. 
 
 l NED. 
 
 2 Raumer, p. 285 f. For this chapter compare Raumer, p. 285 ff., for ON. Kahle, I, 
 321 ff., II, 97-9. 
 
17] DIVISION OF THE HUMAN RACE 17 
 
 4. In OE. poetry the term heathen is generally rendered by ha"den, 
 m., the form in OHG. being heidan, and in ON. heidinn. In all the Ger- 
 manic languages this word is used in the sense of non-Christian, pagan, 
 and it is assumed that the term was first thus employed by the Goths and 
 thence passed to the other Germanic tribes. This view is supported by the 
 occurrence of the fem. form haipno, Mark 7, 26, in Ulfilas' translation. 
 The term is generally supposed to go back to Gothic haipi, heath, the 
 derived word being a loose rendering of the Latin paganus, though diffi- 
 culties both chronological and etymological remain. 3 
 
 5. As in prose, the term haden is comparatively frequent in OE. poetry, 
 being used both as an adjective and a substantive, as will appear from the 
 examples quoted. The word is variously employed. Thus in contrast to 
 the Christians, as in hapenra hyht, Beow. 179, where the evidently heathen 
 Danes seek help against the terrible Grendel by sacrificing and praying to 
 their idols. The Danes were sometimes designated simpl)' as heathen, 
 illustrated for instance by feallan sceolon / hapene at hilde, Maldon 55, 
 hafiene scealcas, 181, also in Denum war on / aror, under Nordmannum nede 
 gebceded / on hapenum hafteclammum / lange prage, Chr. II, 10, the now 
 Christian Anglo-Saxons feeling the heavy hand of the heathen Norse. 
 The Huns are called heathen in El. 126, hadene grungon, / jeollon fridelease, 
 which is the regular designation of the Mermedonians in Andreas, as 
 1124, 1144, etc., etc. Maximianus is called hapen hildfruma, Jul. 7; 
 hadne war on begen, / synnum seoce, 64, is said of Helisius and Juliana's 
 father, the former also being thus designated 533, etc. The contrast 
 between the Christian and the heathen is brought out in passages such as 
 Gn. Ex. 132, husl (is fitting) halgum men, hapnum synne, also Sat. 268, 
 where Satan takes charge of the unregenerated, ah ic be hondum mot ha- 
 penne scealc / gripan to grunde, godes andsacan, as also Cr. 705, pa seo circe 
 her J afyllendra eahtnysse bad / under hapenra hyrda gewealdum, pertaining 
 to the persecution of the Christian Church. 
 
 6. Sometimes the author takes the Jewish point of view and styles the 
 opponents of the chosen people heathen. Thus in passages of Judith, as 
 98, 179, referring to Holofernes, to whom the epithet pone hadenan hund 
 is applied 110. The Israelites have to endure hadenra hosp (of the Assyr- 
 ians) in 216. The term is further applied to Nebuchadnezzar Dan. 203, 
 434, 540, etc., to the Babylonians 307, 330, etc., hadne peode 181, while the 
 term hadne leode is used for them Az. 162. In Gen. 2416 we have hadnum 
 folce, and 2483 hadne heremacgas applied to the people of Sodom. How- 
 ever, the use of the term depends very much upon the circumstances and 
 the particular viewpoint of the author, for in El. 1075 reference is made to 
 the Jews, on pa ahangen was hadenum folmum / gasta geocend, as also Sat. 
 
 8 See article heathen in NED. Compare also MacG., p. 14. 
 
18 INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY ON OLD ENGLISH POETRY [18 
 
 540, pec gelegdon on ladne bend / Juzpene mid hondum, who are thus branded 
 as heathen. 
 
 7. Harden may be applied in various ways, serving to designate the 
 hoarded gold in Beow. 2216, gefeng / hcednum horde, and 2276, peer he 
 harden gold / warad wintrum frod, and also referring to Grendel in 986, 
 hcepenes handspora, and 852, in fenfreodo feorh alegde, / hcedene sawle. 
 In Jul. 536 even the devil is called by that name, (Heo pcet deofol teah) 
 halig hapenne, an appellation not as strange as it may seem when we com- 
 pare such a passage as Jud. 61, Gewat da se deofulcunda (Holof ernes), Dan. 
 750, ge deoflu, (Babylonians), And. 43, sippan deofles pegnas / geascodon 
 cedelinges sid (Mermedonians). The line was evidently not always sharply 
 drawn, room being left for metaphorical application. 
 
 8. A number of compounds occur, of which hafiendom, the state of 
 being a heathen, properly belongs here. There is only one occurrence of 
 the term in poetry, Dan. 221, and here it is contrasted to the worship of 
 Jehovah, the state of belonging to the chosen people. Hadencyninga 
 occurs Dan. 54, applied to Nebuchadnezzar and his vassals, while the 
 people of Sodom and Gomorrah are called hczdencynn Gen. 2546. Words 
 like hafiengield and hcedenweoh as well as similar terms will be treated in 
 chapter VIII, 325. 
 
 9. Another term denoting heathen is the plural of plod, f., people, 
 which we find in the Psalms. We note, geond peode {in gentibus), LVI, 11, 
 peoda him ondradad pinne egesan (Turbabuntur gentes), LXIV, 8, py Ices 
 cefre cwefian ofire peoda, hcedene herigeas {Ne forte dicant in gentibus), 
 LXXVIII, 10, ealle peode {patriae gentium), XCV, 7, Beod deofolgyld 
 dysigra peoda gold and seolfur {Simulacra gentium argentum et aurum), 
 CXXXIV, 15. 
 
 II. The Christians 
 
 10. The other part of the human race is composed of the Christians, 
 the adherents of Christ. In Acts 11, 26 we read that the disciples of Christ 
 were first called xpt-vTiapoi in Antioch. This was taken over by Latin as 
 christiani. The OE. term is cristen, derived from Crist; in OHG. appear 
 christan, christani, and christano, while in ON. we find kristenn, probably 
 influenced by the OE., or the Middle High German form kristen. In the 
 scanty Gothic literature the word does not occur, though we have there 
 the name Xristus. 
 
 11. While in OE. prose the term is of frequent occurrence, 4 both as an 
 adjective and as a substantive, only nine examples have been encountered 
 
 4 MacG., p. 20. 
 
19] DIVISION OF THE HUMAN RACE 19 
 
 by me in the poetry. The use of the adjective we find in Fordon hine on 
 cyrcean cristenes folces / hean ahebbafi (in ecclesia plebis), Ps. CVI, 31, 
 cristenum folce, El. 988, pees latteowes larum hyrdon, / cristenum peawum, 
 1210, cwealde Cristne men, Jul. 5, ealle, pa de cunnon cristene peawas, Dox. 
 28, cristene bee, 37. Of the substantive use only three examples occur, 
 Cristenra weox / word and wisdom, And. 1677, peer hie (the Jews) hit for 
 worulde wendan meahton, / Cristenra gefean, El. 979, and Be dam frignan 
 ongan J Cristenra cwen (Elene), 1068. 
 
 12. As in prose, terms like geleafful, sodfeest, etc., occur as designations 
 of Christians, but these will be treated later. No compound of cristen is 
 found in the poetry. 
 
 13. From cristen is derived the verb cristnian, which in prose renders 
 the Latin catechizare, signifying primarily the prima signatio of the cate- 
 chumens as distinguished from baptism proper. 5 The term in question 
 occurs only once in the poetry, and there may have the meaning to make 
 a Christian or to baptize, (water) cristnad and cleensad cwicra manigo, 
 Sal. 395. 
 
 14. All believers are gathered into the Church, the whole body of the 
 Christians, for which OE. prose and poetry alike use cirice, circe, cyrce, f., 
 a term also applied to the church building, which was probably the original 
 meaning. The word also occurs in other Germanic languages, as chirihha 
 and variants in OHG., kirika, kerika, in OS., the ON. form being kirkia, 
 kyrkja, very probably going back to OE., all from the common Westgerm. 
 stem *kirika. 
 
 15. It is now generally accepted that the Westgerm. term goes back to 
 the Greek nvpianbv or kvplclko., (belonging to the Lord), which from the 3rd 
 century at least came to be used as a name for the Christian house of 
 worship, Constantine afterwards calling several churches built by him 
 Kvpiana. Walafrid Strabo (d. 849) first discussed the question involved, 6 
 and having given the Greek derivation, asked: qua occasione ad nos vestigia 
 haec grecitatis advenerint? He pointed to the Germanic mercenaries in the 
 service of the Roman Empire and particularly referred to the Goths in the 
 Greek provinces. But in the extant Gothic literature we have no word 
 derived from the Greek nvpianbv or Kupicuca, the Gothic rendering of the New 
 Testament eKK\rjala being aikklesjo; however, as it does not designate the 
 place of public worship, but the Christian society or assembly, a Gothic 
 representative of Gr. Kvptanov or Kvpia.ua may be assumed. Other avenues 
 of entrance have been suggested, as for instance the early penetration of 
 
 8 Ibid., p. 21, note 2. 
 
 6 Libellus de exordiis et incrementis quarundam in observationibus ecdesiasticis rerum; 
 Kluge, Gotische Lehnworte, p. 126. 
 
20 INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY ON OLD ENGLISH POETRY [20 
 
 Christianity from the Rhone valley into that of the upper Rhine, but, as 
 the NED. points out, 7 "it is by no means necessary that there should 
 have been a single kirika in Germany itself; from 313 onward, Christian 
 churches with their sacred vessels and ornaments were well known objects 
 of pillage to the German invaders of the Empire: if the first with which 
 these made acquaintance, wherever situated, were called nvpiaKa, it would 
 be quite sufficient to account for their familiarity with the word. The 
 Angles and Saxons had seen and sacked Roman and British churches in 
 Gaul and Britain for centuries before they had them of their own, and, we 
 have every reason to believe, had known and spoken of them as cirican 
 during the whole of that period." For "long before they became Chris- 
 tians, the Germans were naturally acquainted with, and had names for, 
 all the striking phenomena of Christianity, as seen in the Roman provinces 
 and the missions outside. " 
 
 16. However, while the term kirika originally was applied to the build- 
 ing, it came to be used for the Latin ecclesia in all its senses. The L. term 
 goes back to the Gr. eKKX-rjala, meaning etymologically the body of the 
 eKKkrjTOL, a name given by Solon to the public formal assembly of the 
 Athenian people, and later used for similar gatherings of other Greek cities. 
 "By the LXX it is used to translate the Hebrew 7i"|p, the 'congrega- 
 tion' or assembly of Israel met before the Lord, or conceived in their 
 relation to him. In the N.T. the word has a twofold sense: a. (after the 
 LXX.) the whole congregation of the faithful, the Christian Society, 
 conceived of as one organism, the body of Christ; b. (after classical Gr.) a 
 particular local assembly of Christ's enfranchised met for solemn pur- 
 poses." 8 Other meanings were gradually added: the word came to be 
 applied to the meeting house as well as to the outward organization of the 
 congregation of the faithful, used in various shades of meaning. Among 
 the Teutonic peoples kirika was employed as the naturalized equivalent 
 of L. ecclesia. 
 
 17. As stated before, cirice appears in the sense of both the congrega- 
 tion and the meeting place, the latter meaning to be discussed in chapter 
 IV. In the sense of body of the faithful we have, Ofer middangeard mona 
 lixed, I gastlic tungol, swa seo godes circe / purh gesomninga sofies and 
 rihtes / beorhte bliced, Cr. 699, and similarly, pa seo circe her / cefyllendra 
 eahtnysse bad, 703. The idea of the congregation is the only one used in the 
 Psalms. We note, on ciricean Crist drihten god bealde bletsige beam Israela 
 {In ecclesiis benedicite Deo Domino, defontibus Israel), LXVII, 24,pahalgan 
 eac hergea'd on cyricean pine sodf&stnesse {in ecclesia sanctorum), LXXXVIII, 
 
 7 Our discussion is mainly based on the able article church in that work. 
 
 8 NED. 
 
21] DIVISION OF THE HUMAN RACE 21 
 
 4. Similarly we have, wese his herenes on haligra clanre cyriccan cyfied 
 geneahhe! CXLIX, 1, where the Vulgate has laus ejus in ecclesia sanctorum. 
 The idea of congregation is furthermore clear in Forfion hine on cyrcean 
 cristenes folces hean ahebbafi (Et exaltent eum in ecclesia plebis), CVI, 31. 
 
 18. Of compounds with church only two occur in the poetry, circnyt, 
 the sole example being found in Gifts 91, Sum craft hafad cyrcnytta fela, / 
 mag on lofsongum lifes waldend / hlude hergan, hafad healice / beorhte 
 stefne, and ciricsocn, church-going, found once, Exhortation 47, mid cyric- 
 socnum cealdum wederum. 
 
 19. Other designations for the congregation of the faithful, such as 
 gesomnung, geladung, geferrdiden, gegaderung, and crlstendom, more or less 
 frequent in prose, 9 are either not met with in the poetry, or, as in the case 
 of gesomnung, do not have a specific religious meaning. 
 
 9 MacG., p. 27 ff. 
 
22 INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY ON OLD ENGLISH POETRY [22 
 
 CHAPTER II 
 THE DEPARTED MEMBERS OF THE CHURCH 
 
 I. The Virgin Mary 
 
 20. The Virgin Mary and her cult occupied a very prominent place 
 in the Anglo-Saxon Church, and the references to her in both prose 1 and 
 poetry 2 are numerous. The simplest designation of her is Virgin, the idea 
 being expressed by different words; other appellations showing the rank 
 and qualities attributed to her are also found. Very frequently the term 
 famne, virgin, is met with, so for instance Cr. 35, 123, 175, 195, 418, 720, 
 Ap. 29, Creed 19, etc. Among other designations we note mag, magd, 
 me owl e, weolme, frowe, dritt, all of which are poetic. We find that the 
 highest regard is paid to her, and the invocation of her aid, which before 
 the Council of Ephesus (431) had been resorted to only hesitatingly and 
 occasionally, 3 is very common in the Anglo-Saxon Church. We note, 
 fultumes bidde friclo uirginem almam, Invocation 21, and Gepinga us nit 
 pristum wordum, / pat he us ne late leng owihte / in pisse dea'Sdene gedwolan 
 hyran, / ac pat he usic geferge in fader rice, / par we sorglease sippan motan / 
 wunigan in wuldre mid weoroda god! Cr. 342-7. Thus the mother of 
 Christ was supposed to have great influence upon her son, and her inter- 
 cession was thought to be especially effective. His high regard for her is 
 brought out Rood B, 92-4, his modor eac Marian sylfe / almihtig god for 
 ealle menn / geweorZode ofer eall wifa cynn. 
 
 21. Absolute sinlessness of the Virgin Mary, originally quite unknown 
 to Catholicism, and Augustine's repeated assertion that she was born in 
 original sin {De ger. ad. lit. V, 18) notwithstanding, 4 is in Anglo-Saxon times 
 often asserted, though one as late as Anselm {Cur Deus Homo, II, 16) says 
 that the Virgin herself was conceived in iniquity, and born with original 
 sin. Perpetual virginity, not taught during the first three centuries, and 
 first appearing in a book placed upon the papal index librorum prohibitorum 
 as heretical, is also a number of times alluded to and openly claimed in 
 OE. poetry. The following examples will illustrate, ides unmane, Creed 
 14, magd manes leas, Cr. 36, and no gebrosnad iveard / magdhad se mida, 
 85-6, hu ic famnanhad, / mund minne geheold and eac modor gewearZ / 
 mare meoludes suna, 92-4, saga ecne pone / marum mcotodes sunu, patic his 
 
 1 Compare MacG., p. 33 ff. 
 
 2 For OHG. see Raumer, p. 292 f., for ON. Kahle, I. 325. II, 99 ff. 
 
 3 Encyclopaedia Britannica. 
 
 4 Ibid 
 
23] DEPARTED MEMBERS OF THE CHURCH 23 
 
 modor geweard, / fcemne ford se peak, 209-11, womma lease, 188, pest pu 
 pinne mesgdhad meotude brohtes, / sealdes butan synnum, 289-90, and pe, 
 Maria, ford / efne unwemme a gehealdan, 299-300, unmcsle cslces pinges, 
 333, mesged unmcsle, 111, peak wess hyre mesgdenhad / esghwees onwalg, 
 1420-1, etc. 
 
 22. A few times the Virgin Mary is spoken of as the mother of Christ. 
 We note, Marie, modur Cristes, Charm VIII, 17, cyninges modor, Men. 21, 
 drihtnes modor, 169. 
 
 23. Not infrequently figures are used to designate the Holy Virgin. 
 Eordfate halgan gesste, Maxims 18, only once, the word being poetic, nu ic 
 his (Christ's) tempel earn (gefremed), Cr. 206, pesr gestapelad wees / cspelic 
 ingong, 307-8, duru ormeste, 309, swa fcsstlice forescyttelsas, 312, dess ceaster- 
 hlides clustor, 314, das gyldnan gatu, 318, pa fesstan locu, 321, pu eart pest 
 wealldor, 328. In 280-1 we ftndpcstpu bryd sie / pess selestan swegles bryttan, 
 and 292 bryd beaga hroden. 
 
 24. A few attributes of the Virgin may be noted here. Sancta Maria, 
 Cr. 88, $a sodan sancta 5 Marian, Charm I, 29, sanctan 6 Marian, Creed 13, 
 seo clesneste cwen ofer eorpan, Cr. 276, meowle seo clesne, Doom 293, clesne 
 and gecorene, Cr. 331, Ealapu mesre, 275, mesrre meowlan, 446. Numerous 
 others occur, as also some designations that show the greatest respect and 
 veneration. We quote, ealra femnena wyn, Prayer III, 26, wifa wynn, Cr. 
 71, wifa wuldor, Men. 149, pur h pa espelan cwenn, Cr. 1199, Cwena selost, 
 Men. 168, sio eadge mesg, Cr. 87, mesdena selast, Doom 294, mesged mod- 
 hwatu, Maxims 16, mesgda weolman, Cr. 445, fesgerust mesgda, Men. 148, 
 gebletsodost ealra, Doom 296, fcemne freolicast, Cr. 72, csnlicu godes drut, 
 Doom 291, seo fr owe, 292. We add here the passage from Doom, 291-4, in 
 order to show the rendering of the Latin line: csnlicu godes drut, / seo 
 frowe, pe us frean acende, / metod on moldan, meowle seo clesne: / pest is 
 .Maria., mesdena selast {alma Dei Genitrix, pia virgo Maria, 148). The 
 Virgin is further called hlesfdige halgum meahtum / wuldorweorudes and 
 worldcundra / hada under heofonum and helwaral Cr. 284-6. This list, 
 which could be extended, 7 contains a large number of poetical terms, some 
 of them occurring only once, as seen from the list of poetical words at 
 the end. 
 
 II. Patriarchs 
 
 25. The Latin patriarcha as a designation of the venerable Old Testa- 
 ment characters is rendered in OE. poetry by heahfesder, OHG. hohfater.* 
 
 6 MS. Tea marian. 
 •MS. Sea. 
 
 7 Compare kennings of Virgin Mary in Jansen, Synonymik, p. 18 f. 
 
 8 For ON. see Kahle, I, 326. For OE. prose MacG., pp. 38-9 may be compared. 
 
24 INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY ON OLD ENGLISH POETRY [24 
 
 Only a few examples occur, which we give in full. The disciples of Andrew 
 report about their vision during the journey to Mermedonia, heahfcederas 
 halige oncneoivon / and martyr a mcegen unlytel, And. 875. Further examples 
 are, par martiras meotode cwema'8 / and herigafi hehfceder halgum stefnum / 
 cyning in cestre, Sat. 656, betwyx heahfcederas and halige witegan (vatidicis 
 junctos patriarchis atque prophetis, 144), Doom 284, heahfcedra fela swylce 
 eac hcelepa gemot, Har. 47, heahfcedera sum (Abraham), Ex. 357, {peer) 
 heahfcedera lira beheled wceron, And. 791, while heahfcedra nan, Jul. 514, is 
 able to gain power over the devil, the accomplishment of the saintly 
 Juliana being magnified by the spirit of darkness. As will be gathered 
 from these examples, the patriarchs are generally mentioned with the 
 prophets, the connection between them being close. In And. 801 Abraham, 
 Isaac, and Jacob are even spoken of as 15a witigan pry. 
 
 26. Once heahfeeder is applied to God the Father, namely in Rood B, 
 134, lifiap nu on heofenum mid heahfeeder e, a use also appearing in prose 
 and being equivalent to the Latin pater excelsus. 
 
 III. Prophets 
 
 27. The term for prophet in OE. poetry 9 is witega, wltga, from the 
 Germanic stem *witags, wise one; OHG. has wizago. 10 In accordance 
 with this fundamental meaning the word is probably used in a purely 
 secular sense Dan. 41, to pees witgan for on, / Caldea cyn to ceastre ford. 
 In Ph. 30, swa us gefreogum gleawe / witgan purh wisdom on gewritum 
 cypdb*, the idea of wise is also very prominent. Judas or Cyriacus is called 
 witgan sunu El. 592, and in the same poem, where the nails of the cross 
 are mentioned, we hear Be dam se witga sang, / snottor searupancum, 1188. 
 
 28. In the sense of prophet the term witega occurs not infrequently, 
 especially in Elene, Christ, and other poems. A few examples will suffice 
 here, purg witgena wordgeryno, El. 289, ge witgena / tare onfengon, 334, and 
 hu on worulde oer witgan sungon, / gasthalige guman be godes beame, 561. 
 In El. 35.1 Isaiah is called witga, and in Cr. 306 wisfcest witga. Witgan 
 wisfcBste wordum scegdon, / cyddon Cristes gebyrd, we hear Cr. 64-5, while 
 1193-4 they are spoken of as witgan drihtnes / halge higegleawe. Halige 
 witigan raise Christ on his throne, Sat. 460. Of further occurrences of the 
 term we note witgan larum, Ex. 390, od peet witga cwom, / Daniel to dome, 
 Dan. 149, ne on mine witigan wergde settan (in prophetis meis nolite malig- 
 nari), Ps. CIV, 13. 
 
 29. However, the term witga is also a designation for heathen prophets 
 or magi. Thus in Dan. 135, andswarode / wulfheort cyning (Nebuchad- 
 
 9 For the prose compare MacG., pp. 36-8. 
 
 10 Compare for OHG. Raumer, p. 322 f., ON. Kahle, I, 325-6. 
 
25] DEPARTED MEMBERS OF THE CHURCH 25 
 
 nezzar) witgum sinum, and perhaps also in 647, Ne lengde pa leoda aldor / 
 witegena wordcwide. 
 
 30. In the original sense of propheta as proclaimer, utterer, we have 
 the poetic boda in Moods 4, wordhord onwreah witgan larum / beom boca 
 gleaw, bodan cercwide. More often the compound spel(l)boda is used, 
 originally meaning messenger, proclaimer of a message. The secular use 
 of the term is illustrated Ps. CV, 10, where it is said about the Egyptian 
 disaster in the Red Sea, pcet pcera cefre ne com an spellboda. In a religious 
 sense the word is applied to Daniel, godes spelboda, Dan. 533 and 743. In 
 the Phenix, where Job appears in the role of prophet, godes spelboda, line 
 571, serves as a designation for him, the reader having been exhorted 548-9, 
 gehyrad witedom / Jobes gieddingal The same term is also applied to the 
 apostles Gu. 11, swa pcet geara iu godes spelbodan / wordum scegdon and 
 purh witedom / eal anemdon, swa hit nu gouged. 
 
 31. Further uses of the word are found in Daniel, where in lines 230 
 and 465 the three youths in the fiery furnace are called godes spelbodan. 
 Cr. 336, in referring to the Annunciation, speaks of godes spelboda Gabriel; 
 Gen. 2494 the angels bringing Lot the fateful news of Sodom and Gomor- 
 rah's disaster are called (Jrome) godes spellbodan, and Cr. 449 those announc- 
 ing Christ's birth to the shepherds bodan. As will be seen from the passages, 
 the use of the term is often, though not always, explained by the function 
 assumed in a particular case. Wodbora, otherwise orator, speaker, is 
 applied to Isaiah Cr. 302. 
 
 32. Prophesy, prophesying, is expressed by witedom, witigdom, a term 
 occurring five times in the poetry. Ph. 548, gehyrad witedom / Jobes 
 gieddinga, and Gu. 12, purh witedom / eal anemdon, have already been 
 quoted in connection with wltega. The other examples are, Wees se wite- 
 dom I purh fyrnwitan beforan sungen, / eall cefter orde, swa hit eft gelamp / 
 dinga gehwylces, El. 1152, sceolde witedom / in him sylfum beon sode gefylled, 
 Cr. 212, and Ne meahte pa seo moznigeo on pam me'delstede / purh witigdom 
 wihte apencean, Dan. 146. In the sense of to prophesy the verb wltgian 
 occurs only once, namely Dan. 546, and (Daniel) him witgode wyrda 
 gepingu. Once we find cercwide, m., Moods 4, wordhord onwreah witgan 
 larum / beom boca gleaw, bodan cercwide, which may have the sense of 
 prophesy. 
 
 33. The magi of the Chaldeans, otherwise also designated simply 
 prophets, are called deofulwitgan Dan. 128, the term being found only once 
 in OE. literature. 
 
 IV. Apostles 
 
 34. The first adherents of Christ are called in the New Testament 
 nadrjraL in contradistinction to the master as 5t5dcr/caXos, and in reference 
 
26 INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY ON OLD ENGLISH POETRY [26 
 
 to their being sent to preach, drocrroXot. The Vulgate renders /j.adr)Tal 
 by discipuli, and takes over the term a-wbcFToKoi as apostoli. Apostol as 
 the designation of disciples is found only twice in OE. poetry, 11 namely 
 Men. 122, where Peter and Paul are spoken of as pa apostolas, / peoden 
 holde prowedon on Rome, and Sat. 571, pat he pas ymb ane niht twelf aposto- 
 las I mid his gastes gife, gingran geswidde. A direct translation of the term 
 apostolus, which in OHG. besides the rare postul is generally rendered by 
 boto, 12 does not occur in OE. poetry, though once the compound spelboda is 
 found, Gu. 11, swa pest geara iu godes spelbodan / wordum sagdon. But 
 references to the Twelve are by no means absent. We note, twelfe under 
 tunglum tireadige haled, And. 2, pa du us twelfe trymman angunne, 1419, 
 Twelfe wceron / dadum domfaste, dryhtne gecorene, Ap. 4-5, Dys da adelingas 
 ende gesealdon, / XII. tilmodige, 86, and eom ic para twelf a sum, pe he 
 getreoweste I under monnes hiw mode gelufade, Gu. 681. 
 
 35. Only one compound of apostol appears, the poetic apostolhad, 
 denoting the rank or position of an apostle, occurring only twice, (Andrew) 
 gesette / wisfcestne wer. . . / in pare beorhtan byrig bisceop pam leodum / 
 and gehalgode fore pam heremagene / purh apostolhad, Platan nemned, 
 And. 1651, and (At Rome died) Petrus and Paulus: is se apostolhad / 
 wide geweordod ofer werpeoda, Ap. 14. 
 
 36. However, the disciples and followers of Christ appear frequently 
 in OE. poetry, though not often under the name of apostles. Thus we find 
 arendraca in Doom 286, par pa arendracan synd almihtiges godes (inter 
 apostolicas . . . arces, 145), and folgere, once, Creed 35, and he .XL. 
 daga folgeras sine / runum arette. The term geongra, comparative of 
 geong, in the sense of servant or disciple, occurs not infrequently. The 
 simple meaning servants is applied to Adam and Eve in Gen. 450, where 
 they are called drihtnes geongran, and in 458, 515; in other places the term 
 is similarly used. Referring to the disciples of Christ, we find for instance 
 gingran sinum, Sat. 522, gingran, 526, 530, 531, and 572 in the passage 
 quoted about the twelve apostles. In And. 1330, fiat hie <5e hnagen / 
 gingran at gude, reference is made to Andrew, though the term even in its 
 religious or Christian meaning is by no means limited to the Twelve, 
 for gingran sine, And. 427, similarly 847 and 894, is applied to the followers 
 of Andrew. 
 
 37. Other appellations are also used for the followers of Christ in 
 accordance with the view taken in a particular case. While thus in swa 
 dyde lareow pin: / cyneprym ahof, pam was Crist nama, And. 1321-2, 
 Xdreow as Andrew's teacher would be the 5t5do-/caXos ko.t e&xriv, Andrew is 
 
 u For the prose compare MacG., p. 39 ff. 
 
 n See Raumer, pp. 364-6. A discussion of the terms used in ON. will be found in Kahle, 
 I, p. 327, and II, 106-7. 
 
27] DEPARTED MEMBERS OF THE CHURCH 27 
 
 called leofne lareow 1707, and James frod and fastrad folca lareow Men. 135. 
 Not seldom Christ is represented as a king and his followers as his pegnas, 
 retainers. This is an especially favored term, conspicuously in Andreas, 
 but also in other poems. We note as designation of the Twelve, peodnes 
 pegnas, And. 3; his magupegne, 94, applied to Matthew; his magopegne, 
 1207, referring to Andrew, 384, Gif 3u pegn sie prymsittendes / wuldor- 
 cyninges, 417, pegen gcpungen prymsittendes, 528, also mentioning him as 
 retainer. But the term is also employed for Andrew and his followers, 
 323, 344, while pegnas wlitige, 363, is used of Andrew's followers. The 
 disciples at Christ's ascension are called pegnas gecorene Cr. 497, and 541 
 we find, Bidon ealle peer / pegnas prymfulle peodnes gehata / in pare torhtan 
 byrig (Jerusalem) . Simon in Samaria accuses pa gecorenan Cristes pegnas 
 opposing him as magicians, Jul. 299, and Nero commands that Cristes 
 pegnas / Petrus and Paulus be killed, 303. Thus Gu. 665 Bartholomew is 
 designated dyre dryhtnes pegn, calling himself meotudes pegn 680. 
 
 38. Other terms might be added in order to show the attitude of mind 
 with which the authors of different poems view the followers of the man 
 of meekness and peace. We note only oretlmacgas, And. 664, applied to 
 the Twelve, oretta used of Andrew in ' eadig oreta, 463, anrad oretta, 983, 
 etc., halig cempa, 461, Cristes cempa, 991. Similar terms are also applied 
 to Saint Guthlac, who as a true warrior defends himself against the hosts 
 of evil spirits. 
 
 39. In relation to each other the apostles are conceived as brothers. 
 Thus And. 183 Andrew is told about Matthew as pinne sigebro'dor, and 
 again 940, par pin brodor is. We have further, Syb wees gemcene / bam pam 
 gebrodrum, And. 1014, wuldres pegnas, / begen pa gebro'dor, 1027, and pa 
 gebrodru, Petrus and Paulus, Charm VIII, 18. In Gu. 686 Bartholomew, 
 coming to the help of the saint, says, Is pat min bropor, where the term has 
 a more general significance. 
 
 V. Martyrs 
 
 40. The Latin martyr (from late Greek naprvp) as the designation for 
 one who suffers persecution on account of his belief, is expressed in OE. 
 literature by two terms, the learned martyre, marytr, martir, and the native 
 prowere, from prowian, to suffer 13 . Only four times the learned term is 
 employed. Once it refers to Saint Guthlac, who valiantly puts up a good 
 and successful battle against the evil spirits, was se martyre from mon- 
 cynnes I synnum asundrad, Gu. 485. A reference to departed martyrs we 
 find Sat. 655, par martiras meotode cwemad / and herigad hehfader halgum 
 stefnum / cyning in cestre. The passage And. 876 is similar, We par heah- 
 
 13 For the prose compare MacG., p. 52 ff. The OHG. terms are discussed by Raumer, 
 pp. 293-4, the ON. by Kahle, I, 327-8, II, 107-8. 
 
28 INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY ON OLD ENGLISH POETRY [28 
 
 faderas halige oncneowon / and martyr a mcegen unlytel. A memorial in 
 honor of all the martyrs was celebrated in the Anglo-Saxon Church, to 
 which reference is made in the enumeration of the halige dagas, Men. 69, 
 Scutari we hwadere gyt / martira gemynd ma areccan. u 
 
 41. The native term prowere is used only twice in poetry, both occur- 
 rences being in Guthlac. In line 132, Oft purh reorde ahead, / pam pe 
 prowera peawas lufedon, / godes arendu, it is rather general, while the pas- 
 sage Frome wurdun monge / godes prowera, 153, refers to those still under- 
 going suffering. 
 
 42. The Latin martyrium, the witness or death of a martyr, is expressed 
 by martyrdom, martyrhad, and prowung, the latter term being employed 
 for the suffering of holy men as well as for the passio of Christ. In Men. 
 126 martyrdom is used of the supposed joint suffering of Peter and Paul, 
 pa apostolas, / peoden holde prowedon on Rome / ofer midne sumor miccle 
 gewisse / furfi or fif nihtum folcbealo prealic, / mceme martyrdom, while the 
 death of Laurentius is mentioned 145, panne ford gewat / ymb preo niht 
 pees peodne getrywe / purh martyrdom, mare diacon. In a somewhat peculiar 
 sense the term is employed Prayer IV, 80, Gode ic hcebbe / abolgen, brego 
 moncynnes : forpon ic pus bittre wear's / gewitnad fore pisse worulde, swa min 
 giewyrhto wceron / micle fore monnum, pcet ic martirdom / deopne adreoge. 
 As has been pointed out by Wuelker, 15 the term martirdom would suggest 
 that the exiled author considers himself innocent as to the particular cause 
 of the punishment, though realizing the unjustly inflicted punishment as a 
 just retribution overwhelming him on account of other sins. Martyrhad 
 occurs once in Guthlac, where it is applied to the state of suffering to which 
 the numerous devils subject the saint, (God would) after prowinga (him) 
 pone gegyldan, /pat he martyrhad mode gelufade, 443. 
 
 43. prowung in a somewhat general sense as referring to a saint is 
 used in the passage just quoted, after prowinga, Gu. 442, similarly 356, 
 Nis pisses beorges setl / meodumre ne mara, ponne hit men duge, / se pe in 
 prowingum peodnes willan / daghwam dreogefi, and also line 750, poncade 
 peodne, pas pe he in prowingum / bidan moste. The references to the 
 passio of Christ will be quoted in chapter VII, Life of Christ, 248. 
 
 VI. Saints 
 
 44. In order to express Latin sanctus, two different terms are employed 
 in OE. poetry, 16 one native, while the other has been taken over from the 
 
 14 Further remarks will be found in chapter V, Festivals and Holy Seasons. 
 16 Grundriss, p. 377. 
 
 16 In regard to prose see MacG., p. 60 ff. For OHG. compare Raumer, 294, for ON. 
 Kahle, I, 328-9, II, 108 ff . 
 
29] DEPARTED MEMBERS OF THE CHURCH 29 
 
 Latin. Sometimes the borrowed word even retains its Latin ending, as 
 shown in sanctus Paulus, El. 504 and Panther 69. The term is applied 
 several times to the Virgin Mary, as will be seen under subdivision I, 
 24. Like the adjective, the noun sanct, m., is also rare. We note, to 
 poem cvpelan / hnigan him sanctas, 11 Sat. 240, and sanctas singa'8, 355. In 
 Men. 200 reference is made to the festival of All Saints, 18 we healdad / 
 Sanct a symbel, para pe si~5 ofide cer / worhtan in wornlde will an drihtnes. 
 
 45. However, the usual expression corresponding to Latin sanctus is 
 halig, OHG. heilig, OS. helig, ON. heilagr, from Teut. *hailag-oz, probably 
 meaning inviolate, inviolable. 19 The term, used both as an adjective and 
 as a noun, is of great frequency in the poetry, so that a few examples will 
 suffice for illustration. {Gefetigan) haligre (St. Juliana) fader, Jul. 61, 
 his halige, pe on heofonum synt, Charm I, 58, halge cwelmdon, Jul. 15, 
 haligra gemynd, Instructions 63, haligra Hid, Men. 229, para haligra on 
 heofonan rice {sanctorum, 11), Doom 22, with which may be compared 
 ic gemcenscipe mcvrne getreowe / pinra haligra her on life, Creed 52-3, a 
 rendering of the Latin Sanctorum communionem; eallum dam halgum, 
 Rood B, 154. Halig peer inne / wcerfcest wunade, Jul. 237, ahon haligne 
 on heanne beam (referring to Andrew), 309, ponne halige men / lifiendum 
 gode lofsang dod, 20 Soul 68. 
 
 46. The noun formed from halig is halignes, which is found only a few 
 times in the Psalms, where it is used in the sense of holiness as an attribute 
 of God, and as a term for sanctuary. 21 
 
 47. The verb is {ge)halgian, employed in a number of different ways. 
 Thus it is said of God, "Su sunnandceg sylf halgodest, Dox. 25, of Abraham 
 in regard to the circumcision, pu scealt halgian hired pinne, Gen. 2310, 
 while L. Prayer I, 2, we read, Sy pinum weorcan halgad / noma nippa 
 bearnum. Gehalgian, to consecrate, we find And. 586, he gehalgode . . . / 
 win of wcetere, which is used in the sense of consecration or ordination of a 
 bishop 1650, applied to the dedication of a church building, cirice gehalgod, 
 1646, and employed in a metaphorical sense Cr. 1482, pat selegescot, pat 
 ic me swees on pe / gehalgode hits to wynne. Twice the term refers to the 
 consecration of a king, {Edgar wees) to hinge gehalgod, Chr. Ill, A, 2, and 
 woes peoden gehalgod, 20. In the sense of to keep holy gehalgian is met with 
 
 "It should be noted that the MSS. generally employ abbreviations, so El. 504 for 
 sanctus JTs; in our passage Sat. 240, seas, etc. 
 
 18 A discussion of it will be found in chapter V, 99. 
 
 19 For the development of the meaning holy see NED., also MacG., p. 60. 
 
 20 The term halig is employed in many different ways, from halig feok in Gen. 201 to an 
 attribute of the Deity. 
 
 21 Quoted in chapters IV and VII. 
 
30 INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY ON OLD ENGLISH POETRY [30 
 
 in Siva is gehalgod pin heah nama, L. Prayer III, 18, similarly II, 3-4, the 
 passage in each case rendering Sanctificetur nomen tuum. The participle 
 used as an epithet of Christ occurs Cr. 435, se gehalgoda hcelend. 
 
31] ECCLESIASTICAL OFFICES 31 
 
 CHAPTER III 
 ECCLESIASTICAL OFFICES 
 
 48. From the second century on Christianity conceived society as 
 divided into two classes, 1 the whole congregation of the faithful being 
 designated as the icXrjpos, originally meaning inheritance, lot. 2 The Chris- 
 tians were thus the KXrjpos 6eov, an expression which goes back to the 
 
 Hebrew Hi IT H/PO (hereditas Dei), used in the Old Testament 
 of the Children of Israel. Soon, however, the term was transferred to the 
 priestly class, which had gradually developed and which might be said 
 to have chosen Christ as its particular portion. From nXrjpos the adjective 
 kKtjplkos, clerical, pertaining to the priestly class, was derived, and both 
 words were taken over by Christian Latin as clerus and clericus. In dis- 
 tinction to KXfjpos, the others were called Xai'/coi, those belonging to the 
 people, the Xaos, a word also taken over by the Latin as laid. 
 
 49. In OE. poetry this general division into two classes, laymen and 
 clergy, is not formally indicated. In the prose laymen were termed 
 lawede men, fleet I (Swede folc, while the favorite name for the clergy was 
 fleet gdstl ice folc, godes fleowas. 3 In the poetry a name for the laymen does 
 not appear. The passage feala wearfl todrcefed / gleawra godes peowa, Chr. 
 Ill, B, 18-19, does not absolutely demand the interpretation of godes peowa 
 as clergymen, though a parallel passage, peer wees preosta heap, / mycel 
 muneca preat mine gefrcege / gleawra gegaderod, Chr. Ill, A, 8-10, would 
 suggest such an interpretation. The other examples of the term do not 
 furnish conclusive evidence. 
 
 50. The clergy was composed of two originally distinct classes, the 
 clergy proper, and the monastic clergy. It may be noted here that the 
 monks at first were generally laymen, the insistence upon ordination being 
 a very late development. The clergy proper will be taken up first. 
 
 51 . The whole priesthood of the Roman Church was divided into two 
 groups, the Ordines majores, to which belonged four classes, episcopus, 
 sacerdos, diaconus, subdiaconus , and the Ordines minores, which embraced 
 the acoluthus, exorcista, lector, and ostiarius. But according to /Elfric, 
 (Canons, Thorpe, p. 443 ff. 4 ), the Anglo-Saxon Church recognized only 
 
 1 Raumer, p. 295 f.; for the whole chapter compare 295 ff., for ON. Kahle, I, 329 ff., II, 
 116 ff. 
 
 2 So in the only example of the learned word in OE. poetry, Gif ge slapaZ samod on clero, 
 Ps. LXVII, 13. 
 
 * MacG., pp. 67-9. 
 
 * Ibid., p. 83. 
 
32 INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY ON OLD ENGLISH POETRY [32 
 
 seven orders, and conceived bishops and masspriests as belonging to one 
 order, so that our first and second class of the Ordines majores would 
 coalesce into one. To this order naturally belonged also the bishop of 
 Rome, the pope, as well as archbishops, metropolitans, and patriarchs. 
 
 52. The pope may be considered first. The OE. designation is papa, 
 derived from Eccl. Latin papa, going back to late Gr. 7rd7ras, 7ra7ras, a late 
 variant of Tairiras, father. 5 OHG. has babes, babist, ON. pdpe, pdfe. The 
 Greek term was applied to bishops, patriarchs, and popes, being a recog- 
 nized title of the bishop of Alexandria before 250. The Latin papa was 
 employed as a term of respect for high ecclesiastics, especially bishops, 
 and throughout the 5th century all Christian bishops were still called by 
 that name. 6 As late as 640 St. Gall applies it to Desiderius, bishop of 
 Cahors. However, beginning with Leo the Great (440-461), the term 
 became gradually limited in the Western Church to the bishop of Rome, 
 though it was not until 1073 that Gregory VII claimed the title exclusively 
 for the Roman pontiff. 
 
 53. As papa is a late Latin borrowing, it is used in OE. for the bishop 
 of Rome. In the poetry it occurs but once, Met. I, 42, was ptzm cvpelinge 
 (Theoderic) Arrianes / gedwola leofre ponne drihtnes a, / het Johannes godne 
 papan / heafde beheawan. Where in Elene there is an opportunity to men- 
 tion the pope, he is simply called a bishop, Sidfian Elene heht Eusebium / 
 on reedgepeaht, Rome bisceop / gefetian on fultum, 1051, a characteristic 
 feature, since the Anglo-Saxons for a long time regarded the pope simply 
 as a highly revered bishop. 7 
 
 54. The QE. term for bishop is biscop, bisceop, m., OHG. biscof, piscof, 
 ON. biscup. The word is assumed to be derived from a Romanic *biscopo 
 or Vulgar L. (e)biscopus, L. episcopus, from Gr. kiriaKOTros, overlooker, 
 overseer. 8 In Greek, as also partly in Latin, it was used in this general 
 sense, being also the title of various civil officers, but with the rise of 
 Christianity it came to be applied to the specific ecclesiastical officer. 9 
 The OE. biscop differs from its Latin prototype in that it is often employed 
 in a more general sense, translating also pontifex, flamen, sacerdos, etc., 
 by no means limited to Christian conceptions. 10 
 
 6 See article in NED. 
 
 8 For examples see Du Cange, Glossarium Mediae et Infimae Latinitatis. 
 
 7 N. James, Die Englische Kirche in ihrem VerhaUnis znm Papst- und Konigtum, Diss. 
 Halle, 1893. P. 30 ff. See MacG., p. 83. 
 
 8 However, F. Kluge, Urgermanisch, 3. Auflage, p. 37 says: "Die westgerm. Lautformen 
 fur den Begriff 'Bischof haben auch ein hoheres Alter als eine lateinische Entlehnung 
 aufweisen wurde, und so wird angs. bisceop, ahd. biscof wohl got-griech. Ursprungs sein 
 (aipiskaiipus = gr. eTrlaicoTros)." 
 
 9 See bishop in NED. 
 
 10 MacG., p. 92. 
 
33] ECCLESIASTICAL OFFICES 33 
 
 55. In OE. poetry biscop occurs 14 times, mostly in the sense of Chris- 
 tian ecclesiastic. Eusebius is Rome bisceop El. 1051, he gesette on sacerdhad / 
 in Jerusalem Judas pam folce / to bisceope, 1056, the term referring to 
 Judas or Cyriacus also in lines 1072, 1094, 1126, 1216, with the epithet 
 se halga 1093. Chr. Ill, B, 14, we are told, of Brytene gewat, bisceop se 
 goda I purh gecyndne craft, Pam wees Cyneweard nama. In Durham rests 
 among others Aidan biscop, Durham 11, while we hear line 13, Is fierinne 
 midd heom Aidelwold biscop. Two further examples occur, Men. 104, where 
 St. Augustine is spoken of as bisceop bremran, while Andrew anne gesette 
 I ... / in pare beorhtan byrig bisceop pam leodum, And. 1649. 
 
 56. While in prose examples of biscop referring to the Jewish highpriests 
 are very numerous, 11 only one occurs in poetry, And. 607, peer bisceopas 
 and boceras / and ealdormenn ceht besceton / meedelheegende. Biscop is also 
 twice applied to Melchisedec of Salem, who was priest and king at the 
 same time, namely Gen. 2103,^^ wees se mcera Melchisedec, / leoda bisceop, 
 and 2123, pees hereteames / ealles teofian sceat Abraham sealde / godes bis- 
 ceope. To heathen priests biscop is never applied in the poetry, though 
 the instances of this use of the word are likewise comparatively numerous 
 in prose. 12 
 
 57. Of biscop only one compound, biscophad, is found in the poetry, 
 and this only twice. In the example from Ps. CVIII, 8, Wesan him dagas 
 deorce and dimme and feawe and his bisceophad brucan feondas [et episcopa- 
 tum ejus accipiat alter), the word is used in a purely secular sense, but in 
 El. 1211, Wees se bissceophad / feegere befeested, the Christian episcopal 
 office is referred to. 
 
 58. To the Or dines majores belongs furthermore the preost, priost, m., 
 OHG. prest, priast, ON. prestr. Etymologically the term goes back eventu- 
 ally to Gr. 7rpecr/3i)repos, elder, used as elder of the congregation in the New 
 Testament, e.g. Tit. 1, 5. Soon the word came to be applied in the sense 
 of sacerdos to the Christian ministers, the consecrated persons performing 
 sacred duties. With this meaning it was taken over into Latin, where the 
 term sacerdos as a name for the sacrificing priests of the heathen deities 
 and the Jewish priests came also to be used for the Christian minister. 
 The OE. preost and the other monosyllabic forms are supposed to go back 
 to a common Romance *prester, though the origin of the vowel eo and the 
 anterior phonetic history of the forms remain to be cleared up. 13 
 
 59. In OE. prose, the word preost may denote either a masspriest (the 
 L. presbyter), or a priest in general, any member of the seven orders of the 
 
 11 Ibid., p. 97. 
 
 12 Ibid. 
 
 18 NED. under priest. Compare Pogatscher, 142. A discussion of various attempts to 
 account for the English word is found MacG., p. 70 ff. 
 
34 INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY ON OLD ENGLISH POETRY [34 
 
 clergy proper, thus being often used in the sense of L. sacerdos. u Though 
 of frequent occurrence in the prose, the term appears only once in poetry, 
 Chr. Ill, A, 8, peer wees preosta heap, / mycel muneca preat mine gefrcege / 
 gleawra gegaderod. The term meessere, m., in the sense of meessepreost, 
 curiously enough, is once used for the three Jewish youths in the fiery 
 furnace, bletsien pe pine sacerdos, sodfeest cyning, / milde mcesseras mcerne 
 dryhten, Az. 149. 
 
 60. More often the term sdcerd, mf., is encountered. As its prototype 
 sacerdos in Latin, the OE. word could be applied in prose to a Christian 
 bishop and masspriest, a Jewish priest and highpriest, as also to a heathen 
 priest. 15 In poetry the term is not applied directly to a Christian priest 
 or bishop, but a passage like El. 1054-6, pat he gesette on sacerdhad / in 
 Jerusalem Judas pam folce / to bisceope, shows that this meaning was by 
 no means foreign to the mind of the poet. More generally sdcerd is used to 
 denote the Jewish priests or highpriests, though sometimes it has a rather 
 wide meaning as in Ps. XCVIII, 6, Moyses and Aaron mcere gebrofior softe 
 sacerdas (Moyses et Aaron in sacerdotibus) . Christ himself is called pone 
 clcenan eac / sacerd sodlice, Cr. 136-7. As referring to Jewish dignitaries 
 we note, (James) fore sacerdum swilt prow ode, Ap. 71, (Christ) septe sacerdas 
 sweotolum tacnum, And. 742; the term also occurs Ps. LXXVII, 64, 
 CXXXI, 9, 17, sacerdas rendering the Vulgate reading sacerdotes. 
 
 61. Curiously enough, sdcerd is once used to designate the three Jewish 
 youths in the fiery furnace, bletsien pe pine sacerdos, sodfeest cyning, Az. 148. 
 To heathen priests the term is not applied in the poetry, other designations 
 being employed. 
 
 62. Only two compounds are found in the poetry, each being used 
 once. Sacerdhad, already quoted in the discussion of sacerd, denotes El. 
 1054 sacerdotium, the rank of a bishop. Ealdorsacerd, And. 670, is an 
 appellation of the Jewish highpriest. 
 
 63. Of the two other classes belonging to the Or dines majores, only 
 one is mentioned in the poetry, namely the dlacon, m., represented by the 
 sole example, peenne ford gewat / ymb preo niht pees peodne getrywe / purh 
 martyrdom, meere diacon, / Laurentius, Men. 145. The Or dines minor es 
 are not referred to in the poetry. 
 
 64. In the discussion of the subject of the monastic clergy, a few pre- 
 liminary remarks on the development of the monastic institution will not 
 be out of place. 16 
 
 14 Lingard, History and Antiquities, etc., I, p. 134; MacG., 73 ff. 
 16 MacG., p. 76. 
 
 w Based upon the articles dealing with the subject in the Encyclopaedia Britannica and 
 the Catholic Encyclopedia. 
 
35] ECCLESIASTICAL OFFICES 35 
 
 65. Christian monachism was inaugurated by St. Anthony in Egypt 
 about 300, when he began to organize the life of ascetics who in solitary 
 retirement had given themselves up to spiritual exercises. Growing out of 
 the purely eremitical or hermit life, Antonian monachism retained many 
 of the characteristic features inherited from its origin, there being for 
 instance no organized community life. 
 
 66. Farther south in Egypt a number of monasteries were organized 
 by St. Pachomius between 315-20, regulated in all details by minute rules, 
 with prayers and meals in common. There was also a highly organized 
 system of work, which made the different institutions, all ruled by a 
 centralized form of government, closely akin to agricultural and industrial 
 colonies. 
 
 67. St. Basil adapted monastic life to Greek and European ideas, and 
 in so doing followed the Pachomian model, eliminating eremitical life and 
 the competitive spiritual athletics which flourished in Egypt. However, 
 his example, though not without influence, was no determining factor in 
 shaping monastic ideals in the West. 
 
 68. For when, about 350, monachism was introduced there, the 
 Antonian ideal with its solitary life and excessive austerities was followed. 
 Climatic conditions and racial temperament rendering this extreme 
 Egyptian pattern unsuitable, by the end of the 5th century monachism in 
 Western Europe was in a disorganized state. From it St. Benedict rescued 
 it through his famous Rule (probably written about 530), the result of 
 mature experience and observation, which gave coherence, stability, and 
 organization to the monastic institution. Oriental asceticism and rivalry 
 in austerities were eliminated, and the individual was subordinated to the 
 community. The idea of law and order came to be introduced into a 
 society which formed a closely knit family, where productive work had a 
 large part in the daily duties. St. Benedict was eager to establish a 
 ' school,' in which the science of salvation was to be taught, so that by 
 renouncing their own will and in taking up arms under the banner of the 
 Lord, the monks might "deserve to become partakers of Christ's kingdom." 
 The regulations breathe the spirit of discretion, moderation, and extreme 
 reasonableness, showing that the author possessed an uncommon fund of 
 common sense. 
 
 69. St. Benedict's Rule soon supplanted all others, and is conspicuous 
 for maintaining undisputed sway for centuries, the only exception being 
 among the Irish monks, where the craving for hermit life, for bodily aus- 
 terities, and individual piety had been strong from the first. 
 
 70. References to monks in OE. poetry are extremely rare, though a 
 whole poem is devoted to the hermit Guthlac. He himself is never called 
 
36 INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY ON OLD ENGLISH POETRY [36 
 
 a hermit or by any formal monastic name, but in line 59 hermits are men- 
 tioned, hafad (devil) bega crceft, / eahted anbuendra, persons who dwell 
 alone, characterized lines 52-4, Sume pa wuniafi on westennum, 17 / secad 
 and gesitta'd sylfra ivillum / hamas on heolstrum. hnbuend, m., is poetical 
 and found only once. 
 
 71. The monastic clergy were supposed to live according to the regol. 
 The word goes back to L. *regula, a rule or ruler, which the Germanic 
 tribes used in building their dwellings. 18 The original meaning still occurs 
 in OE. regol-sticca, 19 a rule or ruler (the instrument), and in the verb 
 regolian, 20 to draw lines with a ruler. After the introduction of monasticism 
 it assumed its ecclesiastical meaning. So we find in Guthlac the saint 
 reporting that the evil spirits showed him the dwellings of men and setton 
 me in edwit, pat ic eade forbar / rume regulas and repe mod / geongra monna 
 in godes temphim, 459-61. The allusion hardly includes the clergy proper, 
 who are also not to be thought of in regolfccste, men who strictly observe the 
 rules, Men. 44, where reference is made to Benedict's death, pane 
 heriad ivel / in gewritum wise, wealdendes peow / rinces regolfaste. 
 
 72. Aside from general statements, such as Sume him pees hades hlisan 
 willad I wegan on wordum and pa weorc ne dot), Gu. 31-2, and the characteri- 
 zation of monks Gu. 762-82, etc., only two other monastic terms appear in 
 OE. poetry. One is munuc, munic, m., OHG. munih, ON. milnkr, which 
 according to its etymology (from *muniko, from Vulgar L. *monicus, for 
 L. monachus, taken from Gr. ixovaxbs) meant originally a religious solitary, 
 but from an early period was applied to coenobites, which eventually 
 became the ordinary use. 21 It occurs only twice in the poetry, both ex- 
 amples being found in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. At the consecration of 
 Edgar par wees preosta heap, / my eel muneca preat mine gefrage / gleawra 
 gegaderod, Chr. Ill, A, 9. The other example, Chr. IV, tells of a monastic 
 establishment. The king, iElfred, is captured, led to Eligbyrig swa gebun- 
 denne 18, but on the ship man hine blende / and hine swa blindne brohte 
 to ~Sam munecon, 19-20. 
 
 73. The other monastic term is abbot, m., OHG. abb at, ON. abote, 
 abbate. In the East d/3/3ds was originally applied to all monks, but in the 
 West came to be restricted to the superior of a monastery. In OE. prose 
 the common form is abbod, abbud, 22 taken over from the Latin through the 
 
 17 In a gloss of ^Elfric we have westensetla as the equivalent of Latin emerita. Guthlac's 
 dwelling is called dnscld, hermitage, Gu. 1240. 
 
 18 Pogatscher, 44 and 103. 
 » Used by /Elfric. 
 
 20 Napier, A., Contributions to Old English Lexicography (1903-6), 316 (Clark Hall's 
 Dictionary). 
 2i NED. 
 22 Compare MacG., abbot, pp. 114-15, also NED. under abbot. 
 
37] ECCLESIASTICAL OFFICES 37 
 
 Romance. In the 12th century the influence of L. abbdtem substituted t 
 for d. The new form predominates in Middle English, and occurs also in 
 our example from the late Durham Poem, Is fierinne midd heom Mfielwold 
 biscop J and fie breoma bocera Beda and Boisil abbot, 14. 
 
 74. In the poetry no references to the dress of ecclesiastics or to their 
 source of income are found. 
 
38 INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY ON OLD ENGLISH POETRY [38 
 
 CHAPTER IV 
 CHURCH BUILDINGS 
 
 75. When the Christian missionaries began their work of conversion in 
 England, the cult of the heathen gods was in the hands of a priestly hier- 
 archy. For the worship of the idols temples had been erected, in which 
 sacrifices were offered. It seems that the places of idolatry received little 
 toleration at the hands of men who, to judge from the scant material 
 available, set themselves to root out all vestiges of a heathen tradition. 
 It is true that the diplomatic Gregory in a letter, written 601, had counseled 
 moderation, for Mellitus, after having come to the ' reverentissimum virum 
 
 fratrem nostrum Augustinum episcopum,' was to tell him "quid diu mecum 
 de causa Anglorum cogitans tractavi: videlicet quia f ana idolorum destrui in 
 eadem gente minime debeant; sed ipsa quae in eis sunt idola destruantur ; 
 aqua benedictafiat, in eisdem fanis aspergatur, altaria construantur , reliquiae 
 ponantur: quia si fana eadem bene constructa sunt, necesse est ut a cultu 
 daemonum in obsequio veri Dei debeant commutari; ut dum gens ipsa eadem 
 fana sua non videt destrui, de corde errorem deponat, et Deum verum cog- 
 noscens ac adorans, ad loca quae consuevit, familiarius concurrat. ' n In order 
 that the people may be more easily won over, some outward concessions 
 in regard to festivals etc. are made. For, continues he who knows the 
 human heart, " duris mentibus simul omnia abscidere impossibile esse non 
 dubium est, quia et is qui summum locum ascendere nititur, gradibus vel 
 passibus non autem saltibus elevatur."- It seems that Gregory had merely 
 adapted himself to circumstances, for in a letter to King Ethelbert written 
 a few months before he exhorts him in his zeal for conversion "idolorum 
 cultus insequere, fanorum aedificia everte." 3 There is reason to believe that 
 Coifi's advice to the Northumbrian king u ut templa et altaria quae sine 
 fructu utilitatis sacravimus, ocius anathemati et igni contradamus, ,H the 
 highpriest himself profaning the temple and "jussit sociis destruere ac 
 succendere fanum cum omnibus septis suis," 5 does not mark an isolated 
 occurrence. 
 
 76. Instead of places sacred to heathen divinities, Christian churches 
 and houses of worship rose, and these were made as imposing as possible 
 by the Roman missionaries, men not ignorant of the impression created 
 by external representation. 
 
 1 Bede, Historia Ecclesiastica, Book I, ch. 30, Migne, XCV, p. 70. 
 * Ibid., Migne, XCV, p. 71. 
 
 3 Ibid., ch. 32, Migne XCV, p. 72. 
 
 4 Ibid., Book II, ch. 13, p. 104. 
 s Ibid., p. 105. 
 
39] CHURCH BUILDINGS 39 
 
 77. In OE. poetry several designations for Christian churches occur, 
 but on the whole the material is very scant, no detailed description of the 
 building or its interior being given. 6 Aside from the general term in hus 
 godes, Ps. LXXXIII, 11, Cristes hus, CXXXIII, 2, CXXXIV, 2, his 
 halige hus, LXXVII, 68, and similar phrases, 7 we find a few times cirice, 
 the etymology and significance of which have already been discussed in 
 ch. I, under II. In the sense of Christian church building we have the word 
 in Elene, where we read pee t hio cirican peer / on pam beorhhlide begra rcedum 
 I getimbrede, tempel dryhtnes / on Caluarie Criste to willan, 1007. Cirice 
 as a place of worship occurs also And. 1633, pa se modiga het, / cyninges 
 creeftiga ciricean getimbran, / gerwan godes tempel, the consecration of which 
 is mentioned 1646, cirice gehalgod. In the passage cwealde Cristne men, 
 circanfylde, Jul. 5, it is hardly to be doubted that churches are referred to. 
 And Donne hine forcinnad da cirican getuinnas, Sal. 107, would seem to have 
 no other meaning than that the sacred buildings of the Christians keep 
 away the evil spirit, possessing a magic power against the principle of 
 darkness. 
 
 78. The learned word tempi, tempel, n., is mentioned no fewer than 
 21 times in the poetry, though not always in the sense of church building. 
 Thus figuratively the Virgin Mary is called Christ's temple in Cr. 206, 
 while in line 707, hi godes tempel / brcecan and bcemdon, the context clearly 
 indicates that the body or the congregation of the faithful is meant. 
 To godes temple, El. 1057, is perhaps applied to the Christian congregation 
 at Jerusalem. In a somewhat loose sense of heaven or sky tempel may 
 occur Cr. 495, Cyning ure gewat / purh pees temples hrof, peer hy to segun 
 (the disciples at the ascension). 8 The dwelling of St. Guthlac is spoken 
 of as a temple of God in Gu. 975, 1086, and 1122, which for instance in 
 lines 1264 and 1284 is called pcet halge hus, while 120 it was stated se peer 
 haligne ham arcerde. 
 
 79. A few times tempel is synonymous with cirice in the sense of Chris- 
 tian church building. Clearly so in the passage ciricean getimbran, / gerwan 
 godes tempel, And. 1634, as also cirican .../.../ getimbrede, tempel 
 dryhtnes, El. 1009, furthermore on pam stedewange / girwan godes tempel, 
 1021. Some kind of a building, though a monastery is probably meant, 
 is indicated Gu. 461, the saint observing the rume regulas and repe mod / 
 geongra monna in godes templum. 
 
 6 For OHG. terms compare Raumer, p. 303 ff., for ON. Kahle, I, 346 ff., II, 118 ff. 
 
 7 Gebedstow will be treated in chapter VI. 
 
 8 But see Bright, Modern L. Notes, XIII, p. 27, where he explains that the passage refers 
 to a large round church with its porches on the Mt. of Olives, the inner house remaining 
 uncovered on account of the passage of our Lord's body. Taken from the first traveller's 
 account of the Holy Land, with which the poet may have been acquainted. See also note 
 on fine 495, p. 122 ff. in Cook's Christ. 
 
40 INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY ON OLD ENGLISH POETRY [40 
 
 80. More often we have the term as a designation of the Jewish temple, 
 as in And. 667, pa we becomon to pam cynestole, /peer getimbred was tempel 
 dryhtnes / heah and homgeap, also 707, he in temple gestod. Cr. 186 Joseph 
 speaks of having received Mary as a virgin of pam torhtan temple dryhtnes, 
 while 1139 pees temples segl is mentioned, characterized 1135 as godwebba 
 cyst. The passage Men. 22 also refers to a Jewish sanctuary, mentioning 
 that Mary beam wealdendes brohte to temple. Specific references to Solo- 
 mon's temple are furnished in Daniel, the enemies bereafodon pa receda 
 wuldor readan golde, / since and seolfre Salomones tempi, 60, when da hie 
 tempel strudon, / Salomanes seld, 711. Daniel in his speech mentions not 
 only the golden vessels which have been stolen, but also that they were 
 stored near the most sacred article of the Jewish sanctuary, the ark, da cer 
 Israela in ce hcefdon / cet godes earce, Dan. 751-2, the only other occurrence 
 of this meaning of the term in the poetry being El. 399. 
 
 81. In the Psalms tempel is sometimes used synonymously with godes 
 hits, his halige hus, f ale hus, Crlstes hus, and similar terms. Thus we have, 
 Ealle we din hus ecum godum jaeger e fyllad : faste is pin tempi ece and 
 wroeclic awa to feore (templum tuum), LXIV, 5, on pinum temple tidum 
 gehalgod {a templo tuo), LXVII, 26, and Eac ic pin tempel tidum weordige 
 pcet halige hus holde mode (adorabo ad templum sanctum tuum), CXXXVII, 2. 
 
 82. A word twice used to designate Solomon's temple is ealh, alh, m.> 
 so in Ps. LXXVIII, \, pa pin f ale hus ealh haligne yfele gewemdan {templum 
 sanctum tuum), as also in the fulsome praise of it Ex. 391-5, getimbrede 
 tempel gode, / alh haligne, .../.../ heahst and haligost, haledum 
 gefrcegost, / mast and mcerost. The same term is employed once in a com- 
 pound denoting places of heathen worship, diofolgild, / ealde eolhstedas 
 anforlcetan, And. 1642. 
 
 83. In the Psalms there are further renderings of the Jewish sanctuary 
 or indications of certain parts or furniture, though they are few. The 
 tabernacle at Shiloh is referred to in hepaswa gelomewidsoc snytruhilse,was 
 his agen hus (tabernaculum) , LXXVII, 60. Hdlignes renders sanctuarium 
 LXXXII, 9; atria is translated by wictunas, XCV, 8, the oblique atriis by 
 on wictunum XCIX, 3, though generally atriis is expressed by on cafertu- 
 num, as in on pinum cafertunum, CXXI, 2, on cafertunum Cristes huses, 
 CXXXIII, 2, CXXXIV, 2. A rather general term is on halgum {in sancto), 
 as LXII, 2, LXVII, 23, etc. Other designations are also encountered, 
 but they are of such a nature that we need not list them. 
 
 84. In addition to the ark of the covenant, the altar of the Jewish tem- 
 ple is mentioned several times. The term is wlgbed, nm., originally holy 
 table or sacrifice table. Wigbedu Ps. LXXXIII, 4, renders altaria, while 
 we have od wigbedes wraste hornas {ad cornu altaris) CXVII, 25, and hio 
 
41] CHURCH BUILDINGS 41 
 
 Zozt halige cealf / on wigbed pin milium asettafi {tunc imponent super altar e 
 tuum vitulos), Ps. L. 138. In Genesis the same term is used for Abraham's 
 altars, as may be seen from pa se rinc gode / wibed worhte, 1791, Abraham 
 pa odere side / wibed worhte, 1806, characterized in on pam gledstyde 1810; 
 wibed occurs also 1882, while we have weobedd worhte and his waldende / 
 on pam glcedstede gild onscegde, 2841-2. As a designation of heathen altar 
 the word does not seem to occur, though the use of wig(wih), n., either 
 alone or in compounds, denoting idols, heathen worship or sacrifice, is 
 common enough. 9 
 
 85. Three times in the poetry the term mynster, n., is found. It is 
 likely that in one place it has kept the meaning originally attached to it, 
 namely the dwelling place of the monks (mynster from *munistrjo, Vulgar 
 L. *monisterium, L. monasterium) . 10 We have (he — sceawode) under haligra 
 hyrda geivealdum / in mynsterum monna gebceru Gu. 387, and as here and 
 461, rume regulas and repe mod / geongra monna in godes templum, the same 
 objects are described, it would seem that monasteries are referred to. 
 
 86. But in the two other examples a church building must be assumed. 
 So Men. 106, Nu on Brytene rest / on Cantwarum cynestole neah / mynstre 
 mcerum, where St. Augustine's resting place is pointed out. To be sure, 
 Grein glosses it with monasterium, but the glorious mynster can be nothing 
 else than the splendid church in which the archbishop was buried. 11 From 
 an early time this connotation of the term is available, the NED. quoting 
 the first example c.960, Laws of K. Edgar I, 1: Man agife celce teofiunge to 
 pam ealdan mynstre (Lat. ad matrem ecclesiam) pe seo hyrnes tohyrfi. The 
 interpretation church building is also demanded in the passage Eardiad oet 
 dem eadigen in fiem minstre / unarimeda reliquia, / monia wundrum gewurdad, 
 Durham 17, which the Latin prose account describing the burial place of 
 the saints resting in the cathedral at Durham renders very probable, if 
 not certain. 12 The term mynster, though at first only used of a church 
 having its origin in a monastic establishment, came to be applied later to 
 any church of considerable size or importance. 
 
 87. In Chr. IV parts of a church at a monastery are mentioned. The 
 imprisoned king is buried ait pam westende, pam styple Jul gehende / on 
 pam su'dportice, 24-5, for we have been informed poet man hine Icedde / to 
 Eligbyrig swa gebundenne, 17-18, and hine swa blindne brohte to dam mune- 
 con, 20. 
 
 I 
 
 9 See chapter VIII, 326. 
 
 10 NED. 
 
 11 Bede, Historia Ecdesiaslica, Book II, ch. 3. Compare also the discussion of the mean- 
 ing of mynster in Kahle, I, p. 349 f. See also B-T. 
 
 12 Wuelker, Grundriss, p. 346. 
 
42 INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY ON OLD ENGLISH POETRY [42 
 
 CHAPTER V 
 FESTIVALS AND HOLY SEASONS 
 
 88. In general, it may be assumed that the expression halige dagas 
 served as a designation for the holy seasons and festivals of the Church, 
 illustrated by such a passage as ac sceal wintrum frod / on circule crozjte 
 findan / halige dagas, Men. 66-8, just as in OHG. wihe taga or heilege taga 
 and in ON. helgar tiper is employed. Aside from the Menology, which gives 
 a catalog of haligra Hid that are to be observed according to the edict of 
 the Saxon king, references to holy days and seasons in OE. poetry are 
 extremely rare. 1 
 
 89. Of the days of the week we have Sunday mentioned as sunnan- 
 dceg (dies solis), the OHG. sunnun tag, which seems to be entirely identified 
 with the Hebrew Sabbath, as is gathered from Dox. 24-6, (and on pone 
 seofodan pu gerestest). pa wees geforfiad pin fcegere weorc / and du sunnan- 
 dceg sylf halgodest / and gemcersodest hine manegum to helpe. In reality, the 
 first day of the week came to be celebrated as the principal day for public 
 worship in memory of the resurrection of Christ. The setting apart of a 
 day for public worship would be introduced into England by the mission- 
 aries, and the Doxology shows that the custom was well established, pone 
 heahan dceg healdafi and freodiap / ealle, pa ~Se cunnon cristene peawas, 
 I haligne heortlufan and dess hehstan gebod, 27-29. 
 
 90. In discussing the festivals mentioned, we shall follow the Menology 
 in beginning with Christmas. The word Crlstes mcesse does not come into 
 use until a late period, the first occurrence recorded by the NED. being for 
 the year 1101 in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, a situation paralleled in 
 OHG., where the term does not occur at all, though Raumer 2 asserts, with- 
 out furnishing the least proof, that it undoubtedly was in use. In OE. the 
 date was fixed on the 25th of December, Men. 226-7, and the birth of 
 Christ is mentioned Men. 2 as on midne winter. z From Bede's statement 
 we gather that the day was celebrated among the Christian Angles, but 
 long before it had been a festival among the heathen, who on that day began 
 their year: " (Antiqui autem Anglorum populi) Incipiebant autem annum 
 ab octavo Calendarum Januariarum die, ubi nunc natale Domini celebramus. 
 Et ipsam noctem nunc nobis sacrosanctam, tunc gentili vocabulo Modranicht, 
 
 1 For OHG. compare Raumer, p. 306 ft"., for ON. Kahle, I, 353 ff. 
 
 2 Einwirkung des Christentums, etc., p. 307. 
 
 3 Not to be considered a general term, but having the more specific meaning of Christmas. 
 See Bibl. II, p. 282, note. 
 
43] FESTIVALS AND HOLY SEASONS 43 
 
 id est, matrum noctem, appellabant, ob causam, ut suspicamur, ceremoniarum 
 quas in ea pcrvigiles agebant. ,H 
 
 91. During the first centuries of the Christian era Epiphany served as 
 the celebration of the physical birth of Christ as well as of the spiritual, 
 and of several other occurrences in the life of the Lord. It was observed 
 on the 6th of January, and came to be looked upon in England as the 
 fulwihttiid / eces drihtnes, . . . / pane 'twelfta dag' tireadige / heeled 
 headurofe hatad on Brytene, Men. 11-14, namely the twelfth day after the 
 birth of Christ, that date having become fixed on the 25th of December. 
 
 92. On the second of February the most ancient of all the festivals 
 in honor of the Virgin Mary was celebrated. Reference to it is made in 
 we Marian massan healdad, / cyninges modor, Men. 20. OE. mcesse, f., is 
 from Vulgar L. messa, Eccl. L. missa. It is generally thought that L. 
 missa is a verbal substantive formed like repidsa etc. In the early cen- 
 turies it was used in the general meaning of religious service, though in an 
 eminent sense it always denoted the Eucharist, the celebration of the 
 mass. 5 In the East the second of February was primarily a festival of the 
 Lord, while in the West the Virgin stood in the foreground, though even 
 here the antiphons and the responsories remind one of the original idea, 
 which is also present in the passage forpan heo (Mary) Crist on pam dcege, 
 beam wealdendes brohte to temple, Men. 21-22. Originally the festival had 
 been celebrated on the 14th of February, forty days after the nativity of 
 Christ, but with the shifting of that date to the 25th of December, Mary- 
 mas was moved accordingly to the 2nd of February. 6 
 
 93. The great festival of the church year was Easter, the memorial 
 of the resurrection of Christ. While mention of his resurrection is not 
 infrequent, as for instance on pam oftust cymd / seo mcere Hid mannnm to 
 frofre, / drihtnes cerist, Men. 56-8, the term eastor, frequent in prose, occurs 
 in the poetry only in compounds, and then only a few times. The occur- 
 rences are, pees pe Eastermonad to us cymed, Men. 72, wendan (Jews) 
 pat he on pam beorge bidan sceolde / ana in pare easterniht, Har. 15, and 
 he of dea"de aras / onwald of eordan in pa eastortld, Gu. 1075. As in the 
 case of Christmas, the heathen Angles celebrated a festival at this time 
 in honor of Eostre, the goddess of dawn or of the rising sun, our scanty 
 information being derived again from Bede. In ch. 15 (De mensibus 
 Anglorum) of the De Temporum Ratione 7 he tells us: " Rhed-monath a dea 
 illorum Rheda, cui in Mo sacrificabant, nominatur ; Eostur-monath, qui 
 nunc paschalis mensis inter pretatur, quondam a dea illorum quae Eostre 
 
 4 De Temporum Ratione, ch. 15, Migne, Patrologiae Latinae, XC, p. 356. 
 
 5 NED. 
 
 6 Encyclopaedia Britannica and Catholic Encyclopedia. 
 
 7 Migne, Patrologiae Latinae, XC, p. 357. 
 
44 INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY ON OLD ENGLISH POETRY [44 
 
 vocabatur, et cui in Mo festa celebrabant, nomen habuit, a cujus nomine 
 mine paschale tempus cognominant, consueto antiquae observationis vocabulo 
 gaudia novae solemnitatis vocantes." 
 
 94. Though there are few references to Easter in the extant poetry, 
 the importance of the festival and also the paschal controversy, which 
 stirred the Christians of England until the question was finally decided 
 in favor of the Roman party, (Whitby, 664), would have a tendency to 
 put it into the foreground. 
 
 95. In the Menology a festival is mentioned in martira gemynd, . . . 
 69, pat embe nihgontyne niht, /pas pe Eastormonad to us cymed, / pat man 
 reliquias raran onginne'd, / halige gehyrste : pcet is healic dag, / bentiid 
 bremu, 71-5. This seems to have been an important day, though in our 
 poem a different date than the one fixed later is mentioned. "According 
 to the Sarum Breviary, the Festum Reliquiarum was celebrated on the 
 Sunday after the feast of the Translation of St. Thomas of Canterbury 
 (July 7), and it was to be kept as a greater double 'wherever relics are 
 preserved or where the bodies of dead persons are buried. ' " 8 
 
 96. Relics are only twice referred to in OE. poetry, the learned term 
 reliquias, m., being used, though the subject must have occupied a prom- 
 inent place in the mind of both ecclesiastics and the people. Already at 
 the establishment of the OE. Church they are mentioned. 9 The cult 
 increased in the following centuries, and "at the beginning of the 9th 
 century . . . the exportation of the bodies of martyrs from Rome had 
 assumed the dimensions of a regular commerce," as "many unprincipled 
 persons found a means of enriching themselves by a sort of trade in these 
 objects of devotion, the majority of which no doubt were fraudulent." 10 
 Aside from the mentioning of relics in the Menology, quoted in the pre- 
 ceding paragraph, we have also Eardiad at dem eadigen in dem minstre / 
 unarimeda reliquia, / monia wundrum gewur'dad, Durham 18. Durham 
 thus possessed a good collection of the prized remains, which would add 
 to its sanctity and attractiveness, for "there was a keen rivalry between 
 religious centers and an eager credulity fostered by the desire to be known 
 as the possessors of some unusually startling relic!" 11 To gain possession 
 of a prized relic, with its subsequent fame and profit, was the eager desire 
 of church authorities and monasteries, and in their dealings they were not 
 always above trickery and plain stealing. The presence of Bede's remains 
 at Durham is a good case in point. 12 
 
 8 Catholic Encyclopedia, under relics. 
 
 9 Bede, Historia Ecclesiastica, Book I, ch. 29. 
 
 10 Catholic Encyclopedia. 
 
 11 Ibid. 
 
 n Preface to Bede's Ecclesiastical History, by Giles, p. XXII. 
 
45] FESTIVALS AND HOLY SEASONS [45 
 
 97. Forty days after Easter, the ascension of Christ would be cele- 
 brated. But though that fact is mentioned in several places, as Men. 64-5, 
 little is made of the festival in the poetry. Pentecost as the Christian 
 festival is only once referred to in the poetry, under the year 973 in Chr. 
 Ill, A, 8, par was blis mycel /on pam eadgan dage eallum geworden, /pone 
 nifia beam nemnad and cegead / Pentecostenes dag. The term is a late 
 adoption, the NED. citing its first occurrence in the Homilies of ^Elfric 
 (a. 1000). 
 
 98. In the Menology a number of saints' days are mentioned. So for 
 instance in panne wuldres pegn / ymb preotyne, peodnes dyrling, / Johannes 
 in geardagan weard acenned, / tyn nihtum eac: we pa Hid healdafi / on midne 
 sumor mycles on apelum, 115-19. Immediately after, the haligra lid . . . 
 Petrus and Paulus is discussed. On the first of August would come hlaf- 
 massan dag (Lammas), 140, in the early English Church celebrated as a 
 harvest festival, at which loaves of bread, made from the first ripe wheat, 
 were consecrated. In the Roman Calendar it is the festival of St. Peter's 
 Chains, originally a dedication feast of a church of the apostle at Rome, 
 perhaps held on that day or selected to replace the heathen festivities 
 that occurred on the first day of August. 13 In the Menology the harvest 
 season is emphasized in connection with the day. 
 
 99. Among other days heahengles Hid in harfeste, / Michaheles, (29th 
 of September), is mentioned 177-8, at that time a holy day of obligation. 
 A very important festival occurred on the first of November, And py ylcan 
 dage ealra we healdad / Sancta symbel, para pe si?) odde ar / worhtan in 
 worulde willan drihtnes, 200. Originally each saint had his celebration in 
 certain limited sections of the country, but in order that nobody should 
 be overlooked, and to supply any deficiency in the celebration of saints' 
 feasts during the year, a solemn festival in honor of all the saints, known 
 and unknown, was instituted. 14 This of course would not abolish haligra 
 tiid, but only serve to correct any possible oversight. 
 
 13 Catholic Encyclopedia, under Peter's Chains, The Feast of. 
 
 14 Catholic Encyclopedia. , 
 
46 INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY ON OLD ENGLISH POETRY [46 
 
 CHAPTER VI 
 THE SPIRITUAL SIDE OF THE CHURCH 
 
 I. Worship 
 
 100. The most general term for serving God 1 is peowan, to serve, used 
 for instance in pa pant cyninge (namely God) peowad, Gu. 62, as also dryhtne 
 peowde, 712. In a religious sense the compound peowdont occurs El. 201, 
 in godes peowdont, referring to the zeal of the newly converted emperor 
 Constantine. Once we have another compound, peowet, mn., L. Prayer 
 III, 98, though not denoting service of God, for the passage reads deofles 
 peowet. More often peowian is employed. We note, gode peowian, Gen. 
 264, and peodne peowian, 268. In a somewhat general sense of serving God 
 the all-ruling power we find the verb in pat hi piowien swilcum piodfruman, 
 Met. XXIX, 94, and hiora ordfruman / ne piowoden, peodne mazrum, 99, as 
 also and blisse gode bealde peowie (servite Domino), Ps. XCIX, 1. 
 
 101. In the services of the Anglo-Saxon Church, in common with the 
 early Mediaeval Church, the mass had begun to occupy the most promi- 
 nent place. In prose the idea is often expressed by ptcesse, the etymology 
 of which has been considered in the preceding chapter. 2 However, this 
 word occurs only twice in the poetry, Marian mcessan, Men. 20, and 
 hlafmcessan dceg, 140, where it has the derived meaning of festival, and not 
 that of the Eucharist, to which it was originally applied. As we have seen 
 before, 3 the term moessere is used in the poetry only in a secondary meaning. 
 And the sacrifice of the mass is only once clearly referred to. 
 
 102. More and more the celebration of the Lord's Supper came to 
 be looked upon as a repetition, though bloodless, of the original sacrifice 
 of Christ on the cross. An OE. word used for heathen and Jewish sacrifice 
 alike is lac, probably connected with *laiko, to play, to dance, as applied 
 to actions which would accompany the offering of sacrifices and hence 
 might be transferred to the sacrifice itself. 4 In this sense of offering, 
 sacrifice, as applied to heathen gods, the term is used for instance in pozt pu 
 lac hrape / onsecge sigorttfre, Jul. 254-5. In Genesis there are a number of 
 examples, as 975-6, referring to the sacrifice brought by Cain and Abel, 
 1497 ff., by Noah, and 1792, applied to Abraham's offering, etc. In the 
 
 1 For terms of worship in OHG. compare Raumer, p. 309 ff., for ON. Kahle, I, p. 358 ff. 
 
 2 Under Marymas, 92. 
 
 3 Chapter III, 59. 
 
 4 See Grimm, D.M., I, p. 32, also B.-T. under lac and the NED. under lake. The sense of 
 offering, sacrifice, is found only in OE. 
 
47] THE SPIRITUAL SIDE OF THE CHURCH 47 
 
 Psalms it occurs a number of times, thus, (Eton deadra lac (sacrificia mortuo- 
 rum), CV, 22, applied to the heathen worship of the Children of Israel, 
 and pcet ic pe laces lof lustum secge (tibi sacrificabo hostiam landis), CXV, 7. 
 There we have also the poetic afenldc {sacrificium vespertinum), CXL, 3, 
 and berneldc . . . /deadra neata (holocaustis) , L. 123. Keeping in mind 
 that the mass was conceived of as a sacrifice, we are not surprised to find 
 that it is said of the saint in Gu. 1084, lac onscegde / . . . / gcestgerynum 
 in godes temple. Otherwise the idea of the mass thus expressed would not 
 seem to occur in the poetry. 
 
 103. Onsecgan, to vow or sacrifice, we have in the example just quoted. 
 It is used both in a heathen and non-heathen sense; for the former, we note 
 pcet pu lac hrape / onsecge sigortifre, Jul. 255, for the latter pu scealt Isaac 
 me I onsecgan, sunu "dinne sylf to tibre, Gen. 2852. Tifer, n., in the sense 
 of sacrifice, is used a few times, so in the preceding passage, as halig tiber 
 Ex. 415, etc. Compounds such as sigetiber also occur. 
 
 104. Next to the mass, preaching would form an important part of 
 the services, and in the missionary period might even seem to overshadow 
 the former. For obvious reasons we do not confine ourselves to terms that 
 indicate a particular and definite function in a well ordered service. The 
 most general term used would be to teach, as exemplified Jul. 638, where 
 it is said of the saint Ongon heo pa Iceran. Similarly we find leode lozrde on 
 lifes weg, And. 170, pegnas Icerde, 462, and Lccrde pa pa leode on geleafan 
 weg, 1680, etc. A general term is also bodian, to bring or announce a mes- 
 sage, used in Christ's missionary command to his disciples, bodiafi and 
 bremad beorhtne geleafan, Cr. 483, as also Bodia'd cefter bnrgum beorhtne 
 geleafan, And. 335. However, more often the word occurs in the general 
 meaning of to announce, tell, and seldom in the strict sense of evangelizare. 
 Other phrases are used extensively, sometimes indicating the result of 
 the effort. Thus we have, pe fill gehweorfest to heofonleohte / purh minne 
 naman, And. 974-5, stepton hie sodczvidum, Dan. 446, pam pe his spel 
 berafi, 479, hie dryhtnes ce deman sceoldon, / reccan fore rincan, Ap. 10-11, 
 as also par ic dryhtnes <z deman sceolde, And. 1403. We have also for 
 example such statements as panon Israhelum ece rcedas / . . ., / heah- 
 pungen wer halige sprcece,/ deop cerende, Ex. 515-18, but these and similar 
 expressions hardly need any further treatment. Godspellian will be dis- 
 cussed in connection with godspel. 
 
 105. For the preacher occur such terms as boda, the compound spelboda 
 having been noted before as designation of the Twelve. 5 In Guthlac there 
 is a reference to the saint as eadgum otbodan, 909, and as epelbodan . . ., / 
 pone leofestan lareoiv gecorenne, 976. Lareow, teacher, occurs also elsewhere. 
 
 5 Chapter II, under IV, 34. 
 
48 INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY ON OLD ENGLISH POETRY [48 
 
 106. Prayer, the communion of the faithful with God, forms a very- 
 important part in the service of the Lord. This act is often expressed in 
 OE. by bidden, the OHG. term being bittan, ON. bipja. The OE. word has 
 various shades of meaning, being used to render such Latin terms as petere, 
 poscere, precari, deprecari, rogare, postulate. As biddan is so extremely 
 common in the poetry, a few characteristic examples will suffice. Thus 
 we have the construction with the accusative of the person and the genitive 
 of the thing prayed for, Abraham ongan arra biddan / ecne drihten, Gen. 
 2750, with the dative of the person for whom one prays, (pat ge) eow lif- 
 frean lissa bidde, Ex. 271. A preposition is used Cr. 1353, eadmode to eow 
 arna bcedun, while in Ap. 89-91, in seeking help of the apostles, the author 
 asks another pcet he geomrum me / pone halgan heap helpe bidde, / f rides 
 and fultomes, several features being illustrated in one sentence. From the 
 Psalms we quote, bcedan (ut peter ent), LXXVII, 20, Biddad eow (rogate), 
 CXXI, 6, and (ic) earn biddende bealde drihten (ad Dominum deprecatus 
 sum), CXLI, 1. 
 
 107. Gebiddan, in the sense of orare, adorare, is also used a number of 
 times, especially in the Psalms. We have, gebiddap him to pissum beacne, 
 Rood B, 83, Gebad ic me to pan beame, 122, and gebidde me to pe, bearna 
 selost, Prayer III, 48. We note further, ic to fie, ece drihten, sodum gebidde 
 (ad te orabo), Ps. V, 2, and nepufremedne godfylsta gebiddest (neque adorabis 
 deum alienum), LXXX, 9. Once abiddan in the sense of to intercede occurs, 
 he abiddan mag, Gen. 2660. 
 
 108. From the same stem we find the noun gebed, n., which occurs a 
 number of times. In Jul. 388 the spiritual warrior is called beald in gebede. 
 We have, begen pa gebrodor to gebede hyldon, And. 1027, Hwilum to gebede 
 feollon I . . . and sigedrihten / godne gretton, Gen. 777, similarly 847; 
 and gebedu seced / clanum gehygdum and his cneo biged, Ph. 458-9. The 
 Pater Noster is characterized in mid dy beorhtan gebede, Sal. 43. Prayer 
 acquires the quality of praise Dan. 406, We dec herigad, halig drihten, / 
 and gebedum bremad. In Exhortation 8 the noun is modified, pcet halige 
 gebed, as also in hold gebed, Ps. CI, 15, where the Vulgate has only precem. 
 We note further from the Psalms, God, min gebed (orationem meam), LIII, 
 2, min gebed (orationem meam), LX, 4, similarly LXVIII, 13, etc.; gehyr 
 min gebed (precem meam), LXXX VII, 2. 
 
 109. Ingebed is found once, Gange min ingebed on pin gleawe gesihd, 
 Ps. LXXXVII, 2, the Latin Intret in conspectu tuo oratio mea probably 
 explaining the form. 
 
 110. Of other compounds there occurs gebedstbw, the place of prayer. 
 Only two examples are encountered, ne mag / . . . lenge gewunian / in 
 gebedstowe, Jul. 376, and pccnnc ic synful slea swide mid fyste / breost mine, 
 beate on gebedstowe (percutiam pugnis rea pectora, 14), Doom 30. 
 
49] THE SPIRITUAL SIDE OF THE CHURCH 49 
 
 111. Another term for prayer is ben, f., ON. b0n, a word not found in 
 the other Germanic languages. A few characteristic examples will suffice. 
 Used by men to men we have, ic bidde eow benum nu da (vos precor, 16), 
 Doom 33. In a religious sense we note, let his ben cuman in da beorhtan 
 gesceaft, Gu. 749, similarly El. 1088; send-on hira bene fore beam godes, 
 And. 1028, and similarly 1613. Of the thief on the cross it is said, his 
 bcna bebead breostgehigdum {verba precantia clamat, 30), Doom 60. From 
 the Psalms we note, he heora bene bealde gehyrde {orationem), CV, 33, 
 similarly CI, 15; ne forseoh cefre sariges bene (deprecationem meant), LIV, 1, 
 ingange min ben (intret postulatio mea), CXVIII, 170. Gebedes bene, CXIV, 
 1, renders vocem orationis, in CXXIX, 1, vocem deprecationis. 
 
 112. Of compounds occur eadbede, found once, wes pinum scealcum wel 
 eadbede {deprecabilis esto super servos tuos), Ps. LXXXIX, 15, and the 
 poetic bentid, encountered only once, pcet (festival in honor of the relics) 
 is healic dceg, / bentiid bremu, Men. 75. 
 
 113. The noun bena, petitioner, is also found. In a religious sense it 
 occurs in swa pu bena eart / pinum frumbeame, Gen. 2357, as also helpys 
 benan, Ps. CI, 2. 
 
 114. Among the prayers the Pater Noster naturally occupied a promi- 
 nent place. Three different poetic versions are extant; it also plays an 
 important part in Salomon and Saturn. There it is called se gepalmtwigoda 
 Pater Noster, 12, pcet gepalmtwigede Pater Noster, 39, while we have Pater 
 Noster and pcet Palmtreow 167. The term cantic, m., used in Ic niwlice 
 niwne cantic singe, Ps. CXLIII, 10, in the general sense of Latin canticum, 
 is applied to it several times. Thus we have, durh pees cantices cwyde 
 Cristes linan, Sal. 17, "done cantic, 24, and Ford on ha/ad se cantic ofer ealle 
 Cristes bee / widmcerost word, 49. 
 
 115. Amen is taken over directly from the Latin and used a considerable 
 number of times, as in L. Prayer, Doxology, etc., etc. There seems to be 
 an explanation of it in the passage We pcet 'sodlice' secgad ealle, Dox. 51, 
 as also in 'Weorde pest,' L. Prayer II, 37. 
 
 116. A number of terms related to prayer and praise are given here, 
 some of which are also used in a more general sense. The specific religious 
 meaning is generally suggested by the context. 
 
 117. Cleopian, in the sense of clamare, to call upon, is common. We 
 note only a few examples. Fordam we clypiad to pe, L. Prayer III, 2, to 
 suna metudes / wordum cleopodon, El. 1318, ic me to wuldres gode puruh ealne 
 dceg elne clypige {clamavi ad te Domine tota die), Ps. LXXXVII, 9, etc., etc. 
 The noun clypung is met with once, ongyt mine clypunga {intellige clamorem 
 meum), Ps. V, 1. , (1 
 
50 INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY ON OLD ENGLISH POETRY [50 
 
 118. Halsian, healsian, to adjure, to call upon, is also used a number of 
 times in relation to God. Thus, Swylce ic pe halsige, hcelend user, / fore 
 pinum cildhade, Har. 118, and Ac ic pe halsige nu, heofena drihten, Prayer 
 III, 47. The noun halsung is only once found in poetry, mid earum onfoh 
 . . . mine halsunge (obsecrationem meam), Ps. CXLII, 1. 
 
 119. Cigan, with its variant forms, in the religious sense to call upon, 
 is especially prominent in the Psalms. We quote, ne hio god willa'd geome 
 ciegan (Deum non invocaverunt) , LII, 5, naman pinne neode ciegen (invocabi- 
 mus nomen tuum), LXXIV, 1, similarly LXXIX, 17, etc. The form 
 gecigan also occurs a few times in the Psalms as well as in Ph. 454, him 
 dryhten gecygd /feeder on fultum. 
 
 120. Andettan {and & hatan), with its variants, in the sense of Latin 
 confiteri, is very common in the Psalms, though rarely found elsewhere. 
 We note, Ic pe andette, odmihtig god, / pat ic gelyfe on pe, Prayer III, 36, , 
 Ic pe andette awa to feore (confitebor tibi), Ps. LI, 8, pe ondetten ealle peoda 
 (confiteantur) , LXVI, 3. The compound mcegenandettan occurs once, 
 Forpon fie mannes gepoht mcegenandette'S (confitebitur) , Ps. LXXV, 7. 
 
 121. The noun andetnes, L. confessio, is very rare, occurring only a 
 few times in the Psalms. We have it in Ys on pinre gesih'de sod 
 andetnes (confessio), XCV, 6, him andetnes ceghweer habban (ad confitendum) , 
 CXXI, 4, and is upp ahafen his andetness (confessio ejus), CXLVIII, 13. 
 The compound wliteandet occurs once, Ps. CIII, 2, where pu pe weordlice 
 wliteandette gode gegyredest renders the Latin confessionem et decorem 
 induisti. 
 
 122. Mrendian, to intercede, plead a cause, is found Gen. 665, where 
 Eve tells Adam concerning the devil disguised as an angel, Unc is his hyldo 
 pearf: / he mceg unc cerendian to pam alwaldan / heofoncyninge. 
 
 123. Gegyrnan, to entreat, beg, we find Gu. 229, Ic me j rid wille / cet 
 gode gegyrnan, also 43, gegyrnafi. 
 
 124. The idea of offering thanks is expressed a considerable number of 
 times by pancean. Only a few examples need be given here. We have, 
 gode pancedon, Beow. 227, similarly 1397, 1626, etc., sceolde his drihtne 
 pancian /pees leanes, Gen. 257, pcet he para gifena gode pancode, Dan. 86, 
 pe ponne lustum lofe panciafi (hymnum dicent), Ps. LXIV, 14. 
 
 125. Very often the noun pane, m., with some verb is used. A few 
 examples may illustrate. Scegde meotude pane, And. 1469, saga ecneponc / 
 moerum meotodes sunu, pcet ic his modor geweard, Cr. 209, scegde ealles pone / 
 dryhtna dryhtne, Jul. 593. We note further, Sie fie danc and lof, peoda 
 waldend, And. 1451. Compounds are common, but they need no discussion. 
 
51] THE SPIRITUAL SIDE OF THE CHURCH 51 
 
 126. Among the terms expressing worship or praise herian, rendering 
 the L. laudare, celebrare, is extremely common in the poetry. Only a few 
 examples need be given here, pat hi lof godes / hergan on heahpu, Judg. 48, 
 We fie heria'd halgtim stefnum, Hymn 7, and pe purh anne gepanc ealdor 
 heria'd, Creed 50. Cadmon's Hymn begins with Nu sculon herigean heofon- 
 rices weard. Se halga wer hergende was / metodes miltse, we have Dan. 
 334, while the persecutor geat on grasgewong god hergendra (Mod), Jul. 6. 
 From the Psalms may be noted Herige Hierusalem georne drihten! here pu 
 Sion swylce pinne sodne god (lauda . . . lauda)l CXLVII, 1, and Ic on 
 god min word georne herige (laudabo), LV, 9, etc., etc. The form geherian 
 also occurs, as, se purh done cantic ne can Crist geherian, Sal. 24, while 
 aherian, to praise adequately, sufficiently, is encountered only once, Ne 
 mag pe aherian haleda anig, Prayer III, 10. 
 
 127. Of the noun herenes only a few examples are found, most of them 
 in the Psalms. On herenesse (laudationes) , Ps. LV, 10, herenes drihtnes 
 (laudatio ejus), CX, 8, herenes (laus), CXVII, 14, his herenes (laus ejus), 
 CXLIX, 1; herenes min renders eloquium meum CHI, 32. In the other 
 OE. poems the term is found Cr. 415, pe in heahpum sie / a butan ende ece 
 herenis, and Gu. 588, (ge sceolon) heaf in helle nales herenisse / halge habban 
 heofoncyninges . 
 
 128. Weordian, expressing honor or worship in the religious sense, is 
 employed very many times, though it does not always pertain to God, but 
 may embrace worship or praise of the Rood, etc. We note, pat he ne wolde 
 wereda drihtnes / word wurdian, Gen. 353, and hafdon (heathen nations) 
 heora hlaford for pone hehstan god / and weorfiodon swa swa wuldres cyning, 
 Met. XXVI, 45; ac ic weordige wuldres ealdor (adoro), Jul. 153, and we 
 naman pinne on ecnesse a weordien (honorijicabo) , Ps. LXXXV, 11. 
 
 129. In the sense of celebrare, laudare, the term occurs a number of 
 times, thus, par se eadga eft ecan drihtnes / niwan stefne noman weorfiode, 
 Gen. 1886, weorfiian waldend wide and side, Cr. 394, wyrdode wordum 
 wuldres aldor I . . . halgan stefne, And. 55, and par pa adelingas / wordum 
 iveorfiodon wuldres aldor, 806. From the Psalms may be quoted, ic ealne 
 dag ecne drihten wordum weordige (laudabo), LV, 9, and weorfiiad his naman 
 (psallite nomini ejus), CXXXIV, 3. 
 
 130. Geweorfiian in the sense oiadorare, celebrare, is also found a num- 
 ber of times, as, pat ge gewurdien wuldres aldor, Ex. 270, pu gewurdod eart / 
 on heofonrice, heah casere, L. Prayer III, 59, as also Geweorfiie wuldres 
 ealdor eall deos eorpe (adoret), Ps. LXV, 3, etc. 
 
 131. To express praise the verb lofan is often used, though the noun 
 lof is still more common. We cite, pec dag and niht, . . . / lofigen and 
 
52 INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY ON OLD ENGLISH POETRY [52 
 
 luftgen, Az. 100, de pone ahangnan cyning heriap and lofiad, El. 453, simi- 
 larly L. Prayer III, 116. We note further, And pec, mihtig god, gastas 
 lofige, Dan. 373, lofiad lijfrean, 396; mine weleras gefeod, wynnum lofiat), 
 Ps. LXX, 21, renders exultabunt labia mea. 
 
 132. The noun lof, n., either alone or modified, is used with verbs, 
 and the following examples may illustrate various terms employed. Hyre 
 wees Cristes lof, Jul. 233, his lof rarest, 48, he dryhtnes lof / reakte and 
 rcerde, Gu. 130-31, {peer wees) godes lof hafen, Jul. 693, poet he lof godes / 
 hergan on heahpu, Judg. 47-8, lixende lof in pa longan tid, Wonders 49, pin 
 lof ladaV, L. Prayer III, 25, pin halige lof, 32, pin lof berad, And. 1295, 
 Lof sceolde he drihtnes wyrcean, Gen. 256, him lof singe, Gu. 581, snngon sige- 
 dryhtne so'dfastlic lof, And. 877. From the Psalms we note, laces loflustum 
 bringan (et sacrificent sacrificium laudis), CVI, 21, ic pe laces lof lustum 
 secge (tibi sacrificabo hostiam laudis), CXV, 7, pe ponne lustum lofepanciad 
 (hymnum dicent), LXIV, 14, etc., etc. 
 
 133. Of compounds we find the poetic lof ma gen, occurring only once, 
 spedlice eall his lofmagen leode gehyran (omnes laudes ejus), Ps. CV, 2, and 
 once also the poetic lof sum, praiseworthy, Gen. 468, characterizing the 
 tree of life in Paradise. 
 
 134. Lof sang occurs a number of times, as, mag on lofsongum lifes 
 waldend I hlude hergan (said of singing in the church), Gifts 92; the saint 
 is buried (with) lofsongum, Jul. 689. We note also, ponne halige men/ 
 lifiendum gode lof sang dod, Soul 69, (ealle hofan) . . . lofsonga word, Sat. 
 155. The other examples are found in the Psalms. Lustice lof sang cwedan 
 (laudem dixi), CXVIII, 164, mid lofsange lade (in laude), LXVIII, 31, 
 mid lofsangum (in hymnis), XCIX, 3, him lofsangum lustum cwemdan (et 
 laudaverunt laudem ejus), CV, 11. 
 
 135. Wuldrian, to glorify, praise, occurs twice, wuldriafi / apelne 
 ordfruman ealra gesceafta, Cr. 401, and Wuton wuldrian weorada dryhten, 
 Hymn 1. Gewuldrian is found in pu bist gewuldrad god (glorificatur) , Ps. 
 LXXXVIII, 6, and (Ic) his naman swylce gewuldrige (glorificabo), XC, 16. 
 
 136. Marsian is used in the Psalms a few times, the examples giving 
 the connotation it has in each case, weorc godes wide marsian (annuntia- 
 verunt), LXIII, 8, wuldor pin wide marsian (cantem), LXX, 1 , pine magen- 
 strengtJu marsien wide (narrabunt), CXLIV, 6. To these may be added the 
 only further example found in the poetry, heofoncyninges / meahte marsiad, 
 Ph. 617. Gemarsian also occurs a few times. Used of God's hallowing 
 Sunday it is found Dox. 26. We note as other occurrences, is pin nama 
 halig, I wuldre gewlitigad ofer werpeoda, / miltsum gemarsod, And. 544, and 
 swa is pin apele gecynd / miclum gemarsod, L. Prayer III, 44. 
 
53] THE SPIRITUAL SIDE OF THE CHURCH 53 
 
 137. Bletsian and gebletsian, in the sense of Latin benedicere, not con- 
 fined to man, but also used of plants, etc., is quite common. We note, 
 bletsige pec, sodfast cyning Az. 77, badon bletsian beam Israela, Dan. 359, 
 ic bletsige . . . / lifes leohtfruman, Gu. 580, we blatsiad bilewitne fe.der, 
 Hymn 8, his sodne naman bealde bletsiad, Ps. XCV, 2, we lifigende leofne 
 dryhten balde bletsigad {benedicimus Domino), CXIII, 25, etc. Of gebletsian 
 may be noted, De gebletsige (animals, things, etc.) bylywit feeder , Dan. 363. 
 Other examples could easily be added. 
 
 II. The Sacraments 
 
 138. Of the traditional seven sacraments of the Mediaeval Church 
 only Baptism and the Lord's Supper appear formally in the poetry, the 
 references to the poenitentia to be treated in chapter X. 6 
 
 139. The Greek fia-KTi^eiv, (3a.TTL<T(xa, was taken over by the Latin as 
 baptizare, baptisma, baptismus. In OE. this word was not borrowed from 
 the Latin, though later it is taken over and ousts the native terms. OE. 
 used fullwian, fulwi an, fullian, to consecrate fully, composed of the advejb 
 full and the Teut. *ivihejan, wlhjan, to consecrate, from *wlho, appearing 
 in OS. and OHG. as wih, Gothic weihs, holy. 7 According to an ancient 
 custom of the Church, those who desired to enter the lists of the catechu- 
 mens and were not fully ready to receive baptism, were marked with the 
 sign of the cross, in prose expressed by crlstnian? Later, when they were 
 considered fully prepared, they received the fullwlht, the full consecration, 
 or baptism. 
 
 140. The verb fulwian appears only once in poetry, in Christ's mis- 
 sionary command to his disciples, fulwiad folc under roderum, Cr. 484. 
 The form gefulwian we also have once, pa wees gefulwad (Judas), El. 1043. 
 
 141. More often the noun fullwlht, mfn., is used, sometimes in the 
 phrase fullwihtes bad, as, onfon fromlice fulhvihtes bad (Mermedonians), 
 And. 1640, ponne br odor pin / onfeng. . fulwihtes bad (Stephen, called 
 Cyriacus' brother), El. 490, Judas onfeng /. .fulwihtes bad, 1033. In Sat. 
 546 the phrase is used figuratively, he (halend) his swat forlet / feallon to 
 foldan, fulwihtes bad, referring to the water that issued from the Savior's 
 side when the soldier thrust in his spear.* The simple term occurs And. 
 1635 and 1643. Fulwihte onfon we have Soul 87, and of Constantine it is 
 said se leodfruma / fulwihte onfeng, EL 192. The Christians at Rome are 
 
 6 But note, anne gesette / . ../... bisceop pam leodiim / and gehalgode . . . {Platan), 
 And. 1647-50, pat he gesette on sacerdhad / in Jerusalem Judas pam folce / to bisceope (ordinavit 
 Judam Episcopum in Jerosolyma), El. 1054-6. On the sacraments for OHG. see Raumer, 
 p. 312 ff., for ON. Kahle, I, 364 ff., II, 121 f. 
 
 7 See NED. under fulloiight. 
 8 MacG., p. 21, note 2. 
 
54 INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY ON OLD ENGLISH POETRY [54 
 
 characterized as those pa purh fulwihte / leer de wceron, El. 172, while 
 Maxims 9 it is said an is fulwiht. The high regard for baptism and the 
 gifts bestowed through it are mentioned in onfengon (Mermedonian youths) 
 fulwihte and freofiuwcere, / wuldres wedde witum aspedde, / mundbyrd 
 meotudes, And. 1630-32. The cleansing power of baptism is sometimes 
 referred to, as in the passage (wester) cristnad and cloznsad cwicra manigo, 
 Sal. 395, also, Judas onfeng / . . . fulwihtes bad / and geclcen-sod weard, 
 El. 1032-4. 
 
 142. Peculiar is John the Baptist's reference to his and Christ's activi- 
 ties on the Jordan, wit unc in pare human bapodan cetgeedere, Har. 132, 
 lines 133-7 telling more about it, oferwurpe pu mid py wcetre, weoruda 
 dryhten, / blipe mode ealle burgwaran, / swylce git Johannis in Jordane / 
 mid py fullwihte fcegre onbryrdon / ealne pisne middangeard. To Christ's 
 baptism is also referred, (John) se pe fcegere iu / mid wcetere oferwearp 
 wuldres cynebeam, Men. 159. The compound fulwihttiid as referring to 
 Christ's baptism we find in Men. 11, already discussed in chapter V. 
 
 •143. The compound julwihtpeaw, rite of baptism, occurs once, cyning 
 sylfa (Theoderic) onfeng / fulluhtpeawum. Met. I, 33. There is uncertainty 
 about the word fullwon, f., the gen. pi. of which is encountered Gen. 1951, 
 forpon his lof secgafi / . . . / fullwona beam (namely Christians)." The 
 word is not found elsewhere, and it is likely that the MS. reading is 
 corrupt. 9 
 
 144. The sacrament of the altar or the Lord's Supper is expressed by 
 husl, husel, n.,' Goth, hunsl (Gr. dvaia), ON. hunsl, hUsl. It is a remarkable 
 fact, as has been pointed out by Kahle, 10 that this spiritual sacrifice as 
 conceived by the Church, an idea wholly foreign to the heathen mind, 
 should be expressed by an old Germanic stem, which furthermore we find 
 never applied to the sacrifices of the heathen. As in the other dialects, the 
 OE. term originally meant offering or sacrifice, which meaning is still kept 
 in a compound, as huslfatu halegu, Dan. 705 and 749, reference being made 
 to the sacrificial vessels of Solomon's temple. 
 
 145. The word husl is very rare in the poetry, only three examples 
 being met with. We have, husl (sceal) halgum men, hcepum synne, Gn. Ex. 
 132, Ahof pa his honda husle gereorded / eat) mod py cepelan gyfle, Gu. 1274, 
 and ac him bid lenge husel, Cr. 1685, the last passage referring to the blessed 
 in Heaven. However, twice we have a reference to the Lord's Supper in 
 Soul, though the term husl is not used, and ic ofpyrsted wees / godes lic- 
 homan, gastes drynces, 41, and similarly, Fccstest flu on fold an and gefyldest 
 me I godes lichoman, gastes drynces, 145-6. 
 
 9 Bibl. II, p. 405. 
 
 10 1, pp. 366-7. See also Grimm, DM., I, p. 32. 
 
55] THE SPIRITUAL SIDE OF THE CHURCH 55 
 
 146. Three compounds are met with in the poetry, huslfcet, already 
 mentioned, halig huselbearn, applied to Guthlac 531, and huselweras, / 
 cempan gecorene, Gu. 768, a name for the faithful that enter the kingdom 
 of God above. The last two words are poetical, each occurring only once 
 in OE. literature. 
 
 147. Riddle 49 has as its subject the firing, 1, readan goldes, 6, and it 
 would appear that the solution is nothing else than the paten or communion 
 plate. In Riddle 60 the hring gyldenne,.l, which speaks of the Savior's 
 wounds, swa pas beages benne cwcedon, 12, is probably the chalice or com- 
 munion cup. 11 
 
 III. The Scriptures 
 
 148. In the New Testament the books of the Old Covenant are desig- 
 nated as 17 ypa<pr) or at ypcupaL, i.e., the writings /car' e&xw- A similar use 
 of the term as applied to the Holy Scriptures, the Latin scriptura, is found 
 in OE. poetry, 12 where the sacred writings are called gewritu or fyrngewritu, 
 n. So we read, Us gewritu secgad (about Adam's age), Gen. 1121, similar 
 statements occurring 2563, 2611, etc. Furthermore, swa gewritu secgap 
 (about Calvary), El. 674, it being said regarding Stephen, sint in bocum 
 his I wundor, pa he worhte, on gewritum cycled, 826, though here apocryphal 
 books might be included. We note also, on gewritum find ad , Ex. 519, while 
 it is asserted regarding the Pater Noster, he gewritu leered, Sal. 50. Fyrnge- 
 writu is also applied a number of times, as, py Ices toworpen sien / frod 
 fyrngewritu and pa fcederlican / lare forleten, El. 430, where it refers to the 
 Old Testament, and similarly, ymb fyrngewritu, 373, where the author has 
 the prophets in view. In Is nu fela folca, pcette fyrngewritu / healdan wille 
 ac . . ., Instructions 67, the Holy Scriptures seem to be in the mind of the 
 speaker, as also in line 73. It is peculiar that 'holy' never modifies the 
 terms. 
 
 149. Sometimes bee, f., the Latin biblia, serves to point out the Bible. 
 Qualifying words may be added in order to make the idea intended per- 
 fectly clear, should the context fail to do so. Thus we have, godcunde bee, 
 Gen. 2612, on godes bocum, El. 204, 290, purh halige bee, 364, 670, 852, etc., 
 though this term is not limited in its application to the Holy Scriptures. 
 Sometimes bee alone suffices, especially where the context admits of no 
 other interpretation. Thus we have, in bocum, Cr. 453, Us secgad bee 
 (about Christ's birth), 785, and pcet me hcelend min / on bocum behead, 793. 
 Other examples could be cited. Wisboc is found once, on pinum wisbocum 
 Ps. CXXXVIII, 14, rendering in libro tuo. 
 
 11 Compare Tupper, The Riddles of the Exeter Book, p. 179 f., 197 f. 
 
 12 For OHG. see Raumer, p. 319 ff., ON. Kahle, I, p. 368 ff. 
 
56 INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY ON OLD ENGLISH POETRY [56 
 
 150. A term frequently used to designate God's word is a, f., OS. eo, 
 OFris. ewa and its variant forms, OHG. ewa, etc. However, the context 
 must point to this interpretation or a modifier be employed. In a general 
 sense we have it in Sum mag godcunde / reccan rihte a, Cr. 670-71, and 
 similarly, par hie dryhtnes <z deman sceoldon, Ap. 10; pe his a healden, Gu. 
 26, drihtnes a, Jul. 13. Clear references to the Old Testament occur, 
 purh rihte a reccan cud on, El. 281, as also, we Hebreisce a leornedon, 397. 
 In a cud on, I witgena word, El. 393-4, specific parts of the Old Testament 
 are referred to, as also \n pa de Moyses ce / reccan cudon, 283. JE denoting 
 the Mosaic Law occurs frequently in the Psalms, as, mine faste ce {legem 
 meam), LXXVII, 1, ic ce pine elne heolde {custodivi legem tuam), CXVIII, 
 55", Brohte him bletsunge se de him beorhte ce sode sette {etenim benedictionem 
 dabat legislator), LXXXIII, 7, Israhelum ce gesette {legem posuit in Israel), 
 LXXVII, 6. The Ten Commandments or the Ten Words of the Law are 
 mentioned, rihte ce / getacnode on tyn wordum. And. 1511-12. If a denotes 
 the New Testament or Christ's teachings, the fact is shown either by the 
 context or by a modifier, such as ce hcelendes, El. 1062, or Cristes ce, Jul. 
 411, Cr. 1688. For further examples of a denoting the Scriptures com- 
 pare Sprachschatz. 
 
 151. A few compounds of ce may be listed here, some of which, how- 
 ever, will be discussed more fully later. JEbebod, Ps. CIV, 40 {legem), also 
 CXVIII, 102 and 126._ Mboda, poetic and found only once, Gu. 909, 
 referring to the saint. JEcraft, poetic. In the sense of religion we have it 
 El. 435, and as denoting knowledge or skill in the Law, Dan. 19. JEcraftig, 
 once in the poetry; said of Daniel, Dan. 742. JEfcest, those keeping the 
 Law, the pious; not infrequent. JEfremmende, the pious, religious; poetic 
 and found only once, Jul. 648. JEfyllende, pious, religious; poetic and 
 found only once, Cr. 704. JEgleaw, in the religious sense, learned in the 
 Law. Said of Cyriacus El. 805, as applied to Jews summoned by Elene, 
 eorlas cecleawe, El. 321. In a more general sense, as knowing about the 
 Bible, the apostles, and the miracles they performed we find aglaawe 
 menn, Ap. 24, and the comparative aglawra / mann, And. 1483-4. 
 JElarend, poetic and found only once. After his conversion Paul is said 
 to be the best alarendra, El. 506. JEriht, code of Law or faith; poetic and 
 occurring only twice. Designating the Jewish Law we have, pa pe fyrnge- 
 writu I purh snyttro craft selest cunnen, / ceriht eowcr, El. 375, and (Judas 
 or Cyriacus may reveal) ceriht from ord od ende ford, 590. /Ewita, wise in 
 the Law, counsellor; poetic and found only once, being applied to Cyriacus' 
 grandfather, ealdum cewitan, El. 455. 
 
 152. No discussion of the prophets is necessary here, as that subject 
 has been treated in chapter II, under III. 
 
57] THE SPIRITUAL SIDE OF THE CHURCH 57 
 
 153. In the metrical version of the Psalms, which is generally speaking 
 a faithful rendering of the Latin Vulgate, with the exception of occasional 
 elaborations and personal touches, a considerable number of terms not met 
 with in the other poetry are naturally found. Among them we have 
 gewitnes, used in a general sense in rendering the Latin testimonium, as, 
 pin gewitnys (testimonia tua), CXVIII, 24, similarly, pine gewitnysse 
 (mandata tua), 45, etc. But sometimes we have the term in the sense of 
 testimonium, the covenant entered into, the Law. Thus, Ne heoldan hi 
 halgan drihtnes gewitnesse (testamentum Dei), LXXVII, 12, as also, his 
 gewitnesse (mem or erit . . . testamenti sui), CX, 4. 
 
 154. The OE. rendering of the Latin psalmus is sealm, m., the learned 
 psealm not being found in the poetry. We have, pat ic gode swylce sealmas 
 singe (psalmum dicam), LVI, 9, similarly 11; mid sealmum (psalmum dicite), 
 LXV, 1, Singa'd soflum gode sealmas (psalmum dicite), LXVII, 4, sealmas 
 singan (psallam), CVII, 3, similarly CXLV, 1; singa'd him sealmas (bonus 
 est psalmus), CXLVI, 1, sealmas (in psalmis jubilemus ei), XCIV. 2. 
 
 155. Of compounds with sealm the poetic sealmjcet occurs once only, 
 pe on sealmfatum singe be hearpan, LXX, 20, rendering the Latin in vasis 
 psalmi. The Latin psalterium is directly taken over, occurring four times 
 in the form on psalterio, XCI, 3, CVII, 2, CXLIII, 10, and CXLIX, 3. 
 Once we find wynps alter ium, LVI, 10, where the Latin has only psalterium. 
 
 156. The verb salletan, the Latin psallere, occurs only once in the 
 Psalms, Singa'd him swylce and salletad (cantate ei, et psallite ei), CIV, 2. 
 
 157. Twice ymen, m., the Latin hymnus, is found. Nu mine weleras de 
 wordum belcettad ymnas elne (eructabunt labia mea hymnum), Ps. CXVIII, 
 171, and Singa'd us ymnum (hymnum cantate), CXXXVI, 4. 
 
 158. Of the books of the New Testament the gospels demand atten- 
 tion. In OE. the term for the story of Christ is godspell, godspel, n. It is 
 assumed that the original form of the word was godspel, the good or glad 
 tidings, a rendering of the Latin bona adnuntiatio or bonus nuntius, which 
 was in current use as an explanation of the etymological sense of evan- 
 gelium, Gr. evayyekiov. In the compound word the regular phonetic law 
 would shorten god, but it seems that already at an early time the first 
 part of the compound was confused with god, God, and the word came to 
 be used in the sense of divine story or message. From OE. the term passed 
 into other Germanic languages, appearing in OS. as godspell, OHG. gotspell, 
 ON. gud- or god-spiall, in each case the first element being identified with 
 God. 13 
 
 13 Article gospel in NED. The etymology given here seems to be generally accepted now. 
 For a different view see Bright, Mod. L. Notes, TV, 208-10, V, 90-91, who still maintains that 
 standpoint. Compare reply of Logeman, VIII, 89-93. 
 
58 
 
 INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY ON OLD ENGLISH POETRY 
 
 [58 
 
 159. In OE. poetry godspel is encountered only five times. It is not 
 impossible that in Sal. A, 65, fiurh gastes gife godspel secgan, the word has 
 kept its original meaning of good tidings, if we assume that this interpreta- 
 tion suggested by the context is further strengthened by the fact that 
 MS. B has the reading godspellian. In the other cases we have clearly an 
 indication of the Gospel, as, dat hie for pam casere cyfian moston / godspelles 
 gife, El. 176, the story of Christ following almost immediately as an 
 explanation of the term. The same interpretation is demanded in purh 
 gastes giefe godspel bodian, Gu. 1088. Matthew seems to be especially 
 prominent in connection with the Gospel, he being referred to as pegn 
 unforcud / godspelles gleaw, Men. 171. In And. 11-13 his work in reducing 
 the story of Christ to writing is definitely pointed out, Wees hira Matheus' 
 sum, I se mid Judeum ongan godspell cerest / wordum wriian wundorcrafte. 
 
 160. The verb godspellian, godspellan occurs a few times. As already 
 pointed out, we have godspellian Sal. B, 65. In swa he (Daniel) ofstlice 
 godspellode / metodes mihtum for mancynne, Dan. 658, the word seems to 
 be used in the sense of preaching. In the meaning of making known the 
 glad tidings, though not in the New Testament sense, it is employed Ps. 
 LXVII, 12, God gifed gleaw word godspellendum (Dominus dabit verbum 
 evangelizantibus) . 
 
 161. Of other terms denoting God's Word or pointing out specific com- 
 mandments may be mentioned bod, bebod, and gebod, n., which are used in 
 different senses, in each case the context or modifiers supplying the specific 
 meaning. Bod appears for instance L. Prayer III, 109. Ac min bibod 
 brace, Cr. 1393, refers to Adam and Eve in Paradise, das hehstan gebod, 
 Dox. 29, mentions the supposed commandment regarding the observance 
 of Sunday. Halendes bebod is mentioned And. 735, while in other passages 
 we have the commandment of the king or the heavenly king, God. The 
 compound bodscipe occurs Gen. 783, and gebodscipe 430. A few examples 
 from the Psalms may follow, godes bebodu georne heoldan (testamentum 
 Dei), LXXVII, 9, bebodu {legem), LXXXVIII, 27, bebodu (mandata), 28, 
 and halige bebodu (mandata tua), CXVIII, 63, etc., gebod (mandata), 87. 
 
 162. War, f., covenant, is used a number of times, as, penden / poet 
 folc mid him hiera feeder weere / healdan woldon, Dan. 10, wille (God) him 
 sode to I modes ware mine gelatan, Gen. 2366, ware gemyndig, / . . . da 
 him god sealde, 2372. 
 
 163. Such terms as lar, godes word, dom, etc., etc., used either singly 
 or with modifiers, may also denote the whole or parts of the Scriptures, 
 but they do not call for any detailed treatment here. 
 
59] THE DEITY 59 
 
 CHAPTER VII 
 THE DEITY 
 
 164. The Germanic tribes believed in polytheism, in a plurality of 
 gods, whose identity and number seem to be shifting, and who were 
 governed by the inexorable Wyrd. 1 The idea of one supreme and all- 
 powerful God in the Christian sense of the term was entirely foreign to 
 them, and naturally some time elapsed before they were able to bring 
 their former views into harmony with the Christian doctrine. For a long 
 time their notions regarding certain phases were bound to be vague, and 
 we find for instance in OE. poems assertions regarding the persons of the 
 Trinity not consonant with the official theological views accepted and 
 decreed by the councils, but not at all surprising when viewed in the light 
 of prevailing circumstances. 
 
 I. Wyrd 
 
 165. Since the term wyrd is sometimes closely connected with God, 
 a brief discussion of it as far as it pertains to our subject would seem to be 
 in order at this point. 2 OE. wyrd by regular changes from Germanic 
 *wurdiz goes back to the common Germ, stem *werthan, the noun occurring 
 as wurd in OS., wurt in OHG., and urdr in ON. 3 The original meaning of 
 OE. wyrd (fact, happening; Gummere, Germanic Origins, p. Ill, "that 
 which is accomplished") is common in poetry as well as in prose, occurring 
 for instance in such passages as pa seo wyrd geweard, pat pat wif geseah / 
 for Abrahame Ismael plegan, Gen. 2777, was pest mare ivyrd / (Christ's 
 birth) f oleum gefrage, Men. 53, he ne leagfela / wyrda ne worda, Beow. 3030. 
 
 166. However, more often wyrd has a meaning analogous to the Latin 
 fatum, fate or destiny, at times practically personified. At least one 
 passage, 4 Me pat wyrd gewaf, Rim. 70, seems to indicate the mythological 
 conception of wyrd as weaving man's destiny, while in ON. the idea of 
 
 1 See Grimm, D.M., I, p. 81 ff., Golther, Handbuch, p. 192 ff., 502 ff. 
 
 2 Compare Grimm, D.M., I, p. 335 ff.. Golther, Handbuch, 104 f., Gummere, Germanic 
 Origins, p. 236, 371 f., Klaeber, Anglia, XXXVI, p. 171 f., 174 f. 
 
 3 Skeat, Etymological Dictionary, under weird. 
 
 4 In Rid. 36, 9-10, we read, Wyrmas mec ne awcefan wyrda crceftum, / pape geolo godwebb 
 geatwum fr<ztwaH), which is claimed to ' take us into the heart of ancient heathendom' (Brooke, 
 p. 126). But with Tupper, Riddles of the Exeter Book, p. 152, note., we agree that wyrda 
 crajtum has lost its old force and means nothing more than 'durch Schicksalsschlage, ' as 
 Grein's Dichtungen renders it, the lines being a fairly accurate translation of Aldhelm's Latin. 
 Seo prag cyme~d / wefen wyrdstafum, Gu. 1325, also seems to have a weakened force. 
 
60 INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY ON OLD ENGLISH POETRY [60 
 
 Norns, corresponding to the Greek /lotpcu and the Latin parcae, distinctly 
 appears in Voluspa, 5 
 
 18 (B. 19) Ask ueit ek standa, / heitir Yggdrasill / . . . 
 
 19 (B. 20) paban koma meyiar / margs uitandi / 
 
 briar or beim sal, / er und bolli stendr. / 
 Urb heto eina, / abra Uerbandi, — / 
 skaro a skibi, — / Skuld ena bribio. / 
 
 20 pjer lQg logbo, / bser lif kuro / 
 alda bornom, / 0rlog seggia. 
 
 Even though Ur'Sr in ON. literature is the predominating figure, from the 
 passage quoted it is readily seen that Ur'Sr, Uerpandi, and Skuld as Past, 
 Present, and Future have a function analogous to that of the ndlpai and 
 parcae in Homer and Isidor, 6 even if the question of classical influence 
 is waived. 
 
 167. Often, though not always, wyrd is the blindly hostile and inex- 
 orable power sweeping away man's joys and pleasures, intolerant even of 
 his dreary existence. The poet of the Ruined Burg contemplates in a 
 melancholy mood the hall joys op pat pat onwende wyrd seo swipe, line 25. 
 Other pictures are no less gloomy, Earm hip se sceal ana lifgan, / wineleas 
 wunian hafap him wyrd geteod, Gn. Ex. 174, and hio Wyrd forsweop / on 
 Grendles gryre, Beow. 477. In this poem wyrd is generally looked upon as 
 the goddess of death, an idea which also appears in the OS. Heliand, Thiu 
 wurd is at hendum, 4621, when compared with line 2990, nu is iru dot) at 
 hendi, 7 etc. The same notion is not foreign to other OE. poems, a lingering 
 trace of such function being found for instance Gu. 1030, where at the 
 death of the saint it is remarked, Wyrd ne meahte / in fa gum leng feorg 
 gehealdan, / deore fratwe, ponne him gedemed was, while wyrd seo mare, 
 Wand. 100, has taken away the earls. 
 
 168. With the advent of Christianity the notion of wyrd as the hostile 
 force receives a further development. So in heo wop weced, heo wean 
 hladefi, / heo gast scyfi, heo ger byred, Sal. 436 ff., and especially, Ac hwat 
 wited us wyrd seo swide, / eallra fyrena fruma, fahdo modor, / weana wyrt- 
 wela, wo pes heafod, / frumscylda gehwas fader and modor, / deaZes dohter? 
 442 ff . Met. IV, 34-40 the hostile force even helps in persecuting the saints. 
 
 6 Samundar Edda, Detter & Heinzel, Leipzig, 1903. 
 
 6 Grimm, DM., I, p. 335 ff. 
 
 7 Heliand, M. Heyne, 4th edition, Paderborn, 1905. See Grimm, D.M., I, p. 336, regard- 
 ing the discussion of wyrd. Vilmar, Deutsche Altertumer, 2nd edition, p. 13, may also be 
 compared. 
 
61] THE DEITY 61 
 
 In the passage hie seo Wyrd beswac, / forleolc and fori cerde, And. 613-14, 
 especially when compared with hie for cefstum inwit syredon / purh deopne 
 gedwolan deojies larum, 610-11, wyrd assumes functions of the devil in 
 instigating the condemnation of Christ. And in the passages quoted from 
 Salomon and Saturn there is hardly any doubt that wyrd is identified with 
 the fallen angel, who is the bringer of evil and misery. 8 This idea was not 
 foreign to the Anglo-Saxon mind, and the homilists exerted all their 
 influence to combat such a belief. a 
 
 169. Excepting such negative statements as ne mceg werig mod wyrde 
 widstondan, Wand. 15, and the variously interpreted passage Beow. 
 1056-7, man seems to be helpless against the decrees of blind fate. Gced a 
 wyrd swa hio seel! Beow. 455, wyrd bid ful arced! Wand. 5, mon him sylf ne 
 mceg I wyrd onwendan, Prayer IV, 117, pcet ic gewcegan ne mceg wyrd under 
 heofonum, Judg. 115, testify to the prevalent belief of wyrd as the inex- 
 orable. 
 
 170. Entirely different is God's position in regard to the once all-ruling 
 power, though even here occur peculiar statements. The belief in fatalism 
 had a strong hold on the Germanic character and even after the conversion 
 to Christianity exerted an influence by no means negligible. During 
 heathen times Wyrd had occupied a unique position inasmuch as it operated 
 outside the sphere of the gods, and, in ultimately controlling all destiny, 
 even stood above them. With the conversion to Christianity the good 
 God of Christianity might easily supplant the regnator omnium deus 
 (Tacitus, Germania, ch. 49) who had until then been the provider and 
 distributer of bountiful gifts. 10 Not so easy was the subordination of a 
 hostile and uncontrollable force under the omnipotence of the Christian 
 God, and this transitional stage may perhaps account for an occasional 
 compromising statement. We read, prymmas syndan Cristes mycele, / 
 wyrd bid swidost, Gn. Cot. 4-5, and Wyrd bip swidre, / meotud meahtigra 
 ponne cenges monnes gehygd, Seaf. 115-16. It is not at all improbable that 
 in the last example, as also in ac unc sceal weordan cet wealle, swa unc wyrd 
 geteod, I metod manna gehwees, Beow. 2526-7, 11 the term metod must be 
 taken as synonymous with wyrd, an interpretation which seems to be 
 suggested by connotations which this word in its simple form as well as in 
 
 8 Abbetmeyer, Poetical Motives, p. 6, puts it, "Sal. 442 ff. is clearly a Christian passage, 
 in which Wyrd is discredited by being identified with Satan. " 
 
 9 Bouterweck, Cadmon's des Angelsachsen Biblische Dicktungen, p. LXIV; also LXDC f., 
 "Darum eifern die angelsachsischen Kirchenvater gegen den Aberglauben einer Vyrd, eines 
 Geschickes, dass etwas Anderes sei als der allmachtige Gott. " 
 
 10 Ehrismann, Zum Germanischen Friihchristenhim, p. 237-8. 
 
 11 In the Beowulf of Heyne-Schuecking, Paderborn, 1913, metod in this line is glossed as 
 latum in the vocabulary, i 
 
62 INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY ON OLD ENGLISH POETRY [62 
 
 combinations may originally have had. 12 Without ascribing any undue 
 importance to the at least notable statement God us ece hip: / ne wendad hine 
 wyrda, Gn. Ex. 9, God controls wyrd, he is wyrda wealdend, Ex. 432, El. 80, 
 And. 1056, Prayer IV, 43, though one might argue that wyrda has here 
 the weakened force of events. 13 But such statements as the following 
 leave little doubt as to God's superior power, nefne him witig god wyrd 
 forstode, 14 Beow. 1056, especially Hwi fiu ece god afre wolde, /pat sio Wyrd 
 on gewill wendan sceolde, Met. IV, 35, and Gif flu nu, zvaldend, ne wilt 
 Wyrde steoran, / ac on selfwille sigan latest, 49. 
 
 171. A further development may perhaps be assumed in passages 
 where wyrd takes on a meaning almost identical with God, such as, ofipat 
 Wyrd gescraf, /pat pe Deodrice pegnas and eorlas / her an sceoldon, Met. I, 
 29, when held together with denden god wolde, pat he Gotena geweald / agan 
 moste, 38-9, while regarding the conversion of Judas, the discoverer of the 
 cross, we hear, hum Wyrd gescreaf, /pat he swa geleaful and swa leof gode / 
 in worldrice weorfian sceolde, / Criste gecweme, El. 1046. One is tempted 
 to identify the word with foreordination or predestination. 15 Such an 
 interpretation is placed upon wyrd by OE. homilists. 16 In glosses forewyr d 
 has the sense of predestination. 
 
 II. The Term God 
 
 172. The OE. term for God is god, masculine in the singular, but with 
 masculine and neuter forms in the plural. Other Germanic dialects use 
 a word from the same stem, OFris. and OS. god, m., OHG. got, m., ON. god, 
 gud, the singular in ON. being both masculine and neuter, while the plural 
 is neuter. The Gothic singular gup, a neuter form, is used as a masculine, 
 while in the plural the neuter gtida appears. The Goth, and ON. words 
 are declined as neuters, but the masculine concord is established, probably 
 due to Christian influence. The OTeut. type would be therefore *gudo m , 
 n., which seems to go back, though the ulterior etymology is disputed, to 
 
 12 Compare the discussion of metod, 184, note 1. 
 
 13 See Kent, Teutonic Antiquities, p. 3, also Rankin, Kennings, VIII, p. 414, note 37. 
 
 14 Sedgefield {Beowulf, Manchester, 1910, p. 163), agreeing with Ettmueller, would take 
 wyrd as nom. sing, in opposition with god. He objects to the usual construction of wyrd as 
 object of forstode on the ground that man's destiny could not be hindered. But his rendering 
 of forstode as help, defend, is not happy from the grammatical standpoint, since then we 
 should expect hie, not him, as object, while his objection to the common interpretation on 
 theological grounds loses its force because it is not based on all the evidence available, as will 
 be seen from the examples we have quoted. Compare note to line 1056, p. 54 of Beowulf, 
 Wyatt and Chambers, Cambridge, 1914 
 
 16 See also Kent, Teutonic Antiquities, p. 3. 
 
 16 Compare Bouterweck, Ccedmon's des Angelsachsen Biblische Dichtungen, p. LXX ff. 
 
63] THE DEITY 63 
 
 Indo-European *ghutom, the neuter of a past participle, meaning either 
 what is invoked or what is worshipped by sacrifice. 17 
 
 173. The original meaning of god in Teutonic was therefore probably 
 rather numen than deus. In OE. it is used practically exclusively in the 
 latter sense, with the modification, of course, that god may render also 
 dominus, etc. As in OE. poetry god as a designation of the Christian 
 Deity is very frequent and as numerous examples will appear in the sub- 
 sequent discussion, illustrations of this use are superfluous here. The 
 singular is also applied to heathen gods, e.g., gif pu to sozmran gode / purh 
 deofolgield dcede bipencest, Jul. 52. Wohgod, false god, we have in him 
 wohgodu worhtan (sculptilibus), Ps. LXXVII, 58. The masculine plural, 
 confined to the Christian God, is naturally seldom used; a good illustration 
 is found in Creed, where, having enumerated the persons of the Godhead, 
 the poet continues, 44, ne synd pcet preo godas priwa genemned, / ac is an 
 god, se fie ealle hafafi / pa pry naman pinga gerynum. The neuter plural 
 godu is much more common. The Christian Deity as conceived by heathen 
 is referred to, and pu fremdu godu forfi bigongest, Jul. 121. As applied to 
 heathen gods we note, Ic (Juliana's father) pozt geswerge purh sod godu, 
 Jul. 80, pa du goda ussa gilp gehnozgdest, And. 1319, him was wuldres 
 dream, / lifwela leofra ponne pees leasan godu, Ap. 49. A few examples from 
 the Psalms may follow, Sindon ealle hcepenu godu hildedeoful (omnes dii 
 gentium daemonia), XCV, 5, Nis pe goda oznig on gumrice ahwazr efle gelic 
 {non est similis tut in diis Domine), LXXXV, 7. Said of men we have, 
 Ge synd uppe godu ealle uphea and cedele beam (Dii estis, et filii excelsi 
 omnes), LXXXI, 6. In the last example we notice that the neuter plural 
 is also applied to men, even though they are looked upon as the repre- 
 sentatives of God. 
 
 174. A feminine gyden, goddess, also appears, but in the poetry it is 
 met with only once, Met. XXVI, 53, where it serves as a designation 
 of Circe. 
 
 175. Os, m., the ON. qss, is found once in the poetry, gif hit wcere esa 
 gescot, Charm II, 23. 
 
 III. The Trinity 
 
 176. Though there is confusion regarding the persons of the Trinity, 
 and the line is not always as sharply drawn as the trinitarian dogma of 
 the Church would demand, the Anglo-Saxon poets hold the orthodox 
 Athanasian view of the mystery. The Latin trinitas (Gr. rptas) is 
 
 17 See NED. For literature on the subject consult Falk-Torp, Norw.-Dan. Etymolpgi- 
 sches Worterbuch, under Gud. 
 
64 INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY ON OLD ENGLISH POETRY [64 
 
 expressed in OE. by prines,prynes, OHG. having thrinissi, ON. prenneng. 1 * 
 The term is comparatively rare in the poetry, occurring only eight times, 
 though we have not seldom a juxtaposition of the three persons of the 
 Godhead, even when the formal expression of the Trinity is lacking. So for 
 instance Charm VIII, 10-12, ac gehale me celmihtig and sunu and frofre- 
 gcBst, / ealles wuldres wyrdig dryhten, / swa swa ic gehyrde heofna scyppende. 
 
 177. As examples of prines we note, Eala! seo wlitige weordmynda 
 full J heah and halig heofoncund prynes, / brade geblissad geond bryten- 
 wongas, Cr. 379, which all should praise, nu us halend god / warfast ornvrah, 
 pat we hine witan motanl 383-4, as also, Wuldor pas age / prynysse prym, 
 pone butan endel 599. The belief in the Trinity is voiced by Guthlac, 
 fordon ic getrywe in pone torhtestan / prynesse prym, se gepeahtingum / 
 hafad in hondum keafon and eordan, 617-19. Several times Christ is men- 
 tioned in connection with the Trinity in such a manner as almost to incline 
 the reader to the belief that Christ embraces the three persons of the God- 
 head. A slight tendency toward it may perhaps be detected El. 177, hu se 
 gasta helm / in prynesse prymme geweordad / acenned weard. More pro- 
 nounced is the passage in Hymn, for having spoken of Christ in lines 37-9 
 as flu eart ana ace dryhten / and 3n ana bist eallra dema, /. . Crist nergend, 
 the author continues, 40, fordan flu on "Srymme ricsast and on drinesse / 
 and on annesse ealles waldend, / hiofena heahcyninc, haliges gastes / fegere 
 gefelled in fader wuldre. This would not be so very surprising in view of 
 the fact, as will appear later, that Christ is sometimes identified with both 
 the Father and the Holy Spirit, and that it is said of him ])u eart sunu and 
 fader / ana agper, L. Prayer III, 42-3. On the other hand, there is a 
 change in the traditional order of the Trinity Jud. 83-4, Ic tie, frymda god 
 and fr of re gast, / beam alwaldan, biddan wille (firynesse firym, 86). The 
 same order is followed in Jul. 724-7, fader froj 're gast, / . . . / and se deora 
 sunu, I ponne seo prynis prymsittende / in annesse (serif ed). The tradi- 
 tional order is, however, observed in And. 1684-5, par(m Heaven) fader and 
 sunu and fr of re gast'/ in prinnesse prymme wealded. 
 
 178. The unity in the Trinity was not lost sight of, as a number of 
 passages tend to show. In the last quotation of 176, Charm VIII, 
 10-12, the unity may be indicated by the singular number of the appella- 
 tions evidently bestowed upon all the three persons. In And. 1685 we 
 have the singular wealded, although the subject is composed of three per- 
 sons. Formally the unity is expressed by annes (L. unitas, Gr. novorrjs), 
 OHG. einnissi, ON. eineng. The OE. term is only twice found in the 
 poetry, (Christ reigns not only on drinesse, 40, but also) on annesse, Hymn 
 41, and ponne seo prynis prymsittende / in annesse {scrifed), Jul. 727. The 
 
 18 For OHG. compare Raumer, p. 347 ff., ON. Kahle, I, pp. 380-81. 
 
65] THE DEITY 65 
 
 three persons are contained in the meotud (721), the heofona helm (722), 
 and the meahta waldend (723) implored by Cynewulf. The resolute maiden 
 Judith ongan "da swegles weard / be naman nemnan, nergend ealra / woruld- 
 buendra, Jud. 80-82, followed by the invocation to Father, Spirit, and Son. 
 The author of the Creed enters into a discussion of the problem of unity 
 and trinity in the passage quoted before in another connection. Having 
 referred to the Spirit, the Father, and the Son, he continues, in order to 
 prevent an interpretation that might be made, ne synd pcet preo godas priwa 
 genemned, / ac is an god, se fie ealle hafad / pa pry naman pinga gerynum, 
 44-6. All of which goes to show that the poet tried to keep within the 
 dogma as drawn up by the councils of the Church, though attempting a 
 rational explanation of the mystery. 
 
 IV. The Godhead and God the Father 
 
 179. Under this caption we shall treat certain names which are applied 
 to the Godhead, and the Father, or the first person of the Trinity, though 
 one cannot always be sure as to who is meant, in a considerable number 
 of cases it being impossible to distinguish clearly the three persons of the 
 Godhead. No attempt has been made to make the list of the extremely 
 large number 19 of names and kennings complete, as the works of Bode and 
 Rankin, 20 to which we refer the reader, are sufficiently comprehensive, 
 though they hardly make any distinction between the three persons. We 
 merely give from our full collections the more important of the designations. 
 But enough material will appear to illustrate by specific cases the wealth 
 and variety of names at the disposal of the OE. poets. Though having 
 originally a specific and definite connotation, there can be little doubt 
 that very often the names were not pregnant with meaning to the author, 
 who not seldom was guided in his choice of an appellation by the exigencies 
 of alliteration, and similar considerations. 21 
 
 180. The term god appears extremely often as a designation of the 
 Godhead, and of the first person. The wealth and variety will sufficiently 
 appear from the examples given. An god is ealra gesceafta, / frea mon- 
 cynnes, feeder and scippend, Met. XVII, 8-9, frymda god, El. 502, Jud. 83, 
 similarly El. 345, Gu. 792; weornda god, Gu. 366, similarly El. 1149, Cr. 
 347, etc. ; weorodanes god, Fates 93, mcegena god, El. 809, mcegna gode, Jul. 
 
 19 Bode, Kenningar, p. 72, remarks: "Sie (namely the Anglo-Saxons) umschreiben den 
 himmlischen Vater mit mehr denn 300 Ausdrucken; namentlich wenn sie sich in Gebet zum 
 Himmel wandten, redeten sie den Geber aller Gaben mit immer neuen Wendungen an, wie 
 ein Bettler, der einen Reichen schmeichelt. " 
 
 20 Bode, Kenningar, p. 79 ff. No attempt has been made to distinguish between the 
 three persons. Rankin, A Study of the Kennings in Anglo-Saxon Poetry, Journal of English 
 and Germanic Philology, VIII, p. 374 ff. He also gives Latin equivalents. 
 
 21 For further remarks see Introduction, p. 13 ff. 
 
66 INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY ON OLD ENGLISH POETRY [66 
 
 659, mihta god, El. 785, sigora god, 1307, heofonrices god, 1124, wuldres god, 
 Gu. 1054, engla god, Ex. 380, etc., waldend god, Gen. 520, ic wealdend god 
 wordum herige (Deo laudabo), Ps. LV, 4, alwaldend god, Message 31, drihten 
 god, Beow. 181, dryhten god, Jud. 300, etc., etc., on god drihten gearewe 
 gewene (in Deo speravi), LV, 4, nergende god, Met. XXIX, 74, Gen. 1924, 
 hcelend god, Sat. 281, min halend god, (Deus mens), Ps. CXVII, 26, hcelend 
 god (Deus salvos faciendi), LXVII, 20, hcelend god (Deus salutaris noster), 
 LXIV, 6. Heonan ic cleopige to heahgode and to waldendgode (clamabo ad 
 Deum altissimuml Deum), Ps. LVI, 2, se is waldendgode wel liciendlic 
 (beneplacitum est Deo), LXVII, 16. It may be noted here that godes agen 
 beam, e. g., El. 179, is very frequently found, where of course the reference 
 in godes is clearly to the first person. 
 
 181. Feeder is often used where God conceived as one or the first person 
 is meant, though the term is also applied to Christ. The reference is clear 
 in the formula mentioning the three persons of the Trinity, as, feeder and 
 sunu andjrofre gast, And. 1684, etc. In most of the other cases the context 
 indicates to whom the term is applied. We note, halig feeder, Met. XX, 
 46, etc., bilewit feeder, XX, 69, 255, similarly And. 997, Dan. 363, Az. 139 
 Gen. 856, etc.; beorht feeder, And. 937, etc., pees breman feeder, Doom 296, 
 feeder frefergendum, Sat. 318, an feeder ece, Maxims 9, feeder celmihtig, 
 Prayer III, 51, a term very frequent; nergende feeder, Gn. Cot. 63, waldend 
 fader, Cr. 163, feeder alwalda, Beow. 316, fader engla, Met. XX, 153, 263, 
 275, And. 1412, El. 783, Men. 226, etc., feeder frumsceafta, Moods 66, fader 
 frymda gehwas, Ph. 197. pinne wuldorfader, Cr. 217, sodfader, 103, lifiap 
 nu on heofenum mid heahfadere (otherwise term for patriarch, see 25), 
 RoodB, 134, on ~Sa swidran hand / dinum godfader, Hymn 31. 
 
 182. God is scippend, the creator. Though the term is not seldom also 
 applied to Christ, it would seem that the Godhead or the first person is 
 more often regarded as the creator. References to the work of creation 
 are very frequent, the creation being godes handgesceaft, Gen. 455. Man 
 was created according to the anlicnes, the image of God, Monn was to 
 godes J anlicnesse arest gesceapen, Gen. 1528-9, par he hafd mon geworhtne / 
 after his onlicnesse, 395-6. Scippend is very frequent, as, An sceppend is 
 butan oleum tweon, / se is eac waldend woruldgesceafta, Met. XI, 1-2, du eca 
 and du almihliga / ealra gesceafta sceppend and reccendl IV, 29-30, scippend 
 scirra tungla, / hefones and eordan! IV, 1-2, heofona scyppend, And. 192, 
 frympa scyppend, Ph. 630, mihta scyppend, Gu. 1131, engla scyppend, 
 And. 119, gasta scyppend, Dan. 292, 315, El. 790, similarly Jul. 181; alda 
 scyppend, Wand. 85, weoruda scyppend, Instructions 62. Here may also 
 be added eall geworhtest / "ding pearle good, Met. XX, 44-5, se wyrhta, Gen. 
 125, apele se wyrhta, Ph. 9, wuldres wyrhta, 130. 
 
67] THE DEITY 67 
 
 183. Fruma, creator, founder, is found a number of times. We note, 
 moncynnes fruma, Met. XXIX, 42, Ph. 377, upengla fruma, And. 226, 
 sigores fruma, Cr. 294, mccr'd a fruma, Chr. Ill, B, 21, lijes fruma, El. 792, 
 etc. Of compounds may be quoted lifes leohtfruma, And. 1413, Gen. 175, 
 926, 1410, etc., Met. XI, 72, lifes ordfruma, Cr. 227, engla ordfruma, And. 
 146, Sat. 239, etc. We find D« eart eallra fiinga, peoda waldend, / fruma 
 and endel Met. XX, 274-5. 
 
 184. Metod 2 " 1 a poetic term, 23 is extremely common in the poetry. We 
 note only meotud moncynnes, And. 172, Ph. 176, etc., metod engla, Gen. 121, 
 similarly Gu. 1105, etc. To these might be added a host of expressions 
 showing metod governing different kinds of objects. We note also eald 
 metod, Beow. 945, milde metod, Maldon 175, similarly Met. XXIX, 69. 
 
 185. God is cyning, a term extremely frequent. Engla cyning, Met. 
 XIII, 12, gasta god cyning, Prayer IV, 39, nergende cyning, 49, etc. etc. 
 But similar terms and phrases we pass over in order to give a few of the 
 more important compounds. Wuldorcyning is frequent, occurring Ph. 196, 
 Whale 67, 85, similarly Beow. 2795; weroda wuldorcyning, Met. XX, 162, 
 similarly Gen. 2; heahcyning, Ph. 129, etc., heofona heahcyning, Ph. 446, 
 And. 6, etc., heahcyning heofones, Dan. 408, sweglcyning, Gen. 2658, simi- 
 larly Gu. 1055; pry mcyning, Moods 62, peoda pry mcyning, Met. XX, 205, 
 deoda prymcyningc, Invocation 2, peodcyning, Soul 12, gen. sing. Rid. 68, 1 
 (only two occurrences in the religious sense), 24 mcegencyning, El. 1247, 
 mcegencyninges prea, Judg. 57, mcegencyninga hyhst, 6, sigora soficyning, 
 Beow. 3055, Ph. 329, etc. Of characteristic modifiers we add, on riht 
 cyning, Ph. 664, blidheort cyning, Gen. 192, stififrihp cining, 107, stiZferZ 
 cyning, 241, stidmod cyning, 2423. 
 
 22 The term has been treated by Grimm, D.M., I, 18 f., Ill, 15. Vilmar, Deutsche Alter- 
 tiimer im Heliand, p. 11, remarks: "Metod, der messende, ordnende, welcher auch im angel- 
 sachsischen iiblich geblieben ist, da er am wenigsten speciell heidnischen Inhalt zu haben 
 scheint vielmehr im ganzen nur fur eine formelle bezeichnung des hochsten wesens gelten 
 kann, sich also sehr wohl in die leliren der christlichen kirche fiigte. " Grein, Sprachsckatz, 
 claims that in heathen times the word had probably the meaning of fate. In support of this 
 view he points to W'ald. A. 19, dy ic Se metod ondred, and to on meotudwange (battle field), 
 And. 11. as also to compounds in related languages. Rankin, VIII, 420, thinks, though the 
 etymological significance may be creator, in the majority of cases 'it means deus.' Klaeber, 
 Anglia, XXXV, 124, remarks: "Heidnischer character ist dem worte nicht anzumerken; 
 doch ist an die interessante nebeneinanderstellung von wyrd und Metod zu erinnern. Beow. 
 2526 f., Seef 115 f. (Beow 979 Meotod: 2574 wyrd)." 
 
 23 Excepting se metoda drihten twice in ^Elfric's Homilies, and there in alliterative pas- 
 sages. B.-T 
 
 24 According to Rankin, VIII, 404, peod may have become an intensifier, peodcyning 
 signifying "the mighty king." 
 
68 INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY ON OLD ENGLISH POETRY [68 
 
 186. Dryhten, originally leader of the host, 25 OS. drohtin, OHG. truhtin, 
 ON. drottin, generally rendering L. dominus, 2 * is extremely common. As 
 lord, ruler, chief, it is also frequently used in the secular sense. Thus Sarah 
 calls Abraham Drihten min Gen. 2225. We note as occurrences in the 
 religious sense, hcdend drihten {Dominus salvabit me), Ps. LIV, 16, hcdend 
 drihten (Deus salutaris nosier), LXXXIV, 4, hcelend drihten (Dominum), 
 CXLV, 1, CXLVIII, 1, hcelynd drihten(-), CVII, 6, god dryhten, El. 759, 
 dryhtna dryhtne, And. 1151, Whale 84, similarly Gen. 638; sigedrihten, 
 Gen. 523, similarly Gu. 1212, Judg. 92; sigedrihten god, Met. XX, 260, 
 sigora dryhten, El. 346, similarly 1139; dugufia dryhten, El. 81, Ph. 494, 
 gumena drihten, Gen. 515, weoruda dryhten,- 1 Sermon Ps. 28, 8, 10, Soul 14, 
 etc., etc., gcBsta dryhten, Judg. 81, weondddriktnes, Met. XXIX, 1. 
 
 187. Wealdend, the wielder, the ruling one, is extremely frequent. We 
 give a number of kennings in order to show the great variety, pone 
 selestan sigora waldend! Moods 84, sigora w., 28 Met. XI, 71, Beow. 2875, 
 rodera w., Met. X, 30, heofona w., XIII, 6, XXIX, 72, frymfia w., Jud. 5, 
 wuldres w., And. 193, Dan. 13, etc., lifes w., Met. XX, 268, XXI, 36, Judg. 
 85, gasta w., Gen. 2174, w. engla, El. 772, w. manna, Az. 96, jolca w., L. 
 Prayer I, 10, w.fira, Beow. 2741, ylda w., 1661, duguda w., Jud. 61, fieoda 
 w., Maldon 173, similarly Met. XX, 256; mcegena w., El. 347, weoroda w., 
 751, etc. As compound we note se ricesda / ealles oferwealdend, 1235. 
 Similarly we have alwalda Beow. 1314, etc., se allwalda, Gen. 292, etc., 
 ealwalda engelcynna, 246, to anwaldan, Beow. 1272, ecne onwealdan ealra 
 gesceafta, Gu. 610. 29 
 
 188. Frea, Goth, frauja, OS. fra(h)o, OHG. fro, is not infrequently 
 used. 30 Frea folces gehwces, feeder celmihtig, Dan. 401, frumsceafta frea, 
 Ex. 21 A, frea engla, Gen. 157, 2836, etc., sigora frean, Ph. 675; lijfrea, Beow. 
 16, similarly Gen. 16; agendfrea, 2141, the same term being applied to 
 Sarah 2237. 
 
 189. peoden, really the chief of the people, is not very frequent. Se 
 dioden, Met. XI, 80, peoden engla, Maldon 178, El. 776, engla peoden, Ex. 
 431, dearlmod peoden gumena, Jud. 91, etc. 
 
 25 Koehler, Germania, XIII, p. 131, says: "dryhten, dass ganz entschieden germanische 
 Anschauung verrath, indem Gott als oberster Kriegsherr bezeich.net wird, wenn auch nicht 
 gerade hierin eine Anspielung auf den Sieg spendenden Wodan, den Valfedr, zu suchen sein 
 wird." 
 
 28 Rankin, VIII, p. 413. 
 
 27 Ibid., p. 405: "Undoubtedly equivalent to dominus exercituttm." 
 
 28 Read waldend or wealdend. 
 
 29 Under wealdend we note wyrda wealdend, El. 80, etc., of which Rankin, VIII, 414, says: 
 "An interesting analogical formation. Is there any allusion to the Norns, or does the term 
 mean simply 'ruler of destinies'? The latter is more probable." 
 
 30 In OE. and OS. this term is being superseded by dryhten, drohtin. 
 
69] THE DEITY 69 
 
 190. Brego, 31 ruler, chief, is used a few times. Br ego moncynnes, Judg. 
 7, Met. XX, 43, brego engla, Ph. 497, Chr. Ill, B, 36, Gen. 181, 976, 
 1008, etc. 
 
 191. Hearra, 32 lord, chief, master, applied also to men, is frequent in 
 the Genesis. Referring to Adam, herra se goda, 678, hire hearran, 654, to the 
 chief devil, hearran sinum, 726. Ahof hine wid his hearran, 263, uncres 
 hearran, / heofoncyninges, 658, herran pines, 567, etc., are applied to God. 
 
 192. Ealdor, lord, chief, is not so very frequent. Swegles aldor, Gen. 
 2807, similarly Jud. 88, 124; wuldres aldor, Gen. 639, wuldris aldor, 1511, 
 wuldres ealdor, Jul. 153, Partridge 4, Judg. 82, Seaf. 123, etc., lifes aldor, 
 Gen. 2762, weoroda ealdor, Cr. 229, gcesta ealdor, Judg. 91. 
 
 193. Weard is extremely common. We note a few of the more charac- 
 teristic examples. Heah hordes weard, Wonders 39, hluttor heofones w., 33 
 52, heofonrices w., Dan. 12, done haligan heofonrices w.. Charm I, 27, etc., 
 etc., pu on ecnesse awa, drihten hea, hehsta bist heofonrices w. (tu autem 
 Altissimus in aeternum Domine), Ps. XCI, 7, similarly XC, 1; rodera w., 
 Cr. 222, etc., Met. XI, 20, rice rcedwitan, rodera weardas {Father and Son), 
 Doom 299, middangeardes w., And. 227, gasta w., El. 1021, similarly Gu. 
 1177; engla w., El. 1100, etc., moncynnes w., Gen. 2757, folca w., Gifts 20, 
 leohtes w., Judg. 53, sigora w., Met. XI, 27, lifes w., Gen. 144, 163, Gu. 901. 
 Of compounds we note from the Psalms, heora heafodweard holdne (Excel- 
 sum), LXXVII, 19, erfeweard ealra deoda (tu hereditabis in omnibus genti- 
 bus), LXXXI, 8. 
 
 194. Hldford is employed only occasionally in the religious sense. 
 Applied to God we find it Gen. 2313, etc., while the examples for Christ 
 are a little more numerous. At a later time the word becomes more fre- 
 quent, while metod, etc., are discarded. 
 
 195. Agend, really possessor, is found only a few times. Thus, se agend, 
 Ex. 295, lifes agend, Wonders 55, lifes agend, Hymn 3, etc. 
 
 196. Helm, protector, is not very frequent. Helm eallwihta, Gen. 113, 
 se halga helm celwihta, And. 118, engla helm, Gen. 2751, gasta helm, 2420, 
 similarly 1793. 
 
 197. Hyrde is used a number of times. Heofona hyrde, Judg. 86, 
 tungla hyrde, Prayer IV, 9, prymmes hyrde, El. 348, Jud. 60, Jul. 280, 
 wuldres hyrde, Beow. 931, gasta hyrde, Dan. 199, dugutia hyrde, Gen. 164, 
 
 31 Grimm, Andreas &• Elene, Cassel, 1840, p. 97, remarks: "Kemble hat richtig bemerkt, 
 dass das wort weder im gen. und dat., noch in pi. vorkomme, es gilt, gleich dem ahd. fro, 
 nur als titel und anrede. Lauter zeichen hohes altertums." 
 
 32 Old Low German loan; comparative of OTeut. *hairo, old, venerable. Compare 
 NED. under her. 
 
 33 Read weard. 
 
70 INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY ON OLD ENGLISH POETRY [70 
 
 leohtes hyrde, Prayer IV, 7, Az. 121, 129, fieoda hyrde, Az. 150; feorhhyrde, 
 Dox. 8. 
 
 198. Geocend, preserver, is not frequent. Gasta geocend, El. 682, 
 gcesta geocend, Gu. 1106, etc. 
 
 199. Brytta, dispenser or distributer, is also not very frequent. Torht- 
 mod tires brytta, Jud. 93, boldes brytta, El. 162, lifes brytta, Gen. 122, 129. 
 
 200. Nergend, although generally applied to Christ, may also designate 
 the Godhead, or the first person of the Trinity. 34 Nergend or nergend usser 
 is frequent in Genesis, as 855, 903, 1367, etc., Met. XX, 249, sawla nergend, 
 Ph. 498, Gn. Ex. 135, nida nergend, Dan. 313, El. 503, 1085, similarly Gu. 
 612; nerigend fir a, El. 1172, nergend wera, L. Prayer I, 3. 
 
 201. HcSlend is rare, being found twice, tower pan wuldres leoman, / 
 beam helendes, Sat. 86, and ymb preo niht com pegen hcelendes / ham to helle, 
 426. 
 
 202. We note here also rodera radend, Beow. 1555, Chr. Ill, B, 23, 
 stadolfcest styrend, And. 121, deoda rctswan, 1622, scyldend usser {Protector 
 noster), Ps. LXXXIII, 9, weoruda wilgiefa, Ph. 465, etc. 
 
 203. Dema and demend, used a few times. Ford on him is dema drihten 
 sylfa (quoniam Deus judex est), Ps. LXXIV, 6, cela dema god, Prayer I, 1, 
 hehstan demon, Jud. 4, se hehsta dema, 94, wuldres dema, 59. Dugufia 
 demend, And. 1189, Dceda demend, Beow. 181, God sceal on heofenum / 
 dceda demend, Gn. Cot. 36. 
 
 204. To show the fondness of OE. poets for kennings and the extreme 
 tendency to heap them, we note that in the 9 lines of Ccedmon's Hymn no 
 fewer than 8 occur, which with a single exception differ from one another, 
 heofonrices weard, meotodes meahte, wuldorfader, ece drihten, halig scyppend, 
 monncynnes weard, ece drihten, frea celmihtig. We select two other passages, 
 Dan. 331-3, pat pu ana eart ece drihten, / weroda waldend, woruldgesceajta, / 
 sigora settend, sodfast metod! and Met. XXIX, 79-83, he is weroda god, / 
 cyning and drihten swucera gehwelces, / awelm and fruma eallra gesceafta, / 
 wyrhta and sceppend weorulde pisse, / wisdom and a woruldbuendra. 
 
 V. Qualities 
 
 205. In giving here a number of the more important qualities of the 
 Deity, 35 we are fully aware that some of them are so closely associated with 
 
 34 Bode, Kenningar, p. 73, remarks: "Fur die drei Personen werden demnach dieselben 
 Kenningar gebraucht, mit Ausnahme einer weniger wie nergend. ..." His assertion, here 
 as also in other cases, is not borne out by the facts. Very few kennings are applied to the 
 third person of the Trinity. 
 
 35 For OHG. see Raumer, p. 342 ff., where a few of the qualities and gifts of the Deity 
 are discussed. For ON. compare Kahle, I, 378-80, II, 128-9, 137-9. 
 
71] THE DEITY 71 
 
 particular names as almost to become phrases. Many of them will 
 be found among the kennings in our list, but it seemed best to assemble 
 the terms for a few of the more important, though no attempt at com- 
 pleteness has been made. Qualities ascribed to the Godhead, the Father, 
 and the Son will appear, but the distinction has generally been indicated. 
 
 206. God is a spirit, as, ana ece gast, Dan. 627, godspedig gast, Gen. 
 1009. The fact that God is one is not seldom referred to. 
 
 207. God is ece and celmihtig, which qualities are often ascribed to him. 
 Sometimes both occur together, thus, du eca and du celmihtiga, Met. IV, 
 29, se eca and se odmihtiga, XI, 74, XX, 132. JElmihtig, / micel, modilic, 
 marpum gefrcege / and wunderlic witena gehwylcuml XX, 1-3, Zone miclan 
 drihten, Charm I, 26, felameahtigne feeder in heofonum, Az. 156, similarly 
 140; Nis nan mihtigra ne nan mar a / ne geond ealle pa gesceaft efnlica "din! 
 Met. XX, 18-19. Practically the same attributes are ascribed to Christ. 
 He is cyning on riht / wealdend and ivyrhta wuldorprymmes , / an ece god 
 eallra gesceafta, And. 324-6, ece Crist, Prayer IV, 55. Meotod celmihtig, 
 And. 902, anwealda celmihtig, Rood B, 153, celmihtig god, 156; ece celmihtig 
 cerist gefremede, Gu. 1073, ece celmihtig, And. 249, 365, El. 799, etc. 
 
 208. We have the statement God us ece bip: / ne wendad hine wyrda ne 
 hine wiht drecep Gn. Ex. 8-9, the Latin deus immutabilis. Geunwendnes , 
 L. immutabilitas , is found Ps. LXXVI, 9. The noun ecnes is used not 
 infrequently, especially in the Psalms, pu in ecnesse awa . . hehsta bist 
 (in aeternum), XCI, 7, pu in ecnysse wunast awa {in aeternum), CI, 10, 
 on ecnesse, Cr. 313, pcet we wuldres eard / in ecnesse agan mosten, 1204. 
 Here may also be noticed, and fie self wunast swide stille / unawendendlic a 
 ford simlel Met. XX, 16-17, se ana dema is gestceddig / Unawendendlic, 
 wlitig and mare, XXIV, 42-3. 
 
 209. Halig, applied to both God and Christ, is extremely common. 
 Referring to God, halig god, And. 14, 91, peer halig god / wid fcerbryne folc 
 gescylde, Ex. 71, se halga dry Men, Prayer IV, 1, halig is se halga heahengla 
 god, El. 750, etc. Said of Christ, Du eart sodlice simle halig, Hymn 36, 
 (clypiad to Criste, line 12) Halig eart pu, halig, heofonengla cyningc, L. 
 Prayer III, 13, halig eart pu halig heahengla brego, / sod sigores freal simle 
 pu bist halig, Cr. 403-4. Halignes is extremely rare. We find it in the 
 sense of sanctitas Ps. LXXXVIII, 32, while XCV, 6, it renders sanctimonia. 
 
 210. Sod is frequently applied to both God and Christ. Du soda god, 
 Met. XX, 51, sodne god, Rim. 87, sod cyning, Met. XX, 246. Referring 
 to Christ, we note only Ealapu soda andpu sibsuma, / ealra cyninga cyning, 
 
72 INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY ON OLD ENGLISH POETRY [72 
 
 Crist celmihtig! Cr. 214-15, etc. Sodfcest is often found, used of both God 
 and Christ. Sodfcest sylfa dryhten {rectus Dominus Deus noster), Ps. XCI, 
 14, drihten is so'dfcest (Justus), CXXVIII, 3; applied to Christ, sodfast 
 meotud, And. 386, sodfcsstne god, L. Prayer III, 54, sofifcest sigorbeorht, 
 Cr. 10, etc. The noun sodfcestnes, frequent in the Psalms, renders Veritas, 
 justitia, justificaiiones. Thus, Veritas Ps. LVI, 12, pine sofifcestnesse (jus- 
 titiae), LXX, 16, on pinre sodfcestnysse (justificationibus) , CXVIII, 16. 
 Outside of the Psalms we have it El. 1148, secean sofifcestnesse, / weg to 
 wuldre. 
 
 211. A term closely related is rihtnes, very rare in the Psalms. His 
 syndrig folc on rihtnesse rcede gebringed (in aequitate), XCVII, 9, (bebodu) 
 wurdan sofifceste and on rihtnysse roeda getrymede (facta in veritate et aequi- 
 tate), CX, 5. Here may also be noted rihtwlsnes, rectitudo, justitia, e.g., Ps. 
 LXXXVII, 12. 
 
 212. The benignity and liberality of God are frequently emphasized. 
 We note milde, as, milde meotod, Az. 90, se milda metod, Met. XXIX, 69; 
 of Christ, moncynnes milde scyppend, Cr. 417, swa we mildum wid fie, / 
 almihtigum gode oft abylgead, L. Prayer II, 21. Mildheort is seldom found 
 outside of the Psalms. In the examples we give other terms of a similar 
 character also occur. He ponne is mildheort and mandwcsre (misericors — 
 propitius),~LXX.'VII, 37 , Mildheort pu eart and mihtig, mode gepyldig, . . . 
 is pin milde mod mannum cyded (Miser ator et misericors Dominus: longani- 
 mus, et multum misericors), CII, 8, Mildheort is drihten and mannpware and 
 gepyldig eac, pearle mildheort (miserator — et misericors Dominus, patiens, 
 et multum misericors), CXLIV, 8. Mildheortnes is confined to the Psalms, 
 rendering the Latin misericordia. The term is not infrequent, occurring 
 for instance LXXXV, 12, CII, 11. 
 
 213 . Fremsum, L. benignus, is used a few times, pin milde mod mannum 
 fremsum (benigna est misericordia tua), Ps. LXVIII, 16, SyWS us fremsum 
 god fcegere drihten (Dominus dabit benignitatem) , LXXXIV, 11, fcestrced 
 and fremsum (bonus), CXXXIV, 3. Fremsumnes renders benignitas Ps. 
 LXIV, 12. 
 
 214. Fcele is not very frequent, pin eartjcele god (Deus), Ps. LXVI, 3, 
 Folc pe andettan jcelne drihten (Deus), 5, fcelum fader (-), LXXXVIII, 23, 
 fcele dryhten (Dominus), CXVII, 6, 7. 
 
 215. Living is not infrequent as an attribute. Lifiende god(-), Ps. 
 LXX, 8, lifigende god, (Deus), 16, Gefultuma us,frea celmihtig, and alys us, 
 lifigende god (Adjuva nos Deus salutaris noster: et propter gloriam nominis 
 tui Domine libera nos), LXXVIII, 9, lifgende god, Prayer IV, 18, Az. 78, 
 pu lignest nu, pcet sie lifgende, / se ofer deoflum dugupum wealded, Dan. 
 
73] THE DEITY 73 
 
 764-5, lifiendum gode, Soul 69, etc. Said of Christ, se lifgenda, Gu. 1072, 
 lifiende Crist, Ps. L. 126, Crist lifiend, Prayer III, 22, god lifigende, And. 
 1409, Sat. 574. 
 
 216. Famous is used sometimes. Mare god, Prayer IV, 4, pu eart 
 mare god and Jacobes god se nicer a (Deus Jacob), Ps. LXXXIII, 8; applied 
 to Christ, hu pu mare eart, mihtig drihten, Prayer III, 17, hu pu mcere eart, 
 mihtig and magenstrang, 21, din sunu mcere, Dox. 10, etc. We note further 
 bremen dryhten, Az. 116, 142, pees breman fader, Doom 296, applied to God; 
 referring to Christ, fram gebyrdtide breman cinges, Chr. Ill, A, 13. 
 
 217. Wise is used a few times, &at is wis cyning, Met. XSCIV, 34, 
 witig drihten, Beow. 1554, witig dryhten, Deor 32, wigtig drihten, Beow. 
 1841, witig god, Cr. 226; of Christ, sigefast and snottor, Har. 23, reH)e and 
 rihtwis, L. Prayer III, 63. 
 
 218. Humility is a number of times ascribed to Christ. Eafimod, Gu. 
 496, Cr. 255, purh eafimedu ealle biddafi, 359; apparently corresponding to 
 L. benignus, pu eart se miccla and se magenstranga / and se eadmoda ealra 
 goda, Prayer III, 39, swa pu eadmod eart ealre worlde, L. Prayer III, 57. 
 Applied to God, para eadmetta eardfeest, Met. VII, 38. 
 
 219. Purity is asserted of Christ, for instance, pat is se clana Crist, 
 drihten god, L. Prayer II, 17, pu eart cyning on riht / clane and craftig, Dox. 
 53, and it is also said of him, of grundum godbearn astag, / cyning clanra 
 gehwas, Cr. 702-3. 
 
 220. A number of terms may here conveniently be gathered together, 
 such as tirfast metod, Gen. 1044, domfast cyning, 2376, Az. 99, wuldorfast 
 cyning, 133, warfast metod, Gen. 1320, 1549, drfast, 2405, hu arfast is 
 ealles waldend, El. 512, the noun in the sense of mercy, pity, occurring 
 Hymn 23, de fly manscilde middangeardes / for pinre arfqstnesse ealle 
 towurpe (Christ). 
 
 221. Love, anger, etc., etc., are also ascribed to God, but these and 
 similar terms need no discussion here. 
 
 222. A few striking expressions referring to the Godhead or the Father 
 may follow here. Frifistol (refugium), a few times in the Psalms, as 
 LXXXIX, 1, similarly XCIII, 21. Dw eart sio birhtu . . . / sofies leohtes 
 and du self a eart / sio faste rast, . . . / eallra sofifastra, Met. XX, 269-72, 
 hiofones leohtes hlutre beorhto, XXI, 39, pat micle leoht / godes almihtiges, 
 42-3, fiat is sio sofie sunne mid rihte, XXX, 17. Dm eart self a weg / and 
 latteow eac lifgendra gehwas / and sio wlitige stow, pe se weg to lig"d, Met. 
 XX, 277-9. pu earce eart eallhaligra (tu et area sanctificationis tuae), Ps. 
 CXXXI, 8. Forpan fiti edest miht ealra laca, Prayer I, 6. 
 
74 INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY ON OLD ENGLISH POETRY [74 
 
 VI. Gifts 
 
 223. Many are the gifts bestowed upon man by the Deity, and refer- 
 ences to them are frequent. 36 Since the gifts of God and Christ are prac- 
 tically the same, and as no clear distinction is made in many cases, we shall 
 treat the whole subject here, pointing out, however, distinctive references. 
 
 224. We may open the discussion by quoting from Meters, where the 
 goodness of God is emphasized as also the fact that he is the author of all 
 good things. For gode godes, Met. Ill, 10, din goodness is, / celmihtig god, 
 eall mid de selfum, XX, 31-2, eart fie self a / pat hehste good, 45-6, awelm 
 . . . eallra gooda, 259, pone hlutrestan heofontorhtan stream, / adelne 
 cewelm celces goodes, XXIII, 3-4, pat hehste good on heahsetle / sited sylf 
 cyning, XXIX, 75-6. From the Psalms we note, se goda god(-), CV, 36, 
 ecne drihten pane goodan god {Domino quoniam bonus), CVI, 1, similarly 
 CXVII, 1, 2, etc. 
 
 225. Bletsian and gebletsian are comparatively frequent, especially in 
 the Psalms. We note only, gebletsige (benedicant) us, Hide drihten, and 
 usic god eac bletsige (benedicant) , Ps. LXVI, 6, pa he Noe / gebletsade, Gen. 
 1505. The noun is bletsung, as, brohte him bletsunge (benedictionem) , Ps. 
 LXXXIII, 7, bletsung (benedictio) , CXXVIII, 6, He onfon sceal / blisse 
 minre and bletsunge, Gen. 2331, poet nu bletsung mot bcem gem Gene / werum 
 and wifum (in Heaven), Cr. 100. 
 
 226. A word closely related is segnian and gesegnian. His wuduan ic 
 wordum bletsige and gesegnade (benedicens benedicam), Ps. CXXXI, 16, 
 applied to the ark, segnade earce innan agenum s pedum, Gen. 1365, referring 
 to Christ's blessing at the Judgment Day, gesenade / on edel faran engla 
 dreames, Cr. 1342. Segnung occurs Ps. CXXXI, 19, where (cymed) minra 
 segnunga sodfast blostma translates efflorebit sanctificatio mea. 
 
 227 '. Halu, f., in the sense of salutare, solus, is very common. Ece 
 hcelu (salutare), Ps. LII, 7, peer ic on pinre halo hyldo sohte (salutare), 
 CXVIII, 123, halo and frojre, And. 95, mid heortan halo secen, Cr. 752, 
 halo strynan, 1575, pare halo, pe he us to hyhte forgeaf, 613. Hal, fn., is also 
 frequently used. We note only, sawlum to hale, L. Prayer II, 16, Dis is 
 an hal earmre sawle (sola salus animae, 22), Doom 43, his (thief) hale 
 begeat and help recene (salutem 31), 62. The verbs halan and gehalan are 
 also used, the participle being often applied to Christ, as, halendne cyning, 
 Creed 10. 
 
 228. Alysnes will be discussed under redemption of Christ. Alysing 
 in the sense of redemption we have, He alysinge leojum jolce sode onsende 
 (redemptionem) , Ps. CX, 6. Alysend is applied to God, eart alysend min 
 
 86 For ON. see Kahle, II, p. 129, 139-40. 
 
75] THE DEITY 75 
 
 {liberator), Ps. LXIX, 7, alysend {redemptor), LXXVII, 34. Lysan, 
 dlysan, tolysan are not infrequently employed. Probably referring to the 
 Father, we have, sawle alysan, L. Prayer III, 4, eft hig alyse, / sawle of 
 synnum purh pine sod an miht, 7. For examples referring to Christ see 
 260. 
 
 229. Gifnes, favor, mercy, occurs only rarely. The examples are, 
 biddad sodfcestne god / are and gifnesse ealre peode, L. Prayer III, 55, simi- 
 larly are and gifnes, 110; Ac alys us of yfelel ealle we bepurfon / godes gif- 
 nesse, 114, all the examples probably referring to Christ. In much the 
 same sense forgifnes is used, as, (Christ gives) his forgifnesse guman to 
 helpe, Cr. 427, but in pu for gifnesse hcefst gearugne timan {veniae tempus, 34), 
 Doom 68, similarly 91, the meaning is rather forgiveness. The verbs 
 gifan, dgifan, and forgifan are common. Of forgifan in the sense of to 
 remit we note, Forgyf us, . . . gyltas and synna / and tire leahtras alet, 
 L. Prayer II, 19, forgef me, sceppen min (Christ), Ps. L. 45, adilga min 
 unriht / to forgefenesse gast minum, 36-7. As shown in the example above, 
 aldetan in the sense of to forgive occurs, also forlcttan, e.g., unriht pu forlete 
 (remisisti iniquitatem) , Ps. LXXXIV, 2; expressing an act on the part of 
 man, we note, swa swa we forlcetad leahtras on eorpan, / pam pe wid us oft 
 agyltad, L. Prayer II, 23. 
 
 230. Ar, I., in the sense of favor, mercy, is frequently found. Cymed 
 him seo ar of heofonum, Seaf. 107, are and gifnes, L. Prayer II, 110, Forgif 
 me to are, celmihtig god, / leoht on pis sum life, And. 76, ponne ic minre sawle 
 swegles bidde, / ece are, Prayer III, 4, arum bewunden, Soul 141, etc. 
 Closely related to ar is are, f., used for instance, Us is pinra arna pearf, 
 Cr. 255, ponne arna bipearf, Jul. 715, arena ic me bidde, Charm I, 25, etc. 
 
 231. Hyldo, f., favor, is found frequently. We note only, metodes 
 hyldo, Beow. 670, pa heo ahte mceste pearf e / hyldo pees hehstan deman, Jud. 
 4, hyldo dine {miser icordiae) , Ps. LXXVIII, 8. Hyld, m., in the sense of 
 protection, favor, we have, halige heapas on hild godes, Ex. 568, halgum 
 gas turn, pe his hyld curon, Dan. 481, etc. 
 
 232. Mundbyrd, f., protection, occurs several times, as, heo "dar da 
 gearwe funde I mundbyrd cet dam mceran peodne, Jud. 3, ic pe fride healde, / 
 minre mundbyrde mccgene besette, And. 1433, etc. 
 
 233. Frofor, consolation, is extremely common. Him fr of re gehet, Jul. 
 639 , frofre findan (at Judgment), Cr. 801, hcebbe ic ponne / cet frean frofre, 
 Prayer IV, 47. The Holy Spirit is frofre gast, which is also applied to God 
 and Christ. Referring to the latter, we have, poet is frofre gast hceleda cynne, 
 And. 906, Du eart on heofonum hiht and frofor, / blissa beorhtost, L. Prayer 
 III, 9. Heah higefrofre, Dox. 13, may not refer to the Son, but to halig 
 gast immediately following, while in line 8 it is said of the first person, 
 
76 INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY ON OLD ENGLISH POETRY [76 
 
 pu eart frofra feeder. ' We note further Beow. 698, where God gives frofor 
 and fultum, and Men. 226-8, feeder engla / his sunu sende on pas sidan 
 ge see aft / f oleum to fr of re, similar statements occurring often. We have 
 also, pa me pine frofre fcegere, drihten, gesibbedan sawle mine [consolationes 
 tuae laetificaverunt animam meam), Ps. XCIII, 18. 
 
 234. Milds, milts, f., mercy, compassion, is very common, used of both 
 God and Christ, pe sie ealles pone / meorda and miltsa, para pu me seal- 
 dest, Prayer IV, 67, nergende cyning, / meotud, for pinre miltse, 50, Oft him 
 anhaga are gebided, / metudes miltse, Wand. 2. Of Christ, peer is help 
 gearu, / milts, And. 908, pu miltse on us / gecyd, Cr. 156, pine miltse her / 
 arfeest ywe, 244, ealra pinra mildsa / . . . fremde weordan, L. Prayer II, 
 29, biddan wylle / miltse pinre, Jud. 85. Referring to God, for meenigeo 
 miltsa pinra (multitudinem miser ationum tuarum), Ps. LXVIII, 16, eefler 
 his miltsa menigu godes (secundum multitudinem misericordiae suae), CV, 
 34, peet eow mihtig god miltse gecydde, Ex. 292, pect we gesine ne syn godes 
 peodscipes, / metodes miltsa, 529, etc. Mildsian and gemildsian are rather 
 common. We note only, (Christ) mildsa nu, meahtig, manna cynne, 
 Hymn 33, He pinum mandeedum miltsade eallum (cui propitiatur omnibus 
 iniquitatibus tuts), Ps. CII, 3. 
 
 235. Lis, lids, f., grace, favor, is often used. Eow Uffrean lissa bidde, 
 Ex. 271, Us is lissa pearf / peet pu us ahredde, Cr. 373, pancode swide / lifes 
 leohtfruman lisse and ara, Gen. 1889, etc., etc. 
 
 236. Fri~d, mn., peace, protection, fairly frequent. On frifie drihtnes, 
 Dan. 438, ac him frid drihtnes / . . . gescylde, 466, on frid dryhtnes, 
 And. 1034, pone halgan heap helpe bidde, / f rides and fultomes, Ap. 91, etc. 
 Freod, f., favor, peace, not very frequent, peer bid symle gearu / freod 
 unhwilen, And. 1154, etc. Freodo, f., peace, favor, security, not very fre- 
 quent. Utan us to feeder freopa wilnian, Cr. 773, Ic (Christ) .eow freod o 
 healde, And. 336, etc. 
 
 237. As in the case of the attributes of the Deity, this list is not intended 
 to be exhaustive. It could be extended considerablv by the enumeration 
 of all the blessings and favors bestowed upon man. Little would be gained 
 by such a procedure, while in many cases it would involve unnecessary 
 repetition. Therefore only the more important and characteristic terms 
 have been included in our list. 
 
 VII. Christ 
 
 238. In order to render the Hebrew J? ! )&'' ) the Greeks either adopted 
 IrjcroO; or translated it by ocottip, while Latin similarly has Jesus and salva- 
 
77] THE DEITY 77 
 
 tor. OHG. and ON. 37 follow these languages in using both the proper name 
 and a translation, but OE. employs only a translation, namely heel end, 
 substantive form of the past participle of hcelan, OS. having heland, OHG. 
 hellant, all of which go back to the OTeut. *hailjan, to heal, save. 38 Regard- 
 ing the giving of the name it is said Men. 4, (Crist wees acennyd, 1) on py 
 eahteodan deeg / heelend gehaten heofonrices weard. The name is rather 
 frequent in the poetry. We note only, poet fin heelend eart / middangeardes, 
 El. 808-9, du eart sigefest sunu and soft helend, Hymn 16, heelend, Ph. 650, 
 Judg. 64, se gehalgoda heelend, Cr. 435, drihten heelend, Sat. 219, Prayer III, 
 24, similarly And. 541; heelend god, Cr. 383, Sat. 493, Prayer III, 9. We 
 also find the juxtaposition heelend Crist, Cr. 358, as also the combination 
 halende Crist, 250, Ph. 590. 
 
 239. However, much more common is Crist, 39 used in the poetry as a 
 proper name, though crlst in its etymological sense occurs a few times in 
 the Psalms, the passages to be discussed in 243. The Old Testament 
 employs TWJ12i tne anointed one, in order to designate the promised 
 Messiah, while the New Testament either adopts the term as Mecaias 
 or translates it by 6 Xpioros. Then it passes into Latin as Christus. The 
 other Germanic dialects also have taken over the word, each of course 
 subjecting it to its sound laws. 40 
 
 240. We note a few examples of the exceedingly frequent term, the 
 quotations given emphasizing by a modifier the peculiar function attri- 
 buted. Nergendne Crist, Sat. 346, nergende Crist, Gu. 570, Sat. 570, 
 neriende Crist, L. Prayer II, 4, with a change in the word order, Crist / 
 nergend, Hymn 39, Crist nergende, Cr. 157, Crist nerigende, L. Prayer II, 
 28. Here may also be noted such occurrences as waldend Crist, Doom 52, 
 pone ahangnan Crist, El. 797, etc. 
 
 241. In OE. poetry Christ occupies a very prominent place, appearing 
 also in poems dealing with the Old Testament history, as, sod sunu metodes, 
 sawla nergend, Dan. 402, Crist cyning, Az. 103, pone sofian sunu, 157, ac hy 
 Crist scilde, 165. 
 
 37 Regarding terms etc. referring to Christ in OHG. compare Raumer, p. 354 ff., for ON. 
 see Kahle, I, 382 ff., II, 129 ff. 
 
 38 Raumer, p. 355 ff., NED. under healend. 
 
 39 Kluge, Paul's Grundriss, 2. Aufiage, I, p. 929, remarks: "Audi das I von ae. Crist 
 deutet im Zusammenhange mit der eben vorgefiihrten kirchlichen Terminologie auf air. 
 Crist," but p. 359, Anm.: "Das Wort Christus haben die Germanen in der lateinisch- 
 romanischen Form Cristus als angels. Crist ubernommen. " See also MacG., p. 19, and p. 20, 
 note 1, Morsbach's remark on MacG.'s note that he has never found in the MSS. any marks of 
 length in the case of derivatives, "If this is really the case, we may assume shortness of vowel 
 in O.E. Crist, cristen, &c. and explain the M.E. and N.E. lengthenings through French 
 influence. " 
 
 40 Raumer, pp. 359-60. 
 
78 INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY ON OLD ENGLISH POETRY [78 
 
 242. A peculiar phenomenon is to be noticed in the Psalms. In Ps. 
 L. (Cottoniana) Christ seems to have occupied the place of God. His name 
 is inserted, though there is not the slightest warrant for it in the Vulgate. 
 David is called Criste liofost, line 3, to whom he also prays, (ic) helende 
 Crist helpe bidde, 50. In 126 we have lifiende Crist, which is entirely on a 
 par with god lifiende, 134, etc., and similar terms. The Savior is addressed 
 dryhten Crist, line 88. The other occurrences are, pat hio cerrende Criste 
 herdon, 56, ponne ic geclansod Criste hero, 74, and mefitig god mannum to 
 frofre / 15ces cynedomes Crist neriende / waldende god weordne munde, 149. 
 
 243. In the other Psalms a similar fact may be observed, though per- 
 haps it is less striking on account of the isolated cases. A few times the 
 word is used in the sense of anointed, rendering the Latin christus. Thus, 
 oncnaw onsyne cristes pines (respice in faciem christi tui), LXXXIII, 9; 
 applied to David, pu ponne widsoce sopum criste and hine forhogodest 
 (distulisti christum tuum), LXXXVIII, 32, similarly faste atwitafi and 
 pat pinum criste becwepafi swide (christi tui) , 44, as also here for minum 
 criste gecorenum (christo meo), CXXXI, 18. While there is thus a warrant 
 in the Vulgate for the OE. rendering, the same cannot be said of the other 
 occurrences. The author of the poetic version of the Psalms has in a 
 characteristic manner transferred Christ to the Old Testament. We read, 
 on ciricean Crist drihten god bealde bletsige (In ecclesiis benedicite Deo 
 Domino), LXVII, 24, and gecyr us georne to fie, Crist almihtig, LXXXIV, 
 5, renders Converte nos Deus salutaris noster. Halynde Crist has been 
 inserted CVIII, 25, being on a par with drihten god just preceding. We 
 note, do me cufilice halne, heahcyning, heofona wealdend, hcelende Crist, 
 CXVIII, 146, the passage showing the synonyms. In CXXXIII, 2, and 
 CXXXIV, 2, Dei is rendered by Cristes, for we read on cafertunum Cristes 
 huses (in atriis domus Dei nostri). Finally, on cyrcean cristenes folces, CVI, 
 31, renders in ecclesia plebis. 
 
 244. In addition to halend and Crist, the term Emmanuhel is once 
 applied to Christ, Cr. 132. 
 
 245. At this point we shall take up the life of Christ during his sojourn 
 on the earth, the work of redemption and reconciliation, followed by a 
 discussion of the names and figures which are applied to him. 
 
 246. All the important phases of Christ's life upon the earth are treated 
 in the poetry to a greater or less extent. Only the main points will be 
 considered by us. His coming to the earth is sometimes spoken of as the 
 sending of God, Men. 226-7, at other times as Christ's decision and will 
 to become man, pu fore monna lufan pinre modor bosm / sylfa gesohtes, 
 sigedrihten god, Har. 110-11, similarly Ap. 27-8, Cr. 445-6, etc. He was 
 conceived by the Holy Ghost, peer halig gast handgift sealde / pare famnan, 
 
79] THE DEITY 79 
 
 Creed 18, and Invocation 13 tells that Christ was born (purh Marian, 12) 
 purh pcene halgan gast. No specific word for the L. incarnatio appears, 
 which is paraphrased, as for instance, nu eft geweard / flcesc firena leas, 
 Cr. 122-3, etc. Eacnung, properly increase, is once used for conception, 
 Cr. 75. Christ's sinlessness is often referred to, so especially regarding 
 his conception and birth, mennisc hiw / onfeng butan firenum, Cr. 721-2, 
 onfeng at famnan flcesc unwemme, 418, he of adelre wees uirginis partu / 
 clcene acenned Christus in orbem, Invocation 10-11, etc., God wees mid us / 
 gesewen butan synnum, Cr. 124-5, sunu synna leas, El. 777, etc. The birth- 
 place is mentioned several times, so Charm V, A, 3, Badleem hatte seo 
 buruh, pe Crist acanned wees, similarly Creed 23-4; Charm V, B, 3, Bethlem 
 hatta seo burh, de Crist on geboren wes. Mary, his mother, is often men- 
 tioned, as for instance, his modor eac Marian sylfe / almihtig god, Rood B, 
 92-3, etc. To Christ's life in Nazareth refers El. 912-13, se de in Nazared 
 afeded was. u 
 
 247. Of other events in the life of Christ may be mentioned the betrayal 
 of Judas, to which a reference is found Sat. 575-6, {Judas) se de cer on tifre 
 torhtne gesalde / drihten hcelend. 
 
 248. Very many references are made to the suffering, the passion of 
 Christ. The term used is prowung, which occurs a few times, frean pro- 
 winga, Cr. 1130, dryhtnes prowinga, 1180, purh his prowinga, 470, and 
 dinra drowunga, Hymn 28. The verb is prowian, e.g., Da se Pontisca 
 Pilatus weold / . . . / pa se deorafrea dead prow ade, Creed 27, etc. polian 
 is also used, as, (on the cross) wite polade, Cr. 1452. Among other things 
 we note the crown of thorns, mentioned twice in Christ, ymb his heafod 
 heardne gebigdon / beag pyrn&nne, 1126-7, and pa hi hwcesne beag / ymb 
 min heafod heardne gebygdon, / pream biprycton, se wees of pornum geworht, 
 1444-6. The crucifixion itself, for which no noun is encountered, takes 
 place on Calurie, El. 672, cefter stedewange, hwcer seo stow sie/ Calurie, 675-6, 
 on pa dune, 717, of dam wangstede, 793. Hon and dhon, to suspend, are 
 used in the sense of to crucify, thus, (godes agen beam) purh hete hengon on 
 heanne beam, El. 424, dhon being more common, hwcer ahangen wees . . . / 
 on rode treo rodera waldend, El. 205-6, pcet hie god sylfne / ahengon, 209-10, 
 Pilatus eer on rode aheng rodera waldend, Jul. 305, etc. It is said that the 
 crucifixion took place with the consent of the Father, (prowode) meotud 
 on galgan / be feeder leafe, Men. 86-7. 
 
 249. The word for cross is rod, also treo etc. It should be noticed that 
 galga is often used interchangeably with rod, treo, etc. The Anglo-Saxons, 
 being unacquainted with crucifixion, substituted the term for hanging. 42 
 
 41 Curiously enough, Grein, Dichtungen, p. 128, translates, "der geboren war in Naza- 
 reth." 
 
 42 For OHG. see Raumer, p. 362, and note 15, p. 363, where he remarks: "Im Gothischen 
 ist galga der gewohnliche Ausdruck fur aravpos. " For ON. compare Kahle, II, p. 145 f. 
 
80 INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY ON OLD ENGLISH POETRY [80 
 
 So we have for instance, pa ic mid Judeum gealgan pehte, / rod was arared, 
 And. 966-7, hine rode befealg, /pat he on gealgan his gast onsende, 1326-7. 
 In Elene especially galga occurs frequently, e.g., hu on galgan wear15 godes 
 agen beam / ahangen, 179. At other times we have rod, not infrequently 
 both terms occurring in the same sentence. The same fact may be observed 
 where the crucifixion of others than Christ is related, as, Sume ic rode 
 befealh, /pat hi hyra dreorge on hean galgan / lif aletan, Jul. 481-3. Here 
 a few further occurrences of the frequent term galga may be given. On 
 galgum, Sat. 511, on galgan, 550, he wolde on galgu gestiga, Rood A, 2, on 
 gealgan heanne, Rood B, 40, fracodes galga, 10. We also have on pam 
 gealgtreowe, 146. 
 
 250. The cross is mentioned very often in OE. poetry, a whole poem, 
 Elene, being devoted to the finding of the cross of Christ, while the Dream 
 of the Rood shows how important a part the cross played in the life of the 
 people. 43 Besides, there are numerous references to it in other poems. 
 We are told that St. Guthlac him to atstalle cerest ararde, / Cristes rode, 150- 
 1, at the Judgment there is seo hea rod, Cr. 1065, mentioned also 1085 ff., 
 1102, rincas at pare rode, Judg. 105. In the Dream of the Rood the invoca- 
 tion of the cross is plainly shown, gebiddap him to pyssum beacne, B, 83, 
 Gebced ic me pa to pan beame, 122, ac durh da rode sceal rice gesecan / of 
 eardwege aghwyle sawl, 119-20. We have a compound in hiera winrod 
 lixan, I sodfastra segn, Sal. 235. 
 
 251. In order to show the wealth of expressions for the cross, we note 
 the more important kennings. 44 
 
 252. Rod, f., originally having the sense of L. virga, pertica, is used in 
 OE. poetry for cross. Sio halige rod, El. 720, 1011, 1223, sio reade rod, Cr. 
 1102, pare deorestan dagweordunga / rode under roderum, El. 1233-4, 
 dryhtnes rod, Rood B, 136, afielcyninges rod, El. 219, Cristes rode, 103, And. 
 1337. 
 
 253. Trio, n. pat halige treo, El. 107, 442, 701, 840, etc., pat halige 
 triow I dinre "drowunga, Hymn 27-8, pat wlitige treo, El. 165, syllicre treow, 
 Rood B, 4, pat mare treo, El. 214; halendes treow, Rood B, 25, wuldres treo, 
 El. 827, 866, similarly 1251, Rood B, 14; lifes treow, El. 664, similarly 706, 
 1026; wealdes treow, Rood B, 17, on rode treowe, Ph. 643, on rode treo, El. 
 206, 855, Jul. 447, his rode treo, El. 147. 
 
 254. Beam is also fairly common. On heanne beam, El. 424, ic was 
 ahongen on heanne beam / rode gefastnad, Cr. 1447, pone afielan beam, El. 
 1073, apelust beama, Men. 84, pone halgan beam, Cr. 1094, on fid blacne 
 
 43 Regarding the place of the cross among the Anglo-Saxons and its veneration, see 
 Stevens, W. O., The Cross in the Life and Literature of the Anglo-Saxons, New York, 1904. 
 
 44 A few are given by Bode, Kenningar, pp. 86-7. Rankin names some IX, p. 62. 
 
81] THE DEITY 81 
 
 beam bundan fceste, Judg. 66, se leohta beam, Cr. 1090, pone beorhtan beam, 
 El. 1254, beama beorhtost, Rood B, 6, mcerost beama, El. 1012, 1224, also 
 se wuldres beam, El. 217. Of compounds we note sigebeam, Rood B, 13, 
 in the dat. sing., El. 420, 444, 860, sigebeamas .III., El. 846, selest sigebeama, 
 1027. Regarding the cross Constantine saw in the dream it is said, Geseah 
 he frcetwum beorht / wliti wuldres treo ofer wolcna hrof, / golde geglengefi : 
 gimmas lixtan; / wees se blaca beam bocstafum awriten / beorhte ond leohte, 
 El. 88-92. This serves as the pattern of the cross he causes to be made. 
 
 255. Of other kennings we add beacen, sign, pcet fuse beacen, Rood 
 B, 21, beacna beorhtast, Cr. 1086, beacna selest, Rood B, 118, beacen godes, 
 El. 109. Of compounds sigebeacen sod, El. 887, in the dat. sing. 168, 665, 
 1256, selest sigebeacna, 974, sigorbeacen, 984. Tdcen, sign. Meere tacen, 
 And. 1338, tacna torhtost, El. 164, sigores tacen, 85. In El. 790 the cross 
 is called pcet goldhord. 
 
 256. The nails of the cross are mentioned several times in Elene, 1064 ff. 
 and 1112-14, where they are characterized, swylce heofonsteorran / ofide 
 god gimmas. 
 
 257. Christ's descent into hell receives a large share of attention in 
 OE. poetry, one whole piece, the Harrowing of Hell, being entirely devoted 
 to that subject. In other poems it is also mentioned. No specific term to 
 denote the descent has been encountered, and the subject need not detain 
 us here. We note only, ymb preo niht com pegen hcelendes / ham to helle, 
 Sat. 426-7. 
 
 258. Resurrection is expressed by cerist, mfn., a word comparatively 
 rare. We find, drihtnes cerist, Men. 58, ece eelmihtig cerist gefremede, Gu. 
 1073, pinum ceriste, Har. 121. The verb is arlsan. The resurrection of 
 Christ is variously expressed, thus, pees pe drihten god of deade aras, Sat. 
 516, he py priddan dcege / . . . lif eft onfeng / pur h feeder fultum, Ph. 644-6, 
 du of deafie hine / swa prymlice, peoda waldend, / aweahte for weorodum, 
 El. 779-81, open wees pcet eorficern, cepelinges lie / onfeng feores gcest, Har. 
 19-20, hagosteald onwoc / modig from moldan, 21-2. 
 
 259. In order to express ascension we have once only stlge, m., drihtnes 
 stige J on heofonas up, Men. 64. Upstige is also rare, cet his upstige, Cr. 
 615, cefter upstige ecan dryhtnes, 711. A number of times the verb is 
 employed, Gesegon hi on heahpu hlaford stigan, / godbearn of grundum, Cr. 
 498, etc., cerpon upstige ancenned sunu, 464. 
 
 260. Christ says, da mec ongon hreowan (that man should be lost), Cr. 
 1415, and pa me gereaw, pcet min handgeweorc / carcernes clom drowade, 
 Sat. 489-90. Redemption was the purpose of his work upon earth. To 
 that end he performed miracles, wundor, pa pe worhte weoroda dryhten / to 
 
82 INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY ON OLD ENGLISH POETRY [82 
 
 feorhnere fira cynne, El. 896-7. The subject of wundor is treated at some 
 length And. 569 ff . This work of redemption, mainly accomplished through 
 vicarious suffering, is expressed in different ways. It is suffering for the 
 sins of mankind, pas he on pone halgan beam ahongen wees /fore moncynnes 
 manforwyrhtu, Cr. 1094-5, pat he for alda lufan / firenfremmendra fela 
 prowade, 1117-18, se Hie almihtig god on prowode / for mancynnes mane gum 
 synnum / and Adomes ealdgewyrhtum, Rood B, 98-100, cer prowode / on 
 pam gealgtreowe for guman synnum, 145-6, and somewhat varying, peer he 
 earfepu / gepolade fore pearfe peodbuendra, Cr. 1172-5. It is a saving, a 
 rescuing from sin, devil, and hell, nerian, generian, lysan and alysan being 
 used, pat hi frea nerede / fram hellcwale halgum meahtum / alwalda god, 
 Cr. 1189-91, pat pu of deofles purh pat / nydgewalde genered wurde, 1450-51; 
 pa he wolde mancyn lysan, Rood B, 41, fram ligewale lysan pohte, El. 296, 
 also hu se sylfa cyning / mid sine lichoman lysde of firenum (that sinners 
 might live), Cr. 1209-10, alysde leoda beam of locan deojla, / geomre gastas, 
 El. 181-2, pe ic alysde me / feondum of faff me, Cr. 1485-6, and pas de pu 
 us milde mihtum alysdest / fram haftnyde hellewites, L. Prayer II, 35-6. 
 Onlysan and tolysan are also found. 
 
 261. Occasionally redemption is represented as buying, as the payment 
 of a ransom. Thus, folc generedes, / Mode gebohtest beam Israela, Hymn 
 25-6, (hafad wulf) pin eowde / wide towrecene, pat flu waldend ar / blode 
 gebohtes, Cr. 257-9, and pe mine deade deore gebohte / pat longe lif, 1463-4. 
 Besides byegan and gebyegan, ceapian is also found, par he leoflice lifes 
 ceapode / . . . / mid py weor'Se, pe no worn dyde / his lichoma leahtra 
 firena, / mid py usic alysde, Cr. 1096, and once also we meet with gecypan, 
 lif pat scyne, / pat ic pe for lufan mid mine lichoman J heanum to helpe 
 hold gecypte, 1472. 
 
 262. Redemption is also conceived of as the routing of the devil, as 
 for instance, de fiy manscilde middangeardes / for pinre arfe.stnesse ealle 
 towurpe, I fiond geflamdest, Hym 23-5. 
 
 263. It was the object of Christ to effect a reconciliation between God 
 and man, and to end the existing enmity. The word employed is gepingian, 
 gepingade peodbuendum / wid fader swasne fahpa maste / cyning anboren, 
 Cr. 616. In the sense of to reconcile it is also used of St. Juliana, pat me 
 seo halge wid pone hyhstan cyning / gepingige, Jul. 717. It may also denote 
 intercession, as Cr. 342, where the Virgin Mary is emplored, Gepinga us 
 nu pristum wordum. . . . pingian is also employed in the sense of inter- 
 cession. Thus it is said of Stephen, ac his ealdfeondum / pingode prohtherd, 
 El. 494, and Christ himself remarks, Ic eow pingade, Sat. 509. Applied to 
 David we have, to 'dingienne piodun sinum, Ps. L. 7, similarly 26 and 146. 
 
 264. Christ is god. So it is said of him, pis is se ilea ealwalda god, / 
 
83] THE DEITY 83 
 
 done on fyrndagum fcederas cudon, And. 751-2, being directly identified 
 with the God of the Old Testament, further, pat pu eart sylfa god, / ece 
 ordfruma ealra gesceafta, Sat. 441, pat hie god sylfne / ahengon, El. 209-10, 
 God was mid us / gesewen butan synnum, Cr. 124-5, Nu is rodera weard / 
 god sylfa mid us, 134-5, etc. We add a few terms which recall passages 
 from the Creeds or seem to be approximations. Swa pu god of gode gearo 
 acenned, Cr. 109, butan anginne, 111, efenece mid god, 122, efeneardige mid 
 pinne engan frean, 237, efenwesende in pam apelan ham, 350, efenece beam 
 agnum feeder, 465. In some of these cases the attributes are applied to him 
 though at the same time he is called the Son. 
 
 265. A number of kennings 45 appear, of which we cite the more charac- 
 teristic. Nergende god, Cr. 361, waldende god, 1011, lifigende god, 273, 
 similarly L. Prayer III, 25; god lifigende, And. 1409, lifigende god, L. Prayer 
 III, 101, mihtig god, Cr. 1008, 1171, ozlmihtigne god, Rood B, 60, almihti 
 god, And. 260, similarly Rood B, 92; sodfastne god, L. Prayer III, 54, simi- 
 larly 115; pone ahangnan god, El. 687. Drihten god, And. 1281, Sat. 516, 
 L. Prayer II, 18, god drihten, And. 897, gcesta god, Cr. 130, engla god, L. 
 Prayer III, 122, weoroda god, Cr. 407, ealwalda god, And. 751, 925, wealdend 
 god, El. 4. 
 
 266. Christ is the sunu. Sunu meotodes, Sat. 143, 173, soft sunu meo- 
 tudes, El. 461, haligne godes sunu, Sat. 528, beorhtne sunu, Cr. 205, ancenned 
 sunu, 464, waldendes sunu, Sat. 119, sunu sopan feeder, Cr. 110. Godes 
 gastsunu, El. 673, similarly Cr. 660, 861. 
 
 267. Another term used is beam,* 6 very frequent with godes, metodes, 
 waldendes, etc. Godes agen beam, Sat. 10, godes ece beam, And. 747, 
 efenece beam, Cr. 465, efeneadig beam, Hymn 21, adelust bearna, El. 476, 
 da beorhtan beam, 782. Godbeam, And. 640, Cr. 499, 682, 702, etc., simi- 
 larly Ph. 647; frumbeam, Cr. 507, frumbeam godes, Sat. 470, freobeam, 
 Creed 43, freobeam godes, Sat. 289, Cr. 643, 788, cyninges freobeam, El. 672, 
 rodera weard / at frymffe genom him to freobeame, Cr. 223, cynebeam, And. 
 566, cynebeam gecydd cwycum and deadum, / apele and ece ofer ealle pingc, 
 L. Prayer III, 117, wuldres cynebeam, Men. 159/ halubeam, Cr. 586, 
 hcelobeam, 754, sigebeam godes, El. 481, 862, Har. 32, etc., celmihtig / 
 sigebeam godes, El. 1146. 
 
 268. In order to emphasize both the human and the divine nature in 
 
 46 Bode in his Kenningar, p. 79 ff., has included those belonging to the Son in the ken- 
 nings for "Gott," so that only in a few cases one is able to make any distinction. Rankin, 
 Kennings, may be compared under headings such as "God as Son," "God as Savior," etc. 
 He also does not clearly distinguish between the persons. 
 
 46 Rankin, Kennings, VIII, p. 419, remarks: "It is noteworthy that beam occurs far 
 more frequently than sunu, which apparently was a word of more commonplace and prosaic 
 connotation. " 
 
84 INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY ON OLD ENGLISH POETRY [84 
 
 Christ, the author of the Christ states that fact in {somod eardedon) mihtig 
 meotudes beam and se tnonnes sunu, 126. 
 
 269. Although Christ is the Son, he is also a few times identified with 
 the Father. Thus, feeder frumsceafta, Cr. 472, pa he on rode astag, /feeder, 
 frofre gcest, 728, (ponne Crist sited, etc.) on heahsetle heofonmagna god, / 
 feeder celmihtig, 1219. He is also called feeder mancynnes, And. 1465, Ap. 29, 
 feeder folca gehwees, And. 330, frumweorca feeder, And. 804. Curiously- 
 enough, we find in L. Prayer III, 42-3, the bold statement, pu eart sunu and 
 feeder / ana cegper. 
 
 270. Christ dwelt before his incarnation with the Father in glory. 
 Ic wolde towerpan wuldres leoman, / beam helendes, Sat. 85-6, and dees ic 
 wolde of selde sunu meotodes, / drihten adrifian, 173-4, the chief of the fallen 
 angels confesses, but Crist heo afirde, 67. He took part in the creation, 
 as it is said of him, pu eart seo snyttro,pepas sidan gesceaft / mid pi waldende 
 worhtes ealle, Cr. 239-40, and he himself says, Snotre gastasl / ic eow purh 
 mine mihte geworhte, Sat. 471-2. Such statements as the following also 
 occur, waldend and wyrhta wuldorprymmes , / an ece god eallra gesceafta, 
 And. 702-3, ah him alles gewald, / wuldres and wita waldendes sunu, Sat. 
 118-9, pcet he ana is ealra gescefta / wyrhta and waldend purh his wuldres 
 crceft, 584-5. Thus Christ is scyppend, a term frequently applied to him. 
 We note such phrases as scippend ealra, El. 370, ealra worulda scippend, 
 Prayer III, 23, gasta scyppend, Sat. 244, engla scippend, And. 278, similarly 
 Sat. 535, 563; hcelepa scyppend, Cr. 266, moncynnes milde scyppend, 417, 
 manna scyppend, And. 486, similarly Har. 109; scyppend wera, And. 
 787, etc. 
 
 271. Fruma is not infrequently found. Fymweorca fruma, Cr. 579, 
 ealles folces fruma, Har. 29, 41, ealra folca fruma, Cr. 516; ece eadfruma, 
 532, lifes leohtfruma, Gu. 565, And. 387, liffruma, El. 335, And. 1284, etc., 
 torhtes tirfruman, Cr. 206, engla ordfruma, Sat. 659, Ap. 28, cepelne ord- 
 fruman ealra gesceafta, Cr. 402, eades ordfruma, 1199, dugu'Sa dcedfruma, 
 And. 75. 
 
 272. Metod, as in the case of the Father, is extremely frequent, practi- 
 cally the same kennings being employed for each. Middangeardes meoiud, 
 Judg. 65, mcegencyninga meotud, Cr. 943, meotud mancynnes , And. 69, 446, 
 Sat. 515, etc., etc. 
 
 273. Cyning is very common. We note only, pone ahangnan cyning, 
 El. 453, 933, ahof ic ricne cyning, / heofona hlaford, Rood B, 44, cyning 
 anboren, El. 392, Cr. 618, Israhela cining, El. 799, cining cwicera gehwees, 
 And. 912, hcelepa cyning, Cr. 372, ealra kyninga kyning, Crist lifiend, Prayer 
 III, 22, similarly Sat. 205, And. 978, Jul. 289, Cr. 136, 215, etc.; repust 
 ealra cyninga, Har. 36, selast ealra cyninga, 117, cyninga wuldor, El. 5. 
 
85] THE DEITY 85 
 
 Wuldorcyning, Sat. 115, weoroda wuldorcyning, Cr. 161, heofena heah- 
 cyning, L. Prayer II, 15, similarly Cr. 1340; heofena heahkyning, Prayer 
 III, 50, heofenes heahcyning, Cr. 150, rodorcyninges, El. 886, Cr. 727, 
 adelcyninges, El. 219, pryflcining, And. 436, sigora sodcyning, Cr. 1229. 
 
 274. Twice we have encountered cdsere and once rex. pu gewurdod 
 eart / on heofonrice, heah casere, L. Prayer III, 60, caseres lof, Ph. 634. 
 Him weard ece rex, / meotud milde, god mihla waldend, El. 1042. 
 
 275. Dryhten is very frequent as an appellation of the Son. A few of 
 the large number of examples may find a place here. Dryhten ealra, El. 
 187, dryhten hcelend, And. 1407, dryhtna drihten, 874, dryhtna dryhten, Cr. 
 405. Of compounds we note only freodrihten, Sat. 547, sod sigedrihten, 
 L. Prayer II, 34. 
 
 276. Frea is very frequent. Frea moncynnes, Har. 33, etc., waldend 
 frea, Cr. 328, sod sigora frea, El. 488, fyrnweorca frea, And. 1410, frea folca 
 gehwces, Hymn 20; liffrea, Cr. 15, 27, etc., heofona heahfrea, 253, 424. 
 
 277. peoden is not very frequent, peoden, And. 696, rice peoden, And. 
 364, 415, peoden prymfcest, 323, prymfcest peoden, Cr. 944, And. 323, engla 
 peoden, Cr. 791, 290, 900. 
 
 278. Wealdend and weard are frequently found, while hldford seems 
 more often applied to Christ than to the Father. Hlaford, Cr. 498, rede 
 and rihtwis, rumheort hlaford, L. Prayer III, 63, hlaford eallra, / engla and 
 elda, El. 475-6, heofona hlaford, Rood B, 45. 
 
 279. JEdeling is sometimes applied to Christ. Aipeling, Cr. 448, wul- 
 dres (Bpeling, Cr. 158, cedelinges lie, Har. 3, 19, cepelinga ord, Cr. 515, 
 adelinga ord, El. 393, etc. 
 
 280. Agend, not very frequent. Sigores agend, Cr. 420, 513, lifes agend, 
 471, swegles agend, 543, wuldres agend, 1198. 
 
 281. Helm. Helm wera, El. 475, helm alwihta, Cr. 274, 410, adelinga 
 helm, And. 277, 623, 655, haligra helm, Cr. 529, heofona helm, Har. 34, 
 heofonrices helm, Cr. 566, etc. 
 
 282. Hyrde. Halig hyrde, Gu. 761, j 'ram gebyrdtide bremes cinges, / 
 leohta hyrdes, Chr. Ill, A, 12, prymmes hyrde, El. 858, rices hyrde, And. 807. 
 
 283. Ldreow, a number of times. Lareow, And. 1321, lifes lareow, 
 1466, boca lareow, Dox. 12. 
 
 284. Latteow, a. few times. Lifes lattiow, El. 520, 898, pees latteowes 
 larum hyre, Gu. 335, etc. 
 
86 INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY ON OLD ENGLISH POETRY [86 
 
 285. Compounds of giefa. Sawla symbolgifa, And. 1417, weoruda 
 wuldorgiefa, Har. 42, engla eadgifa, And. 74, 451, eorla eadgiefan, Cr. 546, 
 weoruda willgeofa, And. 1282, weoroda willgija, El. 814, hyra wilgijan, Cr. 
 537, hyra sincgiefan, 460, j oka feorhgiej 'an, 556, beorht bloedgija, And. 656, 
 hceleda hyhtgifa, El. 851. 
 
 286. Geocend, not very frequent. Gasta geocend, And. 548, 901, El. 
 682, 1076, Cr. 198. 
 
 287. Nergend, very frequent. Nerigend fira, El. 1077, neregend fira, 
 And. 291, sawla nergend, And. 549, 921, Cr. 571, El. 461, 79S, folca nergend, 
 Cr. 426, nida nergend, Hymn 35. 
 
 288. Dema, a number of times. -Qu ana hist eallra dema, / cwucra ge 
 deadra, Crist nergend, Hymn 38-9, rihtwis dema, L. Prayer III, 28, sodfcest 
 dema, 37, 121; se sigedema, And. 661, etc. 
 
 289. Of metaphors and figures applied to Christ the most important 
 have been listed. 
 
 290. Peculiar are two passages, in which Christ is placed among the 
 heavenly spirits, engla beorhtast / ofer middangeard monnum s ended, Cr. 
 104, Sited him on heofnum halig encgl[a] / waldend mid witegum, Sat. 586. 
 
 291. poet ic wolde towerpan wuldres leoman, / beam helendes, Sat. 85, 
 se woes ordfruma ealles leohtcs, Maxims 20, se sodfcesta sunnan leoma, Cr. 
 696, similarly 106; sofifeestra leoht, El. 7, leohtes leoht, Prayer III, 1, ealles 
 leohtes leoht, El. 486, Du eart heofonlic lioht, Hymn 22, en glum and eord- 
 warum cepele scima, Cr. 697. Wlitig wuldres gim, Ph. 516. Eala Earendel! 
 engla beorhtast / . . . / and sodjoesta sunnan leoma / torht ofer tunglas, 
 Cr. 104-7. 
 
 292. poet pu fie loece ne cystp, Doom 66, ealra cyninga / help and heafod, 
 halig loece, L. Prayer III, 61-2, uplicum loece, se ana moeg / aglidene modgod 
 gode gehcdan, Doom 46-7. We quote in passing, lifes loecedomes cet lifes 
 frean, Doom 81, ladafi us pider to leohte purh his loecedom, Sat. 589. 
 
 293. We note further, fugel, Cr. 636, 645, etc., magna goldhord, Cr. 
 787, 15<zt halige lamb, Hymn 22, godes lomber 47 , Gu. 1045, referring to building, 
 se crozjtga, Cr. 12, se weallstan, 2, se earcnanstan, 1196. 
 
 VIII. The Holy Ghost 
 
 294. In the New Testament, e.g., John 1, 33, wed^a ayioi> appears as 
 the third person of the Godhead, which phrase Christian Latin translates 
 
 47 Bode, Kenningar, p. 74, remarks: "Unter uns sind einige Kenningar ublich, die das 
 Leiden Christi hervorheben: der Gekreuzigte, das Lamm Gottes, es ist characteristisch, dass 
 diese bei unseren Altvorderen keine Aufnahme gefunden haben." His assertion is not borne 
 out by the facts. We might also point to such close parallels as pone ahangnan god, Crist, 
 cyning. 
 
87] THE DEITY 87 
 
 by spiritus sanctus. The OE. term is gdst, gast, m., OFris. gdst, OS. gist, 
 OHG. geist, from the common Westgerm. type *gaisloz. i8 It is sometimes 
 used alone, but more generally modified. Gdst, like the Greek and Latin 
 terms, has a general meaning, it being used for instance interchangeably 
 with sdwel, man's soul or spirit, as Jul. 413-15, El. 888-9, etc., etc. It is 
 also applied to the evil spirits, fram uncleenum oft generede / deofla gastum, 
 El. 301-2, to the angels, e.g., (God sent) gast pone halgan; / engel . . ., 
 Dan. 237-8, etc. 
 
 295. When used as a designation for the third member of the Godhead 
 hdlig is generally added, as Dox. 13, Ex. 96, Jul. 241, Creed 41, Dan. 403, 
 etc. But often the term has a weakened meaning, and may simply stand 
 for the power, the help of God, or the divine spirit. Furthermore it is 
 applied to the first person of the Godhead, as also to the second, of which 
 latter case we cite, bringan wolde / haligne gast to heojonrice, Sat. 561-2, 
 and gast haligne, Vs. ~L. 96, which very probably refers to Christ, since in this 
 poem he seems to have assumed the place of the first person for whom we 
 should naturally look. A reference to Christ is also found in keofonhalig 
 gast, And. 728. Aside from the clear cases of the juxtaposition of the 
 three persons, the context must decide as to who is meant by hdlig gdst. 
 Haliges gastes, And. 1000 and 1621, evidently refers to man. 
 
 296. The Spirit proceeds from the Father and the Son, beem inc is 
 gemeene / heahgeest hleofozst, Cr. 357-8, showing the view held by the 
 Western Church. 49 Regarding the work of creation it is said, pa wees 
 wuldortorht / heofonweardes gast ofer holm boren, Gen. 119-20, which may 
 refer to the third person of the Trinity. The Holy Spirit is not seldom 
 mentioned in the poems dealing with Old Testament history, so Ex. 96, 
 leading the Children of Israel through the desert, Ph. 549, where Job 
 speaks through gcestes bleed, even as it is said of the disciples of Christ, 
 heefdon gastes bled, Sat. 527. We have, nu we geonge pry god bletsia'd, / 
 felameahtigne feeder in heofonum, / pone sofian sunu and pone sigefcestan 
 gcest, Az. 155-7, while in Daniel he is mentioned several times. In most of 
 these cases the Old Testament J"]}*! * s interpreted according to New 
 Testament and Christian ideas. 
 
 297. Christ is born through Mary and pur h peene halgan gast, Invoca- 
 tion 13, and it is stated, Nces deer gefremmed firen at giftum, / ac peer halig 
 
 48 For a discussion of the third person of the Trinity in OHG. see Raumer, p. 370 ff., in 
 ON. Kahle, I, p. 386, II, 147-9. 
 
 49 The qui ex Patre Ftlioque procedit of the Nicene Creed. The procession of the Holy 
 Spirit from the Son has never been admitted into the Creed by the Eastern Church. The 
 Filioque was probably first introduced by the Spanish Church as an additional protest against 
 the Arian denial of the full Godhead of the Son, probably at the Council of Toledo 589. 
 Compare Cook, The Christ of Cynewtdf, p. 108. 
 
88 
 
 INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY ON OLD ENGLISH POETRY 
 
 [88 
 
 gast hand gy ft sealde ] pare famnan, Creed 17-19. The Holy Spirit is 
 especially active in regard to the faithful, guarding and shielding them 
 against enemies, and assisting them in the work of sanctification. Thus 
 it is said after the conversion of Judas, him was halig gast / befolen faste, 
 El. 935-6, and concerning Elene herself, pa wic beheold / halig heofonlic 
 gast, hrefier weardode, / adelne innod, 1143-5. Sins may compel him to 
 leave, pat him halig gast / losige purh leahtras on pas lanan tid, Cr. 1558-9. 
 We also have the petition, Bewyrc us on heortan haligne gast / faste on 
 innan, L. Prayer III, 79-80. In each case the indwelling of the Spirit is 
 emphasized. He is the helper in trouble, hyre (Juliana) was halig gast / 
 singal gesifi, Jul. 241-2, pat pec halig gast gescilde, Gu. 427-8. When Daniel 
 is called upon to explain the dream of the Babylonian king, him was gast 
 geseald, / halig of heofonum, se his hyge trymede, 533-4. Very often the 
 Holy Spirit is the helper, shown by such phrases as purh gastes gife, El. 
 199, 1057, 1156, similarly Jul. 316, Cr. 710, etc., and similar terms, though 
 they may sometimes refer merely to the manifestation of the divine power 
 and not to a personal agent. At the Last Judgment the Holy Spirit with 
 the other members of the Trinity judges men, Jul. 726 ff., etc. Finally at 
 the request of the Father Donne halig gast helle belucefi, Cr. 1624, and the 
 persons of the Godhead dwell forever in Heaven, And. 1684-6. 
 
 298. In the New Testament the Holy Spirit is called a number of times 
 irapaKhrjTos, the comforter, which is taken over by the Vulgate as paracletus. 
 In OE. poetry a translation, frofre gast, is used, as Jud. 83, And. 1684, 
 frofregast, Charm VIII, 10, similarly Jul. 724; siVdan frofre gast / wic 
 gewunode in pas weres breostum / hylde to bote, El. 1036-8. However, the 
 term may also be applied to the Father, e.g., fader, frofre gast, El. 1105, 
 as also to the Son, in mec (Mary) frofre gast / geardode, Cr. 207-8, also 
 And. 906. Guthlac's guardian angel is called frofre gast Gu. 107. 
 
 299. In general, it may be said that the qualities of the Father and the 
 Son, in as far as they are not peculiarly specific characteristics, may also 
 be applied to the Spirit, but are very sparingly used, as the third person 
 of the Trinity occupies a far less prominent place in OE. poetry than 
 either the Father or the Son. Here and there an adjective, as in pone 
 blidan gast, Cr. 774, pone sigefastan gast, Az. 157, is found, but, compara- 
 tively speaking, the available material is meager. 
 
89] THE WORLD, ANGELS, AND DEVILS 89 
 
 CHAPTER VIII 
 THE WORLD, ANGELS, AND DEVILS 
 
 I. The World 
 
 300. The facts of Germanic mythology regarding the subject may be 
 found in Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie, I, p. 463 ff., Ill, 160 ff., and Golther, 
 Handbuch der Germanischen Mythologie, p. 509 ff. The Scandinavians 
 especially had developed detailed and fairly well-ordered views about the 
 universe. The distinction between heaven and earth in a physical and to 
 a limited extent also in the religious sense is easily made, appears in dif- 
 ferent religions, and needs no discussion here. 
 
 ■■&•■ 
 
 301. However, the contrast between Heaven and earth in the religious 
 sense became more definite with the teachings of Christianity, and the 
 lines between the temporal, sinful, and the heavenly were more sharply 
 drawn. In Greek two words came to be used, koghos and aluv, which the 
 Vulgate renders by tnundus and saeculum, the world as opposed to Heaven, 
 and the vita or aetas. OHG. also uses two words, mittilgart rendering 
 mundus, and weralt both mundus and saeculum. In ON. heimr came to be 
 employed for both mundus and saeculum, while verqld was used only in 
 the sense of saeculum} 
 
 302. In OE. two terms are also employed, middangeard and woruld. 
 Middangeard, m., Goth, midjungards, OHG. mittangart, indicates the 
 middle earth, the place situated between heaven and hell, and is prac- 
 tically always used in the physical sense. At times it also stands for man- 
 kind, as for instance in pu pisne middangeard milde geblissa / purh dinne 
 hercyme, hcdende Crist, Cr. 249, and middangeardes weard, Dan. 597. 
 
 303. More important for our purposes is woruld, f., from the Teut. 
 type *wer-aldi, the term also occurring in other Germanic dialects. So 
 literally woruld means hominum aetas, the age of man. Used in a physical 
 sense it stands for mundus, as, nemdest eall swa peah / mid ane noman ealle 
 to gcedr e / woruld under wolcnum, Met. XX, 57, and penden standefi / 
 woruld under wolcnum, Gen. 916. As an interesting occurrence of the 
 term we also note, sette and sende on VII worulde / ear mum and eadigum 
 eallum to bote, Charm IV. 40, which Cockayne 2 explains as "the seven 
 spheres in which the seven planets revolve, the earth being the center of 
 observation." A number of times woruld is contrasted with Heaven, 
 
 1 For OHG. compare Raumer, p. 373 ff., for ON. Kahle, I, 386 ff. 
 
 2 Leedtdoms, Wortcunning, and Starcraft of Early England, (3 vols.) Ill, p. 37. Rolls 
 Series, London, 1864-6. 
 
90 INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY ON OLD ENGLISH POETRY [90 
 
 standing in a religious and Biblical sense. Thus, gewiton of worulde drea- 
 man, sohton him wuldres cyning, Rood B, 133. pam pe his giefe willad / 
 picgan to ponce and him pas woruld / uttor latan ponne past ece lif, Gu. 96, 
 sippan he pas woruld jorhogde, 713, (who would possess true happiness) 
 sceal swideflion / disse worulde wlite, Met. VII, 31,pysse worulde (deriende) 
 gefean (noxia gaudia saecli). Doom 232. 
 
 304. Not infrequently woruld is used in the sense of saeculum. Thus 
 denoting worldly life we have, gif hine gegripan mot / se eca dead after 
 dissum worulde, Met. X, 70. In the meaning of in saeculum, in saecula, 
 etc., may be noted, a to worulde ford , Cr. 101, similarly Met. XI, 17; swa 
 pu eart gewurfiod a on worldaford! L. Prayer III, 123. We note further, 
 Si him lof symle, / purh woruld worulda wuldor on heofnum, Cr. 778, wealded 
 (the Trinity) in woruld worulda wuldor gestealda, And. 1686, on worulda 
 woruld wunad and rixad (in secula seculorum), Dox. 41, on worulda woruld 
 (in saecula saeculorum) , Ps. LXXXIII, 5, etc. 
 
 305. A large number of compounds occur, most of which, however, 
 have no religious significance, and in other cases it is not readily apparent. 
 We note only woruldblis, as in pat he his lichoman / wynna forwyrnde and 
 woruldblissa, Gu. 135, and woruldsaW, Met. II, 10, etc. 
 
 II. Angels 
 
 306. The Jewish-Christian doctrine of angels was foreign to the Ger- 
 manic heathen mind, though there is reason to believe that the conception 
 and the name were adopted at an early period by practically all the tribes. 
 In the Old Testament an angel was called TJ&OD or n1i"P TjfcOD, 
 messenger of Jehovah, his function determining the designation. The 
 LXX translates the Hebrew word by a7YeXos, messenger, which is also 
 employed by the New Testament. The term is taken over by Christian 
 Latin as angelus, which is thus divorced from its general meaning of 
 nuntius, and used in a restricted sense. At an early time the word was 
 adopted by various Teutonic tribes either from Latin angelus or more 
 likely from Gothic aggilus. 3 In OE. it appears as e.ngel, angel, angel, 
 m., OS. having engil, OFris. angel, en gel, OHG. angil, engil. ON. engill. 
 
 307. In the poetry the term is of frequent occurrence, a translation 
 such as ar or boda being seldom used. 4 As in our discussion of the classes, 
 attributes and kennings, as well as of the work of the angels, the word will 
 occur a number of times, no examples need be cited here. 
 
 3 See Raumer, p. 378, Kluge, Etymologisches Worterbuch, article Tenfel; Gotische Lehn- 
 worle, p. 135, Pogatscher, pp. 203-5, also NED. 
 
 4 For a discussion of angels in OHG. see Raumer, pp. 378-9, in ON. Kahle, I, pp. 390-1, 
 II, 149-51. 
 
91] THE WORLD, ANGELS, AND DEVILS 91 
 
 308. We are informed that there was a time when angels had not yet 
 been created, Nees cenig pa giet engel geworden / ne pas -miclan magen- 
 prymmes nan, Cr. 351-2. The creation and the classes are referred to in 
 Hafde se ealwalda engelcynna / . . . / tyne getrymede, Gen. 246-8, though 
 in the poetry not all of these classes appear. The race of angels is men- 
 tioned a number of times, as, eat engla cynn, Jul. 644, anlicnes engelcynna, 
 And. 717, etc., engla hades, Prayer III, 34, engla gebyrdo, Gen. 583. A 
 fondness to have angels appear in troops and hosts may also be noted. 
 
 309. As possibly distinct classes the Seraphim and Cherubim appear, 
 though the usual order is inverted And. 719-20, Cheruphim and Seraphim / 
 pa on swegeldreamum syndon nemned, referred to as pees bremestan of the 
 angels 718. More specific details about the Cherubim are furnished El. 
 739-46, para on hade sint / in sindreame syx genemned, / pa ymbsealde 
 synt mid syxum eac / fidrum, gefratwad, fcegere scinap;/ para sint. IIII.,pe on 
 flihte a I pa pegnunge prymme beweotigap / fore ansyne eces demon,/ singallice 
 singap . . . pam is Ceruphin noma, 749. In the Psalms the name is 
 simply taken over, Dw de sylfa nu sittest ofer cherubin (qui sedes super 
 cherubin), LXXIX, 2, and silted ofer cherubin (qui sedet super cherubim), 
 XCVIII, 1. Aside from And. 719, the Seraphim are mentioned thrice, as, 
 Syndon tu on pam, / sigorcynn on swegle, pe man Seraphin / be naman 
 hated. He sceal neorxnawang and lifes treo legene sweorde / halig healdan, 5 
 El. 753-7, and wuldre gewlitegod Serafhin, Charm VII, 30. In Cr. 386-8 the 
 Seraphim are performing the services assigned to the Cherubim in Elene, 
 for we are told, sodfaste Seraphinnes cynn/ uppe mid englum a bremende/ 
 unapreotendum Jyrymmum singad. 
 
 310. The archangels, especially Gabriel, are mentioned a few times. 
 He is called godes arendraca, Cr. 12, a term also applied to the apostles, 
 godes spelboda, Gabriel, Cr. 366, and his heahbodan, 295. His qualities are 
 mentioned, Eala Gabrihell hu pu eart gleaw and scearp, / milde and gemyn- 
 dig and monpware, / wis on pinum gewitte and on pinum worde snottor, 
 Har. 76-8. Heofones heagengel, Cr. 202, and heahengel, Men. 50, are also 
 applied to Gabriel. The same designation is used for Michael, heahengles 
 tiid on harfeste, / Michahelis, Men. 177. Halig is se halga heahengla god, 
 the Cherubim sing El. 750, the song of the Seraphim being Halig eart pu 
 halig heahengla brego, Cr. 403. We note further, heahengla cyning, Cr. 528, 
 and heahengla mcegen, 1019, heahenglas, Sat. 601. Though the term heah- 
 engel is the designation for the archangels, it need not be assumed, however, 
 that it is not used in a wider sense, though And. 883-5 may not be con- 
 clusive, twelfe getealde, tireadige haled;/ . . . / halige heahenglas. It 
 
 8 The Vulgate has et collocavit ante paradisum voluptatis Cherubim. In our passage a 
 Seraph performs the duty. The plural form in the Vulgate might easily be mistaken by an 
 Anglo-Saxon poet. Genesis especially is rich in amusing blunders. Compare Bibl. II, p. 169. 
 
92 INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY ON OLD ENGLISH POETRY [92 
 
 might even be used, in accordance with the spirit of OE. poetry, as a 
 general indication of their place of abode. Upengel seems to have this 
 meaning, as in upengla fruma edel secan, And. 226, and upengla weard, 210. 
 Very similar are ufancundes engles, Gu. 1097, engel ufancundne, 1216, also 
 aras ufancunde, Cr. 503. Probably not very different is heofonengel, which 
 we have in heofonengla preat, Cr. 492, 928, heofonengla cyning, 1010, L. 
 Prayer III, 13, while we read heofonengla god Jul. 642 and heofonengla 
 here Cr. 1278. 
 
 311. Among the qualities of angels a few ascribed to Gabriel have 
 already been mentioned. However, the wisdom of the angelic host is not 
 unlimited, as it is remarked, ne pat cenig ne wat engla hades / pa heahnisse 
 heofena kyninges, Prayer III, 34-5. Their brightness is often referred to, 
 as, engel celbeorht . . . / wlitescyne wer on his wuldorhaman, Dan. 337-8, 
 (zlbeorhte englas, Cr. 506, 548, with the word order changed 881, celbeorhtra 
 scolu, Cr. 929, weorud wlitescyne, 493, beorhte gewerede, 552, hwit and 
 heofonbeorht heagengla mozgen, 1019, ozlbeorhte . . . / heofonengla here, 
 1277-8, wlitescyne on weres hade, / hwit and hiwbeorht, El. 72-3, cefielestan 
 engelcynne, / pe geond lyft farad leohte bewundene / mycle mcegenprymme, 
 732-4, mid pa leohtan gedryht, 736, cwom engel godes / frcetwum blican, 
 Jul. 563-4, etc. 
 
 312. Other characteristics occur, of which we mention the most impor- 
 tant, though they are often applied indirectly. Halig engel, Gen. 946, 
 halige heahenglas, And. 885, sio halge gecynd, Cr. 1018, etc., eadiges engles, 
 Sal. 450, eadig engla gedryht, Cr. 1014, mihtig engel, Ex. 205, sigorfcest 
 ipegn), Gu. 1218, pegnas prymfceste, Gen. 15, englas arfceste, 2525, pat 
 sofifceste Seraphinnes cynn, Cr. 386, wlitig wuldres boda, El. 11 , fcele (used 
 with freoduweard and similar terms), El. 88, Gen. 2301, 2497, Gu. 144, 
 marne mcegupegn, And. 366, dcedhwcete, Cr. 385, stififerfie, And. 722. 
 
 313. The only adjective formed with engel is engelcund, angelic, found 
 once, him giefe sealde / engelcunde, Gu. 72. 
 
 314. Not infrequently the term gdst, generally modified, is applied to 
 the angels, undoubtedly influenced by Ps. CHI, 5, where the Vulgate 
 reading qui facis angelos tuos spiritus et ministros tuos ignem urentem is 
 rendered by Re his englas ded ozb*ele gastas and hisfrome degnasfyr bymende. 
 Thus we have, gast pone halgan, Dan. 237, hwcet seo hand write haliges 
 gastes, 733, gcest haligne, Gu. 1215, halige gastas, Rood B, 11, Gen. 2399; 
 wuldorgast godes, Gen. 2912, godes cerendgast, 2296. 
 
 315. Of other kennings for angels the most important may find a place 
 here. 6 Godes arendraca as applied to Gabriel in Creed 12 has already been 
 
 6 Bode, Kenningar, gives a few. See also Rankin, DC, pp. 60-61. 
 
93] THE WORLD, ANGELS, AND DEVILS 93 
 
 mentioned. Used of the angels visiting Lot we have nergendes / afiele 
 arendracan, Gen. 2433-4. Ar, messenger, occurs a number of times, so 
 El. 76, 87, aras, Cr. 759, Gen. 2424, halige aras, 2456, wuldres aras, Cr. 
 493, El. 737, aras ufancunde, Cr. 503. Boda, messenger, is also used. 
 Thus, bodan, Cr. 449, wlitig wuldres boda, El. 77. Of compounds we have 
 for instance godes spelboda Gabriel, Cr. 336,frome war on j godes spelbodan, 
 Gen. 2494, wuldres wilboda, Gu. 1220. A peaceful mission is indicated by 
 fale fridowebba, El. 88, fcele freoduweard, Gu. 144, fale freodoscealc, Gen. 
 2301, the plural bemg found 2497. Among terms showing peculiar rela- 
 tionships to God we note, pegnas prymfaste, Gen. 15, wuldres pegn, Gen. 
 2266, similarly 2568, And. 726; metodes Vegn, Gen. 2907, similarly Gu. 1217; 
 hehpegn, Dan. 443, mccrne magupegn, And. 366; ymb pat hehsetl hwite 
 standad / engla fed an, Sat. 221, halge herefedan, Cr. 1013. 
 
 316. From the previous discussion it will be gathered that the impor- 
 tant function of the heavenly spirits is the worship of the Deity and the 
 carrying out of his commandments. The protection of the faithful against 
 enemies, especially evil spirits, is often mentioned. Instead of the rather 
 frequent examples we«cite Charm VIII, 19-25, where, after the invocation 
 of the saints, the poet continues, eac dusend pira engla / clipige ic me to 
 are wi15 eallum feondum. / Hi meferion and fripion and mine fore nerion, / 
 eal me gehealdon, me gewealdon / worces stirende, si me wuldres hyht / hand 
 ofer heafod, haligra rof, / sigerofra sceote, sofifastra engla. The idea of the 
 guardian angel is especially noteworthy in Guthlac. We are told that the 
 heavenly spirits protect the saints, fore him englas standad / gearwe mid 
 gasta wcepnum . . . / healdad haligra feorh, 59-61. It is said, 81-4, that 
 God sent a particular angel in order to dampen the lusts of the saint-to-be. 
 The good and the evil angel engage in warfare for his soul, hinetwegen ymb/ 
 weardas wacedon, pa gewinn drugon, / engel dryhtnes and se atela gast, 85-7. 
 The good angel wins, and henceforth Guthlac is protected, Hine weard 
 biheold / halig of heofonum, se pat hluttre mod / in pas gastes god georne 
 trymede, 76-8, and sip pam frofre gast / in Gufilaces geoce gewunade, 107-8. 
 Several times the guardian angel is mentioned, of whom the saint says, 
 pat me engel to ealle geladed / spowende sped spreca and dada, 224-5, and 
 nu mec sawelcund / hyrde bihealdefi, 288-9. This protection extends until 
 the time of death, when was Gudlaces gast geladed / engla fadmum in 
 upr odor I fore onsyne eces demon, 753-5, and was Gudlaces gast geladed / 
 eadig on upweg, englas feredun / to pam longan gefean, 1279-81, which is in 
 line with the general belief as expressed in englas feredon / sodfaste sawle 
 innan swegles leoht, Chr. V, 27-8. In Salomon and Saturn the good angel 
 loses in the contest, and Gewited "Sonne wepende on weg far an / engel to his 
 earde and Sat eall sagaS: / " Ne meahte ic of flare heortan heardne adringan / 
 stylenne stan, sticaS him to middes ****." 
 
94 INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY ON OLD ENGLISH POETRY [94 
 
 III. Devils 
 
 317. As the foe of God and the heavenly kingdom the devil with his 
 adherents plays a very prominent part in OE. poetry. In the Old Testa- 
 ment the chief of the evil spirits is called )£D]£?, adversary. The LXX as 
 
 a rule renders this by 5td/3oXos, slanderer, aterm also employed by the New 
 Testament, though 6 aaravas is sometimes used. The Greek 8lclI3o\os as a 
 translation of Hebrew ]^j^ was regularly retained by the Old Latin 
 
 version of the Scriptures as diabolus, but Jerome in his version, the Vul- 
 gate, substituted Satan. In his New Testament diabolus also occurs. 
 Gothic adopts the Greek 5ia/3oXos as diabaiilus or diabulus, and it is not 
 improbable that other Germanic tribes received the word from this source. 7 
 The OE. form is deofol, deoful, mn., OFris. diovel, OS. diubul with variants, 
 OHG. tiuval, etc., ON. djofull. 
 
 318. As has been indicated, deoful is extremely common in OE. poetry, 
 examples of which will occur in the subsequent discussion. For the chief 
 of the fallen angels the Latin Satan, Satanus, and Lucifer are found a few 
 times. Regarding the fallen angels God decided among other things, 
 se hehsta hatan sceolde / Satan siddan, Gen. 344-5. The term is also met 
 with Gen. 347, And. 1689, Sat. 712, etc. Satanus occurs for instance Sat. 
 371, 447, 692, etc. Lucifer (leohtberende) is found once, Sat. 367. We are 
 told that before the fall the chief devil was engla weard, Gen. 22, pe cer wees 
 engla scynost, / hwittost on heofnon, 338-9, gelic wees hepam leohtum steorrum, 
 256, and he himself says, Ic wees iu in heofnum halig cengel . . . Sat. 81. 
 But he has become se ofermoda cyning, Gen. 338, who rebelled against God 
 for oferhygde, 22, and with his adherents was cast down into hell, peer he 
 to deofle weard, 305, while heo (namely the rebellious angels) ealle forsceop / 
 drihten to deoflum, 308-9. In different poems, such as Genesis, Elene, 
 Christ and Satan, etc., the circumstances of the fall are recounted with 
 more or less detail. 
 
 319. The devil with the evil spirits becomes the enemy of God and 
 man. The term feond, the hating and hostile one, sometimes modified, 
 but often alone, is frequently used synonymously with deojol. We note, 
 feond, Sal. 69, 91, 100, Gu. 107, etc., feond moncynnes, Jul. 317, 523, 630, 
 sawla jeond, 348, ece feond, Gen. 1261, flah feond gemah, Whale 39, se ealda 
 feond, Panther 58, El. 207, ealdfeondes cefest, Ph. 401, ealdfeondes / scyldigra 
 scolu, Gu. 174-5, ealdfind (pi.), Har. 89, ealdfeondas, Gu. 189, ealdfeonda 
 nan, Ph. 449, ealdfeonda nid, Gu. 112, etc., etc. We note also feondeetes, 
 Ps. CV, 24, referring to the eating of sacrificial offerings, and feondgyld 
 
 7 Kluge, Etymologisches Worterbuck, article Teufel; Lehnworte, pp. 134-5. The NED., 
 after having mentioned that the Gothic word is directly from Greek, continues, " the forms 
 in the other Teutonic langs. were partly at least from Latin, and prob. adopted more or less 
 independently of each other." 
 
95] THE WORLD, ANGELS, AND DEVILS 95 
 
 gebrcec, in the same verse. The terms apply to the subordinates, charac- 
 terized Sat. 104-5, feond seondon rede,/ dimme and deorce, as well as to 
 the chief, who is feonda aldor, Sat. 76. He is also godes andsaca, Sat. 191, 
 etc., a phrase also used for the other devils, so for instance in godes and- 
 sacan, Sat. 719, Gu. 204, earme andsacan, 181, etc., etc. 
 
 320. The activities of the devils in seducing man are described in a 
 number of places, a subject to be discussed in the next chapter. The chief 
 with the evil spirits is the cause of sin, the following terms for instance 
 being applied to Satan, yfles ordfruma, Sat. 374, j acnes frumbearn, Gu. 1044, 
 And. 1294, morpres brytta, And. 1170, mordres manfrea, And. 1313, simi- 
 larly Jul. 546; ealre synne fruma, El. 771, synna fruman, Jul. 362, leahtra 
 fruman, El. 838. To these we add others, which are only partly ascribed 
 to the chief, in some cases there being doubt as to whether Satan or a 
 subordinate spirit is meant. Fyrnsynna fruman, Jul. 347, mordres man- 
 frea, El. 941, And. 1313, synna bryttan, El. 957, synna hyrdas, Gu. 522, 
 synna weardas, Judg. 16. It should be noted that for instance Abimelech 
 is called synna brytta Gen. 2641. Though it is said of Wyrd, Sal. 443, 
 eallra fyrena fruma, fcehdo modor, and 445, frumscylda gehwces feeder and 
 modor, we must identify Wyrd in these passages with the fallen angel, a 
 case not isolated in OE. poetry. 
 
 321. The relation between devils and hell is naturally very close. 
 The chief is hellwarena cyning, Jul. 322, 437, etc., his gingran, Sat. 191, 
 being helle scealcas, 133. The seducer of Eve is called handpegen helle, 
 Sat. 485. Among other terms encountered we note, helledeofol, El. 900, 
 helle dioful, And. 1298, helle deofol, Jul. 629, etc., helle hazjiling, Jul. 246, 
 And. 1342, a term comparatively frequent; pystra slihtend, Jul. 419, 
 peostra pegnas, Gu. 668, hellepegna, 1042, hellsceada, Gen. 694, etc., helle- 
 hinca, And. 1171. 
 
 322. The devils were looked upon as spirits, capable, however, of 
 assuming the form of angel, man, or animal, as exemplified in such poems 
 as Salomon and Saturn, Juliana, Guthlac, etc. In giving a few examples of 
 designations, we have selected such as illustrate to some extent at least 
 qualities ascribed to the evil spirits. Hean hellegcest, Jul. 457, 615, se atola 
 gast, And. 1296, se atela gcest, Gu. 87, se werega gast, Sat. 126, se werga 
 gcest, Gu. 422, pa werigan gastas, Sat. 731, earme gastas, Gu. 490, etc., atole 
 gastas, I swarte and synfulle, Sat. 51-2, se swearta gcest, Cr. 269, Mac bealowes 
 gast, Sat. 721, unclcene gcest, Jul. 418, geomre gastas, Gen. 69, done ladan 
 gcest, Sal. 86. 
 
 323. Of the many other kennings for devils encountered in the poetry, 
 we note the more important. 8 Wrad wcerloga, And. 1297, wcerlogan, Gu. 
 
 8 Compare Bode, Kenningar, p. 76 ff., Rankin, IX, p. 56 ff. 
 
96 INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY ON OLD ENGLISH POETRY [96 
 
 269, 595, etc., etc., awyrgde wcerlogan on Wynnes bleo, 883, wcerleas werod, 
 Gen. 67, wifierbrecan, 64, wuldres wifierbreca, Jul. 269, wrohtes wyrhtan, 
 346, wrohtbora, Cr. 763, wrohlsmidas, Gu. 877, teonsmidas, 176, wrcecca 
 wcerleas, Jul. 351, se wrcecmcecga, 260, wrcecmoecgas, Gu. 234, wrade wrcec- 
 mcecgas, 530, etc., sawla gewinnan, Jul. 555, H<zW5a gewinna, 243, similarly 
 345; g/eaw gyrnstafa gcestgenidla, 245, brcegdwis bona, Gu. 58, ftaraaw «d«- 
 cynnes, And. 1293, feorgbona, Whale 41, swarte suslbonan, Sat. 640, se 
 aglceca, Jul. 268, 319, earm aglceca, 430, ea/oZ ceclceca yfela gemyndig, El. 901, 
 se awyrgda, Sat. 316, Whale 67, awyrgda, Sat. 676, 691,699, deoflum . . ., / 
 awyrgedum gastum {daemonibus dudum fuerantque parata malignis, 91), 
 Doom 182-3. 
 
 324. To these may be added fah wyrm, the seducer of Eve, Gen. 899, 
 who eats of the fruit wyrmes larum, Gu. 818. In the same connection occur 
 also me ncedre beswac, Gen. 897, and pur h ncedran nip, Ph. 413. Probably 
 applied in a wider sense, the devil is called draca egeslice, Sal. 26, while 
 butan dracan anum / attres ordfruman, Panther 57-8, seems to point to 
 the chief. He is also called se awyrgda wulf, Cr. 256, deor dcedscua, 257. 
 The Anglo-Saxon poet did not hesitate to apply to the evil one the strongest 
 epithets of which the language was capable. 
 
 325. The OE. deofol is wider in its application than the Greek 5t<x/3oXos. 
 It may thus be applied to the ocu/jLovia or dai/xoves of the LXX and the 
 New Testament, which identify them with Satan and his emissaries. 
 We have seen in 323 that deoflum . . ., / awyrgedum gastum, Doom 182-3, 
 renders daemonibus malignis. Among Christ's activities are mentioned 
 fram unclcenum oft generede / deofla gastum, El. 301-2. The term is also 
 applied to heathen idols, who are looked upon as devils. Thus Quoniam 
 omnes dii gentium daemonia, Ps. XCV, 4, is rendered by Syndon ealle 
 hcepenu godu hildedeoful, the worship of heathen divinities being equivalent 
 to devil worship. The idols of Egypt are called deofolgyld, Ex. 47. The 
 interchanging of the terms may be seen very clearly in Juliana. Hofon 
 hcepengield, occurs line 15, it being remarked of Helisius, Oft he hcepengield / 
 ofer word godes weoh gesohte, 22-3, while he is informed by Juliana of her 
 refusal to marry him, gif pu to scemran gode / purh deofolgield dade bepen- 
 cest, I hatst hmpenweoh, 51-3. Her father is concerned about her attitude 
 and her "foolish talk," pa pu goda ussa gield forhogdest, 146, but to his 
 threats she replies, Ncefre pu gelcerest, pcet ic leasingum / dumbum and 
 deaf urn deofolgieldum / gcesta geniMum gaful aphate, 149-51. Diofolgild, / 
 ealde eolhstedas anforlcetan, is said of the Mermedonians And. 1641-2, 
 while se halga (Andrew) herigeas preade, / deofulgild todraf, 1687-8. A 
 turning towards strange gods is evidently referred to Dan. 32, where it is 
 said of the Israelites, curon deofles craft. The magicians of the Babylonians 
 are styled deofolwitgan, line 128. In Elene the Jewish religion is practically 
 
97] THE WORLD, ANGELS, AND DEVILS 97 
 
 identified with devil worship. Cyriacus has chosen the better thing, 
 wuldres wynne and pam wyrsan widsoc, / deofulgildum and gedwolan fylde, / 
 unrihte <z, 1039-41. 
 
 326. As indicated before, wih, m., is used in the sense of idol, pcet hie 
 bees wiges wihte ne rohton, Dan. 201, ne pysne wig wurdigean, 208, (ne wolde) 
 wig weordian, Ap. 48, Woden worhte weos, Gn. Ex. 133. Gyld, n., idol, 
 gyld of golde guman arcerde, Dan. 175, to pam gyldnan gylde, 204, gif pu 
 onsecgan nelt sopnm gieldum, Jul. 174; in the sense of heathen worship, 
 pa pu goda ussa gieldforhogdest, 146. It is also used in a non-heathen sense, 
 (Abraham) his waldende / on pam glcedstede gild onscegde / lac geneahe, 
 Gen. 2842. The interesting compound wihgyld, idol, may be mentioned 
 here, wurfiedon (Babylonians) wihgyld, Dan. 182. We note further, 
 Ewilum hie geheton cet hoergtrafum / wigweorpunga, Beow. 176, and 
 buton pu fori ate pa leasinga / weohweordinga, Jul. 180. The verb gyldan, 
 to sacrifice, in the heathen sense, we have Dan. 212, similarly Ps. CV, 26. 
 
 327. As pointed out in 7, the connection between heathen and devil is 
 very close, the devil himself for instance being called a heathen Jul. 536. 
 It should also be noticed that the characteristics of the devil may be 
 ascribed to other beings, or they themselves may be called by this very 
 name. So Grendel is referred to sls feond in helle, Beow. 101, mancynnes 
 feond, 1276, hellegast, 1274, godes andsaca, 1682, while after deofla hryre, 
 1680, refers to Grendel and his mother. Similar designations might be 
 added. Epithets generally applied to the devil may also be given to men. 
 So the Babylonians are called ge deoflu, Dan. 750, the Jews werge wrozc- 
 mceccgas, El. 387, while the Mermedonians are styled wccrlogan, And. 71, 
 108, etc„ werigum wrohtsmidum, 86, mangenidlan, / grame grynsmidas, 
 916-17. The relation is very close in deofles pegnas And. 43 (compare 
 Satanes degn, Sal. 117, and similar terms). Cr. 896 and 899 the damned 
 are called devils, the blessed being referred to as angels. An evil man 
 is characterized a.sfeondes beam / flcesce bifongen, Moods 47-8. 
 
 328. The compounds of deofol are few. Aside from helledeofol and 
 hildedeofol, we have once the poetic deofolcund, diabolical, applied to 
 Holofernes, Jud. 61, and once also the poetic deofoldald, Dan. 18, where 
 it is said of the Israelites, hie wlenco anwod cet winpege / deofoldcedum, 
 druncne gedohtas. Deofolgild, in the sense of idolum, simulacrum, and 
 idolatria has already been mentioned, as also the poetical deofolwitgan, 
 Dan. 128. Scucca, seducer, as also similar designations, will be found in 
 the treatment of temptation, chapter IX, 370. 
 
98 INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY ON OLD ENGLISH POETRY [98 
 
 CHAPTER IX - 
 SIN 
 
 329. The New Testament furnishes in 1 John 3, 4, 17 a^aprla early 17 
 avoula, a definition of sin, where its essence is conceived of as the deviation 
 from the law of God or the transgression of such divine law. In spite of 
 assertions to the contrary, 1 there can be no doubt that many heathen 
 peoples have a fairly clear conception of good and evil in their general 
 aspects. However, it should be pointed out that according to the Christian 
 belief every transgression constitutes an offense against the holy God, and 
 in this consists the gravity of the act. It is a fundamental principle foreign 
 to heathenism. 
 
 I. General Terms 
 
 330. The Greek apLaprla is rendered in Latin by peccatum, the verb 
 afiapraveiv by peccare. In OE. syn{n), f., from original *sunjo, is used to 
 express the idea, related to OFris. sende, OS. sundea, OHG. sunta, ON. 
 synd, the stem being perhaps identical with L. sons, guilty. 2 The OE. word, 
 which renders not only L. peccatum, but also culpa, 3 is of frequent occur- 
 rence in OE. poetry, so that a few examples will suffice here, besmiten 
 mid synne sawldreore, Gen. 1520, pare sawle, pe hip synna Jul, Seaf. 100, 
 synna wunde, Cr. 1314, synna lease, Jul. 188, mine saule synnum jorwundod, 
 Prayer I, 3, etc., etc. 
 
 331. A number of compounds occur, of which may be noted synbyrZen, 
 once, Cr. 1300, syndad, dat. pi. Ps. CVI, 33 (a malitia), synjdh, as, synfa 
 men, Cr. 1083, synfull, guilty, fairly frequent, so in the pi. And. 764 applied 
 to the elders of Israel, and Gu. 646 to the devils, etc., synleasig, Beow. 2227, 
 synlice, Cr. 1480, Ps. LXII, 8, synlust, Cr. 269, synnig, used frequently, 
 of the devil, El. 955, the plural being applied to the Jews, And. 565, etc. 
 We have further synrust* in synrust pwean, Cr. 1321, synsceaZa, a few 
 
 1 Lingard, in Vol. I, p. 42, of his History and Antiquities of the Anglo-Saxon Church, in 
 speaking of the "pagan Saxons," says: "In their theology they acknowledged no sin but 
 cowardice, and revered no virtue but courage." He seems to be very anxious to make the 
 contrast between the heathen and the christianized Anglo-Saxons as great as possible, in 
 order that the "mild influence of the gospel" may make a deep impression upon the mind 
 of the reader. 
 
 2 Compare NED., also Kahle, I, p. 396. For the chapter on Sin compare Raumer, p. 
 384 ff., Kahle, I, 395 ff., II, 151-2. 
 
 3 Once the poetic culpa or culpe occurs, ne ic culpan in pe (onfunde), Cr. 177. 
 
 4 Compare Cook's note on synrust in Mod. L. Notes, IV, p. 129. Though it would seem 
 that Cynewulf coined certain compounds with syn, synbyr'oen and synlust must be stricken 
 from Cook's list, as they occur also elsewhere. 
 
99] SIN 99 
 
 times, as, Jul. 671, Cr. 706, etc., the term being used of devils and sinful 
 men alike, synscyldig in the gen. pi., Doom 168 (scelerum, 83), where it is 
 applied to the damned in hell, synwracu, vengeance for sin, rare, occurring 
 Cr. 794, 1540, and Gu» 832, synwund, once, Cr. 757, synwyrcend, being 
 applied to the devil El. 943, to the Jews 395, and used in a more general 
 way in atghwylcum / synwyrcendra, Cr. 842. The gen. pi. we find Ps. 
 LXXXI, 2 {peccatorum), and synwyrcende CXL, 11 {operantium iniquita- 
 tem). The verb is syngian, gesyngian, which occurs a number of times, 
 as, syngige, Prayer III, 42, syngode (peccavi), Ps. L. 47, further, we gesyn- 
 godon (the devils), Sat. 230, fyrenum gesyngad, Beow. 2441, swide gesingod, 
 L. Prayer III, 115. 
 
 332. A term much employed is man, ON. mein, crime, wickedness, 
 etc. Of the occurrences we cite, man eft gehwearf, / yfel endeleas, And. 
 694, man and morfior, misdceda worn (referring to Nero), Met. IX, 7, mana 
 fela, Prayer IV, 50, of mane {ex iniquitate) , Ps. LXXI, 14, etc., etc. The 
 adjective is used a few times, mane adas, perjury, Met. IV, 48, and man 
 inwitstcef (nequitiae) , Ps. LIV, 15. A' number of compounds are also 
 encountered, but most of them need no discussion here. The poetic terms 
 will be found in the table at the end, while a few, such as mansceat, usury, 
 and mdnswara, perjury, will appear in the subsequent discussion. 
 
 333. Firen, glossed by Grein as scelus, crimen, peccatum, is very com- 
 mon. We note, wr ape fir ene, Cr. 1313, deopra firena, Gu. 830, S35,newom 
 dyde / his lichoma leahtra firena, Cr. 1099. The last example, referring to 
 Christ, shows a massing of similar words in order to emphasize the idea, 
 a procedure often employed in OE. poetry. As in the case of syn and man, 
 a number of compounds occur, of which may be noted as significant 
 deafifiren, mortal sin, in deadfirenum forden, Cr. 1207, helfiren, mortal sin, 
 ge hellfirena / sweartra geswicafi, Partridge 6, each of the terms occurring 
 once. Of other compounds we have firencrceft, wickedness, Jul. 14, firen- 
 georn, prone to sin, as in firengeorne men (damned), Cr. 1606, firenlust, 
 occurring a number of times, e.g. firenlustas, Gu. 775, purh firenlustas 
 fide synne, Cr. l4S3,jyrenlustum, Doom 160. etc., firensynnig, in firensynnig 
 folc, Cr. 1379. The verb firnian is found once, pa forworhtan (damned), 
 pa defyrnedon, Sat. 620, while fymgende ficesc occurs Doom 214. Gefyrnian 
 is met with in We gefyrnedun {peccavimus) , Ps. CV, 6. 
 
 334. Leahtor, m., vice, crime, etc., used in about the same sense as 
 man, firen, is found frequently. Lices leahtor, Gu. 1045, leahtrumfa (devils), 
 Cr. 1539, lehtrum scyldige, And. 1216, leahtra gehygdu, Cr. 1315. Of the 
 three compounds leahtorleas belongs here. Thus, leahtorlease, Gu. 1060, 
 El. 1208. Often the fusion has not taken place, as for instance in ealra 
 leahtra leas (Adam in Paradise), Gu. 804, similarly 920, 1162, etc. Leah- 
 torcwide is also encountered, after leahtor cwidum, Jul. 199, signifying 
 
100 INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY ON OLD ENGLISH POETRY [100 
 
 blasphemy of heathen gods, being on a plane with tome teoncwide, pe pu 
 tcelnissum, 205, of which Helisius speaks as pare grimmestan godscyld, 204. 
 
 335. Worn, mn., stain, spot, defilement, disgrace, as also in a more 
 general sense, is common. We note, wommas worda and dceda, Instruc- 
 tions 79, peak hi worn don / ofer meotudes bibod, 70, wommes tacen, Cr. 54, 
 (ne mcBg hate dcel forbceman) worn of pare sawle, 1544, forwunded mid worn- 
 mum, Rood B, 14, Adhweah me of sennum saule fram wammum (ab ini- 
 quitate), Ps. L. 38. The adjective is also used, (be) wommum wyrhtum 
 (secundum peccata), Ps. CII 10. The interesting compound manwom is 
 found, manwomma gehwone (may be seen on the souls of the damned), Cr. 
 1280. Of others occur wamcwide, wamdad, wamful, wamsceafia, wamscyldig, 
 and wamwyrcende, either once or only a few times, but no comment would 
 seem necessary. 
 
 336. Another term of general import used in the poetry is gylt, m., 
 guilt, sin, offense, from Teut. *gultiz. We note, Forgyf us, gumena weard, 
 gyltas and synna j and ure leahtras alet (debita), L. Prayer II, 19, ma 
 fremede / grimra gylta, Prayer IV, 27, (owiht) heanra gylta (quidquam cul- 
 parum, 19), Doom 39, aglidene gyltas modgod gode gehalan (qui solet allisos 
 sanare, 24), 8 47, hu mcere is / seo sofie hreow synna and gylta (peccati quan- 
 tum valeat confessio vera, 28), 56, henfia and gyltas (crimina, 45), 88, purh 
 forman gylt, Gen. 998, sie minra gylta / . . . / gemyndig, El. 816. Further 
 examples are, gyltum forgiefene, Gu. 432, fram synnum . . . / and fram 
 misdedum minra gylta (a peccatis), Ps. L. 84, geltas geclansa (a peccato), 39, 
 gylta geclansa(-), 112, na flu ure gyltas egsan gewrcece (peccata), Ps. 
 LXXXIV, 3, gyltas georne gode andhette, Ps. L. 29. The verb agyltan is 
 comparatively rare. We note, pam pe wid us oft agyltad, L. Prayer II, 24, 
 we agylt habbafi, III, 114, ic agylte (deliqui), Ps. CXVIII, 67. 
 
 337. Scyld, f., fault, offense, crime, is used a number of times. We 
 note, pat is Euan scyld eal forpynded, Cr. 97, on eow scyld sitted (Guthlac 
 to devils), Gu. 449, pe da scylde worhton, Dan. 266, pe wceron butan scylde 
 swa earmlice acwealde, Chr. IV, 15, me modor gebcer / in scame and in sceldum 
 (in peccatis concepit me mater mea), Ps. L. 63, etc. Of compounds may be 
 mentioned frumscyld, Sal. 445, wyrd (devil) being spoken of as frumscylda 
 gehwas fader and modor., also godscyld, crime against heathen gods, Jul. 
 204, manscyld, under man, scyldfrecu, wicked craving, Gen. 898, scyldful, 
 occurring a few times, so El. 310, etc., scyldwrecende, as, Hell eac ongeat / 
 scyldwreccende (sin-avenging hell), Cr. 1161, scyldwyrcende, Cr. 1487, Ph. 
 2, Jul. 445, El. 761. 
 
 338. To these terms others of a general nature might be added. So 
 unpeaw, m., used especially in Meters, as, pa unpeawas, XXII, 26, pa 
 
 8 Is gyltas a gloss for aglidene, or should one translate, past sins? Compare note in 
 Bibl. II. p. 252. 
 

 ioi] sin ioi 
 
 unpeawas celces modes, XXVI, 117, his unpeawas ealle hatian, XXII, 32. 
 The specific meaning of unpeaw depends upon its modifiers or the context, 
 for while in modes unpeaw, Met. XXVI, 112, and similarly 117, the mind 
 is referred to, the passage ^>a unpeawas ealle, Exhortation 41, has a decidedly- 
 carnal flavor. Fdcen, n., with its various compounds, is used frequently, 
 as also unriht in the sense of imquitas and injustitia, furthermore uncyst, 
 vice, and similar terms, which we pass over. 
 
 339. In entering now upon a discussion of specific sins, the material 
 at hand makes it advisable to follow St. Augustine's division of Peccata 
 Operis, Oris, and Cordis. This plan has been followed by Kahle, I, and 
 what he says there 6 in regard to the difficulties in carrying it out strictly 
 applies with equal force to OE. poetry, and the solution adopted by him 
 has been found advantageous also in our case. 
 
 II. Peccata Operis 
 
 340. Under this heading carnal sins, or sins of the flesh, may con- 
 veniently be treated first, certain others following. The Latin caro as the 
 seat of sinful lusts and desires is rendered in OE. by flcesc, n., as Doom 
 175(87); fyrngende flcesc, 214, translates caro luxurians, 107. Its use may 
 be further illustrated, purh flcesc and fyrenlustas "/ strange gestryned, Soul 44. 
 Often lust, m., either alone or modified, expresses carnal sin. In the 
 example just quoted from Soul we have fyrenlustas, 44, in the same sense, 
 me fyrenlustas / pine geprungon, 34, possibly also in pu poet selegescol, 
 pcet ic me swces on pe / gehalgode hus to Wynne, / purh firenlustas fule synne / 
 unsyfre besmite, Cr. 1483, and synlustas, Exhortation 53. But frequently 
 the meaning is more general, though sometimes there may be doubt as to 
 the exact rendering, as, lices lustas, Jul. 409. leaslice Ikes Wynne, / earges 
 flceschoman idelne lust, Cr. 1298, compared with lices leahtor, Gu. 1045. 
 In this general sense the term is used, purh synlust, Cr. 269, purh firena 
 lust, 369, idle lustas / synwunde, 756, probably also in synna lustas, Gu. 84, 
 ic him geswete synna lustas, Jul. 369, hi firenlusta frece ne wceron, Met. 
 VIII. 15. 
 
 341. Gcelsa generally translates Latin luxus, luxuria. Thus we note, 
 his gemyndum modes gcdsan, Moods 11, manigfealde modes gcelsan, Jul. 366, 
 pees gatlsan (luxuriae, 89), Doom 179, also line 237, where celc gcelsa / . . . 
 scyldig renders scelerata libido, 119. A word closely related is gdlnes, 
 wantonness, lus f , occurring once, her glad leofast on galnysse (servire libidine 
 gaudes, 88), Doom 178. Two adjectives formed with gal- may also be 
 noted here, gdlferhd, Jud. 62, and gdlmod, 256, both referring to the lust- 
 ful Holofernes. 
 
 342. Wrdinnes, wantonness, renders focus, 118, Doom 235, while we 
 find weaxed / pcere wrcennesse woddrag micel Met. XXV, 41. 
 
 6 P. 398. 
 
102 INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY ON OLD ENGLISH POETRY [102 
 
 343. Hefignes is encountered a few times in Meters, pas lichoman leah- 
 tras and hefignes, XXII, 25, 29, mid hefinesse his lichoman, 63. 
 
 344. The unclean lusts and desires lead to various sins, some of which 
 have physical causes. Gluttony must be mentioned here, pa oferfylle 
 we find Exhortation 75, the subject having been discussed before, Warna 
 pe georne wid pare wambefylle, 40, with its dire effects, forpan heo pa unpeo- 
 was ealle gesomna'd, / pe pare saide swidost deriafi, /pat is druncennes and 
 dyrne geligere, 41-3, to which is added ungemet wilnung ates and slapes, 44. 
 Curiously enough, the author mentions not only that one may drive them 
 away mid fastenum / and forhafdnessum, 45-6, but also mid cyricsocnum 
 cealdum wederum, 47. Druncennes we find Exhortation 43, druncen, f.. 
 occurs in Druncen beorgpe, Instructions 34, pu scealt druncen fleon, Exhorta- 
 tion 74. 
 
 345. Dyrne geligere, n., was pointed out Exhortation 43 as one of the 
 results of gluttony. Illicit intercourse, fornication, or adultery, are men- 
 tioned several times in the poetry, the particular term used in each case 
 being very expressive. From forlicgan we have lease and forlegene, Cr. 
 1611, the verb also being employed, gif se lichoma forlegen weorfied / unriht- 
 hamede, Met. XVIII, 9. Besides unrihthamed, n., occurring in the passage 
 just quoted, the word in the sense of adultery or fornication is found Met. 
 IX, 6, referring to Nero. A related term, wohh anted, n., we have in se yfla 
 unrihta . . . / wrafia willa wohhamedes, Met. XVIII, 2. The sin of 
 sodomy is referred to, pat mid pam halefium haman wolden / unscomlice, 
 Gen. 2458-9. Wiflufu in the sense of adultery is used Jul. 296, fia se halga 
 wer J pare wiflufan wordum styrde, Herod's illicit relation being further 
 characterized as unrihtre a, 297. In Instructions the son is warned against 
 idese lufan, 36, forfion sceal awiscmod oft sipian, / se pe gewitefi in wifes 
 lufan, I fremdre meowlan: par bid a firena wen, / laZlicre scome, 37-40. 
 
 346. Among the Peccata peris worship of heathen gods and devils 
 may be pointed out here. Hadengield, deofolgield, etc., have already 
 been discussed. Witchcraft and magic also belong here. Gealdor, n., 
 incantatio, we have in (Circe) cude galdra fela. Met. XXVI, 53, and the 
 compound in Sygegealdor ic begale, Charm VIII, 6. Galdorcraft is ascribed 
 to the Jews, Judea galdorcraftum, And. 166. We note wiccraft in wic- 
 crafta wis, Gifts 70, and wiccungdom, Dan. 121, both referring to witch- 
 craft. Drycraft is mentioned several times, for instance in Andreas, the 
 Jews claiming concerning a miracle of Christ, pat hit drycraftum gedon 
 ware, / scingelacum, 765, cude (Circe) galdra fela / drijan drycraftas, 
 Met. XXVI, 54, drycraftum, 98, and mid drycraftum, 102. Scingelac and 
 scinlac, n., magical practices, sorcery, we have Jul. 214, as also Met. XXVI, 
 74, And. 766. 
 
103] SIN 103 
 
 347. Other sins properly coming under this heading, such as murder, 
 theft, etc., are also encountered, but since they offer nothing character- 
 istically Christian, no treatment of them seems to be called for. 
 
 III. Peccata Oris 
 
 348. Here belongs bismer, mnf., in a general sense insult, and when 
 applied to God, blasphemy. Thus, hi gefremedan oder bysmer {irritaverunt), 
 Ps. CV, 25, him hcrfdan on bysmer {irritaverunt), CVI, 10, brigdefi on bysmer , 
 Judg. 71. As occurrences of the verb we note, me bysmer edon . . . / weras 
 wanscclige (Jews Christ), And. 962, naman pinne nu bysmriad (irritat), 
 Ps. LXXIII, 10, gebysmerian, as, hi heanne god gebysmredan (exacerbaverunt 
 Deum excelsum), LXXVII, 56. In the sense of to blaspheme hyrwan occurs, 
 ac hi hyrwdon me (Jews Christ), El. 355. Hyspan, to mock, is found Cr. 
 1121, hysptun (Christ) hearmcwidum, the noun being hosp, m., blasphemy, 
 when applied to the Deity, as, (Ic gepolade) hosp and heardcwide, Cr. 1444. 
 In a somewhat general sense hospword is found And. 1315. In a more 
 specific meaning we note, pcet pu hospcwide, / cefst ne eofolsozc cefre ne 
 fremme, / grimne geagncwide wifi godes bearne, El. 523, though hospcwide as 
 also the other terms used derive the specific meaning of blasphemy from 
 the context. Onhyscan, to mock, is rare, occurring in the Psalms. Of 
 other terms may be noted teoncwide, on pare grimmesian godscyld wrecan, / 
 tome teoncwide, Jul. 205, applied to heathen gods, the word also being 
 encountered And. 771. Teona, in the sense of slander, we have in seo 
 tunge to teonan geclypede, Doom 137. Edwit, n., scorn, abuse, is used a 
 number of times. The damned have to endure deofles spellunge, / hu hie 
 him on edwit oft asettad / swarte suslbonan, Sat. 638-40, sprcEcon him 
 (Christ) edwit, Cr. 1122, Cwepad him ptet edwit (exprobravertmt), Ps. 
 LXXXVHI, 44. Edwltsprctce (opprobrii) we have in verse 43, as also CI, 
 6 (exprobrabant), while Gu. 418 the devils are called edwltsprecan. 
 
 349. A somewhat different sin is expressed by terms such as idele 
 sprccc, L. Prayer III, 108, and mdnldel word (vanitatem) , Ps. CXLIII, 9, 
 13, but they hardly need any discussion. Gielp, mn., in the sense of 
 boasting, though also in that of pride, arrogance, is rather frequent. Of 
 the fallen angels it is said, Hccfdon gielp micel, Gen. 25, ivgcs him gylp farod, 
 69. We note also, ongan da gyddigan purh gylp micel, Dan. 599, idel gylp, 
 Sat. 254, Gu. 634. A number of compounds, such as gilpsprazc, are also 
 found. The verb gielpan is very frequent, gealp gramlice gode on andan, 
 Dan. 714, firenum gtdpon, Gu. 236, gylpafi gramhydige (gloriati sunt), Ps. 
 LXXIII, 4, manwyrhtan mordre gylpad (peccalores gloriabuntur), XCIII, 
 3, etc., etc. 
 
 350. The most common term for lie is lyge, m., exemplified by mengan 
 ongunnon / lige wit) sode, El. 307, lige ne wyrfie'S, 575, pu (devil) us gelcer- 
 
104 INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY ON OLD ENGLISH POETRY [104 
 
 dcest durh lyge dinne, Sat. 53. Of compounds may be noted lygesynnig, 
 used once, El. 898, as an epithet of the devil, lygeword, occurring a few- 
 times, as Dan. 720, Ps. LVII, 3 (falsa), etc. The verb is leogan, to lie, 
 wyrs ded sedeliehd / odd e dees s odes ansceced, Sal. 181, Himjynd godes ftzene 
 leogad (mentiti sunt ei), Ps. LXXX, 14. Aleogan and geleogan, though rare, 
 also occur. Another term for lie is lygen, f., met with a number of times 
 in Genesis, thus, mid ligenum, 496, 531, 588, etc. Lygenword in the dat. 
 pi. is found Gen. 699, the term occurring only once. A liar is called lyge- 
 wyrhta Sermon Ps. 28, 11, the dat. pi. being used. Leas, n., is very rare, 
 pcet leas, El. 580, and lease leng gefylgad, 576. The adjective is more fre- 
 quent, occurring for instance Cr. 1120, and Sermon Ps. 28, 24. It may be 
 pointed out that lease sceaweras, Beow. 253, is used in the sense of spies., 
 Leasung is rarely met with; we have it in forlccte pa leasunga, El. 689. 
 
 351. The OE. word for oath is ad. While the idea of perjury is 
 expressed by ne me swor jela / ada on unriht, Beow. 2738, we read on 
 worulde her / monnum ne denad mane adas, 7 Met. IV, 48. The perjurer 
 is called an adloga Cr. 1605. Mdnswara is applied to him Cr. 193, the 
 plural being found 1612. 
 
 352. Tcbl, f., slander, calumny, is found a few times, e.g., ic for tcele ne 
 mceg J cenigne moncynnes mode gelufian / eorl on eple, Prayer IV, 105. 
 Talnis in the sense of blasphemy has already been quoted under that 
 heading. The verb tozlan, to slander or backbite, is comparatively rare, 
 being encountered in Eorl oderne mid cefpancum / and mid tconwordum 
 taled behindan, Sermon Ps. 28, 4. the father warning his son Ne beo pu no 
 to todende ne to tweosprace, Instructions 90. In the sense of to blaspheme 
 is found {he) his godu tcelde, Jul. 598. We note also, pe oft wrade me trage 
 tceldan (qui detrahunt milii apud Dominum) , Ps. CVIII, 20. 
 
 353. Wyrgdu, f ., curse, is used a number of times. Thus we find, pe eow 
 ofwergde (lysanpohte), El. 295, Euan scyld ealforpynded, / wargda aivorpen, 
 Cr. 98, He wolde wergdu wyrcean georne (dilexit maledictionem), Ps. CVIII, 
 17, etc. The verb is wyrgan, its use being illustrated by (ongan hine) 
 wordum wyrgean (Noah Ham), Gen. 1594, pa ge wergdon pane, j pe eow of 
 wergde (lysan pohte), El. 294, gif me min feond fcecne wyrged (si inimicus 
 maledixisset mihi), Ps. LIV, 11. Not seldom dwyrgan is utilized, often 
 applied in the sense of accursed one to the devil or the lost, as, se awyrgda, 
 Sat. 316, etc., awyrgda, 676, etc. For further remarks see chapter XII, 431. 
 
 IV. Peccata Cordis 
 
 354. Among the deadly sins as conceived by the Mediaeval Church 
 superbia stood first, which in OE. poetry is often rendered by oferhygd, n., 
 examples of which are numerous. Pride was at the bottom of the rebellion 
 
 7 OS. menetk, OHG. meineid, ON. meineiZr. 
 
105] SIN 105 
 
 of the angels against God. We are told peet wees geara iu in godes rice, / 
 pcette mid en glum oferhygd astag, Moods 57-8, so that hi to swice pohten / 
 and prymcyning peodenstoles / ricne beryfan, 61-2. Of the chief it 
 is said, oer don engla wear d j or oferhygde j dcel on gedwilde, Gen. 22, while 
 eefst and oferhygd and pees engles mod, 29, proved the downfall of the angels, 
 pa blacan feond / for oferhygdum ealle forwurdon, Sat. 196-7. Of other 
 occurrences of the term we note, oferhygd Dan. 490, oferhyd, 495, 615, 
 fore oferhygdum, Jul. 424, on oferhygdo, Moods 23, oferhygda ful, 43, simi- 
 larly 53; from the Psalms, on oferhygde {in superbia), LVIII, 12, pe oferhygd 
 up ahebbe (qui facit superbiam), C, 7, etc., etc. Oferhygdig, n., occurs Ps. 
 LXXVII, 58 (aemulalionem) . The adjective oferhygdig is found a number 
 of times, especially in the Psalms. We note, englas oferhydige, Prayer IV, 
 55, oferhidig cyn engla, Gen. 66, oferhydige (superbos), Ps. CXVIII, 21, 22, 
 oferhydigum (superbis), XCIII, 2, etc. 
 
 355. In order to express superbia other terms are also employed, as, 
 ofermede, n., his engyl ongan ofermede micel / ahebban wid his hearran 7 
 Gen. 293, on ofermedum, Moods 75, ofermedla,for his ofermedlan, Dan. 657, 
 onmedla, a number of times, as, onmedla wees, Cr. 815, for dam anmedlan, 
 Sat. 74, for anmeedlan, 429, for anmedlan, Dan. 748. We have further, 
 ofermetto, f., his ofermetto ealra swidost (chief angel), Gen. 351, purh ojer- 
 metto, 332, purh ofermetto ealra swidost (fallen angels), 337, ofermod, n., 
 se engel ofermodes, Gen. 272, for his ofermode, Maldon 89. The adjective 
 ofermod is found a number of times, ofermod wesan, Gen. 262, se ofermoda 
 cyning (chief angel or devil), 338, Eala ofermodan! Met. X, 18, etc. Ofer- 
 modig in the pi. occurs Ps. CXVIII, 51 (superbi), found only once, as also 
 the verb ofermodgian, Met. XVII, 16. Related terms are heahmod, adj., 
 (Se pe June sylfne) ahefed heahmodne, Moods 54, swidmbd, Dan. 529, etc., 
 also heahheort, adj., Dan. 540. 
 
 356. Among other terms for superbia we note wlenco, f., wlenco onwod, 
 Gen. 2579, hie wlenco onwod at winpege, Dan. 17, wlenco gesceod, 678, for 
 wlence, Gen. 1673, etc. Gal, n., is encountered Gen. 327, and galscipe 341, 
 in each case the term probably referring t© pride. Bcelc, L. superbia, 
 arrogantia, we find in bcelc forlriged (Assyrians), Jud. 267, and bcelc forbigde 
 (rebellious angels), Gen. 54. 
 
 357. Nip, m., L. invidia, is used in referring to the devil Ph. 400, as 
 also in purh ncedran nip, 413. We have wid nipa gehwam 469, while it is 
 said of Cain, hygeweelm asteah / beorne on breostum, blatende nid, Gen. 
 980-81, brandhata nid, And. 768, referring to the devil, etc. Similarly, 
 also including hatred, cefest is employed. We have, cefst and oferhygd and 
 pees engles mod (devil), Gen. 29, ne meahton hy (devils) cefeste anforlcetan, 
 Gu. 158, fore cejstum, 684, ealdfeondes cefest, Ph. 401, cefstum purh inwit 
 
106 INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY ON OLD ENGLISH POETRY [106 
 
 (Christ was crucified), El. 207, is gromra to fela / afestum eaden, Prayer 
 IV, 46, hie (Jews) for cefstum inwit syredon, And. 610, hie for ozfstum 
 unscyldigne (Jeore berceddon . . ., Jews Stephen), El. 496, etc., etc. 
 
 358. Hete, m., is often employed in the sense of hatred, also having 
 the wider meaning of hostility. We quote, se wees lafi gode, / on hete heofon- 
 cyninges, Gen. 648, (Ic fleah) hlcefdigan hete, 2273, (godes agen beam) purh 
 hete hengon on heanne beam, El. 424. From hete a number of compounds 
 are formed, thus, hetepanc, ne gerim witan / heardra heteponca, Jul. 315, 
 mid his hetepancum, Beow. 475, hetepancol, Jud. 105, hetlen, full of hate, 
 Cr. 364. Feogan, to hate, is encountered a number of times, especially 
 in the Psalms. We note, pa pe dryhtnes a / feodon purh firencrceft, Jul. 14, 
 ieodon purh feondscipe, El. 356, pe hine feodan {qui oderunt eum), Ps. 
 LXVII, 1, de fceste cer feodan, drihten (oderunt te), LXXXII, 2, etc. 
 
 359. Forhycgan, despise, detest, is exemplified by flu for ho godes heofon- 
 cyninges word, And. 1381, sippan he pas woruld forhogde (not a sin here), 
 Gu. 713, hine for ho god est (despexisti), Ps. LXXXVIII, 32. Oferhycgan is 
 rare, Utan oferhycgan helm (God), Sat. 252, had oferhogedon halgan lifes, 
 Dan. 300. Onscunian, detest, is found once, onscunedon pone sciran 
 scippend eallra, El. 370. 
 
 360. Yrre, n., occurs frequently, especially in the Psalms. Irre, Met. 
 XXV, 51, Yrre ne Icet pe cejre gewealdan / heah in hrepre, Instructions 83, 
 yrre for ozfstum (Cain), Gen. 982, Hyre pa purh yrre ageaf andsware, Jul. 
 117, godes yrre / habban, Gen. 695, pa to yrre beofi ealle gecigde (eos qui in 
 ira provocant), Ps. LXVII, 7, Swa hi his yrre oft aweahtan (in iram con- 
 citaverunt), LXXVII, 58, etc. The adjective is frequently found, hccWd 
 war on yrre, Jud. 225, weard yrre anmod cyning, Dan. 224, on yrre mod eft 
 gebrohtan, Ps. LXXVII, 40, etc. Among other terms may be noted yrsung, 
 thrice used in Meters, while the adjective yrringa and the verb yrsian are 
 also rare. 
 
 361. sEbylg, n., is found once, gecefnan cebylg godes, Gu. 1211, abylgd, 
 {., in the sense of anger, He qpyligde on hi bitter and yrre sarlic sende (misit 
 in eos iram indignationis suae), Ps. LXXVII, 49, cebylgnes, L. indignatio, 
 he him ozbylgnesse oft gefremede, Moods 71, and cebylignes eac yrres pines 
 (indignatio irae tuae), Ps. LXVIII, 25. Belgan, to become indignant, angry, 
 is frequently employed, abelgan and gebelgan being also found. 8 Abylgan, 
 to anger, offend, we have in Hi hine on gepeahte oft abylgdan (exacer- 
 baverunt), Ps. CV, 32,po3t he ne abadige beam waldendes, Sat. 195. Among 
 other terms we note hatheortnes , anger, fury, used once, mid dam swidan 
 welme J hatheortnesse, Met. XXV, 47, torn, OHG. zorn, penden him hyra 
 torn toglide, Gn. Ex. 182, his torn wrecan, Gen. 2508, etc., Wceron teonsmi'das 
 
 8 For examples see Sprachschatz. 
 
107] SIN 107 
 
 tomes fulle, Gu. 176, etc. Of compounds appear such as gartom, fighting 
 rage, gartom geotad gifmni deofle, Sal. 145, tornmod, once, Gu. 621, and 
 tomwracu, once, Gu. 272. It may be pointed out here that the same terms 
 are occasionally also applied to the Deity, and merely for the purpose of 
 illustration we have at times added an example thus used. 
 
 362. Gitsung, desire, covetousness, avarice. Deos gitsung, Met. VIII, 
 43, sio gitsung, 46, grundleas gitsung gilpes and ozhta, VII, 15, gitsunge 
 gelpes, X, 13, notes py he giemde purh gitsunga / lanes lifwelan, Gu. 121-2. 
 From the Psalms we note, nalazs me gitsung fomiman mote (in avaritiam), 
 CXVIII, 36, ongunnan gitsunge began (concupierunt concupiscentiam) , CV, 
 12, for gitsunga (libidine percitus, Grein), Ps. L. 24. Of compounds occur 
 woruldgitsung, Met. VII, 12. W oruldgltsere is found Met. XIV, 1, and 
 feohgitsere VIII, 55. Closely related are (to) feohgifre, Wand. 68, godes 
 gradig, Sal. 344, and similar terms. Fcesthafolnes is found once, Doom 236, 
 rendering dira cupido, 119. Mdnsceat, m., usury, occurs once, He of 
 mansceatte and of mane eac sniome hiora sawle softe alysde (ex usuris et 
 iniquitate), Ps. LXXI, 14. 
 
 363. Tweogan, to doubt, is sometimes found in the religious sense. 
 Thus, [No heo tirmeotudes] tweode gifena / in dys ginnan grunde, Jud. 1, 
 huru cetpccm ende ne tweode / pees leanes,pe heo lange gyrnde, 346, ne getweode 
 treow in breostum, Gu. 515, tweogende mod, And. 771, in contrast to which 
 
 may be noted hyht untweondne on pone ahangnan Crist, El. 797. 
 
 « 
 
 364. A noun ungeleafa does not occur in the poetry, though we have 
 the adjective once, ungeleafe menu (non credentes), Ps. LXVII, 19. The 
 idea is variously paraphrased, but we need not discuss all the expres- 
 sions here. Not seldom unbelief or godlessness is represented as error 
 or deception. Gedwild is used for instance, hean prowian / pinra dceda 
 gedwild, Gen. 922/ engla weard for oferhygde / dcel on gedwilde, 23. Misge- 
 dwild is also found, pait we sodfeestra /purh misgedwield mod oncyrren, Jul. 
 326. Gedwola is used several times, as for instance, in gedwolan hweorfan, 
 Dan. 22, gedwolan hyran, Cr. 344, gedwolan dreogan, Gu. 230, practically 
 in the sense of idolatry, deofulgild todraf and gedwolan fylde, And. 1688, 
 purh deopne gedwolan deofles larum, 611. It is said of Cyriacus, (witisoc) 
 deofulgildum and gedwolan fylde, El. 1040, and in reference to the Jews, 
 purh deofles spild in gedwola lange / acyr red f ram Criste, 1118-19. Arius' 
 heresy is labeled Arrianes / gedwola, Met. I, 40-41. The verb gedwelian in 
 the religious sense we have exemplified in dcedum gedwolene (people of 
 Sodom and Gomorrah), Gen. 1936, similarly Jul. 13. 
 
 365. Untreow, f., we find in a secular sense Met. II, 13, in the religious 
 meaning Gen. 773. Untreowe, perfidious, is also encountered, Wcerleas 
 mon and wonhydig, / oztrenmod and ungetreow, Gn. Ex. 163. Ungetreowd 
 
108 INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY ON OLD ENGLISH POETRY [108 
 
 we have in tyhfi me untreowda, Gen. 581. The cowardly companions of 
 Beowulf are called treowlogan, 2847. Cowardice, perfidy, and disloyalty 
 would of course be regarded as cardinal sins by the Germanic mind. 
 
 366. TJnsodjcestnes occurs only once in poetry, Ps. LIV, 9, (injustitia). 
 The adjective is also rare, we unsodfceste ealle war on (injuste), Ps. CV, 6, 
 unsodfcestne wer (virum injustum), CXXXIX, 11. Unriht in the sense of 
 injustice is also found. 
 
 367. As in ON., 9 the expression for conscientia in OE. poetry is not 
 always the same, the idea being foreign to the heathen mind. Besides it 
 is seldom mentioned. Once we have breostgehygd, nf., ac ealle purhyrnd 
 . . . I breostgehygda, Doom 172. Wisdom seems to be regarded as the 
 keeper of the soul Cr. 1550-53, (we magon) on an cwepan, / pcet se sawle 
 weard/lifes wisdom forlor en hcebbe, / se pe nune giemed. . . . In this case 
 as in the following the reference is not as clear as we might wish it to be, 
 ponne se weard sivefed, / sawele hyrde: bid se sleep to f (est/ bisgum gebunden, 
 Beow. 1741- 3. 
 
 368. God tempts or probes man in order to find out his position. The 
 word used is costian, for instance, pa pees rinces se rica ongan / cyning 
 costigan (God Abraham), Gen. 2846. The devil also tempts man, but with 
 the object of seducing him, costian also being employed. Regarding the 
 tempting of Christ we hear, pcet he (devil) costode cyning alwihta, Sat. 671. 
 Of St. Guthlac it is said, He gecostad weard, t24. The noun is costung, a 
 word comparatively rare, Ne Icet usic costunga cnyssan to swide, L. Prayer I, 
 9, (Ne Iced pu us) in costunge (temptationem) , II, 28, and na us pu ne Icet lade 
 beswican I on costunga (temtationem) , III, 105. We have the term also in 
 sindan costinga / . . . monge arisene, Gu. 9, and Wees seo cereste earmra 
 gcesta I costung ofercumen, 409. Frasung, temptation, is found in frasunga 
 fela, Gu. 160. 
 
 369. The devil himself describes his infernal strategy at some length 
 in Juliana, under the figure of assailing a castle, etc. To express his pro- 
 cedure in winning man as described by him in language not figurative, 
 we quote the summary of Abbetmeyer 10 on Jul. 362 ff.: "Wherever he 
 (namely the devil) finds the mind steadfast, he arouses wanton pride by 
 inspiring fallacious, delusive thoughts ('suggestio'); he makes sinful lusts 
 appear attractive, until the mind obeys his teaching ('delectatio'); he sets 
 it so on fire with sins that, all ablaze, it will no longer tarry in the house of 
 prayer for love of vice, but do the devil's will ('consensus'). 
 
 • Kahle, I, p. 406-7. 
 
 10 Old English Poetical Motives Derived from the Doctrine of Sin, p. 38. 
 
109] SIN 109 
 
 370. The work of the devil is often expressed by beswican, to deceive, 
 defraud, seduce, a term also used in a more general sense, as, od pcet hie 
 langung beswac, / eordan dreamas eces rcedes, Dan. 29, We purh gifre mod / 
 beswican us sylfe, Har. 96. In regard to the devil the term is used fre- 
 quently, so oppozt hy beswiead synna weardas, Judg. 16, na us pu ne Icet lade 
 beswican / on costunga, L. Prayer III, 104,ponne hy sofifcestra sawle willa'8 / 
 synnum beswican and sear ocrazf turn, Gu. 540, (devil) wolde dearnunga driht- 
 nes geon gran, / mid mandcedum menn beswican, / forlcedan and fori cer an, 
 Gen. 451, etc., etc. As exemplified in the last passage, forlcedan and 
 forlaran are also employed. We note further, (woldun hy geteon) in 
 orwennysse (despair), Gu. 547, forteon in ponan us cer purh synlust se swearta 
 gcBst I forteah and fortylde, Cr. 270, fortyhtan, found once, swa se ealda 
 feond I forlcerde ligesearwum, leode forty hte, El. 208. Dimscua, darkness, 
 is employed, under dimscuan deofles larum, And. 141. Gespan, n., seduc- 
 tion, we find once, deofles gespon, Gen. 720, the verb spanan occurring in 
 mid listum speon / idese on pcet unriht, Gen. 588, similarly 687; bespanan 
 we have once, ic H erode / in hyge bispeon (to behead John the Baptist), 
 Jul. 294. Scyccan, in the sense of to seduce, we have in Me ncedre beswac 
 and me neodlice / to forsceape scyhte, Gen. 898. Scucca is the seducer, 
 devil, demon, as, scuccum and scinnum, Beow. 939, sceuccum (daemoniis), 
 Ps. CV, 27, scyccgyld occurring in sceuccgyldum (sculptilibus) , 26. With 
 scuccum and scinnum, Beow. 939, compare Swa bid scinna peaw, / deofla 
 wise, Whale 31. 
 
110 INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY ON OLD ENGLISH POETRY [110 
 
 CHAPTER X 
 FAITH, CONVERSION, PENANCE 
 
 371. The teachings of Christianity demand of man that he forsake sin 
 and lead a new life in Christ. By the grace of God faith accomplishes this 
 regeneration or rebirth, and remains the basis from which Christian vir- 
 tues and good works proceed as natural and inevitable evidences of sancti- 
 fication. 
 
 I. Faith 
 
 372. The New Testament irians, which the Vulgate renders by fides, 
 is expressed in OE. by geleafa, OHG. galauba. 1 As in the case of OHG., 
 geleafa may be used in both the subjective and the objective sense, though 
 the former is much more common. In the objective meaning it occurs only 
 a few times, as in the missionary command, bodiad and bremad beorhtne 
 geleafan, Cr. 483, and similarly, Bodiad after burgum beorhtne geleafan, 
 And. 335. 
 
 373. As a rule, subjective faith is expressed by geleafa, often a modifying 
 adjective also being employed. Thus we have, An is geleafa, an lifgende, 
 Maxims 8, his geleafa weard / fcest on ferhde, El. 1035, heo ahte trumne 
 geleafan / a to dam celmihtigan, Jud. 6, mid fceste geleafan, Charm I, 34, 
 Ic hcebbe me fcestne geleafan / up to pam cdmihtegan gode, Gen. 543, (ne 
 hcefdon) on hiora fyrhpe fcestne geleafan (necfideles habiti sunt), Ps. LXXVII, 
 36, mid rihte geleafan, Jud. 97, sodne geleafan, 89, 345, beorhtne geleafan, 
 Gu. 770, leohtne geleafan, El. 491, (mid) leohte geleafan, Jul. 653, leohte 
 geleafan, El. 1136, Gu. 624, 1084, Ph. 479, leohtran geleafan in lijfruman, 
 Dan. 643, leohtes geleafan, Jul. 378. 
 
 374. The verb is gelefan, gelifan, gelyfan, generally expressing the 
 L. credere, though also rendering fidere and sperare. As gelefan is of such 
 frequent occurrence, only a few characteristic examples need be given here, 
 Ne wile Sarran sod gelyfan / wordum minum, Gen. 2388, Ic on sunu pinne 
 sodne gelyfe, Creed 9, pe gelyfad on lyfiendne god, Prayer III, 29, Lisse ic 
 gelyfe leahtra gehwylces, Creed 54, noldan his wundrum wel gelyfan (non 
 crediderunt in mirabilibus ejus), Ps. LXXVII, 31, Nu is to gelyfenne to dan 
 leofan gode, Chr. IV, 13. 
 
 375. Only a few compounds are met with in the poetry. Ungeleaf has 
 already been cited in 364. The ace. or inst. of sodgeleafa is found Gen. 
 
 1 For this chapter compare Raumer, p. 388 ff., Kahle, I, 407 ff., II, 152-3. 
 
[Ill FAITH, CONVERSION, PENANCE 111 
 
 2325. Geleajful occurs a few times, El. 959 and as geleafull 1047 referring 
 to Cyriacus, Ofer geleajfulle eorfibugende (adfideles terrae), Ps. C, 6, wordum 
 (ac) geleafullum (fidei sermone, 31), Doom 61. Geleafsum occurs once, 
 pin gewitnes is weorcum geleafsum (testimonia tua credibilia facta sunt), 
 Ps. XCII, 6. 
 
 376. Sometimes other terms than geleafa are used to express sub- 
 stantially the same idea. Treow, f., is not infrequently employed. We 
 note, huru treow in pe (Virgin Mary) / weor'dlicu wunade, Cr. 82, ge mid 
 treowe to me / on hyge hweorfafi, Partridge 5, Rio in gceste bar / halge 
 treowe, Jul. 29, sofie treowe and sibbe mid eow / healdad est heortan, 655, 
 (Noah) Hcefde him on hredre halige treowa, Ex. 366, (no) treow getweode, 
 Gu. 311, him ne getweode treow in breostum, 515, pat his treowa sceal / and 
 his modge'donc ma up ponne nider / habban to heofonum, Met. XXXI, 18, 
 as also Til hip se pe his treowe gehealded, Wand. 112. Hygetreow we have 
 in (God promises Isaac) him sode to / modes ware mine gelataai, / halige 
 higeireowa, Gen. 2367. 
 
 377. Treowan and getreowan are sometimes used in the same sense as 
 gelefan. Thus, aghwylcum, pe him on treowad (omnes qui confidunt in 
 eis), Ps. CXIII, 17, pu in ecne god / prymsittendne pinne getreowdes, Jul. 
 435, etc., pape on drihten heora dcedum getreowafi (qui confidunt in Domino), 
 Ps. CXXIV, 1. Especially noteworthy is the use in Creed, where getreowan 
 and gelefan are used interchangeably. We have, Eac ic gelyfe, pat syn 
 leofe gode, 49, and ic gemanscipe marne getreowe (pinra haligra), 52, Lisse 
 ic gelyfe leahtra gehwylces, 54, and ic pone arest ealra getreowe, 55. 
 
 378. The Christian idea of hope is of course closely related to that of 
 faith. Sometimes the terms are almost synonymous in OE. poetry. 
 Among other examples we note Gesette minne hyht on pec, Prayer IV, 36, 
 Uton us to pare hyde hyht stapelian, Cr. 865, hyht untweondne on pone 
 ahangnan Crist, El. 797, berad in breostum beorhtne geleafan, / haligne 
 hyht, Gu. 771; hopa'd to pam ecum, Met. VII, 44, se miccla hopa to pinum 
 halende, Exhortation 10. 
 
 II. Conversion 
 
 379. Conversion is expressed in different ways in OE. poetry, the 
 turning away from sin and the turning to God being especially emphasized. 
 In order to indicate conversion, the New Testament uses the terms kiri- 
 (TTpecpeLv, <TTpa.iprivai, and kincTTpoiprj, rendered in the Vulgate by convertere, 
 converti, and conversio. These are concrete terms used in every-day life, 
 metaphorically expressing actions taking place in the religious life of 
 individuals. In OHG., ON., and OE. similar expressions are employed. 
 In OE. poetry cyrran, which as a rule denotes to turn in a profane sense, 
 
112 INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY ON OLD ENGLISH POETRY [112 
 
 is used to indicate conversion, as, Ac du synfulle simle leerdes, / deet Jiio 
 cerrende Criste herdon, Ps. L. 56. Gecyrran in the sense of to convert is used 
 a few times, of which examples we note, Gecyr mine sawle clcene on pine 
 r cedes resie {converter e anima mea in requiem tuam), Ps. CXIV, 7, etc., 
 deet icfram deem synnum self a gecerre, Ps. L. 64, dcet hie arlease eft gecerdan / 
 to Mora self r a saula Jiiorde (et impii ad te convertentur) , 106-7. On the other 
 hand, apostacy is similarly expressed as a turning away from God, acyrred 
 cudlice from Cristes ce, Jul. 411, acyrred from Criste, El. 1119. 
 
 380. Other expressions are also used. We note for to convert, fulwiad 
 folc under roderum, / Jiweorfad to heofonum, Cr. 485, pe die geJiweorfest to 
 heofonleohte / purh minne naman, And. 974, GeJiweorf us tirade, heelend 
 drihten (Converte nos Deus, salutaris noster), Ps. LXXXIV, 4, wenede to 
 wuldre weorod unmcete, And. 1682, sippan June inlyhte, se pe lifes weg / 
 gcestum gearwad, Gu. 70-71, Leerde pa pa leode on geleafan weg, And. 1680, 
 Ongon heg pa leer an and to lofe trymman / folc of firenum, Jul. 638-9, etc. 
 To be converted is also expressed in many different ways, Jiweorfan Jiige- 
 blide fram Jielltrafum / purh Andreas este lare / to fcegeran gefean, And. 
 1691-3, he pcet betere geceas, / wuldres wynne and pam wyrsan widsoc, / 
 deofolgildum and gedwolan fylde, / unrihte ce, El. 1038-41, inbyrded breost- 
 sefa on pat betere lif, / gewended to wuldre, 1045-6, ge mid treowe to me on 
 hyge Jiweorfad, Partridge 5-6, (Ic eom) leomum inlyJited to pam leofestan / 
 ecan earde, Gu. 627, pcet sode leoJit sweotole ancnawan / leoJite geleafan, 
 Met. V, 25-6, peer manegum weard mod onlihted, / hige onhyrded purh his 
 halig word, Ap. 52-3. 
 
 III. Penance 
 
 381. In order to express repentance the New Testament uses neravoia, 
 which the Vulgate renders by poenitentia. According to Catholic doctrine 
 poenitentia is divided into three parts, contritio, confessio, and satisfactio. 
 In OHG. hriuwa, bijihti, and buoza are employed, though not always in 
 their strict sense. 2 In OE. poetry no such definite distinction can be made. 
 As a rule hreow is used for contritio, no distinct term for confessio occurs, 
 though scrift in the sense of confessor is found, while bot would seem to 
 be more inclusive than satisfactio. 
 
 382. Hreow, f., is used a few times, so in the strictly religious sense, 
 bute him cer cume / hreow to heortan, cer Jie hionan wende, Met. XVIII, 11, 
 ne Jie wihte Jiafad / hreowe on mode, Cr. 1558, and somewhat more general, 
 hreowum gedreahte, (overwhelmed with sorrow at the destruction of the 
 world), 994, peer neefre Jireow cymed (in Heaven), 1675. In Doom 56 the 
 term is more inclusive than contritio, for Jiu micel for stent and hu meere is / 
 seo sode hreow synna and gylta renders the Latin peccati quantum valeat 
 
 2 Raumer, p. 393. 
 
113] FAITH, CONVERSION, PENANCE 113 
 
 confessio vera, 28. Of compounds hreowcearig occurs a few times, so in the 
 strictly religious sense, hreowcearigum help, Cr. 367. I c peer licgende lange 
 hwile I beheold hreowcearig hcelendes treow we read Rood B, 25. The saint's 
 companion is characterized as hyge hreowcearig, Gu. 1026, while in a general 
 sense the term is also applied to the devil Jul. 536. Hreowig is used once, 
 Nu wit hreowige, Gen. 799, referring to Adam and Eve. Hreowigmod is 
 rare, occurring in pcet wif (Eve) gnornode , / hof hreowigmod, Gen. 771, 
 while the plural in the profane sense is applied to the Assyrians Jud. 290. 
 Hreowlic in the religious meaning we have in mid hreowlicum tear nm, Doom 
 75, rendering the L. lacrymis profusis, 40. We add here a description of 
 the contritio, hwi not jeor mast pu / mid teara gyte tome synne {Cur tua non 
 purgas lacrymis peccata profusis, 40), Doom 78-9, and Nu pu scealt greotan, 
 tearas geotan (Hetibus assiduis est, 42), 82. 
 
 383. The verb is hreowan, ahreowan and gehreowan also being found. 
 Adam says, Nu me mceg ahreowan, Gen. 816, me nu hreowan mceg, 819, to 
 which Eve rejoins, onpinum hyge hreowan, ponne hit me cet heortan defi, 826. 
 We quote also, him (Jews) pcet (Crucifixion of Christ) gehreowan mceg, 
 Sat. 540, Him (devil) pcet eft gehreaw, 374, for'don me hreowelS nu, pcet ic 
 firene on fiefremede ( — quia peccavi tibi), Ps. XL, 4, to which may be added, 
 hreaw hine (God) swiSe (that he had created Adam), Gen. 1276, etc. 
 
 384. Confession is expressed in OE. prose by scrift, m., etymologically 
 connected with L. scriptum. 3 The term has also the meaning of confessor 
 and prescribed penalty. ON. uses script, scrift, and though the word is 
 found in other Teutonic dialects, the meaning penance, confession, is 
 confined to English and Scandinavian. The verb serif an in the sense of 
 to judge appears in OE. poetry, {seo prynis) scrifed bi gewyrhtum, Jul. 728, 
 scyppend scinende scrifed bi gewyrhtum / eall after ryhte, Cr. 1220, while 
 ior serif an in the sense of to condemn is encountered, sipfian him (Grendel) 
 scyppend forscrif en hcefde, Beow. 106, and hu he pcet scyldi werud for serif en 
 hcefde, Sat. 33. 
 
 385. Scrift in the sense of confessor occurs once in the poetry, ne mceg 
 purh pcet flees c se scrift / geseon on pcere sawle, hwceper him mon soft pe lyge / 
 saga~5 on hine sylfne, / ponne he pa synne bigced, Cr. 1306. If bigan has 
 here the sense of to confess, it is the only example of such occurrence. 4 
 
 t The confessor is called godes bodan (dat.), 1305. We point out here, as 
 has also been done under contritio, that seo sode hreow, Doom 56, renders 
 confessio vera, 28. 
 
 386. Satisf actio, penance, forms the third part of the poenitentia. 
 Of the Germanic languages OHG. has buoza, OFris. bote, OS. bota, ON. bot, 
 
 3 For the etymology compare NED. under shrift, also Kahle, I, pp. 409-10. 
 
 4 Compare note in Cook's Christ, p. 204. 
 
114 INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY ON OLD ENGLISH POETRY [114 
 
 while OE. uses bot, f., the general meaning of which is advantage, com- 
 pensation. However, in the poetry its meaning is more inclusive than the 
 L. satisf actio, as for instance, gif we sona eft / para bealudceda bote gefrem- 
 map, El. 515, and se ~de (Cyriacus) to bote gehwearf / purh beam godes, 1125. 
 D&dbot is met with once in the poetry, pat man her wepe / and dcedbote 
 do, Doom 85, rendering Poenituisse juvat, line 43. The verbs betan and 
 gebetan are also found, in the religious sense, peak he l&tlicor / bette bea- 
 lodcede, Prayer IV, 34, and forfion he gebette balanida hord / mid ea'Smede 
 ingepance, Ps. L. 151-2. Unbeted occurs only once, worn unbeted (guilt or 
 stain unatoned), Cr. 1312. 
 
115] CHRISTIAN VIRTUES, QUALITIES, AND GOOD WORKS 115 
 
 CHAPTER XI 
 CHRISTIAN VIRTUES, QUALITIES, AND GOOD WORKS 
 
 I. Virtues 
 
 387. In order to render Latin virtus OE. prose sometimes uses mcegen, 
 n., a term generally expressing vigor, power, might. 1 In OE. poetry 
 mcegen as a rule has the latter meaning, though in a passage like of mcBgne 
 in mcBgen mcerpum tilgan, Cr. 748, it may perhaps be rendered by virtue. 2 
 This is probably the case in ne pan mcegen hwyrfe in hee'dendom, Dan. 221. 
 In other passages as Hio (namely prudence) is poet mazste mcegen monnes 
 saule, Met. XX, 202, and/>a fie snyttro mid eow / mcegn and modcrceft mceste 
 hcebban, El. 408, the connotation seems to represent the transitional stage. 
 Another word closely approaching in meaning to virtue is dugup, {., power, 
 efficiency. In dugufium bedeled, Sat. 122, it may occur in the sense of 
 power, but has the meaning virtue in Swa is dryhten god dreama rozdend / 
 eallum eafimedum oprum gesceaftum, / duguda gehwylcre, Panther 57, which 
 Thorpe 3 renders " to everything of virtue, " and Grein 4 " den edelen anderen 
 Geschopfen," with which compare dugude beswicad, seduce the virtuous, 
 Whale 33. Cyst, mf., really choice, is sometimes used in the sense of virtue. 
 Thus, his giefe bryttafi / sumum on cystum, sumum on crceftum, Gifts 106, 
 kystum god (Edward), Chr. V, 23, he sippan sceal / godra gumcysta geasne 
 hweorfan, Jul. 381, pcet we gumcystum georne hyran, And. 1606, while of 
 Cain it is said, se cystleasa cwalmes wyrhta, Gen. 1004. The plural oipeaw, 
 m., though generally modified, is at times used in the sense of virtues. 
 We cite, cristenum peawum, El. 1210, pa pe meotude wel / gehyrdun under 
 heofonum halgum fieowum, / dcedum domlicum, Ph. 444, hyran holdlice 
 minum hodende / peawum and gepyncdum, Gu. 577, peowiafi in peawum, 
 473, sigefaston / modum gleawe in monpeawum, Az. 190. 
 
 388. The chief Christian virtue is love. The New Testament distin- 
 guishes religious from profane love by using ayairr), ayawav in connection 
 with the former and <pi\eiv with the latter. The Vulgate employs amor 
 and amare to denote sexual and other secular love, while caritas and 
 
 1 For this chapter compare Raumer, p. 397 ff., Kahle, I, 411 ff., II, 108 ff. 
 
 2 Compare note on p. 146 of Cook's Christ. Ps. LXXXIII, 7, on which the phrase in 
 Christ seems to have been modelled, has of magene on magen (de virtute in virtutem), in the 
 sense of strength, victory. It is interesting to note that in ON. kraptr, really power, might, 
 renders L. virtus in the religious sense of virtue, while the Latin term itself originally denoted 
 manly strength. 
 
 8 Codex Exoniensis, p. 359. 
 4 Dichtungen, I, p. 219. 
 
116 INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY ON OLD ENGLISH POETRY [116 
 
 diligere serve to express the religious emotion. 5 Later this distinction 
 is partly obliterated, amor Dei for instance being frequently found. 6 In 
 OHG. and ON. no such distinctive terms are used, which holds good also 
 for OE., where we have lufu, OHG. luba. The word is comparatively fre- 
 quent in the poetry, generally occurring in the religious sense. The secular 
 use is illustrated for instance in lufum and lissum, Gen. 2737, lufu langsumu, 
 1906, idese lufan, Instructions 36, wifes lufan, 38; wiflufan, Jul. 296, sibb- 
 lufan, Gen. 2514, freondlufu, 1834. The examples dealing with religious 
 love have been selected with a view of showing particular qualities or 
 relations. (Establish) mid lufan sibbe, / leohte geleafan, Jul. 652, pat seo 
 lufu cyped, / ponne heo in monnes mode getimbrefi / gastcunde gife, Gu. 
 741, (Philip and James died) for meotudes lufan, Men. 82, lufan dryhtnes, 
 Judg. 49, also Seaf. 121, El. 491, similarly 947, 1205; colap Cristes lufu, 
 Gu. 9, for Cristes lufan clane geheolde (her maidenhood), Jul. 31, seo hluttre 
 lufu I godes and manna, Exhortation 8-9, heefde hluttre lufan, / ece upgemynd 
 engla blisse, And. 1063, sod luju, Jul. 669, pat he sodlice sybbe healde, / 
 gastlice lufe, Sermon Ps. 28, 39; for gastlufan, Az. 172, mid gastlufan, 188, 
 ac hie of siblufan / godes ahwurfon, Gen. 24, mid siblufan sunu waldendes / 
 freonoman cende, Cr. 635, (those that know) haligne heortlufan (in observing 
 Sunday), Dox. 29, faste fyrfiluf an, And. 83, tome bitolden wees seo treow- 
 lufu I hat at heortan, Cr. 538, byrnende lufu, Gen. 191, fyrhat lufu, / weal- 
 lende gewitt, El. 936, brondhat lufu, Gu. 937, etc. The verb lufian is very 
 frequent. We note, lufige mid lacum pone pe leoht gescop, Jul. Ill, gif pu 
 sodne god / lufast, 48, hate at heortan hige weallende / dages and nihtes 
 dryhten lufia'd, Ph. 478, lufudun leofwendum lifes agend, Cr. 471, ic lufie pe 
 (Dilexi), Ps. CXIV, 1, ic minne drihten deorne lufige (ego vero delectabor in 
 Domino), CHI, 32, pine halu holde lufigean (diligunc salutare tuum), 
 LXIX, 5. 
 
 389. Another Christian virtue is fear of God, the reverential awe due 
 the supreme power. In the Old Testament the idea of fear is prominent, 
 but though in the New Testament it is modified to reverential awe, Latin 
 still retains timor, timere? In OE. poetry the idea is variously expressed. 
 We note, mid cwide sinum / gretan godfyrhtne (Matthew), And. 1022, 
 godfyrhte guman Josua and Tobias, 1516, patte godferhte gylt geframma'd, 
 Ps. L. 14. Ege, m., and egesa are more commonly used. Thus, hafa 
 metodes ege on gemang symle, / pat is witodlice wisdomes ord, Exhortation 
 17, se pe him ege drihtnes on ferhdcleofan faste gestanded (qui timet Domi- 
 num), Ps. CXI, \,pa on ege pinum ealle healde (in timore tuo), CXVIII, 38, 
 hire was godes egsa / mara in gemyndum, Jul. 35-6, him gasta weardes / 
 
 8 Raumer, pp. 398-9. 
 • Kahle, I, p. 412. 
 1 1bid., p. 413. 
 
117] CHRISTIAN VIRTUES, QUALITIES, AND GOOD WORKS 117 
 
 egesa on breostum wunode, Gen. 2865-6, flyhd yfla gehwylc / grimme gieltas 
 for godes egsan, Ph. 461, in a more general sense, ealle eordbuend egsan 
 habbad (et timebunt gentes), Ps. CI, 13, in a religious sense, pam pe egsan 
 his elne healdad (timentes eum), LXXXIV, 8. Ondrcedan is also used a, 
 number of times, so in gif he him god ne ondrcet, Exhortation 38, pe him his 
 dryhten ne ondrcedep, Seaf. 106, pa pe ondrcedad him (timentes eum), Ps. CII, 
 16, Eadige syndon ealle, pe him ecne god drihten ondrceda'd (beati omnes, qui 
 timent Dominum), CXXVII, 1, ne him godes fyrhtu georne ondrcedad (non 
 timuerunt Deum), LIV, 20, where we have in addition fyrhtu. 
 
 390. As the remedy against superbia and as one of the most important 
 Christian virtues appears humility, the L. humilitas. The idea of humility 
 was foreign to the Germanic heathen mind, so that the Christian termin- 
 ology had to be created. 8 In Gothic hauneins, really lowering, then lowliness 
 of mind, came to be used, in ON. litell&e and the adjective litelldtr. In 
 OHG. the terms are odmuoti, deomuiti, etc., which, as will be seen, are 
 closely related to those used in OE. Here we have the adjective eadmod, 
 as, Eom ic eadmod his ombiehthera, / peow gepyldig, Gu. 571, Eadig bid 
 se pe eapmod leofad, Seaf. 107, he (Augustine) on Brytene her / eadmode him 
 eorlas funde / to godes wlllan, Men. 99, her on eorpan eadmod leofad, Moods 
 68, gif pu eadmodne eor I gemete, 78. Ea dmod is also used, as, panne beo pu 
 eadmod, Exhortation 3, pu eadmodra ealra locast (humilia respicit), Ps. 
 CXXXVII, 6, the adverb eadmodlice occurring in eadmodlice ealluncga 
 biddan / heofena drihten, Exhortation 48. Eadmede and eadmede are also 
 encountered, of which we note only, dreama rcedend / eallum eadmedum 9 
 oprum gesceaftum / duguda gehwylcre, Panther 56, ic eom eadmede (ego 
 humiliatus sum), Ps. CXV, 1. The verb geeadmedan is rare, used in 
 geeadmeded ingepancum, Ps. L. 128, and ic geeadmeded eom (humiliatus 
 sum), CXLI, 6. The noun employed is eadmedu, eadmedu, pi. n., purh 
 eadmedu, Gu. 74, oft his word gode / purh eadmedu up onsende, 748, He wees 
 on elne and on eadmedum, 299, (Cyriacus prays) eallum eafimedum, El. 1100, 
 min eadmedu (humilitatem meam), Ps. CXVIII, 153, ic mid eadmedum eall 
 gepafige (humiliter), CXXX, 3, pa eadmedu ceghweer begangad on eordwege, 
 up on heofenum (et humilia respicit in celo et in terra), CXII, 5. Eadmetto. 
 pi. n., is used, (wyrce him) his modes hus,pcer he mcege findan / eadmetta stan 
 ungemetfeestne, Met. VII, 33, while the reference is to the Deity mforpcem 
 on peer e dene drihten self a / para eadmetta earfcest wunigad, 38. 
 
 391. The Latin misericordla is often expressed by milds, milts, f., a 
 term which is generally applied to the Deity. As supposedly pertaining 
 to man we encounter it in on merefarode miltse gecydan, And. 289, while 
 No he hine wid monna miltse gedcelde, / ac gesynta bced sawla gehwylcre 
 
 8 Compare Kahle, I, pp. 413-14. 
 
 9 The unchanged reading of the MS 
 
118 INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY ON OLD ENGLISH POETRY [118 
 
 occurs Gu. 302. An adjective often found is milde, really liberal, fre- 
 quently applied to God. It is also used of man, as, sumum he syled monna 
 milde heortan, Gifts 108, kyningc, kystum god, clane and milde, Chr. V, 23, 
 probably in the religious sense, since it refers to Eadweard, (who) sende 
 sopfceste sawle to Criste, 2. The judge tells the blessed, Ge pas earnedon, 
 pa ge earme men / woruldpearfende willum onfengun / on mildum sefan, 
 Cr. 1350-2. In Az. 149 the three youths are called milde masseras. Of 
 Beowulf it is claimed, though probably in a profane sense, that he was 
 wyruldcyninga, / manna mildust, 3182, and Moses is called manna mildost 
 Ex. 549. Mildheort is hardly ever used of man, though we find it in pat man 
 si mildheort mode sotffast (misericordiam et veritatem), Ps. LXXXIII, 12. 
 Manpware, L. mansuetus, is rarely applied to man. We note, pam man- 
 pwcerum sylefi mare halu (exaltabit mansuetos in salutem), Ps. CXLIX, 4, 
 in the same sense, milde mode and manpware {mansuetos) , CXLVI, 6, 
 while it is said of Beowulf, manna mildust and mon [pw] arust, 3182. 
 
 392. The idea expressed by L. patientia would have been repugnant 
 to the Germanic heathen mind. Only gradually could such a virtue take 
 hold among a fierce and vindictive people. OE. uses gepyld, f., in order 
 to render patientia. Thus we find the admonition, Dys dogor pu gepyld 
 hafa I weana gehwylces, Beow. 1395, further, (Forgif pu me) gepyld and 
 gemynd pinga gehwylces, / para pu me, sodfast cyning, sendan wille / to 
 cunnunge, Prayer IV, 22, Sum gewealdenmod / hafad in gepylde, pat he 
 ponne sceal, Gifts 71, Sum gepyld hafafi, / fastgongel ferd, 79, he minre 
 gepylde pingum wealded (quoniam ab ipso patientia mea), Ps. LXI, 5, he 
 gepyldum bad (the saint), Gu. 886. The adjective gepyldig is even rarer 
 than the noun. We note, peowfast and gepyldig (Abraham), Gen. 2662, 
 Eom ic eadmod his ombiehthera, / peow gepyldig, Gu. 572. Modgepyldig 
 is found in Da wees gemyndig modgepyldig / beorn, And. 981. 
 
 393. Abstinentia is once rendered by jorhafdnes, namely pa man 
 mag . . . mid) forhafdnessum heonon adrifan (gluttony, etc.), Exhorta- 
 tion 46. 
 
 II. Qualities 
 
 394. Here a number of terms may conveniently be treated, such as 
 certain virtues, etc., qualities of the pious and faithful, which are ascribed 
 not so much to any particular persons as representing a class, but rather 
 to them as the adherents of God and Christ and as members of the heavenly 
 kingdom. The apostles, patriarchs, saints, and the blessed in Heaven are 
 all represented, and need not be treated separately, since all come under 
 the heading of the faithful, and similar qualities are ascribed to them. 
 
 395. Godsad, n., really God's seed, is encountered in the sense of piety, 
 gode in godsade (three youths in the fiery furnace), Dan. 90. Folc godes, 
 
119] CHRISTIAN VIRTUES, QUALITIES AND GOOD WORKS 119 
 
 Cr. 764, Cristes folces, El. 499. The Christians conceived as the flock of 
 Christ we find in pin eowde, Cr. 257. 
 
 396. Not seldom the faithful are called the chosen ones, Criste gecorene, 
 Jul. 605, cempan gecorene, Criste leofe, Gu. 769, bcerndon gecorene, / gcBston 
 godes cempan, Jul. 16-17, geestas gecorene, Ph. 593, pa gecorenan, Cr. 1635, 
 his pa gecorenan, Dox. 42, etc. 
 
 397. Closely connected with the idea just mentioned is that of purity. 
 Sometimes terms for both appear in the same sentence. We note, clcene 
 and gecorene Cristes pegnas, L. Prayer III, 53, clcene and gecorene (Juliana), 
 Jul. 613, sawla soSfeeste song ahebbat), / clcene and gecorene (the blessed), 
 Ph. 541, pine pa gecorenan wesan clcene and alysde {liber entur dilecti tui), 
 Ps. CVII, 5. 
 
 398. Cleanliness is often ascribed to the faithful, pa clcenan folc (at 
 Judgment), Cr. 1223, hu pu pec gepyde / . . . on clcenra gemong, Jul. 420, 
 hiva in clcennisse / lif alifde, Judg. 62-3, clcenum heortum, 33, pa fie heortan 
 gehygd healdad clcene {qui ambulant in innocentia) , Ps. LXXXIII, 13, peer 
 his sawl wear's / clcene and gecostad, Gu. 506-7. We have not seldom such 
 terms as synna lease (Juliana), Jul. 614, leahtra leasne (Guthlac), Gu. 920, 
 wer womma leas (Martinus), Men. 209, leahtra clcene (the blessed at the 
 Judgment), Ph. 518, etc. 
 
 399. Halig is very frequently employed. We note here only, pone hal- 
 gan heap (apostles in Heaven), Ap. 90, gcesta halig, Gu. 1033, gcesthaligne 
 in godes temple, 1122, both passages referring to Guthlac, gcesthalge guman, 
 Panther 21, gcesthaligra, Gu. 845. 
 
 400. Sodjast, the L. rectus or Justus, occurs often. Sangere he (David) 
 wees sodfeestest, Ps. L. 6, sodfeeste men, Panther 66, Sat. 307, Him pa sofi- 
 fcestan on pa swidran hond / mid rodera weard reste gestigad, Sat. 611, eallra 
 sofifcestra, Met. XX, 272, sodfeestra sib, Dox. 4, sodfeestra / . . . mod, 
 Jul. 325-6, soSfcestra sawle, Gu. 539, similarly 762; peer sodf centra sawla 
 motan / . . . lifes brucan, And. 228. We have also healdan heora sofi- 
 feestnysse symble mid daedum (faciunt justitiam in omni tempore), Ps. CV, 3. 
 
 401. We have also such terms as wcerfcest, applied to Lot Gen. 2596, 
 halig peer inne / wcerfcest wunade (Juliana), Jul. 238, weerfeestne haeled 
 (Andrew), And. 1273, domfcest, for instance, domfeestra dream, Gu. 1056, 
 drfcest, as, Sum bi3 arfcest, Gifts 67, arfeestnes twice in the sense of piety 
 (pietas, 110, 135), Doom 219, 268, eefcest, thus, ehtee) (devil) cefestra, Ser- 
 mon Ps. 28, 35, pcet we eefecstra / deede demen, Gu. 497, etc. 
 
 402. Mjremmende occurs Jul. 648, ryhtfremmende Ph. 632, the gen. pi. 
 Jul. 8, while the keeping of the commandments is often mentioned, of which 
 
120 INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY ON OLD ENGLISH POETRY [120 
 
 we note only a few expressions. The general statement gif ge gehealdad 
 halige lare is found Ex. 560, etc., l&stan, to obey, to do, is used frequently, 
 as in hu ic Iceste well, Ps. CXVIII, 12, etc., Swa pu Icestan scealt, Gen. 509, 
 etc., IcBston larcwide, And. 674, pat hie his lare Iceston geome, 1653, pcet ce 
 godes ealle gelceste, Dan. 219, etc. ^Efnan in practically the same sense as 
 Icestan is found a number of times, thus, poet heo his wisfcest word wynnum 
 ejnan (ad faciendum ea), Ps. CII, 17, sode domas sylfe efnan (custodiunt 
 judicium), CV, 3. 
 
 III. Good Works 
 
 403. During the Middle Ages special emphasis was placed upon good 
 works, and this doctrine of the Church has left a deep impression in OE. 
 poetry. Time and again we are met with the claim that good works will 
 be rewarded by eternal salvation. 10 Exhortation 12-15 we have men- 
 tioned, eac opera fela / godra weorca glengad and bringad / pa sofifcestan 
 sauwle to reste / on pa uplican eadignesse, though here prayer, love, and 
 hope are also enumerated in connection with almsgiving. In order to 
 express the specific religious meaning, weorc, like Greek epya and Latin 
 opera, has to be modified. This was done in the example just quoted by 
 god, similarly in pcet we to pam hyhstan hrofe gestigan / halgum weorcum, 
 Cr. 750. Deed is also used. Thus, Crist ealle wat / gode dcede, Judg. 68, 
 geleana'd lifes waldend / . . . / godum dcedum, 87, further, hu hi fore god- 
 dcedum glade blissiad, Cr. 1287, pcet we motun her mereri / goddcedum 
 begietan gaudia in cela, Ph. 669, and pcet he godra mcest / dccda gefremme, 
 462-3. 
 
 404. Among good works a very prominent place was accorded the 
 giving of alms. The OE. word is celmysse, celmesse, f., cognate with OFris. 
 ielmisse,OS. alamosna, ON. almusa, OHG. alamuosan, 11 the common Teut. 
 type *alemosna or *alemosina going back through popular L. *alimosina 
 to L. eleemosyna and Greek e\erjfj.ocrvvr]. The word is encountered a num- 
 ber of times in OE. poetry, one small piece treating especially of alms, 
 bestowing the highest praise upon this good work. For worulde weord- 
 mynda mcest / and for ussum dryhtne doma selest, the author exclaims Alms 
 3-4, and as to the results, (Efne siva he mid wcetre pone weallendan / leg 
 adwcesce, pcet he leng ne mceg / blac byrnende burgum sceddan, 5-7) swa he 
 mid celmessan ealle toscufefi / synna wunde, sawla lacnad, 8-9. Such a man 
 is said to have rume heortan, 2. It is also claimed, pcet se hcefde are on eorp- 
 rice, se pe celmyssan / dcelde domlice drihtnes pances, Charm I, 36-7. 
 ponne he celmessan ear mum dceled, Ph. 433, is mentioned as an effective 
 antidote against nipa gehwam, 451, and it is said of the monks, sellad 
 
 10 Compare Judgment and Heaven in the next chapter, 410 and 420. 
 
 11 Note discussion of alms in NED., Pogatscher, Lautlehre, 38, 74, and for further refer- 
 ences see his index, p. 210. 
 
121] CHRISTIAN VIRTUES, QUALITIES, AND GOOD WORKS 121 
 
 almessan, Gu. 48. Exhortation 9 enumerates seo almessylen among the 
 good works that bring the soul to a blessed rest, while lines 32-3 exhort, 
 syle celmessan oft and gelome / digolice, and similarly Dan. 587, syle almys- 
 san, wes eartnra hleo. While Gifts 67 simply states, Sum bid arfast and 
 almesgeorn, Exhortation 2-3 is more insistent, gif pu wille pat blowende 
 rice gestigan, /panne be pu eadmod and celmesgeom. 
 
 • 
 
 405. Among other good works fasting held a prominent place in the 
 Mediaeval Church. The OE. word is fasten, n., the L. jejunium. In the 
 poetry it is encountered only a few times, namely, fasten lufiad, Gu. 780, 
 said of monks or hermits, and pa (namely gluttony, etc.) man mag mid 
 fastenum J and forhafdnessum heonon adrifan, Exhortation 45. The other 
 examples are found in the Psalms, ponne tc minum feore fasten gesette (et 
 operui in jejuni o animam meam), LXVIII, 10, and Me synt cneowu swylce 
 cwicu unhale for fastenum {Genua mea informata sunt a jejunio), CVIII, 
 24. The verb fastan 12 is also rare. It is said of Christ, he faste feowertig 
 daga, Sat. 667, and the body is addressed, Fastest du onfoldan and gefyldest 
 me I godes lichoman, gastes drynces, Soul. 145. In the sense of jejuniis 
 expiare n we encounter it in ponne hie ivoldon sylfe / fyrene fastan, Dan. 
 592. 
 
 406. We may mention also swencad hi sylfe (mortify themselves), Gu. 
 778, referring to monks, while in reference to withdrawing from one's kin 
 we have the threatening attitude of the devils toward St. Guthlac, (gif he 
 eft ne wolde) his sibbe ryht / mid moncynne mar an crafte / willum bewitigan, 
 Gu. 168-70. 
 
 u Goth, fastan, OFris. festia, OHG. fasten, ON. fasta. 
 13 Sprachschatz. See also Bibl. II, p. 507. 
 
122 
 
 INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY ON OLD ENGLISH POETRY [122 
 
 CHAPTER XII 
 THE FUTURE LIFE 
 
 407. Germanic heathenism was not without definite notions about a 
 future life, developed especially among the Scandinavians. 1 However, it 
 cannot be our object to enter into the discussion of this subject here. 
 Suffice it to say that we know scarcely anything as to the views held by 
 the heathen Anglo-Saxons, while the evidence at hand seems to indicate 
 that they had very vague ideas about the matter. 2 
 
 I. Judgment Day and Purgatory 
 
 408. We may fittingly begin our discussion of the future life with the 
 Day of Judgment or the Day of Doom. The term for judgment is dom, 
 m., from OTeut. *domoz, appearing in OFris. and OS. as dom, OHG. tuom, 
 ON. ddmr, Goth, doms. 3 The OE. word is found in fionne dryhten sylf dom 
 gesecefi, El. 1279, Ic ondrcede me eac dom pone miclan (judiciique diem 
 
 . magnum, 8), Doom 15, and in many other passages. The particulars 
 of the Last Judgment need not be entered into here, since that has been 
 done sufficiently elsewhere 4 and is only remotely connected with our sub- 
 ject. A few of the more important phases, however, will appear in our 
 discussion. Ic pone cerest ealra getreowc, / flcssces on foldan on pa forhtan 
 tid, Creed 55-6 runs, rendering the L. Carnis resurrectionem. By pa forhtan 
 tid the Day of Doom is meant, to which two entire poems are devoted, 
 and which furnishes a fruitful theme in several other pieces, notably so in 
 Phenix and Christ. Though Germanic mythology knows of the end of 
 the world, the Ragnarqk, etc., a day of judgment in the Christian sense 
 was unknown, 5 and in OE. as well as in the other Germanic dialects, the 
 
 » Grimm, DM., I, 259 ff., II, 682 ff., Golther, Handbuch, 289 f. 313 ff., 471 ff., Kahle, 
 I, 387, 421 ff. 
 
 2 Lingard, History and Antiquities, p. 42: "Of a future life their notions were faint and 
 wavering; and if the soul were fated to survive the body, to quaff ale out of the skulls of 
 their enemies was to be the great reward of the virtuous: to lead a life of hunger and inactivity, 
 the endless punishment of the wicked"; Hunt, Church History, p. 13: "The mysteries of 
 life and death exercised the mind of the English, and their ideas of a future life appear to 
 have been confused and to some extent gloomy." 
 
 8 For a discussion on the Judgment Day in OHG. compare Raumer, pp. 406-9, in ON. 
 Kahle, I, 422-3, II, 153. 
 
 4 See especially W. Deering, The Anglo-Saxon Poets on the Judgment Day, also G. Grau, 
 Quellen und V erwandschaften der alter en germanischen Darstelhmgen des jiingsten Gerichts, 
 and Klacber, Anglia, XXXV, pp. 263-5. 
 
 6 Note Deering's rather daring statement, p. 83: "In the darkest days of their heathen- 
 dom, the Germanic tribes believed in a destruction of the world, in a Judgment after death, 
 in a Hell, in a Heaven." 
 
123] THE FUTURE LIFE 123 
 
 term for it had to be especially created. In OE. it is domdag, the L. dies 
 judicii, Gr. ruxkpa icpLaeoos, while OHG. and ON. translate the Latin expres- 
 sions in various ways, though like OE., OHG. has also tuomtag. As occur- 
 rences of the term we may cite, ar he domdages dynn gehyre, Sal. 272, on 
 pam domdcBge, Soul 96, worpad hine deofol / on domdage, Sal. 26, on dom- 
 dcege, Sat. 600, Rood B, 105, at domdage, Cr. 1619, 1637. Domes dag, 
 OHG. tuomes tag, also occurs, as for instance, ofi domes dceg, Beow. 3069, 
 ar domes dcege, Met. XXIX, 41, and domes dages dyn, Sal. 324. 
 
 409. Kennings for the Day of Judgment are not infrequently used. 
 It is the terrible, great, greatest, famous day, the grim, hard time, etc. 
 And on that terrible day, ponne eall monna cynn / se ancenneda ealle 
 gesamnad, Soul I, 50-1, when according to L. Prayer III, 95, heofonwaru 
 and eorfiwaru, helwaru pridde are present. Gemot, the assembly, meeting, 
 is therefore mentioned, so Judg. 36, poet hip pearlic gemot, Soul 153 telling 
 of gemotstede manna and engla. We hear also of medel, the assembly or 
 judicial meeting, cet medle, And. 1436, cet pam maple, Ph. 538, on pam 
 medelstede, Ex. 542. Once we have ping, Cr. 927, and once also seonop, 
 Ph. 493. 
 
 410. Christ is generally conceived of as the judge, though judgment is 
 also ascribed to God, e.g., Ex. 541-2, and to the Trinity, to the latter for 
 instance Jul. 723-9. As to Christ, we have among other statements, Ac 
 Mva demefi fionne dryhtne Criste / on domes dcege, donne he demefi eallum 
 gesceaftum? Sal. 334-5, ponne Crist sited on his cynestole, / on heahsetle 
 heofonmagna god, /fader almihtig: folca gehwylcum / scyppend scinende 
 scrifed bi gewyrhtum, Cr. 1217-20, etc., etc. Christ is on his judgment seat, 
 domsetle drihtnes (tribunal, 62), Doom 123, on heahsetle (sublimis in alto, 59), 
 118. One law or standard of judgment obtains for all, par hafd anelage earm 
 and se welega (et miser et dives simili ditione timebunt, 81), Doom 163. We 
 are told, Crist ealle wat / gode dade, Judg. 67-8, and the decision is rendered 
 according to the works of men, scrifed bi gewyrhtum, Jul. 728, after dadum 
 deman wille, 707, pat gehivylc under fo be his dadum at drihtne sylfum (Judi- 
 cium ut capiat gestorum quisque suorum, 61), Doom 121, sceal bearna gehwylc 
 mid lice and mid sawle leanes fricgan / ealles pas pe we on eorpan ar geworh- 
 tan I godes oppe yfles, Judg. 40-43, etc., etc. The people are divided into 
 two parts, the chosen and the cursed, each to receive its reward, par man 
 us tyhhad on dag twegen ear das, / drihtenes are odfie deofles peowet, L. Prayer 
 III, 97-8, etc. 
 
 411. The subject of purgatory or the purgatorial fire, the doctrine of 
 which was first expressly formulated by Gregory the Great, 6 may receive 
 
 • Dial. IV, 39: "de quibusdam levibus culpis esse ante judicium purgatorius ignis credendum 
 est." Enc. Brit. 
 
124 
 
 INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY ON OLD ENGLISH POETRY 
 
 [124 
 
 a brief treatment here. 7 Though in OE. poetry the purgatorial fire is 
 several times described or alluded to, it differs in important respects from 
 the doctrine that came to be accepted by the Church of Rome. 8 Excepting 
 Elene, the statements are not as clear and explicit as we might wish them 
 to be. In Judgment the earth is consumed by fire, though the idea as a 
 purgatorial element in regard to man does not appear. More definite are 
 the statements in Phenix. Having spoken of the fire before, the author 
 continues, ponne peos woruld / scyldwyrcende in seome byrne'd / ade oneeled, 
 501 ff., Fyr bid on tyhte, / eeled uncyste, 525-6, Bec-fl ponne amerede monna 
 gcestas, I beorhte abywde purh bryne fyres, 544-5. Especially clear and 
 detailed are the statements in Elene. The poet in 1278 speaks of tionleg 
 nimed, and with 1285 the detailed description begins. On the Day of 
 Judgment the people are divided into three groups. The sofifeesle are 
 uppermost in the fire and least affected, 1288-94, the synfulle . . . / 
 mane gemengde are in the middle, in hatne wylm, 1294 ff., while the third 
 part, awyrgede womsceadan in pees wylmes grund, / lease leodhatan lige 
 befcBsted, 1298-9, are in the grip of the fire, from whence they are thrown 
 in kelle grund, 1304. The other two divisions are purged, hie asodene beod, / 
 asundrodfram synnum swa smeete gold, etc., 1207-8, swa bi~d para manna celc / 
 ascyred and asceaden scylda gehwylcre, / deopra firena purh pees domes fyr, 
 1311-13. Though this description leaves nothing to be desired as regards 
 clearness of statement and as to the purging process, no special term for 
 purgatory has as yet been adopted. Later the Latin word is taken over. 
 
 II. Heaven 
 
 412. After the Day of Judgment the righteous enter Heaven, there to 
 dwell forever with God and the angels in never-ending bliss. The idea of 
 a future happy state was of course not foreign to the Germanic heathen 
 mind, as the mythology sufficiently shows, 9 but with the advent of Chris- 
 tianity this future blissful state received a more definite and significant 
 importance. 
 
 413. The OE. term for Heaven is heofon, heofun, m., cognate with OS. 
 heban. 10 The word is very frequent in the poetry, and there seems to be a 
 
 7 Compare Becker, Mediaeval Visions, pp. 69-73, the Anglo-Saxon Purgatory. 
 
 8 Purgatory in the Anglo-Saxon poets commences and ends on the Judgment Day. 
 For the sources see Becker, Mediaeval Visions, pp. 72-3, Cook, Anglia, XV, pp. 9-20, his edi- 
 tion of Christ, p. LXIX f., Grau, Quellen und Verwandschaften, p. 15 ff., etc. 
 
 9 Grimm, D.M., II, p. 682 ff. Golther, Handbuch, 289 f., 313 ff. 
 
 10 NED.: "Ulterior etymology unknown"; as to the relation between the words in the 
 Teutonic dialects, it says: "The LG. *hebana-, *hebuna-, was app. an entirely different word 
 from Goth, himins, ON. himinn, . . OHG. himil . . ; at least no connexion between them can, 
 in the present state of our knowledge, be assumed. " But see Kluge, Englische Studien, XX, 
 pp. 354-5. A bibliography will be found in Falk-Torp, under himmel. For Heaven in OHG. 
 compare Raumer, p. 409 ff., in ON. Kahle, I, 423-4, II, 154-5. 
 
125] THE FUTURE LIFE 125 
 
 preference for the plural forms, probably not uninfluenced by the Latin 
 use. We note the rendering in L. Prayer, Halig fader, pu pe on heofonum 
 eardast, I, I, pu de on heofonum eart {qui es in cells), II, 2, Dm eart on heofo- 
 num hiht and fr of or {Qui es in celis), III, 11. Otherwise the plural is also 
 extremely common, e.g., feeder on heofonum, par us eal seo fcestnung stonded, 
 Wand. 115, pa hyhstan on heofonum eac / Cristes pegnas, Cr. 282, heofonas 
 secan, And. 977, Gufilac sette / hyht in heofonas, Gu. 406, etc., etc. 
 
 414. Regarding the situation, condition, and details concerning Heaven 
 a great deal of material is found in OE. poetry, but our discussion will 
 include only a few of the more important aspects of the subject. As a 
 convenient summary we quote from Deering's essay: 11 "Heaven is, then, 
 in short an idealized, yet concrete and definite kingdom somewhere above 
 the earth, a bright and beautiful landscape with spreading, green fields, 
 dotted with cities, planted with waving fruit-trees and fragrant flowers: 
 in a narrower sense a city, the hereditary stronghold, as it were, of the 
 Eternal King, the happy home of his followers. The mild and generous 
 Prince of Heaven sits upon His throne in His hall, is mindful of the welfare 
 of His people and dispenses to them the rich gifts of His presence, His 
 grace and love, while His devoted followers surround His throne and with 
 becoming reverence express their gratitude and faithful allegiance in glad 
 songs of praise. The good not only enjoy the presence and blessings of 
 God, the fellowship of the angels, the light and glory and beauty of their 
 heavenly home, but are also free from every torment of hell, from every 
 care and sorrow and suffering of earthly life. And these joys of heaven 
 are eternal. " 
 
 415. Several times Heaven is called neorxna wang, 12 a term generally 
 applied to Paradise or the Garden of Eden. Thus we read, and in gefor 
 (namely the thief) pa cenlican geatu / neorxnawonges mid nerigende, Doom 
 63-4, where the Latin has portas paradisi apertas, 32. Sigefcestne ham / 
 neorxna wang, Men. 150-1, also refers to Heaven, while the description in 
 And. 102 ff. closely resembles that of the Garden of Eden, pe is neorxna 
 wang, I blceda beorhtost, boldwela fcegrost, / hama hyhtlicost haligum mihtum / 
 torht ontyned, which characterizes it sufficiently when compared with 
 
 11 Page 69. For an extended description compare p. 62 ff. 
 
 12 The etymology is doubtful. Grein, Sprachschatz: "Sollten somit nicht die ags. neris- 
 can, neirxan, neorxati, geradezu identisch sein mit den nordischen Nornen, . . . und neorxna 
 wang nymphariim pratum bedeuten?" See O. Ritter, Anglia, XXXIII, pp. 467-70, who pro- 
 poses *Ercan suna. *Ercsuna (sons of the earth). R. Imelmann, Anglia, XXXV, p. 428, 
 quotes These III of his diss, on the Menology, Berlin, 1902: "Das anlautende n in ae. neorx- 
 nawang, 'Paradies,' ist nicht stammhaft oder rest eines selbstandigen wortes, sondern er- 
 klart sich aus der haufigen stellung von neorxnawang nach einem auslauts-»." See also Krapp's 
 Andreas, p. 85, note to line 102. 
 
126 INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY ON OLD ENGLISH POETRY [126 
 
 the Garden of Eden, Ph. 395 fL, Cr. 1390 ff., Gen. 170 ff., 210 ff., 854, 
 889, etc. 
 
 416. Heaven is above the earth, as is gathered from such terms and 
 phrases as upheofen, Sat. 167, etc., pa heahnisse heofena kyninges, Prayer 
 III, 35, as also from statements such as up secan him ece dreamas, / on 
 heanne hrof heofona rices, Dan. 441-2, pcet we eade magon upcund rice / 
 ford gestigan, Wond. 34-5, etc. It is often called a kingdom, for instance, 
 on heofonrice heahgetimbro, Gen. 739, similarly El. 621, Cr. 1246, etc.; da 
 halgan duru heofona rices, Sal. 37 ', feeder rice, Cr. 475, 1345, Soul 140, etc. 
 Furthermore it is spoken of as a city, peodnes burg, Cr. 553, to wuldres 
 byrig, Jul. 665, to peer e beorhtan byrg, Cr. 519, similarly El. 821, etc.; in pa 
 halgan burg, Gu. 784, to Hierusalem, 785, godes ealdorburg . . . / rodera 
 ceastre, Rid. 60, 15-16. We find also, heahgetimbru, / seld on swegle, Gu. 
 556-7, pone sele, Judg. 92. Regarding the details may be mentioned, 
 heofonstolas , Gen. 8, rodorstolas, 749, etc. The throne of God or Christ is 
 referred to a number of times, hehselda wyn, Sat. 43, heled ymb hehseld, 47, 
 ymb pcet halge heahseld godes, Ph. 619, ymb pcet hehsetl, Sat. 220, du on 
 heahsetle I ecum ricsast (God), Met. IV, 2, on heahsetle (Christ), Cr. 555, 
 1218, gcesta gifstol (Christ), 572, onpam halgan stole, Gen. 260, ponne Crist 
 sited on his cynestole, Cr. 1217, while it is said that the rebellious angels 
 tried prymcyning peodenstoles / ricne beryfan, Moods 62-3. 
 
 417. Of the various kennings 13 we note further, wuldres wynland, 
 Moods 65, on engla eard, 74, similarly Cr. 646; wuldres eard, 1203, upeard, 
 Gu. 1051, on ecne eard, 1155, with which may be compared awo to ealdre 
 eardfeest wesan, 758; dees heofoncundan / boldes, Gu. 54-5, beorhtne bold- 
 welan, And. 524, Ap. 33, etc., lifwela, 49, to eadwelan, Gu. 1091, (brucan) 
 eces eadwelan, El. 1315, edel, the hereditary home, Gu. 38, etc., beorht 
 edles wlite, Cr. 1347, engla epel, 630, etc., epellond, Gu. 628, topam uplican / 
 edelrice, And. 119-20, on ecne geard, Gu. 1241, J 'rid geardum in, Cr. 399, sio 
 fridstow, Met. XXI, 16, wynsum stow, 18, etc. 
 
 418. Heaven is a home, e. g., On heofenhame halig drihten his heahsetle 
 hror timbrade (Dominus in caelo paravit sedem suam), Ps. CII, 18, heofon- 
 hamas healdest (in coelis), CXXII, 1, etc.; of the Virgin Mary it is said that 
 she sent/>a beorhtan lac / to heofonhame, Cr. 292-3. We note also, ham in 
 heofonum, Gu. 69, heofonlicne ham, Rood B, 148, deoran ham, Gu. 40, in 
 pam ecan ham, Cr. 305, inpam cepelan ham, 350, pone mceran ham, And. 227, 
 pone clcenan ham / eadmedum upp, 978. 
 
 419. The dwelling with God and the angels is called I if, the L. vita, 
 Rood B, 126, etc., while the rendering of L. vita aeterna recurs time and 
 again in ece lif, Creed 57, Ap. 38, 73, Gu. 33, 97, etc., eces lifes, Cr. 1052, 
 
 u Compare Bode, Kenningar, p. 74, Rankin, IX, p. 51 ff. 
 
127] THE FUTURE LIFE 127 
 
 eadig on pam ecan life, 1428. It is further described, bettre lif, Gu. 751, 
 winsumre lif, Ap. 20, pat leohte lif, Ph. 661. Heaven was thought of as 
 radiant with light, heofones leoht, Sermon Ps. 28, 44, dryhtnes leoht, Gu. 555, 
 wuldres leoht, Ap. 61, leoht unhwilen, 20, pcct leohte leoht, Cr. 592. 
 
 420. The blessings of Heaven were considered the reward for battles 
 well fought, wigges lean, El. 824, hafad nu ece lif / mid wuldorcining wiges 
 to leane, Ap. 73-4. Even a reward for the Virgin Mary is not forgotten, 
 hafde nergend pa / fagere fostorlean famnan for golden / ece to ealdre, Men. 
 151-3. Undue emphasis is laid upon works, and the theme never seems 
 to weary the poets. Of the many examples encountered we note a few. 
 Mr eamode eces lifes, Cr. 1052, earniad on eordan ecan lifes, / hames in 
 heahpu, Gu. 767-8, ponne du geearnast, pat pe bid ece lif, / selust sigeleana 
 seald in heofonum, El. 526-7, him womdcede witan ne pencad / for earnunge 
 ecan lifes, L. Prayer II, 25-6, hcefd nu lif wid pan / mid wuldot fader weorca 
 to leane, Men. 146-7; sigorlean in swegles wuldre, Jud. 345, sigorlean, Gu. 
 1344, etc., to sigorleanum, Cr. 1590, ponon wuldres leoht / sawle gesohte 
 sigores to leane, Ap. 61-2, weorca wuldorlean , Gu. 1347, wuldorlean weorca, 
 Cr. 1080, Ceapa pe mid ahtum eces leohtes, Exhortation 34, feorhrad freme- 
 don, And. 1654, etc. 
 
 421. The fact that the blessed live in a state of bliss and happiness is 
 often emphasized by the poets. A general term for salvation is gesald, f., 
 happiness, blessedness, used a considerable number of times in Meters, 
 where we have the contrast between true and false happiness. We note, 
 sio sode gesald, XII, 19, soda gesalda, 23, ecan good / soda gesalda, XIX, 
 31-2, and soda gesalda, pat is self a god, 36. In contrast to it we quote, 
 leasa gesalda, XII, 27, woruldsalda, II, 10, VII, 52, 54. Halor, n., salva- 
 tion, is thrice used in Juliana, ahwyrfen from halor, 327, similarly 360; 
 hyge from halor, 440. The saved are gesalig, blessed, a term also applied 
 to Christ, for instance in par he gesalig sippan eardad / ealne widan feorh 
 wunad butan ende, Cr. 438, to the saved, pat gesalige weorud, 1249, gesal- 
 gum, 1652, 1660, gesalige sawle, Sat. 296, gesalig / mines epelrices eadig 
 neotan, Cr. 1461, while Ea la, se bid gesalig and ofersalig / and on worulda 
 woruld wihta gesaligost, Doom 246-7, renders Felix o nimiuml semperque 
 in saecula felix, 124. Gesaliglic is also encountered, meaht and gefea / 
 swide gesaliglic sawlum to gielde, Cr. 1079. The noun gesalignes is found 
 only once in poetry, ac par bip engla dream, / sib and gesalignes and sawla 
 rast, Cr. 1677. Eadig, L. beatus, felix, is common. We note only, eadig, 
 Cr. 1497, eadige sawla, Sat. 653, ponne he sodfastra sawla laded, / eadige 
 gastas on uprodor, Ex. 544, etc., etc. Welig, rich, is not so common; we 
 note, welig in heofonum, Cr. 1496. 
 
 422. The Anglo-Saxon poets never tire of pointing out the joys and 
 blessings of Heaven, transferring their ideas of worldly happiness to the 
 

 128 INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY ON OLD ENGLISH POETRY [128 
 
 heavenly abode. To designate the joy, dream, m., is often employed. 
 This word had the 'primary meaning of noisy joviality,' 14 which according 
 to Ferrell, 15 Grimm refers to "the jubilum aulae, that ecstatic state of 
 halfdrunkenness in which the comrades sat together in peaceful circle, 
 told stories and drank." We note as the more characteristic occurrences, 
 ecne dream, Soul 154, dream unhwilen, El. 1231, halige dreamas, Sat. 680, 
 hluttre dreamas / eadge mid englum, Cr. 1246, in pam uplican engla dreame, 
 102, engla dreames, 1343, in wuldres dream, Gu. 1278, etc., swegles dreamas, 
 And. 809, swase swegldreamas , Cr. 1349, geestlice goddream, Gu. 602, heofon- 
 dreamas, Soul 105, on sindreamum, Ph. 385, folc geleedan / in dreama dream, 
 Cr. 580, agan . . . / dreama dream mid dryhtne gode / a to worulde, a 
 buton ende, Sat. 314. 
 
 423. Symbel, n., banquet, reminding one of the festal board in the 
 meadhall, with its gayety and conviviality, is also used a few t : mes to 
 express the heavenly joys. Thus, him is symbel and dream / ece unhwylen 
 eadgum to fr of re, Wonders 96, par is blis mycel, / dream on heofonum, / peer 
 is dry htnes folc / geseted to symle, peer is singal blis, Rood B, 139-41. 
 
 424. Of other characterizations a considerable number occur, as for 
 instance gefea, which is very frequent. We note, ecan gefean, Gu. 1052, 
 etc., upne ecne gefean, Sat. 199, wynsum gefea, Cr. 1253, pam fcegrestan / 
 heofonrices gefean, Gu. 808-9, etc. Blis is also extremely common, e.g., 
 peer is hyht and blis, Cr. 750, sib and bliss, Gu. 1055. However, these and 
 similar terms, as also compounds of hecfon, of which some have been 
 mentioned, need no further discussion. 
 
 III. Hell 
 
 425. The Germanic tribes were not without views about a place for 
 the departed spirits, in the North even the idea of punishment having 
 developed. 16 And when Christianity made its advent with its doctrine of 
 hell, the Germanic tribes did not find it difficult to assimilate the new 
 ideas, while the old name was kept. In OE. the term is hej,{l), f., OFris. 
 helle, Mile, OS. hellja, hella, OHG. hella, ON. hel, Goth. Jialja, all from the 
 Teut. stem *halja, literally the coverer up or hider. The ON. ideas of hel 
 in the extant writings are clearer than those of the other peoples. 17 There 
 we meet also Hel, daughter of Loki and a giantess, as the goddess of the 
 infernal regions. 
 
 '&•* 
 
 14 Kent, Teutonic Antiquities, p. 17. 
 
 15 Teutonic Antiquities, pp. 16-17. Grimm's words, Andreas und Elene, Cassel, 1840, 
 p. XXXVII, however, are: "Nichts ging ihm iiber den seledredm, jubilum aulae, A. 1656, 
 wo im friedlichen kreise gewohnt, erzahlt und gezecht wurde. " 
 
 16 Grimm, DM., I, p. 259 ff., Golther, Handbuch, p. 471 ff. 
 
 17 For a discussion of hell in ON. see Kahle, I, pp. 424-5, II, 155-6, in OHG. Raumer, 
 pp. 414-16. 
 
129] THE FUTURE LIFE 129 
 
 426. In OE. poetry hel is common, and only a few characteristic 
 examples need be given here, hu heh and deop hell inneweard seo, / grim 
 grcefhus, Sat. 707, ponne hel nimed / wcerleasra weorud, Cr. 1613, on pa 
 hatan hell, Gen. 331, similarly 362, etc. As hel translates Latin infernus, 
 
 the Vulgate rendering of Greek a5r)s and the Hebrew 7^5^, its meaning 
 is of course wider than a place of punishment. We note, astigon heo on 
 helle heonan lifgende {descendant in infemum viventes), Ps. LIV, 14, pu mine 
 sawle swylce alysdest of helwarena hinderpeostrum {eruisti animam meam ex 
 inferno inferiori), LXXXV, 12, is minfeorh swylce to helldore hylded geneahhe 
 {vita mea inferno appropinquavit) , LXXXVII, 3. 
 
 427. Hell certainly receives its share of attention at the hands of OE. 
 poets, who seem to be especially anxious to describe this dreary place 
 adequately. While it is outside of our task to paint a picture of hell, and 
 we shall mention only a few main points in the following discussion, it may 
 be convenient to give the Anglo-Saxon poets' conception of hell by citing 
 Becker: 18 "Hell is a dark pit under the earth, incalculably immense in 
 area, shrouded in eternal darkness. The principal torment is that of fire, but 
 the flame is black, and burns without light. Side by side with extreme heat 
 is the torment of cold; storms of wind, hail, and frost sweep down from the 
 four corners of hell. Frightful monsters, dragons, serpents, bloody eagles, 
 people the awful depths, and dragons guard the entrance. The sinful 
 souls are bound down with fetters, suffering the utmost agonies of mind 
 in addition to those of the body. Consumed with bitter remorse and des- 
 pair, they must remain thus eternally, without hope of ever being released 
 from their sufferings or of gaining the bliss of the righteous, which they 
 are forced to look upon. " 
 
 428. Though the definite location of hell is not given, it is below, under 
 the earth. We read, {Etne) pat mon helle fyr hated wide, Met. VIII, 54, 
 helle seced / . . . grundleasne wylm / under mistglome, Whale 45-7, done 
 deopan wcelm, / nidcer undcer nessas in done neowlan grund / grcedige and 
 gifre, Sat. 30-32, similarly Gu. 535, etc. As Heaven is a kingdom, so also 
 hell, in which Satan rules, helwarena cyning, Jul. 544, etc. Sal. 106 speaks 
 of it as dees engestan edelrices, with which may be compared in pam engan 
 ham, El. 920, etc. However, it seems to Mac bealowes gast, pcet he on botme 
 stod, J . . . pat panon wcere / to helle duru hund pusenda / mila gemear- 
 codes, Sat. 721-4. But, as Becker 19 has pointed out, "the terms of spacious- 
 ness are to be interpreted literally, whereas those of narrowness permit of 
 no other than a figurative interpretation," so that he would take enge in 
 
 18 Mediaeval Visions, pp. 63-4. Compare also p. 58 ff., Deering, 48 £L, Klaeber, Anglia, 
 XXXV, 265 ff.; for kennings, Bode, 75 f., Jansen, 29 f., Rankin, LX, 54 ff. For a discussion 
 of the sources of the characteristics of hell see Deering, p. 57 ff., Becker, 11 ff., 54 ff., Abbet- 
 meyer, 16. 
 
 19 Mediaeval Visions, p. 58. 
 
130 INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY ON OLD ENGLISH POETRY [130 
 
 the sense of oppressive. Hell is also called magburg, Har. 91, of feonda 
 byrig, Cr. 569, helwara / burg, Rid. 56, 6-7, deafisele, Gu. 1048, while sim'lar 
 terms are frequent. The doors of hell are often mentioned, as, he helle 
 duru I forbrcBC andforbegde, Sat. 467, behliden helle duru, El. 1229, at heldore, 
 Gu. 531, etc. It is stated, Mce at helle duru dracan eardigad, Sat. 98, while 
 influenced by the preceding figure Whale 76 and 78 reads, pa grimman 
 goman / . . . / helle hlinduru. With this may be compared ah in helle 
 cafl J sid asette, And. 1703, and dreogap deadcwale in dracan fadme, El. 765. 
 Walls and other parts are mentioned, e.g., helle weallas, Har. 34, helle 
 floras, Sat. 70, hellegrund, Soul 105, in helle grund, Cr. 562, El. 1304, etc. 
 
 429. Hell is the place of punishment for the devils and the damned, 
 in ecefyr, / dar ge sceolon dreogan dead andpystro, Gu. 606-7. As Cr. 1535-6 
 the condemned are committed to forwyrde on witehus, / deadsele deofles, 
 so this state, itself is called se eca dead after dissum worulde, Met. X, 70. 
 Wlte, n., or hellewite, is often used to denote punishment, just as we find 
 helliwizzi in OHG., helUiviti in OS., and helviti in ON., a rendering of the 
 Latin supplicium inferni. We note, helle witum, Soul 32, in wita forwyrd, 
 Sermon Ps. 28, 10, synna to wite, Cr. 1623, heardes hellewites, Gen. 303, 
 alysdest / fram hceftnyde hellewites, L. Prayer II, 36. We find further, 
 pat witescraf, Sat. 691, pat witehus, 628, and pa wyrrestan witebrogan, El. 
 931, etc. 
 
 430. References to the agencies of punishment are often found, 
 especially to the fire, grim hellefyr, gearo to wite, Cr. 1270, under helle cinn 
 in pat hate fyr, / under liges locan, 1620-21, pat ge warnysse / brynewylm 
 habben, nales bletsunga, Gu. 643-4, in fyrbade / walmum biwrecene wraplic 
 andlean, Cr. 831-2, weallendne lig and wyrma slite / bittrum ceaflum, 1251-2, 
 etc., etc. The poets seem anxious not to omit a detailed description of the 
 sufferings the doomed have to undergo, or, in the words of Deering: 20 
 "Having thus drawn such frightful pictures of the horrors of hell, the 
 poets might have left their readers to imagine the sufferings of the damned, 
 but the opportunity of impressing these dreadful scenes was too good to 
 be lost, and they cannot resist the temptation to add a few more strokes 
 to their already horrible pictures and tell us again and again of the physical 
 and mental tortures of this eternal punishment. " 
 
 431. The condemned are often called the cursed, as, Astigati nu f 
 awyrgde, in pat witehus, Sat. 628, Farad nu awyrgde willum biscyrede / 
 engla dreames on ece fir, Cr. 1520-1, etc. Warnis (weargnes), is once used 
 in the sense of damnation, pat ge (devils) warnysse / brynewylm habben, 
 nales bletsunga, Gu. 643. Among other kennings for the doomed we note, 
 unsalge, Cr. 1288, the devil being called unsalig, Jul. 450, the Jews, haled 
 
 20 Page 54 f . 
 
131] THE FUTURE LIFE 131 
 
 unscelige, And. 561, and heeled hynfuse, 612; we find helfuse men, Cr. 1124, 
 while the Mermedonians are called haled hellfuse, And. 50. For the devil 
 and the doomed we have also such terms as grundfusne gcest gode orfeorme, 
 Moods 49, firenfulra fcege gcestas, Gu. 532, peetfeegefole, Cr. 1518, synfulra 
 weorud, 1229, firensynnig J ok, 1379, unsyfre folc, 1232, etc., etc. 
 
 432. A considerable number of compounds of hel are found in the 
 poetry. Some of them have appeared in our discussion, while a number 
 are included in the poetical list. Others also occur, but offering nothing 
 characteristic, they need not be discussed. 
 
 
132 
 
 INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY ON OLD ENGLISH POETRY 
 
 [132 
 
 POETICAL WORDS 
 
 Here are listed those exclusively religious terms which occur in poetical 
 texts only. Kennings have been admitted only when special circumstances 
 and a distinctly religious connotation warranted it. If a word occurs only 
 once, the exact reference has been given. If the use is limited to a single 
 poem where it is found more than once, the title only is added. 
 
 Adfyr, sacrificial fire, Ex. 398. 
 
 adloma, one crippled by fire, devil, 
 Gu. 884. 
 
 sebebod, command, Ps. 
 
 aeboda, preacher, Gu. 909. 
 
 secrseft, knowledge of law, religion. 
 
 sefenlac, evening sacrifice, Ps. CXL, 
 3. 
 
 aefremmende, pious, religious. Jul. 
 648. 
 
 aefyllende, pious, Cr. 704. 
 
 aelasrende, teacher of the law, reli- 
 gion, El. 506. 
 
 selcrasftig, omnipotent, Met. XX, 
 38. 
 
 eercwide, prophesy ? Moods 4. 
 
 jerendgast, angel, Gen. 2296. 
 
 zeriht, code of law or faith, El. 
 
 sewita, counsellor, El. 455. 
 
 agilpan, to exult in, Soul 166. 
 
 aglseccrseft, evil art, And. 1362. 
 
 anboren, only begotten. 
 
 anbuend, hermit, Gu. 59. 
 
 anseld, hermitage, Gu. 1214. 
 
 argifa, giver of benefits, Gifts 11. 
 
 aologa, perjurer, Cr. 1605. 
 
 Bentld, prayer time, Men. 75. 
 bereotan, to bewail, Har. 6. 
 bernelac, burnt offering, Ps. L. 123. 
 bismerleas, blameless, Cr. 1326. 
 blsedgifa, giver of prosperity, And. 
 braegdwls, crafty, Gu. 58. 
 brynegield, burnt offering. Gen. 
 
 Ceargest, sad spirit, devil, Gu. 364. 
 circnytt, church service, Gifts 91. 
 culpa or culpe, fault, sin, Cr. 177. 
 cusc, modest, virtuous, Gen. 618. 
 
 DaegweorSung, feast day, El. 1233. 
 deaSbeam, deathbringing tree, Gen. 
 
 638. 
 dea<5firen, deadly sin, Cr. 1207. 
 deaSsele, hell. 
 
 deofolcund, diabolical, Jud. 61. 
 deofoldsed, fiendish deed, Dan. 18. 
 deofolwltga, wizard, magician, Dan. 
 
 128. 
 drencflod, deluge, 
 drut, beloved one, Doom 291. 
 dryhtendom, majesty, glory, And. 
 
 999. 
 
 Eadfruma, author of happiness, 
 
 Cr. 532. 
 eadgifa, giver of prosperity, And. 
 
 1292. 
 eadgifu, gift of blessedness, Jul. 
 ealh, temple, 
 eallbeorht, resplendent, 
 eallhalig, all-holy, Ps. CXXXI, 8. 
 
 eallmiht, omnipotence, Ps. CXXXV, 
 12. 
 
 ealwalda, all-ruling, almighty, God, 
 
 Christ. 
 earfo'Scynn, depraved race, Ps. 
 
 LXXVII, 10. 
 
133] 
 
 POETICAL WORDS 
 
 133 
 
 (ge)edbyrdan, to regenerate, Soul 
 
 101, Exeter text, 
 edwitspreca, scoffer, Gu. 418. 
 efeneadig, equally blessed, Hymn 
 
 21. 
 efeneardigende, dwelling together, 
 
 Cr. 237. 
 efenece, co-eternal, Cr. 
 eftlean, recompense, Cr. 1100. 
 egorhere, flood, deluge, Gen. 
 endelean, final retribution, 
 engelcund, angelic, Gu. 72. 
 engelcynn, race or order of angels. 
 eSelboda, land's apostle, native 
 
 preacher, Gu. 976. 
 
 Facendsed, sin, crime, Ps. CXVIII, 
 
 53. 
 facengeswipere, deceit, Ps. 
 
 LXXXII, 3. 
 facensearu, treachery, 
 facenstafas, treachery, deceit, Beow. 
 
 1018. 
 facentacen, sign of crime, Cr. 1566. 
 felameahtig, most mighty, 
 felasynnig, very guilty, Beow. 1379. 
 feohglfre, avaricious, Wand. 68. 
 feondset, eating things sacrificed to 
 
 idols, Ps. CV, 24. 
 feorhrsed, salvation, And. 1654. 
 ferh<51ufu, heartfelt love, And. 83. 
 fifmsegen, magic power, Sal. 136. 
 firenbealu, transgression, Cr. 1276. 
 firencrseft, wickedness, Jul. 14. 
 firendjed, wicked deed, crime, 
 firenfremmende, committing sin, Cr. 
 
 1118. 
 firengeorn, prone to sin, sinful, 
 
 Cr. 1606. 
 firensynnig, sinful, Cr. 1379. 
 firenweorc, evil deed, sin, Cr. 
 firenwyrcende, sinning, sinful, Ps. 
 firenwyrhta, evil doer, Ps. 
 
 forescyttels, bolt, bar, Cr. 312. 
 fortyhtan, to seduce, El. 208. 
 fortyllan, to seduce, Cr. 270. 
 friSoscealc, angel, Gen. 
 frowe, woman, Doom 291. 
 frumgesceap, creation of the world, 
 
 Cr. 840. 
 frumscyld, original sin, Sal. 445. 
 fulwihttid, time of baptism, Men. 
 
 11. 
 fulwihtSeaw, rite of baptism, Met. 
 
 I, 33. 
 fyrclom, band forged in the fire, in 
 
 hell, Sat. 39. 
 fyrngidd, ancient prophesy, El. 542. 
 fyrnsceafta, devil, And. 1346. 
 fyrnsynn, sin of old times, Jul. 347. 
 
 Galdorword, magic word, Rim. 24. 
 galmod, wanton, licentious, Jud. 
 
 256. 
 gartorn, fighting rage, Sal. 145. 
 gastbona, devil, Beow. 177. 
 gastcund, spiritual, Gu. 743. 
 gastcwalu, pains of hell, Gu. 651. 
 gastcyning, God, Gen. 2883. 
 gastgenl<51a, devil, Jul. 245. 
 gastgewinn, pains of hell, Gu. 561. 
 gasthalig, holy in spirit, 
 gastlufu, spiritual love, Az. 
 gastsunu, spiritual son. 
 geocund, preserver, Savior, 
 geongerdom, discipleship, Gen. 
 geongerscip, allegiance, Gen. 249. 
 gifnes, grace, favor, L. Prayer III. 
 gledstede, altar, Gen. 
 goddream, joy in Heaven, Gu. 
 godegyld, idol, Ps. CV, 17. 
 godgim, heavenly jewel, El. 1113. 
 gods£d, piety, Dan. 90. 
 godscyld, sin against gods, impiety, 
 
 Jul. 204. 
 godscyldig, impious, Gu. 834. 
 
134 
 
 INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY ON OLD ENGLISH POETRY 
 
 [134 
 
 grandorleas, guileless, Jul. 271. 
 grornhof, sad home, hell, Jul. 324. 
 grundfus, hastening to hell, Moods 
 49. 
 
 Haelubearn, Savior, Christ, Cr. 
 hgeSencyning, heathen king, Dan. 
 
 54. " 
 hseSencynn, heathen race, Gen. 
 
 2546. 
 hseSenstyrc, heathen calf, Ps. CV, 
 
 17. 
 hseSenweoh, heathen sacrifice, Jul. 
 
 53. 
 halor, salvation, Jul. 
 halswurtmng, thanksgiving for 
 
 safety, Ex. 581. 
 handgift, wedding present, Creed 
 
 18. 
 heahblis, exultation, Ps. CXVIII, 
 
 111. 
 heahboda, archangel, Cr. 295. 
 ? heahcasere, Christ, L. Prayer III, 
 
 60. 
 heahfrea, high Lord, Cr. 
 heahgsest, Holy Ghost, Cr. 358. 
 heahgesceap, divine destiny, Beow. 
 
 3084. 
 heahgod, most high, God, Ps. LVI, 
 
 2. 
 heahheort, proud, Dan. 540. 
 heahmiht, high authority, great 
 
 might, Ps. CL, 2. 
 ? heahnama, most exalted name, L. 
 
 Prayer III, 18. 
 heargtraef, idol temple, Beow. 175. 
 heargweard, temple warden, priest, 
 
 And. 1124. 
 hellbend, bond of hell, Beow. 3072. 
 
 Some terms quoted with hell 
 
 possibly not compounds, 
 hellcraeft, hellish power, And. 1102. 
 hellcwalu, pains of hell, Cr. 1190. 
 
 helldor, gate of hell, 
 hellebealu, hell bale, Cr. 1427. 
 helleceafl, jaws of hell, And. 1703. 
 hellecinn, hellish race, Cr. 1620. 
 helleclamm, hellbond, Gen. 373. 
 helledeofol, devil, 
 helledor, gate of hell, Har. 87. 
 helleduru, gate of hell, El. 1229. 
 helleflor, floor of hell, Sat. 70. 
 hellegast, spirit of hell, 
 hellegrund, abyss of hell, 
 hellegryne, horror of hell, Sat. 433. 
 hellehaeft, prisoner of hell, Sat. 631. 
 hellehagfta, prisoner of hell, Beow. 
 
 788. 
 hellehseftling, prisoner of hell, 
 helleheaf, wailings of hell, Gen. 38. 
 hellehinca, hell-limper, devil, And. 
 
 1171. 
 hellehtis, hell-house, Gu. 649. 
 hellenrS, torments of hell, Gen. 771. 
 hellescealc, devil, Sat. 133. 
 helleSegn, devil, Gu. 1042. 
 hellfiren, hellish crime, Partridge 6. 
 hellfus, bound for hell, 
 hellgebwing, confinement in hell, 
 
 Gen. 696. 
 helltrsef, devil's temple, And. 1691. 
 helltrega, hell-torture, Gen. 73. 
 helruna, hellish monster, Beow. 163. 
 heofonbeorht, heavenly bright, 
 heofonbyme, heavenly trumpet, Cr. 
 
 949. 
 heofondema, heavenly ruler Sat. 
 
 658. 
 heofondream, joy of Heaven, 
 heofonduguft, heavenly host, Cr. 
 
 1655. 
 heofonengel, angel of Heaven, 
 heofonhalig, holy and heavenly, 
 
 And. 728. 
 he6fonham, heavenly home. 
 
135] 
 
 POETICAL WORDS 
 
 135 
 
 heofonhlaf, bread of Heaven, Ps. 
 
 CIV, 35. 
 heofonleoht, heavenly light, And. 
 
 974. 
 heofonmaegen, heavenly force, 
 heofonsetl, throne of Heaven, Doom 
 
 277. 
 heofonstol, throne of Heaven, Gen. 
 
 8. 
 heofon<5reat, heavenly company, 
 
 Sat. 222. 
 heofonweard, God, Gen. 
 heofonwuldor, heavenly glory, L. 
 
 Prayer II, 12. 
 heortlufu, heart-love, Dox. 29. 
 heterun, charm which produces 
 
 hate, Rid. 34, 7. 
 hildedeofol, demon, Ps. XCV, 5. 
 hinder'Seostru, nether darkness, Ps. 
 
 LX20CV, 12. 
 hospcwide, insulting speech, El. 
 
 523. 
 huslbearn, communicant, Gu. 531. 
 hiislwer, communicant, Gu. 768. 
 hygeclsene, pure in heart, Ps. CIV, 
 
 3. 
 hygefrofor, consolation, 
 hygetreow, fidelity, Gen. 2367. 
 hygeSryS, pride, insolence, Gen. 
 
 2238. 
 hyhtgifa, giver of hope, El. 851. 
 hyhtleas, unbelieving, Gen. 2387. 
 hyhtwilla, hoped for joy, Sat. 159. 
 hyhtwyn, joy of hope, Jud. 121. 
 
 Ingebed, earnest prayer, Ps. 
 
 LXXXVII, 2. 
 : nwitstaef, wickedness, evil, Ps. 
 
 Leahtorcwide, blasphemy, Jul. 199. 
 leohtfruma, source of light, 
 liffrea, Lord of life, God. 
 liffruma, source of life, God. 
 
 lifweard, guardian of life, Christ, 
 
 El. 1035. 
 llgcwalu, fiery torment, hell, El. 296. 
 lofmsegen, praise, Ps. CV, 2. 
 lofsum, praiseworthy, Gen. 468. 
 lustgryn, snare of pleasure, Soul 23. 
 lygenword, lie, Gen. 699. 
 lygesynnig, lying, false, El. 898. 
 lygewyrhta, liar, Sermon Ps. 28, 11. 
 
 Maegenwundor, striking wonder, Cr. 
 
 927. 
 manfsehSu, wickedness, Gen. 1378. 
 manfolm, evil doer, Ps. CXLIII, 8. 
 manforwyrht, evil deed, sin, Cr. 
 
 1095. 
 manfrea, lord of evil, devil, 
 manfremmende, sinning, 
 mangeniola, evil persecutor, And. 
 
 916. 
 mangewyrhta, sinner, Ps. LXXVII, 
 
 38, 
 manhus, home of wickedness, hell, 
 
 Ex. 535. 
 mansceat, usury, Ps. LXXI, 14. 
 manscild, crime, fault, sin, Hymn 
 
 23. 
 manscyldig, criminal, guilty, Gen. 
 manwamm, guilty of stain, Cr. 1280. 
 manword, wicked word, Ps. LVIII, 
 
 12. 
 manwyrhta, evil doer, sinner, Ps. 
 mereciest, sea-chest, ark, Gen. 1317. 
 metod, fate, Creator', God, Christ, 
 micelmod, magnanimous, Ps. 
 
 CXLIV, 3. 
 misgedwild, error, perversion, Jul. 
 
 326. 
 modgehyldig, patient, And. 981. 
 mor<5orhof, place of torment, El. 
 
 1302. 
 morSorhus, house of torment, Cr. 
 
 1625. 
 
136 
 
 INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY ON OLD ENGLISH POETRY 
 
 [136 
 
 morSorlean, retribution for sin, Cr. 
 
 1612. 
 morSorscyldig, guilty, And. 1599. 
 
 Neodlof, zealous praise, Ps. 
 
 CXLVIII, 12. 
 neodweorSung, zealous honoring, 
 
 Ps. CXLII, 11. 
 nloloca, place of torment, Har. 64. 
 niSsynn, grievous sin, Sat. 180. 
 
 sigebeam, cross. 
 
 sigebearn, Christ. 
 
 sigedema, victorious judge, God. 
 
 sigetlber, sacrifice for victory, Ex. 
 402. 
 
 sigortlfer, offering for victory, Jul. 
 255. 
 
 snytrohus, house of wisdom, taber- 
 nacle, Ps. LXXVII, 60. 
 
 soScyning, God. 
 
 soSfaeder, God, Cr. 103. 
 Ofersjelig, excessively happy, Doom suslbona, devil, Sat. 640. 
 
 246. 
 ofersgelS, excessive pleasure, Met. 
 
 V, 27. 
 oferwealdend, over-lord, God, El. 
 
 1235. 
 onblotan, to sacrifice, Gen. 2933. 
 
 (Ge)palmtwlgan, deck with palm 
 branches, Sal. 
 
 suslhof, place of torment, Creed 32. 
 sweglcyning, king of Heaven, 
 sweglwuldor, heavenly glory, Gu. 
 
 1160. 
 sweglwundor, heavenly wonder, Gu. 
 
 1292. 
 sygegealdor, victory-bringing 
 
 charm, Charm VIII, 6. 
 synfah, sin-stained, Cr. 1083. 
 synrust, canker of sin, Cr. 1321. 
 Regolfaest, adhering to monastic synscea*8a, sin-stained wretch, sin- 
 rules, Men. 44. ful outrager. 
 reSehygdig, right-minded, Alms 2. synscyldig, wicked, Doom 168. 
 
 reSeman, usurer, Ps. CVIII, 11. 
 rodorcyning, king of Heaven, 
 rodorstol, heavenly throne, Gen. 
 749. 
 
 Sawelcund, spiritual, Gu. 288. 
 
 sclngelac, magical practices, And. 
 766. 
 
 scuccgyld, idol, Ps. CV, 26. 
 
 scyldfrecu, wicked craving, Gen. 
 898. 
 
 scyldwreccende, avenging sin, Cr. 
 1161. 
 
 scyldwyrcende, evil doing. 
 
 sealmfaet, in 'on sealmfatum' ren- 
 dering L. 'in vasis psalmi,' Ps. 
 LXX, 20. 
 
 selfsceaft, not begotten^ Gen. 523. 
 
 synwracu, punishment for sin. 
 synwyrcende, sinning. 
 
 TeonsmiS, evil-doer, devil, Gu. 176. 
 tlrfruma, price of glory, Cr. 206. 
 treowlufu, true love, Cr. 538. 
 treowrSden, state of fidelity, Gen. 
 2305. 
 
 Drymcyme, glorious coming, Gu. 
 
 1230. 
 <5rymcyning, king of glory, God. 
 <5rymsittende, dwelling in Heaven. 
 'SryScyning, king of glory, God, 
 
 And. 436. 
 
 Unbealu, innocence, Ps. C, 2. 
 unbeted, unatoned, Cr. 1312. 
 
137] 
 
 POETICAL WORDS 
 
 137 
 
 ungebletsod, 'non habentes signa- 
 
 culum Christi,' Jul. 492. 
 ungeleaf, unbelieving, Ps. LXVII, 
 
 19. 
 unholda, devil, Cr. 762. 
 unhwllen, eternal, 
 unrihtdom, iniquity, Dan. 183. 
 unrihtfeoung, unrighteous hate, 
 
 Met. XXVII, 1. 
 untweod, undoubting, And. 1242. 
 upeard, Heaven, Gu. 1051. 
 upengel, heavenly angel. 
 
 WaegSreat, deluge, Gen. 1352. 
 
 waelregn, deluge, Gen. 1350. 
 
 wserloga, traitor, liar, devil. 
 
 wamcwide, shameful speech, curse, wuldormaga, heir of Heaven, Gu. 
 
 wliteandet, confession of splendor, 
 
 Ps. CIII, 2. 
 wohfremmend, evil doer, Met. IX, 
 
 36. 
 worulddrihten, Lord of the world, 
 
 God, Met. XXIX, 1. 
 woruldgltsere, coveter of worldly 
 
 things, Met. XIV, 1. 
 wrohtscipe, crime, Gen. 1672. 
 wrohtsmiS, evil doer, 
 wuldorcyning, God. 
 wuldordream, heavenly rapture, 
 wuldorfseder, Father of Glory, 
 wuldorgast, angel, Gen. 2912. 
 wuldorhama, garb of glory, 
 wuldorlean, glorious reward. 
 
 blasphemy, 
 wamdsed, deed of shame, crime, 
 wamful, impure, shameful, sinful, 
 
 bad. 
 wamsceaSa, sin-stained foe, devil, 
 wamscyldig, sinful, criminal, Gen. 
 
 949. 
 wamwyrcende, worker of sin, Cr. 
 
 1093. 
 
 1076. 
 wuldormago, heir of Heaven, Gu. 
 
 1267. 
 wuldormicel, gloriously great, L. 
 
 Prayer III, 94. 
 wuldorweorud, heavenly host, Cr. 
 
 285. 
 wuldorword, glorious word, L. 
 
 Prayer III, 46. 
 
 weargtrsef, home of the damned, wynpsalterium, psalm of joy, Ps. 
 
 hell, El. 926. 
 
 weolme, choice, Cr. 445. 
 
 wlgsmi(5, maker of idols, Ps. CXIII, 
 12. 
 
 wlgweorSung, idol worship, idolatry. 
 
 wilboda, angel, Gu. 1220. 
 
 witehrsegl, penitential garb, sack- 
 cloth, Ps. LXVIII, 11. 
 
 wltescraef, hell, Sat. 691. 
 
 wiSerbroga, devil, Cr. 564. 
 
 LVI, 10. 
 
 wynrdd, blessed cross, Sal. 235. 
 wyrdstaef, decree of fate, Gu. 1325. 
 wyrmgeard, abode of serpents, Sal. 
 
 468. 
 wyrmsele, hell, Jud. 119. 
 
 Yfelsaec (eofulsaec), blasphemy, El. 
 
 524. 
 yrreweorc, work of c.nger, Sat. 399. 
 
 A few remarks on the terms thus listed by us will not be without 
 interest. Of the 343 words 261 occur only once, 23 are confined to one poem, 
 being found more than once, while 59 occur in more than one poem. 
 Regarding the distribution as to poems, we note that 44 are found exclu- 
 sively in Christ, 16 in Elene, and 14 in Juliana, in all 74 for Cynewulf; in 
 addition, a number of terms are peculiar to the three poems. As to the 
 
138 
 
 INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY ON OLD ENGLISH POETRY 
 
 [138 
 
 other chief poems, the exclusive occurrence of terms is as follows, 40 in 
 Psalms, including Psalm L (Cottoniana), 34 in Genesis, 27 in Guthlac, 
 19 in Andreas, 10 in Christ and Satan, 8 in Beowulf, 7 in Meters, 6 in Salo- 
 mon and Saturn, 5 in Daniel, 5 in Doomsday, 4 in Judith, and 4 in Exodus, 
 while none is found in Phenix. 
 
 LOAN WORDS 
 
 Abbot, L. abbatem 
 aelmesse, L. eleemosyna 
 
 Amen, L. Amen 
 
 apostol, L. apostolus 
 
 bisceop, L. episcopus or Gr. kwiaKOTrn 
 
 cantic, L. canticum 
 
 (Cherubin), L. 
 
 cirice, Gr. nvpiaKa 
 
 Cr:st, crlst, L. 
 
 crlsten, L. 
 
 cristnian, L. 
 
 culpa, L. culpa 
 
 deofol, L. diabolus or Gr. 5id/3oXos 
 
 dlacon, L. diaconus 
 
 drut, OF. drut 
 
 dry, Celtic ?! 
 
 earc, earce, L. area 
 
 (Ebreas), L. 
 
 engel, L. angelus or Gr. ayye\o<; 
 
 (Gabriel), L. 
 
 (Israel), L. 
 (Judeas), L. 
 (Lucifer), L. 
 maesse, L. missa 
 maessere, L. 
 
 HYBRIDS 
 
 aslmesgeorn 
 aelmessylen 
 
 apostolhad 
 bisceophad 
 
 circnyt 
 ciricsocn 
 
 deofolcund 
 deofoldagd 
 deofolgild 
 deofol vvltga 
 hildedeofol 
 
 drycraeft 
 
 engelcund 
 
 engelcyn 
 
 heahengel 
 
 heofonengel 
 
 upenge 
 
 heahcasere, L. Caesarem 
 
 hlafmaesse 
 
139] 
 
 LOAN WORDS AND HYBRIDS 
 
 139 
 
 manna, L. manna 
 martyr(e), L. martyr 
 
 (Michael), L. 
 munuc, L. monachus 
 mynster, L. monasterium 
 
 papa, L. papa 
 
 Pater Noster, L. Pater Noster 
 pentecosten, L. pentecoste 
 preost, L. presbyter 
 psalterium, L. psalterium 
 regol, L. regula 
 reliquias, L. reliquiae 
 sacerd, L. sacerdos 
 
 salletan, L. psallere 
 sanctus, sanct, L. sanctus 
 (Satanus, Satan), L. 
 scrlfan, for-, ge-, L. scribere 
 scrift, L. scriptum 
 sealm, L. psalmus 
 seono<5, L. synodus 
 (Seraphim), L. 
 
 tempel, L. templum 
 ymen, L. hymnus 
 
 martyrdom 
 martyrhad 
 
 palmtreow, L. pa'mus 
 (ge)palmtwlgan, L. 
 
 wynpsalterium 
 regolfsest 
 
 sacerdhad 
 ealdorsacerd 
 
 sealmfaet 
 
 suSportic, L. porticus 
 
140 
 
 INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY ON OLD ENGLISH POETRY 
 
 [140 
 
 TITLES AND ABBREVIATIONS 
 
 I. Titles and Abbreviations Referring to the Bibliotheh der angelsachsischen Poesie, Volumes 
 
 I-III, by Grein-Wuelker 
 
 Alms. Bibl. Ill, p. 181. 
 
 And. Andreas. II, pp. 1-86. 
 
 Ap. Fates of the Apostles. II, 87-91. 
 
 Az. Azarias. II, 491, 493, 495 ; 497, 516-520. 
 
 Beow. Beowulf. I, 149-277. 
 
 Cffidmon's Hymn. II, 316-317. 
 
 Charm I-VIII. Bibl. I, 312-330. 
 
 Chr. I-V. Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. I, 374-388. 
 
 I. On the Victory of ^Ethelstan at Brunanburh. 
 II. Edmund. 
 
 III. Eadgar. 
 
 IV. Capture and Death of Alfred. 
 V. Eadweard's Death. 
 
 Cr. Christ. Ill, 1-54. 
 
 Creed (Hy. X in Grein's Sprachschatz). n, 245-249. 
 
 Dan. Daniel. II, 476-515. 
 
 Deor. Deor's Lament. I, 278-280. 
 
 Doom. Be Domes Daege. II, 250-272. 
 
 Dox. Doxology (Gloria in Bibl., Hy. IX in Grein's Sprachschatz). II, 239-244. 
 
 Durham. I 391-392. 
 
 El. Elene. II, 126-201. 
 
 Ex. Exodus. II, 445^75. 
 
 Exhortation (Ermahnung zum christlichen Leben in Bibl.). II, 273-276. 
 
 Fates. Fates of Men. Ill, 148-151. 
 
 Gen. Genesis. II, 318-444. 
 
 Gifts. Gifts of Men. Ill, 140-143. 
 
 Gn. Cot. Gnomic Verses, Cotton MS. I, 338-341. 
 
 Gn. Ex. Gnomic Verses, Exeter Book. I, 341-352. 
 
 Gu. Guthlac. Ill, 55-94. 
 
 Har. Harrowing of Hell. Ill, 175-180. 
 
 Hymn (Hymnus in Bibl., Hy. VIII in Grein's Sprachschatz). II, 224-226. 
 
 Instructions. A Father's Instructions to His Son. I, 353-357. 
 
 Invocation (Aufforderung zum Gebet in Bibl.). II, 277-279. 
 
 Jud. Judith. 11,294-314. 
 
 Judg. The Last Judgment. Ill, 171-174. 
 
 Jul. Juliana. Ill, 117-139. 
 
 L. Prayer. Lord's Prayer I-III (Hy. V-VH in Grein's Sprachschatz). II, 227-238. 
 
 Maldon. Battle of Maldon. I, 358-373. 
 
 Maxims (Bruchstuck eines Lehrgedichts in Bibl., Hy. XI in Grein's Sprachschatz). n. 
 
 280-281. 
 Men. Menology. II, 282-293. 
 Message. Husband's Message. 1, 309-311. 
 
141] TITLES AND ABBREVIATIONS 141 
 
 Met. Meters of Boethius. Ill, 247-303. 
 
 Moods. Moods of Men. Ill, 144-147. 
 
 Panther. Ill, 164-166. 
 
 Partridge. Ill, 170. 
 
 Ph. Phenix. 111,95-116. 
 
 Prayer I-P7 (Hy. I-IV in Grein's Sprachschatz). II, 211-223. 
 
 Ps. Psalms. 111,329-476. 
 
 Ps. L. Ps. L (Cottoniana). Ill, 477-482. 
 
 Rid. Riddles. Ill, 183-238. 
 
 Rim. Riming Poem. Ill, 160-163. 
 
 Rood. Dream of the Rood. II, 114-125. 
 
 Ruin. Ruined Burg. 1,298-301. 
 
 Run. Runic Poem. I, 331-337. 
 
 Sal. Salomon and Saturn. Ill, 304-328. 
 
 Sat. Christ and Satan. II, 521-562. 
 
 Seaf. Seafarer. 1, 290-295. 
 
 Sermon Ps. 28 (Predigtbruchstuck iiber Ps. 28 in Bibl.). II, 108-110. 
 
 Soul. Soul and Body, VerceUi text, unless otherwise noted. II, 92-107. 
 
 Wald. Waldere. I, 11-13. 
 
 Wand. Wanderer. 1, 284-289. 
 
 Whale. Ill, 167-169. 
 
 Wid. Widsith. I, 1-6. 
 
 Wonders. Wonders of Creation. Ill, 152-155. 
 
 II. Other Abbreviations 
 
 A few abbreviations from the NED. are also used. Others will be interpreted without 
 difficulty. 
 
 Bibl. Bibliothek der angelsachsichen Poesie, Grein-Wuelker. 
 B.-T. Bosworth-Toller, Anglo-Saxon Dictionary. 
 Dichtungen. Dichtungen der Angelsachsen, Grein. 
 Goth. Gothic. 
 Gr. Greek. 
 
 Grimm, D. M. Deutsche Mythologie, 4. Auflage. 
 
 Kahle, I. Die altnordische Sprache im Dienste des Christentums. I. Teil: Die Prosa. 
 Kahle, II. Das Christentum in der altwestnordischen Dichtung. 
 L. Latin. 
 
 MacG. MacGillivray, The Influence of Christianity on the Vocabulary of Old English. 
 NED. New English Dictionary. 
 OE. Old English. 
 OFris. Old Frisian. 
 OHG. Old High German. 
 ON. Old Norse. 
 OS. Old Saxon. 
 OTeut. Original Teutonic. 
 Rankin, VIII and LX. A Study of Kennings in Anglo Saxon Poetry in The Journal of 
 
 English and Germanic Philology, Volumes VIH and LX. 
 Raumer. Die Einwirkung des Christentums auf die Althochdeutsche Sprache. 
 Sprachschatz. Sprachschatz der angelsachsischen Dichter, Grein, 2. Auflage. 
 W.-W. Wright-Wuelker, Anglo-Saxon and Old English Vocabularies. 
 
142 
 
 INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY ON OLD ENGLISH POETRY 
 
 [142 
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 
 
 Abbetmeyer, C. Old English Poetical Motives Derived from the Doctrine of Sin. Diss. 
 
 Minneapolis, 1903. 
 AUioli, J. F. Biblia Sacra Vulgatae Editionis, etc. 3 Vols. Regensburg etc., 1891. 
 Becker, E. J. A Contribution to the Comparative Study of the Mediaeval Visions of Heaven and 
 Hell, with Special Reference to Middle-English Versions. Diss. Baltimore, 
 1899. 
 Bede. De Temporum Ratione. Migne, Patrologiae Latinae, XC, p. 234 ff. 
 Historia Ecclesiastica. Migne, Patrologiae Latinae, XCV, p. 25 ff. 
 Ecclesiastical History of England. Edited by Giles, Bonn's Antiquarian Library, 
 London, 1894. 
 Blackburn, F. A. The Christian Coloring in the Beowulf. Publ. Mod. L. ASS. of America, 
 
 XII, pp. 205-225. 
 Bode, W. Die Kenningar in der Ags. Dichtung. Darmstadt & Leipzig, 1886. 
 Bolland, J. Acta Sanctorum. 63 Vols. New Edition. Paris, 1863-1906. 
 Bosworth-Toller. An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary. Oxford, 1898, with Supplements I & II, 
 
 1908 & 1916. 
 Bouterweck,. K. W. Ccedmon's des Angelsachsen Biblische Dichtungen. Guetersloh, 1854. 
 Bright, Wm Chapters on Early English Church History. 3rd Edition. Oxford, 1897. 
 Catholic Encyclopedia. 16 Vols. New York, 1907-1914. 
 Cook, A. S. The Christ of Cynewulf. Boston, 1900. 
 Deering, W. The Anglo-Saxon Poets on the Judgment Day. Halle, 1890. 
 Du Cange, Ch. Du. Fr. Glossarium Mediae et Infimae Latinitatis. 10 Vols. W. L. Favre. 
 
 Niort, 1883-87. 
 Ehrismann, G. Religions geschichtliche Beitrdge zum germanischen Fruhchristentum. Paul 
 
 und Braune's Beitrage, XXXV, pp. 209-239. 
 Encyclopaedia Britannica. 11. Edition. Cambridge, 1910-11. 
 
 Falk-Torp. Norwegisch-Ddnisches Etymologisches Worterbuch. 2 Vols. Heidelberg, 1910-11. 
 Ferrell, C. C. Teutonic Antiquities in the Anglo-Saxon Genesis. Diss. Halle, 1893. 
 Golther, W. Handbuch der Germanischen Mythologie. Leipzig, 1895. 
 Grau, G. Quellen und Verwandschaften der dlteren germanischen Darstellungen des jungsten 
 
 Gerichtes. Diss. Halle, 1908. 
 Grein, C. W. M. Dichtungen der Angelsachsen. I & II. Goettingen, 1857-9. 
 
 Sprachschatz der angelsdchsischen Dichter. 2. Auflage. Heidelberg, 1912. 
 Grein-Wuelker. Bibliothek der angelsdchsischen Poesie. 3 Vols. Kassel & Leipzig, 1883-98. 
 Grimm, J. Deutsche Mythologie. 4. Auflage. 3 Vols. Guetersloh, 1875. 
 Gummere, F. B. Germanic Origins. New York, 1892. 
 
 Hall, J. R. Clark. A Concise Anglo-Saxon Dictionary. 2nd Edition. New York, 1916. 
 Hunt, Wm. The English Church, from its Foundation to the Norman Conquest. London, 1899. 
 Jansen, G. Beitrage zur Synonymik und Poetik der allgemein als acht anerkannten Dichtungen 
 
 Cynewulfs. Diss. Muenster, 1883. 
 Kahle, B. Die altnordische Sprache im Dienste des Christentums. I. Teil: Die Prosa. Acta 
 Germanica, I, 4, pp. 305-425. Berlin, 1890. 
 
 Das Christentum in der altwestnordischen Dichtung. Arkiv f. Nord. Fil. N. S., 
 XIII, pp. 1-40, 97-160. 
 Kemble, J. M. The Poetry of the Codex Vercellensis. London, 1843. 
 
143] BIBLIOGRAPHY 143 
 
 Kent, C. W. Elene. (Latin source printed below the text.) Boston, 1891. 
 
 Teutonic Antiquities in Andreas and Elene. Diss. Leipzig, 1887. 
 Klaeber, Fr. Die christlichen Elemente im Beowulf. Anglia, XXXV, pp. 111-136, 249-270, 
 
 453-482, XXXVI, 169-199. 
 Kluge, F. Etymologisches Worterbuch der Deutschen Sprache. 7. Auflage. Strassburg, 1910. 
 Gotische Lehnworte im AlthocJideutschen. Paul und Braune's Beitrage, XXXV, 
 pp. 124-160. 
 
 Urgermanisch: Vorgeschichte der altgermanischen Dialekte (Paul's Grundriss) 
 3. Auflage. Strassburg, 1913. 
 Rrapp, G. Ph. Andreas and the Fates of the Apostles. Boston, 1906. 
 Lingard, J. The History and Antiquities of the Anglo-Saxon Church. 2 Vols. 2nd Edition. 
 
 London, 1858. 
 Loehe, H. Be Domes Dcege. (Gives also Hymnus De Die Judicii.) Bonner Beitrage zur 
 
 Anglistik, XXII, pp. 1-106. 
 MacGillivray, H. S. The Influence of Christianity on the Vocabidary of Old English. Halle, 
 
 1902. 
 Migne, J. P. Patrologiae Cursa? Computus. Paris, 1857-1903. 
 
 Murray, J. A. H. A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles, etc. Oxford, 1888-. 
 Paul, H. Grundriss der germanischen Philologie. I. 2. Auflage. Strassburg, 1901. 
 Pogatscher, A. Zur Lautlehre der griechischen, lateinischen und romanischen Lehnworte im 
 
 Altenglischen. Quellen und Forschungen, LXIV. Strassburg, 1888. 
 Price, M. B. Teutonic Antiquities in the Generally Acknowledged Cynewulfian Poetry. Diss. 
 
 Leipzig, 1896. 
 Rankin, J. W. A Study of the Kennings in Anglo-Saxon Poetry. Journal of English and 
 
 Germanic Philology, VIII, pp. 357-422, IX, 49-84. 
 Rau, M. Germanische Altertiimer in der angelsachsischen Exodus. Diss. Leipzig-Reudnitz, 
 
 1889. 
 Raumer, R. von. Die Einwirkung des Christentums auf die Althochdeutsche Sprache. Stutt- 
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 Remus, H. Die kirchlichen und speziell-wissenschafllichen Romanischen Lehnworte Chancers. 
 
 Diss. Halle, 1906. 
 Schemann, K. Die Synonyma im Beowulf sliede, etc. Diss. Muenster, 1882. 
 Skeat, W. Etymological Dictionary of the English Language. 4. Edition. Oxford, 1910. 
 Skemp, A. R. The Transformation of Scriptural Story, Motive and Conception in Anglo-Saxon 
 
 Poetry. Modern Philology, IV, pp. 423-470. 
 Stevens, W. O. The Cross in the Life and Literature of the Anglo-Saxons. Yale Studies in 
 
 English, XXIII. New York, 1904. 
 Strunk, Wm. Juliana. (Acta S. Julianae on pp. 33-49, from Bolland, Acta Sanctorum.) 
 
 Boston, 1904. 
 Thorpe, B. Codex Exoniensis. London, 1842. 
 Tupper, F. The Riddles of the Exeter Book. Boston, 1910. 
 Vilmar, A. F. C. Deutsche Altertiimer im Heliand als Einkleidung der evangelischen 
 
 Geschichte. 2. Auflage. Marburg, 1862. 
 Weinhold, K. Die Gotische Sprache im Dienste des Christentums. Halle, 1870. 
 Wright- Wuelker. Anglo-Saxon and Old English Vocabularies. 2 Vols. London, 1884. 
 Wuelker, R. Grundriss zur Geschichte der angelsachsischen Litteratur. Leipzig, 1885. 
 
144 
 
 INDEX 
 
 [144 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Unless otherwise indicated, the numbers refer to sections. Compounds not listed 
 separately will be found under the simple word. For poetical terms not given here 
 compare p. 132 ff. 
 
 Abbot, 73. 
 abelgan, 361. 
 abiddan, 107. 
 abylgan, 361. 
 acyrran, 379. 
 a, 150, 345. 
 jebebod, 151. 
 £boda, 105, 151. 
 aebylg, 361. 
 aebylgnes, 361. 
 aebylgo", 361. 
 jlecraeft, 151. 
 secrseftig, 151. 
 aefsest, 151, 401. 
 sefenlac, 102, p. 12. 
 sefest, 357. 
 aefnan, 402. 
 jefremmende, 151, 402 
 Eefyllende, 151. 
 aegleaw, 151. 
 ffilarend, 2, 151. 
 Slmesgeorn, 404. 
 selmesse, 404. 
 aslmessylen, 404. 
 aelmihtig, 207. 
 jercwide, 32. 
 serendian, 122. 
 jferendraca, 36, 310. 
 Eeriht, 151. 
 serist, 258. 
 adding, 279. 
 jewita, 151. 
 agend, 195, 280. 
 agifan, 229. 
 agyltan, 336. 
 aherian, 126. 
 ahon, 248. 
 ahreowan, 383. 
 al£tan, 229. 
 aleogan, 350. 
 
 alwalda, 187. 
 alysan, 228, 260. 
 alysend, 228. 
 alysing, 229. 
 alysnes, 228. 
 ^amen, 115. 
 anboren, p. 12. 
 anbuend, 70. 
 ancenned, p. 12. 
 andettan, 120. 
 andetnes, 121. 
 anlicnes, 182. 
 annes, 178, p. 12- 
 anseld, 70, note 17. 
 apostol, 34, 35. 
 apostolhad, 35. 
 ar, 230, 307, 315. 
 are, 230. 
 arfasst, 401. 
 arfaestnes, 220, 401. 
 arisan, 258. 
 a?5, 351. 
 a'Sloga, 351. 
 awyrgan, 353, 431. 
 
 Bselc, 356. 
 
 beacen, 255, compounds of, 255. 
 
 beam, 254, compounds, 254. 
 
 beam, 267, 268, compounds, 267. 
 
 bebod, 161. 
 
 bee, 149, p. 12. 
 
 belgan, 361. 
 
 ben, 111. 
 
 bena, 113. 
 
 bernelac, 102. 
 
 bespanan, 370. 
 
 beswican, 370. 
 
 betan, 386. 
 
 biddan, 106. 
 
 bigan, 385. 
 
 
145] 
 
 INDEX 
 
 145 
 
 biscop, 2, 54, 55, 56, p. 8. 
 
 biscophad, 57. 
 
 bismer, 348. 
 
 bletsian, 137, 225. 
 
 bletsung, 225. 
 
 blis, 424. 
 
 bocera, 2. 
 
 bod, 161. 
 
 boda, 30, 31, 105, 307, 315, 
 
 compounds, 310, 315. 
 
 bodian, 104. 
 
 bodscipe, 161. 
 
 bot, 381, 386. 
 
 brego, 190. 
 
 brerne, 216. 
 
 breostgehygd, 367. 
 
 broSor. 39. 
 
 brytta, 199. 
 
 bycgan, 261. 
 
 bysmerian, 348. 
 
 Cafertun, 83. 
 
 can tic, 114. 
 
 casere, 274. 
 
 ceapian, 261. 
 
 cempa, 38. 
 
 Cherubim, 309. 
 
 cigan, 119. 
 
 cir(i)ce, 14, 15, 17, 77, 79, p. 8. 
 
 circnyt, 18. 
 
 circsocn, 18. 
 
 clame, 219, 397, 398. 
 
 cleopian, 117. 
 
 clero, 48, note 2. 
 
 clypung, 117. 
 
 costian, 368. 
 
 craeftga, 393. 
 
 crist, 243. 
 
 Crist, 10, 239, 240, 241, 242, 243. 
 
 cristen, 10, 11, 12, 13. 
 
 cristendom, 19. 
 
 Cristes msesse, 90. 
 
 cristnian, 13, 139. 
 
 cyning, 185, 273, p. 14, 
 
 compounds, 185, 273. 
 
 cyrran, 379. 
 
 cyst, 387. 
 
 D£d, 403. 
 
 dsedbot, 386. 
 
 dema, 203, 288, compounds, 288. 
 
 demend, 203. 
 
 deofol, 317, 318, 319, 325, 327, p. 8, 
 
 compounds, 321, 325, 328. 
 
 deofolcund, 328. 
 
 deofolgield, 325. 
 
 deofolwitga, 33, 325. 
 
 diacon, 63. 
 
 dimscua, 370. 
 
 dom, 163, 408. 
 
 domdseg, 408. 
 
 domfeest, 220, 401. 
 
 dream, 422, compounds, 422. 
 
 druncen, 344. 
 
 druncennes, 344. 
 
 drut, 20, 24. 
 
 dry, p. 10. 
 
 drycrasft, 346. 
 
 dryhten, 186, 275, p. 14, 
 
 compounds, 186, 275. 
 
 dugub, 387. 
 
 Eacnung, 246. 
 
 eadig, 421. 
 
 eadmede, 390. 
 
 eadmedu, 390. 
 
 eadmod, 390. 
 
 eadmodlice, 390. 
 
 ealdor, 192. 
 
 ealdorman, 2. 
 
 ealdorsacerd, 62. 
 
 ealh, 82, p. 11. 
 
 ealhstedas, 82, p. 11. 
 
 earce, 80. 
 
 earcnanstan, 293. 
 
 earendel, 291. 
 
 eastor, 93, p. 11. 
 
 eastormonao", 93. 
 
 eastorniht, 93. 
 
 eastortid, 93. 
 
 eaSbede, 112. 
 
 eaSmede, 390. 
 
 eaSmedu, 390. 
 
 eat5metto, 390. 
 
 eaSmod, 218, 390. 
 
 Ebreas, Ebresc, 1. 
 
 ece, 207, 208, 280, compounds, 264. 
 
 ecnes, 208. 
 
 edwlt, 348, compounds, 348. 
 
 efeneardige, 264. 
 
 efenece, 264, p. 12. 
 
 efenwesende, 264, p. 12. 
 
146 
 
 INDEX 
 
 [146 
 
 ege, 389. 
 
 egesa, 389. 
 
 Emmanuhel, 244. 
 
 engel, 290, 306, 308, 309, 310, 311, 312, 316, 
 
 318, p. 12, 
 compounds, 308, 310, 311, 313. 
 engelcund, 313. 
 Eostre, 93. 
 eowde, 395. 
 e)?elboda, 105. 
 
 Facen, 338. 
 
 faeder, 181, 269, compounds, 181. 
 
 faele, 214. 
 
 fsmne, 20, 21, 24. 
 
 faestan, 405. 
 
 faesten, 405. 
 
 faesthafolnes, 362. 
 
 feogan, 358. 
 
 feohglfre, 362. 
 
 feohgitsere, 362. 
 
 feond, 319, 327, compounds, 319. 
 
 feondat, 319. 
 
 firen, 333, compounds, 333. 
 
 firnian, 333. 
 
 flSsc, 340. 
 
 folgere, 36. 
 
 forewyrd, 171. 
 
 forgifan, 229. 
 
 forgifnes, 229. 
 
 forhaefdnes, 393. 
 
 forhycgan, 359. 
 
 forlabdan, 370. 
 
 forlsran, 370. 
 
 forlatan, 229. 
 
 forlicgan, 345. 
 
 forscrifan, 384. 
 
 forteon, 370. 
 
 fortyhtan, 370. 
 
 frasung, 368. 
 
 frea, 188, 276, compounds, 188, 276. 
 
 fremsum, 213. 
 
 fremsumnes, 213. 
 
 freod, 236. 
 
 freoSo, 236. 
 
 frit5, 236. 
 
 friSstol, 222. 
 
 frSfor, 233. 
 
 frowe, 20, 24. 
 
 fruma, 183, 271, compounds, 183, 271. 
 
 fugel, 293. 
 
 ful(l)wian, 139, 140. 
 ful(l)wiht, 139, 141, 142. 
 fulwihttld, 91, 142. 
 fulwiht}?eaw, 143. 
 ful(l)won, 143. 
 fyrhtu, 389. 
 fyrngewritu, 148. 
 
 Gaelsa, 341. 
 
 gal, 356. 
 
 galferhS, 341. 
 
 galga, 249. 
 
 galmod, 341. 
 
 galnes, 341. 
 
 galscipe, 356. 
 
 gist, 206, 294, 295, 296, 297, 298, 299, 314, 
 
 322, 323, 325, 327, p. 12, 
 compounds, 296, 298, 314, 322, 323. 
 gastlic, 49. 
 
 gealdor, 346, compounds, 346. 
 gealgtreo, 249. 
 gebed, 108. 
 gebedstow, 110. 
 gebelgan, 361. 
 gebetan, 386. 
 gebiddan, 107. 
 gebletsian, 137, 225. 
 gebod, 161. 
 gebodscipe, 161. 
 gebycgan, 261. 
 gebysmerian, 348. 
 gecigan, 119. 
 gecoren, 396, 397. 
 gecypan, 261. 
 gecyrran, 379. 
 gedwelian, 364. 
 gedwild, 364. 
 gedwola, 364. 
 geeadmedan, 390. 
 gefea, 424. 
 geferraedan, 19. 
 gefirnian, 333. 
 gefulwian, 140. 
 gegaderung, 19. 
 gegyrnan, 123. 
 gehffilan, 227. 
 gehalgian, 47. 
 geherian, 126. 
 gehreowan, 383. 
 gelaSung, 19. 
 geleafa, 372, 373. 376. 
 
147] 
 
 INDEX 
 
 147 
 
 geleafful, 12, 375. 
 geleafsum, 375. 
 gelefan, 374, 377. 
 geleogan, 350. 
 geligere, 345. 
 gemsersian, 136. 
 gemildsian, 234. 
 gemot, 409. 
 generian, 260. 
 geocend, 198, 286. 
 geongra, 36. 
 gepalmtwigan, 114. 
 gesSlig, 421. 
 gesajliglic, 421. 
 gesaelignes, 421. 
 gesaelS, 421. 
 gesegnian, 226. 
 gescrifan, 384. 
 gesomnung, 19. 
 gespan, 370. 
 gesyngian, 331. 
 getreowan, 377. 
 gebingian, 263. 
 gej>yld, 392. 
 gebyldig, 392. 
 geundwendnes, 208. 
 
 geweorSian, 130. 
 
 gewitnes, 153. 
 
 gewritu, 148, p. 12. 
 
 gewuldrian, 135. 
 
 giefa, compounds of, 202, 285. 
 
 gielp, 349, compounds, 349. 
 
 gielpan, 349. 
 
 gifan, 229. 
 
 gifnes, 229. 
 
 gitsung, 362, compounds, 362. 
 
 god, 172, 173, 180, 264, 265, 
 
 compounds, 180, 337. 
 
 god, 224. 
 
 godfyrht, 389. 
 
 godgim, 256. 
 
 godssd, 395. 
 
 godspell, 158, 159. 
 
 godspellian, 159, 160. 
 
 goldhord, 255, 295. 
 
 gyden, 174. 
 
 gyld, 326. 
 
 gyldan, 326. 
 
 gylt,336. 
 
 Hal, 227. 
 
 haelan, 227. 
 
 haelend, 201, 238. 
 
 haelu, 227. 
 
 hjeoen, 4, 5, 6, 7, 
 
 compounds, 8, 325. 
 
 halgian, 47. 
 
 halig, 45, 88, 209, 295, 399. 
 
 halignes, 46, 83, 209. 
 
 halor, 421. 
 
 halsian, 118. 
 
 halsung, 118. 
 
 hatheortnes, 361. 
 
 heahengel, 310. 
 
 heahf seder, 25, 26. 
 
 heahheort, 355. 
 
 heahmod, 355. 
 
 hearg, p. 11. 
 
 hearra, 191. 
 
 hefignes, 343. 
 
 hel(l), 321, 327, 425, 426, 428, p. 12, 
 
 compounds, 321, 322, 428, 431, 432. 
 
 hellefyr, 430. 
 
 hellewite, 429, p. 12. 
 
 helm, 196, 281, p. 14. 
 
 heofon, 413, p. 11. 
 
 heofonengel, 310. 
 
 heofonham, 418. 
 
 heofonrice, 416. 
 
 herenes, 127. 
 
 herian, 126. 
 
 hete, 358, compounds, 358. 
 
 hetlen, 358. 
 
 higefrofor, 233. 
 
 hlafmaessan daeg, 98, 101. 
 
 hlaford, 194, 278. 
 
 hon, 248. 
 
 hopa, 378. 
 
 hopian, 378. 
 
 hosp, 348, compounds, 348. 
 
 hreow, 381, 382. 
 
 hreowan, 383. 
 
 hreowig, 382. 
 
 hreowigcearig, 382. 
 
 hreowigmod, 382. 
 
 hreowlic, 382. 
 
 husl, 144, 145, p. 11. 
 
 hus(e)lbearn, 146. 
 huslfset, 144, 146. 
 hus(e)lwer, 146. 
 hygetreow, 376. 
 hyht, 378. 
 
148 
 
 INDEX 
 
 [148 
 
 hyld, 231. 
 
 hyldo, 231. 
 
 hyrde, 197, 282, p. 14, compounds, 197. 
 
 hyrwan, 348. 
 
 hyspan, 348. 
 
 Ingebed, 109. 
 Isra(h)el, 1. 
 
 Judeas, 1. 
 
 Lac, 101, 102, p. 11. 
 
 laece, 292. 
 
 laran, 104. 
 
 lsestan, 402. 
 
 ljewed, 49. 
 
 lamb, 293. 
 
 lar, 163. 
 
 lareow, 37, 105, 283. 
 
 latteow, 284. 
 
 leahtor, 334, compounds, 334. 
 
 lean, 420, compounds, 420. 
 
 leas, 350. 
 
 leasung, 350. 
 
 leogan, 350. 
 
 lif, 419, 420. 
 
 lifiend, 215. 
 
 Us, 235. 
 
 lof, 131, 132. 
 
 lofian, 131. 
 
 lofmaegen, 133. 
 
 lof sang, 134. 
 
 lofsum, 133. 
 
 lomber, 293. 
 
 Lucifer, 318. 
 
 lufian, 388. 
 
 lufu, 388, p. 12, compounds, 388. 
 
 lust, 340, compounds, 340. 
 
 lyge, 350, compounds, 350. 
 
 lygen, 350, compounds, 350. 
 
 lysan, 228, 260. 
 
 Mseden, 24. 
 maeg, 20, 24. 
 msegen, 387. 
 msegenandettan, 120. 
 msego", 20, 21, 24. 
 msere, 216. 
 maersian, 136. 
 msesse, 92. 
 msessere, 59, 101. 
 
 mago}?egn, 37, 315. 
 man, 332. 
 manldel, 349. 
 mansceat, 362. 
 manswara, 351. 
 manjwaare, 391. 
 manwom, 335. 
 Maria, 20, 21, 22, 24, 246. 
 Marian maesse, 92, 101. 
 martira gemynd, 95. 
 martyr, 40. 
 martyrdom, 42. 
 martyrhad, 42. 
 meowle, 20, 24. 
 metod, 170, 184, 272. 
 mecSel, 409. 
 Michahel, 99. 
 middangeard, 302. 
 milde, 212, 391, p. 12. 
 mildheort, 212, 391. 
 mildheortnes, 212. 
 milds, 234, 391. 
 mildsian, 234. 
 misgedwild, 364. 
 modge)?yldig, 392. 
 mundbyrd, 232. 
 munuc, 72. 
 mynster, 85, 86. 
 
 Neoncna wang, 415. 
 nergend, 200, 287. 
 nerian, 260. 
 nlj?, 357. 
 
 Oferfylle, 344. 
 oferhycgan, 359. 
 oferhygd, 354. 
 oferhygdig, 354. 
 ofermede, 355. 
 ofermedla, 355. 
 ofermetto, 355. 
 ofermod, 355. 
 ofermodgian, 355. 
 ofermodig, 355. 
 ondrfedan, 389. 
 onhyscan, 348. 
 onlysan, 260. 
 onmedla, 355. 
 onscunnian, 359. 
 onsecgan, 103. 
 oretta, 38. 
 
149] 
 
 INDEX 
 
 149 
 
 5rettmaecg, 38. 
 orwennys, 370. 
 6s, 175. 
 
 Papa, 52, 53. 
 Pater Noster, 114. 
 pentecosten, 97. 
 preost, 58, 59. 
 psalterium, 155. 
 
 Raedend, 202. 
 rseswa, 202. 
 regol, 71. 
 regolfseste, 71. 
 reliquias, 96. 
 rex, 274. 
 rihtnes, 211. 
 rihtwlsnes, 211. 
 rod, 249, 250, 252. 
 ryhtfremmende, 402 
 
 Sacerd, 60, 61. 
 
 sacerdhad, 62. 
 
 salletan, 156. 
 
 sanct(us), 24, 44. 
 
 sancta symbel, 99. 
 
 Satan(us), 318. 
 
 scln(ge)lac, 346. 
 
 scippend, 182, 270. 
 
 scrifan, 384. 
 
 scrift, 381, 384, 385. 
 
 scucca, 370. 
 
 scyccan, 370. 
 
 scyccgyld, 370. 
 
 scyld, 337, compounds, 337. 
 
 scyldend, 202. 
 
 sealm, 154. 
 
 sealmfast, 155. 
 
 segnian, 226. 
 
 segnung, 226. 
 
 seonoo", 409. 
 
 Seraphim, 309. 
 
 sigebroSor, 39. 
 
 sigetiber, 103. 
 
 sigortiber, 103. 
 
 snytruhus, 83. 
 
 soS, 210. 
 
 soSfaest, 12, 210, 400. 
 
 soSfaestnes, 210, 400. 
 
 soSgeleafa, 375. 
 
 sapnan, 370. 
 
 spelboda, 30, 31, 34, 105. 
 
 stige, 259. 
 
 stypel, 87. 
 
 styrend, 202. 
 
 sunnandaeg, 89. 
 
 sunu, 266, 268, compounds, 268. 
 
 suoportic, 87. 
 
 swiomod, 355. 
 
 symbel, 423. 
 
 syn, 330, compounds, 331. 
 
 syngian, 331. 
 
 Tacen, 255. 
 
 tsel, 352. 
 
 taelan, 352. 
 
 taelnis, 352. 
 
 tempel, 23, 78, 79, 80, 81. 
 
 teona, 348. 
 
 teoncwide, 348. 
 
 tifer, 103. 
 
 tirfaest, 220. 
 
 tolysan, 228, 260. 
 
 torn, 361, compounds, 361. 
 
 treo, 253. 
 
 treow, 376. 
 
 treowan, 377. 
 
 treowloga, 365. 
 
 tweogan, 363. 
 
 pane, 125. 
 
 Jjancian, 124. 
 
 )?eaw, 387. 
 
 Jjegn, 37, 315. 
 
 Jjeod, 9. 
 
 beoden, 189, 277. 
 
 ^eow, 49, p. 13. 
 
 Jjeowan, 100. 
 
 beowdom, 100. 
 
 Jjeowet, 100. 
 
 ting, 409. 
 
 Jringian, 263. 
 
 J?olian, 248, 260. 
 
 brines, 176, 177, 178, p. 12. 
 
 ^rowere, 40, 41. 
 
 }?r6wian, 248, 260. 
 
 brdwung, 42, 43, 248. 
 
 Unbeted, 386. . 
 uncyst, 338. 
 ungeleaf(a), 364, 375. 
 ungetreowt5, 365. 
 
150 
 
 INDEX 
 
 150 
 
 unriht, 338, 366. 
 unrihthsemed, 345. 
 unsablig, 431. 
 unsoSfaest, 366. 
 unsoSfaestnes, 366. 
 untreow, 365. 
 untreowe, 365. 
 un)?eaw, 338. 
 upengel, 310. 
 upheofon, 416. 
 upstige, 259. 
 utSwita, 2. 
 
 Wair, 161. 
 
 warfaest, 220, 401. 
 
 waernis, 431. 
 
 walda, compounds of, 187. 
 
 wealdend, 187, 270, 278, 
 
 compounds, 187. 
 
 wealdor, 328. 
 
 weallstan, 293. 
 
 weard, 193, 278, p. 14, compounds, 193. 
 
 welig, 421. 
 
 weolme, 20. 
 
 weorc, 403. 
 
 weorSian, 128, 129. 
 
 wiccraeft, 346. 
 
 wiccungdom, 346. 
 
 wictun, 83. 
 
 wiflufu, 345. 
 
 wlh, 84, 326, p. 11. 
 
 wlhbed, 84. 
 
 wihgyld, 326. 
 
 wihweoroung, 326. 
 
 winrod, 250. 
 
 wis, 217. 
 
 wisb5c, 149. 
 
 wlte, 429. 
 
 witedom, 32. 
 
 witega, 27, 28, 29. 
 
 witgian, 32. 
 
 witig, 217. 
 
 wlenco, 356. 
 
 wliteandet, 121. 
 
 wohgod, 173. 
 
 wohhSmed, 345. 
 
 worn, 335, compounds, 335. 
 
 woruld, 302, 303, 304, compounds, 305. 
 
 woruldgltsere, 362. 
 
 wot5bora, 31. 
 
 wralnnes, 341. 
 
 wuldorfaest, 220. 
 
 wuldrian, 135. 
 
 wundor, 260. 
 
 wynpsalterium, 155. 
 
 wyrd, 165, 166, 167, 168, 169, 170, 171, 
 
 p. 11. 
 wyrhta, 182, 270. 
 wyrhou, 353. 
 
 Ymen, 157. 
 yrre, 260. 
 yrringa, 360. 
 yrsian, 360. 
 yrsung, 360. 
 
151] INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY ON OLD ENGLISH POETRY 151 
 
 VITA 
 
 The author of this thesis was born December 7, 1887, at Neufirrel, 
 East-Friesia, Germany, from which country he emigrated to the United 
 States of America in 1902. After attending a grade school at Sterling, 
 Nebraska, for a short time, he entered in January 1907 the Preparatory 
 Department of Wartburg Theological Seminary at Dubuque, Iowa. From 
 1908-11 he attended Wartburg College, Clinton, Iowa, and was graduated 
 with the degree of A.B. in the latter year. He attended the summer ses- 
 sion of the University of Nebraska in 1911, and in the fall of the same 
 year re-entered Wartburg Theological Seminary, finishing the three years' 
 theoretical course in 1913. After graduation and ordination as a Lutheran 
 minister, the author served as state missionary of Montana for 18 months. 
 He held a scholarship in the English Department of the University of 
 Montana during 1914-15, receiving the degree of A.M. in the latter year. 
 During the school year 1915-16 the author was acting prof essor of Classics 
 at Newberry College, Newberry, South Carolina. From 1916-18 he held 
 a fellowship in the English Department of the University of Illinois. 
 

 
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